voy ey >»2>9 >>>2 ae tacks 433 eae oF y as SCIENCE AND ARTS. CONDUCTED BY BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, M.D. LL.D. Prof. Chem., Min., &c. in Yale Coll.; Cor. Mem. Soc. Arts, Man. and Com.; and For. Mem. Geol. Soc,, London; Mem. Roy. Min. Soc., Dresden; Nat. Hist Soc., Halle; Imp. Agric. Soc., Moscow; Hon. Mem. Lin. Soc., Paris; Nat. Hist. Soc. Belfast, Ire.; Phil. and Lit. Soc. Bristol, Eng.; m. of various Lit. and Scien. Soc. in America. VOL. XXV.—JANUARY, 1834. NEW HAVEN: Published and Suld by HEZEKIAH HOWE & Co. and A. H. MALTBY. ater” E. J. COALE & Co.—Philadelphia, J. S. LITTELL and CAREY & ew York, G. & C.& H. CARVILL.— Boston, HILLIARD, GRAY, riers & WILKINS. PRINTED BY HEZEKIAH HOWE & CO. 104697 CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXvV. — OQ NUMBER I. Page. Art. I. Historical Eulogy on the a De Laplace; by M. : : eee ee II. On Aérial Navigation; by H. eae III. On the connection between the Mosaic awry. of the Creation and the Discoveries of Geolo - - -IV. On the Vitality of Toads, &c. eats in Ges er if. by the Hon. Wau. A. Tuom V. Experiments for iigetektiee| os causes 3 of Water Spouts; by Count Xavier De Maistre, VI. Observations on some Piseimenti in Blecticiy by Prof. Watrer R. Jonnson, - - $e: VII. Botanical Communications; by H. B. Ceioos; +i e760 VIII. A description of anew Mineral Species, from Nova Sco- tia, by C. T. Jacxson, M. D.; with a Chemical Analy- sis, by Mr. A. A. Haves, of the Roxbury Laboratory, 78 IX. Internal Improvements of the State of Bere, by Epwarp Miter, Civil Engineer, - — X. On the Analysis of Square Numbers; by A. D. WHEELER, Instructor of the Latin Grammar School, Salem, Mass. 87 . Experiments with Potassium and Sodium; by Junius T. Ducaret, M. D., Professor of Chemistry in the Medical Department of the University of Maryland, - - 90 » XII. On the application of the Fluxional Ratio to particular cases; and the coincidence of the several orders of Flux- ions with the binomial theorem; by Exizur Wricut, Esq. 93 XIII. Notices of Fossil Wood in Ohio; in a letter from Rev. Sayrs Gazuay, dated — _ 30, iii - 104 XIV. Fossil Vegetables, - - - 108 XV. Observations on the Hurricanes ani Storia of the West Indies and the coast of the U. States; by W.C. Repriezp, 114 XVI. Summary Statements of some of the ae g Facts in Me- teorology; by W. C. Repriezp, - “ XVII. On the construction of De Luc’s Celsenaal: as modified by Zamboni; and on the modification of the single: leaf Electrometer, contrived by Rosert Harr, M.D, Pro- fessor of Chemistry in the University of Punijivanie, 136 = iv CONFENTS. Page. XVIII. Caricography ; by Prof. C. Dewey, - - 140 XIX. Observations on Combustion, and the powers simciied in that process; by Samvet Morey - - 146 XX. Life of Linnzus; by A. L. A. fa - - 151 XXII. Usclogicn Obaertations upon Alabama, Georgia and Florida; by Cuartes U. Suerarp, - - 162 XXII. Miscellaneavs Notices respecting Cholera, - - 174 MISCELLANIES—FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC. 1. Death of — wif 26) aceRing Botesccaon, oc ct) ALLISM 2. Death of Orian - = = 186 3. Experiments sd Oiecsadtores on the Torpedo, - - 187 4. Moynton prize - - 189 5, 6. Medals founded by Lalande-oiNgturel philosophy, - 190 7. Astronomy, — - - - - 191 PHYSICS. 8. New property of elementary electromotors. 9, 10. Magnetic experiments—Phenomenon presented by th the breaking of a cok Rupert’s drop, - 194 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. Et: * Spouting fountain of mineral yennodl det A i - 194 12. Descent in diving bells, - - - . -~ 196 13, 14, 15. The Goorpick—-Epideinics in » Putte icPcnansiaiibe of letters written upon a metallic surface after its fusion, - 197 | METEOROLOGY. 16. Use of the barometer atsea, - - - as ste oO -1iAG8 MINERALOGY, 17. Marine shells in the coal formation, * 199 18. Notices of some of the volcanos and volcanic aiasaneoa of Hawaii, (Owyhee,) and other islands in that group, - 199 19. On the prageee of irén to en ee sere to sea. water. 20. Prize offered > the Imperial Academy of Seleoces of St Petersburg, a - =. oe 21. Dr. Young’s Elements of Gedmeirjyiee: wissen sdb cO 211 SEB 22. On the Cashmere-Angora Shawl Goat, - 9 < 208 23, 24. Meteorological Journal—Transactions of the Sitarary and Historical Society of Quebec, acai = 21 CONTENTS. Vv 25, 26. Exchanges in natural i gai a oxide of iron, 212 27. A parasite of the honey bee, - - et 28. Olmsted’s Compendium of Natural Philosophy, oe me OBITUARY. 1. Col. George Gibbs, - - - - - - 214 2. Dr. William Meade, ee eee Or ee NUMBERII. Arr. I. Ten Days in Ohio; from the Diary of a Naturalist, 217 II. Report of the Regents of the University, to the Legisla- ture of the State of New York, Feb. 28, 1833, = - III. Upon Caloric, as a cause of Galvanic Currents; by Prof. Joun P. Emmet, - - 269 IV. Motion of a System of Bodies ; ‘ Prof. ye hints: 281 V. Of securing houses and their inhabitants from fire, and of obtaining supplies of water and of warm air, 290 VI. Observations on architectural, rural, domestic, and other improvements; by Exeazar Lornp, of New York, - 304 VII. On the Fur Trade, and Fur-bearing Animals, -, si VIII. Additional remarks on the Agave and other plants, from which ropes, twine, and thread, are made; by James Measz, M. D., and H. Perrine, Esq. IX. Descriptions of some new North Ameren Trilbites; by Prof. Jacos Green, M. D IX.* Description of some new species of Fresh Water Shells from Alabama, ss &e. ; pes Tiwotuy A. a re Philadelphia, —- X. Carbonic oxide gas, obtainied fees of satheate’ acid ; by Prof. Tuomas D. Mrrcuext, M. D. 344 XI. A Sketch of the Mineralogy of a portien: of ‘Jelfersbi and St. Lawrence Counties, (N. Y.); by Drs. J. B. Crawe, of Watertown, and A. Gray, of Utica, (N.Y.) 346 XII. Geology and Meteorology west of the Rocky Mountains, 351 XIII. On the Meteors of Nov. is 1833 ; by Professor Epwarp ¥ Hrrcucock, 354 XIV. Observations on the Metioct of ioe, 13th, 1833; Be Professor Denison OtmsTep. - * Art. LX repeated through mistake. vi CONTENTS. MISCELLANIES——DOMESTIC AND FOREIGN. 1. Notice of the British Association for the advancement of Science, 2. Prize Medals to be swverded for ae ocevins i in Science, by the Royal Society of London, 3. Pink dye from the flower of the sweet bal, : 4. Contributions to Geology, - us 5. New work on Conchology, - 6. Ornithology.—7. New Work by S. G. Morton: —8. toe 4 9. Recent Scientific Publications in the United States, 10. New and valuable illustrations of the Zoology of Brazil, 11. Important work on Fossil Organic Remains, 12. Necrology.—13. eae School at New sw Haven, To Sereeee Page. ERRATA, ALTERATIONS AND ADDITIONS. VOL. XXII. pp. 184, 185. Put the expressions marked (8),(9),(B),(C), each=0. VOL. XXIV. rd Pp: 44, lines 18 and19. For c=r?dv, c’=r/2dv &c., read c= a Ps &c. p. 300, lines 3, 4, 5. For the first member of the sentence beginning, ‘A quantity, &c.’ read, The increments of two quantities whose rates of increase are different in kind, let those in- crements be ever so small, cannot be compared together. In binding, place Dr. Hare’s plates, as esi evolution of silicon, now facing face p. 248; that on the evoluti ron, which is the eet ne now stand, must face p. 250; that a the ae cock, the third as they now stand, to ce p. 251. Page 237, line "2 from the top, dele an nd. . 2 VOL. XXV. Page 73, April 20, for Cynoglossum, read Onosmodium hispidum ; May 2, dele all ja this head and substitute drgemone mexicana, var. albiflora, b. rd BP, 75, another whorl of ore If this hypot = be ass vam! Be Pade oe know that this ~ plant will bs found to be more than a variety of Argem na. 0 ~s acre . New pers of plants,” p. 77, add the | following. i dactyloides, and T. monestachyon. On cask age ne ar. New bern, and on Cape Fear River, near Wilmington. The: r the name of “Gama grass,” have lately acquired, in the South, raaibie pea ag ae are beginning to be cultivated as a provender for horses and other cattle. Their product is said to be very great. Elliott’s description . dactyloides is defective and erroneous. It is as follows: “Spikes numerous, (3-4,) aggregate,” —and in the extended deseription, “ Flowers in eget spikes ; i peer three to four, (when four, beichiater opposite ?) Mery 3 wers on one (the in nterior) side. Fertile florets two to four, at the of the s dese scription might be given more correctly thus: “Flowers in terminal Fe ions central spikes (those the stem) aggregate, two to four; bearing flowers, metimes ately on t es, sometime one (the exterior) side. Fertile rets two to eight, at the base of the spike, &c.; spikes of the ) solitary, somewhat cylindrical.” (Precisely similar to those of ) his last circumstance, which has not been noticed by botanical writers, tends to con icion, entertained by Pursh, that these are — ab er ee . Should this opinion sige ong rear abolition specific names become necessary, I wou! id suggest mo substitute Tripsacum heterostachyon, in allusion to the diversity of its spikes. * WEE Vill ERRATA, ALTERATIONS AND ADDITIONS. P. 88, 1. 4 fr. top, for powers read forms; 1. 13 fr. top, for Sours read Sauri; 1. 22 fr. top, after way add, If c?+d?=m?-+-n?, then 2(c? +d?)=a?+8?=y?+0?, &c.; 1.7 fr. bot., for (a?+4-6) read (a?-+6*)?; 1. 6 fr. bot., for (a?+-6)? read (a?-+6)*; p. 89, bot. line, for 2« read 2a; p. 90, top line, for «.a$?y? read a+-a6?y? peli tol? 3. Lilt br f on hs “Dl ke read ——- 2 st a3 agt ott 234° p- 96, 1. 9, fr. bot. ‘ , oy n—1- n-1 5 n—1 100, 1. 8, fr. bot. fora ~ Ta "M5 , read a —— 2" #2 bey | 2 2 ~9 3 1. 7. fr. bot. for a cae, , read Ba “34 eam —3 -—3 n—3 L 6, is sana ae ore n— >. l. 5, fr. bot. for pth 1. 2, fr. bot. for qi, read qi? p- 101, 1. 7, fr. bot. for nz"-'x, read nz"-' 2°. p- 145, 1. 7 fr. bot. for sempervirens, read glaucescens. i> read ee THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &c. Art. 1.—Historical Eulogy on the Marquis De Laplace, delivered at a public session of the Royal Academy of Sciences, June 15, 1829; by M. Baron Founter.* Translated for this Journal, by F. Furber, Boston, Mass. Tue name of Lapxace has resounded in all parts of the world where the sciences are honored. His memory, however, cannot re- ceive a more worthy homage than the unanimous tribute of the ad- miration and the tears of the illustrious body whose labors and glory he has shared. He consecrated his life to the study of the greatest objects which can occupy the human mind. The wonders of the heavens, the lofty questions of natural philoso- phy, the ingenious and profound combinations of mathematical analy- sis, all the laws of the universe, were presented to his thoughts for more’ than sixty years, and his efforts crowned by immortal discoveries. Tt was remarked, from his earliest studies, that he was endowed with a prodigious memory ; all. the occupations of the mind were easy to him. He rapidly acquired a sufficiently extended acquaint- ance with the ancient languages, and also cultivated different branches of literature. Every thing interested the rising genius, every thing could unfold it. His first success was in theological studies; he treated with talent, and with an extraordinary sagacity, the most dif- ficult points of controversy. We are ignorant by what happy deviation Laplace passed from scholastic to high geometry. This last science, which scarcely ad- mits of any division, attracted and fixed his attention. After that, he abandoned himself, without reserve, to the impulse of his genius, and felt keenly that a residence in the capital had become to him necessary. D’Alembert then enjoyed all the éclat of his fame. — He ahs This is gentleman, our readers are probably % well aware, tas been desd ‘for some "Was XXV.—No. 1. oe 2 Historical Eulogy on the Marquis De Laplace. it was, who had just informed the court of Turin that the Royal Academy possessed a geometer of the first order, Lagrange; ONE, - who, without this noble suffrage, might have remained a long time un- known. D’Alembert had announced to the king of Prussia, that a single man in Europe could replace, at Berlin, the illustrious Euler, who had consented to return to St. Petersburgh, at the instance of the Russian government. I find, in the unpublished letters in the possession of the Institute of France, the details of this glorious ne- _ gociation, which fixed the residence of Lagrange at Berlin. About the same time Laplace commenced that long career which he was soon to render illustrious. He presented himself at the house of D’Alembert, preceded by numerous recommendations which one would have thought very weighty. But his attempts were useless: he was not even introdu- ced. It was then that he addressed to him, whose suffrage he had just solicited, a very remarkable letter on the general principles of mechanics, and of which M. Laplace has many times recited to me different fragments. It was impossible that a geometer so great as D’Alembert should not be struck with the singular depth of this writing. ‘The same day, he called the author of the letter, and said to him; (these are his own words,) “ Monsieur, vous voyez que je fais assez ‘peu de cas des recommendations: vous n’en aviez pas be- soin. Vous vous étes fait mieux connaitre; cela me suffit; mon appur vous est du.” He obtained, a few days after, that Laplace should be nominated Professor of Mathematics at the Military School of Paris. From this moment, devoted entirely to the science which he had chosen, Laplace gave to = his works a fixed ditection from which he never d 1; for the ble fi been always the principal trait of his genius. He had already touched the known limits of mathematical analysis ; he had already mastered what the science then possessed of the most ingenious and of the most powerful. No person was more capable than himself of enlarg- ing its domains. He had solved a very high question of theoretical astronomy. He formed the plan of consecrating his efforts to this sublime science ; he was destined to finish it, and was able to em- brace it in its full extent. He meditated deeply on his glorious de- sign; and he spent all his life to accomplish it, with a perseverance of which the history of science can offer no other example. The immensity of the subject flattered the just pride of his genius. He undertook to compose the almageste of his age; this monument Mistorical Eulogy on the Marquis De Laplace. 3 which he has left to us under the name of the Mécanique Céleste : and his immortal work carries it as far beyond that of Ptolemy, as the analytical science of the moderns surpasses the elements of Euclid. Time, which alone dispenses, with justice, literary glory ; which consigns to oblivion all contemporary mediocrity ; perpetuates the re- membrance of great works. These only, carry to posterity the character of each age. Thus the name of Laplace will live in all ages. But, and I hasten to say it, enlightened and faithful history will never separate his memory from that of the other successors of Newton. She will unite the illustrious names of D’Alembert, of Clairaut, of Euler, of Lagrange, and of Laplace. I limit myself merely to cite here the great geometers whom the sciences have lost ;—and whose researches have had for their common object the perfection of physical astronomy. _ To give a just idea of their works it is necessary to compare them; but the limits necessary to this discourse oblige me to reserve a part of this discussion for the collection of our Memoirs. # *. - Since Euler, Lagrange has contributed the most to found the math- ematical analysis. It has become, in the writings of these two great geometers, a distinct science, and the only one of mathematical the- ories of which we can say that it is completely and rigorously demon- Alone, among all these theories, is it satisfied by itself; it eilightens all others, and is so necessary to them, that, deprived of its aid, they can remain but imperfect. Lagrange was born to invent and to enlarge all the sciences of cal- culation. In whatever condition fortune had placed him, whether peasant or prince, he would have been a great geometer: he would have become so necessarily, and without any effort; a thing which we cannot say of all those, even among the first ranks, who have excelled in this science. If Lagrange had been contemporary with Archimedes and with Conon, he would have shared the glory of the most memorable dis- coveries. At Alexandria, he would -have been the rival of Dio- phantus. The distinctive trait of his genius consists in the unity and in the greatness of his views. In every thing he confined himself to a sim- ple, j Just, and very a ia. His jeg? work, the Mé- canique Analytique c be denominated the Mécanique Philo- 4 Historical Eulogy on the Marquis De Laplace. sophique; for he brought back all the laws of equilibrium and of motion to a single principle: and that which is not less admirable, he submitted them to a single method of calculation of which he, himself, was the inventor. All his mathematical compositions are remarkable for a striking elegance, for the symmetry of the forms, and the generality of the methods, and if we can speak shored for the perfection of the analytical style. ) Lagrange was no less a philosopher than a great geometer. The whole course of his life, proved the truth of the assertion, by the moderation of his desires, by his immutable attachment to the gener- al interests of humanity, by the noble simplicity of his customs, and by the elevation of his character; in fine, by the justness and the depth of his scientific works. ‘ Laplace had received, from nature, all the force of genius, which an immense undertaking can require. Not only has he-reunited in his Almageste, du 18e siecle, that which the mathematical and physical sciences had already discovered, which serve as the foundation to astronomy ; but he has added to this science, some splendid discov- eries which are peculiar to himself, and which had escaped all his predecessors. He has resolved, either by his own methods, or by © those of which Euler and Lagrange had marked out the principles, the most important and certainly the most difficult questions of all those which had been considered before him. His perseverance has triumphed over all obstacles. When his first attempts were un- successful, he renewed. them, offen undak shes most imemeonenne the most difficult forms. Thus we observe in the motions a ie moon an Seaslenians 7 which we cannot discover the cause. We had thought that this effect could proceed from the resistance of the etherial medium in which the celestial bodies move. If it were so, the same cause, affecting the course of the planets, would tend to change more, and more, the primitive order. ‘These stars would be incessantly troubled in their course, and would end by being precipitated on the mass of the sun. It would be necessary that the creative power should interpose anew, to prevent or to repair the immense disorder which the lapse of time had cause This paeeilaniand question is weneadinse one of the greatest which the human understanding can propose to itself ;—it is now resolved. The first researches of Laplace upon the invariability of the dimen- sions of the solar system, and his explanation of the secular equation of the moon, have led to this solution. Historical Eulogy on the Marquis De Laplace. 5 He had at first examined whether we could explain the accelera- tion of the moon’s motion on supposing that the action of gravity is not instantaneous but subject to a successive transmission, like that of light. In this way, he could not discover the true cause. At last, a new research served his genius better. On the 19th of March, 1787, he gave to the Academy of Sciences a solution clear, and un- attended. with this insurmountable difficulty. He proved very dis- tinetly that the acceleration observed is a necessary effect of univer- sal gravitation. This great discovery enlightened then the most important points of the system of the world. In effect, the same theory made him know that, if the action of gravitation upon the stars is not instanta- neous, we must suppose it propagated more than fifty million times faster than light, the well known velocity of which is seventy thou- sand leagues a second. He concluded still, from his theory of the Junar motions, that the medium in which the stars move, opposes only to the course of the planets a resistance, as it were, insensible; for this cause would above all things act upon the motion of the moon, and it peiiites upon it no observable effect. The discussion of the motions of this star is pregnant with re~ markable consequences. We can conclude from it, for example, . that the motion of rotation of the earth around its axis is invariable. The length of the day has not’ changed one hundredth part of a second, for two thousand years. It is worthy of notice, too, that an astronomer would have no need of leaving his observatory in order to measure the distance from the earth to the sun. It would suffice him to observe, constantly, the variations of the lunar motion: from these he could conclude this distance with exactness, A consequence still more striking is that which relates to the Saint of the earth; for the form itself of the terrestrial globe is imprinted upon certain inneeslaiee of the course of the moon. These inequal- ities could not exist if the earth were perfectly spherical.. We can determine the amount of the earth’s applatisement, (oblateness,) by observing the lunar motions only. The results which we have de- duced from them, agree with the actual measures that have been ob- - tained by the great geodesical voyages to the equator, to the — ern Regions, to India, and to divers other countries. a. sora at we ome his soning pars of modern theories 6 Historical Eulogy on the Marquis De Laplace. I cannot undertake to point out here the series of his labors, and the discoveries that have been the fruits of them. The enumeration only, however rapid it may be, would exceed the limits which I am bound to prescribe to myself. Besides his researches on the secular equation of the moon, and the no less difficult and no less important discovery of the cause of the great inequalities of Jupiter and of Saturn, we have to cite his admirable theorems on the libration of the satellites of Jupiter. We must recal his analytical works on the ebb and flow of the sea and show the immense extent which he has given to this question. There is no important point of physical astronomy which was not to him the object of deep study and discussion. He submitted to calculation most of the physical conditions which his predecessors had omitted. In the question already so complex, of the form and of the motion of the earth’s rotation, he has considered the effect of the presence of waters distributed between the continents, — of the compression of the interior strata, of the secular diminution of the dimensions of the globe. In this ensemble of researches, we must, above all, notice those which relate to the stability of great phenomena; no object is more worthy of the meditation of philosophers. ‘Thus we have observed that the causes, whether casual or constant, which trouble the equilib- rium of the seas, are subject to limits which cannot be surpassed. The specific gravity of the waters being much less than that of the solid oo it thence results, that the oscillations of the ocean are al- d between very narrow limits; which would not take ie hae were the fluid spread over the globe much heavier. In gen- eral, nature holds in reserve, preserving and ever present forces, which act as soon as trouble commences, and with the greater power in proportion to the increased magnitude of the aberration. They de- lay not to reestablish the wonted order. We find in all parts of the universe this preserving power. The form of the great planetary or- bits, and their inclinations, vary and change in the course of centuries; but these changes’ are limited. ‘The principal dimensions subsist. This immense assemblage of celestial bodies oscillates around a mean state, towards which it is always carried back. All is disposed for order, perpetuity, and harmony. In the primitive and liquid state of the terrestrial globe, the heaviest particles are drawn nearest the center; and this condition has deter- mined the stability of the seas. Historical Eulogy of the Marquis De Laplace. 7 Be the physical cause of the formation of the planets what it may, it has fixed upon all these bodies a motion of projection in the same di- rection around an immense globe. By this the solar system is become stable. The same effect is produced in the system of satellites and of rings. The order there is maintained by the power of the central mass. This power is not then, as Newton himself, and as Kuler, too, suspect- ed, an adventitious force which, one day, must repair or prevent the trouble which time had caused. It is the law itself of gravitation that governs all, suffices for all, and maintains variety and order. Having emanated once from supreme wisdom, it presides from the beginning of time, and renders all disorder impossible. Newton and Euler still knew not all the perfections of the universe. In general, every time that there has arisen any doubt on the ex- actness of the Newtonian law, and that, to explain the apparent irreg- ularities, we have proposed the addition of a strange cause, it has always happened, after a thorough examination, that the original law has been verified. It now explains all the known phenomena. The more precise the observations, the more do they conform to the the- ory. Laplace is, of all geometers, the one who has investigated these questions the most; he has, so to speak, ended them. We cannot affirm that it was granted to him to create a science entirely new, as Archimedes and Galileo have done ; to give to math- ematical doctrines original principles, en Dancarien: Newton, and Leibnitz ; or like Newton, to transport the first into the skies, and to extend to all the universe the terrestrial dynamics of Galileo; but Lariace was born to bring every thing to perfection, to innasignn every thing, to extend all the limits, and to resolve what had been thought incapable of solution. He would have completed the sci- ence of the heavens, if this science could be completed. We find again the same charscher:3 in his copoarches upon the anal- ysis of probabilities, a science entirely , the object of which, often misconceived, has given rise to the most false inter- pretations ; but the application of which will one one day embrace the whole field of human knowledge, a happy supplement to the im- perfection of our nature. This art sprung from a single feature of the clear and fruitful pas of Pascal ; it has been cultivated from its origin, by Fermat and Hay- gens. A eliieiaphios’ geometer, James Bernouilli, was its ee A aa! asi — of Stirling, the researches of o rr 8 Historical Eulogy on the — De Laplace. Ll L ge RE | grange, tt ; it hasbeen enlightened by the objections themselves of oe and by the philosophical views of Condorcet. Laplace has reunited and fixed its principles. From thence it has become a new science, subject to a single ana- lytical method, and of a prodigious extent. Rich in common applica- tions, it will one day enlighten up with a vivid light all the branches of natural philosophy. Were it permitted us here to express a per- sonal opinion, we will add that the solution of one of the principal questions, one which the illustrious author has treated in the tenth chapter of his work, does not appear to us exact; and yet, consid- ered in its ensemble, this work is one of the 1 most precious monu- ments of his genius. After having cited discoveries so brilliant, it will be useless to add that M. Laplace belonged to all the great Academies of Europe. I could also, I perhaps ought, to recall the high political dignities with which he was clothed ; but this enumeration belongs only indi- rectly to the object of this discourse. It is the great GromeTeEr, whose memory we celebrate. We have separated the immortal author of the Mécanique Céleste from all the accidental facts that interest neither his glory nor his genius. In reality, gentlemen, of what consequence is it to posterity, that will have so many other de- tails to forget, to learn whether or no Laplace was some moments minister of a Great State? That which is of importance, is the eternal truths which he has discovered ; it is the immutable laws of the sta- bility of the world, and not the ah which he for some years occu- pied i in the senate, called conservateur. That which is of i importance, tlemen, and still more so perhaps than his discoveries, is the ex- amples which he has left to all those to whom the sciences are dear ; it is the remembrance of this persévérance incomparable, that hes sustained, directed, and crowned so many glorious efforts. I will omit these accidental, and,'so to speak, fortuitous circum- stances, of the particulars that have no relation with the perfection of his works. But I will say, that, in the first body of State, the memory of Laplace was celebrated ny an ‘eloquent ne hiendiy: mole whom important services, and to the State, had a long time rendostd illustrious.* I will especially recall to mind, that literary solemnity which at- tracted the attention of the capital. The French Academy, uniting @ * M. le Marquis de Pastoret. Historical Eulogy on the Marquis De Laplace. 9 its suffrages to the acclamations of the country, thought that it acqui- red a new glory by crowning the triumphs of eloquence and of po- litical virtue.* At the same time she chose, as the successor of Stans, an aca- demician,} illustrious by more than one title; one who united, in literature, in history, and in public ndenic larresiall -every kind of superiority. Laplace enjoyed an advantage that fortune does not always grant to great men. From his first youth he was justly appreciated by his illustrious friends. We have under our eyes letters still unpub- lished, which teach us all the zeal which D’ Alembert felt to introduce him to the military school of France, and to prepare for him, if this had been necessary, a better establishment at Berlin. President Bochard de Sarén caused his first works to be printed. All the marks of friendship which have been given to him recall great labors and great discoveries: but nothing could contribute more to the progress of all physical knowledge, than his relation with the illustri- ous Lavoisier, whose name, consecrated by the history of sciences, has become an eternal object of respect and of lamentation. These two celebrated men united their efforts. ‘They undertook and finished very,extended researches in order to measure one of the most important elements of the physical theory of heat. They pp se geese sai lene sasions A experiments on the dila- evince the high value hich this great geometer attached to the special study of the physical sciences. Of all his successors, Laplace made the most frequent use of his experimental method; he was almost as great a physicien as geometer. His researches on refraction, on capillary effects, the measures of the barometer, the stable properties of electricity, the velocity of sound, the action of par- ticles, and the properties of gas, attest that nothing in the investigation of nature could be foreign to him. He desired, above all things, the perfection of instruments; he caused to be constructed at his own expense, by a celebrated artist, a very precious astronomical instru- ment, and presented it to the Observatory of France. — All kinds of phenomena were perfectly familiar to him. He was coneageseses by an old friendship with two celebrated physiciens, 1 whose discoveries have ——— all the arts sand all the chemical theories. * M. Royer-Collard. tM. le Conte Dar. Vou. XXV._No.2 2. 2 10 Historical Eulogy on the Marqus De Laplace. History will unite the names of Berthollet and of Chaptal to that of Laplace. Their undertakings have always had for their object and for their result the enlargement of sciences the most important and the most difficult to acquire. The gardens of Berthollet, at his mansion of Arcueil, * were not separated from those of Laplace. Sad remembrances, deep regrets have rendered illustrious this enclosure. It was there that Laplace re- ceived celebrated strangers and men of wealth, from whom science had derived or expected some benefactions ; but above all, those whom a pious zeal attached to the sanctuary of sciences. Some com- menced their career, others were soon to finish it. He entertained them all with an extreme politesse. He even carried it so far, as to have inspired the belief with those who knew not the whole extent of his genius, that he could himself reap some fruit from their undertakings. In citing the mathematical works of Laplace, we ought especially to make some remarks upon the depth of his researches and the im- portance of his discoveries. His works are distinguished still by another character, that all readers have appreciated. I wish to speak of the literary merit of his compositions. That which bears the title of Systeme du monde is remarkable for the elegant simplicity of style, and the purity of language. There was still no example of this kind of productions; but we should form of it a very incor- rect idea, were we to think we should be able to acquire the knowl- edge of the phenomena of the heavens in such writings. The sup- pression of signs appropriate to the language of calculation, cannot contribute to its clearness, or render the reading more easy. The work is a perfectly regular exposition of the results of a study the most profound—it is an ingenious summary of the principal discov- eries. The precision of style, the choice of methods, the grandeur of the subject, give a remarkable interest to this vast tablet; but. its real use is to recall to geometers, theorems, the demonstration of which was already known to them. It is, to speak correctly, a table of the contents of a mathematical treatise. The purely historical works of Laplace have another object. He therein presents to geometers, with a wonderful ability, the march of the human mind in the discovery of the sciences. * Arcueil—So called from the arches or arcades of the aqueduct which the Ro- mans there built: part of the aqueduct is now pice The remainder was rebuilt and finished, in order, as is believed, to carry water to the palace of Luxembourg. Louis XIII laid the first stone on the 17th of July, vy, It was finished 1624. sé me agheduc @Arcueil fournit aux fontains de Paris cinquant sept pouces cubes @ eau. Eistorical Eulogy on the Marquis De Laplace. il ‘The most abstract theories have, in effect, a beauty of expression which is peculiar to them; itis what we observe in many treatises of Descartes, in some pages of Galileo, of Newton and of Lagrange. The novelty of views, the elevation of thoughts, their relations with the great objects of nature engage and fill the soul. It is sufficient that the style be pure and of a noble simplicity ; ; it is this kind of lite- rature that Laplace has chosen; and it is certain that in this he is placed among the first ranks. -If he wrote the history of great astro- nomical discoveries, be became a model of elegance and of precision. No important feature escaped him ; the expression is neither obscure nor aspiring. All that he calls great, is great in reality; all that he omits deserves not to be related. M. Laplace retained, to a very advanced age, that wonderful mem- ory which had made him remarkable from his first years: a boon, precious indeed, though not a necessary proof of genius; but still enabling him to acquire and to preserve. He never cultivated the fine arts, but he always appreciated them. He loved the music of Italy, and the verses of Racine, and was often delighted in citing from memory, different passages from this great poet. The composi- tions of Raphael adorned his apartments. We find them at the side of the portraits of tcc? of Francois Viete, of Newton, of Gali- _ and of Euler. lace had always been siininsicied 10" a very tight! diet; he ually diminished it to an extremely small quantity. His very delicate sight required continual precautions. He, however, ‘suc- ceeded in preserving it without any change. ‘These cares of him- self never had any object but that of reserving all his time and all his powers for the labors of the soul. He lived for the sciences ; the sciences have rendered his memory eternal. He had contracted the habit of an excessive application of ini so injurious to health, but so necessary to deep studies: and yet he experienced no sensible debility, except in his two last years. At the commencement of the disease under which he sunk, we remarked, with fear, a moment of delirium. The sciences still en- gaged his attention. He spoke with an unusual degree of earnest- ness on the motion of the stars, and then of an experiment in phys- ics that he said was capitale, informing persons whom he t present, that he would soon go and entertain the Academy with these questions. His strength left him more and more. His physician,* who deserved his entire confidence by superior talents and by atten- tions that friendship only could suggest, watched near his bed. M. Bouvard, his assistant and his friend never quitted him a single instant. 12 Historical Eulogy on the Marquis De Laplace. Surrounded by a beloved fanily, under the eyes of a spouse whose tenderness had aided him in supporting the inseparable troubles of life, whose graces and whose sweetness of disposition had made known to him the worth of domestic happiness, he received from JM. le Marquis de Laplace, his son, impressive testimonials of the most affecting filial piety. He appeared deeply affected with grothade for the reiterated marks of interest given to him by the. King and Dauphin. Those who comforted him in his last moments, reminded him of the titles of his glory, and his most brilliant discoveries. He answer- ed: Ce que artes connaissons est peu de chose; ce que nous 1gn0- rons est immense.” ‘This is, at least as far as could be gathered, the sense of his last words, scarcely articulated ;. as to the rest, we have often heard this thought expressed, and stipes in the same terms. His last hour had arrived: the powerful genius which had so long animated him, at last separated from “this mortal co ae and retuned to the nite’ He — me a — a # The name of Aya se one of our provinces Panis so teeming with great men, ancient Normandy. He was born March 23, 1749; he died, in the seventy eighth year of his age, on May 5, 1827, at nine o’clock in the morning. Shall I remind you, Gentlemen, of the deep gloom that spread like a cloud over this palace, when the fatal news was announced to you? It was the very day and hour of your wonted sittings. Each of you kept a mournful silence: each lamented the fatal blow with which the sciences had been smitten. The faces of all were direct- ed to the very spot he had so long occupied among you. A single thought was with you; every other had become impossible. You dissolved with a unanimous vote; and at this time only, have your usual labors ever been interrupted. It is undoubtedly beautiful, it is glorious, it is worthy of a power- ful nation to decree brilliant honors to the memory of its celebrated men. In the country of Newton, the ministers of State desired that the mortal remains of this great man should be solemnly deposited amid the royal sepulchres. France and Europe have offered to the memory of Laplace an expression of their regret less ostentatious, without doubt, but perhaps more touching and more true. 7 * M. Magendie. Historical Eulogy on the Marquis De Laplace. 13 He has received an unaccustomed homage; he has received it from his own fellows in the bosom of a learned society which alone could appreciate all his genius. The voice of science in tears has been heard in every part of the world where philosophy has pen- etrated. We have before our eyes multiplied communications from all parts of Germany, England, Italy, New Holland, of the British possessions in India, of the two Americas; and we find in them the same sentiments of admiration and of regret. Certainly the univer- sal sorrow of the sciences, so nobly and so freely expressed, has no less truth and glory than the sepulchral pomp of Westminster. Let me be permitted, before terminating this discourse, to add here a reflection which is presented of itself, when I have brought to your recollection within these limits, the great discoveries of Herschel, but which is applied still more directly to those of Laplace. Your successors, gentlemen, will see accomplished the great phe- nomena of which he has discovered the Jaws. They will observe in the Junar movements, the changes which he has predicted, and of which he only has been able to assign the cause. The continual observation of the satellites of Jupiter will perpetuate the memory of the discoverer of the theories which govern its course. The great inequalities of Jupiter and of Saturn, pursuing their long periods, and giving to these stars new situations, will incessantly bring to mind one of his most astonishing discoveries. Here are the titles of true glory, which nothing can annihilate. The appearance of the heavens will be changed ; but at these distant epochs, the glory of the discov- erer will last forever: the traces of his genius will bear the seal of immortality. I have presented to you, gentlemen, some anecdotes of an illus- trious life consecrated to the glory of science; may your remem- brances supply the defects of such feeble accents! may the voice of the country, may that of all humanity, be raised to celebrate the benefactors of nations, the only homage worthy of those that have been able, like Laplace, to enlarge the domains of thought, and to testify to man the DieNiTY oF HIs BEING, by unfolding to view THE WHOLE MAJESTY OF THE HEAVENS! Brief chronological sketch of the Life of Laplace ; by the Tran ela mn 1749.—Born 23rd of March. 1773.—Member of the Academy of eae and soon after, Member of the Na- tional Institute, and also Member of Se Board of Lage 17 des Marées. 14 —_ Brief Chronological Sketch of the Life of Laplace. RITE sca ATA Bézout as examiner of the Royal Corps of Artille 1782. —Demons ated “ dune maniére bien p lus générale,” that the flattened ellip- 1784.—Published his work through De Barons entitled, “‘ Theory of ‘the motion and Elliptical Figure of the Planets 1784?—June 24. Sat up four mi with ketone in forming water with oxygen and hydrogen. These riments were repeated before the Academy in January and February, 1785, and sienendnily and decisively confirmed by a series of experiments begun on the 23rd of May, and nies the 7th of J June Ives, at the esos pe pe M. Lefevre de Gene 1785.—Theory of f the figure of the Pheisee pub: , 4to. 1787.—Dec. 19. An sediead the cause of the moon’s acceleration 1788.—Announced his theory of J lage s satellites, in the SMisview de l Acade- mie, which appeared in 1 1789 and 1790.—Continued his Petite des Marées. 1796. —Dedicated to the council of Five aaa his “ —- dis = du onde.” 1799.—Published Mad I and If of Mécanique Céleste. 1799. —Appointed by the Consular oe on the 18th of Brumaire, (9th of : November,) Minister of rst 1799.—Transferred to the eset ive Son ate 1803.—Published Vol. III of the Mécanique Céleste. 1803 n Vice President of the Sénat oH meen taariel 1803.— do. Chancellor *“ with the title of Grand ordon of the Legion of H 1805.—Published Vol. IV of the Mécanique Céles 1811.—Nominated Counsellor to the Maternal Sontety: and President of the same. 1812.—Théorie Analytique des Probabilités 1814.—After having been Count of the Empire from 1806, and received eres favors from throne, he bene = his Im Imperial Mostar, and obtained a erage from Louis XVIII, at the eo 1814.—Eseai ‘Philosophique des Probabilités. 1816.—Nominated a member of the French Academy and 4 President of the commit- e for the reorganization of the ** Ecole Pence et 1817.—President of French Academy. 1821.—Précis of the History of Astronomy, 8vo. 1825.—Fourth supplement to the Theorie des Probabilités. ie ere Céleste, Vol. V.t oe hart: May “i 1827. inn au Ge vain du Traits de artanians Cite. Cloprins sur le manuscrit trouvé dans ses papiers.) * Bézout died in t The four first hing ork, were translated and made ready for the press, by the n. Nathaniel Bowditch of ripety between 1815 and 1817; = »~ publication was delayed in the alla that the revered author bagy = — some essential changes and modifications. cae: appearance of the fifth volume, in 1825, a death of the a et 1827, having howev ened this hope, rs learned and inotatigabl oppsa homens to publish . we his own expense, id of th an Academy. To sot: nor of the country, two volumes have seen the light: the third “a ‘probably appear in the next year, and we ma f ty This time being andere’ necessary on account of ‘the translator’s laborious occupation. Aérial Navigation. 16 Arr. II.—On Aérial Navigation ; by H. Srnarr. TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN. Dear Sir—Having spent a considerable portion of my time, for two years and a half past, in studying and investigating the properties’ of the air, for the purpose of determining the practicability and utility of aérial navigation; I have so far succeeded in my inquiries as to be induced to forward you the result, wishing that yoa may lay it before the public in the next number of the American Journal of Science and Arts. The reasons why I wish to lay my researches thus prematurely before the public, are, that I have made experi- ments on my plan to a considerable extent; even enough to satisfy myself of its success; but that Iam not now able, and, perhaps, shall not be before next spring, for want of funds, to construct a ma- chine of a sufficient size to determine its practical utility, which will probably cost from one hundred to one hundred and fifty dollars; and that I have written a number of letters, to different places, de- scriptive of my plan and its principles, some of which are unanswer- ed and have likewise made communications personally to individuals with whom I was very partially acquainted. 4 will now give a plain and concise description of my - and its principles, hoping you will lay it before the public, and thus peel bie son hockii , or taking undue advantages of my present cir- cumstances in the prosecution of this enterprise, with which I feel deeply interested. In so doing you will confer a favor on me, and perhaps, in time on the best interests of literature and science. I shall now proceed to develope the true principles of aérial nay- igation as founded in reason and the established laws of nature, and describe a plan which I discovered in the autumn of eighteen hun- dred and thirty, which seems every way applicable to the purpose. Its resistance to progression will be very small; its principles are ca- pable of being employed with equal facility on a small or large con- struction, according to the weight required to be conveyed. It is calculated to have the combined assistance of inflammable or rarefied air, and the percussion of wings. The inflammable or rarefied air is to supply the principal means of ascent or ascensive power, and ~ power is to be governed and varied at pleasure by the wings. ‘The wings are to be so constructed and hung as to pes with the. pepeaiont facility, whatever be their size, shape and weight. 16 Aérial Navigation. The materials of which they are constructed, ought to be the light- est, strongest, and most durable that can be procured, the different parts compactly joined, and susceptible of considerable elasticity. They can even be made, on this principle, so light as to be only a very little heavier, in proportion to their surface, than birds’ wings, and equally creative. ‘The wings are calculated to supersede the utility of the Parachute, to accelerate or retard ascent. or descent at pleasure, to insure progression and prevent fatal consequences from the rarefied or inflammable air envelopes’ being burst or torn when elevated high above the earth. _— §: we A Paen oe a PELL | | I BN 3 A d ae TG am8 | fam, ae) | | Pe | | PS F r | ‘ ; Cc & owed Figure 1.—In this representation of the wings, AA, BFB, CC, and DD represent a light, strong wooden frame, twice as long as wide. EE, a strong rod firmly fastened by its ends to the middle of the sides AA, CC, of the frame, which is to be the axle or pivot of the wing. All the hair lines represent strong wires with which the frame is woven and cross-woven to strengthen it, and on which the valves are to be hung. The frame being constructed and wired, the valves are then to be hung, whose purpose is to admit the passage of the incumbent air downwards so that the wing can be raised with a great Aérial Navigation. 17 deal less resistance than depressed. V represents a valve, which is along, thin, narrow, and light strip or slip of pasteboard, stiffened cloth, tin or metal, a little wider than to cover one interstice between the wires that run parallel to the axle EE so as to overlap, and as long as DD or EE. The side of the valve V, m, n, 0, is to be moveably attached or fastened to the wire m, n, 0, on the under side of the frame, so as to open about thirty or forty degrees downwards, and then shut. The cross wires, parallel to AA and CC, are designed. to prevent its striking through, as well as its overlapping a little the side DD. The valve V being hung, another valve of the same size and shape is to be moveably fastened by one of its longest sides, to the next wire towards the axle EE; and another to the next and so on till valves are moveably fastened to all the parallel wires, be- tween the side of the frame DD and its axle EE. The valves are to Jap on the sides of the frame a little and overlap one another sufficiently to be air tight. The valves being all moveably hung be- tween the side of the frame DD and its axle EE by one of their longest sides to the wires, are to be restrained from opening any far- ther than is required, by small strings or cords being fastened to their other longest sides, and then attached to the side DD of the frame. The valves, being all moveably hung and restrained between DD and EE, the other half of the frame-of the wing is to be similarly valved and have the valves restrained by small strings or cords to the side of the frame BFB. The hanging of the valves must commence at the side BFB and continue to the axle EE. aa, 6f6, ce, and dd repre- sent another similar frame, similarly wired and valved; ee, its axle or pivot. W represents a balance valve, gr, its balancing wire; when the frame is to be hung with this kind of valves, it is to be wired only parallel to its axle. The valves are to be attached on the under side of the wings to the wires, so as nearly to balance; their greater part must hang down and be similarly restrained as the others; when they shut, they must overlap a little and the materials of which they are made must be pretty stiff. These two similar frames are to be hung or fastened together at stv, by hinges, susceptible of a motion upwards and downwards. Gg and Gg represent strong semi-circular rods, whose ends are attached or fastened to the under side of the axles EE, ee, at HH and hh, by hinges or small staples, so as to allow the axles a balancing motion. _I, #, I; i represent four j joints in these semi- circular rods, designed, when the sides of the wings BFB and fb are raised, as they are attached br hinge at 8, ty Uy B, to admit the Vou. XXV.—No. 1. 18 Aérial Navigation. axles EE, ee, advancing towards, and receding from each other equally. JJ and jj represent two strong rods which connect, or are fastened to the two strong semi-circular rods Gg, Gg, at equal dis- tances from their center. L represents the car which is firmly fas- tened to the rods JJ, jj, at their center. Ef represent the space be- tween the wings, which the aéronaut or their mover occupies, who is to stand upright in the car and take hold of the handles of the wings, K, &, or the middle of their sides BF'B, fb, on each side of him, when he wishes to move them. Having now illustrated one ap- plication of the principle of a balance to the motion of wings, and the manner of constructing them, I shall now proceed to illustrate another, on the best possible construction, before I explain how they are moved. 2 : Figure 2. ees ey vr G. _ Figure 2.—I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P represent strong flattened shafts. The circular jagged line, EFGH, represents a strong spiral wire, which is to be fastened to the circumferential ends of all the fattened shafts. efgh represent a light, strong hoop to which the other ends of the flattened shafts are to be firmly connected by hinges or small staples so as to admit of motion upwards and downwards; its size Aérial Navigation. 19 must be sufficient for a person to stand in, and move his hands freely. All the circular hair lines between the spiral wire EF GH, and the hoop efgh, represent small wires woven through the flattened shafts. On these wires the balancing valves are to be hung, the same as in figure 1, only that the slips must be circular, of various sizes, and it will require a number to make one whole circular valve; part are restrain- ed to EFGH, and part to efgh. W represents a circular balancing valve, wv, its balance wire. Or these circular wires can. be eross wired and the valves similarly hung as those first described. ABCD represent a large, strong, wooden ring or hoop whose circumference or diameter must be somewhat less than the circumference or diameter of the middle of all the flattened shafts. ac, 6d, represent two strong rods firmly fastened by their ends into the circumference of the hoop or ring ABCD at right angles to each other.. SS represent the car which is to be strongly fastened to the rods a, ¢, 6, d. 1, 2, 3,4, 5, 6, 7, 8 represent standard braces, which are to be each about two feet long: two standards make one brace, and there must be one brace to every flattened shaft; the upper ends of the standards of each brace are to be firmly joined, while their lower ends should spread about a foot. The upper end of each brace is to be moveably hung by hinges or staples to the middle of each of the flattened shafts, or that part of each shaft, where the weight and superficies are nearest balanced. The other ends of the brace must likewise be moveably fastened, by hinges or staples, to the ring or hoop ABCD, when the braces are hung to the flattened shafts and the ring or hoop ABCD ; their lower ends ought to incline in, towards the car, so as to make an angle of about forty degrees, with a vertical line or that of gravity. The frame being constructed, wired and valved, the aéronaut is to enter the car, stand upright and with his hands take hold of any two opposite sides of the hoop efgh, and raise it up and down, when it will give the wing or wings the intended motion, I shall now illustrate the balancing principle of motion. In figure 1, as all the weight is to be suspended from the axles EE, ee, and all the valves are hung on the underside of the wings, $0.as to open about forty degrees downwards, when the aéronaut raises the handles K, &, quickly up, all the valves between the axles EE, ee, open and let the incumbent air through, while those beyond close air tight, and strike the air proportionally to the quickness of the motion. When he brings the handles down quickly, all the valves between the axles EE, ce, close, air tight, and strike the air similarly, 20 Meérial Navigation. while those beyond open, and let the incumbent air through. Both wings being fastened together moveably by the hinges at s, ¢, u, 5 when the handles are raised up, the axles advance towards the car, and when brought down from it, to allow their motion by means of the joints Ii, Ji, in the semi-circular rods Gg, Gg. ‘The aéronaut, in moving wings on this plan, has a purchase of one half of each wing to strike the air beyond the axles, and his own weight suspend- ed on the other, the air within, besides the alternate reaction, arising from their percussion, which is proportional to the power applied on each side of the axles EE, ee. Whether the handles are moved upwards or downwards, the wings strike the air equally and con- stantly on each side of the car, and alternately on each side of their axles, during their motion, and the reaction of the air assists so as to move them equally and constantly. The wings being bal- anced on their axles and the valves nearly so on their wires, it is evi- dent that their weight is no impediment to their motion. Wings of any shape and size, being wired, valved, and balanced equally on each side of their axles, can be governed and moved by a small power or force, and the better and the more effectually as the power or force is increased. This principle of a balance can be likewise beneficially applied in submarine navigation, either to ascend, de- scend, or move forward in the water. In figure 2, when the aéro- naut raises the hoop efgh, quickly, all the valves between it, and the middles of the flattened shafts I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P, or where the upper ends of the braces 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, are moveably hung to them, will open and let the neat air through 5 while those be- yond will close, air tight, and strike the air to the quick- ness of the motion; when he brings the hoop quickly “down, all the valves between it sige the middle of the flattened shafts will close air tight and strike the air similarly ; while those beyond will open and let the incumbent air through. When the hoop is raised, (as all the flattened shafts are moveably hung to it,) the upper ends of all the braces, (being pee an eneney necge at both =) move inwards towards the car, w h ,th thus allow the motion of a balance to the are surface we the ring or wings. “Th Ii around th but one wing. on this construction: This wing ae the air equally all around the car, at equal distances, when moved and prevents the escape of the air at any part within its circumference. Having de- seribed two applications of the principle of a balance to the motion Aérial Navigation. 21 of wings, to give it an easier illustration, let a stiff, thin board, two feet wide, and ten long, be perfectly balanced and moveably hung to the sharp edge of another, let a handle be attached to one of its extreme ends to move it. Now the fluid or air in which it is, being of a uniform density, it is evident that the least possible power or force that can be applied to this handle, either upwards or downwards, will move it notwithstanding its size and weight. If this board were valved and moved or balanced swiftly its percussion would grow more power- ful by the alternate and constant reaction of the air on its under sides. Having described the manner of constructing, hanging and moving Wings upon a principle which will render their motion easy and almost independent of weight, shape, or size; and percussion powerful and constant ; I shall now proceed to illustrate the manner of suspending or fastening the wings to a balloon, filled with rarefied or inflammable air, whose ascensive power must be nearly sufficient to overcome or balance all the gravity or weight of the whole apparatus, including the balloon, net-like envelope, pilot car, passenger or observer car, pilot, passengers or observers, ballast, and all other things intended to be carried or conveyed. It is evident from observation, that a vessel or body that will move with the least resistance in any one fluid, will ‘Move equally well in ee in proportion to their density, if that only is variable. ‘Therefore vessels or bodies that move with the least resistance i in water, will likewise move the easiest in the air, the water being only a fluid of considerably greater density than air. The shape of the balloon should, therefore, be oval or basi-conical, or that of two cones joined together at their bases, or partly resem- ble the hulk of the vessel to insure progression. A balloon being made of a sufficient size, of the shape or form of the least resistance © to progression, and filled with rarefied or inflammable air, so as to balance, by its ascensive power, nearly all the weight intended to be carried is to be surrounded by a net-like envelope of small cords, so as to cover about four fifths of its whole surface, while the remain- ing fifth, uncovered, is to be on its under side. The wings repre- sented in figure 1, are to be hung or fastened about five or six feet below the balloon, by their axles EE, ee, being attached longitudi- nally to the ends of the cords of the net-like or reticulated envelope; and at equal distances. The wing or wings, represented in figure 2, are to be suspended at the same distance below the balloon, by means of the ends of the cords of the envelope, being fastened at the middles of the flattened shafts 1, J, K, L, M, N, O, P, in equal num- bers and at equal distances, all around the car SS. 22 Aérial Navigation. Having now shown the proper shape for a balloon and the manner of attaching wings, represented in figure 1 and 2, to it, I shall now de- scribe the pilot car, passenger or observer car and their uses. The pilot car is represented in figure 1 by L, in figure 2, by SS._ It is to be immediately attached to the wings and only of a sufficient size for one person unless the wings are very large. This car is to be occupied only by the mover of the wings, who is to be the pilot and governor of the balloon and all its courses and motions. It is to be supplied with a small compass and chart of the country. over which it is in- tended to sail, a light seat to be occupied by the pilot in descent or when the wings are at rest; and a valve in its bottom opening upward sufficiently large for the passage of the pilot either in or out, or up- wards or downwards. Its depth is to be such, that when the pilot stands upright and the wings lie level on the air, his hands, when suspended, will be even with them or their handles K, &, ¢, f, g, h. The passenger or observer car is to be suspended about five or six feet below the pilot car, or ten or twelve below the balloon, by means of strong cords, immediately fastened to the lower edge of the re- ticulated envelope of the balloon, and extending through the wings at their axles, so as not to. be anywise dependent for elevation on their percussion. This car is intended to be the deposit of all things carried in the air, or conveyed through it, passengers, observers, ob- serving and meteorological instruments, ballast, necessaries, &c. ex- cept those specified for the pilot car. If the balloon is designed to carry but one person, he is to occupy the pilot car, while a few pounds of ballast must occupy the passenger or observer. car, to keep the wings steady during motion, and in case the balloon should break or burst, to prevent its overturning, or vacillating too much during the descent. The size, weight, and strength of this car and its at- tachment to'the balloon, must correspond with the size or ascensive power of the balloon, the number of passengers, observers, &c., or the intended weight to be carried, or gravity overcome; while -that of the pilot car will be uniform. The pilot car is intended to oc- cupy an intermediate position between the ascensive power of the balloon and the gravity of the passenger or observer car, and what is in it; so that the pilot can give either the ascendency with the wings at pleasure. The passenger or observer car must likewise be supplied with a light strong cord of one hundred or two hundred feet long, a windlass and small anchor, to stop further progression, in case of ne- cessity, during a swift wind. Aérial Navigation. 23 Having explained my theory of aérial navigation, I will now endeav- or to illustrate its princples more clearly by an example. Suppose an oval balloon, thirty feet long and twenty two feet high or wide, was filled with the lightest inflammable air, so as to raise four hundred and twenty pounds, independently of the weight of itself, net-like en- velope, pilot and passenger cars, and wings, as represented in figure 2, sixteen feet in diameter.. ‘Two men enter the passenger car, both weighing two hundred and eighty pounds, and one the pilot car weigh- ing one hundred and forty, making in all four hundred and twenty. Now it is evident that the ascensive power exactly balances or equals that of gravity and that the smallest weight added to either, will give it the ascendency or the least percussion of the wings, and consequent- ly reaction of the air, will cause the whole to ascend till equilibrated in the air. Now both being in equilibrium, suppose twenty pounds of ballast, (as any number can be added that can be raised with ease by the percussion of the wings,) to be put in the passenger car, which will give to gravity so much the ascendency. In order to descend, vertically, in a calm atmosphere, the pilot, standing upright in the center of his car, must, by the wings, strike the air, with suf- ficient force to raise the twenty pounds. Having ascended suffi- ciently to descend vertically, the pilot has only to cease moving the wings, and the _— . the: twenty“pounds will bring the acct ves- sel or machine down he must keep the handles of the winks Feet, and all the air under them will have to pass through the space he occupies at their center, while, if fast, the handles must be held down and all the air under them will rush out at their sides, as the valves of the wings on each side of the axles, all close air tight, in descent. Having now shown the manner of vertical ascent and descent, I will explain the manner of progression. ‘There are four ways of dri- ving or impelling this vessel or machine through the air; by gravity, oblique percussion, the wind, and percussion from vertical wings, and three kinds of progression, ascensive, descensive and direct. The balloon being elevated as far as required to reach any place; the pi- lot, in order to impel it there, must stop moving the wings and step a little from the center of his car or line of gravity toward it, which will cause the wings to incline, while the twenty pounds will impel it for- ward, as it were, down an inclined plain to the intended place. ‘The Bsa a peer ¢c ee eer nS Pe ne * asl a ee, oe ee a ae i . a jes - This is descensive progression. F 24 Aérial Navigation. any place by ascensive progression, must step a little from the cen- ter of his car or line of gravity towards it, which will incline the wings that way ; and powerfully move them, which will strike the air oblique- ly, and drive the vessel along nearly in the same manner as birds im- pel their bodies, whose wings insure both progression and elevation at the same stroke. Direct progression is when the vessel moves or is impelled forward in a straight line either by the wind or the percus- sion of vertical wings. When-the wind blows or moves forward to any place which it is intended to reach, it will impel the vessel to it without any exertion, more than to keep sufficiently elevated to pre- vent striking, and when the balloon has arrived, it can be stopped, by dropping the small anchor from the passenger car and winding up its cord around the windlass. The vertical wings are to be attached, one on each side of the pilot car, above the other wings, but to their axles, each being about two feet wide and eight feet long, and similarly wir- ed, valved and balanced; but hung at right angles to the horizontal wings ; each wing to tats a handle at both ends, and their handles, when moved, must be impelled backwards and forwards, instead of up- wards and downwards as they can be turned quite around so as to an- swer any course ; they are to be moved only while the others are at rest. Perhaps a rudder wing of a small size, attached on the under side of the passenger car, nearly balanced, hung vertically but not valved, would help considerably to determine the motions of the bal- loon, and keep them regular. Having now given a description of what appear to me to be the true principles of aérial navigation, and the manner of application to practice, I will offer a few reasons in farther illustration and sup of the balancing principle, in the motion of wings, hanging theie valves, and governing the ascensive and gravitating powers. Wings of a very large size, hung on the balancing principle, perhaps, may be moved by steam, the elasticity of condensed air or a lever. The more powerful the percussion, the reaction will be greater and the elevation quicker. In motion and effect they will nearly resem- ble bird’s wings, be proportionally reactive when struck, and be less impeded in motion by their weight. The balance valves in their motion and effect in the air, will resemble, very neatly the large feath- ers of bird’s wings; they ought not to be more than two or three inches wide and the others narrower. Now it is evident, that the ascensive and gravitating powers, can be balanced or nearly so, as well as the wings and their valves; and if balanced, the least addi- Aérial aii 25 tion of weight to either, or percussion will give it the ascendency. An aérial machine, whose gravitating and ascensive powers are equal, whatever be its size, shape and weight, will, by weight or percussion, move upwards or downwards, as the one or the other of these pow- ers has the ascendency. ‘Therefore its ascent or descent can be ea- sily managed, so as to insure ascent by percussion, and sit a4 its gravity, the wings being stopped. On these principles, an aérial machine of any size, by balancing, or nearly so, its ascensive and gravitating powers, can be made so as to carry any required weight, and it can be governed by percussion ; being once well constructed, it would remain a ready vehicle fitted to move equally in every direction, and there would be no need of a valve to discharge the included air, to enable it to descend, or if there were, it would be used only in case of necessity. The ascensive powers of aérial fluids, lighter than common air, have already been determined, and 1 have made and hung wings on the aforedescribed principles, and found their motion very easy and their percussion ve- _ ty powerful; therefore the practicability, of aérial navigation, can- not be reasonably doubted. The navigation of the air will be at- tended with nearly the same advantages and disadvantages as that of water. The aéronaut, during a storm, is however, Jess liable to dan- ger than the seamany as he has the power of descrying it at a great- er dist asce t at pleasure ; he can rise above the danger or descend atid ‘anchor fast, or as the wind | moves from or before it, he can take its current, which will bear him from danger, if he keeps sufficiently elevated, while the seaman has no alternative, but either to anchor fast, or if that be impossible, to weather all vicissitudes and dangers. If the aéronaut wishes to move in an opposite direction to the wind, he must rise, (as the at- mosphere is composed of different strata of air, moving at different altitudes, in different directions,) till he finds a favorable current, or wait till the wind in the lower strata blows right, or until it is calm. To what altitude it is possible to ascend on these principles, will de- pend on the balance between the density of the air and the powers of gravity ; for it is evident, that the gravity is directly as the densi- ty. Conveyance by air can be easily rendered as safe as by water or Jand, and more cheap and speedy, while the universal and uniform diffusion of the air over every portion of the earth, will render aérial navigation preferable to any other. To carry it into effect, ‘there needs only an immediate appeal —— large scale, to ex- Vou. XXV.—No. 1 ° 26 | The discoveries of Geology periment; reason has done her part, when experiment does hers; nature will not refuse to sanction the whole. Aérial navigation will present the works of nature in all their charms; to commerce and the diffusion of knowledge, it will bring the most efficient aid, and it’ can thus be rendered serviceable to the whole human family. I now offer my scheme to the public, expecting soon to see a practi- cal and satisfactory demonstration of the truth of its principles. East Nassau, Rensselaer County, N. Y., June 10, 1833. Arr. Ill. oa tai 5 on the connection between the Mosaic His- tory of the creation and the Discoveries of geology, occasioned by the Lectures of Baron Cuvier on the History of the Natural Sci- ences, and published tn Prof. Jameson’s , Eapenrah New Philo- sophical Journal in 1832. [Various subjects ent Waicak ba. are discussed in the paper from which these remarks are extracted, but we insert only that part which bears on the topic stated at the head of this article. They are introduced by the following passage from Cuvier’s Lectures.— Ed. } “The books of Moses shew us, that he had very,perfect ideas respecting several of the highest questions of natural philosophy. His costnogony especially, considered in a purely scientific view, is extremely remarkable, inasmuch as the order which it assigns to the different epochs of creation, is precisely the same as that which has been deduced from geological considerations.” This, then, is the issue, in the opinion of es Pe of a - science, which has been held by many persons to teach conclusions at variance with the Book of Genesis,;—when at last more matured by a series of careful observations and legitimate induction, it teaches * No opinion can be heretical but that which is not true. Truths can never war against each other. I affirm, therefore, that we have nothing to fear from the results of our inquiries, provided they be followed in the laborious but secure road of honest induction. In this way, we may rest assured, we shall never arrive at to any truth, either physical or moral, from whatsoever source that treath ms be derived; nay, rather that new discoveries will ever lend support Peete Society, bbe tend 19, 1830. consistent with the Mosaic History. 27 us precisely what Moses had taught more than three thousand years ago. = = % * & % * The first chapter of Genesis is writen in a pure Hebrew. This was the language spoken, and afterwards extensively written, by the people whom Moses conducted to Palestine from the land of Goshen. That it differed greatly from the language of the Egyp- tians, we have full proof in the Coptic remains of the latter, in the Egyptian proper names preserved in the Hebrew writings, and also in the circumstance that Joseph, when pretending to be an Egyptian, conversed with his brethren by means of an interpreter. Yet, in the chapter in question, we fine no foreign terms, no appearance of its being translated from any other tongue; but, on the contrary, it bears every internal mark of being purely original, for the style is condensed and idiomatical in the very highest degree. Had Moses derived his science from Egypt, either by oral communication, or the study of Egyptian writings, it is inconceivable that some of his terms, or the style of his composition, should not, in some point or agi betray the plagiary or copyist. But the conjecture that Moses borrowed his cosmogony from the Egyptians, must rest, moreover, on a supposition that the order which he assigns for the different epochs of creation had been determined by a course of observation and induction, and the correct application of many other highly perfected sciences to the illustration of the subject, equal at least in their accuracy and philosophical : precision to those by which our present geological knowledge has been obtain- ed. Nothing less than this can account for Moses’ teaching us pre- cisely what the modern geology teaches, if we allow his knowledge to be merely human. How comes it to pass, then, that while he has given us the perfect and satisfactory results, he has been enabled so totally to exclude from his record every trace of the steps by which they were obtained? The supposition of such perfection of geologic- al knowledge in ancient Egypt, implies a long series of observation by many individuals, having the same object in view. It implies of necessity, also, the invention and use of many defined terms of science, without which there could have been no mutual understand- ing among the different observers, and of course no. progress in their pursuit. These terms have all totally disappeared in the hands of Moses. He translated, with precision, the whole science of geology into the language of shepherds and husbandmen, leaving no trace 28 The discoveries of Geology whatever of any one of its peculiar terms any more than of the curious steps in its progress. But there is a phenomenon in his record still more unaccountable upon any supposition that his.science is merely human. _ His geology, acknowledged by the highest authority in this age of scientific im- provement to be thus accurate, dwindles down in his hands to be a merely incidental appendage to an enunciation of the most rational and sublime theology. This latter he did not learn in Egypt, for it was in the possession of his ancestors while they were yet inhabitants of Canaan; and we find Fetishism established in Egypt in his age, and even as early as the time of Joseph. Joseph’s steward addresses his brethen as if their God were different from the gods of Egypt (Gen. xliii. 23.), and we find him afterwards stating (Gen. xlvi. 34.), that every shepherd is an abomination to the Egyptians. Herodotus has given us a piece of information, which forms a perfect commen- tary on this last passage, and puts us in possession of all its import. He tells us that cows, whether young or old, were, by the Egyptians, all held sacred to Isis, and were forbidden to be sacrificed ; and that on .this account, they more venerated that animal than any other; and he adds almost a paraphrase of the words of Joseph, “ therefore, no man or woman of them will kiss a Grecian, or use his knife, or pot, or spit, or eat the flesh of animals cut with his knife.” The Greéks were thus an abomination to the Egyptians, because they sacrificed the animal sacred to Isis. Now, the Hebrews were in the practice of sacrificing the same animal, for we-find a heifer among the sacrifices of Abraham (Gen. xv. 9.) The proofs of the existence of Fetishism in Egypt in the time of Moses, and that the Egyptians knew not the God of the Hebrews, are complete. In Exodus viii. 26., we find Moses saying to Pharaoh, “ shall we sacrifice the abomination of the Egyptians before their eyes, and will they not stone us?” In Exodus xii. 12. we find the beasts called the gods of Egypt; and in Exodus xxxii., we find Aaron, in consistency with the idolatry which he had witnessed-in Egypt, making a golden calf, and saying to the Hebrews, this is thy God. Also, when Moses first presents himself before Pharaoh in Exodus v., we find the latter denying all knowledge of the God of the Bekcews. Shall we, then, conjecture that Moses borrowed theology from the Hebrews on the one hand, and geological science from the Egyp-. tians on the other, to compound out of them that brief but unique and perfect system of both, which is presented to us in the 1st chap- consistent with the Mosaic History. 29 ter of Genesis; or, is it possible that we could adopt any conjecture more absurd, and this, too, in utter destitution of all proof that the Egyptians possessed any knowledge of geology in the s sense in which we use the term? The result of our inquiry is, that the poole of Moses has come down to us out of a period of remote antiquity before the light of human science arose; for, to suppose that it was borrow or possessed by any oiler people than the remarkable race to which Moses himself belonged, involves us on all hands in the most inex- tricable difficulties and palpable absurdities.* Of that race, it has been long” since justly remarked, that while in religion they .were men, in human learning and science they were children; and if we find in their records any perfect system of an extensive nnd difficult science, we know they have not obtained it by the regular processes of observation and induction, which, in the hands of European philoso- phers, have led to a high degree of perfection in many sciences. Let us now, then inquire into the true value and necessary result of Baron Cuvier’s statement, “ that the cosmogony of Moses assigns to the epochs of creation precisely the same order as that which has been deduced from geological consideration.” Before we proceed to that detail and comparison of dhicsdtt which are necessary in the due prosecution of the inquiry, we purpose to shew that a right understanding of the terms employed by Moses will lead us to several more agreements between his statements and the results of the modern geology, than are indicated by our common English translation. This will lead us into a critical examination of several of these terms. We do not mean to hinge much of these criticisms on grammatical niceties, but to rest them chiefly on an ex- amination of other passages of Hebrew Scriptures, where the terms * We believe that the opinion of Calmet may be maintained by very extensive and highly aagatneatn ¥ toternal evidence, t that more in the of Genesis, has Patriarchs rats as the Prophets, who succeeded him, have transmitted to us that book and his own writi We believe, likewise, with Bishop Gleig, that the opinion ee entertained of the late invention of alphabetical writing, is no other than a vulgar error, and that such writing must have been practised before the flood of Ne oah Sir William Jones when he hazarded the conjecture, or renee opinion, that the language of Noah is probably entirely lost, must have quite overlooked the internal evidences, that the original language of Gencda eae be no other than @ the language of both Noah and Adam. Bat these se questions ar sive to be more thus briefly all a note - 30 The discoveries of Geology are also employed, and where the context throws such light on them as puts an end to all doubt about their true import. This is a process of criticism which is universally allowed to be quite satisfactory, where we have resources for employing it, as happens to be the case in the present instance. To make our criticisms intelligible, without the labor of turning to the passages quoted, we shall quote the common English transla- tion to such an extent as may be necessary. The term, the meaning of which we shall first investigate, is * day” (in the Hebrew, yom). ‘The interpretation of this, in the sense ** enoch” or “ period,” has been a subject of animadversion, of an unnecessary severity in some cases. A careful examination of the first chapter of Genesis itself leads unavoidably to the conclusion, that our natural day of one revolution of the sun cannot be here meant by it, for we find that no fewer than three of the six days had. passed before the measure of our present day was established. It was only on the fourth day, or epoch of the creation, “that God made two great lights to divide the day from the night, and to be for signs, and for seasons, and for days and for years.” ‘The very first time that the term occurs in the Hebrew text, after the history of the six days’ work, and of the rest of the seventh, as if to furnish us with definite information regarding its true import, we find it employed in a similar manner to that in which we must understand it here; for, in Gen. ii. 4, we have, “These are the generations of the heavens and the earth, in.the day (beyom) that the Lord God made the earth and heavens.” ‘The use of the term in this indefinite sense is so common in the Hebrew writings, that it would be a great labor to quote all the passages in which it is found; and we shall satisfy ourselves by at present referring to Job xviii. 20, where it is put for the whole period of a man’s life, “They that come after him shall be astonished at his day” (yomu) ; and Isaiah xxx. 8, where it is put for all future time, “ Now go write it in a book, that it may be for the latter day (leyom), for ever and ever.” It is quite obvious, from these examples, that the Hebrews used the term (yom) to express long periods of time. The very conditions of the history in this chapter prove that it must be here so understood... They who object to this interpretation of the term here, immediately quote against it the reason added to the fourth commandment, * For in six days the Lord made heaven and earth, the sea, and all that in- them is, and rested the seventh day, wherefore the Lord blessed the consistent with the Mosaic History. 31 Sabbath-day and sanctified it.” This is, however, no more than a - brief reference, and the terms of it must therefore be strictly inter- preted in accordance with those of the detail to which the reference is made. It has been said that such an interpretation goes to nullify the rea- sons. assigned for the sanctification of every seventh revolution of the sun; but this does not follow. In point of fact, the rest from the work of creation (we use this form of speech from the example before us) did not endure only for one revolution of the sun, but has continued since the creation of man; and we have no grounds on which to establish even a conjecture of the time of its coming to aclose; so that if we were urged to adopt a period of twenty four hours as the meaning of yom, that the six days of creation might literally correspond with our six working days, we should then find the apparent disagreement, which, by this process, we would en- deavor to avoid, transferred to our weekly period of rest, and the rest from the work of creation. It will surely be readily allowed, that the sanctification of the Sab- bath has respect to man and his duties; and since his Creator has been made known to him, and the hades of the six successive epochs in which the earth was rendered fit for his habitation; if we are to allow, what surely no reflecting mind will ever deny, that it is his du- ty to reflect with gratitude on the blessing he has received, and to maintain in his heart a sense of his dependence upon, and responsi- bility to him, who made the heavens and the earth, and all that they contain, no method could have been devised better calculated for preserving these feelings in constant activity than appointing some definite portion of time, returning at short intervals, to be devoted to the contemplations that awaken them, nor any interval more appro- - priate than that which so directly recalls the order of the events of the creation. Since we have introduced the subject of the measure of our pres- ent day, we would offer an observation regarding the work of the fourth day, which includes the sun, moon, and stars. Respecting the period of their creation, geology, from its nature, gives us no precise- ly definite indications. The history regarding them is from the 14th to the 18th verses, and we would observe of it, that the terms employ- ed are such as do not absolutely imply that these bodies were at this epoch first created, but admit of the interpretation that their motions were then first made the measures of our present days and seasons. 32 The discoveries of Geology We had found it already stated in the 1st verse, that the heavens and the earth were created in the beginning, antecedently to the work of the six days, by which they were reduced to their present order, and the earth was peopled with organized beings. It would seem an un- warrantable interpretation to exclude the sun, moon, and stars from among the objects expressed by the general terms, the heavens and the earth. It is the most obvious interpretation, that they were then created, and were lighted up on the first day, but that it was only during the fourth epoch, that they were made, the greater light to rule over the present day, and the lesser light to rule over the pres- ent night, and to be for signs, and for seasons, and for days and for years, according to the measures of time which we now find estab- lished by them. This part of the history, then, when interpreted in consistency with the Ist verse, and without any violence to the terms, implies, in the common language of men, which, in all nations, refers the diurnal and annual revolutions of the heavenly bodies to the mo- tions of these bodies themselves, that the earth was, during this epoch, finally brought into its present orbit. The work of the third epoch was the appearance of the dry land, and the creation of the vegetable kingdom. The history of the latter, in our common translation, is, v. 11, “* God said, Let the earth bring forth grass (in the margin tender grass), the herb yielding seed, and the fruit-tree yielding fruit after his kind, whose seed is in itself, upon the earth: and it was so.” YV. 12, “ And the earth brought forth grass, and the herb yielding seed after his kind, and the tree yielding fruit, whose seed was in itself, after his kind.” The terms grass (in Hebrew, deshe), herb (Hebrew, oeseb), and tree (Hebrew, etz), are here all put disjunctively in the Hebrew; there being only one conjunction in the twelfth verse between herb and tree, which does not affect the disjunctive character of the three terms, as it is.a common practice in the Hebrew writings to couple, in this manner, the two last of a series of disjunctive terms, as, for example, the names of the four kings in Genesis xiv. 1. In the two last of these terms, herb and tree, we find a recognition of a remarkable natural distinction among the vegetable tribes, and this very circumstance would Jead us to infer, that the first term, which has obviously pre- sented a difficulty to our translators, since they have given two inter- pretations of it, is intended to express some class or tribe of the vegetable kingdom, naturally distinguished from herbs and trees, as they are from one another. The term in question (deshe) is a noun consistent with the Mosaic History. - 3g from a verb, which, from Joel ii. 22, we learn the meaning is to spring, to shoot, to vegetate, “ Be not afraid, ye beast of the field, for the pastures of the wilderness do spring (dasheu).” In the 11th verse under consideration, we find both the verb and the noun, for the words translated “ Let the earth bring forth” are (tadeshe haaretz), which, in accordance with the obvious sense in Joel, would be bet- ter rendered “ Let thé earth shoot out.” From this meaning of the verb, then, the noun would signify the springing or shooting plant, and as used here in contradistinction to both herbs and trees bearing seeds, it is surely not recommending any forced interpretation to sug- gest that it is meant to express that class of vegetables, which all botanists recognise as being naturally distinguished by the obscurity of their means of reproduction. It tends to support this interpretation, that the Hebrew has a dif- ferent term for grass, the common food of cattle (chatzir), which the lexicographers have shewn is derived from its tubular structure. Thus, in Job xl. 15, we have “ he eateth grass (chatzir) as an ox ;” and, Psalm civ. 14, “He causeth grass (chatzir) to grow for the cattle.” In several passages besides this of Genesis, we find deshe con- tradistinguished from both oesed and chatzir, as in Deuteronomy xxx. 2. “As the small rain upon the tender herb (deshe), and as. the showers upon the grass (oeseb);” and Psalm xxxvii. 2, ‘ They shall soon be cut down like the grass (chatzir), and wither like the green herb (deshe);” and 2d Kings xix. 26, “ They were as the herb (oeseb) of the field, as the green herb (deshe), as the grass (chatzir) on the house tops.” ‘These quotations shew the want of uniformity with which the English translators have rendered these terms, and go to support the sense we would assign to deshe. But we must not conceal that there are three passages in which © this word occurs, that might seem to imply, until closely examined, that we should not be warranted to restrict the sense of it in the manner proposed. One is in the 23d Psalm, “The Lord is my shepherd, I shall not want. He maketh me to lie down in the pastures of tender grass* (deshe).” On this we have to observe, that the word rendered here in the pastures, has been rendered by the Vulgate, in various places where it occurs, and by the Septuagint in some instances, desirable or beautiful places, and their aceuracy * The ee translation, which is the literal one- Vout. XXV.—No. 5 34 The discoveries of Geology in doing this seems confirmed by the circumstance, that the Hebrew has another term for pasture ; and if this interpretation of that word _ be admitted, then deshe might signify here plants rather fitted for lying down on, as the mosses and ferns, than for pasture, which would make out a consistent image expressed in this clause or sen- tence, in opposition to the one derived from the abundance of pasture, which is evidently already sufficiently completed in the terms, “ The Lord is my shepherd, I shall not want.” ‘This passage, then, when ~ rightly understood, rather serves to confirm the meaning which we have suggested for deshe. Another passage is Job vi. 5, “ Doth the wild ass bray when he hath grass (deshe), or loweth the ox over his fodder?” but no stress can be laid upon this, when we. consider that both the ass and the horse eat, of choice, various species of ferns and equiseta, a fact which it is not unreasonable to suppose might be known to the author of a book which contains so much accurate and interesting natural history as this of Job. The plants, whatever they might be, which formed a supply for the wild ass, are at least ob- viously set in contradistinction to those which formed the fodder of the ox. The third passage is Jeremiah 1. 11, “because ye are grown fat as the heifer at grass (deshe).” But there is in a great number of manuscripts a various reading for deshe here, by which the meaning becomes, “ ye are grown fat, like a heifer thrashing, or treading, out the corn;” and several circumstances shew the latter reading to be the more probably correct one. _ It remains, then, very highly probable, upon the whole, that deshe, in the 11th and 12th verses, is intended to express the cryptogamous In our observations on the terms employed in the history of the creation of the animals, we shall arrive at some sp cae conclu- sions that are more absolutely certain. The first thing that we would observe in regard to this, is, that there are two distinct words, of very: different origin, which the English translators have rendered, promiscuously, creeping creatures or thing, and also moving creatures, following, no doubt, the authority of the Septuagint, which has given épxsr« for both; thus occasioning a great confusion instead of a clear and perspicuous ener of creations exhibited in the Hebrew text. The first of these words is sheretz, as in verse 20th, in the history of the fifth day’s work, “God said, Let the waters bring forth abundantly: the moving creature (sheretz),” consistent with the Mosaic History. 35 in the margin the creeping creature. This word is froma verb, which signifies to bring forth or to increase, or to multiply abundant- ly, being the very verb which is rendered bring forth abundantly in the 20th verse, ‘ Let the waters bring forth abundantly,” (is heretzu hamaim). We find the verb obviously having this meaning in other passages, of which we shall quote examples: Gen. viii. 17, That they may breed abundantly (vesharetzu) in the earth, and be fruitful: and multiply in the earth ;” Exod. i. 7, And the children of Israel were fruitful and increased abundantly (vaisheretzu), and multiplied, and waxed exceeding mighty, and the land was filled with them ;” Exod. viii. 3, “And the river shall bring forth frogs abundantly (vesharatz), * * * and the frogs shall hemes both on thee and on my people, and upon all thy servants.” From all this it appears that the proper translation of the noun ‘sheretz is not the creeping but the rapidly multiplying creature. The creatures expressed by this noun were part of those which were created during the fifth epoch. The other word translated creeping thing is (remes), and the creatures expressed by the noun were created during the sixth epoch. ‘We shail afterwards ae that it has a ony different meaning from sheretz. In the history of the &fih day’ s work the translators have render- ed the Hebrew word (oph), by fowl. This limits its meaning so as to include only the birds. But the term includes also the winged insects, as is evident from Leviticus xi. 20, “ All fowls (haoph) that _ creep, going upon four.”—The proper translation of the term is not fowl but flying thing, including the tribes of all kinds that can raise themselves up into the air; as is indeed rendered obvious by the expression in the 2ist verse of the 1st chapter of Genesis itself (cal oph canaph), ‘“ every flying thing that hath wings.” In the 21st verse it is said, “‘ God created (hathananim hagedolim),” which Hebrew words, our translators, following the Septuagint, which has given for them sa xnrn ra psyadn, have rendered great whales. We have abundant resources to shew that this translation is erroneous. In fact, neither the Greek nor the English translators have been consistent with themselves in translating the Hebrew word (than) or (thanim), for it occurs in both these forms. We find them in other places translating it severally by the term dpaxwv, and dragon. Jt would be tedious to quote the passages where they have thus varied from themselves. We shall refer to Ezekiel xxix. 3. for the latter sense, 36 The discoveries of Geology Tam against thee Pharaoh, King of Egypt, the great dragon (hath- anim hagadol) that lieth in the ‘midst of his rivers,” where the Septuagint has sov dpaxovra cov peyov. The figure in this passage is evidently borrowed from the crocodile of the Nile, and this circum- stance of itself would shew that dragon, in place of whale, would be a better translation in Genesis. But (thanin) has a still more comprehensive meaning. We find two words formed from it, one of — which (Leviathan) is the specific name of the crocodile, as is obvi- ous from the descriptions of Job chap. xli. and of Isaiah chap. xxvii. 1, in which last passage (thanin) is also used,—and the other (Pethan) is the specific name of some serpent, as is obvious from the refer- ence to its poison, in Job xx. 14, and Deuteronomy xxxii. 33. In this last passage we also find poison ascribed to the thanin;' “ Their wine is the poison of dragons (thaninim), and the cruel venom of asps (pethanim) ;” so that here it is evidently meant to express a serpent, as in Ezekiel and Isaiah, as we have seen above, it — one of the lacertine species. These references, which we could hing greatly emmtoniied were it necessary, are sufficient to prove that (than) or (thanin) was a sort of generic, or rather classical, name, to designate the serpent and lizard tribes; and that instead of great whales in the 21st verse, the trans- lators should have given the words great reptiles.* The result of our criticism is, that the work of the fifth epoch, as described in Genesis, was the creation of the inhabitants of the waters; of the birds, winged insects, and reptiles 5 3 in fact, of the oviparous races named in detail, with some omissions which are to be accounted for by the uniformly condensed and brief form of the whole narration. We proceed to the work of the sixth epoch, which concluded with the creation of man In the English indoalatitin we find creeping things again innluiflad among the beings which were created during this period, and these English terms, in their most commonly received acceptation, imply some of the insect or reptile tribes. We have seen that the Sep- tuagint countenances the interpretation creeping things; but the * Their is only one passage in which (than) means, with certainty, any thing else than a serpent or reptile, which is Lamentations iv. 3, where probably a seal is meant; but the passage is highly poetical, and no authority can be given to it to supersede the uniform meaning of the term in all the earlier writers, which we have tablished | in the text consistent with the Mosaic History. 37 Hebrew term (remes) does not. This is derived from a verb which signifies to move, and which is so far from being limited in its appli- cation to the insects or the reptiles, that, in Psalm civ. 20, 21, we find it applied to the beast of the forest and the young lions: ‘Thou makest darkness and it is night, wherein all the beasts of the forest do creep (tiremos). The young lions roar after their prey.” In the 24th and 25th verses, (remes) is grouped with cattle (behemach), and beast of the earth (haith haaretz). Proofs are abundant, and too tedious to be all referred to, that by (behemah) the Hebrews gener- ally expressed the larger herbivorous animals, and by (haith haaretz) the larger beasts of prey. (For the former see Genesis xxxiv. 23, and for the latter Leviticus xxvi. 22). Thus we find races of mam- malia expressed by these terms, and to comprehend the whole class we must understand (remes) as referring to its other tribes. It is at least no race of insects that can be meant by the term, for, in point of fact, where any of these are obviously meant in other Hebrew pas- sages, either the name (sheretz) is given to them as in Leviticus xi. 42, “Whatsoever doth multiply feet among all creeping things,” (hasheretz), or the name (oph), as we have already seen. It is true that remes is applied to the oviparous tribes, but not as a noun or name, but as a verb to express their motion, just as in some passages above quoted, we have seen sheretz _— as a verb, but not a name to mammalia. Previously to setting down the following table of cnignbennes be- tween the first chapter of Genesis and the results of geological obser- vation, it is necessary to make a remark on one passage in Hum- boldt’s table of geological formations, which possesses a classical celebrity over Europe. In that table, following an earlier authority, he has placed the formations of transition, in the limestones of which are found several species of shells, intermediately between the prim- itive formations and those containing bituminous coal; and his table would thus indicate that an animal creation had preceded any vege- table one. We shall not need to discuss the question, whether the formations, named transition, are considered in a right point of view, when they are placed between the primitive and pit-coal strata, since it is sufficient for our present purpose to remark, that several obser- vations, among which we may particularly refer to those of Thomas ‘Weaver, Esq., F.R.S., on the geological relations of the south of Ireland, have proved that the anthracite or glance coal of the tran- sition formations, with some of its accompanying strata, are full of 38 The discoveries of Geology impressions of various plants; so that in the transition strata a vege- table creation is discovered as well as an animal. In the following table we have taken the geological facts from va- rious au ities. count of their brevity. passages quoted, are selected chiefly on ac- In the quotation from and reference to Gen- esis, the events on which geology can throw no certain light are in s. Table of coincidences between the Order of Events as described in _ Genesis, and that unfolded by Gological Investigation. Discovered by Geology. | fn Genesis. r Gen. 1, 1,2. In Ba beginning created the and the rth. And the earth was with- out form and — and darkness} 1 was upon the face of a deep; ‘ Gehan ved up- on the face of the wal 5. Creation of light. bak Se sie fia rs. ti Appeneenenof the land. It is impossible to deny, that the waters of ole oe have capo 34 _ for a long ti pase covered those mi: whic Ww constitute oi ur highest moun: nntains did not Earth, Pag and, further, that these waters, d a fot te Tog ga sect, 11, 12, 13. Creation of shooting Plants, _ of seed-bearing herbs} 3 ‘Many observ most perfect developed class, the Dico- rye srasty appear in the period of the peice td sti wand the iret traces;of thent Cate the oldest strata ot oor oe Pl Be formation ; Rede they uninterrupted] uccessive form: “% — ‘the Ancient Fiore Of thel or James oma pagent 14 to 19. Sun, moon i stars made to be for eth sos and for and for 20. Creation ofthe inhabitants biesicaraidid coun ot riviak a rs 21. The creation of great rep- tiles. rhs Sine s laine not to acknowlege as a certain tru truth, 24, 25. Creation of the mam-| alia, 7 It will be im the number, the largeness, and od Pick! of the aioe — ited the seas or _ crete “oe of “namin co oe = ge — only wise e up to the nd above the coarse — a "which, is above the chalk."—Cuvier’s Thane ann 26, 27. Creation of man. an remains among extraneous fossils. — Cuvier’ alrnon, sect. 32. : But found covered with mud in caves of Bi —Journal. Noah 4200 years ago. Genesis VII. The flood = 9} back than five or six thousand ry, 32, 33, 34, 35. and Bucklan i ago,— Cuvier’s Theo- ’s Relig. Diluv. ld, in the bones a dtp a — whose position may be held intermediate between the oviparous and consistent with the Mosaic History. 39 In the above table, we have not taken advantage of the distinction which, we conceive, we have gone far to prove, is expressed in the Hebrew text between the cryptogamous and the other classes of plants, but have set down the whole vegetable kingdom as forming only one element in the table. We shall also allow that the 4th, 5th, and 6th Nos. may be liable to be interchanged among themselves, in respect of place, and shall hinge no argument upon them, farther than what arises from the circumstance that they are all placed in one group. Yet, after these abatements from the number of par- ticulars, the coincidences here shown between the order of the epochs of creation assigned in Genesis, and that discovered by geology, are calculated to excite the deepest attention. Human science, in the probability of chances, as illustrated by La Place, has put us in pos- session of an instrument for estimating their value; and we feel am- ply entitled to take advantage of it for that purpose, for no case could well be pointed out, where it would be more correctly applicable than in this, where the coincidences assume a definitely successive numer- ical form. We are entitled to adopt even the very language of La Place, and to say, “ By subjecting the probability of these coinci- dences to computation, it is found that there 3 is more than sixty thou- sand to #} ee f 4 teen f in ne It is thus, ‘then, that the discoveries of geology, when more ma~ tured instead of throwing suspicion on the truths of revelation, as the first steps in them led some persons to maintain, have furnished the most overpowering evidence in behalf of one branch of these truths. The result of these discoveries has been in this respect similar to those of the Chinese and Egyptian histories, and the Indian astrono- my, but much more striking. Eminent men had pledged their fame in setting up these histories, and that astronomy, in opposition to the chronology of Genesis; but further and more careful inquiry into their true characters, jucentied that, when rightly understood, they only tend to confirm it. We are not afraid that we shall have here quoted iui us the words of Bacon, “Tanto magis hec vanitas inhibenda venit, et co- ercenda, quia ex divinorum et humanorum, male sana admixtione, non solum educitur, philosophia phantastica, sed etiam religio hereti- ca.” We have only endeavored to illustrate and point out the con- sequences of the statement of Baron Cuvier, that, the order which * Syst. du Meith, book v, chap. 6. 40 The discoveries of Geology, &c. the cosmogony of Moses assigns to the different epochs of creation, is precisely the same as that which has been deduced from geologi- cal considerations.” We have been guilty of no improper mixing up of divine and human things. We have examined the meaning of the terms in the first chapter of Genesis, in consistency with the ac- knowledged rules of criticism, and only by the light contained within itself, or that thrown upon it by the other books, in the same lan- guage with which it is associated. ‘The human science we have not extracted from any part of the Holy Scriptures; we have taken it simply as we find it in the works of eminent geologists. As the latter is not a philosophia-phantastica, but a deeply interesting science, constructed by that method of careful observation and cautious in- duction, which Bacon was himself the first to recommend; so nei- ther can the sense of the Scriptures present to us a religio heretica. If our science, thus constructed, and our religion speak so ue, the same language, as we have seen they do on one important poin what else in the strictest application of Bacon’s philosophy, can é deduce from the circumstance, but that both are certainly true? It does not come under our present subject to discuss the histori- cal and moral evidences of the divine revelation of the Scriptures ; but both are so full, even to everflowing, and impose upon us so many insuperable difficulties, in the way of our being able to account for the quality and consistency of these remarkable books, excepting on the ground which has been all along assumed by themselves, that they are of more than human origin, that in estimating the accuracy of any part of the matters contained in them, the fastidiousness of human science appears to be carried to an unreasonable extent, not to take these evidences into calculation. In this country, where for a long period we have had the scriptures in our hands as a popular book, they among us who have been the most eminent for human learning and science, and whose fame has been in every view the most unsullied, have been so convinced by the force of these evi- dences, that they have in general been the most strenuous defenders of revelation. Will not human science, then, condescend to borrow some light, to direct the steps of its own inquiries, from a record, the accuracy of which it has itself proved, and which is supported by other proofs of the highest order? or, what should we say to the illustrator of the relics of Pompeii and Herculaneum, who should reject the light thrown on them by the letters of Pliny, authenticated as these are Vitality of Toads, &c. 41 by the existing remains of the buried cities, as well as the historical evidence which is proper to themselves? Among the questions which geology is at present attempting to solve, is that of a different temperature of some regions of the earth ata remote age. The discoveries of Pallas and Adams, of a rhi- noceros and elephant in Siberia, having coverings of hair fit to pro- tect them from the cold of the northern regions, would seem to de- cide the question, so far at least as to show, that there has been no change of temperature since the creation of animals. But the ques- tion does not seem yet so satisfactorily answered, so far back as-to the age of the creation of vegetables. Does not the statement in Genesis, that the establishment of our present days and seasons was intermediate between the creation of vegetables and that of animals, give us a clew to direct our path in the inquiry? Art. IV.—On the Vitality of Toads, &c. enclosed in firm mate- rials ; by the Hon. Wa. A. Tompson, of Thompson, N.Y. Havine observed in Vol. xx, No. 2, of the Journal of Science, an account of some experiments made by Professor Buckland of Oxford, on the long continued vitality of toads; and having reflected on these experiments, and their results, ‘eel with the conclusions drawn from them, I have been Jed to doubt whether the object which Dr. Buckland had in view, could be obtained in the manner and un- der the circumstances in which his trials were made. The reptiles were enclosed in two different pieces of stone; in the one case, in cells twelve inches deep and five in diameter, avi: in the other, the same number of toads were enclosed in sandstone, in cells of smaller dimensions. It appears, that at the end of a year or more, those in the smaller cells were all dead, while most of those in the sandstone were alive, although much diminished in weight. After the cells were taken up and examined, the surviving toads were enclosed again until the end of another year; they were then taken up, and all found dead. At the same time that the other toads were enclo- -sed in the stone, four others were shut up in three holes cut in the trunk of an apple tree, five inches deep and three in diameter, and the holes were carefully closed With plugs of wood, so as to be ap- parently tight; at the end of a year they were all found dead. Vou. XXV.—No. 1. 6 42 Vitality of Toads, &c. Upon a review of these facts, it does not appear surprising, that these reptiles should, all or most of them, be found dead at the expi- ration of one or two years, and I doubt whether these experiments will be regarded as satisfactory. The very circumstances of these trials appear to admit the persistent vitality of these animals; for if there was any doubt as to the great length of time, that the princi- ple of life remains unextinguished in these reptiles, Dr. Buckland would not have made the experiments. In this ararig toads and frogs have been found in three differeit situation 1. Toads have been frequently found in sinidatone of the second- ary formation, and in secondary limestone. 2. In digging wells, where the workmen have come to beds - clay twelve or fifteen feet below the surface of the groun 3. In the trunks of trees, which were appereny closed so as to be impervious to the air. In the first place, the toads that have wei found in the sandstone and limestone, were enclosed in cells just large enough to contain their bédies; and from every appearance, must have remained in that situation ever since the formation of the surrounding sandstone or limestone, in the water under which they appear to have been deposited. The cells that enclose these ‘reptiles were evidendy accommo- dated to their shape and size, and of course, the materials of which they are composed were then in a plastic or yielding condition, so as to suit the form of any body that might become enclosed in them. Now it is obvious, that if a living healthy toad or other reptile were enclosed in a cell of the size in which they are usually found, it would not live one half of the time that those did which were im- mured by Prof. Buckland ; for food and air are absolutely necessa- ry to every animal that has the use of its natural organs. But it is a well known fact, that toads, frogs, and other reptiles, have remained in a torpid state for many years, without any signs of life, and have revived, on being exposed to a higher temperature, with access of air. It is thus proved that respiration and the circu- lation of the blood are not necessary to the vitality of the cold blood- ed animals, during their hybernation; it appears, also, that the food taken into the stomach remains, unaltered and undigested, even at the end of three or four years, the same as if it had not been in the stomach more than a minute, provided, however, that the torpidity Vitality of Toads, &c. 43 of these hybernating animals remains the same, and that they con- tinue in the same low degree of temperature. We have a right to suppose, that from the earliest formation of our globe, there has been a succession of seasons of heat and cold, of tides, &c. as now; and that the constitution of animals has always been regulated by the same principles as at present; if, therefore, any of these reptiles,-during a state of torpidity, should be imbedded in sand or calcareous matter, we know of no reason why their vitality should not continue for thousands of years. If food, respiration, and the circulation of the blood, are not necessary for the continu- ance of the vitality of these reptiles, the lapse of a thousand years is the same to them as that of one day. A free circulation of air, and a higher temperature, are both equally necessary for the revives- cence of these torpid animals. We have no account of the toad and other reptiles being found enclosed in sandstone or marble, in Europe or America, except in latitudes where the cold ren- ders these reptiles torpid; it therefore appears probable that they might be enclosed in the substance when it was soft, and the reptiles in a torpid state. If it is objected that the animals should have been quickened into life by the annual return of a higher temperature, it may be answered, that a rock at the depth of fifteen or twenty feet remains at a much lower temperature than the incumbent air, and _ there appears great reason to doubt, whether, if a reptile should be enclosed in a rock, at the depth of fifteen or twenty feet, without a free circulation of air, it would become quickened. Frogs and toads at the south part of Hudson’s Bay, and in Canada, have remained frozen and torpid for years, and afterwards revived. Toads, in this latitude, remain torpid from the first of November until the first of May; in the summer, they usually burrow about eight or ten inches under the ground, or under some stone at a less ‘depth; in the winter they continue in a torpid state, and remain so even until May, at which time the small insects begin to émigrate from their winter quarters, to furnish them with food. In this climate, the earth is usually frozen during the winter sea- son, from fifteen to eighteen inches deep, and every thing ensloge by it appears to be congealed and lifeless. The hybernating warm blooded animals, such as the marmot, hedge-hog, pole-cat and bat, although they remain torpid during the cold season, yet the cold operates very differently on them, from what 44 Vitality of Toads, &c. it does on the cold blooded animals, in which the circulation of the blood can be carried on, independently of the action of the lungs. When the temperature of the air sinks below 50° Fahr. the cold blooded animals begin to lose their sensibility; when reduced to 40° they become torpid, and if continued in that temperature they might remain unchanged for any length of — as repeated experi- ments seem sufficiently to prove. As respects the toads and frogs, that, in sei wells, have been found in the clay, at the depth of twelve or fifteen feet, I see no reason to think that they may not have lain there in a torpid state ever since the deluge, as most of the materials above the solid rock strata were, at that time, removed by the violent action of the water, and these frogs and toads might have been inclosed at that time with the materials that were every where in motion; and if they were not deposited in the earth at that time, but have been since covered deep in the earth by some violent irruption of the waters, so as to deprive them of air and food, their case will still be similar, for, ob- viously, at the depth of fifteen feet there could be no supply of food or air, and yet when taken out of the clay, they have soon become ~ quickened so as to move; itis therefore possible that these toads and frogs may have remained in this situation many years, or even ages,—indeed, for a period incomparably longer than any person will attribute to the life of these reptiles. As to the toads found enclosed in the trunks of trees, it is a case much more within our comprehension ; there is no direct necessity for supposing a very long continued vitality in them; it is not ‘sur- prising that a toad, having crept into a hollow place in the trunk of. a tree, should att be able to get out of his confinement, and that the place should, in the course of three or four years, become closed up, in the natural process of vegetation; and it is easy to admit that there might be some crevice in the wood, through which in- sects might enter and supply the animal with food. Again, as it is well known that our trees that are not more than two feet in diame- ter, are not unfrequently frozen completely through in winter, and the toads might thus become so torpid, that, having no free circu- lation of air, their torpidity might continue until they were extri- cated from their confinement. That the lives of these reptiles, when supplied with food and air, in the ordinary way, do not usu- ally continue beyond twelve or fifteen years, we have every reason Vitality of Toads, &c. 45 to believe,* when we consider their diminutive size, and that they attain maturity in two or three years; whereas, if we look at man— the number of years before he arrives at maturity—the long con- tinued labor he is capable of sustaining, and the great effect which the mind has upon the body, so that, whether from physical or men- tal causes, his life is occasionally protracted to one hundred years or more; and if we contemplate particularly the large size of the elephant, the great number of years requisite to enable him to ac- quire his full growth, and finally his maturity of two-hundred years or more,—from all these circumstances we must be led to suppose, that the reptiles that have been found immured in sandstone and mar- le must have remained in that situation longer than we can reasona- bly attribute to the life of reptiles of any kind, and that the concre- tions (as some have supposed) that have assisted to enclose them, would be longer in forming than can be allowed for the usual term of their natural lives. Professor Buckland concludes, from his experiments, that when the natural organs of the animal are in con- tinual action, the vitality of the toad has no extraordinary continu- ance, and that therefore life most terminate in a short time; but we are, on the contrary, led to believe that the vitality of the tip may be continued to an interminable length of time, provided the animal has become torpid by cold, so as to stop respiration and the circula- lation of the blood, and provided he remain at a low temperature, and without a free circulation of air, adapted to produce revivescence. We may presume that the internal parts of the rock strata from which cold springs issue, are of about the same temperature as the water that issues from them; it may therefore be admitted as proba- ble, that the toad, if enclosed in a rock, would not become quickened until after that rock has become warmer than the water that issues from it in summer; and that, under ordinary circumstances, the toad does not issue from his torpid state in the spring, until after the air becomes warmer than the spring water that issues from the cong in summer. That in every instance where toads are found immured in stone, there should be a crevice or aperture in the rock, to admit air and insects for food to the pasonee and that it has escaped the notice and * See Bakewell’s Sieibegs: page 21, note, first American edition, for a fact which gives a term of at least twenty five years to a toad imprisoned under the hollow of the bottom of a wine bottle, where he was annually inspected, and then was, through carelessness, permitted to make his escape —Ed. 46 Vitality of Toads, &c. observation of the inquisitive observer, is contrary to all probability, especially as the occurrence has always excited the most intense cu- riosity, and more particularly as the opening must have been origin- ally large enough to admit the body of the reptile. I have been led to make the foregoing reflections, partly, | from ob- serving the custom of taking the large pike from frozen ponds and lakes in this country, and carrying them, in a frozen state, into other ponds, for the sake of propagating their species, where they appear to revive and to suffer no damage, except the loss of some of the scales; likewise, by seeing snakes that have apparently been frozen stiff, so that three or Tour inches of the tail have been broken off, like an icicle, and yet the snakes have revived, on peeing exposed to the warm air. Toads are often ploughed up, early in the spring, when no signs of life appear, until after being exposed for some time to the warm air; these facts appear to bear on the case in hand, and I might add a number more of a similar character that have fallen under my obser- vation. No person is more willing to pay homage to the distinguished char- acter of Professor Buckland than myself, or has a more exalted opin- ion of the great service he has done to science; but I cannot forbear (notwithstanding his deserved celebrity) to think that his experiments are very inadequate to settle the question of the long continued vi- tality of reptiles found in the different rock strata. I was in hopes that some more able pen than mine would have discussed this ‘subject i in the Journal of Science, but as I find it is not yet noticed, I have ventured to give you a sketch of my ideas on this subject. P.S. Not long since, as a number of laborers were digging a well in this town, and after penetrating five or six feet through the gravel, they came to the hard pan, and entering it about five feet more, they found a live toad about two thirds the size of a full grown toad. It was enclosed in a cell somewhat larger than the animal, but suited, in every way, to his shape. The discovery natu- rally occasioned much surprise, and they examined the surrounding materials and endeavored to put them into place,. but they were so broken by the pick-axe, that they found it impossible to put them correctly together. ‘The toad, on being exposed to the air, soon began to move, but died within the space of twenty or thirty minutes afterwards. Causes of Water Spouts. 47 I have to remark that this well is situated on elevated ground, and that the hard pan, common in the United States, is eomposed of clay and gravel, cemented with iron, and is so firm that it cannot be bro- ken up without a pick-axe and crow-bar, which are the implements commonly used by laborers in digging wells and cellars. It is to be ebserved, also, that the hard pan is free from fissures and seams, and equally impervious to air or water as the sandstone of the coun- try. This reptile, beyond all doubt, was excluded from air and the means of acquiring food; below the effects of the warmth of the sun in summer, and iyalove; also, that of the rain water that sinks into the earth, whereby it is warmed. It appears to me that this instance furnishes a case, that is directly opposed to the inferences drawn by Prof. Buckland. In Te of any direct evidence on the subject, he raises a presumption against the long continued vitality of toads; whereas, in all the accounts fur- nished in Europe and America, the evidence goes to prove, that the presumption he has made is opposed by well authenticated facts. * Art. V.—Experiments for illustrating the causes of Wi ater Spouts ; by Count Xavier DeMaistre.—Bib. Univer. Nov. 1832. Translated by J. Griscom. Amonc the explanations that have been given of water spouts, two only deserve attention ; one which ascribes these phenomena to elec- tricity, and another ‘ition: by imputing them to a circular motion of the air, considers them as dependent on causes purely mechanical. The celebrated Franklin adopted the latter theory ; the former was supported by Brisson and Berthollon who sustained it by all the evi- dences of which it appears susceptible. This system however does not explain the principal circumstances of the phenomenon. Electricity may furnish a pretty good account - of descending spouts ; we may conceive that clouds, strongly electric, may be attracted by the sea and descend to its surface, since they would offer no sensible resistance to the attractive force; but it is not so easy to explain how the clouds can attract and raise the water of the sea, and to determine the force which sustains in the air, a tall column of ascending fluid. Besides, water spouts have been observed when there were no apparent evidences of electricity. 48 Causes of Water Spouts. Instead of attributing the formation of water spouts to this cause, it would be more natural to suppose that electricity, when manifest- ed in their appearance, is developed by the motion of the air which occasions them. pis. But how shall we form an iden of this movement? How, from a cause of that nature, give a reason for two effects which appear oppo- sed to each other, that of descending and ascending spouts. May we not, without confining ourselves to conjectures without proof, sub- ject the phenomena to a certain extent, to experiment, and judge from analogy, of the nature of the movement which takes place in great whirlwinds, by that which we may Serve: in circular move- ments in other fluids, of small dimensions. pposition that the motion of air alone in hisbarads is suflicier © produce water spouts, the same motion in liquids ought to produce analogous effects, and if a whirling motion be excited in a light liquid placed on a heavier one, the latter ought to ascend in a spout into the former, as is the case in the natural phenomenon : this reasoning led me to the following experiments. Fig. 1. Fig. 2. First Experiment.—Into a cylindrical vessel ten inches high and four in diameter I poured water to the depth of two inches and then filled up the vessel with very transparent poppy oil. At the surface of the oil I adjusted a little mill two inches high and an inch and a half wide, the axis being vertical and the branches, four in number, Causes of Water Spouts. 49 being entirely immersed in the liquid. 1 then caused the mill to re- volve about twice in a second, and after continuing the motion for a minute, the water at the bottom began to whirl round and to rise a little in a conical form, and soon after, from the summit of the little cone a fine column of water sprung up all of a — until it got into the vanes of the mill. (Fig. 1.) This little water spout rising through the oil, was about two lines in diameter and resembled a tube of flexible glass; the water which it brought up into-the mill was driven to the circumference of the whirl and descended afterwards in small drops with a narrow screw motion to the bottom, but so slowly that it was quite practicable to cause all the water to rise and mingle with the oil. As the latter liquid easily loses its transparency by its mixture with the water and as it was nevertheless necessary to examine the motion of the whirl in all its parts, I instituted the following experiment. Second Experiment.—l filled with pure water another vessel two feet high and nine inches in diameter, and threw into it an ounce of copal, coarsely pulverised ; this substance having a specific gravity very little superior to that of water, remains a long time suspended, and yields to the slightest motion of the fluid which it renders visible. I adjusted the mill as in the last ex When I commenced the experiment the coarser pieces of copal formed a layer at the bottom and the finer remained suspended. At the first turn of the mill, those in the direction of the axis ascended rapidly into the vanes, and those near the circumference took a spi- ral movement which carried them toward the bottom of the vessel. This whirling was propagated from layer to layer by means of these two motions, and when it had reached the particles at the bottom they rose, like the water in the first experiment but in a much thick- er column, being from four to six lines in diameter, and ascended into the vanes of the mill, thus rendering the whirling spout very dis- tinctly obvious. To be able to follow a single isolated particle. throughout its march, I threw in a few fragments of gum lac, which were easily - distinguished by their red color. They were seen ascending rapid- ly in the center in the direction of a very elongated helix ; the mill threw them to various distances according to. their sizes and drove them in narrow Spirals to the bottom, where they were brought again to the center to renew the same sport. Vor. XXV.—No. 1. 7 -—. Causes of Water Spouts. It is very remarkable that the little central column had a rotatory movement more rapid than the mill which produced it. The larger fragments of copal, as also drowned flies, were raised with difficul- ty and ascended more slowly, following a less elongated helix, which brought them within a short distance of the central column, around which they revolved like satellites. When the spout had raised all the copal sitet’ in the center of the bed at the bottom, the particles were observed to detach them- selves by degrees from the circle, pass to the center to form the spout and thus the process went on until the bottom was quite cleared and the whole mass was in motion. In stopping the mill at this point, all the powder became — in the center in the form of a regu- lar cone. I varied the experiment by substituting smalt or ihe blue glass of — cobalt of great fineness, and with the same result; the spout which was formed had the appearance of a blue silk serine and was thinner by half than that of the copal. The formation of the spout depends less upon the specifi ight- ness of the powder than its fineness ; with an equal movement, the pulverized smalt was raised more easily than the coarser copal. The diameter of the spout ‘depends also upon the degree of coarseness of the particles of dust which form it, the blue glass produced a spout of three lines in diameter very regular, whilst in the same vessel and with the same mill, fine sand formed a spout an inch and a half in diameter ; and what is very remarkable the last was interiorly empty and had the form of a tube, opaque on the borders, and transparent in the middle: in slackening and hastening by turns the movement, we see as it were clouds of very fine sand in agitation in the interior ; in mixing this sand with pulverized smalt we distinguish two spouts one within the other, the exterior formed by a tube of sand and the interior by a column of blue glass less regular. The cause of these various movements may be easily explained, if we observe that when the whirlwind is found on the surface of a li- quid, the centrifugal force drives it toward the circumference and oc- casions a depression at the center; the equilibrium thus destroyed cannot reestablish itself but by the axis of the whirl, which is not sub- ject to the centrifugal force : the liquid then rises in this part, press- ed by the lateral columns which are higher, and being in its turn in- cessantly driven to the circumference, a constantly ascending current is established in the axis of the whirlwind. Causes .of Water Spouts. 51 it may then be regarded as a certain fact that an ascending cur- rent takes place along the axis of all whirlwinds, which are formed on the surface of liquids. But this current would become descending if the whirl, instead of forming itself on the’surface of the liquid, was excited at the bottom of the vessel, because in this case, the fluid driven by the centrifu- gal force could be replaced only at the superior extremity of the axis of the whirl; the following experiment will demonstrate this truth. Third Eeiisedd=i adjusted the mill at the bottom of the ves- sel of water (Fig. 2.) and turned it by a mechanism which left it to act freely, as an inspection of the figure will show. There was soon formed a depression at the center of the surface of the water of the shape of a small funnel; and continuing the movements, the apex of the funnel or inverted cone of air which filled.it, was perceived to extend itself by degrees, and approach the mill: bubbles of air were separated from this point, which descended rapidly to the bottom of the vessel; and at length when the rotary movement had acquired the ordinary velocity, a regular column of air extended throughout the axis and entered among the vanes of the mill occasioning a regu- lar whistling sound. This whirlwind was pointed below like a spindle, and the air di- vided into bubbles escaped from the mill and rose rapidly along the sides of the vessel. Light bodies, placed on the surface of the wa- ter, such as cork, and small bits of paper, after revolving within the gulf, were soon carried down to the bottom, whirling round with ra- pidity, as they descend, until they reach the mill, whence they rise along the sides. By regulating the movements, they may be retained at different depths as long as may be desired. * This experiment explains an extraordinary phenomenon which regularly occurs on the coast of Norway. ‘ When the tide is ri- sing,” says Mr. De Buch, “the ebb and flow are compressed within narrow passages; the water turns in whirlpools the violence of which draws to the bottom boats which approach them; the unfortunate fishermen cling to their boats. Sometimes the whirlpool throws to a great distance both men and boats, but often they are swallowed up.’ * i * Travels in Norway and Lapland, by M. De Buch. 52 Causes of Water Spouts. This whirlpool, known in the country by the name of the gulf of Soltenstroem is a true spout of air in water, of which the foregoing experiment is a perfect representation on a small scale: and it may be considered as demonstrated that the gulf is produced by a whirl- pool formed at the bottom of a narrow and deep canal in which the tide waters are compressed, while the surface is motionless; for in fact whatever rapidity may be given to a whirl at the surface of wa- ter, the depression at the center will not increase in proportion to the velocity, because the ascending central current continually replaces the fluid expelled to the circumference; but, when the rotation is given to the water at the bottom, the replacement can take effect only at the upper part of the axis, and of course the descending current - must form a gulf at the surface. On the same principle may be explained the fact that certain turns in rivers, are dangerous to swimmers, for though no actual whirlpool may be found at the surface, it is possible that a whirl at the bottom may occasion a descending current not sufficient to produce a sensible de- pression at the surface, yet rapid enough to affect the swimmer, whose feet are near the center of activity. . If in the last experiment the surface of the water be covered with oil, the specific gravity of which being but little less, the descending current may be produced by a much slower rotation. When it is first fairly formed, the surface of the oil preserves its level. ‘The water: precipitated at the centre draws in the thin stratum of oil which it touches, and to which it adheres with a force not inconsiderable. hen the surface of the oil begins to circulate, a depression is produced, and a whirl of air is formed in the center which, however, never descends to the bottom, whence it mes be inferred that air has . less adherence to oil than to water. From the preceding facts, it is easy to perceive what must be the result when instead of being produced on the surface of the water, or at the bottom of the vessel, the whirl is found in the centre of the liquid column. ‘Two opposite currents are then formed, one ascend- ing and the other descending, which are carried along the axis to the centre of the primitive whirl. Fourth Experiment.—1 placed diagonally in the cael a Sal glass rod, with the inferior end drawn to a point, and fastened it into a groove fixed to the circumference at the bottom ; the other end was supported on the opposite edge of the vessel. Causes of Water Spouts. 53 I had attached to the middle of the rod a parallelogram of varnish- ed pasteboard. (Fig. 3 The vessel was filled with water to within two inches of the top. I placed at the bottom, a layer of blue glass, and on the water a layer of oil. ‘The pasteboard, which was to form the whirl, was thus situated obliquely in the middle of the water, at an equal distance from the powder and the oil. I then turned the rod at the rate of about twice in a second, and it was not long before two spouts were formed ; one . ascending from the blue glass, the other descending from the oil, and uniting at the middle of the axis of the mill. From the facts which have just been described, we see that the same mechanism, that is to say, the circular movement of a liquid, can alone produce ascending or descending spouts separately, or si- multaneously, following the position of the whirl; the spout will be ascending if it is excited on the surface ; it will be descending, if it is formed at the bottom of the vessel ; and finally, a single whirl will pro- duce an ascending spout, and another descending, if it is placed at the centre of the liquid column. It is impossible not to see a striking analogy between the result of _ the experiments which have just been described, and the grand natu- ral phenomena; in comparing them in the. particular circumstances which accompany them, this analogy becomes evident, and must produce conviction. It results from the observations of travellers, that spouts always take place in a calm, or at most when only a light breeze is stirring, and that they are never observed during a great storm, which would seem at first more likely to produce them. The reason is, that the shock of winds, which produces the primitive whirl is always very far from the point where the spout begins to appear. When we wish to raise a spout from the bottom of the vessel, we create a whirl at the surface of the liquid, and when we wish the spout to descend, we form a whirl at the bottom of the vessel. In the natural phenomenon, the whirl which produces the ascending spout is formed in the clouds, or near the clouds, and extends by de- grees towards the sea, favored by the inferior calm ; if a rapid hori- -zontal wind existed on the surface of the sea, the whirl in extending towards it, would be broken and scattered by the current. When ascending water spouts have a progressive movement, the elevated region of the atmosphere, where the whirl is commenced, must neces- sarily have the same velocity as the inferior part where the spout is produced ; otherwise the latter would become oblique and would soon 54 Causes of Water Spouts. be destroyed ; from the statements that are given, these spouts are sometimes broken, and instantly assume the aspect of a broken column. ‘This arises from an increased velocity in the superior cur- rent, or in that of the inferior. The phenomenon of an ascending spout in action, may be imagin- ed as a vast column of air composed of two cylinders, one contained in the other, having a movement of rotation in the same direction, the - inside one being very small, rises, while the exterior, which is muc larger, descends. At the bottom of the column the exterior cylinder folds itself towards the centre in grazing the sea, and forms the inte- rior cylinder, like a bag turned in at.the bottom ; the rapidity of the movement of the cylinders is in inverse proportion to their mass, and in direct seco to the swiftness of the prene.y whirl which produces the phenome When the whirl is fally established, it lasts as long as the winds which produced it in the clouds. It sustains itsel/—the air on the out- side gives it no support, which explains the calm that exists at a short distance from the spout. At the moment when, from the heights cas it commenced, the whirl of invisible air, folding continually upon itself, grazes the sur- face of the sea; and drives the water from the circumference to the center, as the winds push the waves; then, it bubbles up, divides, and as it revolves, mixes itself with the air, forming a mixed spout of water and air, the weight of which is greatly inferior to a similar co- lumn of pure water. It must also be observed, that when the exterior part of the whirl reaches the sea in a spiral direction, it strikes the latter obliquely in pressing on the surface, which favors the adhesion of the two fluids, and causes the center of the air subjected to its ope- ration to rise in the form of acone. The truth of these observations is proved by the accounts given by different navigators. Dr. Mercer, saw at Antigua, three spouts ; the water was violently agitated in a circle of twenty rods, whence it was swept and carried into the air, with great rapidity and tumult. It has been constantly remarked, that when the ascending spouts rise as high as the clouds, their density augments rapidly ; they are» seen accumulating, and growing darker, until the phenomenon ends in a tremendous fall of rain. This effect cannot be attributed to the water alone which rises from the sea. An ascending spout cannot take place from the sea to the clouds, without a corresponding de- scending current, from the regions of air above the cloud, which Causes of Water Spouts. ~~ fe brings with it all the vapors that are above toward the centre of the primitive whirlwind. us, in the fourth experiment, (Fig. 3.) the descending spout of oil, and the ascending one of blue dust, mingle in the zone which passes through the centre of the mill. In ascending spouts, below the clouds, the spectator can see only half the phenomenon, as the other half passes above the clouds; by this mechanism, the lowest parts of the atmosphere and those which are elevated above the clouds, are drawn to the same point by the two opposite interior currents of the spouts ; these strata of air, charged with vapour and often with a different kind of electricity, unite, and produce the thunder and other effects which sometimes accompany water spouts. . In descending spouts, the spectator sees the entire phenomenon, because the whirl which produces it, is formed between the clouds and the sea. The water, under descending spouts, is generally seen to rise and boil, even while the aérial current isstill far from the sea ; sometimes the two spouts join and form but one; the primitive whirl is then at the point where they join; but if they remain separate, it is because neither the one nor the other reaches the primitive and invisible whirl- wind which produced them. One circumstance in the 2d experiment presents another asiariet able analogy ; it has been seen that sand produces an empty spout, into which clouds of fine sand are gradually forced ; similar observa- tions of empty spouts have been several times made by travellers, who always represent them as opaque on the borders, and transpa- rent in the middle.* Jn a description cited by Mr. Berthollon, se- * What is the force which retains the particles of sand and water in the regular circle in which they revolve as rapidly as if they had a centre of attraction? The fol- lowing explanation may, I think, be given, both as to the imitative experiment, or the natural Line enon. of the surface can issue from the circle which it traverses without be- pe repsed now the eurtace of = spon soothing curcagnoat its height, the same this ‘aitinn’ is then retained by the pressure of the lateral columns. , The replacement cannot take place in the interior of the spout except at the infe- rior end of the. axis, which is not submitted to the centrifugal force, and an equili- brium is there established, between the energies of the centrifugal force, and the weight of water withdrawn, and which determines the diameter of the spout. res 1 # ty 1 28 As ies t6 fa OK shine of have the regular and cylindrical form of the first, but rather that ofa spindle or of a cone o ing t a | 7 ds, le « ting i point +h bot ere sé, ivr, 56 Causes of Water Spouts. veral spouts appeared at their inferior extremities like tubes, through which clouds of smoke were seen to rise. According as the particles which form the spout are heavier and larger, they have a greater breadth, and are formed into a tube ; in one experiment a tube of sand was observed, containing in its interior a column of impalpable blue glass ; in the case just cited, it is proba- ble that the bottom of the spout was composed of drops of water, | and that these formed the tube, = which a thinner vapour rose in visible clouds. In the course of these experiments, in endeavoring to form spouts with sand, I remarked a circumstance which appears worthy of ms stated. When the oolanais of water which rested on the sand, was not very high, and when a circular movement was given it, not only at the center, but throughout the mass, in turning it quickly with a rod, un- til the sand which is at the bottom of the vessel, is drawn in and min- gled with the water, it settles, by deposition, at the bottom of the ves- sel in a cone as regular as if formed by the The ascending current has no longer force enough to raise the sand in a spout, though it has enough to collect it at the center. If the point of the cone is destroyed with a rod, it may be formed anew by gently circulating the water ; the grains of sand are then seen to rise from the bottom on all sides of the little conical mountain, and by degrees to reestablish the point. May we not explain by a similar cause, the formation of those little conical mountains, which are so common in Sandy, pa and in many — where oo regular the mechanism of the phenomenon is reversed; instead of drawing the water from below, the primitive whirl, which commences near the sea, draws the clouds from current, which draws them, the spout is less we by we lateral columns of air ; the centrifugal force ‘| ter, especially near the clouds, where a rep] long th e axis is more easy. Experiment 3d, Fig. 2, represented this effect very exactly, An analogous mechanism is perceived in the currents of smoke which are some- times produced by the firing ofa cannon. The circular cylinder which forms ‘ revolves with such rapidity, that when it comes in contact with the trees, it visibly agitates the foliage ; instead, however, of dispersing immediately, they retain their form for 15 or 20 seconds. In this phenomener, Oe Pepiacneees of the portions of the surface, which have a tendency to remove from centre of rotation, cannot ex- ist anywhere, the cylinder being circular and continuous ; the current citigt there- fore subsist as long as the impulse which it received on leaving the gun continues. Observations on some Experiments in Electricity. 57 form have caused them to be mistaken for ancient tombs, by suppo- sing that they were formerly the center of a vortex of water? It may be inferred from the preceding experiments and observa- tions, that the cause of water spouts is purely mechanical, and that the movement of the air alone, is sufficient to produce them; but in dis- carding electricity, as the immediate cause of the phenomenon, it does not follow that it may not be a remote cause, since it is possible that this agent assists much in the formation of whirlwinds and of winds which produce them. Art. VI.—Observations on some Experiments in Electricity; by Watrer R. Jounson, Professor of Mechanics and Natural Phi- — in the Franklin Institute, Philadelphia. 1. The electric spark. The appearance of the electrical spark, passing through air, has been observed with considerable attention by philosophers, and the various phenomena of its luminous track marked, with a reference to certain theories eee the nature of the principle by which they are occasioned. ush and the star, were formerly con- sidered almost aes in favor of Franklin’s hypothesis. The experiment of Cavallo and Singer, in which a pith ball laid in a non- conducting groove, is propelled towards the negative point of the discharger, has also been cited in favor of the same theory, as well as the direction of the flame of a taper placed between two balls oppositely charged, and that of the revolution of a light float wheel, ‘acted upon by the electrical current. But since it has been discov- ered that some bodies have different conducting powers in reference to the two opposite electricities, or “ decivinal states,” it has been doubted whether the above cited experiments afford any decisive in- dications in regard to the point in question There is, however, one interesting phenomenon which is not recol- lected to have been fully described by any writer on the subject.* It ee) pont, t, has been taken by Berzelius, and a more distinct statement res ate it is ae homson in his treatise on heat and electrici rs The former in rd spect gt his C ry; ee edit. p. 106,) maintains that “the spark is not a mere transmissio of the chouiaioley “3 3 ‘= elect pay body, toa pipiens hich itapproaches. It is composed of the ositi tte pie tri of bagi é bodies, and the negative electrici ni fo of the nl which unite and toot ppb ian is nthe space which the spar Ss to traverse. ody which coeeehes the. conductor, be neat th rounded, tho sdet rappears in the middle of the ‘space between the two bodies. At this — . { union, the spark snaps and all the elec- al nome’ i a e spar) non i J Pn” s 3 a S oe i] t=] i= 5 i=] oR 3 la =} - : Q aeRe ta Q ] =a i) Q oO ~ 3 22 et is od | ix} ® ea ol in r of the neutral point,) I have seldom found an bag ewes beg was willing to believe in the exist. ence of the x int until I had shown him the experimen ( x V ‘iain 8 58 Observations on some Experiments in Electricity. consists of a dark spot occurring in the luminous track of the spark, when it passes between two balls or obtusely pointed rods. The longer the spark can be drawn, provided it pass in a single track, the more readily will the point of darkness (which, for distinction, we may term the neutral point) be detected by the eye. It will be found in dif- ferent parts of the course, according to the relative magnitudes and other circumstances of the “ positive” and “negative” balls, between which the spark passes. A commodious arrangement for exhibiting the phenomenon of the neutral point, is to insulate, on glass stands, two rods terminated with balls, and then making a connection of one with the prime conductor, and of the other with the rubber of the machine, to set the latter in motion, adjusting the distance of the two balls apart, to the power of the machine, state of soa &c. so as to yield the longest possible sparks. A rapid succession of sparks may thus be aa to pass, and the neutral point will be the more readily perceived, the more nearly continuous is their repetition. When one ball is much larger than the other, the dark Spot is generally nearer to the larger ball. e spark, if not more than three or four inches in length, will in general be perceived to traverse a path nearly direct, between the nearest points of the two balls; but not unfrequently the two Jumin- ous sections appear to meet after traversing the air in directions somewhat divergent from the straight line joining the centres of the balls. Here the neutral spot will be found. At other times, the two sections appear to follow lines, parallel to each other but not co- incident, as if two streams were rushing in opposite directions and about to pass each other, when both are arrested and extinguished at the neutral point, without ‘actually overlapping each other to any perceptible extent. It has probably been observed by others that the spark frequently assumes the aspect of a double cone of light, the base of each resting on one of the balls or other conducting bodies, and the two apexes united forming a variety of colors, blue, purple, &c, This appearance may occur when the balls are mach nearer than the maximum striking distance. 2. Method of detecting the course of currents in electrical discharges. In varying the experiment of the pith-ball, taper-flame, and float- wheel, the following method was found convenient, and in some res- pects highly satisfactory, as it served to show the influence of magni- . tude in the balls on the apparent direction of the currents of electri- Observations on some Experiments in Electricity. 59 city. The rods of a Henley’s discharger were employed to connect the positive and negative ends of the revolving machine. Between the balls was placed a card, suspended like a pendulum, with its faces to the two balls, and so confined as to prevent its revolving on the suspending rod as an axis, yet having a freedom of vibration, so as to carry its opposite faces successively into contact with the two balls. The suspending rod, as well as the two supports, were of glass. Both wires of the discharger were, as usual, pointed, but provided with balls of different sizes, with which the points could be covered at pleasure. On working the machine while the points were un- covered and the rubber insulated, but the collecting points in com- munication with the ground as well as with the rod of the discharger, it was found that the pendulum was propelled towards the positive or uninsulated point: on covering the negative wire with a ball one fourth of an inch in diameter, the card appeared to be undetermined in regard to its direction, but on substituting a ball half an inch in diameter, it was decidedly urged out of its vertical position towards the ball, and on using a still larger ball, of an inch in diameter, the card rose so high as to touch the ball and remain there as long as the machine was in action. On carrying the ball to the opposite wite and leaving the negative uncovered, the card moved still to- _ wards the ball. Larger balls had the effect of increasing the adhe- sion of the card. When a rapid succession of sparks was transmit- ted through the card, it was frequently observed to maintain a posi- tion nearly stationary between the poles, and this position was found to be the neutral point of the luminous track. A wire a few lines in length, sharpened at both ends and thrust through the paper so as to project on both sides, had the effect to transmit the currents with more steadiness; but the card was in each case moved the same distance as before from its vertical position. 3. Flame of a candle between the poles. .By placing a ball one inch in diameter on the positive pole, and exposing the naked point of the negative one to act upon the flame of a candle, the latter was impelled towards the ball and set fire to - a slip of paper wound around it. This proves that the inference formerly deduced from an experiment with two balls, was made without a due regard to all its modifications. By turning the ma- chine very rapidly, the flame was driven entirely away from that side of the wick which was opposite to the pointed (negative) wire and burned only on the side next the ball, reducing the flame to the thick- 60 Observations on some Experiments in Electricity. ness and height of the wick and about a quarter of an inch in breadth. In some instances the candle was actually extinguisned by the current. 4. Length of sparks as affected by the size of balls. In making some experiments upon the length of sparks as depen- dent on the-size of balls between which they passed, the following among other results were obtaine Two conductors, in all onpebi alike and equally well insulated, furnished at one end of éach, with a ball two and a half inches in diameter, and at the other end with one of six and a half inches, were placed, one in connexion with the rubber and the other with the collecting points, having the end of each which was farthest from the machine, brought into such proximity as to transmit the spark. When both the small balls were brought together, the spark they gave was 9.8 inches long, exhibiting a bright light for about an inch, near the negativé ball, and a pale purple line through the rest of the course. On reversing the ends of the negative conductor, the other remaining as before, the length of the spark was not sensibly altered, but on bringing the six inch ball of the positive conductor near the negative one of the same size, the greatest striking distance was five and a half inches, and the same when the negative conductor was again reversed so as to send the spark between the two and a half negative and the six inch posttive balls. . The season most favorable to electrical experiments. It is a common opinion that electrical experiments cannot be suc- cessfully executed except in cold weather. Buta little reflection will assure one that the action of electricity, so far as the state of the air is concerned, is dependent chiefly on the relation between the thermometric and the hygrometric states of the atmosphere; in other words, on the elevation of the temperature above the dew-point. Hence the direction to warm the machine and apparatus before we attempt experiments; to wipe the insulators with warm cloths, &c. It would be of little use to wipe moisture from a glass, if the article wiped were left of a temperature to condense moisture from the sur- rounding air. Hence too the utility of artificially heating the apart- ment in which we operate, as we thereby produce a local atmosphere, with a considerable range between its dew-point and its actual tem- perature. In this manner I have often succeeded in experiments on jars and batteries in a close room, while it was actualy raining with- out. But it must be understood that the success will depend on the Observations on some Experiments in Electricity. 61 absence of means to raise the dew-point of the heated apartment ; otherwise, the warmer air will not long avail towards insulating the charges. I cannot at present state how near the two points above mentioned may approximate without entirely destroying the power of the machine to retain the electricity which it develops; but when they are only 6° or 7° Fahr. from each other, its action will be com- paratively feeble. The effect of their approaching within that num- ber of degrees, will, however, be found more injurious in summer than in winter, because the absolute quantity of water in a given bulk of air, at the dew-point of the former season, is much greater than is found at that of the latter. From observations* made at Philadelphia during two years prece- ding the month of May, 1833, it appears that the mean temperature of the months of December, January, and February, is at this place 302°, while the mean dew-point, for the same months is 233°, or seven degrees below. ‘The mean temperature in June, July, and August, is 72.17°, and the mean dew-point, 61.10°, or 11.7° below; so that there is a difference of more than 5° in the dis- tance of these points from each other, in summer and in winter. But in order to know the degree of deterioration to which the action of a machine will be liable from the hygrometric state of the air, we ought perhaps to consider also the absolute quantity of epetine neg see at each season. Now, a cubic inch of air at 232° conta of a grain of moisture, and the same bulk at 61.10° contains are rnees gr. or the latter hasnearly three and a half tumes as muchas the former. It is probable, then, that if we were to make experiments in the open air, both in summer and in winter, the greater excess of temperature in the one, would about counterbalance the less moisture in the other ; but, as we can generally employ an artificially heated apartment in winter, which personal comfort would preclude in summer, we more frequently operate at that season under favorable circumstances than in the warm portion of the year. In spring of the year while both the temperature and the dew- point ar dually rising,—but the former, of course, rising most rapid- acti distance of the two is 124°; and inthe three autumnal months, when the temperature is descending, and the dew-point consequently falling, but with less rapidity, the distance between them is only 8.549. The mean temperature in the months of March, April, and May is 57.66°, and in September, Ocfober, and November, it is 55°. So that * See Journal of the Franklin Institute, Vols. vii, viii, ix, and x- 62 Observations on some Experiments in Electricity. with a dew-point in spring at 39.41°, we have an excess of .tempe- rature of 124°, whereas in autumn with a dew-point at 46.46°, we have a mean excess of only 8.54° ;—hence, both causes conspire in favor of spring and against the autumn. The mean quantit of moisture in the cubic inch of air in spritig, is .00174764 while that in autumn is .00220070, or about twenty-five per cent. more moisture, and one-third less excess of temperature in the latter than in the former. If we suppose experiments to be made in winter in an apartment artificially heated to 70° while its dew-point remains at 23.25°, we shall have an excess of 46.25°, and as before, a quantity of moisture expressed by .00103359. If under these circumstances, the dryness could be maintained constant, electrical experiments might be performed with great satisfaction, but as lecture rooms are sometimes furnished with: pneumatic cisterns, and other sources of vapor, as well as occupied by numerous classes, the dew-point rises, more or less rapidly, far above that of the surrounding air without. ‘The truth of this statement may have often been perceived by persons who wear spectacles, on which the moisture was: con- densed as they entered, from a cold atmosphere, an apartment at a high temperature, crowded with company, or furnished with other sources of moisture. It may also have.been observed that a machine will sometimes work well soon after a fire has been lighted, but will lose its power rapidly as the company before whom it was to be ex- hibited, come together, and further, that it will temporarily regain its activity by opening a door for a short time and edmitting a supply of dry though cold air. The substance of the foregoing remarks tal calculations may be presented in a tabular form, exhibiting moreover the ratios for the se- veral seasons between the moisture at the dew-points and the excess of temperature by which it is accompanied. The seasons are arrang- ed in the order of the ratios, beginning with the least favorable. e | g bsiel 7eoe,. | 323. ae a2 2 | 222) Estas | sake Seasons. es & 2 ae #33 5 BE 23 of a a {Mss| gess= | gees ° ° ° grs. Summer, . .°. ~ -|72.17|61.10|11.07|.00350707) 315 Autumn, . . . . -|55. |46.46| 8.54|.00220070| 388 Winter,. .-. . - . {380.75 !23.75/| 7.00|.00103359! 677 Spring,- - + «© + + 51.66 |39.41 |12.25 |.00174764| 701 Artificial temperature of 2 |, aq loa we peep 70.00 .75 46.25 |.00103359! 4170 Observations on some Experiments in Electricity. 63 Hence it appears that the spring months are most favorable to elec- trical operations conducted ’in an atmosphere not artificially heated ; but that the winter season offers greater facilities than any other for gaining a temporary advantage by elevating the temperature of a close and dry apartment. Professor Hare’s prannaied in the last No. of this Journal; on the facility of charging batteries in oo an apart- ment, without a connexion with the ‘* common reservoir,” is entirely in accordance with my own observations and practice in that particu- lar, nor is it of the least importance whether the battery be insulated or not, or whether its interior surface be charged from the rubber or from the collector, provided the source of the interior charge, be insulated, when the outside of the battery is not. Nor need we be under any apprehension that the more exposed situation of the posi- tive charge, when outside, and its greater facility of passing through the air, will diminish the durability of the charge ; for if the positive charge, when on the inside has.a narrow passage by which to get out, so has it when on the outside, a narrow entrance by which to get in; and the latter course it must take, before the discharge can be effected ,—as all will agree, whether they adopt the theory of one fluid or of two. In accordance with the foregoing remarks, I have, danas: the pre- sent month, (July, 1833,) compared the action of a machine, when the dew-point and temperature were 30° apart, with its performance when they were but 5° from each other.’ In the former case the sparks were nine inches, and in the latter, scarcely one inch. ‘The first experiment was performed on the 19th, when the horizon was partly overcast, (temperature 81°—dew-point 51°,) and the last on the 24th, when the sky was perfectly cloudless ;—temperature 80°, and dew-point 75°. ‘The moisture in a cubic inch of air on the 19th was .00254757 gr., and on the 24th it was .00537226 gr. The following experiments illustrate several of the preceding ob- servations. 1. July’ 25th, the temperature in the open air was 79°, and the dew-point 683°. An apartment which had been closed for two or three days, was found at the temperature of 82°, and with a dew- point at 76°. The machine,-(a four feet plate,) was set in motion, having a single pair of rubbers, and collectors on the opposite end of the diameter. The sparks were now one inch and two-tenths long. The quantity of moisture in a cubic inch of this air was 00553634 grains. 64 Observations on some Experiments in Electricity. 2. The windows were next opened to allow the vapor to escape and admit the cooler air. In fifteen minutes the temperature had fallen to 80° and the dew-point to 70°. At that moment the sparks were tried and found to be, at a maximum, four and a half inches long. Moisture per inch .00461639 gr. 3. On replacing the second pair of rubbers, and putting colladand at a quadrant’s distance from each pair, the sparks were at once re- duced in length to two and one-third inches, but their vividness and and the frequency of their passage, were more than doubled. The balls between which the sparks passed in all-these three experiments were two and ahalf inches in diameter: 4. All other arrangements remaining the same as in the last expe- riment, the balls were now varied, by putting alternately on the po- sitive and the negative pole a ball, eight-tenths of an inch in diameter, the two and a half inch ball remaining on the opposite pole. When the small ball was on the positive side, the spark was four and a half inches, and when on the negative, only one inch and two-tenths, in length. 5. A candle was placed between two balls of two and a half inches ; the flame was, as usual, projected upon the negative,—a four and a half inch ball was put on the positive, and one of two-tenths of an inch . on the negative pole ; the flame was shortened and spread in both di- rections. A point terminated the negative pole, and a four and a half inch ball the positive, the flame was driven to the positive side of the wick, as before described, and finally extinguished by see force of the current. During all these experiments, the sky was overspread with clouds, and some drops of rain occasionally descended. 6. Perforations in a Quire of Paper. The mode in which several thicknesses of paper, subjected to the discharge of a battery, are found to be perforated, is perhaps one of the most singular mechanical results of electrical action. This ex- periment of Symmer, gives, as he observed, a continuous perforation, with the hole in each sheet, on one part of its periphery turned in one direction, and on the other, in the opposite ; as if two needles or bod- kins had passed through the whole quire, side by side, in opposite di- rections, and each had protruded the edge of the paper on that side of the aperture by which it passed. Observations on some Experiments in Electricity. 65 Some authors have represented that the outer sheet next to the ‘negative ball, would be found more aos torn than that to which the positive should be applied. This has not been verified by my experiments when the balls were of equal size. In performing the experiment on sixty sheets of letter paper, it was observed that several of the outer sheets on each side, were torn from the point of contact as a centre, in radiant lines about half an inch in length. But the separate points of paper did not all, on either side of the package, appear to be throws outwards. one side of the hole they seemed to have been dashed into the cavity, and on the other, were inclined upwards around the center. As the smallest of the perforations was about one-tenth of an inch in dia- meter, it was ‘easy to distinguish that every sheet partook of the double protrusion described by Symmer. The coyprses of the opposing cur- rents were not always found to be two parallel straight lines, but ra- ther indicated a double spiral, like two strands of a cor %. The Card between the two Poles. In repeating the experiment of Mr. Lullin upon a card covered with vermillion, and interposed between the two wires from a battery, so that one of the latter should touch each of its faces, the usual result was obtained, of forming a black streak upon the colored surface from the positive, to a point opposite to the negative wire, where a hole was perforated, with a burr protruded, on both sides of the pa- per. On varying the experiment according to the method of Tre- mery, by placing the card in vacuo, and using small wires for the two poles, similar perforations, ten or twelve in number and in a line, more than three quarters of an inch in length, were produced at a single discharge. This line occupied the whole distance between the positions of the two opposite wires. In other instances, the dis- tance being increased to several inches, the perforations were less numerous, commonly no more than one or two, and were found at intermediate points between the two poles, but did not as sometimes represented, show any decided relation between the degree of ex- haustion, and the distance from the negative wire. It is evident from these facts, that the point of rupture in vacud is a matter dependent chiefly on the accidental weakness of the paper at one point more ‘than at another. For if the card be strong, but not very wide, the electricity will sometimes take a circuit over the edge, instead of fol- lowing the direct path and passing shone? the paper. This result Vor. XXV.—No. 1. 66 Observations on some Experiments in Electricity. may be prevented by rolling the card up in the form of a cylinder, and placing the two poles, one within and the other without the enclo- sure. It would indeed be far more extraordinary to find the perfo- ration uniformly opposite to the positive pole i in vacuo, than to the negative, when the experiment is made in air. The facts above stated, taken in connexion with those discovered by M. Ermann respecting the unequal degree in which the two elec- tricities are insulated by other substances besides air, (such as flame of alcohol and phosphorous, dry alkaline soap, and liquid sulphuric ether,) furnish a strong proof that the experiment of Lullin cannot be claimed as peculiarly favorable to the wni-fluid theory. 8. The form and arrangement of machines, The advantage of different constructions for electrical machines was formerly discussed, by philosophers, and attempts have been made to explain the manner in which the plate and cylinder machines respectively operate, to produce results so different from each other. Some of these explanations, although hardly deserving the name, ap- pear to be generally acquiesced in. It has been remarked that “ the* plate machine furnishes a more abundant quantity of the electric fluid than that with the cylinder, and that if the two machines furnish sparks of the same length, the spark from the conductor of the plate machine is much more active and more pungent than the spark from the cylinder machine.” This difference is accounted for by saying that “ the plate is rubbed on both sides, and the electricity taken away by the col- lector from one only of those surfaces ; whereas in the other kind of machines, the outer surface only of the cylinder is rubbed, and the electricity is received immediately by the collector.” But to say nothing of the experiments of Mr. Nicholson which proved that rub- bing both surfaces of the plate gained no more electricity than to con- fine the operation to one ; we may, I think, satisfactorily account for the difference by considering that the diameter of the plate is usually much greater than that of the cylinder machine, whence the electrici- ty developed on the glass, is carried by the former, much farther out of the influence of the rubber, than by the latter. The intensity of the spark is accordingly increased in the same manner as that of an electrophorus plate is augmented by removing it farther and farther from the resinous electric on which it usually resis ; and when the negative and positive points of the machine are *See Rees’s Cyclopedia, article Electrical.” Observations on some Experiments in Electricity. 67 at the greatest possible distance,—that is at the whole length of the diameter,—from each other, the intensity is at a maximum. ‘To prove this we have only to employ the common plate machine with four rubbers on which the collectors are placed at two opposite points on the circumference, each a quadrant from one pair of the rubbers. A machine thus arranged yields a very copious supply of electricity and will charge a battery with great rapidity, but owing to the proxi- mity of the rubber to the collector, the charge is in some measure condensed,—the stratum of air between the two, serving a purpose analogous to that of the glass in the Leyden jar. If however we re- move the collecting points from their usual position, and also detach one pair of the rubbers and substitute a collector in their place, we shall discover, at once, a remarkable difference in the working of the machine, while it furnishes a far less rapid accumulation of electricity in a battery, the sparks will be greatly increased in intensity. By a change such as is here described, I have caused a machine, which was yielding sparks of only three inches, to extend them immediate- ly to eight inches and eight-tenths i in length, the gas balls, and insulators remaining, in both cases, the same. 9. A method of producing rotation, The following experiment furnishes an illustration of continued ro- tary motion derived from electricity, different from that of flies with recurved points. Near the lower edge of a vertical plate machine four feet in di- ameter, of which the rubbers are on a level with the axis, I place on an insulating stand, a sharp pointed pivot, to receive a brass wire, or needle, five inches long which may revolve freely in a horizontal plane, like a common compass needle. The wire is furnished with a hollow brass ball at each end, half an inch in diameter. This nee- dle, of course revolves in a plane at right angles to that of the plate, and is placed so far only from the latter that the balls will not inter- fere with it when the two revolve simultaneously. For the purpose of this experiment the collecting points and prime conductor of the machine, ordinarily placed at the vertical points of its periphery, are removed. On turning the plate the needle with its balls begins at once either to revolve, or to oscillate through considerable arcs. In the latter case the oscillation is in a short time converted into a com- plete rotation, that soon increases in rapidity to two or three times a second, according to the action of the machine. Now ifa fly-wheel 68 Observations on some Experiments in Electricity. or other revolving machine were substituted for the plate and its movement were sufficiently rapid, we might conceive that the air put in motion by friction, along its side, would produce revolution in any light system of bodies suspended near its vertical face. But then we should expect to find the revolution of the system coinciding in direction with that of the wheel, as if the wheel and revolving arms were connected by bevel gearing. n the experiment above described the revolution is always in the opposite direction; that is, the ball nearest to the plate moves in such a manner as to meet the motion of the plate itself. If in- stead of two arms and balls we use four of each, at right angles, the result is the same, but the effect more immediate; the revolution takes place without the oscillations above mentioned. I have said that the supporting stand was insulated. But, the experiment suc-. ceeds equally well when the cap containing the point on which the needle rests is connected with the ground. The explanation of this experiment appears to depend on the dif- ferent degrees of intensity. with which the plate acts upon the air at different distances from the rubber. As the glass in its revolution becomes gradually divested of its charge, the part opposite to a light body near the rubber, will be capable of furnishing to the air a great- er portion than one more remote; and as air, when dry, appears to conduct electricity much in the same manner as liquids conduct heat, that is by means of its mobility—the currents caused near the ma- chine will be more rapid where the accumulation is greatest, hence those balls and arms nearest to the rubber are most vigorously re- pelled. The currents become perceptible by the aid of a lighted taper held near the plate. 10. Amalgam. In some experiments on coatings for the rubber, I have found plumbago reduced to an impalpable powder, to answer the purpose of an amalgam, nearly or quite as well as the compounds of zinc, tin, and mercury recommended by electricians. The plumbago should be free from silicious matter or other impurities which may scratch the glass. Norte. Throughout these observations the terms positive and neg- atwe have been employed, in conformity with common usage, rather than with the conviction of their strict propriety. Floral Calendar of Middle Florida. 69 Arr. VIl.— Botanical Communications 3 by H. B. Croom. I. Floral Calendar of Middle Florida, during a portion of the year 1833 Observation ee Middle Florida is understood that tract of coun- tty which lies between the Suwanee River on the east, and the Appa- lachicola on the west; but the neighborhood in which these observa- tions were chiefly made lies about twenty miles west of ‘Tallahassee, about thirty miles from the Gulf of Mexico, in latitude about 30° 30’, and is more tardy in its vegetation than the country lying east of Tallahassee. The country between the Suwanee and the St. John’s is still warmer than that between the former river and the Appalachi- cola or the Escambia. The wild orange, so plentiful on the St. John’s and in the Allachua, is unknown to the west of the Suwanee. At _ St. Augustine, the sweet orange is cultivated with success, but the attempts to raise it in the interior of Middle Florida have failed. On the sea coast = islands they might be successful. Abbreviations.—b. for “in bloom.” b. b. for “beginning to Thermometer. 1833. bloom.” Ph. for Pursh, Nutt. Nuttall. El. Elliott. 9AM. 3P.M. Jan. 1-5. Heliotropium indicum b. (at Aspalaga.) ) “* Rudbeckia hirta b. Pine woods.- * Houstonia rotundifolia b. Much diffused. “ Gentiana alba (White flowered Gentian) ~ Wet pine woods. -— “ Gerardia (apbylla, Nutt. ?) b. *« Some species of Aster in bloom. Eriogonum tomentosum b. Dry sandy soils. > «Some species of Chrysopsis in bloom. Obs. Some of these flowers are to be con- sidered as occasional, and not in their regu- lar times of appearing. *« Some species of Viola begin to bloom. *« Nicotiana Tabacum (Tobacco) b. Occa- sional. Helianthus annuus weenie b. Occa-. sional. 75 Garden peas in bloom. . Obs. On the 9th ram occurred, and a violent change of weather ensued. morn- "OL 01 OQ WOIY = n Pal 1833- Floral Calendar of Middle Florida. * Thermometer. 9 A.M. 3 P.M. ing of the 11th the thermometer stood at 26° Fahr.; ice was formed, and garden peas killed. Destructive frosts have some- times occurred in the spring, as, for in- stance, on the 6th of April, 1628, when, not only the growing crops of cotton, maize, &c. were killed, but many hickory trees, and some persimmon trees were killed by it, _ their foliage being, at that time, considera- ably expanded. Nevertheless, the culture of sea island cotton and of the sugar cane is successfully pursued. Jan. 14. Weather balmy and delightful. 17. Thermometer at sun-rise 32°; sleeted a lit- tle. On the 18th, ice. 19th. Beginning: to moderate. 20. A peach tree and plumb tree on the Mico- sookee Lake had a few flowers. pear on the Micosookee Lake. Flower buds of Prunus caroliniana begin to ex and. 22. Trillium sessile b.b.. Mitchella repens b. 25. Gelsemium nitidum (Carolina jessamine) b. Feb. 8. Vaccinium corymbosum (whortle-berry) b. 10. tae trees begin to bloom on Rocky Com- sas lobatus b.b. Plumb trees (P. do- .b. mestica ii. Acer rubrum (red maple) b. b. 13. Corchorus b. in gardens. 14. Viola villosa, V. lanceolata, v. eucullata and V. pedata b. b. 17. Molucca raspberry b.b. Gardens. 18. Cercis canadensis (red-bud tree) b. b. 19. Vaccinium myrsinites b. b. 20. Laurus geniculata b. b. 21. Iris (hexagona?) b. b. in gardens, 52 22. Azalea nudiflora (swamp honeysuckle) b.b.. 54 64 24. Flower buds of Acer rubrum begin to ap- 98 Floral Calendar of Middle Florida. Thermometer. Sh, M, "Sele. . Tlicium floridanum (aniseed tree) b. b. Peach trees generally in full bloom. . Flowers of Cornus florida begin to expand. 60 Quercus nigra and Q. falcata b. b. . Laurus Sassafras (sassafras tree) b.b. © 36 fEsculus Pavia (buck’s-eye) b. b. Aronia arbutifolia b.b. ,,. Sanguinaria canadensis (puccoon) b. b. . Rubus trivialis, E]. (dew-berry) b. b. 48 . Fagus sylvatica, var. americana (beech tree) ~ bob. Halesia tetraptera Serato wee)" b. Prunus caroliniana - Obs. This fine tdcerdil tree and also the 6c 28; March 1. st A go fo © Cal n~ 10. iH. 15. 18. ee Halesia diptera are abundant ou the banks of the Chattohochie. Caprifolium sempervirens (coral honeysuckle) b. b. Oxalis corniculata (sorrel) b. Salvia lyrata (wild sage) b. 68 First notes of the ——— (Cepia gus.) Rain. Pinguicula lutea b. Rosa levigata comidé” kee rose) b.b. Gardens Olea americana (wild olive) b. Ice formed. 36 Thermometer at sun-rise 32°. Ice formed. 36 Frost in the morning. Mylocaryum ligustrinum b. Phlox (pilosa?) b. 68 Chaptalia integrifolia b. Amaryllis Atamas- co b. - Bignonia capreolata b. Ascyram (crux An- dre?) b. b. 42 Hopea tinctoria (yellow-leaf) b Cornus florida (dog-wood) b. 52 Pyrus angustifolia (wild crab) b. 60 Began to “plant sea island cotton. Pinus pa- lustris b. 65 Stipa avenacea b. Allium striatum, El. b.b. 65 Batschia (Gmelini?) b. Sisyrinchium ber-— mudianum b. 71 54 60 n n - . Salix nigra (willow) b. Gnaphaliam pur- 6 Floral Calendar of Middle Florida. Oe Saige A.M. . Helonias angustifolia b. b. . Calycanthus floridus b. b. Rubus villosus b. | (Tall black-berry.) Magnolia auriculata b.b. Jatropha stimulo- sa b. b. . Chionanthus virginica (fringe tree) b. . Sagittaria natans Helianthemum euictiaiencs b. b. Lepidium virginicum (pepper-grass (b.) . Neottia (tortilis?) b. ss Ceanothus micro- phyllus b. 4 Baptisia lanceolata, El. b.b. Cotsgee. to- mentosa pureum b. Antirrhinum canadense (snap-dragon) b. Lupinus villosus b.b. Coreopsis lanceolata b. b. 70 - Quercus virens (live oak) b. Baptisia alba b . Silphium tomentosum, Ph. b.b. Multiflora rose b.b. Gardens. . Malva caroliniana b.b. Vaccinium stami- . Kalmia latifolia b.b. Sanicula marylandica b. b. 5 * Melia Azedarach (oid of China) b. b. En- othera linearis : Lupinus perennis bab ._ Hypoxis graminea b. . llex opaca (holly) b. Iris versicolor b. Ro- binia Pseudacacia b. b. Hymenopappus scabioséus b. Erigeron (2 species) Leptopoda weberula Nutt. and El.? b. Styrax glabrum b. b. Pentstemon pubes- cens b.b. Verbena Aubletia b. Glycine frutescens, Willd. b. (Wisteria, Nutt.) Tradescantia virginica b. Sida... . b. Hypericum parviflorum b. 76 3P.M. 13 o., 74 58 72 76 Floral Calendar of Middle Florida. 73 : Thermometer. 1883. 9A.M. 9P.M. April 7. Strawberries (Fragaria vesca) begintoripen. 74 76 8. Campanula amplexicaulis b. Pinguicula pu- mila b. 65 78 9. Magnolia macrophylla b. b. (Large leaf mag- nolia. 64 78 Obs. This splendid little tree is found on the outer margin of the swamp of the Appala- chicola River. “* Rhus radicans (poison vine) b. Viburnum prunifolium b. 10. Rhus Weicodendron b. Jes virginica b. Rosa parviflora b. 68 70 11. Silene Baldwynii (Nutt. ) b. 70, =«74 18. Stuartia virginica b.b. Vaccinium ‘arboreum .b. 20. Bumelia tenax and B. reclinata b. Cyno- lossum . ... Db. 24. Magnolia gretidifiors b.b. Heliopsislevisb. 74 84 25. Hydrangea quercifolia b. b. Solanum ni- grum b. bh. 7 76 26. Tetragonotheca belianthaides b. Glycine simplicifolia b. 72 ~=684 27. Asclepias variegatab.b. Aster....b. 66 76 28. Spigelia marylandica b.b. Scutellaria Cintas grifolia?) b. we 16 29. Decumaria sarmentosa b. 70 78 May 1. Echites difformis b. Smilax peduncularisb. 68 80 2. Argemone * georgiana b. b. in gardens. 68 82 Obs. This is the white flowered Argemone mentioned by Nuttall and Elliott. It is probably a distinct species from A. mexi- cana. Its petals are usually eight, white ; capsules five to six celled. 3. Ceanothus ameficana b.b. Delphinium azureum b. 73 = «8S 4, Prenanthes aphylla, Nutt. B.b. Physalis.b. 72 82 5. Castanea pumila (chinquapin) b.b. Vera- trum luteum b. 72 82 Vou. XXV.-—No. 1. 10 14 Account of some new species of Plants. ‘ Thermometer. 1833. 9A.M. 3P.M May 6. Porcelia pygmeza b. b. Polphinjas consoli- da (larkspur.) 71 80 7. Sambucus canadensis (elder) b. b. Rain, 71 78 8. Phytolacca decandra (poke) b. Rhus vernix (poison sumach) b. 10-76 9. Aletris farinosa (star-grass) b. b. Ruellia strepens b, Rain, S16 10. Polygala inearnata b. b. Jasminum officinale. Gardens. Rain. 74 76 *« Asclepias tuberosa b. b. Apocynum pubes- cens b.b. Rain. 11, Erythryna herbacea (coral tree) bb. Ga- lardia bicolor b. 72 76 12. Magnolia glauca (white bay) b.b. Rain. 72 76 13. Laurus carolinensis (red bay) b.b. Papaver somniferum b.b. Rain. W202 76 14. Andromeda arborea (sour-wood) b. Passi- flora incarnata b. Rain. T2308 15. Hydrangea hortensis b.b. Catalpa cordifolia (Catawba tree) b. 72 82 June 6th, 1832. Short-staple Mexican cotton (Gossypium hirsutum ?) began to bloom. il. Account of some new species of Plants. 2 Baptisia * simplicifolia. Plant about two feet high, herbaceous, glabrous ; ; stem geniculate, branching 5 stipules none? ; leaves simple, alternate, sessile, ovate, glabrous, about two inches and a half long, one inch and a half wide ; racemes terminal, long; legumes small. The flowers I have not seen. Grows near Quiney, in Middle Sea along with Baptisia lanceola- ta, El. Flowers June, July. 2. Amorpha * caroliniana. Plant shrubby, four to five feet high } He babesedne: striate ; leaves pinnate ; leaflets se ey mucronate, petiolate, covered on both surfaces with minute, shining hairs, and thiekly studded with diaphanous glands; spikes solitary, short; flowers very small, dark New Localities of Plants. 75 purple, approaching to indigo; calyx sprinkled with minute hairs. Found. by Dr. Loomis in 1832, near Newbern, flowering in July. | 3. Thyrsanthus * foridana. (Wisteria, Wutt. Apios, Ph. Glyci- ne, Willd.) A specimen which I hastily gathered in Florida, appeared to be- long to an undescribed species of the Thyrsanthus of Elliott, (the Wisteria of Nuttall,) perhaps the species referred to by Mr. N. IL. 116. In this specimen the upper lip of the calyx, instead of being “ trun- cate and emarginate,” was rounded and entire! the three equal di- visions of the lower lip shorter and less acuminate than in Thyrsan- thus frutescens, El. (Wisteria speciosa, Nutt.) Plant shrubby and twining, leaflets about 6 pair and an odd one, flowers perhaps a little paler, but in its whole habit strikingly resembling the “ Carolina Kid- ney-bean,” which has received from botanists such a host of names. 4. Sarracenia * pulchella. Leaves three to four inches long, decumbent, purple, spotted near- ly all over with white; dorsal wing broad, lanceolate; appendix . nearly closing the tube, and shaped like the head of a parrot! Grows in the wet pine-barrens of Florida. Flowers in April. I am inform- ed that Mr. Nuttall had previously discovered this plant, and consi- dered it a new ape Scape about eight inches high, flowers pur- le. : : 5. Argemone * georgiana. (White flowered Argemone.) See Nutt. and Ell. Petals usually eight, sometimes seven, white; capsules 5—6 valved. Flowers in May. Ill. New Localities of Plants. 1. Dionea muscipula. (Venus’s Fly-trap. ) When Mr. Nuttall published his “ Genera of North American _ Plants,” (1818) this curious and wonderful plant was only known to botanists as growing in the neighborhood of Wilmington, N. C. on the north side of the Cape Fear river. ‘Mr. N. traced it thence for fifty miles above. I first saw it in Bladen County, on Black river, a tributary of the Cape Fear. ‘Two years ago, Dr. Loomis and my- self found it in the neighborhood of Newbern, on both sides of Neuse river. Recently, in passing through the county of Duplin, N. C. I found it flowering, and in great abundance, in the wet pine- barrens of that county, associated with Sarracenia flava, and Liatris 76 New Localities of Plants. odoratissima. I am informed that it grows in Onslow County, inter- mediate between Newbern and Wilmington. Flowers early in June. 2. Macbridea pulchra, El. Pog Found by me in Lenoir County, N. C. flowering in August. 3. Pinus pungens. (‘Table Mountain Pine.) Grows on the elevated and rocky summit of the Pilot mountain, Stokes County, N.C. . Hitherto found only on the Table Mountain, and “other summits of the Catawba Ridge.” See Michaux and Nuttall. 4. Magnolia macrophylla. (Large leaf Magnolia.) Grows in Florida, on the outer margin of the swamp of the Apa- lachicola river. The petals of some of the flowers measured seven inches in length, while those of M. grandiflora measured six inches. I am informed that it grows in the upper parts of Georgia and Alaba- ma. Its original region is probably sub-alpine, and the plants that grow in Florida may have sprung from seeds carried down by the freshets of the Chattohochie. In like manner the Pecan trees, (Jug- lans oliveformis) which I saw on the banks of the Mississippi, thirty miles below New Orleans, were probably brought by the freshets from their native climates on the Illinois and the Ohio. Flowers in April. ' §. Penstemon dissectum, El. Abundant in wet Pine woods, between the Oakmulgee and Oconee rivers, Georgia. Flowers in May. 6. Prenanthes aphylla, Nutt. In Florida, and the southern parts of Georgia. Flowers in May. 7. Andromeda speciosa, var. pulverulenta. Abundant in wet places, from Fayetteville, N. C. to the Pedee river. Flowers in May, June. 8. Ledum buxifolium. Found by Dr. Loomis, seven miles south of Fayetteville, N. C. 9. Peucedanum ternatum. Found by Mr. Nuttall, near Newbern, N. C. in iSx2.. 10.. Orontium aquaticum. Grows in the lagoons of the Ocklockony river, ae fifteen to twenty miles above the tides. Flowers in April, 11. Galax rotundifolia. (aphylla, Nutt.) . ‘Grows near Newbern, N. C, 12. Cypripedium humile. Found, though rarely, near Newbern, N. C. of a Comparaiwe Flora. J Specimen o ‘yury) T ‘uoneyaBaa jo seaaford oy) pur ‘soauSap FT Aavow st paredatoo snyp opnyye| JO souasAGIP 9JOYM OY "oR ‘19ul1o} ay) UL £ syzuOUL aa.yz yNoge st ‘AULe TA UI pur PPHO| A O[PPHAL UL Woseas ey} UI soUesayip Oy eq) Savedde pjnom 71 dA0ge 4aLagy £ qounosr ae aag "yjuoul & Ul 892139p g ynoqL posapisuOd eq Avur ‘syjnout omg ‘erydjopeyiyg ye pue ey woe aon ‘gL ‘di 04 220 L judy "TT “92,4 (° ate poy) ‘tuniqna sa0y i ‘ge Aing) “yp oune ‘uoyo9 purdp "qolmaunigy ot Ae “wiqdepriyg ‘Gy [dy] ‘oownpeg 6 judy 51 °q9,q| (*eo1suad snjepSAury) ‘eax yorog ‘uopiey) SWeleg “cy oun ‘oT Judy “ey Aqdosoem erouSepy . ' *[ oune *T [dy “BlIoBORpNas BIUIGOY : *T aun *[T Judy “BIfoyNe] BLUR "g@ Aewl'os Pdy|'so yore “pot 11A snipusuolyyy "0G Avy] ‘0s [dy ‘voluiSita BUN "eo [dy] “1 [dy (-Aj[oH]) ‘vovdo xe ‘oT ounr] “ey Ary *sISUaUI[OIBO SANT] *; Avy! oy pady!(-earya jo epg) ‘ qoviepony BIH ‘OT [udy|o1 gore (-poom-Soq) ‘vpiiog snuio5 ‘QUIRAL “etueat{suuag ‘oasduyeg oy} Jo AoTVA : “ON “epltol sue] JO sateN | “purl Arey uieq Mon aIPPUAL “ACTA, Ul SADMOT “Aine pue ‘oun ‘Avpy siomopq ‘aunp—Aeyy SIOMOL | °C *N ‘opiaonedeg ivou yuepunqy “DLOMT aarynanduoy » fo uaunsadg * Ay ‘snouasipul Aypaproap st iy *BPLlOy FF OIPPUN ul Juepungqe st ‘eISJoar pu BUI[OIeD Ut odd st yor Guerd baleen SULT, (‘99.9 [eto7-) *UIOQMONT O} BPO, | Woy uP] ‘naovgiay DULmYyphIT *C{ Sif) poor) J *sLUDT]NA DNIUNAT “HT "BUIOIED) YON O} BPO[ pT WoT *10jong MYpANjO “El 78 A Description of a new Mineral Species. Phenomenon in vegetable life —Near Quincy, in Middle Florida, the following fact has been witnessed by myself, in common with ma- ny others: Two Pine trees (Pinus palustris,) of considerable height growing near each other, the trunk of one of them, near its upper ex- tremity, coming in contact with a limb of the other, they grew toge- ther. Subsequently, the former became severed near the earth, by burning, apparently. The tree, thus severed and suspended, conti- nués to live! deriving its sustenance entirely from the fluids on the the other tree—a remarkable parasitic ! Arr. VIIl._—A i of a new Mineral Species, from Nova ' Scotia; by C. T. Jackson, M. D., with a Chemieal Analysis ; by Mr. A. A. Haygs, of the Roxbury Laboratory. | Read before the Boston Natural History Society, July 7th, 1833. Durine the summer of 1827, Mr. F. Alger and myself made a Mineralogical and Geological Survey of the peninsula of Nova Sco- tia, an account of which was published in the American Journal of Science, Vols. xiv. xv. While on this survey, we collected a great number of minerals, principally of the zeolitic family—among which we observed several groups of crystals, having the lustre and general appearance of analcime, but incompatible with that species, in their crystalline form. On our return to Boston, I examined, more partic- ularly, the external and chemical characters of this mineral, and showed it to my friend Mr. Nuttall, who requested me to let him take the specimen with him to London, where he showed it to Mr. Brooke, who measured the angles of the crystal with the reflective goniometer, and expressed his opinion that it was phosphate of lime. On Mr. N’s return to thiscountry, he told me of Mr. Brooke’s de- cision. I mentioned to him the manner in which the mineral com- ported itself with tests, and before the blow-pipe flame, which prov- ed that Mr. Brooke was led i nto error by taking one set of characters only. A few crystals were now sent to Dr. Torrey, of New-York, by Mr. N. requesting his opinion of them. A short time after which Dr. Torrey published a note in the American Journal of Science, sta- ting his belief that the mineral was Nepheline. While in Paris, I gave a few crystals to Mr. Dufrenoy, of the school of mines, requesting him to measure them with the reflective goni- ometer, and to give me the result of his examination. I received a note, a short time afterwards, giving me some of the angles which he A Descriptionof a new Mineral. Species. 79 compared with those of phosphate of lime, in Haiiy’s Mineralogy, Pl. xxx. Fig. 72, from which he found them to differ in value. Mr. Clemson, of the School of Mines, wishing to analyze the mineral, I. gave him all the remaining crystals of the stock I carried out with me. His analysis, however, was interrupted by an accident that happened in the laboratory of the school, and the specimen was lost. Being satisfied, from the examination I had made of this mineral, that it was new, and not having time to analyze it myself, I furnished Mr. Hayes with all the crystals [ could spare from my specimens, to which Mr. Alger added some obtained from Mr, Nuttall. Mr: Hayes has at length completed his analysis, which he now presents to the public. This accomplished chemist is too well known to the scienti- fic world to require any praise from me. : The mineral under consideration was found at Cape Blomidon, in Nova Scotia, beneath a precipice of basaltic rocks, from which it had recently fallen, with a large vein of stilbite, mesotype, and anal- cime. The crystals are generally implanted in the analeime or stil- bite. Some of them are colorless, transparent, and extremely bril- liant ; others are of a salmon red color, and translucent only —The color being irregularly disseminated, it is evidently accidental. Its hardness is nearly the same as that of felspar, which it scratches with difficulty, being itself powdered by the friction. Specific gravity,.as determined by Mr. Hayes=2.169. The crystals have generally the form of low six-sided prisms, terminated at each extremity, by six-si- ded pyramids, whichare replaced, at their summits, by little hexahedral tables. Some of the crystals have transverse strie on the sides of the prism, which I at first thought indicated a rhomboid for the primary form. But the plane terminations indicate a six-sided prism, which, from the direction of the natural joints, made visible by heating the crystal, seems to be its primary form. ave not succeeded in obtaining the nucleus by cleavage, the. mineral breaking with a vitreous fracture in all directions, from the intimate connexion of its particles. ? The angles of this mineral, as de- termined by myself with the common goniometer, are | M on M’ or M” _— 120° M on X <.¥BQ9 Mon P 90° 80 _ Al Description of a new Mineral Species. According to M. Dufrenoy, nti the reflective goniometer, the an- gles are , M on X 130° 5’ or 130° 10’ X on X’ 142° 10’ In the second edition of our memoir on the Mineollagy and Geo- logy of Nova Scotia, we compared this mineral with the Davina of Monticelli and Covelli, which we had not then seen. It differs very obviously from this mineral, in external, a8 well as chemical charac- ters, and composition. The following is the composition of Davina, which the reader may ~ compare with the results of Mr. Hayes’s analysis of our new mineral. Davina. Ledererite. Silica, 42,91 Silica, 49.470 Alumina, 33.28 Alumina, 21.480 . Lime, 12.02 Lime, 11.480 Oxide of Iron, 1.25 Soda, 3.940 Water, 7.43 Phosphoric acid, 3.480 Loss, suet Debt Oxide of -Iron, = .140 Foreign matter, .030 Water, 8.580 Loss, 1.400 We propose for this mineral, the name of Ledererite, in honor of the Austrian ambassador to the United States, Baron Lewis Von Le- derer, who has done so much, by his zeal in this — of na- tural history, to encourage and facilitate its study. Analysis of the Ledererite 3 by Mr. A. A. Hayes of the Roshery Laboratory. The Ledererite presents the following characters. ; When heated in a small mattrass, it becomes white and opake and gives off water, free from acid, or alkali; a slight empyreumatic odor is perceptible. In the forceps, before the blowpipe flame; it becomes aie and divides at the natural joints; at a higher temperature it fuses into a white enamel, which can be rendered more vitreous by continuing the blast; a few bubbles are disengaged when it is thus treated. On a platina wire, with its bulk of soda, a fragment fuses, with effervescence, into a white enamel, which is unaltered by exposure to A Description of a New Mineral Species. 81 the reducing flame; more of the mineral fuses with the enamel into a colorless transparent globule; excess of soda does not render the globule infusible, or indicate manganese. Borax dissolves its bulk of the mineral and gives a colorless glass, which in the reducing flame, becomes more dense. If an equal bulk of the mineral is added to the globule, it can be dissolved by long exposure. By Phos. Ammo. and Soda, when the fragment is equal to the size of the globule of salt, it is quickly penetrated. and it then fuses and af- fords an opaline globule ; in the reducing flame the globule is trans- parent whilst hot, and becomes translucent on cooling. By an inter- mitting Hame the globule becomes opake. ; Boracic acid, on charcoal, slowly dissolves the mineral; when the colorless glass is in contact with metallic iron, no phosphuret is formed ; if oxide of iron is added, it renders the mixture more fusible, but we cannot detect any phosphoric acid in this way. With nitrate of cobalt, there are the usual indications of alumina. The mineral in coarse powder was washed in pure water, dried at 60° F’. reduced to a fine powder in a mortar of agate and the bygro- metric water was removed by exposure to dry air at 100° to 120° F. I. Seven parts of the fine powder which had been cooled in a desiccated atmosphere, were heated till red hot, the loss was .60 and the color became a shade darker=4.29 water on 50 parts. I. Fifty parts of the unheated mineral were mixed with strong and pure muriatic acid, no gaseous matter escaped; the temperature being about 80° F’. decomposition had taken place after thirty six hours had elapsed. The excess of acid was in part removed by dry air at 120° F. the mixture was then diluted with water and filtered through a double prepared filter, the white powder which was left was care- fully washed and ignited with the upper filter, cooled in a close vessel of dry air, its weight was 24.68; ashes of lower filter .05. leaving 24.63. This powder readily dissolved in a warm diluted solution of potash except .015 which was a light red powder, like that of the associated mineral; the alkaline solution was mixed with an excess of muriatic acid and evaporated, a dry mass was left, this moistened — with strong muriatic acid, digested in water, the solution when clear gave with ammonia an extremely light flock of silica. If from 24.63, we take .015 there remains 24.615 pure silica. Ill. The fluid of II. was nearly neutralized by pure ammonia ; warmed till air was erpelioda nie cold, aslight excess of pure am- Vou. XXV.—No. 82 A Description of a New Mineral Species. monia was added, the opaline fluid was then poured on a porous fil- ter, covered by a bell resting on moist hydrate of lime, to prevent the absorption of carbonic acid. After draining, the bulky hydrate was washed in hot pure -water, transferred to a dilute solution of pure potash, and boiled in it: a portion B. remained insoluble, after treat- ‘ing it with more potash, this being separated, the clear solution was evaporated and heated till a dry salt remained ; muriatic acid and water then dissolved all but pure white silica weighing after ignition .12. The acid fluid was mixed with ammonia and carbonate of am- monia, the latter being in excess; the fluid was allowed to rest on the precipitate twenty four hours, it was then separated by a double pre- pared filter from the colorless hydrate ; the latter being washed, was dried and ignited, till it suffered no further loss by heating; its true weight was 10.74. It was soluble in fused bi-sulphate of soda; after . expelling the excess of acid, dissolving the salt and testing the solu- tion, no trace of phosphoric acid remained; before the blowpipe it appeared as pure alumina. The solution af carbonate of ammonia and muriate of potash in which the alumina had been digested, con- tained no earthy matter, or phosphoric acid. IV. That fluid which had drained from the first precipitate in IIL. had been secluded from carbonic acid, it was clear and slightly alka- line, a distilled solution of carbonate of ammonia being added, at first did not produce a change, after a few minutes a granular pre- cipitate C. resembling carbonate of lime fell, leaving a transparent solution above it. After separating the powder from the fluid by a double filter and drying, it was weighed, then heated red hot, cooled and again weighed, it had suffered no loss, after the usual reductions 8.08 parts were obtained. Boiled in sulphuric acid till part was evaporated, treated with much alcohol, there remained a quantity of sulphate of lime equivalent to 8.08 of carbonate of lime and no trace of phosphoric acid was present in the alcoholic fluid, it was therefore pure and is equal to 4.55 lime. V. The precipitate B. of III. which was insoluble in potash was washed into diluted muriatic acid, it slowly dissolved with the charac- ters of a non-alkaline oxide, giving a yellow colored solution, which could not be rendered neutral without precipitation taking place. Much muriate of ammonia being added, a slight exeess of caustic ammonia was dropped in and the matter which separated was col- lected on a double filter, when dried it-became opake and after ig- nition and reduction its weight was 2.01. ‘It appeared as a yellow- A Description of a New Mineral Species. 83 ish white powder, soluble in muriatic acid, its solution affording by evaporation small transparent crystals ; when these crystals were heated in sulphuric acid, a solution was obtained, in which crystals of sulphate of potash, caused the precipitation of delicate flocks of crys- tals of sulphate of lime. ‘The crystals mixed with boraciec acid and metallic iron, heated before the blowpipe flame, readily fused, and gave a globule of phosphuret of iron, it was therefore principally phosphate of lime. VI. When the liquor and washings from the phosphate of lime in V. were united and evaporated, a mass remained, which when heated in a platina crucible, was volatilized except a half fused saline matter, enveloping a light white earth ; water digested for some time on this, dissolved all but a few parts; the solution was saturated although con- siderable in quantity ; when partially evaporated it deposited imperfect crystals of a difficultly soluble .salt, along with opake, soluble cubes. The mixed salt being dissolved in water, a trifling excess of carbonate of soda was added, the whole evaporated and heated, water then dissolved the soluble part, and the solution by evaporation deposited pure, well formed cubes of chloride of sodium, which when dried, weighed 3. 713. This salt dissolved in water was not affected by a solution of chloride of sodium and platina or oxychlorate of soda, when the solu- tion was evaporated with phosphate of soda, no insoluble matter re- mained ; thus proved to be free from potash, or lithia ; he — is sgitvalont to 1.97 parts of soda. VII. That part which water did not dissolve with the portion: left by carbonate of soda in VI. was united to the phosphate of lime of V. the whole weight was 3.00 parts, by digesting with sulphuric acid, evaporating to a paste and adding alcohol in a relatively large quantity, 2.94 parts of dry sulphate of lime were obtained. It was yellow colored and by subsequent treatment with oxalic acid and al- - cohol .07 per oxide of iron was separated, leaving 2.87 parts sulphate equal to 1.19 lime. VIII. When the alcoholic solution from the sulphate of lime in VII. was evaporated and heated, it gave a glacial acid, very soluble in water and alcohol, its alcoholic solution burnt with a yellow flame. With oxide of iron, boracic acid and metallic iron, it gave by heating, -.phosphuret of iron; it was phosphoric acid containing a trace 0 lime, and by difference its weight was 1.74. 84 Internal Improvements of the State of Pennsylvania. a of earth and acids into which this mineral has been decomposed, Silica, Process IL. and'dBsamcasoss> - 24.735 Alumina, IIT. . “ - 10.740 Lime, IV. 4.55 VII. 1. 19=. 4 “ ~ 6.740 Soda, VI. - - - -- 1.970 Phosphoric acid, vill. - - - 1.740 © Oxide of Iron, VII - - - - .070 Foreign matter, II. == - - 015 Water, I. - - Scie - 4,290 49.300 Loss, partly water and ante? of Lime. - .700 50.000 Or considered asa saline compourid, its conipontiop would be, in 50 parts, as analytically determined, Bisilicate of Alumina, - - 30.040 Bisilicate of Lime, - =) wae Subsilicate of Soda, - - - 2.485 Phosphate of Lime, = - - 2.970 Oxide of Iron, aud bees Mater, - 085 Water, - - - 4,290 49.300 The loss renders it necessary to express the soda salt as a subsi- licate, but it probably exists as a silicate in the mineral. It is not known that the weight of water is determined with perfect accu- racy. So small a quantity of the specimen was given me that [I could not make any preliminary trials, or check the results by other processes. Art. IX.—Internal Aeiriiniaas of the State of Pennsylvania ; y Epwarp Minter, Civil Engineer. It is generally known to the readers of the Journal of Science, that the state of Pennsylvania has been, for several years, engaged in a system of Internal Improvements, of great extent and importance, but probably, only few of them are acquainted with the character of Internal Improvements of the State of Pennsylvania. 85 those improvements, and the difficulties which have been already sur- mounted in their execution. The object of the present essay, is to give a general idea of the character of these works, and in future numbers, it may be in my power to describe with greater particular- ity, those with whick I am most familiar. To a cursory observer of the map of Pennsylvania, it would ap- pear almost impracticable to form any satisfactory junction between ‘the eastern and western waters. The Allegany mountain, and the numerous ridges which run parallel to it, from N. E. to S. W. ap- pear to interpose insuperable barriers. - Fortunately, however, nature has done what man must have failed to accomplish. The headlong Juniata has burst through a score of mountain ridges, and, now flows placidly to the Susquehannah, as if rejoicing in its triumph over the difficulties, which at some former day had been heaped in its path. - The: West branch of the Susquehannah also rivals the Juniata, and in fact rises still farther west, (beyond even the Allegany mountains,) and there are swamps in the highlands of Cambria county which, in time of rain, pour their waters at once towards the Chesapeake and Gulf of Mexico.* The course of the West Branch is 5 however too circuitous to afford an eligible route between Philadelphia and the head of the Ohio, and the valley of the Juniata was chosen, although it involved the ne- necessity of crossing the Alleghany, at a point 2827 feet above tide. water in the Atlantic. The only mountain ridges, west of the Alnus are the Laurel -Hill, and Chesnut Ridge, both of which are rent to afford a passage for the Conemaugh, which rises in the Allegany mountains nearly op- posite to the Juniata, and flows toward the Ohio. - Previously to the commencement of the state improvements, char- ters had been granted to the Schuylkill and Union Canal Companies, for opening a canal communication between the Delaware and Sus- quehannah, and as no canal route was found more eligible than that adopted by the companies, a rail-road between those rivers was cho- sen by the state. . * Potter county, in Pennsylvania, is celebrated for only one thing, that I am ac- quainted with: viz. that heads of the Susquehannah, Alleghany, and Genessee ri- vers, rise almost together, within its boundaries; flowing into such distant points, as the Chesapeake bay, Gulf of Mexico, and Gulf of St. Lawrence. 86 Internal Improvements of the State of Pennsylvania. The first appropriation for the Pennsylvania canals was made February 25th, 1826. The first contracts are dated June 1826, and the first ground was broken July 4th of the same year. . The works are distinguished by the names, Main line aad Branch- es. The chain connecting Philadelphia with Pittsburg, is dignified by the first title ; the Branches are those canals diverging rine the main trunk up the Delaware, Susquehannah, North Branch, West Branch, Beaver and French creek. Tue Main Linz, commences in the heart of Philadelphia, by a rail-road, which crosses the Shcuylkill five miles above the City, and runs westward, through the.counties of Philadelphia, Montgomery, Delaware, Chester and Lancaster, to Columbia on the Susquehannah river, a distance of eighty-one miles and three quarters. At this place the canal begins, and proceeds north west along the river, to ~ Duncan’s Island, at the mouth of the Juniata, where the Susquehan- nah is crossed by a towing path bridge, and the canal extends up the valley of the Juniata river to Hollidaysburg, one hundred and seven- ty-two miles, through the counties of Lancaster, Dauphin, Perry, Juniata, Mifflin and Huntingdon. At Hollidaysburg, the canal joins the Alleghany Portage Rail Road, which crosses the Alleghany mountains at Blair’s Gap, and meeting the Little Conemaugh, follows it to its junction with Stony creek in Johnstown or Conemaugh; having crossed portions of Huntingdon, Bedford and Cambria coun- ties. The length of the Portage is thirty-six miles and two-thirds. At Johnstown, the canal again commences, and pursues the vallies of the Conemaugh and Kiskiminitas rivers to the mouth of the latter; then crossing the Alleghany river on an aqueduct, i it keeps on the western bank to Pittsburg, where it re-crosses in a similar manner, and passing through Grant’s Hill, by a tunnel; debouches into the Monongahela, one hundred and four miles from Johnstown, having eut through Cambria, Indiana, Westmoreland, Armstrong, Butler, and Alleghany counties. . _ The whole length of the main line is three hundred and ninety-five miles, of which two hundred and seventy-six are canals, and one hundred and nineteen, rail roads. Exclusive of all side cuts and branches, the canals overcome 1178 feet of ascent and descent, and the rail roads, 3416 feet. Total 4594 feet. The annexed table may be useful in a topographical point of view, and was drawn up by me from authentic sources. It shows the height of the most important places on the main line above tide, and On the Analysis of Square Numbers. 87 the differences in level between them. It also gives the distances of the same points from Philadelphia and from each other. The dis- tances are measured by the route of the public works, and the levels are those of the canal or rail road at the points named. The mode of using the table will be evident on examination. —_ 2 6° Table of elevation and E 3 | & distances on the main| g | & el tél ¢ Bn ne of the Pennsyl-| 5 |; 2) . Die) 6, oa) &) eis 2 vania rnal a =z 2 & B 3 21 a 5 Bd Boho kee provements. Lax g =| 2) § = sles i a 3 | 8, S18| s| S| Ss) Slelalele ls SISlSiSizjalaitia ls lalela feet, Philadelphia. . . . 560) 237) 290|312|3321604/928/2327|1151| 904) 761) 680) miles * ; Mine ridge summit. . 52 323|270/248/228| 44\368/1767| 591) 344) 201) 1 Columbia. . . 82] 30 53 gc 95|367|691,2090, 914) 667; 524) 443 Middletown. . . . | 101} 49) 19 22 fs 314'638/2037| 861) 614) 471| 390 Harrisbur. 110} 58}.28} 9 201302 616|2015} 839 449 Duncan’s Island 125) 73 24) 15 272\596/1995| 819) 572) 4 untingdon. . . . | 215/163; 324|1723| 547! 300! 157 Hollidaysburg. 254|202|172)153|144/129| 39; 1399] 223). 24| 167) 248 Blair’ Aes 2 Summit . 264 alt. 163 beset 19| 10 1176|1423'1566/1647 obnstow: 291 See whe 1/166) 76) 37 mi| 2 su Paid 471 Blairsville. fh ets aay ate .* 148) 224 Freeport. . . . . | 866/314 4 OBS See ‘ena ei 81 Pittsburg. . . . . | 395/343 tah 131! 104] 74| 29) It was my intention to have added to this some account of the Branch canals, but, it would increase the length of my communication too much, and must be deferred for the present. They are of great extent and importance. a Art. X.—On the Analysis of Square Numbers, by A.D. Wurrter, Instructor of the Latin Grammar School, Salem, Mass. Tue following enipshion appertaining to square auinbert, are cu- rious, and of frequent use in Analytical investigations. Several of them have been demonstrated by Fermat and Euler, but the demon- strations here given are in my opinion, more simple and direct. 1. If A and B contain each, the sum of two square numbers, their product AB will also, contain the sum of two square Demonstration. Let A=a?+-b?, and B=ec?+d’, then, A-B=(a?-+5?)-(c? +d?)=(ae+bd)?+(ad—be)*[A]; or, . A'B=(a? +5? )-(c? +d?)=(ac—bd)? +(ad+bc)* [B.] Q.E.D. 88 On the Analysis of Square Numbers. Remarks. 1, When neither a and 6, nor ¢ and d, are equal to each other, it is evident that the product A’B contains the sum of two squares in two different ways. II. When a=8, both powers are reduced to one; viz. - A‘B=(ae+ad)?+(ad—ac)?. ‘III. When b=0, both forms are reduced toone ; viz. A:'B=(ac)?+-(ad)’. IV. When a=c, we have A°‘B=(a?+6d)? i ab)?. and A-B=(a? —bd)? +(ad+ab)? ; expressions which still afford two different sets of squares. ‘V. If a=c, and b=d, the expression [A] becomes (a?-+467)?= (a? +b?)2-+-(ad—ad)? =(a?+6")?+(O)?; while [B] assumes the form, given by Souri, Bonnycastle, and others, for finding two square numbers, whose sum shall be a square: viz. (a7+b?)?= (a? —b?)?+(2ab)?. VI. If a=b, and e=d, both expressions assume an identical form, (2ac)* =(2ac)*, from which nothing can be determined. VII... If a=1, and b=1, both expressions [A] and [B] take this form, 2(c? +-d?)=(ce+d)*+(c—d)?. . Whence it appears that if a given number contain the sum of two squares, the double of that number will also contain the sum of two squares, but generally only in one wa Vill» Finally, if a*+b*=c?-+-d?, while neither the values of a and 6, nor of ¢ and d, are alike, we have the expressions, A-B=A? =(a? +52)? =(ac+bd)?+(ad—bc)?, and (a *-+6?)?=(ac—bd)? +(ad-+be)? 5 that is, a square number that contains the sum of two squares in two different ways. Note.—The condition a?-+b?=c?-+-d?, is satisfied at once by substituting the forms of A:B, exhibited in [A] and [B]. But if a?+6?=c?+d?; then (a*-+-b?)-(m?-+n?)=(c? +d?)-(m?+n?). Now (a? +-b?):(m? +-n? )=(amtbn)? + (anzbm)? =a? +62 =y?-+46? and (c*-+-d?)-(m? +-n?)= (emEdn)? +(enzdm)? = 4-22 = 7? +67, by employing the change of signs. But — (a? 4-62 )*(7? +62) = (a2 +6?) = (ay+55)?-++(a5z8y)?, and («? +22)+(1 2 4.42)=(a2 +6)? =(entZa)? ++ (cbz%n)?. Thus we have found a square number, («?-+-¢?)?, which may be resolved into the sum of two squares in four different ways. In this way we may proceed, till we have found a square number that can be resolved into as many sets of squares as we please. But a better method is the following. On the Analysis of Square Numbers. 89 2. If A?7=B?+C?, then A*=D?+E?=F*+4G?; that is, if ' any square number contain the sum of two squares, the square of that number will contain the sum of two squares in two different ways. Demonstration «4 =(b? +c?)? =(b2 —c?)? +-(2be)? =076?-a%c?. 3. If A‘ and B* contain each, the sum of two squares in two different ways, then A‘: B‘ will contain the sum of two squares in twelve different ways. Demonstration. Put A*=a? +b? =c?+d? and B4 =m? +n? =y? +2? ; then A‘: Bt at +n? )*(a2 4+-53)=a? 46? =v? +62 a ip a(n? +-n?)-(c?+d?)= 2 +23 =? +42 ee =(y* +27) (a? +5?) =; +x? =Dr?2 +, =(y? +27)(c? +d?) =v? +22 = 0? 4 #? 5 making in all eight en of squares, deducible from the general expressions [A] and [B]. In addition to these, we may derive four sets more from the simple multiplication of the expressions representing the value of A‘ For (m? +n): (a? +52)=m?2(a?+5b?)-+n?(a? +b? )=m?A4 intAt, (m? +-n*)*(a? +52) =a? (m?+tn?) + (m?.4n?)=a? Bs + b?B4, (y? +23 y (c? +d?) y=y s(e*. +d?)+27(c? +d?)=y?A‘tz7A4, (y2 be? (e202) 08 (y2 +29) +d2(y? $24) 0B! 4B. : Q. E. D. Remark.—The product A*-B*=(A’B)*. It may be shown that A and B each equal the sum of two squares when A? and B? each equal the sum of two squares. ‘Therefore the fourth power of the product of any two numbers that are prime to each other, and that consist each of the sum of two squares, may be resolved into the sum of two squares in twelve different ways. The smallest number that can be thus resolved is (5.13)*=65*. In the same way it may be shown that the expression (A- B)°, or the number 65* may be resolved into the sum of two squares in eighty four different ways. 4. A convenient method for finding two Janae whose sum shall be a square, is the following. Let a?— For ¢? put any square number whatever; then, by the common es representing by m and n, any unequal factors of c*, we have os", and b= "> Putting for c? any square pumber a?€2~% where a,S,y, represent prime factors, we have 2a—=a?6? piblmattry tymetttty Vor. XXV.—No. 1. 12 90 Experiments with Potassium and Sodium. 0.26 6y9 =a? +627? =a.06777 and as many corresponding values for 2b. So for any greater iiila of prime factors, «767776? &c. Thus we see that an hypothenuse or a base may be found, upon which may be constructed any required number of right angled tri- angles, whose sides shall all be rational integers. 5. When P is neither a square nor the sum of two squares; t the pro- duct P-Q cannot contain the sum of two squares, except where Q takes the forms P (m?-+-n?), P3(m?+-n?), 4P(m? + .—that is, when P and Q have a common divisor. For if Q be separated into any two parts whatever, (tien P and Q are prime to each other,) it is manifest that Pr+-Py=P-Q is not the sum of two squares, whether x and y are squares or not. 6. Every number which is the sum of two squares that are prime to each other, is either a prime number, or divisible only by factors which are also the sum of oe oe ==@5 cen a? +-b2=P- Q, which "For, if we suppose at has been shown to be ser Corollary. Hence, if A2=D?-+-C?; then cnege as was asserted in a previous remark. Arr. XI.—Experiments with Potassium and Sodium; by Jutivs T. Ducaret, M. D., Professor of Chemistry, in the Medical De- besa the University of Maryland. Suieidan says thata piece of Potassium put upon a bath of Mer- cury, gradually amalgamates, acquiring a rotary motion, due to its action on the water in the atmosphere, which evolves hydrogen. In dry air the amalgamation takes place without motion. But if pieces of Sodium be thrown upon Mercury, they are again thrown off with slight explosions, accompanied with light and caloric. On the other hand, Potassium burns on the surface of water, while Scdinith decom- poses it without producing combustion.* These effects of the two * I observed many years ago, that on hot water sodium scintillates, and bycis tis zes,—Ep. Experiments with Potassium and Sodium. 91 metals on water appear to be due to the superior temperature ac- quired by the potassium, while that obtained by the sodium is not sufficient for the purpose : for, if a solution of gum-arabic be used, not too dense nor too thin, then the sodium fires; because the frag- ments, being retained at one point, become sufficiently heated ; they ignite ; burn-with a yellow flame, and then move over the a a of the fluid like potassium. Again, according to Serullas, if sodium be fixed upon a bad- conductor of caloric, as wood, then. water will fire it; but if it be placed upon glass, or porcelain, then the effect will not be produced ; the abstraction of caloric in these cases, as well as in that when a surface of pure water is used, being too rapid to allow the necessary elevation of temperature. In the fourth American Edition of Dr.’'Turner’s Elements of Che- mistry, edited by Dr. Franklin Bache, of Philadelphia, it is stated, that when sodium is thrown into water, it swims upon its surface, oc- casions violent éffervescence and a hissing noise, and is rapidly oxida- ted, but no light is visible. ‘The action is stronger, it is added, with hot water, and a few scintillations appear ; but still there is no flame. Upon which Dr. Bache.remarks, that the sodium which he has had occasion to use, uniformly inflames on boiling water ; and he invites the attention of chemical lecturers to the latter experiment. I have frequently repeated Dr. Bache’s experiment, and always with success. But it has occurred to me, that the phenomenon would be made much more satisfactory to a class, by adopting some mode of firing the sodium on cold water. With a view to this, Serullas’s experiments were repeated with the following results. 1, A mucilage made with one drachm of aiieiaiel gum arabic, and half an ounce of water, will inflame sodium, most probably for the reasons assigned by Serullas, as stated above. wh 2. On wood, sodium most generally inflames in contact with a drop of cold water ; the action being at the same time so violent as to cause the globule of metal to roll along the dry surface of the table with considerable rapidity, leaving a white streak of caustic soda over ‘its path. This experiment, however, does not always succeed. %. On a pane of glass, sodium will not inflame, when the glass is clean and smooth ; but any particles of dust athens: to it will cause the firing of the neiih with scintillations. . 4. On a metallic surface the sodium could in no instance be made to inflame. 92 Experiments with Potassium and Sodium. 5. On charcoal, which is not mentioned by Serullas, sodium never fails to inflame, with brilliant scintillations. This is the mode which I adopt with most confidence, for firing sodium in contact with cold water. It confirms the truth of the reason given by Serullas, why sodium will not inflame.under the same circumstances as potassium 3 namely, the superior temperature which the latter acquires, during its combination with the oxygen of the water: hence the necessity of placing the former on a bad conductor, in order to avoid the too ra- pid abstraction of caloric, which prevents a sufficient elevation of temperature for manifesting the phenomenon of combustion. 6. It is commonly stated, that in the decomposition of water by sodium, pure hydrogen is evolved. This isa mistake. A portion of the metal, as in the case of potassium, combines with the hydro-— gen, as may be shown by the following experiment.—Take a globule of sodium, wrap it up in a small piece of paper, and introduce it un- der a small receiver provided with a stop-cock and jet, filled with water and standing over the pneumatic trough. The decomposition of the water will. be effected as usual, and sodiwretted hydrogen will be collected, which (on opening the jet attached to the receiver) being inflamed, burns with a characteristic bright yellow.flame. Po- tassiuretted hydrogen, obtained under the same circumstances, burns with a rose-colored flame fringed with blue. The potassium in sev- eral repetitions of this experiment always emitted light; the sodium did not. 7. A globule of potassium placed on a bath of mercury gradually . amalgamates with the latter, without any rotary motion, if the atmos- phere be dry ; but when breathed upon, it immediately acquires, as ob- served by Serullas, a very rapid revolving motion, which continues for a long time. The surface of the mercury becomes tarnished, apparently by the accumulation of minute particles of the amalgam formed, which, at intervals are seen to emerge from beneath the surface of the mercu- ry, and at some distance from the large globule. The surface of the li- quid metal, within a circle of half an inch to an inch in diameter, re- tains its brilliancy. The minute particles of amalgam, which I sup- pose to be the cause of the tarnish, seem to be repelled by the large globule of potassium, and, occasionally, as new accessions are made to them, they become singularly agitated, exhibiting somewhat of the appearance observed when a drop of vinegar, or of an acid, comes in contact with a drop of water. Application of the Fluwional Ratio, &c. 93 8. Small pieces of sodium projected upon a bath of mercury, were not found to exhibit the phenomena indicated by Serullas; that is, they were not thrown off with explosions accompanied with light and caloric. The effects are, however, curious. 'The amalgamation of the sodium takes place slowly, without any rotary motion; althoug sometimes, when breathed upon, a motion of short duration is indu- ced. When several pieces are put upon the bath at the same time, they show no disposition to come together, but rather the contrary. But when one piece is pushed towards another, there appears to be, within a certain distance, an attractive force exerted, which is imme- diately succeeded by a repulsive one of some comparative energy. Many pieces being accumulated in a small space, they become vio- lently agitated, as if alternately attracting and repelling each other, until they finally separate. University of Maryland, August Ist, 1833. Arr. XII.—On the application of the Flucional Ratio to particu- . lar cases; and the coincidence of the several orders of Flucxions, with the binomial theorem; by Exizur Wrieut, Esq. Concluded from Vol. xxiv. p. 312. By comparing fluxions with trigonometry in regard to properties, features, and results, we shall find a striking analogy to exist between them ; in trigonometry the triangles must be similar, for between an equilateral and a scalene triangle the relation g- of proportion does not exist; so in fluxions no proportion exists between two fluents and their fluxions, when those fluents are dissimilar ; for instance, in the two consecutive fluents ABD, AOE (Fig. 6.) the correspondent lines AB, AO, are not parallel, and by the definition not simi- lar ; consequently the fluents ABD, AOE, are not proportional to their fluxions. : In trigonometry, if the three sides of any triangle whatever are si- milar to the three sides of another triangle, the like sides are propor- tional ; in fluxions, if any fluxional quantity whatever is similarly con- stituted as another given fluxional quantity, the relation of proportion between the fluxions and their respective fluents subsists. 94 Application of the Fluxional Ratio, &c. In trigonometry, the fourth term may be had by multiplying the third term by the ratio; in fluxions, the fluent, which is here the fourth term, is likewise had by multiplying the fluxion, which is the third term, by the fluxional ratio. Therefore, since the results are obtained by the same means, the same relation obtains in both, which is that of proportion. On n flucions of the higher orders. | oan 3 in ‘the generation af a variable quantity, its fusion i is differ- ent at different points in its production, it may be considered as a fluent, and its fluxion taken, which is called the second fluxion. And when the second fluxion varies, the fluxion of this fluxion may be taken ; and in general a variable quantity admits of as many or- ders of fluxions, as the exponent of the power contains units. the second power =x? the first fuxion is 2zra- the second fluxion, 2x°*. ; the third fluxion, = 0 Of the third power a2* — Of the fourth power at the first fluxionis 3x?z- the first fluxionis 42x%2° the second fluxion, 6x2*? the second fluxion, 12x?2*? the third fluxion, 6x"? the third fluxion, 24aa-* the fourth fuxion, 0 the fourth fluxion, 24a! the fifth fluxion, 0 In passing from any order of fluxions to the next higher order, in- asmuch as the quantity 2° becomes invariable, the exponent of the variable part is diminished by 1 ; hence the ratio for second fluxions | m—1)x° - n—2)zx° is ar, for third fluxions it is! . de (n—3).xr° , for fourth fluxions it is ' and so on ; generally, (1) ex ~=na"-'2", the first fluxion. n—1)x° ine ( ) =n(n—1)z"~?.2*?, the second fluxion. = 2)a* L nx" ' a x n(n—1)2"~2 459 x =n(n—1)(n—2)z"-*2"*, the third flux- ion. — of the Fluxional Ratio, &c. 95 if: — n(n—1)(n—2)z oy 7X the fourth fluxion. Let 2’ be the increment of z, then if x+-2’ be raney a to the several powers, the increment of x? will be 222/+-/2 5? 3x22! 4+-S22!? igs ah 4x32! +64? 4/2 +4r2/3 +2/4 i In any given power, suppose the first fluxion divided by the inde- terminate quantity A, the second fluxion divided by the indeterminate quantity B, the third by C, &c. to be equal, each, to the correspond- ing term in the increment, 2° being supposed equal to 2’ ; then all the orders of fluxions, taken until the variable quantity beccmes constant, — will be equal to the whole increment, because all the parts taken to- gether are equal to the whole. The values of these unknown coefti- cients are found in the following manner 3 suppose z-+-z’ is raised to a given power, for instance the third, then the increment will be 32°’ + 3zx/2 -+-2/3.; the first fluxion will be 3z2°z°; the second fluxion, 3z22° G6zn"* -6z"3 6zz** ; and the third fluxion, 62** ; then: : bee S Ee 03 =8242/ =n(n—1)(n—2)(n—3)2"- 4a ‘; iA. Se Gra‘ +3z2/2+-2'%. By supposition —4— =32°z’, and Ra =3z2'?, and ooh hence A=1, B=2, Cats pe I a 4g = Bata 4 Sar! +-z/3, the increment. When z-+2' is raised to the fourth power, the increment will be 42°2’+ 6x22’? +-422/%+- ; 4z%z- 12094°? QD4rz-3 W4ar4 z's, Proceeding as before 4-+—p—+-GE- +-p-= . 3 4 Zip 4x°7'+-6272/? +-477/3-+-2/4. By supposition ee =4z'z', hence 12724°2 2472 ‘ A=1; B= 62?2'?, hence B#2; oh =417'/*, hence C= 2424 : 4n3x- \ 12¢%¢2 6; D =2/4, hence D=24, Therefore 5 aes oa 24xt? QAx4 “Tago haa =42732/+6222/2 +4r273-+-2/*,the increment. To avoid the difficulty of indicating by points a fluxion of a very high 96 Application of the Fluxional Ratio, &e. order; when we wish to express it sicorallt ja x may be written [a]?, and x may be written [z]* and so on. Suppose that E represents any power x” generally, the fluxions of the several orders are express- ed in the following manner. In the preceding case stands for the exponent 4, and E stands for x* ; [E]? for 4°, the first fluxion ; [E]? for 12%?a°? the second fluxion; [E]* for 24xz-? the third fluxion; [E]* for _ * the fourth fluxion; hence 4x°x*++ 12n72°? 24xax"* — E E}? [E eae Aa, aS 9) IY (EI, [EI ment. The larger the ene n is taken, the awe il be the number of terms, of which the series is composed. When n is in- definitely large, the series becomes infinite, and in that case E stands for a"; [E]! for na*“'a°; [E]? for n(n—1)a*-*2°2 ; [E]* om: n(n—1)(n—2)a"-%2°3; [E]* for n(n—1)(n—2)(n—3)x"-4a"* [E]* for n(n—1)(n—2)(n—3)(n—A) a= #28 "5; &c. The sities expressing the orders of fluxions becomes (1. )fE}! +[E}? +[E]° + [E]*+[E]*+[E]°+&c.... in inf. and the series expressing the increment becomes : [E a pike [E]* [E]* (2.) (e-bay = [E)' + oF og te54t254.5 te in inf. -=increment. The series of Maclaurin is E ey el sy ee (3) y= E+ tt ges 14 a3e8? Fasars* a a el | 2.3.4.52°° The series of Taylor i is, a Dk h we h Aoi [yl (4) fle tia ee Se te aga the. The binomial series is, =incre- (5.)(a+h)"=2" +nx"-"h--n. ethan. om Set et 7 hap ee. If in the series of Taylor we make i—[E], i x*=1,and in the series of Maclaurin, if we make z and z- each, equal to 1, they will coincide with the preceding series. These series indicate, what share each of the orders of fluxions has in forming the increment, and disclose the relation of the several orders of fluxions to the flu- ent, included in the following properties. 1. When z+-2’ represents Application of the Fluxional Ratio, &c. 97 a binomial root, in which z is the original fluent, and 2! its increment, equal to the fluxional base 2, then if x+-a’ be raised to any assign- able power, the result will be equal to the sum of that original fluent, its first fluxion, half of its second fluxion, one sixth of its third flux- ion, one twenty-fourth of its fourth fluxion, &c. continued until its last fluxion is a constant quantity. 2. Each order of fluxions has as many sources of increase, from whence the generating quantities commence their’ motion, as there’ are units in the coefficient of its uxion. Since fora right understanding of the nature of fluxions, much depends on a thorough understanding of these elements, they demand an attentive consideration. In the second power, the first fluxion zs Fig. 7. has two sources of increase, DC, and CB, and the second fluxion two, Ce, and 7 Dn. The two generating lines com- “ mence their motion at DC, CB, produ- . cing the two parallelograms DnmC, CcbB, representing the first fluxion 2rz-,. so and the two generating lines Cc, Dn, commence their motion at Ce, Dn, ape the two squares Cerm, Dnwd, representing the second fluxion 22° _ The manner in which the several filers of fluxions arise in the third power, is made plain by the diagrams annexed to the article, page 330 in the xiv.-Vol. of the Journal of Science, to which the reader is referred. First fluxions are there designated by the short prisms of a red color, second fluxions by the prisms of a yellow color, and third fluxions by the cubes of a blue color. ‘The three genera- ting squares are described as commencing their motion at the bases of the three pyramids, which compose the fluent, forming the three short prisms of a red color, whose thickness is z*. These prisms represent the first fluxion 3r*2z°. Nextly, the six generating paral- lelograms, whose length is equal to a side of the generating squares just mentioned, and width equal to z°, commence their motion from the two flowing sides in each of the short prisms, and produce the six quadrangular prisms of a yellow color, representing the second fluxion 6rz-*. Lastly, the six generating squares, whose sides are each equal to z-, commence their motion at the ends of the six prisms of a yellow color, which are supposed to flow, and to produce the six Be of a blue color, —— the third fluxion 62°. 13 L. KAV—No. 1. . 98 Application of the Fluxional Ratio, &c. If the foregoing series marked (2) (3) (4) (5) be compared with the orders of fluxions marked (1), a remarkable coincidence will be observed. If the nature of the relation, which exists between flux- ions and their fluents, is sought for; if it should be asked, what is the rationale of the result ? and why does this coincidence take place ? the answer will be, that these series contain the elements of the ra- tio — by the multiplication of which, or its modification, into the expression of any order immediately preceding, the fluxion of the or- der next following is produced. To illustrate this, let them be brought into one form, ani exem- plified in the function x". When properly arranged they will stand thus, Orders of ects : quire § fluent x"\nz"~'x*\n(n—1)2"~?.2°? n(n — ¥)(n—2)a"- 2x** : ‘ . oe r a3 Torn ¢ ena" 2"\n(n— I)a"2 5 > |n(n—1)(n—- 2)a"* 53 Bi 1 = —L)(n—2 a i alae en ( ae ney a Aes ) x" 43, Here in the series of ae y is aunt by 2”, aa h by z*, and z* by 1; in the binomial series A is represented by 2°.’ In the cndern of fluxions, the fluent 2" multiplied by the fluxional ae ratio a produces nz"~'z: the first fluxion ; this, considering %* a ot + ae y PEE Sv: & 5 a i 1) . = i wf » the ratio for fluxions of the second order, produces tae —1)z"~*z** the second fluxion. Molti- (n ee third i we obtain afiine’s aya “je x, the third fluxion, and sO on. Ly]. : Hi is In the series of Taylor "> is expressed by nz"~', and by n(n —1)x"~*, and By n(n—1)(n—2)z"-%, &c. In the second term there is a complete coincidence. In the third and fourth terms - plying the second fluxion by , the ratio for fluxions of the a = 23 ‘A if the divisors of the factors 3 as in the series of Taylor be with- drawn, we have‘the second and third fluxions; if they be transfer- red to the factors in the same series expressing the coefficients of Application of the Fluxional Ratio, &c. 99 : ed n nn—l n=2 the third and fourth terms, we have re * , and =° at Sade dest which are the unciz of the same terms in the cat series, and the two series coincide. ‘These properties apply equally to the re- maining terms. Hence, by the aid of the binomial series, the nature of the several orders of fluxions is indicated. Lagrange, after considering the great utility of the theorem of Taylor in explaining the nature of fluxions, succeeded in demonstra- ting it without making use of the Calculus. ‘Thinking it may be acceptable to those readers of the Journal of Science, who have a taste for the mathematics, but have made no great proficiency in pur- suits of this kind, to see a demonstration of what I believe to be the true foundation of fluxions, brought down to their capacities; I have extracted from Boucharlat the method of deriving Taylor’s theorem, invented by Lagrange. ‘The process is simplified, and an ellipsis is supplied, necessary to an easy understanding of the demonstration ; which may further serve as an apology for saueiree it that, which has long been’ known. Let f (c-+h) represent generally a function which has not yet been reduced to a series. To convert this function into a series we may suppose, , “fle+h)=fet Ph P= p+Qh Q=q+Rh R=r-+Sh Substituting for P, Q, R, S$, &c. their several values, we have, Sath)=fet+ph+gh? +rh3+sh* +th®+&c. (1.) In any binomial A (z+h), if 2 is changed to x-++1, it will give the same result, when raised to a given power, as it will, when / is chan- ged toh+i. For since the root A(z+i+h) is the same with the root A (x-++-h+7), they will yield identical results, when raised to any proposed power.* Hence it follows, that in the development fz+ ph+-qh? +rh? +-sh* + &c. we may first change A into h+1, and after- wards z into z+4, and still the two results will have the same bins Substituting 4+7 for h. The series marked (1.) in this case becomes, fet (h+i)=fetp(h+i)tg(h+i)? +r(h+i)e+ s(h + i) + &e. and writing only the two first terms in each of these binomials we have fle (i+) =fe + ph-+pit-gh? +-2ghi+-rh’ +3rh7i4+-&e. + ) Substituting 2+-+2 for x. 100 Application of the Fluaxional Ratio, &c. It may here be noticed that the elements p, q, r, s, 8c. in the se- ries fr+-ph+qh? +rh?+W&c. represent the several functions of z together with their coefficients, in expanding the binomial (7-++h)". a— a, Hence fx + ph + gh? : rh® +sh' + &e. ao "tne z"-2h? +o i =a 2h? 4 Be, ines r+i for Zz. = becomes (z +4)" + n(x + yoke te aa yeh! hate - 2 ere . y(a+i) 2h? 4+-4(2+7)""*h* + &e. The term (z+%)" being Ler form the equation, I pags + &c. (2+1)"=2" ns" i+ 7° * Put n—1 for n, and the aon -becomes, : n— = n—2 . (2-+1)" ta" 1 + ares rar ve +&c. - Put n—2 for n, and - —— i . : n— n—~2 n— (2piyr tats pe ap Put n—3 for n, oa te equation becomes . ? 2" 4i?-+8c. n—3 n—4 (x+2)"- 37" 9 doce Sted ® aes gr 5424 &c. hence 2" i fer-tit fet pit gi Ss erfeen Radet bic —2 ita iais Ohara ai teppei, . F n—2 ; wi Fees Ban-2 ago irae "3 2 artis =qtqitg a8 n—4 ; : / asp i 5 a-Si ibe Gt 4 Stree ay ae" ~ 642 — 3-1 5/4-+-3//2? dnt 8 4p 3 tatéie za | therefore f((2 + 1)+h)=2" 4 ax" "t+ Ba"-2i2 4 (aa"-! pa .. n—i n— oe * 2 . —3% 2 3i2)h4 (Ba"-* 4 Ba" —3 Pat 7) a” 442 )h? + &c.=fe+pr+qi+&c.+(p+pt+-p’? )h+ (q+ gfitg i? )h? + (r--ritri?)h? +(s+si+s%? hi +&c. (3.): Application of the Fluxtonal Ratio, &ec. — 101 In the equation (3) p is considered as a function of z. Let p be represented by f’x, and p’ by f’z, &c. Inasmuch as the develop- ments (2) (3) are identical, the terms which contain the same pow- ers of A are necessarily equal; consequently if we compare the terms of these two series affected with th, ih?,ih*, &c. we shall find that: - 2q=p’=f"x, hence g=}p/=1f"r. Again, 3r=q’=1f’’z, hence r=37 =74f 2. Again, 4s=r =}.5f"2, hence s=jr =}.4.4 fa. Again; Ste ecty.ff se, hence teeje=}.1..0f" 2. “a thus proceeding we shall find successively all the other coefficients of the equation (1). Substituting in this equation the values of p, q, r, s, &c. . 4 : h2 ‘ we shall have f(2--h)=frtfichtf'rg t+f"'r 93 th"t9 3.4 t hs. | f "53.4.5 +&c. (4.) This series is of a very general nature, com- prehending that of a power of a common binomial quantity indicated by («-+-h)" ; that of a power of a logarithmic binomial quantity indi- cated by log. (x-+-A)”, and that of a power of a binomial sine or co- sine indicated by sin.(z+-h)", or cos.(z+-h)". In the equation (4.) J’, being 'the coefficient of h in the — of the common bi- nomial quantity, is indicated by a2"-'; fz, being the Sane of h? 9? is indicated by Bats; ; flr, bate the coefficient of-—q Is in- dicated sd yx"~*, and so on: hence putting these values of ae f LE fz, &c. in the — (4), we have f(z+h)=2"+a2"""h+ 2 a Rar? yn"? 23 +z" nas 3.4 + &e. (5.) which is the common binomial series. The several orders of fluxions are produced by multiplying their . fluxional ratios, each, into the preceding order, that is to say, a" X—> =n2""12, the first fluxion. se tlilias se a pe" ee =n(n—1)2"- *x*?, the second fluxion. (7.) A : n(n — 1)r*- 3 et aces a = n(n—1)i(n—2)x"-%2-%, the third fluxion. (8.) _ Now if we consider equation (b. ) we shall perceive that the pr ficient of h, in the second term in the development of the binomial (2+h)",is ax"-' ,and is the same with the fluxional coefficient nz" ~' 102 Application of the Fluxional Ratio, &c. in equation (6.), and is what we designate by - ; and that the coef- he ‘SE ficient of @ in the third term, which is 8z"~?, is the same with the fluxional coefficient n(n—1)2"~* in equation (7.) designated by“ hs : and that the coefficient of 5-3 in the fourth term, which is yz"-*, is the same with the fluxional coefficient n(n— 1)(n—2)a"-8 i in Ly]? lesa represented in equation (4.) by f’z,f"2, f’2, &c. hence by substi- 2 2 3 3 4 4 tution fle+h)y=y+ 5 v,4.Wl : ered merit ee 3.4 + Xe. (9.). It isin this manner, that, without making. use of the Differen- tial Calculus, we arrive at the formula of Taylor, which is in fact the binomial series accommodated to fluxions. 3 heh Withdraw the divisors from SOPoaP Xe. in the series of equation (8.) designated by and so on. ‘These coefficients are ‘Taylor, and we have an expression of the several orders of fluxions. Thus it is demonstrated that a relation exists between the binomial theorem and the several orders of fluxions. And ‘since | = must indicate the coefficient of & in the second term of the series, it follows that =n", and yr=ne"~ 2, Hence it appears that Lagrange had a sufficient reason for _— the second term of the binomial series for the first fluxion. It would be no uncommon occurrence, if, when the pans leading ‘to a discovery or improvement are once laid, by those who have gone before us, the same improvement should be made by several . individuals. ‘This happened in the separate and nearly cotemporane- ous invention of fluxions by Sir Isaac Newton and Leibnitz. And this may possibly be the case in regard to the views of that science here exhibited. No such thing, however, has come to my knowl- edge. Butit is what appears by the VII. Article in No. 47 of the Journal of Science, to have taken place in respect to the invention of a universal method of computing the area of an irregular pol- ygon. While Doct. Stiles was President of Yale College, which must have been previous to the year 1795, my method of solving Application of the Fluxional Ratio, &c. 103 this problem was transmitted to him for the purpose of being com- municated to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and I have never yet become acquainted with any other method simi- lar to.it. But I deem it unimportant to substantiate the claim of priority in time. Who first thought of an improvement is to the public a matter of trivial consequence, and even to the inventor himself, provided he ean bring before the public a useful invention, which he can honestly call his own. The writer of the VII. Article in No. 47 of the Journal of Science seems to have overlooked the improvement contained in the article he alluded to. It consists in making the first meridian bisect the first side in the calculation, by means of which the two areas of opposite values, formed by the bisection, balance and destroy each other. Hence the first product vanishes, and the number of products, which in the example he has given is four, is: reduced to three. ‘The assumption “that the first meridian may pass through any station of the field wherever it may be convenient to commence either the measurement or calculation” is common to both our methods, and lays the foundation for the algebraical pro- cess of adding and multiplying, recommended for its “ simplicity and the universality of its application.” If, therefore,.-we commence the: calculation with that side which causes the meridian line to divide the field into nearly equal parts, as the writer proposes; and if, instead of making the meridian line pass through the angular point, we make it bisect the first side, we shall arrive, as J conceive, at the highest improvement of which the problem is susceptible. - Covititions —Page 303, Vol. xxiv. 1. 11 fr. bot. for — read — +9 306, &é - Sa? ee _ in the diagram (Fig. 4.) fic read H.. 2a%n e304; “1.8 fr. bot. for2a? Ze? read “<* 308, oh, 9 fr. bot. aes aa-8 read a 104 Notices of Fossil Wood in Ohio. Art. XII.—Notices of Fossil Wood in Ohio; in a letter from Rev. Sayrs Gazuay, dated Cincinnati, April 30, 1833. TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN. Iy a former communication respecting wood found in digging a well in Palmyra, Ohio, it was stated, that such facts are so common, in the vicinity, as to excite no surprise. As this last remark seemed to excite your surprise, I have collected the following nt which I have the pleasure of furnishing you. ‘ About two years ago, a second instance of a similar kind fell under my observation. While the stage stopped at Palmyra, I examined the limb of a tree most resembling elm, taken up the preceding week in digging a well, at the depth of twenty-six feet. It was nine feet long and five inches in diameter. ‘Three pieces of it are now in my possession? It has lost half of its diameter in drying. Having no further acquaintance with the fossils of Bie I fur- nish you with a few of the many facts of this kind that might be col- lected in Springfield, which lies twelve miles south-west of the for- mer place, and fifteen miles north of Cincinnati; it is elevated one hundred feet above the highest river-bottoms, and is seven miles east of the Great Miami. Mr. Anthony Hills, innkeeper, in the lower part of the village of Springfield, found wood, in digging a well, at the various ie of sixteen, eighteen and twenty feet. Dr. Jeremiah Braden, in the aytumn of 1831, found near that place, several small pieces of wood at the depth of thirty feet; the largest of which was a little less than a man’s arm; but he found no more, although he sunk his well to the depth of sixty-five feet. John Miller, one mile north of Springfield, on ground about fifteen feet lower, found wood at the depth of twenty feet. Between this place and Springfield, the ground is forty feet lower, than at those places. Near Mr. Miller’s, and where the surface is about twenty feet lower, Archibald Martin found wood, sticks and leaves, twenty feet from the surface. His well is forty feet deep. Mr. Miller, uponanother farm of his, found also a part of a tree, five inches in diameter, which, from the knots being numerous upon it, he judged to be pine or spruce. ‘This was three miles east of Springfield. Michael Long, a mile southwest of the last mentioned place, dug two wells, and found wood in each, the trees lying quite across the Notices of Fossil Wood in Ohio. 105 whole shafts. ‘These were at various depths —some were more than forty feet below the surface. . Harp Peterson, half a mile north-east of Mr. Long’s, dug three wells, in each of which, he found grape vines, and a stratum of soil, or black mould four feet thick. In one of these he found lying across the well, a tree nine inches in diameter, which he supposed to be pine or cedar. In conversation with him upon the subject, he re- marked, “ It is no great miracle, to find wood in digging wells here.” The place where these wells were dug, is near the top of a ridge, from which the ground gradually descends, in every direction, for about half a mile. ‘The wood, in each, was found thirty feet below the surface. William Slayback, in 1825, two miles and a half west of Spring- field, found a tree twelve inches in diameter, lying horizontally, at the depth of thirty-six feet ; and it being necessary to cut the tree, I have obtained a piece sawed from one end of it, fourteen inches long and in good preservation. It is now eight inches in diameter. In digging an- other well a few rods from the former, he found several small pieces of wood, at the depth of twenty-five feet. The farther digging of the well he was compelled to —* on account of the looseness of the earth. William Bellas, about thirty rods fecined the pedaling on ground a little higher, sunk two wells in 1827, in both of which he occasionally found wood from seventeen to thirty-five feet below the surface. On account of the looseness of the earth, he left digging when he had come upon the top of a tree lying horizontally... He remarked to me, that he had not known a well dug any where in his vicinity, without finding wood. The wood was found in a bluish earth, mixed with gravel, which continued, below seventeen feet to the depth of thirty- five feet. Forty rods north of the preceding, wood was found in each of three wells, at the depth of twenty feet, on the farm of Thomas Skillman. The ground slopes all the distance from the site of Mr. Skillman’s wells, to that of Mr. Slaybach; the distance is about forty rods, and the descent about twenty feet, so that the wood of the former was about even with the surface of the latter. What is more parti- eularly worthy of remark, in relation to the three wells of Mr. Skill- man, is, that they were dug upon the top of a ridge, and upon the highest point of it, the ground sloping more gradually north and south, and descending more abruptly east and west, and no higher ground Vout. XXV.—No. 1. 14 106 Notices of Fossil Wood in Ohio. being in view from the spot. No stream of water large enough to drive a mill, is nearer to the place than the Great = is five miles to the west. William Huston, one mile farther west than Skillman’ s, on ground about twenty five feet lower, dug a well in 1830, in which he found wood almost continually, after he had descended eighteen feet, and he continued to find it to the depth of forty-five feet. At the depth of forty feet, he found a tree twelve inches in diameter crossing the well. He is of opinion that he found wood in his well sublicigm to fill the body of a cart. He gave mea piece of it, five inches in di- ameter, and a foot long, which is now in my possession. Samuel Newel, more than a mile west of Springfield, in digging a well, came upon the top of a tree lying almost horizontally, at the depth of twenty four feet, at which depth he relinquished digging, on account of the sides of the well caving in, and commenced again about two rods from the other place, on ground about two feet high- er, the ground gently sloping for‘some distance. In this second well he came upon the same tree, at the depth of twenty feet, uncover- ing the trunk near the root, the trunk there being broken, as is not uncommon with fallen trees. Mr. Compton, in the summer of 1832, bel wood in digging a well at the depth of nineteen feet. Some specimens are in my pos- session. This place is more than a mile south of Springfield, and a mile east of Mr. Long’s, before mentioned. Other similar facts are in my knowledge, collected i in the vicinity, which I forbear to detail, on account of their similarity. Eighteen miles north-east of Springfield, on the east side of the Little Miami, and four miles from this river, Thomas Dickey, Esq. found wood, in digging a well last summer, at the depth of sixteen feet. ‘Two pieces of these I procured of him last week ; one was taken from the top of a stump near the place, and the other lying on the ground. In explanation of their being thus left in the weather during the winter, and so in danger of being lost, he remarked that such facts were common in his neighborhood. It is obvious from the facts respecting Mr. Newel’s wells, that the ground about Springfield had a more uneven surface, before these trees were covered, than at present; for the surface, which now slopes two feet in two rods, then sloped six feet in the same distance, and even more if the branches of the tree bore the top from the ground, higher than the roots, which is common, when trees have ‘yamose tops. Notices of Fossil Wood in Ohio. 107 Two instances of wood found in digging upon the river bottoms, have come to my knowledge, one about five miles from Springfield, on Mill-creek bottom, at the depth of thirty feet, and one at Cincin- nati, on the Ohio bottom,:at the depth of thirty-five feet. The instances of fossil wood in Ohio with which I am acquainted, are much more numerous upon the upland or table land, than upon the bottoms. The quantity of this wood and its so general dispersion, clearly evince that it has not fallen into fissures of the earth, opened b earthquakes; besides, strata of soil or black mould, are frequently met with, which have every appearance of having been the surface : _ they vary froin six inches to four feet in thickness, and are generally interspersed with grape vines and the appearance of leaves and drift.* The tree in Mr. Newel’s wells, induces the opinion that the trees grew where they now lie; for it was broken in the trunk near the root, and yet both parts lay in a conformable position, except that the ends of both parts at the fracture were lower than if the trunk had not been broken, i. e. it was sunken at the broken place ; which facts cannot easily be accounted for, unless we suppose ~~ it now lies where it originally fell. : here is not a primitive rock in this region, except bowlders of granite, which have evidently been transported from another and a northern region. They are numerous in Ohio, but there’ is not one in Kentucky ; from the Ohio river the banks are too high, for those bowlders to have been carried up by water, which would turn its course after meeting the river and follow down its bed. The con- formable rocks are universally transition limestone, fragments of which lie unconformably in all cases interspersed with the bluish gravelly earth, above the fossil wood. There are two indications here of two former inundations. Gran- ite bowlders are lying on the surface of the earth, under which whole trees are lying at the depth of forty feet; and such bowlders are also found lying upon conformable transition lime rocks. I have made inquiry respecting conformable rocks overlying fos- sil. wood ; but have not learned one instance of such a fact. * This is the language used in giving me information, and means such vegetables as are thrown together by swollen streams. 108 Fossil Vegetables. Art. XIV.—Fossil Vegetables. - Mr. Witham of Lartington, Yorkshire, England, (also of Edinburgh) has favored the scientific world with two very interesting memoirs on fossil vegetables. They evince great skill and care in developing the facts, and in illustrating them by the most beautiful colored sections, exhibiting the internal vegetable structure, which he has developed by a new method of examination by the microscope. By comparing the fossil specimens with those of recent vegetables, which also he has examined by the microscope, he thinks he can de- tect the true character and species of the fossil plant. Among many others, he describes a fossil tree, discovered in 1826 in a quarry near Edinburgh, which is a most curious and interesting fragment of an earlier world. It was found one hundred and thinrycais feet below the surface, in a horizontal position, nearly parallel with the stratum of sandstone in which it was imbedded, and measured thirty-six feet in height, and three feet in diameter at its base. This remnant of primitive vegetation appears to have been a conifera, and from com- paring the structure with the Norway Fir, and the Yew-tree, the re- semblance is surprising, and if not identical, may confidently be refer- red to that family. The cells and layers of the woody fibre are evident, although foreign substances have, by percolation, taken possession of the decaying part of the plant. In some parts, masses of crystals or other, mineral substances in patches and irregular streaks, have displaced the vegetable, but the whole is sufficiently entire to indicate its re- semblance to the living tree. The bark or rind was of a — sub- stance. Another fossil stem has been recently discovered in the quarry of Craigleith near Edinburgh, whose geological position is in the moun- tain limestone group, and considerably below the great coal basins of the Lothians. Its elevation is seventy-five feet above the level of the sea and its roots were at the bottom of the quarry. The length of the stem was forty-seven feet—a large, branchless trunk—in some parts, much flattened so as to afford an elliptical section. Its largest diameter is five feet by two, and its smallest, one foot and seven inches by one foot and four inches. It is obvious that many feet are gone from the top, whose spreading branches waved in the wind, ages ago, and probably at the height of sixty feet. The super- incumbent mass of rock appears to have been an hundred feet Fossil Vegetables. 109 thick. The bark is converted into coal. In the great coal field of the north, fossil plants are generally found in a horizontal position or parallel to the strata, but much broken and compressed, with their parts far separated. But large and vigorous plants are sometimes found which appear to have been strong enough to withstand the force of torrents, if such existed, and to have remained in their natural posi- tions. ‘These vertical plantsare generally Sigillarie. The Stigmarie and the Equisetacee do not appear to have been strong enough ~ to have resisted such revolutionary influences. Great numbers of Gymnospermous Phanerogamic plants have been lately discover- ed in the shales of the mountain limestone group, much broken, and lving in a state of great confusion. Other discoveries of fos- sil trees have been made in the same quarry, in which the above named plants wére found, particularly two immense Conifere, and there appears strong reason to believe, that in a square mile of the same deposit, many other ancient relics of early vegetation will be brought to light, and thus induce the belief that these plants are as abundant in these deposits, as in those higher up in the strata. Some- times the composition of the fossil vegetables i is similar to that of the strata in which they lie, and sometimes it is either wholly or partially different, and the variation must be accounted for from the operation of local causes. The composition of the Craigleith fossil, named above, was carbonate of lime 62, carbonate of iron 33, carbon 5, and the specific gravity was 2.87. The composition of the Craigleith tree discovered in 1826 was carbonate of lime 60, oxide of iron 18, alumine 10, carbon 9, loss 3, and several specimens from other places had a similar composition. A fossil plant from the quarry of Neworth near Newcastle, between the encrinal or mountain limestone and the new red sandstone depos- its, was, silica 95, peroxide of iron and alumine 5. he discoveries of Mr. Witham induce us to believe that plants of the gymnospermous phanerogamic class are much more abundant in the early sedimentary _— than continental writers have sup- sed. We are led to the curious and unexpected conclusion that proper trees, of true ligneous fibre and of great size, existed, even earlier than the bituminous coal, and that the great coally deposits are probably due, in part, to them, as well as to the vascular cryptogamic plants, whose remains are so abundant in these strata. It is therefore possible that wood may be found, even with the ear- liest fragmentary rocks, probably with the grauwacke itself. 110 Fossil Vegetables. There can be scarcely a doubt of the vegetable origin of coal, and although the naturalist makes slow advances in disclosing the secrets of this “ dark field of existence,” yet enough is known to stimulate inquiry, and justify conjecture. If it is assumed that coal is of vegetable origin, the varieties of quality, and the appearance of mineralized plants, which are more or less frequent in coal measures, may be easily accounted for. Three external forces are in operation to produce these varieties, which are, Furst, the different nature of the superincumbent strata, some of which may insinuate little of their substance in place of the decom- posing vegetable matter. A second is, the effect of great pressure, excluding sicioapberal action, and allowing little or no escape of vegetable matter—an Al third, the agency of spontaneous heat, which by causing chemi- cal and other changes in the ligneous fibre, and the concrete juices of the plants, results, in the progress: of time, in the formation of those combustible masses, which again vary in quality, proportioned to the resinous and other inherent properties of the plants in their original state. Some have supposed. that anthracite was originally bins coal, which time had robbed of its more volatile and more inflammable parts ; that by undergoing continual change, the bitumen became as- similated to the carbon. This is possible, but it seems more proba- ble, that it owes its peculiarities to the properties of the Bagetable materials from which it had its origin. The absence of cither of the forces acting ona on bed, A leave the vegetable in a fossil state, e. g. if the amount of heat were insufficient to effect the chemical changes essential to the formation of coal ; or if the stratum in which it was imbedded, contained much water bobdine mineral or metallic substances in solution, which by in- filtration might fill up the cavities made by the decaying portions of the plant, its form would thus be preserved, when all its original constituents had ceased to exist. The subject is one of intense interest, and demands the continued attention of the naturalist. The extended discovery of fossil remains, ‘‘those records of past ages,” in various parts of Europe, and other quarters of the world, within the last twenty years, has much enlarged the sphere of geological investigation, and proves the necessity of further and more minute examinations “ among the dark and pathless repositories of an ancient world.” Fossil Vegetables. ; 1 It may be valuable to the geologist who wishes to examine fossils by the microscope, to have a formula of Mr. Witham’s: mode of pre- paring the a es for which he acknowledges himself indebted to Mr. Nicoll. He first cuts a thin slice from the fossil wood, in a direction per- pendicular to the length of its fibres. The slice thus obtained must be ground perfectly flat and then polished. The polished surface is - to be cemented to a piece of plate, or mirror or glass a little larger than itself, by means of a thin layer of Canada Balsam, applied to the polished surface of the slice, and also to one side of the glass. The slice and the glass must now be laid on a common fire shovel, and gradually heated over a slow fire, to concentrate the balsam. It will require great care to prevent the heat from becoming so great as to throw the balsam into a state of ebullition, for if air bubbles are formed in it, it will be difficult to remove them and they will prevent the complete adhesion of the two surfaces, when applied to each other. The heat of the shovel should never become so great that the fingers may not be’ held against it without inconvenience. With every precaution, some few bubbles will sometimes make their ap- pearance, but these may be removed by a small stick tapering to a fine point. When the balsam is sufficiently concentrated, and the air bubbles removed, the slice and the glass may be taken from the shovel, and applied to each other. A slight degree of pressure will be necessary to expel the superabundant balsam, and this will be fa- cilitated by gently sliding the one onthe other. By this kind of mo- tion, any air which might have got entangled in the balsam will also be removed. When the whole’is cooled to the temperature of the air, and the balsam has become solid, that part of it which adheres to the glass surrounding the slice, should be removed by the point of a pen knife, and by this operation, it will be seen whether the balsam is properly concentrated. If it has entirely lost its sectility, and starts off in flakes before the’ knife, it will be found that. the slice and glass cohere so firmly, that in the subsequent grinding, there will be no risk of their separation. If the balsam is not sufficiently concentrated, it will slide before the knife, and’the two bodies wil! not adhere with sufficient firmness. If the layer of balsam be not too thick, its due concentra- tion may be accomplished in four or five minutes. The ‘slice must now be ground down to that degree of thinness — which will permit its structure to be seen by the microscope. The 112 Fossil Vegetables. lapidary will find it advantageous, to fix the glass in a groove: made in a small piece of wood. The groove should be a little less deep than the thickness of the glass, and the wood itself should project half an inch beyond each side. A lapidary will thus find no difficulty. i in reducing, and polishing any piece of petrified wood to the ore of thinness, sufficient to render its structure visible. With the hope of exciting the gable attention in this country ts to this very interesting subject, we subjoin a letter from Mr. Witham to the editor, with his reply. . TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN. Sir—In perusing your Journal, I perceive you are anxious for the promotion of all branches of science in the various. departments, and as it appears to me, that little attention has hitherto been paid in America to the peculiarities of fossil vegetation; I have therefore taken the liberty of sending one or two memoirs, and a short work upon that department of the botanical field. Owing to the great opa- city and consequent difficulty of obtaining insight into the internal structure, of fossil vegetables, they have been, until lately, much neg- lected. You will now perceive that by a new mode of cutting, slicing and grinding, you will be able to obtain the internal structure of any plant that retains its structure. Should you, by your persuasion, be able to set labourers to work in your extensive coal fields, it may lead to comparisons, both curious and highly instructive, and any communications received from you, will be most gratefully received, by, Sir, Your obt. — H. Wirnam. Lartington, Greta Bridge, Yorkshire, } ene M4 Grea — Street, Edinburgh, Apri 5. REPLY. ‘ Yale College, July 11, 1833. Sir—A few days ago, I had the pleasure of receiving your kind letter of April 5th, with several copies of your two memoirs, for which I beg you to accept my best thanks. ‘They have interested me very rauch, and I shall give in the Am. Jour. a short notice of your discov- eries. In 1830, I republished the first observations which you had then made; and still earlier, those of M. Alex. Brongniart, in the coal of St. Etienne, in France. You have opened a very inter- esting field of inquiry, and I doubt not that the progress of explo- ration, in this country, will add to the mass of similar facts. I have Fossil Vegetables. 113 just heard, that some huge stems have been recently discovered in one of the anthracite mines of Pennsylvania, but, my information is not precise, although, from the source, I believe it to be authentic. Ihave a mass of American anthracite, received not long since, which contains a compressed vegetable branch as large as a human arm ; it is distinctly fibrous, like charcoal, and forms a strong contrast with the general lustre and conchoidal fracture of the —- substance. I am led to believe, that fididepeiiaitly of the impressions which are so common in the shales and other attendant rocks,) vegetable structure may be developed in the very mass of coal itself, much more extensively, than has been generally imagined. Our Pennsyl- vania anthracite, (a stupendous formation,) affords vegetable fibres, in many places, provided the fracture be made, in a particular di- rection, between the layers of coal; if across, or aslant the layers, no fibres appear, but only a lustrous, conchoidal, or sub-conchoidal fracture. The same is the fact with an immense deposit of bitu- minous coal upon the banks of the Ohio, between Pittsburgh and Cincinnati. This coal appears to be one entire mass of plants, whose structure is revealed, often with great distinctness, provided the fracture be made, as above stated ; otherwise, it has only the usual appearance of glance coal. The same vegetable tissue which is perfectly apparent in one direction, is completely disguised, if the fracture be made, obliquely or directly across the structure, and a similar difference is observed, on fracturing in the same manner, a piece of common charcoal. I shall take the liberty, with a view of exciting attention to the subject in this country, to publish your let- ter and this hasty reply. Your mode of developing the structure of fossil plants is, I believe, entirely original, as it is certainly most ingenious, and I hope it may be repeated in many countries, until we shall become well acquainted with the botanical character of the plants of the primeval world. I shall be happy to receive any additional notices with which you may favor me, and I will, in turn, do any thing in my power to pro- mote this interesting research, on this side of the Atlantic. I remain, sir, very respectfully, our most obliged and very obedient servant, H. Wirnam, Esq. B. Smuumay- Vou. XXV.—No. 1. 15 114 Observations on the Husricanes and Storms Arr. XV.—Observations on the Hurricanes and Storms of the West Indies and the coast of the U. States; by W. C. Reprieiy.* Ir has been found by a careful attention to the progress and phe- nomena of the more violent storms which have visited the West- ern Atlantic, that they exhibit certain characteristics of great uni- formity. This appears, not only in the determinate course which these storms are found to pursue, but in the direction of wind, and succession of changes which they exhibit while they continue in ac- tion. The same general characteristics appear also to pertain, in some degree, to many of the more common variations and_vicissi- tudes of winds and weather, at leastin the temperate latitudes. The following points may be considered as established. . The storms of greatest severity often originate in the tropical latitudes, and not unfrequently, to the northward or eastward of the West India Islands; in which region they are distinguished by the name of hurricanes. 2. These storms cover at the same moment of time, an extent of contiguous surface, the diameter of which may vary in different storms, from one to five hundred miles, and in some cases they haye been much more extensive. They act with diminished violence to- wards the exterior, and with increased energy towards the interior, of the space which they occupy. 3. While in the tropical latitudes, or south of the parallel of 30°, these storms pursue their course or are drifted towards the west, on a track which inclines gradually to the northward, till it Approaches the latitude of 30°. In the vicinity of this parallel, their course is changed somewhat abruptly to the northward and eastward, and the track continues to incline gradually to the east, towards which point, after leaving the lower latitudes, they are found to advance with an accelerated velocity. e rate at which these storms are found thus to adyance in their course, varies much in different cases, but may be estimated at from twelve to thirty miles an hour. The extent to which their course is finally pursued, remains unknown; but it is. probable, that as they * From Blunt’s American Coast Pilot, twelfth edition—Mr. Redfield’s paper on this subject (see Vol. xx. pa. 17 of this Journal) having been received with no small interest, ae revised view which he has prepared cannot be unacceptable. of the United States and the West Indies. 115 proceed, they become gradually extended in their dimensions, and weakened in their action, till they cease to command any peculiar — notice. One of the hurricanes of August 1830, has been traced in its daily progress, from near the Caribbee Islands, to the coast of Florida, and the Carolinas, and from thence to the banks of New- foundland ; a distance of more than three thousand miles, which was passed over by the storm in about six days. ‘The duration of the most violent portion of this gale, at the different points over which ‘it. passed, was about: twelve hours, but its entire duration was in many places, more than twice that period. Another hurricane which oc- cured in the same month, passed from near the Windward islands, on a more eastern but similar route, and has also been traced in its daily stages by means of the journals and reports of voyagers, near two thousand five hundred miles. It was in this storm, that the Rus- sian Corvette Kensington, Captain Ramsey, suffered so severely. The hurricane of August 1831, which desolated the island of Bar- badoés on the tenth of that month, the daily progress of which has also been ascertained, passed in nearly a direct course to the north- ern shores of the Gulf of Mexico and New Orleans, where it arrived on the 16th of the same month, having passed over a distance of twenty three hundred statute miles in six days after leaving Barba- does. Many cases of like character might be adduced. 4, The duration of the storm at any place within its track, de- pends upon its extent and the rate of velocity at which it moves, as these circumstances are found to determine the time which is requi- red for the storm to pass over any given locality falling within its route. Storms of smaller extent or dimensions, are usually found to move from one place to another with greater rapidity than larger storms. 5. The direction and strength of the wind exhibited by a storm, over the greater portion of its track, are found not to be in the direc- tion of ats progress. ‘The rate or velocity of this progress would in- deed be insufficient to produce any violent effect. -6. In the lower latitudes while drifting to the westward, the direc- tion of the wind at the commencement, or under the most advanced portion of these storms, is from a northern quarter, usually from north east to north west; and during the latter part of the gale, it blows from a southern quarter of the horizon, at all places whats the whole gale is experienced. 116 Observations on the Hervitisies and Storms 7. After reaching the more northern latitudes, and while pursuing ’ their course to the northward and eastward, these storms commence with the wind from an eastern or southern quarter, and terminate with the wind from a western quarter, as will appear more distinctly un- der the three following heads ;—the latter portion of the storm being usually attended with broken or clear weather. 8. On the outer portion of the track, north of the parallel of 30°, or within that portion of it which lies farthest from the American coast, these storms exhibit at their commencement, a southerly wind which, as the storm comes over, veers —— to the westward, in which quarter it is found to terminate. ; 9. In the same latitudes, but along the central portions of the track the first force of the wind, is from a point near to south-east, but af- ter blowing for a certain period, it changes suddenly, and usually af- ter a short intermission, to a point nearly or directly opposite to that from which it has previously been blowing, from which opposite quar- ter it blows with equal violence till the storm has passed over or has abated. This sudden change of a south-easterly wind to an opposite direction, does not occur towards either margin of the storm’s track, but only on its more central portion, and takes effect in regular pro-— gression along this central part of the route, from the south-west to- wards the north-east, in an order of time, which is exactly coincident with the progress of the storm in the same direction. It is under this portion of the storm, that we notice the greatest fall of the ba- rometer, and the mercury usually begins to rise a short time previous to the change of wind. «In this part of the track, the storm is known as a south-easter, and is usually attended with rain — to - change of wind, and perhaps for a short time after. 10. On that portion of the track which is nearest the American coast, or which is farthest inland if the storm reaches the continent, the wind commences from a more eastern or north-eastern point of the horizon, and afterwards veers more or Jess gradually, by north, to a north-western or westerly quarter, where it finally terminates. Here also the first part of the storm is usually, but not always attend- ed with rain, and its latter or western portion with fair weather. The first or foul weather portion of the storm, is on this part of its track, recognized as a north-easter. It should be noted, however, that near the latitude of 30° and on the shores of Carolina, where the storm enters obliquely upon the coast, while its track is rapidly changing from a northwardly to an of the United States and the West Indies. 117 eastwardly direction, the wind on the central track of the storm will commence from an eastern or north-eastern point of the compass, and will gradually become ney as the storm approaches its height. 11. A full and just consideration of the facts which have bene stated, will show conclusively that the portion of the atmosphere which composes for the time being the great body of the storm, whirls or blows in a horizontal circuit, around a vertical or some- what: inclined axis of rotation which is carried onward with the storm; that the course or direction of this circuit of rotation is from right to left; and that the storm operates in the same manner, and exhibits the same general characteristics, as a tornado or whirl- wind of stnaller dimensions; the chief difference being in the mag- nitude of the scale of operation.* This view of the subject, when fully comprehended, ‘affords a satisfactory solution of the otherwise inexplicable phenomena of storms; and will also be found to accord entirely with the fact, which has been previously stated, that in the phases or changes which pertain to a storm, the wind, on one mar- gin of its track, veers in seaman’s phrase with the sun, or from left to right, while under the opposite margin of the same storm it veers against the sun, or from right to left ; for this peculiarity necessarily attends the progress of any whirlwind which operates horizontally. 12. The Barometer, whether in the higher or lower latitudes, al- ways sinks while under the first portion or moiety of the storm on every part of its track, excepting perhaps, its extreme northern mar- gin, and thus often affords us the earliest and surest indication of the approaching tempest. The mercury in the Barometer always rises again during the passage of the last portion of the gale, and com- monly attains the maximum of its élevation on the entire departure of the storm. The great value of the Barometer to navigators is becoming well understood, and its practical utility might be greatly increased by hourly entries of the precise height of the mercurial column in a ta- ble prepared for the purpose. Its movements unless carefully recor- ded, often escape notice or recollection; which may easily happen at shone times when a distinct knowledge of its latest variations —_ prove to be of the greatest importance. * Itis to be understood that the diameter of the whirlwind which constitutes the storm is commensurate with the width of the track over which the storm passes. 118 Observations on the Hurricanes and Storms _ In the foregoing statements our design has been to designate in a summary manner the principal movements which, in these regions at least, constitute a storm; and we do not attempt to notice the various irregularities, and subordinate or incidental movements and phenom- ena of the atmosphere, with which a storm may chance to be con- nected, or which may necessarily result from such violent movements in a fluid which is so tenuous and elastic in its character. It may be remarked in general, that the most active or violent storms are usually he most regular and uniform in the development of those character- istic movements which we have already described. It is also prob- able, that the vortex or rotative axis, of a violent gale or hurricane, oscillates in its course with considerable rapidity, in a moving circuit of moderate extent, near the centre of the hurricane ; and such an eccentric movement of the vortex may; for aught we know, be es- sential to the continued activity or force of the hurricane. Such a movement will fully account for the violent flaws or gusts of wind, and the intervening Julls or remissions, which are so often experien+ ced towards the heart of a storm or hurricane, when in open sea ; but of its existence we have no positive evidence. It frequently happens that a storm during the first part of its prog- ress over a given point, fails to take effect upon the surface, while it exhibits its full activity at a greater altitude. This commonly hap- pens when this portion of the storm arrives from, or has recently blown over a more elevated country, or is passing or blowing from the land to the sea. On land the most violent effects are usually felt from those storms which enter and blow directly from the open ocean upon the shores of an island or continent. Upon the latter, under such cir- cumstances, the first part of the gale is usually the most severe, and that coast of an island upon which a storm first enters, or blows, also suffers most from the early part of the gale, but its later or receding part, often acts with the greatest fury upon the opposite side of the island, which had previously derived some degree of shelter from the intermediate elevations and other obstacles opposed to the force of the wind, the benefit of which is now lost by its counter direction from the open ocean. Owing to similar causes, the force of the storm is sometimes very unequal at different places, situated in nearly the same part of its track, and such inequality, as we have before in- timated, necessarily pertains to two places one of which is near the centre and the other towards the margin of the route. of the United States and the West Indies. 119 Of the multitude of facts by which this part of the subject might be illustrated, we will only state, that in the late hurricane at Barbadoes,. (that of August 1831) the trees near the northern coast of that island, lay from N. N. W. to S. S. Es having been prostrated by a northerly - wind in the earlier part of the storm, while in the interior and some other parts of the island, they were found to lie from south to north, having fallen in the later period of the gale—That after the same hur- ricane, advices which were received from the islands of St. Croix and - Porto Rico, (which lay near the northern margin of its track) stated that no hurricane had been experienced at these islands; but it af- terwards appeared that some portions of these islands had suffered damage from this hurricane in the night of the 12th to 13th of An- gust, two days after it passed over the island of Barbadoes.—That the sea*islands which border the eoast of Georgia and the Carolinas, are known to suffer greatly from these tempests, while little or no injury is sustained in the interior at the distance of a few miles from the coast. One of the most striking characteristics of these storms, is the heavy swell which in open sea is often known to extend itself on both sides of the track, entirely beyond the range of the gale by which it was produced. ‘The last hurricane to -which we have allu- ded, threw its swell with tremendous force upon the northern shores of Jamaica, having passed to the northward ake es island. A variety of deductions ma yb d which we have stated, some of which, are deeply i interesting to the philoso- pher and votary of science. For ourselves, we disclaim any bondage to existing theories in meteorology ; and shall on the present occasion, only proceed to notice a few. of the more practical inferences which, to navigators and others may, perhaps, be of no doubtful utility. 1. A vessel bound to the eastward between the latitudes of 329 and 45° in the western part of the Atlantic, on being overtaken by a gale which commences blowing from any point to the eastward of S. E. or E..S. E. may avoid some portion of its violence, by putting "her head to the northward, and when the gale has veered sufficien ix the same direction, may safely resume her course. But by stand- ing to the southward under like circumstances, she will probably we into the heart of the storm. 2. In the same region, vessels, on taking a gale from S. E. or stints near thereto, will probably soon find themselves in the heart of the storm, and after its first fury is spent, may expect its recurrence from the opposite quarter. The most p i 120 Observations on the Hurricanes and Storms olence, and at the same time shortening its duration, is to stand to the southward upon the wind, as long as may be necessary or possible ; and if the movement succeeds, the wind will gradually head you off in the same direction. If it becomes necessary to heave too, put your head to the southward, and, if the wind does not veer, be prepared for a blast from the north-west. 3. In the same latitudes, a vessel scudding in a gale with the wind at east or north-east, shortens its duration. On the contrary, a vessel scudding before a south-westerly or westerly gale, will thereby in- - crease its duration. 4. A vessel which is pursuing her course to the westward or south westward, in this part of the Atlantic, meets the storms in their course, and thereby shortens the periods of their occurrence ; and will en- counter more gales in an equal number of days, = if stationary, or sailing in a different direction. 5. On the other hand, vessels while sailing to the eastward or north- eastward, or in the course of the storms, wilt lengthen the periods be- tween their occurrence, and consequently experience them: less fre- quently than vessels sailing on a different course. The difference of exposure which results from these opposite courses, on the American coast, may in most cases be estimated as nearly two to one. 6. The hazard from casualties, and of consequence the value of insurance, is enhanced or diminished by the direction of the re as shown under the last two hentis: . As the ordinary routine of d weather in these latitudes, often corresponds to the phases hanks are e-exhibited by the storms as before described, a correct opinion, founded upon this resemblance, can often be formed of the approaching changes of wind and weather, which may be highly useful to the observing navigator. 8. A due consideration of the facts which have been stated, partic- ularly those under our twelfth head, will inspire additional confidence in the indications of the barometer, and these ought not to be neglect- ed, even should the fall of the mercury be unattended by any appear- ancesof violence in the weather, as the other side of the gale will be pretty sure to take effect, and often in a manner so sudden and vio- lent as to more than compensate for its previous forbearance. Not the least reliance, however, should be placed upon the prognostics, which are usually attached to the scale of the barometer, such as Set- Fair, Fair, Change, Rain, &c. as in this region, at least, they serve no other purpose than:to bring this valuable instrument into discredit. of the United States and the West Indies. 121 It is the mere rising and falling of the mercury, which chiefly de- serves attention, and not its conformity to a particular point in the scale of elevation. 9. These practical inferences apply in terms, chiefly to storms which have passed tothe northward of the 30th degree of latitude on the American coast, but with the necessary modification as to the point of the compass, which results from the westerly course pursued by the storm while in the lower latitudes, are for the most part equal- ly applicable to the storms and hurricanes which occur in the West Indies, and south of the parallel of 30°. As the marked occurrence of tempestuous weather is here less frequent, it may be sufficient to notice that the point of direction, in cases which are otherwise analo- gous, is in the West Indian seas, about ten or twelve points of the compass more to the left than on the coast of the United States in the latitude of New-York : Vicissitudes of winds and weather’on this coast which do not con- form to the foregoing specifications, are more frequent in April, May, and June, than in other months. Easterly or southerly winds under which the barometer rises, or ‘maintains its elevation, are not of a By- ratory or stormy character; but such winds frequently terminate in the falling of the barometer and the usual phenomena of an easterly storm. The typhoons and storms of the China sea and eastern coast of Asia, appear to be similar in character to the hurricanes of the West Indies and the storms of this coast, when prevailing in the same lati- tudes. There is reason to believe that the great circuits of wind, of which the trade winds form an.integral part, are nearly uniform in all the great oceanic basins; and that the course of these circuits and of = stormy gyrations which they may contain, is, in the southern emisphere, in a counter-direction to those north of the equator, pro- pi a corresponding difference in the general pa of storms ae winds in the two ee es I XXV.—No. 1 122 Facts in Meteorology. Art. XVI.—Summary Statements of some of the leading Faets in Meteorology ; by W. C. Reprierp. To the Editor of the American Journal of Science. : Dear Sir.—In the observations on the storms of the West Indies, and the coast of the United States, which I have lately furnished for the American Coast Pilot, you will find a condensed and more expli- cit statement of the result of the investigations which were the sub- ject of my former article on the storms of the American coast,* than that article presents. Tn the attempt to ascertain and describe the physical characteris- tics of these tempests, I have been under the influence of no precon- ceived opinions, or theories, except such as commonly prevail among the reading public. My sole object has been to arrive at truth. Nor did 1 contemplate, until a late period in the inquiry, the task of pla- cing these results before the public. However imperfectly this task has been executed, a sufficient apology for attempting it may, perhaps, be found, in the almost total absence of information on this subject, in books of science ; as may be seen by referring to the articles, Hur- RIcANE, &c. in the best Encyclopedias. Dr. Franklin has indeed elicited the fact, that some storms on this coast approach from the south-west, while exhibiting the wind in a contrary direction, and this for a long period seems to have been the extent of our knowledge. To the same philosopher we were first indebted for proofs of the identity of whirlwinds with waterspouts. The labors of an able co- temporary, (Professor Mitchell,) appear also to be entitled to respect- ful notice, so far, at least, as they relate to the physical character of thunder storms. It is with some hesitation, that I send you 1 the following paragraphs from the forthcoming American edition of a little compendium, which is entitled, “4 Million of Facts ;” the meteorological portion of which, has fallen under my supervision. Some of the statements in these paragraphse now appear for the first time in a distinct form, al- though sufficient evidence for their support, may be found recorded. They comprise but a part of that range of investigation which seems necessary to be pursued, in order to place meteorology upon a just footing among the sciences. * Journal of Science, Vol. xx.—also, Vol. xxi. p. 191—193. Facts in Meteorology. 123 I am aware that this method of bringing forward truths, or propo- sitions, in natural science, is liable to objections; but I have thought it better to incite the attention of others to the facts and physics of meteorology, by means of such brief statements, rather than to at- tempt a systematic demonstration of this extensive and_ interesting subject, under circumstances which, on my part, seem to peeabede such an undertaking. The favorite and hitherto prevailing theory, or hypothesis, is that which makes equatorial heat and rarefaction, to be the principal cause, the grand primum mobile, of winds ; and which assigns local rarefac- tion as the immediate cause of great storms. If this theory should seem to be invalidated in any degree, by these statements, or by any ‘that have been previously made, the fault isnot mine. Facts in na- ture are strangely unaccommodating, in relation to some opinions, and modes of thinking which the writer, in common with your read- ers, has been accustomed to cherish. General view of the eae The superficial extent of the atmosphere at its lower surface, is equal to about 200,000,000 of square miles. Its altitude, if reckon- ed at the uniform density of its lower surface, or in other words, ac- cording to its actual quantity, is equal toa little more than five miles. Considered, therefore, as a fluid stratum resting upon the earth, the horizontal or superficial extent of the atmosphere is to its altitude or vertical dimensions, in the proportion of near 40,000,000 to 1 ; which shows its relative thickness to be less than that of a sheet of paper, when compared with its surface, a fact that well deserves considera- tion in any physical estimate of its winds and currents. Temperature of Elevation. Flsvone above the level of the sea, or the general level of a coun- try, makes a regular variation in temperature ; the first 300 feet, it is supposed, causes a difference of adegree. After ascending 300 feet, we are told, the thermometer falls a degree at 295 feet, then at 277, 252, 223, and at 192 feet; so that at 1539 feet of elevation, the thermometer will fall six degrees in a general way ; but 300 feet per degree is the common rule. On these principles, the limit of perpetual congelation has been theoretically calculated : it is made 15000 feet at the equator ; and from that to 13000 between the trop- ics; and from 9000 to 4000 between latitude 40° and 59°. 124 Facts in Meteorology. It has been found, however, that the above rule is subject to great variations, owing probably to the physical character and temperature of the atmospheric currents which prevail in different regions and at different altitudes. Warmer strata or currents are often found rest- ing upon, or interposed between, those of a lower temperature. On the Himalaya mountains between the latitudes of 28° and 34° north, the region of vegetation has been found to extend many thousand feet above the supposed line of perpetual congelation assigned to those latitudes. _ It is also remarkable that the line of perpetual snow is found at a much greater altitude on the northern side of these moun- tains than on the southern side in a lower latitude. ‘These facts, with others which are obtaining notice, will cause a revision of the hitherto prevailing theories in meteorology. Of Trade winds and Monsoons, and their circuitous i ceter” The trade winds, in hoth hemispheres, on approaching the western borders of the great oceans, become deflected in their course, and passing into higher latitudes in the form of south-west and north-west winds, they become identified with the prevailing westerly winds in these latitudes. On the eastern borders of these oceans the air re- turns towards the equator in the form of northerly or southerly winds, - which on crossing their respective parallels of 30°, become merged in the easterly trades, on both sides the equator ; the locality, as well as activity, of these aerial circuits, being affected more or less with the change of seasons. ‘This appears to be the great law of circula- tion in our atmosphere ; and it is chiefly to the physical character and course of the winds in different portions of these great circuits, that the peculiarities of temperature and climate which pertain to certain countries lying in the same latitudes, but on opposite sides of the same ocean, are to be referred ; as also the remarkable absence or predom- inance of rain in certain countries and latitudes. The Monsoons of the Indian seas are but a modification of the same system of circula- tion. Counter circuits are sometimes formed in subordinate basins, and in high latitudes; the irregularities usually becoming greater in proportion as we recede from the equatorial regions. The north-west and south-west Monsoons, which have been erro- neously ascribed to the effects of local or continental rarefaction, are found to extend themselves far to the eastward of the Asiatic conti- nent and islands, and even to the central portions of the great Pacific gcean. * Facts in Meteorology. 125 The dry current of the north-east Monsoon, on approaching the equator, becomes deflected and checked in its course, and crossing the equator, returns again to the eastward, in the southern latitudes, in the form of the wetnorth-west Monsoon. On the other hand, the dry south-east Monsoon which prevails in the opposite season south of the equator, becomes deflected in the same manner, in the equa- torial region, and returns to the eastward north of the equator in the character of the south-west Monsoon. In Ceylon, (lat. 8° north) the north-east Monsoon, with a tempe- rature of 68° Fahrenheit, has a dryness of 75 hygrometric degrees. The opposite Monsoon, from the south-west at 82° Fahrenheit, is so damp as to indicate but 30°. Of General Winds and atmospheric phenomena. As the winds, over a breadth of 60 degrees, blow with slight in- terruption, from east to west; so in the northern and southern hem- ispheres the atmospheric equilibrium demands that the prevailing winds should be from west to east, and therefore, for the most part, westerly winds prevail for two thirds of the year, and they enable ships which sail to the West Indies by the trade winds to return to the East by first ascending to the latitude of 40° or 45°. In almost every country, as well asin every sea, the wind is more or less predominant in a particular direction. rom the average rate of sailing of ships during long voyages through various seas, as in the China trade, and from other data, it is estimated that the average velocity of the wind, near the surface of the ocean, is equal to eighteen miles an hour throughout the year. Notwithstanding these general and determinate horizontal move- ments, the equal distribution of the atmosphere over the surface of the globe, which results from gravitation, tends to prevent any very rapid or violent motion in any specific direction, and consequently to prevent violent and destructive winds. But owing to the tendency of all fluid matter to run in whirls, or circuits, when subject to the influence of unequal or opposing forces, a rotative movement of un- measured violence is sometimes produced. This peculiar movement which in its most active state is sometimes distinguished by the name of tornado or hurricane, assumes every possible variety of position, appearance, velocity and extent; and is the only known cause ad violent and destructive winds or tempests. 126 Facts in Meteorology. The various phenomena and effects which result from this cause, are usually considered as distinct meteors, and are variously named in different countries, according to their sensible appearances, inten- sity, extent and duration. . Such stormy meteors are distinguished by the following among other names, which are often applied in an indeterminate manner and sometimes to the same, or modifications of the same phenomena. — Ist. Aerial meteors or phenomena constituted by whirls or violent movements of limited extent. Flaw _ Turbonado Whirl Tourbillon Gust Tornado Rush of wind Bursting of a Waterspout _ Whirlwind Falling of a Waterspout Helm or Helm wind —_ Bursting of a cloud. Spout ~~ Squall Waterspout Thunderstorm Sand spout Hailstorm Sand pillar Sandwind Fire pillar Samiel Turbo Simoom Cuiass 2d. Whirlwind-storms or violent movements of Mer in- creased exten Gale nis ae (Menico, ) Blow Sirocco Storm Hurricane Pamperro (in La Plata. Typhoon, or Tau-fung, &c. Names of general or periodical winds of the nature of currents. Trade Winds Etesian Winds Monsoons Harmattan, &c. The Samiel is described as a hot noxious wind which sometimes passes over the sandy deserts of Arabia and Africa. It passes in narrow currents lasting only a few minutes. The coming of it is in- dicated by a thick haze in the horizon, and travellers, if they have time, throw themselves on their faces, till it has passed. The Sirocco is a blighting hot wind which prevails in Italy, &c., about April. Facts in Meteorology. 127 The Harmattan is an east wind of great dryness, which visits the western coast of Africa in the low latitudes, in the months of January, February and March. It is probably the true trade wind, which or- dinarily does not act in these regions as a surface wind, but passes in a higher stratum. The Helm wind is a violent whirlwind, peculiar to the western side of the Cross Fell mountain in Cumberland ; and it occurs only during an easterly wind. Whirlwinds of the same character are not uncommon .in other regions where obstructions are presented to the regular wind. Whirlwinds of great extent always act horizontally ; those of small dimensions act either horizontally or vertically, or at any intermediate angle of inclination. Many of this smaller class of whirlwinds occur in the atmosphere which do not reach the surface of the earth, and can be recognised. only by the sensible phenomena which they pro- duce. The most obvious of these characteristics are, the cloudy pipe or pillar called the waterspout; thick masses of turbulent clouds ; thunder and lightning; often repeated or continuous thunder, or lightning; a continued roar in the atmosphere resembling the noise ~ of aloaded waggon driven rapidly on frozen ground, or in some cases like the continued discharge of artillery and small arms ; hail of un- common size in a circumscribed loeality or running in veins ; large drops of rain ; a deluge of rain falling in a small compass ; the falling of sand, ashes, small fish, reptiles, and other matters previously taken from the surface ; &c. &c. Whirlwinds of icin form or extent, and however active or vio- lent their revolutions, move forward only with the veloeity of the more regular wind by which they are impelled. Showers of frogs, fishes, &c. arise from waterspouts, or spiral ed- dies, [whirls] by which small portions of the waves of the sea and ponds of water, (in a state of division,) with their contents, are forced to an elevation ; and thus being transported to a distance, and there falling, produits these strange precipitations. n clear, calm, and sultry weather, whirlwinds have been Sxsted by fires, burning simultaneously i in a large circle, and have exhibited violent and continued electric explosions, and the peculiar phenome- non of the ¢urbo or whirling pillar, with other of the forementioned characteristics. Volcanic eruptions often excite whirlwinds of great alana and of most violent character. 128 Facts in Meteorology. Thunder storms appear to be whirlwinds, gyrating, in ordinary ca- ses, on a horizontal axis of rotation. ‘The wind which they exhibit often blows with a velocity greatly exceeding the progress of the thunder storm, as is the case with other whirlwind storms. The presence of warm and humid air is supposed to be necessary to the production of violent electrical phenomena, such as thunder and lightning. ‘The latter phenomenon is generally caused by the | commingling of air, of different temperature and condition. Hurricanes are the most violent and destructive storms of the At- lantic ocean. ‘They are of the whirlwind character, and the direc- tion of their rotation in the North Atlantic is from right to left, hori- zontally. In the latitudes of the West Indies, their general course or drift is towards the west inclining, however, gradually to the north- ward. About the parallel of 30° their progress to the westwar ceases, and passing into higher latitudes they pursue an. easterly course, on a track nearly parallel to the rican coast. In the West Indies, hurricanes begin to blow from a northern quar- ier of the horizon, and thence changing to the west and round to a southern quarter, and then their fury is over. ‘These phases however will be found somewhat different towards the two opposite margins of a storm’s track, and also in positions which are sheltered in some directions from the action of the storm by elevated land. On the coast of the United States these storms commence blowing from an eastern quarter, which corresponds to the change in their line of prog- ress, and exhibiting changes of a like changer; abey terminate with fair weather from a western quarter. — The direction of the wind and the progressive changes i in arent storms are found to accord with the locality or position of the storm in the great oceanic circuit of wind or atmospheric current. In the southern hemisphere the course and changes of such storms appear to be counter to those in the northern hemisphere. Thus storms in the northern latitudes in certain circumstances blow first from the south-east and then change to the north-west ; while in New-Holland, storms in like cireumstances blow first from north-west and then change to south-east. Elevated Currents, and Stratification of the Atmosphere. Little is known of the direction of the wind upon the highest mountains, but in Peru and at the Sandwich Islands, at the height of about eighteen thousand feet, it has been found to be fresh from the Facts in Meteorology. 129 south west, and on the peak of Teneriffe, about ten thousand feet above the sea, a strong wind blows from the west. Volcanic ashes when carried into the higher regions of the atmos- phere are usually wafted to the eastward. Upon an eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 1631, a shower of ashes fell upon the coast of continental Greece, and also at one hundred leagues distance to- wards the coast of Syria. On the eruption at St. Vincent in 1812, ashes were deposited at Barbadoes, sixty or seventy miles eastward, and also on the decks of vessels one hundred miles still farther east, while the trade wind at the surface was blowing in its usual direction. In the same year ashes fell upon the deck of a British packet bound _to Brazil, when distant nearly one thousand miles from the nearest ebdety Nearly all the sensible phenomena of the atmosphere occur be- low the height of eighteen thousand feet, and generally much nearer to the earth’s surface. Owing to the retardation of the surface winds and to other causes, the currents in the lower atmosphere run upon each other in horizontal strata, which differ much in temperature and hygrometrical condition, as well as in the direction and velocity of movement. It is chiefly to the condition of these strata and their a $8 each other that the i of clouds and rain is to be as Of the Barometer. The fluctuations of the barometer appear to be owing to different causes,‘and may be classed under the three following heads : 1. The regular semi-diurnal variation, which, in the tropical lati- tudes, is at its maximum about 10 A. M., and at its minimum about P.M. At New York it is nearly the same, but at Edinburgh the effect is reversed, the minimum being at 10 and the maximum at 3 o'clock. It appears to indicate a system of atmospheric tides, re- sulting from the rotation of the earth and its connexion with the so- lar system. * 2. The variations resulting from the mechanical action of cireuit- ous winds and the larger atmospheric eddies ; including not only the storms but a large portion of the winds in the higher latitudes. During the passage of these eddies or storms over the place of ob- servation, the barometer sinks while under their first or most advan- ced portions, and rises as they pass over or recede. ‘The most prom- inent variations of the barometer are of this character. Vout. XXV.—No. 1. 130 Facts in Meteorology. 8. The general movement or oscillation of an extensive region of atmosphere in the higher latitudes, under the alternately predomina- ting influence of centrifugal action towards the equator, and gravita- tion towards the poles. These extensive oscillations are infrequent, and nearly uniform in their effect on the barometer over an extensive region of country at nearly the same time. The highest range in the polar regions observed by Capt.. Pavey was 30.86 inches. During a violent storm or hurricane the barome- ter has sometimes fallen below 28 inches. ©The fall of the barometer has no necessary and iva con- nexion with rain, although storms of wind which affect the barome- ter are often attended by rain. It appears from the observations of the Marquis Poleni, that in'1175 instances of falls of rain, the ba- rometer sunk only 758 times, being 645 to 1000. In the United States, the most copious rains sometimes fall _—— an unusual ele- vation of the barometer. : Currents and Temperature of the Ocean. The conformity of the oceanic movements to those of the atmos- phere, with other analogies in the two fluids, will, perhaps, justify a few notices, which do not belong to. the department of Meteorology. The most remarkable currents in the ocean are those which con- tinually follow the same direction.. These usually follow the course of the great circuits of wind in every ocean, and besides, have a general connexion with each other, so that much. of the oceanic fluid is constantly passing from one basin to another. — ‘The waters of the north Atlantic perform a constant circuit in the parallels between the equator and the banks of Newfoundland, of which circuit the concentrated current of the gulf stream forms a conspicuous part, and in the center of this circuit is situated the great field of floating sea-weed called the grassy sea. Its strength is perhaps aided by the current which passes from the Indian Ocean round the Cape of Good Hope, through the south Atlantic, and which, joining the equatorial current, passes to the north west. into the Caribbean sea. In the north Atlantic a counter circuit is also formed, which passes near the British islands and the coast of Norway, and enters: the polar basin, from whence it returns under the name of the polar current, and passing down the coasts of Greenland and Labrador, carries with it, at certain seasons, the floating ice of the polar re- gions. Facts in Meteorology. 131 The fruit of trees which belong to the American torrid zone, is every year deposited on the western coasts of Ireland.and Norway; and on the shores of the Hebrides are collected seeds of several plants, the growth of Jamaica, Cuba, and the neighboring continent. The most striking circumstance, perhaps, is that of the wreck of an English vessel, burnt near Fait having been found on the coast of Scotland. The general features of the currents in the north and ae Pa- cific resemble those in the Atlantic, except that they are obstructed by numerous islands. A Japanese junk, which had been disabled on that coast, has recently been drifted to the Sandwich Islands; and pieces of wreck and other articles from the China sea, are often found by the whale ships in the northern Pacific. The existence of under currents, different from those on the sur- face, is highly probable’ and is supported by the analogy of the at- mospheric currents, which traverse immense distances in distinct horizontal strata; but their existence is not distinctly proved except by the drift of the icebergs, which are brought into the margin of the gulf stream, during the spring and summer, by the polar cur- rent, which then disappears, and from its greater density, proba becomes an inferior current, passing to the lower latitudes. From the great depth of the icebergs, it probably continues to act upon them after they arrive within the influence of the warmer current 4 the gulf stream. An under current is also supposed to exist in the straits of Gibral- tar, where there is a constant influx from the Atlantic through the strait; as the wreck of a vessel which was sunk on the Mediterra- nean side of the strait, is said to.have risen again in the Atlantic. The existence of under currents is further confirmed by the in- creased temperature of the water at certain depths in some parts of the ocean, which, as in the case of the atmosphere, being contrary to known tendencies, seems to prove the interposition of strata of different temperatures, by the action of dissimilar currents. It is common to ascribe the currents of the ocean wholly to the action of the winds; but, as the waters of the ocean are subject to the same impulses as the superincumbent atmosphere, it is probable that the principal movements of both fluids have their origin in the same causes. Water being a bad conductor of heat, the temperature e the sea changes much less suddenly than that of the atmosphere, and is by 132 Facts in Meteorology. no means subject to such extremes as the latter. ‘The temperature of the sea never, in any latitude, exceeds 86 or 87 degrees of Fahrenheit. The existence of banks or shallows has a local effect in diminish- ing the temperature of the ocean, but the great agents in modifying it are currents, which mingle together, or, rather, change the locality of waters of different regions. Thus, the gulf stream, as it is called, which sets into the gulf of Mexico from the equatorial regions, is much warmer than the neighboring parts of the sea; the current of Chili is just the reverse, being in its progress from the higher to the equatorial latitudes, where it passes into the wide Pacific, and car- ries the warmth which is subsequently — again to the higher latitudes. ’ Of Tides. The influence of the moon in producing the tides, is supposed to be greater than that of the sun, and evidently governs the time of high water. As the moon crosses the meridian of a place about every twenty-four hours and fifty minutes, the sea, in most parts of the world, ebbs and flows twice in that space of time. In large rtions of the Pacific Ocean, however, as well as in certain other localities, the tides are exempt from the lunar influence. At Ta- hiti and the Georgian group, near the center of the Pacific Ocean, the tide rises but one or two feet, and it is high water at noon and midnight a the year, and this too, in the very region where the hed theory would lead us to expect the lunar tides to be the most seatar and powerful. The tides upon the coast of Guate- mala, in the Caribbean sea, afford a similar exception, while on the opposite coast at Panama the tides of the Pacific rise to the height of twenty feet. These facts serve to show that the modus operandi of the causes which produce tides, is not thoroughly understood.* * Does not the course of the great semi- diurnal, tine wave, in each of the great oceans, mainly correspond to the great ic and atmospheric currents, west to east in the higher latitudes? Mr. Lubbock, who is engaged in an elaborate investigation of the facts in relation to the tides, ean furnish us the ineans of solving this question. If the affirmative be true, these several movements would seem to originate in a common impulse or tendency. Facts in Meteorology. 133 Of Climate, as connected with the Atmospheric and Oceanic Currents. The term climate, expresses that particular combination of tem- perature and moisture, which exists in the atmosphere of any greater or less extent of country. The temperature of the sea has an effect upon the winds which pass over it, and this temperature being more equable than that of | the land, tends to equalize the temperature of an island or a mari- time country. The temperature of the ocean, contiguous to any country, also depends much upon the position of that country in re- lation to the great oceanic currents. It is the character of the prevailing winds which chiefly, and more ‘immediately, affects the climate of any country situate without the tropics. ‘The currents of the atmosphere, like those of the ocean, | form a system of continued circuits, by which the accumulated warmth of one region is often conveyed to another, and by this means important modifications of climate are produced Mountains also affect climate in more ways than one. By causing the condensation of aqueous vapor they occasion copious rains. They also afford shelter:from winds ; and by their position modify or con- trol the currents of the lower atmosphere, and sometimes occasion great diversities in the climate of countries and places near to each her. ; The climate of the United States and Canada strongly illustrates the influence of these causes. The tropical current or trade wind, being deflected by the Mexican elevations, enters the great basin of the Mississippi and sweeps freely over the extensive country lying east of the Rocky mountains. Here, by change of latitude, the diurnal motion of the surface becomes less than that of the super- ° incumbent fluid, which therefore necessarily assumes the form of westerly winds, and passes back to the Atlantic, to be in due time again merged in the north-easterly trades. When this tropical cur- rent keeps sole possession of the surface, which it often for days together, extraordinary heat prevails, extending frequently through the entire basin of the St. Lawrence, and sometimes rais- ing the thermometer on the borders of that river, at Montreal, to 98 degrees of Fahrenheit. But in winter, when the locality of this great circuit is changed to a more southern region, and when its cur- rent is entirely displaced from the surface of the great interior pla- teau by the cold winds of the interior, which’ come down from the 134 Facts in Meteorology. Rocky mountains, or from high latitudes on a course parallel to those mountains, this region becomes subject to all the rigors of a Siberian winter. The climate of China bears a close resemblance to that of the United States, and the continental and oceanic positions of the two countries are equally analogous. Both countries are subject to the extremes of heat and cold above most others in the same latitudes. . The character of the polar current, and the great quantities of ice which. it brings to the north-east coast of America, is supposed to in- fluence the climate of that coast, particularly in the spring months. At Newfoundland, which is in the latitude of Paris, late in the month of June, 1831, the bays and harbors were full of ice. Of Deserts. The atmosphere is capable of absorbing moisture in proportion to its temperature, and a current of air passing from a colder toa warmer region has therefore a constantly increasing capacity for moisture. This peculiarity necessarily pertains to one portion of each of the great natural circuits of wind, or atmospheric current, in both hemis- pheres. The necessary consequence is a great scarcity of rain in the regions falling under this portion of the current, and hence those arid deserts which occupy so large a portion of the otherwise most fruitful latitudes. On examining the map of the world, it may be seen that this scar- city of rain prevails chiefly, in countries lying upon the eastern borders of the great oceans, and of their atmospheric circuits, and between the 18th and 32d parallels of latitude. On the western borders of the Atlantic, in both the Americas, where the aerial currentis passing from the lower to higher latitudes, there are abundant supplies of rain. The same is true also of China and the eastern coast of Africa, and also of the western shores of the Pacific generally, except as the ef- fect is modified by the misplaced counter current of the Monsoons. But not so on the eastern shores of these oceans, where the atmos- phere which forms the extra-tropical winds, falling in again towards _ the equator, presents a constant demand for additional moisture, and parches and desolates extensive regions of coun In the atmospheric basin of the North Atlantic, we have the most striking exhibition of this effect in the great African desert of Saha- ra. Continuing our survey on the same parallels, we have also the great deserts of Lybia, Egypt, and Arabia, subject, for the greater part, Facts in Meteorology. 135 to the same course of the atmospheric currents, and exhibiting the same disastrous effects. In the basin of the south Atlantic we have, on its eastern shore, in South Africa, a barren desert, extending across the same latitudes, and spreading from the shore to the mountains. Over this region prevails a constant southerly wind, being that sec- tion of the great southern circuit which is pursuing its way to the tropics. On the eastern shore of the South Pacific, in the same ati- tudes, we have also the desert of Atacama, and the coast of Peru, with a corresponding section of southerly or circuit wind, a coast which is known to be proverbial for the total absence of rain. Additional Observations on Winds. Owing to the circuitous character of most winds, the temperature of the wind frequently does not conform to the supposed temperature of the quarter from which it blows. Thus at London, during: six weeks of the winter of 1831, a north and north-east wind was accom- panied by a thaw, anda south and south-west wind always bya frost. In Egypt, the south wind is also coldest, in winter. — It should be no- ted that the great circuit-winds contain, without the limits of the trades, numberless smaller circuits and eddies of every variety of dimensions, which account for the various and opposite directions and apparent instability of the winds in the higher latitudes. _ In the United States these irregularities are chiefly confined to the surface winds. © Near the Canary islands, on the north-west coast of Africa, sie trade wind blows from N. N. W. to N. E., the medium direction be- ing N. by E. In the most favorable region for the trades, in the Pacific, lat. 12° S., lon. 177° E., the prevailing winds, during 1 near four months in the year, blow strong from W. N. W. Many other facts deserve notice in. this summary, but the writer does not feel himself at liberty to extend the subject. 136 On the Construction of De Luc’s Columns. Arr. XVII.—On the construction of De Lwuc’s Columns, as modi- jied by Zamboni: and on the modification of the single leaf Elec- _ trometer contrived by the author, by. which the possible efficiency of a large electric series, may be ascertained, by testing a small por- — tion of the members of which it is to be constituted. Also on the employment of the same instrument, as an Electrical Discrimina- tor: by Rosert Hane, M. D., Professor of Chemistry in the University of Pennsylvania. Communicated by the Author. Asovrt fifteen years ago the construction of De Luc’s electric col- umns‘as modified by Zamboni, was undertaken by Isaiah Lukens, one ‘of our most skillful and ingenious: mechanicians. The materials employed were paper covered with leaf tin, “oa neously called silver paper,) peroxide of pati arise and = sulphate of zinc. The pictonider’ was finely pulverized, and ileed with a concentra- ted solution of the sulphate. The mixture thus formed was, by means of a brush, applied like a pigment to the surfaces of the pa- per not coated by the tin. The sheets were afterwards spread out on the floor of an apartment and left during the night to dry. By these means, unnecessary exposure to light was avoided, which Mr. Lukens, conceives to be injurious, especially as received directly from the sun. Next day the sheets were cut into disks of about five eighths inch diameter, by means of a hollow punch. The disks were then piled with the heterogenous surfaces alternating, as in other voltaic series, and were introduced into, and compressed with- in, glass tubes, accoutered as usual with pedestals, caps and bells. Notwithstanding his skill and experience, Mr. Lukens, latterly com- plained of occasional want of success, arising, as he supposed, from the defective quality of the manganese. In various instances, his columns, after being completed with the utmost care, proved inert. The manipulation, likewise, according to his plan of operating, appeared to me, to be troublesome and precarious. He was accus- tomed to place a row of the disks, as large as could be conveniently handled, in a trough of sheet metal; and then transfer the pile thus formed to the glass tubes. This operation, to be successful, requi- red dexterity. On the Construction of De Lwuc’s Columns. 137 Last winter, wishing to. replenish the tubes of a. pair of electric columns which had become effete, I contrived to avoid the risk of expending the labor and attention requisite to finish a series, while uncertain as to its eventual efficiency. I contrived likewise, by a very simple expedient, to facilitate the process of piling the disks. - The first mentioned desideratum was obtainéd by means of a sin- gle leaf of gold, suspended in a glass vessel, (represented by the subjoined figure,) between two knobs at the end severally of two brass rods B B, proceeding through opposite sides of the vessel to- wards each other, so as to be capable, if requisite, of meeting in the center. By means of screws, the knobs on these rods, were suscep- tible of being adjusted to any distance from the gold leaf, suspended between them. Externally the rods are so made and placed, as to be easily connected with wires. In the gold leaf thus situated, vibra- tions may be produced by a series of disks, comprising not more than one twentieth of the number necessary, to cause such a pendu- lumn as commonly pertains to the electric column, to oscillate. In the case in point I found that the disks produced by one sheet of paper, were sufficient to make the leaf vibrate actively between the knobs. ‘The mode in which this effect was produced, ‘be un- . XXV.—No. 1. 138 On the Construction of De Lwe’s Columns. derstood from the following figure; which represents the disks, as eompressed, in due order, within a glass tube, by spirals of wire. - Each of the wires of which these Sri were formed, at the ends enclosed in the tube, being unaltered throughout the remaining por- tions of their length, were passed through corks closing the orifices _ of the tube. The series thus prepared, is to be placed in the situa- tion of the electric column, appended to the instrument agreeably to Fig. 1, being in like manner suspended from the rods outside of the vessel] by means of the projecting wires already mentioned. Thus situated, if there be any adequate degree of electromotive power in the series under trial, and the atmosphere sufficiently dry, the excite- ment of the poles will be communicated to the knobs, and be indica- ted by the consequent vibrations of the gold leaf, suspended between them When a larger series is ond, such as that represented at DD, Fig. 1, the vibrations will be discontinued, only in consequence of the adherence of the leaf to one or the other ofthe knobs. This adhe- rence usually ceases, on touching with a finger the little brass ball at the vertex of the instrument, to which the forceps holding the leaf is affixed. The finger being removed, vibratory pulsations will recom-. mence, to be sooner or later arrested in the same manner as at first. When duly connected with the poles of a voltaic battery, of seven hundred pairs, excited merely by pure water, the pulsations of the leaf are quick and incessant. It serves in this way to indicate the electric intensity,.but does not furnish any criterion of the divellent, igniting, or electro-magnetic powers of ‘a voltaic series. It may readily be perceived, that the electrometer, constructed as herein described, constitutes an electrical indicator, which may en- able us to discover the electromotive powers of various substances arranged as disks in a series, or as coatings to disks. I have already ascertained that aurum musivum spread on the naked surface, of the tinned paper produces an electromotive series. The piling of the disks was facilitated by using a punch excava- ted so as to leave a point in the center, by which the center of each disk was punctured. By means of the puncture thus made, it was easy, even for an unskillful operator, to string them concentrically On the Construction of De Luc’s Columns. 139 upon a silk thread, and to transfer them to the tubes without derange- sent. The manganese which I employed with success, in the replenish- ment of the electric columns alluded to above, consisted mainly of needle shaped radiated crystals, aggregated intolumps. Mr. Lukens alleges that the crystallized manganese has always, agreeably to his ex- perience, proved the best for the construction of electric columns. The electrometer, with an electric column attached to it, as above represented, may serve to show the nature, as well as the extent of electric excitement; since, when an electrified mass is made to communicate with the brass ball A, from which the leaf is suspended, the latter ought to be attracted by that knob, which receives from the series an opposite excitement. Hence, the excitement of the elec- trified body being known, that of the poles may be detected ; or the latter being known, the excitement of the body may be discovered. This application of the electric series, is not, however, a new idea. lsaw many years ago a notice of an electrometer, associated with an electric column, in such manner, as to be used as an electrical dis- criminator. The great difficulty in resorting to this means of discrimination, is, that an electrified body may, by induction, produce in a conductor alternately, opposite states of electrical excitement. As it approxi- mates the conductor, it may cause it to receive, or give out electri- city ; of course, when retracted, the conductor will have the opposite excitement to that consequent to approximation. Supposing the brass ball of the electrometer in question, to be affected in the mode just described, the leaf suspended from it, must be successively at- tracted by each pole. Besides, the excitement may be so strong, as to render that of the series nugatory ; as in the case of a powerful magnet, which will attract either pole of a feeble one. The direction of the first pulsation of the leaf, is the best criteri- on; but reliance should not be accorded to one experiment, especi- ally when so easily repeated. I find that a gilt pith ball, if suspend- ed in place of the leaf, will vibrate for a time. It is, however, like the leaf liable to have its movements arrested by an adherence, to one or other of the knobs. 140 Caricography. Art. XVIII.—Caricography ; by Prof. C. Dewey. ‘ Appendix, cobitiuued from Vol. XIV. p. 354. aa, No. 127. Carex decomposita, Muh. ~ 3 ai Muh. Gram. No. 58. MEW eo ad 8. “a. Vol. X. p. 276. Ta gs Tab. S. fig. 58. Spits detontposita vel paniculata ; spiculis androgynis superné sta- ¢ miniferis alternis confertis permultis distigmaticis ; fructibus - ovatis triquetris brevi-rostratis vel aéutiusculis parvis nigris glabris, — evatam acuminatam albam ‘subaequantibus. Culm two or three feet high, large, triquetrous, striate, glabrous, tawny below, scabrous above, leafy’; ‘leaves linear-lanceolate, long, often much surpassing ’the culm, distinctly nerved, rough on the’ ‘edge with dark and striate sheaths towards the base ; spike decompound or paniculate, green;’ spikelets very numerous and dense,’ lower ones with leafy bracts arranged closely along many branchlets, sta- miniferous above; stigmas two; fruit ovate, triquetrous, acute or short-beaked, bidentate, black aid glabrous ; pistillate ‘séale- ovate, acuminate, white with a green keel, membranaceous, equalling or a little surpassing the fruit. Color of the plant light green. Grows in Cherokee—Muh. Found abundantly by: ‘Dri Folwell in a’swamp near the river Raisin, in Michigan Territory, ahd sent to Dr. Gray of Utica, N. Y., who has obligingly sent me specimen This plant has commonly been considered avariety of C. pill as such it was introduced into this Journal, Vol. X. p. 2760 It is however so different from that species, that it well deserves the name given it by Muh. » The discovery of this plant proves the correct- ness of that distinguished botanist in one more particular. On C. paniculata, L. the. fruit is ovate-lanceolate, larger and longer, and the scale is longer and narrower in proportion, and tawny on the back: No. 128, C. panicea, L. Wahl. No. 96. Pers. No. 156. Schk. Tab. Ll. fig. 100. Spicis. distinctis tristigmaticis ; spica staminifera solitaria ; spicis pistilliferis subbinis subexserté pedunculatis laxifloris remotiusculis, infima longo-pedunculata ; fructibus subglobosis obtusis ore integris, squama ovata acutiuscula paulo majoribus. 2 Z ICC, ww Sewe e Tab. 8. LWBarker, se. C. 6ravana,. Dewey. €. decomposita, Muh. Carwography. 141 Culm about a foot high, triquetrous, leafy at the base; leaves shorter than the culm, linear-lanceolate, scabrous on the edge ; bracts leafy, surpassing the culm, with short sheaths ; staminate spike single, erect, an inch long, with ovate and tawny scales, white on the edge ; stigmas three ; pistillate spikes 1—3, oblong, loose-flowered, upper one or two with inclosed peduncles, the lowest often with a long pe- duncle projecting from the sheath, erect; fruit ovate, or subglobose, obtuse, subtriquetrous, glabrous, nerved, with an entire or subbifid orifice ; pistillate scale ovate, subacute, tawny with a green keel, and white edge. Color of the plant a light green. This species should be placed in the section with C. plantaginea. Found near Boston, by Dr. C. Pickering, and supposed to be in- troduced from Europe. ‘This is a beautiful species, common in Eu- rope, and finely depicted by Schkuhr.. No. 129, C. Grayana, Dewey. fig. 59. Spicis distinctis ; spica staminifera solitaria oblonga ; spicis fructi- _ feris tristigmaticis subbinis oblongo-cylindraceis sublaxifloris exserte pedunculatis ; fructibus ovato-oblongis subinflatis subtriquetris obtu- sis vel acutiusculis ore integris, squama oblonga obtusa longioribus. Culm 6—16 inches high, triquetrous, erect, striate, scabrous above ; leaves linear-lanceolate, sheathing towards the base, scabrous and often longer than the culm; bracts linear-lanceolate, longer than the spikes; staminate spike single, erect, cylindrical, subtriquetrous, with scales oblong or obovate and oblong, tawny on the back and white on the edge; stigmas three; pistillate spikes two, sesonataien —_ oblong, near or subdistant, rather loose-flowere d, exsertly fruit ovate-oblong, roundish-triquetrous, subventricose, smooth, gla brous, slightly tapering at either end, obtuse and entire at the ori- fice ; pistillate scale ovate-oblong, rather obtuse, sometimes obovate and obtuse, shorter than the fruit, white on the edge, brown on the back with a green keel. Color of the plant a glaucous green. This species belongs in the section with C. miliacea. Found in 1832 in a sphagnous swamp, near Utica, N. Y., by Dr. A. Gray, an active botanist, after whom it is named. It is said to have been found in Cedar swamp, N. J. It is a beautiful species, and has a remote resemblance to C. livida, Wahl., which grows two or three inches high in the marshes of Lapland. 142 Caricography. The following species, described in Vol. X. p. 284, is now figured from specimens in the herbarium of Dr. Muhlenberg, and from an- other received from Georgia. C. foenea, Muh. Tab. S. fig. 60. The description of this species already given, is accurate. In the Muh. herbarium are many specimens labelled under this name with a question. ‘They agree with the description given in Muh. in gen- eral, and they are doubtless, as they differ from the related species, the plantintended by him, Although he says the spikelets are subqua- ternate, most of his specimens have five, many have six, and some nine spikelets ; in this case several are closely aggregated at the summit. The capsules more resemble those of C, straminea, while the spikelets are more like those of C. scoparia ; but they are wholly remote from the chafflike appearance of the former. Between these two, it seems to be an intermediate species. Figures of the following species accompany this paper. C. decomposita, Muh,: Am. Jour. Sci. Vol.-X. p. 276. “ Grayana, Dewey. “ foenea, Muh. : Am. Jour. Sci. Vol. X. p. 284. Among the writers on American Grasses, the late Dr. Muhlenberg of Lancaster, Penn. stands pre-eminent. His work, entitled De- scriptio Uberior Graminum, &c., published in 1817, is constantly re- ferred to by succeeding writers on these genera. His Carices have been used as authority in the Caricography in this Journal. It is not surprising that many new species should have been discovered, since ihe plants of our country have been so fully examined by a multi- tude of botanists in the last fifteen years. As I have been permitted to examine his collection of Carices, in the possession of the Philo- sophical Society in Philadelphia, it will be interesting to those who study this difficult genus, to know the result of the examination and comparison of the present species with those in that herbarium. It will be seen that many species, not noticed in his Descriptio, are found among those there preserved. Some had probably been re- ceived after his work was written, and were to have been introduced on the revision of the manuscript, others he may not have satisfacte- rily determined. His work, honorable as it is to his name as a bota- Caricography. 143 nist, was a posthumous publication. I shall give his species in the order and under the number published in his Descriptio, and make such remarks as the examination renders proper, premising that the species are commonly in separate leaves in the herbarium, and of very easy reference. To J. Vaughan, Esq. I wish to offer my ac- knowledgments for his polite attention in giving me access to the herbarium, and also to Dr. C. Pickering for the aid afforded me in the examination. It is due to the memory of Dr. Muhlenberg to say, that some of the specimens may have been misplaced, even though undesigned, by some who have examined this collection of _ ices. Remarks. I. C. ttorilis, Exactly the same with ours. 2. — cephalophora. Do. 3. — bromoides. Do. 4, —retroflexa. Do. 5, — stipata. Do. 6. — Muhlenbergit. Do. ” — multiflora. Do. 8. — sparganioides. Do., but with it is a C. Muhlenbergii, and the new and distinct C. setacea. 9. — rosea. Has a C. curta with it, while ours agree : with both. 10. — paniculata. Exactly like our plant. 11. — scirpoides. Do., but has a C. curta with it. 12. —lagopodioides. Do. 13, — scoparia. Do.—Has the new C. tenera with it. 14, — foenea. The plants under this name are labelled with a query, but are probably the plant he intended. If C. foenea has been found north of Pennsylvania, it has prob- ably been confounded with C. festucacea. There is one of the new C. cristata, in the same leaf with this species, from the southern states. . — straminea. Exactly our plant, but has the new C. cris- tata with it. C. straminea has its name ie the chaffy appearance of the spike- — ov 16. — erinita. vical C. erinita and C. paleacea— ours the same. 144 Muhlenberg’s Carices 17. C. Willdenovii. 18. — polytrichordes. 19, — squarrosa. 20. — pedunculata. 21. — virescens. 22. —curta. 23. — hirsuta. 24. — Buxbaumii. 25. — varia. 26. — dasycarpa. 27. — marginata. 28. — vestita. 29. — polymorpha. 30. — tentaculata. 31. — gigantea. 32. — lupulina. 33. — oligocarpa. 34. —folliculata. Var. canthophysa. 35. — pubescens. . 36. — plantaginea. 37. —fulva? 38. — granularis. 39. — conoidea. Carwcography. Exactly ours, int he oat on some of the specimens is scarcely leaf-like, as ona specimen I have received from Kentucky. Exactly ours. Do. -Do.—Has with it the new C. nigromargi- nata. Do. _Do.—Has a C. straminea with it. 0. Do. oN Do.—Has the new C. floridana with it. Do. Do.—Has with it C. caespitosa.. Do. One form of it seems to be the new C. Hal- seyanad, Precisely ours. Seems to be the same as the large species found in the Highlands. Ours exactly. Do., but only one specimen is quite like the figure in Schkuhr. Dox. Do. Do. This is the C. anceps, Schk., and the true C. plantaginea, Lam. is not in the her- barium, although it is common at the north. _ Is thus written with a query in the Descrip- tio ;. it is not the C. fulva of Europe, and is the new C. Elliott. It is finely des- cribed by Muhlenberg. A specimen of C. pallescens is with it. Ours precisely, but has C. flava with it. Is not the C. conoidea, Schk., and is the new C. blanda. As Muhlenberg refers to the figure of C. conoidea, Schk. which 40. C. festucacea. | 41. — tetanica. 42. — laxiflora. 43, — hystericina. 44. — pseudocyperus. 5. — flexuosa. 46. — 47. — digitalis. 48. — anbeliaic. 49. — miltacea. 50. — trichocarpa. 51. — pellita. 52. — riparia. | 53. — vesicaria. 54. — verrucosa. 55. — recurva ? Vou. ZAVemNO. I. Caricography. 145 Remarks. is so different from his plant, I think these specimens must have been misplaced. Is now well ascertained, and the specimens agree with those of Muhlenberg, although the plant which has commonly been called _ by this name is altogether distinct. C. festucacea has clubform spikelets in matu- _ rity. The specimens so named are clearly the true C. conoidea, Schk., and the real C. teta- nica, Schk. is not inthe herbarium. Muh- lenberg doubted whether his plant was the one intended by Schk. I have found it with the blasted capsules, so finely depict- ed on one of the figures by Schkubr. Ours are Do. Do. Do.—Has the new c gracillima cs it. Without a name, but is the new C. Tor- reyana. Is not in the herbarium, sat is supposed now to be well ascertained. Exactly ours, but the common variety, vici- na, is not among them. Precisely ours. Do Do.—Has C. filiformis with it. Do., but which we call C. lacustris, and Muhlenberg says it is thus named by Willdenow. Do. A strange mistake has been made on this plant, as it is C. sempervirens, Ell., but the name of Muhlenberg must be retnins ed. The D. verrucosa in this Journal is wholly distinct. Is the C. Cherokeensis, as it is certainly not the C. recurva, Schk. and others. 19 146 Observations on Combustion. Muhlenberg’s Carices. Remarks. 56. C. acuta. Exactly ours. 57. — caespitosa. Do.—A specimen named C. Oederi by some correspondent, is C. pallescens. 58. Carex? lagopus. This is C. Fraseri, Sims, but is not con- sidered certainly a Carex by Muhlenberg. It is not with his Carices, but among the grasses in another volume of the Herba- rium, 1470. The leaves are radical, a foot long and an inch wide, and flat, like those of C. plantaginea, but without the appearance of a midrib, striate, with fine and stiff serratures. It was collected by Mr. Kinn of Philadelphia, in the Chero- kee country. Pursh called it Mapania sylvatica, Aubl., but he is supposed to have been mistaken. This comparison shows that several species are contained in the Herbarium, some of which were already described, which Dr. M. has not mentioned in his work on the Grasses. Art. XIX.—Observations on Combustion, and the powers concern- ed in that process ; by Samurt Morey. TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN. Dear Sir.—Ir is now more than twenty years since I have been in the constant, I may say daily practice of making experiments on the decomposition of water, by mixing with its vapor that of spirits of Turpentine, and a great proportion of atmospheric air. In its de- composition by explosion, the object was to obtain, for mechanical purposes, a. new and first moving power that should be perfectly safe, and altogether lighter and cheaper than that from steam. With a muck less proportion of air, the object was to furnish a steady and pleasant flame like that from oil or gas ; in both of which objects I have succeeded. In the course of these experiments, I could never fail to admire the wonderful, simple and convenient manner, which nature has pro- Observations on Combustion. 147 vided for furnishing light and heat for the use of man. But for a long time, although one of the easiest things possible to produce flame and heat, yet how it was effected seemed a perfect mystery, the so- lution of which appeared altogether hopeless, as somany able and em- inent chemists, with every possible advantage that had been or could be devised, had not succeeded ;—-still it was impossible for me to withdraw my mind from it. : When I began to reason as follows, I saw a gleam of hope that this mysterious process might be explained. It is well known that when the two electricities combine or unite, they always produce light and heat ;—light and heat must therefore exist in them as a con- stituent part, or be combined with them in a latent or dormant state ; it is quite immaterial which. For, as a given quantity of the elec- tricities will decompose a given quantity of water, the result is al- ways a given volume and weight of the gases known as oxygen and hydrogen. It is also well known, that these gases by their own combustion al- ways give out much heat and light, and reproduce the same quantity of water, that had been decomposed when the gases were evolved. It therefore appeared to me very evident, that in the decomposition of the water, light and heat had been imparted to the gases, solely by - the electricities. — sig gain, if a given volume of those gases, while in an aérial state, will weigh say four grains, and if by their own combustion they pro- duce four grains of water, it appeared to follow conclusively that the base of those gases was the elements of water combined with the * electricities in a gaseous form; and if their weight was the same as that of the water produced by their combustion, it seems to prove that those gases have no other base whatever.. Now, if a given volume of those gases, thus formed, will produce the same number of grains of water, can there be a doubt that the elements of combustion, and the base are the same in each? Once more—take a given volume of oxygen and hydrogen gases weighing say twelve grains—inflame them; and if by their own com- bustion, much heat and light are given out and they produce twelve grains of water, can there be a doubt left, that water was the base those gases and that they had no other? — That base must necessarily, as it does, greatly change the nature and operations of the electricities. Before, they had no sensible ory ity ; now they have acquired weight, and are subject to mechanjcal 148 Observations on Combustion. compression, expansion, &c. retaining all the properties of a perma- nent gas. When they are raised to the temperature of flame they then take fire; the heat and light, being left at liberty or disencum- bered of their base now pass off into space with infinite velocity. But how they find their way back is not obvious; but probably itis by the way of the sun. About one-fifth of the whole atmosphere is compo- sed of one of those gases, oxygen, but without its counterpart, hy- drogen, we could have no flame-in combustion. Where shall we find it? It is not in the atmosphere: It is too light or volatile to re- main there. Butin nature every thing is devised in infinite wisdom and for the comfort of man. A quantity of hydrogen equal, in all proba- bility, to that of the oxygen of the air has been made to unite with, and is retained chiefly in the vegetables; in combination. with other combustibles, it is readily disengaged by heat at a low temperature, and as the oxygen of the air is always present, when a flame is applied they instantly take fire and unite or combine, giving out their light and heat and thus forming flame, which continues so long as any vegetable matter remains to be decomposed and in part volatilized. Combustion then is, in such cases, the result solely of the recom- position of water; here then is a source of light and heat that costs nothing, for if we can disengage the hydrogen of the water from the oxygen, it will as surely burn when it comes in contact with the oxy- gen of the air, at a proper temperature, as that dieangaged from the carbon of the wood. In the decomposition of water in renee its oxygen sBbiowly unites with the carbon of the fuel with a disengagement of heat, leav- ing the carburetted hydrogen at liberty, which at a red heat is instantly inflamed on coming in contact with the oxygen of the air, forming water and producing intense heat as usual; water is again decompo- sed on meeting the first atom of carbon in combustion, and again re- composed with the same effect as at first; and this process must be continued and repeated while there is any carbon and unburnt air to meet in the combustion. ‘This is made very evident in the great length of the flame with my improved lamp. It will be seen that all this additional flame and heat in the combustion: arise solely from the oxygen of the atmosphere and costs nothing, so that the true and much the most economical principle in combustion is to furnish a due proportion of the vapor of water and a sufficient supply of air. Too much vapor dampens the flame, by excluding the air, and too much air renders it too ee Observations on Combustion. 149 To me no operation in nature is more simple. On these gaseous electricities we live—they give life, warmth, and animation ; one we inhale with every breath—the other we receive with our food. They combine or become united by animal heat, and that union supports animal temperature. In the decomposition of water have we-not con- clusive proof of the agency of the two electricities, one uniting with the oxygen and the other with the hydrogen in the exact proportion to form water again? Ihave retained the name of oxygen and hydrogen pases, that I might be the more readily understood; but it appears to be very clear that the oxygen and hydrogen of the water take no part in the operation of those gases, or the effect they produce, any more: than they did in their own decomposition or formation.* The carbon of the wood appears to me to be formed by the iii gen of the water and its electrical gas, combining or becoming solid in the course of its growth, while a part of the oxygen passes off to preserve the purity of the air, as it is well known o by the solar influence, it is exhaled from living leaves. This carbon of the wood is designed by nature, a evident wis- dom and benevolence, to regulate the combustion of the hydrogen of the wood, performing a very similar part with that of the azote of the air, in the combustion and use of the oxygen of the atmosphere. Hydrogen gas is freely disengaged during the ignition of charcoal, while passing the vapor of water over it in an ignited state; but the flame is nearly smothered by the carbonic acid gas formed at the same time. For if the gases thus formed and disengaged are nade to pass through a tube, containing a pint of cold water, the water takes up the carbonic acid gas and leaves the hydrogen at liberty, which naturally rises and is easily made to issue and burn in +a constant flame. The evidence I often observed in the effect of water in combus- tion made it very certain in my mind that it would be of immense benefit to the community if it could be effected in a& way that would be regular, simple, and free from difficulties. It was this, together with an unconquerable inclination and determination to follow it *If we understand the author, oxygen is water united with one electricity and hy- drogen is water united with the other, and when they unite by combustion, the wa- ter, of both is precipitated, and the electricities are evolved in the form of heat and light.—Ep. ; 150 Observations on Combustion. through life if I did not succeed short of it, which made me perse- vere for so great a length of time. ‘This resolution was perhaps im- prudent; it certainly would have been so had I not supposed I had the means within my own reach. I have no doubt that.I have tried lamps, stoves, and machines in more than four thousand different forms for effecting these purposes, and yet not many: months have elapsed since I have felt entirely satisfied. The experiments which I have made, have proved ineieaal that an engine with a power equal to driving a boat four miles per hour, and a rail road car twice that distance in the same time, with ten or twelve passengers, may be made for one hundred dollars: and that the engine with its preparing vessel, (a substitute for the boiler in the steam engine) need not weigh one hundred pounds,—and the ex- pense of working it will not exceed ten or twelve cents per hour. There are certainly no difficulties to be removed. These facts have been verified practically and repeatedly before hundreds of people. Some recent improvements in the mode of constructing lamps for burning water to produce light and heat have perfected the operation for these purposes. It now carries demonstration in every form. For instance, when you put but one-fourth of a gill of spirits of turpen- tine into the lamp and as much water, and raise the temperature to Jess than that of boiling water, the vapor that comes over will be in the ratio of about equal parts of each; if, in the combustion of those va- pors, a due proportion of air is mixed and inflamed, it will in a few minutes boil a two quart copper tea kettle. If small brass wire is brought over and in contact with the flame, it instantly drops in pieces —small copper wire is readily melted—fine iron wire, if the propor- tions be right, is instantly inflamed—and thin sheet copper with a small piece of silver or silver solder on it with borax, being exposed to the flame, the silver melts in a few seconds, and the copper very soon: ’ and this is done while the vapor is not concentrated in any way, and issues only with a velocity about the same as that of gas in gas lights. This discovery gives every promise of supplying a much cheaper fuel, (as a fuel,) exclusive of a clear saving of light, than any one now in use. It is my intention to introduce my lamps, &c. into use as soon as I conveniently can; this must be postponed until I can. again leave ch which I trust will be early in the ensuing autumn. Oxford, April 14, Reinark —We have seen some of Mr. a ices experiments, and can testify to the correctness of his statements, as regards the great amount . Life of Lanneus. 151 of heat and light. evolved by combustion of the vapor of water mixed with that of spirits of turpentine or alcohol, and duly modified’ by com- mon air. The results are very striking and beautiful, and we can see no reason why they should not prove of great practical utility —Ep. Arr. XX.—Life of Linneus; by A. L. A. Frx :—in 1 vol. 8v0., forming the first part of the Memoirs of the Royal Society of Sciences, Agriculture and Arts of Lille for 1832. (FaeeS for this Journal from the Bib. Univ., by J. H. souls M.D. 7 Mucuy has been written upon Linnzus; and the eminent rank which he held, and the prodigious influence which he exerted over natural history, render what has been written sufficiently intelligible. But of the biographical works which we possess in French upon this man of genius, some are either too devoid of details, to give much account of his history, or written too soon after his death to enable their authors to appreciate his influence with impartiality. Men are, in truth, like edifices; in looking at them when close at hand, we can form a just estimate only of those which are made up of details and do not rise to avery great height; but with regard to temples and elevated obe- lisks, we can judge of. them only at a distance. With respect to men who have been predominant in their age, and have impressed upon it a new direction, we can judge of them properly only after their works have borne their fruits, and prejudices have become ex- ° tinct. Mr. Fee has therefore rendered a real service to the history of science, in collecting and arranging carefully all the most authen- tic statements which could be found, either in works published in Sweden or Germany, or in the manuscripts which he was able to procure, relative to the life of the Reformer of natural history. His work is composed, Ist, of the translation of the life of Lin- nus, written by himself, and published by his disciple Afzelius ; 2d, of extracts from his correspondence with naturalists of his time ; 3d, of a collection of anecdotes relating to Linneus and _his labors ; 4th, of a bibliographical notice of his works. Linnzus has on many occasions related the story of his own life, and the narrative which forms the first part of Mr. Fee’s work is the most complete of these different auto-biographies. Even in the trans- lation, the peculiar style of Linnzus may be recognized ; it is a rapid recital, precise, full of fact, with occasional flashes from the fire of a poetic imagination. 152 Life of Linneus. Charles Linneus was born at Rashult, in May,* 1707; his father was a country clergyman, of a mild character and an even temper. His mother had, he said, much mind, a sound judgment, and great vivacity of manners, furnishing an additional example in favor of those who maintain that all celebrated men have had intellectual mothers, and who thence infer the influence of the earliest years over the intellectual development of children. ‘Young Charles, from observing the flowers in his father’s little garden, had received a taste for botany, and his mother, notwithstanding her intelligence, was so vexed at the direction which this gave to his studies, that she ex- pressly forbade her other son Samuel from entering the garden. The success of Charles in the studies of the college, was far from answering to those early indications of talent. He, never in his life, had much facility in the study of languages, which is too often made exclusively the criterion of success in colleges, and he went to the University of Lund with the reputation of a very indifferent scholar. He there decided upon the -study of medicine, and experienced great difficulties on account of his poverty. ‘The naturalist Stobeus received him into his house, which gave him an opportunity to see a small museum, and this confirmed his taste for natural history. He went afterwards to Upsal, where Olaus Celsius having heard of his talents and his indigence, received him into his house, in order to aid him in his work upon biblical botany, and placed at his dispo- sal a rich library. He derived some assistance also from giving les- _ sohs to the students, and he even aspired to the place of Rosen, the adjunct professor. He took Tournefort as his guide, in the study of plants, (whom he knew principally from the abstract published by Johrenius, under the title of Hodegus botanicus,) and subsequently the treatise of Vaillant upon the sexes of plants opened his eyes to a new light. Rudbeck encouraged him to pursue it, and it was at this epoch, at the age of twenty two years, that he began to write the Bibliotheca botanica, the Classes plantarum, and even the Ge- nera plantarum. Encouraged by the advice of Rudbeck, he then undertook a journey to Lapland, a painfel journey, on account of the climate and the rough nature of that country, as well as from the smallness of his means, which obliged him to travel alone, and destitute of many of the necessaries of life. He remitted the account of this * Some say the 3d, others the 22th of this month. Life of Linnaeus. 158 tour to the Royal Society of Sciences at Upsal, obtaining with diffi- culty a very slight assistance from that body; he found some resources in giving private instruction in mineralogy and botany, and when in 1734, he set out to visit Dalecarlia, he was accompanied by several of his pupils. One of these, Browall, afterwards bishop of Abo, advised him to look out for a wife of sufficient property to fur- nish him with means; he accordingly solicited in marriage the daugh- ter of Doctor Morus, who was deemed wealthy, and to his great surprise, as he said, his suit was accepted. It was settled, that the marriage should take place within three years, and that the interval should be spent in travelling. He betook himself to Holland, where he received a doctor’s de- gree, and became intimate with the most celebrated naturalists of the time, Gronovius, Van Royen, Burman and Boerhaave ; he astonish- ed them by his knowledge, and his readiness in naming the plants which they presented to him. Cliffort, who had the most beautiful garden in Holland, engaged him to remain with him in order to aid him in its direction, and it was in this magnificent establishment that he enlarged his ideas upon vegetation. He there published many important works, (Hortus Cliffortianus, &c.) Aided by his pro- tector’s generosity, he went into Germany, where he became ac- quainted with Dillenius; and upon his return to Holland, at the close of 1736, his reputation was already so great that the Academy of Naturalists, in receiving him into its bosom, gave him the title of Dioscorides the second. His method was already adopted by the Dutch botanists and publicly taught at Leyden. He then made a tour to Paris, where he became well acquainted with Antoiné and Bernard de Jussieu, and where, it appears, some efforts were made to retain him; but he preferred to return to Sweden, and the ex- treme difficulty with which he spoke foreign languages appeared to have had some influence in this resolution. Upon his arrival, he was treated asa stranger, and he who was considered by oné part of Europe as the prince of botanists, was unable at first to find either a place in the university or patronage as a physician. He obtained, however, almost by chance, a small place at the School of Mines, and was afterwards appointed physician to the Admiralty; his practice increased so as to yield him nine thou- sand crowns a year. He married, and was appointed. professor in conjunction with Valerius, and henceforth was placed in a position — worthy of his talents; he devoted himself with renewed zeal to Vou. XXV.—No. 1. 154 Life of Linnaeus. natural history. His Systema Nature, the editions of which have been so much multiplied, fixed upon him the eyes of Europe. Academies disputed for the honor of his name; his pupils travelled over the world, and transmitted its procdwetienss to him. Favors from his sovereign succeeded ; he was raised to the rank of noble, on account, it is said, of having discovered the generation of pearls, Mya margaritifera ;* pensions were granted him, as well as do- mains to him and _ his posterity; and he who in his youth had been obliged to mend his own shoes, found himself, from the lustre of his labors, placed in old age in a state of great ease and social elevation. The latter years of his life were passed in supplying new editions of his works, in publishing, under the form of academic theses, sev- eral piquant dissertations, which have been collected together under the title of Amenitates, in giving private lessons (often during eight hours a day) to select pupils, in looking after the interests of the Academy and the public collections, and in arranging his own herbal. In 1773, he was attacked with a severe quinsy; in 1774, while giv- ing a lesson in the botanic garden, he was struck with paralysis, to which succeeded a tertian ague. He ceased in 1776 to write his own life ; his intellectual faculties declined,—a state the more pain- ful from his being sensible of it himself. His writing became illegi- ble, and he sometimes mixed Greek and Latin letters in the same word. Finally, he forgot even his own name. In this condition, the only thing which appeared to reanimate him was the sight of his united collections at his country house at Hammarby. He expired on the 10th of January, 1778, aged seventy years and seven months. The second part of Mr. Fee’s work contains extracts from the correspondence of Linnzus with the naturalists of his time. This correspondence was immense, and Linnzus said himself to the Abbé Duvernoy, that ten hands like his own would not suffice to answer all the letters which were addressed to him. More than a thousand of his letters, addressed to one hundred and sixty correspondents, have been preserved, almost all were written in Latin ; that of the earliest known date is addressed to Rudbeck, his bicnefaitony dated 29th of * It was there that he received the name of Von Linné instead of that of Lin- n@us, which he had always borne, not for the purpose of Latinizing his name, as has been believed, but because it was the true name of his family. e name 0} Linnée, which has often been given him in French is peceees and belongs = to. the plant which is dedicated to him. Life of Linnaeus. 155 July, 1731, and his last to Masson, an English botanical collector, in 1776, ‘They consequently comprehend a space of forty-five years. It must be observed, that notwithstanding the mental decay of his latter years, Linnzus was one of those whose literary lives are the longest. His first work (Hortus Uplandicus,* ) was dated in 1731, and the last (Planta Aphyteia,) in 1776, forming a duration of forty- five years, during which the publications of this indefatigable man, rapidly succeeded each other. Mr. Fee has given a very careful chronological list of them. Almost at the same time, a learned Swe- dish botanist, Mr. Wikstrém, published in his Conspectus literature botanice in Suecia, (1 vol. in 8vo. Holmie,1831,) a list and a review of the botanical writings of Linneus. The part of Mr. Fee’ s work relating to the cuonpettones of Lin- neus, being only an extract, need not detain us, but the third part claims more attention, from its containing some curious anecdotes of this eminent man. The relation of Linnezus with Artedi, is that in which he shows himself in the most endearing light. On arriving at Upsal, in 1728, Linnzus inquired for the student who evinced the most talent ; Arte- di was named. ‘The great naturalist soon entered into close intima- cy with him ; they labored together at different branches of natural history, and after a time of trial, each ceded to the other the parts in which he appeared superior ; thus Linneus yielded to Artedi, _ chemistry and ichthyology, and Artedi gave up to Linneus, plants, birds and insects; the two friends continued to work together upon stones and quadrupeds, where they were judged equal in strength. This intimacy was interrupted by their travels ; they met again in Hol- land in 1735. Linneus presented Artedi to Seba, in order toaid him in publishing his great work. Their meeting had re-established the ba- bits of their youth of confiding to each other their labors, and of mutual consultation. Artedi, unhappily fell into one of the canals of Amsterdam and was drowned. Linneus engaged Mr. Cliffort to buy his papers, and published, under his friend’s name, the valuable works which he had left upon the classification of fishes. The relations between Linnezus and Dillenius commenced in a less benevolent manner. This botanist, who, at the time of Linneus’s * This work is very rare, and is not cited, either in the Bibliotheque de Haller, nor in the very recent and very accurate list of Wikstrom ; I point it out here agree- ably to Mr. Fee. 156 Life of Linneus. first appearance, was without any doubt, the most able of his time, distinguished himself by great exactness in the study of details, but never appeared to be seriously engaged with general ideas ; he had, of course, but a very inadequate perception of the real value of the innovations of Linneus, but felt strongly the embarrassments which a new language, momentarily, introduces into science. This man ts confounding all botany, said Dillenius to his friend Sherard, on seeing Linneus enter. In many respects, however, he yielded his prejudices. Linnzus, in his sojourn in England, and in his correspondence, astonished him by the extent of his knowledge, and brought him over by his urbanity. Another rival of Linnzeus, who would have been the most danger- ous of all, had he proceeded directly in the same career, was Haller. This astonishing man, at once a poet, physician, anatomist, physiole- gist, bibliophile, and naturalist, had very remarkable ideas relative to the natural method, and would doubtless have made immense strides, if botany had been the special object of his researches. He confine his ideas to a too contracted sphere, the Flora of Switzerland, and he rendered his work less popular, by not distinguishing the nomencla- ture of Linnzus from his classification ; and in rejecting the first, which is excellent, from an antipathy to the second. These two celebrated men were, for a long time, on a footing of intimacy and confidence, and notwithstanding a diversity of opinions, they rendered each other jus- tice. Some light clouds appeared, from time to time, on occasion of their reciprocal criticisms, and there arose a sort of misunderstand- ing between them, by reason of Haller’s indiscretion, in publishing some old letters of Linneus, which contained private details of his life, and especially relative to his marriage. It is but justice to Linnzus, to state that during his whole life he refrained from replying to the criticisms, (often very severe,) that were made upon him and his writings, either because he disdained them, or because he felt that he had a larger and more glorious mis- sion to fulfil.—He allowed Siegesbeck, Browall, ete. to let loose their choler against him, and enjoyed, in peace, the admiration of bis age. “The only instance of transient ill will, which can be cited, is against Browall. This person, in his youth, was very humble, in relation to Linnzus, and the latter dedicated to him a genus which contained only one species, Browallia demissa. Afterwards, made Bishop of Abo, Browall assumed to be a great lord, and Linneus found a second species which he named Browallia exaltata, Brow- Tafe of Linneus. 157 all having become furious, wrote against Linnens, pamphlets in no very measured terms ; a third species was found, a little different from the genus, and Linneus named it Browallia alienata. By a singular chance, no other species of the genus, has ever been found, so that the names of Browallia still preserve the anecdote entire. Mr. Fee takes the trouble to exculpate Linnzeus from an accusa- tion against him relative to Buffon; the genus which bears the name of this great naturalist is written in Linnzeus (with a single f) Bufo- nia, which, it is said, was designed to indicate toad plants. Veutinat, wishing to exculpate Linnzus, says that he has given this name, be- cause the plant grows in moist places, while on the contrary it grows upon the most sterile rocks. ‘The truth is it was not Linnzeus who committed this orthographical error. The genus was named Bu- onia by Sauvages, in his method of leaves, and with a dedication so honorable to Buffon, that it is evidently only a simple error. Lin- nus admitted it without any further examination, and was indignant that so injurious an idea should be attributed to him, The error of the public rested on the fact that many of the names established by Linnzus had allusions to the persons to whom the genera were dedicated ; it is thus that he named Bauhinia, in honor of the two illustrious brothers Bauhin, a genus, whose species have all the leaves composed of two folioles ; again, having received a genus from India, collected by surgeon Dalberg, sent by the latter to his brother, a banker at Copenhagen, and transmitted by the banker to Linneus, he named the genus Dalbergia ; one of the species had the fruit _ pointed, this was the D. lanceolaris, in honor of the surgeon; the fruit of the other was round, this was the D. monetaria in honor of the banker. . The collections of Linneus were very considerable for his time, and his herbal was, in particular, the special object of his care and affection. He states in autographical notes, the origin of the plants which compose it, many of which were brought from the most dis- tant countries, at a time when travelling was far from being as easy and as frequent as at present, and when travellers, too much penetra- ted with the idea that the same vegetables might be found in very different countries, neglected often to collect them. “ My herbal,” said Linneus, “ is without contradiction the greatest that ever was seen ;” but although this assertion may not be very just, (since the herbals of Vaillant and Tournefort, then in existence, appeared more considerable,) if admitted to be such, this herbal must have contained 158 Life of Linneus. about 8000 species, for the works of Linnzus contain, altogether an indication of 7982 plants, and if some should have been obtained after their publication, it is certain that others pointed out in his books, are wanting in his herbal. We may judge of the progress which botany has made within half a century, and in a great measure by the influence of Linnezus, if we take into consideration the increase of actual collections. ‘There exist many herbals of thirty and forty thousand species, and one of them reaches at present to about fifty- five thousand. Its proprietor has sometimes in one single year re- ceived more species, than Linnzus during his whole life. The globe is explored in all parts, with an activity which astonishes the imagin- ation, and it may be supposed with some truth, that within half a cen- wry, there have been discovered annually a thousand species. Though the herbal of Linnzus has ceased to be one of the great- est in the world, it is not the less valuable, either because of the sentiment of admiration which is attached to its founder, or because it is the base and type of all the nomenclature. After the death of Linnzus this herbal passed into the hands of his son; but the latter surviving him only two years, his mother, who, it is said, was fond of money, endeavored to reap something from it, Fearing that the Government would not wish to retain it, or would give only a low price for it, she offered it to Sir Joseph Banks. Mr. Fee says that the latter not being in a situation to make the purchase, spoke of it to Mr. Smith. The anecdote, as I have received it from the mouth of Smith, is h ble to both and deserves to be recorded. Mr. J. Ed. Smith, then very young, and a passionate admirer of Linneus, at a public dinner, stated in a very animated manner, the price which was asked for the herbal of Linnzus, and his regret that his fortune did not permit him to dispose of a thousand pounds sterling which was asked for the herbal, the library, and the manuscripts of the great naturalist. Banks hearing of this enthusiasm, sent for Smith, encour-. aged him to proceed and offered to lend him the money requisite to this acquisition. Thanks to this generous instigation, the bargain was. made, and by the care of the English Consul, the herbal was sent to England. It has been said that the Swedish government, indignant at its being carried off, sent a frigate in pursuit of the vessel which was, bearing off the herbal of their countryman, and this fact has been cited as an illustrious homage rendered to his memory. I have be- fore me, a portrait of Smith which has a vignette in which is seen the Swedish frigate pursuing the vessel carrying the precious herbal. I Life of Linnaeus. 159 am sorry to excite doubt upon a story so interesting and honorable to science, but I am, in conscience, obliged to add that Mr. J. E. Smith told me that there was not the least truth in it. ; I may add that this learned man has used these collections, i ina manner the most worthy of their origin. He has published several works in which by having the original samples, he has removed diffi- culties to which the laconicisms of Linneus had given rise; he has often had the complacency to resolve the doubts which naturalists have had respecting the sense of the writings of Linneus ; finally he has permitted those who had difficulties on particular points, to con- sult the herbal, and has granted this permission with all the grace and goodness which enhance the price of it. I cannot recall without emotion the hours I have passed with him, occupied in running over this precious depot, and I cannot speak of it without rendering hom- age to his memory. At the death of Smith, the Linnean Society of London of which he was the President, and which was founded about the time that this herbal was brought to England, acquired the collections of Lin- neus enlarged with all those of Smith; these herbals deposited in a place consecrated to the sciences, are thus preserved for the future exploration of botanists. After thus furnishing, both from the work of Mr. Fee, and from our own recollections, the facts which appear to us the most valuable in the life of Linnzus, this would appear to be the place to endeavor to appreciate the services which he has rendered to science ;_ but this undertaking would be immense, and would deserve to be treated of in a special work. We shall limit ourselves to the remark that the eminent and incontestible service which he bas rendered to natural history, has been to create a language for it, in relation both to terms and to names. Before his time, the terms had no precise meaning, and every body in describing animals and especially vegetables, employed either vague terms or periphrases, which rendered their writings long, obscure, and difficult of comparison with each other. Linnzus gave precision to the terms, and created, especially in botany, many which were clear and elegant; he employed this new language with remarkable address and ability, and thus changed the face of all works of description. Doubtless, in proportion as natural beings have become better known in their details, it has become necessary to modify the sense of some terms and to add others; but it has 160 Life of Linneus. been done according to the principles laid down by Linneus, in so much that it is not without justice that even at the present day, we are disposed to attribute to him, all the happy additions which have been made to that Linnean language, which has rendered natural history so clear, concise and popular. The nomenclature of animals and plants was in a still greater state of disorder, anarchy and embarrassment, than the style of descrip- tion. Each name was composed of a long phrase, so that the sim- ple catalogue of a garden formed a volume in quarto, and no one knowing these names by heart, they were repeated without precision. Linnzus fancied he might apply to the nomenclature of natural be- ings the same system which is universally admitted for that of the individuals of the human species; that every animal, every plant, might have a generic name, which would. correspond with our family name, and a specific name, which would represent our baptismal name; thus the names became short, clear, precise; they could easily be remembered, and their stability might lead us to ‘hope, that they would one day be universally employed. These two grand bases, the language and nomenclature, being determined, Linnzus had the courage to apply them himself to all natural history ; he traced the picture of the three kingdoms accord- ing to these principles, and astonished the world, both with the varie- ty and precision of his knowledge, and by the care which he took to introduce into this vast picture a crowd of new objects,—of point- ed observations; he cited under each article those ancient names which were the best established, the figures the least imperfect, the localities the most certain, which he could obtain. He authenticated his works by a multitude of ingenious and original memoirs, in which he developed the points which were the least conformable to the con- ciseness of his habitual method, &c. Was it surprising that such immense labors should astonish the learned world, or such an entire change of forms and terms should embarrass those who had spent their lives in learning others, and that naturalists should thus become divided, on the one hand into admiring enthusiasts, and on the other into Pieactors, unjust to the merits of Linneus? If from the form we proceed to the classification, we shall find, in analyzing it, a curious example of this double position; that some have greatly admired what Linneus himself regarded as precarious and conditional, and others have censured ‘those parts of the works of Linneus, in which he is the most worthy ofeulogy. I will ex- Life of Linnaeus. 161 plain myself; Linnzus appeared to me to be the first who clearly comprehended the difference between the natural and artificial methods; and, notwithstanding the vivacity of his disposition and his desire to regulate the whole of natural science, he did, I say, very clearly understand that the number of objects known in his time, and the manner in which they were described, were insuffi- cient to lead toa true and regular natural method ; he therefore re- sorted, in practice, to a system purely artificial, and to fragments of natural order for study and meditation. He has, very formally, and with frequent repetitions, said that the artificial system was provis- ional, good for finding names, and nothing more, but that the natural method was the true end of science and the most worthy of giving ‘a direction to the labors of naturalists; hence he gave private les- sons to his favorite pupils, and allowed no occasion to pass of indu- cing them to appreciate their importance. But the learned world has committed, in this matter, two curious and contradictory errors; some, like Buffon, constantly reproach him, for having in his sexual system brought together objects of different natures, as if this bring- ing together was not inherent in every artificial method, which can only be compared to a simple dictionary,—and as if Linneus had not corrected these chance arrangements in his fragments of natural order; others, and those too who are exclusively called Linnzans, have considered the artificial system as the whole of science; they have adopted as a permanent order what their master had furnished only as provisional; they have abandoned with disdain the research- es of that natural order which Linneus had declared to be the true end of science; thus contracting this great man to their narrow con- ceptions. ‘They thus act in contradiction to the principles which he professed, and in attaching themselves to the exterior form of his writings, they have lost sight of the depth of them. Linnzus is much greater than the pretended Linneans would make us believe, and I have no doubt, if he could appear among us again, he would be their greatest adversary. But, truth will make its way every where ; artificial methods are reduced to their true value and proper rank, the art of finding names, and each one feels, at present, that a natural method, well understood, is the genuine expression of true science. D.C. Vou, S3V.--No. I. 21 162 Geological Observations upon Arr. XXI.—Geological Observations upon Alabama, Georgia and Florida; by Cuartes U. Sueparp. In ascending the Alabama River, during the month of January last, occasional opportunities were presented me for observing the geological features of the country bordering on that river; although they were limited to such stoppages as were made by the boat in wooding, or in discharging freight. Since my return to the north, I find I have been preceded, in part, in the nature of my researches ;* but, as I am able to indicate certain localities, and to particularize a few fossils, the notices I had anticipated may not appear wholly su- perfluous. : The result of my observations upon the formations of this district lead me, for the present, to regard them as of earlier date than those of the Ferruginous Sand Formation of New Jersey and Maryland, and as belonging to the Plastic Clay of the Tertiary; a more ex- tended series of observations, however, may establish the opinion respecting them entertained by Dr. Morton. My first observations were made at Prairie Bluff, a place fifty miles above Claiborne, upon the west side of the river. The river passes directly under the side of the bluff, which is sixty or seventy feet high and six or eight hundred feet long, exposing a perpendicu- lar section of a white, slightly cohering sandstone, which is imper- fectly stratified, and in many places fast crumbling down into sand. The grains composing this rock are scarcely larger than a pin’s head ; and are white and transparent.. The principal cement, or cause of its integrity, appeared to be the shells it embraced, and an occasional admixture of white clay. Amongst the ruins of this rock, I gather- ed very distinct specimens of Exogyra costata, a large species of Gryphea, (mutabilis?), Ostrea falcata, (intermediate between the com- mon New Jersey variety and the variety nasuta, figured by Dr. Mor- ton, the shell extremely thin and fragile,) a species of Cyrena, casts of a Natica, a very thin shelled Terebratula? Turbinolia and Ver- micularia. Five miles above, at Campbell’s Landing, which is upon the same side of the river, I visited another bluff of smaller extent, in which * Vid. this Journal, Vol. XXII, p. 94, and Vol. XXIII, p. 228. Alabama, Georgia. and Florida. 163 the rock was of the same description, excepting, that it was firmer. The only fossil it appeared to contain, was the Exogyra costata. In ascending still higher, I observed high clay banks, regularly stratified, and sometimes alternating with sand and. pebble beds. At one of these, upon the east side of the river, where the steam- boat stopped for wood, I collected several samples containing shells; among which is a small Ostrea, about the size of the O-crista galli, a Mytilioides, a Gryphea, and a Terebratula?, The clay is fine grained, of a bluish grey color ; and contains minute scales of white mica. In approaching astcomery, a continuous bluff of more than a mile in extent, and upon which the town is situate, comes into view. Its height, where the river passes under it, is from sixty to eighty feet; and its almost perpendicular face of red gravel and sandstone, presents a very striking contrast with the green forest by which its summit is crowned, and with the dark current flowing by its base. This bluff is almost entirely made up of ferruginous sand, arranged in layers distinguishable by the shade of red or yellow which they present, and occasionally agglutinated by hydrous oxide of iron, so as to form a tolerably firm sandstone. The materials of this forma- tion are almost exclusively quartzy, consisting of small grains, rarely larger than a pea, and invariably deeply stained by oxide of iron. In a few places, alternations of what I consider the Plastic Clay, were noticeable. ‘The sand and sandstone did not contain, so far as I could discover, any fossil remains, whatever. In crossing the Chattahoochee River, at Columbus, where the banks are high, I noticed the same red gravel, sand and clay, as on the Alabama. In passing the ferry, the newly constructed piers of a bridge to be thrown over the river, were seen to be built with gneiss; and this rock was soon abundantly discovered in place, on my road to Milledgeville. Indeed, large blocks of quartz rock and pieces of granite were seen all along upon the road. In crossing Flint River, gneiss was seen in place. At Clinton, 1 remarked boulders of greenstone. In approaching Augusta from the south west, across the sandy plains, when within four and a half miles of the city, I passed what is called a limestone quarry. Being in a public conveyance, it was out of my power to examine the locality, otherwise than from sam- ples of it afterwards seen at Augusta. It presents the strongest analogy, on the whole, to the Upper. Fresh Water Limestone. The 164 Geological Observations upon rock is acalcareous sandstone, which, as described to me by the chief quarry-man, is arranged in nearly horizontal strata. Between the different layers, there is considerable difference as respects the. coarseness of the ingredients; so that in working it, they are obliged to reject a large portion of the rock,—the variety employed being composed of grains rarely larger than half a pea. The layers of this description he described to'me as being thin. It is used in Au- gusta for door steps, window caps, &c. and is worked with great ease.* Its color is white, and its appearance is not unlike to that of a fine grained granite, the feldspar of which has become converted into a kaolin. The grains of the quartz are quite angular, the mica is white and in large proportion, while the calcaraeous cement resem- bles chalk or white clay. Intermingled with it, we observe occa- sionally little fragments of black Tourmaline. It passes into a com- pact variety, of a porcelainous appearance, of the precise hardness, color and fracture of the Munich lithographic stone; and I cannot doubt but that the quarry will afford pieces admirably adapted to this valuable purpose. I searched without success for fossil remains in this rock. : When at St. Mary’s, in Georgia, I was presented with a small col- lection of bones, fossils and pebbles, from the famous Suannee spring in Florida ; and which had been brought up from the bottom by div- ing. ‘They principally consisted of fragments of the teeth and bones of the Sea Cow, (Manatus americanus,) among which are portions of the rib, whose greatest diameter is one and a half inches, and fragments of teeth above an inch long. These rernains, as well as the other articles of the collection are coated with a blackish brown covering of a bronze-like appearance, from the precipitation of sul- phuret of iron. But the most interesting portion of this collection consisted of the teeth of the shark, spines of the Echinus, and the palates of fishes, one of which is of a form to me entirely new, and another closely re- sembling, if not identical with, Fig. 5, of Palais de differentes espéces de poissons inconnus, in the Dictionnaire des Sciences Naturelles. In addition to them, I recognised obscurely defined fragments of claws belonging to some crustaceous animal, probably to a species of Cancer, and agglutinated fragments of Ostrea shells. ‘The palates, and these last, were completely silicified. * The quarry is the property of Mr. Henry Cummings. The stone when dressed sells for 60 or 75 cts, the superficial fcot. The sales for the last year were $3100. Alabama, Georgia and Florida. 165 These specimens are the more interesting as they seem to approx- imate the formation from whenec they come, to the celebrated Maés- tricht beds of the Alps; while they at the same time evince its relation to the cretaceous group now known, through the labors of Dr. Mor- ton and others as one of our most extensive geological deposits. The same collection contained pieces of Hyalite, or silicious sinter, whose appearance led me to conjecture that they were of compara- tively recent origin, and even to imagine that the process of silicifica- tion may not yet be wholly suspended in these waters: the thermal character of the water discharged from this spring, as well as from numerous others in the vicinity would favor the supposition: and I: confess when I reflect upon the specimens before me, and upon these immense gushing fountains, distributed every where over the Floridas, which never intermit in their discharge of water, and which apparently comes from great depths below the surface, I cannot avoid indulging the theory that the silicifying process of strata here and there in numerous places from North Carolina to the Gulf of Mexico, was the result of thermal fountains, whose activity has long since ceased, and whose only remaining vestiges in the country are the springs, like those of Suannee, above alluded to. five days’ journey through an almost uninhabited country during the most unpropitious season of the year, alone prevented me from visiting the Suannee spring, which’ is justly regarded as a great curiosity in that country; besides, being a place of considerable resort in the summer, on account of its medicinal qualities. I was able to obtain some information respecting it, from gentlemen at St. Mary’s; and in particular from Rev. Mr. Pratt, who had visited it during the previous year. But before describing the spring, it may be interesting to give some sketch of the Suannee, or Little St. John river, into which the foun- tain in question discharges. The great characteristic of this stream is its limpidity, on which account it is sometimes called the pellucid river. It begins its course in the great swamp Oaquaphenogaw or Okefonoco, near the source of the Great Satilla river, and pursues a southerly direction, at last emptying itself, after a course of two hun- dred miles, into the south-western point of Apalachie bay. Its breadth through the greater part of the course varies between eighty and two hundred yards, and its depth from ten to twenty feet. It isno where fed by brooks or streams ; but appears to derive its waters wholly from fountains breaking up from its bed and banks. By ——, 166 ‘Geological Observations upon it has often been compared to a great canal, which occasionally pre- seats elevated banks, but generally cuts through level pine woods, having clean, gravelly banks, and thus presenting a marked contrast with southern rivers, whose sunken borders, so frequently offer a mere jungle of cane-brake, tall grasses, shrubs and trees. In Bar- tram’s travels in North America* we find the following account of this stream, and his explanation of the unusual transparency of its water. “ The Indians and traders say that this river has no branches or col- lateral brooks or rivers tributary to it; but that it is fed or augmented by great springs which break out through the banks. From the aec- counts given by them, and my own observations on the country round about, it seems a probable assertion; for there was not a creek or riv- ulet to be seen, running on the surface of the ground, from the great Alachua Savanna to this river, a distance of above seventy miles; yet, perhaps, no part of the earth affords a greater plenty of pure, salu- — brious waters. The unparalled transparency of these waters furnishes an argument for such a conjecture, that amounts at least to a proba- bility, were it not confirmed by ocular demonstration; for in all the flat countries of Carolina and Florida, except this isthmus, the waters of the rivers are, in some degree, turgid, and have a dark hue, owing to the annual firing of the forests and plains; and afterwards the heavy rains washing the light surface of the burnt earth into rivulets, which rivulets running rapidly over the surface of the earth, flow into the rivers, and tinge the waters the color of lye or beer, almost down to the tide near the sea coast. But here behold how different the ap- pearance, and how manifest the cause! for although. the surface of the ground produces the same vegetable substances, the soil the same, and suffers in like manner a general conflagration, and the rains, in impetuous showers, as liberally descend upon the parched surface of the ground; yet the earth being so‘hollow and porous, these supera- bundant waters cannot constitute a rivulet or brook, to continue any distance on its surface, before they are arrested in their course and swallowed up: thence descending, they are filtered through the sands and other strata of earth, to the horizontal beds of porous rocks, which, being composed of thin separable lamine, lying generally in obliquely horizontal directions over each other, admit these waters to pass on by gradual but constant percolation. Thus collecting and as- sociating, they augment and form little rills, brooks, and even subter- * Dublin, 1793, p. 223 et seq. Alabama, Georgia and Florida. 167 raneous rivers, which wander in darkness beneath the surface of the earth, by innumerable doublings, windings, and secret labyrinths; no doubt in some places furming vast reservoirs and subterranean lakes, inhabited by multitudes of fish and aquatic animals: and possibly when collected into large rapid brooks, meeting irresistible obstruc- tions in their course, they suddenly break through these perforated fluted rocks, in high perpendicular jets, nearly to their former level, flooding large districts of land. Thus by means of those subterranean courses, the waters are purified and finally carried to the banks of great rivers, where they emerge and present themselves to open day- light, with their troops of finny inhabitants, in those surprising vast fountains near the banks of this river.” The clearness of the water appears to me pact of farther elu- cidation ; and the explanation here suggested, if correct will apply to all the fountains and Jakes in that country. The samples taken from the Suannee spring, as has already been remarked, are bronzed over with a coating of sulphuret of iron, thus evincing the presence of sulphuretted hydrogen. Indeed the odor of this gas is often spo- ken of as being very perceptible at the surface of these springs. The waters before, or as they approach the surface of the ground in their course, become more or less impregnated with salts of iron, which are constantly decomposed by the sulphuretted hydrogen,—the sul- phuret of iron subsiding to the bottom, coating whatever substances it may meet, and leaving the supernatant fluid perfectly colorless. Thus its waters are freed from all metallic traces, whose presence in water invariably produces along with the vegetable infusions inci- dental to small rivers and lakes, a dark, reddish-brown color. But to give a short description of the Suannee spring :-—The banks of the river are about thirty feet high in the immediate neighborhood of the spring. Between the river and the spring, however, when the stream is not unusually swollen, is a natural bridge, thirty or thirty- five feet wide, under which the water discharged finds its way to the river. The surface of the spring is fifty feet over, and the usual depth fourteen feet. ‘The water comes to the surface under an an- gle of 60°; and the quantity discharged is variously estimated at, from twenty, to one pace pogseeds. at minute In order to pre- vent persons, bathing or d he spring d through the tunnel into the river, a lattice of timbers is placed across its mouth. In consequence of the nearly vertical discharge of the wa- ter, it is a favorite amusement to dive into the fountain in the direc- 168 Geological Observations upon tion of the issuing stream, which instantly brings the diver to the sur- face. When the river is much swollen by freshets, the mouth of the spring and the surface of the bridge are many feet beneath the level of the river. I could learn nothing satisfactory concerning the tem- perature of the water. Other fountains in some respects, still more remarkable, have been described to me as existing upon the St. Johns; but before alluding to them, it may be worth while to quote the accounts of a few, as given by Bartram in his travels above alluded to. This traveller and naturalist observes during his solitary voyage upon the St. John, while crossing that expansion of this stream, called Lake St. George, “The morning being clear, I set sail with a favorite breeze, coasting alung the shores; when on a sudden the waters became transparent, and discovered the sandy bottom, and the several nations of fish, pass- ing and repassing each other. Following this course I was led to the cape of the little river, descending from Six Mile Springs, and mean- dering six miles from its source through green meadows. I entered this pellucid stream, sailing over the heads of innumerable squadrons of fish, which, although many feet deep in the water, were distinctly to be seen.” p. 157. Having landed and taken a position for observing the spring to the best advantage, he continues, “ Just under my feet, was the inchanting and amazing crystal foun- tain, which incessantly threw up, from dark, rocky caverns below, tons of water every minute, forming a basin, capacious enough for large shallops to ride in, and a creek of four or five feet depth of water, and near twenty yards over, which meanders six miles through green meadows, pouring its limpid waters into the great Lake George, where they seem to remain pure and unmixed. About twenty yards from the upper edge of the basin, and directly opposite to the mouth or outlet of the creek, is a continual and amazing ebullition, where the waters are thrown up in such abundance and amazing force, as to jet and swell up two or three feet above the common surface: white sand and small particles of shells are thrown up with the waters, near to the top, when they diverge from the centre, subside with the ex- panding flood, and gently sink again, forming a large rim or funnel round about the aperture or mouth of the fountain, which is a vast perforation through a bed of rocks, the ragged points of which are projected out on every side. Thus far I know to be matter of real fact, and I have related it as near as I could conceive or express my- self. But there are yet remaining scenes inexpressibly admirable and pleasing. Alabama, Georgia and Florida. 169 * Behold, for instance, a vast circular expanse before you, the wa- ters of which are so extremely clear as to be absolutely diaphanous or transparent as the ether; the margin of the basin ornamented with a great variety of fruitful and floriferous trees, shrubs and plants, the pendant golden orange, dancing on the surface of the pellucid waters, the balmy air, vibrating with the melody of the merry birds, tenants of the encircling aromatic grove. “At the same instant innumerable bands of fish are seen, some clothed in the most brilliant colors; the voracious crocodile stretched along at full length, as the great trunk of a tree in size; the devour- ‘ing garfish, inimical trout, and all the varieties of gilded painted bream; the barbed catfish, dreaded sting-ray, skate, and flounder, ‘spotted bass, sheeps head and ominous drum; all in their separate bands and communities, with free and unsuspicious intercouse per- forming their evolutions ; there are no signs of enmity, no attempt to devour each other; the different bands seem peaceably and complai- santly to move a little —_— as it were to coop room for others to pase.py- ** But behold yet Be far more admirable, see whole armies descending into an abyss, into the mouth of the bubbling fountain: they disappear! are they gone forever? is it real? I raise my eyes with terror and astonishment; I look down again to the fountain with anxiety, when behold them as it were emerging from the blue ether of another world, apparently at a vast distance; at their first appearance, no bigger than flies or minnows ;' now gradually enlarging: their bril- liant colors begin to paint the fluid. “‘Now they come forward rapidly, and instantly emerge, with the elastic expanding column of crystalline waters, into the circular basin or funnel: see now how gently they rise, some upright, others ob- liquely, or seem to lie as it were on their sides, suffering themselves to _ be gently lified or borne up by the expanding fluid towards the sur- ce, sailing or floating like butterflies in the cerulean ether; then again they as gently descend, diverge and move off; when they rally, form again, and rejoin their kindred tribes. “This amazing and delightful scene, though real, appears at first but as a piece of excellent painting; there seems no medium; you imagine the picture to be within a few inches of your eyes, and that you may without the least difficulty touch any one of the fish, or put your finger upon the crocodile’s eye, when it really is twenty or thirty feet under water. * And although this paradise of fish may seem to exhibit a just’ rep- resentation of the peaceable and happy state of nature which existed before the fall, yet in reality it is a mere pepretenta torn for the na- Vou. XXV.—No. 1. 22 170 Geological Observations upon ture of the fish is the same as if they were in Lake George or the river; but here the water or element in which they live and move, is so perfectly clear and transparent, it places them all on an equality with regard to their ability to injure or escape from another; (as all river fish of prey, or such as feed upon each other, as well as the un- wieldy crocodile, take their prey by surprise; secreting themselves under covert or in ambush, until an opportunity offers, when they rush suddenly upon them:) but here is no covert, no ambush; here the trout freely passes by the very nose of the alligator, and laughs in his face, and the bream by the trout. “But what is really surprising is, that the consciousness of par other’s safety, or some other latent cause, should so absolutely | alter their conduct, for here is not the least attempt ane to injure or dis- turb one another.” p. 166. The same author describes another spring about one hundred miles higher up the St. John, and about thirty miles from New Smyrna, “Which issued from a high ridge or bank on the river, ina great cove or bay, a few miles above the mouth of the creek which I as- cended to the lake; it boils up with great force, forming immediately avast circular basin, capacious enough for several shallops to ride in, and runs with rapidity into the river three or four hundred yards dis- tance. This creek, which is formed instantly by this admirable foun- ~ tain, is wide and deep enough for a sloop to sail up into the basin. The water is perfectly diaphanous, and here are continually a prodi- gious number and variety of fish; they appear as plain as though ly- . ing on a table before your eyes, although many feet deep in the water. This tepid water has a most disagreeable taste, brassy and vitriolic, and very offensive to the smell, much like bilge water or the washings of a gun-batrel, and is smelt at a great distance. A pale bluish or pearl colored coagulum covers every inanimate substance that lies in the . water, as logs, limbs of lag &e. —— — gar were numerous in the basin, even at th re liti ges through | the rocks; as also meny. other sibes of fish. In the winter season several kinds of fish and aquatic animals migrate to these warm foun- tains. The forbidding taste and smell of these waters seems to be ow- ing to vitriolic and sulphureous fumes or vapors; and these being condensed, form this coagulum, which ities flakes of yea clouds in the clear cerulean waters in the basin.” p. 143. I cannot omit Bartram’s description of the Mannate spring, situated four miles from Tallahassee. Alabama, Georgia and Florida. 171 “The ebullition is astonishing, and continual, though its greatest force of fury intermits, regularly, for the space of thirty seconds of time: the waters appear of a lucid sea green color, in some measure owing to the reflection of the leaves above: the ebullition is perpen- dicular upwards, from a vast ragged orifice through a bed of rocks, a great depth below the common surface of the basin, throwing up small particles or pieces of white shells, which subside with the waters at the moment of intermission, gently settling down round about the ori- fice, forming a vast funnel. At those moments, when the waters rush upwards, the surface of the basin’ immediately..over the orifice is greatly swollen or raised a considerable height; and then it is impos- _ sible to keep the boat or any other floating vessel over the fountain; but the ebullition quickly subsides; yet, before the surface becomes quite even, the fountain vomits up the waters again, and so on per- petually. . The basin is generally circular, about fifty yards over; and the perpetual stream from it into the river is twelve or fifteen yards wide, and ten or twelve feet in depth; the basin and stream contin- ually peopled with prodigious numbers and variety of fish and other animals; as the alligator, and the manate or sea cow, in the winter - geason.”’ p. 229. A very ‘fimirkuble ‘Spring was described to me by Major Smith, ‘of the U. S. Army, as existing upon the Ocklewaha river, thirty or forty miles from the St, John, and distant seventy miles in a line from St. Augustine, or one hundred and forty-five, by the way of Jack- sonville. The spring is forty feet deep, and three hundred wide; and gives rise to a rapid creek fifteen or twenty yards wide, and twenty- five feet deep. The waters of this fountain are described as equalling in transparency those above alluded to. The Sulphur springs upon the’St. John, in the neighborhood of Lake George, are distinguished for their sulphuretted impregnations. A thermometer plunged into these waters when the temperature of the air was 34°, stood at from 56° to 60°. Besides these’ boiling fountains, there exist many inland lakes or ponds, the depths of whose waters, in many instances, has not been ascertained, and which are regarded by the inhabitants as unfathom- able ; they are all equally remarkable for their transparency. Indeed the same feeling is produced in the minds of the inexperienced when sailing upon them as is described to have been felt by sailors in the clear waters of the northern seas—the sensation of being suspended in mid-air, rather than of floating upon the surface of water. 172 - Geological Observations upon Those geologists whose theories lead them particularly to the study of the causes now in action which modify the earth’s surface, would find in the frequently recurring sinks as they are called, and in the occa- sional outbreaking of fountains, almost peculiar to this country abun- dant materials for reflection. ‘The causes of the sinks, are no doubt, correctly apprehended, in the prevailing opinion, that they are occa- sioned by the underground passage of large bodies of water, traver- sing a weak and cavernous rock. Bartram has given one account, the subject of which is near Tallahassee, which I think deserves to be revived at this time. “Next day early in the morning we left the town and the river, in order to fix our encampment in the forests about twelve miles from the river; our companions with the pack-horses went a-head to the place of rendesvous, and our chief conducted me another way to show me a very curious place, called the Alligator-Hole, which was lately formed by an extraordinary eruption or jet of water. It is one of those vast circular sinks, which we beheld almost every where about us as we traversed these forests, after we left the Alachua savannah. This re- amarkable one is on the verge of a spacious meadow, the surface of the ground round about being uneven by means of gentle rising-knolls:. some detached groups of rocks and large spreading live oaks shade it on every side: it is about sixty yards over, and the surface of the water six or seven feet below the rim of the funnel or basin; the water is transparent, cool, and pleasant to drink, and well stored with fish; a very large alligator at present is lord or chief; many have been killed here, but the throne is never aie ice oes vast pelghburiig ponds so abound with them ‘‘The account that this gentleman, tho was an eye-witness of the last eruption, gave me of its first appearance, being very wonderful, I proceed to relate what he told me whilst we were in town, which was confirmed by the Indians, and one or more of our companions, who also saw its progress, as well as by my own observations after I came to the ground. “This trader being near this place (before it had any visible exist- ence in its present appearance,) about three years ago, as he was look- ing for some horses which he expected to find in these parts, ona sud- den was astonished by an inexpressible rushing noise, like a mighty hurricane or thunder storm; and looking round, he saw the earth overflowed by torrents of water, which came, wave after wave, rush- ing down a vale or plain very near him, which it filled with water, and soon began to overwhelm the higher grounds, attended with a terrifie noise and tremor of the earth. Recovering from his first surprise, he Alabama, Georgia and Florida. 173 immediately resolved to proceed for the place whence the noise seemed to come; and-soon came in sight of the incomparable fountain, and saw, with amazement, the floods rushing upwards many ‘feet high, and the expanding waters, which prevailed every way, spreading them- selves farand near. He at length concluded (he said) that the foun- tains of the deep were again broken up, and that an universal deluge had commenced ; and ipstantly turned about and fled to alarm the town, about nine miles distance: but before he could reach it, he met several of the inhabitants, who already alarmed by the nnusual noise, were hurrying on towards the place; upon which he returned with the In- dians, taking their stand on an eminence to watch its progress and the event. Itcontinued to jet and flow in this manner for several days, forming a large, rapid creek or river, descending and following the various courses and windings of the valley, for the distance of seven or eight miles, emptying itself into a vast savannah, where was a lake’ and sink which receivedtand gave vent to its waters. “ The fountain, however, gradually ceased to overflow, and fnnlly -withdrew itself beneath the common surface of the earth, leaving this capacious basin of waters, which, though continually near full, hath never since overflowed. There yet remains, and will, I suppose, re- main for ages, the dry bed of the river or canal, generally four, five, ~ and six feet below the natural surface of the land; the perpendicular, ragged banks of which, on each side, show the different strata of the earth; and at places, where ridges or a swelling bank crossed and op- posed its course and fury, are vast heaps of fragments of rocks, white chalk stones, and pe bles, which were collected and thrown into the lateral vallies, unti] the main stream prevailed over and forced them aside, overflowing the levels and meadows, for some miles distance from the principal stream, on either side. We continued down the great vale, along its banks, quite to the savannah and lake where it vented itself, while its ancient subterravean channel was gradually opening which, I imagine, from some hidden event or cause had been choaked up, and which, we may suppose, was the immediate cause of the eruption.” p. 238, I have been the more particular in collecting the foregoing facts relative to the Hydrography of the Floridas, in order that it may be perceived how much interest attaches to the subject, and how much we yet stand in need of farther information. 174 Miscellaneous Notices Respecting Cholera. Arr. XX. Miscell. Nott ting Cholera.* : 1. Essay on the Epidemic, usually called Asiatic Cholera, &c.; by T Homas Spencer, M. D. This is a pamphlet of one hundred and thirty pages, giving at large the author’s views of the epidemic cholera, as it appeared in the interior of the State of New York. It is in the form of an address to the Medical Society of that State, of which Dr. Spencer is President. A principal object of the essay is to prove that the disease, instead of being a Cholera, as it was extensively considered in the East ; or a malignant fever, of which the symptoms affecting the alimentary canal, constitute but one stage, as it has been thought to be by many ‘perhaps most European and American physicians, is essentjally a diarrhea, and should be named, diarrhea #rosa. This opinion is with much ingenuity, sustained, throughout the essay. In accord- ance with this opinion, he considers the discharge from the intestinal canal, of a peculiar fluid, under particular circumstances, as the es- sential and pathonomonic symptom of the disease. This peculiar symptom, he believes to have been co-extensive with the epidemic influence, and in many places, where this influence was weak, or unaided by powerful exciting causes, to have constituted the whole of the disease. The characteristic marks of this diarrhea, are, the ab- sence of bile from the evacuations, preceded or accompanied by a white slimy tongue ; distress at the pit of the stomach and indigestion ; slight abdominal pain, emaciated expression of countenance, prostra- — tion of strength, and indisposition to corporeal and mental exertion. Many other symptoms, which are known to be present, in a large proportions of severe cases, ‘as vomitings, spasms, suppression of urine, coldnesss and peculiar color of the surface, diminished action of the circulating system, &c. are considered as secondary and unessential to the character of the disease. The following propositions laid down by the author as a summary of the pathology of the second stage of the disease, or that stage which immediately precedes collapse, will give a better view of his notions concerning its nature, than can be derived from any other ex- tract of the same extent. * These notices, tag a the preceding No. by a valued medical friend, were excluded, for want of roo the same reason now prevents the addition of other similar notices of works since sc veveived aia which, is one by Mr. Daniel Drake, of Cincinnati Ed. Miscellaneous Notices Respecting Cholera. 175 _ “1, The disease essentially consists in this stage, in a determina- tion of fluids to the inner surface of the small intestines, diverting the respiratory, perspiratory and trinous discharges, with their neu- tral salts, from their usual channels; and discharging them through the intestinal exhalents, rapidly emptying the blood vessels of their contents, and changing the relative ee of the remnant of cir- culating fluids. — «2, That the failure of the functions of the heart, lungs, cnpllliny circulation, and various secretions, results from direct depletion, de- priving those organs of their accustomed stimulus. “3, The absorbent system is rapidly taking up the adipose and waste parts of the body, to supply the failing resources of the heart, — Pee results the rapid emaciation. . The spasms of the voluntary muscles, sid those drawn into apt in the act of vomiting, by compressing the intestinal ex- halents, tend to arrest the discharges; and by aiding the return of the venous circulation, stimulate the heart to redoubled exertion, giving a centrifugal direction to the circulation, thereby making a metastasis of the axhaletine from the inner surface of the bowels to — skin. “5, That a striking wage ® exists ates this disease and he= morrhage, differing only in its effects upon the constitution, from the circumstance of its changing the relative proportions of the ingredi- ents of the blood.” From this summary it will be seen that Dr. Spencer const the exhalent tissue of the intestinal canal to be the proximate seat of the disease, and to the restoration of this tissue to the healthy perform- ance of its functions, his remedies are directed. ‘The indications which he lays down for the treatment of the second stage of the dis- ease, will convey a just view of the remedial measures which he re- commends. These indications are, “1, To arrest the intestinal discharge. 2, To make a transfer of the serous discharges from the sitheleate of the bowels to those of the external surface. 3, To restore the lost balance and healthy performance of the va- rious excretory and secretory functions. ‘4, To reupport the powers of the a and combat incidental symptoms.” 176 Miscellaneous Notices Respecting Cholera. To fulfil the three first indications, he relies principally upon a combination of active emetics and sudorifics. The point upon which he insists the most strongly, is the prompt and active employment of emetics, and exciting the action of the skin by a diaphoretic regimen. In the stage of collapse, he relies upon a mild stimulating treat- ment such as most practitioners would employ in a case of exhaust- ion from hemorrhage, or any other wasting evacuation. The object aimed at by Dr. Spencer, is, by fixing the character of the disease, and by pointing out the symptoms which characterize it through its whole course, and especially in its early stages, to af- ford the means of a ready diagnosis, and to ascertain the remedial measures which will arrest it, before it has advanced to its last, and too often fatal period. This object, it will be agreed by all, is of the highest importance ; of great importance in all epidemics, and especially in this, on ac- count of the great mortality, a mortality almost undiminished by any peculiar mode of treatment, of the cases which have been suffered to go on to the advanced stages of the disease. ; In the accomplishment of this object, after discussing the subject of the name, the pathology, and the treatment of the first stage of the disease, Dr. Spencer has treated,-at large, of the individual and public means of preventing the epidemic. The rules which he lays down under these heads are highly judicious, and deserve the atten- tion of individuals and public bodies. ~ Whatever may be thought of Dr. Spencer’ s peculiar notions con- cerning this disease, all will probably a — that his — =— it evince much candor and ingenuity. — 2. Letters on Cholera Asphyxia as it has aapaared ¢ in the city of ! New York ; addressed to John C.Warren, M. D. &c. by Martin Payne, M. D. In these letters, which were written ‘by Doct. Payne to his medi- cal instructor, the author has shown himself to be an accurate obser- ‘ ver, and a distinct, unbiassed and intelligent narrator of the phenom- ena which occurred in New York during the prevalence im that city of the epidemic, which he calls Cholera Asphyxia. ‘The symptoms which characterized the disease in that city are the same as have been described as existing wherever the disease has appeared in a se- vere form. The several stages of the disease, with the peculiar symptoms of each, as well as the best mode of treating it, are deseri- bed with much clearness and accuracy. Miscellaneous Notices Respecting Cholera. 177 Some of the prominent circumstances brought forward by Doct. Payne, though not considered by him as peculiar to the eyfctamie:A in New York, are, Ist, The mildness of the train of symptoms immediately ceeding the dangerous state of collapse. ‘These symptoms were principally such as “ denote some impaired function of the digestive organs, and usually consist of diarrhoea, frequently connected with nausea and vomiting.” This state of impaired function, during the prevalence of the epidemic influence, is excited by the slightest application of the ordinary exciting causes of disease in the digestive organs. Still, in the opinion of Doct: Payne, this state of the bowels is not cholera ; nor does: he believe the disease when fully formed, to be seated in the mucous membrane of the intestinal canal, or in the adjacent glands. As the name which he has selected indicates, he considers the disease to be a general one, the distinguishing symptom of which is seated in the blood vessels, “a fever, of which the collapse is the first stage, and reaction the second.” 2d, The suddenness of. the attack of the disease, or of the col- lapse, and the disproportion between its violence and the exciting causes. These may be merely a slight excess in the quantity of food or drink, or the indulgence in articles of diet at other times per- fectly harmless, yet the effects such as to prove fatal in a few hours. - 3d, The necessity, resulting from the fact just stated, of great cau- tion in many of the common articles of food, and of restricting the diet to a small number of the least jrritating substances. 4th, The great apathy, after the attack of the disease, both of body and mind, to all ordinary impressions. The mind, although conscious of the presence of danger, remained unmoved; and the body, al- though sensible to the impression. of remedial agents, afforded no re- action. Sensibility remained, while irritability was destroyed. 5th, The great diversity of remedial measures which were resort- ed-to. Here, as elsewhere, every plan of treatment which ingenuity could devise, or credulity confide in, was adopted. How far this diversity arose from the want of success of all; and how far from a sort of undefined expectation on the part of medical men, of hitting upon some specific, for what appeared to be beyond the reach of or- dinary remedies, is uncertain. If physicians, instead of looking out for extraordinary or specific modes of treatment, had confined them- selves to those general principles which wisdom has discovered, and experience sanctioned in other diseases, making all due allowance for XXV.—No. 1. 178 Miscellaneous Notices Repecting Cholera. the almost unequalled severity of this, they would probably have been, at the least, equally successful. It is the ‘opinion of Doct. Payne, that not more than one patient in six of asphyxiated cholera recovers, under any treatment. Many other topics of interest are considered in this treatise. There will be found, especially in the sixth letter, a full, accurate and intel- ligible account of the various symptoms, both ordinary and irregular, during life, and of the ‘appearance of all the important parts of the body after death. _ One fact, hitherto unnoticed, is stated on the authority of Doct. Gale, This is, the presence of a small quantity, varying from one half to two per cent, of an oily matter, floating on the blood, taken from some of the most important organs, of a portion of cholera pa- tients after death. No opinion is given concerning the origin of this fluid, nor any conjecture of its effects upon the system. These letters will be read with pleasure by those who desire an accurate-account of the cholera as it appears in this country. ~ 3. Some account of the Asiatic Cholera, Cholera Asphyxia, &c., by mu. A. Carrwaicut, M. D. of Natchez. .. This is a pamphlet, of more than thirty pages, prepared and pub-. lished by the author, in compliance with repeated solicitations of his friends, physicians and others, for such rules of diagnosis and treatment as would guide them on the first breaking out of the disease, which it was apprehended would ravage the southern section of this country. His object has been to give such a plain account of the disease, and of the mode of treatment, as would be available to gentlemen out of the profession, as well as to those belonging to it. The remarks of Doct. Cartwright are always pertinent to the sub- ject in hand : and in this treatise he has compressed much informa- tion into a narrow compass. He, in the first place, gives a brief .ac- count of the disease, as it has appeared in the various countries over which it has passed ; enumerates some of the causes to which it has been attributed, giving it as his opinion, that it is owing to a moving, non-electric meteor ; describes with sufficient accuracy the prominent symptoms: mentions the practice of authors of the greatest experi- ence and celebrity, and indicates the treatment which accords best with his notions of the pathology of the disease. Concerning the last particular, he observes, that “‘ the disease consists in a constant ten- Miscellaneous Notices Respecting Cholera. 179 dency to a failure of the circulation, and all its fatal symptoms are based upon this failure ;” and that “the one main indication to be fulfilled, is, to keep up the circulation, and prevent the blood from stagnating in the veins.” This indication he endeavors to fulfil by various methods in the different stages. When coilapse is present, he adopts the plan recommended by Mr. Baird, of overcoming the spasm of the heart, by the use of tobacco as an enema. Before the stage of collapse, he relies principally on mustard, and saline emet- ics, and blood-letting. Many other auxiliary medicines are advised, with no great peculiarity as to kind or mode of administration, when - compared with other writers upon this subject. 4. A rational view of the Spasmodic Cholera, chiefly with —_— to the best means of preventing it. By A Puysicran. Boston This pamphlet is made up principally of extracts from the various . publications which were made soon after the breaking out of the cholera in this country. The object of the author was to select such plain practical rules, as might be easily understood, and made availa- ble by the public at large, for the prevention of cholera, and for the treatment of it, when professional advice could not be obtained. The work, when it was published, was well timed and useful, as the selec- tion was judiciously made, and the rules recommended, such as are now generally understood to be the most efficient in guarding against that mysterious agent y which predisposes the human system to this disease. 5. Account of the cases of Cholera, observed among the Physicians and persons employed in the Hospitals in the provinces of Prussia. By Dr. W. Waener. (Extracted from the Archives du Cholera, 2d No. Berlin: 1832.) (Translated for this Journal, by J. H.Griscom,M.D.) __. According to the reports of the central police, published up to this day, (3d of April, 1832,) the number of cases of cholera observed among the physicians, surgeons, overseers, carriers of the sick, grave diggers, &c. has been four hundred and seventy six, of whom two hundred and seventeen recovered, and two hundred and fifty nine died ; in this total are comprised the cases observed at Berlin, and in the provinces of Bromberg, Posen, Gumbinnen, Marienwerder, 180 = Miscellaneous Notices Respecting Cholera. Oppeln, Caslin, — Keenigsberg, Dantzig, Potsdam, and Mag- debourg. At Berlin, ninety seven persons employed in taking care of the sick, were attacked with cholera; of this number, seventy were cured, and twenty seven died; of cheve eight were physicians, two surgeons, sixty five Pitino, seven carriers of the sick, one in- spector of the.Jazaretto, one director of quarantine, three watchmen, one bather, one corpse watcher, two bearers of the dead, two washer- women, and one laborer. The recoveries are distributed as follows, in these different classes; seven physicians, one surgeon, forty seven overseers, two carriers of the sick, and three grave diggers. Con- sequently, there died, one physician, one — eighteen over- seers, five carriers of the sick, &c. The province of Bromberg has furnished areas nine pinietais among the persons employed to attend to the cholerics; of these, two were physicians, who recovered, six surgeons, of whom but one died, twenty overseers, of whom nineteen were cured, and one car- rier of the sick, who sank under the disease. In the province of Posen were counted forty cases, of whith nine recovered and thirty one died ; among eight physicians and surgeons who fell sick, five of the former and one of the latter recovered ; the others were victims to their zeal. Of twenty two overseers, nineteen fell victims; likewise six grave diggers, one body watcher, one carrier of the sins one boy of the amphitheatre, and one laborer. The province of Oppeln had to deplore the loss of seven persons, two surgeons, four overseers, and one carrier of the sick. The whole number of sick in the province of Stettin was twenty; these were eleven overseers, two carriers of the sick, six grave diggers, and one employed in the Cordon Sanitaire. Thirty nine persons of the province of Gumbinnen were attacked with cholera, two physicians, who recovered, five surgeons, of whom two died, seventeen over- seers, of whom only three were saved, twelve carriers of the sick, of whom. nine died, and three grave diggers, none of whom recov- ered. In the province of Marienwerder, of nineteen sick, there were three physicians, twelve overseers, three grave diggers, and one servant boy; the recoveries were seven, one physician, five overseers, and one grave digger. The province of Kcenigsberg had one hundred and five sick among those employed to take care of the cholerics; these were, four physicians, four surgeons, one in- spector of the lazaretto, seventy one stewards or matrons, twelve Miscellaneous Noticcs Respecting Cholera. 181 carriers of the sick, and eight grave diggers. The dead were, two physicians, one surgeon, forty stewards or matrons, nine carriers of the sick, and eight grave diggers. In the province of Dantzig, were counted seventy nine cases and fifty one deaths. ‘The sick were, five physicians and surgeons, fifty nine stewards, three carriers of the sick, and twelve grave diggers or carriers of the dead. -Of this number, three physicians, thirty six stewards, two carriers of the sick, and ten grave diggers, died. The number of sick in the province of Potsdam was fifteen, of whom twelve died and three recovered; the deaths were, one sur- geon, eight overseers, two inspectors of qdarkntine, and one washer- woman of the cholera hospital. Finally, the epidemic commencing in the province of Coslin, has already caused the death of one overseer at Lauenbourg. Such is the summary of the cases observed up to the 3d of Ape, 1832, in the Prussian provinces ;. it results from this sketch, that the persons employed around the cholera patients, have less chances of recovery than of dying, when they contract the disease, and that in the proportion of two hundred and seventeen to two hundred and fifty nine; that is to say, there are about four cures. for five deaths. We have not here the total number of persons employed in the hos- pitals, in order to ascertain the proportion of those’ attacked with those who are not; but as we have already given that of Berlin, we may suppose that it is the same in the other cities, that is, about forty times greater than the mass of the population. In fact, we have seen, at Berlin, the forty one hundredth part of those employed in the hospitals contract the cholera, while among the ‘population there was but one case for every three hundred inhabitants.* The deductions from these facts are too evident to render it necessary to express them here. We will submit it to the non-contagionists, whether they can explain them upon the supposition of its nents a purely — disease.—Bib. Univ. Aout, 1833. 6. Jodeuie on Cholera, and other topics, in a letter dated Hamp- _ stead, near London, Nov. 1832, and addressed to the Editor. Cholera—its habitudes.—F rom all I learn, the experience of our English Physicians has made but /ittle improvement in the treatment * See the No. for December, 1832. 182 Miscellaneous Notices Respecting Cholera. of the disease or knowledge of its origin. I think the following con- clusions may be relied upon as far as relates to England. ‘The sides of rivers and the vicinity of low marshy grounds were the chief seats of the disease. In towns which were somewhat elevated above the river level, it was chiefly in those streets that descended to the river that the cholera prevailed. Chalk soils and dry sandy soils seem to have been peculiarly exempt from cholera. There has not been one case of Indian Cholera in the whole county of Sussex. At Hamp- stead, though so near London, we had only two cases and these were of persons who resided the greater part of the day in London. Hamp- stead contains 8000 inhabitants, it is upon the London clay chiefly, but this is much mixed with sand and we are elevated from 300 feet to 350 feet above the Thames. Medical Geology.—At some future day, I have no doubt, that we shall discover that there is such a science as medical geology, viz. that certain strata are, as foundation ground for human habitations, much more liable to be affected ‘with certain causes of diseases than others, and we shall probably not only know the fact, but ascertain the cause and the remedy. The. county of Norfolk has long. been famous or infamous for the astonishing number of patients affected with the stone, nothing has hitherto been done to investigate the cause. The earth, I have long since. been persuaded, contains within itself agents destined to affect future changes of the solid surface, and also of the atmosphere. The pestilence and earthquake which reigned together, for seventy years during the reign of Justinian, and depop- ulated the fairest portion of the civilized world—were doubtless the result of certain subterranean laws, which regulate its internal eeono- my—laws known only to its creator. Celestial Phenomena.—Beside the cholera, we have in Europe, been terror-stricken by the comet, which passed the earth’s path in Oc- tober, You are, no doubt, well acquainted with Arago’s popular es- say on comets ; | am however by no means convinced that the chan- ces of the earth or atmosphere being affected by the near approach of a comet are so slight as he would have us believe. In the sec- tion of the essays on the four new planets, “ that move round the sun in nearly the same time and distances, he agrees with other astrono- mers in supposing they may all be some broken parts of one planet— and that this may have been effected by a comet, or by an iuternal explosion, but then the difficulty he says is in supposing how it should happen that while three of these planets have taken a large portion of Miscellaneous Notices Respecting Cholera. 183 the old atmosphere and divided it amongst them, poor Vesta is left without any visible envelope, purely naked. ‘This puzzles Mr. Ara- go very much. Mr. Herapath, an English first rate mathematician, who for some cause or other isnot in good odor with the Royal So- ciety, has published in the Times Newspaper of last month, (October) a letter in which he most ingeniously proposes an hypothesis in itself extremely rational, which is that Vesta was the satellite of the old planet, an hypothesis which the different period of its revolution and the difference in the elements of its orbit tend strongly to confirm. Atmospheres of Planets.—The atmosphere of our own moon is so extremely rare, low, and transparent, that its existence was long doubted or denied. I have, this year, had the good fortune in our murky atmosphere to catch two glimpses of Mercury on the sun’s disk, which very few persons in England saw. One occultation of Saturn by the moon, very perfect, one of Aldebaran during broad sunshine ; and the planet Saturn without any vestige of its ring, looking as much shorn of its glory, as an English judge would be when deprived of his robes and wig. 1 think Mr. Herapath’s hypothesis respecting Vesta well deserves a place in your Journal, with the brief section on the new planets by Arago, ‘in the essen du Roi. To descend from the Heavens to the earth. . Tertiary Formations.—The greatest advance recently aie in Geology, that 1 am acquainted with, is the discovery of the wide spread avai of tertiary formations, analogous, though perhaps not identical with the tertiary beds of France and England. In this dis- covery your country bears a full share; there can be little doubt that the organic remains sent from the United States, are analogous to those in the European beds, and also to those in part of the chalk formation. Supposed Jmmutability of Species. —With respect to the immuta- bility of species it may be true in the higher orders of animals, but in Mollusca having no internal skeleton, I am fully persuaded that change of circumstances may produce important changes of form, changes quite sufficient to make our Cabinet Philosophers regard them as distinct species ; but nature is not restricted by these artificial arrangements. 184 Miscellanies. MISCELLANTIES. FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC. Extracted and translated by Prof. J. Griscom. 1. Death of Scarpa.—At Pavia in Italy, has just been extinguish- ed the most brilliant light of modern surgery, and of all the sciences accessory to this part of the healing art ; Scarpa, at the age of eighty five years, expired on the 31st of October, 1832. During many years, Professor and Director of the University of Pavia, he constituted the glory of this school, and spread over it the influence of his great reputation.. Gifted with a rare genius, there is no branch of surgery, in which he did not make some progress, few discoveries in anatomy, or pathology, to which his name was not at- tached. He may be regarded as the first who drew attention to pa- thological anatomy, perhaps as the creator of oar important part of medicine. Indefatigable in his researches, he never, during his tons and yet too short career, ceased to labor for the advancement of science; and he never labored without attaining his end. His style of seria was clear, concise, and vigorous. Nothing is more elegant, more amia- ble, than his epistolary style: his eloquence was Ciceronian.- When to the charm of language, we add the talent of the most exact and most veracious observer, the address and good fortune of one of the greatest operators, and then the frank publication of all that was done and seen, we may attach to his works the motto, Exegi monumen- . tum ere perennius If I am not iuintaken he began his career - by a work upon the diss eases of the eyes, which was immediately translated into all the lan- guages of Europe; a fifth edition of it was given in 1816 ; this edi- tion which he brought to the level of all the new discoveries was augmented by four important chapters, one upon the artificial pupil, one upon the medullary fungus of the eye, the third upon the can- cer of the eye, and the fourth upon the cystic tumor, which is form- ed inthe cavity of the orbit. When we read, or rather when we study this beautiful work, and we know how extended and fortunate was his practice in this branch, we might imagine that Scarpa, was exclusively occupied with the diseases of the eye, and that his voca- tion was that of an oculist. Miscellanies. 185 He has published many little works upon this subject and among others a series of letters, addressed to the author of this notice, in which he endeavors to prove that the operation of cataract by dis- placement, or depression, is preferable to extraction. It is proba- ble that if he had had less success in practising upon his favorite method, he would have been less eloquent in establishing its superi- ority. Scarpa was forty five years of age, when he published his work, entitled: Tabule neurologice ad illustrandam historiam anatomi- cam cardiacorum nervorum noni nervorum cererib, glossopharingat, et pharing@i ex octavo cerebri. He designed himself, the models which the engraver has copied with a profusion of care and talent, such as until that that time, nothing had been seen to compare with in point of magnificence, and which has been scarcely equaled in per- fection. . The only fault to be found with this magnificent work is, that its price renders it inaccessible to common surgeons. In 1814, he published in folio his great work upon aneurism; on this he lavished the same profusion of engravings; but it was too im- portant, too useful, to remain merely an ornament to large libraries ; it was translated into several languages, and this eminently classical . treatise, reduced to the form of 8vo. has ie placed in the hands of every master and every student. In 1815, Scarpa, gave the public a ‘memoir or appended it to his work upon aneurism, in which we find the details of a series of trials of the ligature on the arteties of different animals, suggested by read- ing the work of Jones, whose experiments he varied and multiplied. This memoir, rich in facts and observations, as important as curi- ous, produced a great number of partisans to his method of tying the artery in aneurism, which consists in flattening the artery, with a cylinder, in a manner to avoid rupturing and bruising it. The treatise upon hernia, the second edition of which was print- ed in 1819, since it has been translated and reduced to the ordinary form, has become the vade mecum of every, surgeon. I would likewise speak of a work upon the anatomy and physiology of the ear, upon osteogeny ; of numerous polemical memoirs, relative to a great number of subjects, but chiefly relative to his dispute with Vacca Berlinghieri, who endeavored to establish his Rectos-vesicale method in the operation of Lithotomy ; but I should be led further than this short announcement will permit. It was proper, after bav- ing enjoyed his correspondence for a great number of years, and at Vou. —No. I. 186 Miscellanies. the time when Prof. Mauro Rusconi, informed me that [had just lost this friend, that I should give this public testimonial of my respect, my admiration and my regrets. Perhaps I may, at some later period, state in a more complete mamner, the right of Scarpa, to the hom- age of posterity. J.P. M 2. Death-of Oriani.—The capital of Lombardy, lost on the 12th November last, Count Barbana Oriani,* who’ may be justly con- sidered as one of those rare and eminent men, who by their talents are regarded as the ornaments of Italy. We are indebted to this celebrated astronomer, for many profound memoirs upon theoretical and practical astronomy, printed in the valuable collection of the Ephemerides of Milan. Oriani first determined the orbit of the ‘planet Uranus, and the perturbations of the new planets. ‘The theo- ry of astronomical refraction is indebted to him for an important step which has opened the way for those who have subsequently treated of this subject. His work entitled Trigonometria spheroidica has become classic : in this discovery the great astronomer is worthy of being associated with the greatest geometricians of Europe. Other details upon his ‘works, and upon the circumstances of his life belong to his biography. Oriani, died an octogenarian, warmly regretted by his friends and by the admirers of his genius. The brilliant qualities of his heart have been justly appreciated by all those who have shared in the hon- or of an intimate acquaintance; they justify the bigh considera- tion and the great credit which he enjoyed in his own country. An enlightened protector of the youth who sought in him a support, he knew how to forget in their presence, all his superiority, and to show himself their zealous friend. Always simple and accurate, in his conversation, he inspired them with feelings of gratitude and an at- tachment as durable as respectful. The latter days of his life exhibited in the midst of his sufferings, the spectacle of a tranquillity of soul, worthy of the christian philos- opher. Oriani, rejoiced in the propagation of knowledge, which he regarded as an efficacious means of ameliorating the human species; he considered the acquisition of principles in the exact sciences, as alone indestructible, amid the variations and errors of the human mind. All the friends of science will honor the memory of this man ” Count Oriani, was known in his youth, under the title of the Abbe Oriani. Miscellanies. 187 equally distinguished for ri rece 06.8 talents, and for the purity of his character.— Bib. 3. Experiments ind Observations on the Torpedo; by Dr. Davy. —Sir. H. Davy, published in the Philosophical Transactions, for 1829,* a memoir upon some experiments which he had made on the Torpedo; with a view to ascertain how far the electricity of this animal is analogous to voltaic or galvanic electricity ; but his results were, in general, of a negative character. ‘The declining state of his health hindered him from pursuing this research, which he had ar- dently desired to complete; and which he recommended to his bro- ther to continue after his death. In conformity to this wish, the au- thor being at Malta, in a situation favorable for procuring living tor- pedoes, made the series of experiments contained ina memoir, which he read to the Royal Society of London, on the 22d of March, and 12th of April, 1832. They entirely confirm those made by Mr. Walsh, in 1772, which established the analogy of the action exert- ed by the fish with that of ordinary electricity; they prove also that like voltaic electricity, this action has the power of communi- cating to steel, magnetic polarity, of causing a deviation of the mag- netic needle and even of producing certain chemical changes in fluids which are submitted to it. Needles perfectly free from magnetism, were introduced within a spiral of copper wire, containing about one hundred and eighty turns. This cylinder was about one inch and a half long, and one tenth of an inch in diameter: it weighed only four and a half grains, and was contained in a tube of glass of a diameter just sufficient to receive it. The electrical discharges of a vigorous torpedo having traversed the wire for some minutes, the needles were strongly magnetised. ‘The same action having been transmitted across the wires of a multiplicator, produced a decided deviation of the needle; the inferior surface of the electric organ of the torpedo, corresponding as to its effects to the plate of zinc of a voltaic range and the superior surface to the plate of copper. No effect of ignition was perceived when the discharge was pass- ed through a silver wire of the thousandth of aninchdiameter. No well marked spark was obtained when the circuit was interrupted >. the slightly luminous appearances which were then observed being Me See Bibl. Univer. 1829, Tome xli. p- 99. 188 Miscellanies. probably of the same kind as those presented by sea water when. agita- ted. A little chain of gold, however, composed of sixty double rings, transmitted the shock ; which appeared to prove that air is not im- permeable to the electricity of the torpedo. Fine silver wires, inter- rupted by a solution of common salt, having been placed in the cir- cuit, small bubbles of air appeared around the point communicating with the inferior surface of the torpedo; but none appeared on the opposite point; these silver wires having been replaced by wires of gold, gas was disengaged from both extremities, but in greater quan- _ tity and smaller bubbles from the inferior than the superior. With a strong solution of nitrate of silver, the inferior point became black, and only two or three bubbles were collected, while the superior point remained bright, and was surrounded by a great number of bubbles. Similar results, but less distinct, were Obtained by the use of a solution of the super-acetate of lead. The rest of the memoir is devoted to a detailed description of the anatomical structure of the electrical organs of the torpedo, and of the muscles which surround them. ‘The tissue of the columnar parts of these organs appears to be homogeneous, with the exception of some fibres, which are probably nervous fillets, and which are found in. these parts. A great quantity of water, which may be dispelled by evaporation, enters into their composition ; their spontaneous changes are slower than those of muscles. They are not susceptible of con- traction under any of the ordinary stimulants, not even under the shock of a voltaic battery, applied, either to the organ itself, or to any of the nerves which encompass it.. The author concludes from this, that these organs are not muscu- lar, but that their columns are formed of tendinous or nervous fibres, filled with a gelatinous fluid. The anatomical part is terminated by the description of the origin, course and distribution of the nerves which belong to the electrical organs. The author finds that the gastric nerves are derived from them and hazards the conjecture that the superabundant electricity may, when not required for the defence of the animal, be directed to the stomach to assist digestion. In support of this hypothesis, he cites the example of a torpedo, which, while living, had been fre- quently excited to give shocks, and in the stomach of which was found, after death, a little fish not at all digested. The secretion of mucus was also, either suppressed, or considerably diminished in this animal, The gills being supplied with branches of the electrie- _ Miscellanies. 189 al nerves the author thinks there may be some connection between the electrical and the respiratory functions, and that the electricity developed is perhaps employed to decompose water so as to furnish air to the organs, in positions in which the animal cannot obtain that of the atmosphere. The author considers the mucous system of the torpedo as fulfilling important functions in the economy of this ani- mal, in consequence of -its connections with electric nerves. Con- trary to the assertion of Mr. Hunter, he finds that the electric or- gans, are slightly furnished with blood vessels. He concludes by some remarks upon the particular characters of the electricity of the torpedo, the different employments to which it appears to be destined, and the varieties which different individuals offer in this respect, ac- cording to age, sex and other circumstances.—Philos. Mag. an Journal of Science, No. 1. July, 1832. 4. Montyon Prizes. Extracted and Translated by O. P. Hubbard. In Mechanics—The Academy awarded two medals of gold, of the value of three hundred francs each, one to M. Thilorier, for his new air pump, which operates without the aid of a movable piece, the other to M. Pixii fils, for the ingenious arrangements which he has introduced into electro-magnetic apparatus. For the discovery of the means of rendering any art or trade less unhealthy.—The Academy awarded nine thousand francs, to M. Is- mael Robinet, glass worker, of the glass house of Bacarat, for the invention of an instrument, a proper substitute for the blowing of the — lungs in the construction of crystal. glass;—giving more power and perfection to the processes of fabrication. A memoir by Gendrin, upon the use of sulphuric lemonade as a preventive of, and remedy in lead colic,—was presented to the Acad- emy and recommitted to the author for more observations in support of. the efficacy of this mode of treatment. In medicine.—The Academy awarded to M. Dr. Rousseau, for his experiments upon the efficacy of the leaves of the holly in intermit- tent fevers, fifteen hundred francs. 2. M. Lecanu, for his chemi- cal researches upon blood, the same sum. 3. M. Parent Du Chaté- let, for his eperiments to ascertain at what point, the water-rotting of hemp is injurious to its soundness, an equal sum. 4. M. Manee, for his treatise, theoretical and practical, upon the ligature of the arte- ries, four thousand francs. 5. M. Bennati, for his physiological re- 190 Miscellanies. searches upon the modification of the voice produced by the organs situated above the larnyx, two thousand francs. 6. M. Deleau, four thousand francs, for a new instrument of his invention, applicable to the diagnosis and to the treatment of diseases of the ear. 7. M. Me- rat, fifteen hundred francs, for having contributed to make known in France, and encouraged the use of the bark of the pomegranite in tenia. §&. M. Villermé, fifteen hundred francs, for his researches. upon the comparative duration of human life, the development of the human form, and the frequency of diseases, in the two opposite condi- tions of ease and poverty. 9. M. Leroux de Vitry-le-Francais, two thousand francs for the discovery of salicine and of its febrifuge Psat erties. Prize in statistics. 2 This prize, a nal medal valued at five hun-- dred and thirty francs, was decreed to the “ Topography of Vigno- bles” of M. Julien, edition of 1832. 5. Medals joundel by Lalande.—The Academy, awarded this year, from a legacy by Lalande, two gold medals of three hundred francs,—the one to M. Gambart, director of the observatory of Mar- seilles for the discovery, on the 19th of July, 1832, of a new com- et,—the other to M. Valz, of Nismes, for astronomical researches upon the diminution of volume, which the nebulosities of comets ex- perience, as they approach the sun. Montyon prizes, of a gold medal, of five thousand francs, are of- fered for each of the two following subjects,—the memoirs to be sent free of postage to the Sec. of the Institute before Jan. 1, 1834. Question i in Medicine.—To determine what are the alterations of organs in those diseases called continued fevers? . What relations exist between the symptoms of these diseases and the alterations ob- served? ‘To insist upon the therapeutic views deducible from these. relation ? Question of Medical Chemistry .—To determine the physical and chemical alterations of the solids and liquids, i in the diseases denom- inated continued fevers.—4nn. de Chim. et de Phys. Nov. 1832. 6. Natural Philosophy—The Academy proposes a prize of a gold medal of three thousand francs, for a theory of the phenomena of hail, supported by positive experiments and various observations made, if possible, in the very regions of the productions of hail and which may be substituted for the present vague and unsatisfactory observations. Miscellanies. 191 In treating of the formation of hailstones, as to their physical con- stitution, and the enormous size which they sometimes attain, as to the seasons of the year, and the parts of the day when they are most commonly observed, it will be indispensable to follow out the conse- quences of the theory adopted, to numerical applications, —whether the theory employs the known properties of heat and electricity—or be founded upon new properties, resulting from incontestable experi- ments. Memoirs to be sent to the secretary of the Academy, before the Ist of March, 1834.—Jdem. 7. Astronomy.—Observations upon the disappearing and reappear- ing of the ring of Saturn,—and new elements of the comet of Biela; by M. L.-F. Warrmann. M. Wartmann made his observations at Geneva, in accordance with the request of M. Bessel of Kénigsberg, addressed to the obser- vers of all countries, so as to be able to fix precisely the time of the disappearing and reappearing of the ring of Saturn. “On the 22d April last, at 9 P. M. sky very clear, M. Wartmann observed Saturn with an excellent achromatic telescope, by Dollond, mounted parallactiquement, of three inches and a half aperture, and of forty-two inches focal distance, and of a magnifying power of one hundred and thirty-five times. The ring was hardly perceivable, | and appeared like a small straight line in crossing the disc of Saturn, and projecting on each side: On the 23d, at three-quarters past nine P. M. the sky perfectly serene, with the same telescope, M. W. could not see any trace of the lines whieh, the evening before, fringed the planet, and could perceive, upon the disc of Saturn, about the equa- tor, only the projection of the shadow of the ring like a straight stripe of a deep color. The sky was partially overcast from the 24th to the 28th of April, and no new observations were made till the 29th, at eight, nine, and ten P. M., when in a still time, and clear sky, Dollond’s instrument and also another by Fraunhofer, of four inches aperture, and six feet focus, and magnifying two hundred and forty times, were directed to the planet, without discovering any trace of the ring. The projec- tion of the shadow of the ring upon the disc of Saturn was feebly visible with Dollond’s telescope, but very distinctly with Fraunhofer’s, especially towards ten o’clock. It appeared like a small grey line, seusibly curved, (convex downwards,) and dividing the disc of Saturn into two unequal parts, the superior much smaller than the lower. 192 Miscellanies. The disc was very fair, well defined, and the flattening strikingly ap- parent. The moon was in the tenth day of her phase, within about eight or ten degrees of Saturn; the two bodies were elevated far above the horizon, and situated nearly in the meridian. The ring was last seen at three quarters past nine, P. M. April 22d, and this observation perfectly confirms the prediction of Dionis of Sejour, see p- 17 of his book published in 1776, entitled ‘ Essay upon the ane ~ nomena relative to the periodical disappearing of the ring of Saturn.” According to the calculations of this astronomer, the first disappear- ing ought to have occurred on the fourth of October, 1832, and the reappearing on the fifteenth of December following ; the second dis- appearing should happen on the twenty-third of April, 1833, and the reappearing on the twentieth of June following. MM. Bessel and Struve, found that the first disappearing of the ring would happen at three A. M. on the thirtieth of September, 1832, and the reappearing on the first of December, 1 P. M. the second disappearing on the thirtieth of April, 1833, at 10 P. M. and the re- appearing on the ninth of June following at 6 A. M. The Bureau des Longitudes of Paris has published in the Annuaire for 1832, still different-results from either of the preceding. It is hoped that actual observations, with powerful instruments, will furnish complete data to enable astronomers to announce with pre- cision the future returns of this phenomenon, the first of which will occur in 1848, at the close of the month of April. Comet of Biela.—It is known, that this telescopic star, whose ac- tual revolution is two thousand four hundred and forty-five days, has pursued, in its return last year, a track a little different from that which it should have traversed according to the Ephemeris of MM. Santi- ni, Damoiseau, Henderson, &c. M. Valz, of Nismes thinks the re- sistance of an etherial fluid has contributed somewhat to this slight disturbance. M. Santini, with different elements obtained in his results a remark- able variation, but by collecting all the observations made during the last appearance of the comet, he obtained the following new elements, never before published. The great axis and mean motion are those established by M. Damoiseau. Passage to the perihelion, 1832, Nov. 264. 153170, mean ‘time at Padua. Longitude of perihelion 110° 0’ 55.05” 2 of the mean oa Longitude of node 248° 15’ 36.09” ; of Jan. 0, 1833. Miscellanies. 193 Inclination . 13° 13’ 0.92” Logarithm of the eccentricity 9.8759106 Logarithm of half the great axis 0.5486142 Mean siderial, diurnal motion 533.4409” Bib. Univ. Mars, 1833, PHYSICS. 8. New property of elementary electromotors.—Prof. Dal N egro, in experiments, to discover some useful application of the magnetism communicated to iron by electrical currents, was led to examine into the greatest effect which could be obtained from the euales quantity of zinc. By zinc phites of various sizes, commencing with those of an inch surface, and ending with those of one hundred and twenty and one hundred and forty square inches, he magnetised a horse-shoe of iron, — wound with a spiral. The effects in each case were noted, and those of the smallest plates examined by the simple galvanometer. From these experiments often repeated, the following results were obtained. 1. Other things being equal, the most useful effect or the greatest relative force was obtained from the smallest plate of zinc. Relying upon the constancy of this important result, he constructs elementary electromotors of plates of zinc, smaller but never larger than one square inch. 2. To obtain from a given plate of zinc the greatest absolute effect, divide it into the greatest possible number of parts, and join them (par le bas) with copper wire, and arrange them parallel, by tens or twenties at pleasure, so as to form a single system, and plunge them all at the same instant, into a small copper trough, subdivided into as many compartments as there are series of plates, and filled with acid- ulous water. 3. The effect of a given plate of zinc is increased by a pines change in figure, of the same surface but of a larger perimeter; e. g- by re- ducing a square zinc plate, containing four square inches, to a rec- ~ tangle of six inches long, and three lines high, the effect is more than double 4, The i increase of the electromotive power depends, for a time, upon that of the perimeter, and the division of the constituent parts of the most oxidable metal, or, which amounts to the same thing, it de- — upon the sum of simultaneous currents, which take place in 25 Vou. XXV.—No. 1 194 Miscellanies. this particular disposition of the metals which compose the aneyey eléctromotor. The surprising effect of Wollaston’s miniature battery as well as those of Children’s great battery which were not proportioned to the metallic surface of the battery are explained by these results.—Jdem. 9. Magnetic Experiments—Mr. Kupffer in a letter to Sir D. Brewster, announces that he has found, that the intensity of magnetic forces, i in ia bars, diminishes as much by the action of cold as by that of hea To ae magnetic cylinders, of constant power, to measure the intensity of the magnetism of the earth, he not only plunges thenr many times into boiling water, but cools them as often to 20° or 25°, below zero, of Reaumur. Mr. K. has proved by a direct method, the existence of a daily variation in the dip of the magnetic needle, and in the intensity of the earth’s magnetism—the latter, by observing, each day, the extent and duration of the oscillations of a needle of a large dip and suspended upon the edge of a knife. He found that the dip was greater by some minutes at eleven A. M. than at eleven P. M. and that the intensity of the earth’s magnetism is much greater at night than in the morning.—Phil. Mag. March, 1832 10. Phenomenon presented by the breaking of a Prince Rupert's drop.—M. Bellani has observed that in breaking the tip of a Prince — Rupert’s drop, under the water contained in a glass receiver, the lat- ter is broken with an explosion, at the very moment and even when the surface of the water is uncovered. He attributed this effect to the rapidity with which the drop is broken and to the consequent ex- pansion, so great that the water has not time to yield, but com- municates, like a solid body, the motion to the sides of the receiver. This phenomenon is similar. to that which occurs when a ball is discharged from a pistol upon the surface of water—the ball is com- pressed and flattened as it would be if fired against a solid sig _ Bib. Univ. Feb. 1833. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. a Spowting fountain of mineral water, diseovered in 1832, near Cape Uneino, kingdom of Naples, by M. J. Auldjo.—Bubbles of of air were long since observed to-rise trom the bottom of the water Miscellanies. 195 about sixty-six feet and two-thirds from the shore, and Col. Robin- son, attracted by this curious phenomenon, commenced boring an ar- tesian well in this place, at the base of a tufaceous rock, the beds of which form the neighboring shore. Having-bored eight feet in a bed of sandy clay, (argile sablonneuse) and eight feet and one-third in a bed of pebbles, a column of water, four inches and a half in diameter spouted up in a very abundant jet. Three other wells were sunk and reached the water—the fourth was twenty-four feet nearer the Cape and the water spouted out from the depth of about fourteen feet. In this place the .strata was first sandy clay mixed with, stones (pierres) eight feet, and the other, small pebbles: mixed with volcanic ashes, 6 feet. The water of the first three wells ran upon a very hard bed of lava ‘—that of the last, upon a bed of clay divided into small rounded pieces, mixed with water, now fragments of lava, and volcanic ashes, which is supposed to be the natural bed of the current. The water is tepid, limpid, of an agreeable taste, being supersaturated with carbon- ic acid; it possesses very decided medicinal properties, and has effec- ted many undoubted cures, among the numorous visitors of the past year. Professor Ricci analyzed sixteen livres, (seventeen pounds and a quarter,) and obtained the following results. Grains. Carbonic acid gas - - . 56,5800 Bicarbonate of soda - - 142.5000 - of potassa | - 23.0000 - of magnesia - 80.0000 Carbonate of lime - - 43.7500 of iron - - 0.9062 Sulphate of soda gee 62.0000 * _ of potassa eee 15.0000 © of magnesia . . 5.0000 Chloride of Si - - _ 84,0000 ‘© of potassium - - 31.0000 Hydrochlorate of maps ee 45.1301 Phosphate of lime - 2.0000 se of silica. - - 9.0000 Peroxide of iron - - 1.6551 ‘of titanium? oe ats ak 599.5214 Nearly 0.41 per cent. of the whole weight. 196 Miscellanies. The jet of water, which at first was raised fourteen feet and two- thirds, has gradually subsided to eight feet. Its force is now so great that it brings up with it not only small pebbles, but fragments of lava, and tufa, one of the pieces of lava weighed two livres. Jn blasting the tufa for the establishment of baths, and other accommodations, the trunk of a eypress was discovered, still standing, charred upon the outside, but the interior was perfectly preserved. Its circumference was five feet and one third and height three feet and one third. It stood in a thin bed of vegetable earth, covered by different beds of voleanic tufa, was twenty feet and two thirds below the level of the sea, twen- ty-six feet and two-thirds below the surface of the ground, and five feet and one third below the formed upper surface of the tufa. This cypress, from its diameter, must have been at least an hun- dred years old at the time it was enclosed in the surrounding mass, which, in its nature and stratification, so much resembles that which’ covers Herculaneum, that it may with reason be supposed to be of the same epoch, or rather to bea part of the products of the eruption, which entombed the country south of the foot of Vesuvius, in a shower of volcanic substances. In the same bed with the cypress were found great numbers of snails (helix nemorata and h. decollata ;) also frag- ments of tiles and of pottery, undoubtedly of Roman origin, and like those found at Pompeii and Herculaneum. It is remarkable, that the outer part of the cypress is carbonized and the interior is uninjured, while at Pompeii and Herculaneum, even the large timbers are charred through the whole mass. ; This is probably owing to the cypress being in full vegetation when it was enveloped, and thus it is able to resist the heat of the lava, which is sufficient to carbonize only dead wood.—Bib. Univ. Mars, 1833. 12. Descent in diving bells—The Rev. Mr. Alden’s account of descents in a diving bell, (Am. Journal for July, 1832,) is translated into the Bibliotheque Universelle, and the translator, in a note, attri- butes the cure of Mr. Clifford’s rheumatism to the great heat pro- duced in the bell, and which is like a (steam?) vapor bath, and says that his twelve descents were almost equal to taking as many warm baths in the waters of Aix or Barrége. The translator once de- scended twenty five feet at Bordeaux, in a bell, with foar other per- sons, and the heat of their lamp, with that of respiration and that evolved by compression of the air, raised the thermometer, in three quarters of an hour, from 15° to 32° R. Miscellanies. 197 13. The Georgics—The Royal Academy of Sciences, Belles Lettres and Arts of Lyons, offer a gold medal of six hundred francs, founded by M. Bonafous, to be decreed to the author who shall pre- sent “a good translation of the Georgics, made or selected by him- self, and enriched with better notes and commentaries, better digest- ed, upon (la science agronomique) the theory of agriculture, so as to furnish to young men studying the Latin language the means of acquiring correct notions upon this science, so useful and so much neglected in education.” The works should be received by April 1st, 1834, and should be sent, free of postage, with some mark at their head, which is repeat- ed in a sealed note, containing also their names, quality and resi- dence, to M. Dumas, perpetual secretary, to the adjunct secretaries, or to any member of the Academy. 14, Epidemics in Paris.—M. Villermé, upon epidemics, consid- ering those years as epidemical, for a city of the size of Paris, when the mortality exceeds by a sixteenth that of the year previous or suc- ceeding, gives the' following table for Paris. For thirteen years of the 17th century, 6 epidemic years. From 1709 to 1720, (twelve years,) 5 — 172) ©1780," es = 2 1781 * 1740, ‘- - 1741 “ 1750, - - PTGES®: T76G, 88 P 1761 “ 1770, - baci W771 4780 j22 - I PT8T SE 9790, - 3 179148 1900/2 (fe ois 1609 1 1910;0) al exc 2O1LT 1820, = - 1821 “ 1830, wmaownoanhAAL HR aA Bib. Univ. Jan. 1833. 15. Permanence of letters written upon a metallic surface after its fusion.—M. Bellani has made the following curious experiment. Melt, in a small crucible, an alloy of lead and tin, and withdraw the metallic cone, after cooling. On writing, with common ink, upon the metallic surface, which was in contact with the side of the cru- cible, and remelting the ingot and cooling it again, the very same 198 Miscellanies. letters which were written before the second fusion will be found entire. The experiment may be repeated many times, and the metal may even be shaken while in fusion, and the characters traced upon the metallic surface will always be found again. ‘The phe- nomenon seems to be caused by the circumstance, that this surface is formed of a very thin coating of oxide, like a pellicle, which does not become fluid with the metal.—Bib. Univ. Feb. 1833. METEOROLOGY. 16. Use of the Barometer at sea—Mr. Clarence Dalrymple, cap- tain of one of the East India Company’s ships, in his “ Historical Ac- count and Description of British India,” (Edinburgh, 1832,) men- tions the use of the marine barometer as one reason of the present short voyages between England and India. A vessel may now make a voyage out and home in eight months, which fifty years ago requir- ed twelve months. Formerly, to avoid injury from squalls at night, the sails were all single.and even double reefed, at sunset. Now by the use of this instrument, the observer, who follows its motions, may carry as much sail at night as by day, regarding also a principle of navigation, i.e. to brail up the sails in time before a squall, but to be prompt to spread all sail as soon as the chief vio- lence of the storm is past. Capt. D., in speaking of the navigation near the Cape of Good Hope, says, “‘in no part of the world are the indications of this pre- Cious instrument more faithful than in the regions of the Cape. “A rapid descent of the mercury indicates, with certainty, gales of wind from the north west, and often even in a perfectly still time. ‘ Such a warning ought never to be disregarded. . In the southern hemisphere, the mercury rises with south winds and falls with north winds. During light breezes from the south east, after a storm, it generally ranges high, and a considerable descent takes place when the wind shifts to the north east, though there should be no gale. “This depression is owing to a change of temperature, the north winds being warmer than those from the south, which come from the icy regions of the south pole, If the mercury continue to fall after a southern breeze is established, a more powerful wind’ may, with certainty, be expected. “During the most powerful storm the author ever experienced near the Cape, the barometer descended to 28,98 English inches.”— Bib, Univ. Feb, 1833. . Miscellanies. 199 MINERALOGY. 17. Marine shells in the coal formation.—Heretofore the coal formation has afforded only vegetable fossils and a small number of shells, which, from their similarity in form to the genus Unio, have been regarded as shells of fresh water. Recently, Mr. John Phil- lips, author of a valuable geological description of Yorkshire, has discovered a series of carboniferous strata, situated in the lower part of the formation, directly above a coarse conglomerate, called mill- stone grit. The roof of one bed of coal in this series is full, not of vegetable fossils, as usual, but of a considerable variety of marine shells of the genera Pecten, Ammonites, Orthocera and Ostrea. Among the species, Mr. P. has discovered the Pecten papyraceus and the Ammonites Listeri. It is remarkable, that this last species, hitherto regarded as peculiar to transition formations, has the pecu- liar characteristics of the Ammonites of this epoch, i.e. the absence ' of notchings (dentelures) upon its lobes. In the coal mine of Swan. Banks, near Halifax, there is a bed of fresh water shells (Unio) be- low the marine bed, and between it and the millstone grit. It seems to result from this important observation, that the waters of the sea, in which the transition limestones were deposited, after having given, for some time, free scope to the fresh water, where the coal beds were formed, have again re-covered, in a moment, the regions which the fresh water invaded more slowly, and where it accumulated those thick deposits of coal now explored in this part of England.—Lond. and Ed. Phil. Mag. Nov. 1832, p. 349. 18, Notices of some of the volcanos and volcanic phenomena of Hawaii, (Owyhee,) and other islands in that group, in a letter from Mr. Joseph Goodrich, missionary, dated Nov. 17, 1832. [The specimens named in this letter, have arrived in good order.] 20. PROFESSOR SILLIMAN. Dear Sir—Since 1 wrote last, I have been up Mauna Kea, and also nearly around it; in the valley between Mauna Kea and Mauna Loa, the path lies along so near the former, that the snowy summit is not to be seen till the traveller has nearly reached the opposite side; while Mauna Loa presents an appalling aspect, streams of black, dismal looking lava having run from the top to the shore, so very ragged and uneven, that it is almost enough to tear or cut one’s hands and feet to pieces to cross over them. . A person who has 200 Miscellanies. never seen any thing of the kind, cannot form any adequate idea of the extreme roughness of those currents of lava; and even those who have seen them, and who have not seen the process of forma- tion, (of which I have happened to be an eye witness, and am to describe it hereafter,) cannot imagine how it was ever formed into such rude, rough, ragged and broken masses. In ascending Mauna Kea, nothing occurred very materially differ- ent’ from what I have heretofore mentioned ; a severe head ache, affecting the natives as well as myself, with sickness at the stomach and vomiting of bilious matter, usually attends me in those lofty regions. The minerals that I brought down consist, as you will perceive, of fragments of granite rock, imbedded in lava. ‘There is one spe- cimen, wrapped in white kapa, with black figures, and all the speci- mens from the summit of the mountain are wrapped in the same kind of kapa. The specimens of compact lava, (much resembling hornstone,) are the material of the native adze, such as they were accustomed to use before. they were acquainted with iron; those which I send, are now in their rude state, as taken from the quarry, in acave near the summit, where they were roughed out and after- wards taken down among the inhabitants for sale. No persons ever lived within twenty or thirty miles of the place where they were roughed out. I saw some specimens of granite a foot or more in diameter; the cohesion was, in general, quite feeble, doubtless the effect of volcanic fire, of which there are evident marks on almost every rock on the island, ae _ In my last journey up the mountain, I found the pond or lake of water, of which I had frequently been informed. It is situated just at the foot of some of the highest peaks of the mountain, on the south east side, probably not far from a thousand feet from the top. The lake is seventy five rods in circumference, or twenty five in diameter; it was about one half frozen over, when I visited it in December ; the ice was sufficiently firm to bear sliding upon; the natives, however, were not much inclined to make the trial, for be- ing barefoot and half clothed, they were indisposed to move unless we were on our way downward. The water appeared to be very deep, and none was discharged from it when I was there, although there appears to be an outlet when the snow melts. ‘There not be- ing much snow at the time of my visit, I could not discover that the lake is fed by springs, or even snow, for the rocks, cinders and sco- ria, were all dry about it. Miscellanies. 201 Strawberries, whortleberries, and raspberries, black and yellow, grow, in abundance, upon fhe sides of the mountain, until you pass the line of vegetation; below this region, is a dense woody belt, nearly surrounding the mountain; it is from five to twenty miles through, and below this, until reaching the shore, a distance of six or eight miles, is the region for cultivation. In the box which I have put up for you, to be sent by the ptipanat opportunity, is one cocoanut shell, filled with sand from the beach, at the bay. When it is melted in an iron vessel, in a blaeksmith’s forge, it makes black, porous lava, not very Siecieniiar from other specimens in the box. About fourteen months since, I was requested by my brethren, to leave my station, for a season, and to remove to Oahu, to superintend the printing press, and instruct in book-binding some of the natives, who were quite disposed to learn. While there, in January last, about the 12th, (as near as I can ascertain,) the volcano commenced a vigorous system of operations, sending out volumes of smoke, and the fire underneath, so powerfully illuminated the smoke, that it had the appearance of a city, enveloped in one general conflagration. A day or two following, smart shocks of earthquakes commenced, to the number of six or eight in the course of the day; they shook the house so violently, that those who occupied left it and took up their lodgings, for two or three days, in a native house, when the shocks ceased and have not been since felt. On the 20th of June, volcanic eruptions broke out upon the top of Mauna Loa, (which is about the same height as Mauna Kea,*) and the mountain continued burning for two or three weeks; the Java was also seen running out of the sides of the mountain, in dif- ferent places; it discharged the red hot lava from so many vents, that it was seen on every side of the mountain; it was visible as far as Lahaina, upwards of one hundred miles. . As that mountain, as far as I can learn, has never been ascended by any person, I con- ‘template attempting the ascent, while making a tour of the island in January next. Should I succeed, and discover any thing worth no- tice, you may expect to hear from me by the next opportunity. I returned home to this place in July last, and embraced the first favorable opportunity to go up to our volcano of Kirauea and see what alterations had taken place since I saw it last. About the first : * 18,000 feet. Vout. RAV I. 26 202 Miscellanies. of September, I made a short visit to the volcano, and found that there had been a tremendous action in and about the crater; the crater had been filled up to the black ledge and about fifty feet above, about nine hundred feet in the whole, «since I first visited it, and it had now again sunk down to nearly the same depth as at first, leaving, as usual, a boiling caldron at the south end. The inside of the crater was entirely changed; the earthquake in January last had rent in twain the walls of the crater on the east side, from the top to the bottom, producing seams from a few inches to several yards in width, from which the region around was deluged with lava. The chasms commenced at the bottom of the crater, rending every thing in their way, and took an easterly direction up the perpendicular walls of the immense caldron, within a few yards of where Mr. Stewart, Lord Byron, myself and others have slept, when visiting that awful place; so that the very spot where I have lain quietly many times, is entirely overrun with lava; almost all the specimens in the brown kapa were taken from the Hite where I have slept, as also Lord Byron and others. Huge rocks were thrown in various directions; the.chasms con- tinued eastward, rending the causeway that connects the two cra- ters, the mass of which, with the region around, has sunk about a foot, as is evident from the wails farther back. The path in front of the lodging place, by which we descend into the abyss, is now rendered entirely impassable, by the rending, of the rocks and de- luging of the lava, so that another path, that is more difficult, is the only one remaining. 1 found it a much more arduous task to descend to the bottom than formerly; after travelling from the north to the south end, I found myself on the brink of a burning lake or glade, if the word will apply to this scene. Here was an opening in the lava, about twenty feet below, sixty or eighty rods long, and twenty or thirty rods wide; the whole mass of liquid and semi-fluid lava was boiling, foaming and dashing its fiery billows against the rocky shore ; the mass was in motion, running from north to south, at the rate of two or three miles an hour, boiling up asa spring at one end and running to the other. Mr. Stewart’s description of the bottom of the crater, as coneined in his journal of his residence on the island, page 381, gives a fair account of the bottom of the crater, as it at present appears, with the exception of the lake or glade. Imagine to yourself, a river congealing with the cold in the winter season, the current floating Milli, — 208 the ice along down, and crashing against the shore and against itself, in every direction, and you will have some idea of its appearance, except that here is heat and there is cold. The lava on top being stiffened with cold, was dashed against the shore, and was tumbled and distorted into every form and shape as it came in contact with ihe shore ; it would melt away; while more was continually forming upon the surface, and while the gaseous matter was forced through, scattering the liquid fire in every direction. The scene was terrific and appalling; I know not that it is possible to give any adequate conception of it, unless actually beheld by one’s own eyes. The specimens in the white kapa were taken from the brink of the lake or glade, perhaps thrown out a few days, and possibly but a few hours before, as they and the rest of the lava were so hot as - to be quite uncomfortable to the hand. There were two islands in the lake ; on what they were based, it would seem difficult to say. It was here I saw how the lava becomes so rough and distorted; I saw how it was thrown and dashed about, by the gaseous matter and the fiery currents. I ought to have mentioned before, that the chasm extended from the top to the bottom, and that back of it at right angles with the main chasm, about half way up the precipice, there was a vent a quarter of a mile in length, from which immense quantities of Java boiled out directly underneath the hut formerly oc- cupied by the party of Lord Byron. In one of the cocoanut shells is some capillary volcanic glass col- lected from the south-west side, before I descended into the crater. It is so extremely light that 1 found it only in holes and crevices, in which places it was collected by the wind. Upwards of a year ago, a shock of.an earthquake was felt here by myself and others. At the same time a commotion at sea was perceived by three of the natives, about four or five miles from shore, in front of the bay ; the water rose in the form of a cone or pyramid much higher than the bread fruit trees, that are sixty or seventy feet high; in appearance it was white like the spray of the sea. Meek 19. On the tendency of Iron to preserve copper exposed to sea- water.—Extract of a letter to the Editor.—It is generally conceded among shipmasters and merchants, that the copper on ships’ bottoms, does not last half so long now as it used to do many years back; various reasons have been given for it but none have appeared satisfactory. The Cornwall miners work the ore now as their fathers did, and no 204 Miscellanies. more or other alloy can enter into it now than did a hundred years ago. The London copper is by some preferred to the Liverpool, and many think the American is better than any other 5 but there is no great difference, all wear out in a surprisingly short space of time. In former times our vessels were all iron fastened, now they are fastened with copper ; because it has been found that the copper de- stroys the iron, but may it not be that the same galvanic action pre- served the copper ? I saw lately in the Philosophical Hall at Rotterdam a simple exper- ment, which, in my opinion, went far to illustrate this theory: A long strip of copper was bent snakelike (as in the annexed figure, ) into five or six loops or bights each of which was immersed in a separate vase of sea-water,—a small piece of iron was riveted to the end of the copper in the first vase,—after remaining there five or six months, the water in the first vase was slighily tinged with red, that in the second had a shade of blue’scarcely perceptible, in the third it was green, in the fourth a very dark olive, and in the last it was almost black. At the top of the water in each glass there was a bit of cotton-wick, wound loosely round the copper, to give, as I imagined, more surface for the action of the air and water, and there the corrosion was the greatest, and in proportion’ to its distance from the iron. As I am rather out of the way of chemical researches, it is possible that this idea may be trite to you, but if you should find it worth your while to try the experiment and follow it to some higher result, it might lead to some improvements in the manner of sheathing ships which would be of essential. interest to our merchants. . Scorr. Remarks by the Editor —There can be no doubt that the sugges- tions of Capt. Scott, as to the cause of the protection of the copper, in the experiment which he saw at Rotterdam, are correct. The iron Miscellanies. 205 was corroded, and this preserved the copper; most effectually in the vessel where both metals were in contact, and the copper was corro- ded, more and more, as it receded from that point. Sir H. Davy’s gal- vanic protection of the copper sheathing on ships, is well known, and its failure arose, from a very unusual cause, namely, its perfection : the marine shell fish, being no longer, as before, poisoned by the solu- tion of the corroded copper, collected in enormous quantities, during long voyages, and thus retarded the sailing of the ship. Perhaps the experiment has been too hastily abandoned, and had its illustrious au- thor lived, in his accustomed vigor and zeal, he might, not improbably, have modified his protection by zinc or iron, to that degree which might have afforded both a poison for the sea insects, and adequate protection for the copper. The public are acquainted also with the ingenious experiments of Dr. John Revere, on the same subject ; they appeared very nigh to entire success, but we are not aware that any trials of the kind are now making on a large scale. Capt. Scott’s suggestion as to the cause of the protection afforded by the iron pins to the copper sheathing is undoubtedly correct, and although it might not be expedient to resume the iron pins, it might be entirely judi- cious to attach a very small portion of iron or zinc to every sheet of sheathing on a ship’s bottom. Capt. Scott, being about to sail again for Holland, kindly proffered his services, which were gratefully accepted, for the purpose of bring- ing home any interesting notices that might fall in his way respecting foreign science and arts. After remarking, that “a high scholar once told him that if shipmas- ters would sometimes make use of their eyes and ears, abroad, they might add much to the stock of science at home,” he adds, that he saw at Rotterdam a galvanic magnet, of six or seven pounds power. This was doubtless of the same general construction as that of Professor Joseph Henry, described two years ago in this Journal. It will be remembered that the latter lifted more than two thousand pounds and with some additions that have since been made, it apse now lift probably several hundred pounds more. 20. Prize offered by the Imperial Academy of Sciences, of St. Pe- tersburg, at its public sitting December 22d, 1832, and January 10th, 1833.—Communicated by John Vaughan, Esqr. of Philadelphia. The experiments of Gay-Lussac and Thenard upon the manner in which potassium acts in ammoniacal gas, have brought to light a 206 Miscellanies. particular kind of compound, to which they gave the name of ammo- niacal azoturet of potassium; although this name expresses a partic- ular mode of combination, still, the experiments of the French chem- ists do not determine, with sufficient exactness, the elementary com- position of this substance, especially, as these experiments, when re- peated by Davy, furnished different results. New experiments, conducted with all the precision sidlediin to the present state of the science, are demanded, in relation to the am- moniacal azoturet of potassium. These experiments should be pre- faced by an exposé of those of Gay-Lussac and Thenard and of Davy. References should also be had to what is stated on this sub- ject in the second volume of the French edition of Berzelius’s Chem- a The authors of the memoir, after having determined with precision, the elementary composition of the subject of his experiment, will try to elucidate the mode of combination which appears most probable to express the nature of the substance analyzed. The pieces should be sealed and they may be written in Russian; German, French or Latin, and addressed to the perpetual secretary of the Academy, before the first of August, 1834. The prize of one hundred Dutch Ducats, will be decreed in the public sitting, to be held.on the 29th of December of the same year. The successful piece will be printed at the expense of the Academy.’ 21. Dr. Young’s Elements of Geometry, &c. §c.—* The Ele- ments of Geometry ,”—‘ The Elements of the Differential Calculus,” —and “The Elements of the Integral Calculus,” by Dr. Young, have been presented to the public by Carey, Lea and Blanchard, in three octavo volumes. They are designed for the use of Colleges and Universities, and contain full — expositions of the ‘sub- jects of which they treat. It is the author’s plan to give a haga and more comprehensive view of Geometry, than has been done by any preceding geometer 5 and it is his aim to adhere to that accuracy of reasoning, and rigor of proof, in his geometrical investigations, which shall not leave conclu- sions “ only approximately true,” but shall establish every proposi- tion by demonstrating the converse where demonstration is possible, pointing out ‘‘ those cases where it necessarily fails.” This mode of proceeding must be highly satisfactory to the learner, who thus not only ascertains, that “ under certain conditions a certain property Miscellanies. 207 must have place, but also, whether it is possible for the same pig ty to exist under any change of those conditions.” While the author designs to establish the doctrine of enensen’ proportions with the rigor of proof peculiar to Euclid, he has endeay- ored to relieve the subject from the intricacy and subtlety of the ela- borate reasonings of that great geometer, which opposed very serious obstacles in the way of the student. The Editor has interspersed some important propositions, for which he acknowledges himself indebted to Legendre, and Leslie, and to Bland’s geometrical problems, and he has also added some methods on the rectification of the circle. Although the eminence of the French philosophers is generally acknowledged in most branches of abstract science, yet they have not succeeded in demonstrating the quadrature of the circle. Dr. Young, in common with many others} deems it incapable of being rigorously ascertained ;” although by inscribing and circumscribing polygons, on Gregory’s method, (which Dr. Young employs,) within and without a circle, a coincidence with it may be so nearly ascertain- ed that for all practical purposes, it is equivalent to perfect accuracy. The seventh Book is devoted to the properties of polygons, and in the tenth proposition it is shown “that the ares which the sides of a polygon subtend are bisected. The chords of the half arcs will be the sides of a regular polygon having double the number of sides.” And in the scholium to the thirteenth proposition he says, that * Hav- ing obtained numerical expressions for polygons of eight sides, by an application of the same two proportions in a similar way, the surfaces of sixteen sides may be determined, and thence of thirty-two sides, and so on, till we arrive at an inscribed and circumscribed polygon differing from the circle, and from each other so little, as to be unas- signable by any numerical expression. ‘The inscribed and cireum- scribed polygons of 32,768 sides, differ so little from each other that the numerical value of each, as far as seven places of decimals is the same, and as the circle is between the two, it cannot ditar so much from either as they do from each other. “The number 3.1415926 expresses correctly the area of a circle, whose radius is one, as far as seven places of decimals,” and if it were necessary, the approximation might be continued to an almost endless extent. ‘ An infinite series was discovered by Machin, by which he reached the quadrature as far as the hundredth place of decimals, and even this number has been extended _ or forty figures farther by later mathematicians.” ? 208 Miscellanies. “For the ordinary purposes of mensuration, the circumference will be determined with sufficient precision by multiplying the diam- eter by twenty-two and dividing the product by seven, which is the approximation discovered by Archimedes.”* To the popular reader it may be interesting to know that the Dif- ferential and Integral Calculus, teach the analytical methods of pro- ceeding in the pure mathematics, analogous to Algebra, the calcula- tions are divided into constant and variable quantities, in place of the known and unknown quantities of Algebra. The differential calcu- lus determines the effect produced by a given cause; the tttag tt shows how to determine the cause which produced a known effect.” The calculations proceed by methods and expressions similar to on algebraical notations and processes. It is the author’s aim to furnish the scholar ma a complete view of modern analytical science, and to free this higher order of mathemat- ical research from the contradictory theories, and exceptionable prin- ciples, which have pervaded every preceding book on the Calculus, harassing and obstructing the go cate of the student, and discourag- ing him with inconsistencies. It is believed that the author has succeeded in stellata “ this most powerful instrument which the modern analysis places in the hands of the mathematician,” and the student may be cheered by the guide thus afforded him, amidst the difficulties of a laborious but.sub- lime and elevating career of enquiry. New York, August, 1833, 3, On the Cashmere-Angora Shawl Goat. To perro SILLIMAN, ‘Dror Si?—Many attempts have been made in Europe, to domes- ticate the Cashmere goat, “the down” of that animal being the ma- terial from which are fabricated the most beautiful and costly shawls that are brought from the East. This down is considered the most precious and “the most beautiful filaceous material known,” com- bining the fineness and softness of down, and the warmth of woot, with the lustre of silk. The following facts are derived principally from iis Transactions of the (British) “Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manu- factures, and Commerce,” for 1831-32. * See p. 140 Elem. Geom. Miscellanies. 209 _ The first race of Cashmere goats, imported from Persia to France, under the patronage of the government, promised little profit to the owners. They were healthy, and tolerably hardy, but of various sizes and colors; and the soft fleece, which alone was valuable, was very small in quantity, and overgrown, and almost concealed by long hairs. After a few years, however, a very superior herd was raised. at Versailles, by M. Polanceau, the director of the “ferme modéle, at Grignon,” possessing the best qualities of the original Cashmere, with those of the-soft, long, silky-haired, native Angora. M. Polan- ceau states, that some of his improved breed yield “thirty ounces of down in one season,” and the whole herd produce from twelve to twenty ounces each; while the original Cashmere never yields more than four, and seldom exceeds two ounces. The animals are “ less capricious than the common goat, may more easily be kept in a flock, and are more docile even than sheep.” The down falls in a manner similar to the wool from sheep, in the month of March, and may be taken off in locks by separating it gently with the hand from the skin. It is best, however, when shear- ed off in one fleece as soon as it begins to loosen; for the parallel- ism of the filaments is thus better preserved, and it is more readily combed and prepared for manufacturing purposes. | They are not, as has been apprehended, difficult to keep, but are allowed to remain all winter in open sheds. Like all other browsing animals, “they prefer the leaves of trees, but thrive well on hay, straw, green fodder, or in meadows. They also feed with. equal facility on heaths, and on the most abrupt declivities, where sheep would perish.” M. Polanceau, at first, gave them aromatic herbs, occasionally, for a year or two, but of late has discontinued the use of them, without any injurious effect. The down commences growing in September, and in March arrives at full maturity, when it bh unless removed artificially. The Society awarded to William Riley, Esq. their gold Isis medal, for his importation from France of a select number of these valuable animals, with the view of introducing them into the colony of New South Wales, and Van Diemen’s Land; where the wools of the me- rino and Saxony sheep have so far improved, as to be preferred, by intelligent manufacturers, to those brought from any part of Europe. The southern part of New South Wales, and Van Diemen’s Land, are in corresponding south latitudes with Cashmere in Thibet and - Vou. XXV.—No. 1. - 210 Miscellanies. Angora in Asia Minor in the north; while Versailles, where this herd is so flourishing, producing more down than even in their na- tive districts, is 12° or 14° farther north than Thibet, and 8° farther north than Angora, which is in N. lat. 40°, 200 miles E. S. E. of Constantinople.* : From reviewing all these localities, we may presume that our own country, within its boundless varieties of climate and vegetable pro- ductions, may yield such favored spots, as will enable the enterpri- sing agriculturist to domesticate this valuable animal, as well as the choice varieties of foreign sheep; and with much greater probabili- ties of success, than attended the first attempts at the culture of silk, which was, for ages, believed to be a particular gift of Heaven to China, from whence it was not deemed possible to extend it, to any other region of the globe. | M. Polonceau, who has the choicest herd in Europe, perhaps the only one of Cashmere-Angora, disposed of four to the King of Wir- temberg, in 1828, for the small sum of three thousand four hundred francs; and in 1831 parted with thirteen more to Mr. Riley, as above stated. This race of animals have not in the least degenera- ted, since they first came into M. Polanceau’s possession, ten years ago, but their peculiar properties become annually more and more fixed. The superior quality and quantity of their fleeces, with the precious nature of the material, offer strong inducements to the agri- cultural capitalist of some of our mild hill countries, to obtain some em by way of trial. _ The herds of M. Polonceau are probably, by this time, so numer- ous as to enable him to sell a sufficient number for an experiment, which, if successful, would secure a profit to the proprietor, and accomplish an important national object. The peculiarities of cli- mate and the vegetable productions of Angora, with the habits of the goat on its native soil, might be ascertained beyond doubt, by application to our countryman, Commodore Porter, who is investi- gating a variety of subjects, in that part of Asia which is most inter- esting to science, manufactures, and commerce. With great respect, I am, &c New York, August, 1833. * P > : : ; * Port yore in New South Wales, is in S. lat..32°. Van Diemen’s Land is in S. lat. 4 Miscellanies. 211 23. Meteorological Journal.—Abstract of Meteorological obser- vations, taken at Savannah, Geo., by Wm. H. Williams, from June 1, 1832, to June 1, 1833, lat. 32° 8’ an lon. 4° 8’ west of Wash- ington city. Thermom- Atmosphere. eter. 26 2 es _ : . 2 |a|=| Prevailing winds Z Talatelel «| BSE] Pamcunk am | Provan MONTHS. | 5 SsislBlhl &] Te [sie pe B laed s 5 = = 3 = >I2 feo o a RISES) 21 8 [-S/S|N- &|[z. a lw. ale. SSF IS) a | O lal |N-wn-e.s.w.s. & une, 1832. 92/73}16/21| 20} 6 | 4/0) 4) 13; 10] ¢ & Ww uly, |84 94/74/21/14, 18 |} 4] 9 0} 5] 1 8! 7] nN. Bek. Lugust,“* |82 |90/77\11/29} 2) 4 |25) 0} 4) 1 6 | It .E&E. opt. a 17F 90/66} 5/14) 138} 5 112) 0) 6 § 6 8.&E. et. 84|52|12/25| 12 | 13 | 6} O| 71) 1 d N. E. & E. Nov. * 64 87\44, 624, 12 | 12 | 6, 0, 14 eae 3) ON. W.& W. Joe 72|30|27 7114 110; 0} 12 ee 31 N. W.& W. an. 1833. 72\20| 2|11] 6 | 11 | 6} 8} 8] 6] 1 [| s.w.es. ‘eb. << [59 |ysiggito| si 14] 8/o0lé| 51 9] 7| 7| week. arch, ‘* 162 80/40! 1 ‘ ul 18 | 0} 2} 6 Y| 6] 121 sn. EB. ipril, “ [69 — |g3/57/25 10 | 317 9| 7| 6| www. May, “< |79 I 2 12 | 16 o| 3] 2] 11} 7/1) sex. 695.83|. | |is7 [121 |81|26| 81 |112 | 87 | 85 Mean temperature of the thermometer for the year, 69°.83 “ average “ nd summer months, 82 sie = - = autumn ae “ tena “ winter 6°. 66 “ec ce ce ce ‘s rin 6c 70 pring The greatest quantity of rain fell in August, 1832, and in April, 1833. There was more rain in April, 1833, than in the winter months. July 1832 was the warmest month. Average of thermom- éter, 84°. Dec. 1832 was the coldest month. Average of ther- mometer, 54°. July 2, 1832, the warmest day; thermometer 95°. January 11, 1833, the coldest day ; thermometer 20°. The month of August, 1832, the mean average of the thermometer, varied from 80°, the lowest point at any time, to 85° the highest. This month was very wet, and very healthy; wind easterly. Distinguished health, was enjoyed during the year in this city; no prevailing epi- demic of any description. The first frost was on the evening of the 24th of October. Vegetation was in verdure at the close of Novem- ber. = the morning of the 10th of January, there was a little flur- ry of sn paced hui: Savannah, Geo. June 29, 1833. 24. Transactions of the Literary and Historical Society of Que- bec.—The second volume of this society, published in 1831, em- 212 Miscellanies. braces a variety of interesting and valuable communications, relative to the Natural History, Topography, and Geography of the Cana- | das; and in particular, a paper, entitled, “ A Grammar of the Hu- ron Language,” which occupies above one hundred pages of the Transaetions. Parts I. and JI. of Vol. III. for July, 1832, contain a Memoir on the Mirages of the St. Lawrence, one on the Climate of Canada, a mathematical paper on parallel lines, and a communi- cation on the plants of Canada. Part II. contains the continuation of Mr. Sheppard’s Notes on the Plants of Lower Canada, Lt. Badde- ley’s Report on the Magdalen Islands, with a handsome lithographic map, and a notice on the pigments of Canada. This society cannot fail of receiving the high commendations which it deserves, for the spirit and success vith which it has thus far been conducted. 25. Exchanges in Natural History—M. T. D. Michahelle, Dr. Med. and Phil., Munich, in Bavaria, in a letter to the Editor, dated April 24, 1833, proposes to the naturalists of this country, to ex- change the animals and plants of Southern and Central Europe, (par- ticularly those from the Alps of Germany and Switzerland, Italy, France, Dalmatia, and Albania, and their confines,) for those of North America. Dr. M. is very desirous of these exchanges, and wishes to obtain of the class manmalia, aves and amphibia, one, two, three, four, or more specimens of each species; of the mollusca, only those species which inhabit the land or fresh water ; of insects, only the coleoptera and lepidoptera ; of plants, all, both phanerogamous and cryptoga- mous. He will furnish to those who desire it a complete catalogue of each class and order of his collection. 26. Magnetic Oxide of Iron.—Copy of a letter from Thos. G. Clemson, to Hez. B. Pierpont, Esq., dated Paris, May 238d, 1833. Str,—Some two months since, Mr. Henry Evelyn Pierpont put into my hands a specimen of a magnetic oxide of iron, having a crys tallized structure, color grayish black, and when reduced to powder, of a greenish brown. It acts upon the needle, without possessing evident marks of polarity. It was from Franklin County, State of New York. As he desired, I examined the same, and the following are the results, which he desired that I should forward to your address. The substance, when heated with muriatic acid, leaves no insolu- ble residuum, 20 grammes of the ore, and 6 grammes of borax, Miscellanies. 213 were submitted together in a brasqued crucible, to an ordinary assay heat: the result was, iron and scoria 15°42; iron alone, 12°90. Then 100 parts of the ore contain 64°50 of metal, which appear- ed to have all the properties of steel. 27. A Parasite of the Honey Bee,* [Apis mellifica.|—For a few years past, many of those people, in this vicinity, who have apiaries, have found that in the month of April, May and June, an unusual mortality has prevailed among their bees. This circumstance has led to a thorough investigation of the cause, by those, who have felt a particular interest, in the products of this valuable insect ; and the result has proved, that this mortality has been produced entirely by a parasite. . More than two years since, one of my neighbors, suggested to me his conjectures, that there was a parasite fly, that was injurious to the ey bee; since which.time, we have fully ascertained the fact. I have, a box, now before me, containing a great number of dead bees in which may be found the parasites, in both the pupa and the per- fect state. Usually the bees become sickly, and unable to fly, when the parasites are in the larva state; but they sometimes live till the perfect insect emerges from the pupa. The larva is fixed at the in- osculations of the dorsal segments of the abdomen of the bee, and is hardly discoverable by the eye unless the abdomen be dissected. The larva is white, nearly two lines in length, and very much resem- bles a small worm or maggot. The pupa is nearly the size of the larva, and of a reddish brown color. ‘The perfect insect is a non-descript, and bears very little resemblance to the [Stylops] or [ Xenos] or any other insect, that has been found to be a parasite of the bee or wasp. It is of the class Diptera of Lin.—is little larger than the Hessian fly, but in color and form, it is very unlike that in- sect. : : Kirby, many years since discovered that the insect (Stylops) wasa parasite in the black-bronze bee, (Andrena nigroenea,) in England, and Professor Peck, afterwards found that the (Xenos) was a para- * To Professor Silliman,—Dear Sir.—Having fully ascertained that we have an at is a Parasite of the Honey Bee [Apis mellifica,] and being unable to find any description of it, in any treatise on Entomology, which has fallen under my view, I send you the following communication, on the subject, for Ee in your valuable Journal of Science, &c, should you think it deserving a pla Yours Respectfully. Fayetteville, Vt., May 15, 1833. Martin Frevp. 214 Miscellanies. site in wasps, in America; but I am not aware that a parasite of the honey bee, has ever been discovered till of Jate, and in this vicinity. — _ In conclusion, I would most sincerely request those, who have api- aries, to examine their hives during the spring and summer months, and if this parasite is discovered, to investigate the history of the in- sect, and if possible, to find a remedy for the injury, it may produce. . 28. A Compendium of Natural Philosophy, adapted to the use of the general reader and of Schools and Academies ; by Denison Oumstep, A. M. Prof. of Mat. and Nat. Phil. in Yale Coll., New Haven, H. Howe & Co., 8vo. pp. 326. It gives us pleasure to announce to the public the appearance of this work. It is an abstract of the larger text-book of Prof. Olm- sted, published in 1831 and 1832, and now in extensive use asa manual of Natural Philosophy in our Colleges. Omitting the dem- onstrations, which require too thorough an acquaintance with Mathe- matics to be intelligible to beginners and to ordinary readers, the au- thor has given us in the Compendium, a copious and interesting di- gest of the most important facts and principles of the science. We feel assured, that Teachers in our High Schools and Academies, will find this work peculiarly adapted to their wants. Most of the text-books of Natural Philosophy in common use, we can testify from experience, are not suited to the purposes of elementary in- struction. ‘They are either superficial and incomplete, on the one hand, or too elaborate and difficult on the other. Those who give any attention to the subject, desire certainly to know at least all the important results of the science, but with the mathematical processes of proof, many must dispense. Prof. Olmsted’s style is remarkably clear and happy, and his arrangement philosophical and convenient. A very copious Analysis for facility of reference, and for the con- venience of the Teacher in the examination of his classes, is prefix- ed. The work is neatly printed in the octavo form, and illustrated by numerous cuts. OBITUARY, 1. Col. George Gibbs.—The death of Col. George Gibbs, aged 57, took place August 5th, at his seat, Sundswick Farms, Newtown, near New York. This gentleman, by procuring and importing, during his foreign travels, the rich and extensive cabinet of minerals now in Yale Col- Miscellanies. 215 lege, conferred on his country a very important benefit. From 1810, 11 and 12, during which years it was opened and arranged, to 1825, he liberally gave the use of it to the institution and the public, re- ceiving, as his only compensation, the satisfaction of observing the great amount of good which was thus effected. In 1825, this cabi- net was purchased for Yale College, for twenty thousand dollars: half of this sum was contributed by citizens of New Haven, inclu- ding one thousand five hundred dollars given by the permanent offi- cers of the College ; about three thousand dollars were pledged in New York, seven hundred in South Carolina,* five hundred, each, by two individuals in Connecticut,t and a few hundreds more in other places. The writer of this notice had extensive opportunities of witness- ing the liberal spirit with which Col. Gibbs promoted the interests of science. While he was conferring important benefits, his manners were mild, amiable and unassuming. It is not improper to mention, that Col. Gibbs was ial, person who first suggested to the Editor the project of this Journal, and he urged the topic with so much zeal and with such cogent arguments, as prevailed to induce the effort in a case then viewed as of very dubious success.t The subject was thus started in November, 1817; proposals for the Journal were issued in January, 1818, and the first No. appeared in July of that year. For many years previous to his death, Col. Gibbs, occupied with rural cares, retired into the bosom of his family, in his beautiful abode at Hurlgate Ferry. The few papers which he published in Dr. Bruce’s Journal, and in the American Journal, only cause us to regret that he did not publish more. His talents were decidedly of a superior order; his knowledge was extensive and various; his style of writing was simple, concise and comprehensive, and his original observations were judicious and exact. 2. Dr. William Meade died at Newburgh, in the state of New York, on the 29th of August. This gentleman, a native of Ireland, * Through the exertions of Thomas S. Grimké, Esq. t One of whom was the late — James Hillhouse. $ It was on an accidental on board the Fulton steam-boat, in Long Island Sound, a Col. Gibbs suggested nas effort. Dr. Bruce’s Journal of Mineralogy some years suspended, and the alarming state of his health forbade the hope that ie work would be revived. 216 Miscellanies. _ spent the last twenty five years of his life in this country. He was well known as an active mineralogist. He visited many of the most important American localities of minerals, and by his activity in collecting and exchanging minerals, both in this country and in Eu- rope, as well as by his valuable papers in this Journal and in other publications, he contributed to promote the progress of science, and especially of Mineralogy, towards which he ever manifested a de- cided and warm interest. Dr. Meade left a valuable and extensive collection of minerals and fossils at Newburgh. — Dr. Meade had occupied himself, during some of his later years, on the subject of artificial mineral water, and especially in preparing powders to imitate those of the Congress spring at Saratoga,* and in inventing and perfecting a magnesian aperient, which is, at the same time, effervescent and grateful. These preparations, we are persuaded, are of serious utility, and will be offered for sale to the public. : We have, more frequently than we could wish, the painful duty to discharge, of naming departed coadjutors in our labors. © The late Dr. Felix Pascalis was of this number. He was a na- tive of France, and emigrated to this country during the stormy times of the French Revolution, He died at New York, on the 22d of July last, aged 72. We have not the materials nor the space to speak of him, except as a man of an ardent and vigorous mind, enriched by large culti- vation—active in promoting useful knowledge, and warm in his per- sonal attachments. He was, for many years, an efficient and able editor of our earli- est medical journal, in which cause he labored with the late eminent Dr. S. L, Mitchill, of whom Dr. Pascalis gave a full and interest- ing biographical and commemorative eulogy. Dr. Mitchill also contributed many valuable papers to this Jour- nal, and will always be remembered with honor, as a very active and efficient mover and cultivator of useful knowledge in this coun- try. His large correspondence and extensive personal intercourse; operated with great effect in exciting others to similar efforts. * Dr. Meade, many years ago, published a valuable work on the waters of Balls- ton and Saratoga, and on the use of mineral waters generally. The last paper which he published in this Journal was on the same subject. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &e. Art. L—Ten Days in Ohio ; from the diary of a Naturalist. Introductory Remark. Tue following observations are taken from a diary, kept while on a journey from Marietta to Circleville, with my family, in May 1832; some facts, in relation to the canal, have been since added. As all cannot visit Ohio, these remarks may be interesting to those whose duty or inclination confines them at home. As Marietta is embraced _ ‘in the first day, it would be unfair to leave it beaeate: a passing re- mark. ‘MARIETTA. te This town, where the diary commences, is located at the conflu- ence of the Muskingum with the Ohio river. The scite of the town is partly on the river bottoms, and partly on an elevated plain. The Muskingum river divides it into two unequal parts, the larger of which is on the east side. On the verge of the plain, near the Musk- ingum, and half a mile from its mouth, was seated “ Campus Mar- tius,”.a strong stockaded fort, built by the Ohio Company ; and the residence of the early settlers during the Indian war, which soon fol- lowed the occupation of the country. On the west side of this beau- tiful river, was seated Fort Harmar; so named in honor of Gen. Harmar, the builder and commander of the fort. Drawings of both these interesting structures are in the possession of the writer, and will at some future day be published, as valuable memorials of for- tresses long since crumbled into dust. Back of the elevated plain, the country rises into hills, two hundred and fifty feet above the bed of the river; they ‘are formed of an argillaceous earth, based on sandstone rocks ; they are clothed near their tops with beautiful for- est trees, and surround the town on the north and west like a Roman amphitheatre. ‘The plain is about a mile in length, and half a mile in breadth, and at least one hundred feet above low water ; affording Vou. XXV.—No. 2 | 218 Ten Days in Oho. ample room for a considerable city, beyond the reach of the highest floods. ‘The ground is composed entirely of alluvial materials, and was once evidently the bed of the Muskingum. On this elevated plain, stand those ancient ‘works, (described in the Archwologia Americana,) the interesting monuments of that half civilized race who once peopled the fair valleys of the west, and whose history lies buried beneath their ruins. "The name of Marietta, is derived from that of Marié Antoniette, the beautiful but unfortunate queen of. France ; and was given in grateful remembrance of her kindness to these U. States, when struggling with poverty and oppression. The town was laid off and settled by the agents of the Ohio Company, in the year 1788, and is the oldest in the state. It contains one thou- sand house lots of one third of an acre each, with wide airy streets and spacious commons. These, the inhabitants have, within a few years, ornamented with many of our most beautiful forest trees, which, with the grassy commons, give it a cool and refreshing aspect. during the heats of summer. ‘The principal part of the inhabitants are of New England origin, and still inherit the habits of good order, industry, morality, and love of social intercourse, so common in the land of their forefathers. ‘“ Support Religion and Learning,” was the motto on one of the first public seals used in the town. The present number of inhabitants is a little short of one thousand: five hundred. The public buildings are four houses for worship, a court house, market house, banking house, library building, female acade- my and collegiate institute. The court house, bank, and collegiate institute, are neat specimens of architecture. The library building is a handsome brick edifice, built by the Marietta Library Association. The upper story is occupied as a public hall, by the members of the Lyceum and other societies. The lower story. contains the books, and is also intended for a public reading room. Marietta has two public libraries of respectable size. The private dwellings are gen- erally built of brick ; many of them finished with taste and neatness, and embellished with handsome door yards, and gardens of shrub- bery, both of fruits and flowers. It contains stores, mills, a post office, foundery, printing office, boat yard, &c. &c. The edifice for the “ Collegiate Institute and Western Teacher’s Seminary,” is built of brick, seventy five feet in length, and forty feet in breadth, four stories high with a basement story, intended for a kitchen and eating rooms. The system of education is connected with that of manual labor. Ten Days in Ohio. 219 The young ladies’ academy has been established*two or three years, and is in a flourishing condition. ‘The two departments are under the direction of nine trustees, with corporate powers. The cost of the buildings, library, apparatus, &c. was about $8,000, which was raised by donation from the inhabitants of Marietta and the vi- cinity. j MARIETTA TO ZANESVILLE. The road from Marietta to Zanesville, for the first twenty miles, passes up the valley of the Muskingum, is composed entirely of rich alluvion, and varies in’ width from half a mile to a mile between the hills which line each side of the valley. . The river is about two hundred yards in width, and of wiitheieit depth for steam boat navigation, a part of the year, and for ‘‘ keels” at all seasons. It holds a devious course through the valley, some- times visiting the base of the hills on the east side, and sometimes on the west, leaving barely room for the road, constituting what is called “ narrows,” while on the opposite side is found a wide “ bottom.” These bottoms are converted into beautiful farms, and produce abund- ant crops of grass and grain. Fruit trees grow with wonderful ra- pidity. An apple tree is now standing a little way above the mouth of Coal Run, twenty miles from Marietta, which, at the age of thirty years, was three feet in diameter, a few feet from the ground, and produced apples, in one season, sufficient for twenty barrels of cider. Allowing seven bushels to a barrel, we have one hundred and forty bushels of apples, a prodigious ‘quantity for a single tree. Twelve miles above Marietta, we crossed the mouth of Bear Creek, in a “ flat boat,” the bridge once erected here being removed by a flood, and the “ back water” from the Muskmgum being too deep to admit of fording. Two miles further up we crossed Cat’s creek, on a bridge. The early settlers often named the streams from some incident or feat, in hunting, which took place on its waters, instead of retaining the names of the aborigines, which are much more harmonious and sig- nificant. The bottoms between these two streams are wide and rich. The crops of wheat look well, but the Indian corn is barely appearing above ground, and looks pale and sickly. The farmers generally complained of the damaged condition of their “seed corn,” so that they have, in many instances, replanted their fields two or three times. This defect in germinating, was doubtless owing to the sudden and 220 _ Ten Days in Ohio. unexpected inyasion of winter, early in November, ies the corn was sufficiently dry to bear hard freezing without injury to the vital principle. There was also a marked difference in the vegetative pow- ers of corn raised on old cultivated lands, or on new lands just clear- ed; that from the old lands being ripe two or three weeks before that on the new, when planted on the same day. It is explained by the well known fact that the more succulent and luxuriant growth of the plants on new lands runs uf tall and slender, and is therefore less disposed to form seed early, than the growth of soils a little exhaust- ed by cultivation. Two miles above Cat’s Creek, we passed Big Run, by a ferry, and two miles further on we came to Coal Run, a small branch rising in the adjacent hills on the east side of the river. = Coal. Coal Run takes its name from a stratum of bituminous coal, found at the mouth of the creek, and also in the bed of the Muskingum, extend- ing for a mile or two up and down the river, and entirely across it. The coal, lying on a bed of white clay, is about two feet in thick- ness, and very pure. In low water, the coal diggers anchor a boat in the stream, and with crow bars entered in the seams of the coal, pry up large masses, which they break into pieces of a size easily handled, and then load into the boat. It is worth on the spot when dug, about three cents per bushel, and when delivered in Marietta, five cents. At present, most of the coal is dug from a bed, seated about sixteen feet above that in the bed of the river, near the base of the adjacent hills, by means of tunnels run horizontally into the coal deposit. The road here passes through “the narrows” for nearly a mile, with a space barely wide enough fora carriage. It is about forty or fifty feet above the river, and crosses over several of these tunnels, which, starting near the river, run directly under the road into the bowels of the hills. The elevation of the hills is about two hundred feet. ‘There isa thick stratum of sparry limestone, free from organic remains, resting on the coal deposit with thick beds of sandstone above, covered with argillaceous earth, and clothed with a heavy growth of forest trees, principally white and black oak, with sugar tree, amongst the decomposed limestone soil. ‘The de- posit of coal and slate in this bed is about six feet in thickness, di- vided near the upper part by a horizontal bed of slate of eighteen or twenty inches. ane makes it rather tedious digging, as the slate has Ten Days in Ohio. 221 all to be removed and thrown to one side of the mouth of the tunnel; or it would soon block up the narrow avenues between the pillars left to support the roof of the mine. The coal is not so bituminous as in many deposits, containing a considerable quantity of iron py- rites, but it burns very well. ‘The perpendicular fracture, as it lies in the bed, is vitreous and glistening ; its horizontal one is dull, show- ing the fibrous structure of wood; and between the contiguous la- mine, is a coating of pure carbon, the thickness of brown paper, seeming to indicate that these beds were formed from decomposed trees. An additional proof of the truth of this supposition is found in the absence of all fern impressions on the slatestone lying over and between the coal. Near the mouth of Coal Run, the road leaves the valley of the Muskingum, and we see that beautiful river no more until we reach Zanesville, after passing over the ridges and hills common to all the sandstone formation in Ohio. WATERFORD. We are now in Waterford, a township in the N. W. part of Wash- ington, bordering on Morgan County. It was amongst the earliest settled townships in the State, being commenced in 1789, and for-— merly contained within its limits the settlement at Big Bottom ; well known in the early history of the country, from the massacre of fourteen of the inhabitants by the Indians, in January 1791: the block house was burnt and the settlement abandoned until the peace of 1795. About a mile above Coal Run, we passed over a part of the farm of Mr. B. Dana, consisting of more than one thousand acres under fence, and mostly well cultivated in meadows, corn lands and pasturage. He annually shears from one thousand to one thousand two hundred sheep, most of them fine wooled ; and in good seasons, makes four thousand pounds of excellent sugar from the juice of the Acer saccharinum. Cattle, hogs, meadows, orchards, dairy, and crops of grain and hay are all in the same princely style. His build- ings are in the best condition ; a large brick dwelling house, at least - fifty feet long and two stories high, is completely covered in front by, the wide spreading branches of two multiflora rose-bushes from ‘our, native wilds, which, in the season of flowering, afford a most beautiful and magnificent spectacle. So completely multiflora is this native rose, that I have counted from sixty to eighty buds at the termination of a single branch. Four miles from .Coal Run, we come to Olive- 222 Ten Days in Ohio. Green Creek, which we crossed on a bridge about twenty yards in length. Its borders are skirted with many fine farms, and a small thriving village seated on the western side near the base of a large hill, assists much in beautifying the landscape. In some places, cliffs of sandstone form the banks and sides of the creek, and as we as- cend the hill, and athick deposit of sparry lime rock crops out by the side of the road more than one hundred feet above its bed. This stream, like most others in Ohio, took its name from an incident which happened on its borders. About the year 1794, an exploring, party was fitted out at Marietta, to examine the northern portion of “the Purchase,” and to search for salt springs. ‘They encamped, the first night, on this creek. ‘T'wo of the party, Col. Robert Oliver and Griffen Greene, Esq., strayed from their companions, and be- came so bewildered and lost that they could not reach the camp that night ; and as the Indians were still hostile, some apprehension was felt on their account. However, they reached the rest of the party the following morning in safety. From this circumstance, the creek was called “ Olive-Green.” It is a stream about sixty feet in width, and twenty miles in length, having on its head branches, some fine lands and rich settlements. In its waters are found the most rare and perfect bivalve shells of any in this region, especially those of the genus Anadonta. Its bottom is argillaceous, and the cuticle of the shells is uninjured by the abrasion of sand or gravel. The line between Washington and Morgan Counties is a little west of the bridge—Eight miles beyond Olive-Green creek,. the road passing over high lands but which are tolerably rich, level, and just’ coming into cultivation ; we then reach Meigs’s creek, so named by the same party after its discoverer, Col. R. J. Meigs, a soldier of the revolution, and one of the commanders under Montgomery in the invasion of Canada; the father of the late Return J. Meigs, Gov. of Ohio and Post Master General. It is favored by two principal branch- es, called the east and west forks, and which when united make a large beautiful creek, affording along its borders many fine scites for mills, and for extensive settlements. Coal. As we go down from the highlands on the east side of Meigs’s creek, a bed of stone coal comes to the surface about fifty feet above the bed of the creek. The owner of the land informed me that the same stratum appeared about eighty rods further up the stream, where it is five feet in thickness. He had used it for several win- Ten Days in Ohio. . 223 ters in his house, and preferred it to wood, which grew in plenty near his dgor. Directly after crossing the creek we ascend a long slope of a hill side, to the uplands. Channels of Creeks and Rivers. The beds of the creeks in the hilly parts of Ohio, being invariably found from fifty feet to two hundred feet below the general level of the country, increasing in depth as they approach the large streams, and diminishing towards their head branches, until they terminate near the top of some ridge, afford strong support to the opinion that this was once a level region, and gradually brought into its. pres- ent broken and confused state by the wash and abrasion of the streams during the long succession of ages, since its emersion from that an- cient ocean, which once covered the ia now called ‘the Val- ley of the Ohio. . After the ocean left it, many ages must have passed before it was. covered with forest trees, and daring this period, it is probable most of the water courses and rivers were formed and abrasions took place. Changes equally interesting have occurred in our forests. Large tracts of country were once covered with pine timber, where now not a solitary tree is to be found for many miles around. | Its place is supplied by the different species of oak and other trees. We have all the proof we can ask of the fact in the thousands of pine knots which lie mouldering under the leaves ; and the spots most favorable and most used for the manufacture of Tar, are now covered with a heavy growth of oak. Another proof of pine, once having been the prevailing timber amongst the forests of the hills, is found in the char- coal taken from mounds and tumuli, being almost invariably the pro- duct of pine wood. Four miles beyond Meigs’s creek, and thirty two from Marietta, we passed the night with a very hospitable and kind innkeeper. In the course of the day, observed many wild flowers beside the road. The Prunus Virginiana and Ribes villosa in full bloom. Podophyllum peltalum nearly out of bloom. The root of the latter affords an excellent cathartic, and the fruit of the former, a delicious food and valuable medicine in bowel complaints. May 23d.—The morning was cloudy and rainy, took an Ohio breakfast of bacon, coffee and good bread and butter, before start- ing. The road for about twenty miles, passes along the dividing ridge between the east and west branches of Meigs’s creek, forming a nat- ural turnpike, in some places, of only a rod or two in breadth. On the more elevated portions of the-ridge, many fine views of the adja- 224 se Ten Days in Ohio. cent country are found; the horizon being extended to the distance of ten or-fifteen miles, a favor seldom afforded the traveller in this part of the state. The surrounding region is generally settled ; and farms and recent “ clearings,” appear in every direction. Brow the passage of Meigs’s Creek at Stevens’, not even the smallest branch crosses the road, until we reach the waters of Salt Creek, a distance of twenty miles. ‘The road being slippery from the rain on the ar- gillaceous soil, we did not reach Chandlers, a distance of seventeen miles, until 12 0’clock A. M. In the valley of Salt Creek, at the foot of this long ridge, is situated a pleasant little village, called Chandlersville. Muskingum Mining Company—Fruitless Exploration for Silver. It is also a memorable spot as the scene of the operations of the « Muskingum Mining Company ;” occasioning “ day dreams” of wealth; and a thirst ‘for speculation equal in intensity, though not in extent, to the celebrated South Sea project, got up many years ago in London by John Law and associates. Our Ohio bubble, howev- er, was not so disastrous in its explosion; the _— falling generally se who were able to bear it without muc While our dinner is preparing, I will narrate oe pit facts, as : think I have a right so to do, having been one of the original Stockhold- ers. Early in December, A. D. 1819, an intelligent physician, who then lived at the mouth of Cat’s Creek, a stream we cros- sed yesterday, in journeying to Zanesville, passed the night at,Mr. Chandlers, the owner of a salt well then in operation, near the foot of the long ridge, on a small branch of Salt Creek. The doctor having some taste for Mineralogy and Chemistry, was enquiring of Mr. Chan- dler, as they sat conversing together by the fire in the evening, how many different kinds of rock he | had passed in boring his well. It was about four hundred feet indepth; and among other strata passed, he said there was one at one hundred and twenty feet of intense hard- ness, so much so, that they could bore only an inch, or even less in aday.’ While passing through this rock, a distance of six ot eight feet, the pump brought up several small pieces and particles of a me- tallic substance, so pure as to be malleable, flattening under the ham- mer.. They had tried to melt it in an iron ladle, but could not. Al- though several years had passed, he thought that by searching he could still find some small bits in the earth that had been brought up and emptied out near the well. In the morning -they visited the spot, and were so fortunate or rather unfortunate, as to find Ten Days in Ohio. 295 several small bits the size of half a wheat corn. -On the doctor’s ar- rival at Putnam, a town opposite to Zanesville, the specimens were put under the blowpipe and furnished a handsome button of very fine silver, equal in purity toa Spanish dollar. On further econver- sation with Mr. Chandler, he thought, as near as he could recollect, that the same material had been brought up for the distance of several feet ; leading to the conclusion, that the vein of silver was five or six feet in thickness. On comntunicating these facts to another physi- cian in Putnam, a man of considerable science, and great mechani- cal ingenuity, he became so fully convinced of there being a’ large body of silver in that spot, that he forthwith visited Columbus where the Legislature were then in session, and procured an act of incor- poration for a company, by the name and style of the “ Muskingham Mining Company ;” with ample powers for conducting mining oper- tions. For the privilege of working the mine on the salt section, be- longing to the State, the company were to pay into the State Treas- ury, fifteen per centum of the net proceeds. The capital was $50,000, divided into one hundred shares of $500 each. The stock was soon taken up, as it was thought that six or eight thousand dollars would sink the shaft one hundred and twenty feet to the silver, and after that, it would pay its own way. Before commencing the shaft, a fresh examination was made, by letting down the boring rods, to which was attached a steel scraper, with suitable springs. At the depth of about one hundred and twenty feet, a spot six feet in ex- tent, was found exceedingly hard and smooth; while all above or be- it was either soft, or gritty. When the rods were brought up, sever- al particles of silver were found in the bottom of the scraper, suffi- cient to turn out a small button from the blowpipe. It was repeated several times, and always with particles of silver. ‘Therefore, it was considered as almost certain, that a bed of pure silver, several feet in thickness, was actually seated at that depth. A shaft was commenced of an oval form, of the dimensions of eleven feet by eight, and sunk to the depth of one hundred and forty feet. In prosecuting the work, serious difficulties arose in keeping out the water, which rush- ed in through the crevices of the rock; but the ingenuity and per- severance of the superintendant, assisted by a cast iron force-pump, worked by horses, overcame all difficulties. The shaft was opened about forty feet from the salt well. The first twelve feet weré compos- ed of red argillaceous earth, covering the strata of rock. The next forty or fifty feet, were a kind of —— decomposing after ex- vom XXV.—No. 226 Ten Days in Ohio. posure to the vicissitudes of the weather—then sandstone of a slaty structure—then bituminous shale, with thin layers of stone coal—at . one hundred and ten feet, numerous geodes, coated with shale, were found, containing bivalve shells; below these, impressions of Palm leaves between the seams in the slatestone. I have now in my pos- session several specimens of the rock strata, from one hundred and ten feet to one hundred and forty feet ; one of these isa fine grained, dark clayslaté, from the extremity of the drift, where the operations ended--at one hundred and twenty feet they struck a bed of grey flint rock, six or eight feet in thickness; at this depth the object of their search was expected to be found, but no silver yet greeted the eyes of the anxious miners, although every fragment was examined with minute attention. Beneath the flint rock was a stratum of dark argillaceous slate, so compact that no water, after passing the flint stratum, penetrated the walls of the shaft. The shaft was continued twenty feet further in the slate rock, making one hundred and forty feet from the surface; a drift wasthen commenced and earried for- ward forty feet, until it struck the salt well; this the miners had pre- viously plugged with great care, below the principal salt spring. No silver, as yet appearing, an examination was. made by digging down’ the sides of the salt well in the floor of the drift, and a bed of very fine bituminous coal seven feet in thickness was found. But as coal was not the object of search, the miners made an attempt to reach the spot, where the silver was brought up by the scraper, now about fifteen feet above the roof of the drift. In this attempt, some un- lucky blow, or the concussion of a blast, set loose the plug in the salt well over their heads; when the water came rushing down with such violence, that they barely escaped drowning before reaching the buck- ets, and were immediately drawn up; the water following them rap+ idly to within forty feet of the surface of the earth. So sudden and unexpected was the rush of water, that their tools were all left be- hind ; and the cast iron pump, valued at more than one thousand dollars, still remains in the mine; a lasting memorial of the enter- terprise of the citizens of Ohio. To prevent accidents, the shaft has been since filled up with earth and old logs. The expenditures of the company amounted to about $11,000, several hundred dollars being recovered from thenr in damages, for ruining the salt well. As the shaft approached near the supposed silver deposit, the stock rose very rapidly in value; a share on which fifty dollars had been paid, selling for two hundred and fifty ; as it had been deemed very Ten Days in Ohio. 907 doubtful whether a shaft could be sunk to that depth, on account of the supposed difficulty in keeping out the water. Thusin one fatal hour, the silver dreams of the anxious stockholders, vanished into thin air 3 _ and it remains to this day, a sober problem, for’naturalists and miner- alogists to solve, whether native silver was ever found* ina secondary . formation, belonging in this instance to the coal formation ; or wheth- er the evil genius, who is said to preside over mines, fearful of los- ing his charge, knocked out the plug of the salt well, to be revenged on the invaders of his dominions. The stratum in which the silver was supposed tobe deposited, is without doubt, the same found in sinking salt wells on the Muskingum river, fifteen or twenty miles S. W. of this spot, and described in the 24th. Vol. of the Journal of Science, in an article on the “ —_ rock formations, of the valley of the Ohio.” We left Chandlers at 3 P. M., crossing Salt Creek ona sid covered wooden bridge, supported by piers of cut stone. It is here about thirty yards wide, and unites its waters with those of the Musk- ingum, nine miles below Zanesville. It is & turbulent little stream, and, before the bridge was built, was, in rainy weather, the dread of all travellers. On its waters are many fine settlements and excellent farming lands. Three miles east of Zanesville, we came upon the National Road. It was in fine condition, and as smooth as a floor ; our horses, forgetting that they were attached to a heavy carriage, moved on it with much freedom. The State has taken it in charge, as far as it is finished in Ohio ; appointed a superintendant, and levied a small toll, sufficient.to keep it always in good condition. We reach- ed Zanesville a little before night. ‘By the road-side on Salt Creek, we saw many plants of the teazle, (Dipsacus fullonum,) growing wild. Black haw in full bloom. “Afternoon showery and cold, making our cloaks quite comfortable. MORGAN COUNTY. May 24.—Morgan County, through which we have just passed, lies on the Muskingum River, between Washington and Muskingum Counties. The general face of the country is hilly, but the soil is rich, producing fine crops of all the cereal grains. Its greatest wealth, however, is found in its inexhaustible salt deposit; affording + A is not for us to “42 Me was the source of the small particles of silver, sup- to ; some specimens of the so called silver rock, which we received while the going on, presented no indications of silver —Ed. 7 228 Ten Days in Ohio. already nearly four hundred thousand bushels per annum. The county is thirty two miles long from east to west, eighteen miles broad from north to south, and contains about thirteen thousand in-— habitants. McConnelsville, the seat of justice, is a thriving town, seated on the left bank of the Muskingum, twenty five miles below Zanesville, in the midst of the salt region. ZANESVILLE. Zanesville is the county town for Muskingum County, and lies on the east side of the river, about seventy five miles from its mouth. It stands on the sand rock formation, at the falls of the Muskingum, in a most picturesque and beautiful region. ‘The town is named af- ter Ebenezer Zane, one of the earliest and most enterprising pio- neers of the west; and the town plat, being a mile square, was ‘granted by Congress to Mr. Zane in 1796, in consideration of his surveying and laying out a road on the most eligible route between Wheeling, in Virginia, and Limestone, in Kentucky. His perfect knowledge of the country, obtained in his hunting excursions, ena- bled him to do this in the most satisfactory manner. The town was surveyed and laid off into streets and lots, about the year 1800, and in 1803 contained only ten families, within the town plat. It is now one of the most thriving and business-like towns in the state; em- bracing a population of about four thousand souls. Its immense water power for mills, and the vast deposits of coal and iron found here, give it superior facilities in many kinds of manufactures. _The inhabitants have improved these advantages, and iron works, flour mills, cotton and woolen, and glass manufactories, &c. are in -opera- tion on every side. A canal, cut through the sand rock stratum, across the bend made by the river at the ‘falls, affords, by means of Jateral cuts, invaluable water power. ‘The bed of the river, at the falls, is composed of a dark colored, very compact limestone, highly’ impregnated with iron, and is sometimes ‘used in the neighboring furnaces with other ores. The superior density of this rock, has doubtless occasioned and preserved the falls where they now are. Had they been of sandstone, like the deposit over it, the continual wear of the waters, would, ages ago, have reduced the falls toa mere ripple. Coal. Above the sand rock, in the adjacent hills, which here rise about two hundred feet above the bed of the river, are found beds of bitu- Ten Days in Ohio. 229 minous coal, alternating - with loose clay slate, limestone and sand- stone. e lower beds of sandstone contain many interesting ve- getable impressions, and the upper limestone many fossil shells of the genera Terebratula, Productus, &c. and in the lower strata, madre- pores, encrinites, and various zoophytes. Among the vegetable im- _ pressions in the sandstones, and over the coal beds, are found many species of ferns and palm leaves, with Calamites dubius, Lepidoden- dron crenatym, Poacites lanceolata and Neuropteris Grangeri; the latter so named by Mons. Brongniart, in honor of the late Ebenezer Granger, Esq.,* a distinguished attorney and citizen of Zanesville, but now deceased. To an acute and discriminating mind, gentle- manly and endearing manners, Mr. Granger added a rare taste for the study of natural history; especially that portion of it embraced in fossil organic remains. In excavating and blasting the sand rock in the canal around the falls of the Muskingum, many interesting and curious casts, and impressions of that ancient order of extinct plants, which once decorated the earth, ‘were brought to light, and drawings of them taken, under the direction of Mr.G. A large box of these fossils was packed up and consigned to M. Brong- niart, but were unfortunately lost, by the sinking of the boat in the Mississippi River. ‘The drawings, however, reached him in safety,’ and afforded several new species to his catalogue of fossil plants. Atheneum. — ~ Amongst the public institutions of Zanesville is the Atheneum. It is kept in a handsome brick edifice, built expressly for the pur- pose, near the center of the town. It contains a valuable library, and a handsome collection of minerals and fossil organic remains. Among the latter, are some very rare and interesting articles, found in excavating the Ohio Canal. Of these, the head and horns of an aninal, supposed to be an extinct species of sheep, very well pre- served, is a great curiosity. ‘The horns are nearly square and un- ,dulating, and stand nearly at right angles with the head. It was found, with two others, at the depth of twelve or fourteen feet, rest- ing on diluvial gravel and pebbles, where the canal passes from the Muskingum Valley into that of the Licking. Several bones of the mastodon were found at the same time. * See Vol. III. p. 5 of this Journal, for a notice, with drawings, of a collection of coal plants, furnished by Mr. Granger, and forwarded by the Editor to M. Brong- niart.— Ed. 230 Ten Days in Ohio. Religious Denominations, Schools, Bridges, &c. The religious sects are Presbyterian, Baptist, Episcopalian, Meth- odist and Roman Catholic, all of which have very good houses, well filled on the Sabbath. Public and private schools are liberally sup- ported, giving evidence of a moral and enlightened people; and three well conducted presses, supply them with food for the mind. The National Road passes through the main street and crosses the river on the upper bridge, built opposite the mouth of Licking Creek, to the right and left banks of which it throws a branch, one passing to West Zanesville, above the mouth—the other below, in the direc- tion of the turnpike. The lower bridge crosses to the town of Put- nam, on the west bank of the river. They are both built of wood, supported by handsome stone piers, and covered with roofs to pre- vent the decay of the timber. They pass directly over the most rapid and tumultuous portions of the falls, giving a wild and terrific ‘ grandeur to the view, through the loop holes in the sides of the bridge.’ A little above the lower bridge, “Putnam Hill” lifts its precipitous sides to-the height of two hundred feet above the bed of the river; affording barely room for a road to pass between it and the river, at an elevation of sixty or eighty feet. The top of the hill embraces several acres of level land, and furnishes one of the most enchanting and beautiful prospects of the river, adjacent hills and villages, that I have ever seen. A section of its side next the river, exhibits an-interesting view of the geology of the region. | PUTNAM. a On an alluvial plain, south and east of this hill, bordering the Muskingum, lies the town of Putnam. It was formerly called Springfield, and was laid out under the direction of Gen. Rufus Putnam, one of the principal proprietors, in the year 1801. It now contains about one thousand inhabitants. The heads of families are many of them from New England, and still retain the manners, hab- its and industry, of that peculiar people. A very extensive flour , mill is seated at the foot of the falls, below the bridge. It is among the earliest establishments of the kind on the river, and Whipple & Putnam’s brand on a flour barrel, is a sure passport for its sale, in all the towns along the shores of the Mississippi. * COUNTY OF MUSKINGUM. The county of Muskingum is twenty seven by twenty eight miles square, and covers a space of six hundred and sixty square miles. Ten Days in Ohio. 231 The general face of the country is hilly; but the industry of its in- habitants has filled it with valuable and productive farms. _ Its prin- cipal agricultural prosperity is derived from the crops of wheat, which are fine and abundant; and they are made so, chiefly, by the system of “clovering.” This grass affords excellent pasturage for cattle, sheep and hogs; and when turned under the earth, greatly improves the soil, and after one or two changes, reappears in the form of dollars and eagles, to enrich and repay the labors of ‘the husbandman. Other sources of wealth lie deeper in the earth, and are found in the salt, the coal, and the iron; each of which annually yields many thousand dollars to the capital of the county. The present population amounts to thirty two thousand. Moxahela Creek, and its geology. Soon after leaving Putnam, on the great western road, we come into the valley of the Moxahela Creek, and travel along its borders for several miles. It rises in Perry County, and running in a north easterly direction across a part of Muskingum County, falls into the river three miles below Putnam. It is a handsome stream, about thirty yards in width. The present inhabitants, without regard to euphony, or the prior right of a much more harmonious name given it by the aborigines, call it “‘Jonathan’s Creek.” The bed is com- posed of shelly limestone, worn down into the solid rock, four or five feet, by the abrasion of its waters. ‘The surface of the rock is regu- larly divided every six or eight feet, by horizontal seams, several inches wide, running in a south westerly direction, the whole width of the creek, and doubtless continues under the adjacent hills. They have the appearance of cracks, made by the contraction of a semi- fluid body passing into a solid state. Immediately over the lime- rock is a deposit of sandstone, tinged by a pale yellow oxide of iron; rather loose in texture, and abounding in casts and impressions of va- rious fossil plants; especially of those described by Mr. Parkinson as Phytolithus, and extending south westerly through Perry County. The inhabitants and quarrymen call them “snake stones,” from the” impressions on the surface resembling large scales, and from their cylindrical form. In the same locality, it is said the leaves and the blossoms of the tropical palm tree, have been found, beautifully im- pressed in the rocky bed. Eight miles west of Putnam, we passed through a small village called Bridgeport, seated on the north branch of the Moxahela. 232 Ten Days in Ohio. PERRY counTy—productions. Not far from this spot is the eastern boundary of Peny County, ten miles from Somerset, the seat of justice for the county. The road passes over a most interesting and picturesque country. The hills are rounded and broad, and under fine cultivation. ‘The most common forest trees are beech, sugar tree and white oak, with an abundance of the Cornus florida, or dog-wood. The soil in this county is arich loam, of a light amber color, loose and friable, made up of decomposed argillite, sandstone and limestone, in such proportions as to resist drought, or absorb wet, when too abundant ; and produces the finest crops of grain, clover, yellow leaf tobacco and fruit trees. The valleys and hill sides, afforded many a deli- ‘cious treat to the eye, in far extended fields of blossomed clover and verdant grain. The “yellow tobacco” is becoming a valuable arti- cle of culture, and several hundred hogsheads are annually grown in this country. Five or six years since, the Tobacco mania prevailed among the farmers, in all the hilly portion of the state. Many of them thought it the sure road to wealth, and neglected other crops for that of the “yellow leaf.” Almost every one entered, more or less, into it, and the merchants encouraged the cultivation. The consequence was, the overstocking of the market; the reduction in price from twenty dollars per hundred to two or three dollars, and the ruin of many dealers in the article. But it is said, trade will regulate itself. Tobacco is now in demand; and while a limited number only cultivate the “aromatic weed,” i wil continue to be a profitable crop. Virgin soil, the natural growth of which is white oak and dog-wood, is found to produce the finest tobacco. The average crops of grain, are twenty or twenty five bushels of wheat, forty to fifty of corn, thirty to forty of oats, and two hundred of po- tatoes, tothe acre. Less attention is paid to the improvement of the soil in this county than in Muskingum, where the land is regularly prepared for a crop of wheat, by plowing in a heavy growth of red clover. This is found to afford the very best nutriment for the wheat plant, producing the fairest and heaviest brain; and accordingly, Zanesville, where most of the wheat is manufactured, on all the waters of the Mississippi, where the article is principally sold, is no- ted for its superior flour.* The soil of Muskingum is naturally thin * Three years ago, seventy —— thousand barrels of flour were made in Zanes- ville ; ‘the production of one seaso Ten Days in Ohio. 233 and light, but the general cultivation of red clover, has, within six or eight years, actually doubled the agricultural wealth of the county. Flint-ridge. One mile east of Somerset, the road commences crossing that singular formation in the geology of Ohio, called “ Flint-ridge.” The deposit shows itself in large black flinty masses, about half way up the side of a long hill, cropping out by the side of the road for some distance. It is harder, and also much darker colored, than that used in the manufacture of mill stones, on the Raccoon Creek, in Jackson County, or on the heads of Moxahela; but is of the same formation, being mixed with a portion of lime. A deposit of sand- stone lies over it, higher up the hill. It does not show itself again, until we are about a mile west of Somerset, when it crops out anew on the western declivity of a hill, in the same manner as on the east side, embracing the width of about two miles. Its general course is from north east to south west, passing through the counties of Co- shocton, Licking, Muskingum, Perry, Hockhocking and Jackson, and probably into the “knobs” and barrens of Kentucky. In Hock- ing County, it seems to have been deposited in a fine siliceous paste, of various colors, from a pure white to yellow, clouded and black; and is considerably used in manufacturing hones and stones, similar to “ oil stone,” for the use of the cabinet maker and joiner. In Jackson and Muskingum Counties, it is extensively manufactured into all the va- rious forms of mill stones, equal to the best French buhrs, which are in great demand through the western states. The whole deposit abounds, more or less, with the casts of fossil shells, beautifully replaced, in ma- ny instances, by pure quartz; some are wholly studded over with drusy crystals, others filled with chalcedony, and quite translucent. ‘ ‘The various families of Producti, Ammonites, Nautili, Encrini, &c. with many undescribed species, are here presented, as the historic medals of geology, designed and impressed by the Creator of all things. Ihave a Productus, (beautifully coated with minute crystals,) which, on breaking the shell, exhibited the animal reduced to about two thirds of its original size. The shell is two inches in breadth, one inch and a half in length and about one and a fourth in diameter, and is the most beautiful petrifaction I have ever seen, I have also, from the same locality, a very interesting fossil, which may probably have been the pedestal or stem of an encrinital animal. It is nearly six inches in diameter, a perfect circle in outline, and two 30 VoL. XXV.—No. 2. 934 Ten Days in Ohio. inches thick on the outer portion of the circle. The centre is de- pressed in the form of a cup, three inches aeross the top, and more than an inch deep, leaving the outer circle, or sides of the fossil, one inch and a half thick. The outer margin is armed with spines, three fourths of an inch high, and uniting with each other at their base, fourteen in number, resembling the figure of an imperial crown ; the depression in the center is lined with the same number of spines of a smaller size. ‘Fhe outer margin, or side and upper surface, are smooth, and were probably covered with a cuticle, now replaced by a coat of quartz, one line in thickness. Two of the spines are bro- ken; these two are filled with beautiful crystals; the main body of the fossil is composed of cellular quartz or buhr stone. A little more than one half of it is perfect; the other part was lost by the workmen, in separating it from the rock. —- As to any reasoning on this singular deposit, it must be altogether speculative. It was probably made when the valley of the Ohio was covered by an ocean, and from water at the boiling temperature, as cold water holds but a small quantity of silex in solution, and here was a vast body of it.* _M. Humboldt, in his travels on the coast of Colombia, makes mention of water issuing, boiling hot, from the bot- tom of the ocean, where the sea is now three hundred feet deep, and a mile or more from the shore. . The dip of the rock strata to the south on the Muskingum river, would indicate a force acting from below and raising the superin- cumbent formations. At this period, a rush of heated fluo-silicic gas, or of boiling water from the interior, might have thrown down this deposit, composed of fine silicious. particles, intermixed with more or less of lime. In many places, it abounds in jasper, horn- stone, flint, quartz, chalcedony, &c. of various and intermingled col- ors, giving strong evidence of their having been once in a state of fusion. It needs the inspection of an experienced geologist to give a satisfactory history of this interesting formation. Tumult. The hill country in Perry County appears to have been thickly in- habited by that ancient race of men, who have left so many relics of * It is certain that silex has been held in solution, in vast quantities ; the sulphuret of silicon, the base of Silex, is very soluble: the earth itself is soluble in fixed alkalies and in fluoric acid, and these agencies, like most of those which are chemical, would ndered more active by heat. Silex is held in solution in the hot alkaline volcanic water of the Geyers in Iceland—also in the Azores and other volcanic regions.— Ed. Ten Days in Ohio. 235 their industry and their power in the west. Numerous tumuli, of various dimensions, are seen near the road side; the sacred reposi- tories of the dead, and lasting mementoes of the affection of the sur- vivors for these silent tenants of the tomb. Cattle—their food. We met, to day, several large droves of fat cattle, on their way to an eastern market ; some of them going as far as New York. They are collected in Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio, and are herded for a season or two on the rich praries of the west. During the winter months, they are fed on hay and Indian corn cut up with the stem and foliage before the grain has become hard, and placed upright in moderate sized shocks ; it dries without mouldiness, and makes one of the most suc- culent and nutritious articles of food for cattle. In Ohio, thousands of acres are cultivated for this express purpose. Western Emigration—great thorough-fare. We met many emigrating families, on their way to “ the St. Jo- sephs,” a celebrated district in the Michigan Territory; and the present “ land of promise,” to all who, from the northern and middle states, are seeking a better country. The road we are now travel- ling, was for many years, from 1800 to 1815 or 16, the great thor- ough-fare between the states of Kentucky, Indiana, Ohio, and the eastern states; or until steam boat navigation created a new era in the history of travellers—a perpetual stream of emigrants rolled west- ward along its course, giving constant occupation to hundreds of tav- ern keepers, seated at short distances on its borders, and consuming all the spare grain raised by the inhabitants for many miles north and south of its line. Groups of merchants, on horseback, with led horses, laden with Spanish dollars, travelled by easy stages, every spring and autumn, along its route ; congregated in parties of ten or twenty individuals, for mutual protection, and armed with dirks, pocket pistols, and pistols in holsters ; as robberies sometimes took place, in the more wilderness parts of the road. The goods, when purchased, were wagoned to Pittsburgh, and sent in large flat boats, or keel boats to their destination below, and while the merchant re- turned on horseback to his home, occupying eight or ten weeks in the whole tour. . Steam Boats and Stages. The introduction of steam boats and stages has made an entire change in the manner of travelling. The trader now takes a boat, at 236 Ten Days in Ohio. the landing nearest to his dwelling. At Wheeling or Pittsburgh he seats himself in the stage, and in eight and forty hours, with very little trouble, crosses the mountain ranges, once so formidable to the equestrian ; thus accomplishing, in five or six days, a journey from the falls of the Ohio to Philadelphia. His goods now reach the heads of the Ohio, in ten days, and the steam boat, in a very short period, takes them to his home, greatly abridging time, fatigue, and expence. The change has wrought no good for tavern keepers, whatever it may have done for the community. SOMERSET. At | P. M., we reached Somerset, the capital of Perry County. It is pleasantly seated on elevated ground, and surrounded by a rich agricultural region. It has a neat, brick court house, some good dwelling houses and stores, and about eight hundred inhabitants. Catholics. More than one half the population of the town and county are pro- fessors of the Roman Catholic religion. ‘They have a substantial brick chapel and nunnery, or school for educating young females. The seminary is in good repute, and many protestant families send their daughters here for that purpose. It is supposed, that in a few years, the whole county will be catholic ; as they embrace every op- portunity of purchasing the farms and the houses of ‘the protestants, and occupying them with those of their own creed, from other places. A few proselytes are also made, although rarely. The early preju- ices of education, and the little intercourse between the protestant and catholic portions of the community, seem to have generated a general desire amongst the former to leave the place, as soon as they conveniently can; thus giving the catholics peaceable, and quiet pos- session of their hearths, and long cherished homes.’ It was a wise provision in our constitution which left religion free and every indi- vidual in our happy country at liberty to attach himself to that sect which he preferred. So long as this liberty remains, there is little danger of the catholic religion either ruling, or overturning the gov- ernment. RUSHVILLE AND RUSH CREEK.— Geology. A few miles west of Somerset, we passed through Rushville, a small village in Fairfield County seated on the high ground east of Ten Days in Ohio. 237 Rush creek. This creek is the eastern and main branch of the Big Hockhocking river, about twenty yards in breadth, and has worn it- self an immense chasm in the loose loomy earth, one hundred and fifty or two hundred feet below the average height of the adjacent uplands. In its bed is a stratum of limestone, a fact common to ma- ny of the streams in the hilly region of Ohio; and sandstone is found near the top of the slope. West of this creek the soil is more argillace- ous, and the country, gradually declining, becomes more level, as we leave the hilly portion and approach the great valley of prairies. What is properly called the sandstone formation, terminates wester- ly, near Lancaster, in Fairfield County, in immense detached mural precipices, like the remains of ancient islands; one of these called mount Pleasant, seated on the borders of a large plain, is nearly four hundred feet high on the S. W. side; affording from its top a fine view of the adjacent country. The base is a mile and a half in cir- cumference, while the apex is only about thirty by one hundred yards, resembling, at a distance, a huge pyramid. ‘These lofty tow- ers of sandstone are like so many monuments, to point out the boun- daries of that ancient western Mediterranean, which once covered the present rich prairies of Ohio.. LANCASTER. We reached Lancaster at 6. P. M. thirty six miles S. Westerly from Zanesville and thirty four miles N. E. from Chilicothe. May 25.—The weather this morning is cold, with a smart white frost—day cloudy. Lancaster is a flourishing post town ; and is the seat of Justice for Fairfield County. It is near the center of the county, in a rich valley, extending several miles on the Hockhock- ing; surrounded by a widely extended country of excellent lands, It was laid out, or surveyed into lots, in the year 1800, with conven- ient streets and alleys crossing at right angles. ‘The agricultural pop- ulation are chiefly of German origin, from Lancaster County Pa. and are an industrious, peaceable, frugal race, following the good old ways of the early Dutch settlers in America. The public buildings are a brick court house, market house, town house, banking house and four or five churches. The private dwellings are chiefly of brick, neat and commodious. ‘The public houses for the entertain- ment of travellers, are surpassed by few in America, either in size, kind treatment, or good fare. The same may also be said of Zanes- ville and Chilicothe. Here are two printing offices, which publish 238 Ten Days in Ohio. weekly, one German and two English newspapers. There are large and well filled stores of merchandise, &c. &c. The present population is about two thousand. The Ohio canal passes within eight miles of the town and the stock has been taken up for opening a lateral cut, estimated to cost $50,000, which will soon be completed. Fairfield County is thirty miles long and twenty four miles broad and contains 25,000 inhabitants. The Hockhocking. We left Lancaster at half past seven, crossing a toll bridge over the Hockhocking, which is here a small stream, with a muddy bot- tom and low banks; we then passed a small prairie west of the bridge, the upper, or surface soil, being black and rich ; but the substra- tum composed of gravel and pebbles, many of the latter are of prim- itive rocks, It is a compound of primitive, transition and secondary materials, the ruins of former rock formations. The country for the first ten miles west of the Hockhocking, is made up of low hills with fertile valleys between. The hills are composed of argillaceous earth, filled with boulders and pebbles, of primitive and secondary rocks, all of which are rounded and waterworn. PICKAWAY COUNTY. We now entered the borders of Pickaway County, turning off westerly into the valley of the Scioto and leaving the “ great thor- ough-fare of the west,” on our left. The country from this to Cir- cleville, a distance of eleven miles, is flat, with many wet marshy places of small extent, the soil rather thin, except in the wet spots and pretty well timbered. The boulders, when seen, are of the same ‘character with those passed. Eight miles east of Circleville near the Lancaster road, is a quarry of fine grained sandstone, from which the material used in building the aqueduct across the Scioto, was taken. The texture is compact and beautiful; splitting very readily into blocks of ten, and twenty feet in length, " of any desi- red width and thickness. The color is a light brown, easily wrought and suffers no decomposition on exposure to the vicissitudes of the weather, a quality not common to all our sandstones. We reached Circleville at 1. P. M. CIRCLEVILLE—Ancient Works. May 26.—Morning cloudy and rainy, temperature at 5 A. M. 37°. Nimbus at 8 A. M. with thunder, day cloudy, with high Ten Days in Ohio. 239 winds from W. and N. W. Circleville, situated on the east side of the Scioto river, is a post town, and the seat of Justice, for Pickaway County. It was laid out in the year 1810, and occupies the scite of an ancient city, enclosed by a double circular wall of earth, with a ditch between the walls. From this circular defence it takes its name. The walls were ten feet high, and the ditch of the same depth, making twenty feet from the bottom of the ditch to the top of the walls. ‘The walls and ditch occupy nearly seventy feet, which gives thirty feet as the base of each wall, and ten feet for the width of the ditch. The circular fort or town, was three hundred and fifty yards across. A square fort stands adjoining the circular one, the walls of which were twenty feet, without any ditch. This fort which was three hundred yards across, is an exact square. ‘The present town is laid out on these ancient and venerable works. The court house, built in the form of an octagon, stands in the center of the circu- lar fort; and occupies the spot once covered by a large and beautiful mound, but which was leveled to make room for the building. "This forms the nucleus, around which runs a circular street, with a spa- cious common between the court house and street. On this circular street, the principal stores and taverns are erected, and most of the business is done. Four other streets run out from this circle, like radii from a center. ‘The town contains one thousand_ five hundred inhabitants, and is gradually increasing. On the S. W. side of the circle stands a conical hill, crowned with an artificial mound. Indeed so much does the whole elevation resemble the work of man, that ma- ny have mistaken it for a large mound. A street has lately been open- ed across the little mound which crowned the hill; and in removing the earth, many skeletons were found in good preservation. A cranium of one of them, was in my possession, and is a noble specimen of the race which once occupied these ancient walls. It has a high fore- head, and large and bold features, with all the Phrenological marks of daring and bravery. Poor fellow, he died overwhelmed by numbers; as the fracture of the right parietal bone, by the battle axe, and five large stone arrows sticking in and about his bones, still bear silent, but sure testimony. The elevated ground a little north of the town, across Hargus Creek, which washes the base of the plain of Cir- cleville, appears to have been the common burying ground. Hu- man bones, in great quantities, are found in digging away the grav- el for repairing the streets, and for constructing the banks of the canal which runs near the base of the highlands. 'They were buri- 240 Ten Days in Ohio. ed in the common earth, without any attempt at tumuli ; and occupy so large a space, that only a dense population, and a long period of time, could have furnished such numbers. On the borders of the Ohio Canal, which passes a short distance west of the town, are built several very large and substantial brick ware houses. ‘The base of one side stands in the water, so that boats deliver and receive their cargoes, with very little trouble. Scioto River—Aqueduct. The canal crosses the Scioto river, a little below the center of the town, by means of an aqueduct, supported by two abutments and four piers; built in the most substantial manner, of a very fine grain- ed and beautiful sandstone, mentioned in the diary of yesterday. It was a Herculean task, to haul these stones, eight miles in wagons and carts, over a muddy road. ‘The masonry is based on oaken piles, driven eighteen or twenty feet into the bed of the river. The piers are forty feet in height, and every stone being cut to a certain thick- ness, (about fifteen inches), and laid in strong cement, make a beauti- ful appearance. They are also forty feet in depth, and ten feet in thickness, rounded on the upper, or side presented to the current, and finished in such a way as to resemble vast pillars, crowned with their capitals. ‘The aqueduct is a wooden trunk, four hundred and forty eight feet in length. The reaches of the trunk between the piers, are supported by wooden arches, of eighty feet span. A lock with a fall of nine feet, built of the same beautiful material, is connected with the abutment on the west side of the aqueduct. The canal is now open from Chilicothe to Lake Erie, and boats pass daily. The Scioto river is here, one hundred and fifty yards wide, and is a hand- some rapid stream. Soi and Agriculture. The bottom lands are low and subject to occasional floodings, but are of a very rich soil. Pickaway county is nearly square in out- line, being twenty-two by twenty-one miles in extent, and contains sixteen thousand inhabitants. The Scioto river passes through it from N. to 8. dividing it into two nearly equal portions. The lands on the east side are of a very excellent quality and produce all the different kinds of grain in the most luxuriant abundance. ‘The coun- ty, contains four varieties of soils, wood lands, barrens, plains and prairies. On suitable soils, from forty to forty-five bushels of wheat Ten Days in Ohio. 241 are produced, and in early days, before the rich prairies were redu- ced by successive crops, one hundred bushels of corn per acre, were not uncommon. By the rich farmers, cultivation is carried on in a style and grandeur proportionate to the exuberance of the crops. Fields of one hundred acres of wheat, or of corn, are often seen, and frequently they are extended to three or four hundred. A few years since when wheat commanded a dollar per bushel, a rich farmer on the Pickaway plains, cultivated one thousand acres in a single field, which when undulating undera gentle breeze, might not unaptly be called an ocean of verdure. In all the counties bordering on the - canal, there has since it was opened, been an increase in the value of wheat of from ten to fifteen cents per bushel, and so of many other articles; the canal giving them the advantage of the New York rriarkets, whereas before, they had only that of the agp 2 SH Canals. For so young a state, Ohio may be considered one of the most enterprising of the united imily Her ‘counts “ebver: amr extetit of four hundred miles, ard have than five millions nut —— eva main canal ‘tetching frdiee Line Erie to the Ohio the most fertile portions of the State, and dorphetes the tine: of water communication between the Hudson and the Mississippi. It is three hundred and eight miles in length, forming a strong link in that chain of turnpikes and canals, which, like so many ligaments serve to bind together this fair republic, composed of such repulsive materials. ‘The Miami Canal, between Dayton and Cincinnati, is sixty-six miles in 2 The remainder’ is made up of side cuts and feeders. — The following extracts, taken from the very able and interesting report of the canal commissioners, made in the winter of 1833, will give a view of its route, and the region through which it passes. “The Ohio Canal, at its northern extremity, terminates in the Cuyahoga River, on the east side, about half a mile from the junc- tion of that river with Lake Erie, and at the south westerly corner of the village of Cleveland. That section of the river which extends from its mouth to the bridge, about three hundred yards above the termination of the canal, forms the harbor, into which schooners, sloops and steam-boats enter from the lake, to discharge and receive their cargoes from warehouses, or meet with canal boats for the mu- tual exchange of their lading. ‘The average breadth of the river is Vou. XXV.—No. 2. 31 242 CO Ten Days in Ohio. here about one hundred yards; its depth from twelve to twenty feet. It opens into the lake by a safe and straight channel, in no place less than ten feet indepth. This channel is secured from the deposition of moveable sand by two parallel piers, about one hundred and eighty feet apart, extending from the shore, on each side of the river, one thousand two hundred feet into the lake. ‘These works were erect- ed by the United States, and completely answer the contemplated purpose, forming one of the most safe and commodious harbors on the lake, accessible in any state of the wind or weather. A small light-house, on the extremity of the eastern pier, enables vessels to enter the harbor with safety during the night. ‘These structures do credit to the enlightened policy of our government, and to the fidelity and skill of the officers and engineers by whom the work was exe- cuted. ‘T'wo locks, each of six feet lift, the chambers of which are twenty five feet wide and one hundred feet long, having eight feet depth of water on the mitre sills, connect the canal with the river, and admit the largest class of sloops and schooners which navigate the Jake, to pass from the river into a basin, of nearly a quarter of a mile in length, with a medium breadth of one hundred and twenty feet, and a depth of eight feet. The dry docks are so constructed, as freely to admit lake vessels and canal boats to pass into them from this basin, for the purpose of receiving repairs. ‘The economy, ex- pedition, and safety with which these repairs are thus made, greatly encourage and facilitate the commercial operations connected with canal navigation. From this basin, the canal ascends the valley of the Cuyahoga, on the eastern side of the river, twenty four miles to the Peninsula, where it crosses to the western side ; thence along the western side of the river ten miles, after which it leaves the valley of the main river, and ascending that of the Little Cuyahoga and the outlet of the summit lake four miles, it reaches the north end of the Portage summit level at Akron, thirty eight miles from Cleveland. On this division, there are forty four locks, overcoming a total ascent of three hundred and ninety five and a half feet, twenty one of which are within three miles, and sixteen within a mile and a half of the north end of the summit level.” “The length of the Portage summit level of the canal is about nine miles. Its elevation is three hundred and ninety five feet above the surface of Lake Erie, fowr hundred and ninety one feet above the level of low water in the Ohio at Portsmouth, seventy eight feet higher than the Licking summit, and nine hundred and fifty nine feet Ten Days in Ohio. 243 above tide water in the Hudson River at Albany. Connected with this level are three small lakes, comprising an aggregate area of three hundred and fifty acres. ‘These lakes form a natural reservoir, which prevents a sudden rise of the water in the level, from the occurrence of rains and swelling of the streams which flow into it, while the great expanse of the surface will furnish a large amount of water to meet any extraordinary demand which may be occasioned by ac- cidental causes, or a press of business on the canal, without dimin- ishing materially the depth. One of these lakes, called the sum- mit lake, near three fourths of a mile in length, forms part of the canal. ‘The towing path across it is constructed partly on floating bridges, made of light timber, dowelled together, so as to forma perfect floor, secured in their proper positions by means of long piles driven into the bottom of the lake, and rising above its surface, and partly by throwing up a bank along a projecting part of the shore between the bridges. ‘The depth of the water, and the marshy char- acter of the shore and the bottom, prevented the formation of a tow path of earth along those parts of the lake where the bridges are used. The waters of this lake were formerly discharged northwardly through a small outlet into the Little Cuyahoga, and thence into the main river. A swamp extended from the head of the lake to the main branch of the Muskingum, here called the Tuscarawas, the highest part of which, on the line of the canal, was about four feet above the surface of the Jake. In order to obtain the full volume of the Tuscarawas, in dry seasons, as a feeder to the summit level, that level, and consequently the surface of the lake, were reduced about five feet below its original elevation. This little lake, situated on the summit, between the waters of the St. Lawrence and the Mis- sissippi, elevated nearly a thousand feet above the ocean, and skirt- ed on its western side by a range of hills, rising one hundred and fifty feet higher, is an interesting feature in the formation of the country, which, in the vicinity of this summit, seems to be peculiarly well fitted for the passage of a canal, and for furnishing it with a con- stant supply of water. The main branch of the Muskingum, here a small river, but remarkable for the uniform quantity of water flow- ing in it at all seasons of the year, being never less than one thou- sand eight hundred cubic feet per minute, furnishes the principal supply of water to this summit.” ‘‘ From the south end of the Portage summit level, the canal de- scends along the valley of the Muskingum, one hundred and two 244 Ten Days in Ohio. 5 miles, to Websport, which is situated near the mouth of the Waka- tomaka Creek, a small westerly branch of that river, one hundred and forty nine miles from Cleveland. This place is on the lowest level between the Portage and the Licking summits, from both of which there is an uninterrupted descent to this point. Proceeding from the Portage summit, southwardly, the canal occupies the west side of the river to Clinton, six miles; crossing here by means of a dam, it occupies the east or left side of the river, twenty eight miles, to.a point about three miles above the mouth of Sandy Creek. Here it recrosses to the right bank on an aqueduct, called the “ 'Tusca- rawas «rig and continuing thence on the west side, it crosses the Walhouding River, about half a mile from its junction with the —— on an aqueduct, and proceeds thence on the same side to Websport.” “The total descent from the Portage summit to the low level at Websport, is two hundred and thirty eight and a half feet, and is ef- fected by means of twenty nine locks, in a distance of one hundred and nine miles from the summit lake.”* “In proceeding from the low level towards the Ohio, the canal leaves the immediate valley of the Muskingum, and pursuing a south westerly direction, it ascends the valley of the Wakatomaka about nine miles, and passing through a gap in the range of hills which separates this valley from that of the Licking, it enters and ascends the valley of that stream; to Newark, in Licking County; thence continuing along the valley of the south fork of the same stream, it hes the Licking summit, one hundred and ninety one miles from Lake Erie.” _ “The Licking summit is the highest ground over which the canal passes between the valleys of the Muskingum and the Scioto rivers; but the canal here occupies the point of greatest depression in the dividing ridge, or rather table land, which separates the two valleys. The total ascent in the canal, from the low level at Websport to the Licking summit, is one hundred and sixty feet, which is overcome by means of nineteen locks, and the distance is forty two miles. The elevation of the Licking summit level is three hundred and * The descent from the Dresden or Websport level to low water mark in the Ohio, at the mouth of the Muskingum, is one hundred and fifty four and a half feet; from which it appears that the surface of low water in the vit: at the mouth of the Musk- ingum, is two feet higher than the surface of Lake Erie Ten Days in Ohio. 245 seventeen feet above the level of Lake Erie; four hundred and thirteen feet above the level of low water in the Ohio at Portsmouth, eight hundred and eighty one feet above the level of tide water in Hudson, and seventy eight feet below the level of the Portage sum- mit.” ‘Immediately north of the ridge which here divides the wa- ters of the Muskingum from those of the Scioto, is situated the great Reservoir, from which the summit level and the lower levels of the canal, extending to Newark in one direction, and to the junction of the main line with the Columbus feeder in the other, during the dry season, derive their principal supply of water. This reservoir ex- tends from west to east nearly eight miles. Its medium breadth is about half a mile, covering, when the surface is six feet above top water line in the canal, an area of nearly two thousand five hundred acres. It is capable of furnishing the summit level, and the other levels dependent upon it, with water for a period of three months, without any aid from streams; and the water of occasional summer rains, which flows into it through various channels from the surround- ing country, greatly i increases its capacity for supplying the canal. This great reservoir occupies a natural basin, the bottom of which is a tenacious soil, composed principally of clay. This basin was surrounded by higher ground, except on the north west side, where it was low and flat.. A large portion of its area was originally occu- pied by a chain of small lakes and an extensive marsh. In order to confine the water in this basin, an artificial bank of about four miles in length, two of which also form the towing path bank of the canal, was raised across the low ground on the north west side; and the waters of the south fork, taken from the stream several miles above, are conducted by a feeder of about six miles in length, on a higher level, into the reservoir, near the south west end of which the feeder passes over the canal, on an aqueduct, and falls into the reservoir.” ‘In order to insure an adequate supply of water to the summit, it was necessary to cut down the ridge, which here divides the wa- ters of the Scioto, from those of the Muskingum, so low as to per- mit the water of the reservoir to be drawn into the summit level of the canal. This required a deep cut of near three miles in length, commencing near the feeder aqueduct, one hundred and ninety miles from Cleveland and extending thence southwardly. The deepest part of this cut near the centre is about thirty four feet, gradually di- minishing in depth towards each end. The quantity of earth exca- vated amounts to near a million of cubic yards, and is composed of 246 Ten Days in Ohio. blue clay and sand, in which small pebbles of stone were firmly im- bedded. The cut through the ridge at this summit, presents the most formidable obstacle encountered at any one point on the ca- nal.” “From the Licking summit the canal descends southwardly along the valley of Walnut Creek, (a branch of the Scioto), whieh it crosses from the right to the left bank, ten miles from the summit, ona culvert of fifty feet chord. At Carrol, two hundred and four miles from Cleveland, the Lancaster lateral canal, unites with the main trunk. Three miles-below, the canal crosses to the right bank of Walnut, and gradually receding from that stream, it passes over a re- ‘markably level tract of country, which separates Walnut from Big Belly Creek, when it descends into the valley of that stream, about two miles above its junction with the Scioto, and receives the Colum- bus feeder at Lockbarne. Between the Licking summit and the junc- tion, the canal descends two hundred and two feet and four inches, by means of thirty locks. From the point where the Columbus feeder joins the main canal, the canal pursues a southerly course along the valley of the Scioto to the Ohio river; crossing the Scioto, at Cir- cleville, two hundred and thirty six miles from Cleveland, it contin- ues on its western side to its junction with the Ohio at Portsmouth.” **'The total descent from Lockbarne, to low water in the Ohio, is two hundred and eleven feet, which is effected by means of twenty four locks in a distance of eighty seven miles. The level of low water in the Ohio, at the termination of the canal is four hundred and thir- teen feet lower than that of the Licking summit—four hundred and ninety one lower than the Portage summit—ninety six lower than the level of Lake Erie, ninety eight lower than the level of low wa- ter atthe mouth of the Muskingum and four hundred and sixty eight above the level of the ocean.” ‘The main trunks of the Ohio and Miami canals have each a minimum breadth of forty feet at the water line, and twenty six feet at bottom with four feet depth of wa- ter—a large proportion of both, particularly the Ohio canal, is of much larger dimensions, having a breadth at the water line varying from sixty to one hundred and fifty feet, and a depth of from five to twelve feet. In many places it even exceeds these dimensions both in breadth and depth. ‘The walls of the locks are of solid stone ma- sonry with faces of cut stone, laid in regular range work, and the whole wall grouted with lime mortar. The stone culverts are com- posed of arches, cut in regular segments, and laid in range work, with wing and parapet walls of cut stone. The lift locks on the Ca- Ten Days in Ohio. 247 nals amount to one hundred and eighty four, overcoming a total amount of ascent and descent of one thousand five hundred and for- ty seven feet—eight guard locks—twenty two aqueducts—two hun- dred and forty two culverts one hundred and eighty two of which are of stone masonry and sixty of wood—nine dams for crossing streams. and twelve feeder dams.” Worship. May 27.—Morning clear and cool; Ther. 43°, day fair. This day being the Sabbath, was taken up in attending the Presbyterian Church, and refreshing our minds and bodies with rest. The house was well filled, with a neatly dressed devout and serious audience. The desk was supplied by a Baptist preacher from Cincinnati, who was attending a conference of his brethren at Old-town, about ten miles south westerly from Circleville, and formerly the seat of old Chilicothe, a large and noted Indian village belonging to a branch of the Shawoenee tribe. This town embraces the usual variety of re- ligious sects found in the west, and a society of the Dutch reformed, who are numerous in this county, and have recently with ceremonies common on such occasions laid the foundations of a stone building for the use of their church. The sabbath is strictly observed here ; which is one of the strongest proofs of a moral and religious eom- munity. : siete 3 Country to WILLIAMSPORT. May 28.—Morning fair. Ther. at 45° day fair, cumuli and cum. strati, at 8, A. M. we crossed the Scioto, at the ferry near the aque- duct, on our way to Williamsport, a small village nine miles west of Circleville, on Deer Creek. ‘The road passes near the canal for half a mile on the low bottom lands, it then rises a little on to the sec- ond bottom, which is a mile in width. The soil is very rich, black and loose; from three, to six feet in depth, based on a substratum of gravel and water worn pebbles. After leaving the bottom lands the country rises considerably and is lightly undulating for three miles, when we reach a tract of country denominated “ the great Barrens.” This tract is about fifty miles in width and nearly one hundred in length from N. to S. indeed it is said the same formation extends to the “Black Swamp” at the head of Sandusky Bay. The land is level, with occasional wet places fit only for grass; while other spots produce corn and grain; by drainage the whole might be brought in- 248 Ten Days in Ohio. ‘to cultivation. The soil is generally argillaceous, with a thin growth of forest trees, chiefly pin oak, post oak, black jack and aspen; but on the western border, many trees of the Gymnoclydus canadensis, or Kentucky coffee tree, and Quercus macrocarpa are found in ad- dition to these—many wet swampy places are destitute of trees. From the direction of the water courses which head in this singular tract, and run along its sides, as is the case with Darley Creek along its eastern border, I am led to conclude that the “ Barrens” is a more elevated region than the adjacent country. The soil is admi- rably adapted to the growth of grass, rising to the height of four or six feet; the whole region may be denominated a natural meadow. Vast herds of cattle are pastured in the summer and fed through the winter on hay cut and put up in stacks; a few years ago regular herdsmen attended them through the season like the patriarchs of old ; but latterly vast fields of several thousand acres have been en- closed with fence and the cattle confined within them. The Barrens—Lime water. “The Barrens” also abound in wild flowering plants through the summer and autumn, resembling in beauty and variety an immense garden. The most common and abundant belong to the families of the Heleunis, Solidago, Rudbeckia, Aster, &c.. In penetrating the earth for wells, water is usually found at the depth of ten or twenty feet. It is highly impregnated with lime ; so much so as to coat over the outsides of the buckets, and the eile of the poles, for they © here use the primitive fashion of * pole and sweep,” with lime, which at first I mistook for a coat of white wash. To render it fit for the washerwoman’s use “it is broke,” as they call it, with a lixivium of wood ashes; thus neutralising the carbonic acid and rendering it soft.* Sometimes wells are sunk to the depth of thirty or thirty five feet before water is found; and in those spots two or more beds of gravel are passed, alternating with beds of clay of four or five feet in thickness. In wet. seasons the ‘water rises to near the surface of the wells. It is considerably cathartic to those unaccustomed to its use. #r i 8 we presume a precipitate of calcareous carbonate, we should like to Car wtcinee muriate of lime is not also, found in the water of Jime- stone countries.— Ed. Ten Days in Ohio. 249 Mineral Spring—Slate or Shale—Shells. At West-Port, which is a small village of ten or fifteen houses, two stores and a mill, is a fine mineral spring, rising in the bed of Deer Creek. The water contains sulphate of magnesia, iron, and carbon- ic acid gas, causing the water to sparkle briskly as it runs from the earth. ‘The spring rises from a vast bed of recent clay slate, which for many miles forms the bed of the creek, and a cliff along its banks of twenty feet in height. The slate contains iron pyrites, and fos- sil impressions of bituminized wood. The spring is copious, and moderately cathartic, affording probably a barrel of water in two minutes ; and when confined in a tube of boards rising to the height of eighteen feet and running over the top. Deer Creek affords some of the most beautiful specimens of shells of the Genus Unio, that I have seen in Ohio. But in the summer months, the waters of the creek become so much charged with lime, as to coat entirely over the outside of the shells an eighth of an inch in thickness. This deposit of clay slate is probably very extensive, as the same is found on the Whetstone fork of the Scioto, north of Columbus ; on Paint Creek in Ross County, and on the eastern branches of Brush Creek in Adams County,.a distance of one hundred miles. Tron Ore. ~ [am led to call this deposit iron ore from the fact of its contain- ing globular pytites, and some specimens approaching to clay iron ore, or carb. of iron, which are melted up with other ores in the furna- ces in Newark and Granville, where they are found out of place, in the diluvial earth, amidst boulders of limestone and primitive rocks at ten or twelve feet below the surface. The furnace men and ore diggers, fully believe them to be cannon balls and bomb shells, used by the ancient inhabitants in defence of their forts, which near New- ark are numerous and extensive. When found im place they are of all sizes; from one inch, to ten feet in diameter, some of them are perfect spheres ; others are oblate at one pole, or urn-shaped. So exact is the resemblance toa globular i iron casting, with a ring in re- lievo all around the margin, that it is hard to divest one of the be- lief of their artificial origin. I have several in my cabinet, both urn- shaped and spherical. In the banks and bed of Deer Creek, I saw a number in place, at least eight feet in diameter; when long expo- sed to the atmosphere, a had split into numerous fragments, prob~ Vou. XXV.—No. 32 250 Ten Days in Ohio. ably from the action of oxygen on the iron.* On the eastern branch- es of Brush Creek the country is hilly and broken; and as the slate decomposes, these globes of pyrites tumble out aut roll to the bot- tom of the hills where they can be picked up of all sizes. Consid- erable quantities of native alum and copperas are found in the crevi- ces of the slate and are used by the neighboring inhabitants in coloring their domestic cloths. In the same neighborhood are found in great abundance, both clay and bog iron ore, and the latter is extensively . manufactured into pigs and castings—a few miles east of Brush reek, above the mouth of the Scioto, large beds of iron ore are found, lying over limestone, containing immense quantities of fossil shells imbeded in the ore; embracing many distinct species of Pec- ten, Productus, &e. with phauhered univalves—some of them are fine- ly preserved shewing the most minute workings and the hinge mar- gin having some resemblance to the head and beaks of a bird; the country people call them “ Paroquets petrified.” We qetaraed to Circleville in the evening, afier a day spent very pleasantly. TO CHILICOTHE.— Canal Boats. May 29.—Morning cool—Ther. 45° day fine. Rose at an ear- ly hour and went on board a canal boat, in company with a number of ladies and gentlemen on a trip to Chilicothe. The boat moved at the rate of four miles per hour, by the aid of two horses, which were changed but once in the distance of twenty three miles. These boats are fitted up with great neatness, and afford every necessary comfort to the traveller. The canal passes along back of the Scioto bottor, near the base of the uplands, which here as well as all over the Sci- oto valley are composed of gravel, clay, and water worn pebbles and * A part of the summer of the year 1830, was excessively dry in the S. W. por- tion of Ohio. Scioto Brush Creek, is a small western brahch emptying its waters into the Scioto river a few miles above Portsmouth. It heads in the same slaty hills king the earth violently for some distance. The inhabitants living near its borders became much alarmed, thinking a voleano was breaking out. On examining the spot, large pieces of iron pyrites were found mixed with the slate stone. The wa- ter, which had heretofore protectéd the pyrités from the atmosphere, being all evap- orated, the oxygen found its way through the crevices of the slate to these beds, and acting chemically upon them, new combinations took place, foes up the superin- cumbent strata with great violence and néise—when thé water again eovered the bed of the creek, the explosions ceased. I have one or two tare pens of the pyrites, given me by an intelligent friend who visited the spot at the tim Ten Days in Ohio. 251 boulders of primitive formations deeply covered with a rich coat of vegetable soil; a substantial dam of stone crosses the river a mile below the aqueduct, and furnishes water to a main feeder for the ca- nal. Five miles below, the canal passes along under the edge of the * Scioto Bluffs ;” which are high banks of gravel, belonging to the uplands, and occasioned by the undermining of the river in its mi- grations from one side of the valley to the other. They are from fifty to one hundred feet high, and extend for two and a half miles along the river. The bottom and bank of the canal next the river are formed of this gravel, while the Bluffs themselves make the oth- er bank of the canal. The Scioto washes the foot of the bank on one side, and when high, becomes very turbulent and angry at the encroachments made on its territories; while on the other, the Bluffs are occasionally slipping down and filling up the canal, occasioning not a little trouble and vexation to the managers of the work, a few years will probably regulate the work, and the whole will become solid. We passed eight locks between Circleville and Chilicothe, which are all built in a neat substantial manner; many of the top or coping stones being ten or twelve feet long, four wide and a foot thick. We reached C. at 9, A. M. CHILICOTHE. This town is the seat of justice for Ross County, and was for ma- ny years also the seat of government for the state. It contains about 3000 inhabitants, and the whole county 25,000. It derives its name from that of a celebrated Indian town, seated on the waters of Paint Creek, twelve miles N. W. of this, and which was probably the larg- est of the kind in Ohio.’ Chilicothe has increased rapidly since the location of the canal; which passes directly through one of the prin- cipal streets near the river. Many substantial warehouses are built along its borders, and a large amount of business is transacted. * It is seated on a level alluvial plain, about forty feet above low water in the river, and bordering a fertile tract of about 10,000 acres.” “The Scioto washes the northern limit of the town, while Paint Creek winds along its southern verge; the two streams being here about three fourths of a mile apart.” The principal streets run par- allel with the course of the river and are crossed at right angles by others, extending from the river to Paint Creek. The main streets cross each other at the centre of the town and are ninety nine feet wide. Water street, which fronts the river, and along which the ca- nal passes, is eighty two feet wide; all the others are sixty six feet. 252 Ten Days in Ohio. It was first laid off in 1796. * It has two printing offices with week- ly papers, numerous mercantile stores and several flouring mills in and about the town; amongst the public buildings are a neat and beautifully constructed Bank building ; a new market House, with handsome cut stone columns in front, surmounted by a cupola and bell; a Court house; several meeting houses, and an academy for young females. Two of the Hotels are hardly surpassed by any in America, either in size, elegance, or sumptuous entertainment. From the summit of a hill, (the first of which appears, as you descend the river, near this place) rising very abruptly on the west side of the Scioto, to the height of three hundred feet, you have a most delight- ful view of the town and surrounding country interspersed, with woods and verdant lawns, amongst which the Scioto river meanders its si- lent way to the Ohio.” Its course from this place, a distance of sev- enty miles, is southerly, through a hilly country. Al fair. While in C. we attended a very interesting Exhibition and Fair, got up by the ladies, who as is usual im other places are here cele- brated for their zeal and activity in useful and charitable objects. The fair presented a great variety of fancy articles, executed, in the neatest manner, by the ladies of the place, intermixed with natural flowers, and arranged in the most tasteful order on tables © around a large hall ; several hundred dollars were realized from the sale and devoted to the purchase of an organ for the Episcopal church. We left Chilicothe at 3. P. M. crossing the Scioto on a well construct- ed bridge, and returning by Jand on the east side of the river. After crossing the bottom we gradually ascended the upland plains, here about one hundred feet above the bed of the river, leaving the hill region on our right, but still in sight of the road for several miles. Al Tale. While passing over this tract, a very interesting border tale, narra- ted to me by a gentleman for several years personally acquainted with the actor, was vividly recalled to my mind from the fact that the thea- tre of the story was not far from this spot. Joshua Fleehart, was born and brought up in the frontier settlement of Western Pennsylvania, in the days of her border warfare. He was as much a child of the forest as any of its copper colored tenants; his whole life, from boyhood to thirty years of age, having been spent in hunting bears, deer, buffaloe, and occasionally Indians. He was also an experienced trapper ; and knew how, with astonishing tact, to counteract and over- Ten Days in Ohio. 253 come the cautious cunning of the half reasoning Beaver ; never fail- ing, when once in their neighborhood, of securing them in his traps. His person had been formed after one of natures largest and most perfect models; being several inches over six feet in height, with limbs of uncommon muscular size and strength. His face was broad with high cheek bones, terminating in a projecting chin, indicative of great firmness of purpose and natural bravery. A light hunters cap covered his head, affording a slight protection to his small keen eyes, which always shone with uncommon lustre at the approach of danger. He could neither read nor write: but as his mental faculties had been uncultivated, his outward senses became doubly acute and active. His usual dress was in the true backwoods style ; consisting of moca- sins, buckskin leggins reaching above the knees, and fastened to a gar- ment around the loins, a coarse woollen hunting shirt covered his arms and body, the skirts reaching to the tops of the leggins, and fastened around him by a broad leathern belt, to which was suspended a hun- ting knife and tomahawk: while a capacious powder horn and bullet- pouch, hung nh a ae from the opposite shoulder. ‘The rifle he was st caliber ; and of sucha thickness and length that few t men were able to raise it to the eye with a steady hand. His four brothers were all of the same gigantic mould, one or two of whom were employed as rangers, by the Ohio Company during the Indian war. ‘Two sisters were also more than six feet in height. When the colonists from New England, took possession of the coun- try about Marietta, Fleehart resided with his wife and family of young children on an island in the Ohio river, near Belpre; since become classic ground as the scene of Aaron Burr’s conspiracy, and the abode of Blennerhasset, so touchingly described by the pathetic eloquence of William Wirt. After the war broke out in 1791, he removed them into “ Farmer’s Castle,” a strong stockaded garrison opposite to the island, and resided there himself; but in the most dangerous times he would hunt fearlessly, and alone, in the adjoining forests; and whenever there was an alarm given by the rangers, who constantly scoured the woods, and the other tenants of the “ cas- tle” were seen hurrying from their cornfields within its protecting walls, Fleehart would almost invariably shoulder his rifle and take to the adjacent woods, like honest Leatherstocking in the “ Last of the Mohegans ;” giving as a reason that he could do more service there in case of an actual attack ; and also feeling himself more free and courageous when behind a tree and fighting in the Indian manner, depending on his own personal activity, than when cooped up ina 254 Ten Days in Ohio. garrison. During the Indian war in 1794, being tired of confine- ment, he determined to have a hunt by himself, and again breathe freely in the forests. Knowing from long experience that the Indians, almost invariably, confine themselves to the vicinity of their towns during the winter months, he pushed immediately for their best hunt- ing grounds. ‘Taking his canoe, rifle, traps, &c. he Jate in Novem- ber ascended the Scioto river, to near the spot where the town of Chilicothe now stands; being ten or fifteen miles from the then In- dian Chilicothe. Here he built himself a bark hut, and spent the winter with all that peculiar enjoyment which is known only to the breast of “a backwoods hunter.” He had been very successful in the chase, and had loaded his canoe with the hams of the Bear, the Elk and the Deer; to which he had added numerous, packages of their skins, with those of the more valued Beaver—with all the pre- caution of an experienced warrior in an enemies country, he had se- curely fastened his well laden canoe, several miles below, behind the willows which then bordered the shores of the Scioto. The melting of the snow, the swelling buds of the sugar tree, and above all the flight of the wild geese on their annual northern tour reminded him that it was time to depart. He had cooked his last meal in his solitary hut, and was sitting on a fallen tree in front of it, examining the priming and lock of his rifle; the sun had just risen, when look- ing up the bottom, he saw a large Indian examining with minute at- tention the tracks of his mockasins, made as he returned in the eve- ning to hiscamp. While hunting in the direction of the Indian town, the day before, his acute and practised ear had distinguished the re- port of an Indian rifle at a remote distance. Fleehart immediately stepped behind a tree, and waited until the Indian had approached within the sure range of his shot. He then fired, and the Indian with a yell and a bound, fell to the earth. The scalping knife had commenced its operation, but as he was not quite dead, he desisted, and fell to cutting loose some of the silver bands with which his arms were profusely ornamented,* and tucked them into the folds of his *In excavating the Ohio canal not far from the scene of Fleehart’s adventure, the skeleton of an Indian was found with several eect silver bands on the bones of his arms. Two of them are now in my collection of antiquities. They a to be of French manufacture, as one of them is ornamented with she «Fleur de lis” engraved on its front. They are about three inches wide and six long, with perfo- rations at the end, for thongs to confine them on the arms. They weigh two and a half ounces—as Fleehart str nets off only a part of the bands, it is more than probable that this was the identical Indian Ten Days in Ohio. : 355 hunting shirt. While thus busily occupied he looked up, and saw four or five Indians close upon him. This being too numerous a party for him to encounter alone he seized his rifle and took to his heels. They fired upon him but without effect; he soon left them all far behind but two, who being more swift of foot than their com- panions continued the chase for four or five miles, without his being able to leave them—he often stopped and “treed,” hoping to get a shot and disable one of them and then kill the other at his leisure; as soon as he took a tree the Indians did the same, and by flanking to tight and left, soon forced him to uncover or stand the chance of a shot. In this dilemna he concluded to try the hills, and leave the level ground on which they had so long been struggling. His vast muscular power here gave him the advantage as he could ascend the steep side of the hill more rapidly than his lighter but less muscular foes. Perceiving him to be leaving them, the Indians stopped and fired ; one ball passed so near as to cut away the handle of his hunting knife as it hung at his side, jerking the blade so violently against it as to make him think for a moment that he was wounded. He immedi- ately returned the shot, when the Indians with a tremendous yell ‘abandoned the chase. Fleehart, a little out of wind, made a wide circuit in the hills, and came into the river near to where he had fas- tened his canoe; finding all safe, he lightly jumped on board and pushed vigorously. through the day ; at night he laid down in his canoe and when he awoke in the morning, was just entering the river Ohio; crossing over to the southern shore, he coasted along its calm waters, and reached “ Farmer’s Castle” in safety, laden with the spoils of his foes, and gratified with the admiration of his old companions. After the peace, as the tide of emigration rolled westward, Fleehart still kept on the borders, and was finally killed in some petty quarrels with his natural foes, the red men of the forest. PICKAWAY PLAINS. At about four miles from the Scioto we stopped for a draught of wa- ter, and on enquiring the depth of the well found it to be one hundred fect; the greater part of the distance through a bed of sand, ending in coarse gravel. Three and a half miles south of Circleville we cross- ed the celebrared Pickaway plains, said to contain the richest body of land in Ohio; and notwithstanding their elevation, the inhabitants, like those of the Champagna de Romani, have ever been sadly troubled by “ Malaria,” during the autumnal months. They are di- vided into two parts, the greater or upper plains, and the lesser or 256 Ten Days in Ohio. lower one.. The soil was very black when first cultivated; the re- sult of vegetable decomposition through a long succession of ages. These plains are based on water worn gravel and pebbles. ‘The upper plain is at least one hundred and fifty feet above the bed of the river, - which passes about a mile west of them. Their form is elliptical, with the longest diameter from N. E. to S. W. being about seven miles, by three anda half or four miles. They were destitute of trees when first visited by the whites, excepting a few on the eastern border. The fertility was such as to produce one hundred bushels of corn, or fifty of wheat to the acre, for ae years ; but they are now less productive. : TO SOUTH BLOOMFIED.—Prairies. May 30.—Day warm and pleasant—cirri—mean temperature about 65° made a short excursion to South Bloomfield, a small vill- age nine miles north of C. on the road to Columbus. It is seated in the midst of one of those rich plains or prairies, common in the Scioto valley. The soil is loose and dark colored, on a gravel or diluvial substratum, composed of limestone and primitive fragments In digging for wells, a fine sand is found under the gravel, at ten or fifteen feet; and in this stratum of sand, excellent water at twenty or twenty-five feet. Teeth of the Elephant and Mastodon. The Ohio canal passes about a mile east of Bloomfield. In ex- cavating the earth to lay the foundation of a culvert, in a small branch near this place, several teeth and rib bones of the Mastodon were found. The teeth were in a fine state of preservation, imbedded in a black boggy earth, such as accompanies the peat formation, which is‘said to be common in the low wet grounds of this vicinity—a part of the teeth belonged to the ancient American Elephant; one of the latter is now in my cabinet. It is the last of the molares; séven inches broad, six long, and three inches thick, and weighs five pounds. The plates of ivory which compose the main body of the tooth, and are united, or cemented by calcareous matter, run from the root to the crown, and terminate on the grinding surface in grooved lines or furrows. Ridges of the same width, with depressions between, run down the sides of the tooth to the alveolar portion, or roots, giving it a grooved appearance. ‘The enamel is perfect, and looks as if it had been coated with black varnish. I have one other but smaller tooth of the same race or species, found in the gravelly diluvium, back of Circleville. It is quite perfect, but coated with lime. The Ten Days in Ohio. 257 teeth of the mastodon were very black and highly splendent over the enamel—the grinding surface trenchant and cut into deep de- pressions, like those of a carnivorous animal. Face of the Country.— Cattle. The country between C. and Bloomfield is undulating 5 soil rich, affording the finest kind of land for cultivation. The crops of grain and clover look very luxuriant. Many of the farmers here get their winter stock of hay from the “ Barrens” west of the Scioto, where Red top grass (Agrostis vulgaris, S.) grows in the greatest abundance without the aid of man. Large tracts are enclosed with fence for mowing and for pasturage. Mr. Gwinn on Darby creek, in Madison County, has a farm of four or five thousand acres, enclosed and divided into large fields, sufficient for the support of 1200 head of cattle, which is the number of his present stock. Many others in the cattle business have herds of from two to eight hundred, and lands in proportion. These cattle are many of them collected from the states west of Ohio, and when fattened are sent to the eastern cities. But little grain is raised in “the Barrens,” which extend from the Scioto to the heads of the Miamies, and yet they are singularly adapted to the pursuits of men like those of the Patriarchs of old, “ whose wealth consisted in cattle.” Conclusion.—Plants.—Shells.—Pearls. May 31.—Day fine, warm and pleasant; mean temp. 66°. This being the last day of our excursion, it was spent in examining the environs of Circleville; for botanical specimens; and the shores of the Scioto, for shells. Some fine species of univalves were found, but no new ones of the Uniones. Some of our fresh water shells produce very fine pearls. I have one taken in the waters of the Muskingum, from the shell known as the Unio nodosus of Barnes. It is a thick tuberculated shell, with the most rich and pearly nacre of any in the western rivers. The specimen is perfect in form, being plano-con- vex on one side, and a full hemisphere on the opposite. It is nearly half an inch in diameter across the plane face, and three eighths of an inch through the transverse diameter, and of a very rich, pearly lustre. Set in a gold watch key, and surrounded by facets of jet it makes a beautiful appearance ; and is by far the largest and finest pearl I have ever seen. Several others have been found, but none to be compared with this. Pallas, in his travels through the south- em province of the empire of Russia, states, that pearls are often found in the fluviatile shells of that region. Vou. XXV.—No. 2. 3 258 ~ Report of the Regents of the University, Art. II.—Report of the Regents of the University, to the Legisla- ture of the State of New York, Feb. 28, 1833 Turoveu the kindness of the venerable chancellor of the Re- gents, Simeon De Witt, Esq., we have again been favored with this valuable annual document. The object of the Regents, the improvement and elevation of the academies of the State, and the measures used to accomplish it, are alike honorable to the legislature that provides the means, and to the gentlemen who are charged with their application The academies more particularly engage the attention of the board, as any of them may receive an appropriation from the literary fund, on complying with certain requisitions. ‘They are required to make me- teorological observations, and forward a copy annually to the chancel+ lor ; and each successive report has evinced the zeal of the instruc- tors in forwarding the views of the regents. The report of the last year, is far in advance of any previous one, and presents a series of meteorological observations and facts, which may be regarded as ele- ments of future calculations. The academies furnish teachers to the lesser or common schools, and also prepare the students of the col- leges ; and the character of the academies has a direct and decisive influence, not only upon each other, but upon all the schools and seminaries of learning in the State. The adoption of the system of registering scientific observations, by the literary institutions of every State of the Union, and the annual publication of these reports, for the information of men of science, and as an incentive to legislative bodies, we hope may contribute to diffuse scientific intelligence, and to promote both the physical and intellectual interests of our country. Want of room prevents our giving extensive extracts from the last annual report from New York, but we will endeavor to give a general sketch. The returns from the university and the colleges of the State, re- port 600 students ; of the medical schools, 379 ;—65 academies, which received ten thousand dollars of public money, reported 4856 students—showing an increase over the number ina previous report, of 668. The regents have particularly recommended to the academies the “ preparation of teachers,” as a subject of the first importance ; ac- cordingly in several academies, there are lectares upon the principles to the Legislature of the State of New York. 259 of teaching, and two academies last year furnished seventy teachers, who are now, we trust, fountains of knowledge to large circles of pupils. The first “ Abstract” shows the course of studies pursued at the different academies—besides Arithmetic, English Grammar, Geog- raphy and Latin and Greek, we find Book-keeping, Biblical and Roman Antiquities, Constitutions of New York and the United States, Criticism, Rhetoric, Logic, Intellectual and Moral Philoso- _ phy, Evidences of Christianity, Natural Theology, Political Econo- my, History, History and Statistics of the United States, Princi- ples of Teaching, Hebrew, German, French and Spanish, Drawing, Painting, Vocal and Instrumental Music, Algebra, Geometry, Plane and Spherical Trigonometry, Mensuration, Navigation, Surveying and Engineering, Conic Sections, Differential and Integral Calculus ; Chemistry and Natural Philosophy, illustrated by apparatus and ex- periments ; Astronomy, Mechanics, Hydrostatics, Technology, Veg- etable Physiology, Topography, and Architecture. Meteorological returns, more or less complete, embracing observa- tions upon the thermometer, the wind and weather, were made by forty-three academies, which are scattered over an extent of six de- grees of longitude, and about four degrees of latitude. We die some of the most interesting summaries. The annual mean temperature, as deduced from the average of the complete returns of thirty-four academies, is 47°47° ; the highest de- gree during the year, (99°) was observed at Dutchess County and Montgomery Academies; and the lowest, (—30°,) at Gouverneur and Oxford; greatest annual range (128°,) at Gouverneur ; great- est monthly range (84°,) at Oxford; a remarkable uniformity ap- pears in the climate during the winter, from the fact that the coldest day at thirty-five places, occurred, with three exceptions, upon the 26th or 27th of January; at eighteen places, the 26th was coldest. The prevailing winds for the year were, south at sixteen places, south-west at ten, and north-west at six. Average of rain and snow at thirty-three places, 37:21 inches ; greatest quantity, 53°46 inches, at Kinderhook. August was the wettest month at seventeen places. The miscellaneous observations, collected from the “ Reports,” and from periodicals, upon the progress of vegetation, &c., aurora borealis, haloes, meteors, earthquake, and weather, are very numer- ous and interesting. Mineralogy has its observer, as appears from one of the Reports; botany holds a prominent place, as indicated by two catalogues ; one 260 Report of the Regents of the University, of the indigenous, Flowering and Filicoid “plants growing within twenty miles of Bridgewater, Oneida County, N. Y.” by A. Gray, M. D., embracing 777 species 3 and another, of the plants growing in the vicinity of Cortland Academy, by George W. Bradford, M. D., containing 563 species, exclusive of the class Cryptogamia and the Grasses. There is a table of the latitude and longitude, and eleva- tion of the places where the academies are situated. ~ Very complete records, kept by T. Romeyn Beck, M. D., at AL Way, for the last thirteen years, together with tables of several previ- ous years by other gentlemen, auabiod him to make the following ract. He verified the observation of Humboldt, that the “ mean tempe- ratures of the year, obtained by two or three observations, do not dif- fer sensibly, if the intermediate observation be sufficiently distant (four or five hours) from the observation of maximum and minimum.” taking the annual averages of the mean temperatures of the observa- tions, thus made during eleven years, he found them to differ by only 0°45. He ascertained the mean temp. of Albany, : to be 49°04° from the observations of seventeen years, Highest point of the thermometer, 100° — in £820. Lowest do. do. —20° in 1796. Greatest range, - : 120° ‘The weather for 15 years gives an annual average of neany sted fair days. Rain, annual average, 79 a Snow, “ 22 ~ Rain gage for 7 years, annual average, 40°64 inches. ~ Winds 15 years—south 15094 days, or an annual average of 100% days. Humboldt states that the isothermal line of 50° passes near Bos- ton ; and on comparing the results obtained at Albany, with those upon which he founded his conclusions, we discover a very: close ap- proximation. Humboldt, in opposition to Kirwan, asserts, that the mean tempe- rature of October approaches nearer to that of the whole year, than the mean temperature of April. Dry. Beck finds from the observa- tions of seventeen years, (which include the results of several very intensely cold winters,) the average mean temperature of the year, to be 49°04°; of October, 50°63°; of April, 48°38°. to the Legislature of the State of New York. 261 According to Dr. Brewster’s formula for finding the mean tempe- rature of a place, that of Albany is 50°3191°. The Regents, sensible of the value to science and to the whole landed interest of the State, of a record of the variations of the nee- dle from year to year, have addressed a circular to the Colleges and Academies, requesting them to make observations upon this. poin and to attain accuracy and uniformity in the results, the Chancellor has furnished a formula for establishing a true meridian, and the most important particulars to be regarded in observing, between it and the magnetic meridian. This circular being drawn up with great judgment and ability, and being of general as well as local interest, we now republish, as being the most effectual mode of expressing, at once, our good will to the very important object i in view, and of giving the circular the range of this Journal. _ An indispensable prerequisite is to have a true meridian establish- ed, indicated by fixed and permanent monuments. The manner in which this is to be done, in order that it may be accurately establish- ed, requires special directions. In years past, a rule has been seeientivad for obtaining an approx- imate meridian, supposed sufficient for common purposes; that is, to take the direction of the pole star when it is in the same vertical or perpendicular line with epsilon urse majoris, called Alioth, that is, the first star in the tail of the Great Bear, or the one next to the four most conspicuous in that constellation. This rule was once correct, but it is more than a century past: since that, the interval between the time when these two stars are in the same vertical, and the time when the pole star is in the meridian, has been gradually increasing, on account of the greater annual increase of the right ascension of the pole star than that of Alioth. Still some, not aware of this fact, have continued to prescribe the ancient rule. Others have calculated the interval for a certain period of time, without ad- verting to the changes which would occur in succeeding periods. In order to practice on this rule with accuracy, calculations must be made for the time when it is adopted, and for this purpose the fol- lowing formula is given as an example, adapted to the beginning of this year and a medium latitude, which will give a result sufficiently accurate for every part of our state, and which may be adopted in practice without producing a sensible error for several years, for the purpose now contemplated. 262 Report of the Regents of the University, _ A. Urse minoris or pole star. Z. Zenith. P. Pole. EE. Epsilon Urse majoris, or Alioth. PZ. Co-latitude. oe i place of the pols star at its greatest azimuth. The time required for the pole star to arrive at the meridian, af- ter it is in the same vertical with Alioth, is thus calculated for the latitude = 43° north, on the Ist January, 18 — ating ty NV. polar distances. E Ursz majoris or Alioth, 12 46 42. 33° 08’ 00” A Urse minoris or pole star, 1 O 19 1 34 53 Diff. of R. A. 176° 35’ 45”=11 46 23 In the annexed figure of the spherical igheadie aPe and abc. Given the Co-latitude, ZP, - 47 00 The N. P. distance of the pole star, Pa, - ; 1 34 53 The N.P. distance of Alioth, Pe, - - - 33 08 00 Diff. of right ascensions, aPe, «31% > 176.35, .45 The supplement of aPe, ePz, - - 3 24 15 Reaquirep the angle aPz = the distance of the poe star from the meridian at the time of observation. Produce aP, and from P and e let fall the perpendiculars, Pw and ex. Then, 3 1. Cot. Pe : R::Cos, ePz : Tang. Px, and Px+Pa=az. 2. Sine az : Sine Pz::Tang. aPe : Tang. Pae=Paw. — 3. Cot. Pa : R::Cos. Paw : Tang. aw. 4. Cos. Pa ; Cos. Pz::Cos. aw : Cos. zw, and zw—aw=az- 5. Sine Pz : Sine az::Sine Paz : Sine aPz; the angle required.” _ * The calculation may also be made as directed by the sixth and seventh cases of Oblique Spherical Trigonometry, given in Simson’s Euclid. to the Legislature of the State of New York. 263 By this process it is found that the angle aPz is 3 degrees and 11 minutes, which is equal to 12 minutes and 44 seconds of time; showing that in latitude 43° N. on the Ist of January, 1833, the pole star came to the meridian 12 minutes and 44 seconds after it was in the same vertical, or cut the same plumb line with epsilon ursve majoris or Alioth. The lower the latitude of the place, or the greater the distance between the zenith and the pole, the greater will this interval be. This fact alone shows how vague the rule is which has been recommended without due qualifications. The place of Alioth is taken from the Connatssance de Tems of 1830, and corrected for January, 1833; and the place of the pole star is taken from the Nautical Almanac of this year. In preference to this method, the following is recommended as ‘that most commonly used by astronomers, and requiring less calcu- Jation, in order to establish a true meridian line. Given, the latitude of the place and the north polar distance of the north star. Requirep, the angle Pzd, its greatest azimuth. The latitude of the place may be taken from the map of the State with sufficient accuracy for the purpose, for a small variation in ses will not sensibly affect the result. The north polar distance is given in the annual Nautical Alesis From these data, find the pole star’s greatest azimuth thus: As the cosine of the latitude of the place is to radius, so is the sine of the north polar distance of the pole star to the sine of its greatest azimuth, the angle Pzb. The latter part of September, or the beginning of Ohicher: is the most convenient time for making the observation, for then the pole star will reach the place required soon after it becomes visible in the evening ; and, as a direction about the time, it may be observed that on the Ist of October next it will be in that position about 50 minutes after sun-set, to which may be added about two and a half minutes for every day back, and about as much deducted for every day forward. On the Ist of October, the pole star will be at its greatest azimuth at about 38 minutes after 6 o’clock in the evening, apparent time, or 28 minutes after 6 o’clock, mean time ; that is, the time shown by a well regulated clock, and four minutes earlier on each succeeding day. The time when the polar star will beat its greatest azimuth, on any given day, is found thus. Subtract the right ascension of the sun from the right ascension of the star. This will give the time 264 Report of the Regents of the University, when it passes the meridian: from this deduct 5 hours and 54 mi- nutes, which will give the time required, when the azimuth is east; but when it is west, the 5 hours and 54 minutes must be added to the time of the transit. This is a medium for our State, and although it will vary with the latitude, it will not differ one minute from the truth, between the extremes of our northern and southern bounds. It is recommended to every college and academy to provide itself with a Nautical Almanac, in order to enable its students to exercise themselves in lessons of practical. astronomy, and, among others, such as those of which this circular gives specimens. ~ In order to make the observations as correct as possible, a good transit instrument is required, and the observations should be seve- ral times repeated. Astronomers never trust to a single observation, for it may be, and often is affected by the peculiar state of the at- mosphere, but they make a number in succession, and take the mean of them, rejecting those which differ much from the others. he instrument should be directed to the star some time before it has made its greatest apparent departure to the east or west, and follow it until it becomes stationary ; then bring the telescope of the instrument to a horizontal position and mark the place to which it points, at a considerable distance from it.. Let this be as far as the evenness of the ground will admit; then measure the distance be- tween the instrument and the mark so made: the offset from mbich to the meridian is thus found, by plane trigonometry : As radius is to the distance between the instrument and the medl so is the tangent of the azimuth, as before calculated, to the offset to be made west, when the azimuth is.east, at right angles from the line of observation ; then a line drawn from the place of the instrument, through the termination of the offset, will be the true meridian, on which, at a convenient distance from each other, stable and perma- nent monuments ought to be placed; such as stones sunk deep into the ground, and having on their faces lines drawn to show with pre- cision the course of the meridian. Where no transit instrument is possessed or can be procured; as the means of an approximation to a true result, a plumb line may be used, and by it the observations conducted in the manner now prescribed. In such case the upper end of the line should have as high a fixture as can be conveniently obtained, and to its lower end should be fastened a heavy weight, immersed in a vessel of water to steady it. A light will be required to illuminate the plumb line to to the Legislature of the State of New York. 265 render it visible, and another to keep in the line of observation and to mark the point where it terminates. The usual means should be employed to ascertain the fact that there is nothing about the place by which the needle may be at- tracted. Within the limits of the State of New York, the following nti is practicable, and, if carefully conducted, will give a meridian as true, for the present purpose, as can be expected from the other prescribed methods. Alioth and Gamma Cassiopeia pass the meridian at the same moment, within two seconds of time, the one below and the other above the pole. If then the line be accurately observed in which they appear when in the same vertical, that line will be the true me- ridian, without an appreciable error; and as the difference between the changes in right ascension of these two stars is only 13 hun- dredths of a second annually, it will not sensibly affect the accuracy of the rule and its practical results for many years. At some distance beyond our north bounds these stars will so nearly approach the zenith as to render the observation inconvenient, with a plumb line, but not with a transit instrument at any place far- ther to the north. ‘The observation will be practicable either way, as far south as the 35th degree of north latitude, whence Gamma Cass. will be seen at its lowest depression, somewhat less than five degrees above the horizon. In latitude 43°, Alioth will come with- in 14 degrees of the zenith, and Gamma Cass. within 13 degrees of the horizon, at the time when the observation is recommended to be made, which is from the middle of May to the Ist of June. On the 15th of May, the stars will be on the meridian at about 19 minutes after 9 o’clock in the evening, apparent time, and about four minutes ear- lier on every succeeding day. Gamma is the middlemost of the bright stars that compose Cas- _ Slopeia’s chair. The meridian line being thus accurately and permanently fixed, (and this ought to be considered as an indispensable appendage to every college and academy,) observations should be made on it at least once in every year, in order to ascertain the difference between it and the magnetic meridian. For the sake of uniformity, let this be done in October. These observations should be made early in the morning, for it is well known that the varmtion of the needle will be increased, Vou. XXV.—No. 2. 266 Report of the Regents of the University, sometimes to the amount of 15 minutes, between sun-rise and the middle of the afternoon, and that it will, before the next morning, return to its mean direction. ‘Much useful information may be obtained by examining well mark- ed lines of various ages, and net their present with their ori- ginal magnetic bearings. In regard to the subject now presented to your notice, the Re- gents claim no mandatory authority, especially over colleges; it therefore comes to you as a recommendation, that you will co-operate with those who preside over other institutions, for carrying mto effect a measure deemed important for the promotion of science, and which may be considered of still greater importance in matters touching con- flicting claims between individuals of our State. It is therefore hoped that, impressed with a due sense of the general purposes for which the institution over which you preside has been created, this repre- sentation, made on behalf of the Regents, may not be disregarded, and that hereafter they may be furnished by the colleges and acade- mies, in their annual reports, with observations made by them on the direction of the magnetic needle compared with that of the true me- ridian, and that a detailed account be given by each, of the manner in which its meridian line has been established. To such institutions as are not provided with good compasses, those made by Mr. Hanks, of Troy, having a vernier appended to one end of the mes are recommended as the best that can now be procured. S. De Wrrr, Chancellor. | We learn from Mr. De Witt, that should the regents be favored with the results of observations made in colleges and academies, and doubtless by duly qualified individuals in other states, they will be no- ticed in the annual reports and published in the legislative documents. We beg leave earnestly to recommend this subject to the attention which it so well deserves. It is an object of great national importance, and the effort could not originate from a more respectable source. We understand that to enforce the importance of making obser- vations and of preserving records of the variations of the magnetic needle, while surveys of the public lands are made, the following in- teresting facts have been mentioned to the Secretary of State, and as the importance of the’ recommendation is not diesielellt but rather enhanced by time, we republish the statement. After the passage of the act of Congress of 1796, organizing the United States Land Office, the very responsible appointment of Sur- to the Legislature of the State of New York. 267 veyor General was tendered by General Washington to the Hon. S. De Witt, the present Chancellor of the Regents of the University of New York. Had he accepted the office, he would have recom- mended to the government to obtain a number of cheap portable transit instruments, like one which he bas since had made for his private use and employed in astronomical observations. He would then have directed standard lines to be run on the true meridian, through the public lands; and that all the lines for townships, sec- tions and subdivisions, should, after comparing compasses with those standard lines, be run at right angles and parallel to them. For the want of such aeons measures, serious — it is apprehended, will be experienced. If we suffer evils from the negligence or inattention of those who have preceded us, it is our duty to provide that those who shall suc- ceed us do not suffer similar evils through our negligence or inatten- tion. ‘The measures adopted by the University of the State of New York are dictated by such principles, and are intended to apes or prevent such evils. It has also been suggested to the Secretary of War, to give in- structions to the officers of the different military posts, to add to the meteorological observations which they are enjoined to make, obser- vations also by the rain gage; it has been recommended to use the sim- ple one of which a description was published in this Journal for July, 1832, (Vol. XXII, p. 321,) as preferable to those before employ- ed. Of this fact, Mr. De Witt has become more thoroughly con- vinced by examinations, lately made, of the manner in which obser- vations have been conducted by the gages first furnished to the New York state academies; and they are about substituting the nine inch rain-gages, as more to be relied on. With this view, a scale for the nine inch rain-gage has been en- graved, to enable any one to make a trial of it. In order to fix the scale for use, have a board prepared, of thoroughly dried wood, twelve inches long, one inch and a half wide, and one eighth or one third of an inch thick. Trim the print by the lateral lines. Spread thin paste on the back of it, and leave it wet until it has expanded to the measure between the extremes of the graduation; then press it to the board, so that there shall be exactly nine inches between the zero of the scale and its highest degree—the lowest edge of the pa- per to coincide with the lowest edge of the board. 268 Report of the Regents of the University, &c. The measuring stick should be a very thin flat piece of wood, about half an inch wide, sloped at its lower end toa point. Asa substitute for varnish, some coats of thin flour paste may be put on the face of the scale, having one well dried before another is put on.* Although the direction for the management of this gage is that the water in it shall be measured immediately after every fall of rain, in order to have the advantage of the large degrees at the lower end of the scale, still, in order to guard against any evaporation, in consequence of an occasional delay in measuring the water, a small addition has been made to the gage, of which a description has al- ready been given in this Journal. It is a hol- low cone of tin, having (if the base of the gage be six inches) a base of four inches, and be- ing two and a half inches high, with an appen- dage at the apex for a handle. This is put down into the gage, with its base downwards, and however closely pressed into it, a sufficient crevice will be left for the water to pass through it to the lower part of the gage. In a letter from Mr. De Witt to the Editor, dated August, 1833, are the following very just remarks. “Tf it is not now clearly discernible what practical use can be de- rived from observations by the rain-gage, yet, considering the little trouble attending them, and the possible deductions of utility to which they may ultimately lead, the keeping of a record of this branch of meteorology is entitled to a systematic provision. “When it was first observed that sealing wax, amber or glass, on being rubbed, would attract light bodies, who could have thought that this would lead to the wonderful discoveries since made in elec- tricity, to our acquaintance with the nature of lightning, and the means of paralyzing its tremendous power? Facts like these should teach us that observations on the phenomena of nature, however tri- fling they may at present appear, may, if records of them be kept, at some future time contribute to improvements in abstract science or practical knowledge, such as, if now predicted, would appear in- credible, if not impossible.” * This has been found not to answer as well as map varnish which has been used for the scales. From fifty to sixty have been neatly made of Pia at one dollar, for the academies; they are furnished with a scale and measuring sti Upon Caloric as a Cause of Galvanic Currents. 269 Arr. III.—Upon — as a Cause of Galvanic nets by Prof. Joun P. Emmet. Tue subject, for the illustration of which the following inquiry was instituted, is one of undiminished interest to the philosopher, who, notwithstanding the able controversies hitherto maintained between e champions of simple contact on the one hand, and those of chem- ical action, upon the other, must still feel abundantly convinced that the theory of galvanic action is yet but imperfectly understood. Scarcely has opinion settled down, ere a new view of the question, brought to light by Faraday, and matured by Nobili, Antinori and others, rises up to convince us that this same galvanism can exist in- dependently of either caloric or chemical action; and we are com- pelled to admit, that, however important these causes may be, -mag~ netism is fully as much so. Indeed, if we look to the matter closely, there is reason for believ- ing that magnetism is the most elementary agent, since tt is always present, whereas the others are not. ‘Thus, when galvanism is pro- duced by the contact of acid and dissimilar metals, or by that of the latter alone, under the influence of heat, magnetism appears in every portion of the apparatus, and no method has hitherto been devised for determining which precedes the other. Magnetism, in these cases, may, therefore, be the cause of the galvanic currents, instead of the effect ; whereas, in the experiments with the horse-shoe magnet, there is no reason for believing that either caloric or chemical action is, evén in the most indirect manner, connected with the results, but on the contrary, that the only cause is magnetism. Applying the same reasoning, we are led to conclude that caloric is a more general agent than chemical action; since the former is set free in every case of galvanic excitation, depending either upon salts, acids, or inequality of temperature ; whereas there is no influ- ence from chemical action, as Becquerel has proved, when two metals are brought into contact and heated. Under such circum- stances, we might almost feel justified in concluding, that whenever chemical action seems to be necessary for the effect, its true agency consists in putting caloric or magnetism into motion. The great en- ergy of the common galvanic battery may be urged as an objection to this opinion, that caloric is the general cause of galvanic currents; since we find that a very high temperature is necessary before we 270 Upon Caloric as a Cause of Galvanic Currents. can produce similar currents by the contact of metals, unequally heated. But we must not overlook the marked peculiarities of each mode. Chemistry would be a science of combustion, but for the fluids that are employed in our experiments ; acids would ignite the metals when they oxidate them, just as chlorine is now known to do, could we furnish condensed oxygen, and dispense with water. By the peculiar construction of the galvanic battery, the oxygen is pre- sented in this state, and the oxydizable metal always acquires an ele- vation of temperature so considerable, that, according to M. Parrot, the crust of oxide formed upon its surface, at each instant, is red hot. (Ann. de Chimie, 1829.)—But a far more important difference may be pointed out. In the thermo-electric combination, the metals are in actual contact at the very point where the galvanic currents origi- nate, by the application of heat, and this must undoubtedly prove a point of annihilation for much of the electricity, generated. In the galvanic battery, on the contrary, an imperfect conductor is interposed between the metals which generate the currents, so that the latter are compelled to seek an union through the conducting wires. If, however, we make the metals touch, under the acid or saline bath, the result is more like that of the close thermo-electric combination, for the galvanic currents, instead of coursing through the circuit wires, as usual, actually exhaust each other by combination at the point of contact, so as to exhibit little or no signs of existence outside of the solution. ‘It is not, fie my object to discuss the merits of this question, nor do I desire to be considered as having very settled opinions upon a subject still so very conjectural. The enquiry, of which I shall proceed now, to furnish details, originated from an impression that caloric was a very general agent of galvanism, and it was conducted _ to the terinination at a period, when, from the effects of a most seri- ous accident, I was compelled to confine myself to my bed. The leisure which thus presented itself for several weeks, though not un- accompanied by pain, enabled me to arrive at some results which are here offered, solely because they appear to have escaped the no- tice of other chemists, and not with any confident expectation that they can fill up the hiatus which now exists, or lay: the foundation for any new theory. Notwithstanding the very obvious relations between common and voltaic electricity, it appears highly probable that the practice, which has hitherto prevailed, of employing a common language and similar Upon Caloric as a Cause of Galvanic Currents. 271 modes of investigation for both, has not only been productive of false general views, but has seriously retarded the developement of the laws which characterise galvanism. Volta’s very ingenious attempts to show that metals give rise to electricity by contact, are of .this character, inasmuch as they lead to the conclusion that the activity of the pile is dependant upon ordinary electricity ; whereas no such result will be obtained, if we view these electricities in other res- pects. It seems to be no small perversion, to use the gold leaf elec- trometer for the analysis of a battery, composed of two metallic plates, when it is well known that this instrument, even with the assistance of doublers, is incapable of indicating the galvanic currents of a bat- tery composed of several hundred plates. Yet such was the instru- ment in common use, until Oersted pointed out the value of the magnetic needle. Even now, that we possess this highly appropri- ate and delicate indicator, we incline strongly to confound ordinary electricity with galvanism, notwithstanding that the former, in its most concentrated condition, has no marked influence upon the galvanom- eter. Whatever may be our inclination to generalize, these simple instruments can alone sustain the opposition, since each one is ex- cessively delicate towards its appropriate fluid, and absolutely good for nothing, for the other. Very many circumstances might be men- tioned, in order to prove that common and voltaic electricities should be considered, in our investigations, as essentially different ; and the late discoveries with the magnet seem to point strongly to some ulte- rior and elementary condition, which must certainly, ere long, give us more correct views, and, most probably, mark the distinction, here noticed, more closely. To this limitation I shall confine myself, at all ous, and wherever the term electricity may appear in my remarks, it must be under- stood to refer to galvanism, unless the contrary be stated. The ex- periments were made with a galvanometer consisting of about one hundred coils, and constructed like the multiplier. The simplest view of the relation, existing between caloric and galvanism, is presented by thermo-electric combinations: I shall, therefore, proceed first, to this portion of the subject and reserve my remarks upon hydro-electricity, or that produced by metals and chem- ical solutions for a subsequent communication. Thermo-electricity_We are indebted chiefly, to the investigations of Cumming, Becquerel and Nobili, for most of the particulars which relate to the electric powers of combined metals, when exposed to heat, and it appears clear from their results, that the currents 272 Upon Caloric as a cause of Galvanic Currents. originate at the very point of contact. This fact, taken in comec- tion with the views advanced by Volta, in order to explain the action of his pile, seems to have led persons to suppose that the contact of dissimilar metals was necessary, and accordingly, almost all the re- sults obtained, upon the subject of thermo-electricity, relate to the combination of different metals. Yet it is easy to show, by the gal- vanometer, that two portions of the same metal, are capable of act- ing upon each other, and that the currents, thus generated, depend solely upon the direction which the caloric is made to take. Thus, I found, that, when a hot fragment of bismuth, was made to touch a cold one, the former constantly transmitted a positive current to the galvanometer ; whereas, when fragments of antimony, unequally heated, were brought into contact, the hot portion, invariably, con- ducted the negative current. ‘These two metals are, therefore op- posite to each other, in this respect, and when combined, must from the point of contact, send forth the two fluids in opposite directions. All the other metals, tried, were capable of producing currents by the simple contact of their own particles, unequally heated, but bis- muth and antimony possess the greatest power. The currents cease almost immediately, upon the contact of particles, obviously, because the inequality of temperature, is thus at once destroyed ; whereas, when dissimilar metals, are heated in contact with each other, the difference of temperature, must still subsist owing to the greater ca- pacity for caloric and conducting power of one of the metals. In such cases, the direction of the galvanic current, is determined by the direction which the excess of caloric takes through the metallic medium. Heating one fragment before its contact with the other, enabled me, in most cases, to determine the directions which the caloric and galvanic currents take, and the results, I think, will show that this mode of investigation is of the utmost importance. The following tabular view represents, nearly, the order in which the met- als stand in relation to their elementary galvanic powers. The caloric, it is obvious, must be considered as proceeding from the hot fragments to the cold as long as there is any difference of temperature. Contact between portions of the same metal unequally heated. pos. current in—antimony, arsenic, platinum, copper and Increase | silver. (Law—caloric and pos. current move togeth- of hea * devel opes a | "eg. current, in lead, tin zinc, gold, iron, mercury? nickel and bismuth. Law—opposition = > Upon Caloric as a Cause of Galvanic Currents. 273 These results, satisfactorily prove, that the metals are capable of assuming either state of electricity, according to the direction which the caloric takes, and it will be seen that the effect of association be- tween dissimilar metals, is dependent upon these elementary forces. The order, above given, can be accurately represented only by a measurement of the deviations from the magnetic meridian, as indi- cated by the galvanometer needle; this, however, I have not been able, hitherto, to execute with the requisite degree of precision, and all, therefore, thatis here aimed at, is the representation of the gene- ral electrical states of the different metals, under the same conditions of heat. . It is obvious, although there are exceptions which will be noticed presently, that the electricity, thus generated by caloric, corres- ponds with the chemical habitudes of some of the metals. ‘Thus an increase of heat makes Jead, zinc, iron, &c. transmit a negative cur- rent, and these metals may, therefore be regarded as becoming more positive by the operation, the result of which is an increased affinity for electro-negative elements, such as oxygen, so as to render them not only easy of oxidation, but difficult of reduction, when exposed ‘ tomere heat: whereas platinum and silver by becoming more tive, at high temperatures, must exhibit a facility of reduction, and other properties the opposite of the former metals. Modifications of this law, arising from volatility, fusibility, &c. must always occur, but still the conclusion will be an important one, if it can be shown, by any experimental process, that bodies possess a susceptibility for both electrical states, depending upon the amount of free caloric within them, and not wholly upon the contact of dissimilar matter. The galvanometer, however, indicates formidable exceptions to this rule, which must not be passed over. - Antimony, for instance, stands first among those metals whose particles, by an increase of heat, transmit a positive current, and it may, therefore, be regarded as becoming more negative by the process.—Yet antimony is easily oxidated when heated. The volatility of this metal will, in a great degree account for this result, since it becomes covered with crystals of the oxide at a temperature much below that necessary to make it obscurely red hot; but the well known attraction which cold anti- mony, in powder, bn for chlorine, another electro-negative element, does not admit of so favorable an adjustment. The position of gold, moreover, does not indicate its: chemical habitude, since it occurs among the metals which are made positive Vou. XXV.—No. 2. 35 274 Upon Caloric as a Cause of Galvanic Currents. by heat. The currents produced by fragments of ‘gold, are always feeble, and when copper is also present, the oxidation at the opie makes it almost impossible to distinguish any effect. ‘Tin and lead furnish very equivocal results, even when one por- tion of the metal is as cold as ice, and the other heated, nearly to fusion. This is perhaps owing, in a great degree, to oxidation. Zine and silver must be heated in a coal fire and large bars used in order to obtain currents of sufficient force. The arsenic, employed, was the crude article of the shops; but its indications were sufficient- ly conspicuous when one of the fragments was heated until - white vapor of arsenious acid appeared. When dissimilar metals form the thermo-electric circuit, we do not perceive the relation which the elements have towards caloric. Becquerel is of opinion that the forces, as observed by him, bear a direct relation to the radiating power of the combined metals, (Ann. de Chimie &c. 1829,) but, most assuredly, this explanation is not ap~ plicable to the combination of portions of the same metal, and it ap- pears obvious, that in such cases, the direction and intensity of the current result from the course which the caloric takes, bron 3 its transmission from the hot portion to the cold. It appears evident from the results furnished in the foregoing table, that the metals naturally divide themselves into two classes; in the one (including bismuth, nickel, mercury, iron, gold, zine, tin and lead) the positwe galvanic current moves in opposition to the caloric; in the other, (consisting of silver; copper, platinum, arsenic and an- timony,) these currents coincide. The cause of this difference is by no means apparent, but it is obvious that it must operate with equal force in modifying the currents produced by the contacts of different metals. Pursuing the principles of investigation already described, for elementary combinations, it is easy to determine the influence which caloric exerts upon compound thermo-electric circuits, or those consisting of dissimilar substances. The process consists in connecting each metal with the galvanic multiplier; one of them is then to be heated, in order to ensure the direction of the caloric, and in this state, made to touch the other metal which — its natural temperature. he result invariably proved to be that the caloric, procouing’ in one direction, which varies, however, for each combination, . either diminishes, destroys or inverts the currents which the same metals Upon Caloric as a Cause of Galvanic Currents. 275 are capable of generating, when placed in contact previous to. the ap- plication of heat. In general, very small fragments or wires, and the me of a spirit lamp, will furnish satisfactory results; but, in some instances, one of the metals must be employed in large masses and the requisite temperature obtained by a charcoal fire. The disturbance of the ordinary currents, is momentary, or at least, lasts only while the difference of temperature continues so great as to give the caloric a direction contrary to that which it would take when the metals are heated in contact with each other. _A few examples will render the nature of these modifications more apparent. Antimony, when heated in contact with the Gligaias metals, bis- muth, nickel, copper, platinum, &c. invariably conveys a positive current to the galvanometer; but when made obscurely red-hot, previous to the contact, its polarity becomes reversed with every metal tried, except bismuth, nickel and mercury, which, being at the remote end of the thermo-electric scale, in relation to antimony, exhibit only a feeble diminution of force. The conclusion obvious- ly to be drawn from this example, is, that antimony, while in contact with copper, platinum and most other metals, receives caloric from em; because, when, by excess of heat, it is compelled to give it out, the ordinary galvanic currents become Teversed. Another re- sult is, that in such cases the caloric and we current move in the same direction. Upon referring to the electrical condition of its par- ticles, when unequally heated, as before stated, it will be seen that an increase of heat makes antimony transmit a positive current, so that it is obvious, this metal governs the currents proceeding from the combinations just noticed, according to its own dlementary condition in relation to caloric. - _Bismura furnishes examples of the opposite character. Its po- arity continues uniform, whether it is heated in contact with the met- als, or whether the latter are made hotter or colder, previous to the contact. But, in most cases, its power of transmitting a negative current is diminished when the caloric is made to proceed from it, and, as this diminution is undoubtedly indicative of a tendency to- wards inverted polarity, we may infer that in all its thermo-electric combinations, it acts by receiving caloric, like antimony—such a con- clusion is strengthened by the elementary condition of its own par- ticles, which, it has been shown, become capable of transmitting a 276 Upon Caloric as a Canse of Galvanic Currenis. | negative current by an accumulation of caloric. ‘This metal, there- fore, like antimony, governs its combinations according to the ele- mentary electricity peculiar to itself, and which always exhibits the positive current moving in opposition to the caloric. The other metals are intermediate, in their power, between these two; and, we find one or other of the foregoing laws prevailing ac- cording to the nature of the combinations. _ Arsenic is, most decidedly, a regulating metal, and its influence is in accordance with the elementary condition, as Jaid down in the . There it is stated that an increase of heat enables this metal to transmit to the galvanometer a positive current, and when associ- ated, it is found to act most powerfully whenever it is colder than the other metals, previous to contact. Indeed there is little or no effect if the caloric is made to proceed from the arsenic, except’in the ca- ses of bismuth, nickel and mercury. In every instance the positive current passes through the arsenic, when the caloric does so, but the polarity is inverted when the hot metal is made to touch cold antimo- ny. There is abundant evidence of a tendency towards the same inversion, when cold platinum, copper, silver, lead, tin, iron or zine is employed, because, under these circumstances, there is no current rendered manifest, and, accordingly, we may conclude that arsenic, like antimony, governs its combinations, excepting where bismuth, nickel or mercury enters as an element, by the law that calorie and the positive current move together. Mercury. The exact relation between unequally hehisd portions of this metal was not determined, owing to its fluidity, but a suffi- ciently close approximation may be obtained by amalgamating a piece of Jead until it becomes able to sustain a drop of mercury— another portion of the fluid metal is then to be heated in a vessel, over a spirit lamp, and after having connected both portions of the mercury with the galvanometer, the suspended drop is to be brought into contact with that which is heated. It will thus be perceived that the portion which receives the caloric, transmits the negative current. In its combinations with other metals, the mercury usual- ly receives caloric, and when by previous heating, it is made to give it out, upon contact, its power is obviously diminished. In two or three cases the polarity even becomes inverted. 'Thus, cold mer- cury is negative, as to the current, with hot zinc, but positive when the zinc receives the caloric. ‘Tin and silver seem to furnish similat Upon Calorie as a Cause of Galvanic Currents. 277 results, but, the combinations being extremely weak, the effects are difficult of observation. The combination between zinc and mercury will enable us to trace the relation which the direction of the caloric bears to that of the positive current, for if these metals are heated together, the mercury transmits a negative current. The contrary is shown. to be the case when this metal gives out caloric to the zinc, and the inference, there- fore is, that in the usual combination, where contact is first establish- ed, the mercury receives caloric from the zinc, and, accordingly, the caloric and positive current must move in opposition to each oth- er. This result corresponds with the law of its own particles, as giv- en in the table, and is moreover exemplified by the combinations between mercury and the metals, iron, silver, antimony, tin and ar- senic, provided these metals are made hotter than the mercury. The caloric and positive current move together, however, in the combinations of hot mercury and cold iron, cold any and = arsenic. The other thermo-electric combinations furnish results which vary for each case; it will-not, therefore, be necessary to explain their meg irk farther than by the tabular view which follows, and with hI shall close this communication. ‘The relative direction of Ms ‘ae and galvanic currents may thus easily be perceived, and by consulting the table already given for the elementary condition of each metal, under the influence of temperature, we may generally arrive at a knowledge of that one which governs the currents. To facilitate the application of the principles indicated in the preceding remarks, I have represented the direction of the caloric by an arrow with a head composed of dots, and feathered at right angles to the shaft. The course of the positive galvanic current is indicated, on the other hand, by an arrow of the usual form. % 278 Upon Calorie as a cause of Galvanic Currents. Positive current and caloric moving Fe acim m in opposition. RE so ei cane leoda. hot. | hot. hor, cold. vik + - ~ BEOMUTH «of 6. ack es B. =o. 1) : ‘and 5 Antimony A.& B. | A. & B. Arsenic. . Ao ee ft Ay ee Dy ret ae i 4 a . = Be The ee of 2nd column most usu- ane, S&B. S&B. al: it a appears manifest that as soon pe = re & B. “s & B. > as Oy Bismuth is heated sufficiently to Tin tetra eee T&R. T.&B. give o to the other Zine. om ‘ : Zz. & B. Z. & B.: metals, it ‘Joes its\regulating power, ae ar ito... EE SB, Tt. & 5. Mereuiy.. M.& B. | M.& B. Nickel. . Na BN. eB. |) Antimony | A. & A. 7} and ” 3 1.A.8&°A. ; Arsenic. .. 2 A&A. . 1. P..& A. Platinum.: . 2 A&P. hy An 8 C. Copper... - |p’ Gg A. | Silver, ., . | 4-& 8. No. 2. first column, most usual ual and power- died 2.8. & A. | ful; hence it is obvious that the elemen- ee A &L, tary state of the antimony regulates s the Petts » Look A. 4 JAD ET. Tins ee ly pg a Ack Z. ee Gold. Se ss aoe ioe Se ee j ; pg ee BR Sey ey Series aa and Mercury... | A.& M. | A. & M.- ) Were int ae Ast st combination, the 2 an- : ei ¢ mony governs, in nthe Sed 2nd the mercury. Nickel....|A.&N. | A&N. [$2 nd combination o f.44 pon the ¢ nickel governs the current. of s=_ > Arsenic. .} A&A. } and Platinum A. & P. ome, A&C. In all these cases the elementary condition Giger, AkE of the arsenic somulates the aipeara cur- Lead. A. & Eb rents, meter does not indi- — | A&T. eate any eal for the comb canis of Zinc. . A: & Z. the 2nd ¢ 2.) aon, A. & Mercury &M. | A&M. ; In the combination of the 2nd column, the . 7 regulates the galvanic currents. Nickel....| A.& N. | A.&N nthe combination of > — = ; nickel regulates the galvanic cu Upon Calorie as a cause of Galvanic Currents. 279 Positive current and caloric movin together in opposition. : | Remarks. cold. hot. | hot. cold. - oa eo PuatTinum | P.& and to apcgrmy in Ist column most usual, Copper... ..} C&P: | C.& P. She d combination difficult of exhibi- The currents not apparent unless at a red Silver... . | 8:.&.P 8. &-P hey are not inverted even when “$ e gente tags 2 L.&P. tte No itn heat = column, even when the Tin T.&P Tes thio Zine Z.&P Z.&P te The combination of Ist column most power- oo" Rees G.& P G.& P LL&P No. 1. first column most usua ee Iron. ‘le PeL only app arent when the iron acquires a ees . full red heat; oxidation nape be voided. Mercury...; M.& P. | M.&P Combination in 1st column, most usu j ene ees Copper ..|C.& C. 5 id 7 i. P 5 gf Z e Ist co mbination most poweeti The Silver. ...} 8&0. |S8.&C egg Spe a ee ocala Th oe C.& L. | With cold et rd a pereepeble currents. Titties ¢ea Tee, same ag oe . Zz. & C. red heat “neceaeary for the is de old. . No. 1. of these combinations ,the laa LiEe&?C erful. No. 2. only perceptible when a 2.C.&1 fine e copper wire is kept red in flame and touched, without removal. Mercury... | M.&C, | M.&C. ‘ ILN.& C. Nickel... . ‘lo CEN. Strver ..[S.&S8. » and : bua ’ S.&L No Sent perceptible when the silyer is Cc @ Tithe. eect 8 8. &T Very feeble at all times. Zinc. . eee ; No. 2, feeble. Gold... 16.4 S.& G. S.& G. Iron, . . Be ga No, 1. most powerful aN ‘2S3.&1 y 1. powerful. 1.8. & M. Meriqury:. 1+) «ly M&S. Nickel. . . S.&N. 1S.&N, Lmavs i. L. thi and Ti : Hot lead no effect; even 9 Sie, requires a be eee oe) Toi ; heat nea ar the point of fusi . Zine. : pat. 1 7. & Hot lead little or no effec Gold. a) Bria? ae Ae G.& L. Hot lead no effect spe. Fer Osha i Se ae I. &.L. hare Ae eo5 s M. & L. Hot lead litt! ‘ ah 2d ; gy ot lead little or no effect 280 Upon Caloric as a cause of Galvanic Currents. Positive current and caloric moving together jin sppenition. <_< | > Remarks. cold, hot. | hot. cold. + -l+ = oT a & T ‘and Zinc. BLE STo8eZ. £ N ff h hot ti Th bth bi y , é o effect wit a in, e er combin- Gol... 1 Th &G. § a wees facts Iron. . eicacpeh: he Be Hot tin no effe ri Mercury. . Pte em | No. 1. very feeble. | 1.T.& N.| For No. 2. the nickel must be made red Nickel. . ‘+ |2N.&T.| hot. Zinc. eas bal BOGE: and : : Gold.. . .|Z.&G. |Z&G. | No.2.very feeble. ies ett. ideo abe Ze Hot zinc no effect. Mercury. ; : b Mee Nickel. . GoLp ‘ Ree tay a: ee ai ‘ Iron L&G L.& G. No. 2. much more powerful than the other. Mercury. ‘ ‘ “ = - he } These effects very indistinct. Nickel. . . | | AON a be eet hel and | | Mercury. .'1.&M. !1.&M Nickel. . .[1&N. |L&N. | MERcuRY. M.& M. | Nickel. . | Nroxsn.:. |... -{ NGN. J Although this communication relates to the metals in their elemen- tary state, there are several other substances, which, in consequence of their being good conductors, are capable of acting as powerful electromotors, both by heat and acids. Among these may be speci- fied most of the iron ores holding the protoxide, the sulphuret of iron, charcoal, plumbago, &c. I found a specimen of the load-stone, in my possession, to possess this power to a much greater extent than many of the metals. These natural productions are distinguished by being, as far as my observation extended, negative, as to the cur- rent, with all the metals, not even excepting bismuth. The energy with which they act upon the galvanometer, by the contact of fluid matter, at once explains the fallacy of those recent experiments with this instrument, the object of which was to prove that galvanic cur- Motion of a System of Bodies. ~ 281 rents exist in mines. Without denying the fact, it is obvious that those obtained, were the result, solely, of the instrument employed. For if we connect a disc of zinc with one wire of the galvanometer, while the other wire touches the moist iron ore, and then bring the zine into contact with the fluid upon the ore, a current will result, which proceeds from the zinc alone, in consequence of its oxidation. I am inclined to the opinion, therefore, that these experiments, upon the strata of mines, admit of this explanation in all the. cases hitherto noticed. ye po University of Virginia, Oct. 9th, 1833. Art. IV.—Motion of a System of Bodies ; _ by Prof. 'Turopore Srrone. Continued from p. 46, Vol. xxiv. ANALYTICAL FORMULAE. It will here be convenient to give the investigations of some ana- lytical formule which will be wanted in the course of this paper. . (1.) To find an expression for the cosine of the angle made by any two straight lines, in terms of the angles which they make with three rectangular axes, x,y,z, drawn through any given point. If the lines intersect ; through their point of intersection, draw three straight lines parallel to x,y,z, then evidently the given lines will make angles with x, y, z, which are equal to those which they make with their parallels respectively. ‘Take on each of the given lines a dis- tance (from the angular point,) equal to unity=the radius of the trigonometrical tables; let one of these distances (for distinction,) be denoted by (1), the other by (1’) ; also let a, 6, ¢, denote the co- sines of the angles which (1) makes with the axes, 2, y, z, severally, and a’, b’, e’, the corresponding cosines for (1’); then a, 6, c, are the ssiinacephiic projections of (1) on the parallels to the axes a, y, 2, severally, and a’, b’, c’ are the projections of (1’) on the same lines ; (for the orthographic projection of one straight line on anoth- er, equals the line tobe projected, multiplied by the cosine of the angle which the lines make with each other.) Let P=3.14159 etc. (=the semicircumference of a circle whose radius=1;) 9=the angle made by the given lines ; then (1) projected on (1’)=cos. 9, but the projection of (1) on (1’) is evidently equal to the sum of the projections of a, b,c, on (1'); now the prgecton of a on (1’), =aa’, that of 6,60’, and that of c,=cc’, .’. cos. p=aa’+-bb’+ce’, (a); Vor. XXV.—No. 2 36 282 Motion of a System of Bodies. if o=0, then cos. p=1, a=a’, b=’, cmc’, °. a? +03+¢7=1, (b)5 P. ; if 9= then cos. -=0, -”. aa’ + bb’ +-cce’=0, (c). If the given lines do not lie in the same plane,’ then through any point in one of them, draw a straight line parallel to thé other, and the angle which these’ lines make with each other, is manifestly equal to that which the given lines make; hence, (a), (6), (c) may be found as before.) >. ’ (2.) To change the rectangular codrdinates of a point referred to one system of axes, tothe rectangular codrdinates of the same point, when referred to any other system of axes,.having the same origin. Let 2, y, z, denote the codrdinates of the point when referred to the first system, and 2’, y’, z’ its codrdinates relative to the second sys- tem, also let L, denote the stright line drawn from the origin to the point; and let a,6,¢ denote the cosines of the angles which the axis of 2, makes with the axes of «’, y’, 2’, repectively, and a’, b’, c’, the corresponding cosines for the axis of y, also, a’, 6”, ¢” the co- sines for the axis of z. It is evident that =the projection of L on the axis of z=the sum of the projections of 2’, y’, z’ on the same axis: and the same remarks apply to y and z with respect to the pro- jections of 2’, y’, z’,on their axes; hence r=az’+by/+c2', y=a'a! +0'y/ +2’, za" a! -+-b’y'+-c’2', (d); in the same way a’=the sum of the projections of 2, y, z, on the axis of «’, and y/, the sum of the projections on the axis of y’, and so of 2’; hence a’=aar +a’y-a"z, y =ba+ b/y+- bz, 2 =co+c/y+e%z, (ce). Itisevident by (6) and (c), and because the two systems of axes are rectangular, that we shall have a?-b?-+c? =1, a/246?+¢=1, a/?-+b/2.1.¢2=1, ab-+-a'b!+-a!/b=0, ac--a'e'-La!’e’ =0, be +b'c! + be =0, a? +a’ ball, be +bA4b4=1, c&4e%+4+c/27=1, aa’+bb’+cc'=0, aa” +-bb"' +-cc'=0, a/al’ +b/b! + e'c! =0, (f); it is evident that (f) are only equivalent to six independent equations, so that three of the — nine cosines which they involve are indeterminate. Again, (since by (f), be+bc-+b/c'=0, 1—ct me? +e", 1—-b2 U2 +0",) we have b* +c? =b* +-¢% —2be(be + b/c! + bc”) =b3(1 —e*) Le? (1-53) — 2be( b/c’ -+.bc") = b?(e'2 4-02) 4.62 (b'2 5/2) — Qbe( b/c + bic! \==b? cf? — Qheb’e’ +07 b!? Lb%¢/2 — Qheb//c-+-2b//2=(be! —D/e)? + (be" — bc)? =1— (b/c —be')?; but b2+-e2=1~—a2, +a? = (b/c! —b/'c’)? or a=b'c” — bc! also b=ae!—a’el’, cm alb’ —alV’, a =e ~ be", & =ac! —a''e, e=a''b — ab", a!’=be — be, Wat ac’, e = ab’ —a’b, (¢); it may be observed that the equation a? = Motion of a System of Bodies. 283 {b’c’ —b’c')? gives a=-(b/c” — bc’), but the sign — does not apply ; for supposing the coordinates 2, y, z to coincide with 2’,y’, 2’, we have a=1, 6’/=1, c/=1, 6”=0, c’=0; having determined the sign of a, the signs of 6 and c are also determined asin (g), for a, 6, c, are to be taken so as to make aa’+-bb’+cc’ (identically) =0; and in a similar way have the signs of a’ 6’, &c. been determined as in (g). 2, y,z can be found in terms of x’, y’, z, in another manner: for io ity, and clearness, imagine (with La Place, Mec. Cel. Vol. 1, p. 58.) that the origin of the codrdinates is placed at the centre of the earth, that the planes of «, y,and x’, y’ are the ecliptic and equator respect- ively, that the axes of z, 2’ are drawn to the north poles of the ecliptic and equator severally. » Let J=the angle made by the axis of # and the radius draw to the vernal equinox, 9 +}=the angle made by the axis of y and the same radius, these angles being reckoned according to the order of the signs ; put Qs ote foe the angles which the same radius makes with the axes of 2’, y' respectively, these angles being reckoned according to the direction of the earth’s rotation about its axis; let =the ob- liquity of the ecliptic =the angle made by the axes of z, 2’. It is mani- that the sum of the projections of «, y, z on any straight line, equals the sum of the projections of w’,y’,2/ on the same line; for each of these sums equals the projection of L on that line. Let the two systems of codrdinates be projected on the line of the equinox- es, then (since the projections of z, z’ are each=0,) we have x Cos. P i : P + cos. (5+4) =<’ cos.o+Y’ cos. (+ °] or (since cos. (+4) as P == —sin. 1, cos. (5 fol -- sin. %,) cos) — ysin. L=2/ cos.9—y sin. , (h.) Again, let the two systems be projected on the line of the solstices, then (since the projection of z,=0,) we have w cos. (5 3 +) +ycos..)=2 sin. }+y cos. )=the sum of the projections of x, y, z; also 2’ sin. 9 cos. =the projection of «’, for it evidently equals the projection of 2’ on the line of common section of the solstitial colure (or plane of z, 2’,) and equator, projected on the line of the solstices; the first of these projections=2’ cos. g ~?} =2’ sin. g, and this 284 Motion of a System of Bodies. projected on the line of the solstices gives x’ sin. p cos. as above; by : P changing 2’ into y’, ¢ into ato, we have y’ cos. cos. é=to the pro- jection of y’; the projection of 2’,=2/ cos. (F—.) =2’sin. 4; hence (2’ sin. 9+-4/ cos. ) cos. 6+-2’sin. é=the sum of the projections of 2’, y’, 2’,=the sum of the projections of x,y, 23 .'. a sin.b+y cos. l= (2' sin. o+y’ cos.) cos. +2’ sin. 4, (2.) Lastly, let the systems be projected on the line of common section of the plane z, 2’ and equator : this is easily effected by (7,) viz. by changing 2’, y’, z’ into x, y, 2 severally, and 2, yinto 2’, y’; J into 9, and 9 into .) ;.(observing that the sign of the term involving z must i be changed, for its projection=z cos. (5 +4) =—2 sin. 6; hence 2’ sin. 9+ 9’ cos. o=(2 sin. L-+y cos.) cos. é—z sin. 6, (k.) Multiply (h) by cos. J, (i) by sin. J, then add the products and (since cos.” +sin. ?}=1,) we have v=z’ (cos.é sin. | sin. ¢+cos. cos. o)+y' (cos. é sin. | cos. p—cos. sin. g) +2’ sin.é sin. 1, (1) ; change the multipliers into, — sin.) and cos. }; then (as before,) y=.’ (cos. é cos. |. sin. p — sin. L cos. 9)+y" (cos. 4 cos. J cos. 9+sin. J sin. ¢) +2/sin.4 cos. |, (m); substitute x sin. )+-y cos. J as given by (2), in ({k); then (since 1—cos. *6=sin. ?6,) we have by reduction z=2’ cos. d—y! sin. 6 cos. p—2’ sin. dsin.g, (n). (1), (m), (n) agree with the equations which La Place has given at p. 58. Vol. 1 of the Mec. Cel. and if I am not greatly mistaken they neve been found oy a much more simple method than his. Now, since a, b, c, &c. 1, 0,4, remain the same for every point of space when referred to the axes of L,Y, Z, and 2x’, y’, 2’, .”. by taking the point in the axis of 2’, we have y’=0, 2’=0; hence (d) become xan’, y=a' x’, z=a"x', and (1), (m), (n) become 2 =2"(cos. 6 sin. } sin. 9+cos.] cos.¢), y=x’ (cos. 4 cos. sin. g—sin.) cos. 9), z= -—v2’ sin. é sin. 93.".-by comparing these values of x, Age acs 4 sin. J sin. pt cos. + Cos. ?, a’=cos, é cos. J sin, o—sin. | cos. 9, a/’=—sin.é sin.?, in a similar way b=cos. 4 sin. + cos. o—cos.f . sin. 9, b'=cos. 4 cos. | cos. 9 +sin. L sin. 0, b= —sin. 6 cos. 9, C= sin. 4 sin. J, acisooe 6 cos. + seo 4, (0). (3).8 as before, let x, y, 2, Sey 2's ‘denote the roctengliad coordinates of any element dm, of any Motion of a System of Bodies. 285 given solid: then 1,9,¢,can be found so as to satisfy the equations Sz'y/dm=0, Sx’z/dm=0, Sy/2’dm=0, (p), S being the sign of j ‘integra- dz’ tion relative to the mass of the solid. Let (= ia), (aa ) de is the partial differential coéfficients of 2’, relative to J, 4, respaetivel’s then by (e), (0), (A), (Kk), 2’=cx+c'y+c'z=(z sin. L+y cos. L). d2ty:.% «4 sin. +2 cos. 4, 2’ cos.9—y’ sin. p=2 cos. }—y sin, }= aus a sin. 6 ‘sin. oy cos. 9=(z siu. }+y cos, +) cos.é—z sin. (5), (q)3 tS dz'\ cos.o /dz’\ * dz'\ sin.» {dz’ hence z’=sin. » a He (a) =COS. © (a) - ae %) neg sin. 2p ¢ [dz Iz'\2\— cos.29 /dz which give vy =55 en (es ) sitas:$, Oy a) i sin. 6 (F)- dz! sin.g (d.2/*\ | cos. /d.2’ COS. (“F (zi) #¥= 2 ( di )+5an a\ ar) allies dak OF ) Si ae Soh Wc ) ame ae 7 “fi (7). By assuming Sz’z’dm=0, Sy2/dm=0, the sec- 'g 42 ond and third of (r) give ( mona =0, {= A Seen =0, (, which are the conditions requisite to make Sz’?dm= to a maximum or minimum, ae : and { only to vary. By (q), 2/2 +y'?# +2! =r? +y? +2 .S(2/2 + y'2)dm = §L?2dm—Sz/2dm, but SL?dm=const..’ ae ‘yen as maximum when Sz’?dm =a minimum, and reciprocally ; but S (2’? +-y'* )dm=the moment of in- ertia relative to the axis of z’,..the second and third of (p) require (generally,) this moment to be a maximum or minimum. Put Sz?dm=g, Sy?dm=h, Sz*dm=k, Szydm=g’, Szzdm=h’, Syzdm =k’; then by (q) Sz/?dm=sin. ? 6 (g sin.? J+A cos. ? $+2g's sin. 1 cos. L)+cos. ? ¢4+2 sin. é cos. 6 (h’ sin. } +’ cos. 1), (t). By (s), making the partial differential coéfficients of Sz/? dm rela- live to é and J separately =0; we have sin. é cos. 4 (g sin.?)+ heos.?.. + 2g’ sin.) cos.) — ) + (cos.2¢—sin.24).(h/ sin.) +k’ cos.) =0, ((g—h) sin. | cos. L+-g’(cos.?. —sin.?-L)) sin. 6+ (h’ cos. L — k’sin..L) cos. =0, (uw) 3 substituting the value of cos.é from the sec- ond of these in the first, [(g — —h) sin. J cos. b+" (cos. *-)—sin.?))] X[(g sin.?2 +h cos.?-) +20” sin. 1 cos. 1 —).(k’ sin. | —’ cos. 1) +((g —;h) sin. J cos. +8 (cos.?.) —sin.?)). aia ++ cos.)] 286 Motion of a System of Bodies. =(h’sin. L +k cos.-L).(k/sin. )—h’ cos. .L)?, or [(g —A) sin. | cos. +g7/(cos.?.) —sin.2.)] x [(k'g — h’g’ — k’k) sin. b+ (Wk+K'g’—Wh) cos. | ]=(A’sin. b+’ cos. L).(k’ sin. | — A’ cos. L)?5 put u=tan.t, and we have (h/u+k’).(k/u—W’)? +((g—h)u+g'(l—u*)) x ((Kk+ hig’ —k'g)ut+-Wh—k’g' —Wk)=0, (v). Since (v) is a cubic equa- tion, it has (by the theory of equations,) at least one real root; .°..% is a real quantity; .*.. becomes known, and thence tan. 4 is found by the second of (u); .°.4 is known: having found J and 4, we can easily obtain p, for multiplying the first of (r) by dm, taking the inte- gral and putting S2’y/dm=0, we have tan. 2p= — = M and N be- ing known rational functions of sin. ), cos. 1, sin. 4, cos. 4, g, A, ete. -".p becomes known; hence the position of the axes of 2’, y’, 2’ is determined so as to satisfy (p); and it may be observed that the axes thus found are called the principal azes of the solid. It may be observed, that u=tan. |= the tangent of the angle made by the axis of x with the line of common section of the planes a, y, 2’, ¥'3 but it is evident that (p) will exist if we change y’ into z’, and 2’ into ¥ thatis, if we change the plane 2’,y' into x’,z’, and 2’,z/ into 2'yy’5 *. (v) will give another value of u, which will be the tangent of the Aa made by the axis of x with the line of common section of the planes x,y, and a’,z’; and in a similar way it may be shown that (v) will give another value of u, which will be the tangent of the angle made by the axis of « with the line of common section of the planes @, y; y', 2; -'. the three roots of (v) are real, and they appertain, gener- ally, only to one system of axes: hence a solid has, in general, but one system of principal axes passing through any given point. Again, if Srydm=g'=0, Sxzdm=h’=0, Syzdm=k’=0, the axes _ of x, y, z will be principal axes: in this case, every term of (v) will =0, but (u) become sin. é cos. (g sin.? J + hcos.2 —k)=0, (g —A)sin.4 sin. L cos. L=0, also S.x’y/dm = abgta'b'h+-a"bvk= 0, {w) ; and (¢) becomes Sz’/?dm= g sin.?4 sin.? + A sin.2¢ cos.24+ kcos.26= ge? + he’ + ke’?, (x); also S(a/? -y'? +2/2)dm= =: §(a'? +y'? )dm+S2’?dm=S(x? +y? +27 )dm=gthtk=(since c? +¢?+ e/¥==1,) c2(A+h)+e2(g +h) +e (g-+h) + ge? +h’? + he’, or by (x), S(a'? +’? )dm=c? (h+k)+e(g+k)+e'2(g+h) ; put hth =A, g+k=B, g+h=C, and we have S(a'? +y'2 )dm=c?A+¢?B +¢//?C, (y). It may be remarked, that the first member of (y) is the moment of inertia relative to the axis of z’, and that A is the Motion of a System of Bodies. 287 moment relative to the axis of x; also B and C are the moments relative to the axes of y and z, and c?, c’*, ce’? are the squares of the cosines of the angles which these axes make with the axis of 2’; hence, generally, if we multiply the moment of inertia relative to each of the principal axes passing through any given point, by the squares of the cosines of the angles which they severally make with any other axis drawn through the same point, and add the products, we shall have the moment of inertia relative to that axis. If g= =k, (w) become identical independently. of the angles 1, 9, 4, *. every axis drawn through the origin of the codrdinates is a prin- cipal axis; and by (x) Sz’*dm=g=const. whatever may be the di- rection in which’ the axis of 2’ is drawn, .*. S(2’?-+-y/? )dm=2g. If we put sin. =0, the first and second of (w) are satisfied, and the planes of 2’, y', and a, y coincide ; also the axes of 2’ and z coincide 5 and by (0) a”, b”,c are each =0, .*.the third of (w) becomes abg+-a'b‘h=0, and by (f) ab+a'b’=0 or a'b'=—ab .. ab(g —h) =0, and by (f) a2+b?=1; these equations are satisfied by making b=0, a=-1 which make the axes of 2’, y’ to coincide with those of x,y; the above equations are also satisfied by making a=0, b=+1, which indicate that the axis of x coincides with that of Ys and the axis of y’ with that of x; on these suppositions we there- fore have no new system of principal axes: but if g=A the above equations are satisfied, and as a, 6 are indeterminate, every axis drawn through the origin in the plane 2, y is a principal axis, and we have an infinity of systems of principal axes, the axis of z being common to them all. Again, by (x) when g=h, Sz’?dm=g-+-e?(k—g); .°. Sz/?dm= const. in whatever direction the axis of z’ may be drawn, provided it always makes a constant angle with the axis of z; .". S(a’? +-y'2)dm = const. when the axis of z’ makes a constant angle with the axis of 2; also, (as before,) all the axes drawn through the origin in the plane x, y are principal axes. If no two of the quantities g, h, k are equal, then no two of A, B, C are equal; let A be the greatest and C the least of them, then (y) is easily put under the forms S(x’? +y/?)dm = A—e?(A—B)—c”?(A—C) =C+4e2(A—C)+ ¢?(B—C), which show that S(a’?+y'*)dm is less than A, and greater than C, whatever may be the direction in which the axis of 2’ is drawn; .*. Ais a maximum, C a minimum, and B neither a maximum nor minimum. Put o=X-+ a, y¥=Y¥+,y, 2° =Z+,z, m= to the mass of the solid, and suppose fsa X, Y, Z are the co- 288 Motion of a System of Bodies. érdinates of the centre of gravity of the solid; then S(2’?+-4/2)dm =S(2?+,y* )dm42XS «dm+2YS,ydm+(X?+Y?)Sdm, but Sdm =m, and by the nature of the centre of gravity S,cdm=0, S,ydm=0, hence S(x'* +y/*)dm=S(,x?+-,y? )dm+ (X?+Y*)m, (z). (z) will enable us to find the moment of inertia relative to an axis drawn through any given point when the moment of inertia is known for a parallel axis passing through the centre of gravity of the solid; it is also evident that the absolute minimum moment of inertia be- longs to one of the principal axes which passes through the centre of gravity : see Mec. Cel. Vol. I. pp. 75, 76; etc. _ It has been supposed in II. that the system revolves about a centre of force situated at the origin of the codrdinates, but this is not ne- cessary except for simplicity, for the origin may be taken at any point, (at pleasure,) provided all the forces are considered as disturb- ing forces. _ Hence (11.) have place as ies (there being now gant: no centre of force at the origin,) and the invariable plane is found in the same manner ; the areas 5» ” &c. being now rectilineal triangles in- stead of curvilineal sectors, but this does not affect the determination of the invariable plane. From what has been said, it is manifest that when the system is affected by no foreign forces, there will be a par- ticular invariable plane for each point of space. Again (7) are easi- tu d?z —zd? ly changed to (= a) =Sm(Qzr—Py), Sm(™ a Se yd? z—zd?y dt? =Sm(Rz—Pz), Sm )= Sm(Ry — Qz), (18), where P, Q, R, P’, &c. are supposed to phe the same as in (1), (2), (3) given r°dv «dy—ydx "ssito gt at p.40; for as at p- 42, c= » &c. and by resolving Q and P at right angles to r, we have the resultant of all the forces which affect a unit of m when resolved at right angles to the extrem- Qr—Py r ity of r= =T, .«.Tr=Qz— Py, and in a similar way T’7’= —P’y’, and so.on; .*. by substituting these values of c, Tr, ¢’s &c. in the first of (7) it will be changed to the first of (18), and in a similar manner may the second and third of (18) be obtained from the second and third of (7). (18) can easily be found directly from (1), (2), (3) ; for multiply the first of (2) and (1) by x and —y, re- ¢ Motion of a System of Bodies. — 289 ad? y —yd*z eT at spectively, then add the products, and we have e'd2y! —y/d? x! dt? Py, also = Q’z' — P’y’, and so on for all the bodies M, m’, &c. Let a-unit of m act on a unit of m’ with any force p, then (by the well known law of equal action and reaction ;) a unit of m/ will react on a unit of m, with the force —p, which is directly oppo- site top; hence mp= the whole force with which m acts on a unit of m’, and —m/p= the whole force of the consequent reaction of m’ on a unit of m; let f denote the straight line which joins m and m’, then evidently the forces mp, —m/’p are exerted along the line f: hence by resolving mp in the directions of the axes of z and y, we Seis, 3 nee have (=) mp and (ee P’ and Q’ which arise from the force mp, and — (=) Xm'p, — respectively for the parts of teat at) x m/p, are the parts of P and Q which arise from the force —m'p ; hence, (for simplicity,) considering these oe, only, we have (Qe—Py)=( (5 ly-(").) am! -(4> 2) m'p also Z lithe. sas Me : — 7! Q7'—- P= - (= ¥ =) mp, ewe have m(Qz—Py)-+-m'(Q’z’— P’y’)=0: it is hence evident that if we multiply the equations d? d? chs ‘d?x x - t nd =Qz— | fe sr ages lei Z &e. by mM, m’, —yd2x &c. respectively, and add the products, we shall have Sm ee) = Sm(Qz— Py) which is independent of the reciprocal actions of the bodies on each other, for the mutual actions of every two of them will destroy each other as above; the equation which we have ob- tained is the same as the first of (18), and the second and third of (18) are easily found by a similar process. (To be continued.) . Vou. XXV.—No. 2. 37 290 Of securing houses and their inhabitants from fire, Arr. V.—Of securing houses and their inhabitants from fire, and of obtaining supplies of water and of warm air. INTRODUCTORY LETTER TO PROF. SILLIMAN. Sir—The respectable person to whom the following letter and postscript have been anonymously addressed, having, through a com- mon friend, assented to the transmission of them to you, in order to be placed in the American Journal of Science and Arts, of which you are the Editor; they are now forwarded for that purpose, nearly in their original dress, except as to a few verbal alterations. An addition, however, has been made, of some amount, under the name of a supplement; which, from want of opportunity, has not been submitted to the same critical inspection; but which, nevertheless, L feel authorized to annex, after having made this statement on, the su ject. I am, sir, yours respectfully, ——_ ———. Hon. W. J. Duane, Setaty of the Treasury, Washington. July 31, 1833. Sir—Having noticed the accounts given to the public respecting the conflagration which lately took place in a portion of the buildings at Washington assigned to. yourself, officially, as Secretary of the Treasury for the United States, various reflections have since occur- red to me, on the subject of the conflagration of buildings which are inhabited, and on other connected circumstances. I presume, Sir, to submit some of these reflections to your consideration, through the medium of a friend, in the form of a letter. Should any statements or suggestions seem to require explanation, the use of the same chan- nel will produce areply. As I am anxious to live as a retired per- son, my friend is desired not to name me to you, a request with which he will doubtless comply. My letter will first touch upon some peneral points, whish respect the securing of inhabited buildings from fire, and will then proceed to some mncelins eous remarks; and be followed by a postscript, con- taining some incidental matters, which could not conveniently be in- troduced in the body of the letter. 1. For the prevention of injury by fire among houses, I may re- late, that when I was once sitting alone with Dr. Franklin, over the embers of his hearth, he took occasion to remark upon the great and of obtaining supplies of water and of warm air. 291 losses sustained by fires in England, compared with the small injury lone by fires in France. He said, that this difference seemed to him to arise, chiefly, from the different modes of building (then) em- ployed in the two countries, especially with regard to statr-cases, and to the passages between different sets of rooms; but he farther took into account, the contrast prevailing between the two nations in the fashion of ornamenting and of furnishing their houses—He remark- ed as to the first point, namely, the mode of building in the two coun- tries, that in England their stair-cases were commonly wholly of wood, running from the bottom of a house to its top, and that when a fire found its way to such a stair-case, it naturally spread in succession to every floor in the house, in consequence of the means of commu- nication thus offered, (and especially, he might have said, where an upward draught of air assisted.) ‘The Doctor then added, that it was a farther aggravation of matters, that passages of the same ma- terials occurred to conduct the fire from room to room. He noted also, that the English had much superfluous wood-work in their houses, by way either of wainscoting or of ornament. In France, on the contrary, he remarked, that their stairs were so constructed as to be in effect incombustible, including the railings ;* and equal- ly so their passages from one set of rooms to another set; and that in general their floors were formed of stucco, tiles, or other safe materials. He farther said, that where in their respectable houses a portion of their apartments had wooden floors, yet as the furniture of these apartments usually consisted solely of hangings or curtains, car- pets, pictures, and other loose articles, these might easily suffer, with- _ out injury to the room containing them.—I may add to what Dr. Franklin thus stated, that though, in France, the ceilings of the rooms in common houses, and the ceilings of garrets in almost all houses, are (so far as I recollect) generally of wood, yet fire can seldom reach these ceilings from below; or, should it reach them, ‘many of them would be found liable to little important damage, upon a principle to be mentioned under the next head.—To this head I shall immediately proceed, since Dr. Franklin’s suggestions on our general question speak sufficiently for themselves, as to their applica- tion on the present occasion. * The construction of most of the stair-cases in France, (by an intermixture of wood-work, bricks and mortar, with iron railings,) is worthy of universal attention for certain situations, as being easily imitated at little cost, and of much importance in several points of view. Their stair-cases are sometimes made of stone, but never of wood alone, unless in the form of ladders. 292 Of securing houses and their inhabitants from fire, 2. Another means, then, of preventing the progress of fire in a building, is to render it difficult for the fire to make an open passage through the combustible substances which it attacks, merely by hav- ing those substances closely lined behind with some material which re- sists fire. By an attention to this simple rule, Lord Mahon (now Earl Stanhope) and Mr. David Hartley, (the person who signed the definitive treaty of peace between this country and Great Britain in 1783,) were able to cover with combustibles, in a flaming state, the floors of whole rooms and whole stair-cases, without injury to the buildings of which those rooms and stair-cases made a part; neither flame nor air being able to pass in this case through and beyond the substance of the wood-work on which those burning materials rested. —Lord Mahon succeeded in his object on this occasion, by placing mortar close below or behind his wood-work ; and Mr. Hartley, if I remember well, accomplished his purpose by fixing sheets of iron in the same situations, closely connecting these sheets with each other. Experiments were publicly exhibited, with perfect success, on each of these plans, before numerous spectators of every rank; and if my memory does not deceive me, the well known Abbé Mann con- firmed the efficacy of this practice by corresponding trials made in Flanders.—Here, then, we have a second mode offered to aid our attempts to preserve buildings from fire; concerning which mode various details, which are truly interesting, will be given in the post- script. It shall only be added in this place, that the principle of this _ new rule strongly operates, (as has been hinted above,) in favor of those wooden ceilings, in France, where the floors above them are composed of incombustible materials. We now proceed to a third expedient of importance on these ocea- sions, of a nature wholly distinct from any thing which has yet been mentioned. 3. Another particular, then, deserving attention as a guard against conflagrations, especially where an elevated building i is concerned, is the establishment ‘of cisterns for holding water in different parts of such edifices; which cisterns may receive their water, either from rain, or from any other convenient mode of supply. This plan, in effect, was formerly proposed for one of the public theatres in London ; and it has certainly been adopted for one of the buildings connected with the powder magazines at Purfleet in Essex, in England ; and J am not sure that it has not been employed at the Capitol at Washington, since | know that this suggestion was once and of obtaining supplies of water and of warm air. 293 under the consideration of Mr. Bulfinch, the late national architect, with this view.—This resource, however, in order to be complete, should be accompanied with some very large syringes, for throwing water with precision, force and dispatch, into every quarter where water shall be requisite in case of fire.—It will be advisable also to attach, permanently, to every large edifice a very small fire-engine 3 and Mr. S. V. Merrick, of Philadelphia, has furnished such for only one hundred dollars each; a hundred feet of hose, (of a proportion- ate small diameter,) being added ata separate, but moderate, ex- pense. One of these little engines has, under my own eye, been found to be particularly useful, as being quickly brought forth for use, and very readily managed ; and it serves both for extinguishing fires at their earliest commencement, and also for keeping buildings wetted on their outsides, when exposed to the action of flames raging in a neighboring building. ‘The small size and small weight of this engine will admit also of its being carried into court-yards, alleys and lower rooms; and it may even be hoisted into any of the win- dows of an upper floor, properly prepared beforehand for receiving it. In all cases, the use of one of these little engines will prevent the breaking up of the lines of persons who are occupied in handing buckets for the supply of the larger fire-engines, which ought to be occupied at great fires on more serious objects.*—More will be said in the postscript on the subject of cisterns and reservoirs for holding water to be used for the above purpose, particularly as derived from rain, (whether collected from the roofs of buildings or otherwise.) * The following addition pit: be considered as a note, in this place, to the original communication. vasagip amma ia of various kinds have been made for supplying fire-engines with water. Sometimes, for example, pipes filled with water are laid under the pave- ment of the aii and in mountainous countries open aqueducts are provided, fi ich, at fires, little pools of water are for in the streets; each engine cisterns from rain water, placed in the upper part of a building, be always to be despised, whether as regards economy or convenience. 294 Of securing houses and their inhabitants from fire, 4. Some have proposed to steep building timber in certain liquids, in order to render it incombustible as to its exterior ; but nothing hav- ing been sufficiently made known to the public, as to the efficacy of such a project, we may pass over this suggestion.— The same may be said of chemical or other materials thrown among flames, in order to extinguish them ; particularly as articles of this kind cannot inter- fere with any thing proposed in this letter.—As to iron beams, &e. placed horizontally in buildings, however efficacious they may be supposed to be for attaining the general object here in question, yet they do not seem hitherto to have attracted public notice sufficiently to make it necessary to speak farther concerning them in this place. Here, then, the enumeration of the particulars to be proposed, as to the mode of constructing buildings, so as to prevent their taking Sire, or of extinguishing fire when it seizes them, will be concluded for the present. ee My Miscetiansous Remarxs are now to follow,—and they will chiefly regard different modes of introducing warmth into large build- ings, or of excluding cold from them, as well as other particulars of a like description. 1. It is important, in a country subject to severe winters, to have double doors at each of the entries into a large building, with a cer- tain space between these doors, by the aid of which the passages and stair-cases within the building may easily remain filled with warm air, which can, by various methods, be thrown into them. 2. Double windows may be equally useful during the winter, in @ large portion of the United States. This and the preceding expe- dient are not named here because unknown in the United States, but because they are too generally neglected. Yet the utility of double windows, in particular, can be forgotten by none who have visited the north eastern parts of Europe in winter.— Caulking the edges of window-sashes in winter, is another precaution against se- vere cold, not to be despised.—And again, in countries like the Uni- ted States, where habit so often leads to a superfluity of windows in some of their buildings, the closing of such windows as can be dis- pensed with during the winter months, (by shutters or other suitable ‘means,) is a proceeding not to be overlooked. 3. Since smoky rooms are still disgracetully common in the Uni- ted States, an anecdote as to one course which may be taken for curing them shall here be given. A celebrated naturalist in this and of obtaining supplies of water and of warm air. 295 country, wishing to avoid this evil in 4 house which he was building, put together, in brick-work, out of doors, without mortar and with his own hands, the sides of the opening of a chimney, and _ also of its throat, according to Count Rumford’s latest plan; and then directed his workman to set up these bricks, with the addition of mortar, in his house, in the same form and order in which he had himself pla- ced them. This method being adopted for the chimnies of the whole building, not one room in his house was found troubled with smoke, on either floor ;_ provided that on the first lighting of any of his fires, apiece of inflamed paper was put on the top of the lighted fuel, to direct the course of the flame up the chimney. 4. A safe place for ashes should be provided in every large inhab- ited building ; and a most rigorous attention should be paid to enforce the constant use of it—On the same principle, the yambs of a chim- ney should either be of marble, stone, or brick; or rest upon mar- ble, stone, or brick ; since if the lower part of these jambs be of wood, they may easily be set on fire by brands or embers, falling from the fire-place when no one is at hand to observe it. 5. The method of warming rooms by heat conveyed into them through pipes, is, in some form or other, generally known in the United States; but proper principles do not appear to be every where well established respecting the subject ; as will appear from the fol- lowing remarks, which have in fact all been called for by errors on this head, which I have myself noticed as having occurred in prac- tice.—1. Where metallic tubes are employed on this occasion, they ought not to be so much heated, as to yield unhealthy fumes. 2. Pottery or brick work with cavities in it, however small, ought not to be employed for pipes ; lest offensive particles should lodge in these cavities, and contaminate the air as it passes through them. . 3. The air admitted into these tubes should be collected from a healthy quar- ter; and therefore not from cellars, or other damp or foul places ; nor from within a house, and especially if drawn from the level of a dirty or dusty floor or carpet ; but be obtained from the atmosphere at large by suitable means. 4. Methods for cleansing these air- tubes should be provided, lest spider’s webs, or other obstructions or impurities should collect there in the summer season, and produce inconveniences of different kinds. 6. Nothing is said here of the newly invented modes of warming green-houses and hot-houses, by heat communicated to portions of air surrounding a set of metallic reservoirs, and corresponding metallic 296 Of securing houses and their inhabitants from fire, pipes connected with them; each of these reservoirs and pipes being filled with warm water; for experience has not directed us to any convenient mode of conveying air thus warmed to the different apart- ments and passages of a house. Nor is it needful to speak of the introduction into our apartments of pipes containing water derived from deep and powerful springs, or obtained (as it might be in some cases) from running streams; in order to communicate to these apartments an inferior, but yet an useful degree of warmth. This warmth may indeed suffice for assemblages of active persons, (as in manufactories,) or for large collections of persons generally ; but eannot furnish that comfortable amount of warmth, satisfactory either to individuals, or to small companies quietly seated in large apart- ments in cold countries. 7. It may be curious at least, if not useful, to notice some of the methods used by foreigners for warming themselves by means of fire.—First, there are braziers, (that is, open metallic pans,) con- taining heated materials, which are in use in countries where the cold is only occasional ; but these more or less contaminate the air above them which is intended for respiration, at the same time that the heat from them is furnished in an inconvenient manner. Yet they may be of momentary use even in cold climates, when the air is chilly or damp; since they may easily be withdrawn, after having furnished some warmth to an apartment before its proper fire has been well kindled. Accordingly they are not unknown to some per- sons in the United States; the vessel containing the hot materials being formed of thin sheets of iron, of an oblong shape, open at the top, and resting upon slender iron legs; and being consequently ea- sily moved _ place to place by means of long handles formed with wire.— rman stoves (by the French called fours, or ovens,) are large cavities generally made of pottery and brick work, which advance through the side of a room, to a given distance into the room; being heated from without; and although they admit no change of air in the room, yet they seem to produce no great evil on this account to those using them ; polluted air (malaria, as we may call it,) i in general arising more from vegetable than from animal im- purities. A good judge of statistics belonging to this country, is said to have discovered one advantage in the employment of these stoves among the Germans in Pennsylvania ; namely, that they virtually produce an economy of time among these people, which has not 4 little contributed to their prosperity ; inasmuch, as by the aid of these stoves, they are always able to continue at their work within doors, and of obtaining supplies of water and of warm air, 297 without stopping to warm their limbs or their fingers —The Rus- sians adopt a still more coarse manner of warming themselves, with- ‘out any apparent inconvenience ; owing (as is well known) to their practice in this respect being counteracted by their vapor baths, by great peculiarities in their diet, and by their occasional access to pure atmospherical air, and perhaps by other circumstances in their habits not yet explained to us.—The French have stoves, (called poéles,) which admit of some little circulation of air ; but the fue which car- ries away the smoke belonging to them, often requires to be guarded with the utmost attention, to prevent accidents from fire. These stoves, when formed of pottery with short flues, seem not unhealthy ; and the vapor of hot water is thought to lessen this mischief, when they have bodies of iron and long iron flues.—In the London Philosophical Transactions, an account is given of stoves, as used by some of the Chi- nese.—In Capt. Cook’s Third Voyage, (3,374,) we find, that the na- tives of Kamtschatska have a pit in the earth, roofed with turf, (rest- ing on wood work,) for their winter habitation, with an open fire- place, and a vent above to let out the smoke; and: they have like- wise a summer habitation, raised from the tect; and resting on poles : : a refinement, not known to some of their pretended superi- ors in civilization.—As the several contrivances mentioned in this paragraph are not in general suited to the manners of the inhabitants of the United States, who are for the-most part attached to open fire- places and brick chimmies, they call for no farther details here. But it is time to conclude this part of my communication, by re- ferring to what is necessarily, Sir, familiar to you; namely, to the fact, that since the first formation of man, there never was so urgent a necessity for establishing good architectural principles, as exists at the present moment in this country ; whether we have in view beau- ty, or the still more important objects of safety, convenience and com- fort, connected as these are with ultimate economy. The executive department of the federal government, while attending to these obvi- ous points of its duty, will have the farther satisfaction of knowing, that whatever useful measures it can introduce in these respects into its proceedings, will not only have a happy influence on the citizens of this great Union, but not improbably attract attention from the great States which are now forming themselves in what is to be called a new world. I have the honor to be, with particular respect, Sir, your very obedient servant, Von. XXV.—No. 2. 38 298 Of securing houses and their inhabitants from fire, ‘PosTSCRI PT. - Some detached matters will now be touched upon, which have been reserved for this place, because admitting of a more conve- nient notice here, than in the body of my leiter. I. I begin then by introducing some additional particulars, which have been promised respecting the plans of Lord Mahon (now Earl Stanhope) and of Mr. D. Hartley, for protecting buildings from fire. The statement of what regards Lord Mahon will be borrowed from the London Philosophical Transactions for 1778, Vol. 68, Part 2. 1. The first object of the communication here to be noticed, con- cerns a wooden house, constructed at Chevening in Kent, for the purpose of performing in it, “in the most natural manner,” (as his Lordship expresses it,) his experiments on the subject here in question; and his Lordship speaks thus, respecting this part of his proceedings. * On the 26th of September, [1777,) Thad the honor to repeat some of my experiments before the President and some of the Fel- lows of the Royal Society, the Lord Mayor and Aldermen of the city of London, the committee of city lands, several of the foreign ministers, and a great number of other persons. The first experi- ment was to fill the lower room of the building (which was about twenty six feet long and sixteen wide) full of shavings and faggots, mixed.with combustibles; and to set them all on fire. The heat was so intense, that the glass of the windows was melted like so much sealing wax, and ran down in drops; yet the flooring boards of that very room were not burned through, nor was one of the side timbers, floor joists, or ceiling joists, damaged in the smallest degree; and the persons who went into the room immediately over the room filled with fire, did not feel any ill effects from it whatever ; even the floor of that room being perfectly cool during that enormous conflagration immediately anderneath."—So much for the wooden house ! (See PY 892. 2. His Lordship, having made, what we may call an extemporary building, for the purpose of having it fairly burned throughout from top to bottom, proceeds thus in his statement.—“I then caused a kind of wooden building (of full fifty feet in length, and three sto- ries high in the middle), to be erected quite elose to the end of the secured wooden house [above mentioned]. I filled and covered this building with above eleven hundred large kiln faggots, and several and of obtaining supplies of water and of warm air. 299 loads of dry shavings; and { set this pile on fire. The height of the flame was no less than eighty seven feet perpendicular, from the ground ; and the grass upon a bank, at a hundred and fifty feet from the fire, was all scorched; and yet the secured wooden building, quite contiguous to this vast heap of fire, was not at all damaged, except some parts of the outer coat of plaster-work.—This experi- ment was intended to represent a wooden town on fire; and to show how effectually even a wooden building, if secured according to my new method, would stop the progress of the flames on that side, — without any assistance from fire-engines, &c. (See, for this passage, p. 892-893.) : 3.° His Lordship, in the last place, proceeds to mention his expe- riments as toa small stair-case, in a confined place; of which his account is as follows.— The last experiment I made that day, was the attempt to burn a wooden stair-case, secured according to my simple method of under-flooring; the under side of the stair-case was extra-lathed. Several very large kiln faggots were laid and kindled, under the stair-case, round the stairs, and upon the steps: this wood- en stair-case notwithstanding, resisted (as if it had been of fire stone,) all the attempts that were made to consume it. I have since made five other still stronger fires upon this same stair-case (without having repaired it; ) having moreover filled the small place in which the stair-case is, sitivity with shavings and large faggots; but, the stair-case is however still standing, and is but litle damaged.—(See p. 893. | Passing over the details of particulars as to the methods pursued by Lord Mahon, for securing his objects, with their cost, we shall now proceed to the concluding paragraph of his Lordship’s paper ; which is as follows. ‘I purpose giving to the world, before Jong, a detailed account of many other experiments 1 have made upon this subject; and of the various advantages arising from my meth- od, with several particulars relative to the different parts of each of the methods above described ; and relative to their joint or separate application to different kinds of building, and to the different con- stituent parts of a house ;—to which | shall add, a full explanation of the principles upon which they are founded, and the reasons for their certain and surprising success. In the mean time, I have ta- ken the liberty of troubling the society with this short account.” Thus far Lord Mahion.—I have not examined, however, whether his Lordship, (as promised) resumed this subject in any subsequent . 300 = Of securing houses and their inhabitants from fire, volume of the Philosophical Transactions; having had neither time nor opportunity for the purpose. But I may remark in general, as to what has been stated, that such is Lord Mahon’s character, for ve- racity, sagacity, perseverance and precision, that his account may be thoroughly depended upon; farther sanctioned, as it is, by the tacit assent given to his statements by Sir John Pringle, then Presi- dent ofthe Royal Society, and by the necessary inquiries of the Committee of Publications, of that respectable body on this subject. As his Lordship tells us, (p. 891,) that he had made “a prodigious number of experiments upon every part of his methods,” it is unfor- tunate that we are not furnished with his theory on the subject: in question, in his own words; since the extensive course of experi- ments in which he was engaged, must have furnished him with many hints, which he had an opportunity either of confirming or of rejecting. We now proceed to Mr. D. Hartley, who] may here add, was son of the celebrated metaphysician, Dr. Hartley, and a person not wanting either in correctness or enthusiasm. His methods however on the subject here in question, must be considered as amounting to little more than a variation of those exhibited by Lord Mahon; who tells us in the title to his memoir, that he had invented the plan; which assertion, he twice confirms in the body of his memoir; and I have no recollection, of any counter claims, having occurred on this occasion. | Mr. Hartley operated upon a brick building, apparently well put together, and having at least two stories. It was situated on a com- mon, near London ; and the experiment was tried in the presence of a large assemblage of persons, among whom were many of high sta- tion and character. ‘The registers of the day, doubtless give the de- tails of Mr. Hartley’s. proceedings, and J myself can vouch for the following fact; namely, that any person riding past, some short time afterwards, could (from without,) discover no other injury done. to the building by the opération which it had undergone, than that the brick-work above one or more of the windows, bore strong marks of the action of a fierce flame upon it; this flame appearing evident- ly to have issued from within the building. We now take leave of these spirited’ and respectable sveiedetis ers, by saying, that we must not wonder after all their labors, that the good people of England, have not generally profited by what was thus twice brought under the view of their metropolis. This indifference, has been owing partly, to the difficulty of changing na- and of obtaining supplies of water and of warm air. 301 tional customs, unless where fashion leads the way. But this obsta- _ cle has been very essentially increased in the present instance, by the facility and cheapness of insuring against fire, existing throughout Eng- land ; by the many fire engines, distributed around the country, and particularly in the city of London ; by the employment of wood-work both for wainscoting and ornament, having of late years been.much lessened in the houses of the English; and by the number of houses. which are built in England, on speculation, by persons with limited means, and which therefore are not likely to be constructed in a provident manner, if calling for any material increase of cost.—But this forms no objection to the adoption of proper principles in the construction of stair-cases and of the passages between different sets of rooms; any more than it does to the banishment of wood-work as much as possible from the sides of an apartment. The explanations therefore given above on these heads, are not to be consideretts as being without their use. Il. We now proceed to consider (as promised) the mode of .sup- plying cisterns with water, for extinguishing fires in buildings, and particularly where the buildings are very elevated. : The roof of each building offers of itself one obvious source of supply of water on this occasion. If the climate affords only thirty inches of rain annually, (and in many parts of the United States, the quantity which falls annually is abundantly greater,) a superabundant supply of water falling inthe shape of rain on any roof whatever, is here offered for a demand which is only occasional.—The cisterns Containing this water, however, should not be too limited in number ; for if made very large, and placed aloft in a building, the weight of each cistern would be so enormous, as to be dangerous; and conve- nience also will of itself suggest the propriety of placing these cis- terns in several different places. ‘They should be of wood, and of a cylindrical form, except that they should be wider at their tops, than at their bottoms; (that in case of frost, the water, when it expands into ice, may always rise into wider parts of the vessel, so as to avoid bursting it.) ‘The water, also in order to be always sweet, should be introduced into the cistern, by a pipe descending to the bottom; for the water last entering will thence naturally occupy the lower part of the vessel, and by pressing up the water which preceded it, will create a sort of circulation so as to prevent the water’s becoming offensive ; a spout being placed at the top to carry off all superfluity. 302 Of securing houses and their inhabitants from fire, Water may thus, always be found, at hand for the extinction of fire in the upper part of a building, however elevated it may be. —Whatever passes off by the spout may be conveyed to anew set of teceiving vessels below, so as to increase at pleasure the stock of water below. If these lower receiving vessels be of wood, covered at top, and placed on the ground in a warm aspect, I have found by some experience, that frost in general is not likely to injure them ; provided (as was hinted above) that the general form of these vessels be that of a truncated cone, with the base placed uppermost. —Should the cellar however be held as the more eligible place for re- ceiving the surplus water, it may be preserved there in tanks of stone of any form, or of brick lined with a suitable mortar: but unless there be a drain from the cellar, more water should not be cana: there than is necessary for family uses. Here we might quit the subject of the artificial collection of water; ; but perhaps a few additional words may be indulged: to me on this sub- ject,by way of extending the use of the hints here given, though what Tam now about to offer is not specifically connected with the subject of conflagration.—I begin then, by remarking, that persons who live in portions of the United States, where the springs issue from a soil sup- posed to be unhealthy, or who reside in prairies or other places where there are so often no springs whatever ; may collect rain-water, on a very extensive scale, not only by the means of the roofs of dwelling houses, but of those of out-houses, and even by the help of paved surfaces of the ground; the water in the latter case being made to enter into a cess-pool to deposit its impurities before it enters the re- servoirs where it is to remain for use.—Rain-water is originally, the purest of all waters, and may serve for family use in various ways; but what is intended for drinking should be obtained from a partof the roof always kept clean with that very view; and if necessary, it may be preserved afterwards in vessels properly ‘sched .—Water may also be collected thus for the use of cattle, as in Antigua; and this example may be imitated, inthe case of farms which are remote from proper watering places.—If rain-water be required for the water- ing of gardens, especially on account of its softness, sheds in gardens will furnish roofs for collecting it; and asa last resource, paved sur- faces of ground will supply unlimited amounts, at little cost or trou- ble.-—Where water descends from a roof, it willin many instances be useless to confine it within a pipe in its descent; for it will rush down in floods on the outside of solid, wooden, upright poles, properly and of obtaining supplies of water and of warm air. 303 placed, especially if longitudinal flutings have been made in them by common tools; since the wind must be high indeed to prevent the water descending thus with great regularity in sufficient quantities for use.—I may add, that water, (to my knowledge,) has been car- tied for more than two. thousand yards from an elevated spring, through a small covered trough, formed by loose bricks. ‘These bricks are to be laid in part longitudinally, and in parts transversely, and to be surrounded, if necessary, with a coating of clay. The water which passes, must then be made to rest quietly in a great re- ceptacle, that it may become clear, before it is drawn off for the ser- vices of a family in the different floors of a large mansion. Such brick troughs indeed are said to subsist to this day, in the Le- vant, formed by the ancient Greeks, for similar purposes ; which is a sufficient proof both of their utility and durability.—-I have myself seen water in a suitable soil, running even in an open channel, through very great distances ; and fanhiog drinking places for animals remaining in their pastures, as it moved along.—In this enterprising age, water, we know, has been brought up from great depths, either by digging or by boring, to the gratification of a whole neighborhood ; and we are encouraged to hope, that the bowels of the earth, by means of boring, may be made to supply water, in many places, to the thirsty desert, for the use of caravans and their attendant animals. —Ship- ping also, may avail themselves of the resource of rain, when stop- ped at any time, in a place where good water is not at hand, by Spreading large sails on shore for this purpose, in the mode well known to seamen, the water being received in casks, to be used, when the vessels go to sea again, for different useful purposes.—But enough of this digression, which, though, it will shew that water may be collected with ease both from the air and from the earth, yet has certainly nothing to do with conflagrations; a subject to which I am bound to return for a few moments. TH. It is reserved then, as a last article for this postscript, to state that conflagrations in buildings of almost all descriptions, may arise from lightning. But, in trath, the formal provision against such an accident, does not lie so much in the general construction of our buildings, as in their position, and in contrivances to be superadded to their exterior.—On the latter subject, we may state, that it is not yet universally agreed, what those measures ought to be. In 1772 1777, when two successive committees of the Royal Society gave their opinion as to the mode to be used for protecting the pow- 304 On architectural, rural, domestic, and other Improvements. der magazines at Purfleet, against lightning, every thing was sugges- ted with a view to the very peculiar localities of that establishment ; all express pretensions to abstract rules, as such, being studiously avoided.—It cannot’ therefore, be expected, that any thing on this head, should be said here in a concise manner, with an expectation of its being satisfactory. [tis a poor consolation on this occasion to be able to affirm, that there is perbaps no one subject in meteorolo- gy, which has had justice done to it in all its branches ; and there- fore, that what regards lightning does not seem to form an exception to the general rule. Persuaded however, as I myself am of this fact, I do not conceive that the subject can be properly discussed in all its parts, unless in a separate little memoir ; and here therefore, I must take my leave of it at present. [The supplement to this sted will be found either at the close of this number, or the commencement of the n Arr. V1.— Observations on architectural, rural, domestic, and other umprovements ; by Exzazar Lorp, of New York. New York, July 23, 1833. TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN. Sir,—I observed recently, in one of the public prints, a brief no- tice of an association of gentlemen in your city, for the purpose of ascertaining and recommending the best plans and models of domi- ciliary architecture. The questions to be investigated relate, as near as I remember, to the architectural proportions, materials for building, and methods of warming and ventilating apartments, by which dura- bility, economy, and convenience, may be combined with elegance and taste. These, in every point of view, are questions of great interest. The concern not only the thrift and comfort of individuals and families, but likewise ‘the health, the social character, and indirectly, the mor- als of households and communities ; and, considered in these rela- tions, they are worthy of all the siewtion they can receive from en- lightened and philanthropic citizens. It is matter of wonder that they have not hitherto gained that hold on the public mind to which they * Many other objects were embraced in the plan.—Ep. On architectural, rural, domestic, and other Improvements. 305 are entitled ; and no less a matter of satisfaction, that they are now to receive notice in a city where there are so many advantages of location, scenery, knowledge-and taste, for their elucidation, combin- ed with right notions of een and of all the means of ronsijee and social well being. ut my object in thus taking the liberty to address you, is to sug- gest, on presumption that you take a part in the proceedings of the association, that the enquiries to be pursued should be extended to some other topics, not less essential to the main design than those which have been announced ; or rather that they should commence at an earlier point, and suitiides what relates to the kinds of soil on which human habitations ought to be erected, and the choice of lo- calities for that purpose considered in relation to neighboring forma- tions and objects. Without pretending to do more than to glance at some of the most obvious heads of enquiry under this branch of the subject, I may il- lustrate what I have in view, nt Sa a brief statement of sips which require investigation. tt —— are- es chief requisites in a site for a dwelling house ? e desirable, considered sim- ply in relation to the principal design ‘and use of the building ; and what, considered in relation to adjacent objects? What descriptions of soil are proper for the sites of dwellings ? ? What soils are to be preferred for yards, gardens, and adjoining grounds ? ~ What soils are objectionable on account of their natural composi- _ or their liability to excessive moisture, or other vicissitudes ? 3. What kinds of earth are to be preferred for céllars, considered in respect to moisture, temperature, and effects, in different seasons, on vegetable substances, and on the air in the apartments above ? 4, What objects in the —— are in all cases to be avoided ? Amorig these may be specifie 7 Marshes and all permanent feceptaclés of decaying vegetable mat- ter. Grounds which are periodically overflowed. ~ Grounds which are excessively wet from ordinary rams during a portion of every year, and which exhibit extensive evaporation. Ponds which are drained in the course of the summer or autumn ; and other Vou. XXV.—No. 2. 39 306 On architectural, rural, domestic, and other Improvements. Localities which are occasionally subject to great changes in their condition, and in their influence on the atmosphere. 5. What considerations are to be taken into view in the choice of sites in given cases, as of plains, valleys, hills, mountains, banks of rivers, exposure to winds and storms, particular geological formations? 6. What considerations are to be regarded, in given cases, re- specting the depth of cellars, the elevation of the first floor from the level of the adjacent grounds, and the position, height, and form of houses, reference being had to the position of other dwellings, and to that of out-buildings, gardens, roads, streets, and distant scenery, and to. exposure to winds, storms, cold and heat ? 7. What, with relation to dwellings and to each other, should be the position of barns and other out-buildings ? ; 8. What cautions ought to be observed in the location and con- struction of dwellings and out-houses to guard each and all of them against the hazard of fire ? 9. What plans and measures are to be adopted respecting door- yards, courts, gardens, shrubbery, vines and trees! 10. What is to be aimed at in respect to water for household oe, and in what cases are pumps or aqueducts to be ise chia to wells and fountains ? 11. What plans and materials for fences are to be preferred ? 12. What plans and materials are most eligible for walks, intend- ed to be dry, durable, and tasteful? — These and the like heads of enquiry, would give scope for the most valuable instruction and advice, applicable to every part of our country, and which would, one cannot doubt, be eats well re- ceived, adopted and carried into practical effect. Of the thousands and tens of thousands who every year engage in the erection of dwellings, how few possess or are in any condi- tion to obtain the knowledge which is needful to guide their judg- ments in respect to the most essential of the above particulars, or with a view either to economy, convenience, durability, elegance, health, security from fire, effect on price, or any other advantage, private or public? In how many thousands of i Instances, even in lo- calities which present, to an informed and observant eye, unobject- ionable sites, are all these benefits lost, and great inconveniences and evils incurred for want of such hints and advices as might be com- prised in a tract of a few pages? In numerous cases, both of single dwellings and of neighborhoods it would seem that no one of these On architectural, rural, domestic, and other Improvements. 307 advantages could have been so much as aimed at or taken. into ac- count; and what is perhaps, somewhat more surprising, when a site has once been chosen and occupied, the most painful experience of its —, the loss of health and of life itself, seldom causes it to be aban These obwervicions might be illustrated by reference to insulated houses, and to villages and even cities. The public mind is not.im- pressed with the considerations which ought to be had in view in the location of habitations; and in numberless cases, individuals blindly follow bad examples, or are determined by some whim, or some cir- cumstance foreign to the real and permanent benefits to secure which ought to be their object. Each one, especially in the country and new settlements, builds his house when, how and where he pleases, as though his successors and the public had no concern with the mat- ter, and as though the erection of a shelter for his family in a posi- tion and by a process which should least interfere with his present convenience and rie se Heat were all that behoved him to take into account. Hence it is common to observe houses placed where they should not be, though in the immediate vicinity of eligible sites, while the barns and out-buildings are so near to them and to each other, as to be objectionable on many accounts besides being all liable to be de- stroyed by fire in case of the burning of either of them. Houses are likewise frequently built in low and damp situations where draining is impracticable, while the barns pertaining to them are placed, where the dwellings should be, on dry and advantageous locations. In numerous instances likewise, houses are to be observ- ed not only on the borders of ponds and marshes, but on the side of them which is opposite to that whence the prevailing wind proceeds. It were easy to multiply references of this kind; but the subject demands more particular and thorough investigation, and it is of such general concernment that I should suppose the association besides ex- tending its field of enquiry, might well enlarge its plan in another respect so as to procure corresponding members, or associations, in different parts of the country and of the world, to co-operate with the primary body, and to publish in your excellent Journal and in the form of occasional tracts‘or otherwise, with drawings or cuts, the facts, principles and advices, which such a combination of means would furnish, and which are so universally needed. 308 On architectural, rural, domestic, and other Improvements. Such an association branching itself out, and engaging the attention of numerous individuals, might exert a most salutary and effective —— directly upon the subjects to be treated of, and through them on the health and enjoyments, and indeed on all the personal and sock interests of man. ‘That influence would be important in its connection with our moral and political economy, would essential- ly aid other reformations, would augment the resources of domestic interest and recreation, promote a taste for rural scenery and a love of excellence in every thing, add to the cheerfulness and beauty of wellings, and prompt to the cultivation of the minds and hearts of their inmates. The bearing of such an influence on the subject of temperance, in very numerous instances of dwellings placed in un- healthy situations, is sufficiently obvious and likewise its tendency to prevent indolence, pauperism and vice, and consequently, to dimin- ish the hazards and burdens which one portion of every community imposes on another and better portion. _He who is neat and tasteful in and around his dwelling, will be likely to cultivate those qualities of mind and heart, which such a state of things. implies and requires; and will promote the same associations and habits in his family, and extend them, to the literary, moral and social education and conduct of his children. A portion of such families, in each small commu- nity, would by their sentiments and example raise the general stand- ard of opinion and taste, and exalt these arrangements of elegance and comfort into rules of social meeeTaD es and requirements of de- cent propriety. o such reformation however, of the: opinions, tastes and. habits of mankind, is to be hoped from individual or insulated effort. Rea- son and argument in such a case will be ineffectual, unless combined with personal and local influence. The threefold cord of associa- tion is the indispensable and only adequate instrument of success in an undertaking of this nature ; and for the same reasons, even this instrument must be present and locally operative in every ae and community where its beneficial results are to be expected. Nor is the design capable of being so easily or speedily accom- plished, in any way, as to render unnecessary an extensive organi- zation. Though many of the most important suggestions to be made require no very labored investigation, and among those who compre- hend them, scarcely admit of two opinions; yet there are questions to be resolved respecting the location and structure of dwellings al- most as numerous as the varieties in the surface of the earth and the On architectural, rural, domestic, and other Improvements. 309 wrong notions and habits of those who occupy it: questions which demand extensive enquiry and observation, and which will not be ex- hausted while any thing remains unknown of earth or air injurious to human health and happiness... The subject involves the physical na- ture, circumstances and wants of man, and in no slight degree his welfare as a rational, social and accountable being; it has an impor- tant relation to his plans, employments and success in Jife, and in- eed to his whole history; it is to be studied in all its relations to nature and art, its relations to what is uniform and unalterable in the earth, to the various changes which are. taking place in the surface, to various local peculiarites, to the increase and decay of vegetable mat- ter, and the neglect or progress of cultivation, to changes in the course and deposits of streams, to the condition of natural and artificial col- lections of water, to climate and to the long catalogue of local, pe- niodical and epidemic. diseases. _ A general reformation of the opinions and tastes of mankind, in respect to this whole subject.is greatly to be desired as a means of temporal happiness. No small proportion of the self-procured and the hereditary misery and degeneracy of the race proceeds from ig- norance and neglect of what is. _ vas ae in ween to this subject. - Who that closely inspects ree jet slisio, mails eed: en, of all the habitations in any district of country, or in any town or city, and the character, habits, pecuniary circumstances, pursuits, recrea- tions, and enjoyments of their respective occupants, but must be for- cibly struck with the powerful and discriminating effects of the causes which are involved in this field of enquiry? Who that traces the progress of an individual from his infancy in a mean, filthy, and ill Situated abode, to one that is desirable for its location, structure and other advantages, can fail to perceive the operation of these causes? Of how many both of the best and the worst members of society, may it not be said, that the influence of such causes on their natural dispositions and tastes, determined their course above or below the level on which they started? I remember an anecdote, related to me by the late Rev. Doct. Strong, of his ancient preceptor Doct. Bellamy, who, on parting with two of his pupils, by way of caution and advice to them, indicated, as what he had dreamed, his impres- sions, founded no doubt on what he had observed of their capacities, tastes, and habits, respecting their future career. The rising pro- gress of one he traced to a thriving and beautiful parish, a handsome and commodious dwelling, and subsequent usefulness and honor. 310 On architectural, rural, domestic, and other Improvements. The other he followed from one thriftless and quarrelsome parish to another, till he reached the poorest and most desolate section of New England. He afterwards visited the first at his residence in Hartford, and the other in a wretched tenement, surrounded by rag- ged children, in a parish which could boast only of such a minister, with no meeting-house, no school, and scarce a single entire glass window. _ But there are other and far more important consequences to be looked for, than those which relate merely to temporal comfort and prosperity ; ; consequences which involve the intellectual and immor- tal interests of men. And in that improved and cultivated state of society which the scriptures teach us to expect, when the present causes and occasions of degradation and sorrow will be resisted and overcome, when the evils we endure will be obviated by the Divine blessing on a wise and proper exertion of our faculties, this reforma- tion will be universal and complete. There is then every encouragement of growing and dian success to.cheer those whose part it is to promote this object. And there surely are not wanting those in every place, who by their education and circumstances are qualified to take a part in it, and who by a common effort may soon do much for its advancement. Let such fancy to themselves a town or village in a location free from all material objections, and possessing every essential advantage, and laid out and built in such a manner as to secure all the objects, public and private, which are desirable; let it be supposed that the benefits of such an arrangement are appreciated by the inhabitants, and that they agree in their tastes and opinions on this subject; and can there be any more doubt of the good effect of such a state of things on all the interests, character and welfare of the families con- cerned, than of the actual difference between the worst and best sites, buildings and occupants, in towns as they now exist? Let them also consider what evils might be easily obviated, and what benefits secured, in their own immediate neighborhoods, by the im- ‘provements which attention to this subject would suggest; and to what more useful or creditable purpose their talents, knowledge, and leisure can be applie The subject may fly be commended to the attention of Lyceums, and other existing institutions in different parts of the country, with particular reference to their respective localities. With great regard, I remain your obt. st. ELEAZAR Lorv. On the Fur Trade, and Fur-bearing Animals. 311 Art. VII.—On the Fur Trade, and Fur-bearing Animals. ‘| : TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN, Sir,—Deeming the fur trade one of our national interests, and presuming that many of its valuable details are unknown to most of your readers, I send the following sketches relating to the trade, and to fur-bearing animals; which, if they can be admitted into yonr Journal, may be found both interesting and useful.* The skins of animals were employed for clothing from the earliest periods; ‘coats of skins” having been given to our first parents, ever before their expulsion from Eden. As the human race grew numer- ous, the supply was deficient; and when the southern latitudes be- came inhabited and men formed societies, and lived in fixed habita- tions, civilization developed ingenuity and taste, devising various fab-. rics of wool, linen and silk. ‘These were of every variety of form and pattern, rivalling the rainbow in hues, and crnamented with resem- blances of every object of beauty. They were also light and cool, adapted to the sunny skies of southern and middle Asia. The val- lies of the Euphrates and Tigris, and of the Nile, as well as Syria and Mesopotamia, were early occupied by highly civilized nations, enjoying the luxuries of manufactures and arts. It was principally the natives of northern and mountainous regions, and their imme- diate borders, who were habitually clad in furs, and skins; except those horsemen shepherds, who, wrapped in furs, Gemseiot the im- mense steppe on the north of the Aral, Caspian, and Euxine seas, including the intervening range of the Caucasus, and extending west to the mouth of the Danube. ‘These barbarians, under “ the name of Scythians,” occasionally forced the mountain passes and ravaged the plains of Mesopotamia and Syria, Their hostile incursions open- ed the way to a commercial intercourse, and in the progress of time the manufactures of Babylonia and Persia were exchanged for the horses, cattle and furs, brought by these savages from the forests on the north of “ the treeless plains” of Scythia. * Tam indebted to Mr. Aikin’s paper on fur and the fur trade, published in Commerce, 1830, London; and to several intelligent merchants of New York, for much of the information euitidnied | in the following article. 312 On the Fur Trade, and Fur-bearing Animals. The first notice on record, of furs being employed for ornamental works is inthe book of Exodus, where the artificers under the direc- tion of Moses, made hangings for the tabernacle, of badger skins and ram skins dyed red,* and it appears from the apocryphal book'of Ju- dith, as quoted by Mr. Aikin, that furs were used by the princes of Babylon as an article of state and luxury; “ soft skins being laid on the Bye in the manner of Persian carpets, for Judith to sit and eat upon,” and these were furnished for her use by the chamberlain of Holofernes.+ Historians and poets sopraient the rude warriors and billie of an- tiquity, as clothed in furs, and skins, when fighting and hunting were the chief occupations of men. Virgil describes Aineas with an outer garment of Lion’s skin, when he departed from Troy, and Alcestes as “ formidably clad in the skin of the Lybian bear.”t The use of furs for clothing was denied to the Jews by the Mosa- ical enactments; but Babylonia and Persia cherished a taste for them as articles of ornament and utility, while “the Greeks esteemed them badges of rusticity and barbarism,” and the Romans held them in abhorrence. || In a district of Babylonia, a certain species of smal] fur-bearing animals was found, which A®lian, who wrote in A. D. 110, says “ were brought by traders to Persia, and sewn together into garments remark- able for their warmth,” and Zonaras writes that Sapor “ king of Persia, possessed a tent made at Babylon, in party work, of different colors, of the skins of animals, natives of that country. ‘But the Romans inhabiting the soft climes of sulle Italy, as- sociated with the idea of furs, those sons of rapine who invaded their frontiers ; and their poets and historians, strengthened the prejudices of the people, by descriptions of the appearances and practices of those barbarian robbers. The emperor Augustus banished the poet Ovid to a fortress on the south shore of the Danube, near its princi- pal mouth. He spent some of the last years of his life in that pain- ful exile, and employed his time in composing epistles to his friends at Rome, describing in thrilling accents, the rude elimate, and the ruder inhabitants of that tract of country which borders the north west coast of the Black Sea. ‘Troops of those “ horsemen shep- herds” enveloped in furs, their long beards and hair matted with ice, . ween’ 4.19. t Judith 12, 15. vie lib. v || Aikin. On the Fur Trade, and Fur-bearing Animals. 313 crossed the sea and river which are. frozen in winter to a considera- ble.extent ;. set fire to the houses, drove off the cattle, and either mas- sacred or made captives of the inhabitants. To the Romans enjoy- ing the security and luxuries of the metropolis, a hairy cloak might well be associated with ideas of disgust and dread, from the accounts given: by the terrified poet, of those fur clad marauders.* Tacitus, in describing the most barbarous of the German tribes, says, *‘ the Fenni are like wild beasts, without arms, horses, or homes; their food is the wild herb, their clothing skins, their resting place the ground.” The poet Claudian too, relating a victory won over the Getae who had pen- etrated Greece, says, ‘‘ the furred youth are mown down, their wag- gons. swim in gore :” and in another poein he satirizes the minister Rufinus, for appearing on the seat of justice wrapped in fur ;. in imi- tation of, or in compliment to, his body guard of Scythians. The whole northern and eastern frontier of the Roman Empire was oc- cupied by warlike and savage tribes, whose ordinary covering was of furs, except near some. of the garrisons, where they had been taught the use of cloth, by long intercourse with the Romans.t When these barbarians had established themselves in Italy, they laid aside the coarser skins which had been essential to protect them from the cold of Sarmatia and more northern climates, and adopt- ed the light and beautiful fabrics “‘of Gallic and Italian looms ;” but they still retained their taste for the fine and more costly furs, which they employed for ostentatious Heat: rather than convenience or warmth. The choice and precious fars had been held in high esteem among the nobles of Persia, many of whom were of Scythian origin, al- though the climate did not render them essential, as in Scandinavia and Sarmatia. The rich and rare furs were obtained through the medium of commerce, to minister to their love of display and per- sonal distinction. In the 6th century cas became an afibie of commerce in de- mand at Rome, where they had so lately been held in abhorrence, The dreaded barbarians who had’ taken possession of the imperial territory, transplanted their own usages and tastes upon the enerva- ted metropolis. Sables were brought to Rome from the countries on the Baltic, and from the mountainous regions near the head waters of the Eu- * Aikin. t Idem. Vou. XXV.—No. 2. 40 314 On the Fur Trade, and Fur-bearing Animals. phrates, and Tigris, between the Euxine and Caspian seas; and large quantities of small furs came through the Greek merchants of the Crimea, or by the commerce of Cappadocia. ' Of these, there were probably many varieties. The writers of that age term them, “Pontic, Babylonian, and Armenian mice.” The only kind which can now be identified is the Ermine, which takes its names from Armenia, the place where it was then oe and is thence called Armenian or Ermine.* It is obvious that the fashion, and the high value sleet upon itt in the milder climates of Europe and Asia, were derived from the savages of the northern regions, who inundated the plains and vallies _ of the south; and when no longer needing their customary de-_ fences against the severity of seasons, still retained their attachment to their primitive customs so far, as to ornament the lighter products of the loom with the richest and most beautiful, while or dis- carded the shaggy and coarser kinds of fur. Charlemagne wore’ a cloak’ of otter skins, and ‘a surcoat with sleeves furred with vair and fox.” Octher, a Norwegian chief, states, that “the tribute paid to the Swedes, by the Fynnes, was skins of Marternes, reindeers, and bears.” The Anglo Saxons cherished an attachment to furs in common with the other nations of German and Scandinavian origin; but they were confined to the products of their own country, except as they could by illicit traffic, obtain some of the rarer kinds from the northern, and other piratical traders. In the middle ages the value of furs was at its zenith, and when they became of the highest fashion in the European courts, the ex- pense of procuring the finest and richest, required a regal revenue. The precious quality of the ermine, the small size of the animal, and the supply required for the princes and nobles of Europe, rendered its cost enormous. Stephen de la Fontaine, master of the robes to Louis IX of France, charges “ for three pieces and a half of velvet to make a surcoat, a dress mantle, and a hat lined with ermines, for the king against the feast of the star. For the said surcoat, a fur lining: of three hundred and forty six ermines. For the sleeves and wrist- bands sixty. For the frock three hundred and thirty six ; in all, seven hundred and forty six ermines for a single dress. = * eenactons Soc. Arts, Com. &c. Aikin on furs. + Aikin, Trans. &c. &c. On the Fur Trade, and Fur-bearing Animals. S15 The four noble furs were “ the sable, the ermine, the vair and the gris.” The three first were admitted into armorial bearings. “ Er- mine is represented in Heraldry, by a white ground, with small black lengthened spots... The vair was a squirrel with a dove colored back, from Hungary and the southern provinces of Russia, and when bla- zoned was azure.* The sable is a rich dark color, between black and brown, witha tinge of olive, and in heraldry was the black color, in the arms of princes and nobles. The gris was probably a squir- rel, but antiquaries are not confident to which variety it belonged. _ In the first crusade, in 1097, the most sumptuous display on_re- cord was made before the Emperor Alexius Comnenus, at Constan- tinople. That city had not been overrun by the barbarians who des- olated the countries of southern and western Europe. It was: the last resort of arts, of law, of letters, of elegance and refinement; the strong hold of civilization. Here those martial devotees, the crusa- ders, descendants of the Goths, amazed at the splendors of this al- most oriental city, caught the graces of an accomplished and polished people, and engrafted upon their own. primitive tastes every congenial improvement. The canon, Albert, describes in glowing colors, the splendid vestments of purple, the cloth of gold, the robes of ermine, the mantles of furs, of martin, gris, and vair, which the crusaders dis- played in the court of the Emperor. It was more than three hundred years from this era, before this. resplendent city felt the withering arm of the Turk.t In 1453, Mahomet IL., in the insolence of victory gave itover to pillage. After the work of desolation was completed, and rapine and cruelty had done their worst, he entered the ruined palace of the Constantines, and exclaimed, in the language of the Persian poet, “‘ the spider may weave his web in the prince’s peor and the owl may sing his watch song on the towers of Afrasiah.” For many centuries the furs of ermine and sable were among the insignia of royalty, and the use of them was regulated by sumptuary laws. They were-denied to the common people, and permitted to none but kings and princes, with a few exceptions in favor of distin- guished nobles, certain state dignitaries, and the presiding magistrates in the high courts of justice. They were not blazoned in heraldry as mere ornaments, but as discriminating marks of high quality. They were associated with the poetry and chivalry of the age; and with " The skins of vair.were imported from Hungary, regedit to Guill Le Breton. t See Dearborn’s Memoir on the Commerce of the Black Sea 316 On the Fur Trade, and Fur-bearing Animals. tournaments and heraldry lasted in high glory for three centuries 5 and then declined together on the introduction of fire arms. Mail- — ed knights in their resplendent coats of arms were only the more conspicuous marks for shot, and the stern compulsion of an improved military system, caused a revolution in all the aspects of that era. The chieftain’s banner gave way to the national flag; and the men at arms and the feudal retainer, were replaced by a mercenary sol- diery. Silk also began to gain an ascendancy over furs, as it was more readily and gracefully accommodated to the capricious vaga- ries of fashion, and better adapted to the light and flowing draperies of dress and furniture than furs, which — rich, were we too heavy for all climes and seasons.’ ‘Although “ the noble furs,” sable, ermine, gris ~ vair, “eleietibe precedence, yet in the eleventh century the fur of the minever or mink, an amphibious animal from Russia, became’a fashionable edg-— ing for the robes of gentleman, and the richer of the middling classes. Previous to the direct trade’ in‘furs, established by Sir Richard Chancellor between England and Russia, they were brought from the north east through the ports of Livonia to the Hanse merchants, on the south coasts of the Baltic, and thence were distributed throughout Europe.f The Livonian trade was conducted in a mode so circuitous and with such suspicious policy, that it was known by very few where the furs were procured. The Livonian war induced the Czar, to open a direct trade, at the request of the merchants of wee through Sir Richard Chancellor, who discovered. a pass- age around the North Cape to Archangel, in 1553. An English — ciigleg protected by the Czar, established several posts on the White Sea, with a warehouse at Moscow, whence they sent trading parties to Persia, and the countries on the Caspian. They exported silks and woollens, and received furs among other exchanges in re- turn. ‘The country bounded on the west by the Dwina, which ‘falls ~®* Mr. Aikin says, that “silken oo and velvet was s roby invented in imita-. tion of -ggh tI Te a and + Wh , furs were the common coverings ‘of beds, in the middle and west of bias besides dite the principal and most distinctive part of dress. The more precious furs were reserved for kings, knights and the prin- cipal nobility. Persons of inferior rank contented themselves with the vair or Hun- garian squirrel, and the gris or gray; the lower orders of citizens, and burgesses, with the common squirrel and lamb skins. The peasants wore cat skins, badger skins, &c. Votes oe Fabliaux, or Tales of the twelfth and thirteenth century. On the Fur Trade, and Fur-bearing Animals. 317 into the White Sea on the north, extending east to the Uralian moun- tains, furnished sables, marterns, beavers, foxes, white and black minks, ermines, graies, and wolverings. The finest sables and black foxes came as tribute from the Samoieds near the mouth of the Oby, Dr. Fletcher, in describing the fur trade of Russia in 1558, enumer- ates, *‘ black, dun, red and white foxes, sables, luzernes, martrones, (martins) gurnestalles or armines, minever, beaver, wolverine, grey and red squirrels, and the water rat :” and adds that “beside the quantity spent in the country, there are transported out of it by the merchants of Buccharia, Persia, Turkey, Georgia, Armenia and some parts of Christendom, to the amount of 500,000 rubles. The tuble being equal to two ounces of silver.” The sable at that date, doubtless, held the highest rank at the Russian court, as “ the Czar’s crown was lined with a fair black sable, worth forty rubles, and his garments were of rich tissue and cloth of gold, furred with very dark sables.” The Czar sent presents of sables, lysernes, and other beautiful furs to Queen Mary, and Queen Elizabeth, but Queen Elizabeth soon prohibited’ the wearing of any but native furs within her dominions; and although the trade heads sezraeedé it — to decline, and was soon abandoned. Since the conquest of Siberia, by the emperor of Rossioy in 1640, the inhabitants of those interminable wilds, from the Uralian moun- tains to the Pacific Ocean, pay an annual tribute of furs to the czar. One skin out of every forty is delivered by the natives, to the agents of the different commissariats, and Kamschatka, and the Kurile ‘is- lands afford no inconsiderable part of the precious revenue. “The mountains of Kamschatka are rich in fur-bearing animals of the most valuable kinds.* Bears, wolves, reindeer, argali or moun- tain’ sheep, otters, beavers, lynxes and foxes of every variety are found in the greatest plenty. Sables are abundant and also the fiery red fox, the finest of the species. Immense quantities of fur are sent from Siberia to China, but the choicest kinds, the precious ermine of Yakutsk, the brilliant fiery foxes, and the best sables, are taken to Moscow and Novogorod, for the use of the princes and nobles of Russia, Turkey and Persia. The discovery of Hudson’s Bay and the river St. Lawrence, open- ed a new field of immeasurable extent, for the trade in furs. The * Cochrane’s Trav. De Lesseps, &c. 318 On the Fur Trade, and Fur-bearing Animals. French seized it with avidity, and the English were not slow in avail- ing themselves of this new source of wealth, brought to light by their countryman. The advantage of water conveyance by the St. Law- rence and its immense tributaries, and by the lakes, which like a chain of inland seas, intersect the whole country from Lower Cana- da to the head waters of the McKenzie, gave a ready access to the ore solitudes, which for thousands of miles had never been inva- by the footsteps of civilized man. _ The French obtained a great amount of furs and peltry from their wading posts'on the St. Lawrence, and throughout the region near the head waters of the Mississippi.* . After they lost possession of Canada in 1762, the trade fell principally into the hands of the Eng- lish and Scotch. The Hudson’s Bay Ska was at: first but a handel of private Siseusint They. were incorporated in 1670, but had neither the capital nor the enterprise of the French, nor did they for msi years accumulate as large an assortment of furs. In 1775, Joseph Frobisher explored the region nai Loke: Su- perior and Lake Winnipeg, from which country vast amounts of val- uable furs were obtained. In 1783, another. association called the North West Company, was formed for the purpose of exploring and appropriating, if possi- ble, the territory between Lake Winnipeg and the Rocky mountains. cKenzie, one of the agents of this new company) discovered in 1793, the river which bears his name, ; of the most valuable data respecting those then unknown regions. - _ The avidity of trappers and fur traders on the American: continent, is by no means confined to foreign or incorporated companies. In- dividuals and company adventurers, spread over the whole tract of unsettled country, from Bhering’s straits to the mouth of the Rio del Norte, pursue the object through incredible hardships. The Pacific Fur Company; established by Mr. Astor of New York, for the prosecution of the trade on the Columbia river, was * Peltries are skins merely dried as they come from the hands of the hunters. The same skins converted on the inner side into leather, by an aluminous process, without removing the fur, are called furs, and the art of dressing them is called fur- riery. Ina stricter meaning, peltry comprises all skins covered with short hair, such as the deer, elk, buffalo, &c. principally manufactured into leather. Ina gen- eral sense, furriery includes all skins dressed into o leather, with the hair or fur on. + MtKenzie’ s Journey to the Arctic Ocean. On the Fur Trade and Fur-bearing Animals. 319 arranged with consummate skill, and promised unlimited success. It was his intention to send a ship annually from New York with pro- visions and goods for the Indian trade, and the same ship was to take the produce of the year’s trade to Canton, dispose of the furs, ee return to New York freighted with the products of China. | In procuring information which might be of unquestionable cusientt ticity, I have been so fortunate as to receive from Alfred Seton, Esq. of New York, some important particulars respecting the state of the trade on the North West coast; and I'am happy to give the follow- ing detailed account of the origin and dissolution of the Pacific Fur Company, in the language of that gentleman, who was himoelf an eye witness of the facts he recounts. “The most extensive enterprise of its kind from the United d eaeelf and one which experience has since proved would have had the most advantageous results, was conceived by the ile eee mind f John Jacob Astor, and carried into effect in the year 1809. By the organization of the old North. West Company, the élerki after serving an apprenticeship of seven years, for an annual small compensation, and an equipment, (one or two suits, blankets, &c.) then became candidates for a participation in the profits of the com- pany ; and until they became partners, their salary was increased to £100 per annum, and an additional equipment. The indentures of the clerks expired faster than vacancies occurred in the wintering partner’s department, and when these did occur, some lacked interest to become partners, the great object of their ambition. The conse- quence was, that there were many of these elder clerks, of great ex- perience in the Indian trade, who became dissatisfied with their situ- ation, and were ready to listen to any overtures, by which their knowledge and energy might be more beneficially used for their own advantage.’ Four or five gentlemen of the above class entered into the views of Mr. Astor, and the result of this great commercial un- dertaking, (which time has since proved, would have made Mr. As- tor, probably, the wealthiest individual in the world,) has shown, that in the selection of these gentlemen, a fatal error was committed ; for if the active agents had been Americans, whose feelings, sympathies and connections, were identified with the success of our country, and whose interests pointed singly, to the successful establishment of the company, the difficulties which the war opposed to its prospects, would have been combatted, and these past, the wealth which that region of country has since poured into the coffers of the Hudson’s 320 On the Fur Trade and Fur-bearing Animals. Bay Company, would have had its legitimate destination, viz. the re- ward of the man, whose energetic mind conceived, and ane at _ great risk, this new channel of national wealth. | “Mr. Wilson P. Hunt, of St. Louis, Mississippi, was the sieht man selected by Mr. Astor, to be the leader of the expedition, and to represent him at Astoria; he and one or two of the other part- ners, left Montreal with his engagés, in July 1809, by the way of New York and St. Louis, for the Columbia River ; and the party arrived there in detachments after various mishaps and sufferings, during the winter of 1812. ‘The ship Tonquin left New York early in the fall of 1810, with several of the wintering partners, a number of clerks, and engagés for the Columbia River. Among the partners was Mr. _ McDougall, who in the absence of Mr. Hunt from Columbia River, was to represent Mr. Astor there; this ship arrived safely in Feb. 1811, and this party selected a location and built.a fort which they named Astoria. .The ship Beaver left New York in the month of Nov. 1811, and arrived at Col. River in May, 1812, also with an- other party of clerks, and engagés. The different wintering parties were then organized, under the charge and guidance of the partners, and proceeded in one brigade to the forks of the Columbia River, and there separated, each detachment for the. district of country which had been assigned to them, in the council of partners at As- toria, in which council it had also been decided, that Mr. Hunt should, in furtherance of other views connected with the. company, embark on board the ship Beaver, and proceed to the Russian establishment at Norfolk sound, where his business being dispatched, he should be relanded in the fall at Astoria, by the Beaver, on her way to the Sand- wich Islands and Canton. Mr. Hunt sailed in the Beaver, in the be- ginning of July ; but instead of being again at Astoria in the fall, cir- cumstances beyond his control, compelled him to proceed to the Sandwich Islands, and the company were left in ignorance, not only. of his fate, but also of thatof the ship. ‘The news of the war reached Mr. McDougall at Astoria, on January 17, 1813, (the writer of this being one of the party bearing this information, by express, from the: Rocky: mountains.) The fort, at this time, was certainly ill off, both for provisions and goods, and as the war did not allow the company to hope for a vessel in the spring, all trade for furs with the. natives was suspended, and detachments sent. off in different directions to look for their living. During the winter, Messrs. McDougall and McKenzie, two of the former clerks of the North West Company, On the Fur Trade, and Fur-bearing Animals. 321 and the only partners at Astoria, had come to a determination to dis- solve the company and abandon the country, and an express was sent off early in the spring to the wintering partners in the upper country, Messrs. Stuart and Clark, informing them of this determin- ation, and urging them to take measures, viz. to trade horses, pro- cure provisions, &c. to carry it into effect. ‘These gentlemen, how- | ever, had been in too good a beaver country, and had succeeded in procuring too many furs, to come in too hastily, to the proposed measures. They reached Astoria from their wintering grounds with their detachments, on the 13th of June, 1813, bringing with them one hundred and ten packs of beaver aud other furs. Their fears of the non-arrival of the annual ship were realized, and what was of more consequence, there were no accounts of Mr. Hunt. They found en- camped at Astoria, Mr. McTavish of the North West Company, with tenor twelve men, who had arrived there in the beginning of April, from Lake Winnipeg, and who had brought into the country the news of the war between the two governments.’ As the wintering partners had taken no measures to abandon the country, the lateness of the season compelled the postponement of this measure for anoth- er year, and the different wintering brigades were sent to their re- spective districts, not with the view of procuring furs, but to look out for the means of living. The writer of this left Astoria on the 1st of July, with two hunters and fifteen men, for the river Wollamut, (the Multnomah of Lewis and Clark,) which disembogues into the Co- lumbia, about sixty miles above Astoria. ‘The country bordering on this river is diversified with beautiful prairies and hills, where oak, maple, ash, and cedar abound ; in the bends are cotton wood bot- toms, where the elk resort in numerous herds, as the deer do on the hills and prairies. The natives (Calipuyaws) are peaceable ; and fur~ bearing animals, particularly the beaver, plentiful. A dozen of hun- ters, in this country, could have procured a sufficiency of provisions in four months, to have lasted the whole party a year. The small brigade mentioned above commenced hunting on the 5th of July, and by the 4th of August, besides supplying themselves most abundantly, they dispatched for Astoria a canoe load of thirty three bales of dried deer’s meat. On their arrival at the fort on the 8th of August, things were going on much more smoothly than they had hitherto done, owing to the recent marriage of Mr. McDougall, with Comcomoly’s (the old Chinook chief) daughter ;—an unexpected step, when com- pared with his recent declaration, of his intention to abandon the Vou. XXV.—No. 2. 4 322 On the Fur Trade, and Fur-bearing Animals. country. Mr. Hunt arrived at Astoria, a few days subsequently to this, viz. on the 26th of August, in the ship Albatross, from the Sand- wich Islands, where he had passed the last year. There were none other of the wintering parties at Astoria, than Mr. McDougall ; and Mr. Hunt, after remaining there only six days, reémbarked on board the same ship, for the purpose of procuring supplies for the company at the Sandwich Islands. Early in the month of October, of the same year, 1813, Mr. McTavish of the North West Company, with another partner, viz. Mr. Alexander Stewart, seven clerks, among whom was Mr. Ross Cox, (who had formerly belonged to the American Company, but had joined Mr. McTavish in his previous visit in the spring,) forty men, and nine canoes, made their appearance at Astoria. ‘These were accompanied from above in another canoe, by Mr. John Clark, of the American party. The proclaimed object of the North West gentlemen, was to establish the country and drive out the Americans ; and this insignificant party, (insignificant as it re- spects their means to effect their purpose,) conducted themselves in a haughty and supercilious manner, at their encampment, under the very guns of the American fort, in which there were sixty men. The British standard floated in every passing breeze, while at Astoria, no similar display was permitted. No loyal son of America, had the keeping of its stripes and stars. A single whisper in the ear of Com- comoly, from the American chief Mr. McDougall, would have sent these gens du nord to join the ages which are gone, so completely were they in the power of the Americans. An extract of a letter from Mr. Angus Shaw, (an agent af the North West Company, and uncle of the American chief Mr. McDou- gall,) was read to the clerks convened for the purpose, in which it was stated, that ‘an English frigate was to be dispatehed to destroy eve- ry thing American on the north west coast,” and a few days subse- quently to this, the goods, furs, establishments, and existencies of all kinds, in the country, belonging to Mr. Astor, passed into the pos- session of the North West Company. On the 30th of November, of the same year, his Britannic Majesty’s sloop of war Raccoon, Capt. Black, having on board Mr. Jno. McDonald, a proprietor of the North West Company, arrived at Columbia River. On her appearance off the bar, Mr. McTavish, with all the furs, started up the river to se- cure them, uncertain of the character of the sail in sight; this method of placing beyond the reach of an enemy, this valuable description of property, appeared to have escaped the memory of the gentlemen, On the Fur Trade, and Fur-bearing Animals. 323 while the property belonged to Mr. Astor. The captain and officers of the sloop of war were sadly disappointed, at hearing that all the furs, &c. had two months previously, become the effects of loyal Englishmen. ‘They had fed their fancies with hopes of large prize money ; and when their investigations left not a loop to hang a doubt on, that their hopes were futile and baseless, their lengthened and rueful visages showed the extent of their disappointment. | All that was left for the representative of his Britannic Majesty to do, was to take possession of the country in his royal master’s name, which was accomplished with the usual ceremonies, and ci-devant Astoria re- ceived the royal appellative of Fort George.* One circumstance occurred on the arrival of thin ship, which puts beyond question, the ability to have held the fort and possession of Mr. Astor in the country for him, provided his agents had been so minded. Old Comcomoly was well aware of the distinction between Americans and Englishmen. Their trading ships had visited his country before a settlement had been thought of. He knew of the war, from his almost daily intercourse with the fort. When the big war canoe of the English arrived, he offered his entire band to ex- terminate the enemy who had come to make the Americans slaves. He showed this to be a feasible undertaking, for the ship could not approach within six miles of the fort ; and the nature of the country, woods to the water’s edge, would have concealed them completely from an attacking foe, and permitted them in perfect security to them- selves, to have destroyed every individual that would land with hos- tile intent. The proposition, of course, was not accepted by Mr. McDougall, for reasons which have been made apparent. ~The Raccoon left the river. in the beginning of the year 18143 and on the last day of February, of the same year, Mr. Hunt return- ed to the river, with supplies, &c. for our relief, in the brig Pedler, which vessel he had bought at the Sandwich Islands for this purpose. His arrival was too late ; the property no longer belonged to Mr. As- tor; his old associate, Mr. McDougall, was a partner of the North West Company, and all that Mr. Hunt had to do, was to get the bills for the paltry sum this property had been sold for, and remit the same by some of the partners going across the country to Mr. Astor, in New York. This accomplished, he with two or three of the American clerks, embarked on board the Pedler on Saturday after- * Restored to the United States by the Treaty of Gheat. 324 On the Fur Trade, and Fur-bearing Animals. noon, 3d of April, 1814, and then bade a final adieu to the Caleter bia, the scene of many an exciting incident. ~On board the Pedler were the captain and some of the crew of the ship Lark, which vessel, notwithstanding the war, Mr. Astor had dispatched for Columbia River, from ai York, in March, 1813. She was unfortunately shipwrecked near the Sandwich Islands, and vessel and cargo entirely lost. This circumstance shows the deep interest. Mr. Astor took in this enterprise, and had he met with that reciprocal singleness of purpose, which he had a right to look for, that source of national wealth would not have been lost to the coun- try, as now it is; for the Hudson’s Bay Company, which was united with the North West Company, in 1821, came into peaceable pos- session of all those parts, extended their posts, north, east, south and west, and with them, their influence over the Indians, which tina, and that only, can do away with,”. ‘The Hudson’s Bay and the North West Companies, always com- petitors, and generally angry rivals, after they were united in 1821, abandoned Astoria, and built a large establishment sixty miles up the river, on the right bank, which they,cali Fort Vancouver, where they now carry on an active and prosperous trade. They are humane and attentive to settlers, encouraging them both with assistance and protection, but they are extremely jealous of any interference or par- ticipation in the fur trade, and monopolize.it from the coast of the Pacific to the mountains, and for a tacasidi: extent north and south. » ‘Tam informed by Mr. Seton, that Mr. “Atos obiniee no more Sais direct from Columbia river. His principal establishment. is now at Michilimackinac, and he receives his furs from the posts depending on that, and from those on the Mississippi, Missouri, Yellow Stone, and the great range of country extending thence to the Rocky Mountains. Ashley’s Company from St. Louis, trap for themselves, and drive an extensive trade with the Indians ; and a company of one hundred and fifty persons from New York, formed in 1831, under Capt. Bonneville, of the United States army, bring a considerable quantity of furs from the region between the Rocky Mountains and the coasts of Monterey and Upper California, on the Buona Ventura and Tim- penagos rivers. The fur countries from the Pacific east to the Rocky Moozeaind, are now occupied, (exclusive of private combinations, and individual trappers and traders,) by the Russians, on the north west from Bher- On the Fur Trade, and Fur-bearing Animals. 325 ieee strait to Queen Charlotte’s Island in N. Lat. 53°, and by the Hud- son’s Bay Company thence, south of the Columbia river, from which Ashley’s Company, and that under Capt. Bonneville take the remain- der of the region to the coast of California. Indeed, the whole compass from the Mississippi to the Pacific ocean is traversed in every direc- tion. ‘The mountains and forests from the Arctic sea to the gulf of Mexico, are threaded, through every maze, by the hunter. Every river and tributary stream, from the Columbia to the mouth of the Rio del Norte, and from the McKenzie to the Colorado of the west, from — head springs to their junction, are searched and trapped for beave saben: all the American furs which do not belong to the Hudson’s Bay Company, find their way to New York, and are either distribu- ted thence for home consumption, or sent to foreign markets. The Hudson’s Bay Company ship their furs from their factories of York Fort, and from Moose river on Hudson’s Bay ; their collec- tion from Grand river, &c. they ship from Canada ; and the collection _ from Columbia river goes to London. None of dine furs come to the United States, except through the London market. The export trade of furs from the United States, is chiefly to sees don. Some quantities have been sent to Canton, and some few to Hamburgh ; and an increasing export trade in beaver, otter, nutria,. and vicunea wool, prepared for the hatter’s use, is carried on wit Mexico. Some furs are exported from Baltimore, Philadelphia, and Boston, but the principal shipments from the United States, are from New York to London, from whence they are sent to Leipzic, a well known mart for furs, where they are disposed of during the great fair in that city, and distributed to every part of the continent. » The United States mport from South America, nutria, vicunia, chinchilla, and a few deer skins; also-fur seals from the Lobos Is- lands, off the river Plate. A quantity of beaver, otter, &c. are brought annually from Santa Fee. Dressed furs for edgings, linings, caps, muffs, &c. such as squirrel, gennet, fitch skins, and blue rabbit, are received from the north of Europe ; also coney and hare’s fur, but the largest importations are from London, “ where is concentra- ted nearly the whole of the North American fur trade.”* Of the fur-bearing animals, “the precious ermine,” so called by way of preéminence, is found, of the best quality, only in the cold re- * Aikin on Furs, Trans, &e. 326 On the Fur Trade, and Fur-bearing Animals. gions of Europe and Asia.* Its fur is of the most perfect whiteness, except the tip of its tail, which is of a brilliant shining black. With these black tips tacked on the skins, they are beautifully spotted, pro- ing-an effect often imitated, but never equalled in other furs. The ermine is of the genus Mustela, (weasel,) and resembles the common weasel in its form; is from fourteen to sixteen inches from the tip of the nose to the end of the tail. The body is from ten to twelve inches long. It lives in hollow trees, river banks, and espe- cially in beech forests ; preys on small birds, is very shy, me during the day, and employing the night in search of food. e f of the older animals is preferred to the younger. It is taken x“ snares and traps, and sometimes shot with blunt arrows. Attempts have been made to domesticate it ; but it is paereanly wild, and has been found untameable. The sable can scarcely be called second to the ermine. It isa native of northern Europe and Siberia, and is also of the genus Mus- tela. In Samoieda, Yakutsk, Kamschatka, and Russian Lapland, it is found of the richest quality, and darkest color. In its habits, it re- sembles the ermine. It preys on small squirrels and birds, sleeps by day and prowls for food during the night. It is so like the mar- tin in every particular except its size, and the dark shade of its col- or, that naturalists have not decided whether it is the richest and finest of the martin tribe, or a variety of that species.t — It varies in dimensions from eighteen to twenty inches. The rich dark shades of the sable, and the snowy saidaqnens of the ermine, the great depth, and the peculiar, almost flowing softness of their skins and fur, have combined to gain them a preference in all countries, and in all ages of the world. In this age they main- tain the same relative estimate in regard to other furs, as when they marked the rank of the proud crusader, and were emblazoned in heraldry : but in most European nations, they are now worn ro cuously by the opulent. The martins from Northern Asia and the mountains of Kamschat- ka are much superior to the American, though in every pack of * An animal called the stoat, a kind of ermine, is said to be found i in North Amer- ica, but very inferior to the European and Asiatic e finest fur, and the darkest color are seks esteemed, and whether the differ- ence arises from the age of the animal, or from some peculiarity of location is not known. They do not vary more from the common martin, than the Arabian horse, from the shaggy Canadian. On the Fur Trade, and Fur-bearing Animals. 327 American martin skins there are a certain number which are beau- tifully shaded, and of a dark brown olive color, of great ul ne richness. _ Next these in value, for ornament and utility, are the sea means the mink, and the fiery fox. The fiery fox is the bright red of pie ; is more brilliantly pat a and of finer fur than any ns of the genus. It is highly valued for the splendor of its red color and the fineness of its fur. It is the stan- dard of value on the North Eastern Coast of Asia.* ~The sea otter which was first introduced into commerce in 1725, from the Aleutian and Kurile Islands is an exceedingly fine, soft, close fur, jet black in winter with a silken gloss. The fur of the young animal is of a beautiful brown color. It is met with in great abundance in Bhering’s Island, Kamschatka, the Aleutian and Fox Islands, and is also taken on the opposite coasts of North America. It is sometimes taken with nets, but more frequertly with clubs and spears. Their food is principally lobster and other shell fish. _In 1780 furs had become so scarce in Siberia, that the supply was insufficient for the demand in the Asiatic countries. It was at this time that the sea otter was introduced into the markets for China. The skins brought such incredible prices, as to originate immediate- ly several American and British expeditions to the northern islands of the Pacific, to Nootka Sound, and the North West coast of Ameri- ca, but the Russians already had possession of the tract which they now hold, and had arranged a trade for the sea otter with the Koudek tribes. ‘They do not engross the trade, however; the American North West trading ships procure -~ all along the coast, from the Indians. At one period, the fur seals formed no Seamulersble item in the trade. South Georgia, in South lat. 55°, discovered in 1675, was explored by Capt. Cook in 1771. ‘The Americans immediately com- menced carrying seal skins thence to China, where they obtained the most exorbitant prices. One million, two hundred thousand skins have been taken from that island alone, and nearly an equal number from the island of Desolation, since they were first resorted to, for the purposes of commerce.} ——eneonaraie * The fiery fox from Asia is known at the Leipzic fair, as the Padolian fox. t See Weddell’s voyage towards the South Pole. 828 On the Fur Trade, and Fur-bearing Animals. » The discovery of the South Shetlands, S. lat. 63°, in 1818, ad- ded surprisingly to the trade in fur seals) The number taken from the South Shetlands in 1821 and 1822, amounted to three hundred and twenty thousand. This valuable animal, is now almost extinct in all these islands, owing to the exterminating system adopted by the hunters. They are still taken on the Lobos islands, where the prov- ident government of Monte Video restrict the fishery, or hunting, within certain limits, which insures an annual return of the seals. At certain seasons these amphibia, for the purpose of renewing their coat, come up on the dark frowning rocks and precipices, where there is not a trace of vegetation. In the middle of January, the islands are partially cleared of snow, where a few. patches of short straggling grass spring up in favorable situations; but the seals do not resort to it for food. ‘They remain on the rocks not less than two months, without any onanieasre when they return much emaci- ated to the sea.* Bears of various species and colors, many varieties of the fox, the wolf, the beaver, the otter, the marten, the racoon, the badger, the wolverine, the mink, the lynx, the musk-rat, the wood-chuck, the rabbit, the hare and the squirrel, are natives of North America. The beaver, otter, lynx, fisher, hare, and raccoon, are used princi- pally for hats, while the bears of several varieties, furnish an excel- lent material for sleigh linings, for cavalry caps, and other military equipments. ‘The fur of the black fox, is the most valuable of any of the American varieties, and next to that the red, which is expor- ted to China and Smyrna. In China the red is employed for trim- mings, linings, and robes, the latter being variegated, by adding the black fur of the paws, in spots or waves. ‘There are many other varie- ties of American fox, such as the grey, the white, the cross, the silver, and the dun colored. The silver fox is a rare animal, a native of the woody country below the falls of the Columbia river. It has a long, thick, deep lead-colored fur, intermingled with long hairs, inva- riably white at the top, forming a bright lustrous silver grey, esteemed by some more beautiful than any inter kind of fox. The skins of the buffalo, of the Rocky mountain shoei of vari- ous deer, and of the Antelope, are included in the fur trade with the Indians, and trappers of the north and west. “See Weddell’s Voyage towards the South Pole. t Lewis & Clark’s Travels to the Rocky mountains, &c. On the Fur Trade, and Fur-bearing Animals. 329 Fox and seal skins are sent from Greenland to Denmark.* The white fur of the arctic fox and polar bear, is sometimes found in the packs brought to the traders by the most northern tribes of Indians, but are not particularly valuable. The silver-tipped rabbit is pecu- liar to England, and is sent thence to Russia and China.t+ Other furs are employed and valued accordingly to the caprices of fashion, as well in those countries where they are needed for de- fences against the severity of the seasons, as among the inhabitants of milder climates, who being of Tartar or Sclavonian descent, are said to inherit an attachment to furred clothing. Such are the inhabit- ants of Poland, of Southern Russia, of China, of Persia, of Turkey, and all the nations of Gothic origin in the middle and western parts of Europe. Under the burning suns of Syria and Egypt, and the mild climes of Bucharia and Independent Tartary, there is also a con- stant demand, and a great consumption, where there exists no phys- ical necessity. In our own temperate latitudes, beside their use in the arts, they are in request for ornament and warmth during the win- ter, and large quantities are a pes consumed for both purposes in the United States. From the foregoing statements, it appears that the fur trade must henceforward decline. The advanced state of geographical science shows that no new countries remain to be explored. In North Amer- ica, the animals are slowly decreasing from the persevering efforts and the indiscriminate slaughter practised by the hunters, and by the ap- propriation tothe uses of man of those forests and rivers which have afforded them food and protection. ‘They recede with the abori- gines, before the tide of civilization, but a diminished supply will remain in the mountains, and uncultivated tracts of this and other countries, if the avidity of the hunter can be restrained within proper limitations. With great respect, I am, &e. New York, November, 1833. * Crantz’s Greenland. + Mr. Aikin states, “ lamb skins are imported by England” (for consumption there) “from Russia, and are of the four following varieties, black wavy from Astracan 5 black curly from the Ukraine; gray curly from the Crimea; gray knotty from Persia.” Voi XXV.-—No. 2. 42 330 Remarks on the Agave and other Plants. Ant. VIII.—Additional remarks on the Agave and other plants, from which ropes, twine, and thread, are made ; by James Mzase, M. D., and H. Perrine, Esq. Philadelphia, Oct. 30, 1833. _ TO THE EDITOR. Sir,—As the American consul, Mr. Perrine, at Campeche, had recommended the introduction into Florida, of the Agave Ameri- cana, and other vegetables from which cordage, twine and thread, are made in that country and other countries, I thought it would be agreeable to him to see my paper on that subject, which was inserted in the 21st vol. of your Journal, and therefore sent it to him. He has acknowledged the receipt of it in a letter dated Sept. 2d, which Isend you, as it contains very useful remarks. _ As the project of Mr. Perrine is highly patriotic, and may essen- tially benefit Florida in the first instance, and the United States at large, I hope that Congress will liberally encourage him by the dona- tion of as much land as he may require. The cultivation of the mulberry tree for silk, might go on at the same time with the fibrous plants. James Mease. Consulate U. 8. A. Campeche, 2d Sept. 1833. Dear Sir,—I have the pleasure to acknowledge, in a pamphlet form, your article ‘on some of the vegetable materials, from which cordage, twine, and thread are made,” which I first read in the Amer- ican Journal of Science and Arts, the Oct. No. 1831. I adverted to the service vou had thus rendered to the public, in’a letter in- serted the ensuing January, in some of our newspapers, and in- tended to correct some mistakes in your paper under the divis- ion of Agave Americana. Baron Humboldt is responsible for at least the following errors which have been propagated under this vague specific title, viz. that the singular drink called Pulgue, the coarse fibres called Henequin, (Hane a kane,) and the fine fibres called Pita, are produced by one and the same plant. Having told us in his Essay on New Spain, that there are in the Spanish Colonies, several species of Maguey, which appear to belong even to differ- ent genera, the distinctive epithet Maguey de Pulque, should alone have led him to examine whether the same plant which is cultivated expressly for the juice of its stem, could possess coarse leaves of such extraordinary properties as to yield the fine fibres called Pita, Remarks on the Agave and other Plants. 331 of double their length. Nevertheless, up to the year 1822, in Kunth’s synopsis of equinoctial plants, we still find Humboldt giving the Agave Americana as the only species of Spanish America, in- cluding equally the Maguey de Pulque of Mexico, and the Maguey de Coaeyza of Cumana. The facts are, 1, That there are varieties of another or other species of Agave, which are cultivated copaeany for the peculiar drink called Pulque, afforded by their stems. 2. That there are varieties of another, or other species of Agave, which are cultivated especially for their coarse fibres called Henequin, afforded by their leaves. 3. That there are varieties of other Bromeliaceous plants, which are not species of Agave, and which are not cultivated for the fine fibres called Pita, yielded by their leaves. The long narrow thin dry leaves which yield the scanty Pita, grow wild in the shade of the fertile forests of Tobasco: the broad, thick, succulent leaves which produce abundant Henequin, are cultivated in the sun, in the sterile plains of Yucatan. The still larger and more succulent leaves of the true Pulque plants of Mexico, now growing in this city, are so destitute of either coarse or fine strong fibres, as to be easily broken or torn. Possibly the only genuine drink-producing Agave in the United States, is an almost mature plant which I sent to New Orleans, on the 22d of May last, after passing in a garden here, six years from the time of its youthful descent, from its native mountains. At all events, wheth- er they be the Pulque or the Henequin plants, which, according to Persoon, under the name of Agave Americana have traveled as far as Switzerland to “ form strong and impenetrable hedges which made great resistance to armies,” we are warranted in the belief, that they will flourish in the United States as far north as our own Agave Virginica, and that for the mere purpose of making live fences, they merit immediate introduction to extensive cultivation in the southern division of our confederation. The fibrous leaved plants are better adapted to cultivation in our southern latitudes, than the fibrous barked plants, but were the climate equally suitable, the for- mer class are greatly preferable to the latter. Our own Yucea fila- mentosa, which produces the silk grass, as beautiful and strong, but not near so long as the Pita, may be immediately cultivated on an exten- sive scale: three years hence, the Sisal’Agave may begin to yield its perpetual crops of Henequin or grass hemp, on our sandy shores ; in a few years more we may have hedges of the fibrous species of 332 _ Remarks on the Agave and other Plants. Bromelia, of Pandanus, of Alves, &c. &c., whose clippings will test the relative value of their leaves for thread, twine and cordage. The Ticu Palm mentioned as a substitute for flax and hemp by the Rev. Mr. Walsh in his notice of Brazil, in 1822, and the Sago Palm of Rumphius cited by you, on account of the superior fibres of its leaves, will certainly grow with the Cocoanut Palm which exists at Cape Florida; and if the leaves of the Musa teztzlis should indeed yield the manilla hemp,* as mentioned by you on the authority of Mr. Crawford, we can insure its flourishing with its brothers, the M. paradisiaca and M. sapientum in the tropical half of E. Florida. The southern states have already their native Yuccas, which may be augmented by the Y. acaulis or Magauy de Cocuy of Caraccas, or any other foreign species which may be superior to our own. As preferable substitutes for hemp, we may translate from Yuca- tan to Florida, the cultivated Sacqui and Yashqui of Sisal, or the prickly or prickless leaved Agaves which yield very different quali- ties of Henequin, which may soon be increased by the Haytien spe- cies cited by yourself, and by every other species or variety possess- ing peculiar properties to be found in any part of the West Indies or Spanish America. The Yucca filamentosa, the Agave Sisala, and the fibrous leaved plants in general, are superior to flax and hemp plants, in being per- ennial, flourishing in the worst soils and situations, requiring little care or cultivation, and furnishing leaves for cutting every day in the year. The preparation for market, or the extraction of the paral- lel longitudinal fibres of the fresh leaves by seraping only, is the most simple operation possible for either the hand or machinery,} and hence the article when prepared for market, must be much cheaper than that from flax or hemp, and as they are also lighter, and more elastic, their relative and positive prices will give to the former a preference for all the purposes in offering a competition between them. The wild plants called Ixtla which abound in the country watered by the rivers Tobasco and Goazacoalcos, and from which the Pita of. Mexico, is obtained, would readily be mistaken in the first stages of their growth for the cultivated pine-apple plants, but at no period * I am induced to believe that these fibres are obtained from some other Brome- liaceous plants. # My inyention can be expressed in two words ;—Rotary Scraper. Remarks on the Agave and other Plants. 333 ‘could they be reasonably compared to the Agave, or Aloes. Accor- ding to Don Ramon de la Sagra, in his recent work on Cuba, the Pita of that island is obtained from the T'ureroea fetida of the bota- nists, but as he has requested me to send to the botanic garden of Havanna, some plants of the Pita of Goazacoalcos, which are much exported from Campeche, he must suppose that the latter is produ- ced by a different species, if not a different genus. Although I ar- rived in my consular district in June, 1827, and have traveled three hundred miles S. W. into the Pita country, I have never been able to see a single specimen of the plant in flower. The Pita of Goazacoalcos, is preferred to that of Tobasco, in the market of Yu- catan, and is the imported material of which in Merida, “ the most beautiful sewing thread,” mentioned by you to have been brought to Philadelphia, by Capt. Hays, was made, and not from the fibres of the Henequin. As there are two species of fibrous plants employed in Guatemala, for making ropes, the one cultivated expressly for its leaves, the other called Pinuela, being used also for hedges, it is doubtful wheth- er Dunn has correctly quoted the name Pita, as a synonym for Henequin in that country. The Bromelia Penguin which is used for fences in Jamaica, on account of its prickly leaves, is also valuable for the strong fibres afforded by them, and ropes are said to be made in Brazil, of another species called Grawathos. Depons says, (Vol. Ill. p. 133,) that at Carora, in Columbia, they make very good . hammocks of the fibres of the Aloe disthica. Of the leaves of the Guinea Aloes mentioned by Adanson, the negroes make very good ropes, not apt to rot in water; and Sloane says, “that one sort is used for fishing lines, bowstrings, stockings and hammocks.” As the contents of each leaf are generally tied together, the slen- der knot of the long flax-like Pita, cannot be mistaken on compari- son for the stout knot of the short hemp-like Henequin. The dif- ferent qualities of Henequin are obtained in this peninsula, from different species of Agave, of which two are chiefly preferred for cultivation. The Sacqui is the favorite in the vicinity of Merida, ‘but the new plantations forming near Campeche, are filled with Yash- qui.* These native names signify the white-leaved and the green- leaved Henequin. The leaves of the first are edged with stout prick- les, those of the latter have scarcely any prickles, and sometimes none Sack-kée and Vask-kée. The fibres of all are here called Sosquil, (Sose-keel.) 334 Description of new North American Trilobites. at all. The Chululqui is thought to be nearly equal to the Saqui; and the Chelém to bear some resemblance to the Yashqui. The duration of the Sacqui, is limited at 10 or 15 years, and the biennial reproduction of plants from its roots, at eight or ten young plants; while the duration and reproduction of the Yashqui is only rated half as high. Here the people begin to be sensible of the value of their Henequin: and the first agricultural association ever formed in Yucatan, is a company for its cultivation. I impressed them with the opinion, that by it they would extract more wealth from the sandy and rocky surface of this peninsula, than from all the gold and silver mines of Mexico. I sarees respectfully, Henry Perrine. Arr. [X.—Descriptions of some new North American Trilobites ; by Jacos Green, M. D., Prof. of Chemistry i in Jeff. Med. Col- lege. Catymene? ODONTOCEPHALA.— Green. The outline of the buckler in this very remarkable species, is subtriangular. The front is separated from the cheeks by a deep groove on each side, its anterior edge is ornamented on each side by a kind of Etruscan border, composed of alternate projec- tions from the outer edge of the shell inwards, and from the inner portions of the shell outwards; the square protrusions on the one side, occupying intermediate square spaces on the other. ‘This singular and beautiful structure does not surround the anterior edge of the cheeks, but terminates at the separating furrow on each side. At the first glance, these projections in front, give to the trilobite the appearance of teeth. The surface of the front or middle portion of the buckler, is marked on each side near the oculiferous tubercles, with two deep pits producing several irregular pleats or folds, some- what like those on the front of Calymene Blumenbachii of Brong- niart. The cheeks are triangular in shape: their lateral edges are terminated by a plain raised hem, which corresponds in breadth with the ornamented border of the front. The oculiferous tubercles are very prominent, are almost encircled at their base by a deep groove, and have at their apices a semilunar depression. A shallow depres- sion also passes from behind each of the eyes, over the surface of the cheeks, nearly parallel with the furrow which separates them from the front. Description of new North American Trilobites. 335 The buckler is the only part of this very singular trilobite, which has yet been discovered. Ihave therefore more hesitation in deci- ding whether it be a Calymene or not. It has been suggested, that the extremity of the tail is furnished with an organization similar to the ornament on the edge of the front, and that a portion of the ornamented edge in that part is produced by the position of the ani- mal; it being coiled or rolled up so as to bring the edges of the buck- ler and tail together. If this should turn out to be the fact, this tri- lobite cannot be a Calymene. I am indebted to the liberality of Dr. J. E. Dekay, of New York, for this very curious species. It occurs in a soft grey sandstone, and was found in the State of New York, but its precise locality I was unable to ascertain. It was probably obtained in Ulster County, among the fragments of sandstone, rolled from the Shawangunk mountains, and which are so rich in fossil remains. Asapnus AstrRaGALOTES.—Green. We have met with a perfect fragment of the abdomen and tail only, of this striking Asaph. It comprises four distinct costal arch- es of the lateral lobes; these are terminated by a narrow well defi- ned membranaceous expansion along their outer edges. The ribs are broad and faintly grooved on their upper surface; the middle lobe is rounded—exceedingly prominent, and terminated rather ab- ruptly near the central part of the membranaceous expansion, which appears to be supported by a thin short prolongation from it, as in the A. micrurus. The upper surface of the whole animal, appears to have been covered with minute granulations. The fossil from which our description is made, I observed in the fine cabinet belonging to the Lyceum of Natural History in the city of New York. There is a number of specimens of this species, in that important, extensive and liberal institution ; but they are all frag- ments, presenting the same general appearance as the one above de- scribed. They were obtained from Greenville canal, in Upper Cana- da, and are imbedded ina soft dark colored argillaceous shale, asso- ciated with other animal remains, some of which are exceedingly minute. ASAPHUS TETRAGONOCEPHALUS.— Green. The buckler of this Asaph, which is still found attached to the abdomen, resembles in its contour a long crescent ; the anterior edge 336 Description of tiew North American ‘Trilobites in front is almost rectilinear ; the posterior angles or horns of the crescent, are very acute, and project a little on each side, beyond the abdomen. The front or middle lobe of the buckler, is near- ly straight before, and is marked with two short oblique grooves on each side; the anterior groove has a little pit, or depression of the shell, iinaediaedly before it on each side. The cheeks are re- markably large in proportion to the front, and there is a raised line passing over them from the front, nearly parallel with its edge, and also with that of the buckler ; this penance gives to the head a quadrilateral appearance; much than in others. The oculiferous tubercles can scarcely be discerned 5 in some of the fragments of the buckler which I have examined, I could not discover them at all. ‘The abdomen is composed of twelve articulations ; the costal arches or ribs are marked on their upper sur- face with a groove, and they terminate in free angular extremities. The middle lobe of the back is scarcely tapering, till within a few articulations of the extremity of the tail. The tail is quite short, rounded, and without the membranaceous expansion so common in the Asaphs; indeed this species forms an inosculating link between the genus Calymene and Asaphus. I am indebted to the kindness of Dr. J. E. Dekay for this species. It occurs in a loose, bituminous shaly limestone full of iron pyrites. It was found in the State of New York, probably at Newport. The whole animal is very much depressed ; and the rock is completely filled with its mutilated remains, some of which are still covered with the original crustaceous shell. Parapoxtpes Hariani.— Green. The contour of the buckler in this species, cannot be satisfactorily determined from our present specimen; the anterior and posterior parts of it are well defined, but the cheeks on each side are either mutilated or obscured. The front is very much elevated above the surface of the cheeks. It rises a little before the anterior edge of the buckler ; is rounded in front, and gradually tapers towards the mid- dle lobe of the abdomen, with which it forms a regular continuation. On its posterior surface there are three transverse furrows; the upper one crosses ita little obliquely, and there is on each side above, a consid- erable protuberance. The cheeks were no doubt in the form of spheri- cal triangles, but whether the outer angles terminated in acute prolon- gations, cannot from our specimen be determined. The organs of vis- ton appear to be entirely wanting. ‘There are two shallow depres- Description of new North American Trilobites. 337 sions on each side of the cheeks, commencing near the protuberan- ces on the front, and running towards the lateral edges of the buck- ler. The posterior border of the buckler where it joins the lobes of the abdomen, is marked by a transverse groove, nearly continuous with the lower transverse furrow on the front; this groove at its com- mencement, appears to bifurcate outwards. The. plidomen, and tail cannot he distinguished “from each other. There ions in both. The middle lobe is very convex, and i is past from the lateral ones, by a deep chan- nel; it gradually tapers to an obtuse tip. In our specimen there is a small part of the tail of another trilobite deposited in this place, which at first sight appears to be a dislocated fragment of our animal. The lateral lobes are flattened; the costal arches are very dis- tinct near their insertion, and for about half their length, but towards their free extremities they are a good deal obliterated. There ap- pears to have been a delicate membranaceous prolongation for a con- siderable distance beyond the solid portion of each rib. This or- ganization is very apparent on the costal arches of the tail. There "is a deep groove running obliquely over the upper surface of each rib. Length of the fossil about nine inches ; breadth about four inc This remarkable species of ilobite I have named in conighanen to our zealous naturalist, Richard Harlan, M. D., who sent me the specimen above described, with the following note. Dear Sir,—During my recent visit to Boston, I observed the fine specimen of trilobite. which accompanies this note, in the cabinet of Mr. Francis Alger, to whose politeness | owe this opportunity of of- fering you an additional species for your interesting and useful mon- ograph of American trilobites. The present specimen is undoubt- edly American, though Mr. Alger expressed some doubt as to its precise locality. He supposed it to be from Trenton Falls, in the State of New York. _ I have the honor to be respectfully, Your friend, &e. _ Philadelphia, March 27th, 1833. Ricwanp. Harwan. As the P. Harlani is in fiinty siliceous slate, it does not prob- ably occur at Trenton Falls, where the rocks are mostly formed of carbonate of lime. Our species resembles very much the P. Tessi- mi of Brongniart, a representation of which he gives from Prof. Wahlenberg, on Plate 4, fig. 1, which fossil is the old Entomolithus paradoxus of Linné, and has been found only in Westrogothia, at very great depths, ‘* dans les couches d’ampelite alumineux.” Vor. XXV.—No. 2 3 f 338 New species of Fresh Water Shells. Art. Ix. —Description of some New Species of Fresh Water Shells _ from Alabama, Tennessee, &c.; by Timoruy A. Conran, Mem- ber of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. Unio cenatus. Pl. 1. fig. De ‘Shell sub-triangular ; ; much compressed, surface waved and vith small irregular undulations becoming profound towards the posterior . margin; anterior side and umbo destitute of undulations; umbones flattened ; beaks prominent. sTabebits ‘Tennessee, Elk and Flint rivers, ands is rare. “liek 1.8 inches. Cabinet of the Academy of saat Sciences of Phil- -adelphia. Shell ‘sub-triangular; very inequilateral, and much compressed, with a broad furrow extending from the beaks to the base; an- terior sides and umbo entire, and the remaining parts furnished vorith small irregular ‘interrupted undulations, which are profound behind ‘the umbonial slope; surface rough, with distant slight concentric grooves ; umbones much flattened; beaks prominent, compressed ; epidermis dark olive, and obscurely rayed; cardinal and lateral teeth very robust; anterior and posterior muscular i a —? nacre pearly white and iridescent. Observations. This is a remarkable end very distinct species; very similar in outline to the U. securis‘of Lea; but differing from all its congeners in the singular‘manner in which its undulations or “incipient tubercles are disposed ; itis nearly as much compressed as the U. securis. The epidermis in some specimens is almost’black, Unto PEROVATUS. Pl. 1. fig. ss Shell ovate, ventricose, valves cdederstely thick; beaks jatar prominent, cardinal teeth erect; lateral teeth robuilinensy compress- ed; nacre white. ‘Inhabits Prairie creek, Moareuzo Co. Al. rare ; Length 1.9 Hitlies. Cabinet of the Academy of Natural Sciences af Philadelphia. - Shell ovate, rather ventricose, valves thick on the anterior side, but becoming much thinner on the posterior ; anterior margin regu- larly rounded ; basal margin rounded; posterior extremity subangu- lated; beaks a little elevated, approximate and undulated at tip; eidotnnis olive, and wrinkled towards the margin; cardinal teeth erect and prominent, not very thick; lateral teeth rectilinear, com- New species of Fresh Water Shells. * ge pressed ; anterior muscular i ernnn prauada paniasiee one slight- ly impressed ; nacre white. Observations. The regular ovate’ form of this shell will distin- guish it from most other species. ‘The young shell, however is broad- er behind, approaching to an oval figure, and is prettily ornamented with green rays on an olive yellow ground. Unio LIENOSUS. Pil. 1. ‘fig. 4. Shell narrow-elliptical ventticose 3 beaks approximate, little ele- vated and corrugated ; posterior biassl margin abruptly rounded ; pos- terior end sub-angulated ; cardinal teeth rather compressed and ob- lique, and double in both valves. - Tohabits small streams in South Alabama. Length 2.8 isin Cabinet of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. Shell narrow-elliptical, ventricose or inflated in old shells; sub- tance of the valves thick before and thinner behind; posterior dor- sal and basal margin rounded, and the end subangulated; beaks ap- proximate, not very prominent, and with interrupted undulations; concentric lines coarse and prominent ; epidermis very dark olive, and obscurely rayed ; wrinkled on the margin ; cardinal teeth double’ in both valves, a little compressed and oblique, and coarsely stria- ted; cavity most eapacious under the umbonial ae nacre vary~ ing Shain bluish white to deep salmon color, or purple. Observations. This species is remarkable for preferring the small- er streams to the rivers, and is not an uncommon shell in such waters, I found them in company with the U. rubiginosus, Lea, which though not very rare in the small creeks of South Alabama, I never found in either the Black Warrior or Alabama rivers. Unto STRAMINEUS. rica, fig. 6. Shell sub-oval, posterior side wider than the anterior and rounded ; beaks slightly prominent, with irregular undulations; umbones con- vex; concentric lines remarkably coarse arid prominent; cardinal teeth double in both valves, and sub-compressed : nacre pearly white and iridescent. Inhabits with the preceding species. Length 2.5 inches. Cabi- net of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. Shell sub-oval, convex, inflated behind the middle ; posterior side wide and rounded at the end ; posterior dorsal and basal margins ab- ruptly rounded ; umbonial slope disposed to be subangulated ; surface 340 New species of Fresh Water Shells. with strong prominent concentric lines and undulations; beaks slight- ly prominent and with undulations disposed in angular lines; epider- mis straw colored, rayed only behind the umbonial slope; wrinkled only at the two ends; cavity most capacious behind the middle of the valve ; nacre pearly white and iridescent. Observations. Approaches the U. abruptus of Say, and is a very rare species; a specimen very much resembles so U. cariosus of the Delenie and Schuylkill rivers. Unio arcus. PI. 1. fig. 8. ‘Shell narrow-elliptical, thick and ponderous; dorsal margin regu: larly curved, or arched; beaks scarcely above the dorsal line; basal margin straight, posterior side somewhat cuneate. Inhabits Alabama river. Length2inches. Cabinet of the Acad- emy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. - Shell narrow-elliptical, thick and ponderous; dorsal margin form- ing an arched curve, which is scarcely interrupted by the beaks, umbonial slope abruptly rounded posteriorly, basal. margin straight ; epidermis olive and wrinkled ; cardinal teeth thick, pyramidal ; dis- tant from the lateral teeth ; anterior muscular impression profound ; posterior rather deeply impressed ; cavity not capacious ; nacre pearly white. Observations. This is a rare shell, and distantly oluted: to the U. phaseolus of Hildreth; it is not however so compressed, is more pointed behind, &c. and differs altogether in the — markings or pre: ‘Tt is never rayed. ~ Unto AROTATUS. ke ie Shell narrow-elliptical, elongated, much scape and slightly contracted over the umbo to the base ; beaks not prominent; basal margin slightly arcuated, cardinal and lateral teeth distinct. Inhabits Black Warrior’'and Alabama rivers. Length 2 inches. Cabinet of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. Shell elongated, much compressed, slightly contracted from the beaks to the base ; posterior side much produced and sub-angulated at the end; beaks depressed ; epidermis very dark olive; cardinal teeth disposed to be single in both valves; lateral teeth compressed and a little prominent, nacre bluish white. Observations. This shell has somewhat the form of the U. mo- nodonta, Say, but it is more nearly allied to U. purpureus of Say Livesh water Shells of Alabama. Bag Ie Dt Conrad del. New species of Fresh Water Shells. 341. than to any other species. Beside its other characters, the uniform bluish white. color of the interior will distinguish it fromthe latter. AuasmoponTa RADIATA. PI. 1. fig. 10. "Shell ovate-acute, ventricose ; posterior end produced and pointed at the end; cardinal tooth in the right valve elongated and anterior to, and distant from the beak ; cardinal tooth in the left valve elon- gated, and situated Egacdinaly under the beak. Inhabits small streams in South Alabama. Length 24 inches. Cabinet of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. Shell ovate-acute, ventricose, with the posterior side produced and pointed at the end; beaks prominent and pointed at the apex, which has two or three profound undulations ; epidermis light olive, beauti- fully rayed with dark green; cavity mnie 2 nacre waxen yel- lowish. Anoponta supvexa. PI. 1. fig. 12. Shell sub-oval, inflated; thin; anterior end rounded ; posterior end subtruncated; posterior dorsal margin elevated and abruptly rounded at the extremity ; ; callus resembling an incipient tooth. Inhabits Black Warrior river. Length about 2 inches. Cabinet of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. Very rare. Shell sub-oval, inflated, thin, with prominent beaks, ugdulated at the apex, and not distant from the middle of the valve; umbo infla- ted; umbonial slope angulated, and the space behind si radiating Lines: ; epidermis olive and rather obscurely rayed ; cavity very capa- cious, most so behind the middle; nacre bluish, stained with a light waxen yellow. | Anoponta vectivis. PI. 1. fig. 11. Shell sub-ovate, thin, slightly ventricose ; posterior end spooked and cuneiform ; margin of the dorsal slope’ nearly rectilinear, and the extremity truncated ; beaks slightly prominent and Loa at the apex. Inhabits Flint river, “Morgan Co. Alabama, extrémely rare. sel 34 inches. Cabinet of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Phil- adelphia. Shell sub-ovate, thin, slightly ventricose ; umbonial slope angulated ; posterior dorsal margin rectilinear ; epidermis green olive, with dark concentric wrinkled lines; and-on the posterior slope are numerous interrupted irregular lines; space behind the umbonial slope flattened ; 342 New species of Fresh Water Shells. nacre waxen yellow, anne on the margin, whichis pony white and highly iridescent. Cycnuas stTaminea. PI. 1. fig. 5 Shell oval, ventricose, inequilateral; with numerous regular prom- inent concentric lines ; beaks slightly prominent; anterior and poste- rior ends nearly equally rounded ; cardinal teeth none; lateral teeth distinct. : Inhabits small streams in South Alabama. Figure of the natural size. Cabinet of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. ‘Shell oval, regularly convex ; inequilateral ; anterior and posterior ends similarly rounded ; auc inflated ; beaks .a little prominent, apex obtusely rounded; epidermis yelidwshs with darker stains; lateral teeth rather prominent ; nacre bluish white; cavity capacious. Me.ania OLIVULA. Pl. I. Fig. 13. Shell oblong or narrow-elliptical, smooth and entire; spine con- ical; volutions five ; suture impressed ; aperture somewhat elliptical, longitudinal ; about ‘half the length of the shell, color green olive; with strongly marked brown revolving bands; about 4 on the body whorl. Var, A. Much more elevated, with a uneed or eroded apt ; the whorl flattened, and the spine less conical. _ Observations. Inhabits the Alabama river, adhering to the sof calcareous banks, which it perforates in such a manner that they re- ~ semble honey comb, or wood pierced by Teredo navalis. a Meania prasinata, Pl. 1. Fig. 14. Shell subulate, slightly turrited ; whorls 7 or r 8, flattened ; aperture elliptical, alittle oblique ; about one third of the length of the shell ; body whorl sub-angulated at base ; epidermis green olive. Var. A. with broad revolving eats, those on the body whorl cre- nulated. ‘ Inhabits Alabama river, adhering to limestone rocks. Cabinet of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. ts Ancutosa picta.” Fig. 15. . Shell sub-oval, shoulder obtusely rounded; aperture obovate, large; columella callous above; epidermis. olive, with numerous quadrangular small spots disposed in revolving lines, strongly mark- ed in the aperture. New species of Fresh Water Shells. 343 - Inhabits Alabama river, adhering to pebbles on the bars. Cabinet a the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. Unto sUBTENTUS. Say. var. Pl. 1. fig.3 ‘This beautiful variety of the U. subtentus was found me in the Tennessee and Elk rivers. The annexed delineation of the species is probably better than any hitherto given. ‘Unsio MYTILLOIDEs. Raf, var. Pl. 1, fig. ie q obtained this shell in the Alabama river. Its characters appear to be intermediate between U. ellipsis, Lea, and U. mytilloides, Raf., yet is doubtless identical with the latter species. SUPPLEMENT. PLANORBIS ANTROSUS. Shell dextral, not depressed ; whorls three; spire profoundly in- dented, or concave, with the summit of the body whorl angular ; ‘in- ner volutions angulated ; umbilicus profound, with the margin and inner volutions angulated: body whorl abruptly dilated near hosed —— aperture longitudinally subpvate, dilated. _Meuania coneesra. ‘Shell subulate, with about nine volutions, the lower ones obscurely angulated, those of the spire becoming acutely carinated towards the apex; suture well defined ; body whorl obscurely sub-angulated ; aperture longitudinal, elliptical: Prysa POMILIA. Shell with four volutions, horn colored and polished ; spire short conical ; body whorl ventricose ; aperture patulous.—Remark. It saibles P. heterostropha, Say, but is much smaller and thinner. These three univalves inhabit Randon’s creek, near cacao Alabama, adhering to Limestone rocks. (Tobe continued.) 344 Carbonic Oxide Gas. Art. X.—Carbonic oxide gas, obtained free of carbonic acid ; by ~ Tomas D. Mircuett, M. D. Professor of ae a and Phar- macy in the Medical College val Ohio. It will be sadly conceded, that a process, by which a difficulty can be avoided entirely, will be more acceptable to the practical chemist, than one, however ingenious, that instructs him how to get rid of that difficulty, after it has occurred. Several foreign writers have recently proposed methods, for ridding carbonic oxide of car- bonic acid; and in’a late number of the American Journal, conduet- ed by Professor Silliman, I find a communication from Professor ‘Hare, on this point. He has furnished a drawing of his apparatus, intended to accomplish the object in view, with such explanations, as he supposed necessary. It is obvious however, that if such an ex- pedient were at all requisite, many persons would fail in its construc- tion, by the aid of the description and drawing alone; for although ‘it may be perfectly plain to thé inventor, it will not follow; that others may easily imitate him. The plan which I adopted i is very simple and oocteesly successful. I was led to its use, not because I supposed the formation of carbonic acid would be obviated, but because 1 had found considerable diffi- culty by other processes. It was my design to have employed the super or bin-oxalate of potash, as recommended by Dumas, and in that case, it would have been necessary to have washed the product with lime water. Fortunately, however, my bottle containing that article was mislaid, and, in its place, I substituted the oxalate of Am- monia, uncertain what would be the precise result. My first notice of this experiment, is contained in the Western Medical Gazette for Jan- uary 15th of: the present year, but as I have had opportunities since that date of confirming the views then entertained, I think it may not be unacceptable to chemical teachers, to give the subject a brief notice, through the medium of a journal that has a wider circulation. I repeat then, that I have’ obtained the carbonic oxide, of an €x- cellent quality, independently of the use of lime water, or any other agent, for the purpose of detaching carbonic acid, by the action of sulphuric acid on the oxalate of ammonia. Take an ounce of the oxalate, reduced to powder, and a drachm or two of sulphuric acid, and put them into a six-ounce tubulated retort, and apply a very gen- tle lamp heat. In a few minutes, large quantities of gas are evolved, Carbonic Oxide Gas. 345 and may be collected in the usual manner over water. If the heat be duly moderated, the first and last products, as obtained in the re- ceivers, will be pure carbonic oxide gas. The sulphuric acid seems to act, by resolving the oxalate into oxalic acid and ammonia; then to decompose the oxalic acid into its elements, and to put the whole into such a state, as to enable the constituents to recombine, so as to form the pure gas. That carbonic acid is actually evolved, cannot be doubted, but it seems to join the ammonia instantly, forming the ear- bonate of Ammonia, which is absorbed by the water, as fast as it is produced. If it is inquired, how it happens that the sulphuric acid does not instantly seize the ammonia and form a sulphate, I have only to say, that although the moderate heat employed, is amply sufficient to drive over the gaseous elements of the oxalate, it is inadequate to cause the sulphuric acid to do so. The above statement will be better understood, by the use of a di- agram ; premising, that the equivalents or combining numbers of the several articles, are as as follow; owalic acid 36, made up of 24, or 3 equivalents of oxygen, and 12, or 2 equivalents of carbon; am- monia 17, making the salt 53; carbonic acid 22, made up of 16, or 2 equivalents of oxygen, and 6, ‘or 1 equivalent of carbon ; sachonis oxide 14, composed of 8, or 1 equivalent of oxygen, and 6, or 1 equivalent of carbon. 17 ammonia————_--17 ania 53 53 = oxygen 8————_-—14 carbonic oxide. g oxygen 8 2, | 36 oxalic acid, >oxygen 8 = carbon 6 = carbon 6——22 c. acid $0 ok Suna 3 :° S. a If avery gentle heat be continued for some time, the same pro- ducts will be had, independently of the use of sulphuric acid; but the latter seems to accelerate the process. When we employ oxalic acid to make the carbonic oxide gas, a portion of carbonic acid is unavoidably formed, and must be removed by means of lime water. In like manner, this acid gas is generated or evolved, when the oxalate of ammonia is used, but as it combines instantly with the ammonia, it does not contaminate the desired pro- duct. A small portion of the carbonate of ammonia will be found along the beak of the _— but for the most part, it is taken up by Vou. XXV.—No. ’ $46 Mineralogy of Jefferson and St. Lawrence Counties, N.Y. the water. The addition of afew drops of a solution of sulphate of copper to the fluid, strikes a blue color instantly, thus denoting the presence of ammonia. On examining the residuary matter in the retort, it is found to be strong sulphuric acid. I know of no other rationale of this process, and think: it quite satisfactory. Of one thing, however, I am certain, and that is, that no other method that I have employed, yields the gas in question, so pure, and with so little trouble. It is, Rerehoees confidently recommended to all operators in chemistry. » Cincinnati, October 22, 1833. We ee} : > Re <2 + APSHA aR Art. XI.—A Sketch of the Mineralogy of a portion of Jefferson and St. Lawrence Counties, (NV. Y.); by Drs. J. B. Crawe, of ~ Watertown, and A. Gray, of Utica, (N. Y.) - The northern part of the state of New York, has for a long time been known to contain many interesting minerals. But with the ex- ception of that portion which borders on Lake Champlain, this region hasnot received that notice from our mineralogists which its importance seems to deserve. In the spring of the present year, we visited this region for the purpose of collecting minerals, and had the good for- tune tc discover some interesting localities, a brief notice of which may not be unacceptable to the readers of the American Journal of Science. The underlying rock at Waibhowssy Sackett’s harbor, and through- out nearly the whole of Jefferson Co. is the metalliferous limestone of Eaton. This rock contains few minerals, but abounds in interest- ing organic remains. Orthoceratites, two to three feet in length are extremely common near Watertown and Brownville. Ammonites, Madreporites, 'Turbonites, &c.. occur. in great abundance. Two Trilobites, the Calymene Blumenbachw and the Isotelus gigas of De- kay, have been found near Watertown, but they are by no means common. In general this rock in Jefferson Co. contains the same petrifactions as at ‘a'renton Falls on the West Canada Creek. The Lenticular Carbonate of Lime is found inthis rock at Brown- ville, four miles from Watertown. A single specimen of Sulphate of Strontian in slender crystals, was found on the same Jocality. On the shore of Lake Ontario, a few miles N. E, of Sackett’s har- bor, at a place called Pillar Point, is a locality of Sulphate of Barytes. Mineralogy of Jefferson and St. Lawrence Counties, N.Y. 347 It occurs in a large vein in the metalliferous lime rock, extended directly back from the shore of the Lake, which has been exposed at various points, fer about thirty rods. ‘The mineral may be taken out in blocks, two to three feet in length, and a foot or more in width, It is compactly fibrous, and banded, but never crystallized. The colors vary from pearl-white to flesh-red, and are arranged most com-: monly in stripes or rings. It takesa high polish; the polished speci- mens in thin slabs are translucent, and in some specimens semi-trans- parent. This mineral might be advantageously used for ornamental purposes. It may be obtained at the locality in any desirable quanti- ty ; it may be sawed and polished with great ease, and the si ae specimens are very beautiful. Some years ago, a cave of considerable extent was discovered near the village of Watertown. This cave furnished stalactites in great abundance, but all the interesting specimens have long since been carried away by mineralogists and other persons who have visited it. Very fine specimens of Agaric ye in large masses, may yet be obtained at this locality. From Watertown proceeding in a North easterly direction eight or ten miles, we see the lime rock cropping out, and we come upon the Calciferous Sand Rock which passes under the Lime Rock and. extends north and East-until it meets with the primitive formation. The Calciferous Sand Rock, so far as we know, does not furnish any interesting minerals. At Theresa on the Indian river, eighteen miles from Watertown we found Crystallized Milk Quartz. It occurs in a large vein in ‘Gneiss. Itis perfectly white, and contains crystals more or less perfect running through it in all directions. ‘The Crystals which are six sided prisms, entirely opaque, varying from two to sev en machen) in lengi and from one half to two inches in diameter, by six sided pyramids at one or both extremities. Good specimens may still be obtained by blasting the rock. At Theresa we also find Steatite in considerable quantities, imbedded in granular lime rock. Brucite? is found in grains disseminated through the same rock. In the town of Antwerp, Jefferson Co., twenty four miles from Watertown, we found, by the road side, a large boulder of granular lime rock, which contains tremolite in fine crystals; also crystals of white augite. t Oxbow, on the Oswegatchie river, we find green crystals of Hornblende, variety Pargasite. The same mineral is found more ! 348 Mineralogy of Jefferson and St. Lawrence Counties, N.Y. abundantly in the town of Rossie, St. Lawrence Co. two or three miles from Oxbow, on the road to Rossie furnace. It is found by the road side, in granular lime rock, which, with the gneiss, crops out very conspicuously for some distance. It is crystallized in prisms from one to three inches in length, and from half an inch to one and half inches in diameter. ~ The town of Gouverneur, in St. Lawrence Co., furnishes many minerals of still greater interest. The rock here is Granite, associ- ated with Granular lime rock. The lime rock, in many places, is sufficiently compact to be sawed into slabs, and take a good polish, and some quarries are worked with advantage, and afford a handsome mar- ble; but generally it disintegrates rapidly whenever it is exposed to the. air, breaking into rhomboidal fragments. One mile south from the village of Gouverneur, on the road to Watertown, the Granite and Lime rock crop out abundantly on both sides of the road. The granite here consists almost entirely of Feldspar. It contains very little quartz, and not a particle of mica. On the west side of the road there is a deep fissure in the granite, five feet wide and thirty feet in length. On removing the soil and loose stones from this cavi- ty, we found both sides completely studded with crystals of feld- spar and green augite. The crystals of feldspar are flat prisms or tables variously modified, and of different sizes. Many of the crys- tals are weathered, and have lost their lustre, but the most perfect specimens are those which have been protected by a covering of cal- eareous spar. ‘These have fine polished faces, frequently six or seven inches in width, of a greenish color, with considerable lustre. Good specimens can be obtained only by considerable expense of time and labor, it being necessary to blast the rock to the depth of six or eight feet. The Augite is found with the feldspar in crystals one to four inches in length, but destitute of lustre. Directly opposite, and about twenty rods from the road, the gra- nite and crystalline lime rock are elevated in irregular ridges. | At one locality, where the marks of considerable labor appear, we discovered scapolite, and phosphate of lime. A cavity eight feet deep and ten feet in length, has been made by blasting the rock just at the junction of the granite with the lime stone. The scapolite is found in groups of short crystals, disseminated through the limestone in great abundance. They are white, and generally translucent, with highly polished faces. ‘The most common form is a four sided prism, with the edges replaced, and terminated by four sided pyramids at oue or both extremities. The crystals vary from one eighth of an Mineralogy of Jefferson and St. Lawrence Counties, N.Y. 349 inch to two inches in diameter, but the large crystals are not abun- dant. We have the same mineral in small and Jess perfect crystals, in a similar gangue, from Grenville, UpperCanada. The specimens. of phosphate of lime from this locality, are probably the most remark- able both for size and perfection of crystals, that have ever been found in the United States. They are found in the lime rock, but al- ways within a foot or so of the granite, and are most abundant very near the junction of the two rocks. We obtained crystals nearly six inches in length, and an inch and a half in diameter. They are perfect six sided prisms, of a fine sea-green color, and variously mod- ified at their terminations. The smaller crystals are nearly transpa- rent, and equally perfect. By continuing the excavation, and removing the rock by blasting, which will be attended with considerable labor, there is little doubt the mineral may be obtained in any desirable quan- tity. In another locality in the same field, we met with a-few crystals of “smaller size and less perfect inform. It is highly probable that other, and perhaps superior localities of these minerals, will be discovered whenever this. region is more thoroughly explored. Nearly all the rocks that are scattered through the field, and by the road side, contain brown tourmaline, in crystals varying from one inch to several inches inlength. Indeed crystals six inches in length, and from one to four inches in diameter, more or less perfect, are not uncommon. —They vary in color from light reddish brown, color of cinnamon stone, to dark brown. This mineral is apparently inexhaustible, and may be obtained without blasting. In the town of Dekalb, eight miles from Cotsiehiar, on the road to Ogdensburgh, we find brown tourmaline in very perfect crystals, imbedded in tremolite. It is difficult to obtain perfect crystals, on account of the tenacity of the tremolite which contains them, but although smaller they are more perfect in form, and have a higher lustre than the specimens from the locality in Gouverneur. Near the bridge across the Oswegatchie river, at the village of Gouverneur, we find noble serpentine, in masses, imbedded in limestone of a fine green color, capable of taking a fine polis One mile below the village of Siceinenn, on the bank of the river, we obtain calcareous spar in fine rhombs, translucent to transparent, exhibiting double refraction very perfectly. Good specimens can be obtained only when the water in the river is quite low. In the town of Fowler, twelve miles from Gouverneur, is is a bed of bog ore, which contains perfect impressions of the leaves and strobiles 350 Mineralogy of Jefferson and St. Lawrence Counties, N.Y. of the Hemlock, and both hemlock and birch roots, from one to two feet in length, and several inches in diameter, which, although they are completely converted into bog ore, retain their original appear- ance very perfectly. In the same town, ten miles south of the fur- nace at Fullerville, is a rich deposit of iron ore, known as the Wil- son ore bed. Here we find the red oxide and the granular mica- ceous oxide of iron. This last contains numerous cavities or geodes, completely studded with thin very brilliant plates or crystals, resem- bling specimens of the same ore from Elba. The proprietor of the furnace at Fullerville, attempted to work this ore, but owing to some unknown cause, he did not succeed in reducing it. He states that when he was attempting its reduction, the furnace was filled with very offensive fumes, which, as he supposes, caused the sickness of seve- ral of his workmen, and in consequence, the ore, which is undoubt- edly very rich, was abandoned. No odor is perceptible when this mineral is struck with a hammer, or when submitted to the flame of a lamp, urged with a blow-pipe. From Duane, Franklin Co. we have hypersthene and octahedral iron ore, strongly magnetic ; a piece weighing about four ounces lifts.a Jarge nail. It is said to be abundant. A singular iron ore has recently been buiaaiad at this place by ane Duane, which i is capable of iaing sarge directly into steel, r. Duane has erected ex- tensive works for the conversion of this ore into steel, and the article is in market, and bears a good price. This ore is not the spathic 1 iron or proper steel ore. It resembles the octahedral iron, but is only slightly attracted by the magnet. Itis perhaps a form of the specu- lar iron, but we were not aware that this ore was capable of being manufactured directly into steel. Plumose Iron Pyrites in fine specimens; is found at Champion, in Jefferson Co. Galena in rolled masses of considerable size, is found in’ alluvial earth and clay, near the shore of Lake Ontario, in the town of Hen- derson, Jefferson Co. Since our visit to these localities, we have re- ceived through Dr. Murdock, of Gouverneur, copper-colored mica in broad folia. Among our specimens we notice rhombic prisms (the primitive form) and six sided prisms several inches in diameter. _ As soon as other engagements will permit, we intend to explore this pow more thoroughly, as we have no doubt it will richly repay any t for the time he may devote to its examination. Geology and Meteorology west of Rocky Mountains. 351 Art. XIL—Geology and Meteorology west of the Rocky Moun- tains. (Communicated by Prof. Amos Eaton, of the Rensselaer pe ago In exhibiting a transverse section across North America, at page 69 of 2d Ed. Geological Text Book, I was compelled to admit the word unknown, west of the Rocky Mountains. While I was pre- paring that work, John Ball, Esq., a graduate of Dartmouth College, Counsellor at Law, &c. was my pupil in Natural History. In less than twenty months from the time of his leaving this school, he furnished me with all that is necessary for filling up that blank in the profile. ' - I pledge myself for Mr Ball’s accuracy, because J know him. He is'most scrupulously exact in relating scientific truths, and avery accurate observer. I received his last letter, which he wrote to any part of this district, by the Fur Company, via Canada, dated March 3d, 1833, at Fort Vancouver, near the mouth of the Oregon, (Co- lumbia river.) The geology of the country west of the — Mousidinst is rivinniity ably simple and-uniform. The general underlying rock is the Red sandstone, which some English geologists call saliferous rock, and which characterizes the red sandstone group of De La Beche. It is the same which contains the salt springs of the western part of the State of New York, and which underlies the basaltic rocks (green- stone trap) of Connecticut and Hudson rivers. It is the same which Dr. Edwin James describes, (See Long’s Expedition) as the chief basis rock between the Rocky Mountains and the Mississippi. There- fore the geology of the east and west sides of the Rocky Mountains is remarkably alike. Mr. Ball says, “ the Rocky Mountain rises up from the midst as it were of a horizontal sea of red sandstone; as if some tremendous force had midi it upwards, like an island forced up from the depths of the ocean.’ Mr. B. agrees with Dr. James, in comparing the Rocky Airdate with Humboldt’s description of the Andes; of which it is probably @ continuation. It consists of slaty granite (gneiss) Hornblende rock, talcose slate, and some mica-slate. The talcose slate is probably a continuation of that which contains the gold of Mexico. » Mr. Ball considers almost the ‘whole country as volcanic, if basal- tic rocks resting on red sandstone are to be considered as volcanic. In numerous localities the red-sandstone resembles the half-melted 352 Geology and Meteorology west of Rocky Mountains. bricks which surround the flues in a kiln. The basalt (greenstone trap) has the appearance of scorie or smith’s slag, at and near the base of basaltic columns. ‘These columns are mostly regular poly- hedra, often as perfectly pentahedral as those brought from the Giant’s Causeway in Ireland. The red sandstone often rises in peaks, like those on Glonsinee ticut River, between Northampton and Greenfield, several hundred feet in height ; while channels of rivers open the rocks at their bases to a great depth. The grey puddingstone, which often caps the high- est peaks, seems to defend it from the rapid disintegration to which the sandstone is subject. Many of these prominences are covered with eternal snow, never melting in the greatest heat of summer. _ Near the west side of the Rocky Mountains, and along the upper branches of the Colorado, which falls into the Gulf of California, and the Lewis river, which unites with the Oregon, Mr. Ball found first gray- _ wacke and sparry lime rock. But he soon entered upon the red sand- stone region; which continues, as the basis rock to the Pacific. After travelling about one hundred miles from the Rocky Mountains, the primitive boulders disappeared. The country is often very mountain- ous along the route to the Pacific; but the mountains are red sand- stone, grey puddingstone, or basalt. Such is the simplicity and uni- formity of the geology of the vast region west of the Rocky Mountains, that it can all be told in one sentence of six lines. The most astonishing facts, communicated by Mr. Ball, relate to the Meteorology of that country. From the first of June 1832, to ‘the first of November, (5 months) less than one ineh of rain fell be- tween the Rocky Mountains, and a strip of land from one hundred and fifty to two hundred miles in width bordering on the Pacific. Veg- etation is exceedingly scanty thus far ; and profuse beyond descrip- tion as far as rains extend. For many hundred miles, the sky is al- ways serene by night; and scarcely a cloud is seen by day. While crossing the barren plains, Mr. B. observed, that the flowers of plants greatly exceeded the herbage in size and brilliancy. All parts of the plants were much stinted in growth excepting the fructification. It seemed to him as if nature had manifested more solicitude for the re- ' production of species there, than for their luxuriance. The growth of all vegetables, along the two hundred mile border of the Pacific, is astonishingly profuse. The Deputy Governor of the English Fur Company, (Mc Laughlin) raised twelve hundred bushels of wheat,.a great quantity of barley, peas, potatoes, &c., last summer, (1832). He had purchased in California a considerable Geology and Meteorology west of Rocky Mountains. 353 number of cattle, sheep, goats, swine, &c., which he had increased to four or five hundred. He lent Mr. B. oxen, plough, cows, axes, &c., and he commenced ploughing in January, in Lat. 45° 37’-—The vege- tables of the preceding season were still standing in gardens untouch- ed by frost. Newgrass had sprung up sufficiently for excellent ied pal Fruit trees were in full blossom. ' The society of gentlemen at this place (Fort Vancouver, Lat. 45° 37’, Lon. 122° 37’) is good, but they have natives for wives. They are selected from a very friendly tribe of Indians, who are averse to war and exceedingly peaceable. ‘These wives soon learn English cookery, and perform other domestic duties in good style. Mr. Ball devotes part of his time to teaching the women and children. As the Indians near Rocky Mountain stole his clothes, excepting what he wore out, he arrived at Vancouver in Buffalo skins. The ladies immediately furnished him in the best style of the place. - - The meteorological observations at the end of this article exhibit the remarkable uniformity of temperature through the winter months. Though the latitude is nearly that of Montreal, mowing and curing hay are unnecessary ; for cattle graze on fresh growing grass through the winter. Cordier’s theory of internal heat, particularly that part _ of it, which supposes some portions of the earth better conductors of caloric than others, would seem to derive some plausible support from that temperature which seems —— to be influenced by the sun’s rays, nor by elevation. I have made these selections, instead of publishing Mr. B.’s letter, because he wrote in a familiar style, without any view to its publication. - From June 12th to October 1, while travelling West from the Rocky Mountain, across the Barrens, (says Mr. B.) we had scarcely any rain; and the heat ranged from 60° to 89°. In the fertile re- gions, the heat is generally much lower. This meteorological table presents a subject for interesting enqui- ty. While the temperature was for some days from 12° to 15° below freezing, the most delicate fruit trees remained in full blossom, with- out being affected by frost. Is the earth absolutely warmed in a degree, uncommon in other countries, by internal heat? Is it to the same cause that we are to ascribe the rapid growth of vegetables, where the earth receives a due quantity of rain? Mr. Ball saw nume- fous warm springs issuing from beneath basaltic rocks along Lewis riv- er, &c. The temperature of the water was generally about 100° Fab. Troy, Sept. 6, 1833. Amos Eaton. Vout. 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XIII.—On the Meteors of Nov. 13, 1833 ; by Prof. Epwarp Hitcucocx. TO THE EDITOR. Dear Sir,—Supposing that you will be desirous of obtain he beautiful meteoric display witnessed all over the land respecting t on the morning of the 13th instant, I send you the following statemen T have delayed to do this for some days in the expectation that so On the Meteors of 13th November. 355 many accounts would be sent you (or inserted in the public papers) from various parts of New England, that any thing from this place would be unnecessary. But | noticed a few facts in respect to this phenomenon, which I have not yet seen in any published accounts, and which seem to me to have an important bearing upon its expla- nation. I shall dwell chiefly upon these peculiar circumstances, since the general facts, as observed here, corresponded to those noticed in nearly every other place. Many years ago I was exceedingly interested in Mr. Ellicott’ S$ ac- count of a similar meteoric appearance which he saw near the edge of the Gulf Stream in 1799, which is inserted in the 6th Vol. of the Transactions of the American Philosophical Society. And the en- quiry had frequently suggested itself to me, whether it might not have been an electro-magnetic phenomenon? His account and this en- quiry were brought vividly to my recollection, only a few days pre- vious to the 13th instant, by conversation with a friend: and when I saw the phenomenon so soon afterwards, my first thought was, can I discover in the direction in which those meteors move—as can be done in the corruscations of the aurora borealis;—any relation to the plane of the magnetic meridian? I directed my attention to such as I saw moving nearly north,—and they did not exactly coincide in direction with the meridian of the place, but, as nearly as I could judge by the eye, made an angle with it on the west side from 5° to 10°; thus agreeing almost exactly with the plane of the magnetic me- ridian; the variation of the magnetic needle being here, about 6° west. It was obvious that none of the meteors in the northern part of the heavens described curves. coincident with vertical circles, and that these curves, if prolonged so as to cut the horizon, made the angle of intersection on the left hand upper side greater than 90°, and less on the right hand upper side. Such effects would result, if the meteors in their motion had respect to the direction of the mag- netic needle, or were great circles of a sphere produced by the re- volution of the plane of the magnetic meridian about the needle pro- longed as an axis. I had not yet noticed that the meteors all radiated from a point a little south of the zenith. J estimated the distance of that point from the zenith to be from 10° to 15°, and that it was a little east of south. Now the dip of the needle at this place is about 76°. Can -there be any doubt then, that the point from which these meteors proceeded, corresponded to that spot in the dome of heavens to which 356 On the Meteors of 13th November. the needle would point, when left free to move both vertically and hori- zontally? So it then appeared to me: and it struck me that the ap- parent motions of all the meteors that I saw, might be explained on the supposition that they were passing over portions of great circles or meridians on a magnetic sphere, described about the magnetic needle prolonged to the heavens. They did not all, indeed, begin to. be luminous until they had. proceeded many degrees from the elevated or south pole of such a sphere: but wherever they first be- came visible, they seemed to me to be moving towards its northern or depressed pole on meridional circles. _ A little reflection, however, will render it obvious that it would make no difference as to the apparent paths of these bodies seen from the earth, whether they actually described such curves as have been mentioned, or moved in straight lines from a great distance towards the earth in a direction parallel to that of the magnetic needle freely sus- pended ; for in this latter case their apparent paths would coincide with such meridional curves; and one fact noticed here favors the idea that they were thus projected in parallel lines towards the earth, and that the distance of most of them when they started, was so great as to coincide with the vanishing point in perspective. Those nearest the point of radiation had generally a very slow motion, slow- er than in other parts of the heavens, and the apparent velocity, as well as brilliancy, in some cases increased as the meteor receded from the radiant point. In other instances, after a slow motion over a very inconsiderable arc, they disappeared. The inference seems unavoidable that in such cases their line of motion was aeorhy towards the observer. Fak The wind.on the morning of the 13th; seis: hard. foams she ak west, and fleecy clouds, often considerably thick, were frequently spread over large portions of the sky, especially near day light. But in no instance was a meteor observed between the clouds and the earth. Even the train of phosphorescent light, which Prof. Olmsted has described as remaining near the star Capella, and which was gradually folded into, an irregular curve like a serpent, and borne eastward by the wind, (as he very probably supposes,) was entirely hidden by a cloud passing over it. Hence we must conclude. that the seat of this whole display was above the clouds. Yet if the wind did actually disturb the phosphorescent train of one of these meteors, it must have been within the atmosphere. Another fact, however, stated by Prof. Olmsted, seems to indicate that the radiant point of On the Meteors of 13th November. 357 these meteors was beyond the atmosphere: for he says that this point maintained the same relative position in respect to the fixed stars for an hour or more. Such a westerly motion as this implies, was not noticed here; but I can easily conceive how the vanishing point of these meteors, if they were projected towards the earth, might have been beyond the atmosphere, while the place at which their motion terminated, might bave been within it; and in the case above men- tioned, the great brilliancy of the meteor renders i it probable that it was one of the nearest to the earth. - It was thought by some in this place that they heard the snapping _ or crackling sound said to have been noticed in other places. I heard nothing of this sort myself: and I confess myself extremely jealous of the accuracy of facts, where there is so much room for the play of an excited imagination. I know of no other circumstances of peculiar interest in pati to this appearance that were observed here. Feeble health prevented me as I wished from employing any of the accurate magnetic instru- ments belonging to the philosophical apparatus of the College, to de- termine the influence of the meteor upon the needle. I hope it has been done in other places, although I can hardly suppose the meteor was near enough to the earth to produce much effect upon the needle. If now I have not greatly misapprehended the facts in this case, it seems to me that they lead us to infer a very strong and remark- able resemblance between the phenomenon under consideration and the aurora borealis. Biot, whose authority on such a subject no one will doubt, in his Précis Elémentaire de Physique, as translated by Professor Farrar, thus describes the latter phenomenon. * Further- more, it sometimes happens, that the phosphoric fires, (of the aurora borealis,) breaking forth from all parts of the horizon, from the east, the west, and the north, ascend, or seem to ascend, vertically over the head of the observer, even to his zenith, and having passed this point, they form by their union a brilliant crown, whose centre is sit- uated some degrees lower, near the south east, at least in all places where this remarkable modification of the phenomenon has been ob- served, But if we determine the apparent position of this crown, either by the aid of astronomical instruments, or by observing what stars are comprehended. within it at the time of its formation, we shall find that its centre, in every place where it has been observed, is always situated exactly in the direction of that point in the heav- ens, to which the magnetic needle is directed, when suspended by 358 On the Meteors of 13th November. its centre of gravity, in such a manner as to admit of its taking its position freely, in obedience to the resultant of the magnetic forces exerted upon it by the terrestrial globe.” Again he says, “ But from whatever situation these jets (of light) are observed, they al- ways seem to describe arcs of great circles on the celestial dome, and to converge towards that part of the heavens to which the nee- dle points when perfectly free; whence we conclude that they are in reality cylindrical, and patéillel to the direction of the needle. But each jet, moreover, presents great varieties of size and lustre, from which we are led to believe that they are, in fact, composed of a great number of shorter cylinders independent of each other, and in part piled one above another. As these indications. are noticed throughout the whole region of space where the meteor is visible, we may conclude with geometrical rigor, that it consists of a forest of luminous columns, all parallel to the resultant of the magnetic for- ces, and of course for short distances, parallel to each other, and sus- pended at nearly equal heights on different sides of the horizon.” - Biot seems to consider it an established fact, that “the phenomenon of the aurora borealis takes place in our atmosphere ;” although for the most part it is more elevated than the clouds. He speaks also of a certain arc of light belonging to an aurora borealis which he ob- served in the Shetland Islands, and which had a progressive motion, and that almost insensible, towards the south-east, whither it seemed to be carried by a gentle north-western breeze that was then blowing.” ‘At will still farther illustrate the resemblance between the aurora borealis and the phenomena under consideration, to make one or two more quotations from Biot, which exhibit the leading principles of the hypothesis proposed by him for accounting for the former on phi- losophical principles. For whether it be correct or not, its principal conditions correspond remarkably with observation... It was origin- ally proposed by the English philosopher Dalton. “ We may consider this meteor (aurora borealis,”) says Biot, ‘as consisting of real clouds, proceeding usually from the north, and composed of some very light substances, or at least of some substance so finely pulverized as to be capable of floating a long time in the atmos- phere, endued with the property of occasionally becoming luminous ; and especially (which is very important) sensible to terrestrial mag- netism, and spontaneously arranging themselves in columns which turn towards the earth, as real magnetic needles would do. But of all terrestrial substances, only the metals, so far as we know, are in On the Meteors of 13th November. 359 any considerable degree susceptible of magnetism. It is then prob- able, thatthe columns of the meteor are at least in a great measure composed of metallic thi reduced to powder of extreme fine- ness. “If columns consisting in part of metallic substances + are sus ded in nearly a vertical position in the atmosphere, like the columns of the aurora borealis when they float over regions adjacent to the pole, the electricity of the atmospheric strata at the summit and base of the columns will find in them so many conductors more or less perfect, and if this tendency of electricity to diffuse itself uniformly is sufficient to overcome the resistance arising from the imperfect conducting power of the columns, it will flow along these columns, illuminating its path, as is often observed in conductors which are not continuous. When this passage takes place in the higher regions of the atmosphere, where the air, on account of its rarity, offers very little resistance, the electricity will flow on silently with all those varia- tions of light, which we observe in exhausted tubes. But if it ex- tends itself to the inferior strata, it must necessarily occasion such hissing and crackling noises, as are found to meinetty: the aurora borealis, when it descends near the surface of the earth.” __ In the following paragraph one would be Jed to suppose that ae thor was describing the same cieeeacargee as that observed in this country on the 13th instant. “ But, independently of the Laeninciek jets which may hunks pro- duced by the simple passage of electricity along the metallic columns, a passage which in virtue of a property lately discovered, might of | itself be sufficient to magnetize these columns; we can hardly help considering the phenomena in question as proceeding from an actual combustion in the phosphoric clouds, which, detaching themselves in some cases from the burning meteor, as affirmed by many observers, and as I have myself seen, transport with them the principle of their phosphorescence, and emit at intervals jets of light resembling rock- ets, which leave after them a whitish train. We must then regard it as at least a very probable supposition, that the aurora borealis is composed of substances, capable occasionally of inflammation, either of a spontaneous kind, or in consequence of a discharge of electri- city from the clouds which contain it.” My object is not to defend this beautiful hypothesis, but simply to show that the resemblances between the aurora borealis and the phe- nomenon in question are so striking, as to justify us in referring both 360 On the Meteors of 13th November. to the same origin, and regarding them as only modifications of the same appearance. I found this opinion upon three general argu- ments, deduced from the preceding statements. First, the optical resemblances between the two phenomena. True, in the meteors observed on the 13th inst. the light was usually con- centrated almost to a point, and more vivid than that of the aurora bo- realis: but no one could fail to perceive a great resemblance to the au- rora borealis, in those trains, which the meteors frequently left for some minutes over many degrees of their paths; and we have seen that Biot says, that the aurora borealis sometimes “ emits at intervals jets of light resembling rockets, which leave after them a whitish train.” Here we see a passage of the two phenomena into each other, in their optical characters. It may not, indeed, be possible in the pres- ent state of our knowledge, to show why in the present instance meteors all assumed originally the appearance of stars. Yet I agine we can conceive of causes enough to produce such a adltils tion, and thus be prevented the necessity of supposing them to be es- sentially different in their nature. Was it because these meteors moved in‘a direction opposed to that of the aurora borealis, and were thus brought into such a situation that we saw them endwise, which would of course greatly increase their brilliancy ? Or was it because a greater quantity of the electric fluid was discharged, and in a more concentrated form, owing to a peculiarity in the conducting power of the columns? Or was it because more of Biot’s supposed epee rescent inflammable matter was present and set on fire? _» Secondly, the probability, that the distance of the theatre of both the omena from the earth was nearly the same. It is generally admitted, as we have seen, that the aurora borealis belongs to the upper regions of the. atmosphere : and upon the whole, I think we must admit the same in respect to the recent meteoric exhibition; although one of the facts mentioned by Prof. Olmsted, rather mili- tates against this conclusion. But how else can we explain it, that the wind affected one of the trains from the meteor. And there is another circumstance leading to the conclusion that this was an at- mospheric phenomenon. Mr. Ellicott, in his account of a similar appearance in 1799, mentions that it was accompanied, as in the present instance, with a great and sudden change in the weather, from warm to cold, and in the wind, from south to northwest. A similar change we know often precedes, accompanies, or soon fol- lows an unusual display of the aurora borealis. And one can hardly On the Meteors of 13th November. 361 avoid the conclusion, that this change was greatly concerned in the production of the recent meteors; and that ~— they must have had an ire ge — "Ths re tioy Pet 2k ak L p (Pee ke | to the lat of the magnetic needle. This is by far the most de- cisive argument; if I have committed no mistake as to the fact, and if the optical characteristics be considered as not opposed to an iden= tity of origin. There is, however, one important circumstanee that may be thought inconsistent with such an identity. Admit that in both cases the jets of light moved parallel to the magnetic needle when freely suspended, yet the aurora borealis proceeds from the north towards the zenith: whereas the meteors in the present case had a contrary direction.* The cause of this contrariety we may not indeed, be able to explain: but why should not electro-magnetic exhibitions in the heavens emanate from the south pole of the needle as well as the north? ‘The mystery is, rather, why the corruscations should not as often move from the zenith towards the horizon, as from the horizon towards the zenith. ‘The rarity of the former teres risen ought to lead us to expect some remarkable modifications phenomena when it does take place; since a peculiar oonbidaiion of circumstances is probably necessary to its production May we not then be permitted, on the principles of rational phi- losophy, to regard the splendid meteoric phenomenon which we have recently seen, as a mere modification of the aurora borea- lis: or rather, might it not be appropriately styled aurora austra- lis; and we can hesitate to regard it as an electro-magnetic phe- * Their apparent direction, if, as I suppose, they are influenced by electromag: fom ayn ie south. In an Lamgtaee 60°, the meteors were seen to rise above the ho- orth-east describe arcs more or Jess extended, falling to- — the south; after having followed the direction - the nn Very proba- to iar been unfavorably situated for determining this poi int. The same phenomenon was observed in the Gulf of Florida, by Mr. Ellicott, in Labrador and Greenland by the Moravian anleslonaries,, and? in esticosail by M. —s and the meteors ap- ar to have had l of these places. Whether the differences observed in these respects may not be eanliend by the great differences in the position of the needle i in countries so remote, I have not now the leisure for determining. Vor. XXV.—No. 2. 46 362 On the Meteors of 13th November. nomenon, aided. perhaps by phosphorescent and inflammable gas- es? Such a view of the subject would certainly tend to remove ev- ery superstitious fear that may have arisen in any mind, and lead every one, who had the privilege of witnessing the spectacle, to feel thankful, that an experiment so beautiful and magnificent, should have been performed within the lofty and transparent dome of na- ture’s temple, by the display of her hidden energies. It is too rich an exhibition to be repeated to the same generation. - If the conclusions which I -have drawn be admitted, I de not see why we may not proceed a step farther; and say that the common shooting stars, which in a clear night are so frequently visible, may be referred to the same causes, and regarded as only modifications of the aurora borealis. For it seemed to me that the meteors that ap- peared on the 13th inst. bore an exact resemblance in their nuclei, trains and apparent motions, to these erratic stars. Has it ever been ascertained whether their motions have any relation to the direction of the magnetic needle? It is said that the solid meteors, portions of which sometimes fall to the earth have such a relation ; but these ap- pear to be entirely distinct from common shooting stars. I hope you will excuse me for saying so much on this subject, and believe me, as ever, respectfully and most truly yours, Epwarp Hircucocx. | _P.S. While upon the subjects of meteors, I am reminded that I ought perhaps to make a statement in respect to a gelatinous body of this kind, said to have fallen in this place on the 13th of August, 1819, of which an account is given in Vol. 2. p. 335, of the Amer- ican Journal of Science, by Rufus Graves, Esq. After I came to re- side in this place, I was invited by that gentleman, one damp sultry morning in August, to go to nearly the same place, where the first me- teor was supposed to fall, and to examine another, which was thought to have descended the preceding night, and which exactly resembled the first one. It lay upon some half decayed chips of wood, and cor- responded in size, color and consistence to that described in the. pa- per referred to; and the action of the acids upon it was the same. But I recognized it in a moment as a species of gelatinous fungus, which I had sometimes met with on rotten wood in damp places, du- ring dog days. And when the surface had not been disturbed, it had a papillose appearance, obviously the result of. vegetable organi- zation. I did not satisfy myself as to the genus to which it belonged On the Meteors of 13th November. 363 sufficiently to hazard an opinion. The day being a warm and damp one, I predicted that similar funguses might spring up within twenty four hours; and in fact, two others appeared before the eve- pe of the day, whose vegetable character was still more unequivo~ 1; thus settling the question in my own mind, that there was an en- ma mistake in. regard to the meteor described in the place’ above mentioned. In justice to Colonel Graves, however, I ought to say, that under the circumstances of the case, the mistake was very natu= ral, nor should I take the pains to correct it, had I not noticed that his account was referred to, as correct, in some of the European Journals. Amherst College, Mass. Nov. 28, 1833. Arr. XIV.—Observations on the Meteors of November 13th, 1833 ; ~ by Denison Oumsrep, Professor of Mathematics and ore Philosophy in Xele College. ‘The morning of November 13th, 1888, was reciente ore om an per of the phenomenon called sHoorine stars, which was bably more extensive and magnificent than any similar one hith- pi recorded. ‘The morning itself was, in most places where the spectacle was witnessed, remarkably beautiful. ‘The firmament was unclouded; the air was still and mild; the stars seemed to shine with more than their wonted brilliancy, a circumstance arising not merely from the unusually transparent state of the atmosphere, but in part no doubt from the dilated state of the pupil of the eye of the spectator, emerging suddenly from a dark room; the large constellation Ori- on in the southwest, followed by Syrius and Procyon, formed a stri- king counterpart to the planets Saturn and Venus which were shining in the southeast ; and, in short, the observer of the starry heavens, would rarely find so much to reward his gaze, as the sky of this morn- ing presented, independently of the magnificent =e which con- stituted its peculiar distinction. Probably no celestial phenomenon has ever occurred in this country, since its first settlement, which was viewed with so much admiration and delight by one class of spectators, or with so much astonishment and fear by another class. For some time after the occurrence, the 364 On the Meteors of 13th November. *‘ Meteoric Phenomenon” was the principal topic of conversation in every circle, and the descriptions that were published by different observers, were rapidly circulated by the newspapers, through all parts of the United States. The writer of this article, through the kindness of a friend, was awaked in season to witness the spectacle in much of its grandeur, His impressions were immediately committed to writing, and the state- ment was published the same day in the New Haven Daily Herald. It concluded with a request for information from other observers. Al- though he did not presume to expect communications, except from observers within the limited sphere through which the paper circu- lates, yet the article being copied into other papers of a wider cur- rency, the request has met with a response from scientific gentlemen residing in different parts of the Union, to whom he tenders his grate- ful acknowledgments. By their kindness, added to a diligent peru- sal of the public papers, and of various statements from the corres- pondents of this Journal, which the editor has been so good as to fe a in his hands, (of which notices will appear in the sequel,) he believes himself to have the means of giving a synopsis of the princi- pal facts as observed throughout the United States, in some of the neighboring islands, and on parts of the ocean, although it is still too early to attenipt a description of this phenomenon in its full extent ; for we have not yet had time to hear of its extreme limits in any one direction, or of the appearances which portions of the heavens are pre- sumed to have presented to places situated without those limits. But if we should venture no farther, we may at least render an accepta- ble service to science, by collecting and classifying the facts already ascertained, and recording them in a work more permanent than the ephemeral publications, in which they have hitherto appeared. It is proposed then, first, after describing the phenomenon as it ap- peared at this ve (Yale College,) to insert at large several descrip- siding in places remote from each other ; secondly, to hee a synopsis of all the facts hitherto ascertained ; thirdly, to offer a concise sketch of similar phenomena heretofore ob- served and recorded ; and finally, to inquire what explanation, if any, may be given to the phenomenon in question, On the Meteors of 13th November. 365 I. Descriptions. 1. Phenomena as observed at New Haven, (Lat. 41° 18'N., Lone 72° 58’ W.) and published in the New Haven Daily Herald.* © About day break this morning, our sky presented a remarkable exhibition of Fire Balls, commonly called Shooting Stars. The at= tention of the writer was first called to the phenomenon about half past five o’clock;+ from which time until near sun rise, the appear- ance of these meteors was ieee and splendid, beyond any thing of the kind he has ever witnessed. Ta form some ‘idea of the phenomenon, the reader may imagine constant succession of fire balls, resembling sky sani radiating in in all directions from a point in the heavens, a few degre of the zenith, and following the arch of the sky towards aH horizon. ey commenced their progress ut different distances from the ra- diating point, but their directions were uniformly such, that the lines they described, if produced upwards, would all have met in he same part of the heavens. Around this point, or imaginary ra a circular space of several degrees, within which no acer were observed. The balls, as they travelled down the vault, wey left after them a vivid streak of light, and just before they dis exploded, or suddenly resolved themselves i into smo No. or noise of any kind was observed, although we listened attentively... Beside the foregoing distinct concretions, or individual bodies, the atmosphere exhibited phosphoric lines, following in the train of minute points, that shot off in the greatest abundance in a north- westerly direction. These did not so fully copy the figure of the y, but moved in paths more nearly rectilinear, and appeared to be much nearer the spectator than the fire balls. The light of their trains also was of a paler hue, not unlike that produced by writing with a stick of phosphorus on the walls of a dark room. The umber of these luminous trains increased sie diminished alternately, no and then crossing the field of view like snow _— before the wind, , in fact, their course was towards the wind. m these two varieties, the spectator was su baa with mete- ors of various sizes and degrees of splendor: some were mere points, but others were larger and brighter than Jupiter or par taal mH ~ seen by a credible witness before the writer was called, w deed to be nearly as large as the moon. The flashes of light, adkbaigh Ress intense than lightning, were so bright as to awaken people in their beds. One ball that shot off in the northwest direction, and explo- id : substance of this sketch is the same as that published in the New Haven Herald, on the day of the pone but as that sketch was drawn up in haste, careful reflection has since suggested a few additions and alterations of phraseolog y. “with a view of rendering the statement more explicit. t Apparent time, or a quarter past five, mean time. 366 On the Meteors of 13th November. ded a little northward of the star Capella, left, just behind the place of explosion, a phosphorescent train of peculiar beauty. This line was at first nearly straight, but it shortly began to contract in length, to dilate in breadth, and to assume the figure of a serpent drawing it- self 5 until it appeared like a small Juminous cloud of vapor. ‘This rne eastward, (by the wind, as was supposed, which was blowiig gently in that direction) opposite to the direction in which the —— had proceeded, remaining in sight several minutes. The light e meteors was usua a white, but was wrscemceteed prismatic with epedoncnn dee of blu _ A quarter before six o ‘olodk: it appeared to the company that the point of apparent radiation Was moving eastwar from the zeni when it occurred to the a to mark its place, accurately, among the fixed stars. The point was then seen to be in the constellation Leo, within the bend of ite sickle, a little to the westward of Gam- ma Leonis. During the hour following, the radiating point remain- ed stationary in the same part of Leo, although the constellation in the mean time, by the diurnal revolution, moved westward to the me- ridian-nearly 15 degrees.* By referring to a celestial globe, it will be seen that this point has a right ascension of 150 degrees, and a de-_ clination of about 21 degrees. Consequently, it was, vise on the meridian, 20 degrees 18 minutes south of the zenith. The weather had sustained a recent change. On the evening of the 11th, a very copious southerly rain fell, and on the 12th, @ high westerly wind prevailed, by gusts. Last evening the sky was very serene ; a few “ falling stars” were observed, but “they were not so numerous as to excite particular attention. The writings of Humboldt contain a description of a similar ap- os ad observed by Bonpland, at Cumana, in 1799. It is worthy of remark, that this phenomenon was seen nearly at the same hours of the morning, and on the 12th of November. - Vale College, Nov. 13, 1833.” . Phenomena as biactbod: at Boston, (Lat. 429.21’ N. Lon. os 4’ W.) and published in the Columbian Centinel. off This pin there was the appearance of a thick shower of fire. It was. occasioned by the incessant EMIS of innumerable meteors commonly called falling or shooting st risen as usual at 4 0 iseh, 1 thought I observed Sseerdl very bright falling stars, but as the window was covered with steam, Poco re of the importance of this fact to the question whether the origin of the t was be eal orn not, the writer remarked it with much pooneee but the ads yancing light i it necessary to to ely on hes who “es pin Ser ngregres earlier to ~ nger, for a con- Erpation of it, if the fact was so, ordingly, in the paper. eo the succeeding day, sult will ore in the seque On the Meteors of 13th November. 367 int ruse aang of the change of temperature out-of doors during the , L saw but indistinetly, and took my box to strike a light with- out so or thinking more of the phenomenon, until I went down to the parlor twenty minutes before six o’clock ; except that twice I saw a very sudden and bright glare of light, which, at the time, posite. On opening one of the parlor shutters, I was surprised at seeing innumerable meteors similar to those commonly called shoot- ing stars. ‘They were moving in a direction downward, and 1 should say, according to the best judgment I could form, were falling about half as thick as the flakes of snow in one of our common snow falls, with intervals of a few seconds, when there was not so many. stoed observing the phenomenon till fifteen to before six, at which time, the meteors being ene I attempted to count a portion of them., Inthe part to which my attention was confined, and which was perhaps a tenth part or rather ei of the horizon, I counted 650 sia during the fifteen minutes before six o’clock. They fell so fast and thick, however, that I supposed I was not able to enumerate thus distinctly, more than two thirds the number of those which ac- tually fell sae that time in the space to which my attention was di- correct in my estimation, this would show the num- ber of meteors fling during the fifteen minutes, to have been more than 8660. At6 o’clock, I went to the top of the house. nomenon was now ya to cease. During the first fifteen min- utes after six, the number which fell in the paler half of the heav- ens foes ts zenith downwards was 98. ‘The last. fell ten minutes before In 283 course re. of this time a were two exceedingly bright me- teors. I did not see them, as they did not make their appearance in the part to which my attention was directed ; but the steeple of the neighboring church was reddened by the light of them; and I then supposed that the glare,of light in my chamber, which I had before attributed to a ae or fire in the house opposite, must have proceed= ed from meteo The sky was fo excepting on the verge of the horizon, where in the east, there were a few thin streaks and small specks of clouds, and in the south and southeast, the round heads of a range of dark heavy clouds were just visible above the horizon.—There was how- ever, a vapor in the atmosphere, visible round the horizon, which in the southeast assumed a very beautiful appearance during ten minutes, about half an hour before sunrise. ‘The thermometer yesterday at 2 P. M. was 63 deg. ; this morning at 4 o’clock, itwas 39 deg. ‘There was but little wind, and this from the west. The direction in which the meteors moved was almost directly downward, and not oblique as usually seen, except in two instances, when the course was horizon- tal, nearly in astraight line, and from northeast to southwest, and these two meteors were high and small. Generally the meteors appeared 368 On the Meteors of 13th November. to be very low in the comnengienns: some to come down apparently al- most to the house tops. ‘They all had a distinct nucleus, generally about half the size of Jupiter, some were larger than this, some smal- Jer, and a few were larger than the apparent disc of Jupiter. They all left luminous white traces, bands, or tails, which generally appear- ed to be, in popular language, about a yard in length ; a few were three times and some not more than half this i length. —Their ap- pearance continued in most cases from three to four seconds, some five, not many, if any, longer than this. There was no appeattany of explosion or bursting to the nucleus of any of them ‘Thave never met with any account of such a phenomenon Linvieiy been observed in this country before. Similar phenomena have oc- casionally been presented ereee< and have been spoken of as ‘Showers of Fire, to which indeed this bore a perfect resemblance. One instance occurred about eighty years since in South America. This was witnessed at Quito, where so many falling stars were seen, above the volcano of Gayambo, as led the inhabitants to imagine the mountains to be in flames. The people assembled in the plain of Exico, and a procession was about to set out, in consequence, from the Convent of St. Francis, when they discovered the phenomenon to be occasioned by meteors which, as we are told, ran along the skies j in all directions. A more extensive and remarkable phenome- non of this kind occurred in the night of the = of November, 1799. Of this aooanehe as it was seen at Cumana, an accurate account has been given by M M. Humboldt and Bonpland. It occurred towards the morning when, we are informed thousands of meteors, bolides, fire-balls, or —_ stars, as they were variously denominated, suceeded each other during four hours. © Their direction was from North to Sie They rose in the horizon at east-north-east, follow- ed the direction of the meridian, and fell towards the South. ‘There was little wind, and this from the East. No trace of clouds was seen. There was not a space in the firmanent equal in extent to three diameters of the moon which was not filled with burning stars. They were of different sizes. They left the luminous traces of from five to ten degrees in length. ‘The appearance of these traces con- tinued seven or eight seconds. Many of the stars had a very. distinct nucleus as _— as the apparent disc of Jupiter. The largest were from 1° to 1° 15’ in diameter. ‘They are described as seeming to burst as by explosion. Their light was white. They were seen by almost all the inhabitants of Cumana, the oldest of whom as- serted their remembrance that the great earthquakes of 1766, were preceded by similar phenomena. ‘The fishermen in the suburbs said the fire work, as they call it, began at one o’clock. It ceased by degrees, after four, but some of the meteors were thought to be seen a quarter of an hour after sunrise. Such meteors are said to be rarely seen there after two in the morning. This phenomenon was observe ee some Franciscan Monks near the cataracts of Oronooko, and by On the Meteors of 13th November. 369 others at Marao, one hundred and seventy-four leagues from Cumana, by some of whom, as was afterwards found, the day had been mark- ed in their ritual, and by others had been noted by the nearest church festival ; they all compared it to a beautiful firework. Indeed this phenomenon was ascertained to have been observed on an extent o the globe, equal to 60 deg. of latitude and 91 deg. of longitude, at the equator in South America, at Labrador, and in Germany.” _ 3. Phenomena as observed at West Point, (Lat. 41° 24’ N., Long. 73° 57’ W.,) by Mr. ALexanper C. Twinine, Civil Engineer. * West Point, Noy. 15th, 1833. To Pror. Otmstep. Dear Sir,—I presume that you will be glad to receive from various quarters, observations upon the brilliant and wonderful phenomenon which appeared in the skies, on the morning of Wednesday the 13th. It was not my fortune to witness it from the beginning; but I observ- ed it for more than an hour, from a few minutes past five o’clock, by the watch, till the morning light made it no longer visible. ‘There is little doubt that it had been in progress for hours, before my first ‘glimpse of it. I shall describe only those things which passed un- der my own notice. ; ; : . The air was very clear; and there was a perceptible and con- stant light like twilight, given out from the numerous luminous bo- dies which were in motion in the sky above. Of these bodies, a host of which were darting out on every side and at every altitude, the greater multitude were like stars suddenly lighted up in a state of rapid motion shooting a certain distance and gone in a second; leaving where they had passed a luminous trace, resembling common- lya filament of white or yellowish white cloud, of sensible breadth in the middle, but tapering to a point at each extremity like two very acute triangles united at their bases; and these luminous traces, like dissolving nebule, gradually faded and were indiscernible after a few seconds. A second class of luminous bodies, larger in diameter but equally transient in continuance, and Jess frequent, shot along like falling lamps, followed by a small short and pointed flame so brilliant as to pain the sight for an instant. In sensible magnitude these might be compared to the morning star, and in intensity of brilliance to lightning. Occasionally, a bright flash like moderate or distant light- ning, indicated the developement of a still larger body. One which fell vertically to the west of north I-had in full view. It was a deep red fiery ball of perhaps one fifth the moon’s apparent diameter, which descended down to the visible horizon, and left its path of a few degrees in extent luminous and striped with prismatic colors ;— my impression is that ene edge through all its length was red, and the other a greenish blue. It was octasionally the fact that prismat- ic colors were developed in the trace of those smaller bodies which I Vou. XXV.—No. 2. 47 370 On the Meteors of 13th November. have described ; and about the time when the morning light was be- ginning to make the fainter phenomena invisible, I could observe ma- ny of a faint but decided green. ‘There was a point a few degrees south and east of the zenith, which was evidently the directrix of all the apparent motions; an every luminous body, without exception, of those associated in the phenomenon, obeyed a regimen in relation to that point, which was such that every line and track of motion if continued backward, would have passed, as nearly as the eye could discern, through that specific point. In the vicinity of that point, a few star-like bodies rericat and descended down In these, the aspect might be compared to “ak of ee pas driven swiftly athwart the sky by a strong wint voted exclusively to that : eeeaieag but in the variety of as- pects which solicited notice, I did in fact only make a rapid and general determination ; the result of which was to place it between the stars in the breast and shoulders, and those in the head of the Lion. As a definite point, I should select as near the truth a small star in the Lion’s neck, which I find on the celestial globe at the bi- section of a line from « to y, and also nearly at the bisection of a line from y. to 7 of that constellation; and I should call the time of the obser- vation half past five o’clock mean time. ‘This point then lay at about the elevation of the magnetic pole, but too far east of the meridian. I trust that some one who had earlier and better opportunity for accu- rate observation, may have made the same determination with pre- cision. ‘This point, of which mention has been made, cannot be sup- posed to have been a real part of space from which the luminous bodies actually proceeded, but the vanishing point of sight for mo- tions which were truly or nearly parallel. If a multitude of bodies moving in parallel directions had entered the earth’s atmosphere from that quarter of the heavens which has been pointed out, and be- come luminous by contact with the atmosphere, and had been dissi- pated by motions through it, they must have presented the appar- ent motions, very nearly, if not exactly, as those which I observed. The supposition is not suggested asa possible explanation of the facts, but as a guide to the conceptions of such as did not witness the ogra and may desire to have a clear idea of what they were. or, in the case supposed, if any He body were moving di- On the Meteors of 13th November. | rectly in the axis of vision, it would have appeared and vanished like a star without any apparent motion. Those which were near the axis of vision, would present the short trace and gentle motion of the nebule described above; but according as that distance be- came greater, the apparent motion would be more rapid and t trace longer; and all the traces would be seen in directions dispes ging from the point in which the axis of vision met the heavens. . These bodies did not seem to bear affinity to those meteors which revolving around the earth as their primary, become ignited by pass- ing into the atmosphere, and explode throwing down masses’ to the surface ; but to those shooting stars and fire balls which are often seen in the sky in the evening, and which, I am now persuaded, might all be found — of being referred as to their line of mo- tion to a determinate point The number of shooting bodies which passed in the Fbtvert on the morning of the 13th inst., must be the subject of conjecture to a considerable extent: I should not deem it extravagant to suppose ten thousand to a single hour, during the period of my observations. I will only add, that the morning was cool, and probably not far from freezing temperature ; and there was a moderate breeze from the north of west. The day preceding had been marked by sud- den and violent gusts of westerly wind, one of which threw over and sunk opposite to this place a two masted vessel, with such sud- as that all on board perished. m, Sir, yours.with sincere respect, pes C. Twisixe. P. S. Since writing the above, I have accidentally seen in a volume of Maskelyne’s ‘Observations, that the streams of a bright au- rora in 1769, Oct. 24th, at 214 58’ sidereal time, converged to a point about 210 East of South in sen and 174 from the Ze- nith, which he remarks to be about the magnetic pole.” 4. Phenomena as observed at Annapolis, (Lat. 39° N., Lon. 76° 43’ W.) Communicated to Professor Olmsted by the writer, Rev. Dr. ae mea President of St. John’s College. A remarkable ephenomenon of shooting stars was seen at Annap- ols, about 4 or 5 o'clock, on the morning of Wed dnesday, the 13th in- stant ; the number of the meteors was far greater than in any former instance ever —_ by the writer. They all appeared to move rom mmon centre, at or near the zenith; and at times, they steigletely filled ae whole heavens, particularly towards the East, with beautiful brilliant streams of light, extending to the horizon. tis not meant that all the trains actually extended from the ze- nith to the horizon; but, that the lines of light were so directed, that if produced, they would all converge to a point in the zenith. Their appeamapes was so incessant during some part of the phenomenon, 372 On the Meteors of 13th November. that all the stars of the firmament, seemed to be darting from their places. Many persons thought a shower of fire was falling, an ame exceedingly alarmed. ‘The light was so intense, that apartments, where persons were sleeping, were strongly illuminated, and some were aroused under the apprehensions that their dwel- lings were in flames. It prevailed most for about an hour before the dawn of day. It is known to the writer, that numbers of shooting stars were seen as early as 2 o’clock, in the morning. The phe- nomenon must have continued therefore more or Jess vividly, for four or five hours. During the period just previous to the dawn, it was rved by many intelligent persons in this city, whose state- ments coincide most perfectly, as to the almost infinite number of the meteors. In the words of most, they fell, like flakes of snow. They appeared to the writer himself, just after the dawn, in almost incessant gleams; but the spectacle, at that time, must have lost much of its magnificence.—Those who saw it to the best advantage, agree as nearly as could be expected, considering that it is often ne- cessary, in such cases to make some allowance for extraordinary ex- citement. It is well ascertained that several of the meteors appear- to burst into numbers of smaller stars, as they fell; and it is said as large as the moon, while to others it appeared considerably small- er. So also, the most brilliant of them, was said by some, to have been visible for more than a minute, though it. could not, proba- bly have continued longer than a few seconds. It is evident, not- withstanding, that this meteor was of ‘an uncommon size, and that i n much longer than is usual for these transitory scintil- lations. It is certain that one of the trains remained faintly visible for about thirty seconds. No audible explosion so far as we can learn attended any of the meteors. It was as it were, a perfectly silent and simultaneous dance of the stars. It is probable, that the phenomenon was seen over a wide range of the country. A gen- tleman from several miles beyond the Severn, saw the meteors at his residence, in as great abundance as they occurred here. The steam- boat Maryland, also, being about to leave Cambridge, on the east- ern,shore, the hands were up at an early hour, and the observations of the captain and of all on board, agree substantially with what was witnesssed at Annapolis. Notwithstanding the strong persuasion of several observers, that the meteors fell upon the ground, the writer is convinced that their paths were in the upper and rarer strata of the atmosphere, since op- tical principles show that in darting away to the horizon, they would On the Meteors of 13th November. 373 appear to descend and to strike into the earth. The usual theory of the inflammable gases, which have been generally supposed to ac- count for these meteors, does not appear to explain the phenomena. If we admit that the gases are generated and diffused sufficiently to kindle up the whole heavens with light, the combustion of them would not present those innumerable distinct sparks, which shot from the re gion of the zenith, with such perfect Sevoney of direction. This last circumstance was in fact, the most remarkable point, in the whole phenomenon, so far as it was seen by ce writer. ‘To him, it caps to resemble a constant succession of vivid, electrical or m netic sparks, presenting all the peculiar colors seen in the besutitid experiments upon those fluids, or perhaps more accurately, that fluid to which magnetism and electricity are attributed. It is believed, the appearances in question, were owing toa sudd atmospherie change, which took place, on the evening of the day previous. ‘The weather had been unusually warm, during the morning of Tuesday ; but in the evening, it was cold, and even keenly so, while the stars were shooting, as also, for the whole of the following morning. A strong wind prevailed at Annapolis, for the greater part of Tuesday, and also, during the middle of the day following; but at the time of the meteors, the air was tranquil. ‘The wind on Tuesday, blew from the south, at first, but veered suddenly and for the rest of the day, was quite fresh from the northwest; and on Wednesday it blew nearly as strong, but not so cold, from the south. The sky was un- clouded, and the general state of the atmosphere was such as usually accompanies the appearance of the Northern Lights.” (Annapolis Republican.) 5. Phenomena as observed at Emmittsburg, Maryland, (Lat. 39° 40’ N., Long. 77° 10’ W,,) by W. E. Arxin, M. D., Professor of . Chemistry and Natural Philosophy in Mount St. Mary’s College, (from a Maryland paper.) ** My attention was called to the heavens about half past four in the morning, to observe an unusual number of the meteors known gene- rally as shooting stars, that were then visible. From the number constantly in sight, and from the frequency and splendor of their corruscation, the scene was altogether brilliant beyond conception. Instead of the usual intermediate course of such meteors, these de- scribed paths in the direction of radii diverging froma central space. This point was in the neck of Leo, near the star Gamma of that con- ppg and at the hour of half past five, a little to the south and €as the zenith. It was of no great extent, not longer perhaps that a es ten degrees in diameter, without accurately defined out- lines, but perfectly clear. From this center as a radiating point, pro- ceeded the meteors in numbers exceeding the visible stars, and in in- tensity of light often rivalling the rays of the full moon. All did not 374 On the Meteors of 13th November. originate in the immediate vicinity of the center: more became first visible, between that and the horizon; but all proceeded in_ nearly regularly radiating lines. None were visible for more than a few sec- onds, although their luminous trains remained sometimes much longer. These trains were straight lines of light, except upon a few occa- sions they appeared tortuous. All the meteors were not equally bril- liant, varying from points and lines barely perceptible, to broad flash- es of light, sufficient to cause. distinct and well defined shadows. No noise of any kind accompanied them, that I could distinguish, nor - I observe any thing like scintillations, as indicating ex- ie It ad be difficult for one who had not witnessed the grand ex- hibition, to conceive the effect of this uninterrupted succession of in- numerable meteors, proceeding froma point so nearly vertical to- wards the whole circumference of the horizon, and this too during the stillness of night, and with an atmosphere perfectly transparent. It could only be compared to one grand and continued discharge of re works, occupying the whole visible heavens. It is difficult to say how long these appearances lasted. ey were first observed by a gentleman of the college about 3, A. M. and from that time till the light of approaching day overpowered their own, they continued with- out intermission.—The most light was observable at the instant pre- ceeding their complete extinction; then they seemed to blaze out, as as it were, and vanish ,—generally disappearing before reaching the horizon, though occasionally seen sinking beneath it with undiminish- ed splendor. ‘Their light was peculiar, but las to what has hereto- fore been noticed on analogous occasions—white, with a tinge of blue, comparable to nothing more nearly than that of the flame of burning zinc. A good refracting telescope, directed to the center whence the radii diverged, discovered nothing peculiar. While directing the glass to other points, many of the meteors darted across the field of vision ; but their relative motion over so small a space was too rapid to admit of satisfactory examination. If any thing could be inferred from their apparently increased size and light, as seen in such a hur- ried manner, it would be their probable proximity. In reference to the nature of these luminous bodies, it was the prevailing ope of those who witnessed them that they were solid masses. All writers on the subject have appeared willing to admit a difference, anal that difference is difficult to prove, between solid meteorites which at dif- ferent times have fallen from the heavens, and those appearances petite as shooting stars, visible every night in the year. It appears me most probable, since probabilities only are attainable on this askjoes, that this difference is real, and that there may sometimes oc- cur in the upper regions of the ‘atmosphere, what. we know takes place nearer the surface of the earth—the production and ignition of gaseous matter. If it is objected that we are ignorant of any gas On the Meteors of 13th November. 375 that would produce such results, T would answer, this is no objection, as long as we are ignorant of the composition of the Will-o’wi and similar meteoric lights, so often seen over low grounds.— Those who prefer it, however, will consider all meteors as solid mas- ses, and will then have the liberty of regarding them as the exuviz of lunar volcanoes, or perhaps as juvenile terrene comets—or lastly, if preferable, they may in the words of an author remarkably perspicu- ous upon other subjects, suppose them “to arise from the Sermenta- tion y the effluvia of acid and alkaline re le float in the at- mosphere.” A profound thinker has said, “ at knew not what he himself meant by learned terms, cannot ins us know any thing by his use of them, let us beat our heads about them ever so long.” So I advise you not to beat your head long about the latter suppo- sition. W. E. A. Arkin.” 6. Phenomena as observed atF'rederick, Maryland, (Lat. 39° 24’N. Lon. 77° 28’ W..,) first published in the Frederick Citizen, and commu- nicated to Professor Olmsted by the writer, Mr. Virert H. Barper. Yesterday morning I observed the most brilliant pee of nature I ever witnessed. e heavens appeared filled with what struck me at first as sparks of fire flying with great tpi towards every point of the horizon.—This was about half pas looking attentively for a short time, I perceived that these fiery glob- ulesall diverged from the same point, and generally, if not always, van- ished in a Juminous trail of a peculiar and beautiful blue and white light. One of these in the direction of N. E. near the star Cor Ca- protuberance in the middle of the body. It writhed with the tortuous motion peculiar to that reptile, and continued visible, as I estimated the time, from 3 to 5 minutes, and at last terminated in a broad lu- minous nebula. The point in the heavens that seemed to form the focus of these rays, if we call them such, was the neck of the lion in the constellation Leo. This focus was several degrees in diame- ter, if we judge from the fact that when these bodies of light appear- ed within that space, they were not projected like the others § in any one direction towards the horizon, but either were elongated, form- ing two opposite points, or disappeared in the position in which they first showed themselves. I could distinguish no report even from the largest of these bodies, though their light was sufficient to cast a faint adow. ‘The whole phenomenon terminated only by being merged in the broad light of day. ‘Travellers and others, I am told, report that it commenced about two o’clo There was a slight repetition of i it this morning, and from the same point in the heavens. If this radiating point shall have been accu- rately observed in distant parts of the United States, it may form 376 On the Meteors of 13th November. data for calculating the height of these | luminous bodies; which is a — — desirable to be solve ly cru e conjecture is that elevation from the earth was very ripen ; and consequently that dheie die was inconceivably rapid.” 7. Phenomena as observed at Lynchburg, Virginia, (Lat. 37° 30’ N., Lon. 79° 22 W.,) by Mr. F. G. Smiru, (froma Lynchburg paper. | . «© Messrs. Editors,—On this morning, (Nov. 13) between 2 o’clock and daybreak, we were presented with a most beautiful display of electrical excitement in the upper regions of the atmosphere, proba- is excelled in interest by the similar meteoric phenomenon of 802. At 10 o’clock last night, I was struck with the uncommon trans- parency of the atmosphere and brilliance of the stars. Soon after having my attention thus called to the peculiar state of the air, I felt a slight repetition of the tremulous motion of the earth, which has repeatedly been observed in this vicinity of late. e shooting stars, of which we had so impressive an exhibition this morning, made their first appearance in our hemisphere between 2and 3 o’clock, but I did not notice them until about 5 o’clock. From the vast number and brightness of the meteors, the. sight was, at that time, indescribably beautiful. .Their general course was from the _ southeast to the northwest, most of them appearing to the southwest of our zenith. They first came into view 20 or 30 degrees to the east of our celestial meridian, and extended their fight 40 or 60 degrees © to the west of it. Their general motion was probably horizontal, al- though, from the position of the observer, they seemed to fall. Their path was marked by a train of light which was most ee near the point of their disappearance, continuing from 3 to 7 or 8 seconds, and sprinkling the heavens with gis ee dashes of light, resembling in their form the marks made on the window, by the first drops of a shower driven against the ste The color of the light was generally a pure white, but sometimes tinged with a reddish hue ; and so great was the number and frequency of the meteors, as to illu- minate the night sensibly, though slightly. The average flight of each ball was over an are of 50 degrees. The phenomenon was the most brilliant to the south = west of Lynchburgh, at an eleva- tion of from 30 to 60 degrees. The meteors vanished from sight without a visible or audible eesbaion: and for the most part without scintillations. No appearance of the Aurora Borealis was observed: nor the slightest vapor of any kind. ‘The air continued as on the evening be- fore, entirely pelluci At half past 6 o ‘clock, the thermometer stood at 54 degrees, Far. ; the barometer at 29 inches and 4 tenths, and the hygrometer about On the Meteors of 13th November. 377 28 degrees. No change was noticeable in the magnetic dip, varia- tion or intensity. Gold leaf electrometers were excited by a touch; Bennett’s, placed on the prime conductor, with the cushion insulated, rose on a slight motion of the machine. The pendulum of De Lue’s ry pile was accelerated. Your most ob’t serv’t, F.. G. Smirs.” Lynchburgh, Noy. 13. 8. Phenomena as observed at Worthington, Ohio, Lat. 40° 4’ N., Lon. 83° 3’ W., (from the Ohio State Journal.) “This morning an hour or two before day, our sky presented a most singular display of luminous meteors. The appearance I am inform- ed commenced at least as early as half past three o’clock, though it was an hour later, when I first saw it; and it continued without inter- mission, until the light of day rendered it invisible. A numberless multitude of shooting stars, were constantly marking the cloudless sky, with long trails of light. As seen from this place, they seemed to proceed from a point in the heavens, a little west of Delta, in the constellation Leo. This observation was made at five o’clock. From this point, they appeared to shoot with great velocity down the con- cave sky, losing themselves on the dark blue expanse, or disappear- ing in the faint and undefined mist, that rested on the horizon. were not generally visible in their course, through a greater arc, than 20 or 25 deg: and those which seemed to approach nearest the hor- izon, first made their appearance not far above it; while those that cominenced their course near the center of radiation, uniformly dis- appeared before they reached the misty part of the atmosphere. ach meteor in its course left a pale phosphorescent train of light, which usually remained visible for some minutes. Occasionally, one would seem to burst into flames, and burn with increased energy, il- luminating the face of terrestrial nature, with a degree of brightness and splendor inferior only to sunshine. But this effect would be of merely momentary duration: for the substance of the meteor’ would be rapidly consumed, leaving a broad luminous way, which would perhaps remain distinctly visible for twenty minutes ; while the wind or some other cause would appear to waft it gently eastward, so mod- ifying its form as to give it the irregular outline of a cloud. “If observations have been made at different and distant places, I think it will be determined, that these subtile and mysterious bodies (if bodies they be) first became visible in the aerial regions, high above the grosser strata of our atmosphere. As witnessed from this place, (the latitude of which, is 40 deg. 4 min., longitude 6 deg. from Washington,) they seemed to diverge from a common center, located some ten or fifteen degrees southeast from the zenith. But LT have no doubt, this apparent divergence was an illusion, and that their true courses were nearly parallel. A luminous spot or ring, Vou. XXV.—No. 2. 48 378 On the Meteors of 13th November. would frequently appear for a moment, near the point from whence they seemed to emanate ;. which was unquestionably occasioned by a cainoidence of the course of the meteor with the line of observation. Respecting the origin of these meteors, let him speculate who iicaess ; for until the boundaries of human knowledge. shall be en- larged, vague and inadequate hypotheses, are probably all that can be advanced.. When man shall have explored the secrets of the bound- less, and seemingly empty regions of space, which encompass the earth, then may he assign causes for phenomena, that now seem veiled j in mystery. In speculating on the nature and origin of shoot- ing stars, they must not be confounded with those ponderous fire balls, which, at intervals of years perhaps, sweep across the heavens, and light up the repose of night, with the effulgence of day; spreading consternation and wonder wherever they are seen, and ultimately falling and burying themselves in the earth. Those bodies, are prob- ably the wrecks of small spheres, which, from the earliest ages of nature, have pursued a trackless orb arourid the earth, moving beyond the subtile confines of the atmosphere; and set on fire perbaps in their fall, by the dense strata of air they een reacting with the spontaneously inflammable materials of which they in part consist. The solid nuclet of these teteorolites, have frequently been ex- amined by the chemist; but the same cannot be said of falling stars. They do not seem to be of a nature so substantial: for it would ap- pear, that they seldom or never reach terra firma, beable: 3 them- ves in vapor or mist, while yet high in the atmosphere It is quite probable, in my opinion, that this display of ‘meteors has been observed in different places, over a widely extended region. This, however, remains to be determined. > ge eS 5 Mag OL Phenomena as observed at Salisbury, N. Carolina, Lat. 35° 39’ N., Lon. 80° 25’ W., by Asset Surrn, M. D., eratnani- cated to Prof. Olmsted. ) “Travelling on a professional visit, £3 was in the open ite withiout any intermission from night fall till the day dawned. In the early part of the night, the atmosphere was uncommonly bright and even glit- tering. A few meteors of inferior brightness, in remote regions of the atmosphere, were seen by me previously to midnight; some as early, I feel pretty confident, as 10 o’clock. After midnight, they rapidly increased in number and brilliancy till 4 o’clock. The dis- lay was then in the highest degree magnificent and imposing, and continued without diminution till the dawn. of day, every region of the atmosphere all the while presenting the sublime spectacle of a shower of The meteors varied greatly in the degree of splendor, some being an obliquely luminous line, while others resembled a rushing ball of liquid fire, with a splendid train or tail, bathing the surround- ing objects in a flood of most gorgeous but mellow light.” On the Meteors of 13th November. 379 In a subsequent communication, dated Nov. 30th, nage Sinith adds the following remarks. “In this section of country, the meteors, though mostly appearing . a did not radiate from any single or several points of the e few crossed the vertical meridian nearly at right an- amas eae ae at least 100 degrees from each other, in every quarter of the heavens. My own careful observation is confirmed in this particular by that of many intelligent witnesses of the phenom- ena, with whom I have conversed. Not one of them even sugges- ted the idea of their radiation from a central point or region. Although the progress of the meteors, especially of the larger ones, appeared to be suddenly arrested, I do not recollect seeing any explosion and scattering of the fragments, in the form of lesser meteors, like the bursting of a sky rocket, a iesecaoaners had often witnessed previ- aaa to the night of the 12th. y far the ‘most magnificent meteor seen on the morning of the 13th, in this vicinity, crossed the vertical meridian about 3 o’clock, . -Its course was nearly due ee in length by conjecture, about 45°, and ata distance of about 2 uth from the zenith. size, it appeared somewhat larger than oie 2 full moon rising. I was startled by the splendid light in which the surrounding scene was exhibited, rendering even small objects quite visible ; but I heard no ey £0; was wmibles at me twenty = or, forming ody: estimate from the distance I travelled the while, I's rather say, half an hour. t assumed successively the following 2 oa MIO Temas Ce Ls and finally that of a small irregular luminous heads I greatly regretted my want of instruments for taking the altitude of this track. tinuing to have a southern declination from me when first.and last seen, (my course in travelling happened to be towards it, and in the same plane) I concluded it was probably several miles hi however that a small current of air would effvetually destroy such loose calculations. Previously to the 13th, the atmosphere had been for several days, a little hazy, mild, and quite genial, without rain. In the progress of the meteoric display, 1 the air became very perceptibly more dry, harsh and elastic ; this state of it rapidly increased, and on the 15th it was very keen, and cold, with high, dry winds, circumstances which were very favorable to the developement of artificial electricity.” 380 On the Meteors of 13th November. 10. Phenomena as observed near Jugusta, Georgia, Lat. 33° N. Lon. 82° W., (from the Georgia Courier.) “ Mr. Editor,—To those of your peeniees who had not the good fortune to witness the late meteoric phenomenon, and perhaps, have not seen a detailed account of that grand siento Pree following re- marks of an eye witness may prove interesting. The place from which we made our observations, was about 60 miles S. W. by W. from this city. The day had been very warm for the season of the year, and the atmosphere thick and smoky until sunset, after which, the thermometer = very rapidly and the sky became perfectly clear. At about m, the shooting stars first ar- rested our attention, increasing both i in number and brilliancy until 30 minutes past 2 a Mm, when one of the most splendid sights perhaps that mortal eyes have ever beheld, was opened to our astonished aze From the lest ‘mentioned hour until day light the appearance of the heavens was awfully sublime. It would seem as n worlds from the infinity of space were rushing like a whirlwind to our globe—then it would appear as if the firmament was. ay melting with heat, and the stars descending like a snow fall to the earth—un- til again some fiery sphere would start from its orbit blazing and hiss- ing through the vast expanse, sweeping worlds from their places, and hurling whole systems from existence in its mad career. These bodies seemed generally to shoot in lines from the zenith to every point of the horizon, crossing there however, sometimes at different angles from 5° to 45°, the greater number seeming to fall in a space of the horizon embraced by 15° north and south of north east. The light shown, was different by different meteors, and sometimes different by the same meteor. In some the ball or star gave out a pale blue or pale green light, while the streak or tail left would be orange or intensely white, and so on, exhibiting all the pris- matic colors in instant changes ; occasionally one would dart forward leaving a brilliant train three or four inches in width, which would gradually widen into a cloud three or four feet in apparent width, and remain visible, some of them nearly fifteen minutes. At other times some would appear and pass through an arc of 5° or 6°, when they would explode, and the new formed meteors possess all ‘the features of the original one, passing very nearly in the same << to dif- ferent elevations from the horizon and become extinc ut by far the most brilliant one which we saw aoa at a few minutes past five in the morning, and seemed to announce by its splendor the finale of this grand exhibition of fire works in the heav- ens. It seemed to pursue as near as we could judge a course le 8. E. to N. w., the ball being apparently five or six inches in diam ter with a train of from thirty to forty feet in length ; the latter media On the Meteors of 13th November. 381 immediately on the passage of the meteor a serpentine form, and diffusing a light upon the earth fully equal to that of the full moon, remaining intense at least for forty or fifty seconds.’ 11. Phenomena as observed at Bowling Green, Geese Lat. 39° 20’ N., Lon. 91° W., as published in the Salt River Journal of Nov. 20th. (Communicated to Professor Silliman.) “On Wednesday morning the 13th inst., from four o’clock until day light, a most sublime Phenomenon continued to present itself in the sky, and was beheld by most of our citizens. e were awakened, and told that the stars were falling, and flying in all directions of the heavens; and knowing that the individual who awakened us, was a person of observation and science, we instantly hurried from our room, for the purpose of witnessing a spectacle so extraordinary, and found what had been told to us, had the full appearance of being a reality. _ This place, situated on an elevated point of an extensive prairie, presents an unbroken view of the horizon, and afforded an excellent opportunity of beholding this Phenomenon in all its various aspects, and impressive sublimity. The most perfect master of language would fail of conveying to others a full picture of this extraordinary and uncommon appearance, oe vain would be his attempt to’ nae the sensations of its beholder Above all, around the PRREBEE Craig shan the stars them- selves, which were uncommonly bright, large and beautiful—we be- b and to appearance across the sky—drawing after them, long lumin- ous traces, which clothed the whole heaven in awful majesty, and gave tothe air, and earth, a pale and death like appearance. - Our first look, after a common glance, was directly above to the zenith, mee at that instant, an inconceivable number of meteors, or falling stars, as though the sky had just received a mighty shock, burst from the blue and cloudless arch, which never appeared more clear, and shot like so many burning arrows, towards every part of the horizon. We next turned our eyes to the west, and to appear- ance they were flying or floating with great rapidity in that direction ; but we'soon learned, to whatever point we turned, to that point, they seemed to direct their course.—This we think, affords sufficient evi- dence to induce the belief, that those léminguk bodies were situated in the most elevated regions of the atmosphere—that they were di- rectly descending, but in a of the density of the air, ex- pired before they reached the e They continued till near day Tight when they gradually disappear~ ed, but we are informed that some were seen shortly after sunrise. 382 On the Meteors of 13th November. Though there was no moon, when we first beheld them, their bril- liancy was so great, that we could, at times, read common sized prift, aon much difficulty, and the light which they afforded was much whiter than that of the moon, in the clearest and coldest night, when -the ground is covered with snow. ‘The air itself, the face of the earth, as far as we could behold it—all the surrounding objects, and the very countenances of men, wore the aspect, and hue of death, occasioned by the continued, pallid glare, of these countless meteors, which in all their grandeur, flamed “Jawless through the sky.” There was a grand, peculiar, and indescribable, gloom on all pe —an awe inspiring sublimity on all above, while ——_——“* the sanguine flood Rolled a broad slaughter o’er the plains of Heaven And N ature ’sself did seem to totter on the brink of time!” Forcibly 1 were we reminded of that remarkable passage in Reve- lations, which speaks of the great red dragon, as drawing the third of the stars of heaven, and casting them to the earth; and if it be a figurative expression, that figure appeared to be fully painted on the broad canopy of the sky,—spread over with sheets of light, an thick with streams of rolling fire. There was scarcely a space in the firmament which was not filled at every instant with these falling stars, nor on it, could you in general perceive any particular difference, in appearance; still at times they would shower down in groups—calling to mind the “ fig tree, casting her untimely figs when shaken by a mighty wind,” and their phosphorescent burning flashed around you like the mighty flash of lightning on the enphoet of water, though more light and pallid. The long luminous — —— they left behind, would last for several seconds; and a when the nucleu sled entirely disap- pies those traces or coin varying from ten toa hundred yards would linger on the sky and continue to shine in all their beilidecy for two or three minutes, and then expire in a twinkling of an eye. Their size was about the same as that of the morning star,—they moved something higher, and their velocity was much faster than that of the common meteors, and from the place of their starting to where they seemed to expire, it was, we would suppose, from ten to forty degrees. You would now and then see some solitary ones, resembling balls of livid fire, like burning rockets shooting towards the earth, and emit- ting numerous sparks, as they boldly rushed into the more dense and vaporous atmosphere—acquiring as they fell, a more baleful and mur- derous aspect, and like incendiary spies, portending ruin and de- struction. On the Meteors of 13th November. 383 Weare also informed, that from the beginning of that Phenom- enon, there was not a space in the firmament equal in extent to three diameters of the moon, which was not filled at every instant with falling stars; all of which left luminous traces from five to ten de- grees in length, that lasted seven or eight seconds; and that many of them had a very distinct nucleus as large as the disk of Jupiter, from which darted sparks of vivid light. The light.of those meteors was white, which is attributed to the absence of vapors, and the extreme transparency of the atmosphere ; and we think, that those of a red- dish and fiery aspect, which we beheld, had fallen from the rest, and that this appearance was the effect of the vapors which had risen from the earth, or of the thin clouds of smoke which had ascended from the burning prairies, into which they had wandered.” . We have in our possession many other descriptions of similar merit with the foregoing, of which we shall make more or less use here- after. These descriptions have been selected not merely on account of their supposed accuracy, but as affording accounts of the phenom- ena as they appeared in various parts of our country, from east to west and from north to south. - .12. It was not until after the first sheets of this article were put to press, that the writer obtained the following ingenious observations made near this place, (New Haven,) by Mr. James NV. Palmer, Prac- tical Surveyor, &c. — _ Mr. Palmer, being abroad in the earlier parts of the night, and having observed an unusual number of falling stars, was induced to read over an account of the meteors described by Andrew Ellicott, which occurred Nov. 12,1799. This being the same time of year, his curiosity was excited, and he mentioned to members of his fami- ly his expectation of a similar phenomenon. From 7 o’clock in the evening, he had noticed a reddish vapor, which first appeared low in the south, but gradually rose up the southern sky to the zenith. It was very thin, but still obscured the smaller stars. When this vapor appeared, the wind was southwest, although an hour or two before, it had been at the West. This vapor continued to prevail during the earlier parts of the meteoric display. . P. retired to rest about 12 o’clock. At 2 0’clock, a man in his employment discov- ered the meteors through the window of his chamber, and immedi- ately called him. har te Mr. Palmer, considering the phenomenon as electrical, immedi- ately made some experiments to ascertain the electrical state of the atmosphere. His silk pocket-handkerchief held at one end in the right hand and drawn swiftly through his left hand, emitted a very 384 On the Meteors of 13th November. unusual number of electric sparks. On turning a small machine, he found the sparks which were usually short and feeble, much long» er and more intense than he had ever seen them before. On pre- senting silk threads to an iron bar that stood on the ground leaing against the house, they were strongly attracted towards the iro He next examined his compass; found the needle more ahaa than ordinary, but on adjusting it to the meridian as nearly as = could, judged the declination of the needle to be the same as usu The meteors when first observed, were of a reddish vai Their number doubled within half an hour after his observations began, as he judged by comparing them with a given number of stars, which he took as os standard. They all apparently proceeded from a. cir cular space S. EK. from the zenith, and lighter than the adjacent parts of the sonnel which was small at first, but gradually enlarged its di- mensions to the end of the observations, at which period it was many times larger than at first. Within this space he was unable to dis- cover any meteors while standing erect, but by lying on his back he near ony iS dweding) to te height of 200 feet. Nothing peculiar pre- sented itself, except that the meteors appeared fewer in number nee than at the previous level. He staid there fifteen minutes and then returned. rom three to four o’clock the air was still, but at 4 o’clock, a strong gust of wind blew for a short time from the north west, and immediately afterwards, the meteors increased astonishingly. ‘This period, viz., four o’clock, may be considered as that of the maxi- mum. ‘These gusts returned at moderate intervals, with less and less force, each time occasioning a perceptible increase of meteors. The trains left by the exploding balls, were usually of a yellowish hue, but sometimes reddish. The streak was broadest in the mid- dle. He heard at different times a stb of slight explosions, which usually resembled the noise of a child’s pop-gun, and was not unlike that of a fire-rocket. They were followed by a peculiar odor observed by all the company, (four men,) which one compared to the smell of sulphur, and another to that of onions. he meteors which afforded these sounds, all passed along in a north-west direction. Two of them had each a well defined nucleus, of the size of a tea cup. They severally afforded so much light that Mr. P. could dis- tinguish the color of a man’s beard. They passed below the tops of the trees at the distance of twenty five rods from the place where he stood, giving a “ pop” just before they reached the trees. ne appeared to strike the barn, and gave a louder pop than any of the others. An auroral light resembling day-break, appeared constantly in the east from the time when his observations commenced. On the Meteors of 13th November. 385 Its altitude might be seven or eight degrees. A little before five o’clock, Mr. P. endeavored, with a theodolite, roughly to divide the great circle, which passed through the radiating point and the north and south points, into definite spaces. Of those meteors that marked their path on the sky, none descended below an altitude of 37°. Those which fell into the space rising 20° above this, were of a red- dish hue, and had longer trains than any others. These trains sub- tend an angle of 40°, meteors of the same altitude having trains of uniform length. In the next space above (57°—77°) the meteors were of a paler hue, but more in number. In the third space of 25°, (77° N.—12° S.) which reached to the confines of the ciréu- Jar space above mentioned, the meteors were white, their trains short, and number greatest of all. These observations were made on the northern arc ; no measurements were made on the southern side, but he judged the phenomena to be the same, except that the meteors were not so numerous as on the northern side. From these and various other d before us, we proceed to ar- range and classify the principal facts so far as they are ascertained ; and as these must form the basis of all correct reasonings on the nature and origin of the meteors, it is deemed advisable to make the collection very full, to state them, generally, in the language of the narrator, and to indicate the sources whence they are derived, not only as vouchers for their accuracy, but for the purpose of enabling readers who may desire it, to have recourse to the original statements. If. Synopsis or THE Facts. 1. WeatHer.—Throughout the entire region where the Meteors were observed, there was a sudden and extraordinary change of weather from warm to cold, accompanied by an uncommon transpar- ency of the atmosphere. (1.) Boston.—The . yesterday at 2 P. M. was 63°; this morning at 4 o’clock, it was 39°. There was litle wind, and is from the west. (Columbian ‘Ganwaet: ) (2.) Hartford, Con.—The day preceding, it rained, and the air was very mild, the wind at the S. E. In the evening, the wind changed to the N. W. and it came off bg clear and cool, temperature 31°. (Independent Inquirer “ .) Philadelphia.—The sky was clear, stars shining brilliantly, and wind high. (National Gazette.) (4.) Annapolis, Md.—The heavens exhibited an aspect to gladden the heart of the astronomer. ‘The winds were hushed; the whole firmament was absolutely cloudless; and all a starry host twinkled with a dazzling lustre. (Saml. B. Smith, M. D.) . Vou. XXV.—No. 2. 49 386 On the Meteors of 13th November. (5.) Salisbury, N. C.—See Dr. A. Smith’s observations, No. GO) ps 3Tee 6) Charleston, S. C.—The wind continued from N. E. during the day (Wednesday) ; the air was chilly and raw, the thermometer being pe 15 of 16 de egrees. (Charleston Courier. e temperature of the day before, had been oppressive, the mer- cury ranging as high as 78°. (Charleston er (7.) roe ete Geo.—The day had been very warm for the ‘sea- son of the r, and the atmosphere thick and smoky until sun set, after which the thermometer fell rapidly, and the sky became perfect- y clear. Heavy frosts ensued. (Georgia Courier. hours, had one considerably, every vestige of clouds had disap- peared, and the stars were shining through an unusually clear atmos- phere. (Buffalo Jo rnal. (9.) Poland, Trumbuil Co. Ohio.—The day previous was mild, damp, and cloudy. At the approach of evening the weather became clear, and so cold that before morning, the mud in the streets froze sufficiently hard to bear the weight of aman. (Dr. Jared P. Kirt- land’s letter to Prof. Silliman.) The only exception we have met with to the fact under review, occured in the northern parts of New England in the direction of Montreal, where the sky was said to be overcast. (10.) A gentleman who was riding in the sib in St. Lawrence Co. informs pod mt instead of a shower of meteors, he encounter- eda fall of sn He however noticed hesitens se of bright at, and the aah driver remarked that it was strange that there should be lightning awe a snow storm. (New York Daily Adver- tiser, Nov. 26.) asians ies 2. Time anp Dunarion.—The meteors began to attract notice by their unusual frequency or brilliancy, from nine to twelve o’clock in the evening, were most striking in their appearance, from two to fie, arrived at their maximum, in many places, about four o’clock, and continued till rendered invisible by the light of day. (1.) Long Island Sound, Lon, 72° .—We are informed by gentlemen who was at the time on board a steam boat in Long 4 and Sound, that he first observed the meteoric bodies at 11 o'clock in the evening, and continued to watch them till sunrise. (Brattle- boro’, Ver. pagepenrent Inquirer. The pilot of the Steam Boat Providence, then on her way from New York to Province, watched this extraordinary spectacle from its commencement, about 3 o’clock in the morning, till it disappeared in the approaching light of the sun. (Professor Caswell.) On the Meteors of 13th November. 387 (2.) Hartford, Con. Lon. 72° 50’.—First noticed about 12 _ but was most brilliant between 3 and 4. (Independent In- quirer (3.) New Haven, Con. Lon. 72° 58’.—Observed as more fre- quent. ae usual as early as 11 o’clock, and became YOR: as ear- ly as 3 o’clock, and arrived at the maximum about 4 o’clock. (4.) New York City, Lon. 74° 1’. gi Biiioo te Zonoadiatele after midnight, Then the star shoots were few and far: ie bay: By 1 o’clock, the discharge had become almost incessant ;* and by 2 o’clock, the whole heavens were streaked with liquid fire. (Old Countryma The watcha said it was thickest about 4 o’clock. (Journal of Commer (5.) An icaneie Md. Lon. 76° 43’.—They began as. carly as 2 o’clock, and increased in number and brilliancy, till about 4, when they prevailed oe more than an hour, almost without cessation. (President Hum (6.) Se City, Lon. 77°. 2/.—This morning, about half past 4 o’clock, our attention was arrested by something which ap- ared like what is called a falling star; pretty soon another, and another appeared; their number increased gradually until, upon go- ing out into the open air, they presented one of the most extraordi- nary and sublime spectacles that we have ever witnessed. (Wa ned mice Telegrap hole, Pirg. Lon. 77° 27'.—These shooting stars were first pee about a quarter before 1 at night, as we are informed by the centinels of the state guard who were on post during the night. Lereere Compiler 8.) Niagara Falls, Lon. 789, 50’.—Seen as early as 2 o’clock, and soon after came to their maximum. (Mr. H. A. Parsons to Pro- fessor Silliman.) (9.) Salisbury, V. €. Lon. 80° 10’'—A few meteors of inl brightness, in remote regions of the atmosphere, were seen by m ‘before midnight : some as early, I feel pretty confident, as 100 ‘clock. After midnight they rapidly increased in mumber and brilliancy nll 4 o’clock. The display was then in - meer degree magnificent. (See Dr. A. Smith’s letter, “i 9.p. 3 (10.) Charleston, S.C. Lon. 819. OKs testa that a gentleman who was off the bar, ices Po that at sea, the starry shower com- menced as early as 9 o’clock, and continued till sunrise. (Charles- ton Mercury. ) About 10 o’clock, shooting stars were obiuered to succeed each other with unusual frequency ; but at about 3 o’clock in the morning, the wind, which had been from the west, having changed and blow- ‘ing with freshness from the N. E., there was a burst of splendor throughout the firmament. (Jd.) 388 On the Meteors of 13th November. (11.) Poland, Trumbull Co. Ohio.—First began to be visible in considerable numbers as early as early as 12 o’clock, maximum from 2 to 3. ms J.P. Kirtland to Professor Silliman.) (12.) Georgia, (60 miles S. W. by W. of Augusta) Lon. 82°.— At ld 9 o’clock, the shooting stars first arrested our attention, in- creasing both in number and brilliancy until 30 minutes past 2, when one of the most splendid sights perhaps that mortal eyes ever beheld, was opened to our astonished gaze. (Georgia Courier.) (13.) Macon, Geo. Lon. 84°.—From 11 until 2 o’clock, an on dae dilaber of meteors were seen shooting inthe sky. About that time, the splendor of the phenomenon commenced, and continued to in- crease until 5 o’clock, and faded only wei the light of day. (Geor- gia Messenger (14.) Natchez, Miss. Lon. 91° 24’.—From midnight until day- toa the whole heavens were brightly illuminated by the glare of sands of meteors shooting in ~—_ direction. . (Natchez Cou- er.) mb. ) Cantonment Jesup. La. Lon. 93° 30’.—F rom 2 o’clock to sunrise. (Dr. M. C. Leavenworth.) (16.) St. George’s Bank.—A gentleman who came passenger in the Hilah from Liverpool, states that on the night of the 12—13, she was on St. George’s Bank, about three hundred miles distant from the coast. ‘The meteoric phenomenon was as splendid there, as it is described to have been here, and eee at the same time of the night. (N.Y. Daily Advertiser, Noy. 2 (17.) Union Town, Penn. Lon a8 20’.—The writer wit- nessed the phenomenon under very ‘favorable circumstances, and observed it with great attention from about half past 4 o’clock, until sunrise. md first observed but few meteors were visible, but their brilliancy rapidly increased for half an hour, from w ich time the ‘hols visible heavens, from the zenith to the horizon, was streaming with them. (J. B. M. Union Town Democrat, Dec. 4. ‘Reina RKs.—The longitude of the — places of observa- tion, is given, to enable thé reader to judge how far difference of longitude will account for the time of iariewvendicur, or of arri- ving atthe maximum. We postpone any comments for the present. ant of definiteness in some of the observations, renders it dif- ficult to determine the time when the phenomenon commenced, and when it arrived at its greatest height. As “ falling stars” are no unu- larly arrested, until the number and brilliancy became much greater than common. In some cases, the number of meteors falling within a given time a to have been affected by the'wind. See No. 10. and p. 384. It is manifest also, that the observations of pee who were out — all night as in Nos. (1.) (7.) (9.) (14.) are to be particularly valued. On the Meteors of 13th November. 389 3. Numper.—The whole number of meteors that fell towards the earth cannot be accurately estimated, but it must have been im- menscly great. Few accurate attempts appear to have been made to estimate the number of meteors that fell within a given time. It is well known that the number of the stars is, by most people, great- ly overrated ; and, for a similar reason, the number of the meteors was doubtless generally estimated much too high, some describing them as shai by “ thousands” at a time, and some even by “ millions The writer in the Boston Centinel, whose Siete we have inserted at length on page 366, appears to have made as exact an esti- mate as any we have met with, although we think it considerably too low. He supposes the number of meteors which fell during the fifteen minutes before 6 o’clock to have been 8660. Consequently they must have fallen at the rate of 34,640 an hour, making for three hours, 103,920. The observer mentions that the number had become fewer at the time of counting, in consequence, probably of the advancing light of day. Reckoning, therefore, from 12, till 7 o’clock, we may safely double the foregoing amount, making the deoropnte number of meteors 207,840,—an estimate which probably does not exceed, though it may fall very far short of the whole num- ber which were visible at Boston. On the supposition that the me- teors seen at places remote from each other, were not the same, the entire number that descended towards the earth, must have been in- definitely great. - ‘The meteors however, were not uniformly distributed over the sky, but appear, at some places of observation, to have been peculiarly abundant in particular parts of the heavens. (1.) The phenomenon was most ee to the south and west of Lynchburg, at an elevation of from 30° to 60°. (F. G. Smith.) -(2.) The greatest number seemed to fall in a wee of the hori- zon north and south (east?) of northeast. (Geo. Courier.) . (3.) Mr. Palmer, found the number of meteors north of the ap- parent radiating point much greater than on the south side. See p. 385. 4, Varireties.—The meteors exhibited three distinct varieties : the first consisting of phosphoric lines, apparently described by a point; the second, of large fire balls, that at intervals, darted along the sky, leaving trains that occasionally remained for some time ; the third, of Zuminous bodies that continued for a long time in view. 390 On the Meteors of 13th November. (1.) At Annapolis, these meteors had two distinct appearances : one was a dull, red colored line, similar to iron visibly heated, the other that of the splendid radiance of a star, or of a rocket just ered ed. (Dr. S. B. Smith. 2.) See, among the general description, No. 5 (3.) The first of these varieties is sccapast in many palais tions by comparing the appearance to that of large flakes of snow, in the expressions “ it snowed fire,” &c. “1 found the entire atmos- phere [at as o'clock] filled with flakes of fire; I say flakes, for they resembled flakes of snow of a stellated or radiated form, apparently. an inch in = cic of a pale rose red, falling in a vertical direction as thickly at the moment as ever I saw snow, there being no win to deflect them from the perpendicular; and when within ten or twelve feet of the earth, bursting (I could not detect either explosion snapping, or cracking) into innumerable spangles, or smaller stars, pre- cisely as a rocket does.” (Rush M’Connel, M. D., at Mauch Chunk.) Op this cOmDaHEe a writer of Union Town, Pennsylvania, remarks: ‘he phenomenon did not in the least resemble a shower of snow, to which it ae been compared, either in the number, direction, or velocity, of the objects presented to the vision. The meteors did not fall towards the earth, but shot off like streams of fire at an angle of less than thirty degrees with the horizon,—not slowly like falling flakes of snow, but with nearly the rapidity of lightning, often crossing half the visible heavens in less than a second.” (J. B. M. Union Town Democrat.) (4.) Of the set variety, we have descriptions in almost every account of the phenomena. We subjoin a few of these notices. See, among the pe descriptions, No. At New York.—At about quarter past 50 ‘clock, we saw a star shoot from the zenith, about two or three points westward of north, which in its descent, abowed a line of fire, the color of fish blood, about two or three inches wide, wae after traversing far down the vault, formed a ball of the size of a man’s hat, and then rushed on the road it had come, and actually mel the form of a serpent. It lay upon the firmament, we say ten minutes, others say twelve, and then it struck off it seems to the west, and rolled up its Ke (Old Countryman.) At Richmond, Virginia. alee were Shen of the size of a six inch globe, the one ten minutes later than the other. The course of the first was N. E. leaving bebind a train of light two or three hundred yards in length, while sparks were flying from the body of the meteor in every direction, until it burst into a thousand particles. This, from its first appearance, till it burst, continued in view until the number sixty three, was distinctly counted. The course of the latter was S, E. and it was visible while the number one hundred and thirty seven was counted. (Richmond Enquirer.) On the Meteors of 13th November. 391 At Macon, Geo.—One of considerable size was observed to fall it was believed as near to the earth as one hundred feet, when it en- tered a column of smoke from a chimney, and immediately explo- ded i oe several parts. (Georgia Messenger.) vagara Falls:—In many. instances, the meteors appeared like laxe balls of fire, and some were as large as an eighteen pound cannon ball. ea H. A. Parsons.) At Union Town, Penn.—Not more das two of the meteors ob- served by me left behind them vapory' matter: one of ‘these pro- ceeded towards the north, the other towards the northwest. The vapor did not differ in appearance from the light fleecy clouds fre- quently visible in the heavens, and it gradually melted away being borne along in the meanwhile towards the east, in which direction there was a genile movement of the air. (J. B. M. Union Town Democrat.) See descriptions. (5.) Of the third variety, the following = remarkable examples. At Poland, Trumbull County, Ohio.—A luminous body was dis- tinctly visible in the north east, for more than an hous The Hon. Calvin Pease informs me that he discovered it at 4 o’clock, near the star Alioth, in Ursa Major ; that it was then very brilliant in the form of a pruning hook, and apparently twenty feet long and eighteén in- ches broad, and that it gradually settled towards the horizon, ' until it disappeared. I first saw it at 5 o’clock, when it resembled a new oon, two or three hours high, shining through a cloud, wet fifteen ratnaies afterwards, no vestize of it could be seen. (Dr. J red P, Kirtland’s letter to Prof. Silliman.) At Niagara Falls.—They were seen as ‘early as two o’clock, and soon after, a large luminous body, like a square table, was seen nearly in the zenith, remaining for a time nearly stationary; and from this were emitted large streams of light. (Mr. Horatio A. Parsons’s letter to Prof. Silliman.) _ Off Charleston, S. C. We learn.also that:& meteor’ of exttaors dinary size, was observed at sea to course the heavens for a great length of — and then explode with the noise of a cannon. (Charles- ton Courier.) Remarxs.—The following points appear decent of particular notice. That according to Mr. Palmer, (See p. 385.) the balls which in their descent, terminated at nearly the same altitude, had trains of nearly the same length; that the number increased, but the trains became shorter at higher altitudes; and that the light was reddish at the lower altitudes, and pale or white at the higher. That the trains presented to different spectators, at first, the figure of two very acute cones placed hase to base; but their figure afterwards became tortuous, and they finally uae themselves i into small clouds or nebule, which took the direction of the win 892 On the Meteors of 13th November. 5. He1teut.—The appearance of the meteors was such, as to give to spectators the impression, that they were generally low in the at- mosphere, and that they sometimes descended quite to the earth. (1.) Generally the meteors appeared to be very low in the atmos- here: some, to come down apparently almost to the house tops. (‘« Observer,” Boston Centinel.) (2.) Their general height above the earth was apparently not more than two or three miles, and they frequently appeared to fall within a few hundred yards of it before they-became extinct. (Georgia Messenger.) 3.) See Mr. Palmer’s observations, p. 383. 4.) They appeared + 2 extngined.. in an azure belt, that en- circled the horizon. (Richmond, Virg. Enquirer. (5.) Many of the Pa seemed almost to strike the masts of the eee (Charleston Mercury.) Some expired soon after the commencement of their motion; ro descended apparently quite down to the water’s edge, leaving behind them a bright luminous track. While descending, it seemed as.if some would fall upon the deck of the boat though none did. mie of the Steam Boat Providence, as stated by Professor Cas- “7. ) Gone ceased to appear when within 10 degrees of the hori- zon. (New York Commercial Advertiser. 8.) They appeared to form high in the air, and to become ex- tinct Ae 50 or 100 feet of the earth. (Dr. J. P. Kirtland of Poland, O.) 6. Sounp.—According to the observations of by far the greater number of spectators, the meteors were unaccompanied by any pe- culiar sound ; but on the other hand, such a sound, supposed to pro- ceed from the meteors, was distinctly heard by a few observers in va- rious places. (1.) None was = by the writer of this article, though listen- ed for with much attention. Mr. Daniel Tomlinson of Brookfield, Con. informed the ee that he hueaed repeatedly to discover if there was any report, but could hear none. Yet Mr. Palmer heard sounds resembling a pop-gun, or the smaller explosioris of a sky rocket z. ) Dr. Lee, of New Britain, a few miles northeast of New Haven, saw the meteor which is described p. 366, as falling near Capella, and thinks it was accompanied by a noise like the rushing of a sky- rocket. (Letter to Prof. Silliman.) (3.) No sound was heard at Providence, nor by the pilot of the steam boat in Long Island Sound ; a hissing noise is said by others to have been heard after this explosion. (Professor Caswell.) On the Meteors of 13th November. 393 (3.) One in the northeast, was heard to explode with a sound like — that of a rush of a distant sky rocket. The time from the explo- sion to the hearing, was about 20 seconds. (N. York Commercial Advertiser.) 4.) At 4 o’clock, it appears that ic lana, sors of one of the fal- ling balls. was sensibly he heard. (New York Old Countryman.) (5.) President Humphreys heard no and at Annapolis, Md. (See (6.) ‘Dr. Smith, at Salisbury, N.C., heard no sound in the case of a meteor larger than the full moon, ‘e though every sense seemed to be suddenly aroused, in sympathy with the violent impression on the sight.” Nor did he at any time hear any aerial noises. (p. 379. (7.) I could apne no report even from the largest of these bodies. r. V. H. Barber, Frederic, (8.) A crackling set attended them both. (Richmond En- quire be ) Loud explosion said to have been heard off Charleston. (See 91.) “pce ee is well known that persons unaccustomed to ob- servations in the stillness of night, are apt when listening, at such times, to hear sounds which they associate with any remarkable phe- nomenon that happens to be present, although wholly unconnected with it. This fact suggests the necessity of caution in the present case ss Meteors which were distinguished for their brightness and ap- parent magnitude, and which would therefore be expected to: afford sounds, might still be too distant for such sounds to be audible; or might be in a region of the atmosphere where the air is too much rarefied for the purposes of sound. It is possible that fragments of such large meteors might reach the ground, and give a slight report, while the explosion of the great body of the meteor was unheard. (See Mr. Palmer’s observations, p. 384.) The question whether any sounds proceeded from the meteors, must rest, for its decision, on the circumstances of the ease ; such as the peculiarity of the sounds, their nature as described by different observers, &c. 7. Course AND DIRECTION.—The meteors moved either in right lines, or in such apparent curves as, upon optical principles, can be resolved into right lines. ‘To some observers, they appeared to des- cend directly downwards ; to others to tend towards the northwest ; and to others, to move in every direction. . 50 Vou. XXV.—No. 2. 394 On the Meteors of 13th November. (1.) Their course was directly downwards, and not oblique as is usually seen, except in two instances, when the course was horizon- tal, nearly in a straight line, from N. E. to S. W., and these two meteors were high and small. (‘ Observer,’ vere Centinel.) 2 r. Palmer’s observations, p (3. ) The ra of descent was rectilinear, ra course from the di- rection of the zenith towards the horizon, and most generally in a line varying from 10° to 45° from a vertical Jine. Many fell direct- ly downwards towards the earth. ae National Gazette.) HA All tended westward. (Dr. - B. Smith, Annapolis Re- 6)! The greater number inclined in a path towards the west nl ‘| in an angle of 60° with the zenith, [with a vertical line? } while some few seemed almost rpendicular, and others, nearly pa with the surface of the earth. (At Halifax, Vir. Richmond nquirer. (6.) Their direction was a little to the west of a perpendiculer line, when you look north cr south. (Augusta, Geo. Cour 1ey fell in bd direction resembling a fall of snow. eles. Messenger at Maco (8.) At Denentd; 'N. H. the course of many of the meteors was observed from the horizon. towards thé zenith, and in every other direction. (Professor Caswell.) (9.) They all passed, while visible, with great velocity through the air, but in no uniform d direction ; some rose, some fell, others moved horizontally, and others gan at And conceivable angle to those several courses. (Buffalo Journal.) (10.} At Poland, (Ohio,) these fell uniformly from 8. E. to N. W., forming an acute angle with a vertical line. (Dr. J. P. Kirtland.) _ (1L.). At Matanzas, (Cuba,) they descended in perpendicular lines, describing ares from the zenith to the hori rizon. oF A. Mallory to Professor Silliman, ) ; 8. ‘Abr ita oRIGIN.—The meteors, as seen By: most observers, appeared to proceed from a fixed point in the heavens, which some referred to the zenith, and others to a point a little S. E. of the ze- nith. Those who marked its position among the fixed stars, observ- ed it to be in the constellation Leo, in which it appeared stationary, accompanying that constellation in its diurnal progress. (1.) From a point in the heavens, about 15° S. E. from our ze- nith, the meteors darted to the horizon in every part of the compass. (New York Commercial Advertiser.) (2.) They appeared in every direction, but chiefly arian: from e zenith to the east and south, (Great Falls, N. H. paper.) - On the Meteors of 13th November. 395 (3.) They went off in radii from one center in all directions, but more frequently, and in greater numbers to the S. E. and N. E. (Hartford Tdapetideet Press. (4.) ‘They all appeared to shoot from one and the same center to- wards the circumference of a circle. This center was in the cluster of stars called the sickle, about the middle of its bend, and about 6° or 7° SSetatbenaat'4 of the star Regulus. (F. L., Union Town, Penn. ocrat. (5.) According to my observation the radiant point \ was directly in the bay (Mr. James Sperry, Henrietta, N. Y. 6.) The central part seemed to stand nearly over our vee from whence, (some further off,) issued thousands of small meteors similar to stars, sige in all directions towards the horizon. (Wooster, Ohio, Telegraph.) (7.) Capt. Parker, of the ship Junior, then in ‘the Gulf of Mex- ico, saw a radiant point in the north east, from which the motions of all the meteors were directed. (Mr. Alex. C. Twining. (8.) See among the general prone pb Nos. 1.3. 4. 5. 6.8. 10. Rite —This apparent radiation from a common center, is mentioned much more uniformly in places northward of the City « of Washington, than in places southward of that city, where the meteors are generally represented as flying in all parts of the heavens; yet the same fact is recognized in the accounts from Augusta and Macon, in the state of Georgia, and from Kingston, Jamaica, at which places the meteors are said to proceed from the zenith. Dr. Smith, (see p. $79.) thinks it could not have been true of the phenomenon as exhib- ited in the western part of N. Carolina; and had it been as conspicuous there as here, or had it even been discoverable there at all, it is difficult to see how it could have escaped so acute an observer. On the northern limits also, to which our information has extended, as at Concord, N. H. and Buffalo, N. Y., the regularity of descent from a common center seems to have been interrupted, since at these pla- ces some of the meteors rose, while others fell, and others moved in all directions. © Those who are unaccustomed to astronomical observations, are apt to assign a wrong position to the zenith from the difficulty of looking directly upwards. The error frequently amounts to ten or fifteen degrees, a fact which will account for discrepancies in the statements of different observers of the radiant point in question, one placing it at the zenith, and another fifieen degrees southeasterly from it, where the time and pace: of observation were nearly the same. 396 On the Meteors of 13th November. -(3.) The testimony showing that the radiant point was itationary among the stars will be considered hereafter. _ 9. MatTer sUPPOSED TO COME FROM THE METEORS.—In several instances, material substances were supposed by the observers to fall upon the earth; and in a number of cases, matter was found which was supposed to have proceeded from the meteors. 1.) We have received a communication from Mr. H. H. Garland, of Nelson ae who states, that on hearing a large drop of water fall on the roof of a coop, he immediately looked, and discovered a sub- stance of about the circumference of a twenty five cent piece, of the consistence and appearance of the white of an egg made hot, or per- BePe animal jelly broken into fragments would be a better compa- riso Richmond Enquirer.) (2. ) Persons in this town saw particles of “ fiery rain” strike the ground, and on examination, discovered ae Cf jelly, as they term them. (Rahway, New Jersey Advocat (3.) After sun-rise, a mass o ne matter was found, which, from its singular texture, is supposed to have formed one of the large meteors. lis appearance resembled soft soap. It possessed little elasticity, and on the application of heat, evaporated as readily as water. The manner in which this substance fell on the ground, in- one that it had fallen with prodigious force. (Newark, N. J. pa- per. (4.) A woman at this place (West Point,) wn: was ilkig about ‘sun rise, on the 13th, saw something come down “ with a sposh” be- fore On looking she saw a round flattened mass, dear a “i cup or coffee cup full, looking like boiled starch, so clear that she could see the ground through i it. At 10 o’clock, she went out to show it to some persons, and no vestige of it remained. A boy observed some minute white particles on the spot, as large as small shot, or pin’s heads, of irregular shape, and falling to powder, and disappearing when he went to take them up. I went to the spot with the woman and boy, and concluded that if f heard of any analogous facts from other quarters, I would consider this as entitled to notice, but not oth- erwise. (Mr. Alexander C. Twining to Prof. Olmsted. (5.) One of our citizens was awakened by a ball of fire idlice against his window. (Hartford Times.) 10. ELecrricaL aND MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS.—Observations made in various places, indicated a highly electrical state of the atmos- phere. No very decisive observations with magnetic instruments, have come to our knowledge, On the Meteors of 13th November: 397 (1.) See Mr. Palmer’s experiments, p. 384. (2.) Dr. Kirtland, at Poland, Ohio, “ on retiring to ‘rest, a little after 10 o’clock, discovered brilliant eden sparks emitted from his clothes on any slight motion.” _(Juetter to Professor Silliman.) (3.) While riding in ae town of Gedcom, (says a correspondent of the New York Daily Advertiser,) in the evening of the 14th inst. between 6 and 7 o’clock, the night after the meteoric display, the tips of the ears of my horse, for a half an inch in length, became lumin- ous, and similar in appearance to phosphorescent bodies. It remain- ed for some minutes. (4.) No change was noticeable in the magnetic dip, variation or intensity. - Gold leaf electrometers were excited by a touch. The petals of De Luc’s dry pile was accelerated. (Mr. F. G. Smith, mete see p. 376.) Remarx.—lIt is very much to be regretted, that so few magnetic Ghsorvancrs were made. The writer of this article suggested to sev- eral of ee geigaite friends soon after the occurrence, the probability, {from the known effect of auroral appearances on the needle,) that the dcthioatini of the needle might have been greatly altered dur- ing the phenomenon, a remark to which he is inclined to attac the more importance, from the following passage in a letter from Dr. Aiken of Hisckubore. “Owing to an accident (says Dr. A.) I pri furnish you with any precise data in reference to the m eedle. I have, however, every reason to believe, but savage it sibply as an opinion, that the declination of the needle at this place, was much greater during the continuance of the meteoric shower, than before or since.’ 11. AURORAL APPEARANCES.—Phenomena resembling more or less the Aurora Borealis, were visible in some places, although in ay other places no appearances of the kind were observed. A bank of auroral light, resembling day-break, was observed at New oo by Mr. Palmer the greater part of the night. See age at (2.) “There was a vapor in the atmosphere, visible round the hori- zon, which, in the southeast, assumed a very beautiful. appearance half an hour before sun rise. (Observer, Boston Centinel 3 ere were no auroral appearances observed at Halifax, Vir. (Richmond Enquirer,) nor at Providence, (Professor Caswell,) nor at «eae (F. G. Smith,) nor at Salisbury N.C. (Dr. A. Smi (4. At Dover, (N. H.) there was an appearance of the Aurora Borealis; early in the preceding evening, which continued till 4 o’clock in the morning, when it oo broke out into streams of strong light, spreading into columns, changing into a thousand diffe- rent shapes, varying their cobard through all the tints of the rain- 398 On the Meteors of 13th November. bow, and shooting from the horizon almost to the zenith. This scene was followed by a splendid exhibition of fire works. Luminous balls might be seen darting about with great ~ebniity leaving behind them a train resembling that of a comet. The whole was closed by the formation of a triumphal arch which vanished before the coming ms of morning. (Pr ofessor Caswell.) 4.) The aurora borealis during the whole time of my observa- tions, which was about half an hour, [from half past 4 to 5 o ’clock] was distinctly visible, eens by no means so brilliant or so active, as that meteor usua ly is when visible here. (Buffalo Journa ys re was also [at Cincinnati,] an aurora or boreal light in a @itclion a little north of east. The lower edge of this bank of cue a ppeared to be several degrees above the horizon. (Letter of Mr. Jarius Lapham to Professor Silliman (6.) At Poland, Ohio, at 10 o’clock in the evening, the aurora borealis was very distinct. (Dr. J. P. Kirtland.) sat Be Concurrent PHENOMENA.—Near the time of the meteors, there were several remarkable events, which it may be well to re- cord, although they may not have the least connexion with the phe- nomenon under review. - ‘ (1.) Woodburn, near Hudson, Nov. 15. A singular occurrence took place on my farm some days ago, which has excited a good deal of apeculnlion among all who have visited the spot. A wood containing about an acre and a half, sud- denly sunk down about thirty feet, most part of it perpendicularly 5 : so that, where not long since the trees were to all appearance firmly imbedded, the topmost branches now peep out. (Quoted in the New York Evening Post.) (2.) Sodn after 10 o’clock, I felt a slight repetition of the trem lous motion of the earth, which has repeatedly been observed in this — of late. (W pols Smith, Bynehiass see p. 376.) At Harvard, in this state, at about 8 o’clock on the monn of ihe 13th [Nov.] there was a slight shower of rain, when not cloud was to be seen, se wonthiet being: what is called perfec fair. (Boston Mer. Journa (4.) The writer of this — decried an appearance resenting zodiacal light, between the hours of 7 and 8 on the evenings of Dec. ist and 3d 3d. was observed by Messrs. Forrest Shepard, and J, N. Palmer, of New Haven. It consisted of an au- roral appearance in the west following the twilight, being an apparent prolongation of the latter. It reached to a length of about 25°, to- wards the head of Aquarius. We imagined the galaxy, in that pat of the heavens, appeared more luminous than usual. After the foregoing synopsis of facts was prepared, and partly printed, the writer received a letter from his valued friend and cor- On the Meteors of 13th November. 399 respondent, Mr. A. C. Twining, dated Dec. 16, communicating the result of his inquiries among the vessels of New York harbor which had arrived from distant places, since the 13th of November. The results of this investigation are too valuable to be omitted, and we ac- cordingly subjoin as many of them as our limits will permit. ; * Since my last, I have visited New York, and from my inquiries on board of fifteen ships, I glean a few facts worthy of recor Five ships on the Atlantic, between latitudes 40° N. and 50° N. and longitudes 30° W. a experienced powerful gales and heavy weather, on the 13th of November, and some days preceding, and following. One, about lat. 45° N. and 40° W, experienced on the 11th from W. N. W. a a gale of terrible violence. Not one ship could be found on the European passage homeward, that saw any bi of the phenomenon on the morning of the 13th, ‘within the lim- med. ‘This was probably the result of cloudy and windy weath- er ‘abicutiy the heavens. The ship St. George from Liverpool, in lat 513° N. Lon. 20° w. with clear skies on the morning of the 13th, at a time corresponding to that of the appearance of the arn in this country, was not in sight of the phenomenon; at least it was not noticed by either watch nor by any one on board. Wind the preceding a squally from the west; on the 13th at 5 A. M., calm; at 6 41° W. - had clear skies but no meteors were seen. The ship Douglas, from Rio Janeiro, in Lat. 2° N. Lon. 41° W., had clear skies, but no meteors were seen. The brig Francia, from Amsterdam, in Lat. 36° N. Lon. 61° W., experienced on the morning of the 13th, winds from the W. S. W. and N. W., blowing a severe gale. “The skies being clear; the mate saw towards the morn ing an ’ unusual number of meteors or falling stars. From the mate’s “account, it is certain that they were com- es few in number—not more perhaps than four or five in a4 minute—at all events, a number that might easily have been counted. The ship Junior, Capt. Gideon eae from Mobile for New York, was in the Gulf of Mexico, Lat. 26° N., Lon. 853 W. Capt. Parker being on deck a little before tice ty) ’clock, on the morning of Nov. 13th, noticed several meteors, but not more than he had often seen before. Heavy dark clouds hung low in the N. E., from which the second mate (who held the watch before Capt. P. came on deck) said that the first meteors he saw seemed to break like Hghining- Above the clouds, which were from 15° to 25° high, the sky w clear, and the stars bright as usual. About three o’clock, Capt. P. first noticed the unusual number of falling stars, and began to count their number, but was forced to desist, by their rapid increase. For 400 On the Meteors of 13th November. an hour and a hall, Capt. P. observed them. During that time they were seen only in the north-east, above the cloud, and the eye at first would take in nearly the whole space of their action, which extended 6 or 7 points along the horizon, and about 45° in altitude above it; but towards the latter part of its obscuration, the space was more ex- tended, say 12 or 14 — we and a few degrees higher in altitude. During its whole period of obscuration, not one was seen an the west ; although Capt. P. Sooked particularly to this fact, and called the mate’s attention to it at the time. Capt. Parker distinetly remembers a radiant point in the N. E., from which all the courses were directed, some shooting horizontally, some vertically, and oth- ers at all inclinations between the two, but none upwards,—some shot towards the north, and some towards the east. This radiant at first held about 45° of altitude, but seemed to rise 5° or 10° in the pe- riod of his observation ; without, however, moving from the N. E. at all. ‘The meteors resembled common shooting stars, and were most- ly as minute in magnitude as the stars themselves,—ten or twelve, overt: would compare in size with the morning star. Some of the r moved over a space of 15° to 20°, and some of them seemed Stone igi not far from the point, and to go behind the cloud. All that descended Jow enough, passed behind the cloud,— not one between the cloud and the observer. Near to the radiant: the courses of some that were observed were very short—not more han 2° or 3°. All, both large and small, left a luminous trace, in which no prismatic colors were observed ; ‘and no one of the traces was observed to continue visible more than two seconds. The after- - noon of the preceding day had been squally, and wind variable; but at the time of observation there was light wind from _ At nearly half past four, Capt. Parker yielded the deck to his mate, who states that soon after he came on deck, the stars appeared passing over from the N. E. into the west. In the west their courses were very short, and they seemed “ just to let go their hold.” The ship was heading S. E. He continued on deck till eight o’clock, A. In the mean time, the meteors increased in number, and spread over the whole heavens, and were most brilliant about six o’clock. The sun rose at half-past six The ship Tennessee, Lat. 233° N., Lon. 82° W., was in view of the meteors on every side, from 4 to 60 ’clock, A. M. They seem- ed to follow the direction of the wind, which was E. Of all the observations, Capt. Parker’ s are the most definite and accurate. It follows as one consequence from them, that the radiant lay more to the north to his view than to ours; for at 3 o’clock, to him the Lion’s neck lay E. 5° N. and 45° high, while he observed the radiant at E.45° N. and 45° high. With his rgd St agrees pretty well the general observation made by the mate of the Ten- essee.” On the Meteors of 13th November. 401 Review of the foregoing Facts. 1. The change of weather which took place about the time the me- teors appeared, was very remarkable both for its amount and for the extent of country which it pervaded. Some additional facts bave come to our knowledge since those mentioned on page 385, were put to press, which give much interest to this head. Such are the fol- lowing. The change of temperature at Mobile, Alabama, (Lat. 30° 40’, Lon. 88° 11’,) is thus described in a communication from Alexan- der Jones, M. D. addressed to Professor Silliman. “For several days before, the weather had been unusually warn for. the season, the wind prevailing from the S.S.W. On the 11th, a shower of rain fell; on the 12th, the wind changed to N.W. The thermometer, for several days previous to the night or morning of the 13th, stood as high as 80° F. On that night it fell down to about 40°. or two weeks afterwards, we had the severest spell of eon- tinued cold vee ever experienced i in Mobile, at the same season of the year.” — The reduction of temperature extended as far westward as Nateh- itoches in Louisiana, (Lat. 32°, Lon. 93°,) as we learn from Dr. Leavenworth of the U. S. Army, who is stationed near that place. He says “ the night, although not cold, was much cooler than the preceding ones had been.” It appears however by a communication from Mr. 4. Mallory addressed to Professor Silliman, that the change of weather was hard- ly perceptible at Matanzas in the Island of Cuba, although the me- teoric appearances were much the same there as here. Mr. Mallory observes that “there was nothing singular in the appearance of the atmosphere either before or after the 13th, the thermometer ranging from 77° to 84° on the 12th, and from 75° to 82° on the 13th, with a pleasant sea breeze and a clear sky. The barometer at sun rise stood at 29.90.” — But for the most remarkable statements on this head, we are in- debted to Mr. Twining, (see p. 399.) It appears that about the time under review, there was, in a certain part of the Atlantic Ocean, between the latitudes of 40° and 50° N., and the longitudes of 30° and 50° W., a violent gale of wind. ‘The conclusion of Mr. Twi- ning, that ie reason why no meteors were seen eastward of the fiftieth degree of west longitude, was because the sky was obscur- ed, is strengthened by the fact, that a little westward of this limit, Vou. XXV.—No. 2. 5k 402 On the Meteors of 13th November. the appearance, as observed by the ship Hilah, on St. George’s Bank, is represented to have been as splendid as at New York. Off Bermuda, likewise, the ship Phoenix, of New London, (as we learn from Messrs. Billings’s, the owners,) witnessed such a display as would correspond to the appearance at New Haven.—Accounts received from London, dated as early as the 13th of November, make no mention of the meteors; whence we infer that they were not seen there, and probably not in any part of Europe. It is hardly possible to persuade ourselves that two concurrent phe- nomena, both so remarkable as the change of weather and the falling stars, were independent of each other; but it may prove a difficult point to decide what was the nature of this connexion; whether, as some have hinted in observations already before the sahilic, the me- teors were occasioned by the change of weather, in consequence of the highly electrical state of the atmosphere which frequently follows such a change; or whether higher portions of the atmosphere de- scended bringing the meteors along with them; or whether the me- teors themselves, by disturbing the eqailisaom of the atmosphere, caused air from colder regions to flow into the parts where they prevailed ; or, finally, whether some common and remote cause is to be sought for, that gave origin to both the change of weather and the meteors. 2. There is much indefiniteness in most of the accounts we have seen, respecting the time when the phenomenon commenced. As ** shooting stars” are not uncommon in a clear evening, they would not attract particular attention until their number became much great- er than usual. All accounts agree that the phenomenon advanced very gradually, but the time when the meteors first arrested attention by their uncommon frequency, is variously noted. In places differing many degrees of longitude from each other, as New Haven, (Con.) and Macon, (Geo.), the time of commencing is fixed as early as 11 o’clock ; while at many places between these, the beginning was much later; indicating that the descent of meteors, at a given stage of their exhibition, was not equally copious upon all places lying in the same meridian. A more accurate point of time is that at which the phenomenon reached its maximum. ‘This was at places very remote from each other, as Brunswick (Maine) and Cuyahoga Falls (Ohio), about 4 o’clock,—a point of time which is also noted as the most remarkable at places situated variously between these. This fact, therefore, ap- On the Meteors of 13th November. 403 pears to have some connexion with difference of longitude; other- wise we should expect to find the corresponding times at an earlier hour of the night, in advancing from east to west at the rate of an heur for every fifteen degrees e. longitude. It is, therefore, a fact to be particularly noted, that the phenomenon at a given stage, as at the maximum, for example, appeared to places differing in longitude 10, 20, 30, or 40 degrees, at the same hour of the night ; as it will have an important bearing on the question, whether the origin of the meteors was terrestrial or astronomical. In most places the meteors disappeared only because they were merged in the light of day; but in a few instances, their number began sensibly to diminish soon after day break, while it was still too dark to ascribe the diminution to the advancing light of the sun. The extreme limits of the observed duration were about eight hours. 3. Of the three varieties of meteors, it appears probable that the first, namely, those which exhibited streaks of light or “ phosphoric lines,” were much nearer the earth than either of the other kinds. One gazing into space, “however, in the night, with no measure of distance in view, is liable to the greatest errors of judgment ; and those who reached out their hands to grasp the luminous bodies, as some are reported to have done, remind us of young children reach- ing out for the moon. It is natural enough to refer the uniform westerly tendency of this variety of meteors, to the effect of the earth’s diurnal revolution,— a circumstance which would affect most such as approached nearest to the earth. Was the transient streak of light, which each descri- bed, owing to the great velocity of the luminous body, ‘leaving its trace on the eye, like a stick burnt at the end and whirled in the’ ? : "The second variety,.or those which assumed the appearance of balls of fire gliding down the vault, were undoubtedly, at a much greater distance. If any of these can be identified by the peculiari- ties of their appearance, or that of their trains, we may hope to ob- tain data for estimating their height at the time of forming these trains, that is, at the time of their apparent combustion, Comparing the time, the direction, and the successive aspects of the train, in the case of the meteor described by the writer as exploding near Ca- pella, (See p. 365.) it appears probable that this was seen by Mr. Barber at Frederic, Maryland, by Mr. Tomlinson at Brookfield, 404 On the Meteors of 13th November. a few miles north west, and by Dr. Lee at New Britain, a few miles north east, of New Haven, and by Lieutenant Crane at West Point. On the supposition of the identity of the body seen by these dif- ferent observers some attempts have been made, both by Mr. Twi- ning and myself, to estimate its height. The calculations are not yet sufficiently matared to be submitted to the public. The result al- ready obtained, however, leads us to believe that even the point at which the trains were formed, was many miles above the earth. Should it appear probable, that the small clouds or nebule into which many of these fire balls were finally resolved, were actually borne eastward by the wind, as they appeared to be, it would be an inte- resting and instructive fact, in respect to the height to which the wind that prevails at the surface of the earth sometimes extends into the atmosphere. Were the trains and nebule merely smoke, ihel by the com- bustion of the meteors from which they resulted, rendered luminous by being elevated sess the earth’s shadow into the region of the sun’s light ? The few remarkable bodies, which are described, as remaining for a long time stationary in a particular part of the heavens, present anomalies which even conjecture is hardly competent to reach. We shall require more specific facts before we can attempt an — nation. 4, The sounds supposed to have been heard by a few sbeerlers, are (with the exception of the loud explosion said to have been heard off Charleston,) represented either as a hissing noise, like the rush- ing of a sky rocket, or as slight explosions like the bursting of the same bodies. These comparisons occur too uniformly, and in too "many instances, to permit us to suppose that they were either imagin-_ ary or derived from extraneous sources. .5. It is obvious that a great variety of circumstances might influ- ence the direction of the meteors. On the supposition that they de- scended from the higher regions of the atmosphere merely by the force of gravity, if they had fallen from a smal] height like drops of rain, they would have appeared to proceed from the zenith of the spectator upon well known principles of perspective. If they had fallen from a great height in’ the upper regions of the atmos- phere, they would have had a tendency eastward by their own iner- tia, the velocity of diurnal motion being greater in the upper re- gions of the atmosphere than at the surface of the earth. ‘Their di- On the Meteors of 13th November. 405 rection might also be somewhat modified by the course of the wind. On the supposition that their origin was in a region of space beyond the limits of the atmosphere, where they would not partake of the diurnal motion, then on descending to the earth, they would receive a westerly tendency by their inertia, (not instantly acquiring the east- erly motion of the earth,) which relative tendency would be still farther modified by the motion of the earth in its orbit, and by the proper motion belonging to the bodies themselves, if they had such a motion in space. In short, the actual direction would be the resul- tant of all these forces. On either of the foregoing suppositions the apparent might become very different, and even directly opposite to the actual directions, by the manner in which they were projected on the celestial vault in consequence of the position of the’ spectator, a point which may be more fully illustrated hereafter by means of dia- grams. 6. The fired position, in respect to the stars of the apparent ra- diant, we may now consider as established by the concurrent testi- mony of all those observers who noted its place among the stars, so far as we have been able to obtain their statements. We subjoin ex- tracts from several letters which we have received, in relation to this point, it being premised that all our correspondents had, in their com- munications, previously mentioned that the radiant point was observ- ed in the constellation Leo. Mr. Twining of West Point, in a letter dated Nov. 30th, says, ‘my opinion is, and has been, that although the luminous appearan- ces were within our atmosphere, the source or cause lay far beyond. My own impressions were, that the radiant point did not partake of the earth’s rotation, and I named them on the day of the 13th, to a Pro- fessor in the West Point Academy. In the course of debate, we both thought it so improbable, that I was about giving up the idea, as the light had dimmed the phenomenon before I attempted a second location of the radiant.” Mr. Barber, of Frederick, Md., under date of Nov. 20th, ob- serves : ‘In answer to your question, I say with confidence that, from my first observation, at a little before half past 5 o’clock, till the me- teors were overpowered by the light of day, there was to the eye no perceptible variation of the seeming radiant point.” Professor Aiken, of Emmittsburg, Md., in a letter of Dec. 18th, says, “the radiant point was first noticed by myself about a quarter before 5 o’clock, at the latest, and it might have been a few moments 406 On the Meteors of 13th November. earlier. — It maintained the same relative position in regard to Gamma Leonis during the whole time of observation, that is, till the light of day obscured the meteors, a space of about two hours. I am confi- dent if it had moved five degrees, in any direction, I should have observed it, as my attention was, for various reasons, fixed upon that point. It was to the north and west of Gamma Leonis, and by reference to the celestial globe would not have been, when on the meridian, more than 15 degrees south of the zenith. “The words ‘ probable proximity,’ occurring in my letter, (see p. 374.) referred to the possibility of the meteors being within our at- " mosphere ; the phenomenon, if at all explicable, seeming to me more easily so, if the theatre of action could be logated near us. It is needless to add, that my supposition is wholly untenable, when op- posed by the inferences you deduce from the stationary position of the radiant,—inferences which did not strike me at the emes and which are therefore perhaps felt with greater force at present.” Mr. Scott, of Providence, (who wrote an anonymous description of the phenomenon in the Providence Journal, but whose testimony we have been able to obtain from Professor Caswell,) ‘ thinks that it was at least half an hour before the disappearance of the meteors, that he fixed the position of the radiant point. During that interval, it did not sensibly vary with respect to the stars.” Mr. John L. Riddell, of Worthington, (O.) author of the pre tion on page 377, in a letter of Dec. 21, observes: ‘It first occurred to me to determine the location of the point from which the meteors seemed to radiate, a little before 5 o’clock. At 5, the Right Ascen- sion of this point was near 149°, and its Declination 21° 45’.* Twenty minutes later, the R. A. was about 151°, Dec. 21° 30’, nearly. From this time, until the exhibition was rendered invisible by the light of day, the center of radiation seemed to retain nearly the same place in the heavens, moving westward with the fixed stars. Those who saw this phenomenon very early, assert that the stars seemed to shoot down from the zenith ; but I do not place much re- liance upon these accounts. * Therefore a little west of Gamma Leonis, not Delta, as mentioned on p. 377. t In reply to certain other queries submitted to him, Mr. R. remarks: “I have regretted that it was not in my power to make magnetic observations at the time; though I do not believe terrestrial magnetism had any influence. In regard to a luminous body, mentioned by your correspondents of the Western Reserve, as seen in the north-west, I cannot learn that it was observed at this place. A little before On the Meteors of 13th November. 407 One reason probably, why so many persons referred the radiant point to the zenith, is that most persons began their observations when the constellation Leo was near the meridian; and we have already adverted to the liability of observers to consider points of great alti- tude as nearer the zenith than they really are, on account of the dif- ficulty of looking directly upwards. Inthe Gulf of Mexico, Capt. Parker, saw the radiant point at 3 or 4 o’clock in the northeast, at an altitude of 45°; and Capt. Seymour, of the De Witt Clinton, descending the Hudson river, saw the radiant point at an altitude which he judged to be about 45°'S. E.* 7. If the apparent radiant point from which the meteors sical was merely the effect of perspective, no inference could be made respecting the height of the region from which they came; as the same apparent convergence of the distant parts of parallel lines would be presented, whether the lines were one mile or a thousand miles in length. Such an apparent convergence, or radiation, in itself, merely proves that the lines are nearly or entirely parallel. But if the me- teors came from a region of space, being attracted towards the earth by gravity, in lines directed towards the center of the earth, and therefore within a moderate space parallel to each other, then the convergence of such lines to a focus would indicate the position of that focus in the heavens; and this position being accurately noted by different observers, at places remote from each other on the sur- face of the earth, the height of the place whence the meteors origi- nated, can be determined, unless that height be too great to exhibit any parallax. In the present instance this does not appear to be the ease; for the radiant point as observed by Dr. Aiken, at Emmitts- burg, and by the writer, at New Haven, had a parallax of about 3° 40’ in declination. It is to be remarked that, although the several observers who fixed the position of the radiant among the stars agreed in placing it in the constellation Leo, yet the distant observers did not assign it to the same part of Leo. At New Haven, it appeared a little to the west- ward of Gamma Leonis having a declination of 219. At Emmitts- burg, it was north and west of the same star, with a declination of 5, a very large meteor burst in the south-east, and ae origin to a luminous mg which remained visible from 30 to 40 minutes. We had no appearance of ms & rora borealis, nor can I learn that any of the fire balls were seen to asceu * Mr. Twining. 408 On the Meteors of 13th November. 24° 40’. At Worthington, it was very near Gamma Leonis, 2 Iit- tle westward of it, having a declination of 21° 30’, and having there- fore, when compared with the observations of Dr. Aiken, a parallax in declination of 3° 10’. The observations of Capt. Parker in the Gulf of Mexico, will afford when compared with ours, a still greater parallax. (See. p. 8. For want of good observations, it will be difficult to form a correct estimate of the size of any of the meteors, since a judgment formed by the unassisted eye, upon bodies so transient and so brilliant, is very liable to be erroneous; but the distance of a fire ball, at the time of its disappearance, being determined, some approximate knowledge may be gained of its dimensions from the apparent diam- eter of its nucleus. According to most observers, these fire balls had each a distinct nucleus, the size of which many compare to the largest apparent dimensions of Jupiter and Venus, which it exceed- ed, and in one or two instances it appeared nearly equal to that of the moon. : Similar remarks might be made respecting the dimensions of the luminous trains. Moreover, on the supposition that these trains, and the nebule into which they occasionally resolved themselves, were formed of smoke that originated from the combustion of the meteors, we are led to infer that the meteors themselves were constituted of matter not aeriform, but of a density corresponding to ase of a liquid, or perhaps even of a solid body. 9. It seems difficult to determine whether or not any substance was found, that was probably a deposit or residuum from the mete- ors. The fact, however, that the supposed deposits were so uni- formly described as gelatinous substances, forms a presumption in favor of the supposition that they had the origin ascribed to them. This quality, it is worthy of remark, was mentioned by observers of very different classes, some of whom (as in the instance mentioned by Mr. Twining, p. 396) could hardly be supposed to have ever heard, that to fire-balls of this description had been assigned such a chemical constitution. Taking it as established, that such a residuum as has been men- tioned, was deposited by the meteors, we may infer, that the matter of which the meteors were composed was both highly volatile and transparent,—dqualities that are apt to be united in very inflamma- ble substances. We know of hardly any thing else, except bodies On the Meteors of 13th November. 409 analogous to the metallic bases of the alkalies, potassium for exam- ple, which could have undergone combustion under the circumstan- ces in which the meteors appeared to undergo this process. Could bodies constituted like known 4erolites, falling from any supposed height in space into the atmosphere, generate heat sufficient, by the abrasion or condensation of the air, to dissipate them in a cloud of smoke before they reached the earth? If we could establish the affirmative of this question, we should at once be able to trace the ground of connexion between phenomena of this kind and magnetism, since 4erolites are known to consist in a reat measure of native iron, A number of other very interesting results would follow, respecting the aurora borealis. 10. That the air was in a state unusually favorable to the devel- opment of Electricity, is very evident from the facts recited on p. 397. Such a state of the atmosphere is always consequent on so sudden a change of temperature and humidity from warm to cold, and from wet to dry. The air thus becomes a more perfect insula- tor, and electricity is accumulated on various bodies, from which it is given out in sparks on the approach of an uninsulated conductor, or emitted in streams to the air itself as soon as that becomes humid again. The fact that such electrical pepenranone were unusually stri- king at the time of the ler review, and a few hours after, being granted, we should still have to al whether the electricity were a cause or a consequence of the meteors, or whether it were merely a subordinate effect of the change of weather. Similar remarks may be made with respect to any magnetic influ- ence which may have been detected. Should a connexion be tra- ced between the apparent motions of the meteors and the laws of terrestrial magnetism, this discovery would throw light on the mo- tions of these bodies, but would still leave the greater part of the diffi- culties, such as their nature and origin, unsettled. But the known connexion of the aurora borealis with terrestrial magnetism, and the obvious connexion of the phenomenon in question with auroral appearances, afford reasonable grounds for examining the magnetic indications with the greatest attention ; considerations, which add to the regret already adverted to, that so few magnetic ee have been communicated to the public. . Of the several facts collected under the head of concurrent _ possibly no one may prove of any importance ; and yet the contrary is also tai The fall of rain without clouds Vou. XXV.—No. 2 2 410 On the Meteors of 13th November. at Harvard, was an interesting meteorological fact, and may have had a strict connexion with the meteors, a connexion which may be more fully developed when the cause of meteors shall be better understood- The luminous appearances in the west following twilight, are also re- markable. ‘The same appearance has been exhibited as late as the evening of December 29th, in a form much more imposing than on either of the preceding occasions. It was observed immediately after the twilight, (which ended at eighteen minutes after six,) and last- ed until fifteen minutes before eight. It illuminated all the western sky and strongly resembled the twilight, being brighter than the zo- diacal light, not lenticular like that, and not extending along the Zodiac, but having its apex in a vertical circle near Alpha Pegasi. Ridges of dark clouds, (cumulo-stratus) with intervals of clear sky, contributed to heighten the effect by contrast; and higher than these, was a thin vapor that became visible as it crossed Jupiter, which was near the meridian, being illuminated in a circular space around the planet, and presenting much the same appearance as the light in the west, a circumstance which led to the conjecture that the latter was ow- ing to the same vapor elevated so high as to fall into the sun’s light, after the ordinary cause of twilight biel ceased to operate. The vapor was so thin as hardly to diminish the light of Jupiter. Was this va- por such as remained from the combustion of the meteors? An aurora borealis of moderate height was visible in the north at the same time, and faded away simultaneously with the western aurora. 12. It has been thought an object of so much importance, to present a full view of the facts which have reached us, as noticed by a great number of intelligent and accurate observers in various parts of our wide country, and the neighboring parts of the ocean, that we have already, through the indulgence of the Editor, been permitted to swell this number of the Journal beyond its ordinary dimensions ; although we have not yet entered upon the two last heads proposed, namely, to give a historical sketch of the same phenomenon as it has appeared before at different times, and, finally, with the whole body of facts before us, to inquire what explanation, if any, can be given of them. ‘These topics must be reserved for the next number of the Journal. At least four hypotheses proposing to account for the facts in ques- tion, are already before the public. Electricity, Magnetism, the Com- bustion of Hydrogen Gas, or of some of its compounds, and Terrestrial Comets, have severally been made the basis of explanations. Whether Miscellanies. 411 one or more of these causes will satisfactorily account for the facts, or whether a full and careful survey of the phenomena will lead us to conclusions subversive of them all, are points which will af course re- quire considerable discussion. We regret the less being deprived of the opportu of pursuing this discussion at the present time, because when we shall have heard of the phenomenon as it presented itself in the far west, (perhaps to the Pacific Ocean, or to the confines of Asia,) and along the north- ern and southern limits of countries where it was visible, we may be furnished with additional facts that will either correct or strengthen our present opinions, and add greatly to our means of arriving at the truth. (To be continued.) MISCELLANIES. FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC, 1. Notice of the “ British Association for the deuneried of Science.—Through the kindness of Mr. Mantell, of Lewes, Eng. and of Prof. Buckland, of the Univ. of Oxford, we have received, ina quarto pamphlet, an account of the third meeting of the British Asso- ciation for the Advancement of Science, which took place at Cam- bridge University in June, 1833. This notice is rendered the more interesting, by the autographs of the members. ‘This association which has been in existence but three years, now numbers among its members a great proportion of the men of science throughout the United Kingdoms. Several distinguished foreigners were present, and we are happy to notice among them, the names o a number of gentlemen and scholars from the United States. Such an annual association, of learning, talent, rank and wealth, cannot fail to produce the most important results. What scene could be more exciting than to meet a thousand of the votaries of philoso- phy in a noble palace, long since consecrated to ** science and good learning,” and in the very hall of Bacon. They met at the same table where these men met before, the same anthem was heard* at this magnificent festival which had been heard by them ; “and every thing — was made venerable by the remembrance of departed genius.” To the philosophical student it must have been a high grati- fication and encouragement to find his efforts appreciated, and to be * Tt is a custom of the college to sing this anthem on festival days. 412 Miscellanies. himself welcomed as a fellow laborer in such exalted pursuits, by those masters in science, who enjoy the accumulated facilities of ages, for pursuing every inquiry after truth. ‘The association will meet at ——— in September, 1834. 2. Prize Medals to be awarded for Eissounrian in Selene, by the een eeety of London. To Proressor SILLIMAN. Philadelphia, Dec., 13, 1833. eit Diesisk am directed ae the American Philosophical Society of this city, to communicate to you for publication the annexed let- ter received at a late stated meeting. The object of the Society is to diffuse the information, given in the letter, throughout the scientific community in the United States. Very respectfully yours, . D. Bacug, Secretary. London, Ps Se ‘8d. 1833. Somerset House, ments of the Royal Society. Sir.—I am baiired with the Solatiands of his Royal Highness, the President of the Royal Society, to acquaint you for the informa- tion of the American Philosophical Society at Philadelphia, that his Majesty, the King, has been pleased to grant two gold medals of the value of £50, each, to be awarded by the Royal Society, on the day of their anniversary meeting in each succeeding year, for the most important discoveries in any one principal en of Physical or , Mathematical knowledge. His Majesty, having expressed a wish that ssieutige men of all na- tions should be invited to afford the aid of their talents and research- es, I am accordingly commanded by his Royal Highness, the Presi- dent, to announce to you, Sir, that the said Royal medals for 1836, will be awarded in that year ; the one for the most important unpublished paper in Astronomy, the other, for the most important unpublished paper in Animal Physiology, which may have been communicated to the Royal Society for insertion in their Transactions, after the pres- ent date and prior to the month of June in the year 1836. For the present, and the two following years, the council of the Royal Society, with the approbation of his Majesty, the King, have directed the Royal medals to be awarded for important discoveries or series of investigations published within three years previous to the time of award; and those for the year 1833, have been adjudged, the one to Sir John F. W. Herschel, for his papers on the investiga- Miscellanies. 413 tion of the orbits of revolving double stars, inserted in the 5th vol. of the Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society ; the other to Professor Decandolle, for his investigations in Vegetable et And as detailed in his work entitled Physiologie Végétale. I have the honor to be Sir, your most Obt. Servt. Charles Konig, For. Sec. R. S, To the Secretary of the American Philos. Soc. Philadelphia. 3. Pink dye from the flower of the sweet balm. Read before the Lyceum of Nat. Hist., N. York, July, 1833; by Wm. PartrinaE. I beg leave to present to the Lyceum a specimen of pink colored silk made from the flowers of the sweet balm (Monarda didyma). Such colors are usually made with safflower, (Carthamus tinctorius) which is imported from the East Indies and from the Levant. In making this pink, I used six grains of balm flowers, and three grains of alum, the silk weighing twelve grains. After drying, it was passed through a weak solution of citric acid in water. In making a similar color from safflower, the flowers are secured in a linen bag, ‘washed and pressed in running water, until all the yellow color is washed away. ‘The flowers have now to be macerated in a solu- tion of soda, sufficiently strong to dissolve the pink coloring matter. The soda has then to be neutralized by citric acid. This complica- ted and expensive process makes safflower pinks more costly than even cochineal colors. The sweet balm is a native of North America, grows very freely, and will in three or four seasons, from a few roots, spread itself over a large tract of ground. It keeps blossoming nearly all the summer, and, from the flowers saved from a few heads, would, undoubtedly afford a large crop of dyeing material from a small surface of land. The utility of this new coloring matter, is, however, more restrict- ed than that from the carthamus, as the former makes no impres- sion on cotton, whilst the latter operates oqeally well on both cotton and silk. It is highly probable that still more beautiful tints sais be clei “ed from those flowers, by trying them with the various mordants sing- ly and combined ; but I have not time to follow out so tedious and expensive an operation. ; 4. Contributions to Geology : by Isaac Lea, 8vo. p. 226. Phil- adelphia, 1833.—The geology of the United States, has indeed 414 -Miscellanies. received some valuable contributions the present year. The sim- ultaneous appearance of two considerable works devoted to the de- scriptions of rocks and fossils, has not hitherto marked the American history of this science. The other work alluded to, is Professor Hitchcock’s Geological Report of Massachusetts, whose author from the nature of his region has confined himself to the elucidation of non- fossiliferous rocks, while Mr. Lea, has been led to investigate some of the more recent, or semi-organic, formations: the former of these nat- uralists having, as was fit, entered upon his researches through the portals of mineralogy, while the latter has made a no less felicitous début as a conchologist. Mr. Lea’s investigations, concerning our fresh water shells, particularly the family of them denominated the ‘Naiades has rendered his transition to the study of extinct shells as easy, as we have no doubt it has been successful. Not that we are prepared to vouch, that out of two hundred and fifty supposed species, afforded by a single bluff, two hundred and nineteen are new, as Mr. Lea supposes ; though better means than we at present possess, add- ed to the well earned reputation of the author, must for the present restrain us from calling in question so extraordinary a discovery. The following is Mr. Lea’s table of contents ; viz. “ Tertiary For- mation of Alabama, New Tertiary Fossil Shells from Maryland and New Jersey, New Genus of Fossil Shell from New Jersey, Tufa- ceous Lacustrine Formation of Syracuse, Onondago County, New York :” although it must be remarked, that about two hundred pages are devoted to the first of these topics. ‘ The introduction embraces a rapid sketch of the developement and occurrence of organic productions in the earth’s. strata. Omit- ting his remarks upon the transition and secondary fossils, we com- mence our extracts with his explanation of Mr. Lyell’s denomination of the three periods admitted by geologists to exist in the Tertiary ; viz. the Pliocene period, the Miocene period, and the Eocene period. “ The first is derived from the Greek words xiv major and xaiwog recens, as most of them are recent species and of course of later deposit. This he subdivides into the Newer and Older Pliocene, in which M. Deshayes, does not agree with him.. The second Mio- cene, is, from ys/uv minor, and xouveg recens, there being here a:mi- nority of recent species. The third, the Eocene, is derived from jwe aurora, and xaivos recens, this being the dawn of the existing. state of the animate creation. Miscellanies. 415 In the lowest of these, the Eocene period there have been ob- served in Europe, one thousand, two hundred and thirty eight spe- cies; of which the very small number, of forty two, have been identi- fied with recent species. Of fossil species not known as recent, forty two are common to the Eocene and Miocene epochs.* It isremarka- ble too, that the living species are rarely the inhabitants of the shores of those countries in which they are found in a fossil state, inhabi- ting. now more southern climates. “‘ The next period of deposit, that of the Miccaxe,4 is a formation distinct in its characters from the London clay below, and the Eng- lish Crag above it. In it, M. Deshayes, has observed one thou- sand and twenty one species, one hundred and seventy six of which are found in a recent state. “¢ Superior again to this in the Pliocene period, we find the recent species comparatively abundant. Mr. Lyell, in dividing this into older and newer Pliocene, observes, ‘ the plurality of living species is so very decided.’ The former includes the Sub-appenine as and the English Crag ; the latter the Sicilian beds. Tt has been stated that forty five hundreths of the species found. in the English crag exist in a recent state ; while in the Sicilian beds, according to Mr. Lyell, ten only out of two hundred and twenty six are extinct, or unknown, nearly the whole of them existing at the present time in the neighboring seas. In addition to the marine reliquiz, the remains of terrestrial mam- miferous animals afford us, in the tertiary formation, a striking proof of the extraordinary change which has taken place. Of the nume- rous species, the remains of which are there found, none now exist. More.than forty of the Eocene mammifers, are referable to a division of the order Pachydermata, which has now only four living represen- tatives on the globe; of these not only the species but the genera, are distinct from any of those which have been established for the classification of living animals. ‘The mammalia of the Miocene agree in some of the genera with recent animals, and those of the Pliocene are an intermixture of extinct and recent species of quad- rupeds.” Superior and next to the tertiary is De ‘ Beche’s erratic block group, and above it, his modern group. ‘These two are embraced in Mr. Lyell’s recent period, and here are found to exist the remains eee * Principles of Geology, Vol. 3. p. 55. 416 Miscellanies. of those large animals, the mastodon, hippopotamus, megatherium, rhinoceros, &c. To this recent period, belong the causes which are now so evidently in action, and with which we are familiar, such as the formation of coral reefs and islands, deltas, travertins, active volca- noes, &c. “Viewing these changes the facts of which have been established by the united exertions of geologists, within a comparatively short period, we reflect with intense interest on the disappearance from our planet of an immense number of species, numerous genera and even some families ! “The cause of the vast changes which it is ‘evident to our senses have taken place, are among the most interesting which have engaged the attention of mankind. Theories of all kinds have been promul- gated, and little good has arisen from them, except that of the grad- ual development of facts, the accumulation of which has added to our stock of knowledge. It is said to be Fuchsel (a German geolo- gist,) who first asserted that the causes now in operation were suffi- cient to produce the changes observed in our strata. ‘ Similar changes may now take place; for the earth has always presented phenomena similar to those of the present day.’ Such is the remarkable lan- guage of the author, published about seventy years since. Very re- cently the theory of actual causes has been considered in England by some of her ablest geologists, as sufficient to satisfy the atten- tive observer. Mr. Lyell may now be considered as the leader of this theory, and the mass of facts brought together in his admira- ble work, would seem to be enough to satisfy the most sceptical. “The rapid change which is now going on in the greatest altitudes of Switzerland, points out to us the modes in which nature is opera- ting by decomposition, and the attraction of gravitation. When stand- ing on the borders of the Mer de Glace, and while crossing its fro- zen bosom, this operation was brought most forcibly to my mind. Every moment my ears were saluted with the sound, more or less distant, of rocks precipitated from some height into the abysses be- low, and which reverbated over this frozen sea. The time may come when the pinnacles of Mont Blanc and other mountains, which sur- round the beautiful valley of Chamounie, will have been precipitated to their bases, and the debris be so completely carried off as to leave, perhaps, that beautiful and fertile spot itself, the highest pinnacle of the country; a naked rock to be gazed at from a distance.. Miscellanies. 417 “ Perhaps the most difficult point to solve, is that which presents itself in the fact, that deposits in high latitudes contain animal and vegetable remains, presumed by analogy to be unable to exist in their temperature at the present period. A change in the earth’s axis, would, of course affect the temperature of its surface, but whether that can take place under any known law in a sufficient de- gree to effect such a change, has certainly not been established. Sir John Herschel, has supposed that a change of temperature might take place in the change of the es orbit of the earth, which becomes gradually more circular.” The Tertiary deposit in particular, which has formed so rich a har- vest for Mr. Lea, is situated at Claiborne, on the east side of the Al- abama river, about ninety miles in a direct line from the Gulf of Mexico. It was made known to him by Judge Tait, a citizen of that place, in January 1829, from whom he received samples before the close of the year, and in the year following, an additional supply, to- gether with some notices of their mode of occurrence. These would have been made public : at an earlier period but for the rege tet of Mr. Lea, with the’ examination ott recent shells. From Judge Tait’s ob ti this fe ion which at Claiborne, attains an elevation of two hundred feet, spreads ctor the whole of South Alabama, (its southern edge commencing about ten miles south of Claiborne bluff) and extends as it is believed through the whole of the States of Alabama, Mississippi, and ter- minates only in the Chickasaw Bluffs of West Tennessee. — The Alabama river passing under the bluff of Claiborne, reveals a fine section for geological observations, of which no doubt Judge Tait availed himself in the descriptions he gives of the successive strata. Beginning at the bottom we are first presented with a bed having the thickness of one hundred and twenty feet, which Mr. L. calls a soft calcareous rock, through which are occasional scales of mica and sprinklings of calcareous matter together with numerous fragments of shells consisting generally of Flustre, Cardia, Corbule, Ostre, Polute, Natice and Turritelle, but the fragments were too friable and imperfect to admit of more satisfactory determination. He hes- itates whether, upon this amount of information to include it in the Tertiary, or to refer it to an earlier origin. The next stratum in the ascending’ series, and which is closely related to the foregoing, is a more compact calcareous rock containing micaceous grains of dark green sand, a single and imperfect valve of a large Ostrea, a Teredo Vou. V.—No. 2. 53 418 Miscellanies. and some Flustre. It is only two feet in thickness. Above this rests the depository of the fossils described in such abundance in the pres- ent work. The bed is seventeen feet in thickness. It is composed of a loose, quartzy sand of a brownish color: the grains of which are small and angular, and so slightly coherent as to permit the extri- cation of the most delicate of its imbedded shells. The next stra- tum distinguished, is only about eighteen inches in thickness, consist- ng of a friable rock, easily separating into irregular pieces, and like the subjacent one, composed of quartzy sand ; but whose grains instead of being angular, are rounded, being held together through the inter- vention of carbonate of lime. It contains casts of several shells, among which were detected, Avicula, Venus, Crepidula and Tur- ritella, Above this, reposes a thin layer, two feet in thickness, com- posed of sand and shells slightly adhering by means of an argillo- ferruginous cement which imparts a reddish brown stain to the aggre- gate. The calcareous matter of the shells is so much decomposed as to render it almost impossible to remove them from the surround- ing matter. Avicula, Venericardia, Nucula, Venus, Teredo and a few others were noticed among its imbedded fossils, as was also, the Scutella crustuloides (Morton.) ‘This layer and the preceding are therefore with propriety believed to belong to the same epoch with the stratum so rich in fossils, upon which they rest. Superior to these comes on, at the depth of forty five feet, the formation, com- monly called in. Alabama, ‘the rotten limestone.” It is an indurated marl containing scattered masses of dark green sand, and contains Corbule, Nucule and some other bivalves which could be identified with fossils in the three lower beds. ‘“ A small and very thin Pecten with delicate ribs seemed the only shell which left its trace in a calcareous state. On each side of the fracture a silvery whiteness marks the deposit of this thin and fragile species. Su- perior to the present stratum, which may be considered as the cap of the Tertiary, is found the Diluvium of the country, forming a mantle about twenty feet in thickness, composed of sand and gravel mingled with clay. Mr. Lea, unhesitatingly refers the rich fossiliferous stratum and its superior members to the same period as the London Clay of Fngland and the Calcaire Grossier of Paris, remarking, that this deposit is composed of siliceous sand, while that of the London Clay is argil- laceous and the Calcaire Grossier is calcareous. It will therefore fall within the Eocene period of Mr. Lyell. Miscellanies. 419 The fossil stratum referred to, has afforded the author, only from the specimens sent him on four or five occasions by Judge Tait, more than two hundred and filty species, out of which seven are not referable to any known genus, and two hundred and ten species (besides nine species of Polypi) are not referable to any known spe- cies : and “ it is an extraordinary fact, that among the whole of them there cannot be, wish absolute certainty, a single species found to have its analogue in a living species. Some of the genera, are unknown on our coast; some are found only in a fossil state in Europe ;” and the author doubts whether a single species is strictly analogous to those of the Eocene period of. Europe, but nevertheless infers the identity of its epoch with that formation from the number of turrited shells and similar genera. Besides the shells there were found among the sand, shark’s teeth of several different forms, part of a claw of a species of Cancer, some fragments of a fossil similar to what Bran- der figures under the name of Palatium piscium, and the tooth, spine and vertebre of fish. Annexed, the reader will perceive is the list of the new fossil shells of this remarkable locality. eee POLYPI. mity MILLEPORADS. Louse: Bouéi. uclosii. Orbitolites | Hee iscoidea. Fami.y Y actiben: Turbinolia Maclurii. tokesii. Goldfussii. ee, crass’ ANNULATA. AmILy Dorsatia. Siliquaria Magee y Matpanta. Dentalium skeroatam, Gaty Serves. Spirorbis tubanella. rnata. Famity TUBICOLARIA. ~ Teredo simplex. MILY Sovenacra. Salecirese ae YARIA. Anatina Claitio¢nbtide. Famity Macrracea. Mactra dentata. Grayi. ygmea. -Famity Corsuea. ° Corbula Alabamiensis. Murchisonii. ib compressa Famity Lirnopaeéa. ne Sage petioles NyMPHACEA. Egeria nian inf veneriformis. 420 na. Egeria ovalis. + ..ph nana. Lucina compressa. papyracea. sive: 3 AAO Gratelupia Moulinsii. nor. ey 3 y ConcHz. Soc globosa. co * Hydii. ma. Vonehitaeaie| Pied’ Sillimani. rotunda. parva. Famity Carpiacga. Hippagus isocardioides.. Myoparo costatus. Famity Acaceka. Arca rhomboidella. Pectunculus Broderipii. m nor. ' deltoideus. ipsis. obliqua. Nucula Bedgewion peetuncalétes — ngniarti. ia. polchensiid. . plicata. . magna. carinifera. Miscellanies. Nucula a Sy ois Avicula Clabornensts ; y Pecrinipa. Pecten Deshaysii. yelli. Plicatula Mantellii. AMILY OsTRACEA. Ostrea semilunata. divaricata. Alabamiensis. cn Re CLASS 1 MOLLUSCA. ‘CaLyPTRACIANA. Fi jaa Claibornensis. puppet xX pygmma Infundibulum troshitornis: - Crepidula cornu-arietes. AMILY BULLAEANA. Bulla St. Hillairii. ayi. Famity Maaniana. Pasithea secale. umbeaa. ss : g tula. Biaibornensis. Famity NeviTacka. Natica striata. arva. minor. minima. gibbosa. semilunata. meg ae mamm Famity Pised Acteon punctatus. ' Tineatus. elevatus. melanellus. © striatus. ee Fam Scalaria plasitate cari sets q Delphinula plana pressa. ys SE Fam Solarium bilinestm Henr en elegans. cancellatum. granulatum. Orbis rotella. Planaria nitens. Turbo naticoides. nitens. ~ jineatea. Tuba-striata.. alternata. I sulcata. Turritella carinata. ineata. ' Fairy Canacirera. Cerithium striatum. Pleurotoma czlata. Lons alii, ayl. monilifera. Baumontii. esueuril. multiplicata. aa _ Fairy Ava - Rostellaria Lamarckii, — u Miscellanies. 421 Fasciolaria plicata. elevata. Fusus pulcher. Mortonii. decussatus. bicarinatus, Taitii. Pyrula cancellata. elegantissima. Smithii. Murex alternata. _ TA. vieri. y PurPuRIFERA. sichiitekss pulls. ormis. su ecot Buccinum Sowerbii. Nassa cancellata. Terebra eae ‘ omnes ven Faminy ‘Colnntsasia Mitra lnieatn, acilis. 422 Miscellanies. Marginella anatina. Anolax plicata. columba. Oliva constricta. crassilabra. gracilis. plicata Greenoughi semen. dubia. ovata. _— incurva. biplicata. atone ‘Alabamiensis.- Famity Coxvouvrs. elegans. Anolax gigantea. Conus Claibornensis. The new genera of Mr. Lra, it will be observed, are Egeria, Hippagus, Myoparo, Pasithea, Orbis, Tuba, and Monoptygina. That these innovations in nomenclature, and the still more nume- rous ones in the species, are destined to stand, unmodified, the test of future investigations, may perhaps excite a doubt in the mind of the cautious naturalist ; but we entertain too. high an opinion of the author, to believe for a moment, that he has been seduced by the idle ambition for imposing new names ; and we doubt not, if a farther de- velopment of the locality at Claiborne, and a more copious supply of specimens, shall demonstrate the inter-transition of some of his spe- cies, that he will show himself no less forward to relinquish, than he has, apparently, been, to propose. In the mean time, however, every geologist who takes an interest in the study of the fossiliferous for- mations of North America, will feel grateful for the very minute and faithful descriptions contained in this work, and for the exquisitely en- graved figures by which every one of his species is illustrated. We owe too, many thanks to the scientific curiosity and generous labors of Judge Tait. And we sincerely wish that other individuals in his section of the country would emulate his example ; and thus attract to their neighborhoods, the attention of the scientific through- out the world. It is safe to say, that Claiborne is, for the present, the most remarkable spot to the gonkigyt in Alabama, whatever may be its importance in other respects. The new Tertiary fossil shells from Maryland and New scgitede are as follows : Balanus Finchii, from St. Mary’s, Maryland. Mactra clathrodon, do. Acteon Wetherilli, Deal, New Jersey. Rotella nana, St. Mary’ : Maryland. Fusus pumilus, Miliola Marylandica, do. Miscellanies. 423 These are from that portion of the Tertiary mass, called by Mr. Lye tL, the older Pliocene Period, and were discovered about nine years ago by Mr. Joun Fincu. The new genus of fossil shell from New Jersey, is from the ereta- ceous deposit of Timber Creek. It falls within the family of Spher- ulacea of Blainville. It approximates most to the genus Saracena- ria of Defrance. Mr, Lea calls it Palmula, from its palmate figure ; the species is denominated sagittaria. The concluding contribution to geology, afforded by this volume, relates to a very recent Tufaceous, lacustrine formation, near Syra- cuse, Onondaga county, New York, observed by the author some years since, while travelling upon the canal. It first attracted his no- tice as lining the banks of the canal. He describes it as a calcare- ous marl of a whitish color, bordering on that of ashes, as friable and rather soft to the touch. It contained numerous perfect specimens, of the genera Lymnea, Physa, Planorbis, Paludina and Ancylus, all of which are analogous to the species at present living in the waters of that region. ‘The shells were completely bleached, and generally in an unbroken state. He crossed it on a line, east and west, of about two miles, but-its width and depth he was unable to ascertain. A deposit of the same kind was observed near Chitteningo, fifteen miles east of Syracuse, which the hydrography of the country pre- vents from being considered as belonging to that first noticed at Syr- acuse. Deposits of this kind are certainly worthy of every possible eluci- dation, both on account of their supposed variety, and the link they furnish us, by which to connect those more ancient and widely eXx- tended formations, with such as approach our own period, in the cir- cumstances of their formation. For the purpose of eliciting further information, we would state that a similar formation, containing not only the same shells, but also embracing occasional mixtures of car- bonaceous matter, resembling lignite or peat, exists in the immediate vicinity of Montreal, in Lower Canada. 5. New Work on Conchology.—Proposals have been issued by Russell, Odiorne & Co., Boston, for a treatise on Couchology, by Joux Warren. “This work will contain a comprehensive sketch of the most distinguished writers on Conchology, from Aristotle to the present day, and will form a complete history of the rise and progress of this delightful science. 424 Miscellanies. “Tt will describe the genera according to the Linnean arrange- ment, as well as the inhabiting Mollusca, with plates of the rarest of every genus, accompanied by descriptions. -“ The habitats of the most rare species will be noticed, with some proper directions to the student, for preserving and cleaning the shells, as well in this country as in foreign climes. “The genera as arranged by Lamarck and Cuvier, will be enu- merated, in order to assist the collector, to which a glossary will be annexed, compiled with great care from the most valuable and the rarest works on the Science in existence. The work will be printed on fine paper, in a quarto form, illus- trated by seventy two handsome lithographic drawings, and will be delivered to subscribers in a neat binding, at $4, plain plates, or $8 plates colored. “The plates for this work are original, drawn expressly for the purpose, and for accuracy of. delineation will be found to be equal, and in many respects superior, to those of any work ever published on the Science of Conchology. e 6. Ornithology.—Will speedily be published, Ornithology of the United States and Canada, by Thomas Nuttall, Vol. 2. Water Birds, 1. Vol. 12mo. 7. New Work by Dr. S. G. Morton.—Mess. Key & Biddle of Philadelphia, have just published ‘ Illustrations of Pulmonary Con- sumption, its anatomical characters, causes, symptons and treatment. With twelve plates drawn and colored from nature. By Samuel George Morton, M. D. pour to the Philadelphia Alms House, Hosnash &e.” This work illustrates, by accurate and beautiful colored plates, the progress of tubercular consumption, from the incipient stage to open abscess. The subject is further illustrated by the details of thirty four cases, embracing nearly all the known symptoms, morbid characters and complications of this disease. 8. Zoology.— Charles Lucien Bonaparte has commenced at Rome, a work entitled Iconographia Della Fauna Italica. It will be contained in 20 numbers in 4to, and will be illustrated by colored lithographic drawings. The price is three Roman scudi per num- ber, or, $60 for the twenty numbers.—Vat. Gaz. Miscellanies. _ 425 9. Recent Scientific Publications in the United States. Natural History of the Fishes of Massachusets, embracing a prac- tical Essay on Angling, By Jerome V. C. Smith, M. D. 12mo. pp. vii, and 400. Boston, Allen & Ticknor. Rambles of a Naturalist, by John D, Godman, M. D.; to which are added, Reminiscences of a Voyage to India. By Reynell Coates, M. D. 12mo. pp. 151. Philad., Thos. T. Ash—Key & Biddle. A Compendium of Natural Philosophy ; adapted to the use of the general reader, and of Schools and Academies. By Denison Olm- sted, A. M., Prof. of Math. and Nat. Phil. in Yale al 8vo. pp. xvi, and 336. New Haven, H. Howe & Co. _ A New Theory of Terrestrial Magnetism. (Read before the New York Lyceum of Natural History.) By Samuel L. Metcalf, M. D., member of the N. Y. Lyc. of Nat. Hist. 8vo. pp. v,and 158. New York, G. & C. & H. Carvill. The Philosophy of the. Human Voice; embracing its Physiologie- al History ; together with a system of Principles, by which eriticism in the art of Elocution may be rendered intelligible, and instruction, definite and comprehensive. 'To which is added a brief analysis of Song and Recitative. By James Rush, M. D. Second edition, en- larged, 8vo. pp. 432. Philadelphia, Grigg & Elliot. The American Almanac and Repository of Useful Knowledge for the year 1834, 12mo. pp. xii, and 336. Boston, Charles Bowen. Popular Lessons in Astronomy, on a New Plan, in which some of the leading principles of the science are illustrated by actual compar- isons, independent of the use of numbers. By Francis J. Grund. 4to. pp. 24. Boston, Carter, Hendee & Co. First Lessons in Algebra, designed especially for the benefit of Common Schools. By Ebenezer Bailey. 12mo. pp. 227. ton, Carter, Hendee & Co. An Introduction to Algebra, being the first part af a Course of Mathematics, adapted to the method of instruction in the American Colleges. By Jeremiah Day, Pres. of Yale Coll. Twelfth edi- tion, 8vo. pp. viii, and 332. New Haven, Hezekiah Howe & Co. The Geography of the Heavens, or familiar instructions for find- ing the visible stars and constellations, accompanied by a: Celestial — Vou. XXV.—No. 2. 426 . Miscellanies. Atlas, with a view of the Solar System. Illustrated by Engravings. By E. H. Burritt, A. M. Second edition, 18mo. pp. 342. . Hart- ford, I. J. Huntington. Contributions to Geology. By Isaac Lea, M. A. P.S., &c. Phila- delphia, Carey, Lea & Blanchard. 8vo. pp. 227, with 8 copper ‘plates. J Elements of Chemistry, with practical exercises, for the use of schools, by F. J. Grund. 12mo. pp. 301. Carter, Hendee & Co. Boston. Report c on the Geology, Mineralogy; Botany and Zoology of Mas- sachusetts. Made and published by order of the Government of that state: in four parts.—Part I, Economical Geology.—Part II, Topo- graphical Geology.—Part III, Scientific Geology.—Part IV, Cata- logues of Animals and Plants. With a descriptive list of the speci- mens of Rocks and Minerals collected for the Government. Illus- trated by numerous wood cuts and an Atlas of Plates. By Edward Hitehcock, Prof. of Chem. and Nat. Hist. in Amherst College. Am- herst, Press of J.S. & C. Adams. 8vo. pp. 700. Memoirs of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. New Series, Vol. 1., 4to. pp. xxxi, and 595. Cambridge, Printed by ‘Chas. Folsom. ‘ontents.— Discourse in commemoration of John Adams and Thomas Jefferson ; delivered before the sori Academy of Arts = sroeg et Oct. 30, 1826. By n.Th Kir d, Vice Pres. of the Acad s on — and the Se of fee in the United States, rela- ting more repr to the State of New Hampshire, begat some comparative views in relation to foreign countries, by J. E. Worcester, A. A. Il. A Table of the Longitude and Altitude of the Non vinok Degree in 42° 23/ 28’ of N. Lat. for every minute of the Right Ascension of the Meridian: With the corrections of the Table for a decrease of 100’ in oy Obliquity, and of 1000/' in the sas gah Latitude. By Robert T. Paine, A. A.S. On the Latitude of Boston. By Robert T. Paine, A. A.S. Y. Tables of the Present Value of a Life-Annuity at a age, according to Dr. Wigglesworth’s Bill of Mortality. By J. Ingersoll Bowdi V. Occultations and Eclipses, observed at Rehuaes Sk By W. Cranch nd. VI. Observations on the — Rates of Marine Chronometers. By W. Cranch Bond Vil. Remarks and Inquiries concerning the Birds of Massachusetts. By Thomas Nuttall, A. A. S. VIL. A peiictetes om from the year 1786 to the year 1829, inclusive, by Edward A. Holyoke, M. D., A.A.S. With a prefatory Memoir by Enoch Hale, M.D., A.A. S. Miscellanies, - 427 IX. Remarks on the Mineralogy and Geology of Nova Scotia. _ By Chas. T. Jack- son and Francis Alger. . Table showing the present value of the Right of Dower of a married woman in any Real Estate, provided she survives her Husband. By J. Ingersoll Bowditch. XL wows of a new Stand for a Reflecting Telescope, By Rey. John Prince, L. L. D., ae XII. Fasiiiee and Longitudes of several places in the United States, as deter- mined by Observation. By Robert T. Paine, A. A. S. XII. Tables exhibiting the number of White Persons in the ieee: States, cat we ate deduced from the last Census, by J. Ingersoll Bowdite V. Description of a ase ehs called a Gypsey, for spinning gis and Flax. By ee Treadwell, A. A . A Dictionary of the ne Language, in North America; by Father Se- hiwtian Rasles. With an Introductory Memoir and Notes, by pes Pickering, A. Statutes of the Academy—Fellows—Officers for the year 1833. Translations, and reprints of Foreign Works. The Elements of the Differential Calculus, comprehending the general theory of Curve Surfaces, and of Curves of Double Curva- ture. Intended for the use of Mathematical Students in Schools and Universities. By J. R. Young. Revised and corrected by Michael O’Shantiessy, A. M. 8vo. pp. xx, and 255. pieces Carey, Lea & Blanchard. The Elements of Analytical Goes $ cimprchendiie the doc- trine of the Conic Sections, and the general Theory of Curves and Surfaces of the Second Order. .By J. R. Young. Revised and corrected by John D. Williams, Author of “ Key to Hutton’s Math- ematics.” 8vo. PP- 288. Philadelphia, Carey, Lea & Blanchard. Elements of Geometry, “ J. R. Young, with additions by M. Eloy, Jr. An Elementary Treatise on Mechanics. Translated from the French of M. Boucharlat. With additions and emendations, design- ed to adapt it to the use of the cadets of the U. S. Military Acade- my. By Edward H. Courtenay, Prof. of Nat. and Exp. Phil. in the Acad. 8vo. pp. 432. New York, J. & J. Harper. eae Genera of Shells, with a Catalogue of Species. ‘Trans- lated from the French, by Augustus A. Gould, M. D. 18mo. pp. xiii, and110. Boston, Allen & Ticknor. Memoirs of Baron Cuvier. By Mrs. R. Lee (formerly Mrs. T. Ed. Bowditch). New York, J. & J. Harper. 12mo. pp. 197. 428 Miscellanies. An Introduction to Geology: intended to convey a practical knowledge of the Science, and comprising the most important recent discoveries ; with explanations of the facts and phenomena which serve to confirm or invalidate various Geological Theories. By Robert Bakewell. Second American, from the Fourth London edition, edited by Prof. B. Silliman. 8vo. pp. xxiv, & 479. New Haven: Hezekiah Howe & Co. 7 Philosophical Conversations: in which are familiarly explained the causes of many daily occurring natural phenomena. By Frede- rick C. Bakewell. With notes and questions for Review. By Ebenezer Bailey. 12mo. PP- xii, & 286. Boston : Carter, Hen- dee & . Astronomy and Generel. Physics considered with reference to Natural Theology. By Rev. Wm. Whewell, M. A., F.R.S., Fellow and Tutor of Trinity College, Cambridge, (being Siesta fl. of the Bridgewater Treatises on the Power, Wisdom and Goodness of God as manifested in the Creation.) 12mo. pp. 284. Philadelphia : Carey, Lea & Blanchard. On the Adaptation of External Nature to the Physical condition of Man, principally with reference to the supply of his wants and the exercise of his intellectual faculties. By John Kidd, M. D., F.R. S., Regius Prof. of Med. in the Univ. of Oxford, (Treatise II. of the Bridgewater Treatises.) 12mo. pp. 280. Phil. Garey 4 Lea & Blanchard. The Hand, its hieclienlics and vital indoneiaall as evincing de- sign. By Sir Charles Bell, K. G. H., F.R.S., L.& E. (Trea- tise IV. of the Bridgewater Testtiene) 12mo. pp. 213. Phil. Carey, Lea & Blanchard. 10. New and oaluable illustrations of the Zoology of Brazil.— Dr. Scurespers, of Vienna, has commenced a work devoted to the description of new zoological objects from Brazil, collected by the scientific corps deputed to that country by the Emperor of Austria. It appears that these naturalists, favored by the special protection of . Don Pedro, son-in-law to the Emperor, have visited several unex- plored districts of Brazil ; and as the fruits of their labors, have sent home an immense collection of natural objects, which, on account of its size and interest, has been made to form a new Museum or Cab- Misellanéés, 429 imet, called the * Imperial Brazilian Museum.” The proof number received is executed in a superior style, and consists of one sheet folio, and a single plate with colored engravings, contained in a loose envelope. It describes two beautiful species of Humming-bird. For the benefit of American naturalists and amateurs, we extract the following from the notice contained upon the envelope. The Editor, Dr. Scurersers, assisted by the collectors, discov= erers and curators, of the Imperial Brazilian Museum, proposes to publish the undescribed zoological objects collected in Brazil, in un- bound numbers, of the form and manner of execution of the proof number issued ; the descriptions to be according to the nature of the objects, in German and Latin, and illustrated by colored and uncol- ored engravings and lithographs. In order to diminish the expense to the cultivators of particular departments of zoology, the numbers which contain the objects of each principal division of the animal kingdom, (Mammalia, Aves, Am- phibia, Pisces, Insecta, Vermes, after the system of Linnaeus) will be sold by themselves ; and if they amount to a sufficient number to constitute a moderate sized volume, they will be bound up as an in- dependent work, and furnished with an appropriate title page. For the purpose of securing the greater precision and uniformity in the execution of the whole work, the editor has been induced to undertake, and to conduct upon his own responsibility, the edition, both the printing and the engravings ; but in consequence of the ex- pense of the enterprise, he finds himself compelled to demand it of the publishers, both domestic and foreign, that they interest them- selves in the undertaking ; and from them he waits for orders. The whole impression of each particular number, confined to one hundred and fifty copies, shall, as it is printed, be delivered to the book-trade, who may engage in it, for the amount of expenses incur- red by the publisher, which will not amount to more than one hun- dred and twenty, or one hundred and fifty, at the highest, to two hun- dred florins, (C. M. Augsb. Curst.) provided each number shall contain only one or two sheets of text, and the same number of plates : the book-trade affixing their own Price to the same, and in- curring the risk of the sale. The rapidity with which the’ numbers will appear, must depend upon the patronage of the book-trade. The materials now on hand will allow of the publication of oné or two numbers in each depart- ment of Zoology, the present year—Vienna, Sept. 1832. [C.U.S. 430 Miscellanies. 11. Important Work.—The work on Fossil Organic Remains, by Professor August Goldfuss, M. D., of the Prussian Univ. of Bonn, will be soon translated from the German, by Prof. Gerard Troost, M. D., of the Univ. of Nashville, Tenn. ; to nop he will add his own Notes on the Organic Remains of ‘Tennesse knowledge of fossil Organic Remains is sadly to the seerdy of Geology. No country is richer in these remains than the western part of the United States. I collected (says Prof. — large numbers of them during my geological excursions, but fou many difficulties in becoming acquainted with my acquisitions. The zoological works in my possession did not afford me much ream and 1 began to despair of surmounting these obstacles, when I be- came acquainted with the work of Doctor Goldfuss. [read it with delight. I found it an excellent guide, and with it many of my for- mer difficulties vanished. In my leisure moments I commenced a translation of it, at first merely to assist such of the students of our University as had a desire to become intimately acquainted with that part o Natural History ; but being in correspondence with its learned author, and accomplished editor, Mr. Arntz, of Dusseldorf, these gentlemen politely engaged to furnish me the original plates, and thus enable me to publish an English translation, if a sufficient num- ber of subscribers could be obtained. The Bulletin Dalene of M. de Ferrusac,* says, “ The under- taking of Dr. Goldfuss is certainly one of the most interesting con- tributions that ive lately been made to science. Placed at the head of a rich cabinet, having at his disposal the collection of Mr. Hoen- inghaus, a zealous and Jaborious naturalist, Dr. G. had it in bis pow- er to make us acquainted with the greatest part of the fossils of a country celebrated for the abundance and interest of the Organic Remains which are found in its formations. The plates and draw- ings are certainly the best that have been produced in any country, exact in the most minute details, without injuring the harmony o the ensemble. Dr. G.’s figures are all original ; not one is borrowed, except to complete a defective specimen. The text, he says, will give only explanations of the figures : he reserves the observations and devel- opments which may interest Zoology and Foalogy for another time.: but the author has done more than he promises The text a the figures of each plate, which are arranged in genera. The name of the genus is followed by a synonym, and by a short chasseceeitic phrase in German and Latin, and geological and geographical notices are subjoined. The first part, which was published in 1826, contains POLYPIFERS: the second part is pronounced by the Bulletin to be the most magnificent work on Nat- ural History that has ever made its appearance in lithography. * Paris, 1827; No. 12, page 399. Miscellanies. 431 The plates will be the same in the translation as in the original German publication. The translation of the text will receive the author’s latest corrections and additions, several pages of which have already arrived. | : As our object (says Dr. Troost) in offering this translation with the original plates, is not gain, but the promotion of science, and to aid oir own students in the study of Organic Remains, the price will be about the same as that paid in Germany. . This work will be published in folio, with pica type, on good large medium paper, in numbers, each containing from 100 to 110 pages, with 28 lithographic plates, and an explanatory text, at $8 per numi- ber, payable on delivery: there will be four Numbers. 12. Necrology.—Diep at Paris, Feb. 6, 1833, Pisrre AnpRe LatreILe, a zoologist of great celebrity, and one of the Professors in the Museum of Nat. Hist., at the Jardin des Plantes. He was born at Brives, department of Correze, in 1762, and from his youth devoted himself to the.study of Natural History. His labors have been chiefly directed to Entomology, in which science he has, for many years, had no superior. Cuvier, who entrusted to him the ex- ecution of that part of his Regne Animal, which relates to the Crus- tacea, Arachnides and Insecta, said of him that he had studied in- ‘sects more profoundly than any man in Europe. Latreille’s publi- cations are numerous, and of the highest authority. The earliest of which we have any account, (Précts des Caractéres Génériques des Insectes, 8vo.) was published in 1796. At the time of his death, he was engaged in the publication of his Cours d’Entomologie, the first volume of which®ppeared in the autumn of 1831. 13. Mineralogical School at New Haven.—it having been sug- gested that the materials, in cabinets, models and instruments, con- nected with Yale College, render this place peculiarly fit for the exact study of Mineralogy, Mr. Cuaries U. Sneparp, the present Lecturer on Natural History in the college, offers to afford private instruction to all persons who wish to obtain a knowledge of this sci- e will teach it, by lessons and recitations, as a branch o Natural History ; and, where it is desired, will instruct in the appli- cations of other sciences to the productions of the mineral kingdom ; and also in the applications of mineralogy to mines, metallurgy, and other practical arts connected with mineralogy and geology. Admission may also be obtained to the lectures on the various branches of Physical Science which are given in Yale College, and to its libraries. We beg leave to add, on our own responsibility, and without con- sulting Mr. Shepard, that he is eminently qualified for the under- taking named above. Being a very accurate mineralogist and 432 Miscellanies. crystallographer—possessing an excellent and select cabinet of min- erals—with habits of great industry—and with much zeal and urban- ity—Mr. Shepard renders himself a most useful and acceptable instructor. His friends may add, that his acquaintance with geology, conchology, botany, and entomology, and generally with natural his- tory ; with the aid of a very valuable library, and an extensive her- barium, as well as collections in conchology and entomology—pre- sents a combination of advantages rarely united in this country in a single individual. a school as Mr. Shepard would have it in his power to es- tablish, (and which is already begun,) is a great desideratum in the United States —Ep. Yale College, New Haven, Jan. 1, 1834. TO OUR CORRESPONDENTS. We have to regret the unavoidable exclusion from the present number of many valuable papers and notices ; and the acknowledg- ment of most of the books, memoirs, &c., both foreign and domestic, which we have recently received. This has been occasioned, chiefly, by the occurrence of the meteors of Nov. 13; the historical notices of which could not be postponed, and have occupied more than the space usually allotted to our miscellanies. Most of the latter, inclu- ding the valuable extracts and translations of Prof. Griscom, we have been compelled to reserve for the next number, when we hope to make, in some measure, amends for present omissions. _ We beg leave, however, to remind our friends, that we are not un- frequently placed in circumstances of painful embarrassment, by the uncertainty of our communications, coming as they do from a wide geographical range, at very irregular intervals, and often very late. Having perhaps (as in the present instance) admitted into the early part of a number,* papers of uncommon length—although it may be of great interest,—we not unfrequently, towards the conclusion, re- ceive, perhaps from unexpected and distant quarters, communica- tions which it is almost equally impossible to admit, or to postpone ; and we are driven to the alternative of incurring considerable extra expense which the pecuniary circumstances of the Journal can ill af- ford, or of causing painful disappointments. We particularly regret to pass in silence, on the present occasion, the new No. (No. 1. Vol. II.) of Mr. Doughty’s Natural History Magazine, interesting as it is in its contents, and beautiful in its exe- cution ; the figure of the wild turkey is exceedingly fine, and is rare- y equalled in any work.—Ep. 4 if We usually begin the printing of a new No. as soon as the one in hand is fin- — ished. ‘ INDEX TO VOLUME XXv. A. Aerial Navigation by os Strait, 15. Agaric mineral Bo of, 347. ve American Agav Bi varieties, 330. Algebra, Stredactios , 12th Ed. b eD Col. Ainereat Almanac, for 125, nalysis of a new sire ipettas, Lede- rerite, 78 ———square numbers, 87. Architectural tmiproetinonta, 304. Asaphus,—varieties of, rome ed ic oa} ohperyalones by Medi FF. artin Atlantic Geek; ae of, ie _ Atmosphere, currents of, 1 (eee ge eneral v view ‘of 128, 133 ——_———s ratification 0 a green ee white, localities of, 347, B. os Geology, 2nd. Am. from 4th. aes swee et, pink dye from flowers of 413. Barometer, causes of its fluctuation, 129. —— se in storms, 17, 120, at sea, 198. ——__—- ariations not nocomatty, connecte sat ‘with the fall of rain, 130. Barytes, ite locality of sulphate of, 346. Biela’s Comet, 1 Bota nical Notices of Midale Florida, 69. ogy of, 428. Bridgewater treatises British Association pg the advancement ~ of science, notice of its third meeting, y Rev. Caricogra Canals of Ohio, 241 ie acid bron oxide obtained free from, 344, asi ott obtained free from Carb. 344 phy, Prof. Dewey on, 140. hme ri fei shawl goat, Cham 1els of creeks and rivers in Ohio, a, cholera, notices of the, \Cire eville, ancient wo Climate as affected by currents, "188. ‘ina, 133, Coal formation, marine sont in, 199, —O Combu slibas, Samuel Morey on, "has Copeatiae of Nat. Philosophy, by Prof. Imsted, 214. Coacholory, new work o Co on new ipeeiia of fresh sea water, Crawe, Dr., a eet of Jefferson and St. Lawrence Cos. Croo . B., on Botany of ‘Middle Flori- da, Currents, counter direction of in Southern hemis| sphere, 121, 128. f the atmosphere, 124, 133. D. Dal Negro, Prof., Experimetll with Ele- mental Electromotors , 193. De Luc’ s, Dr. Hare, on con- struction of, 136 De Brucite, new locality of, 347. Building, various points to be observed in, 304. Di C. Caleareous spar, rhombic, locality of, 349. Caloric, a cause of gi Calymene Blumenbac ——-—~odon ocephala, 834 Vou. XXV__No. 2 serts caused by certain atmospheric 1 currents, Dewey, ricography, 140. ving Bells, descent in, 196. J. T., on Potassium and So- E. aly eg c currents, 269.||Eaton, Prof. A., on geology and meteor- ology w est of the Rocky Mountains, 55 434 Electricity, observations on, we in, 57. Electric phenomena produce i irlwind iad 127, 138. of, 193 x Epidem eho in Nat. History, foreign, 212. F. Felspar, new — - crystallized, 348. ing houses and in- 990. rida r Beolog: observ. on, 162. "luxional ra sas teeth of the ‘Elephant and Masto- of Ohio, ae eae. | Fourier, = Eulogy aa on Marquis de — Basket: shells of Alabama and Tenn. ” new specie Fur trade ar far bearing animals, 311. qa. Gaiekik new locality of, 350. a coast, 114. icharacter of, 1 Gazlay G yo Contributions to, by Isaac Lea, 413 — es of, as connected with the Moraie ‘history ¢ of the creation, 26. —of A ma, Florida and Gee. ob- 62. ocky moun Tass 351.| Geometry, Young’ s Elements of, 206. Georgics, prize for translation ol 197, Gibbs, Col. ree. obituary of, 214. Goat, ‘Cashmere, Goldfuss on Gees Remains Goodrich, Mr. Joseph, oleae phenomena Gr: pe Dr. A. d St. La rags ence Greeti Prof. Jaco =e ae ‘new species ) Ne rth Am. Trilobite, 334. ‘of Haw by whirl- pert: sécu 430. on raleanoes and INDEX. Honey bee, ee of, 213. urity of from fire =< Hutricanes, Lens of, 114, li j ———_-———- whir lwind, st felt < Alt. Gesscibine: 350. x |{nternal improvement of Penn. {ron as pro set copper from. es action 203. . micaceous oxide of, 350. ral, 350. —— pyrites, sicniinen, 350. —— red oxide of, 350. J. Jackson, Dr. on cca oma from Nova cotia, new species, 78. Sauseabins Prof, on ‘Moctic and Min. Ge- ology, fee Prof. W.R.,, on electrical expe- men Kupffer’s magnetic experiments, 194 L. Lalande’s Medals, 1 La geet M. Fourier’s haley on Mar- qui Latrile, obituary of, 431, Lede ae rspecies analy and de- eattel - Lenticular or ofLime, 346. Linnaeus, life of, 1 Lord, Eleazar, on = tectural, rural, do- mestic and other improvements, 304 M. Magnetic oxide of iron, 212.” on Mineralogy of j effersont Magnetism as affected by heat and cold, | | Matere; e,Count Xavia de, on Water Spouts, | Marietta, Wi. epee on, 217. is \Meade, Dr. obituary of, 215. |Mease, "D 8, on ee Agave and other Hare, Dr., on construction of De Luc’s| plants, for enrages calusniae 1 ‘Memoirs of Am. Ac ademy of Arts and Sci- Harmattan, charact er | ences of, 127. Hawaii, volcanoes of, by Mr. Joseph Good- rich, 199. ayes, A. A., analysis of Ledererite, 78. Helm win Hitchcock, Prof. on the meteors of Nov.| 833, on the Geol’y. ——-, Min’y,| Bot’y, and Zoory, of Mass., 436. 3, 426. be eee formula for establishing a true, M eteorological ours at Savannah, from © , to June Ist, 1833, 211. Metrology gon of the R Rocky Moun- _ summary of leading facts in, ‘122. INDEX. ie eors of Nov. 18th, 1838, 354, 363. Mica, pre oe ee Leys 350. sey Sie rnal improvement! ennsylva Mineralo ogy of Teftersths and St. Lawrence|| .Y., 346. Counties, Mineral Spring, Westport, 0., Mineralogical School ee New "Haven, 431. Mitchell, Prof. Thos +» proces: s for ob- taining carbonic Sais free fan. carbon-| ic acid, Monsoons, character of, 124, Petes tee prizes 89. Morey, Sa muel, on viegioe te » 146 Mosaic History 0 of the ation, as ¢ nected with the ‘iocevocies of beckogs: Motion of a system of bodies, 281. N. Natural History of fishes of Mass., 425 ———, foreign exchanges in, i scieiiny, 431. 0. Ohio, ten days in, 2 Olmsted, Pe “se Ds ‘Cotipenttim of Nat. Phil., Oriani, , Count Barbana, death of, 1 ee ee ig Un. States and Ce, uttall’s, Pe sbeeat a Black river, N.Y., 846. A : P. diepie “ oy honey bee, 218. Pargasite, aris, epidemics in Sa on Meteors of Nov. 18th, 1833, 435 re —_ by the Imp. Acad., Peters- 2 5 einer ‘rete: 189, ulmonary sige a new work by Dr. Morton on, 424. Q. ioe lao ie milky, new locality Qu ee “iterary and Historical Society, Trans. -|/Rain gage, Rambles me a mee t, 425. Redfield, on ‘gorse ase and storms of the W. Indies 8 the U. States, 114. ——_-—___—, facts in meteo rol- ogy, eet Report of the Hegonts of the University = 92 Legislature of N. Y., notice of, Roc ee Mountains, Be and Meteo- rology west of t Royal Soc. Landon,t prize - medals for 1836, Rupert’s drops,-194. S. turn’ aa ring: — and re-appear- 5 Prof., death of, 1 Se erpentine, noble, new locality ge Joga Shells, marine mS coal formati Shepard, C. U., — logy of ane, Georgia and Flor seh fruitless pine fine a for in Ohio, syd capoite i locality of, arpa, Sod ia ren wit Spouting Hit t mineral water, near Naples tes 197. Pasca rF:; obituary of, 216. aia in ee viatile shells, 257. ei vigse <= internal improvements of, e, H. Esq., sans for cordage, eg kt i Lie offered by the pepenal) 05. on the Agave and other| pies, ~“ are numbers, 87. teatite, toealty 6 of, 347. Storms, classification of, 1 od ction of, in pes fo, 119. ad 0 progres not in the direction of the fied 115. essential chai ott 117, 125. Academ —— phases of, 114, Phases of stents: — ery eam of, 1 wir tote of the none voice, by Dr.|| _———. hurricanes of ‘the West. and. and Un. States, 1 Phosphate of li lime, new locality of, 348. |/Strait, H., on aerial navigatio ink se the flower of the sweet ern Prof. T: fo the si ee a sys- balm m of bodies, beatin a azoturet of 205. with, Dr.-Ducatel on, 9 i Prize siedale i the Roy. rte London fos "Temperature of elevation, 125. 436 INDEX. na ke rature of the oceanic currents, 130. egtes cause of, 1 Ten days ~ a denn the diary of a nat- ur md t, ne on Saturn’s ring snd comet of iela Water, beset ts in buildings’as secu- rity in fires, 3 Terrestrial ic oe theory of, 4 - bers ae bec and character, 47, a strata of the U. St = new work Thorpson, Hon A., on vitality of toads in firm Sareutits, 41. Thunder storms, 128. Tides, Shanta of, 1 bran Sie d of, ‘nelness: in firm materi- este ‘Dr. enc *s experiments on, 187. Tourmaline, brown, 349. Trade — aeileuss character of, 124. be car of Lit. and Hist. Soc. Que- Trias, locality of, 346. w species of N. American, Typhoons, 121. Ma corinne fossil, Volcanic ashes, showeie ~ 129. Volcanos of Haw: W. pe air, mode of heating apartments by, Weat "Tadic, hurricanes and storms of, Whirlwinds, sd oe of, 127. e the essential’char- acter of all violent perme 117,125,129, —__—__——. excited by fires, 127. ae Ww. i. meteor ol. ouréal at Sa- Winds, characte and geo of, 125. | fy ervations periodical, 124, Witham n fossil vegetables, 108. Wood in gore fossi 1, 104 Wright, E. Esq., on fluxional r: atio, 93 Writing upon a metallic surface, perma- nent after fusion, 197. Xs Young’s Elements of Geometry, 206. Z. : nesville, O., remarks on, Zoology of Italy, new otk 4 om: b Chas. cien Bonaparte, 424. ois