. e
AMERICAN! DURNAL
OF
SCIENCE AND ARTS.
CONDUCTED BY
BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, M.D. LL. D
Prof. Chem., Min., &c. in Yale Coll.; Cor. Mem. Soe. Arts, Man. and Com ; and
For. Mem, Geol. Soc., London; Mem. Geol. Soc., Paris; Mem. Roy. Min
Dresden Nat. Hist. Soc., Halle; Imp. Agric. Soc., Moscow; Hon. Mem,
Soc., Paris; Nat. His Belfast, Ire.; Pll. and Lit. Soe.
Bristol, Eng.; Lit. and ik Soc., Quebec; Mem. of various
it. and Scien. Soc. in the United States.
n. Soe.,
t. Soc.
VOL. XXVIII.—JULY, 1835
NEW HAVEN:
Published and a by HEZEKIAH HOWE & Co, and A. H. MALTBY.
Baliimore, FE. J. COALE
& HART.
E & Co.—Philadelphia, J. S. LITTELL and CAREY
Ae York, G. & C. CARVILL & Co. and by G. S. SILLIMAN.
—oston, HILLIARD, GRAY & Co
PRINTED BY HEZEKIAH HOWE & CO.
LS ET ASE
104609
CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXVIII.
=—-o-—
NUMBER I.
the Rocky Mountains, &c., by Joun Batt, of Troy,
N. Z
II. Itinerary in Spain, in 1833, by F. Le Pray, Engineer of
mines. Translated by Prof. J. Griscom.
III. Notices of Egy pt—in a letter to the Editor from an Amer-,
ican gentleman, dated on the Nile, July 30th, 1834.
IV. Bepeximents with the Elementary Voltaic Battery, by
mes B. Rogers, M. D. Prof. of Chem., and James
Green, Philos. Inst. Maker. ;
V. Researches on Wines and other Fermented Liquors, by
Prof. Lewis C. Becx, M. D.
VI. Notice of the Meetings of the British Association for the
advancement of Science, in 1833, at Cambridge, and in
, at Edinburgh; in two parts.
VII. Of the Composition and Resolution of Forces, and Stati-
eal Equilibrium, by Prof. Tuzopore Strone.
VIII. On Shooting Stars, by Mr. Ex1as Loomis, Tutor in Yale
ollege.
IX. Observations on the Tertiary Strata of the Atlantic Coast,
by T. A. Conran.
x. so i Notices; by Lt. W. W. Banpe y, of
Quebe
XI. as of the Caroline Islands, from the Pie Univ. Ju-
iNet, 1834.
XII. Miscellanies. Recent discoveries in Chemistry and the
Chemical Arts.
XIII. Conduction of Water, by Prof. Cuester Dewey.
XIV. Synopsis of a Meteorological Journal, kept in New York
: in 1833 and 1834, by W. C. Reprrexp.
XV. Meteorological Journal, for the year 1834, kept at Mari-
etta, Ohio, by S. P. Hitpreru.
XVI. Divisibility of Matter, by E. Apams.
XVII. Botanical Communications, by H. B. Croom, Esq.
XVIII. The Mole Carnivorous, by SamveL Wooprurr, Esq.
*
Page
Art. I. Geology, and physical features of the country west of
lil
iv CONTENTS.
Page.
XIX. On the Geology and Mineralogy of Schoharie, N. Y., by
Joun GEBHARD, Esq. 172
MISCELLANIES.—DOMESTIC AND FOREIGN.
1. Cold of January, 1835. 177
2. Notice of extraordinary seasons of cold. 183
3. Abstract of Meteorological observations, taken at Penn-Yan,
N, ¥: 87
4, 5. Ancient Mineralogy, or an inquiry respecting the mineral
substances mentioned by the ancients, their uses, &¢.—
Elements of Chemistry, for the use of Schools and Acade-
mies. 188
6. Lyceum of Natural History, New York. 189
7. Observations on the Solar Eclipse of November 30th, 1834. 192
8. Recherches sur les Poissons Fossiles, par L’Agassiz; Great
work of Professor Agassiz on Fossil Fishes. 193
9. Visit of Prof. Agassiz to Mr. Mantell’s Museum at Brighton. 194
10. Specimens from Mr. Mantell. 197
11. Apparent loss of weight in the human body under certain
circumstances. 8
12. Vesuvius and Etna. 199
13. New Observatory at St. Petersburgh.—Information request-
ed respecting the variation of the Magnetic Needle. 200
NUMBER II.
Arr. I. Remarks on the Idolatry and Philosophy of the Za-
bians; by Joun W. Draper, of Christianville,
Mecklenberg Co., Va. 201
II. Ascent to the summit of the Popocatepetl, the high-
est point of the Mexican Andes, 18,000 feet above
the level of the sea, . 220
II. On the Resistance of Liquids to Solid Bodies moving
in them; by A. Bourne, 1
IV. On the Reality of the rise of the coast of Chili, in
1822, as stated by Mrs. Granam, 236
VII.* On Turnouts in Railroads with flexible moveable
Rails; by Tuomas Gorron, Civil Engineer,
* Articles V and VI, omitted in numbering.
Vil.
i
CONTENTS. ¥
Pais.
A new
d > “ i74 4
50 ce “ "
E w. Clondy. || 29
50 S.E. Rain. )
Meteorological Observations.
Noon. ; Wind. Weather.
b> stew —
54 N.W.
“ Ica
ys s. a “sgpe: ot a
“ oudy.
* ee
vs Ww Showery
“ he
“ ‘ ius
60 N.W Clear.
15 i ce f
‘ “ bee
65 Ww. Showery.
61 (74 . ce
60 ‘9 “c ;
65 i Cloudy.
61 “ oe
62 “ Clear.
65 S. m
67 8.W. Showery.
70 w. a
70 s.tow. Cloudy.
67 “ ee
65 “ “Clear.
68 “ “
715 8: =
“ce oe
70 “ cc
70 y Cloudy
71 S.E. Rain.
_ bs Showery.
June
Noon. Wind. Weather.
70 s.tow. Showery.
“ “ce te
“ a3 “ce
= 7 Cloudy
80 5 Clear.
6 E. to ss
¥s Showery.
3) 6 Cloudy.
76 = Clear
718 oc
92 “
95 ct “
88 “ce cc
88 ow cc
72 Clou udy.
55 be Thun. show Ts.
70 8. tow. Clou udy.
75 N.E. to w. Cheers
“ “ “
“ “cc oe
is3 ce af
a oc ce
80 “ a
70 % Cloudy.
“ N. a“
“c “e oc
“ “ rae
‘pt. ewe “
80 “ “
a
=
Ren nen NVQ enenenen@ms
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Pa a ie alle ole ath He ole shlalliat™ Pek he ole .t& fm Pe le sie alle sie one sh.
ad
QS Dt Oe Ot he Ge Ge
D> oe On ub en DEN e
VI wero
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isrieianiesceeneadimiealia oeeed
Meteorological Observations. 11
July. September.
n. Wind. Weather. |/Days. Morn. Noon. Win Weather.
BS Pleasant.) 1 52 65 wN.w. . Showery.
“ Clear. 2 E r “ it3
‘ube : scar = . Cloudy.
Wi d 79 r “
. 8.0% = F ; “ cc
3 “ “ i ‘
f 4 ) N. Clear.
s.z.tos.w. Showery.|| * 4 y “« «
“ce “ee 8 4 § ii “
) = Cloudy. 9 F § “ “
+ = a. # a
N.W. F r “«
) of Clear 9 F ae
73 le 4 7 4 — Pantone
“ “ 4 Fe iyo £
L w 4 5 50 ) Varies Cloudy
it 4 “ce ( r r “
) <
5 Thunder. || 17 7 “ t
RE. to Ww " } F “
N.W. Cloudy. ) 4 67 N.E Clear
N. Clear. ) J 72 cc “
‘
; ; 55 7d Varies,
F " i
s.w* P . is me
v “ 78 = Clou y
N.W. Cloudy. ) > NE “«
E. to W. Clear. 58 8.2. Ra
4 ia a ] , ) - Cloudy
) = ” FR ate Rai
4 62 N.W. Cloudy
4 N.E = ) 62 “ “
ac ce
August October.
2. d. Weather. |[Days. Morn. Noon. Wi eather.
Northerly. Clear. ] 56 S.E Cloudy.
fs ¥ 66 os Rain.
‘i ™ K 62 NW Squally
5 ty r 56 N.E Clear
' ‘13 iff F > “ ec
Southerly. Mt ( ( w. Cloudy
abs Cloudy. || ° co
Ss.Ww " § { E. “
“ce its i ) 5.E. eet
w. sal 0 " Rain.
Le is4 w. “ i
N.W. vt : } N.W - Cloudy.
) N.E. ce ii3 “
; : . : :
q i.3 ce )
N.W Cloudy ) E. ”
a “ee ) “ a
{ S.F. Ke ) F “ lear.
) ; “ 8.W :
j yea Clear. a - rare F
ce te “ is 3 oe
“a “cc ec “ ce ria
‘ “ ac ay ia ‘a3
t “c te ee ee ce
81 N.E. : _ t 8.E. Clear
:. « “ : 8. “
80- “G.w. Cloudy ; r S.W. Rain.
“ “ce 7 5 ‘
ss ee “ : ee ) as ccs
69 iid Showery ) 7 ) ity “
67 te Site “ ) “ “
12 Miscellaneous Facts.
Tlf. Miscetianrous Facts.
In answer to varioys inquiries addressed by the editor to Mr. Ball,
after the perusal of the foregoing communication, he has been so
obliging’ as to add the following notices which, we cannot doubt, will
add to the interest of his valuable paper.
Events, Commencement and Motives of the Journey.
Mr. Ball left Baltimore, March 27, 1832, and passed by the rail
road, and national road to Brownsville on the Monongahela, thence by
steamboat to the Ohio, and then down that river, and up the Mis-
sissippi and Missouri, to Lexington, in the State of Missouri, where,
he and his companions arrived April 29. He did not describe the
countries, whose geological sections are so well exhibited on the rail
roads and the rivers, because it has been done by others. — Leisure,
a strong desire to roam, especially to see the vast and untamed re-
gions of the utmost west and the solemn ocean-barrier of the im-
mense Pacific, rather than motives of personal advantage, induced
him to unite himself to a party of adventurers, who were about to
cross the Rocky Mountains.
On the 7th day of May, 1832, says Mr. Ball, we, the twelye who
crossed the continent, with about as many more, who started with
that intention, joined ourselves to a trading party of about seventy
men, headed by a Mr. Wm. Sublette, and commenced our march,
crossing the line of the State, of Missouri on the 13th, as stated in
my communication. The whole band of horses and mules used for
the purpose of riding and packing goods, amounted to almost three
hundred. We marched and encamped in the usual way of fur tra-
ders, always prepared to act on the defensive ; and after being out a
few days, subsisting entirely by the chase,—were, one night, on the
mountains, fired upon by the Black Foot Indians, and lost some hor-
ses; and at another time, had a battle with Indians of the same tribe,
when five trappers were killed. On the Lewis and Columbia, we
subsisted chiefly on Salmon—at one time, we had nothing for four
or five days, except for the two first days, some small fruit—but we
had horses with us, and of course, ran no risk of starvation.
The difference of longitude between St. Louis and the mouth of
the Columbia, is about 34°; therefore, by making an allowance of
about 7° difference of latitude, with the diminished distance between
the parallels of longitude, I estimated the direct distance to be
about eighteen hundred miles. The entire distance which we travel-
FS ee rn ee
Miscellaneous Facts. 13
led with horses at two thousand miles, while my companions con-
sidered it much greater; the distance up the Missouri and down the
Columbia, travelled by water, at seven or eight hundred miles;
therefore the whole distance travelled, from St. Louis, was about
twenty eight hundred—one thousand more than the direct distance.
The distance I travelled by land, was, in all, say five thousand, and
by water, twenty thousand, equal to twenty five thousand, or the
entire circumference of the globe
Rocks, Springs and Physical features.
As to the rocks, you have, I presume, specimens from the Sand-
wich or Society Islands ; for, although I have said that there is no
appearance of craters, on the continent; still the general aspect of
the rock, is often precisely the same as in those Islands—black po-
rous masses of a specific gravity little less than granite—is it not
amygdaloid? The basalt on the Columbia more resembles the
specimens of the Giant’s Causeway, than the rock on the west of
the Hudson, the Palisadoes, and that near your residence at New
Haven. In fact, all the rocks show much stronger marks of igni-
tion. I brought a few small specimens, which I wish you could
see. I saw no currents of lava, or masses flowing through vallies,
unless the columnar basalt, resting, sometimes on sand, along the
Lewis and Columbia rivers, are to be considered such. I saw no
pumice stone, but what I spoke of as cinders or scorie, would per-
haps, be better described as resembling almost precisely over burnt
brick or earthen ware. At the top of the deep ravines through which
the creeks ran, the rocks sometimes presented that appearance, as
though it there underwent the greatest heat. I do not recollect that
I saw any dykes or walls of trap or lava or basalt, presenting an ap-
pearance as though intruded through other rock, or any voleanic cra-
ters or balls or lips of eruption-shapes or forms, except Mount Hood,
&c. Learnestly wish it were in my power to describe the country
so that you could see it, for it is well worth seeing.
The rock often had a vitrified appearance, and although not ex-
actly tumefied, it presented pores of all dimensions, even to the ca-
pacity of twenty gallons; these cavities are of a kettle form—and
the rock that was burnt differed as much from that which was not,
as burnt brick or earthen from the clay from which they are made,
or glass from the silex. Sometimes! thought the rock to be basalt,
which, on the slightest examination, could be seen to be, at least in
14 | Miscellaneous Facts.
places, as evidently mica slate, or granite or sandstone, as though it
had not equally strong marks of ignition. Did not the whole undergo.
this change from heat, when under water? May not a country under-
go a baking or hardening, the gases escaping through crevices and
fissures, without forming craters.
As to streams and springs, we often met with brooks of a size to
carry a flour mill, coming out of the cavernous rock ; they were of the
usual temperature of the water at the same season in the rivers, and
except along one creek, we saw but few springs, that were remarkably
warm. On this they were very abundant, gushing out of the cav-
ernous bluffs, at the temperature of 100°, and in sufficient quantity
to warm the water of a creek forty yards wide, so as to render it
unpleasant to drink—I saw no jetting springs, or those Wittiars
m gas.
The whole country over which we travelled,? for more than a
thousand miles before reaching the ocean, presents these appearan-
ces of ignition, with the exception, perhaps, of one eighth part of
the rocks. The soil was in most places barren, till you approach
the ocean, for there is*not a sufficient quantity of water retained
near the surface to promote vegetation, the soil being porous, and
the supply of rain is small.
Cultivation of Land—Departure.
In March of 1833, having no opportunity to leave the country,
except by recrossing the mountains, and not knowing what might oc-
cur in the course of six months, I procured seeds, implements, &c. of
the Hudson Bay Company, went up the Multnomah river about fifty
miles from the fort, where some of the Canadian French, and_ half
breeds had commenced farming, and with the help of one American
and an Indian, enclosed some prairie ground, built a log house and
raised a crop of wheat—and would have remained in that country
could I have had.a few good neighbors: as associates, for I did not
feel inclined to fall into the customs of the country and become
identified with the natives. Therefore on application to the Com-
pany, about to send a ship to the Sandwich Islands, in the ensuing
October, I obtained a passage—for the company were, in this, and
in —— thing, polite and accommodating. Of the twelve who reach-
ed the Columbia, one died, three re-crossed the mountains, the oth-
ers, except myself, went tosea in the Pacific, or into the ——
of the Company.
MR a eee
Miscellaneous Facts. 15
The North Western Coast.
On the 18th of Oct., 1833, we sailed from the Columbia river, for
California. ‘The coast is bold and the country immediately back con-
sists principally of broken mountains, clothed with trees at some dis-
tance down the coast, but before you reach the Bay of St. Francisco,
the country becomes prairie. So the continent below the latitude of
40° appears to be entirely prairie from the Pacific to Missouri, Ar-
kansaw and Texas; with the usual exception of timber growing, oc-
casionally, on the rivers and mountains. Mules have been bought
in Upper California and brought to the American market.
The country about the Bay of St. Francisco, is beautifully diver-
sified with hills, mountains and plains, with occasionally a clump of
trees; on the plains, graze immense herds of horses and cattle both
wild and tame. The rock, as far as observed, was supposed to be
Serpentine. The climate was delightful, for the range of the ther-
mometer, during most of the month of Nov. was from 52° to 58°, and
the sky serene—and it is said they never have frost, although in the
Jatitude of St. Louis, Cincinnati and Washington. ‘The tempera-
ture at sea till we reached the trade winds, was from 50° to 60° ;
then it gradually rose till, at the Sandwich Islands on the first of Jan-
uary 1834, its range was from 70° to 77°; I was informed that it
sometimes rises as. high as 85°. ‘The greatest range is proba-
bly about 15°, the air being always tempered by the breezes from
the sea, producing a delightful climate.
Features of Oahu.
As you approach the Island of Oahu, you behold high and pre-
cipitous mountains of curved, spiral and fantastic forms, rising to
the height of from three to four thousand feet, and as you ap-
proach nearer, you will see rising from the plains along the coast, to
the height of a few hundred feet, crater-formed hills, which although
now clothed with grass, are of as perfect symmetry as they were when
emitting lames. About one mile back of Honolulu, the principal
town of these Islands, rises one of these craters, called the Punch
Bowl ; you at first ascend over a gradual slope where you see coral
rocks partially burned, elevated some two or three hundred feet above
their original place at the level of the ocean. Then the ascent is
more abrupt, winding by a zigzag path, till one stands ona rim of
rock, and before him sees a beautiful grass-clad basin, of about half
a mile in circuit, surrounded by a similar rim, except at one place,
where it is broken away to the depth of the basin.
16 Miscellaneous Facts.
Volcanic and Coral Rocks.
Not a fragment of rock was found at this or the Island of Tahiti,
except what was volcanic or coral, and none is said to exist in those
seas. Did the waves of the ocean once roll from America to China
and New Holland, without an islet to interrupt their course, till the
coral insect raised up its circular wall, from within which, the volcano
burst forth? For, the low coral islands are generally of a crescent
or circular form, and around the mountainous islands are found coral
reefs. ‘The Sandwich and Society Islands are all mountainous, each
cluster containing about ten islands. In crossing the equator, and
generally between the tropics, the same phenomena were observed
on that side, as observed by Humboldt on this. The temperature
was from 80° to 83°, the currents of the water and air were west-
ward, but the upper strata of clouds show the wind above to be in the
opposite direction. The temperature of the water was generally 81°.
Society Islands.
The approach to the Society Islands, presets a truly romantic
appearance, and when we reached their reefs and sandy shores,
shaded with cocoa trees and backed by varied and rich vegetation,
we could feel no surprise at the delight of the seamen, so often de-
scribed. Still, the number of the natives is said to have diminished
one half in twenty five years, although the climate appears not un-
healthy ; but the generous natives of these numerous islands, pass away
as do those of the American continent at the approach of Europeans.
Passage around Cape Horn—Arrival.
We passed Cape Horn the first of May; when above lat. 50°,
we had frequent squalls of snow and hail, but it froze only once, and
then when directly off the Cape, the water was at 43°, while the air
was from that down to 32°, and extremely damp, the sun being, at
noon, but 17° high in the north.
We hear much of the uniformity of the Trade winds, but in that
ocean the winds above 30° of N. and §. lat., appear to blow almost
as constantly from the west as the trades from the east. There is
always a difficulty in getting from the Atlantic into the Pacific, but in
returning, the wind, as uniformly, favors the navigator. That ocean,
from its extent, gives the winds their natural play, let the reason of
their courses be what it may. Stopping at Brazil, we reached Nor-
folk on the 16th of July last, and this place on the 22d, and observ:
ed, in this ocean, similar phenomena to those seen in the other.
Extracts from an Itinerary of a Journey in Spain. 17
Art. Il.—Extracts from an Itinerary of a Journey in Spain, in
the spring of 1833, containing a sketch of the actual condition
and future prospects of the mining industry of that country; by
F. Le Puay, Engineer of mines. Translated by Prof. J. Gris-
com.
_ Unrit very lately, Spain has remained almost entirely without the
circle of observations which have described with so much precision,
the physical character of the greater part of Europe. Nevertheless,
the numerous chains of mountains which so decidedly characterize
its surface, and produce such singular variations of climate ; the rec-.
ollection of the mineral treasures extracted from its bosom at various
periods, and in fact the relations of travellers who have visited the
peninsula, sufficiently prove that the study of this country must be
highly interesting to the naturalist, and that the miner especially
may derive from it the most useful lessons. The causes of our ig-
norance of the natural history of Spain are easily perceived : politi-
cal events have not allowed the nation to share in that progress
which has been impressed upon the sciences, since the close of the
last century, in the other countries of Europe. It may even be said
with truth that during the greater part of this period, its scientific
institutions have experienced a gradual decline, which the zeal of a
few enlightened and isolated men has not been able to withstand.
Spain, therefore, has been unable to yield her contingent to the
mass of observations which forms the basis of a complete descrip-
tion of the European continent. Learned foreigners have scarcely
taught us any thing with respect to the Peninsula ; and while numer-
ous travellers have been exploring the most remote countries, and
erecting distant posts for a grand geological triangulation of the sur-
face of the globe, all seem to have forgotten that there exists in
Europe a country which in some respects is scarcely less known
than the least frequented portions of the old and new continent.
If the Pyrenees have hitherto been the barriers which naturalists
have but rarely overleaped, it is doubtless owing to the frequent
accounts which they have heard of the difficulty of travelling, and
the dangers which foreigners must experience in the midst of so im-
perfect a state of civilization. But these obstacles, which have been
much exaggerated are daily diminishing: in the Spanish part of the
Peninsula, the most important a are now connected by good
Vol. XXVIII.—No. 1.
18 Extracts from an Itinerary of a Journey in Spain.
lines of communication. For several years past, Madrid has main-
tained a regular correspondence with most of the provincial capitals ;
the road from Bayonne to Cadiz, is as good as any on the continent,
and might be travelled with the same celerity as the best regulated
roads of France, if old customs and unfounded fears did not oppose
the travelling by night. The time. is doubtless not very distant
when Spain will become the most interesting portion of a continen-
tal journey, and will take from Switzerland and Italy the supremacy
which they have su long enjoyed.
The retrograde march of this country in internal improvement, has
within ten years been arrested. Her mining industry, especially,
has been very instrumental in effecting this pacific revolution.
Spain has been celebrated, for many ages, on account of her min-
eral riches. Next to Italy, Pliny regarded this country as the most
beautiful province of the Roman Empire. He relates that in his
day, mines of Jead, tin, iron, copper, silver, gold and mercury were
explored to a great extent. e Moors, who were no miners and
who rarely ever employed hewn stone in the construction of their
edifices, gave no impulse to this activity, but yet they continued in
operation several mines in the west of the Peninsula. But the con-
querors of these people destroyed almost every vestige of this spe-
cies of civilization, and the discovery of America gave a final blow
to the art of mining in Spain. With a view to favor the search
after the precious metals in the new world, the king of Spain inter-
dicted by severe penalties, the working of mines in the Peninsula,
reserving only an exclusive privilege which they sometime hired to
individuals.
The quicksilver mines of Almaden, hase produce was absolutely
necessary to the exploration of the precious metals in New Spain,
remained almost the only ones in operation, and sent every year to
Mexico, from five to six thousand quintals of mercury. About the
middle of the last century, a quicksilver mine in Peru, having be-
come exhausted, a fresh activity was given to those of Almaden,
which extended the annual production to eighteen thousand quin-
tals. Various causes, however, chiefly political, again interrupted
the mining progress, so that in 1820, with the exception of Alma-
den, the iron mines of Biscay and a few ssa the search for met-
als was in a state of complete neglect. :
The country, however, about this time, became awakened to the
danger, and on the 4th of July, 1825, a mining law was enacted,
Extracts from an Itinerary of a Journey in Spain. 19
agreeably to the report of Don V. de Elbuyar, which placed the
mineral enterprize of Spain, upon nearly the same basis as that
adopted by the Legislature of France.
These liberal provisions soon produced happy fruits, ad in the
kingdom of Grenada in particular, private industry effected, in the
course of three years, the most unexampled results. The popula-
tion of the mountainous country of Alphajanes, which since the ex-
pulsion of the Moors, had lived in a state of extreme misery and de-
moralization, was suddenly aroused from its apathy, in learning that
an odious monopoly had ceased to exist, and ardently directed its at-
tention to the lead mines so abundant in that country. Success
surpassed the most extravagent expectations. In a few months,
some of the poor peasants, whom good fortune had favored, found
themselves in possession of a handsome property. Researches
were multiplied almost infinitely, and in 1826, more than thirty five
hundred mines had been put in action in the Sierras of Gador and
Lwar. In midsummer 1833, I was informed that more than four
thousand shafts were sunk in the single Sierra of Gador. Prior to
1820, the royal establishments, which alone, had the privilege of
smelting the ores which they bought at the price the government
chose to fix, produced only from thirty to forty thousand quintals, of
lead per annum. In 1823, that is three years after the earliest en-
terprizes, the production arose to five hundred thousand quintals.
In 1827 the period of the greatest prosperity, the production of this
metal rose to the enormous quantity of eight hundred thousand quin-
tals. Since that time, it has remained nearly stationary.
This prodigious developement of industry in so short a_ period,
made a great sensation in Spain, and it is difficult to form an idea of
the ardor with which all classes of society directed their specula-
tions to mining operations. Every one seemed to think he had only
to dig into the earth to discover an inexhaustible treasure. Unhap-
pily, the want of knowledge, more than lack of capital baffled the
greater number of these enterprizes. It was not with impunity that
Spain had withstood, during thirty years, the progress of science in
the rest of Europe.
The sudden developement of mineral wealth in the kingdom of
Grenada had, however, greatly enlightened the government. They
plainly perceived it to be their interest to combat the prevailing
ignorance, which had so long kept concealed the the source of so
much wealth. All sorts of encouragement were given to the art of
20 Extracts from an Itinerary of a Journey in Spain.
mining: ‘Two schools were created, one at Madrid, the other at
Almaden. Many pupils were sent to the school of Freyburg in
Saxony, to study the art of mining as practised in that part of Ger-
many, and doubtless it may be expected from the new turn of affairs
in Spain, that pupils will be sent to collect new light in other schools
not less celebrated nor less respectable.
Many distinguished men who had been banished from Spain in
consequence of their politics, had turned their attention, in foreign
countries, to mining and other arts of wealth and industry. The
greater number of these were recalled, and demonstrated that they
had turned their exile to a useful purpose. One of them, Mr. Val-
lejo who acquired in the schools of Paris a taste for mineralogical
science, has been appointed to furnish a geological description of
Spain, and is now engaged in fulfilling his appointment. Al de
Erlorza, an officer of Artillery, after studying the modes of working
iron among the bloomeries and furnaces of England, Belgium,
Hartz, Piedmont, and France, has been appointed to introduce the
best of these methods into Spain ; and the rich iron ores of Mar-
bella and Pedroso, (Andalusia) are now treated in well erected
works, in which this skilful engineer has adopted the most recent
improvements to the local condition of that region. ‘These improve-
ments have extended to Galicia, and will doubtless, by degrees, reach
the various localities in the north of Spain.
During the short period just adverted to, the exploration of other!
mineral substances has also received a new impulse. The produc-
tion of mercury in the country of Almaden, is again increased; the
ancient copper mines of Rio-Tinto, quite neglected during the free
importation of copper from the western side of South America,
have been pushed with activity since the revolt of the colonies.
The powerful deposits of Calamine at Alcaraz, in the eastern part
of La Mancha are now worked with success. The lead mines of
Lanares in the kingdom of Jaen and of Talsete in Catalonia have
furnished notable results, notwithstanding the formidable rivalship
e Sierra of Gador. In the environs of Oviedo in Asturias ex-
tensive mines of coal, which unhappily are not within reach of the
coast, send their products, in increasing abundance, to the metallurgic
establishments of the Andalusian coast. In the same province, but
in a more favorable situation near the river Aviles, a company is be-
ginning to explore the same coal formation. These mines, whose prin-
cipal galleries open upon the sea coast, are preparing to export their:
*
Extracts from an Itinerary of a Journey in Spain. — 21
fuel; and there is no doubt that these will soon arrive in the harbors
of the Garonne, the Charente and the Loire, and that the mines of
Aviles are destined to a high state of prosperity. In another part
of Spain, the little coal fields of Villa-Nueva-del-Rio, situated eigh-
teen leagues above Seville, are wrought with increasing activity, and
furnish a good combustible for the steamboats, which now perform
the route from Seville to Cadiz in twelve hours.
One could not expect to find in Madrid, those scientific institu-
tions and fine collections, which in the other capitals of Europe, enable
the naturalist to take a general survey of the productions of the va-
rious provinces. ‘There is nevertheless, a, cabinet of natural history
in which the mineral kingdom is represented by specimens of great
richness, and derived both from the Spanish mines and from the South
American Colonies. Unhappily, this collection is in the state in
which the science of Charles III. placed it. Latterly, the govern-
ment has created at Madrid a school of Mines, several parts of which
have been furnished in a very sumptuous manner. ‘The direction
of the mines, however, has not yet realized the hopes which had
been expected by the erection of this school. It is difficult to bring
young men together who are sufficiently conversant with the ele-
mentary branches of science. The pupils are besides, deprived of —
the very indispensable means of instruction both of a good library
and of collections of ores and machines: in these respects, every
thing is yet to be done.
The large village of Almaden, situated on the crest of those rich
veins, which have rendered this country classical to every miner, re-
minded me of the villages of Zellerfeld and Clausthall in the Hartz,
identified like those in the mineral beds which gave rise to their erec-
tion. Almaden resembles the Hartz also in the German manners
of its inhabitants, gradually introduced at various periods :—thus,
after wandering for a month in the midst of a civilization which I
could scarcely comprehend, I found myself happy in meeting on the
confines of La Mancha, among the miners of Almaden, the 4d
fraternal feelings which revived the agreeable recollections 4
journey, which I had made three years before, in the north of
The mines of Almaden, situated in the province of La Mancha,
near the frontier of Estremadura and the kingdom of Cordova, ex-
hibit as great activity and industry as the most celebrated of M6?
Hartz, of Saxony and of eas
22 Extracts from an Itinerary of a Journey in Spain.
They were worked at a very remote period, since, according to
Pliny, the Greeks obtained vermillion from them seven hundred
years prior to ourera. ‘T'he same author tells us they were also
worked by the Romans, and that Rome drew anny: from them
one hundred thousand pounds of cinnabar.
I found the business of the mines in the most leushind situation.
At the period of the year when the laborers are the most active,
more than seven hundred workmen, who succeed in each in three
different divisions of the twenty four hours, are employed in the va-
rious subterranean labors ; two hundred more work on the surface, in
extracting, transporting, &c. Numerous muleteers are constantly
occupied in carrying the mercury to Seville, and in bringing back
to the mine, iron, wood, powder and provisions of all sorts. The
veins are so productive that notwithstanding that the operations have
been carried on during so many centuries, they have not yet attained
a depth of three hundred metres. In the workings now going on at
the bottom of the principal vein, the mass of ore, which is free from
unproductive portions, is from twelve to fifteen metres thick: and
this thickness is still greater at the point of intersection. The
whole mass of the vein is taken out and immediately treated in the
distilling furnace, without any kind of mechanical preparation. It
yields ten per cent of mercury, but the medium production is prob-
ably considerably higher.
Mercurial ore is obtained, not only i in the mines just spoken of,
but at a great number of points, in the direction of a zone which,
passing through Almaden extends, like the principal veins, from
east to west over a length of two myriametres, from the village
of Chillon to beyond Almadenejos. This last village is itself the
center of important mineral operations. Several mines, in the neigh-
borliood, furnish ore like that of Almaden: they formerly were very
productive, but the old veins being nearly exhausted, little is doing
now except in extending the research. 'The furnaces of Almaden-
ejos are fed, almost exclusively, by an ore recently obtained on the
east of the village: it is a black schist, strongly impregnated. with
metallic mercury, and in which very little cinnabar is visible.
These ores are treated in thirteen double furnaces called Buy-
trones in which the reduction is effected by the Spanish process and
in one large quadruple furnace, recently constructed on the model of
that of Idria. * The enclosure containing the metallurgic works of
Almaden, includes eight Buytrones with the Idrian furnace. The
five other Buytrones are at Almadenejos.
pace aca
ad
Notices of Egypt. 23
' The pleasure which the activity of this region affords to a miner,
is not without alloy. The mercury exerts a baneful influence on
the health of the workmen, and it is painful to see with what eager-
ness, young people in robust health, contend for the favor of expo-
sing themselves to the risk of severe disease and often of premature
death in these mines. The population of the Almaden miners ex-
cites a lively interest. They are recruited, principally, in the villages
of La Mancha, of Estremadura, and even of Portugal, whose inhab-
itants come over, in crowds, to seek for employment, in the intervals
of agricultural labor. It furnishes excellent workmen for the mines
of Estremadura, who labor faithfully for the most moderate wages.
Those travellers who are so prone to brand the Spanish people with
the vague accusation of idleness, must have drawn their conclusions
from the exterior of some of the villages, where misery and beggary
have a tendency to brutalize the manners. ‘They might have found
in Estremadura, in the lowest ranks of the social scale, an active and
laborious people, retaining all the energy of the conquerors of Peru
and Mexico, and exhibiting all their virtues whenever the means of
exercising them are brought into activity—Annales Des Mines.
Arr. IIl.—Notices of Egypt—in a letter to the Editor from an
American gentleman, dated on the Nile, July 30th, 1834.
The Barage.
My Dear Sir,—I have just come from examining one of the
greatest projects of the age, and have been thinking that some no-
tice of it might be interesting to the readers of the American Jour-
nal of Science. Any one who sails but a few hours on the Nile,
will have proof of the great value of irrigation, to these lands. . Ar-
tificial means for raising the water are in use along the whole stretch
of the river, and wherever they are found, a, beautiful speck of garden
and shrubbery mixed with large trees, are the accompaniments :
where such means are not used, the country is quite bare of vegeta~
tion and as uninteresting as possible. Indeed, with the present ac-
eumulation of rich soil all over the valley of the Nile, the several
irrigations of the country during the floods, must be quite as useful
to the soil, as the mud deposits. If, by any means then, the river
could be raised so as to put it in the power of the farmers to lead the
waters over the whole surface of their lands, at all seasons of the
24 Notices of Egypt.
year and in any quantities, it must be evident, that an advantage
would arise to the country almost beyond the highest powers of com-
putation. Such a project, Mahomet Ali is lsat to execute. I
have seen nothing any where that will compare with it, in vastness
and probable utility, or that, considering all the circumstances, has
required more boldness in the undertaking.
You doubtless recollect, that of the seven branches by which the
Nile formerly discharged itself into the sea, two only remain, those
of Damietta and Rosetta, and that the point of separation is about
fifteen miles below the city of Cairo. I must now refer you to the
accompanying plan of the improvements, which is from one furnished
on the ground, by Monsieur Lenon, the chief Engineer.*
A represents the river before branching: 66 the Rosetta, and cc
the Damietta branch. It is proposed to make a dam across at E
and e, sufficiently high to raise the waters to the level of the banks,
and as the valley land immediately adjoining the Nile, as well as the
Mississippi and Ganges, is higher than that more remote, it is evi-
dent, that if the stream could be brought to such an elevation, it will
be an easy matter to carry it to any part of the interior districts, both of
the Delta and towards the mountains. In effecting this however,
very great difficulties present themselves. Not only is the bottom
of the Nile composed of loose and shifting materials, but the banks
are also composed of a loam so friable, that as we are now dropping
down the stream, our attention is constantly drawn to the plunging
of the earth on either side, as it is undermined by the increasing cur-
rent. Any attempt to build a dam, as is done in our country, would
be immediately followed by a washing away of the banks and con-
sequently by a loss of labor; the slight nature of the materials, re-
quires that they should be treated with the greatest tenderness. The
engineer commences then, by digging the canals FF and.ff, each
1300 feet in width and 32 feet deep, being a few feet deeper than the
bottom of the river itself: a cross slip L, J, being left at the upper
end, till the workmen are ready to admit the water. Across these
canals at G and g, a dam is to be constructed, 41 feet in height and
128 in width or thickness, with sluices sufficient in number and size
to admit of the passage of the entire river. When these are com-
* A reference to Bouriennés Life of Napoleon will shew, that the idea is not ori-
Mahomet Ali: it is not newerer the greatness i the conception, but
~
~
;
Notices of Egypt. 25
pleted, the cross strip at L and / will be removed and the streams,
taking a straight course through the larger channels, will leave the
present beds M and m, nearly or completely dry. Piles will now
be driven into the mud, and on them the dams E and e, will be con-
structed, the former 1000 feet, and the latter 820 feet in length,
each 34 feet in height. Canals, with locks, will also be made at H
and é forthe passage of boats up and down the stream. I and [are
canals uniting into the larger one K, which will afterwards branch
off into an infinity of others, and irrigate the whole length and breadth
of the Delta. Others may also be led, in a similar manner, towards
the deserts. At K, are gates for checking the admission of the wa-
ter, when this is necessary.
You will see at once, that it is a prodigious undertaking ; but per-
sons in our country, can scarcely form an idea of the difficulties that
are to be surmounted. It is, as Mon. Lenon, justly observed, as if
he were to commence operations in the Lybian desert itself. He
Vou. XXVIII.—No. 1. 4
26 Notices of Egypt.
finds nothing ready to his hand: every thing must be constructed.
As we passed over the ground, we found them in one place making
carts, in another wheel-barrows, while the whole process of grinding
grain and making bread, must be prepared for and carried on, on the
ground itself.. The piles must be brought from other countries, and
the stones of which five millions of cubic metres will be needed, are
to be transported from the quarries back of Cairo, a distance of about
twenty five miles; they have been thinking of constructing a rail
road for the latter purpose, but this has not yet been decided upon.
Mon. Lenon the Engineer, deserves great credit not only for what
he has-already done, but for several circumstances in which he has
consulted the comfort of the workinen, to a degree very unusual in
this country. When the canal ftom Alexandria to the Nile was dug,
some years since, a large part of the laborers perished from famine
and disease. No pay has ever been given for such work, till the
present occasion. Mon. Lenon, has prevailed on the Pasha, to al-
low 36 paras (43 cents) per day, to each full grown laborer, and we
found them erecting houses for sleeping and also hospitals for the
sick. Their provision costs them 6 paras daily, which is deducted
from their pay: a laborer on a farm throughout most of the German
empire, gets but 4 or 5 cents, exclusive of his food, so that in so
cheap a country as Egypt, this may be considered a handsome al-
lowance. ‘hey work from sun rise to sun set, with an hour at noon
for rest, and at the end of 2 months are exchanged for a new set of
workmen. The ground was broken about 3 months since, 6000 men
are employed on the Rosetta side, and 4000 on the other branch:
Mon. Lenon says that if he can get men enough, the work will be
completed in 3 years, but, as matters go, he will probably not be
able to finish it in less than 6'or 7: at present, the only utensils in
use are a rude hoe for loosening the earth, and a basket, with which it
is conveyed on the head and thrown down the bank.
It is a pity, that there should be a dark spot on so fair a project,
but it should be added, that the workmen are a most distressing set
of objects to contemplate. When a requisition is made, the head
man in each village selects the number demanded. Thasack tied
by the neck, in companies of a dozen or more, toa pole, and are
thus driven to the ground. We found them in groups of from 10
to 40, each with one or more drivers, and according to the disposi-
tion of those men, their pace was a slow walk or a trot: the drivers
carry a whip and make abundant use of it.
Notices of Egypt. 27
The place is called Barage, and it is in contemplation to build a
city there, to be laid out after the European fashion. They w
acquire immense water power, and intend to erect mills and manu-
factories of all kinds, and Grand Cairo, will, doubtless, find at the
Barage, a formidable rival. The whole is now under the superin-
tendence of Mahmoud Bey, late Governor of the former city, and,
next to him, of Mon. Lenon the only engineer. The latter is a
Frenchman, and is self-taught, but a gentleman of great skill and
acquirements. We found Mahmoud Bey in his rich striped tent,
and were entertained by him with the greatest hospitality ; bemg serv-
ed with fruits, confectionary, coffee and tobacco, in ‘pipes set with
diamonds. He is the wealthiest individual in Cairo, and from his
appearance, I should think Mon. Lenon would find him an agreea-
ble coadjutor, although several of the Beys, from jealousy or ignor-
ance, have tried to throw every obstacle in his way.
Before dismissing the subject, I will add an interesting fact, com-
municated by Mon. Lenon, that in their digging here, they have
found bricks, at the depth of sixty feet from the surface of the
ground.
Canal of Mahommadie.
_ This is another of the great works that shew the expansive mind
and enterprizing genius of the present sovereign of Egypt. Fif-
teen years ago, there was a scarcity of grain in Europe, and an abun-
dance in Epypt; but the shallows at the mouths of the Nile embarras-
sed the government in its attempts to supply the market. Mahom-
et Ali then conceived the plan of a canal for the river, to the port
of Alexandria. He sent his soldiers into the country; the natives
were driven down in crowds, and in a few months, more than one
hundred thousand men were at work, along the course which his
engineer had selected. They had not even hoes, except to break the
hard upper ground ; when they came to the softer parts, it was dug
out by their fingers, worked into balls, and passed from hand to hand,
and thus, in the course of two years, a canal was finished, which
has few to rival it in any country. It is fifty miles in length, about
six feet in depth and will average about eighty or ninety feet in
width. ‘The waste of human life was prodigious. No provision
had been made for the workmen, and between twenty and thirty
28 Notices of Egypt.
thousand* of them died along the bank from famine and similar catises ;
their bodies were stripped and tossed upon the bank, and the earth,
from the canal formed their covering. There are no locks, but there
is a gate at either end to check the current, which the risings of the
Nile would otherwise occasion. It is now the only route of inter-
course between Alexandria and Cairo, and is thronged with boats of
all sizes, which use sails when the wind is fair, and are drawn by men
when itis not. Those for passengers have a fore and after cabin,
and would be comfortable enough, were it not for the myriads of bed
bugs that infest them: cockroaches also swarm in them, but these
are harmless things.
This canal follows, pretty nearly, the line of the one dug by Al-
exander the Great, till it comes opposite to Damanhour, when it, un-
accountably, makes a great bend towards the south and reaches the
river a few miles below the town of Fouah. The engineer, (a na-
tive) made another blunder in the levelling, by which the canal is
nearly dry, during the two months when the Nile is at the lowest.
I was informed at Cairo, that it is in contemplation to construct a
rail road from the Red Sea to Cairo, and that contracts for the ma-
terials have already been entered into, with some houses in England.
A canal was first thought of, but the engineers were found to relin-
quish this design ; it is said, on account of the great difference in the
level of the two places, but more probably on account of the sandy
nature of the intervening district. The natives are much opposed
to the rail road, as it will interfere with the employment of their
camels in the portage, but are predicting its, failure from the same
cause, the floating sands.
; The Nile.
Beautiful indeed, was the appearance of this famous river, as it
first opened to our sight. We had got well tired of the high black
banks of the canal of Mahommadie, when a grove of masts announ-
ced its termination ; we passed next through the village of Safr,
whose houses are too miserable, even for the word hovel: we ascend-
_ *It is difficult to get at statistical Pee in this country. Mon. Lenon told 44
that sixty thousand workmen were employed, and that twenty thousand died:
eman of veracity, at Ridden dria, who saw the work in progress, informed a
that one hundred and fifty thousand men were employed at it, and that thirty thou-
sand perished said the Pasha of Menduf alone, drove down fifty
=e
Notices of Egypt. 29
ed abank, and from its top looked down, upon a broad mass of moving
water. This wasthe Nile. In America, you meet with rivers eve-
ry where, and they scarcely excite a sensation of any kind. Along
the Mediterranean, however, they are so rare, that they become one
of nature’s greatest wonders, and the sight of a large stream is really
a gratification.
The Nile is about as wide as the Connecticut at Middletown : the
deepest boats I have seen on it, would require five feet water: the
one in which we ascended drew about four, and yet we frequently
grounded: in our descent, we gave ourselves up to the current, and
thus, keeping more in the channel, we got along better. At this season,
there is, regularly, a strong breeze up stream from morning till late
in the evening: boats ascend by aid of sails, and unless they are in
a hurry, descend simply by the force of the current. The water of
the Nile, for drinking, deserves all the encomiums that have been
passed upon it. It is agreeable to the palate, and so light and inno-
cent, that, although we have used prodigious quantities of it, no one
has been injured: the wealthier natives, after letting it settle, keep it
in thin bottles of porous unglazed earth; these are put in cool pla-
ces, and all drink indiscriminately, from the bottles themselves.
The river is now rising and is about half flood, the water of a deep
yellow color; last year it did not reach the usual height, and it is
feared this will be the case the present year also, although the rise
began earlier than usual.
I have amused myself, whenever we have stopped, at a perpendic-
ular bank, with examining the stratification of the earth. Whena
fresh vertical fracture or break is made, it is easy to trace the depos-
its of each successive year, by means of a lighter earth on the top
of each, and when a bit is taken into the hand it may be easily made
to separate, at those lines, into cakes; but on close examination, the
edge of each of these will be often found to be marked by very del-
icate thin lines, parallel to those where the separation has taken place.
I have, several times, been struck with the strong resemblance
between these delicate lines and those which you and I saw in the
coal at Maunch Chunk and Wilkesbarre. Judging from these strata,
the yearly deposits appear to vary very much, but will average a
little more than a quarter of an inch. This corresponds also with
what Mr. Trail, the superintendant of Ibrahim Pacha’s garden, on
the Nile at Cairo, told me he considered the average deposit.
I have put up specimens of the stratification, and hope to have the
pleasure of presenting you with some of them.
30 Notices of Egypt.
Mahomet Ali,
may be considered the greatest sovereign of the age ;—he is well
worthy of a notice even in a Scientific Journal. We can scarcely
travel a mile through the country, without finding some marks of his
restless enterprize ; and much of this is on a very magnificent scale.
The port of Alexandria is filled with his Men of war, the large
ships, being all of one hundred guns or more ; several more are on the
stocks, and the keel of another has just been laid with religious cer-
emony, the Pasha himself being present among the crowd. Alex-
andria itself is rapidly improving ; the Pasha is erecting a number
of large houses on the Pirspean” plan. Next, we come to the ca-
nal of Mahommedie, lined for some miles, with the new summer
houses of his officers. Near the further end of it, at Fouah, is a
large Cap Manufactory, erected by Mahomet Ali: proceeding up
the river we come, at intervals, to his immense granaries: the works
at the Barage have been noticed: a little higher up, on the left
bank, are the royal palace and gardens of Shubra, the latter* like
a work of enchantment: from this, an avenue of Carobe trees keeps
along the river the whole way to Cairo, a distance of about three
miles: approaching Boulac the port of Cairo, our attention is drawn
to a number of buildings with high chimnies, from which the smoke
is puffing, as if we were in the neighborhood of Birmingham or
Sheffield. They are the Pasha’s Cotton manufactories, and Iron
founderies, and are said to be but a smal] part, of what havesprung up
within a few years, under this powerful magician. We went through
one of the manufactories and found them just putting into operation a
twenty horse steam engine from London. The large columns, sup-
porting the second story of the building, were of cast iron, and the
looms, of which I counted more than a hundred, were of the same
material. It was curious to find this, and alsoa cotton printing estab-
lishment, anda factory of machinery attached, all in active opera-
tion, and to see the half naked Arabs darting about in their several em-
* The superintendant of this garden is an Arab; he was sent by the Pasha to
France, and spentsix years on an experimental farm, near Marseilles. Walking
through the garden, we came to a very pretty spot, paved in Mosaic aS" bie
pebbles es, and having a kind of canopied throne in the
** This,” he said, “ is Mahomet Ali’s i orite spot. That pear tree, you see dh onthe
corner, is from his native town in Albania, and was some here ei his own hands.
He often takes that seat Serey OF opposite, be fond of watching its
growth,”
Notices of Egypt. 31
ployments.. They are very apt at the business, and appeared to be
cheerful and contented. In addition to the foundery at Boulac, the
Pasha _ has also extensive iron works in the Citadel at Cairo, where
he is able to manufacture one hundred muskets per day : this man-
ufactory is also in the most active operation. He has also, schools
preparatory for civil service, as well as for the army and navy, con-
nected with his palace in the citadel, and has just formed the nucleus
of a large establishment of this kind at Toura, about ten miles
above Cairo, on the right bank of the Nile. Add to this, that his
standing army of eighty thousand men is well disciplined and well
provided, and that his fleet of eleven one hundred gun ships and as
many frigates afloat, is in excellent order, while his dock-yard is
large and richly stored—recollect the struggles of Mahomet Ali,
first with the Mamaluke Beys, then with the prejudices of his own
subjects, and lately with the Porte, and I think you will be surprised
at the genius and enterprize of the man.
In strong contrast, however, with all this, is the condition of his
subjects. This is most pitiable; I have no where seen so much
abject misery, He makes them till every foot of cultivatable ground,
takes from them the fruits of their Jabor and fills his grana-
ries, allowing them only a bare sufficiency to live. The condi-
tion of a slave on one of our southern plantations is far better,
in every respect. There are no schools, and indeed -I could not
hear of a single effort to raise or improve the condition of the
people: every thing is of a contrary tendency, and with fine active
forms and quick capacities, they are the most abject set of beings
any where to be found. They hate the Pashas, both Mahomet Ali
and Ibrahim, most cordially. Now really, this is not beginning re-
form in the right way—but I have not time to reason, I wish simply
to give you facts. Mahomet Ali, however, does not fear his sub-
jects. His army is effective and is strongly attached to him. When
recruits are wanted, he sends his soldiers into the country, and a suf-
ficient number is forced from their homes and driven down like so
many beasts. At first, they pine and submit unwillingly to the dis-
cipline ; but in a short time, they begin to like the new life, and soon
after, have no other home than by their flag. The Pasha has
three children living, but they are young, the older ones having
been all carried off by the cholera. Ibrahim Pasha, who is the
son of his favorite wife, but by a former husband, is to succeed him :
this prince’s ambition is all directed towards military affairs.
32 Notices of Egypt.
Mahomet Ali is about 67 years old, but bears his age very well.
He is a little below the middle size, very stout, and to the sight un-
wieldy : but the eye is deceived, for his active mind allows little rest
to the body. A rebellion broke out in Syria a fortnight since, caus-
ed by opposition from the natives to his conscription system: in a
few days, he was among them, and he has already effectually put it
down. His forehead is large and rough: his eye, always in motion
and very keen, with a deep wrinkle running upward from the outer
corner. The nose, what may be called beaked, mouth falling at
the corners and garnished with a splendid white beard. The ex-
pression, when he smiles, is pleasant, but at other times, it makes a
man feel as he would do when standing near an open barrel of gun-
powder. His officers and attendants, however, are attached to him,
and he is said to be fond of playing with his children. His mind
seems to disdain attention to little things, for at our presentation, we
found his audience room in the new palace’at Alexandria, plainly
ornamented, and the chandelier in the middle of it, with one of its
branches broken off.
Coal Mine at Carnayl on Mount Lebanon.
Sept. 12.—In connexion with the improvements under the gov-
ernment of Mahomet Ali, it may be interesting to learn, that a bed
of coal, has recently been discovered at Mount Lebanon, and that
his agents, under the guidance of an English gentleman, of suffi-
cient skill, are now exploring it with all the energy that the nature
of that region of country will admit. It is about three miles north
of the great road, leading from Beiroot to Damascus, and about
eighteen miles from the former city. I intended, in a recent visit
to Damascus, to turn aside and examine it, but was prevented by
circumstances beyond my control, I learned, however, at Beiroot, that
they have carried their investigations to a considerable extent, and
I believe, with satisfactory results. In answer to my inquiries in one
of the cotton manufactories at Cairo, they told me that trial of this
coal had been made in their steam engine, but that, although it
burnt well, it did not produce sufficient heat. This, however, was
immediately after the mining had been commenced, and they hoped
for better results, when the workmen should penetrate further into
the bed. I have now some of the coal lying before me: it looks
as well as any coal I have seen, and, on trial, I have found it burns
readily and with a clear yellow flame: if an opportunity offers, I
Experiments with the Elementary Voltaic Battery. 33
will send you some of it, and will beg of you to give it a better
trial.* The coal now used in the Mediterranean, I believe, is all
brought from England, and should this turn out to be an extensive
bed of good coal, the advantages to the neighboring regions will be
immense. Cornay] is in quite an elevated situation, probably, four
‘thousand feet above the sea, and, although the country between, is
extremely rough, yet by following the windings of the ravine, on
the edge of which, the mine is situated, a rail-road may be construct-
ed at no very great expense: such a thing, I understand, is now in
contemplation, _
P.S. [have ju just seen a letter from Mr. Brattell, the agent at a
mine. He says, it is situated, as far as he can judge, in Lat.
56’ N. Lon. 35° 53’, and that the bed of coal is from three feet two
inches, to three feet four inches in thickness, and that they are
pushing their investigations above and below this spot. He thinks
he has also discovered strong indications of coal on the eastern side
of Mount Lebanon, and has little doubt that lead may be found on
the same range. In digging for coal at Carnayl, they have brought
a bed of iron ore to light: indeed, in asscending the western side
of Lebanon, the oxides of iron ores mingle so largely with the na-
tive rocks, as to leave no doubt that this mineral may be procured
in very large quantities.
Arr. IV.—Evperiments with the Elementary Voltaic Battery ; by
James B. Rogers, M. D. Professor of Chemistry, and James
Green, Philosophical Instrument Maker.
No subject of scientific investigation has produced more detailed
observations, or excited a greater degree of philosophical curiosity,
than Electricity. The past century has been most fruitful in dis-
coveries connected with this subject, and it has now become one
of great scientific value. The successive accumulation of facts, as
collected by different observers, and the general laws which have
been deduced from them, give to it an interest, which can be ap-
preciated only by those who, devoted to similar pursuits, are ena-
bled to estimate the importance, sometimes, of a great number of
minute circumstances. It will, we think, be readily acknowledged,
* It is the black bituminous coal, of a good quality.— Ed.
Vou. XXVUI.— 5
34 Experiments with the Elementary Voltaie Battery.
that a close attention to these circumstances becomes necessary in
all experiments with the elementary voltaic battery. Entertaining
this opinion, our attention was particularly directed to the phenom-
ena displayed by different modifications of this arrangement, as de-
tailed in Vol. xxvii. No. 1. of your valuable Journal; by the Messrs.
W. and H. Rogers. Strongly impressed by the novelty of some of
their observations, we determined to engage in a series of analogous
experiments, modifying and extending them as the circumstanses
seemed to suggest. |
The galvanometer which we ea throughout all our experiments,
as a measure of electrical effect, was similar in every respect, to that
described by the Messrs. Rogers, and the solution in which the
plates were immersed consisted of sixty parts of water, and one of
sulphuric acid, by weight.
rst observations .which we made, had reference to the
relative importance of the two metals zinc and copper, in the galva-
nic element; and these closely sii decion with those made by
the above named gentlemen.
In order to guard against any sources of error which might arise
from the immersion of additional fresh surfaces at different depths,
and also the moistened surfaces when successively withdrawn, we
preferred using separate pieces of the requisite size, so as to admit
of entire immersion, and the results were the following. The first
column indicates the successive intervals of time, elapsing from the
first moment of immersion of the plates, to that at which the angu-
lar deflection is observed.
Copper 4 sq. in. surface. Copper 2 sq. in. surface.
me. eo . me 4 .
a 0° 42° V’ 3° If oa6r
9 AS i . 38 or a7 | repeated g, 91
a 44 P26. od Ohne i ae ae
4 41 J” repose 0 ag a ee | en ae
2. It will here be seen that a much greater effect is produced by
a large copper than a large zinc; but in order to compare these re-
sults with those obtained by Messrs. Rogers, with the use of slips
immersed to different distances, we repeated their experiments, but
in such a manner as to avoid the error arising from the constantly
progressive decline, which followed successive immersions.
From what follows, it will be noticed that a real, though slight,
augmentation of effect is produced by a considerable increase of
zinc surface, the copper remaining constant.
a 1S a
Experiments with the Elementary Voltaic Battery. 35
Copper constant at 8 inches, Zine dipped to
in. in. in i
in. - 5 im.
oe 30° 32° 33° 34°
7 2 29 31 32 33
These experiments were several times repeated, so that all the
effects of decline, as arising from successive immersions, might be
observed, and still we found an uniform increase of effect to arise
from an enlarged zinc surface.
3. The relative quantities of the two metals were now varied,
and the order of the observations alternated.
Copper constant at 3 inches, Zinc dipped to
gin. Zin. Sin. Sin. 3in. fin. Jin. 3in. Sin. Bin. , ;
Ke as ape sera Leo 10° 9° 84° 94° “TORS 1OR° 94° 8E9
4. We now returned to the use of plates, cut to a size, proper
for entire immersion, as in the first experiments.
opper constant at 3 sq. inches.
zinc 2 sq. in. z. 16. Z. 2. x. 16. Ze 2. z. 16.
a? 53° 62° 53° 66° 55° 67°
These results, which are selected from our record of similar ones,
compel us to differ from the Messrs. Rogers, in thinking that an
increase of effect is produced by a decrease of zinc surface.
5. In the next set of experiments which we prosecuted, we
were desirous of determining whether the constant decline which
we observed to accompany repeated immersions, had relation, most
to the changes effected in the copper or zinc surfaces.
Copper and zinc, each 3 square inches, which had been previ-
ously used.
Copper and Zinc A.
after 5’ interval. again, after 5’
] 70° 69° 0'
2. 68 64 58
3 66 62 54
New copper with zinc A. New zinc with copper A.
1. 94° . 50°
2. 86 2. 50
82 3 47
The above zinc and copper, named new.
36 Experiments with the Elementary Voltaic Battery.
6. Similar experiments with another set of metals, that had also
been used before.
Copper and Zinc B.
after 5’ interval.
i: 65°
2. 62 60
3. 60 5T
4, 59 56
New zinc with copper B. New copper with zinc B
. i:
2. 43 2. 100
3. 40 3 93
Above copper and zinc, named new
My 90
BY 5 1 BF
o.= 86
From these results, we think it is clearly shown that the decline
is to be attributed principally to the copper. Indeed, in none of our
experiments have we observed an increase of effect from substituting
anew zinc in place of one that has been previously used, but on the
contrary, as above, a sensible decline. But on the other hand, when
a new copper was introduced, there was always a great increase of
effect.
While engaged in these experiments, we discovered that metals
of the same size, differed in the amount of their deflecting power,
and accordingly we became desirous of ascertaining to what cir-
cumstance this might be attributed. As it could not escape notice
that there existed a diversity of surface in plates, even if taken from
the same mass, it occurred to us to try what effect would be produ-
ced by altering the surface mechanically, and by the action of chem-
ical agents. The results now obtained were remarkably striking,
and show in a very interesting manner the importance which be-
longs to the surface in the developement of Voltaic electricity.
They also seem to teach us that the estimate which we had _hereto-
fore attached to new and clean metallic surfaces in voltaic plates
arose from the want of a sufficiently minute attention to the circum-
stances under which the surfaces were contemplated, as well as in
confining our observations too exclusively to the zinc.
Experiments with the Elementary Voltaic Battery. 37
7. The first experiments on what we may conventionally call the
character of surface, were made with two zinc plates, which had
been previously used.
Zinc me l. 85° permanent deflection.
ce 2, ce ‘
The surface of zinc No. 1. after being filed and brightly polished,
gave 75° repeated 74° permanent deflection.
Zinc No. 2. after exposure 2’, to the action of a strong solution
of sulphuric acid and water, gave
85° repeated 78°
It appears from these and other observations, which we have
thought it unnecsssary to detail, that the deflectory power of the
zinc is but little altered by changing the character of surface.
‘But the most interesting observations connected with this part of
our subject, have relation to the changes induced in the copper sur-
face. ‘These we deem it proper to detail somewhat an extenso, for
if corroborated by other experimenters, they are likely to exert an
important influence upon the practical as well as theoretical consid-
erations of voltaic electricity.
8. In the following experiments, we varied the relative propor-
tions of zinc and copper so as to keep constantly in view the impor-
tant point which engaged our attention in the commencement of this
paper, viz. the greater importance which belonged to an increase of
copper over a similar increase of zinc surface.
On — of surface. Copper constant at 3 sq. inches.
zinc 2 in. zinc 4 in.
No. 1 copper, 2 60° F 58°
3’ 58 3! 57
z. 2 a: 4%:
No. 2 copper, 2 55° 2 74°
3/ , 70
No. 1 copper was now immersed 5’ in a hot solution of nitric
acid and water, and allowed 8’ exposure, = wiping, and gave
Wi 2 Sint z.4in in z. 4 in.
a. 177° 210° 78° 200°
s 177 208 Repeated. 5 4 177 190
wo. £1 206. 4 176 190
No 2 copper, immersed in a boiling solution of muriatic acid and
water 5’ and allowed 8 exposure without wiping, gave
38 Experiments with the Elementary Voltaic Battery.
Z. 2m.
2 404°
3/ 395
4’ 380
350
In this experiment, at the close of the 5’, dark colored scales be-
gan to fall from the copper, and the decline was so rapid as to pre-
vent any acurate observation of it; but after the scaling was com-
pleted and the newly exposed surface was gently washed with wa-
ter, the same copper gave with z.2 in.
: 2’
146°
3 145
4/ 144
A new copper immersed 2’ in same solution of boiling muriatic
acid, and then gently rubbed and washed off with water, gave with
z. 2 in.
2’ 130°
3 128
The same copper re-immersed, and dried by exposure for 7’ with-
out wiping gave with z. 2in z. 4 in
2! 175° 2 170°
3 166 3’ 170
The same after eight hours repose, gave with
Zz. 3 in. z. 2 in. Z. 3 in.
M2: 163° "140° 150°
y . 466 =a = 150
139 150
No. 1 copper treated as before, with hot solution of nitric acid
and water, and allowed eight hours repose without wiping, gave with
z.3 im z. 2 im z.3 in
ad 200° 134° 142°
3! 160 132 140
4’ 150 130 138
9. In order thoroughly to test the correctness of the above ob-
servations, we repeated them with three entirely new coppers of 2
sq. in. surface, and zincs the same.
No. 1 copper. No. 2 copper. = No. 3 copper.
1’ 49° 40° 41°
2 AS. <3 32 39
3 41 31 33
~~
Experiments with the Elementary Voltaic Battery. 39
The same after exposure of 20/ to the action of a hot solution of
nitric acid and water in equal parts and then washed with water, gave
No. 1 copper. No. 2 copper. No. 3 copper.
f 135° 135° 143°
2 134 134 140
3 134 134 140
4/ 134 ©. 133 139
By reference to these tables, it will be noticed that the character
of copper surface, as modified by various acid menstrua, is attended
with an augmented deflecting power, and this varying with the acid
used.
10. When the character of surface was altered mechanically by
filing it bright, we obtained but a slight increase of effect.
Before filing. After filing bright.
‘ 57° V 66°
2 50 2’ 65
3’ 47 3’ 65
. On the relation of distance.—In the course of these exper-
see we occasionally observed a variation in the deflecting pow-
er to arise whenever we altered the distance between the zinc and
copper, and apprehending that this did not correspond in degree,
with the law, as announced by Professors Cummings and Ritchie,
viz. “ That the deflection produced by a pair of plates, varies in-
versely as the square root of the distance between them; thus if a
plate of zinc, be placed successively at 1, 4 and 9 inches from a
plate of copper, the deflecting powers will be in the ratio of 3, 2, 1,”
we determined to submit the matter to experiment, and with plates
of 8 square inches each, obtained at
4 in. distance apart. 2 in. distance.
5 65° sg 57° difference, 8°
With plates of 16 sqr. inches each,
4 in. dis. apart 44 dis.
5 125° 5/ 95° — difference, 30°
Plates 4 sqr. inches,
4 in. dis. apart. 43 dis.
a 80° 5/ 60° difference, 20°
Repeated.
3 in. dis. 43 dis.
5! 78° 54° difference, 24°
5/
5’ 75° 5 55° ~—Ss difference, 20°
5/ y
40 Experiments with the Elementary Voltaic Battery.
The amounts of deflection here shown, are widely different from
what should have been expected in conformity with the law stated,
which would have required a ratio of 3 to 2 in the numbers obtain-
ed in the first experiment, and of 1 to 3, in all those which follow.
As far as our observations have extended the increase of effect pro-
duced by approximating the plates is so trifling as to render atten-
tion to it of little account in its practical application, although phi-
losophically interesting.
. On the relative position of the metals.—It now becomes an
enquiry of some interest to ascertain experimentally the best possi-
ble relative position of the plates, to secure the greatest amount of
electrical effect.
We accordingly varied the position of the metals to each other
so as to present them parallel, at right angles, above or below each
other, and in the same plane, edge to edge, and in all these positions
we very unexpectedly found that the deflecting power was uniform,
so long as the mean distance between the plates was preserved.
Hence it appears that the ordinary method of arranging the metals
in direct apposition, possesses no other advantage than that which
may result from practical convenience, and in the facility of more
closely approximating them.
In making this statement, we are not withont the hope that its
novelty will elicit the attention of experimenters in some degree
proportionate to the interest with which it has been regarded by us.
13. On the deflecting power produced by different menstrua.—
Although it is a fact which has been repeatedly confirmed that the
wer of voltaic arrangements, is augmented by increasing the
strength of the solution in which the plates are immersed ; still as
we are not aware of any detailed observations on the subject, we
are induced to give the following. The relative proportions of acid
and water given were estimated by weight, and the plates were con-
stantly 4 sqr. inches each.
‘Sulphuric acid 1 water 60 permanent deflection, 60°
: c “6 l 30 oe a3 87
“es 1 ee | 66 15 oe 66 105
““c pees Brees te 74 ‘“c a3 135
“ee ‘ec 1 & 3: :
Muriatic acid 1 water 60 permanent deflection, 70°
be “ec ee “cs e “ce 109
«
(73 “e Ps “cs 15 “cc 2 £88 143
|
Experiments with the Elementary Voltaic Battery. 41
Muriatic acid 1 water 74 permanent deflection, 177°
6c 1 3# “cc 74
Nitric acid 1 water 60 ie es 84
73 ae | 73 30 “ «c 127
73 ae | 6c 15 rT “c 174
6c “oY ‘cc 74 ‘é 6c 295
“c ce 1 “ 3? “c ‘c 467
14. We now used solutions, which were composed of 3% parts
of water and 1 part of a mixture of two of the above acids in equal
proportions. The observations were the following,
Sulphuric and nitric
°
seid “ttiortes i water, 3$ permanent deflection, 380
Nitric and muriatic ae ad és 260°
acid, do. bi oe
Sulphuric and muri- «ec ‘6 ‘“
atic acid, do. ‘ : 3% a,
The three acids in 1 « 38 a « 200°
the same proportion,
From these experiments, it will be seen that the increase of effect
is greatly in favor of that acid solution which is known to be the
most powerful in its chemical action on the copper, viz. the nitric
acid ; a similar increase of effect we found to belong to this acid,
when we resorted to those copper plates, which had been treated
with hot acid, as described in the experiments on character of sur-
face.
The experiments thus detailed, might, under some circumstances,
give rise to new generalizations respecting the developement of Vol-
taic Electricity ; but as we are rather interested in hehalf of the con-
viction, that accurate and definite records of phenomena, are still
wanting on this subject, a conviction, which to us appears to be
happily spreading among those devoted to the advancement of sci-
ence, we are disposed, for the present, to leave them as recorded.
We may be permitted, before closing this paper, to state, that
while engaged in the foregoing experiments, our attention was par-
ticularly directed to a notice contained in the last No. of your Jour-
nal, of some experiments made by the Abbé S. Dal Negro; from
which he deduces the law that the effects of the voltaic element, are
in the ratio of the perimeters of the plates ; and in order to deter-
mine, for ourselves, the correctness of this inference, we made some
experiments, from which, we have — the following.
Vol. XX VIJI.—No. 1.
42 Researches on Wines and other Fermented Liquors.
In the first place, we used rectangular slips of copper and zinc,
4 inch wide and 8 inches long, and squares of the same metals, of
2 inches side; each set containing a surface of 4 square inches;
but their perimeters being in the ratio of Sto17. The deflections
of the needle, were as follows:
after 5’. again
- 70° 58° 52
With slips. 2! 65 52 48
3! 60 50 47
i” 70° fi ae 65°
‘squares. 2’ 70 65 62
3! 60
68
Two smaller sets with surfaces of the same extent, but their peri-
meters in the ratio of 3 to 9, . BANE
. 35° 32° 24°
slips. 2’ 32 30 22
3 30 28 21
r 35° 32° 21?
squares 2 >) lle 30 27
3! 32 30 25
From these experiments it would appear that while the surface
remains the same, there is no augmentation of effect from increasing
the extent of the perimeter.
Art. V.—Researches on Wines and other Fermented Liquors ;
by Lewis C. Beck, M. D., Professor of Chemistry aud Botany
in the University of the City of New York, &c. &c.
Havine recently been engaged in a series of experiments to de-
termine the proportion of alcohol contained in several kinds of wine
and other fermented liquors, I was induced to examine some other
points connected with their history ; and now present for publication,
in a condensed form, the results of my enquiries.
Composition of Wine.—The composition of wine is very variable.
The substances found in it are, water, aleohol, undecomposed sugar,
gum, extractive matter, vegetable albumen, acetic acid, bitartrate of
potassa, tartrate of lime, tartrate of alumina and potassa, sulphate of
potassa, chloride of sodium, and in the red wines, red ~— matter
and in those of champaigne, carbonic acid.
Researches on Wines and other Fermented Liquors. 48
Acetic and Carbonic Acids.—Acetic acid is often found in the
wines from northern countries, and in altered wines it is formed at the
expence of the alcohol. Almost all wines, however, exhibit the
acid reaction. In champaigne, it is owing to free carbonic acid, but
in others it is due to the bitartrate of potassa. The effervescence
which is observed on adding carbonate of potassa to wine and the
subsequent precipitation, are the results of the action of this excess
of tartaric acid, and the consequent liberation of a portion of tartrate
of lime which this salt most generally contains.
Malic Acid.—It has been frequently stated, that wine contains
malic acid, anda malate of lime is said, by Chaptal, to be formed by
the addition of lime water to wine ;—an opinion which seems also to
be countenanced by Mr. Brande. But the existence of this acid is
rendered doubtful, if not disproved, by the fact that an insoluble pre-
cipitate results, as well from the addition of ammonia or potassa, as of
ime. Now the malates of these alkalies are very soluble, and hence
we may more safely ascribe the precipitate thrown down in all these
eases to the saturation of the excess of tartaric acid contained in the
bitartrate of potassa, by which means the insoluble tartrate of lime,
which is usually combined with it, is liberated.
_ Vegetable Albumen.—Grapes, according to Berzelius, contain a
small portion of this substance, which he has described in the fifth
volume of his elaborate treatise on chemistry. In examining a spe-
cimen of American wine, which was said to be the pure juice of the
grape, I found, that when evaporated to about one eight of its bulk,
upon adding a portion of alcohol, there was a deposit of a tough dark
colored matter, soluble in water and in solution of ammonia, but in-
soluble in sulphuric acid. In these respects, it agrees very well with
the description of vegetable albumen given by Berzelius. A portion
of pure madeira when treated in the same manner, yielded a bulky
white precipitate of saline matters.
Sulphate of Potassa.—The presence of sulphuric acid in wines is
distinctly shown by the dense precipitate which results from the ad-
dition of muriate of barytes. 1am not aware that any other ingredi-
ent would produce this effect, except carbonic acid, but the carbonate
would be soluble in muriatic acid, which is not the case with the pre-
cipitate in question.
Tartrates of Potassa and of Lime.—The bitartrate of patie is
one of the most abundant of the solid ingredients of wine, and the
tartrate of lime, as has already been remarked, is generally associated
44 Researches on Wines and other Fermented Liquors.
with it. Itis probably owing, ina great measure, tothe presence of
these salts, that such dense precipitates are produced upon adding
to wine the acetate of lead, or the nitrates of tin, mercury or silver.
Insoluble tartrates of the metallic oxides are thus formed.
Tartrate of Alumina and Potassa.—This salt, according to Ber-
zelius, is especially characteristic of the German wines.
Coloring Matter.—In the light colored wines, the color is supposed
to be derived from the extractive matter ; but in the red wines there
exist tannin and red coloring matter, the last of which, may be ob-
tained, according to Robiquet, in a crystalline form.
Red wines are, sometimes, imitated by the dealers in wine, by ad-
ding to white wine other coloring matter ; as for example Brazil wood,
logwood, the red beet, elder berries, &c. The detection of these
falsifications has engaged the attention of many chemists.
Vogel proposes the mixing of the suspected wine with the sub-
acetate of lead. Pure wine gives, with this reagent, a greyish green
precipitate ; wine that has been colored by Brazil wood or elder ber-
ries gives a precipitate of an indigo blue color, and when the red beet
or sandal wood has been employed, the precipitate is red.
The following are the results of my experiments with the subace-
tate of lead.
When added to pure Madeira wine, the precipitate was of a light
yellow (cream) color.
i Port wine gave it, a greyish precipitate with a slight tint of
With infusion of logwood, the precipitate produced by the subace-
tate was of a deep purple ; when the coloring matter was largely di-
luted with water, the precipitate was less dense and of a lead color.
With infusion of the red beet, the precipitate was of a puce color;
when largely diluted, the precipitate was of a pale red (salmon)
color.
In one of the wines which I examined, the subacetate of lead
threw downa bulky purple precipitate, similar to that produced by
its addition to infusion of logwood. I received this wine under the
name of Torres Vedras. It was of a very dark color and was rep-
resented to be an old wine.
Berzelius states, that the coloring matter of red wines gives differ-
ent colored precipitates with subacetate of lead, according to the age
of the wine. Thus, in new red wine, the subacetate commonly throws
down a blue precipitate; this circumstance must greatly impair, the
value of this test.
Researches on Wines and other Fermented Liquors. 45
_ Nees D’Esenbeck has proposed a method of detecting artificial
coloring matter in wine which is said to be more certain in its indica-
tions. This consists in dissolving one part of alum in eleven parts
of water and one part of carbonate of potassa in eight parts of water.
The wine is mixed with its own bulk of the solution of alum which
renders its color more bright. To this, the alkaline solution is now
added little by little, taking care not to precipitate the whole of the
alumina. The alumina precipitates with the coloring matter of the
wine in the form of a lake, whose shade of color varies with the nature
of the coloring matter, and which, when combined with an excess of
potash, assumes another tint also varying with the coloring matter
combined with the alumina. In order to obtain correct results it is
necessary to make comparative experiments with pure wine.—See
Berzelius’ Traité de Chimie.
Specific gravity of Wine.—It has long been known, that the spe-
cific gravity of wine gives us no information, as it does in the case
of distilled liquors, of the proportion of alcohol which it contains.
Direct experiments on this point have been made by Brisson and
Brande. I, also, accurately determined the density of several vari-
eties of wine and other fermented liquors. ‘The following are some
of the results.
Madeira, mean of three kinds, - » - 0.98659.
Sercial Madeira, ep sr epcl ately - 0.98606
London Particular, -. = - - - 0.98860
Port, mean of two kinds, = - - - 0.98203
Sauterne, - . - 0.99511
Claret, mean de two ‘eae. - - - 0.99490
American Wine, . - - - 1.00702
Cider, mean of two kinds, - - - 1.03400
Metheglin, - - - - - 1.08964
Alcohol in Wine.—It has been a subject of some cohtroversy,
whether alcohol exists, ready formed, in wine, or whether it is gener-
ated by the heat employed in the process of distillation. The lat-
ter opinion was supported by Fabroni (Ann. de Chim. xxx, 220) ;
but its fallacy has been completely exbibited, by the able investiga-
tions of Mr. Brande and Gay Lussac.
The following statements, seem to be conclusive, as to a exis-
tence of ready formed alcohol in wine.
1. Alcohol can be obtained from wine by distillation, in vacuo,
at the temperature of 60° F., which precludes the idea, that it is
46 Researches on Wines and other Fermented Liquors.
formed by the action of heat upon the elements existing in the fer-
mented liquor.
2. When a portion of wine is partly distilled off, and the distilled
liquor is afterwards added to the residuum in the retort, the specific
gravity of the mixture, is precisely the same as that of the wine,
previous to distillation. Alcohol being much lighter than wine, if
it were formed during the process of distillation, would have the ef-
fect of reducing the specific gravity, when added to the residuum,
which is never the case.
3. When the coloring and extractive matters in the wine, are
precipitated by the subacetate of lead, the pure alcohol may be sep-
arated by the subsequent addition of dry subcarbonate of potassa, in
the same manner as from whiskey, gin and brandy.
The first of the above statements, has been shown to be true, by
Gay Lussac, (Ann. de Chim. \xxxvi, 175.) The correctness of
the second, was demonstrated by Mr. Brande, upon a suggestion,
contained in a notice, of his first paper published in the Edinburgh
Review. I confirmed the results of Mr. Brande’s experiments on
this point, in the case of three kinds of area viz. Madeira, Torres
Vedras and Claret.
The last, however, is the most conclusive of all the proofs in fa-
vor of this view of the constitution of wine, as by the process here
referred to, the alcohol may be separated from wine without the in-
tervention of heat. We are indebted to Mr. Brande, for having first
pointed out a mode of effecting this object, (Philosophical Trans-
actions for 1813.) ‘This consists, in adding to the wine a solution
of subacetate of lead, filtering the liquor and then adding to the fil-
tered liquor, dry subcarbonate of potassa. The metallic oxide, as
he says, forms a dense precipitate with the acid and coloring ex-
tractive matter of the wine; by filtration, a colorless fluid is obtain-
ed, from which, the alcohol may be separated, as above mentioned.
Mr. Brande also states, that the acetate of lead and subnitrate of tin,
produce the desired effect of separating the coloring and acid mat-
ters, in the greater number of instances; and to these, I may add,
the protomuriate of tin, and the protonitrate of mercury, which I
found to answer, in most cases.
Observing the effect of adding the subcarbonate of potassa to
wine, viz. that of causing effervescence and the forming of a floccu-
lent precipitate, I was led to infer, that the compound thus formed,
interfered with the separation of the alcohol. 'To determine wheth-
Researches on Wines and other Fermented Liquors. 47
er this opinion was correct, I added the subcarbonate to a portion of
wine, as long as it produced the effect just mentioned, when the
whole was thrown upon a filter. The filtered liquor was of a some-
what darker color than the wine, but when the subcarbonate was
now added to it, the separation of the alcohol was speedily effected.
This result was also produced, when I employed a solution of am-
monia, instead of the carbonate of potash: the flocculent precipitate
thus formed, being separated by filtration, the alcohol appeared as in
the former case, upon the addition of a due proportion of subearbon-
ate of potassa. These experiments seem to prove, that the separa-
tion of alcohol in wine, by the common mode of adding subcarbon-
ate of potassa, is prevented by the tartrate of lime which is libera-
ted by the first addition of an alkali, and which, perhaps together
with some of the other matters, forms a flocculent mass suspen-
ded in the liquor. In my opinion, they constitute a more decisive
proof of the existence of ready formed alcohol in wine, than any
which has yet been offered.
In the analysis of wines and other fermented liquors, the results
of which are given below, the following process was adopted, for the
purpose of determining the proportion of alcohol, which they contain.
A glass bottle with a long and narrow neck, and capable of holding
1020 grains of distilled water, was filled with the wine under exam-
ination. This quantity of wine, was now put into a glass retort,
which was carefully luted to a receiver, so as to prevent the escape
of vapor. among the purest and best, which are brought to this country.
-
Researches on Wines and other Fermented Liquors. 49
the mean of these, is given. The Ale, No. 27, contains more al-
cohol, than any. put down in the table of Mr. Brande, as ordinarily
published ; but in the Journal of Science and the Arts, (Vol. 5. p.
124.) he states, that Lincolnshire Ale, brewed by Sir Joseph Banks,
contained 10.84 per cent. of alcohol. Our cider, it would seem,
contains less alcohol than the lowest average of the specimens exam-
amined by Mr. Brande, which is 5.21 per cent.
Addition of Brandy to Wine.—An opinion has been recently
advanced, that the large proportion of alcohol which some wines
contain, is due to the addition of brandy to the must. And it has
even been maintained, that, without such addition, wines speedily
undergo the acetous fermentation, and thus, lose their peculiar fla-
vors. These opinions, if correct, must render quite fallacious, the
results of the analyses of the older wines, and they deserve, therefore,
to be carefully examined.
In regard to this point, I avail myself, in part, of the information
contained in the excellent treatise on Domestic Economy, by Mr.
Donovan.—/( Lardner’s Cabinet Cyclopedia. )
Brandy is not added to wines in France or Germany: the finer
wines, claret, burgundy and hock, are said to be totally destroyed
by it. But the practice is quite common, nay, almost universal, in
the wines of Spain, Portugal and Sicily, which are intended for for-
eign markets. The reasan of this, I apprehend, is, not that the
wines cannot be kept without such an admixture, but that these
strong wines are in great repute, and perhaps, also, that with the ad-
dition of brandy, less care is required in preparing them for export-
ation.
That wines may be bass for a great number of years, without the
admixture of brandy, is evident, from the age of many ancient wines.
Horace speaks of wine, that is nearly seventy years old; and the
Opimian wine, which had been made in the time of the consul Opi-
mius, was two hundred years old. ‘‘ In order to preserve their
wines to these ages, the Romans concentrated the must, or gra
juice, of which they were made, by evaporation, either spontaneous-
ly, in the a6 or over a - and, so much so, as to render them thic
and syrupy.’
This process of evaporation, however, was by no means, necessa-
ry to their being preserved ; for wines, not treated in this manner,
have been known to keep equally long. We are informed by Neu-
man, “that the tartish German wines, keep the longest of any:
Vou. XXVIII.—No. 1. T
50 = Researches on Wines and other Fermented Liquors.
some of them have kept two hundred or three hundred years ; and
in Strasburg, there is a cask four hundred years old, and many,
above seventy ; the wine being occasionally racked off into smaller
casks, that the vessel may be continually full. These very old
wines, are preserved, rather for curiosity than use, as they not only
grow too strong for drinking, but at last, quite disagreeable.”
The preservation of wines forso long a time, when the process
of distillation was still unknown, and in cases where no brandy had
been added, as in the German wines, referred to by Neuman, seems
to prove conclusively, that the admixture of brandy, or other distil-
led liquor, is not necessary to effect this object.
Nor is it probable, that the strength of the wine is much influen-
ced by the brandy, as ordinarily employed. The pure juice of the
grape, after a few years, becomes fully as alcoholic, as those wines
which have been brandied. Mr. Brande procured port wine, sent
from Portugal, for the express purpose of ascertaining how long it
would remain sound, without any addition whatever, of spirit, hav-
ing been made to it, but it did not differ, materially, in the propor-
tion of alcohol, from other kinds. Moreover the raisin wine, which
had been fermented without any addition of spirit, contained a larger
amount of alcohol than any other wine in his tables.
As the alcohol in natural wines, is the produce of the sugar con-
tained in the grape, if any part of the sugar escapes decomposition,
the wine will contain alcohol, and unaltered sugar, and will be sweet.
Now, in those grapes, which contain a large proportion of sugar,
and in which, there is a sufficiency of yeast present, to decompose
it, there will be a superabundance of alcohol. But, the alcohol thus
formed, stops the fermentation, and the same effect is also produced
by the admixture of brandy or spirit.
On the contrary, where the relative quantities of yeast, sugar and
water, are such as will conduce to a perfect attenuation, the fermen-
tation will proceed until the whole of the sugar is converted into al-
cohol. The result, under such circumstances, will be a full bodied,
spirituous, sound, and as it is technically termed, a dry wine.
The addition of alcohol, during the fermentation of the must,
therefore, is to be conducted upon fixed principles and with a strict
reference to the deficiences in the ingredients of the grape. An
indiscriminate admixture of spirit, either during the fermentation,
or after that process has ceased, would be attended with hazard to
the flavor and value of the wine.
3
i ea allen
Researches on Wines and other Fermented Liquors. 51
It follows, from these remarks, that alcohol is generated during
the process of fermentation, and that its amount depends upon the
proportion of saccharine matter in the grapes, and that, when all the
ingredients are in due proportion, the most sound and spirituous
wines are obtained. That, when this is the case, the wine may be
preserved for any length of time, without the addition of spirit in
any form. And that when this. addition is made, it is only for the
purpose of supplying deficiencies in the must, or in other words, to
bring the wine to that degree of strength, which it would naturally
have attained, if all the ingredients of the must, had been in such
proportion as to effect a perfect attenuation.
‘Wines of Palestine.—In the discussions which have recently ta-
ken place concerning the chemical nature and effects of wines,
some opinions have been advanced, concerning the wines of Pales-
tine, which deserve a little consideration. It has been supposed,
that the wine spoken of in various parts of sacred history, was far
less spirituous than that of modern times; and some have even
gone so far as to assert, that a// modern wines are brandied, and
that, to this circumstance, is to be ascribed the large proportion of
alcohol, which they are found to contain. Upon consulting the ori-
ginal papers of Mr. Brande, however, it will be found, that that
acute chemist was not ignorant of the fact, that many wines are arti-
ficially brandied ; and as the very object of his researches, was to
prove the existence of ready formed alcohol in natural wines, he
would, of course, be careful to select those which were free from
admixture. Indeed, he expressly states, that he used this necessa-
ry precaution ; and moreover, Gay Lussac, though in the very coun-
try where many of the wines analyzed by Mr. Brande were produ-
ced, confirms and quotes his results, without expressing the least
doubt of their accuracy from this cause.
It is, therefore, probable that in most of the wines which were exam-
ined by Mr. Brande and by myself, the whole amount of alcohol was
due to the fermentation of the must. The differences in this amount,
depended upon the kind of grape and upon the influence of climate,
soil and culture. These facts being assumed, we shall have some
guide in our subsequent enquiries.
The wines of Palestine, are generally represented by modern trav-
ellers, as being of excellent quality. The sweet wines are, particu-
larly esteemed in the east, because they are grateful to the taste,
very exhilarating, and will keep some of them fora long time. They
52 Researches on Wines and other Fermented Liquors.
were, therefore, preferred by those addicted to drinking, and com-
monly selected for the tables of Kings, (Paxton’s Illustrations.)
The prophet Joel, accordingly, describes a state of great prosperity,
by the figure of mountains, dropping down new, or more correctly,
sweet wine, (c. 11, v.18.) Their inebriating quality, is alluded to
by the prophet Isaiah. ‘I will feed them that oppress thee, with
their own flesh ; and they shall be drunken with their own blood, as
with sweet wine,” (c. 49, v. 26.) And the privation of this enjoy-
ment, is placed by the prophet Micah, among the judgments, which
the Almighty threatened to bring upon his ancient people for their
iniquity. ‘Thou shalt tread the vintage of sweet wine, but shalt
not drink wine,” (c. 6, v. 16.)
Thus the testimony of travellers, concerning the spirituous nature
of the wines of Palestine, accords with that of the sacred writers.
The ancient wines are said to have been mixed with water, for common
use ; but it is evident, that this practice did not prevail among the
Jews, for Isaiah, in mentioning a mixture of wine and water, evi-
dently means to express, by the phrase, the degenerate state of his
nation. ‘Thy silver is become dross, thy wine mixed with water,”
(c. 1, v. 22.) It is observed, by Thevenot, that the people of the
Levant, never mingle water with their wine at meals, but drink by
itself, what water they think proper, for abating its strength. While
the Greeks and Romans, by mixed wine, understood wine united
and lowered with water, the Hebrews, on the contrary, meant by
it, wine made strdnger and more inebriating, by the addition of pow-
erful ingredients, as howdy, spices, &c.; o1 wine inspissated by boil-
ing it down to two thirds or one half of the quantity, myrrh, opiates,
and other strong drugs being added, ( Paxton’s Illustrations. )
severe denunciations against the use of this drink, are contained in
various parts of the sacred scriptures.
Moreover, the grapes of Palestine, were remarkable for their size
and richness. The account given by Moses of the bunch of grapes,
brought by the spies, to the Israelitish Camp, (Numbers xiii, 24,)
is confirmed by the statements of several travellers. Doubdan as-
sures us, that in the valley of Eshcol, were bunches of grapes, of ten
or twelve pounds. Forster tells us, that he was informed, by a Re-
ligious, who had lived many years in Palestine, that there were
bunches of grapes, in the valley of Hebron so large, that two men
could scarcely carry one, ( Calmet’s Dictionary.) Indeed, travel-
lers, generally concur in their high commendation of the grapes of
that country.
Researches on Wines and other Fermented Liquors. 53
To these facts I will only add, that the wines of Palestine were
generally kept in bottles made of leather or goat skins firmly sewed
or pitched together. In these the process of fermentation took place,
and the wine acquired its proper degree of strength.
In the absence of any thing like chemical analysis, these are the
data, from which we must draw our conclusions concerning the na-
ture of the wines referred to by the sacred writers. Some of them
are represented to have been sweet wines, which if not the strongest,
are known to be among the stronger kinds. The grapes from which
they were produced, were remarkable for their richness and excel-
lence, the climate of the country being such as to favor their
growth and the development of those src which during fer-
mentation are converted into alcohol. as the grapes of that
country are now known to furnish very rich ae spirituous wines, we
may infer that the ancient wines were similar in their character, since
there is abundant evidence, that the climate has not suffered any
material change, for three thousand years.
I should not omit, in confirmation of this view of the spirituous na-
ture of the wines of Palestine, to advert to the modes in which they
were kept. It is now well known, that when mixtures of alcohol
and water, are put into bladders, the water evaporates and leaves
the alcohol in a more concentrated form. And it is asserted, that
wine which has been kept in bottles, chned by pieces of bladder
firmly tied over the mouth, in a few weeks acquires the strength
and flavor which would be imparted to it only by several years pres-
ervation, in the ordinary way. Now it is probable, that the leath-
ern bags, into which these wines were put, would produce a similar
effect upon the liquor, which, after the process of fermentation had
ceased, would soon attain its complete and appropriate alcoholic
character.
Intoxicating power of Wine.—It is generally supposed, that in
wine, the action of the alcohol upon the animal economy, is modifi-
ed by the other vegetable matters, which are mixed or combined
with it. According to this view, it is of course taken for granted,
that the intoxicating power of wine is not so great, as that of a mere
mixture of the same proportion of alcohol with water. Before offer-
ing any remarks upon this point, it may be proper to introduce the fol-
lowing table, showing the relative powers of several wines and other
fermented liquors, on the supposition, that the alcohol is equally
effective, as in distilled liquors :—brandy containmg 53.39 per cent
54 Researches on Wines and other Fermented Liquors.
of alcohol, ns taken as the standard, and set down as one hun-
Bunips toeant 100. |Sauterne, (22) .- 24.34.
snc Madeira, (1) 48.26/Claret, (average) - © 21.38.
Senlawt Madeira, (6) 36.14)American Wine, (25) 21.07
Port, (average) . - 42.33|Metheglin, (26) — - 19.79
Bucellas, (16) - 35.21}Ale, (27) - - 19.98
_ Sherry, (17) ber «88i75| Ale, (28) 2c o> Seach BR.
Torres Vedras, (21) — 38.22)|Cider, (average). +g i eK,
From this table it appears that two measures of strong Madeira
are equivalent in the amount of alcohol which they contain; to nearly
one measure of brandy, and that about five measures of ale are equiv-
alent to about one of brandy. It will perhaps be quite generally as-
serted that the intoxicating powers of these liquors are not in the
proportions thus expressed ; and hence the opinion that the effect of
alcohol in wines and other fermented liquors is modified by the other
‘vegetable matters which they contain. I apprehend, however, that
the difference is not so great, all things being equal, as might at first
be supposed. The following facts appear to me to throw some light
on this subject.
New 4wvine is said to be more intoxicating than that which is old,
although the latter is usually more spirituous. The reason of this
undoubtedly is that the alcohol by time becomes more intimately
combined with the water and thus toa certain extent loses its power
of intoxication. The union of alcohol and water is not complete
until they have been for some time in contact, and hence when brandy
and water are taken into the stomach immediately after their mixture,
the effect on the system is not very different from that produced by
the same proportion of brandy taken separatel
Mr. Brande, in one of his papers, assures us, that when brandy and
water are mixed and allowed to remain in combination for some time,
the intoxicating power is not greater than that of wine containing an
equivalent of brandy. In wines, the union of the alcohol and water
becomes complete by the process of attenuation, and it is in my
opinion to this more than to the controling effects of the other vege-
table matters, that we are to ascribe their less decided intoxicating
powers. And on the contrary, it is to the imperfect union that the
ordinary mixtures of brandy and water owe their more energetic ac-
tion on the system.
Meetings of the Scientific Association of Great Britain. 55
I should also observe, that mistakes concerning the relative intox-
icating powers of mixtures of alcohol and water and of wines, may
have arisen from the different modes in which they are ordinarily
drank. A half pint glass of brandy and water of common strength
contains an amount of alcohol but little less than the same measure
of ordinary Madeira. And if these portions of wine and of brandy
and water should be drank in the same manner, the effects on the
animal economy would'not be so different as is generally supposed.
Wine is usually taken in small quantities and at intervals ;—cireum-
stances which must have a great effect in modifying its action on the
system : and to these may also be added the fact that its habitual use
impairs the susceptibility of the system to its intoxicating power.
‘On the whole then there is reason to conclude that the difference
in the intoxicating power of wine and that of the ordinary mixtures
of water with the same proportion of alcohol, if it exists at all, is
owing more to the intimate combination of the alcohol with the water
in the former, than to any peculiar effect of the other vegetable mat-
ters contained in it. But, from the considerations above stated, I
am inclined to — that, after all; the difference is rather —
ent, acess r
¥
Arr. VI.—Notice of the Meetings of the British Association for
the advancement of Science, in 1833, at Cambridge, and in 1834,
at Sidsnburgh in two parts.
Parr’ I— Notes extracted from a Tour in England, during the
months of June and July, 1833; by Mr. Queteter, of Brus-
sels. Translated for this Journal, by a pupil of Prof. Jos. Henry,
of the College of Nassau Hall, Princeton, New Jersey, and com-
municated by that gentleman.
General meeting of the English Philosophers at Cambridge.—
The British Association for the advancement of Science, was in-
stituted at York, and the first meeting took place in 1831. The one
which succeeded this, was held at Oxford, and in its results far sur-
passed all the expectations of the founders of the institution. The
third meeting, just held at Cambridge, has been perhaps even more
celebrated, and will certainly form an epoch in the annals of science
56 Meetings of the Scientific Association of Great Britain.
in England.* This meeting commenced the twenty fourth of June,
and continued during a week. About twelve hundred persons were
present, and among them were most of the distinguished English
philosophers. ‘There were very few strangers, and this circumstance
was probably owing to the anniversary of the meeting not being late
enough in the season to permit the greater part of the Continental
philosophers, and especially the professors of the universities to join
in its proceedings; no doubt the number will be rendered much more
considerable the next year at Edinburgh, by fixing, as has been done,
the anniversary about the beginning of September.
‘Admission to the association was subject to very few restrictions.
Any one who has communicated to a scientific society, any investi-
gation printed among the proceedings of this society, and also per-
sons sent as delegates from provincial scientific societies, could take a
part in the proceedings, after having subscribed to the rules of the
association.
The entering of the names took place under the superintendence
of a committee. The price of admission for members being one
pound sterling.
arned strangers, introduced by some member of the association
were admitted gratuitously.
The meetings were general or special.
The general meetings were held in the academical senate chamber.
Questions of a general interest were there discussed, and there were
made, summary reports of the proceedings of the sections, elaborate
reports upon the progress of certain branches of science, which had
been requested the previous year from gentlemen versed in these
sciences, etc.
Special meetings, or sections, had been arranged according to the
nature of the science, and were held simultaneously in different pla-
ces. There were five of these sections, and during the meeting, a
sixth was formed of which I shall soon have occasion to speak.
These five sections were arranged in the following manner:
First section —Of mathematics and physico-mathematics (astron-
omy, mechanics, hydrostatics, hydraulics, light, heat, sound, meteor-
ology and the mechanical arts.)
* Prof. Sepewick, a distinguished geologist, presided at this meeting; the vice-
presidents were Messrs. Airy and Datron; the secretaries Messrs. HensLow
and WuEWwELL. The late Race was the well known geologist Buckianp; and
al Brispane, the founder of the observatory
erected i in New Holland. |
Meetings of the Scientific Association of Great Britain. 57
Second section.—Of chemistry, electricity, galvanism, magnetism,
mineralogy, chemical arts, and manufactures.
Third section.— Of geology and geography. |
Fourth section.—Of natural history, (botany, zoology, and vege-
table physiology.)
Fifth section —Of animal physiology, anatomy and medicine.
-Each section could be divided or be united to another ; it had also
the right of choosing a president, vice president and two secretaries.
These secretaries were charged with the collection of the papers
and documents necessary to the secretaries of the association in ma-
king out their general report.
During the meeting of the sections, special communications were
made, and announcements, either written or oral of recent discove-
ries, of researches, of the results of researches, of experimental so-
lutions of doubtful questions, indication of points important to be ex-
amined, notices of the progress of science in other countries and
oral remarks on these communications.
It would be impossible for me to give a complete account of all
the proceedings of the general meetings or of the sections; neither
time nor the nature of my studies would permit my following out so
many different communications. To have an idea of their im-
portance, it is sufficient to glance at the volume containing the re-
ports of the British Association: held last year at Oxford.* We
there find, besides the most instructive and varied communications,
reports full of interest, upon the history and recent progress of par- .
ticular branches of science. Reports of this nature were read this
year and particularly on the following subjects:
On the state of knowledge relative to terrestrial magnetism by
Professor Christie.
On the actual state of the analytical theory of hydrostatics and
hydrodynamics, by Mr. Challes.
On the state of knowledge relative to hydraulics considered as a
branch of engineering, by Mr. G. Rennie.
+On the state of knowledge, relative to the strength of materials
by Barlow.
i ai
* Reports of the British ee ete. 1831—1832, 1 vol. 8vo. 624 pages.
London, published by John Mur
r. Barlow who was eet ag indisposition from assisting at the meeting
a bis vis Teport together with a fragment of a beam, whieh in breaking, had shown
” Vel. iiiaiet = 8
58 Meetings of the Scientific Association of Great Britain.
On the state of santas relative to mineral veins by: John
Taylor.
Though it is impossible for me to give a complete account of the
labors of the English philosophers at Cambridge, I will endeavor to
. give, at least, a sketch of some subjects which received attention from
the section of physical science, in which I was more directly engaged.
It will serve to give a more correct idea of the manner of proceeding.
The secretary of this committee was Mr. Forbes; the president
Mr. Peacock, whose efforts united to those of Messrs. Herschel, Bab-
bage, and Whewell have contributed more to disseminate in England
the modern system of notation, and the new analytical methods.
Aurora Borealis, Shooting Stars.—The first sitting was devoted
almost entirely to descriptions of the aurora borealis, and to inte-
resting remarks on these brilliant meteors, made by Messrs. Dalton,
Airy, “Potter, Scoresby, Robinson, etc., in succession. ‘They en-
deavored to determine the circumstances which should receive the
most attention from observers during the phenomenon, and a ve
animated discussion accidentally arose on the subject of the rustling,
which according to some observers very often accompanies the ap-
pearance of the aurora borealis. Mr. Scoresby whose voyages in
the polar regions are well known, was convinced that this rustling
is a mere illusion ; other persons, present at the meeting, declared on
the contrary that they had heard it very distinctly.
This animated discussion, sustained by men so highly distinguish-
ed, and in a country where the aurora borealis so frequently appears,
became more interesting, as it was in a measure a recapitulation of
the state of knowledge respecting these meteors. It naturally led to
the conclusion, that new observations were necessary, and that they
should be multiplied as much as possible, in order to determine with
precision all the circumstances of the phenomenon. It is remarka-
le that the number of appearances of the aurora borealis, has very
sensibly diminished in our climate: the abbé Chevalier and the abbé
Mann, who made meteorological observations at Brussels for the Pal-
atine society of Manheim, fifty years ago, mention twenty four during
a year, while we now observe but one or two during the same period.
here was also a discussion on shooting stars, another phenome-
non not less interesting and perhaps less studied than the pre-
ceding, although it is seen much more frequently. This subject was
also spoken of during a second meeting. ‘The numerous researches
that I had made, with respect to Ghesk meteors, to determine their
—
Meetings of the Scientific Association of Great Britain. 59
height, the velocity of their motion, etc.,* enabled me to join in the
novel discussion, and to call the attention of the observers to its im-.
portance. Mr. Herschel strongly supported the opinion, that the
study of these meteors might be very useful, particularly in the de-
termination of the longitude. Mr. Robmson, director of the observ- .
atory at Armagh, mentioned that he had already — avail-
ed himself of this method of observation.
A large part of the second meeting, was devoted to a ub iol
not less importance, especially in England; it was the question of
the most advantageous form for vessels: this subject gave rise to a
very varied discussion, in which Messrs. Lardner, Challis, Robinson,
Bailly, etc., jomed. Some gentlemen spoke particularly of the in-
adequacy a our analysis in the present state of the science, to pro-
duce a solution of so complex a problem.
Optics—Optics occupied a large part of the next meeting, and
we had the pleasure of hearing Messrs. Herschel, Brewster, Lloyd,
‘Airy, Hamilton, Powell, Potter, &c., om this important subject.
From the politeness of these gentlemen, and owing to the commu-
nications, they were so good as to impart to me, I was enabled to
profit by their-researches, in preparing the notes which will be join-
ed to the translation of Mr. Herschel’s treatise on light.
r. Potter commenced by giving the results, to which he was led
by his investigations on the intensity of light reflected from the sur-
face of bodies. ‘This philosopher has deduced from his observations,
that when the reflection is from the surface of metals, and we take
the sine of the angle of incidence of one hundred rays for the abscis-
sa of a system of rectangular coordinates, the ordinate representing
the reflected rays, is that of a straight line. ‘Thus in the equation,
y=ax-+6, fora metallic mirror, y is the reflected light, a the trigono-
"metrical tangent of 355° 12’ b=72.3 and a is the sine of the angle of
incidence of 100 rays. When the reflection is from transparent bod-
ies, the preceding equation becomes that of an hyperbola, and takes:
this form: y=a+ ; a, 6, and c are the constants which we
€
r+b—«x
as so fortunate as to conv erse with the illustrious Laplace, a few years be-
s y'
meteors, which are constantly reappearing, and are only a few leagues distant.”
Mr. Brandes is now ting in Germany, the observations which he has al-
ready made upon these meteors.
60 Meetings of the Scientific Association of Great Britain.
ascertain by experiment, and r=100. The communication, made
by Mr. Potter'at Cambridge, had for its object particularly to show
the coincidence between the results calculated by the formula, and
those furnished by experiments with the glass of antimony.
In discussing the importance of these observations, we were ac-
cidentally led to speak of the new photometer invented by the au-
thor, Mr. Ritchie, whose photometer is well known, made some
very interesting esate on the organ of sight,* and upon the mistakes
to which it is lia
Mr. Herschel val a paper on the absorption of light, of which
he promised me an extract. He also repeated with the greatest suc-
cess, an experiment on the interferences of sonorous rays, mentioned
in his article on acoustics in the Encyclopedia Metropolitana, and
which consisted in vibrating two diapasons, perfectly in unison above
a glass vessel about eight inches in height, and less than two inches
in diameter: a little water was at the bottom of the glass; the dia-
pasons successively vibrating above the glass, gave a continuous”
sound, and when they vibrated simultaneously, we heard very rapid
and very distinct intermissions of sound.
Mr. Hamilton showed the principal results deniaiiiag conical re-
fraction, to which he has been led by his ingenious views and his
elegant analysis; and Professor Lloyd mentioned the result of some
of his observations which fully confirmed what Mr. Hamilton had
discovered by his formulas.
Ata special meeting which I attended with Messrs. etestal
Brewster, Powell, Christie, etc., Mr. Wheatstone showed a very in-
genious experiment ; its object was to determine whether the ap-
pearance of a light is instantaneous, or has an appreciable duration,
and if so to measure this duration. For example, he endeavored
to ascertain if an electric spark has an appreciable duration. To
determine this, Mr. Wheatstone took a circle of paste board, which
he divided into several sectors alternately white and black ; he then
caused the circle to revolve in its own plane around a fixed axis,
and the result was that by this rotation the surface of the circle ap-
peared grayish, on account of the duration of the impression of light
* I recollect when at Mr. Gartner’s, whose establishment at London is so well
known to geographers, that I found him engaged in showing some persons pres-
ent, that the hand is endowed with more sensibility than the eye. His demonstra-
tion consisted in tracing, by his hand and with a simple rule, lines, so near togeth-
er and so “— Reg the eye could not distinguish nor count them but by means of a
magnifying g!
Meetings of the Scientific Association of GreateBritain. 61
upon the retina. This determined, if the circle is put in motion in
a perfectly dark chamber, which is suddenly illuminated by an elec-
tric spark or by a discharge from a Leyden jar, we shall see, very
distinctly, the black and white sectors as if the circle were ina state
of perfect rest, notwithstanding the rapidity of rotation which may
be given it. We must then conclude that the circle has been en-
lightened only during an instant infinitely short. Yet the image on
the retina is so vivid and continuous as to render thé image of the
circle very distinct. We must suppose that if an electric spark had
an appreciable duration, we should see the revolving circle in sev-
eral successive _—— and it would be aed clearly to dis-
tinguish its image.*
The nature of these investigations, which depend on the duration
of sight, gave me an opportunity to speak of Mr. Plateau’s research-
es in Belgium, who, in following out the very curious researches of
Messrs. Roget and Faraday, has made a very ingenious little in-
strument which he calls a phantascope, and which has been since
imitated in France in a very imperfect manner, under the name of
phenakistiscope, and in London under that of phantasmascope.
Magnetism.—Magnetism was not neglected, the desire was ex-
pressed of seeing observations on ‘the inclination and intensity of the
magnetic needle multiplied, as they are unfortunately still very rare.
Mr. Christie of Woolwich showeds very clearly the importance of
corrections, and especially of those with reference to the inequality
of temperature, a subject with which he has béen recently occupied.
There was also a discussion on the inequality of the magnetic force,
which Mr. Kuppfer thinks he has observed between the summit and
base of mountains, contrary to previous observations, and which I
have had an opportunity of verifying in the Alps, with Mr. Necker
Saussure, who had the goodness to take a part with me; and which
Professor Forbes has since equally confirmed, but of which the re-
sults have not as yet been published. Researches of this kind were
especially recommended to the attention of observers. I believe it
will not be less interesting to verify a remarkable result which
Mr. Necker has deduced from my observations ; it is that the mag-
. Prof. Joseph earls of Princeton, N.J., repeated the interesting experiment
mentioned above, on the instantaneous illumination of an cbject by an electric
The effect is most easily shown by the common philosophical toy called
the phenakistoscope. If one of the discs of this instrument be put in rapid motion,
and then illuminated by a discharge from a Leyden jar, it will appear to be at rest
With the picture on it distinetl y visible.
62 Meetingswf the Scientific Association of Great Britain.
netic intensity presents scarcely any anomalies when observations
are made on extinguished volcanoes; while the contrary is extremely
sensible on volcanoes in action; from this it would seem that these
anomalies depend upon aad actions.
I availed myself of my journey in England, to siales the ob-
servations on the relative intensity of magnetic forces at Paris, Lon-
don, and Brussels, which Capt. Sabine was so good as to communi-
cate tome. I'believe that Prof. Forbes has repeated the same ob-
servations on his part, which will give a valuable source of correc-
tion. Mr. Snow Harris, intends to determine the difference of in-
tensity between Cambridge, London, and Plymouth.
Mr. Snow Harris, (whose very ingenious magnetical and electrical
apparatus I regret that I cannot here describe,) in order to ascertain
the horizontal state of the needle, (for intensity,) suspends it over a
liquid and endeavors to produce parallelism between the needle and
its image.
The doubtful question was also daa of the sege of pre-
cision which may be obtained by magnetic instruments ; some of the
gentlemen, for instance, doubted whether the dip could be obtained
nearer than one fourth of a degree, others mentioned observers who
thought they could*obtain it within half a minute. It is not unin-
teresting to know the limits of precision in the opinion of philoso-
phers, as it gives us a standard of the actual condition of the science,
and of the mechanic arts. Mr. Scoresby exhibited a variation com-
pass, with a number of circles, designed to supersede, in many cases,
astronomical instruments in determining the elements of situations at
sea. Admiral Brisbane agreed with him as to the advantages offer-
ed by this instrument.
This naturally leads me to apeek of the globe, which Mr. Barlow,
was so good as to show me at Woolwich, and upon which this phi-
losopher had traced lines, showing the places which gave the same
variation of the needle, according to the latest observations. The
coasts appeared to have a very marked influence on the deflections ;
I was struck the next day with seeing at Mr. Bailly’s that the result
of the observations, on the pendulum left by Capt. Forster, which
have just been calculated afford almost the same discrepancies.
Mr. Bailly, who was so obliging as to show me Capt. Forster’s
papers pointed out to me a very curious result, which is in fact con-
firmed by very few observations, but which, on that very account,
deserves to = further verified ; it is that the oscillations of a pendu-
Meetings of the Scientific Association of Great Britain. 63
jum in the plane of the magnetic meridian, and perpertinalaly to
this plane, do not give the same values.
I cannot forbear mentioning a fact sufficiently curious, ohio I ob-
served in London at Mr. Watkins, and which Mr. Christie has con-
firmed by his own experiments; it is that pieces of very soft iron,
’ after having acquired magnetism by induction, preserved all their
force during a fortnight, and others even a month, after being sub-
jected to a current of electricity, but when separated from the ar-
mature, their power almost entirely disappeared. JI had an oppor-
tunity to speak of it to Mr. Christie without finding any plausible
explanation. I now regret that I did not carefully examine the
places of contact, and observe, whether the surfaces brought to-
gether and united at first by magnetic force, might not afterwards re-
main so in the same way as the Magdeburg hemispheres.
Magnetical observations were recommended to be made, during
the appearance of the aurora borealis, and it was also requested that
they should be made, as far as practicable, during all meteorological
observations. Without denying the great advantages to be deri
from observations taken with this view, I think much more might
be gained from observations on the nature and intensity of atmos-
pheric electricity, which I regard as one of the most important sub-
jects of examination; this was also the opinion of Mr. Herschel.
I have since seen at Paris the apparatus designed by M. Arago for
this purpose, and with which he has made observations with an ac-
curacy which will no doubt effect new discoveries for science.
* Mr. Brunel, in a special communication, gave the details of the
observations made by himself and Mr. Faraday, on the employment
of the expansive force of liquid carbonic acid; observations which
are still but too little known by those wbo endeavor to employ this
substance in machinery instead of steam. These experiments, which
were made with great care, prove that the carbonic acid gradually
loses its elastic foree. Mr. Brunel was so good as to show me, at
London, the designs of the apparatus of which he has availed
himself. : 2 ,
Tides.—It had been recommended, last year, that attention should
be devoted to the subject of tides. Mr. Whewell, who has just pub-
lished, in the Philosophical Transactions of London, a very interest-
ing memoir on this subject, and which has also received much atten-
tion from Mr. Lubbock, read an interesting report, in which he re-
capitulated all that has been achieved by science up to the present
time.
64 Meetings of the Scientific Association of Great Britain.
It would be very advantageous to collect the observations on the
tides which have, no doubt, been made at Antwerp and Ostend, and
communicate them to the English philosophers, who have expressed
a desire to be acquainted with them. If those among us who really
desire the advancement of science, would agree to take part in the
observations which are now making in many places.on the same plan,
I would cheerfully impart all the instructions communicated to me
on this subject, and those especially by Mr. Whewell, whose duty it
is to collect all the documents to be brought before the Association.
The amount of the annual subscription of the members, although
trifling, has produced a considerable sum since the commencement
of the Association ; and it has been resolved to appropriate it to the
encouragement of difficult but useful labors, such as observations on
the tides, reducing the calculations of ancient astronomical observa-
tions not yet published, &c. They have also offered a premium for
a collection of constants according to the idea of Mr. Babbage. —
Babbage’s Calculating Machine and Constants.—This philoso-
pher has for a long time expressed a wish to see a kind of repertory
formed, in which all that can be measured should be recorded ; for
instance, the specific gravity of bodies, the linear dilatation of met-
als, the size of animals, that of their bones, their weight, quantity
of: air required for one inspiration, &c. A grand design, especially
if they record the age of living beings, as I have endeavored to do
for the human race. The plan that I have made out for man alone,
is so extensive that I have no hope, even with the assistance of many
of my friends, of being able to bring forward more than a mere out-
line of the: great work that I contemplate. I think, however, we
should not give up any investigations, however extensive, from which
any advantage may be derived. Time is an agent which will accom-
plish the most laborious undertakings, and if our endeavors are di-
rected in the proper channel, posterity will finish oie we have not
been able to complete.
‘Mr. Babbage, who does not shrink from the most gigantic under-
takings, is the inventor of the celebrated calculating machine, com-
menced some years ago, at considerable expense, but which he will
probably never see finished on the immense plan he has conceived.
The machine, however, in its present state, does its duty readily
and enables us to understand the plan of the inventor. Owing to
the intimacy which I have enjoyed for a long time with Mr. Bab-
bage, I had an opportunity of inspecting all the details of the ma-
Meetings of the Scientific Association of Great Britain. 65
chine, and was enabled to form a far more correct idea of a work
which I have often heard mentioned, but with the details of which
very few persons are acquainted. It is certainly very complicated,
and great attention is necessary to follow the action of its different
parts, so that I will not attempt to give a description, which would
no doubt fill a large volume, if we paid any regard to the ideas of
the inventor, the minute perfection of the workmanship, and all the
mathematical calculations which can be performed by this machine.
In 1829 a committee of engineers, of whom Messrs. Brunel, Donkin,
Bartow, &c. were members, thought this work the most perfect they
had ever seen. One of its most useful applications would be the
construction of logarithmic tables, especially with the improvements
designed by Mr. Babbage. The machine will print logarithms while
it calculates them, so that the least error in the copy or the printed
part can be detected. It may, it is true, happen that when in mo-
tion one tooth of a wheel may break, and e mistake in this way be
committed, but as this mistake would be carried out in all the sub-
sequent results, it could not escape observation on proving the final
result.
Statistics.—Statistical information has not less engaged Mr. Bab-
bage’s attention, and as this science is not included in the number of
those which the committees at Cambridge were appointed to exam-
ine, we united with Messrs. Malthus and Jones, with whom I have
the pleasure of being acquainted, to discuss the subject. Some in-
ividuals showed a desire to be present at these ‘meetings, which
were at first altogether private; they soon, however, received a share
of attention from the society, at the general meeting, by appointing
a committee for statistics, but confining its operations to the numeri-
cal part of the science. Mr. Malthus was intended for the presi-
dent of the committee, but upon motion‘of this illustrious philoso-
pher, Mr. Babbage was named in his stead, and Mr. Drinkwater per-
petual secretary, charged with receiving the communications address-
ed to the committee.
The attention of the committee of statistics was first directed to
the necessity of having exact accounts of the population, and we
must grant that this necessity is very urgent in England, especially
with regard to births. Parliament is now engaged in devising plans
for giving precision to this statistical element, and is collecting with
care all the documents which can give any information on this nice
point. Mr. Bowring proposed to i at London, to submit to an
Vor. XXVIII.—No. 1.
66 Meetings of the Scientific Association of Great Britain.
examination by a committee of parliament, in order to give informa-
tion with regard to the census taken amon® us in 1829, and on the
plan of registers in our country. I submitted to it with pleasure,
happy if I could aid in establishing plans which might give more
precision to.a subject so important as that of population. Few coun-
tries, from the position, boundaries, and civil registers, deserve so
much as ours to be studied in reference to population. Sweden and
Switzerland have for a long time attracted the attention of the learn-
ed, with regard to the same subject. The reports that I presented
at Cambridge, and the. promise that I thought I could give that our
government would willingly make any investigations beneficial to
science, led me to think that our country might be selected as offer-
ing all desirable facilities for studying this subject.. This state of
things, of which we shall be the first to reap the fruits, will without
doubt be valued as it should be, and I venture to believe that this
will be one of the most happy results of our scientific relation with
England.
Mr. Malthus, in consequence of the propdsals oe I thought my-
self authorized to make, wished me to ask the following questions,
which I hastened to send to the Minister of the Interior, who has
promised to collect the elements necessary to answer them in a satis-
factory manner. They wish to know— -
e number of births arising from each thane
What proportion of the children attain a marriageable age ;
. The number of living children from each marriage ; ,
he wages for manufactures and agriculture in different provinces,
particularly the price of a common day’s work of a laborer;
The quantity of wheat which such a day’s wages will purchase
in ordinary times ;
The average price of different kinds of grain ;
The usual food of a day laborer;
The proportion of barren marriages 5
The proportion of marriages which have produced five or more
living. children.
The committee also expressed a wish to know the measures taken
by the Belgian government, since 1815, for the reduction of men-
dicity. -
_ The answers to these questions, in nthe hands of competent ar
would produce for ourselves valuable results.
Meetings of the Scientific Association of Great Britain. 67
Persons the most interested in political science hold meetings at
London, where they discuss the subject of their studies and mutually
enlighten each other. These discussions, altogether scientific and
friendly, at which twenty or thirty persons attend, take place aftera
meal and generally turn on the political questions of the day. They
had the goodness to admit me to one of them, where the subject was,
the work required from children in the manufactories. At this meet-
ing, many of the most distinguished political economists of England
were present, namely, Messrs. Malthus, Senior, Tooke, Lewis,
Whately, Babbage, &c.; our minister plenipotentiary at London,
Mr. Van de Weyer, whose dutieshave not turned him from the sub-
ject ofthis first studies, is also a member of this society and took part
at the same meeting.
Observatories.—The. chadeoaane at Cambridge has received ma-
ny valuable additions since my first visitin 1827. Besides the great
transit instrument with a focal distance of ten feet, they have now a
mural circle of ten feet‘diameter and a new equatorial of a very el-
egant form, constructed by Messrs. Troughton and Simms. This
equatorial, in every respect similar to that which the same artists are
now making for the observatory at Brussels, is furnished with two
circles three feet in diameter ; the vertical circle is between four cyl-
indrical columns, which rest upon the hour circle and are placed i in
the direction of the poles. These three fine instruments place the
Cambridge observatory among the first in Europe ; no one is better
qualified to give renown to this noble establishment, than Mr. Air
its superintendant, whose name is equally distinguished in the different
branches of mathematical science.
The royal observatory at Greenwich ie not been much changed
for many years. ‘The great Zenith sector however has been put
in place. Observations on the stars and planets are still made with ©
diligence, in this fine establishment, which together with the observa-
tories at Cambridge and Armagh, publishes its operations with a reg-
ularity which is of the greatest advantage to science.
The compilation of the Nautical Alraanae, entrusted to Mr. Stratford,
has just been extended so as greatly to increase its usefulness to as-
tronomers and especially to navigators. Forsome time, the publica-
tion of this interesting collection was delayed, but owing to the care
of the present compilers the volume for 1834, which has just been
published, will be soon followed. od that for ie and every —
leads us to hope that we may in future p I
i
68 Meetings of the Scientific Association of Great Britain.
years before it is necessary to use them, which is indispensable espe-
cially for long voyages. ‘The royal astronomical society powerfully
seconds by its encouragement, and by the valuable papers which it
publishes, the impetus which astronomy is now receiving in England.
I have also paid another visit to Mr. South’s observatory where I
received, on my first tour, so kind a reception ; a reception which was
renewed to me by the able observer, who has built this observatory
at his own expense. The observatory has been enriched, since 1827,
by Mr. Cauchoix’s large telescope, and Mr. South has spared no
pains to give it a proper position and a parallactic support. Unfor-
tunately, the construction of the support, entrusted to very skilful
hands, has not succeeded so well as other works of the same artists.
Perhaps additional improvements may give more stabjlity to it, but m
its present state it would be impossible to keep a star under the
threads, or to take a micrometric measurement, the path of the star
being too undulating to allow of accurate results. From the mathe-
matical und physical correspondence, Vol. 8, No. 1.
Part I].—Merrine or tue Britisn AssoctaTion at Eptn-
BURGH, September 8, 1834.
President, Sir Tuomas M. Briszane, Bart. &c. &c.
Vice Presidents, Sir Davin Brewster, and Rev. J. Ropinson,
D. D. Astron. Roy. at Armagh. :
Genl. Sec.—Rev. W. Vernon Harcourt, F.R. S. &c.
Treasurer,—Joun Tavtor, Esq. F. R. 8. &c.
Asst. Sec.—Pror. Puruirs.
Local Sec.—Joun Ropinson, Esq. Sec. R. S. E. and Pror.
Forzes. ,
" INTRODUCTORY MEETING. ;
Monday, September 8.—The meeting was opened in the St.
George’s Street Assembly Rooms, at 8 o’clock, P. M., by an elo-
quent address from Prof. Sedgwick, the President of the meeting of
the preceding year. He adverted to the origin of the association, to
its various meetings, first at York, next at Oxford, next at Cam-
bridge, and now at Edinburgh ; to the decided manifestations of pub-
lic favor; to the great numbers of illustrious men whom the Scot-
tish capital had produced ; to the eminent individuals brought togeth-
er by this association; to M. Arago, perpetual secretary of the
French Institute, and Dr. Vlastos of Greece, now present; to the
—
Meetings of the Scientific Association of Great Britain. 69
feebleness of man when alone, and his great efficiency when acting
in combination; to man’s power over the brute elements; and to
various natural phenomena whose investigation had been begun or
extended, in consequence of hints given at former meetings of this
association. He mentioned particularly, the fusion of bodies, to be
sustained, probably during ten years, for the purpose of ascertaining
the effects of long continued heat, and to observations on the tides,
which are in progress, and he happily vindicated the good moral ten-
dency of physical investigations. Sir Thomas Brisbane, on taking
the chair, made an appropriate address, and complimented his pre-
decessors. Professor Robinson then stated the plan for the business
of the meeting, and for the accommodation of the members. Profes-
sor Forbes gave an address, explanatory of the objects of the associa-
tion,—recapitulating what had been already accomplished, or what
is in progress.
As it is impossible, consistently with our limits, to give a detailed |
account of the doings of: this important meeting, we can select only
a few prominent facts, under the most important heads, and refer the
reader to the fuller account contained in the Edinburgh New Philo-
sophical Journal for Oct. 1834, conducted by Professor Jameson ;
and tothe volume which will doubtless be published, in which at
least the most important papers will be given at.large, while on the
present occasion, we cannot give even a full catalogue of the titles.
As on former occasions, the meeting was divided into sections
which met separately in the mornings, and in the evening a report of
their domgs was made to the general meeting; this meeting was
held in the large assembly room, and there, strangers were allowed
to be present, and among them were many ladies.
MATHEMATICS AND GENERAL PHYSICS.
Chairman, Rev. Prof. Waewetu.
Sept. 10.—Rain.—Prof. Phillips read a second report of the
quantity of rain, observed by himself, and Mr. Gray, to have fallen,
at different elevations, above the ground.
Edinburgh Observatory.—An Observatory having been erected,
on the Calton Hill in Edinburgh, at an expense of £5000, its situa-
tion is stated by Prof. Robinson to be improper, and as Sir David
Brewster mentions, in the same connexion, the decay of the object
glass of the transit instrument, and Mr. Arago stated facts of this
nature, within his knowledge, we are led to presume, that the effect
may be a chemical one, arising from the action of the marine air on -
70 Meetings of the Scientific Association of Great Britain.
the alkalr of the glass; this remark would however not apply to
glasses at Paris, which is far from the sea. °
Prof. Robinson recommends, that the present observatory should
be used for magnetic experiments, but this is objected to by Prof.
Wallace,* because the rockt of the Calton Hill is highly magnetic.
Sept. 12.—Life Apparatus.—Mr. Murray described an appara-
tus for communicating between a stranded vessel and the shore ; with
a method. of ‘usiititings by night, the path of the arrow and the
vessel; this, if effectual, must be very important.
Mode of Registering Meteoric Phenomena.—Mr. Adie, optician
in Edinburgh, communicated a register of the weather, for ten years,
in which the state of the thermometer and barometer was shown by
undulating lines ; the depth of-the rain of each day by a broad red
line; the thunder storms by a scarlet mark ; the aurora by a blue
one ; and a part of the space, allotted to each day, was tinted of a
particular color, to represent the direction of the winds, so that the
views of the weather, for the different years, had only to be com-
pared together, and it would, immediately, be seen which of them
had been remarkable for heat, rain, steadiness-of weather, or the con-
trary.
Expansion.—Mr. Adie, civil engineer, found by a pyrometer
heated by steam, that when a rod of straight grained, well seasoned
oak was kept dry, it expanded only about ;'; of the rate of plati-
num ; black marble $ as much as glass; sandstone of Craigleith
Quany, very nearly equal to cast iron.
CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY.
Chairman, Prof. C. Hope.
"Sete, 9.—Atomic Weights——Dr. Turner expressed the opinion
maintained in the Transactions of the Roy. Soc. of London, that
the atomic weights of bodies cannot be represented by whole num-
bers. This result would lead to great practical inconvenience, al-
though we must follow ‘truth wherever it may lead us. Wighons
doubt the facts will be reviewed by others.
.—Dr. Thomson believed that the mercury seapontedi in-
to Britain is pure.
t. 10.—New facts in relation to Combustion.—Dr. Charles
Williams shewed, that many organic substances exhibit, in a. dark
place, a pale lambent flame, like that of phosphorus just below ac-
. tive combustion; this happens, when vapors begin to be evolved ;
' * In aseparate paper. See Jameson’s Journal, October, 1834.
+ Itis a porphyritic trap.
Meetings of the Scientific Association of Great Britain. 71
this feeble flame has little heating power, and passes to ordinary
_ flame, by a rapid transition, accompanied by a feeble detonation.
Some metals, as zinc and potassium, shew the same phenomenon,
but, owing to speedy oxidation, it ceases sooner in them than in or-
ganic bodi
The application is obvious, in suggesting to manufacturers ini
danger of sudden inflammation, as in candle and soap-making, in
which vapors are exhaled, during the whole process of manufacture.
Coal tar and water for fuel—Dr. Daubeny brought forward the
economical use of coal tar in connexion with water as a fuel.*
Mr. Low stated that, from long experience he was convinced that
water was of no service in generating heat with coal tar, and that
three gallons, or thirty three pounds of coal tar are equal in heating
effect to forty pounds of coke, made from the Newcastle coal of the
Hulton seam.
The conclusions drawn from a somewhat protracted discussion,
were, 1. That tar is not much superior, as a fuel, to the same weight
of the best coal. 2. That when mixed with water, it flows more
easily through tubes, but does not appear -to evolve more heat than
when used alone.
Sept. 11.—Sulphur i in Bar iron.—Mr. West shewed, that Av
best bar iron gives off sulphuretted. hydrogen during its solutio:
muriatic acid, and that sulphur being present in most malleable i ie,
injures their properties.
mber from Ava.—Sir David Brewster gave a notice of a large
specimen of amber from Ava, which was avieiae by thin layers
of carbonate of lime.
Carbonic acid in the atmosphere—Mr. W. H. Watson showed
that in the town of Bolton, twelve observations in the country, gave
in 10,000 parts of air, carbonic acid 4.74 for a maximum ; 3.89 for a
minimum ; mean 4.135; in the town, nineteen observations gave the
maximum 8.62; minimum 4.19 ; mean 5.30.
Sept. 12.—Hot blast_—Dr. Clark stated, that in Mr. ‘Nixon’s
process for smelting iron by the hot blast, one ton of iron is now
produced by two tons, fourteen cwt. of coal, instead of eight tons,
one and a half cwt. formerly i thus causing a saving of five
tons, eight cwt.
* This has been long known in this country; the fact was discovered by ~ ppt
Morey, and an account of his process, may be found in the first vol. Am. dark of
Science, 1818; and many experiments by him in subsequent volumes, pass
72 Meetings of the Scientific Association of Great Britain.
Mr. Kemp gave an account of a new mode of liquefying the
gases, by which they may be obtained, much more easily, and in
much larger quantities. Among the properties of the liquefied gas-
es, he stated the independent bleaching power of chlorine, and of
ong hydrogen, when liquid.
ox read a communication on the electro-magnetic condition
of certain veins, and the continuation of the seamen was re-
commended.
GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY.
Chairman, Prof. Jameson.
Sept. 9.—Slaty structure. —Dr. Boyle stated, that, from his own
observations, all the characters of stratification usually ascribed to
primary slates, do occur in granites also, and that the essential struc-
tural characters of these slates are continued into the neighboring
granites ; he thence inferred, that, there is no real structural distinc-
tion between the granites and the primary slates.*
This opinion was either opposed, or the difficulty was, to a degree
modified, by different gentlemen present, and Prof. Sedgwick stated,
that, he had adopted the same opinion as that of Dr. Boyle, after a
visit to Cornwall, sixteen years ago, but that an investigation in North
Wales and Cumberland, had considerably altered his views.
Gradual elevation of parts of Sweden, §c.—Mr. Lyell, being
invited, gave an oral statement of his observations in Scandinavia, as
to the supposed change in the level of the Baltic.
Celsius, more than one hundred years ago, contended, that the
level both of the Baltic and of the main ocean, was undergoing a
gradual depression, and he referred to the following proofs :
1. Towns with sea ports, formerly, situated on the coast of the
Gulf of Bothnia, are now far inland, and new tracts are becoming
dry along the shores ; to this, the inhabitants bore testimony.
2. They also say, that various insulated rocks in the Gulf of
Bothnia, and on other parts of the eastern shores of Sweden now
rise higher above the sea, than formerly, as seen in their youth.
3. Marks were cut in the fixed rocks on the shore, thirty years
bee, or more, to indicate the extreme altitude of the waves, when
* Te this country, there can be no question that granite is, in general, clearly
distinguished from the primary slaty rocks, as is plainly seen in all quarries where
these rocks are cloven; gucies;: mica slate, and the ae aioe —— easily,
through their slaty structure, splits, as
ily in one direction, asin- another. —Ed.
Meetings of the Scientific Association of Great Britain. 18
ranged by high winds, and that those marks indicated a sinking of
the waters, at the rate of three or four feet in one hundred years.
It was objected, that similar results were not obtained in every part
of the Swedish coasts; that land was accumulating at the mouths of
rivers, &c. and that by the winds any marks were rendered very uncer-
tain indications of the sea level. Von Buch, twenty five years ago, ob-
serving that the sand and mud of several places on the western shores
of Scandinavia contained shells, like those existing in the present seas,
inferred that there had been a change of level, and as water cannot
undergo a partial depression, he concluded that Sweden and Finland
were slowly rising.
Mr. Lyell visited some parts of the shores of the Bothnian Gulf,
between Stockholm and Gefle, and of the western coast of Sweden,
between Udevalla and Gothenburg, districts particularly alluded to
by Celsius. He had examined several of the marks cut in 1820, by
the Swedish pilots, under the direction of the Swedish Academy of
Sciences, and found the level of the Baltic in calm weather, several
inches below the marks. He also found the level of the waters,
several feet below marks made seventy or one hundred years before.
He obtained similar results on the side of the ocean, and found, in
both districts, that the testimony of the inhabitants agreed exactly
with that of their ancestors, recorded by Celsius. After confirming
the accounts given by Von Buch, of the occurrence, on the side of
the ocean, of elevated beds of recent shells, at various heights, from
ten to two hundred feet, Mr. Lyell added, that he had also discover-
ed deposits on the side of the Bothnian Gulf, between Stockholm
and Gefle, containing fossil shells of the same species which now
characterize the brackish waters of that sea. These oecur at vari-
ous elevations, from one to one hundred feet, and sometimes reach
fifty miles inland. The shells are partly marine and partly fluvia-
tile; the marine species are identical with those now living in the
ocean, but are dwarfish in size, and never attain the average dimen-
sions of those which live in waters sufficiently salt to enable them
to reach their full developement. Mr. Lyell concluded, by declar-
ing his belief, that certain parts of Sweden are undergoing a gradual
rise to the amount of two or three feet in a century, while other
parts visited by him, farther to the south, appear to experience no
movement. |
Coal of Fyfeshire and Edinburgh.—Lord Greenock stated, on
the authority of Mr. Landale and Mr. Bald, that in Fyfeshire, there
Vol. XX VIII.—No. 1. 10
74 Meetings of the Scientific Association of Great Britain.
are twenty nine beds of coal, of the united thickness of one hun-
dred and nineteen feet, and that in the Edinburgh district, there are
from twenty’ six to twenty nine beds of the thickness of one hundred
and nine feet.
The nodules of iron stone in the bituminous shale of Wardie gen-
erally contain an organic nucleus, either a coprolite, or some ‘potion
of a fish.
Organic Remains in the Limestone of Burdic House.—In the
limestone of Burdic house, there are bones of gigantic animals, va-
rious undescribed fish, large scales and coprolites.
There are pointed teeth, three and three fourths inches long, and
one and a half wide at their base, resembling those of Saurian rep-
tiles ;* the teeth and the numerous large scales, are beautifully
enamelled of a brown tint. There were also bony rays fifteen inch-
es long, and of course, they must have belonged to some huge fish.
Mr. Agassiz was of the opinion, that these relics belonged to a
fish, of a new and extraordinary genus, partaking of the character
of reptiles, of that class of animals which appear elsewhere in great
numbers, only at a geological era much later than that in which these
are deposite _ :
Sept. 11.—Structure of recent and fossil wood.—Mr. Nicoll
read a paper on the structure of recent and fossil wood, with nume-
rous specimens illustrative of his observations, and of his method of
obtaining thin sections, so as to be transparent, and to exhibit the
structure, in the manner, we believe, first invented and put into prac-
tice, by Mr. Witham.+
Fossil Fishes.—Fossil fishes are found, abundantly, in the Ork-
neys, and in Caithness ; Mr. Agassiz refers them to an era earlier
than the coal measures.
Geology of North America.—A paper was introduced from Dr.
Harlan, on the fossil organic remains of the United States.{
_ Mr. Murchison gave an abstract of Dr. Rogers’ report on the Ge-
ology of North America; the following are the conclusions drawn by
1. The deposits of New Jersey differ from those of the southern
States, in being chiefly arenaceous, and in containing an immense
quantity of the pure chloritic mineral, called green sand.
* Rather Saurian fish, according to the opinion of the celebrated M. Agassiz,
who.exam ined them
# See this Journal, Vol. xxv, P. 108, and Vol. xxvii, p. 415.
t See this Journal, Vol. 27, p. 347;
Meetings of the Scientific Association of Great Britain. 15
2. The organic remains, hitherto discovered, are nearly all, —_
the exception of one or two species, peculiar to this continent.
3. The existence of great quantities of lignite, of the remains of
scolopax, a shore bird, and the position of these beds in New Jer-
sey contiguous to the primary boundary of ancient coast, all indicate
that these beds were deposited in a comparatively shallow sea, anal-
ogous in position to the present extensive line of soundings which
skirt the coast. The obvious shallowness of the portion of the
secondary ocean where these beds were formed, may, perhaps, help
to explain the remarkable discordance alluded to, between the Amer-
ican and European marine species of this period.
4. The calcareous masses of Alabama, at least the upper beds,
are possibly different in age from the marls and arenaceous beds of
New Jersey.
5. The marl formation of New Jersey is, perhaps, most nearly
represented by the European green sands. ‘The limestone deposits
in the south, on the other hand, resemble more the upper members
of the cretaceous group, for example, the formation of the pe of
Mestricht.
6. Thus far, there is no evidence of the existence of true chalk
in North America. Genuine flints have not yet been found in any
7. Volcanic forces, during this period, seem to have been nearly
dormant, which may perhaps assist in accounting for the absence of
the chalk
8. The want of coincidence, both in organic remains, and mineral
character, between these beds, and the cretaceous group of Europe,
the difficulty of deciding their identity at present, from a want of a
sufficient knowledge of the structure and superposition of our forma-
tion; and above all, the importance of preserving our geology, free
froin the shackles of a nomenclature, originally adapted to another
continent, render it desirable that we reject the terms in use, an
appropriate to this group of formations a name, which shall be inde-
pendent of old associations, and yet express their position, in the ge-
ological series. Mr. Lyell, expressed the high opinion he enter-
tained of the labors and theoretical views of Professor Rogers.
Geological position of Fossil fishes in England and Scotland.—
Mr. Murchison shewed, that fossil fishes are common to the central
portion of the old red sandstone of England, and the strata oceupy-
ing the same geological position in Forfarshire, and other counties in
76 Meetings of the Scientific Association of Great Britain.
Scotland. M. Agassiz gave a very interesting and instructive view
of the fossil fishes of Scotland. They are very numerous, but the
facts concerning them cannot be conveniently condensed ; for de-
tailed information, the fuller report must be resorted to, in Jame-
son’s New Edin. Jour. Oct. 1834.
Mr. Saul exhibited drawings of the incisors and canine teeth of
the fossil hippopotamus, from a gravel pit near Huntingdon.
NATURAL HISTORY.
Chairman, Prof. Granam.
Sept. 9.—Genus Salmo.—Professor Agassiz presented a view of
the Genus Salmo, as found in Europe. While the ventral fins are of
a middling size, the caudal fin is attached to a very fleshy root, and
is moved by very powerful muscles. This elastic spring is, to these
fishes, a most powerful lever; when wishing to leap to a great height,
they strike the surface of the water with a kind of double stroke.
By this means, they overcome obstacles which appear insurmounta-
ble, and leap over nets which are intended to confine them. The
most formidable water falls can scarcely arrest them. The several
species of this genus are found in the northern and temperate regions
of Europe, Asia, and America.
The fishes of this family are very ravenous, their food being prin-
cipally, the larve of aquatic and other insects, and of the small
crustacea, and little fishes.
The swimming bladder is very large, and opens into the esopha-
gus, near the bottom of the gullet.
Prof. Agassiz expressed the extraordinary opinion, that this organ
is the lungs of fishes, and that their branchia are not, as has been
supposed, analogous to the lungs of other animals.
Most of the salmon varieties reside in fresh waters; go to the sea
in summer, and visit the rivers tospawn. Most of our species, (says
Prof. A.) deposit their ova in November and December, and the
young fry, coming into being in cold weather, can support all varia-
tions of temperature.
The colors of the different kinds of Salmo vary with the seasons.
Their tints are most vivid in October, November, December, and
January ; and “‘we might almost say that these fishes deck them-
selves in a nuptial garb, as birds do.”’. The fishes of the salmo fam-
ily are very widely distributed, and some of the varieties are much
valued for the table. Those of the continent of Europe may be
included within the following six species :
Meetings of the Scientific Association of Great Britam. 77
1. Salmo Umbla, Lin. the char of Eng. Salmo Alpinus, Lin.
Found in England, Ireland, Sweden, and all South Germany.
2. Salmo Fario, Lin. The trout of brooks,—common trout, dis-
tribution extensive as the above.
. Salmo Trutta, Lin. Sea trout,—Salmon trout. Salmo Lema-
nus of Cuvier, distributed extensively as the preceding.
4. Salmo Lacustris, Lin. Found in the Lakes of Lower Austria,
and in the Rhine above Constance.
5. Salmo Salar, Lin. The true salmon. 'The Salmo Hamatus
of Cuvier is the old fish, and the Salmo Gadeni of Bloch is the
young fish. Found in the northern seas, whence it ascends the riv-
ers, even as faras the Swiss lakes.
6. Salmo Hucho, Lin. Of the same species as the preceding :
peculiar to the waters of the Danube.
The different species of the salmon family are very widely dis-
tributed ; they thrive in all climates; at least, at all elevations above
the ocean, whether in fresh water or salt, but they prefer limpid
water.
Sept. 11.—New work on Vertebral Animals.—Prof. Jameson
exhibited a splendid collection of colored drawings of the vertebrate
animals of Great Britain and Ireland, by Mr. William Macgillivray ;
they combined beauty and accuracy ; and form a part of a great col-
lection, intended for publication, under the title of The Mammalia,
Birds, Reptiles, and Fishes. of Great Britain and Ireland
Propagation of Scottish Zoophytes.—Mr. Graham Dalzell read
a very valuable paper on the propagation of Scottish Zoophytes.
We have not room even for an intelligible abridgment of the ab-
stract of this important paper, and can mention only a few facts.
1. The actinta equina produced over two hundred and seventy
six young in six years; the embryos first appear on the tips of the
tentacula, one of which being removed with its embryo began to
breed in fourteen months, and survived five years.
2. The Hydra tuba, or trumpet polypus, a new Scottish species ;
about two inches in diameter; it waves its long white tentacula in
the water, propagates by an external shapeless bud, and in thirteen
months gave eighty three descendants ; the group was watched five
ears.
3. The Tubularia indivisa is rooted to rocks and shells by a stalk
above-one foot high, with a scarlet head, like a beautiful flower: it is
full of tentacula. Splendid groups occur of fifty or even one hun-
78 Meetings of the Scientific Association of Great Britain.
dred specimens. ‘The ovarium consists of botrioydal clusters, and is
borne on the head whence an ovum falls, and is developed below,
shooting out tentacula, which serve first as feet, by the aid of which
the animal enjoys a degree of locomotion, and is thus enabled to
choose his points of future fixture, but the tentacula are finally re-
versed, and a stalk, growing from under the head, attaches the zoo-
phyte to a rock.
4, Sertularie are generally shrub-like, with thousands of cells,
containing their appropriate polypi; the Sertularia Uber is three
feet high from the root. The animal crawls, actively at first, but
dies, and another springs from its ruins. Plantations of hundreds
of Sertularie may be easily obtained.
5. The Flustra Carbasca resembles a leaf, studded with cells, all
of which, are inhabited by vivacious polypi.
All the preceding are marine, and propagate, although solitary.
6. The Cristatella mirabilis inhabits the fresh waters of Scotland,
and is the most remarkable of polypiferous products. From one
hundred to three hundred polypiare grouped in an ellipsoidal figure ;
each polypus, although an integral portion of the common mass, is
a distinct animal, with individual sensation and action. It consists of
a fleshy stem, with a horse head, and having about one hundred ten-
tacula. ‘The entire mass can move slowly, bearing along, it may be,
three hundred animals. A single polypus of cia kind can produce
one thousand animals.
The stalk of the Sertularia eclvapilind has the power of reprodu-
cing its heads, which are deciduous after recovery from the sea, and
a redundance of heads may be produced by artificial sections. "Thus
twenty two heads were produced in five hundred and fifty days from
three sections of a single stem.
The reproductive powers of some animals are very great. The
amphitrite ventilabrum, and others of that genus have, from frag-
ments of the largest specimens that could be obtained from the lower
een se regenerated the complex and beautiful plume. All the
results, with others, equally singular, were illustrated by
drawings by skilful arrists.
Sept. 12.— Singular variety of the Human Race.—Mr. Pent-
land offered reasons for believing, that there existed, at a compara-
tively recent period, between 14° and 19° §. lat., a race of men,
in whose crania two thirds of the cerebral mass, was placed behind
the occipital foramen, and in which the bones of the face are very
Meetings of the Scientific Association of Great Britain. 79
much elongated, like apes, and these peculiarities, Mr. P. conten-
ded, could not be produced by pressure or external force.
The bones of this race, are found in ancient tombs in the moun-
tains of Peru and Bolivia, and principally, in the great interalpine
valley of Titicaca, and on the borders of the Lake of the same
name. ‘The architecture of the tombs is beautiful, and appears to
belong to a period not more than seven hundred or eight
years ago.
This race of men, appears to have preceded the present Indie
races which bear the characters of Asiatics.
ANATOMY AND MEDICINE.
Chairman, Dr. ABercRomMBIE.
Sept. 10.—Change of color in the Chameleon Mr. Murray of
Hull, made a communication on the change of color in the Chamel-
eon. He stated, that the agama or Mexican Chameleon and the
polychlorus, display a change of color, or tint in the skin, and noti-
cing some of the more striking points in the history of the chamel-
eon, such as the biennial casting of its skin, he proceeded to state
his opinion, that the electro-chemical action of the sun beam through
the skin upon the blood, modified by impulse, produced the changes
in question. He had made experimenjs, which appeared to him to
prove, that there is a change of temperature connected with the
change of color; the thermometer varying from 73° to 75°, when
the ambient air was 72°.
Effect of Ventilation on the Mortality of Infants——It appeared
from a register kept in the Lying-in Hospital in Dublin, that during
the seventy five years, between 1758 and 1833, relief had been af-
forded to one hundred and twenty nine thousand poor women, that
in 1781, every sixth child died by the ninth day, of convulsive dis-
ease, but that now, owing to a more thorough ventilation, the mor-
tality, in five successive years, is reduced to one in twenty. Com-
municated by Dr. Abercrombie.
Sept. 12.—Regulation of the Sanguineous Circulation —Dr.
T. J. Aikin communicated the result of his enquiries into the varie-
ties of mechanism, by which the blood may be accelerated or retard-
ed in the arterial and venous system of the mammalia.
1. By the angle at which the branch comes off from the trunk.
2. The direction of the vessel.
3. The subdivision.
4. The formation of plexus.
80 Meetings of the Scientific Association of Great Britain.
To illustrate the first, the aorta of a tiger was shewn, in which the
superior intercostals arose at an acute, the middle at a right, and the
lower at an obtuse angle, thus rendering the force and velocity of
the blood, equal through the whole series. For the second, he na-
med the tortuous entrance of the internal carotid and vertebral ar-
teries into the skull of the human subject.
In the horse and other ruminantia, it is still more remarkable, on
account of the great length of time in which they must keep their
heads in a prone position. The third was illustrated by the sloth
and hedgehog. ‘The fourth by the ruminantia—the existence of the
rete mirabile in the ophthalmic artery of the seal and goose, and in
the mesenteric arteries and veins of the hog.
Excision of important joints.—Prof. Syme exhibited several pa-
tients who had suffered the excision of the elbow and shoulder joints
with safety.
STATISTICS.
Chairman, Str Cuartes Lemon, Bart.
Sept. 9.—Population of Manchester—Condition of a part of
it.—It appears from a document of the Statistical Society of Man-
chester, that the number of families visited by a Committee, was
4102, consisting of nearly 20,000 persons, occupying 3110 houses,
and 1002 cellars and aparmgnts, of which only 689 were well fur-
nished, 1551 were comfortably furnished and 2551 were uncomfort-
able. Of the 20,000 persons, 7789 receive wages and only 158
pay a rent over four shillings per week. In the same district there
were 8121 children under twelve years, of whom 252 attended day
schools, 4680 Sunday schools, and nearly half were without educa-
- The number of persons, who stated that they were able to
tedd was 3114.
Sept. 10 —Proportion of Males to Females in Glasgow.—lt
appeared from the statements of Dr. Cleland, that in Glasgow, as
elsewhere, there are more males born than Sociale but that in every
period over fifteen years of age, the proportion of living females pre-
inates.
Sept. 12.— Statistical Societies —Mr. Drinkwater stated that the
Statistical Society of London already consisted of nearly four hun-
dred and fifty members, and that it was actively employed in en-
couraging the formation of similar societies in every part of the Uni-
ted Kingdom.
Statistique Morale de France.—Captain Maconochie gave an
account of M. Guerry’s Essai sur la Statistique Morale de France.
Meetings of the Scientific Association of Great Britain. 81
If France be divided into five several regions or districts, it appears
that the proportion of crimes in each region, is very nearly oe
from year to year.
The summer months are more productive of crimes against per-
sons, the winter months against property, and, crimes against prop-
erty, are three times as numerous as against persons. Crimes
not appear to be increasing in France.
‘Second accusations are numerous, but a man, once condemned to
the galleys, seldom renders himself again liable to that punishment.
Men commit almost every species of crime, much more frequently
than women; the crimes against children are equally divided be-
tween the sexes.
In one hundred crimes against persons, men commit eighty six,
and women fourteen—ayainst property, men seventy nine, and wo-
men twenty one. ‘Two fifths or nearly one half of the crimes com-
mitted by women against the person, are for infanticide. The great-
est ignorance in France, is on the west coast—in the centre and not
in the south as has been supposed. The greatest amount of crimes
is in Corsica and Alsace.
In both sexes, the greatest amount of crimes is committed wd
tween the ages of twenty five and thirty, which embrace nearly one
fifth of the whole.
Mr. Guerry concludes that education is a mighty instrument, pow-
erful either for good or evil, according as it is directed, and that, un-
less while we inform the intellect, we also take pains to cultivate the
moral sentiments, and to touch the affections of the heart, we bestow
but a doubtful advantage on its object.
Rate of mortality among rich and poor.—A paper of Mr. Mur-
ray was read by the Secretary, shewing that the rate of mortality is
less in the higher than in the lower orders of society, the opulent be-
ing the longest lived.
This must arise from their superior comfort, and in manufacturing
towns, the best workmen who receive the highest wages are often
dissipates, improvident, and therefore short lived.
pt. 9.— Evening Meetings—George street Assembly Rooms.—
The treasurer reported the progress of the Institution. At its first
meeting at York, in 1831, it numbered 350 members—at Oxford in
1832, they increased to 700—at Cambridge, 1833, to about 1400.
It is added in a note that on the Jast day in Edinburgh the number
enrolled (additional we pone) was 1298. A letter was read from
Vol. XX VIII.—No. 1 11
82 Meetings of the Scientific Association of Great Britain.
Mr. Rumker of Hamburgh with an ephemeris of the track of the
comet of 1682 and 1759, whose return is expected at the end of this
year ; various remarks were made upon comets by Profs. Robinson,
Whewell and Hamilton.
10. Dr. Lardner, by request, explained the principle of Mr. Bab-
bages celebrated calculating machine, as for as it could be done with-
out models or the machine itself.
11. Dr. Buckland delivered a very animated and instructive lec-
ture on fossil amphibia and fishes. We understand from a friend
who was present, an American Lady—that the lecture was illustrated
by drawings of the Saurians, &c. and that Dr. Buckland is not less
distinguished for his scientific attainments, than for his brilliancy and
felicity of language.
12. Dr. Abercrombie, after stating his very great satisfaction at
the meeting, expressed the sentiment, that ‘ those who have made
the greatest attainments in true science will be first to acknowledge
their own insignificance, when viewed in relation to that omnipotent
one who guides the planets in their courses and maintains the com-
plicated movements of ten thousand suns and ten thousand systems
in undeviating harmony ; he was satisfied that infidelity and irreligion
are the offspring of ignorance and presumption, and that the boldest
researches of science, if conducted in the spirit of true philosophy,
must lead us to new discoveries of the power and wisdom and _har-
mony and beauty, which pervade the works of him who is eternal.”
Prof. Sedgwick echoed the sentiments of Dr. Abercombie, that the
pursuits of science, instead of leading to infidelity have a contrary ten-
dency—that they tend rather to strengthen religious principle and
to confirm moral conduct.
Sept. 18. We have omitted to repeat what was mentioned, in
the beginning of this abstract that, on the different evenings, reports
were made of the doings of the various sections.
The concluding meeting was held at 2 o’clock P. M. in the splen-
did hall of the library of the University ; there was a great rush for
admission and at 3 o’clock the hall was filled. The President Sir
Thomas M. Brisbane, announced that invitations for the next meet-
ing had been received from the Bristol Institution, from the Lit. and
Phil. Soc. of Liverpool, from the Roy. Irish Acad. the Roy.
Dublin Soc. and the Univ. of Dublin and that the committee had
agreeed to adjourn the association to Dublin to meet on the 10th of
August aura = ~~ v. Harcourt stated that £830 of the funds
ted, for the promotion of research-
atl ii
Meetings of the Scientific Association of Great Britain. 83
es in physical, chemical, geological, zoological, botanical and medical
science, and he mentioned the individuals and particular subjects.
Dr. Buckland moved that the thanks of the association should be
presented to the Uuiversity, for the liberal use of their apartments.
He warmly expressed his sense of the great hospitality of Edinburgh.
“They had been welcomed to the houses and to the tables of the in-
habitants—nay, the very rocks of the country had welcomed them
by opening before them their valuable treasures ; they had seen that
spices had formerly waved on the tops of the Grampians, while croco-
diles swam at their bases; and a thousand fishes had started from
their rocky sepulchres, to bid welcome to the members of the British
association, for the advancement of science.”’ Various votes of thanks
were passed and in seconding that proposed by Prof. Whewell to the
President of the association, Prof. Hamilton of Dublin alluded to Sir
David Brewster, as having done more than any living man for the
science of optics; “that wonderful science, which, illustrating each
by each, the more beautiful phenomena of light and the subtlest
properties of matter, enables us almost to feel the minute vibrations,
the ceaseless heavings and tremblings of that mighty ocean of ether,
which bathes the farthest stars, yet winds its way through every
labyrinth and pore of every body on this earth of ours.
He bestowed also a merited commendation upon Sir Thomas M.
Brisbane for the erection of that Oriental observatory, without which
the comet of Encke, at one of its late returns, would have eluded
human scrutiny ; since, although it was then visible in the southern,
it was invisible in the northern hemisphere. ‘The Paramatta obser-
vations had afforded important aid in determining the amount of as-
tronomical refraction, that property of our atmosphere which here,
bends the rays of Sirius towards our pole, but bends them there, tow-
ards the other.
Professor Sedgwick, in proposing the thanks of the association to
M. Arago and the other distinguished strangers who had visited
them, threw out some eloquent thoughts upon the advantages of
Science in smoothing the prejudices of different nations, and linking
together the learned men of all countries, and paid a high compli-
ment to the merits of M. Arago.
Lord Chancellor Brougham who had arrived only at this conclu-
ding meeting, made some pertinent remarks upon the influence of
scientific intercourse in preventing war, and seconded the motion of
Prof. Sedgwick. M. Arago returned thanks in a very energetic
speech.
84 Meetings of the Scientific Association of Great Britain.
Thanks were returned to the general Secretary, Rev. Vernon
Harcourt* for his great and successful exertions. The President
Sir Thomas M. Brisbane, declaring that it was the only painful du-
ty imposed upon him during the week, then adjourned the socie-
ty, to meet at Dublin, August 10, 1835, when the meeting sep-
arated.
Among the subjects already promoted, or to be encouraged by the
British Association, Prof. Forbes mentioned—
The investigation by Mr. Taylor, of the formation of mineral
veins, in which it can scarcely be doubted that electric agency is
concerned.
The subject of terrestrial magnetism, especially as regards the di-
rection and intensity of its energy, which is subject to abrupt and ca-
pricious changes, which Baron Humboldt, calls magnetic storms.
ourly observations on the thermometer, have been commenced
in the south of England, and the same train of observations is to be
taken up in India.
A regular system to ascertain the rate at which rain falls, at dif
ferent heights, has been undertaken by Messrs. Phillips and Gray,
York.
A regular system of Auroral Observations, extending from the
Shetland Islands to the Lands End has been established ; the imflu-
ence on the magnetic needle is included.
Prof. Phillips i is preparing an elaborate synopsis 0, f Fossil Organ-
tc Remains. :
Observations on the tides have been undertaken by the Lords of
the Admiralty, at above five hundred stations, along the coast of
Britain
ree has taken the lead in several departments of experiment
recommended by the association, and the instructions for conducting
uniform systems of observation, have been reprinted and circulated
in the new world.
* Prof. Forbes in his address before the association states, that to the exertion of
this gentleman, almost single handed and alone, is due the signal merit of esta’
lishing a permanent society, of which these annual reunions, should simply be the
meetings, but which, by methods and by influence peculiarly its own, should, du-
ring the intervals of these public assemblies (whilst to the eye of the world appar-
ently torpid and inactive) be giving an impulse to every part of the scientific sys-
tem, maturing scientific enterprize, and directing the labors requisite for discov-
ery. Not only for the first conception of the idea, but for the construction of the
machinery in all its details, the association is indebted to the Rev. Vernon Har-
eourt. ,
Composition and Resolution of Forces, &c. 85
Arr. VII.—Of the Composition and Resolution of Forces, and
Statical Equilibrium; by Prof. Turopore Strone.
Continued from Vol. xxvi, p. 310.
Ler us resume (9), and suppose that x, y, z, are the rectangular
coordinates of the material point M, when referred to three fixed rec-
tangular axes drawn through any given point; then (9) will exist as
_ before. Imagine planes to be drawn through the directions of R, r,
7’, &c. at right angles to the plane a, y and let ,A, ,a, ,,a, &c. denote
the angles which their lines of intersection with the plane a, y, sever-
ally make with the axis of x. en it is evident that cos. A=sin.
C cos. ,A, cos. a=sin. c cos. ,a, &c. cos. B=sin. C sin. ,A, cos. b
=sin. c sin. a, &c.; put Rsin.C=T, rsn.c=t, r sn.c=?,
&c. -°. Reos. C=T cot. C, rcos.c=tcot.c, &c.; substitute these
values in (9), and they will be changed to t cos. ,a+?’ cos. ,a+ &c.
=Tcos.,A, ¢sin. a+? sin. ,a+ &c.=T sin. ,A, tcot.c+t cot.
+ &c. =T cot. C, (11); where it is evident, that T, ¢, &c. are the
values of R, r, &c. when resolved in a direction parallel to the plane
x,y, and that T cot. C, ¢cot.c, &c. are the values of the same quan-
tities when resolved in a direction perpendicular to the same plane.
To the first of (11) multiplied by y, add the second multiplied by
—x, and we have ¢ (ycos. ,a —wsin. ,a)+1'(y cos. ,,a— asin. ,,a) +
&c. =T (ycos. ,A—asin.,A), (12); draw from M a perpendicular
to the axis of z, and from their intersection draw the perpendiculars
P, p, p’, &c. to the directions of T, t,t’, &c.; then we shall evident-
ly have ycos.,A—asin.,A=P, ycos. ,a—ax sin. a=p, &c. hence
(12) becomes t p+? p’ + &c. = TP, (13). If we suppose the
force t, to be applied to the extremity of p, it will tend to turn it
around the axis of z; ¢p is called the moment of the force r, re-
‘lative to the axis of z; hence by (13) the sum of the moments of
the components 7, 7’, &c., relative to any axis, equals the moment
of the resultant relative to the same axis: Mec. Cel. Vol. I, pp.
12, 13.
We will now suppose that M is pressed by the forces against any
given surface, whose equation is u=0, (14), wu being a given func-
tion of the coordinates «, y, z, which determine the position of M ;
to find the conditions of the equilibrium of M upon the surface. —
It is evident that M must be pressed by the forces against the
surface so that their resultant may be at right angles to it, in order
86 Composition and Resolution of Forces, &c.
that it may be destroyed by the reaction. Let X, Y, Z, denote the
sum of the components of all the forces which affect M, when resol-
ved in the directions of x, y, z, severally ; Let N denote the reaction
of the surface, p= V (x —d)?+(y—e)?+(z—f)? =the perpendic-
ular to the surface drawn through M, d, e, f being the coordinates of
the origin of p; we shall suppose that the origin of p is taken on
that side of the surface, towards which N is dinaetedls
Now by resolving N in the directions of 2 y z,
e—y t Stas
Nx > > NX ? > for the values of N when reduced to those di-
rections ; hence for the equilibrium of M, we have X-++N X = =O,
m ee
Y+Nx 5 = Z+Nx <=, (15). By the nature of the
= dy + (=) az = 0,
du du du :
(16), and by (14) Felt qyly + qg2= 0 (17), multiply (17) by
the indeterminate L, add the product to (16), then put the coeffi-
cients of the indeterminates, dx, dy, dz separately, =O, and we have
du du
ane =0, es i +L7, =0, ==L 4 LE=0, (18) ; hence L=
a (3). +(2 a aca -'. denoting this value of L, when |
real by N, by N’, we shall have by (18) and (15), X+
r—d
perpendicular, we have (== Jae (
Nist=0, vine anil); ZN =0, (19); by eliminating N’
du du du
from (19) we have x -VS =0, Xz, -~Z7 =0, (20), for the
conditions of the equilibrium of M ; ay and ii are sufficient to
find where M must be placed on the given surface, to be in equilib-
rium, and by (19) we have N=V X2+Y2+4-Z? = the force with
which the surface must react in order to destroy the resultant of the
applied forces. If M is to be in equilibrium on a line, which is
formed by the mutual intersection of two surfaces, which are deno-
ted by u=0, u’==0, (21); then by using the same notation as be-
ek pin emt (+(e ne
Composition and Resolution of Forces, &c. 87
the reaction of u’, N’=L/,N ; we shall have a M is in pens
' du du’ du
rium, X+N +N" =0, YING LNG <0, ZN =f
du’
N’7-=90, (22); and by eliminating N’, N” from (22), we shall
du du’ du al (. du’ du nA ( du’
have X (Fs oe ie ay ie ay
du du
dy o) =0, (23), for the equation of equilibrium required ; which
dz dx dx dz
with (21) will enable us to find the coordinates x, y, z of the point
on the line where M must be placed, to be in equilibrium. It is ev-
ident that we shall have “/ X2?+Y2+2Z?=the force with which
the surface must react, in order to destroy the resultant of the appli-
ed forces; Mec. Cel. pp. 9, 10, &c
Equilibrium of a System of Bodies.
We will now consider the conditions of equilibrium of a system of
bodies; whose quantities of matter are denoted by m, m’, m’, &c.,
supposing the unit of masses to be a portion of matter so small that
it may be considered as a particle: we shall also suppose the bodies
m,'m’, &c. to be so small that every unit of each, may be considered
as acted on by the forces, (which are supposed to affect them,) with
the same intensity.
Let the system be referred to the fixed rectangular axes 2, y, z,
drawn (at pleasure,) through any given point for their origin; sup-
posing x, y, z to be the coordinates of m, x’, y’, 2’ those of m’, and so
on. Weshall suppose the reactions of the surfaces or lines, on which
any of the bodies may be supposed to be in equilibrium; and the
reactions of any fixed points which may be supposed to be in the
system ; together with the forces with which the bodies are suppo-
sed, or made to act (whatever may be the cause,) on each other, are
included among the forces.
Let P, Q, R, be the sums formed by resolving each force (as at p.
308, Vol. xxv1,) which affects a unit of m, in the directions of 2, y, z
pte A, : we P’, Q’, R’ the corresponding quantities for a unit of
; and so
Then for ‘tis equilibrium of m, we must have (as at p. 308,)
P=0, Q=0, R=0; and for that of m’, P’-=0, Q’=0, R’=0; and
so on for all the Nodies of the system; hence when the system 1s in
88 Composition and Resolution of Forces, &c.
equilibrium, we must have P=0, P’=0, P’=0, &c. (a); Q=0,
‘=0, Q”’=0, &c. (b); R=0, R’=0, R’=0, &c. (c); where
there are three times as many equations as there are bodies, there
being three for each body ; or as many as there are coordinates,
vy z, vy! 2’, &c., as evidently ought to be the case, for it is indif-
ferent, whether the position of m is determined by the forces P,Q, R
or by the coordinates xyz; and the same remarks are applicable
to each body. It may not be improper to remark, that in forming
P, Q, R, &c., we may neglect the consideration of the algebraic signs
of the cosines of the angles, which the directions of the component
forces make withthe directions of the axes of x, y, z, provided, ifwe
regard those forces which tend to increase the coordinates as posi- -
tive, we consider those which tend to decrease them as negative ;
and reciprocally.
We will now consider the forces which any two bodies of the sys-
tem, as m and m’, exert on each other. Imagine m and m’ to be joim-
ed by the straight line f, then the equilibrium will evidently not be
disturbed by, supposing f to be rigid; now if the conditions of the
system cause m and m’ to act on each other with any forces, they
must act along f; for otherwise they will give f an angular or par-
allel motion, and the equilibrium will be disturbed. Let p denote
the whole force which a unit of m exerts on a unit of m’, then a unit
of m’ must act on a unit of m with the force —p, which is directly
opposite to p; for otherwise f will be moved in the direction of its
length, and the equilibrium will be disturbed. Hence mp = the
whole force with which m acts ona unit of m’, and —m/p= the
whole force of the consequent reaction of m’ on a unit of m; by re-
solving these forces in the directions of the axes of x, y, z, we shall
oa! lat , rot
have F mp, a a ba F mp, severally, for the com-
ponents of P’, Q’, R’, which depend on the force mp; also
ig 5 aa y-y z—2! 7
_ rs mp, — a ie mp, ra ao mp, are the components
of P, Q, R, which depend on the force ~ m’p: hence (for simplicity,)
Ree 5d
considering these forces only, we shall have P=— ("| mp,
a=-('F* mp, p=(— = = mp, Qe (ee Lo ) mp, . me +
mn P* =0, (d); also Py—-Qz =(-(") (>) i’'p =
Composition and Resolution of Forces, &c. 89
=) m’p, P’y’ -Qr'=— (SS ) mp, »*.m (Py—Qr) +
m’ (P/y’ — Q’x’) =0, (e).
Multiplying the first of (a) by m, the second by m’, and so on for
all the bodies, then adding the products we have mP+-m/P’+-, &c.
=0, or denoting mP+m’P’+, &c. (for brevity,) by SmP, we have
SmP=0, which is independent of the actions of the bodies on each
other, for the actions of every two of them will destroy each other
as in (d); in the same way by (b) and (c), we have SnQ=0, SmR
=0, which are independent of the actions of the bodies on each oth-
er, as before.
Again, multiplying the first of (a) by y, and that of (b) by —2,
then adding the products we have Py—Quz=0, in the same way by
the second of (a) and (b), we have P’y/— Q‘a/=0, and so on for
every corresponding two of (a) and (b); multiplying the first of
these equations by m, the second by m’, and so on for all the equa-
tions, then adding, the products, and (for brevity,) denoting m
(Py —Qr) +m'(P’y’ —Q’z’)+ &e. by Sm(Py—Qrzr), we shall
have Sm(Py —Qr)=0, which is independent of the actions of the
bodies on each other, for the actions of every two of them destroy
each other, as in (e); in the same way by (a) and (c), we have
Sm(Pz— Rzx)=0, also by (b) and (c) Sm(Ry— Qz)=0, which are
independent of the actions of the bodies on each other, as before.
Hence collecting the results, we have SmP=0, SmQ=0, SuR=O,
(f); Sm(Py —Qr)=0, Sm(Pz—Rxr)=0, Sm(Ry—Qz)=0, (g);
since these equations are independent of any actions of the bodies on
each other, we shall suppose these forces to be neglected in forming:
the values of P, Q, R, P’, &c. which they involve. Again, if any
body of the system is to be in equilibrium on any surface or line, by
subjecting the body to these conditions, the resultant of all the forces
which press the body against the surface or line, will be destroyed
by the equal and contrary reaction; .". we may neglect all such for-
ces in forming the equations of equilibrium. Hence neglecting the
forces which depend on the particular conditions of the system, and
the actions of the bodies on each other, it is evident by (f) that the
sums of the remaining forces (or forces foreign to the system,) de+
composed in the directions of the axes of x, y, z must each=0, when
the system is in equilibrium ; where it may be observed in forming
these sums, that if the forces which tend to increase the coordinates
Vor. nine —No. |. 12
30 Composition and Resolution of Forces, &c.
are considered as positive, then those which tend to decrease them,
must be considered as negative.
Again, by comparing (g) with (12) and (13), it is evident that the
sums of the moments of the foreign forces to turn the system about
the axes of z, y, x, must each =0, when the system is in equilibrium ;
where it may be observed in forming these sums, that if those mo-
ments which tend to turn the system in one direction are considered
as positive, then those which tend to turn it in the contrary direction
must be considered as negative. ‘The equations (f) and (g), agree
with the equations (m) and (n), given at p. 43, of the Mecanique
Celeste ; and if we are not greatly mistaken, they have been obtain-
ed Sans principles altogether more simple than those used by La
Place, or by any other author with whom we are acquainted.
It may not be improper to observe that (g) are independent of
any forces which act on the bodies in the directions of straight lines
drawn to the origin of the coordinates. For let A denote the dis-
tance of m from the origin of the coordinates, and mS any force —
which acts on m in the direction of h, then we shall have S for the
force which acts on a unit of m in that direction ; and by decompo-
sing Sin the directions of the axes of x and y, we shall have 5x S,
ix XS for the components of P and Q which depend on the force
S$; .*. by considering these forces only, we have Py—Qr=
(tz *) x S=0; hence we may anaes all such forces in form-
ing (g).
Again, since (f) and (g) have been derived from (a), (b), (c), we
may neglect any six of the equations contained in (a), (b), (c) and
use (f) and (g) for the neglected equations ; which with the remain-
ing equations in (a), (b), (c), will make as many equations as there
are coordinates, x y z, x’ y’ z’, &c. for all the bodies m, m’, &c.
Hence we shall suppose six of the equations (a), (b), (c), to be
neglected, and that (f) and (g) together with the remaining equa-
tions in (a), (b), (c), are used to determine the positions of m, m’,
&e.
Equilibrium of a rigid system.
_.We shall now suppose that all the bodies of the system are inva-
riably connected together, or that it is rigid; then by considering
Composition and Resolution of Forces, &c. 91
any three of its points which are not in the same straight line, the
position of each point will depend on its three coordinates, .*. nine’
coordinates will be necessary, to determine the situation of the three
points, but three of these will be given in terms of the other six by
means of the distances of the three points from each other, .*. the
distances of the three points from each other are equivalent to three
coordinates,.". they are equivalent to three of the equations (a), (b):
(c). Again, the coordinates of any body of the system are given in
terms of the coordinates of the given points by means of its distan-.
ces from the points, and of their distances from each other,.’. the dis-
tances of each body from the three points are equivalent to its three
coordinates, or to three of the equations (a),(b),(c); hence there re-
main but six undetermined coordinates, or but six of the equations
(a),(b),(c), or neglecting these and using (f) and () instead of them
for the reasons before given, we shall have (f) and (g) for the equa-
tions of equilibrium of any rigid system, and they are sufficient with-
out using any of the equations (a),(b),(c) ; which is in conformity
with what has been said of the equations of condition when consid-
ering systems in general.
We shall begin by supposing that the system does not contain any
fixed point, also we shall suppose the forces to be positive, and that.
their directions are determined by the (well known,) algebraic rules:
for the signs of the cosines of the angles which we shall suppose
their directions to make with the positive directions of the axes of x,
y, z. Let then F denote the resultant of all the foreign forces which
affect a unit of m, a, b, c the angles which its direction makes with
those of x, y, z severally, F’ a’, b’, c’ the corresponding quantities for
a unit of m’, and so on; decomposing the forces in the directions of 2,
y, z we have F cos. a, F cos. b, F cos. c, F’ cos. a’, &c. to be substi-
tuted for P, Q, R, P’, &c. in (f) and (g), hence they become SmF
cos. a=0, SmF cos. b=0, SmF cos. c=0, (h); SmF(y cos. a—a
cos.b)=0, SmF(zcos. a—axcos.c)=0, SmF'(y cos. c—z cos. b)=0
(i); which are the equations of equilibrium when the system is free.
If the system is to be in equilibrium about a fixed point to which it
is firmly attached, then fixing the origin of the coordinates at the
point, we shall have (i) for the equations of equilibrium of the ap-
plied forces. Put SmF cos. a=X, SmF cos. b=Y, SmF cos. c= Z,
M=the mass of the system, MR,=R=the reaction of the point
supposed positive, and A BC for the angles which its direction
makes with those of x, y, z; then decomposing R in the directions of
92. Composition and Resolution of Forces, &c.
x, y, z we have R cos. A, Ros. B, Ros. C to be added to the first
members of (h), hence they become X+R cos. A=0, Y+R cos.
es. Z+Reos. C=0; ..R=vVX2+Y?+Z?, (k), cos. A=
Y Z
—R ©. B= —R, cos. C= — 55, (1), which give the magnitude
and direction of the reaction of the point; but it is evident that the
resultant of the applied forces equals the reaction of the point, and
is directly opposite to it; .*. put A’, B’,C’ for the angles which its
direction makes with those of x, y, z, and we have cos. A= — cos, A’,
| x
cos. B= —cos. B’, cos. C = —cos. C’, .’. by (1) cos. A’=R, cos.
es cos. wes (m), which give the direction of the resultant,
after having found its magnitude by (k).
If F, F’; &c. act in parallel directions ; then considering those
which act one way as positive, and those which act the contrary way
as negative, we shall have cos. a=cos. a/==cos. a’ = &e. cos. b=
cos. b/= &c. cos. c=cos. c= &c.; hence (i) become cos. aSm
Fy—cos. Sm Fr=0, cos. aSmFz-cos.cSmFxr=0, cos. c Sm
Fy=cos.6SmFz=0, (n). Supposing F,F’, &c. together with
their points of application to be invariable, but the angles a 6 ¢
to be indeterminate, we have by (n) SmFx=0, SmF y=0, Sm
F z=0, (0) which determine the center of the parallel forces: and
by (k) their omnia: .". by (m) cos. A’=cos. a, cos. B/=
cos. 6, cos. C’/=cos. c; .". the resultant is parallel to the compo-
— anhits anngoitinie’’ is equal to the difference of the sums of the
ts, and it is evidently directed the same
way as the. greater sum. “Change x, y, 2, a’, &e. in (0) intor—X,
y—Y, z—Z, x’—X, &c., then we have SmF (« —-X)=0, SmF
SmF x SmFy
i =< als Sak (z— —Z)=0, which give X= CaF? Y= Snr’
pa fete (p); which show (generally,) that the parallel forces
have but one center. If in (p) we have SmF=0, SmF'x=0, Sm
Fy=0, SmF'z=0, they will be under an indeterminate form ; but
Sm’ Fa! S/F’ Sin’ Fz’
by (p) we have X/= —— , Y= aoe hi = SpF7 > for the
center of all the forces except F ; now mF =—Sm/F’, mFr=—5
m/F’z’, and so on, hence X’=2, Y’/=y, Z’=z; .’.in this case any
one of the forces is equal in magnitude to the resultant of all the
Composition and Resolution of Forces, &c. 93
rest, and directly opposite to it, which are evidently the conditions
of equilibrium of a free system, when acted on by parallel forces.
If SmF'=0, but the numerators of (p) are not =O, then evidently
any one of the forces equals the resultant of all the rest, but is not
directly opposite to it; .’. there is properly nocenter of parallel for-
ces in this case, although it is usual to say that the resultant =0, and
is situated at an infinite distance. If the forces F, F’, &c. have the
same sign, and are equal to each other, (p) become X= GT, Y=
Sa oe A Sh eT Sn
Sm? 2= Sm? (4)> which are the well known formule for finding
the center of gravity of a system of bodies; the resultant of the
forces=FSm (=the weight of the system if F=gravity.) Put S
m=M-=the mass of the system, then by (q) M? X?=(Sma)? =m?
v2 + malt m/ta/2+ &e. +2mm’ax'!-+-Qmm ve”! + 2Qm/m" a! x”
+&e.; but Qra’ =x? 4 2!* — (a — 2)2, Qaa’ =a? +4? — (a —2)*,
Qr/x! =a? + 2/2 — (a/’— .~exe se ol FSBGE : c-arus; a TH
Pivdteeen) «4 es: DTIB: a eos: o
Oxygen, gi@uas 0: BGR ens ace BGAMGD
The sample submitted to analysis would appear from the forego-
ing, to have contained 3 per ct. of water.—Idem.
8. To determine the Nitrogen in Organic Compounds, by Dv-
mas. (Ann. de Ch., t. 53, p. 164.)—The following method is said
to give the nitrogen witha precision, at least equal to that, by which
we now obtain the quantities of carbon and hydrogen in the same
bodies. A tube is arranged as common, taking care to place at its
closed extremity, some grains of carbonate of lead; after having
created the vacuum in the tube, a portion of the carbonate of lead
is decomposed, in order to get rid of portions of air remaining in the
tube, and to replace it by pure carbonic acid. After having disen-
gaged rather more than a pint of carbonic acid, the vacuum is formed
a second time, and the combustion is made as ordinary ; the gases
Chemistry and Chemical Arts. 135
are received over mercury, with a bell-glass, containing a strong so-
lution of potassa. The decomposition being over, the carbonate of
lead is heated anew, and about as much carbonic acid is liberated as
before, in order to drive out all the nitrogen, and to force it into the
bell-glass. After a suitable degree of agitation, the carbonic acid
will be found to be wholly absorbed, and there will remain only the
nitrogen, which may be measured with precision. The only pre-
caution requisite to be taken, consists in decomposing a quantity ca-
pable of producing at least thirty or forty cent. cubes of nitrogen gas.
—lIdem.
9. Oxide of Iron an Antidote for Arsenic Acid. (Annalen
der Physik, 1834, No. 6.)—The following is extracted from a let-
ter of Dr. Brunsen to M. Poccenporr, dated Gottingen, May 1,
1834.—It is some time since I was led to notice the fact that a so-
lution of arsenic acid is so completely precipitated by the hydrated
oxide of iron, (perfectly pure, freshly precipitated and suspend-
ed in water,) that a current of sulphuretted hydrogen introduced into
the filtered liquor, mingled with a little muriatic acid, reveals no trace
of arsenic acid. I have ascertained more recently that this same
substance, mingled with ammonia, and gently digested with arsenic
acid, previously reduced to an impalpable powder, changes this last
substance into an insoluble, basic arseniate of iron. A series of ex-
periments founded upon this observation, convinces me, that this
body unites the most favorable properties to serve as an antidote of
the solid arsenic acid, as well as for its solution. Dr. Berrnoxn, at
my request, had the goodness to unite with me in the investigation
with the view of submitting the subject, in its full extent to the most
thorough examination. The results of the investigation have much
exceeded our expectations, and we are confirmed in the opinion that
the hydrated oxide of iron is a more efficacious antidote against ar-
Senic acid, whether solid or in solution, than the white of an egg, is
against the sublimate.
Young dogs, (not over a foot high) to which we administered
from four to eight grains of arsenic acid, in the condition of a fine
powder, (tying up the wind-pipe to prevent vomiting) lived more
a week, without giving the least symptom of poisoning by ar-
senic, neither during life, nor in dissection. The excrements, which
were slight, because the animals lived without eating or drinking,
contained almost all the whole of the poison in the state of the basic
arseniate of iron, but no trace of undecomposed arsenic acid.
136 Chemistry and Chemical Arts.
We are convinced from these experiments, that a dose of the hy-
drated oxide of iron, corresponding to two or four drachms of the ox-
ide of iron, mingled with sixteen drops of ammonia, is sufficient to
convert eight or ten grains of well pulverized arsenic acid, into this
insoluble salt which we have mentioned. Besides, it is easy to per-
ceive that in a case of poisoning from arsenic, these substances may
be employed in much larger doses, with or without the ammonia, in
drink, or by injections, since the hydrated oxide of iron, being a
substance insoluble in water, exercises no action upon the animal or-
ganization.— Bib. Univer. Aout. 1834.
10. Titanium one of the constituent principles of most phimities
rocks.—M. Prscurer comes to this conclusion, from having detec-
ted the presence of this metal in four varieties of Feldspar, in the
proportion of from 12. to 3.25 percent, .and in three kinds of Ser-
pentine, from 8. to 5.25 per cent. He also finds 15.50 of Titanium
in the Andalusite. ;
Al. Volatibility of Titanium, by M. Zinxen. (Ann. de Pog.,
t. 28.)—Having heated a large quantity of titanium obtained from
the high furnaces of iron works, in a double crucible, in the heat of
a furnace for melting steel, during several hours, the crucibles were
found broken, but their interior was coated with metallic titanium,
while the crystals had wholly disappeared.
12. Preparation of lodic Acid. (J.de Pharm., t. 19, p. 222.)—
It is easy to obtain Jodic acid on the large scale, by the following
process: put one part of recently precipitated iodine into a matrass
with a long neck, to which a long tube of about two lines diameter
is fitted, make a mixture of eight parts of nitric acid with one and a
half to two parts nitrous acid, and pour upon the iodine enough of
the mixture to dissolve half or two thirds; afterwards apply a mild |
heat and gently agitate the vessel to throw down the iodine which
has condensed upon its neck: after a few minutes add a new dose
of acid, and proceed in this way until all the iodine has disappear-
ed. Then pour the whole into a capsule of porcelain and the iodic
acid is deposited. But it will be yellow, and in order to have it
perfectly white, it must be dissolved in distilled water, filtered, evap-
orated, and when sufficiently concentrated, add to it, once or twice
its volume of pure and fuming nitric acid, in order to precipitate the
Chemistry and Chemical Arts. 137
iodic acid. Decant the mother-water, wash the acid once or twice
with a little nitric acid, redissolve the residue in three times its
weight of distilled water, and add to the solution two thirds its vol-
ume of pure nitric acid and evaporate to dryness in a porcelain ecap-
sule upon a sand bath, when very beautiful and perfectly =
iodic acid will be obtained.—Idem.
13. To obtain the Manganesiate of Potassa, by Wouter. (Jour.
de Pharm., t. 19, p. 330.)—Melt in a platinum crucible over an al-
coholic lamp some chlorate of potassa; dissolve in it a piece of al-
coholic potassa, and add per oxide of manganese in powder. It dis-
solves with a very pure green color; it then forms the green man-
ganesiate of potassa and the chloride of potassium. Dissolve the
mass in boiling water ; the green color changes to a brilliant purple
because the manganesiate is converted into a per-manganesiate.
Separate the precipitate by decantation and evaporate the solution:
small opaque black crystals of the per manganesiate are obtained,
which possess a greenish metallic lustre. This salt is isomor-
phous with the per-chlorate, and they crystallize together in every
proportion, affording salts of very handsome and various colors.—
Idem.
14. Memoir on Tellurium, by Berzewivs. (Ann. de Pog., t. 28,
p- 392.)—The mineral employed to obtain the subject of experi-
ment, was the tellurium ore from Schemnitz, in Hungary. The
ore pulverized and carefully purified by washing, with double its
Weight of carbonate of potash and a quantity of olive-oil sufficient
to render the mixture pasty, was gradually heated in a covered cru-
cible. The brown unmelted mass obtained was pulverized and treat-
ed with boiling water; and the liquor filtered, away from contact of
air. There remained upon the filter a black matter containing
bismuth and carbon, but embracing only very little tellurium ; and
the fluid, which was of a deep reddish purple, took up all the tellu-
rium combined with the potassium. By passing air through the li-
quor by means of the bellows, the potassium was oxidized and the
tellurium precipitated. ‘There remained only in solution a small
quantity of sulphur and of seleniuret of tellurium, which could be
Separated by means of an acid. The tellurium on being well wash-
ed, was melted ; after which in order to purify it, it was pulverized
and placed in a little oval capsule, which was heated to a strong red
Vou. XXVIII.—No. 1. 18
138 Chemistry and Chemical Arts.
heat in a porcelain tube, traversed by a current of hydrogen gas.
Tellurium, although so difficult to sublime when heated alone in a
porcelain retort, is volatilized very readily in a current of this gas.
There remains in the capsule a small quantity of telluret of gold, of
copper, of iron and of manganese. ‘There is volatilized along with
the tellurium, a small quantity of selenium, which is wholly deposit-
ed at the extremity of the tube, under the form of a red powder.
In order to separate all traces of this body, it is necessary to oxidate
and calcine the substance ; by which means all the selenium is vola-
tilized in the state of selenious acid.
The telluret of silver cannot be treated in the same way. In or-
der to extract the tellurium or to analyze it, it is necessary to heat it
moderately in a current of chlorine, to receive the chloride of tellu-
rium in water, acidulated by muriatic acid, to precipitate the tellu-
rium by sulphite of soda, and afterwards to sublime it in hydro-
as. ;
Tellurium contracts much in passing from the liquid to the solid
state, on which account, it often contains cavities. When free from
these its Sp. gr. =6.2445.
It hastwo degrees of oxidation, Ist. the oxide, or tellurious acid ;
Qndly. telluric acid.
- The tellurious acid presents itself under two modifications A and
B. Variety A is produced when the tellurium is dissolved in nitric
acid ; it exists in the solution so long as it is rendered turbid by wa-
ter, after which the liquid contains only variety B. The precipitate
Avis pure anhydrous tellurious acid: it melts into a transparent yel-
low fluid, which on cooling becomes a white, crystalline mass. It
has a feebly metallic taste. It slightly reddens turnsole ; it is near-
ly insoluble in the acids and in ammonia; nor does it dissolve in the
alkaline carbonates, except by the aid of heat.
Variety B is obtained by melting tellurious acid with an alkaline
carbonate, dissolving the fused mass in water and adding nitric acid
until the liquid becomes slightly acid. The precipitate is an hy-
drate. It is in flocculi, white, and possessed of a metallic taste; it
reddens turnsole, and is slightly soluble in water. It dissolves read-
ily in the acids, in ammonia, and in the alkaline carbonates, from
which it expels the carbonic acid. When heated to a temperature
above twenty C. it changes to variety A. We are acquainted at
present with no salts except such as are formed by variety B, of
which there are those containing one, two and four atoms of acid
for one of base.
Chemistry and Chemical Arts. 139
_ In order to obtain telluric acid, a mixture of equal parts of tellu-
rious acid and of carbonate of potash is melted together; the mass
is dissolved in water and to it is added a quantity of hydrate of pot-
ash containing at least as much alkali as the fused mass, when a cur-
rent of chlorine is passed through it until the chlorine is in excess,
and until the precipitate which is at first formed, is completely re-
dissolved ; to the liquid is then added a smail quantity of chloride of
barium, which removes from it the sulphuric and the selenic acid it
may contain: it is filtered and ammonia being added in slight excess,
and afterwards chloride of barium, all the telluric acid is precipita-
ted. The precipitate, at first bulky, shortly becomes granular and
dense. It is washed, and dried by a gentle heat, and digested with
one quarter of its weight of concentrated sulphuric acid, previously
diluted with water, the liquid is concentrated, and finally left to
Spontaneous evaporation, when the acid is deposited in crystals hav-
ing the form of flattened, four sided prisms, terminated by very low
quadrilateral pyramids.
In this state, the telluric acid contains 0.225 of water, which it
does not give up at 100° C. Ata more elevated heat, but much
below that of redness, it loses two thirds, or 0.155 without losing its
form. Heated still more intensely, it becomes anhydrous and is
converted into a citron yellow powder, which is a variety of the acid
resembling variety A of the tellurious acid. Finally, when heated
sufficiently, it gives up its oxygen and leaves behind a pulverulent,
snow-white tellurious acid.
The telluric acid B is always soluble in water ; when two thirds
of i its water is expelled, it is still soluble, but slowlss. The anhy-
us acid A is insoluble in all the acids. It dissolves in muriatic
acid with the disengagement of chlorine, but with difficulty, and re-
quiring the aid of heat. Telluric acid in solution is decomposed by
on hydrogen, not instantly, but slowly, and only with the
aid of hea
This oid possesses like the tellurious, a tendency to form salts
which contain one, two and four atoms of acid, to one of base. By
the action of heat, salts of the modification B are changed into salts
of the variety A, afterwards they change into tellurites with the dis-
engagement of oxygen, a red heat, however, is necessary to effect
this transformation. When tellurious acid is heated with nitre at
a ee below redness, and so long as it disengages nitrous gas,
and afterwards washed with water, there remains a citron yellow
140 Chemistry and Chemical Arts.
powder, which is the tellurate of potash, containing modification A,
and which is insoluble in the acids, and in the alkalies. In heating
very powerfully in order to expel all the acid of the nitre and wash-
ing, there remains another salt of the modification A, but more ba-
sic, although insoluble. ‘This salt, strongly calcined, is converted into
a double tellurate, soluble in water.
Tellurious acid is eolagarcs of one atom of fellurium and two at-
oms of oxygen.
Telluric acid contains:
mum; so.) & .. -0.7272—1 atom
Oxygen » + 0.2728—3 atoms.
In its sejedikeed ayia ides are three atoms of water.—Ann.
des Mines, t. v. p. 381.
15. Hydrate of Phosphorus. (Ann. de Pog., t. 27, p. 563.)—
Phosphorus (says Ros) which has become white and opaque from
having long been kept under water, is not an hydrate. After having
been dried by sulphuric acid, it melts without any loss of weight or
disengagement of water.—Idem. .
16. Phosphuret of Nitrogen, by Ross. (Ann. de Pog., t. 28,
p- 529.)—By delivering gradually, ammoniacal gas ina state of dry-
ness upon the proto-chloride of phosphorus, contained in a tube sur-
rounded by a freezing mixture, an ammoniacal chloride is formed.
This compound is white; it dissolves slowly in water, and is. con-
verted into a mixture of phosphite and hydrochlorate of ammonia.
By heating it away from the air in a glass tube, not liable to melt,
and which is traversed by a current of carbonic acid, it is completely -
decomposed ; hydrochlorate of ammonia, phosphorus, ammonia and
hydrogen gas, are disengaged, and there remains a compound of
phosphorus and nitrogen, perfectly white, when the chloride em-
ployed is perfectly dry, but brown and reddish when the chloride
contains a little moisture. This compound is pulverulent, light, in-
fusible, and fixed at a red heat. With the contact of moist air, it
produces abundant vapors of phosphoric acid without burning. It
is remarkable for its chemical indifference, being insoluble in water,
in nearly all the acids and in the concentrated alkaline solutions. | It
is not attacked by sulphur, chlorine, or hydrochloric acid gas; the
alkaline hydrates decompose it in the dry way, with the production
of phosphoric acid and the disengagement of ammonia; at a red
Chemistry and Chemical Arts. 141
heat, pure hydrogen gas decomposes it into phosphorus and ammo-
nia, withont the production of water, nitrogen or hydrogen; sul-
phuretted hydrogen decomposes it at ared heat and a substance sub-
limes, which condenses in the state of a yellowish white powder,
which contains sulphur and phosphorus, and which dissolves com-
pletely in caustic potash with the disengagement of ammonia.
In order to analyze the phosphuret of nitrogen, a determinate
weight of it was mingled with an equal weight of the oxide of lead,
to which was added nitric acid. The mixture was dried, calcined
and weighed, which gave the phosphoric acid. Again, a certain
quantity was mixed with the hydrate of baryta, and the mixture pla-
ced in a retort and covered with hydrate of baryta; the neck of the
retort was afterwards drawn out to a point and introduced within a
matrass, half filled with water, so that the opening was about one
half of an inch below the surface of the liquid. To the matrass was
adapted a second vessel containing concentrated hydrochloric acid.
After the heat was applied, until the decomposition was completed,
it was left to cool, when the hydrochloric acid passed over into the
first matrass, and all the ammonia was condensed in the state of hy-
drochlorate. In order to learn the quantity of this alkali, it was com-
bined with chloride of platina and calcined, the platina weighed, &c.
It resulted from these experiments that the —— of —
has the following ae
Phosphorus, . . 0.6256 <4... 3 ~b-atom
Nitrogen, «0 ais «+ 0.4744 4 & o> Ratoms.
Eis adeece compound of Iodine and Oxygen, the Hyper Iodic
Acid, by M. M. Ammernutier and Magnus. (Ann. de Ch., t.
53, p. 92.)—It is impossible to obtain the hyper-iodic acid by the
method which Serunuas followed in procuring the hyper-chloric
acid: for in heating the iodate it does not give rise to the hyper-io-
e. In preparing the iodate of soda by the process of Lizzie,
which consists in saturating alternately with chlorine and carbonate
of soda, iodine diffused through water, there is often formed on evap-
oration, a white deposit, heavy and crystalline, which is the basie
hyper-iodate of soda. The best way of preparing this salt is to pass
chlorine through a solution of iodate of soda, to which caustic soda
is added. The hyper-iodic acid is obtained by decomposing with
water, the hyper-iodate of silver. This acid is soluble in water and
the solution may be heated to ebullition without causing its decom-
142 Chemistry and Chemical Arts.
position. It crystallizes by evaporation; its crystals are not deli-
quescent ; at an elevated temperature, it is entirely decomposed
and passes to the state of iodic acid. Hydrochloric acid transforms
it into iodic acid with the liberation of chlorine. According to the
composition of the salts which it forms with silver, it is found to con-
tain seven atoms of oxygen and two atoms of iodine.
The neutral hyper-iodate of potash in little white crystals, slightly
soluble and similar to the hydrochlorate of potash, is converted into
iodide by calcination ; it contains :
Iodide of potassium, ‘ : é ; 0.72108
Oxygen, i : 0.27892
The Sebeindate ini sha: same soolibality as the neutral salt ; it con-
tains :
Potassa, ‘ , WET a 0.17059
Iodide of ellhailatitas ; ‘ : - 0.59807
_ Oxygen, anus é - 0.23134
The neutral be tuisciadate of soda, is easily soluble in water, and
A It is converted into iodide by calcination, and
ais of sodium, . ‘ é F ; 0.80018
Oxygen, : ‘ 0.19982
The basic hevendiidaas is hen ‘etcladiles in cold water, but it is
slightly soluble in warm water, and very soluble in dilute nitric acid:
this salt possesses the remarkable property of giving up only three
fourths of its oxygen at a white heat ; it contains :
Todide of elicits ; sR ‘ er» 0.55016
Oxygen, ‘ : 3 same : 0.23547
There are thebe Seiinscidesi of siti one yolhies another red,
and the third orange. These three salts are insoluble in water, but
soluble in nitric acid ; in evaporating this solution at a low tempera-
ture, the yellow crystals are separated, whereas, when the evapora-
tion is conducted at a high temperature, it il the crystals of the
neutral salt.
The yellow salt is emareS of:
Silver, . ‘ % ‘ 0.48981
Iodine, . ‘ ‘ j é 0.28598
Oxygen, eee : 0.16307
Wlaber,. exes sactite asinds.ce bad od ORE
Chemistry and Chemical Arts. 143
It is instantly converted into the red salt by the action of hot
water.
The red salt is composed of: £4
‘ oe lo-ghes bo stgnie- ors ROR
Silver, .
Todine, . ‘ ‘ : ‘ . - 0.29813
Oxygen, ‘ : , ‘ i - 0.17000
Water, . , ‘ ‘ ‘ ’ z 0.02125
Nitric acid employed in due proportion and aided by heat, con-
verts these two salts into the neutral orange salt, which is compo-
sed of:
Silver, . eg i. ‘ . L : 0.42313
Iodine, . . . ‘ . , . 0-36237
Oxygen, - 0.21448
It is therefore a neutral anhydrous salt. Water decomposes it
into an insoluble, basic salt and into pure hyper-iodic acid, which re-
mains in the liquid and does not contain a trace of silver. The resi-
due is yellow, when cold water is used, and red when the solution is
heated.—Idem.
18. Boracie Acid of Tuscany.—It occurs chiefly in the lakes
of Montecerboli and of Castel-Nuovo upon the royal road from Vol-
terra to Massa, situated in an arid soil covered with fragments of a
Stratified shelly limestone, mingled with pyrites and slates. It also
comes to the surface in gaseous currents, which have a temperature
of 120° or 140° C. The annual produce is 700,000 pounds,
which yields a profit of 300 francs to the 1000. The manufacture
is due to the chemist Hozrer, who made the discovery in 1777.—
Idem.
19. Manufacture of Carbonate of Soda, by Pruxxner. (Ann.
de Scuwerccer.)—Commence by changing ‘the calcined sulphate
of soda into sulphuret of sodium, by heating it to redness with pul-
verized charcoal. Dissolve the sulphuret and add to the warm li-
quor, oxide of copper. Filter and evaporate the liquid until its Sp.
8. =1.41 or 1.48. On leaving the solution for twenty four or for-
ty eight hours, the undecomposed sulphate of soda crystallizes.
Evaporate the supernatant fluid to dryness. This process gives for
one hundred of sulphate of soda about sixty five of crude caustic so-
da. To convert this into carbonate, it is heated gradually to red-
Hess with charcoal. Metallic copper as well as its oxides may sepa-
144 Chemistry and Chemical Arts.
rate the sulphur from the sulphuret of sodium ; but on the large scale,
the protoxide is preferable. In order to procure this oxide, heat
metallic copper to redness and plunge it into water containing in so-
lution 0.02 of the nitrate of soda of Chili. The sulphuret of cop-
per derived from this manufacture, mingled with one sixth of pow-
dered sulphur, is easily transformed into a sulphate by roasting.—
Idem.
20. Preparation of Artificial Ultramarine; by Rostauer.
(Acad. des Sc., ler. Sept. 1832.)—Introduce into a stone-ware
retort, luted with clay, a mixture of 1 part of kaolin, 14 parts of sul-
phur and 14 parts of dry and pure carbonate of soda; then heat
gradually so long as any vapors are disengaged; leave the retort to
cool; break it, and there will be found in the interior a spongy mass
of a very fine green color, but on attracting moisture from the air, it
passes gradually to blue. Wash the mass; the excess of sulphate
dissolves, and there remains a very beautiful blue. Wash it by de-
cantation, dry and calcine it anew in a cherry-red heat in order to
expel the excess of sulphur. The blue thus prepared, is of a very
agreeable color, although it lacks the intensity and does not give the
azure blue reflection of Guimer; but this difference may render it
desirable to painters in particular sienines ilo
21. Annual yield of Cementation-Copper of the Rio Tinto Mine
in Spain.—The first working of this mine dates back to the times
of the Romans ; the Arabians and the Moors explored them in their
turn, and demolished all the works when they were driven from the
province of Seville. The exploration was resumed at the com-
mencement of the 18th century, but it was not before the year 1787
that it had acquired that importance which it has maintained to the
present day, in consequence of the. attempt to extract by cementa-
tion the copper contained in the vitriolic waters issuing from the an-
cient works. It would seem that the iron employed in this process
is furnished, at the present day, exclusively by the forges of Pédro-
so, which supply, annually, 2,400 quintals for this object. With
this quantity, it is said, they prepare 1,800 quintals of copper-
These mines have received a fresh impulse since the province of Se-
ville has ceased to receive copper from Chili and Peru. Rio Tinto
supplies entirely, at os * the —— of Seville.—Jtineraire d
un Voyage en Espagne. des Mines, t. v. p. 216.
Chemistry and Chemical Arts. 145
22. On the Roasting of Copper Ores, (Ann. du comptoir des
mines de fer, in Sweden.)—Hitherto the Fahlun copper ores have
been roasted in rectangular spaces, but some recent experiments have
satisfactorily shown that reverberatory furnaces are the best. The
ore must be reduced to the state of a coarse powder, in which con-
dition it requires only eighty eight hours for completing the process.
m.
23. Reduction of the Chloride of Silver. (Journ. of Erpmann,
1833, p. 270.)—The best way of reducing the chloride of silver, is
that of Monr, which consists in mixing the chloride with one third
its weight of colophony, and heating the mixture gradually in a cru-
cible until the flame loses its blue color ; after which, a strong heat is
applied to melt the reduced silver.—Jdem.
24. Preparation of the Purple of Cassius for staining glass
and enamels. (Journ. of Erpmann, 1833, p. 22.)—The nature
the precipitate obtained by mingling a solution of gold and one of
tin varies in color and composition, with a multitude of circumstan-
ces ; in general, itis a mixture of a compound of oxide of gold, and
of oxide of tin, with metallic gold, and oxide of tin. A composi-
tion of constant properties, and suited to stain glass and enamels may
be obtained as follows:
Dissolve one part metallic gold in four times its weight of nitro-
muriatic acid; evaporate the solution until a crystalline pellicle ap-
pears at the surface, decant the red liquor, leave it to solidify by
cooling, heat the mass with six times its weight of distilled water,
and filter it, in order to separate a little gold, still in the fluid. Dry
the crystallized protochloride of tin of commerce, by compressing it
in bibulous paper, and dissolve one part in four times its weight of
distilled water, filter the solution rapidly, in order that the basic salt
may not separate. Finally dissolve one part of gum-arabic in
two of warm water, and filter the solution through coarse paper.
Mix twenty eight grammes of this solution with three ounces of dis-
tilled Water, add to it twenty four grammes of the solution of tin,
and afterwards twenty three grammes of solution *of, gold. The
liquid becomes of a reddish brown, and afterwards of a clearer red.
As the effect of an excess of acid is always injurious, it is well to
add to the solution of gold, ten grammes of carbonate of potassa, but
this is not indispensable. The red liquor does not give a precipitate
Vor. XXVIII.—No. 1. 19
146 ) Chemistry and Chemical Arts.
spontaneously, because the purple compound is held in solution by
the gum. In order to throw it down, alcohol is added of the sp. gr.
of 0.75, and in the proportion of twice its weight, if carbonate of
soda has been employed, and three times, if the solution of gold has
been left acid. The purple is deposited gradually, bringing with it
a certain quantity of gum; of which it contains the more, in pro-
portion as more alcohol is employed. In order to give density to
the purple, it is washed with alcohol, thrown upon a filter and pres-
sed in bibulous paper. In order to purify it, and to- separate the
muriatic acid it may contain, rub it m a mortar with alcohol of 0.50
‘so as to make a clear jelly, after which add largely of alcohol, bring-
ing the liquid to ebullition for two or three minutes, and then add
abundance of water, and leave the purple to deposit itself, finally
washing it with a small quantity of water, in the way of decantation.
It then contains only a small quantity of gum, which facilitates its
ultimate use. It is necessary, however to execute the paintings with
the oil of turpentine, since if water is used, the gum swells up, and
the action of the fire will produce scales over the surface of the
——
25. New method of producing heat.* (Mem. Encyclo., t. 3. p-
336.)—-By projecting upon a fire, a mixture of water and oily matters
in a certain proportion, a flame is produced, whose heat is extremely
intense. If the water be in excess, the flame languishes; or if in
too ‘small quantity, a smoke is produced. For 1 measure of tar, it
is requisite to employ about 13 of water. 15 Ibs. of oil of turpentine
a ae 15 lbs. of water, and projected upon 25 lbs. of Newcastle
coal, produced as much heat as 120 Ibs. of this coal— Ann. des
Mines, t. 5. p. 378.
26. The best method of assaying - ores of Manganese, by
Zennecx. (Journ. d’Erdmann, t. 18, p. 75.)—The principal pneu-
matic methods are the following: 1. Sek toate and measuring the
quantities of oxygen gas evolved; 2, Ebullition with concentrated
sulphuric acid and measuring the quantities of oxygen; 3. Calcina-
nation with sugar, and measuring the volume of carbonic acid form-
ed; 4. Ebullition with muriatic acids and measuring the quantity of
sce Migs 5. Ebullition with muriatic acid and making
————
via? Samuel Morey, long ago detailed similar facts in this Journal. —Ed.
Chemistry and Chemical Arts. 147
the chlorine gas to react upon liquid ammonia, and measuring the
volume of nitrogen which results from the reaction ; 6. Calcination
with sal-ammoniac and measuring the gas evolved; 7. Ebullition
yith oxalic acid and estimating the carbonic acid produced. The
5th method is pronounced the best. The 4th is also good, but the
6th and 7th are erroneous.—Idem.
27. New method of preparing Zaffre in Sweden. (Dict. Techno.
t. 19, p. 14.)—The oar is roasted until the greater part of its arse-
nic is expelled, after which a sufficient quantity of concentrated sul-
phuric acid is mixed with it to form a thick paste, which is exposed
to a moderate heat, at first, and afterwards pushed to a cherry red,
for one hour. The sulphate thus obtained, is reduced to a powder
and dissolved in water; and to it a solution of carbonate of potash is
gradually added, in order to separate the iron, and when it is perceiv-
ed by the blue color that the cobalt is thrown down, the supernatant
liquid is decanted and filtered, and the cobalt is precipitated by means
of a solution of a silicated potash, which is prepared by heating in
an earthen crucible a mixture of 10 per cent of potassa, 15 of well
pulverized quartz, and one of charcoal, and treating the melted mass
with boiling water. The silicate of cobalt thus prepared, is supe-
Tior to that obtained in any other way for staining porcelain, or for
the manufacture of blue glass.—Idem.
28. Gas Lights——We abstract the following from the reports of
M. Povtier upon the results obtained by M M. Boscavy and
Dayne in the manufacture of illuminating gas from rosin. The first
object was to determine by,numerous experiments the illuminating
power of gas from rosin, whether burnt through orifices of a circular
shape (like the carcel or argand lamp) or from flat openings which
give a fan-shaped flame of different dimensions. In all the experi-
ments the flame of a carcel lamp was taken for unity. This lamp
and the orifice submitted to experiment, was made to shine upon a
sheet of white paper, drawn upon a frame, while a cylindrical stem
een it and the lights, projected upon the paper their shadows,
The orifice being fixed, the lamp was removedor brought nearer, until
the shadows perfectly corresponded. In the round orifice the illumi-
nating power of the gas from rosin was more than double that from oil-
§as; in the flat orifices, it was only one and three quarters greater.
148 Chemistry and Chemical Arts.
_ Another object was to prove the effect of temperature on the gas.
Accordingly it was passed through a serpentine tube twenty five feet
in length, which was maintained at a temperature 8 or 10°C. below
zero. The light was not in the smallest degree diminished, nor were
its deposits upon the orifice at all increased. It was ascertained also
that the deposits were equal, in burning oil gas and. that from rosin.
In order to compare the expense of the two gases, it was found
that five cubic feet of gas from rosin gave as much light as nine of
oil gas.
Respecting the products of combustion, or the purity of the gases,
the advantages in favor of gas from rosin are incontestable.—Bul.
de la Soc. d’ Encour. pour l Indus. Nat. Pour Fev. et Avril, 1834.
29. Anew green pigment for Artists —This color was discover-
ed by M. Pannerier, a painter of eminence who had studied chem-
istry with the view of preparing colors suitable for staining porcelain.
It is prepared with chrome, and possesses a very brilliant, bluish green
color. When employed in a state of purity, it does not represent
the beantiful green tints of plants; but nothing is easier than to
modify its shade by the addition of brilliant yellows, or of Scheele’s
green which is obtained very yellow. The new color has a good deal
of body; it spreads easily under the brush; it possesses a more
intense tone than the copper greens and has not like them the incon-
venience of running, however little they may be diluted with a viscid
oil. It has been submited for six years to the action of solar light,
without having suffered the slightest alteration. It has been vari-
ously blended with other colors, and a similar trial, though only for
one year, has been made, but which has peen attended with the same
ss.
Notwithstanding the great number of colors, which painters have
at their disposal, there is still not enough to fill all the intervals of
the chromatic scale. With the finest blue and the most beautiful
green hitherto within their reach, it would in the opinion of M. Mrr-
EMEE (to whose consideration the subject was referred) still be um-
possible, to imitate the brilliant bluish green tint of the new pig-
ment.—Idem. Mars, 1834.
30 Improvement in the manufacture of sealing wax.—M. Victor
Roumestanv, sealing wax maker to the king, is said to have greatly
improved the quality of this article by new processes, besides having
r
Chemistry and Chemical Arts. 149
reduced its cost one half. In order to render these improvements
intelligible it will be necessary to give the process followed by those
who have hitherto made the best sealing wax. The components of
sealing wax are gum-lac, resin and a coloring matter. The lac is
rendered fluid by means of turpentine, since the greatest part of it
would be lost by attempting its fusion: the turpentine is put into a
basin over a gentle fire, when it is gradually made to liquify four times
its weight of the lac. When it is entirely melted, vermillion, or some
other color in the state of a powder, is added. A little volatile oil,
as that of rosemary, or lavender is also added: when the mixture,
is poured upon a marble table. When cool, it is broken into little
fragments and melted in a skillet, after which it is poured into moulds.
When cold it is polished. The polishing is effected by the following
arrangements: a furnace is so constructed as to have two fires, and
between the grates which hold the coals, is an interval of from eight
to ten centimetres. It is in this space between two glowing fires,
that the stick of wax is held at one end by means of pincers. It is
immediately melted at its surface, and softened throughout. In this
state it is compressed in a mould of polished steel, where it receives
the stamp of the manufacturer’s name. Before it becomes cold, the
ends of the sticks projecting from the mould are cut, which operation
gives them all the same length. :
M. Rovumesranv, has regulated his manufacture agreeably to his
observation, that the quality of the wax depended not only upon the
materials employed, but upon the proportions in which they were
used. Some of these materials, such as the volatile oils, contribute
to render the wax more inflammable, and to keep it fluid when drop-
ped on paper to form the seal. If the wax remains too long over
the fire, apart of the volatile matters evaporate. The wax is melt-
ed but once; all the materials exactly weighed, and in the propor-
tions found to be best, are put into earthen pots, which are placed
upon openings in a furnace to which they exactly fit. In order to
accelerate the fusion, a stirrer is employed, formed of half a disc,
having a little square channel, to which is fitted a wimble handle.
As soon as the fusion is complete, the vessels are removed from the
fire, and the wax is run off into marble moulds. It is soon cooled ;
the moulds are opened, the sticks are taken out and rubbed by a
workman with a sand paper, in order to remove from them any little
inequalities of surface they may possess. Their form is elliptic in-
stead of cylindrical, which contributes to the rapidity of polishing.
:
150 Chemistry and Chemical Arts.
One hundred of these sticks are placed side by side, upon the mar-
ble table, but without touching. When two men take an iron frame
upon which a plate of iron heated to redness is placed, which they
pass backwards and forwards at a little distance above the wax, and
in less than a minute, the whole number of sticks receives a polish on
one side. ‘They are then polished in the same way on the other
side. The method of marking is so simple that it can be done by
children. The part of the stick to be marked is held over the high
chimney of an Argand lamp, and when softened, is placed upon a
support, where the impression is given by a little lever press.
The qualities demanded in sealing wax are, to remain inflamed
without dropping for some time, so as not to oblige us to hold the let-
ter too near to the candle. It is necessary also, after having inflamed
the stick, that we have time to bring it over the letter, without the
drops falling, that the wax remain fluid upon the paper long enough
to enable us to spread it with the stamp, and to remove the coating
of black smoke, which at first covers the fluid mass.* All these
qualities are united in this sealing wax, besides which it sells for five
francs the pound, while that of others costs eight to ten francs.— Idem.
April, 1834.
31. Filtration, (Journ. de Pharm. t. 19. p. 281.)—When a pow-
der saturated with a fluid, but not in the condition of a paste, is pla-
ced in the lower part of an open vase, and another liquid poured upon
it, the last liquid permeates the powder and completely replaces the
first, without mixing with it. This substitution is independent of the
specific grayities of the fluids; thus water drives out alcohol and
wine, and alcohol and wine drive out water.—Ann. des Mines, t. 5,
p- 376.
32. Purification of Water—In order to precipitate the earths
mechanically suspended in water, it is recommended to employ the
silicate of potash, gelatinous silica or phosphoric acid. The last is
an excellent reagent for throwing down the oxide of iron, without
introducing any foreign principle into the water.—Idem.
* It has been remarked, that the older aew wax grows, the less prone is it to pro-
d t, depending upon the evaporation
of "th the turpentine from « exposure to the air.
On the Conduction of Water. 151
Arr. XIII.—Conduction of Water; by Prof. Cuester Dewey.
Ir is admitted, in opposition to the dogma of Count Rumford, that
water slowly conducts caloric from particle to particle. To prove
this fact it was thought necessary to show that caloric would pass
downwards, if it was applied at the surface. The experiments have
been of three kinds ; a thermometer is immersed in water, on whose
surface hot oils are carefully poured, or ether or alcohol is burned,
or a hot bar of iron held over it. In all these cases, the thermom-
eter indicates a rise of temperature, and it is inferred that the calo-
ric has been conducted downwards. Now, is not more attributed to
these experiments, than they are known to prove. Is it certain that
the caloric does not pass downwards by radiation, when a hot iron
is held over the water or when hot oils are on its surface, for in cool-
ing these would radiate caloric upwards, and where is the proof that
a portion may not be radiated downwards? and thus also, when a li-
quid is burned on the surface. Again, is it ascertained for a cer-
tainty, that the chief part of the result is not dependent upon the
conduction of the caloric downwards and along the sides of the ves-
sel? That in glass vessels, something may depend on this, no one
will be disposed to deny. If we are pointed to Dr. Murray’s exper-
iments in vessels of ice, the reply is that they touch not the case of
other vessels and prove not the point in theirown. For, the water
will have the temperature of the ice, viz. 32°, Fah., and will be
lighter than water at any temperature below 40°. Of course, when
hot oils are put on the surface, the water in contact with the oil will
have its temperature raised, and therefore be heavier, and sink to the
thermometer, and thus raise its temperature without affording the
slightest proof of the conduction of the caloric from particle to par-
; The experiments of Dr. Murray are a complete failure, un-
less the temperature of the water is preserved above that of 40°.
And what is further to be noticed also, the less the water does con-
duet or the more perfectly it retains the caloric received from the
oil, the more quick and striking will be the rise of the thermometer,
and the more complete the deception in the experiments. In this
way, therefore, it cannot be proved that much of the result in com-
mon vessels is not dependent upon the passage of caloric along the
sides of the vessel. Although all these experiments are so defec-
tive, there is yet full proof by a familiar experiment of the conduct-
152 On the Conduction of Water.
ing power of water, viz. that if water at 150° be mixed with an
equal quantity at 50°, the temperature of the mixture will instantly
be 100°. Now this can be done only by the passage of the ca-
loric from particle to particle ; for, otherwise, the colder would sink
to the bottom, and the change of temperature be effected very slow-
ly. This is only one of the many cases in which philosophers have
overlooked simple and familiar, and complete proof of the law to be
ascertained.
Although it is thus evident from the established facts of the ex-
pansion of water both above and below 40°, that the experiment of
Dr. Murray affords no proof of the conduction of caloric from parti-
cle to particle, I thought it advisable to repeat the experiments, and
notice the facts. Having procured a solid mass of ice, I hollowed
out a place for the thermometer, to the depth of more than an inch,
and covered the thermometer with water at a temperature below 40°.
It had been previously ascertained that the mercury stood at 32° in
melting snow.
The water in the different setperitwaita was on the bulb of the
thermometer, from one eighth to three eighths of an inch deep, and
of course deeper over all the other parts of the thermometer. Care
was taken too, that the bulb should not be in contact with the ice.
The water on the thermometer soon fell to about 33°. Oil, heated
to 160°, 173°, 184°, 260°, and 285°, was in successive experiments
poured carefully on the water, and floated over the whole surface.
The thermometer rose to 35°, and 36°, and even to 38°, as the oil
was of higher temperature, and in greater quantity. Though the
temperature rose to 38°, in several of the experiments, it never ex-
ceeded that point. The ice was melted by the ol, so that the wa-
ter was from one fourth to three fourths of an inch deep on the bulb.
In two or three minutes the thermometer began to descend, although
the temperature of the oil along the middle of it, and over the bulb
was higher than that of the thermometer. These experiments show
no proof of the conduction of caloric. The reason why the mercu-
ry rose only to 36° or 38°, and so soon began to descend, is doubt-
less to be found in the melting of the ice, and the temperature and
weight of the water just formed from the ice, and in the fact that the
water, heated to 36° or 38°, would on sinking to the bottom lose its
temperature in melting the ice, and both it and the new melted water
at 32°, would then ascend towards the surface. So soon as the tem-
perature of the oil was reduced to a certain extent, this melting and
On the Conduction of Water. 153
change of particles would permit further rise of the thermometer,
and soon cause it to fall
In the next place, vihen poured on the thermometer, situated as be-
fore, was set on fire. The thermometer rose to 36°, and once to
38°, when a greater quantity was burned. The ice was melted more
rapidly than in the preceding experiments, because the flame acted
on a greater surface of ice. Soon after the combustion ceased, the
thermometer began to descend.
In the next pine; the hollow in the ice was so enlarged, as to per-
mit a pound weight of red hot iron to be held over the bulb of the
thermometer placed one fourth of an inch under the surface. The
thermometer soon rose above 36°, while the ice was rapidly mel-
ted; the continuance of the iron did not increase the temperature
of the bulb, and as soon as the iron was removed, the thermome-
ter began to fall.
All these experiments lead to the same conclusion as the first.
In the last place, the thermometer was immersed in water in an
earthen dish, at the temperature of 58°, and half an inch deep over
the bulb, and the bulb was placed two inches from the outer edge of
the water. Oil at the temperature of 280° was then poured care-
fully on the surface, and at the other end of the thermometer. The
thermometer rose slowly, as the oil floated over the bulb, more than
12°, or a little above 70°.
Bos the first three sets of experiments it results, if water ex-
pands below 40°, that the rise of the thermometer was owing to the
descent of the heated but heavier particles of water, unless a part of
the effect is to be attributed to the radiation of the caloric through
the water to the bulb, and its absorption by the bulb.
Experiments similar to the last, have often shown that water does
conduct caloric downwards from particle to particle, except such
part of the effect as may be supposed to result from radiation as be-
fore stated. For it can scarcely be believed that in such experi-
ments, the caloric passes by and along the vessel to the thermometer.
The mixture of cold and hot water, and the almost instantaneous re-
duction of temperature from 40° or 60° to 150° or 180°, according
to the relative quantity and temperature of the water employed, is
proof incontrovertible of the conduction of caloric from particle
to particle in any direction. This fact is a most benevolent pro-
Vision in the constitution of water, and it is so well known to the
learned and ignorant, that it is amazing Count Rumford should have
Vol. XX VIII.—No. 1. 20
154 Synopsis of a Meteorological Journal.
overlooked it, and have attempted to prove a principle directly op-
posed to it.
That caloric coliaia through water, at least as it comes in the so-
lar beam, is proved by the higher temperature of the shallow water
along the borders of ponds i the clear and still days of summer.
The warmth of the sandy bottom shows the absorption of the caloric
as it has passed through the water in its course of radiation.
Arr. XIV.—Synopsis of a Meteorological Journal, kept in the city
of New York during the years 1833 and 1834; by W. C. Rep-
FIELD ; reported to the Regents of the University of the State
of New York, January 22nd, 1835.
Tue annual report of the Meteorological observations which are
made at the several Academies in the State of New York, under the
direction of the Regents of the University, is justly valued as com-
prising the most extensive system of cotemporaneous observations
that has yet been placed within the reach of scientific enquirers. A
desire to add in some degree, to the mass of information contained
in this document, has induced the communication to the honorable
Regents of the observations and remarks which follow.
The meteorological journal from which the observations are com-
piled has been kept in the city of New York, from which place, re-
turns, do not appear to have been usually made to the Regents. Be-
the usual notices of temperature and winds, care ha been ta-
ken to observe with particularity and precision, the direction of the
more elevated currents of the atmosphere, as indicated by the move-
ments of the clouds, with a view to ascertain the connexion, if any,
which exists between the movement of the surface-winds, and the
higher currents. It was also desired to afford to some extent, by
these observations, the means of ascertaining the consecutive char-
acter, in a geographical view, of those atmospheric changes which
are so constantly experienced, and of which, apparently, so little is
understood. These observations have accordingly been made at
frequent periods, commencing with the hour of 6 A. M., and ending
with 10 P.M. With the same objects in view, the state of the ba-
rometer, so interesting in its connexion with the vicissitudes of weath-
er, has been duly noted at the same periods.
Synopsis of a Meteorological Journal. 155
‘The following table exhibits the result of the observations of the
surface-winds, and also of the more elevated current or main wind,
as indicated by the highest observed movement of the clouds.
_____SURFACE WINDS. HIGHEST CBSERVED CURRENT. |
ee ee oe ee ee
ex} = | 2 | 2 | Fel 3 : 3
| Observations for the year 1833. 5 2 = ad . E " - =
23 we} ZS Bs ze ‘1% 2
ES) 8 g g gs 5 g
ee oe ee eee
January, . 32 | 9/59/35] 5] 6 | 463} 303
February, . 223} 51] 481) 574 1] 1 | 453] 483
arch, ? 293 491} 47 | 4) 4) 53] 25
April, ; 22 | 261) 631) 28 | 4] 3 | 654] 283
May, : 41!) 5511 32} 13] 3)| 38 | 773} 284
June, : 15/33/45 | 47] 0} 1 68
July, 15 | 163) 74 | 40:} 5| 2} 65] 54
ugust, 281) 301) 59 | 31 | 12) 3% 833) 353
September, 25!| 131) 643/ 29:1 9 | 3 | 894) 202
October, 151 54 | 44112| 5) T7] 33
November, . orp R34 2h 1473 & ) 4°} 62 4°26
December, ‘ ~ | M9 1) 28 | 48h) 28.) Bib :58h 255
3491/246 |646 [447 | 774) 363 Sheic items
From the above table it will be seen, that the total of Easterly
winds observed during the i reckoned in periods of four hours
each is — ; . “ : 5954
Total of Westarly eds : . 1093
e prevailing winds are shes Southwesterly. But the predomi-
nance of Westerly wind at the surface is far less striking than that
which is exhibited by the upper wind, or main atmospheric current,
the observations of which, it will be seen are as follows, ;
Easterly, . : : ; ; " ‘ 114
Westerly, . ‘ 1182
The prevailing upper nee or nanajel wind is also Seanhwesterly.
bertep of Westerly surface wind in 1000,
a « upper wind in 1000, 912
156 Synopsis of a Meteorological Journal.
SURFACE WIND. HIGHEST OBSERVED CURRENT.
| Es
s ' re | . : , z
| Observations for the year 1834. E g [ | t wt g E P
FS ae oa ee et oe et
ie Me ane a ioe ee ae
am pe ee ee ee a
January, 38 |. 1$.-524| 57 |] 4) 2g 303
February, 43 | 16 | 353, 29] 7/0 | 56 | 204
arch, . 19|15|7 | S9:| 3.| 4. | 78 | -22
April, AT | 174 444; 26] 5] 5 | 544) 243
ay, 25 | 25 | 614 3854], 9 | 1 55 | 3l
June, 224) 27 | 624 30 | 11 [13 | 343) 424
July, 32) | J38F 88 1294-240 4, 254
August, 46.| 114 584 24] 91/0 | 61 | 394
September, 294 13 | 61 | 344] 6 | 1 | 724) 21
October, 6 | 69 | 67 31;0 | 704, 40
November, 28 | 24) 53 | 6031 010 | 694) 46
December, . | 43 1 | 484 353) 4{|0 | 51 | 37
382 {1493 7043 447 | 63 264 762 380°
The plwervations of Easterly winds as shewn - the last
table, are. : ‘ : 5314
af es of Westerly rs ; P ‘ . 115%
Prevailing winds, Southwesterly.
Observations of Easterly upper w — : : i ee
“e “Westerly <“ : ‘ - 1142
ne upper winds, OES
of Westerly surface wind in 1000, . : 684
«Westerly upper“ . 928
My journal for the year 1832 is sebtode' te in celiaegiibtide of in-
terruptions, amounting in the aggregate to about three months, and
is therefore omitted. The proportion of Westerly winds which it
records is 672 in 1000.
These results, in their general character, appear to coincide with
the observations which have been made in other parts of the United
States, and it is believed are by no means peculiar to the place in
which they were observed. Indeed there is evidence which is deem-
ed sufficient to establish the position, that we have a southwesterly and
westerly current of atmosphere, of varying altitude, sweeping over
the United States, as regular and as constant as the northeasterly
and easterly winds which prevail at the Island of Barbadoes, or in the
general region of the trade winds.
Synopsis of a Meteorological Journal. 157
The results of the thermometrical observations are omitted, as be-
ing of less general interest in an abstract of this kin
In dividing the horizon into four equal parts, in the hnbeeiir: ta-
bles, the first or cardinal point in each quarter of the compass is in-
eluded ; N. being included in the N. E. quarter, E. in the S. E.
quarter, &e.
It is deserving of particular notice, that during some of the cold-
est periods of winter in this occasionally severe climate, the predom-
inating winds blow from the southwestern, or southern quarter of the
horizon. ‘This fact appears to be established by the annual reports
which have been made to the Regents of the University, and, it is
believed, will become obvious in proportion to the accuracy of our
observations. It sufficiently demonstrates (without resorting to oth-
er evidence) the fallacy of the notion commonly entertained, that
winds are generally rectilinear in their progress and blow for the
most part in right lines, over extensive portions of the earth’s sur-
face ;—an error which appears to remain undisturbed in the minds
of most meteorologists.
.
OF THE BAROMETER.
The results in the following barometrical table, has been obtained
from a well adjusted Barometer, the position of which is supposed
to be about ten feet above the mean level of New York harbor.
Table of the mean height of the Barometer in 5 lakes, at five
aily observations.
8 oe 6A.M.| 104M) 2PM. | 6 P.M | 10P.M. Monthly mean.
January, 2. 29.975 29.982 29.963 29.975 29.978 29.975.
February, . 30.041 30.058 30.001 30.012 30.042 30.031
March,” . . 30.08030.104 30.03030.035 30.062. 30.063
April, .-. 30.031 30.060 30.023 30.000 30.015 30.025
May, —._. 30.063 30.11730.09230.074 30.089 30.087
June, . . (29,943 29.963 29.934 29.922 29.940 29.940
July, - + 80. 011 30.020 29.992 29.978 29.991 29.998
August, . . 083 29.973 29.992 30.007 30.006
September, 186 078 30.094 30.065 30.052 30.075 30.074
October, . . 30.021 30.04230.006 30.006 30.028 30.021
30.091 30.097 30.061, 30.057 30.067, 30.075
December,. . [30.12430 153 30.116 30.128 30. 133 30.131
Annual means, [39.039 30.05630.021 30. 01730 033,
158 Synopsis of a Meterological Journal.
‘The irregular and more striking variations of the mercurial column
as connected with the prevailing atmospheric phenomena, cannot be
shown in this summary, but would require a transcript of the entire
journal. The regular semidiurnal or horary oscillations of the mer-
cury are, however, distinctly manifested by these observations, al-
though not made at the hours considered most favorable to that ob-
ject. It will be seen that the mean range of this regular oscillation,
as between 10 A. M. and 6 P. M., is .039 inches.
The annual mean of the mercurial column as deduced from all
the observations is 30.033 inches.
During the first five months of the year, the indications of the
barometer may have been slightly reduced by a trifling inclination
in its position occasioned by the weight of mercury in the basin.
Measures were then taken to prevent the recurrence of this derange-
ment.
Table of the mean height of the Barometer, at the hours there-
in mentioned.
fs 1834. 6A. M. 13 OA. MM. SPM. Pa OP. M. |Monthly mean.
January, . . 30. 230/30.250 30.223 30.230 30.256) 30.239 °
February, . . 30. 118'30.176 30.123 30. 11830. 126, 30.133
March, — 30 193 30.246 30.184.30.153 30.199) 30.195
April, . . 30.084.30.108 30.072 30.052 30.073, 30.078
May, ame 30 020/30.050 30.035 30.01930.049 30.035
June, - . |29,899/29.932 29.919'29.918 29.942) 29,993
July, - . |80.084/30.105 30.062 30.065 30.073; 30.078
August, . . (30.030'30.047 30.033'30.01830.034; 30.033
September,. . 30.17530.18130.154'30.138 30.127) 30.162
October, . . (30.19330.19630.168'30.15930.196 30.182
November,. . |30.091'30.11730.07830.07930.098 30.094
December,. . 30.146)30.17730.131/30.14730.203, 30.161
Annual means. 30.106)30.133 30.099 30.092 30.118
Mean range of the semi-diurnal oscillation, as between 10 A. M.
and 6 P.M. : 041 eis
Mean of the two years 1833 and 1834, .040
Mean of os the observations in 1834, , SO0.AAs-...f8
Do. & “in 1833 and 1834, 30.07 re
Synopsis of a Meteorological. Journal. 159
Table showing the monthly maximum and minimum of the barome-
ter for the years 1833 and 1834.
SPEAR. vag
Maximum.| Minimum.{ Range. {|Maximum.{ Minimum.| Range.
January, 30.49 | 29.32 | 1.17 30.65 | 29.65 | 1. in.
February, 30.47 | 29.47 | 1.00 30.61 | 29.64 97
Ma 30.52 | 29.57 95 30.78 | 29.69 | 1.09
April, 30.40 | 29.42 .98 30.69 | 29.54 | 1.15
May, 30.37 | 29.72 .65 30.50 | 29.67 83
June, 30.28 | 29.62 .66 30.23 | 29.34 89
July, 30.25 | 29.65} .60 | 30.42 | 29.80] .62
ucust, 30.22 | 29.70 02 30.28 | 29.78 50
September, 30.20 | 29.8 46 30.60 | 29.71 89
October, . 30.52 | 29.30 |.1.22 | 30.53 | 29.71 82
November, | 30.57 | 29.48 | 1.09 | 30.60 | 29.44 | 1.16
December, 30.50 | 29.50 | 1.00 30.56 | 29.45 | 1.11
Annual results) 30.57 | 29.32 | 1.25 30.78 _ 29.34 | 1.44
_ Of the monthly maxima of the barometer in 1834, 5%, occur-
red with the wind in the N. E. quarter; with the wind S. Easterly,
none; ;4, with the wind in the S. Western quarter; and ?, with the
wind in the N. Western panes
Of the monthly minima, ,3; occurred with Northeasterly winds;
7'z With Southeasterly, ;3, with Southwesterly ; and none with North-
westerly,
A barometrical journal, if made in connection with the observa-
tions now required by the Regents, would increase the interest of a
Scientific observer in the ordinary phenomena of the atmosphere,
and may be otherwise of practical advantage. A full table of such
observations, made at frequent daily periods, and, simultaneously, at
some six or eight academies in different parts of the state, would in-
crease the value of those reports for which the scientific world is al-
ready so much indebted.
It is respectfully suggested, whether barometrical reports to this
extent may not be obtained by the voluntary action of gentlemen of
science having charge of these institutions, and whether such a re-
sult may not be facilitated by furnishing, if necessary, a limited num-
ber of suitable instruments, to certain academies for this object.
The barometers, if well selected, and once carefully adjusted in a
secure position, are but little liable to derangement, and, where not
already possessed, will prove a valuable acquisition to the philosoph-
ical apparatus of these institutions.
160 Meteorological Journal.
Art. XV.— Meteorological Journal, for the year 1834, kept at
Marietta, Ohio, in Lat. 39° 25’ N. and Lon. 4° 28’ W. of Wash-
ington City; by S. P. Hitpreru.
| ‘PHERMOMETER. § | __ BAROMETER.
: 8
= S=
3 Se
= 5%
Months. eect aise Prevailing winds. ’
t g lglg ale| & g j
Geld Eres z i 3
: g ‘ oa | gi
g ialg|2|3| 2/368 g)2i2
= |S |e & |S S)=. |
January, . |27.17|62 22} 9! 5/37 Ww. N. W 30.00 28 90) 1.10
February, . |43.33/72,20 12} 2)42 N. & 8. W 29.80 28.90) .90
arch, 43.73/79 14, 1/58) w.s.w.&s. 5. |30.02/29.10) .82
April, 55.41 88 10 1183 s. & 8. E 29.95 29.00) .95
ay, 9.00 93 28 117%5| > wi&s. w. 29.90129.08) .82
June, 50,90 5150) wen. & 8 EL 29.60 29.10} .50
1) | sei 75.61 94)59/35 5|08 8. E. 8. W. & N. 29.60,29.30} .30
August, .. |72.2095)4 1/33} oN. for 22 days. |29.55'29.30|) 25
September, (62.81 92/3¢ O67) oN. Np E. & 8. E. ~— |29.81/29.30) 51
October, 1178 10) 3/75 N. & SE 29 80/29.( .80
November, . |43.33/75 14) 3/25 w. & 8. WwW. 29.80 29.00) .80
December, [36.66.58 17, 2|13 Wb. &SE 29.90. 80
“Mean, 255!11034166
The mean temperature for the year is 52.40, being two degrees
less than that for the year 1833. The fluctuations of the barometer
are not very great in this climate ; the greatest range usually occurs
in the winter or spring months. In the past year the greatest de-
pression was on 12th day of January, with the wind from the S.-E.
during a heavy rain storm, it then remained at 28,,°, inches for a
of hours, its greatest elevation was on the 9th of March, when
it rose to 30.02. The rise is rarely above thirty, or depression be-
low twenty nine inches. The mean height for the year is about
29.50, and range 1.10.
The quantity of rain and melted snow has been much less for the
last year than the mean amount for the climate, being only 34;%s°5
inches. The average for a series of years being forty two inches.
The number of fair days has been two hnudred and fifty five, and of
the cloudy only one hundred and ten, being less by thirty three,
days than that of the year 1833. The mean temperature for the
winter months is 35.72, for the spring months 49.38, for the sum-
mer months 72.03, and for the autumnal 52.08. The spring months
have been unusually cold, nearly five degrees colder than those of
the year 1833, vile the winter oes is more mild hy nine and @
half degrees.
Meteorological Journal. 161
The months of April and October are of nearly the same temper-
ature in a series of years, but this year they differed more than 5° ;
April being unusually warm and had in fact taken the place of May,
whose temperature was only 49° while that of April was 55.41.
In 1833, the temperature of May was 67.17, making a difference
of 18.17, a most appalling change when we consider its effects on
vegetable as well as on animal life. April, from its commencement
to the 25th of the month had been unusually warm ; for many days
the temperature was above 80°, on the 16th it was at 88°, and the
mean for twenty four hours was nearly 70°, for several days. Peach
trees in warm exposures were in bloom the 21st of March, and gen-
erally early in April. Every other tree was in the same state of for-
wardness, in proportion to their relative time of blossoming. Forest
trees, by the twentieth of April, were nearly in full foliage and every
other living plant was full of life and vigor, expanding its precocious
leaves and blossoms to the stimulus of a tropical climate. Even the
feathered part of creation, generally so safely guided by the all pow-
erful direction of instinct, often more unerring than than that of reason,
were lulled into security, and enticed much farter north, than they
usually venture so early in the season. The severe cold which fol-
lowed in May, proved very destructive to these beautiful creatures.
Benumbed by the frost and cut off from their accustomed food, by
the destruction, or retardation of the insect races, they perished by
thousands. On the 26th of April the wind changed suddenly from
its southern direction to the north, attended with a little rain, below
the mouth of the Muskingum on the Ohio River ; but above and north
of that point, with snow. Severe frosts followed, which not only de-
stroyed the early productions of the garden, but turned black, the foli-
age of the forest trees. Fruit trees were so full of leaves that many of
the tender germs were yet preserved—amild weather, and gentle show-
ers, the fore part of May, had encouraged and recruited the frost
bitten vegetation to renewed efforts. Grape vines, which were just
opening their blossoms on the 27th of April, by the 13th of May
had so far recruited as to put forth a second series of foliage and
flowers, Peaches and apples, where they had escaped, were of the
size of an ounce bullet. On the 13th of May, a still more severe
frost, or rather repetition of frosts, came down upon us from the north,
attended with a dry, cold, blighting wind, and frost followed on frost
until the 19th of the month. The forests, so lately clad in all their
splendor, put on the appearance of winter. The branches and
Vol. XX VIII.—No. 1.
162 Meteorological Journal.
boughs of many trees were killed, as well as the foliage, especially
those of the white oak. All kinds of fruit both domestic and sylvan,
were annihilated. The poor grape vines again suffered martyrdom,
and some of the tender kinds were killed to the ground. It was
useless to protect any thing in open exposures, with mats or blank-
ets, the steady perseverence of “ Jack frost,” penetrated through all
obstacles. A good brick wall, on an eastern exposure, saved me a
few bunches of grapes, but the strawberries and raspberries were all
destroyed. The white lilies, chinese peonies, and other beautiful
plants suffered inthe same way. Notwithstanding, all these free-
zings, here and there a few apples and peaches escaped, where pro-
tected by the river, or a hill. An orchard on an island in the bend
of the Ohio, a few miles below Marietta, produced nearly a hundred
barrels of apples. There is seldom any great evil without some al-
leviation. The total destruction of stone fruit, may perhaps also
be the means of destroying the curculio. This insect, being of
annual production, will thus have no suitable deposit forvits eggs,
whereby to renew the species.
The wheat crops suffered with the rest of the vegetable world.
_ The head even where protected by the sheath, was so frozen as to
be utterly destroyed in many situations. But a wise and kind pro-
vision of the Creator, has given this plant the property of throwing
up new seed stems, where the first are destroyed, and even two or
three in place of one ; so that the crop was tolerably good, but con-
siderably later in ripening. Some persons, not aware of this princi-
ple, plowed up their fields and planted them with corn. Rye being
still more forward than the wheat, was in many instances entirely
blighted and destroyed. Indian corn was all cut off to the ground,
but would bear replanting where it did not again shoot up—with all
this cold, there was also great severity of drought. Grass crops, were
less than one third their usual amount. Potatoes, were very light
and poor. The oat crop was tolerably good, and on new lands, and
rich soil, Indian corn was much better than had been anticipated.
On the whole the past year has been one that will long be remem-
bered, and will form an interesting epoch in the history of the sea-
sons m * the valley of the Ohio.”
. ‘Marietta, Jan. 26, 1835.
P. S. The winter thus far, has been mild—on the 5th of Janua-
ry, the mercury sunk to 2° above Zero, which is the lowest—it re-
Divisibility of Matter. 163
mained cold at night, but pleasant by day until the 13th, since then
mild. ‘Thermometer on the 25th at 62°. The rivers closed on the
6th, but opened on the 24th—only 14 inches of snow in December,
none in January, the absence of snow has preserved us from the se-
vere cold of the middle and eastern states.
Anr. XVI.—Divisibility of Matter; by E. Avams.
Hanover, N. Hamp., Dec. 18th, 1834,
TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN,
Dear Sir—Turre has been, as we well know, much labored
discussion, and much waste of ink upon the subject of the divisibili-
ty of matter. As the following has a bearing upon that point, and
may be considered as a striking illustration of it; and as the result
of my calculations was not a little surprising, as well as amusing to
myself, and may be so to others; I send it to you, that you may,
if you think fit, give it a place in your valuable Journal.
Several years since, as I was setting by my fireside, I observed
several of my family around a table, reading by the light of a single
candle. The thought occurred—how great a portion of the light of
that candle is used by those several persons reading? And then
immediately, a second thought—for how many persons does that
candle furnish light sufficient to enable them to read, provided it
could be so distributed, that the whole should be used for that pur-
pose without any loss? The candle was rather a large one, and-
gave a very clear, bright light. I found on trial, that I could read
very well with my book at the distance of three feet from the can-
dle, and with my eyes nine inches from the book. The candle then
would illuminate the concave surface of a sphere of three feet radius
sufficiently for the purpose of reading. By measuring, I found that
the book I made use of contained on an average twenty letters to an
inch, and ten lines to an inch. But as the spaces between the lines
were broader than the lines themselves, instead of ten, I supposed
twenty lines to an inch, and, consequently, that four hundred letters
would be contained in a square inch. A concave sphere then of six
feet diameter would contain six. million five hundred and fourteen
thousand and four hundred letters. This number of letters the can-
dle would illuminate, so that each would be distinctly visible to an
164 Divisibility of Matter.
eye at the distance of nine inches. Here I would just observe, that
the candle was supposed to be so philosophically made, that, whilst
it maintained a constant bright flame, it did not intercept its light
from a single letter in the concave sphere.
Again, the light, reflected from a single letter, would render that
letter visible to an eye at the distance of nine inches not in one di-
rection only, but to an eye placed any where in the concave sur-
face of a hemisphere of nine inches radius. To how many eyes
then, is the light reflected from one letter, sufficient to render it
visible ?
I supposed the sip of the eye to be one eighth of an inch in di-
ameter, which is probably near the truth. On this supposition, the
surface of a hemisphere of nine inches radius is equal to the pupils
of forty one thousand four hundred and sixty five eyes. To this
number of eyes, or to half this number of pairs of eyes, the light re-
flected from a single letter is sufficient to render that letter distinct-
ly visible. But here it may be objected, and it is true, that to an
eye, placed near the plane of the leaf, a sufficiency of light would
not be reflected. But it is also unquestionably true, that not half
the light, which falls upon the leaf, is reflected. The light, there-
fore, which is absorbed, would much more than compensate for this
deficiency.
Now, the light, which falls upon a single letter, being sufficient to
render it visible to 20,732 pairs of eyes, and the number of letters in
the concave surface of a sphere of three feet radius being 6,514,400,
the light which falls upon all these letters is sufficient for 135,056,-
540,800 pairs of eyes, or the light of one candle, should not a par-
ticle be lost, and the whole be so distributed, that each should re-
ceive his equal portion, is sufficient to enable 135,056,540,800 per-
sons to read at the same time. If our earth contains 900,000,000
of inhabitants, and that, 1 believe, is the highest supposition ever
made, the light of one candle is more than sufficient to enable all
the inhabitants of one hundred and fifty such worlds to be reading
at the same instant. This conclusion, [ am aware, will appear to
many, perhaps to most, altogether incredible. But any one, pos-
sessing but a moderate share of mathematical knowledge, may in a
oon time easily maely himself, that rejecting fractions, it is rigidly
As like a to which I have referred, would undoubtedly,
continue burning at least four hours. What quantity of light then,
Botanical Communications. 165
to be determined either by weight, measure, or the number of par-
ticles, will suffice for one person to read for one minute ?
It will readily be perceived, that I have proceeded upon the sup-
position, that the Newtonian theory of light is correct.
Art. XVII.—Botanical Communications ; by H. B. Croom, tg
I. Bietitiiis of a New Plant.
Anon. dioscoroides.
Calyx petaloid, 4 parted, expanding; corolla none; stamens far,
large and somewhat quadrangular; berry 2 seeded?. peduncles ax-
illary, nodding, 2 flowered.
lant herbaceous, very glabrous, about six inches high; leaves
five to seven, crowded towards the summit of the stem, on long pe-
tioles, seven to nine nerved. Allied to Convallaria and Polygona-
tum? Mr. Nuttall, from a specimen which I sent him, has doubting-
ly called this plant a Cissampelos, but Dr. Pickering agrees with me
in considering it to be different from that genus.
Found at Aspalaga on the Appalachicola, under the shade of the
remarkable Taxus which I have before mentioned as existing at that
place. Flowers in April. 7
Il. Localities of Plants.
Hee studia peregrinantur nobiscum. —Cie.
~ 1. Peucedanum ternatum, Nutt.
Description. Whole plant glabrous; root tuberous; stem three
to five feet high, striate and Pe il leaves few, five to six, lower
ternate, on very long petioles; leaflets narrow, three to four lines
wide, linear, acute, attenuated at base ; upper leaves simple, linear,
acute, long; umbels one to nine, eapicoaieh and axillary ; involucrum
hone, or Socun one to six narrow, linear leaves ; radii elongated,
Six to fifteen ; segments of the involucel three to six subulate, two to
three lines long ; pedicels filiform, about one inch long; petals pale
Straw color withing reddish brown without; filaments long ; anthers
large, two lobed; style reflected in the mature fruit; calyx five
toothed, teeth acute, and probably deciduous.
Found by Dr. Loomis and myself near Newbern, N. C. (in the
Savannah, at the Race Course) with fruit and flowers, Sept. 28th.
- Rhexia lutea.—Common in the savannahs around Newbern,
et
166 Botanical Communications.
3. Polygonum fimbriatum, El.—(Three feet high; fringe of the
stipules deciduous?) In the sand-hills seven miles north of Colum-
bia, on the road to Camden. P. polygamum in the sand-hills be-
tween Camden and Cheraw.
Both species flowering in October.
4. Cupressus disticha, var. imbricaria. Nutt.
In the swamp and stream of Drowning Creek, thirty two miles
S. W. of Fayetteville, N.C. Also in a pine barren pond five miles
north of Camden, S. C.; on the Ocmulgee at Hartford, Ga. and in
pine-barren ponds between the Ocmulgee and Flint Rivers.
5. Calamintha caroliniana.
In the sand-hills five or six miles S. W. of Camden on the road
to Columbia. Also at Richmond Bath, Ga.
6. Ceranthera linearifolia, El.
Abundant in Dooly and Baker counties, Georgia, along the Flint
River road.. An aroma similar to that of peppermint is very abun-
dant in this plant. Flowering in October.
7. Chrysobalanus oblongifolius.
In Decatur and Baker counties, Ga., along the Flint Rives road,
flowering in June. Also in Middle Florida:
8. Robinia rosea, El. ?
Along the Flint River road in pine woods—a thorny shrub from
three to six feet high.
9. Robinia nana, E].
In the sand-hills of Wayne county, N. C., also in pine woods be-
tween Columbia and Augusta.
10. Petalostemon corymbosum, as far north as the sand-hills of
Cumberland and Sampson counties, N. C
11. Eupatorium coronopofilium, as far north as Cumberland,
Sampson and Wayne couuties, N.C. Very abundant in the poorest
soils along the Flint River road, and in Florida.
12. Rosa suaveolens, Ph.
On the road a Columbia and Augusta. Also in Lenoir
County, N. C
13. eniaeace ese ina broad swamp ten mille S. W. of Cam-
den on the road to Columbia, along with S. flava.
14. Sarracenia calceolata, Nutt. (8. pulchella, nobis.) In wet
pine woods two or three miles west of the Telogie on the road to
15. Sarracenia variolaris. Frequent in wet pine woods of Flori-
da and Southern Georgia.
Botanical Communications. 167
16. Sarracenia flava.—From the southern borders of the Chesa-
peake Bay to the Gulf of Mexico, in rian savannahs, and wet
pine woods.
Sabal Adansoni, in the swamps around New Orleans. I have
already noted its existence as far north as Neuse River, N. C. Lat-
itude 35° 20’. In Georgia I have noted it as far up as Hartford on
the Ocmulgee.
18. Iris cuprea and Crinum americanum in swamps around New
Orleans.
19. Pancratium (rotatum?) flowering in May. Very abit
on the Mississippi below New Orleans.
20. Helenium quadridentatum, Mich.? (Leaves broadly decur-
rent.) Very abundant on the Mississippi below New Orleans, flow-
eringin May. I have noted the same plant on the Neuse River, N.
C. and in Georgia between the Oconee and Ocmulgee Rivers.
Along the Flint River road I have observed it with a few remaining
flowers in October.
21. Catalpa cordifolia.
On the Conechee, about the 31st disuse of latitude, native? See
Ellicott’s Notes.
22. Gossypium. (Cotton plant.)
Spontaneous near the southern extremity of the peninsula of
Florida—seeds woolly.—G. hirsutum or G. barbadense? Reported
tome by Mr. Wyatt of Tallahassee. The Cotton plant (G. barba-
dense ?) is also spontaneous at Key West.
I. Remarks on some parts of my former communications, and
correction of some errors therein.
In Baptisia simplicifolia the flowers (which I have since obtained)
are yellow, the legumes pedicelled, leaves rhombovate, without stip-
ules. Flowers in June.
Thyrsanthus Aloridana is probably only a variety of T. frutescens,
- (Wistaria speciosa, Nutt.
Sarracenia pulchella is the S. calceolata of Nuttall, figured and
described in the Trans. Am. Philo. Soc. I still think it may be the
original S, psittacina of Michaux.
Sarracenia Catesbai of Elliott, I now think, is only a variety of S.
flava. An examination of the figure in Catesby’s work, referred to
by Elliott, has confirmed me in this opinion.
The parasite tree, figured in one of your late numbers, by Lieut.
Long, is the same mentioned by me in a previous number, (October,
168 The Mole Carnivorous.
1833) as a “‘Phenomenon in vegetable life.” These trees (Pinus
palustris) are forty or fifty feet in height.
In Malva Nuttalloides the petals are bright purple, and not dark
purple, as I have said, describing from a dried specimen in the Her-
barium in which the petals had changed their color. This plant is
not confined to the pine woods, but occurs also in the oaky forests
of Florida. It is remarkably variable in its leaves, calyx, and pu-
bescence. I subjoi an amended description.
Malva Nuttaloides.
oot perennial? stem prostrate or procumbent, branching, 1—2
feet long; leaves palmate, 3—5 lobed, lobes variable in form and
length ; petioles long, 3—6 inches; peduncles longer than the pet-
ioles; interior calyx five parted ; exterior calyx three leaved, leaves
lanceolate or linear, sometimes entirely or partially wanting; petals
five, about one and a quarter inch long, one inch broad, obtuse, fim-
briate, bright purple; capsules arranged in a circle, with a flattened
disk; stem, leaves, calyx, peduncles, and petioles hairy, almost se-
tose. In Florida and the southern parts of Georgia as far as Haw-
kinsville on the Ocmulgee. Flowers May—June. The peculiari-
ties of this plant render it probable that Nuttallia is properly only a
section of the genus Malva. Should this opinion be confirmed, all
botanists will readily concur in dedicating some other genus to the
memory of a man who has done so much in the investigation and il-
lustration of North American Botany, and who is now periling his
life in the prosecution of further discoveries.
At page 315 of this Journal, (July, 1834,) for “Peedee River”
read “Santee River.” At —— 314 of the same number, for “ Dr.
McKee” read “ Dr. McR:
Arr. XVIII.—The Mole Carnivorous ;* by Sam’ Wooprurr, Esq-
TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN,
Dear Sir,—Under the article “Natural History” in the 17th
Vol. of your Journal of Science, &c. p. 138, I read with much in-
terest the “ Natural History of the Mole.” It appears conclusively
* The animal which in this country is commonly called a mole, is different from
that which bears the name in Europe. The former is the Scalops Canadensis of
Cuvier; the latter is the Talpa Europea of bags ee the second edition of
Cuvier’s Régne Animal, published in 1829, o mole, as Godman
calls it,) is classed utider the ordér Carnaria “family y Mohonpee which shows that
The Mole Carnivorous. 169
by the facts stated by M. Flourens, that this animal is carnivorous,
and not herbivorous, contrary to what I had ever before supposed.
The multitudes of them in our gardens, in which we find so many
potatoes, beets, carrots, parsnips, and other root vegetables eaten be-
low the surface of the ground, in or near their arched lanes, confirm-
ed me in the belief that they were the trespassers. This opinion
prevails, as I understand, throughout our country.
In reading the statement of facts made by M. Flourens, I found
myself under the necessity of doubting whether the moles with
which his experiments were tried, might not be of a different species
and of different habits from those of our country. ‘This led me to a
determination to try the experiment as soon as I could obtain a sub-
ject. In this, however, I did not succeed until the 13th inst., when
at evening I procured a full grown, healthy and vigorous mole of the
species commonly called the garden mole.
I confined him in a wooden box about two feet square, placing on
the bottom six or eight inches depth of earth, and before him a po-
tatoe, a beet, a carrot, a parsnip, turnip, and an apple.
Early next morning I found him exceedingly languid, and appa-
rently exhausted, barely able to turn himself over when placed on
his back. All the vegetables.remained whole—none of them having
been bitten. I then ‘presented him the head and whole neck of a
fowl, with the feathers on; he instantly seized it, and fed upon it
with great avidity. I found him the next morning, plump, strong
and active—nothing left of the head and neck of the fowl, except
the beak, part of the skull, and bones of the neck, the latter being
gnawed and stripped of all the flesh. I then left with him a whole
chicken about the size of a quail. The next day, I found upon ex-
amination, nothing left of the chicken, with the exception of the beak,
wing feathers, and a few of the larger bones. I then treated him to
the head, neck and entrails of another fowl. He first devoured the en-
trails, and after that, the head and neck, with the exceptions as stated
in the first instance. Satisfied with this course, I changed his regi-
men on the evening of the 17th, from flesh to cheese, with the ad-
the nature of its food was then known. Concerning the state of the animal during
Winter, Godman’s aceount,* which is the best we are acquainted with, is silent.
The Encyclopedia Americana, art. Shrew mole, states that in winter “ he burrows
near streams where the ground i is not so deeply frozen.” We know of no farther
erence on the —— sp anumaaientel. )
bles of a Naturalist.
Am. Nat. Hist. V
Vol. XXVIII Ne. L.
170 The Mole Carnivorous.
dition of potatoe boiled with meat; the animal was then full and vig-
orous. ‘The next morning I found him dead—the cheese and pota-
toe as I had left them, none of which had been eaten. The belly
and sides of the mole were much contracted and depressed.
During the whole time of his confinement, he had been well sup-
plied with water and ice. ‘The whole of the vegetables put into the
box remained unbitten.
The result of this experiment has removed from my mind all
doubts respecting the character and habits of this singular animal—
and whether the mole of our country, is or is not of the same spe-
cies with those mentioned by M. Flourens, it is clearly not herbivo-
rous, and may be truly ranked among carnivorous animals.
But a question of perhaps more difficult solution respecting the
mole’s digestive organs, and of its regimen in relation to its hiberna-
tion in our latitude, remains as a subject of enquiry. From what may
be considered as already ascertained relative to their habits and regi-
men, I think it cannot be supposed they lay up in store their supply
of provisions for the winter—nor can they, during the time the ground
remains frozen, travel abroad in search of food, except it be below
frost, and even there, no food proper for them could be found.
Do they belong to that class of animals which hibernate in a tor-
pid state, and to which no food of any kind is necessary during ‘the
continuance of their torpidity? If so, where do they take up their
winter lodgings? It is true they are sometimes found in an active
state in cellars during the winter ; but it can hardly be supposed they
all find such accommodations, nor is it easy to conceive how, even
in those situations, they should be able to find food of the proper kind
to satiate their cluttony.
The mole in his subterranean march, possesses no physical power
for migrating to the south, nor is it probable that the functions of his
digestive organs cease their action, as in those animals which become
torpid in thieit hibernation:
These hints are barely suggested, indulging a hope, should you
give them publicity, that they may elicit from some able naturalist, @
publication which shall settle the question.
There seems to be a general rule established in nature, (it may,
like other general rules, have exceptions,) that all those animals,
whose proper food can be acquired by them in the higher latitudes
during the winter, do not migrate—such as eagles, hawks, owls,
crows, and other carnivorous birds; also partridges, quails, various
kinds of snow-birds, and many others which feed on buds of trees,
Sere
The Mole Carnivorous. 171
and shrubs, seeds of weeds, and berries of different kinds. But
those which feed on worms and insects,—such as martins, king-birds,
robins, blackbirds and many others, instinctively migrate to more
southern latitudes, not being able to find their proper food here dur-
ing the season of winter.
Another class of animals, natives and permanently resident in our
latitude, have neither the power of emigration nor the means of ob-
taining food during our winters. These by a most wise and wonder-
ful provision in nature, are so formed and organized, that they may
retire to their winter lodgings, and remain in a torpid state, without
inconvenience to themselves, during the frosts of winter, however
long they may continue. But to what class belongs the mole?
There are certain peculiar properties belonging to this singular
animal relative to its structure and adaptation to the condition in
which nature has placed it, which deserve the notice of the natt
ist. Of these, however, by reason of my limited knowledge of anat-
omy, I can give a very imperfect description.
The snout or proboscis which projects three fourths of an inch be-
yond the extreme point of the upper jaw, and consisting of a sub-
stance similar to that of the upper edge ofa pigs snout, flexible and
elastic, yet cartilaginous and sufficiently rigid to pierce the ground,
Serves as a pioneer to prepare and direct the way for the body. Next
the fore feet or rather paws. These are very large, broad, and strong,
furnished each with five long and powerful nails or talons. These
feet are so organized that the back sides of them are easily brought
into contact with the sides of the head and neck, to thrust aside the
earth laterally. The shoulder blades lie longitudinally with the line
of the body, nearly in contact with each other, forming a sort of shield
for the shoulders, and are covered with a thick, muscular integument
Strengthened by tendons connected with the muscles of the fore legs,
so that when the paws are moved in pressing aside the earth, a sim-
ultaneous motion, upwards, is given to the blades to resist the pressure
of the superincumbent earth and faciliate the progress of the body.
The chest is broader and deeper than any other part of the body.
I send you herewith, the skin of the animal which was the subject
of my experiment, stuffed with tobacco, the snout with the jaws,
eyes, feet and tail entire. The examination of them, together with
the imperfect description I have given may enable you, if you think
them deserving your attention, to give a more correct, scientific and
technical description of this humble animal, its habits and structure.
Windsor, Conn. Nov. 20th, 1834.
172 Onthe Geology and Mineralogy of Schoharie, N. Y.
Arr. XIX.—On the Geology and Mineralogy of Schoharie,
(N. Y.) by Joun Gesuarp, Esq.
Tue last number of the Journal, contains an article by Mr. C. U.
SueEparp, on the Strontianite and the limestone Cavern, of Scho-
~ harie, in which, is expressed a wish for additional information in re-
lation to the occurrence of the Strontianite, and the names of the
discoverers of our mineral localities. My communication is inten-
ded to supply these desiderata.
Montgomery Lo. a
weenr enn
cg coer nee Re 7
oe,
goer anes
stwne,
~ ~ . w. | W. js. w.2 29.99) jindy. [ra
28 cloudy : «eo } Ix. w. 29,00.29.31 High wind. Auro-
fair | fair | fair [N.win.wJ 29 4729.78) - finehes, Bain.
27 cloudyjcloudy|cloudy|s. ws. | s. | .70,29,28 Snow from lp. ce
aS fore air |foggy| s. | “ |s. w.29.05,29. [Thet: at 3p. a. 81°.
4 : ah fair do ot stot; & ee 05 29.24 Gagy in. &
3s} : dlondy ** eieeye a SO AO eee een at io
: ‘ fair | N.| N- | N. 2. Hig 29.7018, Siow fie re
i ae cload icloudy|cloudyjs. E./s. E./s. 5 eavy ra
: 44) ¢ cad ae i w.is. W.'N, W. 28.56 28.76 geo till i far
Mean pressure of the sion wie - 29.377 inches.
Greatest pressure, - ian 5.
Least pressure, - - - - 28.56
Range of the barometer, - . - - ge
Fair days, - 11° Cloudy da ays,
Variable days, 12 — Snow or rain, (
winter of 1780, was the most severe, as in 1740—41, York River 4
was not frozen over, whereas in 1780, the Chesapeake was covered
with solid ice from its head to the mouth of the Potomac. At An-
napolis, where the bay is more than five miles wide, the ice was five
inches thick.
In the winter of 1779—80, the first snow storm occurred about
the 25th of November, and subsequent falls of snow raised itto the
hight of three or four feet upon a level. The wind for several ~
weeks from the North West was cold, the snow was so dry and
So continually driven by the wind, that no good path could be made,
and traveling was almost impeded. I passed often, half a mile or a
mile on. drifts as high as the fences. Farmers could do little else
abroad than feed their cattle and provide them with water. For
about six weeks the cold was so intense, that no snow melted on the
south side of buildings. The sound between Long Island and the
Main was nearly all covered with ice, and troops of horse and heavy
cannon passed on the ice between New York and Staten Island.
Since that, as in 1788, the ice in the east river has been passable for
a footman, for a few, hours only at a time.
Thermometrical observations made at Hartford, on Fahrenheit’s
| ;
Scale,
Vol. XX VIL.—No. 1. 24
| 186 Miscellames.
Jan. 1, 1780, at sunrise, Jan. 19 13°—
« 2 7° 20 5°+
3 1404 21 6° —
4 . 16°+ 22 _§°+
| 6°+ 23 go —
6 ~ QO+ 24 6°+
7
ee
Feb. 10 ae: 19°
ia 12° — ae 12°—
12 13° — 16 16°—
+ oe 19° — 17 16° ~
The latter is the most extraordinary instance of a continuation of
intense cold that | have ever known
My thermometer purchased in Laine and watrinted wo deem
rect, is graduated only to 20 degrees below zero. At sunrise on
Sunday morning, the 4th inst. the mercury was at 12 degrees under
zero—and at sunrise on Monday the 5th, the mercury had sunk into
the bulb: at eight o’clock it had risen to 19. The degree of cold
therefore was, by that instrument, about the same as that indicated
by others, viz. 22 or 23 degrees below zero—the most intense cold
which has been known in New Haven since thermometers have been
much in use.
By many observations I have made, I have ascertained that in se-
vere weather, the mercury at Hartford falls from 5 to 10 degrees
lower there than at New Haven.
It was remarked that in the severe winter of 1780, almost all the
birds of the forest perished. Here and there only, a solitary wat-
bler was heard the next summer.
; hs
Miscellanies. 187
Winters of the utmost severity occur but three or four times in a
century. Very mild winters are equally rare.
It is mentioned in history that in one instance, two or three hun-
dred years ago, there was really no winter in Europe, and in the
spring following, the wheat in the north of Europe was harvested in
May. In 1755—6, troops were transported by water from New
York to Albany, in January and February. In 1795, ladies walked
upon the battery on Christmas day, without shawls.
In February, 1779, I saw farmers ploughing their fields in the
county of Hartford, in the month of February.—Jan. 1835.
3. Abstract of Meteorological observations, taken at Penn- Yan, °
a oe by Doct. H. P. Santwext, for the year 1834.
THERMOMETER. ATMOSPHERE.
es | : 433| Sele els: Let og
g Ste) | | [| a/SSloeiss les 532.
= -| J 318/32] | SLSlRalbelg [e2 |2ES3
dg /ejsiargi=lse|stecei = e-eeee| Fy
a> |Slels|a| (SiS Slealscldg liga lets 33
$ RI S| S| $1314] 2121.8]. 2163 1s é2a8 an
= le/S|SlS/SIElS| SiES 25/88 28 [#3 * &
23.91/47\-4|51|17| 5/10|11/10] 3 | 3 | .39|1.25 W. 8.w.&N
35.15/65; 0/65/22, 8.11/ 7/10) 4 | 4 | .43/4.50] 1 w.&s.
36.55 68/11)51/20| 22/10/12; 9! 6 | 5 /1.28/7.12 s.&N.W
49,47|76|20|56|16|27|17|10) 3,10 | 2 |1.52|2.50 w.s.w.&n.w
56.45|87|26161|23|14]14| 8} 9110 | 3 |3.00/4.00| 4 w.&s.
64.89]82|46/36! 9} 2/12] 9 914 3.74 4 | wi.&w.
73.28194'46'48| 9[30/20| 3] 8! 8 2.69 4 w.&s.w
68.82/91/42/49]12|27)19| 5) 7/ 8 1.31 7 w.&s.
60 94'86|29|57| 4/29/17) 4} 9) 10 2.09 1 | w.s.&n.w.
46.87:75 '22153/18/25,12| 6/13/10 | 3 |3.33) .50 Ww..a.w dw
3 iez.26 meits a3 10|15) 5'13;12|11 | 2 [1-51|1.00 w.s.w.&n.w
28.38/53] 0.53] 1)14l 3'17 11! 4] 8 |1.05|8.75 w. s.&s.w.
Prevailing winds of the year, w. s. & s. w—Numbber of fair days,
150; do. cloudy, do. 105; do. variable, do. 110; rain fell on 98
days ; snow fell on 30 days; thunder and lightning occurred on 21
days ; depth of rain, 22.39 inches, 3.47 inch. less than 1833; depth
of snow, 29.62 inches, 40.25 inch. less than in 1883 ; hottest month,
July ; coldest month, December; greatest monthly range of ther-
mometer in February, 65°; least do. do. do. June, 36° ; the mer-
cury was highest, July 9, 94°; do. lowest, Jan. 25, —4°; yearly
range of thermometer, 98°; mean temperature of the year, 48.549;
do. of the spring months, 49.40°; do. summer do. 64.04°; do. au-
tumn do. 48.27°; do. wiater do. 30.17°.
The first frost, was on the night of the 29th Sept., two weeks la-
ter than in 1833; the last frost in the spring was the 14th and 15th
of May, at which time snow fell four inches deep, a very uncommon
188 Miscellanies.
occurrence in this section of the couutry, where we rarely get-snow
over four inches deep, at any time in the winter. The months of
Aug. and Sept. were uncommonly dry, and the corn crop was se-
verely injured. In the fall months, remittent fevers prevailed
throughout this part of the country, and on the whole, the season
has been unfavorable and sickly.
4. Ancient Mineralogy, or an inquiry respecting the mineral
substances mentioned by the ancients—their uses, &c.; by N.
F. Moore, LL. D., Professor of Greek and Latin in Colum-
bia College, New York; Carvills, 1834.—This little work, of one
‘hundred eighty seven pages, 12mo. has two important character-
istics—not always found united im literary works at the present day ;
there is little pretension, but there is much performance. It is ob-
vious that the learned author, while as a philologist, he has diligently
explored the rich fields of classical literature, has not forgotten to cull
whatever of science and of art hascome in his way. This small vol-
ume presents interesting materials, drawn from many sources, the re-
sult of extensive reading in ancient and modern authors, and of vigilant
and discriminating observation applied not only to books, but to min-
erals themselves. The author may indeed be, as he modestly styles
himself, “a learner” in mineralogy, but it is apparent that he is not
one of those, who are ever learning, and not able to come to the
knowledge of the truth. His elucidations of ancient mineralogy by
comparison with the moder, evince his familiar acquaintance with
both ; and he has performed a difficult service, for which few men
are qualified; because the eminent classical scholar, and the proficient
in mineralogy, and the connected arts, both of ornament and utility,
are rarely united in the same person. Dr. Moore’s work will prove
most acceptable, not only to teachers and readers, but to all enquirers
on the subject upon which he writes, and we trust that the sale
will render it necessary soon, to prepare a new, if not an enlarged
‘iti
-
5. Elements of Chemistry, for the use of Schools and Acade-
mies ; by L. D. Gate, M. D. New York, 1835.—The author hav-
ing been during the last seven years, engatred in public instruction in
Chemistry, has experienced jnconvenienc:es from the want of an
appropriate text-book for his pupils; and the present work, “illus-
trated by more than one hundred engravings:,” is designed to obviate
these difficulties.
a
Miscellanies. 189
The form of the “Conversations” is generally considered as de-
tracting from its merits and utility, and any attempt at improvement
in books for elementary instruction is recommended by the previous
familiarity and experience of the author, which in the present in-
stance give the work claims to public notice.
6. Lyceum of Natural History, New York.—This Society, since
our last notice of its proceedings, has been actively engaged in en-
deavors to extend its resources, and enlarge its prospects of future
usefulness, which appear likely to result in speedy and gratifying
success. The friends of science in New York have come forward to
aid it, by subscription to shares of a stock, formed by the Society,
which has already enabled them to purchase ground in a command-
ing and desirable spot, where, when the subscription is completed, a
building adequate to all the purposes of the Lyceum will be erected ;
in which their valuable and rapidly increasing Museum can be efficient-
ly displayed; courses of lectures on scientific subjects delivered; and
where the students, and friends of natural science, may find a ren-
dezvous not unworthy of this great metropolis. The following are
Some extracts from their minutes.
July 14, 1834.—A specimen of the new mineral, named by Dr.
Thomson of Glasgow, Bytownite, from Bytown, U. C. where it is
found, was ee (together with some books,) by Dr. Holmes
of Montr treal
Sept. 15 ‘poi Metcalf read a paper, entitled “ On molecular
affinities,” in which he attributed all attractions and repulsions of
matter, all chemival and electrical affinities, and all motion, to the
Operation of caloric alone.
Dr. Harlan communicated information received from Dr. Troost,.
of the discovery of the remains of the Megalonyx in a cave in Ten-
nessee, called Big-bone Cave. Dr. H. further remarked, that the
‘bones of the Megalonyx, which he himself had formerly described,
as having been found in White Cave, Kentucky, he has since ascertain-
ed to have come from Big-bone Cave in Tennessee. Through the lib-
erality of these gentlemen, the Lyceum has received casts of all
these bones, which are now displayed in their cabinet.
Mr. D. J. Browne presented a number of shells, principally frien
Teneriffe, among which were several rare species.
Sept. 22. =Mr. Whelpley, of Cleaveland, Ohio, announced the
formation of a Society of Natural History at that place, for which he
requested donations of minerals.
190 Miscellanies.
The new chemical elementary substance, named Kreosote, re-
markable for its antiseptic and solvent properties, was presented to
the Lyceum by Dr. Feuchtwanger, who explained its origin and
qualities.
Sept. 29.—Some very large and beautiful specimens (principally
crystallized) of carbonate of lime, quartz, pearl-spar, amethyst, &c.
and lava, from different parts of Mexico, were presented by Mr. J.
Ehlers of Zacatecas.
Oct. 20.—Mr. Cooper presented a collection of the eggs of birds,
breeding in this vicinity, with the nests of such as build nests. Also
eggs of various species of Tortoises ; also a collection of Echinida,
_ sixty five in number, comprising many different Genera and species,
two of which he obtained in the waters of New York; also an ex-
tensive series of corallines, asterie, and comatule, from various coun-
tries, mostly named; also a collection of various shells, and other
marine productions, fossils, &c.; and eighteen jars and bottles con-
taining various quadrupeds and reptiles from this vicinity, preserved
in spirits.
Dr. Jay presented a Jarge fossil Pyrula from Florida, and several
beautiful Echini, among which are two specimens of the singular Eehi-
nus atratus from Sumatra. .
Dr. Swift presented ripe capsules of Sesasum orientale, the Benne
plant; the seeds were sown early in June, and the plants destroyed
by frost on the night of Sept. 29th.
J. W. Cooper deposited with the Lyceum a collection of about
one hundred species of rare birds of our vicinity, well prepared and
preserved in seven cases.
Oct. 27.—The President laid before the Society, an order from
the widow of the late Col. Gibbs, for the large mass of meteoric iron
deposited with the Lyceum, by that gentleman about fourteen years
- ago, which was accordingly ordered to be given up to Mr. C.
Nov. 10.—Mr. Cooper offered a specimen of Pecten concentti-
cus, from our waters, to which were adhering various individuals of
Anomia Ephippium, Crepidula convexa and plana, all of which,
from this circumstance had acquired the ribbed surface and scallop-
ed edge of the Pecten. Such shells becoming detached, have give?
rise to the establishment of supposed new species.
The President, having announced the decease of the distinguished
Naturalist, Thos. Say ; it was Resolved, That the Members of the
Miscellanies. 191
Lyceum of Natural History of New York, have learned with deep
regret the death of their distinguished Associate Thomas Say, and
as cultivators of natural science, respectfully unite in offering this
tribute to his memory.
Dec. 8.—Fine specimens of Iceland spar were exhibited, by Dr.
Torrey, possessing a perfect trebly-refracting power.
ec. 15.—Dr. Barratt read a monograph on the Genus Salix, in |
which with many useful remarks on the habits and organization of
the genus, he has described about one hundred species of indigenous
willows, with numerous varieties. He also furnished a conspectus
of the North American willows arranged in nine sections, and a tab-
ular arrangement of forty four species growing in the vicinity of
Middletown, Conn.—This monograph illustrated by plates, will ap-
pear in the Annals of the Lyceum, of which a volume is now in the
press. Bg ur dcaad |
Dr. Asa Gray of Utica, N. Y. contributed a monograph on the
N. Amer. species of the Genus Rhyncospora, in which he has ar-
ranged and described thirty species, fifteen of which are new and
previously unrecorded. Dr. Gray also furnished a notice of some
new and rare plants, natives of the State of New York, in which
he has described and characterized forty two species of remarka-
ble indigenous plants. These papers will likewise appear in the
nnals.
Dec, 22.—Specimens of Viscum verticillatum in fruit, were laid
on the table, from its most northern observed stations in N.J. Dr.
Barratt informed the Lyceum that he had met with a specimen of
Viscum in the Western States, which he had no doubt would prove
on examination, a distinct and undescribed species.
Dr. Barratt exhibited dry specimens of Amanita muscaria, and
var. regalis (Fries) of the same, with drawings of the plant in its
growing state, and related the singular use of this Fungus in Kamt-
Schatka and parts of Russia, where it is prized for its inebriating
qualities.
There were received, during the last two quarters of the year 1834,
the following books.
From Societies.
The Zoological Society of London, Vol. I, Part 1 of its Trans-
actions.
The American Philosophical Society, Vol. 1V, Part 3, No. 1 of
its Transactions.
192 Miscellanies.
_ The Geological Society of Pennsylvania, Vol. I, Part 1 of its
Transactions.
- The Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, Vol. VII, Part
1 of its Journal.
The Boston’ Natural History Society, Vol. I, Part 1 of their
Transactions.
From Authors.
Mr. Isaac Lea, his “‘ Memoirs of Unio and other genera of fresh
water shells,’ with numerous plates.
Dr. S. G. Morton, “ Synopsis of Organic Remains of the creta-
ceous group of the United States,” with plates of Fossils.
Prof. Breithaupt of Freyberg, “‘ Complete characteristics of Min-
erals,” &c. &c.
And the following additions to the Cabinet not previously men-
tioned: viz.
_ From Dr. Holbrook, two specimens of Testudo from Carolina.
From Mr. L. Thomas, Coral from Seas of Java.
. From Dr. Boyd, various Crustacea, shells, and mineral and geol-
ogical specimens.
From Dr. Harlan, portrait of Cuvier, and other engravings.
From Mr. Winslow, ores of iron from New Jersey.
From Dr. J. W. Powers, minerals.
From Dr. Feuchtwanger, a very large Fasciolaria and other shells.
_ (From Mr. C. Cramer, numerous minerals and geological speci-
From Dr. D. Hosack, eighty seven geological specimens.
From Dr. Barratt, Mr. Thompson, Mr. Browne, shells from the
rivers of this and the neighboring states.
_ From Col. Clarke by Dr. Swift, a remarkable mass of imbedded
foeeils from Saugerties, N. Y.
S: Observations on the Solar Eclipse of November 30th, 1834.
ns made at Nantucket, Mass. in lat. 41° 16/ 32” north,
soak long. 70° 1 42” west of Greenwich, by William Mitchell.
Beginning, 1 29 13
End, _ 4 0 43.6 {| Mean solar time at.
Nantucket.
Duration, 2 31 30.6
Miscellanies. 193
Magnifying power of telescope, 50. Depression of thermometer
exposed to the sun, 19°.
Observations made at Huntington, Long Island, in Lat. 40° 48’
47§” N. and Long. 4h. 53m. 52.7s. West of Greenwich, by Fred-
eric R, Hassler.
h. m. 8.
Beginning, 1 g 53.44
End, 3°45 18.55 | ye ens.
Duration, 2 35 25.11
Observations made at Milledgeville, Ga. in Lat. 33° 7 N. and
Long. (nearly) 83° 20’ West of Greenwich, by M. Nicollet of Pa-
ris.
h. m. &
Beginning of Eclipse 0 1G = 28
Beginning of total darkness, 1 42 538 .
ae of total darkness, 1 44 Pe a oe
nd of Eclipse 3 5 ae
Duration of total darkness, if 15 State Rouse:
Duration of the whole Eclipse, 2 50 14
8. Recherches sur les Poissons Fossiles, par L’ Agassiz—Great
work of Prof. Agassiz on Fossil Fishes ——We have had (through
the kindness of the author, and of Mr. Mantell,) the pleasure of ex-
amining the two first livraisons of this splendid work. ‘They are
in large quarto, and contain nearly one hundred pages each. The
plates are in large folio, and forty seven were sent with the two first
livraisons ; they are well executed by lithography, and colored so as
truly to represent the originals; and we suppose that they are, in gen-
eral, intended to be as large asnature. M. Agassiz states in his pre-
e that he has already ascertained that there are more than five
hundred species* of extinct fishes; and he thinks that when the sub-
ject shall have been fully examined, the number will be augmented
toone thousand. He has examined more than ten thousand individ-
a letter this day received, (Feb. 22, 1835,) from Prof. Agassiz, dated Neuf-
hans Switzerland, Jan. 6, 1835, he states the number of extinet species already
ascertained, as being agit kandred. He manifests the most lively interest to be-
come acquainted with Saroigt localities of ichthyolites, and to receive speci-
mens and descriptions of them; he has carefully noted all those published in this
Journal, and in —_ works for ie country which he hasseen. We earnestly
Solicit for him assistance of American Geologists.
Vou. XXVIHCN ®. ke 2
194 Miscellanies.
ual fossil fishes, and he gives an interesting account of the great
number of collections and of localities in Europe, not omitting those
hitherto published as existing in this country.
He found most of the ichthyolites in the European Museums in
great confusion—few of the specimens labelled, and most of those,
only provisionally, except as to locality. He considers his work as
being, in regard to vertebral animals, the sequel and conclusion of
Cuvier’s great work Sur Jes Ossemens Fossiles.
The work will be in twelve livraisons, at twenty four francs each ;
making five Volumes quarto for the text, with two hundred and fifty
plates in folio. After the third livraison the price will be enhanced
to thirty six francs for each livraison. This vast work is undertaken
at the private expense of Professor Agassiz, who as we understand
from a foreign friend, “is a highly intelligent, unassuming, libe
man,”* who depends upon the scientific world to sustain bim in his
arduous and costly enterprize.
We confidently recommend the work to our olheigen and other in-
stitutions, as well as to individuals whose means are not limit It
is an honor to the science of the age, and will give celebrity to Prof.
Agassiz, and to Neufchatel in Switzerland, the place of his residence
and of his publication. It is presumed that it may be obtained
through any bookseller in London or Paris, and through their cor-
respondents in this country.
Prof. Agassiz invites subscriptions to be addressed directly to him-
eat. +
9. Visit of Prof. Agassiz to Mr. Manteli’s Museum at Brighton.
Remark by the Editor —In Vol. xxi, p. 162, we gave a notice
of the very interesting and in many respects, unique museum of Mr.
Mantell, late of Lewes, now of Brighton, England. We now add
another notice from the pen of Mr. Bakewell;} it is signalized by
the visit of several eminent men including Prof. Agassiz of Neufchatel,
of whose great work on fossil fishes we insert a notice.
Last week, Professor Agassiz visited the Museum of Mr. Gideon
Mantell, at Brighton, purposely to examine the splendid collection
* In the abstract of the doings of the great Scientific meeting at Edinburgh,
Sept. 8, 1834, it will be seen that this gentleman was present, and took a conspicu-
ous part in all questions relating to fossil ichthyology.
+ London Athenwum of Noy, 15, 1834.
Miscellanies. 195
of Fossil Fishes, discovered by that gentleman in the chalk hills of
the South Downs. A distinguished scientific friend had the gratifi-
cation of being present, and thus writes to us :—
“M. Agassiz expressed his extreme delight and astonishment at
seeing the internal structure of many of the fishes so fully displayed.
‘In other collections (he said,) in varicus parts of Europe, I have
seen the external forms of fossil fishes in high preservation; but I
never expected to see the interior organization and structure laid
open in the distinct manner which has here been eflected by the
consummate anatomical skill of Mr. Mantell. No museum I have
hitherto examined, presents any thing of the kind comparable to the
collection now before me.’ The great attention M. Agassiz has be-
stowed on this department of natural history enabled him to throw
much light on some of the specimens. He confirmed, in general,
the conclusions of Mr. Mantell, particularly with respect to that re-
markable elongated, cylindrical mass, seen within the bodies of some
of the fossil fishes, which, in the earlier specimens, Mr. Mantell
supposed to be the air-bladder, but which he had recently informed
me, he believed to be the stomach or colon. One of the specimens —
of fish resembles the Amia of Carolina; and M. Agassiz has lately
dissected a specimen of a fish, sent from the United States, which
presents a great analogy to the fossil fish, and has corro
opinion, that the internal mass was the stomach. M. Agassiz fur-
ner confirmed the character given by Mr. Mantell (in his valuable
work on the ‘ Geology of the South east of England,’) of several of
the Ichthyolites in his museum, as belonging to the families of Salmo
and Zeus, or Dory, of which, according to M. Agassiz, there are
several extinct species in Mr. Mantell’s museum. The jaw and
teeth of an animal resembling, in some respects, the jaw of a croco-
dile, but differing in other particulars (see ‘ Geology of the South-east
of England,’ p. 153,) M. Agassiz says, belongs to an extinct class
of animals, which he calls Sauroid Fishes, or fishes which had a struc-
ture approaching that of Saurians or Lizards.
“For the information of your readers who have not seen Mr. Man-
tell’s museum, it may be proper to state, that the fossil fish in this
collection, unlike those generaly discovered in the strata below or
above the chalk, preserve their natural rotundity of form. In some
specimens, the mouth is open, as if in the act of swallowing, and
where the internal structure is exposed, the stomach is round and
“weompressed. This fact is of considerable importance, as it proves
196 Miscellanies.
that the animal perished by some sudden evolution of mineral matter,
which encased the body before the putrefactive process had commen-
ced, and enabled it to resist the pressure of many hundred feet of
chalk deposited over it. Besides the collection of fossil fishes, there
is also, we believe, a more complete collection of Fossil Zoophytes
and Shells, from the chalk, than can be seen in any other museum ;
but its chief glory consists in the remains of enormous reptiles, dis-
covered by Mr. Mantell in the Wealds of Sussex, to which he has
recently made many important additions, since the removal of the
museum from Lewes. To Mr. Mantell we are entirely indebted for
our knowledge of the Iguanodon, a terrestrial reptile, approaching
closely in form to the Iguana of the West Indies, but from 70 to 100
feet in length. One thigh bone is three feet eight inches in length,
and about thirty four inches in circumference at the condyles: a
group of four vertebre of the tail, each of which is nearly twenty-
four inches in circumference, prove the gigantic size of the animal.
Through the kindness of some of his scientific friends in Brighton,
Mr. Mantell has obtained possession of the skeleton of this animal,
found the last summer at Maidstone, which is now in his museum;
and though several of the bones are mutilated or lost, it has enabled
Mr. Mantell to make out the osteology of some parts of this extraor-
dinary animal which were before obscure. ‘The toe-bones are, some
of them very large, and closely resemble those of the hippopotamus:
these Mr. Mantell believes to be metatarsal, belonging to the hind
feet, while the bones of the fore feet, or fingers, are comparatively
slender, like those of the recent Iguana ; a supposition rendered prob-
able, when we reflect that the latter reptile climbed trees, and there-
fore required prehensile feet ; but the monstrous Iguanodon would in
vain have sought for a tree on which to suspend his colossal form,
and would want a firm support for his enormous carease. The claw-
bones which Mr. Mantell has recently discovered, tend to confirm
this conjecture: they resemble in form those of the land-tortoise.
From the size of the thigh-bone before mentioned, we may infer
that the thigh itself, when clothed with muscles and integuments,
and covered with scales, must have been as big as the body of a large
ox. Though numerous teeth of the Iguanodon have been discover-
ed, it is greatly to be regretted that no head or jawbone has yet been
found ; but the recent discovery of so large a portion of the skeleton,
in one mass, as that from Maidstone, has fully confirmed Mr. Man-
tell’s inferences from the detached and broken bones found before in
Tilgate Forest.
—
Miscellanies. 197
“A large portion of another skeleton of a different reptile, which
Mr. Mantell calls the Hyleosaurus or forest Lizard, presents some
remarkable characters,—particularly a row of terrific spines, 17
inches long which were probably erect on the back, and in this res-
pect realized the forms of the fabled dragons of romance.
“ M. Agassiz spent four days chiefly in examining the fossil fishes ;
and he regretted that his engagements as Professor in a foreign uni-
versity compelied him to return so soon. During his visit, I had
several times the pleasure of meeting M. Agassiz and Mr. Mantell
in the museum, with Dr. Buckland, Dr. Faraday, Mr. Lyell, and
Mr. Ricardo.—B.”’
10. Specimens from Mr. Mantell_—We have often been indebted
to the liberality of this distinguished friend and eminently successful
cultivator of science, for interesting specimens from the truly classical
geological region in which he resides; among many recently receiy-
ed are the following.
Marsupites Milleri: two very fine specimens: the chalk being
more completely removed with a penknife, the structure will be still
more evident.
A cast of the inferior or condyloid extremity of one of the largest
femurs of the Iguanodon in Mr. Mantell’s Museum: from Tilgate
forest. Its lower extremity is thirty four inches in circumference ;
it is like a stick of timber
Casts of three claws or unguical bones of reptiles, viz. claw bone
of the hind foot, claw bone of the fore foot of the Iguanodon; the
former were hooked or curved, like those of the Iguana, the latter
compressed like those of the land turtle. Claw bone of a Croc-
ile,
. A very fine portion of a young Elephant’s tooth, from Brighton
very rare.
A good series of characteristic shells of the Brognor rocks, (Hamp-
shire tertiary basin—vide G. S. E. of England,) Western Sussex.
Fossils from Stonesfield: these in addition to the specimens for-
merly sent, will form a good suite of the organic remains of these ex-
taordinary deposits. _ | .
Ribs of Iguanodon. The portions of ribs in sandstone from 'Til-
gate Forest will serve to convey an idea of the usual appearance of
specimens in Mr. Mantell’s collection that were imbedded in
sandstone, and are very distinet and perfect. .
198 Miscellanies.
Fishes from the chalk. ‘There are several fine specimens of the
Zeus Lewesiensis, which M. Agassiz has named Beryx ornatus ;
some of them shewing the vertebre, bones of the head, &c.
There are two or three specimens of the ancient shingle bed from
Brighton Cliffs; pebbles held together by calcareous spar, which is
white and beautifully crystallized among the pebbles.
Nummulite rock from the great Pyramid of Egypt: the founda-
tion of this wonderful structure rests upon the nummulite limestone,
and the Pyramid is in part composed of it. This specimen was
collected by a friend of Mr. Mantell, Dr. Hall, who was travelling,
fellow of the University of Oxford. With a lens, the curious struc-
ture of the shells is very beautifully shown. Herodotus alludes to
these curious bodies and says they are the lentils thrown away by
the workmen, which have become changed into-stone. The late
Dr. Edward Clarke, (the traveller) was the first who noticed this
rock in the Pyramid and pointed out the allusion of Herodotus.
Vertebral bone near the end of the tail of the ~ capereseide is four
inches long and nearly four thick in the largest place.
11. Apparent loss of weight in the human body under certain cir-
cumstances. —We insert this letter, as it relates to the subject of one
of the articles in the late number of this Journal. It is desirable
that it should be decided either that the appearance is illusory, or
that a reasonable cause should be assigned.— Ed.
Kingston, Upper Canada, Oct. 31, 1834.
To tHe Epitor,—Sir,—As a subscriber to your valuable Jour-
nal, I take the liberty of asking of some of your scientific readers
the rationale of the following experiment.
An individual is to place himself on a stool or table on his back ;
with his arms and legs crossed, keeping the whole body stiff; four or
six others are then to place themselves at about equal distances, by
the sides of the first—say two at the shoulders—two about the mid-
dle of the body, and the others by the hips and thighs. Extending
the forefingers of each hand so as to touch the body, somewhat un-
derneath. Ata given signal the whole party are to take as full an
inspiration as possible, and at another given signal, simultaneously to
respire very slowly, gently pressing the body upwards at the same
time, when it will be found to rise with a very slight effort, and to
continue rising until the breath is exhausted, when it will suddenly
fall down with great force. The operators must be prepared for this
|
Miscellanies. 199
circumstance, and immediately pass their arms under the body to
break its fall; it will also be well for one individual to hold a pillow
under the head, for the same purpose. The experiment appears to
succeed best in a closed room, and if the inspirations and respirations
are not uniform, it will fail. I first saw it tried about twenty years
ago, but have never yet heard or seen any satisfactory explanation
of it.
I am not aware that it involves any principle adverse to the known
laws of gravitation, but it certainly appears for a short time to act
independently of them. If you deem it (this letter) worthy of a
passing notice, I should be glad to see it—if otherwise, let it be de-
posited in the Archives of the College of Laputa.
am Sir,—Respectfully yours
ames NicKa.ts, Jr.
12. Vesuvius and Etna.—It appears from Galignani’s Messenger
that there was a tremendous eruption of Vesuvius, towards the close
of last August.
Upwards of fifteen hundred houses, palaces, and other buildings,
and twenty five hundred acres of cultivated land have been destroy-
ed by the fires. The eruption, which, from the drying up of the
fountains, has been previously expected, surpassed every thing which
history has transmitted to us. The first explosion destroyed the
great cone situated on the top of the mountain. The abundance of
the inflamed matter produced flashes which darted through the moun-
tain’s flank. A new crater burst open at the top of the great cone,
and inundated the plain with torrents of lava. ‘The king and the
ministers hastened to the seat of the catastrophe to console the un-
fortunate victims. The village of St. Felix, where they first took
repose had already been abandoned. ‘The lava soon poured down
upon this place, and in the course of an hour, houses, palaces, and
churches, were all destroyed. Four villages, some detached houses, _
country villages, beautiful groves and gardens, which, a few minutes
before, presented a magnificent spectacle, now resembled a sea of
fire. On the 3rd of September, nothing but stones and cinders were
ejected, and every prospect existed of the eruption being soon at a
close. The palace of the prince of Attayanua, and five hundred
acres of his lands are utterly destroyed. The cinders fell, during
an entire night over Naples, and if the lava had taken that direction,
there would have been an end to that city.” —N. Y. Obs. Nov. 28,
1834,
:
‘ Ae
. Bn A
‘:
200 Miscellames.
By a letter from Sig. Murio Gemellaro to the Editor, dated, Ni-
olosi upon sles: March 24, 1834, it — that “‘ Etna continued
silent.”
13. A new Observatory at St. Petersburgh.—An observatory,
far surpassing in magnitude every similar establishment, is about to
be built at St. Petersburgh, by command of the Emperor. The_
observatory itself will consist of three towers with moveable cu-~
polas. Two of these towers are to be appropriated to the Ko-
nigsberg heliometer, and the Dorpat refractor ; but the center tower _
is destined for the reception of an instrument exceeding in size all
others of the kind. In the lower part of the towers, the meridian
and transportable instruments will be placed. Spacious habitations
for five astronomers will be connected by two corridors with these
towers ; so that the whole will form a continuous building, five hun-
dred snd ten feet in length. Smaller subordinate buildings for vari-
ous purposes, will increase the establishment, for the site of which,
an eminence, between six and seven miles from St. Petersburgh, has
been selected.— Atheneum, Sept. 1834.
Information requested respecting the variation of the Magnetic
Needle.—It is a matter of very considerable importance to the cause
of science, that the variation of the magnetic needle in every part of
the globe should be accurately known. The labors of Halley, Yates,
Hansteen and Barlow have added much to our knowledge on this
subject ; but it must have been observed by every one who has ex-
amined their charts, that the lines of equal variation through this
country are laid down with little attention to minute accuracy. In-
deed it is believed that sufficient observations have never been pub-
lished {6 furnish the materials for a complete magnetic chart of the
_ United States. An effort is now making to supply this deficiency ;
and it is urgently requested of Surveyors, of Philosophers, and all in
this country who are interested in the subjéct of magnetism, to com-
municate for this Journal any observations they have made for deter-
mining the present variation of the needle at their respective places.
Any observations made in former years at the same places, will also
be valuable for determining whether the variation is increasing or di-
minishing, and at what rate.
"8
%.
THE
AMERICAN
JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &c.
Art. I— Remarks on the Idolatry and Philosophy of the Zabi-
ns; by Joun W. Draper, of Christiansville, Mecklenburg
Co., Va.
Tere are several questions of chronological and philosophical
importance, which would receive much light from a thorough de-
velopment of the religion and philosophy a some eastern nations.
Any one who is acquainted with Asiatic literature, cannot have fail-
ed to observe, that although a claim to extravagant antiquity can-
not fairly be supported, yet we may safely allow to many others, as
well as to the Chaldee priests, considerable acquaintance with science.
To deduce some of their philosophical opinions, from such frag-
ments as remain of their idolatry and religion, is the object of this
paper.
From the discourses of Sir W. Jones, the united testimony of the
ancients, and from recent writings of oriental scholars, we may safe-
ly conclude, that the Iranians were the first idolaters of Asia, who
forgetting the pure religion of their forefathers, indulged in the my-
thic reveries of astronomy, and joined them to the simple maxims of
life. The Alexandrine Chronicle states, that Ninus first taught the
Assyrians idolatrous worship.* The name under which these first
apostates went, was Tsabians, Zabians, or Sabeans.t The Zabians
Were the first corruptors of the true religion, and long before the
time when the Jewish historians placed the birth of their ancestor
Abraham, the Chaldeans had multiplied the invisible Deity, into
Lords many, and Gods many.t That Zabianism was the first spe-
* Chron. Alex. p
+ Prideaux Coen: Vol. I. p. om —— Moreh Nevochim.
+ Shuckford’s Conn. Vol. LC
Vou. XXVIIT.—No. 26
202 Idolatry and Philosophy of the Zabians.
cies of idolatry, besides the many allusions to it in Scripture,* we
have the evidence of the most ancient pagan historians, of whose
writings any part has reached us. Herodotus speaking of the reli-
gion of the Persians, says, They worship the sun, moon, earth, fire,
water, and the winds; and this adoration they have all along paid.
Diodorus Siculus says, the early men supposed the sun and moon
to be the principal and eternal gods. And Sanchoniathon informs
us, in the fragment preserved by Eusebius, that the two first mortals
inhabited Phenicia, and when they were scorched by the heat, they
lifted up their hands to the sun, whom they supposed to be the
Lord of heaven, and called him Baalsamen,—him whom the Greeks
eall Zeus.
The Zabians lived on the north east of that part of Arabia, which,
by the common consent of mankind, had been denominated ‘ The
Happy,” ona neck of land, plentifully enriched by the dews from
the Arabian and Caspian seas, and supplied with rivers from the
mountains of Taurus, whichrun through its whole length. In these
pleasant regions, the earth does not require that toil, to bring her
fruits to perfection, which other countries demand. ‘The wants of
man are plentifully supplied by the profusion of nature, and even
the luxuries of life are bounteously furnished. Sweet smelling gums
drop from the trees, and whatever can please the eye or enchant the
ear, is met at every step, in these delightful lands,—not unaptly deem-
ed the seat of Eden and of Paradise.
Here nature was free to form the minds of men; there was noth-
ing which asked their labor. A life without care is not unfitted for
philosophiccontemplations. Hence, to the present day, the natives
of these climes are known, as a peaceful race. It is interesting to
observe how the strains of their poetry sometimes pass from person-
al feeling to philosophy, and this, as a natural effect of the con-
formation of their minds, is influenced by scenes passing around them.
A beautiful instance of this may be seen, in one of the songs of Fani,
where he bewails the departure of Venada. “The ship which bore
her from these lands was freighted with my last happiness. I have
never had a care to enquire, if she arrived safe, in the sunny climes
whither she sailed ; for it gives me a melancholy delight, to walk by
* Ors odx éSourndncay axorovdyoos Toig bs0ig Civ waréouy adrciv, of gyevovre
dv 7 Xaddaiwv, Judith, ch. 5. v. 7.
‘
Idolatry and Philosophy of the Zabians. 203
the waters of the Ocean, and think that perhaps that may be her
resting place. Or, I can look upon the setting sun, and hope that
she too beholds him in his evening glory. I feel freshened by the
breeze, for it may have passed gently over her, while training her
tender flowers, or perhaps bear with it the echoes of her guitar,
which she played at the shut of day, in her father’s orange grove.
Life, has not unappropriately been called the ‘ Vale of tears,’ for its
passage is bitter; how the transit through the gate of death to the
tomb may be, I cannot tell. But when I have been falling asleep,
the tones of distant evening music have been very sweet, and the
workings of a calm imagination delightful. I would then hope, that
when the ties between the body and the mind break one by one,
when earthly objects fade away, and the hum of this distracted world
grows faint and more faint, that there is a serene prospect in the soul
of fairy landscapes and happy climes, surpassing the lovely calm-
ness of these Indian skies, or the pleasant vales in the Fortunate
Islands.”
A clear firmament furnished the Chaldeans with a school for as-
tronomy,—and they were sensible of the advantages of their situa-
tion. Berosus* states, that the Babylonians possessed astronomical
observations made four hundred and eighty years before his times
and Ejpigenes, that they reached to seven hundred and twenty years
before him, or to the reign of Nabonassar. When the sword of Al-
exander had destroyed the Persian Empire, Callisthenes found
among the ruins of Babylon, astronomical observations taking in
a series of 1903 years,} and Diodorus Siculus{ reports, that when
Alexander was in Asia, the Chaldeans reckoned 473000 years, since
they first observed the stars ;$ not that so long a space was underst
by themselves of years, unless they joined in the common boast of
oriental nations, in proclaiming a feigned antiquity. For it is prob-
able, that these years were but periods or cycles of short length,
which when they were properly arranged by Callisthenes, amount-
ed to no more than 2000 solar years. These reports of the early
efforts of the Chaldeans, are corroborated by the testimony of many
eastern writers.|| Mohsani Fani in his account of them, confirms in
some degree the fragments of Berosus, observing that they assidu-
ee cue
* In a fragment preserved by Pliny, L. 7. ch. 66.
t Simplicius de Celo, L. 2. Com. 46. p. 123. b. 18. :
+L 2, p. 83. § Sir I. Newton’s Chron. p. 265. | Jones’s Discourse 6th.
204 Idolatry and Philosophy of the Zabians.
ously regarded the heavens, adoring the stars, and had made such
successful progress in science, as even to discover a number of artifi-
cial cycles, which seem to indicate their knowledge of the precession
of the equinoxes, an occurrence, which from its very nature, must
have been discovered by long observation, involving a knowledge of
the nicer mechanic arts, and were its theory found out, a perfect
acquaintance with the attractive* power of the sun, of Kepler's law
of the squares, of the spheroidal figure of the globe, and perliaps some
general idea of the nutation of the earth’s axis.t+
hat desire of propagating what is more than the truth, which
unfortunately is so prevalent among our contemporaries, was freely
indulged in those early ages. Plutarch says, that most of the Egyp-
tian fables, are mere allegories of natural operations ; Dionysius of
Halicarnassus and Prochus, that all the Greek fables, were physical
circumstances, clothed in romance.{ Philo Biblius thought, that
the Egyptian Thoth, wrote his sacred books in a mystic manner,
in order to create reverence and respect, or upon the principle, that
Eusebius$ elsewhere mentions, because the ignorant crowd were
as incapable of understanding what was written, as what was sup-
pressed. By the fragments of Sanchoniathon of Berytus, and Be-
rosus the Chaldean, we see that this was their style, and from the
circumstance mentioned by Eusebius, that the former had much
trouble when compiling his history, to select truth from allegory,
we learn that writers more ancient than himself, invented accounts
and mysterious fictions, drawn from their ideas of different cireum-
stances. Personification, is a figure which we are naturally prone
to use. We cannot then wonder, why these early philosophers who
looked upon the stars, and saw them so bright, who observed their
regular motion, their number and their distances, and who reasoned
upon them as though they were eternal, should, at last, reason them-
selves into a pantheistic belief, of some spirit, f which nourished the
life of being,—a soul, which diffused through the vast members of
— universe, agitates the whole mass, and forms but one immense
Y-
* See Lagrange’s 0 essay on the libration of the Moon, Newtoni Princ. Phil.
Nat. or in the absence of an acquaintance with the integral and differential caleu-
lus, Frisius in Goibies ne
+ Principio Assyrii trajectiones motusque stellarum observaverunt —Chaldei
diuturna observatione siderum scientiam putantur efficisse. Pec > divinatione,
+ Euseb. prep. evang., L. 1, ¢
§ Prep. E: L. 1, ¢.9. Virg. En. 6, v. 727,
Idolatry and Philosophy of the Zabians. 205
There are certain eternal truths, which men, by the unassisted
power of their own minds, are always able to discover. Among
these, the existence of a Maker of this beautiful universe, stands
preeminent. The Zabians recognised One Supreme God, in the
character of a demiourgos, or soul of the world. Accustomed to
judge of the laws of nature, from the impotent institutes of man,
they did not perceive, that whilst these were liable to infraction,—
those could not in their very nature be broken. The ‘Thou shalt
not destroy it,’ which is stamped on every atom of matter, is a law
which no human art or knowledge can ever break. The Zabians
had early discovered, the unchangeability of matter, and making its
eternity a grand principle of their creed,—they endued it with a
thinking power, and as they could imagine no place where matter
and mind did not exist, they filled infinity with the thinking part, and
called it God.* Him, in common with many eastern nations, they
never mentioned ; holding him too sacred and too great for human
lips to pronounce, but certain mystic letters indicated his name, the
true pronunciation of which, like the tetragrammaton of the Jews,
was unknown.
This idea of a soul of the world pervaded the vulgar mythology
of the Greeks and Romans, as well as the speculations of Plato and
the philosophers. Zevg of Greece, is said by Orpheus, in one of his
ymns thus translated into Latin,
Jupiter omnipotens is primus et ultimus idem,
Jupiter est caput et medium—Jovis omnia munus,
Jupiter est fundamentum humi ac stellantis Olympi,
Jup t et nescia fcemina mortis,
Spiritus a a cunctis validi vis Jupiter ignis.
It is but by supposing Jupiter to be a demiourgos, that the dif-
ferent accounts left by the ancients can be reconciled. Sophocles in
rachinus says, Jupiter Olympus is a parent of all things, Aratus
Points out in very plain language his idea of Zeus, and how are we
to reconcile Horace, who calls Jupiter the air, Euripides, who calls
him the moving force of the winds, Homer, who in many places
marks him as the vital warmth, Lucretius, who calls him ther,
* Prideaux Conn. ror I, P. e77. Moreh Nevochim, * hae the times of we —
ans, the utmost to arried
tobe the spirit of the sphere or celestial orb. Supposing the celestial orbs and
Planets to be bodies and the supreme being the soul or spirit of them. Abubekr
Alsaig Com. Arist. de auditu, Moreh Nevochim, ch. 4, Abulfeda Sharistani Re-
lig vet. Pers. c.
206 Hdolatry and Philosophy of the Zabians.
Virgil, who in different parts of his poem, gives him different char-
acters, and Plato, who says, Jupiter, Pluto and Dionysius, all mean
the Sun.
Once having admitted the existence of a soul of the world, the
Zabians would have been involved in much difficulty, with regard to
his moral government. In these early ages, the value of a human
action perhaps was not determined, by its addition to, or subtraction
om the general universal mass of happiness, but from a superficial
view of its bearing, on the narrow circle of humanity. Under these
circumstances, whilst the existence of Good was allowed, that of Evil
must have been admitted, and to account for this, under the domin-
ion of a wise creator, gave birth in my opinion, to the religion of
the Zabians.
By likening unseen things, to those which are always present in
common life, we obtain permanent pictures of what otherwise would
be transient images. Fable and personification are but vivid forms
of expression, whose value may be observed, by the distinctness with
which they paint dim objects in striking colors, and the effect they
produce. A species of worship which originated among men whose
fancy was warm, could not long exist without the auxiliary advantages
derived from figures of this class, and especially when it was necessa-
ry that abstruse subjects should be presented tothe vulgar, in attrac-
tive shapes, readily understood. For it was a remark supported by
long observation, and the lapse of many years, that idolatry requires
to be cast into a popular form, and a false religion to be successful
among men, must furnish them with some substantial form, some
point of adoration, some emblem, or some visible shape, on which
they may look, and to which they may pray.
The Zabian, who, either truly or falsely, had ascertained the exist-
ence of good and evil in mundane concerns, and was at a loss to account
for the existence of both simultaneously, invented, perhaps the most
ingenious allegory* which the wit of man has ever produced,—a
ae of sophistry. As good is pleasant to the mind, by a slight
tion from mental feelings to corporeal things, he called it Light,
wd taught that evil bears the same relation to it, that a shadow does
to the effulgent point. Their allegory painted Ormusd as the good
* Plutarch, Dion. Halicarnasseus, Proclus, Philo Biblius, comet and indeed
all mythological writers mention personification as the very basis of idolatry—
e , 2
book 1. ch.9 and 10, Shuckford, v. 1, p. 354, Plutarch de Iside et Osiride, p. 356.
Idolatry and Philosophy of the Zabians. 207
god, or light;* Ahriman, the evil god, or darkness. Both these
were supposed to be agents of the first cause, coequal,—their affinity
to him was secondary, or subject, and between themselves they wa-
ged an everlasting war. The legendary tales and fables of the East
teem with descriptions of their combats and prowess.
Bryant, in his Analysis of Ancient Mythology, shews that almost
every deity of paganism was but a personification of the sun.
lar worship doubtless prevailed to a great extent. Sir W. Jones has
observed, that although the gods of any given country, may almost
invariably be found to be the same, or similar to those of any other,
all in general being mere personifications of the sun, yet there are
decidedly other, and many other sources, from which some of the
best fables have been drawn ; as Cupid and Psyche, Death, Disease.
Time and other moral personifications, belong to the same class.
Before the Magian dissension from the established faith, it was held
improper to adore either Ormusd or Ahriman. The first cause was
only to be meditated on in silence, and worshipped under one mystic
word, an ineffable name. And as to the adoration of Ormusd or Ah-
rman, since they were equal, and in one continued state of perpet-
ual warfare, it would be doubtful that any prayer would be granted,
as the opposite party to that to which the prayer was preferred,
might chance to be the victor. But tradition derived from early
years, and an idea natural to us all, that some being is to be worship-
ed, and a fear of provoking beings more powerful than ourselves,
and a hope of receiving benefit from their assistance, all concurred in
establishing the necessity of a third existence, a mediator between
the great principles of Light and Darkness ; one, who should save
him from the hatred of either angel, and procure for him the kindness
of both. The East point of the heavens, “ whence the sweet in-
fluences of light first greet the world,” was named, the abode of
Ormusd ;+ the west,{ the habitation of the black Abriman. That in-
tercessor and mediator who continually preserved a balance between
the contending powers, who alternately visited, and for an equal time
a ear ee
* Prid. Conn. v. 1. p. 179, Abulfeda Ebn Shabna Pocockii specim. hist. Arab, p.
147, Hyde relig. vet. Persa. cap. 9, p- 163, and cap. 22, p. 299.
+ Iput the more modern Persian names for the sake of convenience. It must
t be supposed that these are thet f the old gods,
t For this reason the Kebla of the Zabians was the meridiansun. The Magian
Kebla was the rising sun. The Mohammedan isthetempleof Mecca. The He-
brew was the house of the Lord. They turned their faces to the Kebla at the
hour of prayer.
208 Idolatry and Philosophy of the Zabians.
dwelt with either, was the Sun.* And hence arose the once univer-
sal worship of Mithras, the mediator, the savior, the s
Such appears to have been the grand foundation of the idolatry
of the Chaldee priests. It appears to follow in such a simple train,
and, if allowed, will explain such a vast number of facts connected
with the idolatry of the ancients, for which otherwise, no appropriate
reason can be given. I would advance these novel opinions with
diffidence; it is however, interesting to observe, how well they ac-
count for the Magian dissention. The Zabians prayed to the merid-
ian sun, the Magian to the rising sun; hence, as will be hereafter
seen, there ought to have been on dines principles, that dissimilarity
in worship, sacrifices, &c., which actually existe
The sun was not adored because of his Geauiy or glory, but be-
cause he was looked upon as a mediator, and this adoration gave an
entire new turn to their religion, making it astronomical; for all the
sun’s powers, personifications, &c.+ were to be worshipped ; all as-
tronomical occurrences, howsoever affecting his dominion, became at
once objects of religious reverence ; in fact the study of astronomy
formed a part of the study of theology, and the influences supposed
to be exerted by Mithras, the sun, over human affairs, invited by @
very quick succession of steps, to the study of Telesms, and judi-
cial astrology.
From man downwards to minerals, there is a successive series of
created things. It was reasonable for these early philosophers to
suppose, that from the First Cause and great angels, there might be
a similar succession down to man. It was upon this consideration,
that the doctrine of Fairies and Divs was invented ; ; Ormusd had his
hosts of angels or Peris, the Fallen one had his legions of Divs.
The abode of the former was Shadeam, a place of pleasure and de-
light, whose walls were of pearls, and whose streets were paved with
amber ; gold and gems were in profusion in this enchanted place, and
the happy fairy feasted on manna, and drank delicious nectar. They
had likewise a resting place on earth, in some pleasant island of the
Indian ocean, the enchanted castle and palace of amber abode might
ryant Analysis. apciey eae, p. 185. Relig. vet. Pers. C. 4. Asiat. Res. v- 1.
p- om and v. 2. pp. 8, 58, an
+ Syphis Diod. Sic. L. 1. aged 1, p. 345. Cic. Acad. Ques, L. 3.¢. 37.
Cicero de natura deorum L. 1, ¢. 15.
Sapper. 1. P. 347. Plutarch de - defectu actors Cic. de divinatione,
erochim c. 12. Diss. 8.
e onto. )
Idolatry and Philosophy of the Zabians. 209
be seen from the mountain of Caf, and a rosy cloud in the sky mark-
ed the position of the picture galleries of Arzhens. These happy
abodes of the Peris, were appointed as the resting place for the good,
the wise, and the great. Their mansions were built of diamonds
and pearls, and the city is founded on a sapphire, the reflection of
whose color tinges the sky. Around them are groves of oranges
and limes, which are filled with the warbling of birds, and the mur-
mur of brooks, at the close of day, ‘in the vale of Roses,
“All calmly hush’d the winds had ceased to roam,
“The trees scarce bent beneath their fond endeavour,
“ The rolling rivers sought their ocean home,
“All silently for ever and for ever
“Soft beamed the moon, and thro’ the glade was heard,
“The weary warblings of the watchful bird.
“T passed through different groups unseen, by virtue of the ring that
Perushan gave me in the woods of Kurdistaun; over every group
happiness seemed to preside. I recognised the countenances of
many ancient sages. The silver bells in the city rang happily, as
they do on a bridal evening at Delhi, now their sound came full upon
the ear, and then it was borne away by gales from the west. I saw
those Houris who once lived in the garden of Eden, that are fed with
manna by birds of Paradise, and drink water brought in purple shells
from the sacred fountain of Mecca. I saw too, those angels who
fell for the love of these, and who having suffered a sad punishment
for centuries upon earth, were appointed to finish the term of their
€xpiation in the city of Amberabad. ‘They were led about in fet-
ters of gold, and were by far, the most beautiful of the shadows I
Saw, except those lovely Houris, who were the cause of their sad
transgression. I saw too, the road to Paradise ; it was one splendid
blaze of gems, and was arched over with delightful trees, to be a
shelter from the heat of the sun. Exactly on the opposite side of
the city was the gate of Death; it was an ancient structure of enor-
mous strength, built of massive ebony, with a covered archway of the
same. A solemn silence announced our approach to it. We crossed
the river of tears, but advanced no nearer. Perushan said that un-
der the archway was a mazy labyrinth, obscured by delusive shadows
anda misty gloom.”—( Confessions of a Peri.)
In the clear expanse of the unruffled fountain, whose surface
beautifully reflected surrounding objects, it was supposed that the
Divs resided ; amid the inverted groves their palaces were supposed
to be founded. Like their yielding habitation, their bodies were in
Vol. XX VIII.—No. 2. 27
210 Idolatry and Philosophy of the Zabians.
the wild imagination of the Zabian, easily divided, and yet as easily
joined. Diminutive as to size, and yet possessing much more power
than man, they gamboled in the watery recesses of the brook, or
danced in mazy circles beneath the aged oak. hilst the moon,
with whom it was supposed that they held communion, drew nearer,
to light with her beams, their midnight revels. In the eve of an
autumn, the enfevered mind of the Zabian, heard the soft swell of
their music, mingled with the songs of the nightingale, and the half
audible sound of the distant cascade, as they, riding on the yellow
leaf, and borne along by the nightfall breezes, chanted the praise of
their superior master, and ruled in the midst of revelry, the destiny of
man.
But the coolness of the refreshing river was not the only habitation
given by the Zabian, to these scions of his heated fancy. Some
were supposed to love the pinnacled height of the mountain, to de-
light in the mossy grot, or to riot in the forest; and as they stood
next in the chain of creation to the evil principles, and were the con-
necting link between darkness and man, man naturally feared them.
It was these beings who were inimical to all good, it was these daugh-
ters of darkness who wept, when the stars of the morning rejoiced,
and all the sons of Ormusd shouted for joy.
The principles of the Zabian religion may be exhibited thus,
€ use.
Ormusd Mithras Ahriman
who continually preserves a bal-
Light ance between the contending Darkness
Rising sun Meridian: sun Setting sun
Too good tobe adored To be adored Too evil to be adored
Former Chang
The various natural powers of the
un personified.
Astronomical occurrences, as day, night,
years, cycles, eclipses, comets, &c. &c. to be
eld sacred.
The Lunar influence in dispelling Ahriman
celebrated in mysteries.
The astrologic influences of the sun and shining
bodies, whether stars or the element of
Fire.
On these principles the Chaldeans founded their religion, we now
come to the practical part of it. For, when a few years had elapsed,
the common people had entirely forgotten the existence of one First
Idolatry and Philosophy of the Zabians. 211
Cause ; they scarcely remembered Ormusd and Ahriman, adoring
Mithras* the sun, in every possible shape and personification. The
priesthood and philosophers were the depositories of what otherwise
was out of recollection.
It has been said that the eastern sky represented Ormusd,—the
western Ahriman, or in other words, the enlightened hemisphere
represented the former,—the hemisphere of night the latter. Mi-
thras, the sun, who continually appears in his great character of Me-
diator, by his rising dispelled the darkness, and was swallowed up in
the night. ‘This circumstance furnished a beautiful personification of
those powers. Ormusd was painted fair and bright, Ahriman was
black, and clothed in a sable mantle studded with stars.
That Pentheistic belief which was then prevalent, joined to the
discovery of five erring stars, which revolved round the sun, and the
Supposed magical influence of the moon, all which were instinct with
spirit, and rolled in their courses by angels, emanations from Mithras
the invigorator, directed these idolaters to offer to each one a day,t
and thus the week of seven days, of still more ancient institution,
Was parted out by the Zabians. The day consecrated to Mithras,
was the Sabbath.
The Zodiac was divided into twelve signs, six summer, six winter.
The six summer ones were of course the representatives of Ormusd,
the winter ones of Ahriman, for Mithras voyaged alternately through
them, and furnished personifications of the Great Angels. Ormus
like the Seraphim and sphynxes of Egypt, had a form shaped from
the summer constellations; Ahriman such as might be formed out of
Capricorn, Scorpio, and other dreary signs ; cloven feet, horns, &c.
When Mithras the intercessor entered Aries, he was denominated the
Lamb of Ormusd, and so of his other personifications. His entrance
upon these two distinct courses was celebrated throughout the world
by grand festivals, one at the commencement of Spring, the other
at the commencement of Autumn; of these, the May day festival
actually still exists in those nations of Europe which are descendants
of the Goths.
Every fixed and regular astronomical occurrence was thus per-
Sonified or furnished personifications. It will hereafter be shewn
* The Colossus of Rhodes was an image ofthesun. The sacred rites of Osiris
Were commemorative of his half yearly course. é
+ Gibbon Decl. and Fall, v. 9, p. 244. Sale prelim. Disc. 14—24. Asiat. Res. v.
p- 59. Assemani Bib. Orient. b. 4, p. 580.
212 Idolatry and Philosophy of the Zabians.
that eclipses, the return of comets, transits,* &c., were carefully no-
ted, and furnished that mass of mythology, which so bewildered the
Greeks and Romans.
It is remarkable that the Egyptians, in their drawings of Osiris and
Typhon, painted the former of a yellow color, and held Typhon to
have been red, the incipient color of the hemisphere of darkness.
The Zabians, says Maimonides, (in Moreh Nevochim) offered sheep
and oxen and other clean animals to Ormusd, but they sacrificed bats
and owls, and other unseemly creatures loving darkness, to Ahriman.
Those animals of the summer months, were held to be sacred, but
those of the winter, unholy. The Chaldeans divided each sign of
the zodiac into imaginary periods of one thousand years each, or the
whole into twelve thousand years. They considered that the world
had from the commencement, been under the astrological influence
of Ahriman, but that when the six thousandth year should be com-
plete, the government of the world would be given to Ormusd, as
soon as he appeared as Aries the ram.
We now enter upon another part of the religion of the Zabians,
which like the former is a mere offspring of human imagination. It
is the natural history of Man, and firstly, it is one of those innate
ideas, of which I have already spoken, which every one is conscious
of, that he exists doubly, and consists of a material and immaterial
body and soul. It followed from the Pantheistic faith of the Chal-
deans, that there should be some pervader, some vivific instigator,
in the body of man, perhaps they supposed his presence was more
concentrated, than as it existed in things around. They however
emphatically distinguished it from matter. They signified the com-
mon pervading essence by the import of soun, and that superabun-
dance with which man was gifted beyond all other creatures by the
import of MIND.
If tradition afforded them no light, perhaps it was on these grounds
that they judged of the immortality of the soul. They knew that
it was a law, stamped by the great Architect of all things, upon mat-
ter, that it was not subject to annihilation by man. The elements”
at which philosophers arrived, were unchangeable and indestructible.
By combination they might put on fresh forms, and vary every mo-
ment in aspect, but whilst they are so liable to change, they are in-
* It has been supposed that the Hindoo accounts of the beanies of Vishnu
Mahadeva are fabulous descriptions of the return of comet
eee ee
Idolatry and Philosophy of the Zabians. 213
capable of annihilation. And, as they supposed the Universe con-
sisted of matter and soul, they must have seen that each of these
were eternal, and that it was very absurd to suppose that the nobler
part should perish, and the ignoble remain.
It is necessary to make this distinction between the soul and the
mind, before we can understand the mythology of any oriental na-
tion; for the soul was the object of the great Pythagoric doctrine of
transmigration, the mind that of absorption. The soul and body
were held by the Zabians to be inseparable companions, de facto.
The mind was held as a superfluity, engrafted upon them, supposed
atsome period to have been given, to have increased, and then to
be taken away. The Zabians held, that at some unmentioned pe-
riod of time, the First cause by a mere volition, created an atom
which was pervaded by himself, and placed under such circumstan-
ces as would eventually result in the production of a human being.
It was unknown through how many states it might have passed ; the
first in which it became cognizable to observation, was a mere lifeless
inert mass, of a seminal nature ; passing from that, it became a liv-
ing creature of a foetal form, then an infant, and after experiencing
all the changes incident to human life, it fell to decay, it died: yet
the principle of vitality which pervaded it, did not cease to exist, for
passing through a variety of forms, it still lived even in the tomb, and
passed into a state of animal or vegetable life. But the mind after
the decay of the body, was in due time swallowed up in that ocean
of Deity.
In the final destiny of the soul and mind, each change was paint-
ed by the Zabians with expressive forms, and not only the greater,
but even all the lesser circumstances were personified. All the pas-
Sions, the feelings, the workings of the heart, were penciled with
much skill. Death, and sleep, and life, and birth, with all the sup-
posed changes of past existence and future being, with all the possi-
le occurrences which the mind could figure, were developed to the
votary. Hence we may well conceive how those who were once
initiated into these mysteries, like the sages who returned from the
cave of Trophonius, never smiled again.
Strange as it may seem, these doctrines had at one time over-
Spread the face of the earth. In a remote period of antiquity, Za-
baism was diffused over Asia by the science of the Chaldeans, and
the arms of the Assyrians.* Zabaism, or the worship of the host
* Gibbon decl, and fall.
214 Idolatry and Philosophy of the Zabians.
of heaven, overspread the world early and almost universally,* a re-
semblanee between the popular worship of the old Greeks and Ital-
ians, and that of the Hindoos. Nor can there be room to doubt of
a great similarity between their strange religions, and that of Egypt,
China, Persia, Phrygia, Phenicia, and Syria, to which perhaps we
may safely add some of the southern kingdoms, and even islands of
America. While the Gothic system which prevailed in the northern
regions of Europe, was not merely similar to those of Greece and
Italy, but almost the same in another dress, with an embroidery of
images apparently Asiatic. From all this if it be satisfactorily prov-
ed, we may infer a general union or affinity between the most cele-
brated inhabitants of the primitive world, at a time when they de-
viated, as they did too early deviate, from the rational adoration of
the only true God.t From the Chaldeans it spread all over the
east, where the professors of it had the name of Zabians, from thence
into Egypt, and from thence to the Grecians, who propagated it to
all the western countries of the world.[ The Zabians are a sect
whose heresy has overspread almost all mankind.¢ For the Baby-
lonians were all Zabians, and indeed were the first founders of that
sect. They first brought in the worship of the planets, and after-
wards that of images, and from thence it was propagated into all other
nations where it obtained, as hath been already shewn.|| Hamalelf
that is, Ham, al, el, Ham the sun, shewing that the ancient religion of
this island, in shot every thing in this country, savours of Chaldaic
and Egyptian institution. The religion of the Arabs was entirely
Zabian. In the first ages of the world, and down until comparatively
modern times, the Deity was adored only in the open air. It was
held unlawful to build temples to the gods, or to worship them within
walls or under roofs.** When any signal favor had been received,
the usual custom was to erecta stone in remembrance of the blessing
and the ground on which these stones were placed, was supposed to
be hallowed.t+ The Druids of Europe, who were most undoubted-
ly Zabians, raised up these monuments in a circular form. Some
of them as at renege exist to this day. At Abury, and nume-
* Encye. Perth. Art. Mytho
: eg. of Greece, Italy and. Tada, p. 424, vol. 1, Asiat. Res. of the Indian relig-
and phi
+P rideant. § Moreh Soo. i Prideaux 1, p. 242.
@ Bryant Anc. yes Peete de Moribus German
tt This custom prevai at :
Idolatry and Philosophy of the Zabians. 215
rous other places, they still exist, but it is inthe Scottish islands, the
Orkneys, at Classirniss, and various other places, that they are found
in the finest preservation. In France, and on the continent, they
_ are to be met with, and we may suppose they were used for the same
purposes in Europe as in Asia.
In the British islands, single pillars called by antiquarians Lithoi
are found. * There are in the Highlands of Scotland and in the
adjacent isles, numerous obelisks, or stones set up on end, some thir-
ty, some twenty four feet high, and this sometimes where no such
Stones are to be found; Wales being likewise full of them, and some
there are in the least cultivated parts of Britain, with very many in
Ireland. In most places of this last kingdom, the common people
believe these obelisks to be men transformed into stone by the magic
of the Druids. This is also the notion of the vulgar in Oxfordshire
of the rollright stones, and in Cornwall of the Hurlers, erect stones,
so called, but belonging to a different class from the obelisks of which
I now discourse. That obelisk if I may so call it, in the parish of
Braras, in the island of Lewis in Scotland, called the Thrushel stone,
is very remarkable, being not only above twenty feet high, which is
yet surpassed by many others, but likewise almost as much in
breadth, which no other comes near.” In Penrith churchyard there
are two of these Lithoi; but one at Poitiers in France exceeds all
that there are in England, being sixty feet in circumference, and
raised wpon the tops of five others, though this belongs to the kind
of obelisks called Cromleachs. ‘Travellers still bring from Egypt
pillars of this kind, with hieroglyphic dedications to the sun. The
Bacchus of the Thebans was a pillar. The god of the Arabians is
reported by Maximus Tyrius to have been a square block of stone ;
such likewise was the first Jupiter of the Romans, who was carefully
concealed by the priesthood from the people. It was said to have
been brought from ancient Troy, where it once stood as the famous
Palladium.
With respect to these large masses of stone, which are so plenti-
fully scattered over the British islands, although antiquarians unani-
mously ascribe them to human agency, yet geologists have suspected
that they gained their present position by the action of strong cur-
tents of water.t They likewise theoretically account for the forma-
tion of Lagan or Tottering stones, from the chemical action of the
* Hist. of Druids.
+ No well instructed geologist would now form this conclusion.—Ed.
216 Idolatry and Philosophy of the Zabians.
atmosphere upon the feldspar contained in them.* But it would ap-
pear, that these explanations are very inadequate to the case, and
“every person who has attentively considered them, will come to the
unbiassed conclusion that they are untrue.
It has been said that there were two great Zabian festivals each
year, from which if we attentively consider them, we may perhaps
be able to assign a period, approaching to the time of their institu-
tion. ‘Tauric festivals were celebrated by the Druids. On the eve
of May day, all the fires were lighted on the tops of the cairns, and
the people leaped through them in honor of Bel. This was an an-
cient kind of purification, which we find so strictly forbidden in the
writings of Moses. In passing, it may be remarked, that Bel was
a name of the sun all over the world; Long poles thence called May
poles were erected, they were crowned with garlands. ‘This festi-
_ val was celebrated in honor of the return of Spring. ‘The sun en-
tered Taurus the Bull, and these joyous proceedings welcomed his
approach, when the bull opened with his horn, the vernal year.
Freret expressly says, these feats of Mithras were derived from
Chaldea, where they had been instituted, for celebrating the entrance
of the sun into the sign Taurus. There is in the British museum
an ancient tablet, representing Mithras killing a bull. The Roman
Mithras was exactly the same as the Persian ; this is proved by an
altar raised to this god, during the third consulate of Trajan, having
this inscription, Mithras deo soli invicto Mithra. As the 'Tauric
festivities celebrated on May day, were in honor of the commence-
ment of spring, therefore the vernal equinox, at the time when Tau-
ric worship was first instituted, fell on the first day of May, or the
sun entered the sign Taurus on that day. Every year the spring
commences a little previous to what it did the year before ; this ari-
ses from the precession of the equinoxes, or from a slow revolution
of the poles of the equator round those of the ecliptic. In 25,920
years the pole of the equator makes one entire revolution round the
pole of the ecliptic. In seventy two years, the precession amounts
to one degree. Therefore if we have the equinoctial or solstitial
poit given in the ecliptic at any unknown period, it is easy to dis-
cover how long that period is passed, by means of the preceding
considerations. This method was first proposed by Sir I. Newton,
to discover by the position of the Colures, how much time had elaps-
* Something similar to this is doubtless true in many cases.—Ed.
Idolatry and Philosophy of the Zabians. , BIT
ed since Chiron the centaur lived, and thereby to settle the true
time of the Trojan war. When Tauric worship was instituted, the
horns of the bull were tipped by the equinoctial colure; ‘he then
began to open with his horns the vernal year.’ But the horns of
the bull are now eighty degrees from the equinoctial point, and as
it requires seventy two years to recede one degree, 80° x 72=5760
years, which gives the time since the Tauric festival of May day
was instituted.
Jeroboam the idolater set up two calves in Dan and Bethel, and
ordained a feast on the fifteenth day of the eighth month. Now
originally the year was supposed to consist of twelve months, each
month of thirty days, and the remaining five days and few minutes
were brought in after a sufficient time had elapsed, to form another
month. In their festival calculations the year was supposed to con-
sist of three hundred and sixty six days. The fifteenth day of the
eighth month falls on Novembér the sixth. There were two festi-
vals to Bel during the year, the first on the first day of spring, the
second on the first day of autumn. ‘The year was divided into four
Seasons, each season consisting of ninety days. If six days be sub-
tracted from November, (these six were merely added to make the
time come nearer the truth,) and then, if two seasons, or one hundred
and eighty days be subtracted from the three hundred and sixty, it
rings the time of the commencement of spring, or the first Tauric
festival to the first day of May.*
In these remote ages we have every reason to believe, that the
true system of the Universe was understood. ‘That the Chaldeans
were the first discoverers of the arrangement of the planetary orbs
in the solar system, there can be no doubt. At an early period they
made an approximative determination of the length of the year, and
were able to predict eclipses. Now the mere idea of the path of a
planetary body revolving round the sun, or any other star, implies
much more extensive acquaintance with theoretical astronomy than
might at first appear. The movement of an inferior planet, such
as Venus, is to the eye oscillatory, and from the elements deduced
from observation of her progressive and retrograde motions, and un-
€qual velocity in different parts of her apparent movement, I do not
see how they could convert her oscillatory vibrations into a circular
* From the Chaldee Saros we deduce their measure of the year to be 365 days,
5 hours, 49 minutes, and 11 seconds, exceeding the truth only by 26”
28
Vol. XX VIII.—No. 2
218 Idolatry and Philosophy of the Zabians.
or elliptical orbit, without stumbling upon the fact of the attractive
orce of the sun. We might indeed suppose that the orbits of Ju-
piter or Mars were first determined, and then those of Venus and
Mercury guessed at. But the Chaldeans boasted themselves in
their accurate observation, and if we are to give them acredit, which
some writers attribute, under the fable of the Phenix, they hid the
theory of cometary motion. For the comet, like the fabled bird of
the sun, travels into the interminable desert for a certain but fixed
number of years, and then returning burns himself in the sun; but
rising from his ashes, and gaining new life from death, he renews his
journey, and travels on forever.
In the perpetual and undeviating revolution of the planets, they
found an argument for their great doctrine of the eternal duration of
matter; but then they had a stronger inducement to study astronomy
than we at presentknow. The stars were looked upon to have their
influence on human affairs, and the ‘birth of every man was under
the dominion of the spirit of some star; and these angelic influences
had moreover their representatives upon earth. Certain vegetables
were dedicated to the angels, and iron was sacred to Mars, and silver
to Venus, and gold to the Sun.
The hidden virtues of these substances in the cure of human dis-
eases, were early discovered, and this would afford the vulgar a sure
proof of the truth of the national faith. But the same powers
which could arrest the fatal progress of sickness, might also act as a
preservative in cases of incidental nature ; this led to Telesms, and
judicial Astrology.
There are in the British museum, a collection of small cylinders,
an inch or two long, and half an inch in external diameter, the tubu-
lar part of them being sufficiently large to put a string through, for
the purpose of suspending them round the neck, like beads. They
are covered all over with unknown letters, and were brought from
the ruins of Babylon. These are the telesms, or protectors from
accident and disease. Their magical inscriptions still render them
sacred to some star, and doubtless at one time they did really act as
they were reported, but their wonderful influence has long ago ceas-
ed, because the imagination of the wearer, puts no more a faithful
reliance on their virtues. They were the predecessors of the Ro-
man Penates.
7 Of the poetry of the Chaldeans nothing remains. But those men
who had held so much communion with the stars, who professed a
Idolatry and Philosophy of the Zabians. 219
religion of angels, and genii, and fairies, and music, who saw in a
cloudless sky an unchangeable emblem of the Eternal ; surely, if they
had not the poetry of words, they had the poetry of thought. For
there is a certain sensation in looking out into the heavens above us,
which comes upon us ina calm night. I have known what it is,
to stand by the nightly watch fires in the wildernesses of the New
World ; and I can tell what those beautiful maidens felt, who clothed
in flowing dresses of the purest white, guarded the sacred fires,
which were kept in the forests of Assyria;—the dancing flame, the
ascending smoke, the fire-lit countenances, the dark trees, and the
bright, the blue, the beautiful sky,—it was poetry.
Some of their fables however, bear a near resemblance to true
poetry. The doctrine of transmigration will furnish an example.
They feigned that at death the soul drank of the waters of the riv-
er of Oblivion, and forgetting all its past life, immediately entered
upon a new state of existence. This was most undoubtedly taken
from circumstances which come under our knowledge in this life.
orno man remembers that early period of infancy, before reason
dawns, nor does he recollect what took place before his birth, though
he is certain that he was then alive. Poetically speaking, he drinks
of the river of Oblivion, and forgets the past.
The more recent successors of the Chaldeans, doubtless taking -
example from the ancients, embody their philosophical dogmas in
poetic language, as miay be seen in that extraordinary passage of
Hatifi, when alluding to the old astrological hypothesis of a presiding
genius over each planet. ‘He bedecked the firmament with stars,
and ennobled this earth with the race of men; he gently turned the
auspicious new moon of the festival, like a bright jewel round the
ankle of the sky. He placed the Hindoo Saturn, on the seat of that
restive elephant, the revolving sphere, and put a rainbow into his
and, as a hook to restrain the intoxicated beast. He made silken
Strings of sunbeams for the lute of Venus, and presented Jupiter,
who saw the felicity of true religion, with a rosary of clustering
pleiads. The bow of the sky became that of Mars, when he was
honored with the command of the celestial host. For God conferred
Sovereignty on the sun, and squadrons of stars were his army.”
In those regions, including the dominions of Priam, the governor
of Troy, and extending almost to the banks of the Indus, which
were under the sway of the king of the Chaldeans, nations of every
color and every temper might be found. The priesthood in the
220 Ascent to the Summit of the Popocatepetl.
course of ages, having become the depositories of knowledge, and
having spread their ramifications into every class of society, naturally
came to exercise a great political influence, and we find were often
raised to have civil dominion in the state. When the hand writing
was on the wall, on the night of the fall of Babylon, the soothsay-
ers, enchanters, astrologers, sorcerers, and Chaldeans were assem-
bled; and when Daniel read the mysterious words, the mistaken
king commanded them to put a chain of gold around his neck, and
they made proclamation concerning him, that he should be third ru-
ler in the kingdom. e luxury and magnificence of the feast on
that fatal night, gives us some idea of the civilization of the Babylo-
nians. The vessels of gold and silver, the wines, and the Indian
fruits, and the Assyrian concubines that danced before the king,
while the praises of Melekta were sounded by flutes, and chanting
men from beyond the Ganges, and the harp, and pipe, sackbut,
psaltery, and dulcimer, completed the merriment and revelry of that
pageant.
To be continued.
Art. II.— Ascent to the Summit of the Popocatepetl, the highest
point of the Mexican Andes, 18,000 feet above the level of the
Sea.*
Remark by the Editor.—We gladly embrace an opportunity to
insert a notice of a volcano of which so little is known.
Mexico, May 15th, 1834.
The valley of Mexico is one of the most picturesque in the world ;
it is bounded on the §.S.E. by a range of mountains, from which
two volcanos rise up, known by the lndion names of Iztaciuhatl and
Popocatepetl. Their peaks, always covered with snow, are at six-
teen and eighteen thousand English feet above the level of the sea-
The crest af the former, the nearer to Mexico, runs from N.W. to
S.E., and is irregularly rent. The latter is a perfect cone. It some-
what resembles Mount etna, but does not, like that mountain, rise
from a plain. The Popocatepetl is on the side of the platform of
* London Atheneum, Noy. 15, 1834.—This interesting narrative is translated
from a letter addressed by Baron Gros, Chief Secretary to the French Legation in
Mexieo, to a friend at Paris
Ascent to the Summit of the Popocatepetl. 221
the Cordilleras Mountains. On one side, the N.W., the forests of
firs which surround it terminate at the foot of the valley, and the last
trees are mingled with the wheat, Indian corn, and such other Eu-
Topean plants, as grow at that height; but, towards the S.E. the
forests continue farther down. They, however, become gradually
thinner, very soon disappear altogether, and are superseded by the
sugar-cane, the cochineal-tree, and all the rich and varied vegetation
of tropical regions. . A traveller, by starting from the volcanic sands,
a little above the boundary of vegetation, and coming down in a
straight line into the valley of Cuautia-Amilpas, would ina few hours
have gone through all climates, and could gather all the plants which
grow between the Pole and the Equator.
It follows from this, that the snow which is on the S.E. side, must
in certain cases be influenced by the breezes of warm air, which
constantly rise up from the valley of Cuautia. The snow partly melts
in the dry season, and whilst the north of the volcanic cone is per-
petually covered with snow and ice down to the firs nearest to the
top of the volcano, the lava porphyry on the south side are bare.
This, therefore, is the side on which to look for a passage when
wishing to ascend to the summit of this mountain, the highest in
North America. I tried it last year with a different result.
You know how my first attempt proved unsuccessful. M. de
Gerolt and myself were overtaken by one of those tropical storms, of
which in Europe you can form no idea. It became indispensable
to pass the night amongst the wet firs which grow on the brink of the
sands ; we had but a cloth stretched with cords over a tree half thrown
down, to shelter us from the rain, the hail, and the snow, and we
considered ourselves fortunate in having thought of wrapping up our
clothes, for a change, in the cloth which was destined to be so useful
tous. You have probably not forgotten the storm over our heads,
and that which rent the trees below us, and those horizontal flashes
of lightning which produced so disagreeable an effect upon my trav-
elling companion ; and then our six hours idle walk in the snow,
after having been abandoned by our guides, and our blindness for
several days, brought on by the reflection of the sun, and our fa-
tigues, our sufferings, our want of courage, the loss of strength, and
in fine the painful necessity of giving up our enterprise, when we
had but twelve or thirteen hundred feet to climb before arriving at
the summit, the promised land.
222 Ascent to the Summit of the Popocatepetl.
This year we have met with nothing of the kind; we have had a
run of the most favorable circumstances. We profited by the expe-
rience of last year, and the 30th April at thirty-seven minutes after
two in the afternoon, I planted on the highest peak of the Mexican
Andes a flag, which had never floated on so high a spot before.
We had finished all our preparations in the beginning of April;
we had barometers, a miner’s compass, for want of a theodolite,
which is too heavy to be carried up to such a height, some ther-
mometers, one of those little eolipiles by Breuzin for heating water,
a good telescope and a hygroscope. All these instruments had been
compared with those here, belonging to General D. Juan de Orle-
gozo, and to Professor D. Joaquim Velasquez de Leon, in order to
enable us on our return to compare the results of the experiments
made at the same hours by those gentlemen at Mexico, and by us
whilst.on our journey. I had a tent made for shelter ; and we were
supplied with hatchets, saws, ropes and iron-shod bamboos: these
latter are indispensable in expeditions of this nature; mine was fif-
teen feet long, and I intended to leave it behind us on the top of
the voleano. I took good care not to communicate this project to
my companions: it was possible we might fail in our expedition, and
I did not wish to sell the lion’s skin before I had killed the lion.
On the morning of the 15th we started; we had with us three
Mexican servants and three dragoons—we each had a second horse
and a mule of burthen. In two days we reached Zacualpam-Amil-
pas, where Mr. Egerton, an English painter, who was to be of the
party, soon joined us. We had planned to remain at this place
until the time should seem most opportune for making the attempt.
Whilst waiting for the so much wished-for opportunity, I spent
my time in carefully examining with the aid of a telescope, the sum-
mit of the volcano, and I made drawings, as accurately as possible,
of the rocks, the ravines, and the courses of the lava which are on
this side. We then searched on the paper for the direction which
promished the most success, for we well knew the guides would leave
us the instant we reached the perpetual snow.
At length, on the 27th, we commenced our march, and reached
Ozumba at three in the afternoon. We sent for the same guides we
had made use of last year. They are Indians of the village of At-
lautia, which is at the very foot of the Popocatepetl: we took three.
We laid in provisions for four days, and the next morning by seven
o'clock we had begun, with our mules and horses, to ascend the
Ascent to the Summit of the Popocatepetl. 223
mountain. At one o’clock we arrived at the Vaqueria, a veritable
Swiss chalet, which is used as a shelter by the keepers of a numer-
ous herd of cows, and is the last inhabited spot on the mountain.
At three o’clock we arrived at the point where vegetation ceases :
this we did by ways which might almost be said to be beaten, for
we had occasion but once to make use of our hatchets. As you are
acquainted with the Alps, I have nothing to say on those admirable
forests of oak, of firs, and of larch, which we passed through. They
resemble each other in both hemispheres except that at the foot of
these there are large flocks of guacamaias, (a large green parrot
with a red head,) which are not to be met with at Chamouny or at
Sallenches. There are also in the forest, jaguars, wolves, deer,
and a great number of wild cats, but we did not see a single one of
these animals.
As you get higher up in the wood, the fir trees become scarcer,
and of less size. Near the sands they may be said to be dwarfs,
and all the branches are bent downwards, as if seeking below a less
rarefied air. After these firs, for the most part lying down and near-
ly rotten, you meet but with some tufts of a sort of currant-tree,
with black fruit: and then here and there clumps of a yellowish
moss, which grows in a half circle in the midst of scattered pumice-
stone, lava, and basalts—in short, there is no longer any vegetation,
and I did not even see lichen on the rocks. One then begins to
feel that he is in a sphere wherein it is not possible to live. Res-
piration is difficult: a certain melancholy, which is not without its
agreeableness, comes over you: but, in truth, I cannot exactly define
the sensations I experienced when entering these deserts.
The instant you have left the wood, about one-third the height of
the volcanic cone, you see only an immense extent of purple sand,
which is in some parts so extremely fine, that it is blown by the wind
into the most perfect ridges. Blocks of porphyry, scattered here
and there, break in upon the monotony of the scene. The top of
the undulations in the sand is crowned with numerous little pumice-
stones of a yellowish color, which seem to have been heaped up by
the wind. In short, from the summit of some of the volcanic rocks,
masses of porphyry and black lava descend, intersecting the ridges
of sand, and lose themselves in the forest. The highest part of the
volcano is completely covered with snow, and this snow has a so
much more brilliant effect that the sky is of a blue almost black.
A few footsteps of wolves and jaguars were visible on the sands near
the wood.
224 Ascent to the Summit of the Popocatepetl.
After having for a short time admired this sad and singular sight,
we returned into the forest; the tent was pitched near the prostrate
tree where we last year passed so dreadful a night; fires were light-
ed, and, whilst our mosos were preparing our beds and repast, we
endeavored to get a little higher up, in order to accustom our lungs
to breath an air so little congenial to them.
_ We had returned by six o’clock. Fahrenheit’s thermometer was
at 50°. The barometer at 19.120 (English inches) ; water boiled
at 90° of the centigrade thermometer. The humid zone of the hy-
groscope appeared at 36°, and disappeared at 37° of the interior
thermometer, whilst the exterior marked 50°.
Having finished our experiments, we made our preparations for the
next day. In the night we suffered from the cold.
On the 29th, at three o’clock in the morning, we started, with a
fine moonlight, warmly clad, the face and eyes sheltered with green
spectacles, and a gauze of the same color, which wrapped up the
whole of our heads. Of my flag I had made a belt. We were seven:
the three guides already mentioned, M. Gerolt, the Prussian Consul
General, Mr. Egerton an English artist, Luciano Lopez, his Mexican
servant, and myself. We each of us had a little bag containing bread
and a flask of sugar and water. The Indians carried our instruments,
and some provisions. We walked behind each other, taking care to
tread in the same steps as the foremost guide, in order to have firmer
ground. Of course each man carried his iron-shod bamboo. We
advanced very slowly, and were obliged to rest at about every fifteen
paces totake breath. The sugar and water were of immense service,
for, being obliged to keep the mouth open to breathe, the throat be-
came parched, and a few drops of sugar and water, every five minutes,
prevented the pain from becoming unbearable. We zig-zagged and
went sideways: the ascent is so steep, that it would have been dan-
gerous, and next to impossible to have gone up in a straight line.
By the time the sun appeared above the horizon, we had reached a
great height, when we observed a singular phenomenon, but such as
has already been seen on the banks of the Rhine. The shadow of
the whole of the volcano was completely visible on the atmosphere.
It was an immense circle of shade, through which we could see the
whole country to the horizon, and which rose afterwards far above
it, terminating by a vapor moving from south to north, the circle
descending and becoming more and more transparent as the sun
rose, and in about two or three minutes it was entirely dispersed.
Ascent to the Summit of the Popocatepetl. 225
At nine o’clock we reached the celebrated Pico del Fraile, be-
yond which we could not get last year. Our names which we then
imprinted with a hammer, remained perfect, only the first letters,
towards the west, were become of a clear yellow color.
This peak is a pile of reddish circular rocks, such as is to be found
on one of the crests which runs down from the summit. _ Its perpen-
dicular height is from eighty to one hundred feet, the diameter is
about fifty. It terminates in a point, and is distinctly visible from
exico.
Our guides had consented to go thus far, but nothing could induce
them to go farther. I do not think they were more tired than we
were, but certainly they were under the influence of some supersti-
tious fear,
Our way to the Pico was long and fatiguing, but not dangerous.
We had not yet met with any snow, and it had not yet been neces-
sary, as last year, to climb up with our hands. I felt less oppression
than I had feared I should, and my pulse beat but 120 per minute.
We were full of courage, had plenty of time before us, and the clear-
est sky.
We had planned to halt at the Pico del Fraile, and to recruit our
strength by a light breakfast. I thought it would be imprudent when
at that elevation to eat much, or to drink spirituous liquors, for the
the nervous system is excited to an inconceivable degree. We,
therefore, took no more than a little bread, and a little of the white
Meat of a fowl, with a glass of weak wine and water; and after one
hour’s rest at the foot of the Pico, we resumed our journey.
At nine o’clock the thermometer was at four centigrade degrees ;
the barometer at 16.472 ; water boiled at eighteen centigrade degrees.
I did not make any hygrometrical observation. ‘The sky was of a
much darker blue than on the preceding day. Unfortunately, we
had no instrument wherewith to measure its density.
At ten o’clock we were on our way without our guides, and, hav-
ing to carry our instruments, we found them tremendously heavy.
It is necessary to pass in front of the Pico, and to turn round it on
the right. After having got beyond the Fraile, there is, on the left,
or rather on its prolongation, a crowning, which terminates at a mass
of rocks which exfoliate like slate. They rise up to about 150 feet
Perpendicular. The summit is covered with snow, and long stago-
Nites of ice fill up the crevices. There is no outlet on this side. On
the right is a tolerably deep ravine, which, from afar, we had taken
Vou. XXVIII—No. 2. 29
226 Ascent to the Summit of the Popocatepetl.
for the remains of a crater. It extends in a straight line from the
top of the volcano to the nearest fir-trees, and is intersected with ba-
salts of lava and porphyry, and, at particular places, is crossed by
perpendicular walls of rock and immense heaps of snow ; but it was
easy to see that, by making some circuits, the summit of the volcano
might be reached that way. We, therefore, went down into this
hollow, and, without losing sight of one another, each took different
roads: M. de Gerolt the middle ; I walked on the left, and Mr. Eg-
erton, with Luciano, between us. I thought mine to be the best
path, but I was mistaken ; I nearly broke my neck a hundred times ;
and, if I again undertake the journey, I shall go by the bottom of
the ravine.
When we could get upon the snow, we walked with greater facil-
ity. It was furrowed by the wind and sun, and was like a fresh-
ploughed field ; and as the furrows were parallel to the horizon, they
served as steps. On the sands and rocks there was real danger, for
the least inattention or false step would have been fatal. At twelve
o’clock we had reached the summit of those perpendicular rocks I
have before mentioned ; but our strength was beginning to fail us, and,
after every eight or ten steps, we were compelled to make a long
rest to take breath, and to allow the circulation of the blood to quiet
itself a little.
Though we were in the midst of snow, we felt no inconvenience
from the cold, except when drinking, or when we touched the metal
parts of our instruments. But it was necessary to call aloud to be
heard at twenty paces; the air was indeed so rarified at that height,
that I tried in vain to whistle, and Mr. Egerton had the greatest dif-
ficulty in obtaining a sound from a small horn he had brought with
him.
At half-past two M. de Gerolt was on the highest point of the vol-
cano. He skipped about with joy, and made me a sign indicating
that there was an abyss at his feet. At thirty-seven minutes after
two o’clock I had attained the summit, and I was on the highest
edge of the crater. Here all my fatigues were over ; breathing was
no longer difficult ; I was body and soul absorbed in the sight I had
before me, and I felt a new life. I was in a state of supreme satis-
faction, difficult to be described; and I also leaped in my turn, to
encourage Mr. Egerton, who still had some awkward passes to get
over.
Ascent to the Summit of the Popocatepetl. -— 227
The crater is an immense abyss, nearly round, bulging considera-
bly to the north, and with some sinuosities to the south. It may be
a league in circumference, and eight hundred or a thousand feet in
perpendicular depth. Its edge is not horizontal ; it declines towards
the east with sufficient steepness to create a difference of one hun-
dred and fifty feet in the height of the two opposite points. Not-
withstanding this, the diameter of the center is so great, and the
height at which it is so immense, that, from whatever part of the
plain you look at the volcano, that part of the edge which presents
itself to your view always appears to be the highest.
The walls of the abyss are perpendicular. Three large horizon-
tal strata are perfectly visible, perpendicularly striped at almost
equal distances by black and greyish lines. The bottom is a funnel
formed by the detached parts which have from time to time fallen
down, and which now do so daily. On the inside of the edge, down
to fifteen or twenty feet, are layers, black, red, and whitish, very
thin, supporting blocks of volcanic rock, which, however, fall occa-
sionly into the crater. The bottom and the inclined plane of the
funnel are covered with an immense quantity of blocks of pure sul-
phur. From the middle of this abyss, masses of white vapor as-
cend with great force, but disperse when about half way up the cra-
ter. Some also escape from openings in the slope of the funnel, and
others from seven principal fissures, between the layers which form
the very edge of the crater; but these do not rise to above fifteen or
twenty feet. ;
The openings in the bottom are round, and surrounded by a circle
of pure sulphur. There is no doubt that these vapors, which es-
cape with so much force, must carry with them large quantities of
sulphur in a state of sublimation, which are deposited on the stones
and around the vent-holes. So much sulphurous acid gas escapes,
that it was offensive to us on the summit. The exterior of the edge
of the crater is free from snow ; but within, on the side whereon the
sun does not shine, there is a quantity of stagonites of ice down to the
beginning of the third stratum. The highest summit of the volcano
is a small platform of about twenty feet diameter, with some of that
purple sand which is so abundant at the base of the cone.
You will easily feel how imposing such a sight must be. Such
masses of lava, of porphyry, of red and black scoria, those whirlwinds
of vapor, those stagonites, the sulphur, the snow; in short, this
strange confusion of ice and fire which we met with at eighteen thou-
228 Ascent to the Summit of the Popocatepetl.
sand feet in the air, remarkably excited our imaginations. We
should have liked to have gone all round, but we had not time, and
I believe we had not sufficient strength.
At three o’clock the thermometer was at —1—4 centigrade. The
moist belt of the hygroscope appeared at 34°, and disappeared at
33° of the interior Fahrenheit thermometer, whilst the exterior ther-
mometer was at 40°.
In consequence of the violence of the wind, we were unable to
light the spirit-of-wine lamp for boiling water; but that which was
much more unfortunate was, that in turning over the barometer for
the purpose of running the quicksilver into the ball, some globules
of air got into the tube : the instrument became comparatively useless.
If you read attentively the description I have given you of the
volcano, you will, no doubt, be struck with two things. The first
is the singular disposition of the apertures through which the va-
pors exhale. They are at the bottom, and in a circle; so that
those yellowish walls, a thousand feet high, and a league in circum-
ference, appear as a screen to chimney flues conducting the vapor
to the highest level of the ground. ‘The second is the extraordinary
coating of the interior of the crater. All those layers of lava, of
sand, of stone, which form the mass of the volcano, are of the same
nature on the outside as on the inside of the crater ;—on the outside,
however, all is black, purple, and red; whilst on the inside a dirty.
white and yellowish hue prevails. There is therefore either a de-
composition of the volcanic substances by the sulphurous gas, or a
deposit of sulphur on the edges—perhaps both. We unfortunately
could not get any of these whitish substances; and M. de Gerolt,
who tried, was near paying dearly for his imprudence. He had de-
scended by an inclined plane into one of the rents of the crater ; but
the sand was giving way under his feet, and he was sliding down to-
“wards the abyss, when he was fortunate enough to save himself with
‘his iron-shod stick. It would, no doubt, have been magnificent to
have had such a grave ; but my travelling companion’s ambition did
not seem to extend so far.
If we were well agreed on this point, there was one on which we
were not equally so, This was a strong and prolonged noise, which
we heard at times from the interior of the volcano. We felt no
motion, and nothing was thrown up from below. M. de Gerolt ad-
mitted that this noise was such as might be made by detached stones
from the upper part of the crater falling down on the inclined plane
Ascent to the Summit of the Popocatepetl. 229
which forms the bottom ; now I twice saw blocks of a tolerable size
detach themselves: I watched them as long as it was possible, and
the noise we heard corresponded precisely with the shocks they met
with in falling. I therefore think that the kind of lengthened deto-
nations which occasionally occurred, proceeded from similar causes.
M. de Gerolt spoke of subterranean action, and of the expansive
force of vapor. We were perhaps both right, for if, owing to caus-
es easy to conceive, the stones were to obstruct the vent-holes, the
vapor would not be long ere it would disengage itself with violence
and noise from the obstacles opposed to its passage.
You have doubtless read in the histories of the Conquest, that
Don Diego Ordaz, one of Cortes’ officers, went up to the volcano
for sulphur to make powder. There were perhaps at that time
some fissures on the side of the mountain where it deposited itself, as
is now to be seen in Italy. Ido not think it is possible to get at
that which is in the crater; and it is probable that in Fernand Cor-
tes’ time the voleano was more active than at present. There are
millions of quintals of sulphur at the bottom of the funnel; the air
is infected by the emanations. I have no doubt, that a person let
down would be suffocated by the sulphurous vapor before having
reached a depth of two bundred feet. Now, two hundred feet are
not a fourth of the distance to the yellow masses which cover the
ttom. Even supposing that one could breathe therein, the ropes
required to go only to the nearest inclined plane would have to be
of a prodigious length ; and how are they to be got up to the top of
the volcano, when it is so difficult to get there oneself, and that the
least weight is almost an intolerable burthen? I am therefore of opin-
ion, that if Diego Ordaz gathered sulphur on the Popocatepetl, it could
only have been at a little above the volcanic sands, and not in the
crater.
By half-past three we had terminated our experiments, made
sketches, and fixed our flag on the highest point of the volcano. At
four o’clock we were in the hollow way opposite the Pico del Fraile,
where our guides were waiting for us. e made them a sign to
return to the tent, and we continued to descend by a different route
from that which we had ascended. At five we were on the borders
of the wood. We observed several blocks of porphyry which had
fallen recently from the summit; probably at the time of the earth-
quakes on the 13th and 15th of March. They had made a deep
furrow from the top of the sands to midway down the mountain ; but
230 Ascent to the Summit of the Popocatepetl.
as the accelerated motion had caused them to rebound in rolling to
the place where they were, their further progress was marked by
deep holes made at each rebound. At six o’clock we were under
the tent, but too tired and too much agitated to be able to sleep.
When awake I spoke of the crater ; and if I contrived to get to sleep,
the oppression came on again, and I suddenly awoke.
The next morning, 30th April, at seven o’clock, the camp was
broken up; at nine, we were at the Rancho, and at twelve, at
Ozumba.
We collected a large quantity of plants and flowers in the forest:
amongst others, a shrub, which I think has not yet been described,
nearly similar to our red Jaurel, but the flowers of which are like our
lily of the valley, white clusters with a reddish hue.
{In the court-yard of the house we lodged at, at Ozumba, I put
up a telescope, looking on the summit of the volcano; and for two
days this court-yard was filled with persons who came to take a view
of our flag floating in the wind. By this means I gave an undenia-
ble proof of what we had done,—a thing indispensable in a country
where the people are not disposed, and for very good reason, always
to believe what is told them.
On the 2nd of May we were in Mexico, recovered from our fa-
tigues, and very well pleased with our excursion. We shall repeat
it in the beginning of November.
In short, the Popocatepetl is a voleano, whose fires are not dead,
though its eruptions must have ceased many centuries before the con-
quest. * *
[Here follows an abstract of the foregoing observations. We shall
extract only what is new.]
Over-head the sky was of a blue nearly black ; the horizon was at
a prodigious height, almost confounding itself with the sky. We
could distinctly see Orizaba to the east, and the volcano of Toluca
to the west ; Mexico and its lakes appeared at our feet ; the Izlaciu-
hatl we saw without its presenting any appearance of a crater: final-
ly, I do not think that I exaggerate when I say we could see for 60
leagues around us; but all was confused, and as if in a transparent
fog.
We were excessively fatigued. I had a violent head-ache and a
very strong pressure on the temples; my pulse was at 145 per min-
ute,—only 108 after taking a little rest; but I was very little more
oppressed than when at the Pico del Fraile. We all four were
Resistance of Liquids to Solid Bodies moving in them. 231
deadly pale ; our eyes sunk in their orbits, and our lips were of a
livid blue. When we rested on the rocks, with our hands above
our heads, or lay down on the sand, with our eyes shut, our mouths
open, and without masks, we looked like so many dead bodies.
Although aware of this beforehand, I experienced a very disagreea-
ble sensation when closely looking at one of my companions.
At the Pico del Fraile we saw, as last year, a crow; and when
we had reached the summit, we saw two of those birds lying at two
hundred feet below us. As far up as the Pico, which is the boun-
dary of the perpetual snow, under the stones which have preserved
some moisture, are to be found a species of large woodlice, nearly
ina torpid state. They are the last living things we met with on
the ground.
We are not the first persons who have reached the top of the
volcano. Many attempts have been made, which have failed from
different causes. When arrived at a certain height, some travellers
have been seized with a vomiting of blood, which compelled them
to abandon their enterprise. In 1825, and in 1830, some English-
men reached the crater. Mr. Glennie (William) was the first, I be-
lieve, who reached it. He gave a plain straightforward account of
what he had seen; but a friend of the marvellous got hold of it, to
enlarge upon and publish in the Mexican journals. Mention is
therein made of columns, of porticos, of Chinese bridges of ice, of
which we saw nothing, and of continual eruptions, none of which
took place before us.
Arr. I1].—On the Resistance of Liquids to Solid Bodies moving
in them; by A. Bourne.
Tuts is an interesting subject of inquiry, and that branch of it
which relates to the greatest practical velocity of boats and vessels,
appears to be of great importance. Circumstances have occurred,
within a few years, which have invested this subject with novelty
and interest, sufficient to engage the attention of scientific men, and
Touse them from the apathy which generally attends the inves
tions of physical facts and relations, which were supposed to have
n well ascertained. It has been observed, when a boat mo-
ved in a canal at the common velocities of three, four, or five miles
an hour, that a wave preceded her, and greatly retarded her mo-
232 Resistance of Liquids to Solid Bodies moving in them.
tion ; and that if the boat was urged to a velocity of ten, or twelve
miles an hour, the wave entirely subsided, the bow of the boat be-
ing gradually raised out of the water as the velocity increased, and
that a less proportional force was required to move her at the great-
er, than at the lesser velocities.
These were all received as startling facts, and caused much theo-
retical speculation; but they are only such effects as should natur-
ally result from the laws of resistance, which have been determined
with considerable accuracy, and some of the effects intimated long
ago, by the French philosophers, to wit; by D’Alembert, in 1743;
by La Place, in 1776; by Bossut, in 1778; by La Grange, in
1786; by Coulomb, in 1800, and by many others at different times
in other countries.
La Grange ascertained, that a wave of water, where it was one
foot deep, moved 5.495 feet per second, and that the velocity of
waves of water of different depths, are as the square roots of the
depths ; consequently, the wave in a canal which is four feet deep,
will move 10.99 feet per second, or about seven and a half miles
an hour. As the time in which a pendulum performs its oscillations
is in a certain proportion to its length, and not in proportion to the
magnitude or intensity of the force which first caused its motion;
so the velocity of waves, being a similar motion, is in a certain pro-
portion to the depth of the water, and not to the impulse of the boat
which produces them. We ought therefore to expect, as the legiti-
mate consequence of the long established premises—that as the velo-
city of the wave in a canal depends only on the depth of the water,
the boat, when urged with a greater velocity, must pass ahead of the
wave, which will then subside—the cause of its rise and continuance
having ceased to act.
e here refer to ordinary circumstances, where the breadth of
the canal is three or four times the breadth of the boat, so that the
wave has its natural action, and not to a canal so narrow, that the
boat necessarily pushes the water before her like a piston.
partial rising of the boat out of the water at great velocities,
is caused by the inertia and the mutual attraction of the particles
of the liquid, and because the air opposes comparatively, very little
resistance, or about seven hundred times less than water.
If we take a solid body whose specific gravity is equal to, or great-
er than that of water, and put it into the water very slowly, we pe!-
ceive but very little resistance ; but strike the water with great ve-
Resistance of Liquids to Solid Bodies moving in them. 233
locity, and we find the resistance to be nearly as great as when we
strike a solid rock, because it requires a certain time for the particles
of any liquid to move among themselves; and if the boat moved
with a very great velocity, she would of course, rise entirely out of
the water, and slide on it as though it were ice.
If the boat and water were covered with clarified oil, she would,
from the same cause, descend under the water; because the oil
would cause a resistance about seventeen times greater than the wa-
ter; and if the water and boat could be practically covered with al-
cohol without mixture, the boat would have a small tendency to rise
at great velocities, because the resistance of alcohol would be but
one third of the resistance of water. The laws of the resistance of
liquids, in all the various circumstances in relation to it, have not
been ascertained with the accuracy and precision which the present
state of knowledge of other subjects seems to require ; this may be
owing in part, to some hasty generalizations of the early philoso-
phers, and also to the abstruse nature of the subject. It is now gen-
erally admitted, that the direct perpendicular resistance of a plane
surface moving in a liquid of indefinite extent, and in a direction at
right angles to the plane, is nearly equal to the product of the square
of the velocity, the density of the liquid, and the area of the plane.
This may be rigorously exact within certain limits, but may not be
true when the velocities are very small or very great. It has also
been admitted that when the plane is inclined to the direction of its
Motion, the resistance is proportional to the square of the sine of the
angle of inclination. ‘This has been denied, and the resistance sta-
ted to be proportional to the sine of the angle of inclination. Is it
necessarily true, that this oblique resistance is proportional to the
sines, or some other lines relating to circles or to some power of them ?
And is it not possible that the proportion may have a nearer relation
to some of the properties of a parabola or an ellipse, than to those
of a circle ?
In 1778, Bossut and Condorcet made many experiments to as-
certain the resistance of liquids. The reservoir of water was two
hundred feet long, one hundred feet wide, and eight and a half feet
deep, They used a solid in the form ofa cube, whose side was five
feet ; it was sunk four feet in the water, and to one of the sides were
attached successively, triangular prows or bows of various angles,
from twelve to one hundred and sixty eight degrees, and it was
moved with different velocities, through a space of ninety six feet.
Vou. XXVIII.—No. 2. 30
284 Resistance of Liquids to Solid Bodies moving in them.
_ The results of these experiments exhibit a resistance at all angles,
greater than the squares of the sines, and also greater than the sines
for angles between 0 degrees and fifty degrees, but less than the sines,
between fifty and one hundred and eighty degrees. The brief ac-
count we have of these experiments appears to be defective, in not
stating the absolute velocities of the solid; and the method is also
objectionable, because with the lesser angles of the prow, a solid of
much greater surface and volume was used than with the greater an-
gles, without making any allowance for these items; so that between
the angles of 180° and 12°, the surface in contact with the water,
(exclusive of the stern,) was increased from 85 to 335.73 square feet,
and the volume of the water displaced was increased from 100 to
337.8 cubic feet. If these circumstances are of no consequence,
then a very large vessel ought to be as easily moved as a very small
one.
We want a set of experiments made with solids, all having the
same volume or displacement, but having bows and sterns of various
forms, to ascertain what form of bow will displace, and also what
form of stern will replace, the given volume of water with the
least motive force.
To displace the water, and also to replace it with the least dis-
turbance, is the desideratum. Some attention has been given to the
displacement, but very little to the replacement; hence the water
lines of boats and vessels, contiguous to the stern and stern-post, are
generally concave, which is highly detrimental to fast sailing ; be-
cause the concavity next to the stern requires a convexity (before
we arrive at the section of greatest breadth,) of much shorter radius
than would be required if the water line presented a convexity from
the stern to the midship section ; and these two curves in contrary
directions virtually double the inertia of the water—the concavity
throws it off at right angles to the vessel, and it then has to assume
a new direction, and pass round a curve of shorter radius to approach
the stern. ‘The concavity of the stern retards the replacement, by
causing the water to pass along a curve instead of a straight line,
which is evidently the shortest ; and because the water will not even
pass along a straight line, in a direction from the broad part of the
vessel to the stern post, when the velocity is considerable, but leaves
a hiatus or cavity near the stern post, and deprives the vessel of the
benefit of the reaction of the water there—a certain convexity in all
the water lines near the stern, would therefore improve the sailing-
Resistance of Liquids to Solid Bodies moving in them. 235
It may be said that such a vessel would steer badly ; but we hear no ~
complaint of the difficulty of steering vessels or boats with pink, or
sharp sterns. All the water lines should be convex in every part of
them. As itis generally admitted that the resistance is in some pro-
portion to the magnitude of the angle of inclination, it is evident that
a vessel having a sharp bow, will sail faster with a given motive
force, than another vessel of the same displacement, with a blunt or
obtuse bow. We may obtain a very sharp bow without sacrificing
any other good property, by projecting the lower part of the stern
and bow in the form of asemicircle, beyond a perpendicular let fall
from the fore part of the deck.
About ten years ago, the writer made a model of a pleasure boat
upon these principles, but not then residing near any navigable wa-
ter, the boat was not built.
The breadth was about two sevenths of the length, with a very full
midship section and floor of the usual length, and the depth from a
deep load water line to the upper side of the keel, was about half
the breadth. This depth was divided into four equal parts by hori-
zontal planes, as usual, the edges of which are called water lines,
and were all convex in relation to the axis, in every part. The an-
gle of the bow at the first water line was 28° ; at the 2d 38°; at the
3d 40°; and at the 4th, or deep load water line, 100°. But by
the common method of construction, with the same length and
breadth of deck, and a less displacement, the angles would not have
been less than 74°, 100°, 140°, and 156°, respectively. Accord-
ing to the results of experiments on the resistance of liquids, a boat
or vessel built after this model, would not have more than two thirds
of the resistance of one built after the models in common use. The
w of this model was formed by extending the keel to a perpendic-
ular line from the fore part of the deck; and from a center in this
line, a little above the 2d water line, and with a radius equal to the
distance from the center to the keel, a semicircle was described, but
not quite completed—being met by another curve from the top of
the stern of much shorter radius, and in a contrary direction. The
Profile will be singular but not disagreeable when we are accustomed
The water lines consist of different portions of parabolic curves.
The curves of the water lines in the direction from the stem to the
Stern, were taken from the parabola in a direction from the greatest .
ordinate towards the vertex. If we draw a rectangle, whose length
a On the Reality of the Rise of the Coast of Chile.
is equal to the length of the vessel, and whose breadth is equal to
half that length, and on this rectangle construct the common parabo-
la, so that the axis shall be coincident with one of the longest sides
of the rectangle, the vertex in one of the angles of the rectangle,
and the opposite short side of the rectangle coincident with, and
equal to a semi-ordinate to the axis of the parabola; then the proper
curvatures for certain portions of the several water lines may be found
in this parabolic curve, and it is highly probable that all of them may
be designated as being between certain ordinates. Perhaps a para-
bola of greater dimensions may furnish more convenient curves.
The writer has had some experience in the sailing of boats and
vessels—is confident that his expectations might be realized, and
earnestly hopes that a vessel may be constructed on the principles
assumed.
Art. IV.—On the Reality of the Rise of the Coast of Chile, in
1822, as stated by Mrs. Grauam.
Introductory Remark.—The question of the reality of the rise of
coast of Chile, during the earthquakes in that region, in the month
of Nov., 1822, is so interesting to geology, that we readily comply
with the request of a much respected foreign correspondent, by insert-
ing the subsequent papers in this Journal. As Mrs. Graham, now
Mrs. Callcott, gave her name in support of the important statements,
whose correctness has been recently denied by a geologist, whose
name is deservedly respected and honored, wherever science is
known, it is due both to the lady and to geology, that there should be
a fair hearing, to which Mr. Greenough will be the last to object.—Ed.
1. An account of some effects of the late Earthquake in Chile,
Extracted from a letter to H. Warsurton, Esq. by Mrs. Marta
Granam.
London, March 4, 1824.
Deer Sir,—I send you, at your request, some extracts from my
journal concerning the great Earthquakes which visited Chile, du-
ring my residence in that country, in 1822-3.
The first shock, by which the towns of Valparaiso, Melipilla,
Quillota, and Casa Blanca, were almost destroyed, and Santiago
much , was felt at a quarter past ten o’clock in the evening
On the Reality of the Rise of the Coast of Chile. 237
of Tuesday, the 19th of November, 1822. It lasted three minutes.
I was then residing about a mile from the coast at Quintero, situated
on a promontory, about thirty miles to the north of Valparaiso. It
was a very clear, still, and moon light night ; the aurora australis had
been visible, and some lightning had been seen over the Andes. In
a few minutes after the first shock, there was another, less severe ;
and from that time the whole night long successive shocks were felt
twice in every five minutes, each lasting from half to a minute. On
the morning of the 20th, a little before two, at four, and a quarter
before six o’clock, there were three more violent shocks, and the
earth continued trembling in the intervals: this day was hot and
sunny, with wind ; the night was clear and wmndy. On the morning
of the 21st, at half past two, ten minutes before three, a quarter be-
fore eight, a quarter past nine, and half past ten; and in the after-
hoon, at a quarter past one, and at two, violent shocks were felt: the
weather of this day was like the preceding. On the morning of the
22nd, at half past four, half past seven, and a quarter past nine,
there were violent shocks. A little before ten, three successive loud
explosions were heard, like the sound of heavy artillery ; the earth
trembling very much after each explosion. At eleven there was
another violent shock, and between that and one o’clock there were
three slight ones; the earth then remained quiet until half past sey-
en: this day there was a thick fog, with cold drizzlmg rain. On
28rd the shocks were less violent and frequent. On the 24th there
Were continual Earthquakes until eleven at night. On the 25th
there was a severe shock, at a quarter past eight in the morning, and
others unti] a little before ten. On the moming of the 26th, at a
quarter before three, there was a shock, which lasted nearly two min-
utes : this day we had a violent northerly wind, with rain, which was
considered very unusual at this season. During my stay in Chile,
from this time until the 18th of January, 1823, continual Earth-
quakes, more or less severe, were felt every day. Those on the
10th and 25th of December, were the most violent after that of the
19th of November. I have learned that after my departure the Earth-
quakes continued, that they were very violent last July, and had not
Ceased altogether so late as last September.
The sensation experienced during the more violent shocks, was
that of the earth being suddenly heaved in a direction from north to
South, and then falling down again ;. a transverse motion also being
now and then felt. There was on the 19th of November a general
238. Onthe Reality of the Rise of the Coast of Chile.
tremor felt, and a sound heard like that of vapor bursting out, sim-
ilar to the tremor and sound which I remembered to have observed
at each jet of fire, while standing on the cone of Vesuvius, during the
eruption of 1818. The tremor between the shocks was shown to
be real by the agitation of water in a glass; and during the shocks,
water, or mercury, placed in a glass, was thrown over the edge in
every direction. In the house where I resided, the furniture was
all displaced, with some degree of regularity, so as to range, not par-
allel to the walls, which fronted to the north and south, but at a giv-
en angle diagonally. The sensations experienced on board the ships
that lay in the harbour of Valparaiso, was as if they were moving
very rapidly through the water, and occasionally touching the ground.
On the first shock, on the night of the 19th of November, the sea,
in Valparaiso harbor, rose toa great height, and then receded, so
as to leave the small vessels, that were before afloat dry on the beach;
it then returned again, but, as compared with the level of the land,
not to its original level. All this is stated to have happened in @
quarter of an hour.
On the morning of the 20th, all the rivers and lakes connected
with them, in consequence of the dislodgement of snow from the
mountains, were much swollen. In all the small valleys, the earth
of the gardens was rent, and quantities of water and sand were for-
ced up through the cracks to the surface. In the alluvial valley of
Vina-a-la-Mar, the whole plain was covered with cones of earth,
about four feet high, occasioned by the water and sand which had
been forced up through funnel-shaped hollows beneath them; the
whole surface being thus reduced to the consistence of quick-sand.
At the roots of all the trees, between the surrounding earth and
stem, large hollows were seen, into which the hand could be intro-
duced, occasioned by the violence with which the trunks had been
lashed to and fro. The bed of the Lake of Quintero was full of
large cracks, and the alluvial soil on its shore, was divided so as to
look like a sponge. The level of the lake, which, communicates
with the sea, had apparently sunk very much. The promontory of
Quintero consists of granite, covered by sandy soil. The granite
on the beach which is intersected by parallel veins, from a line to an
inch in thickness, most of which are filled with a shining matter, but
some are only coated with it on their sides, and present hollow fiss-
ures. After the Earthquake of the 19th, the whole rock was f
rent by sharp recent clefts, very distinguishable from the older ones,
On the Reality of the Rise of the Coast of Chile. 289
but running in the same direction. Many of the larger of these clefts
might be traced from the beach to the distance of a mile and a half
across the neighboring promontory, where, in some instances, the
earth parted, and left the stony base of the hill exposed.
It appeared on the morning of the 20th, that the whole line of
coast, from north to south, to the distance of one hundred miles, had
been raised above its former level. I perceived, from a small hill
near Quintero, that an old wreck of a ship, which before could not
be approached, was now accessible from the land, although its place
on the shore had not been shifted. The alteration of the level at
Valparaiso was about three feet, and some rocks were thus newly
exposed, on which the fishermen collected the scollop-shell fish,
which was not known to exist before the Earthquake. At Quintero,
the elevation was about four feet. When I went to examine the
Coast, accompanied by Lord Cochrane, although it was high water,
I found the ancient bed of the sea laid bare, and dry, with beds of
oysters, muscles, and other shells, adhering to the rocks on which
they grew, the fish being all dead, and exhaling most offensive eflu-
via. I found good reason to believe that the coast had been raised
by Earthquakes, at former periods, in a similar manner, several an-
cient lines of beach, consisting of shingle, mixed with shells, exten-
ding in a parallel direction to the shore, to the height of fifty feet
above the sea. ‘The country has, in former years, been visited by
Earthquakes, the last of any consequence having been ninety-three
years ago.
The shock of the 19th was felt as far as Lima to the north, by
the ships there riding in the bay of Calao. To the south, it was ex-
perienced at least as far as Conception, and to the east, beyond the
Andes, at Mendoza, and at St. Juan. The distance from Concep-
tion to Lima is about twenty degrees of latitude, or 1400 miles.
I am, dear Sir, your’s, &c. Maria Granam.
2. Extract from Mr. President Greznnoven’s Address to the
Geological Society, delivered on the 4th of June, 1834.
Tux Earthquake in Chile in 1822 has been so much* insisted on,
that it requires detailed consideration. Of this event, an account by
* Baxewewu’s Geology, 4th Lond. edit., pp. 98, 504. and 2nd Amer. edit., pp. 67,
344, Lye, Vol. 1. pp. 401,455. De La Becur’s Manual, 2nd edit. Scrore om
Volcanoes, p. 209.
240 Onthe Reality of the Rise of the Coast of Chile.
Mrs. Graham is inserted in our Transactions. J am deeply sensible
of the honor that lady conferred on the Society by her obliging com-
pliance with the request which elicited her narrative, and it is only
the importance of its contents which could induce me to subject them
to the test of rigid examination.
According to this account, “it appeared, on the morning after the
Earthquake, that the whole line of coast, from north to south, to the
distance of above 100 miles, had been raised above its former lev-
el.” But by what standard was the former level ascertained ? Who,
on the morrow of so fearful a catastrophe, could command sufficient
leisure and calmness to determine and compute a series of changes,
which extended 100 miles in length, and embraced (according to a
statement in the Journal of Science), an estimated area of 100,000
square miles? How could a range of country so extensive be sur-
veyed while the ground was still rocking, which it continued to do
on that day, and for several successive months? What was the av-
erage number of observations per square mile? Who made, check-
ed, and registered them? By what means did the surveyors acquaint
themselves with what had been the levels and contour before the ca-
tastrophe took place, by which, as we are told, all the landmarks
were removed, and the soundings at sea completely changed?
Mrs. Graham states, that by the dislodgement of snow from the
mountains, and the consequent swellings of the rivers and lakes,
much detritus was brought from the coast; and further, that sand
and mud were brought up through the cracks to the surface. Amid
so many agents, it — not be easy to assign to each its share in
the general result.
The fishes lay dead on the shore, may prove only that there had
been astorm. In her published travels, Mrs. Graham represents
them as lying on the beach, which may very well have been thrown
up, as the Chesil bank has been, by a violent sea. Some muscles,
oysters, &c. still adhered, she says, to the rocks on which they
grew; but we know not the nature or dimensions of these rocks,
whether fixed or drifted. The occurrence of a shelly beach above
the actual sea-level is an observation which must not be lost sight of-
I propose to speak of it hereafter: in the mean time be it recollected,
that these beaches are said to occur along the shore at various
heights, along the summit of the highest hills, and even among the
Andes.
On the Reality of the Rise of the Coast of Chile. 241
Neither in the paper of Mrs. Graham, nor in the anonymous ac-
count, published about the same time in the Journal of Science, can
I find any paragraph to justify the position (which from the seductive
character of the work* in which it appears, may, if not now assailed,
soon be deemed unassailable), that a district in Chile, one thousand
miles in area, “ was uplifted to the average height of a foot or more,
and the cubic contents of the granitic mass added in a few hours to
the land.” By what means we get the average I do not know.
Mrs. Graham says, the alteration of level at Valparaiso, was about
three feet ; at Quintero, about four feet; but the granitic mass !—
has the geological surface of Chile been sufficiently examined to as-
sure us that granite extends over one hundred thousand square miles?
In the well-known work of Molini, a Jesuit who passed a greater
part of his life in Chile, and wrote a natural history of that country,
I find no ground for supposing that in any Earthquakes which took
place there, from the time the Spaniards first landed on its shores to
the days of his publication, any similar phenomena had been noticed.
Moreover, the statement of Mrs. Graham, and the writer before al-
luded to, respecting the elevation of land which occurred during the
Earthquake of 1822, has not been confirmed by Capt. King, nor by
any naval officer or naturalist who has since visited that region, al-
though many have visited it who had heard the circumstance, and
who would willingly have corroborated it if they could. But they
Saw no traces of any such an event; and the natives with whom they
conversed neither recollected nor could be induced ‘to believe it.
The 16th number of the Mercurio Chileno, a scientific Journal,
contains an account of this Earthquake, by Don Camilo Enriquez,
which I have not been able to procure. A later number refers to
this account, and to another published in the Abeja Argentina, a
work of considerable reputation, which, by the kindness of Mr.
Woodbine Parish, I have been enabled to consult. The account
there given of the Earthquake of 1822, is strongly recommended to
the reader, “as a sensible, straight-forward description of what actu-
ally took place, without the high coloring in which ignorance, and
terror, and exaggeration, are apt to indulge.”
No notice is here taken of the permanent elevation of the land,
and the account concludes thus :—
+ Lyewt, Vol. I. p. 473.
Vol. XX VIII.—No. 2. 31
242 Onthe Reality of the Rise of the Coast of Chile.
‘‘ The earth certainly cracked in places that were sandy or marshy ;
I saw cracks too in some of the hills, but mostly in the low nook
where much earth had run together; the sea was not much altered ;
it retired a little, but came back to its old place. Don Onofri Bun-
ster, who, on the night of the Earthquake, was walking on the shore
at Valparaiso, in front of his house, had a mind to go up on the hill,
but could not, so great was the quantity of falling dust and stones:
he repaired to his boat, therefore, and with some difficulty got aboard ;
this done, he made observations on the motion of the sea; on sound-
ing, the depth was thirteen fathoms; he heaved the lead a second
time, and the depth was no more than eight fathoms: this alternate
ebbing and flowing lasted the whole night, but did not the slightest
harm on shore.”
These are the only cases I remember to have met with, in which
the testimony of eye-witnesses has been adduced to prove the rise
of land by Earthquakes. ‘That such rise may have taken place, at
different times, without being recorded, perhaps even without being
observed, is not very improbable ; but if lam to pronounce a verdict
according to the evidence, I believe there is not as yet one well au-
thenticated instance in any part of the world, of a non-volcanic rock
having been seen to rise above its natural level in consequence of an
earthquake.
Before I quit this subject, it may not be amiss to mention, that on
comparing the times at which the successive shocks took place in
Chile, as given by Mrs. Graham, and the other authorities to which
I have had occasion to refer, the discrepancy is extraordinary.
3. To the President and Members of the Geological Society.
Gentlemen—Mrs. Cauicorr (formerly Mrs. Graham) has read
with surprise, in the Atheneum of June 14, an extract from Mr.
Greenough’s Anniversary Address to your Society, in which there
is an uncourteous attack upon her letter, addressed to Mr. Warbur-
ton, in the year 1824, giving an account of the Earthquake which
occurred in Chile, on the 19th of November, 1822.
This attack implies, in the first place, a suspicion of wilful false-
hood on the part of Mrs. Callcott——Secondly, it charges her with
that high coloring, which “ ignorance, terror and exaggeration, are
apt to indulge,” (the words of the second accusation being quoted
from the Abeja Argentina).—And thirdly, in case Mrs. Callcott
should be prepared to rebut the first and second charges, the insinu-
On the Reality of the Rise of the Coast of Chile. 243
ation contained in the words quoted below, would tend to throw dis-
credit on her whole statement. “Before I quit the subject, it may
not be amiss to mention, that on comparing the times at which the
successive shocks took place in Chile, as given by Mrs. Graham, and
the other authorities to which I have had occasion to refer, the dis-
crepancy is extraordinary.”
Mrs. Callcott, in answer to these observations, begs the attention
of the Society, and of Mr. Greenough himself, to the following
pages.
The facts detailed by her to Mr. Warburton, and stated more at
large in her published journal, are strictly true. Mrs. Callcott had
ample means and leisure to examine the coast at Quintero and Val-
paraiso, places distant from each other thirty miles; and she saw the
difference‘between the old high water marks on the cliffs, beach and
rocks, from three to four feet higher than the high water ever reach-
. ed again during the two months she remained in Chile, after the first
great shock. She is indifferent whether Mr. Greenough ascribes
this to a partial elevation of the coast of Chile, or to a change of Jev-
el of the whole mighty Pacific Ocean, which must have extended to
Polynesia, India and China: the fact is, that there was a change in
the relative position of the land and water; and to save circumlocu-
tion, Mrs. Callcott will continue to use the work raised, or elevated,
in describing that change.
Mrs. Callcott has reason to think, that nothing less than a similar
catastrophe to that of the night of the 19th of November, will ever re-
Store the land and water to their former relative positions ; especial-
ly because other sea-shores appear at various heights, well defined
on the cliffs of the Heradura Bay, countenancing the idea that they
have been hoven up by successive earthquakes. Mrs. Callcott
learned, on unquestionable authority, that the earthquake was felt
at the same moment she felt it, at Coquimbo and Copiapo, North
of Quintero, and at Conception, South of Valparaiso: and had rea-
Son to believe, from general reports, that its effects extended much
farther in both directions. Mrs. Callcott has, in her letter to Mr.
Warburton, and in her published journal, related these facts simply ;
but she has never, as Mr. Greenough insinuates, stated such an ab-
surdity, as that any one set about, much less accomphshed, a regu-
lar geological survey of an estimated area of 100,000 square miles
On the morrow of that fearful catastrophe, or at any other time.
244 Onthe Reality of the Rise of the Coast of Chile.
Mr. Greenough mentions Mrs. Callcott’s published journal, and
accounts for the dead fish on the shore* by an imaginary storm.
Common candor would have led that gentleman to have stated that,
in that very journal, it is distinctly printed, that a “ delightful and
calm moon-light night followed a quiet and moderately warm.day.}”
Mr. Greenough says, further in p. 18 of his address—* some mus-
cles and oysters still adhere, she says, to the rocks on which they
grew: but we know not the nature of these rocks, whether fixed
or drifted.” Mrs. Callcott was ignorant that there were, or might
have been, drifted rocks, until she learned it from Mr. Green-
ough; for much as she has been at sea, she never met with one.
The rocks at Quintero, and at Valparaiso, are of grey granite, and
where they lift themselves through the sand and shingle of the beach,
they give the notion of bald mountain tops. At all events, they are
fixed sufficiently to have caused the wreck of more than one Spanish
ship of war; and when she saw them the morning after the Earth-
quake, that on which the wreck of the Aguila lay, was certainly so
far above the water, that the vessel could be approached dry-shod,
which had never happened before, even at the lowest tides. The
beds of muscles, of other shell-fish, and of sea-weed, were equally
rocks of grey granite, fixed far below the sands of the ocean. ‘These
circumstances are stated in the published journal: but Mr. Green-
ough has suppressed them, and many others of the like nature, par-
ticularly the notice of some rocks and stones, that the lowest tides
never left dry, but have now a passage between them and the low-
water mark, sufficient to ride round without difficulty, p. 313.
That Mrs. Callcott’s observations were not confirmed by any na-
val officer, may, perhaps, be accounted for in common candor, by the
consideration, that, at the time of the Earthquake, there was not @
ship of war, belonging either to England, the United States, or
France, on the coast.
Capt. King, whose testimony, had he been present, would have
been uncontrovertible, was not on the coast till several years after-
wards, and therefore could have had no knowledge of the state of
the coast, or the exact soundings, as they existed before.
As to the testimony of the natives, Mrs. Callcott feels sure that
Mr. Greenough himself, had he been among them, would attach no
value to their testimony, one way or another. They assured Mrs.
Callcott, that the Virgin Mary had visibly hovered over the sea on
* Journal of a Residence in Chile, p. 331. + Journal, p. 305.
On the Reality of the Rise of the Coast of Chile. 245
the night of the 19th, and that the Earthquake itself was a judgment
on the country and government, for opening the ports to heretics.
At p. 19 of Mr. Greenough’s Address, he makes his quotation
from the Abeja Argentina, and uses the respectable name of Mr.
Woodbine Parish, so as to persuade his hearers, or readers, that he
and Don Camillo Enriquez, consider Mrs. Callcott’s account as
“fraught with the high coloring, that ignorance, terror and exaggera-
tion are apt to indulge.” Mrs. Callcott begs to observe, that Mr.
Parish was not then in Chile, nor was Don Camillo near the coast,
but fully occupied with his business as secretary to one of the parties
then engaged in civil war: they could therefore only have had hear-
Say evidence to place against the statements of Mrs. Callcott, foun-
ded upon her own personal observations.
As to ignorance of the science of Geology, Mrs. Callcott confess-
es it: and, perhaps, that circumstance, and her consequent indiffer-
ence to all theories connected with it, render her unbiassed testimo-
ny of the more value. Terror she cannot plead in extenuation of
mis-statement ; for she did not, she could not, give way to personal
fear on that occasion, because she had with her an invalid relation,
under peculiar circumstances, and her whole attention was given to
him. She did not lose her presence of mind for a single moment ;
nor her power of thinking and acting for others. Mrs. Callcott is
hot apt to exaggerate.
Again, at the same page of his address, Mr. Greenough allows
that a person, whom he calls Don Onofri Bunster, was walking the
beach, and making observations at the moment of the great shock,
at the very time when the great swell of the sea occurred, which
threatened to overwhelm the town, and when no man was likely to
return alive from such a walk. Yet, Mr. Greenough denies to Mrs.
Callcott sufficient composure of mind to observe, several hours af-
terwards, what had taken place during the night!
_ Mr. Bunster, who kept a shop, or store, in Valparaiso, was real-
ly prevented from going up the hill, as Mr. Greenough states. It
happened that that portion of the granite rock, which is the substra-
tum of the red clay or earth which forms the most of the cliffs of the
heights of Valparaiso, running immediately under the government
house, being disturbed, and visibly cracked, by the great shock, the
clay or earth of the low cliff on which the house was built, slipped
off on both sides, and, nearly filling up the ravines or quebradas on
each side, carried with it the houses formerly on the cliff, and all
246 Onthe Reality of the Rise of the Coast of Chile.
those built on the sides. Here Mr. Bunster’s statement corroborates
that of Mrs. Callcott, although Mr. Greenough makes use of it in
contradiction.
Mrs. Callcott must here repeat that, at the conclusion of that por-
tion of his address in which Mr. Greenough’s attack on her is contain-
ed, p. 19, he says, evidently with a desire to throw discredit upon
her— Before I quit the subject, it may not be amiss to mention,
that on comparing the times at which the successive shocks took
place in Chile, as given by Mrs. Graham, and the other authorities
to which I have had occasion to refer, the discrepancy is extraordi-
nary.” Mrs. Callcott, in reply, states, that she had her watch, a
very good one, made by Grimaldi and Johnson, chronometer makers,
in her hand at the moment of the first shock. She found that her
friends at Concon and Valparaiso estimated the time as she did.
Several ship’s chronometers, which were stopped by the shock, in-
dicated the same moment. Mr. Clarke, an English merchant, whom
Mrs. Callcott saw on his arrival at Valparaiso from Conception, told
her he had observed the time of the shock at Conception, and that
it agreed with that observed at Quintero. Don Fausto del Hoyo,
a colonel in the King of Spain’s service, and a prisoner on parole,
was in the market-place of Quillota when the great shock ruined that
town. He also agreed with Mrs. Callcott and her friends, as to the
time ; and so did the wretched miners of [lapel. As to the inter-
vals between the shocks, Mrs. Callcott kept a register sheet of pa-
per, on which, when she happened to be absent from the spot where
the writing materials of the party were kept, some one of the others
entered the time and duration of the shock, and the degree of the
motion, as indicated by mercury dashing against the side of a glass
vessel placed upon the ground; therefore, she presumes that her
estimate of the times of the shocks is likely to be, at least, as accu-
rate as that of any person to whose observations Mr. Greenough can
possibly have referred.
On reading the extracts from Mr. Greenough’s Address, as pub-
lished in the Atheneum, Mrs. Callcott opened her private journ
(which had been locked up for some years), whence both the pub-
lished travels and the letter to Mr. Warburton were extracted, and
read it carefully over, being unwilling to trust her memory, however
lively the impression she necessarily received at the time of the Earth-
quake, of the events that accompanied and followed it. She is hap-
py to say that the daily, nay, almost hourly, entries in the journal,
On the Reality of the Rise of the Coast of Chile. 247
are such as support all she has printed, or written, or said upon the
subject. Twelve years have elapsed since these entries were made;
and she feels confident that any stranger, even Mr. Greenough him-
self, would perceive, on looking over them, in the minuteness of the
observations, in the mixture of common and household notices, and
the remarks on the progress of the civil war, which was then rife,
tokens of that desire for the exact truth, which has always guided
er,
Mrs. Callcott would have been happy to have furnished any ex-
planation of what Mr. Greenough thinks doubtful parts of her state-
ments, had he thought it worth while to have made any application
to her. And as her relation and friend, Mr. Glennie, a lieutenant
in the Royal Navy, no longer an invalid, now resides with his wife
in Kensington, Mr. Greenough might have had, what he appears to
desire—Some Officer’s corroboration. (See p. 18 of the Address.)
And, moreover, Mrs. Callcott would have been spared the disagree-
able necessity of appealing, as she now does, to Mr. Greenough’s
own sense of justice, and to that of the society over which he pre-
sides, for some explanation of his motives for making so uncandid
and uncourteous an attack upon her.
Mrs. Callcott cannot feel that it is a light thing to be suspected of
wilful falsehood. She made no pretensions to science in any of her
statements, nor did she presume to draw conclusions, or frame the-
ories. She stated the facts that came under her own observation,
and she must be permitted to claim for herself, one qualification for
an observer, namely, a mind more at ease than it was likely most oth-
er persons in Chile could have possessed, because she had no family
in that country—she had neither political nor commercial connex-
ions in South America—no interests that could be affected, by either
the civil war or the Earthquake ; while there was not one other per-
son, whose friends or whose property were not, more or less, deeply
involved in both.
Mrs, Callcott is very sorry to have been forced to say so much
of herself: but she thinks it due to her family and friends, and to the
society in which she has always moved, to repel so disgraceful a
suspicion, which, if it were in the smallest degree founded, must ren-
er her unworthy, either of society or friends.
248 Turnouts in Railroads with flexible moveable Rails.
Arr. VII.—On Turnouts in Railroads with flexible moveable
Rails ; by Tuomas Gorron, Civil Engineer.
Ar a time like this, when Railroads are being rapidly introduced
in various parts of the United States, it is believed that any improve-
ment relating to the various parts of their construction will be accep-
table to the public.
Up to the present time all turnouts upon railroads, (so far as the
writer’s knowledge extends,) have been constructed with stiff move-
able rails. When these stiff rails are moved round so as to make a
communication with the turnout and main line a rectilinear angle of
several degrees is formed by the stiff rail and main line, which sub-
jects cars passing through the turnout, to much jar and lateral fric-
tion. This friction is so great as to injure both cars and railroad. In
a late conversation with Mr. E. Miller, Superintendant of machinery
on the Portage railroad, he informed me that they proposed using
flexible moveable rails for their turnouts. The rai! adopted on that
road is the parallel edge rail, eighteen feet long, and weighing forty
pounds per yard. I understood that the plan of their turnouts was
not fully matured, but that it was contemplated to have about three
feet of the rail made fast in two heavy chairs, and the other fifteen
feet to be sprung into a curved form, when it was desired to pass into
the crossing or turnout.
This, at once appeared to me to be a decided improvement, in as
much as turnouts might be made on this principle, so that cars might
pass through them with the same facility as in the curved parts of
the main line. In examining the subject, the first requisite is, that
the rail at the moveable end should be deflected so as to leave a suf-
ficient distance between the rail of the main line and the fixed part
of the turnout. Then secondly, let the radius of curvature for the
turnout be determined. It will be seen that these two requisites de-
termine the length of the moveable rails. ‘These rails may then be
laid down in the following manner.
Let about one foot of that part connected with the main line be
made fast in a heavy cast iron chair, by a wedge and by a bolt pas-
sing through the chair and rail. The moveable part of the rail may
be supported on chairs ; these chairs to rest on cast iron seats having
a ledge on one side for the chairs to slide against when the rail is
sprung round into the turnout. The seats consequently must be laid
Turnouts in Railroads with flexible moveable Rails. 249
. down in the curved form which the rail is to assume in the turnout.
If it is thought that the chairs on this part of the rail will work out
of place, they may be bolted to it, or secured in some other manner
by guides on the seats. The two moveable rails of a turnout should
then be connected by two or three stiff coupling bars to give them
permanence, and preserve the proper distance between them. The
rails may then be worked by a vertical lever of a suitable length.
This lever with a ball placed upon its top will serve as an index to
persons travelling the road, by pointing out the position of the move-
able rails, that the cars may be stopped in time if the rails are not
ri
The results of some calculations for rails of different lengths, will
now be given, together with the length of a turnout for each kind of
rail. These calculations are made fora double track of railroad, the
distance between the rails of each track being 4.75 feet, and the dis-
tance between the inner rails, including the width of each rail, five
feet. But as railroads in general, do not differ much from this in
outline, the length of a turnout will not be affected much by such
difference.
The following table will be understood from the explanation given
erein.
| agen petty me OE et tt an
curyature |rail not including|of rai] in decimals/plates and sine of}line in thecen-) turnout in
in feet. that part in the of a foot. are at each end of|ter of turnout. feet. |
heavy chair. turnout, in feet.
310. 15 feet. | 0.36 7°|37.78 40 115
350. | 16 | 36 7942.65 | 35 | 120
’ 17 0.36 7°\48.75 30 | 128
410.28 | 17 0.35 7°\50.00 29.6 129.6
° 18 0.36 7°\54.84 23 133
500. 19 0.36 7°|60.93 17 139
550. 20 | 0.36 7°|67.03 11 145
In the above table fractions of a foot have been omitted in the
last two columns, the object being to give sufficient information in a
tabular form, from which a comparison of the advantages, and disad-
vantages may be made for turnouts with moveable rails of different
lengths, and ares of different radii. An angle of 7° has been adopt-
ed in this table for the crossing plate. Increasing this angle would
shorten the turnout but little. It is hardly necessary to mention that
the plan of the turnout proposed here, is that of an inverted curve,
with a piece of straight line in the center.
Vou. XXVIII.—No. 2. 32
250 A new system of Crystallographic Symbols.
It is believed that a turnout of from 400 to 500 feet radius, with
flexible moveable rails, will be found to answer a much better purpose
than those in use at the present time. Several important railroads
have curves as abrupt as this. On the Baltimore and Ohio railroad
there are two sharp curves, one of 337, and the other of only 318
feet radius.
ass VUlI.— A new system of Crystallographic Symbols; by James
Dana, A. B
Tue science of Crystallography has of late years, obtained so great
importance, that it is justly entitled to be termed the key-stone to
Mineralogy. Its principles, first fairly developed by the Abbé Haity,
have placed this latter science on a mathematical basis, and have af-
forded, with but few exceptions, invariable points of distinction be-
tween the different mineral species. With all the exactness, in
many instances, that attends any branch of mathematical calculation,
the Abbé Haiiy determined the mutual inclinations, and relative
situations of secondary and primary planes, and the dimensions of
the primitive forms of different minerals. The discovery of these
facts led him to introduce symbols and abbreviated expressions, to
aid in the description of crystals, by means of which, the position of
secondary faces may be stated with far more precision than is possible
in a figure. The idea was a happy one. But his system in all its
particulars does not seem to be beyond improvement. Indeed, im-
provements have been proposed by some authors, and systems quite
different adopted by others. That by Mohs is uertadeay ingenious
and beautiful. Still there remains one point yet unattained. A sys-
tem appears to be needed, of which a direct application may be
made in lettering the figures of crystals. This accomplished, the
student would be enabled by a mere inspection of the figure, to refer
any secondary plane to its situation on the nucleus, however disguised
it might be. Besides, it would be unnecessary in the description of
a crystal, to accompany the symbolical expression of a plane with
the letter given it in the figure, (a practice followed by the Abbé
Haiiy); for the same symbol would be used in both instances.
To propose a plan for the attainment of the above end, will be
the object of the following remarks. The great obstacle to it, in the
systems now in use, is the length of the representative signs of
A new system of Crystallographic Symbols. 251
planes. Conciseness therefore must necessarily be a peculiarity of
any method that will accomplish the desired object. In fact, it will
be found that the expressions following from the system about to be
proposed, are frequently not one quarter the length usual in other
systems.
Before proceeding to the details of the plan, it will be necessa-
ty to explain what the situation of a crystal is when in position ;
that is, so situated that the following laws may be correctly ap-
plied in lettering its different parts. In general, the prisms are
Supposed to be on their bases with a lateral edge towards the ob-
server. It is immaterial which lateral edge of the cube or right
Square prism is in front, as they are similar to one another, (formed
by the meeting of equal and equally inclined planes.) In the right
rectangular and right rhomboidal* prisms, the smallest of the lateral
faces must be to the right, with any edge of the former, but an ob-
tuse one of the latter in front. An obtuse edge is also to be made
the anterior one in the right rhombic prism. In the oblique rhombic
and rhomboidal prisms,+ let the dominant solid angle be the superior
and anterior one. Hence if it is obtuse, an obtuse edge, if acute,
an acute edge, will be before the observer. The position of the
thombohedron may be the same that is usually given to that solid ;
that is with the axis—the line connecting the vertices of the domi-
nant solid angles—placed perpendicularly. The above positions are
those in which the figures of crystals are commonly given in works on
ineralog
With regard to the octahedra, the base must be placed horizontal-
ly. Their positions in other respects may be inferred from those of
the prisms of the same bases. Thus that of the right square octa-
hedron from that of the right square prism; the right rectangular
octahedron from the right rectangular prism; and the right rhombic
octahedron from the right rhombic prism.
In lettering the planes of crystals, the letter a, as a general rule is
to be applied to those on the angles, e, to those on the edges, and e,
to the intermediary planes. ‘The letters a and e are selected because
of the ease with which they may be combined to express the inter-
mediary planes, which, correctly speaking, being neither on the an-
gles nor edges, but rather intermediary between them, may with pro-
ee niin
* Usually termed the right oblique-angled pri
t Usually called the A red oblique prism, but he base of this and of the so call-
ed right oblique angled prism, being the rhomboid, (as this term is used in geome-
try,) the names 1 adopt seem preferable.
252 A new system of Crystallographic Symbols.
priety be expressed by a union of the letters of each. Another ad-
vantage of these letters, manifest to the English reader, (one of
secondary importance however,) consists in their being the initials of
the words angle and edge, to planes on which, they are respectively
applied.
In all the primitive forms, except the cube and regular octahedron,
it becomes necessary to distinguish the dissimilar primitive planes,
solid angles, and edges from one another. This may be done by
means of Italic, and Roman letters, with the occasional use of dashes
according to the following rule. In its full extent it is to be applied
only to the oblique rhomboidal prism. Modifications of it for the
other primitive forms, resulting from the similarity of some of their
parts, will afterwards be pointed out.
The crystal being in position; name the superior base P, the
right lateral face P’, the dash saint to the right ; the left lateral
face P', the dash inclining to the left. (See fig. 1, which isa full
application of the law about to be given.) Designate the front late-
ral edge and the two superior basal edges by the Roman e, the side
lateral and the two inferior basal edges by the italic e. To distin-
guish the superior basal edges from one another, give to the right,
the right inclining dash, to the left, the left inclining dash; thus é
and é: the same with the inferior basal edges. Thus half the edges
of the crystals are named. The remaining half being precisely sim-
ilar to these, will receive the names of their opposites. To letter
the angles, apply the Roman a to the dominant or front superior sol-
id angle, the italic a to the supplemental dominant or front inferior
solid angle. Also the same italic a to the superior lateral angles,
distinguishing them by a dash inclining to the right or left cag
to the situation of the angle to the right or left hand. Thus 4, @
In this way the angles and edges may receive their respective ie
bols, which will be used in naming planes situated on them.
But it is farther necessary to specify the primitive plane on which
a secondary inclines. This may be concisely done by placing be-
low its symbol, the dash belonging to this primitive plane. ‘Thus
if it inclines on the right lateral face, plane P’, the dash inclin-
ing to the right is to be placed below, and the contrary for an inclin-
ation on the left lateral face. Thus a plane on edge é inclining on
plane P’ willbe named é, &c. To express the intermediary planes,
we have but to combine the letters belonging to the angle and edge
between which they are situated, and to place below, the dash of the
A new system of Crystallographic Symbols. 253
plane on which they incline. Thus suppose an intermediary to be sit-
uated between the edge é, angle a and plane P’, the symbol will be
e',5 if between the edge é angle @ and ne P', the symbol will be
ae; if between é, a and P the symbol is #'. There is no dash be-
low in this instance, as the plane on which it inclines (the base) has
no dash to its P.
There is certainly no taxing of the memory here, farther than as
regards the use of the italic letters. We have only to notice wheth-
er a dash inclines to the right or left, in order to determine the edge,
angle and face between which a plane is situated.
These symbols become more simple as we descend from this cli-
max of irregularities among the primitive forms, to those whose sim-
ilar parts are more numerous. In the oblique rhombic prism the
lateral faces are similar to one another, and consequently also the
front superior basal edges and the front inferior basal edges. It is
therefore unnecessary to distinguish them from one another. Hence
instead of P’ and P', each of the lateral planes may be named P
whose distinguishing mark is virtually a combination of the two dash-
és used in the oblique rhomboidal prism. So also we have e for é&
and é, e for é and é, and a for @ and a. The lateral angles of this
primitive form have the two front plane angles (the crystal being in
Position) equal to one another, but unequal to the two posterior plane
angles which also are equal to one another. Consequently a decre-
ment may take place on one pair, and not on the other. Suppose
then a plane on a lateral superior solid angle to incline on a front
face. Its symbol according to the above rule willbe a. But if it
inclines on the posterior face, the curve below must be inverted thus,
a. Inthe rhombohedron the faces are equal, the superior edges
similar, and also the lateral edges. The planes are marked P, the
Superior edges e, the lateral edges e. So also the dominant solid an-
gle a, and the lateral solid angles a. If this form were placed in
the same position as the oblique prisms, these letters would result
by merely dropping the dashes, which here become unnecessa-
ty. Two kinds of planes may exist on the lateral angles of the
thombohedron, owing to the two kinds of plane angles which com-
pose it. If the plane cuts off the dominant* plane angle, (these
* As I have called the superior solid angle the dominant or governing solid an-
gle of the rhombohedron, so also its plane angles and their equals in this solid may
be named the dominant plane angles.
254 A new system of Crystallographic Symbols.
are the more common planes on the lateral angles,) it will be named
according to the above law, that is, there will be no mark below, as
none is used in marking the primitive planes. But if the comple-
ment to the dominant is cut off, the inverted curve must be used be-
low. Thus if the rhombohedron is obtuse, and a plane cuts off the
acute plane angles, (complement to the dominant) from the lateral
solid angle, the symbol for the planes will be a. In the right rhom-
bic and right rhomboidal prisms, the superior and inferior basal edges
are similar. The latter must therefore receive the symbol of the
former. The italic e is still retained for the side lateral or acute
edge. It is however unnecessary in the right rectangular and right
square prisms, the lateral edges being similar. Hence they are gen-
erally designated by e, and for the same reason all the angles are
named a.
We have now arrived at the cube, a solid with equal solid angles,
equal plane angles and planes, and similar edges. The planes are
therefore lettered P, the angles a, the edges e. There is no necessi-
ty of distinguishing them from one another. Planes on one edge or
angle (with few exceptions to be noticed soon,) are attended with
the same number similarly situated on the others. Hence to say,
when a solid angle of a cube is replaced by six planes, that it is re-
placed by one of these six, is saying that every solid angle in the
cube is replaced by six planes ; and generally with all the primitive
forms, similar parts are similarly modified. 'The exceptions to this
law of nature are few; and when they do occur, still a symmetry
of parts is always retained. Thus in Boracite four of the solid an-
~ gles are similarly replaced, while the remaining four are left untouch-
ed. It will be observed that these four angles are not all of them
on one side of the crystal, but so disposed relatively to one another,
that the figure is still symmetrical. This is universally the case-
To express the fact that but half of the angles or edges are similarly
replaced, we have therefore but to add the fraction 4. Thus (3a)?
signifies that half the solid angles are replaced by the planes a’.
More frequently it happens that all the angles or edges are similarly
modified, but by half the usual number of planes. Thus it is in the
cube, when it gives rise to the pentagonal dodecahedron. The fol-
lowing form may then be given to the symbol, taking this dodecahe-
. ef
dron as an example, > signifying not as in the first case, that only
half the edges are replaced, but on the contrary, that all are replaced,
A new system of Crystallographic Symbols. 255
yet by half only of the usual number of planes. Other instances
will be found in Fig. 2, which will be noticed in the remarks on that
figure.
As a recapitulation the following table is introduced, showing the
letters that are to be applied to the angles and edges of the several
prisms
1 Cube. Lat. sol. angle a
Planes* P || 6 Rhombohedron.
Edges _ e Planes P
Angles a Superior edges e
2 Rt. sq. Prism. Lateral edges e
Lateral planes P Dominant sol. angle a
Lateral edges e Lateral “ a
Basal *" e 7 Ob. rbc. Prism.
Angles a Lat. planes P
3 Rt. rect. Prism. Front lat. edge e
Rt. lat. plane Pp’ Front sup. bas. edges e
2 Fas a. Side lat. edge e
Lat. edges e Front inf. bas. edges e
Rt. basal edge é Front sup. sol. angle
t. ies é (dominant) a
Angles a Front inf. “ eae
4 Rt. rbc. Prism Lat. sup. “ &
Lat. planes si 8 Ob. rbdl. Prism.
Front lat. edge (obtuse) e Rt. lat. plane Y
Basal edges e Lt. lat. plane Pp
Side lat. edge (acute) Front lat. edge e
Front solid angle a Rt. sup. bas. edge é
Lat. “ cc a i? a 73 é
5. Rt. rbdl. Prism. Side lat. edge e
Rt. se oe omega > Rt. inf. bas. edge é
Ez; Lt eS é
nt lat. edge a e Front sup. sol. angle a
“ih bas. edge é Front inf. “ a
es é Rt. lat. sup. % é
Side lat.edge (acute) e aa a
Front sol. angle a
* If it is ever found necessary to distinguish these planes, the dashes may be ap-
plied to the lateral faces according to the rules already given
256 A new system of Crystallographic Symbols.
The dashes to be placed below these letters will depend, as has
before been stated, on the situation of the primitive plane on which
the secondary inclines. It must be remembered however, that in the
rhombohedron, when the plane on a lateral angle cuts off a domi-
nant plane angle, @ merely is to be used; when it cuts off the other
plane angles, the inverted curve is to be placed below as a. Also
in the ob. rbe. prism, if the plane on a superior lateral angle inclines
on one of the anterior faces, the curve line, the distinguishing mark
of the faces, is to be placed below. But if it inclines on a posterior
face, to distinguish these from the former, the curve must be inverted.
Thus a a, a, and a (the latter for planes inclining on the base,) will
be the symbols for the planes not intermediary about a lateral solid
angle.
A similar table for the octahedra, dodecahedron, and hexagonal
prism,* will supersede the necessity of any remarks with regard to
them. I would state merely, that in the octahedra the Roman e is
applied to the lateral edges, the italic to the basal, the Roman a to
the vertical solid angles, the italic to the lateral.
1 Reg. Octahedron. 4 Rt. rbe. Oct.
Planes P Planes 2
Edges e Anterior lat. ye .
Solid angles a Side e
2 Rt. sq. Oct. Basal edges €
Planes P Vertical sol. angle a
Lat. edges e Anterior basal a
B : € Lat. " a
Vertical sol. angle a 5 Dodecahedron.
Lat. : a Obtuse solid angle a
3 Rt. rect. Oct. Bie ee Oe a
Rt. hand plane ad Edges we
a. ¢ «6 P' 6 Hexagonal Prism.
Lat. edges e as. plane P
Rt. basal edge é Lat. plane P
a tt. é Lat. edge e
Vertical sol. angle a Bas. “ e
Basal « : Sol. angles
Intermediary planes on these solids are named in the same manner
as those on the oe Thus inthe Rt. rect. Ss a plane situ-
* 1 ae ewe haa ah,
octahedron. Its symbol referred to the octahedron will be ie.
A new system of Crystallographic Symbols. 257
ted between P’, a and e is lettered ae, An intermediary may in-
cline from an edge to its opposite. No dash below is then required.
Each plane being lettered, there yet remains to be added, nume-
rals expressive of the rate af decrement* that may be considered to
have taken place in the formation of the new plane. This may. be
done by attaching in the form of an algebraical index a fraction whose
numerator consists of figures indicative of the rate of decrement
along the edges of the plane on which the ‘secondary inclines, and
a denominator expressing the decrement in the direction of the other
edge or edges. If a secondary plane is on an edge, decrement has
taken place on but one edge of the plane on which it inclines. Con-
sequently the numerator will consist of but one figure. Thus we
say e°. The denominator of the index, and the index itself may be
dropped when a unit. Hence we write e? instead of et, e instead
of e'. If the secondary is on an angle, an equal decrement has ta-
ken place on each of the edges of the plane on which the secondary
inclines, only that on one, need be expressed, the other being im-
plied in the letter a; thus a? instead of a?®. For intermediary
planes the decrement in each direction must be stated, it differing in
each; as for example, ee, a’ (the denominator 1, is here to be
understood.) The right hand figure in the numerator must be that
which expresses the decrement along the edge to the right, suppos-
ing the edge, the rate of decrement in whose direction, forms the de-
Nominator, to be directly before the observer. It is not very im-
portant on which plane we suppose an intermediary to incline. But
in general, it is best to select the one, in the direction of whose edges,
the greatest decrement has taken place. Of these two edges, that
on which the decrement is the greatest, should give its letter to form
the compound symbol of the intermediary. Thus if the decrement
(see fig. 1) is the least in the direction of e, supposing the plane on
angle a, it inclines on P, and if the greatest decrement is in the di-
rection of @, the symbol will be (supposing an index of ®, inwhich
2 expresses the rate of decrement along e, and 4 along é,) e'2. If
4 expresses the rate of decrement along é, the symbol will become
* It must not be understood that it is sapposed that a decrement really takes
Place in the formation of secondary planes. The word decrement may be consid-
ered to refer rather to the rate of decrease according to which the secondary plan
might be formed on the primitive solids.
Vor. XXVIII.—No. 2. 33
258 A new system of Crystallographic Symbols.
3.2
Pe Still if the first example should be written 2/4 no mistake
could be made in the situation of the plane. The dash below signi-
fies that the intermediary is supposed to incline on P’, The nume-
rator will of course express the rate of decrement along its edges,
and if the edge é, whose rate of decrement is 4, be placed before the
observer, 3 applies to the left edge, edge é, and 2 to the right, edge e.
In the octohedra, the denominator of the index for intermediary
planes, will consist of two figures, thus — unless the plane in-
clines from an edge to its opposite, when an equal portion of two op-
posite edges is cut off, and consequently the situation of the plane
will be accurately indicated, by expressing merely the ratio of the
n.m
parts cut off from the two other edges. Thus wo instead of wn.
Such are the principles of the proposed plan. An application of
them will be found in the plate. Some particular observations re-
specting the figures, and the arrangement of the symbols in a de-
scription, will be made after offering a word or two concerning the
advantages of the method. :
A remark has already been made with regard to its conciseness.
A few examples from Brooke’s Familiar Introduction to Crystallo-
graphy, with their proposed substitutes, will exhibit the comparative
merits of the two systems, in this particular. Brooke’s system may
be taken as a specimen of all, as far as conciseness is concerned.
The expressions that follow, are each for a single class of planes, as
given in his work. :
Brooke’s. : Proposed substitutes.
Classa. ' A! a
3.2
Cube “ d. (B3 B’”’2 B’/1: BI B’’2 B’3) et
. P
«i, (B/qBp B’s) (B’qB’p Br) (Br B’pBq) =
2
Class a. 'A' a
Right 1 .
Pa ry. “ f. (Bp Dq D’q B’r) aer
q
“ d. (Bp B’q b’r bs : Bp B’r b’q br) ers
Class b. PAP P
Rhom- P :
“ P-9
ea d. (B’p Bg B’r : Bp B’q B’r) er
ace © (D’p b’r Dq : D’q b’’r Dp) ae.
A new system of Crystallographic Symbols. 259
These will serve as a specimen of his longest and shortest terms,
and of the greater conciseness, in every instance, of the proposed
substitutes.
The following is the description of a modified right rhombic prism,
taken from page 426 of the work above referred to.
1GIM BE (BI H1 B2: B2 Hi B/1)(B1 H3 B2: B2 H3 B’1)P.
31
Translated it becomes e P e a’ Ps e 2 P,
The following symbols describe a crystal of Boracite, the edges
and half the angles of which are replaced, each by tangent planes.
According to the system of the
, 2 ee Je
Abbé Haiiy, its representative sign is P BAaeE.
Brooke 3 ce P B oAo 1AX fa% 09°.
Mohs “ “ at 2
Whewell « 2(3)1,0,0) +2(6)(+1,1,0) +-(4)(41,1,1).-
The proposed substitute is Pe (a).
The most important advantage of this system is, that the symbols
may be applied to the figures of crystals. It is frequently quite dif-
ficult for the student to determine the situation of secondary planes
relative to the primary, particularly when the form of the nucleus
is entirely concealed. The secondaries of the Rhombohedron may
be instanced as peculiarly difficult. This difficulty evidently van-
ishes, when the figure is so lettered, that each plane may be ea-
sily referred to its situation on the primitive form. ‘This as has been
already shown, will be accomplished by the proposed system.
Even if the rate of decrement is not determined, still nearly an
equal advantage is obtained. The planes on any particular edge or
angle, may be distinguished by numerals, thus 1é 2é 3é, &c. In
this manner the edge or angle on which a plane is situated, and the
plane on which it inclines, may be pointed out.
Fig. 1, has already been explained. If it is remembered that the
posterior planes, angles and edges have the same symbols as their
diagonally opposites, no difficulty will appear in any part of it.
Fig. 2. A crystal of Iron pyrites. Primitive form. Cube.
iption. p areleti2lFlerl
Descri ———.
260 A new system of Crystallographic Symbols.
The same by Haiiy. M M’P(A? B: G') (A? B? G') (A? BG)
AB C) ABC) AB or) (A GC») FAG
(AGC! )BBCGG! ?G(A? G B)(AB C2)($AC'G2)A.
A
a = 195° 15/512” eo = 147° 41/18”
a? = 144° 44" gi” e2 = 153° 26’ 6”
we? = 150° 47 39” e? = 146° 18 36”
6.3
e2 = 143° 18’ 3”
In writing the description, the symbol of that plane is placed first,
which gives the character to the form of the crystal. In this case
evidently, the faces of the cube should precede, as is the case above.
As a general rule, the lateral planes of a prism should be first notic-
ed, next the bases, and lastly the planes on the angles and basal edges.
By an examination of the figure, it appears that in five instances,
there is but half the number of planes that perfect regularity would
require. This is expressed by the figure 2, under the symbols of
these five planes.
It will be observed that the figures of the numerator, in some i-
stances, change places with one another. This results from the dif-
ferent situations of the same plane. Were this change not made, the
inference with regard to the face on which the secondary inclines,
would be incorrect. It may be well to look for a moment at the
manner in which the face on which a plane inclines, may be de-
termined from its symbol. © Take for instance the plane e S situated
between the superior base and the left lateral face. It is to be deci-
ded on which of these planes it inclines. Suppose it to be on the
latter—consequently the numerator should express the decrement
along its edges, and the denominator, that in the direction of the
right superior basal edge. ‘This being placed towards the observer,
15 the left hand figure, should express the decrement on the left
edge, (front lateral,) and 5 the same on the right edge, the left su-
perior basal. But the number to the left, 15, being the greatest,
the plane ought to be situated to the left of a plane, on the solid an-
gle, (not intermediary,) which inclines on the same face—which is
not the case with the plane under consideration. But if we sup-
A new system of Crystallographic Symbols. 261
pose it to incline on the superior base, its symbol will be found to co-
incide exactly with its situation. 15 expresses the decrement along
the left basal edge, consequently it ought to be situated between the
plane a? on the angle, and e? a plane on the edge ; where it really is.
Fig. 3. Native Amalgam. Primitive form. Dodecahedron.
Description. P e'|?|aa"|*}.
Haiiy’s. PBBA‘'E!?E:.
oer ee |
& = 156° a = 135°
e2 = 160° 53/ 86” a= 153° 296/ 6”
a =
144° 44’ 83” "
Description referred to the cube as nucleus, e a? #2 a Pe’.
Fig. 4. Idocrase. Prim. form. Right square Prism.
s|*as|a|sje.
Description. e'|?/P Pa?
2
2}
Haily’s. 'G12G? MPAA AAA (2A? 2A? 1A? Be G) B,
Ga “Eos at = 108° 18”
e? = 153° 26/ 6” a? = 133° 18"
a? = 165° 51’ a’ = 144° 44’
a = Me oe at = 1520 3
at = 124° 30’ @ = 151° 52
ae = =©118° 30’
Haiiy’s description has been made out on the supposition, that the
plane a? instead of a, results from a decrement of a single row of par-
ticles, Thus he makes the planes a?| 3|4|, intermediary, which ac-
cording to the hypothesis adopted, are planes on the lateral angles.
Fig. 5. Heavy Spar. Prim. form. Right rhombic Prism. P on P
=101° 42’
6.3
Description. eP e'|*|P aa'|®|* ae2 e?.
3
Haiiy’s. *G‘ M*H' «H+ PEA A A (EB? B?) P.
e = 129° 9¥ a? = [141° 11’
e = 140° 51’ a‘ =: 158° 9
6.3
e* = 166° 53’ ae2 = 143° 6G
a = 127°19 e? = 115°41’
2 = 121° 49
262 A new system of Crystallographic Symbols.
Plane e? is situated on a basal edge, and inclines on a lateral
face. Supposing the inclination on a basal plane, its symbol would
be e?.
63
Plane ae2 is situated between the lateral angle, basal edge and
basal plane. 6 and 3 will therefore refer to the basal edges, and 2
to the lateral.
Fig. 6. Calcareous Spar. Prim. form. Rhombohedron. PonP=
105° 5’.
Description. a?ee*. The same by Haiiy, e? B D?.
1
a? = 134° 36’ 35” et. = 160° 50 10"
e = 142° 32’ 30”
In this figure we see not the least resemblance to the primitive
form. ‘The letters on its planes, make it apparent, that the lateral
angles are replaced each by a plane, giving rise to the lateral faces of
a Hexagonal prism, that the superior edges are truncated, and the
lateral edges replaced, each by two planes.
Fig. 7. Pyroxene. Prim. form. Oblique Rhombic Prism. Pon
P=101° 5. Pon P=87° 42.
Description. Pee Pa as a a°.
Haiiy’s. M 'H'! 'G' P A 2A? E! 1E °F.
e = 133° 51 a. cas 5. 144° Ob
e = 136° 9 : a = 150°
a = 147° 49/ a? = 137° 7
This figure represents the crystal inverted, the dominant solid an-
gle, being the inferior one in front. If placed in position, the planes
whose symbols have an inverted curve below, would be situated on
either of the inferior lateral solid angles, and would incline on the
front faces. But their symbols are the same as those of the planes,
diagonally opposite. These incline on a posterior face. The in-
verted dash is therefore used according to the law already laid down.
Apparatus for obtaining Nitrogen from Atmospheric Air. 263
Arr. IX.—Apparatus for obtaining the Nitrogen from Atmos-
pheric Air; By R. Harz, Prof. of Chemistry in the University
of Penisvvsnta, Xe.
AT Ne —— AT) hh
qua iT
ii
i a ip
Tuts apparatus in its principal parts, differs not from common
Zasometers. It is provided with a pipe, concentric with the axis of
the lower vessel, surmounted by a small copper cup. The pipe in
264 Analysis of Atmospheric Air, by means of Nitric Ovide.
question descends perpendicularly from the level of the brim of the
vessel to the bottom; being soldered into a hole in the latter, so
that the bore being accessible from without, the copper cup at the
upper end may, when necessary, be touched by a hot iron introduced
through the pipe.
The inner vessel of the gasometer consists of a bell glass, B, sus-
pended by a cord passing over a wooden gallows, with suitable pul-
leys. The bell has a perforated neck cemented: into a brass cap
furnished with a female screw for receiving a cock. To this cock
a flexible lead pipe is attached by a gallows screw. Under the cop-
per cup, a sufficient quantity of phosphorus being placed, and the
lower vessel adequately supplied with water, the bell glass is sus-
pended within the lower vessel, as usual with gasometers, and allow-
ed to descend about a third ofits depth. Meanwhile the cock of the
tube being open, the air is allowed to escape, so that the liquid with-
in and without the bell glass may be on a level. The cock being
in the next place closed, and the phosphorus ignited by means of a
hot iron, a brilliant combustion ensues. As soon as it declines, the
iron meanwhile kept in the fire should be again introduced in order
to sustain the combustion till all the oxygen is absorbed.
When the air in the bell glass is completely deoxygenated, which
may be known by the yellow color of the fumes, by depressing the
bell in the water, the residual nitrogen may be expelled into any re-
cipient at pleasure, through the flexible pipe attached to the cock
for that purpose.
Arr. X.—Large Volumescope, for the Analysis of Atmospheric
Air, by means of Nitric Oxide; by Roserr Hare, M. D.;
Prof. of Chemistry in the University of Pennsylvania.
This apparatus illustrates copiously the condensation which ensues
when nitric oxide gas and atmospheric air are mingled in due pro-
portion.
The hollow glass cylinder, which constitutes the main body of the
instrument, is four and a half inches in diameter, and thirty 1 in height.
It is situated over one of the three wells in my pneumatic cistern ;
being secured between two iron rods well fastened to the shelf below ;
and terminating above in screws furnished with nuts. By means of
these screws, and an intervening bar of iron, a brass disk, by which
Analysis of Atmospheric Air, by means of Nitric Oxide. 265
the upper orifice of the cylinder is closed, is pressed upon the rim of
that orifice, so as to make with it an air tight juncture. Froma
hole in the center of the brass disk, a stout tube of brass proceeds,
terminating in three cocks, furnished with gallows screws, so as to
permit of the attachment of three flexible leaden tubes. Of these,
one communicates with an air pump, another is:attached to a pear
shaped glass receiver, which (for want of a better name) I shall call
a volumeter, as it serves conveniently, and accurately, to measure
gas into precisely equal volumes.
Vor. XXVIII.—No. 2. 34
266 Analysis of Atmospheric Air, by means of Nitric Oxide.
On each side of the cylinder, there is a strip of wood, which being
covered with white paper, is made to receive graduating lines in the
following way. The cylinder having been filled with water, the
lines are so applied as to indicate the changes of the level succes-
sively produced in the surface of the water within the cylinder, by
the successive introduction of equal volumes of air. ‘These gradua-
tions are so proportioned, as to render the portion of the cavity com-
prised within three of them equivalent in content, to one measure of
the volumeter already described. In all there are nine graduations.
In operating with this instrument, I commence by exhausting the
air from the cylinder, and thus causing the water of the pneumatic
cistern, over which it is situated, to rise to the fifth graduation. The
volumeter may be filled at the same time, if the cocks between it and
the cylinder be opened. Care must be taken to close them as soon
as the water reaches the apex, so as to prevent the lead tube from
being obstructed by water. The valumeter should, in the next
place, be filled with nitric oxide gas. The apparatus thus pre-
pared, it is only necessary to open the cocks, between the volumeter
and the cylinder, in order to cause the nitric oxide to pass from the
one to the other. Copious red fumes of nitrous acid immediately ap-
pear. By means of the gum elastic bag, and recurved tube, jets of
water are next to be thrown up into the mixture, by which the ab-
sorption of the fumes is promoted. When these have all been ab-
sorbed, there will appear to have been a condensation of about three
volumes and a fifth, so that the water will have risen a little above
the point to which it has been supposed to be raised agreeably to
the premises.
For the satisfaction of the spectators, the accuracy of the gradua-
tion may be proved by allowing the contents of the volumeter in at-
mospheric air to pass in three times, showing that the water is there-
by depressed to 3rd, 6th, and 9th graduations. Also, by adding the
contents of the volumeter containing three of the volumes indicated
by the scale, to five previously introduced; thus, showing that the
aggregate will be eight volumes, instead of less than five, as when
three of nitric oxide are admitted to five of air.
On the Excrementitious Matter thrown off by Plants. 267
Art. XI—On the Excrementitious matter thrown off by Plants ;
by J. Buen.
I have read, with much interest, the opinions lately advanced by
De Candolle, Macaise, and I believe by Professor Lindley, in re-
gard to the excretory powers of plants. I fully acquiesce in the
statement that plants throw off, into the soil, excrementious matters,
not congenial to their wants ; but I cannot accede to the other part .
of their theory, viz.—that these matters are poisonous to the species
which gives them off, and that from this cause arises the necessity
of an alternation in farm crops. I will briefly state my reasons for
this dissent, and shall be happy to be corrected by any of your cor-
respondents, if I am in the wrong.
I venture to assert, in the first place, that in forests and uncultiva-
ted grounds, the same plants, annuals as well as perrenials, are found
growing in successive years, without apparent deterioration, if the
plants are permitted to remain and decay where they grow. It is
not what grows upon the ground, but the crop which is carried off,
that impoverishes the soil. We find an additional illustration of this
truth, upon waste ground around farm buildings, where we often
see the bur dock, nettle, hemp and other plants, grow up fall an
decay, for years, and each successive growth increases, rather than
diminishes in vigor.
American husbandry furnishes facts no less apposite to my argu-
ments. In a large section of Western New York, comprising a dis-
trict of sixty, or more, miles square, it is a very common practice to
grow wheat, in the same field, for successive years. On a recent
visit to that district, [ put the question to an intelligent circle of gen-
tlemen, “ how many years in succession has wheat been grown upon
any of your lands ?”’? One case was cited where it had been grown 21
or 22 years. A gentleman then alluded to aneighbor, who had
grown wheat 22 years without intermission, on one field, and the
fact was accredited and confirmed by others. ‘‘ And what, I asked,
was the product of the last season?” ‘“ Forty bushels to the acre,”
was the answer. ‘Was manure applied?’ “ No.”
In another district of the State, comprising the south towns of
Erie and Chautauque Counties, oats constitute a favorite crop; and
they are grown many successive years on the same ground, without
diminution of product.
268 An easy method of filling long Syphon tubes.
In some districts of Ohio, Indian corn has been planted on the
same ground, almost from the first settlement of the country. A re-
spectable gentleman who resides on the banks of the Sciota, at Ports-
mouth, writes as follows. ‘My farm is immediately at the mouth
of the Sciota River. It is rich bottom land. The soil is loam,
finely proportioned, with clay and sand, formed by successive depo-
sitions from the Ohio and Sciota Rivers, which inundate it every
year. I do not think there is much difference in the quality of the
soil for the depth of 15 or 20 feet. Many fields have been cultiva-
ted in corn for 20 or 30 years in succession, and J doubt whether
a cart load of manure was ever used in the place, before I became in
possession of it.”
The preceding facts, and similar ones, which might be stated, am-
ply disprove in my mind, the theory attempted to be established,
that the excrementitious matter of plants is poisonous. The necessi-
ty, in good husbandry, of alternating farm crops, arises, I think from
the facts, generally conceded, that plants do not take take up, or re-
tain the same food ; that each species takes something specific which
others do not take ; and that in ordinary soils there is not enough,
of this specific food to maintain successive crops without deteriora-
tion. ‘The cases which I have cited refer not to ordinary, but to ex-
traordinary soils, which form exceptions to a general rule. These
are so abundant in the specific food of the wheat, the oats and the
corn, that years of successive cropping, have not exhausted, nor
sensibly impaired the supply.
Albany, Feb. 18th, 1835.
a
Arr. XII.—Notice of an easy method of filling long Syphon tubes,
in a Note addressed (by request) to the Editor; by WiutaM
Foster, Esq.*
New Haven, Nov. 26, 1834.
P Sir,—Azreeably to your request, at the conclusion of your very
interesting lecture, I will now put on paper a brief statement of the
application of the syphon upon a large scale, for the purpose of
a water from distant places. This application may not be
new; but I do not remember to have seen it in this, or any other
eetet eo
* We trust that Mr. Foster will pardon the publication of this letter, since it is
of a very useful character,
An easy method of filling long Syphon tubes. 269
country, before I tried the experiment. The ancients, we know,
brought water for the supply of their cities, by means of costly ac-
queducts, over hills and vallies, without ever using the fountain prin-
ciple.
About twenty years ago, I suggested to some gentlemen in Boston
the feasibility of conducting water from one good well to dry reser-
Voirs in the neighborhood, in consequence of hearing that certain
wells in the city had copious springs of good water, which became
bad for want of sufficient use. The idea of carrying water through
a syphon several hundred feet in length, and drawing water from one
well into another, was discussed by these gentlemen, and treated
with ridicule. But some years after, Mr. Chapman, proprietor of a
distillery in Charlestown, requested me to describe the process; and
with that instruction he employed a Plumber to lay a leaden tube of
three quarter inch bore, from a well twenty five feet deep, several
hundred feet distant from the well of his distillery, which was about
thirty feet deep, and where he wanted a greater supply of water.
The operation failed. He then came to me, and told me that I had
led him into an expensive error. I told him that had he communi-
cated to me his intentions, I would with great pleasure have super-
intended the work ; but now, not knowing what defects there. might
be in the tube, I could not answer for his success. However, I con-
sented to assist him, but my first essay was unsuccessful.
I need not inform you Sir, as to the principles of the syphon, or
that its power to overcome an eminence is limited to about thirty two
feet, answering to the column of water which the pressure of the at-
mosphere can raise; or that any defect in the syphon, or any air
confined in it, would be fatal to its operation. The usual mode of
charging a syphon, you know, is by exhausting it partially by inspi-
ration at the longer end. But this was not possible with a tube sev-
eral hundred feet long, and the expense of a Pneumatic apparatus,
to procure a vacuum, would have been too great; therefore, I had
determined to put it in operation by filling it with water, both ends
being stopped: this was done by a small branch at the summit of
the tube; and when filled, this branch was well corked, and the cork
pressed down hard on the water, so as to exclude all the air at the
surface. It was to be apprehended that some undulations might ex-
ist in the horizontal part of the tube, and afford a receptacle for air,
which would there be confined without a possibility of escaping, and
also prove fatal to the success of the experiment ; but of this I could
know nothing, as I had not seen the tube laid.
270 Caricography.
In this state of uncertainty, I began the operation and filled the
Syphon ; but, as I said before, it failed. On the second trial, I ob-
served that when the syphon was full, the water in the filling branch
rose and fell alternately, and so much, that as water has but little
elasticity, I concluded that there was air in the tube, and it was
therefore emptied. Then, to charge it anew, and at the same time
to exclude the air, it was proposed to perforate the lower end
of the long branch, at the bottom of the receiving well with a fork,
just above the cork which closed it. These small holes allowed the
air to escape as it was driven before the water, without losing
enough water to prevent the filling the tube with ease. ‘Thus was
the air excluded, and the syphon put into operation, and continued
for a long time, with some occasional obstruction, arising from the
smallness of the tube, and the want of water at the source.
I should suppose that there were many situations, where water
might be brought from one valley to another, over any hill not ex-
ceeding thirty two feet, or which could without too much expense,
be reduced to that point, for the purposes of irrigation, or manufac-
turing. Large quantities of water as well as small, may be raised
by means of iron mains of large dimensions ; and the cutting down
hills to procure levels, or surrounding them, and thus increasing the
length of acqueducts, at a great expense ; and loss of water by per-
colation and evaporation may be avoided. Mountain swamps may
be drained, or any swamps, where a lower level is not too far distant
for the place of issue, or even in a level country, provided some vein
of loose gravel can be found into which a place of discharge may
be dug below the surface of the swamp. The ingenuity of our coun-
trymen, will, I am confident, yet find many other useful purposes to
which the principle may be applied.
P. S. Have you any knowledge of the process whereby the Chi-
nese convert rice into a substance resembling pearl? If it were not
expensive many useful articles might be made of it.
Arr. XII.—Caricography; by Prof. C. Dewey.
Appendix, continued from Vol. xxv11, page 342.
Carices of the Northern regions of America.
On the return of Dr. J. Torrey, one of the most active members
of the New York Lyceum, from England the last year, he brought
Caricography. Q71
a large collection of grasses. They were put into his hands by that
distinguished botanist, Hooker, for examination ; and had been col-
lected in the voyages and tours of discovery in Arctic America.
Dr. Torrey was so good as to put into my hands the specimens of
the Carices, amounting to collections from about one-hundred and
ninety different places in those regions, and embracing with several
new and rare ones, most of the new species already described, and
several of those long known in the United States. The plants are
vary interesting, as exhibiting the vegetation of those Northern re-
gions. Few of them are diminutive in size, but the species common
in this part of the country attain about the same size in that, and
come to maturity at the same time. ‘Thus we find specimens in a
mature state in June on the shores of the Arctic ocean, and in
May at Fort Vancouver. Some of these Carices have already been
described in the last two articles on Caricography, and the rest will
be given ina future number. At present, I propose to give a cata-
logue of all those received, with their localities, and such brief re-
marks as seem necessary. In the first place, however, I make my
acknowledgments to Dr. Torrey for his liberality. May success
still attend his efforts in the cause of Natural Science.
List of Carices, collected in the Northern parts of America.
C. dioica, u.—Rocky Monntains, Norway House, Cumberland
House, and sea coast of Arctic Regions. Many and fine specimens.
*C. Davalliana, Smith. Rocky Mts. Several specimens, fine,
large, and so far removed from the preceding as to justify Smith in
making it a new species; not before found in America.
C. scirpoidea, Mx. In many parts of the Rocky Mts. I feel
unwilling to take this species from Mx., and call it after that Danish
name, C. Wormskioldiana of Horneman. The specimens are many,
fine, beautiful ; dioecious or androgynous with stamens only at the
summit of the spikes ; leaves deep green, broad, flat, grassy.
*C. capitata, L. Rocky Mts. and Hudson’s Bay. Large and
fine specimens. .This species and the following, not before credited
to our country, but very common in the north of Europe.
*C. incurva, Lightfoot. Rocky Mts. This is a small, distinct,
and handsome species.
C. sterilis, Willd. Carlton House and Rocky Mts.
C. bromoides, Schk. Rocky Mts., Cumberland House, and Car!-
ton House.
* Those marked with a * not before credited to America.
272 Caricography.
C. rosea, Schk. Lake Winnipeg, and Carlton House.
C. stipata, Muh. Norway House.
C. multiflora, Muh. Canada and Cumberland House. Large
and excellent.
*C. chordorrhiza, L. Columbia River. Exactly the European,
but not before found in our country.
*C. stenophylla, Wahl. Rocky Mts. and Carlton House. This
is a small species withandrogynous spikes which are staminate at the
apex. It isa’well characterized species, now first found in America.
C. teretiuscula, Gooden. Rocky Mts., Norway House and Cum-
berland House. These are mostly small, but distinct specimens.
C. Muhlenbergii, Schk. Hudson’s Bay. A fine large speci-
men.
C. disperma, Dewey. Norway House, Rocky Mts. and Cum-
berland House. Many specimens, some small, and some of the size
found in the northern States.
C. Deweyana, Schw. Rocky Mts. Canada, Cumberland House,
and Carlton House. There were many and large specimens, exactly
like those of the northern States.
C. trisperma, Dewey. Rocky Mts. fine and large. This has
been supposed to be the following, but the present specimens settle
the matter against such a supposition.
C. loliacea, LL. Cumberland House. This is also C. gracilis,
and C. tenella, as well as C. loliacea, in Schk. It greatly resembles
C. disperma, but the fertile flowers are differently situated, being in
C. loliacea at the base of the spikelets, as on C. trisperma. But
the fruit is shorter and rounder and more obtuse than on C. disper-
ma, and far more so than on C. trisperma. One can scarcely see
this plant without being convinced of its being identical with that de-
scribed in Schk. I have not before seen one that belonged to this
Species in our country.
C. scoparia, Schk. Carlton House and L. Winnipeg.
*C. leporina, L. Rocky Mts. and Norway House. This is the
C. ovalis of Gooden., and the C. Jeporina found in Sweden and Nor-
way. It has not before been brought to light here ; although credited
by Mx. and Ph., who doubtless intended the preceding. No one
however can compare these species with those from Sweden, with-
out feeling confident that the true C. Jeporina of Lin. has at length
been found in the Northern regions of America.
Caricography. 273
C. straminea, Willd. 2 The latter found at Hii Phir at and
and its var. minor, D. ‘ both at Cumberland Hou
C. cristata, Schw. Lake Winnipeg and Ciaibertitia House.
They are chiefly of the smaller varieties, found with the larger over
the northern States. :
C. scirpoides, Schk. Lake Winnipeg, Rocky Mts. and Norway
House. Fine and large as in this latitude.
C. curta, Gooden. Rocky Mts. This is the variety with smal-
ler and less silvery-like spikelets, tall as in the northern States.
C. festucacea, Schk. Cumberland House.
C. tenera, Dewey. Lake Winipeg. This is just like those found
ere.
*C. tenuiflora, Wahl. Canada and Cumberland House. An old
European species found in Lapland, now found in northern America.
C. siccata, Dewey. Columbia River and Cumberland House.
C. aurea, Nuttall. Carlton House, Cumberland House, Rocky
Mts. and Lake Winnipeg. A great many specimens, some large, and
some only an inch or two high, but very well characterized.
C. concolor, R. Br. Norway House and Lake Winnipeg. Fine
and several specimens of this new species of R. Brown.
C. mutica, R. Br. Near Fort Franklin on M’Kenzies’ River.
Only a specimen or two of this species.
C. sazatilis, L. Bear Lake and sea coast in the Arctic Regions.
This species of which I have not before seen any specimens from our
continent, is well characterized and described.
C. compacta, R. Br. Rocky Mts. and Fort Franklin on M’Ken-
zies River. ‘This much resembles the preceding, but is considerably
unlike it also. Vol. X XVII, p. 237, Tab. V, fig. 63
C. acuta, L. Columbia River. var. sparsiflora, D. Fort Hope.
C. cespitosa, L. Rocky Mts. Just like ours.
C. aguatilis, Wahl. Bear Lake. Large and fine.
C. crinita, Lam. Norway House and Hudson’s Bay. Large as
often found here. -
C. Carltonia, Dewey in Vol. sarah p. 238, “ig Vv, fig. 64.
ns arctica, Dewey. = 239, 6
C. affinis, R.Br. Carlton Hels. Fine.
C. attenuata, R. Br. Do. Distinct species.
C. ovata, Rudge. Rocky Mts. This species is sixteen to twenty
four inches high, with large ovate, pendulous spikes, staminate above.
Vol. XXVIII.—No. 2. 35
274 Caricography.
Rudge credited this plant to Newfoundland, but it has not been found
till it was discovered by the late explorers of the northern regions
of America. It is a distinct and beautiful species.
C. ursina, Dewey in Vol. XXVII, p. 240, Tab. V, fig. 68.
C. Willdenowii, Schk. Lake Winnipeg, Carlton House, Rocky
Mts. and Cumberland House. Many specimens, rather small, but
good, and well characterized.
C. pedunculata, Muh. Rocky Mts. and Cumberland House.
Good specimens.
C. atrata, L. Rocky Mts. Good.
C. Buxbaumii, Wahl. Rocky Mts., Lake Winnipeg, Cumberland
House, and Observation Inlet. Many, large and fine specimens.
*C. Vahlii, Schk. Rocky Mts., Sea coast of Arctic America.
Beautiful specimens, and exactly like the European.
C. gracillima, Schw. Norway House. Large and fine specimens.
C. misandra, R. Br. Sea coast of Arctic America.
*C. Schkuhrii,. Willd. Lake Winnipeg. This seems to be the
same plant, which was found at the Caspian Sea, and described by
Willd., and said to resemble the following.
*C. supina, Willd. Bear Lake. This species is found in the
rocky woods of Germany and Austria.
C. varia, Muh. Norway House and Cumberland House. Sev-
eral varieties of this varying species.
C. Richardsonii, R. Br. Rocky Mts. Norway House and Cum-
berland House. This is a fine species and very distinct.
C. ornithopoda, Willd. McKenzie’s River. This is exactly like
the European species.
C. concinna, R. Br. Carlton House, Rocky Mts. and Cumber-
land House. ‘This, considered a new species by R. Br., is so like
the preceding, that they cannot be separated. Indeed the descrip-
tion of R. Br. is almost precisely that of this species in Schk.
C. Oakesiana, Dewey. 2 Bear Lake, Canada and Norway House.
C. oligosperma, Mx. § Thisspecies is found to be widely spread
over the country.
C. Oederi, Ekrh. Canada. Exactly the same that J gathered
in Canada, near the Falls of Niagara.
C. folliculata, L. Norway House. Fine.
C. attenuata, R. Br. Carlton House. A beautiful species:
C. plantaginea, Lam. Cumberland House. This is the real plant.
C. anceps, Schk. Rocky Mts. and Carlton House. Several spe-
cimens.
Caricography. 275
. Parryana, Dewey, in Vol. xxvii, p. 239, Tab. V. fig. 65.
alba, var. setifolia, D. Rocky Mts. This is C. paupercula,
Many and good specimens.
pallescens, L.. Carlton House. Good and large.
capillaris, L. Rocky Mts., Fort Norman and Cumberland
House. Excellent.
C. podocarpa, R. Br. Rocky Mts.
C. flecuosa, Schk. Norway House.
C. sylvatica, Huds. Canada.
C. Grayana, Dewey. Rocky Mts. and Hudson’s Bay. Fine
specimens, exactly like those found by Dr. Gray in the State of
New York. -.
C. umbellata, Schk. Rocky Mts., Norway, var. vicina, D.
Norway House, L. Wininpeg. Many specimens of both varieties.
C. limosa, L. Hudson’s Bay, Norway House, Rocky Mts. and
Cumberland House. Just like the common species.
*C. lava, Wahl. Rocky Mts. and Norway House. This resem-
bles the preceding, but is made a distinct species by the most distin-
guished Caricographers. It is found in Europe, in the marshes of
Lapland.
C. pseudo-cyperus, L. Cumberland House. Just like ours—
common.
C. trichocarpa, Muh. Cumberland House.
C. aristata, R. Br. McKenzie’s River and Cumberland House.
This is a fine, large, distinct species. Vol. xxvii, p. 240, Tab. V.
M
NaF Fo
fiz. 67.
C. filiformis, Gooden. Cumberland House. Large and beau-
tiful.
C. pellita, Muh. Cumberland House, Bear Lake, Carlton House,
and Lake Winnipeg. Many and fine specimens. |
C. ampullacea, Gooden. Bear Lake.
C. vesicaria, L. Rocky Mts.
var. cylindracea, Schw. Cumberland House.
C. retrorsa, Schw. Rocky Mts. and Norway House.
C. longirostris, Torrey. Rocky Mts. and Carlton house. Large
and distinct.
Several new species, found in the Arctic Regions, will be deserib-
ed in another number of this Journal.
Note.—Although most of the Carices described by Michaux, have
been satisfactorily ascertained, 1 am permitted to give the result of
276 Geological Notices by Dr. Morton.
an examination of the plants themselves. ‘This was made by Dr. J.
Torrey, also, on his visit at Paris, when he obtaimed access to the
plants in the Herbarium of Michaux.
Names by Mx. ‘ ;
C. microstachya is C. polytrichoides, Muh.
— typhina “ —. squarrosa,
— vulpinoidea “ — stipata, Muh. ‘°
— leporina * — scoparia, Schk.
— Richardi “ —_. curta, Gooden.
— triceps “ —_ hirsuta. Willd.
— viridula appears to be a var. of C. Oedert, Ehrh.
— scirpoidea is C. Wormskioldiana, Hor.
— flava « — flava, L.
— Oecderi “ —. Oederi, Ehrh.
— folliculata “ — folliculata, L.
— debilis « — flecuosa, Schk.
— lenticularis ‘‘ — stricta, Gooden.
— paupercula ‘“ — alba, var. setrfolia, D.
— striatula “ — blanda, D.
— rostrata is the small var. C. Xanthophysa.
— subulata is C. Collinsti, Nutt.
— plantaginea “ — plantaginea, and C. anceps. His deserip-
tion embraces both species.
— miliaris seems to be new.
— oligosperma is C. Oakesiana, D.
_ — striata, specimens imperfect, C. filiformis? Gooden.
_ — lanuginosa is C. pellita, Muh.
Arr. XIV.—Notice of the fossil teeth of Fishes of the United
States, the discovery of the Galt in Alabama, and a proposed
division of the American Cretaceous Group; by Smut, GEorGE
Morton, M.D.
Stxce the publication of my “Synopsis of the Organic Remains
of the Cretaceous Group of the United States,” I have obtained
some additional facts in reference to this portion of our Geology, and
lose no time in placing them at your disposal.
A letter from our distinguished friend G. Mantell, Esq., informs me
that my plates of the fossil teeth of Fishes, &c. from the marl of
this country, had been carefully examined by M. Agassiz, who
thinks he has identified among them the following species :
Geological Notices by Dr. Morton. Q17
Carcharias canceolatus, (Pl. x11, fig. 3 and 5.*)
megalotis, (Pl. xu, fig. 4.)
—————. polygurus, (Pl. xu, fig.. 2.)
Galeus pristodontus, (PI. x1, fig. 6.)
Lamna acuminata, (PI. x1, fig. 11.)
Mantelli, (Pl. xr, fig. 4.)
lanceolata, (PI. x1, fig. 5.)
plicata, (Pl. x1, fig. 2 and 3.)
All these species are found in Europe ; and three of them, viz.
Galeus pristodontus, Lamna acuminata and L. Mantelli, have been
obtained by Mr. Mantell, in the Chalk of Lewes in Sussex, Eng-
land. Nor does the analogy stop here ; for the same chalk contains
the Saurocephalus lanciformis and S. Leanus of the United States!
But Mr. Mantell adds that the latter two are not Saurians, as their
discoverers supposed, but fishes.
Again, Mr. Conrad discovered at Erie, Alabama, a thin stratum
of a strongly argillaceous clay, in every respect resembling the Galt
of England. You will recollect that the English Galt is embraced
in the ferriginous sand, and that its characteristic fossil is the
tnoceramus sulcatus. The mineralogical characters of the Galt of
Alabama are the’same as those of the European variety ; it is al-
So immediately connected with the green sand, and moreover con-
tains a species of Inoceramus. ‘The specific characters of the latter
are scarcely available from the solitary cast in my possession, (which
is imbedded in the Galt) but it is obviously different from the I. sul-
catus. Thus every day unfolds new analogies between the cretace-
ous deposits of Europe and America.
I take this occasion to remark, that [ think our cretaceous strata
may be safely referred to three divisions, of different ages, viz. the
upper, the medial, and the lower. ‘The upper division has been par-
ticularly and exclusively examined by Mr. Conrad, who observed it
near Monk’s corner, thirty miles north of Charleston, S. C. and ex-
tending thence to near Charleston, and north to Vance’s ferry. Its
characteristic fossils appear to be Pecten membranosus, Terebratula
lacryma, Ostrea cretacea, O. panda, and Echinusinfulatus. ‘This di-
Vision is also admirably exposed in many parts of West Florida, and
‘southern section of Alabama, embracing the Nummulite Lime-
stone from Claiborne to St. Stephens. Its characteristic fossils in
* The references are given for the convenience of siciae hci possess om oe
Nopsis, as no attempt was made in the latter to identify more than one or tw
cies of the many teeth of fishes there figured.
278 Remarks on the Retina.
Alabama are the Plagiostoma dumosum, Pecten perplanus, P. Poul-
soni, Nummulites Mantelli, and Scutella Rogersi. The limestone of
the upper division is very light colored and een sometimes friable,
in other instances more compact.
The Medial division is chiefly recognised in Gloucester and Bur-
lington counties, New Jersey, and near Wilmington, N. C. It is of-
ten of astraw yellow color, hard, compact, and either subcristalline
or granular, or even friable. Its characteristic fossils are Spatangus
parastatus, Ananchytes fimbriatus, A. cinctus, Nucleolites crucifer,
Belemnites ? ambiguus, Scalaria annulata, and Cidarites diatretum.
The Lower division, or green or ferruginous sand, is too familiar
to need any additional comment, often underlying the other divisions,
and often again entirely denuded and exposed. Stretching from New
Jersey in the form of a crescent through the southern States, it is
readily traced into Arkansaw and Missouri, and is every where char-
acterized by fossils described and figured in my Synopsis.
I have thought the above facts might; interest those of your readers
who live in the vicinity of the Sasil strata, which are well worthy
of their patient research.
Arr. XV.—Remarks on the Retina; by W. C. Watuace, M. D.
Surgeon to the N. Y. Institution for the Blind.
Iris stated by some of the older anatomists that the retina i of a
fibrous texture, yet no mention is made of the manner by which the
fibres may be exhibited. By modern authors it is asserted to be @
mere pulpy mass without fibres.
That the retine of fishes possess a fibrous appearance is stated by
Cuvier. The fibres may be seen in the skate, like floss silk, radiat-
ing in a beautiful manner from the entrance of the optic nerve to the
ciliary body. After a short immersion in alcohol, they are very con-
spicuous in the streaked bass, the cod, the halibut, and the poigee-
Exterior to the fibres there is a layer of pulpy matter.
After the eye of an ox is immersed for a day in alcohol, the ante-
rior portion and the vitreous humor then removed, and a solution of
corrosive sublimate poured into the cup that remains, by separation
with a hair pencil the fibres may be demonstrated, radiating from the
optic nerve to the ciliary body. The central artery and vein of the
retina dividing into branches may be seen above the fibres, but by
this dissection there is no appearance of membrane connecting the
Remarks on the Retina. 279
ramifications. Immediately under the fibres there is a layer of pulp
thinner than that of fishes.
(When the sclerotic and choroide coats are removed, a little alco-
hol poured on the exposed retina, and the preparation immersed for
some hours in water, the membrane of Jacob is seen floating in the
manner in which it is usually described. Beneath this, a cobweb-like
membrane of considerable tenacity may be brushed off with a hair pen-
cil. When this preparation is allowed to putrefy and the retina care-
fully washed away with a soft brush, the vascular coat remains over
the vitreous humor and may be easily separated fromit. Its nume-
rous vessels ramify and anastamose with each other in the delicate
membrane like the veins in a leaf.
In birds, the optic nerve before dividing, forms a line on each side
of the marsupium, from which the fibres originate.
In man, the fibres of the retina on the side towards the nose, radi-
ate as in the ox. On the outer side some proceed no farther than
the central foramen ; others pass beyond it, and after making a curve
return and converge at the center, so that this point is surrounded by
the extremities of fibres.* The layer of pulp around it is thicker
than in any other part of the retina.
This disposition of the fibres explains why there is a fold in the
retina after death. It will naturally project at Kee weakest point
when collapsed by the transudation of the hum
The rays of light falling upon the fibres oe impoling them
against their pulpy bed seem to be the cause of vision. ‘This may
be proved by an experiment related by Sir Charles Bell.“ Close
the eyelids and cover them with a piece of black cloth or paper that
has a small hole in it, and place this hole, not opposite to the pupil
but to the white of the eye; direct a beam of light upon the hole,
and a person will see this light in its true direction.” _In this exper-
iment the light falls upon two parts of the retina. The same or a
greater impulse is given to the fibres first struck, but there is not a
double impression because the fibres impinge against the vascular
membrane and not against the pulp.
The sense of touch is keenest at the termination of the nervous
fibres at the points of the fingers, and that of taste at their termina-
tion at the papille of the tongue. The sense of sight is also more
acute at the termination of the fibres at the central foramen.
The central foramen appears to be formed for the purpose of ena-
bling those animals that possess it to view very minute objects.
* The fibres are best seen in young animals.
*
280 On the Tertiary Strata of the Atlantic Coast.
Art. XVI.— Observations on the Tertiary Strata of the Atlantic
Coast; by T. A. Conran.
Tue new Pliocene formation, or that deposit which is characteriz-
ed by recent species of shells, in many places contains nothing more
than beds of the common oyster shell, resting immediately on the
older Pliocene marls. It seems certain therefore that the convulsion
which upheaved the latter had been insufficient to raise them to the
level of the ocean; but if sand bars existed then, as was doubtless
the case, the ancient margin of the sea would, by the protrusion of
these bars above water, be converted into a chain of lagoons, such
as line the coast at the present day. Here then, the oysters of the
newer Pliocene or last tertiary era, would find suitable conditions to
multiply, until they were in their turn upraised above the level of the
sea. If we are inclined to adopt this theory, we should carefully
examine whether any fragments of marine shells can be detected
among the beds of Ostrea, to indicate that the sea beach of that era
existed as a boundary of the supposed lagoons ; for in many places
the level of the beach would doubtless have been such as to permit
it to be entirely submerged by the waves of a tempestuous sea. 1
find ample proof of this in the deposits at Easton in Maryland, where
among the oyster shells which are entire, fragments of Pecten madi-
sonious an extinct species, are abundant. This is an interesting €X-
ample, for the upper bed of the strata beneath is composed almost
entirely of the Pecten Madisonius. This bed therefore, in the new-
er Pliocene era was the only one which could be disturbed by the
surf, and the shells first broken on the sands of the beach were af
terwards swept into the lagoon and deposited on the bottom. ‘To ex-
plain the phenomena which would be observed after a slight elevation
of our coast at the present day, the following diagram is annexed.
Bar Sea wiser: Lagoon
4
H
ed
On the Tertiary Strata of the Atlantic Coast. 281
An upheave sufficient to elevate the bar above the surface of the
ocean would convert what is now sea into a lagoon, and the lagoon
into dry land. The latter would become a deposit of fossil oyster
shells, and the newly formed lagoon would gradually be peopled with
the same oyster should the species be preserved. These tertiary
deposits are, even now, the substrata of the ocean bed along the coast,
but the mud and sand have accumulated to such a depth, that the
fossils are seldom washed up by the surf. It does, however, occa-
sionally happen that they are cast ashore, much to the surprise of
the inexperienced conchologist. [I have found specimens of the Ran-
gia cyrenoides, exceedingly water worn on the coast of Virginia,
and this shell does not inhabit the open sea, and is at present con-
fined to the estuaries of the Gulf of Mexico. Professor Ravenel,
of Charleston, an excellent conchologist, has a specimen of Venus
alveata, (nobis) an extinct species, which was found on the sea beach
of Sullivan’s island, washed up doubtless by the waves.
As the Ostrea virginiana originated in the Miocene era, it may
be that the fragments of Pecten Madisonius at Easton, were recent
exuvie, and that every tertiary deposit above the Eocene contained
in the shallow and tranquil waters, beds of living oysters. It may
also have happened that sand bars increesed in elevation during the
lapse of ages, until in places, the intermediate waters were protected
from the sea, and thus strata of oceanic shells would be formed, cap-
ped by the beds of oysters; both, in that case, were probably rais-
ed to their present elevation by a single upheave.
In the newer Pliocene of the Potomac river we find a deposit of
such shells as now live both in the open sea, and in the. harbors of
Newport, New York, and Charleston. The Pholas costata is there
imbedded entire in the clay, im precisely the same manner as the
living shell burrows,* but when the oysters made their appearance,
these oceanic shells no longer inhabited this particular locality, and
it is obvious that some cause had rendered it unfit for their peculiar
habits; with the appearance of the oysters, the clay was no longer
deposited, but sand and gravel began to be washed into the shallow-
ing estuary. The oysters however, seem to have lived here for a
short period only, for they constitute but a thin seam, and their shal-
* The clay of the Newer Pliocene period is atte similar to that now occur-
ring inthe sea. I have seen a specimen of the latter from the New Jersey coast
full of young sdie{is of Pholas crispata, and the same ‘tind of clay is washed ashore
from the Gulf of Mexico with specimens of Pholades imbedded in it
36
Vol. XXVIII.—No. 2
282 On the Tertiary Strata of the Atlantic Coast.
low lagoon was soon filled up by transported gravel and sand. The
temperature of this region then appears to have been equivalent to
that of West Florida at the present day, as the Rangia and Mytilus
hamatus are common associates of the fossil, just as they now are of
the recent oyster shells in Florida and South Alabama.
In regard to the species varying greatly in different localities of
the same geological age, it is easily explained by the facts which may
be adduced in relation to the habits of recent shells. If our coast
were now suddenly elevated, we should find spots where the shells
would consist chiefly of an immense number of Modiola demissa mixed
with Littorina littorea and Melampas bidentatus ; these are found on
the margin of the lagoons at high water mark, the Modiola imbedded
in a tenacious soil. At a little distance would be found Venus mer-
cenaria, Mya arenarea, Solen ensis, Solecurtus caribeus ; among
these would be Ostrea Virginiana, Fusus cinereus, and a few of Pecten
concentricus. Such is the group existing on the sandy shore of the
estuaries. Hard by, would be a vast deposit of oyster shellswith
Echinus, and immense masses of Serpula. These live on the bottom
of the lagoons, which is composed of a mixture of sand and mud.
Then would be found another group of shells which live only in
deep water, the Astarte lanulata, Nucula limatula, N. proxima, Car-
dita borealis, Pholas costata, in company with great numbers of My-
tili. This deposit we should recognize as having been formed in
harbors, like those of Newport and Charleston, and the imbedding sub-
stance would be clay, and the finer materials washed by feeble cur-
rents from the rivers, which discharge their waters into these large
estuaries. Then we should find the same shells mixed with a variety
of other species imbedded in sand, abundantly intermixed with frag-
ments of the same species. This would represent the bed of the
ocean in the shallower parts along the coast ; and then perhaps farther
to the east, other species again would be discovered, which now live
only in the deeper parts of the sea.
In adopting the terms given by Lyell to the European tertiary
formations, we by no means imply that the American equivalents are
of precisely the same age, or that they were influenced by the same
convulsions. We only mean that they occupy the same relative po-
sitions, and they may have all originated through the agency of con-
vulsions not operating beyond the limits of the continent of America
and the adjacent islands,
Transactions of the Geological Society of France. 283
Art. XVII.—WNotice of the Transactions of the Geological Soci-
ety raat for 1833, by M. Bourg, 8vo. p. 506. By C. U.
SHEPARD
Tuts very recent society, although organized for the promotion
of geological science, already holds the first rank, for the number
and activity of its members. We propose to give some account of
the plan of its report for 1833, selecting such abstracts as appear
most likely to interest American readers.
The report does not confine itself exclusively to geology, but in-
cludes notices relative to the Natural Sciences generally, Mathemat-
ics, Medicine and Statistics—so far as they have any connexion with
the object of the association. It begins with an enumeration of the
new societies and new publications for 1833.
NEW SOCIETIES AND PUBLICATIONS.
The Natural History Society of Paris, has undergone a transfor-
mation of some importance, and now bears the name of the Société
des Sciences Naturelles. Its present plan is peculiarly adapted to a
system of lectures and scientific conferences. Its lectures, given by
the most distinguished naturalists at every hour of the day, are public
and gratuitous for all students resorting to the capital for instruction.
It has a section for physics and chemistry ; another for zoology and
anatomy ; a third for geology and physical geography, and a fourth
for anthropology.
A scientific congress, similar to the British association, although
much more limited, consisting of but two hundred members, held its
first meeting at Caen, under the presidency of M. Gurzor. It con-
sists of the following sections ; viz. general history, physical and ag-
ricultural sciences, medical sciences, history, literature and political
economy. Their transactions form one volume 8vo. entitled Con-
grés Scientifiques de France, Rouen, 1833. The meeting for 1834,
was to be held at Poitiers.*
* The condition of the public libraries of Paris tofcomplaint. The
Royal library is said to be defieient in every thing rec ernd, That of the Institute,
is not well arranged, or regulated for easy consultation, besides which the place
is uncomfortable to visitors in winter, and many of the foreign journals are incom-
plete. The library of the School of Mines, contains a valuable collection of books
and parti icularly those journals which are important to the geologist, a part of
which, it is to be regretted, are deficient in some of their numbers. The libr
of the Gaitien of Plants, is said, on the whole, to present the greatest facilities for
284 Transactions of the Geological Society of France.
The Annales des Sciences Naturelles, are to be henceforth divi-
ded into two compartments ; one devoted to zoology and edited by
MM. Avpourn and Minne Epwarps; the other to botany, under
the direction of MM. Av. Broneniartr and Giottemin. Mz. J.
pe FonTene.e, publishes a monthly journal of the Physical and
Chemical Sciences, and of the agricultural and domestic arts.
M. E. Arnovxt, commenced in May, 1833, the Journal Heb-
domedaire des Académies et des Sociétés Savantes de la Franceet de
Pétranger, (in Ato.)
The Belgic Royal Academy of Sciences, has published at Brus-
sels, two fine volumes of Geological Memoirs, relative to Liége.
M. Donon is author of one of these, and M. Davrevx, of the other.
The Scientific Congress of German Naturalists, held their meet-
ing for 1833 at Breslau; and their Bulletin vol. 4, is particularly
rich in the department of mineralogy.
A Polytechnic Academy, has been established at Brunswick, in
which M. C. Harrmany, is the professor of geology.
As to periodical publications in Germany, it is much to be regret-
ted, that M. Kerersrein, has discontinued the Teuchland. But
Prof. Harrmann, has commenced anew the Annals of Mineralogy,
Geology and of Mines, (Jahrbuch de Mineral. Geolog. etc. Nurem-
berg, 8vo.), and M. Grocxer, the Annual Review of Mineralogy,
(Mineralogische Hefte, Breslau, Svo.). There appeared in 1833,
six numbers instead of four, of the Annals of Mineralogy, Geology
and Paleontology, by MM. Leonnarp and Bronn. The Anna-
len of Poccenporr, have become weekly. The Jahrbuch fur den
Berg u. Hutten., Freiberg, Svo., has reached its 17th vol. It
publishes a minute account of whatever relates to the important min-
ing district of Saxony. M. Freiesiezen, has concluded, in the 16th
number, his Magazine, devoted to the Oryctography of Saxony.
M. J. Scurxro, has published in Vienna, a work upon the art 0
mining, entitled Beitrage zur Bergbaukunde insbes. zur Bergmas-
chinen lehre, Svo.
MM. Frozen and Heer, professors at Zurich, have commenc-
ed a journal of Geograghy and Geology, (Mittheilungen aus d. the-
oretischen Erdkunde.)
reference. M. Bove recommends a more special selection of books in the future
management of these great libraries, as likely to be attended with less expense in
maintaining a valuable collection, as well as promotive of the convenience of those
whoa frequent them.
Transactions of the Geological Society of France. 285
M. prKosexx has resumed in the Academy of Munich, the pro-
gress of Mineralogy, (Uber die Fortschritte der Mineralogie. Mu-
nich, 4to.)
The annual mineralogical publication by M. Guocxer of Breslau,
entitled Mineralogische Jahreshefte deserves to be well received
by the public, for at present there is no other work especially devo-
ted to the progress of Mineralogy, a science which is particularly
cultivated in Germany. Formerly, Leonnarp performed this ser-
vice in his excellent Taschenbuch. The progress of chemical min-
eralogy still continues to be correctly reported in the Annales des
Mines, the Philosophical Magazine, and in the yearly reports of Brr-
ZELIUS ; whilst three or four German journals embrace more partic-
ularly the new discoveries of crystallographical mineralogy.
Geology every where makes inroads upon the domains of Mine-
ralogy, so much the more, as the progress of this last science becomes
more difficult to follow from the accumulation of chemical analyses,
and from the impossibility of seeing and handling what is supposed
to be sufficiently indicated by a formula. The Crystallographer
gives us at least, the means of recognizing minerals, while the chem-
ist seems to compel us to analyze every mineral that we obtain.
M. Giocxer commences with the recent progress of mineralogy,
after which he enters into details concerning the discoveries made in
crystallography, and in the physical and chemical properties of min-
erals ; finally, he reviews the different families of minerals, in order
to particularize the new species, and the new observations made upon
species before known.
Frepv. Arex. Hartmann has announced a similar work for 1834,
under the title of Repertorium der Mineralogie, ete. Leipzic, Svo.
Serarp Gravente has published in London a syntax of mineral-
ogy, or a view of the natural families of simple, double, and com-
pound minerals, forming a circle of affinities. (Syntax of Mineralo-
gy, &c. London, 1833, 1 sheet fol.)
M. C. Savucrrorre is about to present under the form of synop-
tic tables with figures, the Elements of Natural History, and has
Commenced by giving a table of mineralogy, (Paris, 1833, 4to.)
M. Atex. Bronenurr has published a new edition of his Tableau
de la distribution Méthodique des espéces minérales, survie dans son
Cours de Minéralogie.
F. peKoseut has contrived tables for the determination of min-
€rals by means of simple chemical essays by the dry or the humid
286 ‘Transactions of the Geological Society of France.
way. (Tafeln zur Bestimmung d. Mincralien, etc. Munich, 1883,
Ato.)
M. G. Sucxow has promised a work on Mineralogy for 1834,
(Grundriss der Mineralogie. Darmstadt, 1834, 8vo.)
Leronuarp has given a second edition of his Elements of oryc-
tognosy, (Grundzug der Oryctognosie, in 8vo.) He has adopted
the chemical system of Gme.en.
Prof. Demerrivs Soxoiov has published at St. Petersburg, @
treatise on Mineralogy, (Roukovadstvo k. Mineralogii, 2 vols. 8vo.)
Gustavus Rose has commenced his treatise on Mineralogy, by
the publication of the crystallographical part of his work, (Elemente
der Krystallographie, etc. Berlin, 1833, 8vo.) After the example
of MM. Wess and Rarzesure, he gives at the end of the volume
a complete table of the species arranged according to their different
systems of crystallization, adding by the side of each mineral, its
chemical formula and occasionally some interesting remarks.
M. Uupe has given a philosophical essay, concerning the devel-
opement of the mechanical laws of crystallization, (Versuch einer
genetischen Entwickelung, etc. Bremen, 1833, 8vo.)
MM. Leopotp Pitta and M. F. Cassoua, commenced in 1832,
a semi-monthly journal of geology, entitled lo Spettatore del Vesu-
vio di campi Flegret.
The Imperial Mineralogical society of St. Petersburg, have pub-
ished but four Memoirs in 1831. The University of Moscow, com-
menced in 1833, a monthly journal of Science, entitled Outchentia
Zapiski imp. Moskovskago Ouneversiteta. Numerous libraries and
cabinets for the illustration of science are rapidly forming in various
parts of Russia. Even in the government of Irkutsk, in Siberia, 2
gymnasium which existed in 1805, has undergone much improve-
ment since 1828. It has a library of many thousand volumes, 2
physical cabinet, a collection of minerals, of rocks and of shells.
Ina preparatory school of Mines, mineralogy and the sciences which
are connected with mining, are taught.
Russia presents a most remarkable example of the rapidity with
which intelligence pervades a community but partially civilized.
The government takes the lead in promoting this diffusion of knowl-
edge. The sciences contribute to the augmentation of national
wealth, and the researches which this supports, lead to new discov-
eries.
Transactions of the Geological Society of France. 287
Geology and mineralogy have particularly engaged the attention
the Russian government, inasmuch as its mineral riches are so
widely diffused. The count of Canerin, equally distinguished as a
philosopher and as minister of state, has for ten years, given a pow-
erful impulse to these studies. ‘The government had undertaken in
1833, eight expeditions, four of which were directed to the Urals,
for the purpose of completing a geological map of this important
chain of mountains. These enterprises were to be completed in
seven years by a general map of these countries.
Information has been sought concerning the district north of the
Ural, with a view to extend a knowledge of the auriferous sands.
The trans-caucasian region is becoming better known every year.
The volcanic soils, and the rich deposits of Glauber’s salts, have par-
ticularly attracted the attention of geologists. The Oriental acqui-
sitions of Russia also, have been followed by scientific researches.
Moldavia and Wallachia, likewise have been geologically explored.
But if Russia merits this tribute for the fostering hand she has exten-
ded to science in her own dominions, what shall we say of her cru-
el policy towards the two principal Universities of Poland, from
which she has dismissed MM. Puscn and Zeuscuer, their pro-
fessors of geology, together with the other instructors of these insti-
tutions! The collection of the former, bas been sold in Russia, and
every means employed to prevent the dissemination of instruction
within the territory of Poland, in the hope of compelling her sons.
to resort exclusively to the Russian Universities.
The Hungarian Academy has printed, unfortunately for man-
kind, in the Hungarian language, its first volume of memoirs.
(Trattner karolyi Nyomtatasa, 1833, 4to.)
The Natural History Society of the Island of Mauritius, appears
to be very actively engaged with the science of Geology. M.J. Des-
JaRDINs, has given some account of its labors in the Aszatic Journal,
vol. xii, p. 127. An African Review, has been commenced in the
Island, under the title of the Cerneen
The Asiatic Society, has published since 1832, two volumes of
memoirs, relating to geology and geography.
A learned society has been founded at Van Diemen’s Land, and
a number of persons are engaged in geological observations in New
Holland, while Gurauarr has coapeunel a periodical in China, the
Principal object of which is to make that people acquainted with Eu-
Fopean science.
238 Transactions of the Geological Society of France.
AEROLITES.
A mass of iron, partly scoriaceous, found in the environs of Mag-
debourg, has attracted for many years, the attention of chemists.
Some have regarded it as an artificial product, inasmuch as analysis
indicated its composition to be different from that of any meteoric
iron hitherto examined. M.Srromeyer, who first referred this
mass to this class of bodies, has repeated the analysis, and presented
various objections against the idea of its artificial origin. He has de-
tected in it a very small quantity of nickel and of cobalt, of molyb-
dena and of arsenic, and a trace of sulphuret of silver: capillary
native copper and variegated copper ore take the place in it of mag-
netic iron pyrites. Now the ores of iron and of copper employed
in northern Germany, have never been known to contain any molyb-
dena. ‘This fact would seem to prove that the mass could not have
been the product of the furnace.
According to M. Burxarr the mass of meteoric iron at Charcas
near Catorze in Mexico weighs 9 quintals.
The majority of philosophers have believed, and still think, that
aerolites and meteoric iron are elevated to a high temperature while
traversing the atmosphere ; nevertheless there is but little agreement
concerning the degree of heat observed in them immediately after
their fall. Recently an experiment of M. Breriey, repeated by
M. p’Arcer has rendered this high temperature doubtful: a bar of
iron, heated to whiteness, was held in the current of air, from the
blowing machine of a forge; the metal did not cool, but burnt bril-
liantly, throwing off glowing particles in every direction. ‘The tem-
perature of the iron rather increased than diminished under the in-
fluence of the current of air.
M. Jutes Lovis Ipever has discussed with great learning, the
subject of fire-balls, andof the Aurora borealis, (Ueber d. Ursprung
d. Feuerkugeln, etc. Berlin, 1832, 8vo.) He is the author also of
the Meteorologia veterum Grecorum et Romanorum, Berlin, 1832,
Svo. and of a work on Hail and the electric phenomena of the at-
mosphere. (Untersuchungen uber den Hagel, etc. Leipzic, 1833,
8vo.)
The facts brought forward lead to the following conclusions :
1. The fall of aerolites generally takes place in summer, and at the
period of the equinoxes, that is, in the season of the most abundant
rains.
2. The frequency of this phenomenon diminishes from the equa-
tor to the poles, —— in general the annual quantity of rain dimin-
Transactions of the Geological Society of France. 289
ishes with the mean temperature of localities, allowance being made
for the considerable influence of the direction of the winds.
3. The formation of aerolites in a cloud, having their coloris anal-
ogous to that of rain; as it rains with a clear sky, so in the same
manner aerolites descend unattended with the appearance of clouds.
4. The luminous appearance andthe noise resembling thunder,
are produced by electricity, which appear in all atmospheric phe-
nomena. ‘The different colors of fire balls, during their descent, are
the effect of the disengagement of different kinds of electricity.
It is very likely that aerolites may fall without being preceded by fire
balls, as it rains very powerfully without lightning, when the tempera-
ture of the eriform column is below the point of thawing.
5. Aerolites sometimes fall without noise, because the electric ex-
plosion has taken place in very elevated regions ; there are analogous
cases of lightning at the zenith without thunder.
The author therefore regards the formation of aerolites in the at-
mosphere as the most plausible theory, and recurs to the ideas ex-
pressed by Aristotle and Seneca, two thousand years ago: “Varia et
multa terrarum orbis exspirat, quedam humida, quedam sicca, que-
dam alcentia, quedam concipiendis igpibus idonea. Nec mirum est,
Si terre et omnis generis evaporatio est.’’
Not satisfied with these observations, M. Ipruer adds others, in
Support of this theory. ‘Thus, he quotes certain hail storms, in
which the bail stones possessed a metallic nucleus resembling aero-
lites; and remarks that the appearance of fire balls and of aerolites
is preceded by more or less distinct glimmerings (Jweurs) of light,
and that the phenomena in question is connected with atmospheric
changes, and these again with revolutions which take place within
the interior of the earth. The simultaneous fall of meteoric stones
in different countries is also in favor of their atmospheric origin, and
itoften takes place during storms.
. F. G. Fisuer has published in the memoirs of the Academy
of Berlin, a memoir upon the origin of aerolites, in which he adopts
the foregoing ideas, and supposes that electricity performs an impor-
tant part in the phenomenon.
Concerning the shooting stars, M. Ineuer endeavors to prove by
facts that they are merely precipitations of animal and vegetable mat-
ters disseminated through the atmosphere.
Finally, with respect to the Aurora borealis, he supposes that the
Precipitation formed by the =. am in the elevated portions of
Vou. XXVIII.—No. 2
290 Transactions of the Geological Society of France.
the atmosphere take place in the regions of the magnetic poles, un-
der the form of the Aurora borealis, for the reason that the ferrugi-
nous particles arrange themselves about the pole in an order similar
to that of iron filings around a magnetic bar. Future observations
upon terrestrial magnetism will aid in explaining the anomalies of this
phenomenon.
The vaporization of all solid and fluid bodies goes on under every
degree of temperature. When the maximum of density in the va-
por is passed, a precipitate occurs, and clouds, cirri, or mists are form-
ed, which rest upon the earth, or a concretionary formation takes place.
The latter case happens partly from the condensation of clouds,
sometimes under a clear sky, sometimes without electric explosion
(aerolites,) or with the phenomena of electricity (fire balls); finally,
the fall of these bodies takes place in small particles, or agglomerated
into masses of a larger size, and analogous to hail.
If such are the phenomena beyond the polar regions; near the
magnetic poles, the precipitates being attracted, would continually
_ be undergoing an arrangement in a circular series, and thus produce
the aurora borealis.
This kind of precipitation might take place cotemporaneously with
aqueous precipitation, in which case there would oceur rains attend-
ed by foreign mixtures.
Professor Grurruutsenis occupied with the origin of aerolites and
shooting stars; and he has proved by mathematical calculations foun-
ded upon physics, that these bodies must necessarily be formed be-
yond our atmosphere, in the interplanetary space, where the metals
and the metalloids, he says, are still held in solution by means of
hydrogen, and where they exist continually for the formation of these
opake bodies.
According to Herscwenn, the observation of the shooting stars
may be useful for the determination of longitude. The height of
the meteors seen by M. Qurrexer, is estimated at from ten to
eighteen leagues from the earth, and their motion at from five to
eight Atarics per second ; results which correspond with those of
Branpes eel other German philosophers.
CHEMICAL MINERALOGY.
M. Fenty has discovered an interesting repository of salts in a
cavern upon the Bosjesman river at the Cape of Good Hope. They
occur in beds, the upper one of which is composed of a siliceous
Transactions of the Geological Society of France. 91
plumose alum, and is six inches in thickness. It covers a stratum
of epsom-salt, one and a half inches in thickness. The epsom-
salt is accompanied by decomposed mineral substances and lamine
of Mica. M. Srromeyver has detected among these foreign sub-
stances, silica, alumina, a little iron, manganese, a little lime and mag-
nesia, common salt, sulphate of manganese, &c. A micaceous
quartz rock impregnated with alum and epsom-salt supports the
whole. The roof of the cave is formed in general, by a quartzose
conglomerate containing iron pyrites, and oxide of manganese.
Inanalyzing the alum of the Cape, M. Srromeyer found that it forms
a new sub species to which he gives the name of Manganesiferous
and Manganesian alum. He compared it with the fibrous alum
found with lignite at Tschermig in Bohemia, because M. Ficinus
had supposed that this also was a magnesian alum ; but his research-
es have confirmed the ;results obtained by MM. Lampapius and
Gruner, who had classed it with ammoniacal alum.
M. Srromeyer found the African epsom-salt mixed with a notable
quantity of sulphate of manganese. The same chemist was induced
by these researches to undertake anew, the analysis of certain saline
efflorescences from Idria, Arragon, and Neusoh] in Hungary. The
Idrian salt instead of being alum, is epsom-salt. The stalactites of
bitter salt from Hungary owe their rose red color to sulphate of cobalt,
and contain also, sulphate of copper, of manganese and protoxide of
copper, as well as water mechanically lodged in their cavities. The
saline needles from Arragon are pure epsom-salt.
M. Becevere. has discovered methods for crystallizing in the
humid way, the sulphurets, iodides, and bromides of the different
metals, and particularly of the metallic oxides.
Galena being volatile and susceptible of being obtained erystal-
lized by sublimation, it has been inferred that this substance was for-
med in the igneous way, jn metalliferous veins. Nevertheless this
ore is found in other situations, where the geologist would be led to
attribute to it an aqueous origin, if chemical facts were not opposed
toit. With his characteristic invention, M. Bequeret applied him-
self to the question whether this substance could not be crystallized
in the humid way. He employed for this purpose a sulphuret of
mercury, upon which he poured a solution of the chloride of mag-
nesium ; he introduced into the mixture a lamina of Jead and closed
up the whole hermetically in a glass tube. After the expiration of
many months, he found that the lead had passed to the state of a sul-
292 ‘Transactions of the Geological Society of France.
phuret in consequence of the developement of an electro-chemical
action. The contact of the lead with the chloride produces a double
chloride, the magnesium is momentarily set at liberty, the lead be-
comes electro-negative and the solution electro-positive ; the first al-
ters the sulphuret of mercury, while the sulphur which is electro-
negative goes to the double chloride. A portion of sulphur combines
with the lead of the double chloride and gives rise to a sulphuret,
whilst another portion combines with the chloride of magnesium
forms a sulpho-chloride. The artificial sulphuret of lead crys-
tallizes in regular tetrahedrons, which is a form comprised within
the system of crystallization of the cube, as well as of the octahe-
dron.
M. Bequeret obtained in the same way, analogous results with
sulphuret of antimony, zinc and iron.
Geologists must be happy to find this distinguished chemist, apply-
ing his knowledge of electro-chemistry, to the study of the altera-
tions which daily take place on the surface of the earth as well as
within its interior. In his first memoir on this subject he is occupied
with the formation of carbonate of lead upon plates of that metal
subjected to the action of carbonic acid coming from the decomposi-
tion of wood. In this case, the energy of the action of the acid was
augmented by the contact of the metal with a wood already decom-
posed, and iniiuencing the circulation of the electric fluid. »
He has also examined the formation of the phosphate of iron,
crystallized in the midst of an accumulation of vegetables, of bones -
and of fragments of gneiss; and has been led to observe that the
crystals were placed upon fragments of carbonised wood, that is, on
the best conductors for reproducing gradually, the neutral fluid, dur-
ing the continual disengagement of the two electricities, which takes
place in the mutual reaction of the different portions of the mixture.
He also remarked, between the layers gf the gneiss, phosphate of
iron formed at the expense of the iron in the mica, through the ac-
tion of the solutions containing other phosphates ; the result of the
operation was a mica destitute of color.
' GEOLOGY.
Origin of Nitre—The theory of the origin of Nitre is a ques-
tion of considerable interest to the geologist, not only in itself, but i
its connexion with the origin of various other saline substances.
Gautigr pr Crausry has described the operation of nitrification,
Transactions of the Geological Society of France. 293
in a notice of the nitrifiable chalky limestone of Roche-Guyon and
Mousseau in the department of Seine and Oise. He concluded that
if the chalk contains animal matter in the places from whence the
nitre is obtained, that it is too scarce to have any influence upon the
phenomenon. Carbonate of lime, without a trace of organic matter
nitrifies simply under the influence of the air and of moisture. Un-
der these influences aided by the sun, the chalk might absorb the
principles of the air and effect the formation of nitric acid, in conse-
quence of the production of ammonia and its action on azoted sub-
stances.
M. Fovrner proposes a new explanation of this curious opera-
tion. He finds it in the united influence of water and of porous
bodies upon the elements of the air, in order to form the protoxide
of azote, which combined with water, can give origin to the nitrate
of ammonia at once, by a simple isomeric action. This nitrate, de-
composed gradually by the carbonate of lime, is converted into nitrate
of lime and into volatile carbonate of ammonia, which is withdrawn
by the currents of air, necessary for the developement of nitrifica-
tion.
Origin of Fossil Pyrites.—Iron Pyrites, and Pyritic petrifactions
m animal carcases have never been satisfactorily explained. Since
gelatinous matter appears to have favored the conglomeration of sil-
ica, and consequently the formation of siliceous petrifactions, so like-
wise the putrefaction of animal matter having produced sulphuretted
hydrogen, if any particles of oxide of iron should happen to be pres-
ent in the surrounding mud, pyrites would be formed, and would ac-
cumulate about the places where the gas is disengaged.
Origin of Amber.—M. T. Axsst has discussed anew the origin
of amber, which he says isa resin of the Conifere. He has exam-
ined particularly that Castrogiovanni i in Sicily, and he cites, though
not with perfect confidence, a specimen of amber containing a land
Shell. (Atti dell. Acad. Giwn. di Stor. nat. di Catania, vol. 6,
p. 17.)
M. Grarrenaver has also given to the Strasbourg society of the
Sciences, a monograph on amber, which he supposes to have origi-
nated in extinct species of trees.
Origin of Sulphur —C. Gemexuaro has read before the Acad-
omy of Catania, a memoir, entitled a new theory relative to the ori-
gin of sulphur. He supposes that it originates in the decomposition
of naked mollusca, and that being acidified by the action of subter-
294 Transactions of the Geological Society of France.
ranean fire, it has been converted into sulphate of lime, and also giv-
en rise to the sulphate of strontian, which in the tertiary clays of
Sicily is associated with the preceding minerals: an idea which may
well becompared with the ancient opinion that volcanoes are kept ac-
tive by the inflammation of coal beds.
General view of the Progress of Geology for 1833.—The num-
ber of observers has become so great, that one year suffices to give
us information respecting the largest part of the globe ; ina few years
no countries will remain untrod by the feet of civilized man. The
past year has been especially remarkable for the important descrip-
tions it has furnished of the three peninsulas of Southern Europe,
of Mexico, South America, and Hindostan. For the rest, England,
France, Germany, Italy, Russia and the United States continue to
hold the first rank in this kind of publications. Their number gives
after the order in which they have been mentioned, the succession
of the following figures: 45, 46, 31,19, 15, and 16.
Of treatises on Geology, those of Lyeun and De ta Becue are
the most distinguished of this period. As to particular subjects of
geology, numerous facts have been collected, especially in France,
England and Germany. Upon craters of elevation, the theory of
dislocations and of the formation of mountains has been perfected ;
finally new ideas have been daily made respecting the origin of cer-
tain rocks, such as the quartz rocks, primitive limestone, porphyry
and trap. Mineral waters and artesian wells continue to afford in-
teresting observations. During 1833, they have principally been
made in Germany, France and Italy ; and the theory of their origin
as well as that of internal heat, is becoming better and better estab-
lished, especially in England and France. Paleontology does not
cease to develope the riches of the ancient vegetable and animal
creations. The year, 1833, has been marked by the appearance of
special works, upon plants, and different classes of animals, such as
the mammifere and the fishes. If Germany has taken the Jead in
information relating to fossil geology, i it has not furnished more than
France and England concerning vegetable impressions. In palzeon-
tology, all other countries except the United States are quite in the
back ground. This proves that a highly advanced state of civiliza-
tion is necessary for the entire and minute cultivation of a science,
as well as for the discussion of the highest theoretical questions,
whilst works purely descriptive are well adapted to a less advanced
state of national intelligence
Transactions of the Geological Society of France. 295
This likewise furnishes the key to the differences between the
numbers of the theoretical and descriptive publications made in the
different countries.
The works and memoirs for 1833, may be divided and arranged
as follows :—
Treatises. Memoirs. Total.
Astronomy, - - - 10 10 20
Physics, - ie ek 20 23
Magnetism, “~~ <=" * **= 3 38 40
Meteorology, = - - - 12 43 55
Chemistry, - - - 5 42 47
Hydrography, - . ite 13 15
Mineral Waters, - . 22 Q1 43
Artesian Wells, - - a 15 18
Natural History, - - 29 4} 70
Mineralogy, - - - 24 29 53
Physical Geography, - 32 11 43
Treatises on Geology, - - 15 8 23
Particular subjects of Geology, 3 22 25
Memoirs on Volcanoes, ~ 2 = 14
Veins, - 5 5
Craters of elevation, 16 16
———— Elevations, - - 14 14
Geological Geography, - 22 208 230
———— Maps, - - - 31
Sections, - 28
Levelings, - - - ee 13 14
General Paleontology, - - 3 1 4
Fossil remains of Man, - - 2 2
ammifere, 2 22 24
Caverns with bones, - vee | 10 11
Fossil Reptiles, - - 1 6 7
ishes, - - - i 7 8
Crustaceous Fossils, - - | 5 6
Molluscous, —- - - 5 17 22
Fossil Plants, - - 4 11 15
There have appeared then, in a physical and natural sciences,
144 treatises and 276 memoirs, in the whole; and in geology and
Paleontology, 61 treatises and 414 memoirs, or in the whole 205
treatises and 690 memoirs, or 895 publications.
296 Travels of a Naturalist in the Alps.
The relation of the different numbers of these two kinds of publi-
cations, peculiarly characterizes our epoch, in which, besides the
ruling spirit of association, there exists a strong disposition, to render
public, ideas as soon as they are conceived. The ilotism of philoso-
phers has ceased along with the publication of voluminous works,
which formerly appeared from time to time, as rareties, and were
the labors of an entire life. If formerly they produced sometimes
perfect works, isolated authors did not enjoy as now, the advantage
of obtaining information by discussion, during the composition of their
works. Occupied thus by themselves, they were more apt to be
misled than at present, where each chapter of a treatise is dissected
beforehand in the periodical journals.
In comparing the number of works of 1833 with those of 1830,
1831 and 1832, we find the ratio to be expressed by the following
figures: 300, 450, 500 and 900.
Art. XVIIl.—Notice of the “ Travels of a Naturalist in the Alps;”
Read before the Society of Naturalists at Soleure, by their Presi-
dent, Fr. Jos. Huei. (Naturhistorische Alpenreise. Vorgelesen
der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft in Solothurn von irhrem Vors-
teher, Fr. Jos. Hue1, Lehrer.) By C, U. Sueparp.
AurHoveH it is more than four years since this volume made its
appearance, its contents are so valuable and entertaining as to merit
being made known to such American readers as feel an interest in
Geology and Meteorology. It deserves the more attention also, as
we have, even in New England, a sub Alpine range still unexplored,
and of whose geological character we know little else, than that a few
of its elevations consist chiefly of granite, gneiss and mica slate ;*
whilst its meteorological phenomena have been wholly neglected.
The travels of Hugi were chiefly in that portion of the Helvetian
Alps, known as the Bernese Alps, extending along the north of the
Rhone, from the lake of Geneva to the valley of Unterwallden. He
also made excursions through the neighboring parts of the Pennine
Alps, and thence over St. Gothard tothe valley of Uri; he likewise vis-
ited the Rigi and Mount Pilate.
* In Vol. XVIII. p. 291 of this Journal, I pointed ont the existence of a bree-
ciated rock, consisting of fragments of argillite as existing high up the sides of
the Kearsage peak at Fryeburg, Me., which serves to render doubtful the supposed
homogeneous character of these mountains.
Travels of a Naturalist in the Alps. 297
His journeys were prosecuted during the years 1828 and 29; and
the work in its numerous maps, geological sections, and tables of me-
teorological observations at various remote and elevated points, evin-
ces an extraordinary activity, while its details make known some of
the most toilsome and hazardous adventures recorded in the history
of geology, probably not excepting those of Saussure.
Unaided by the sections appended to the volume, it is difficult to
do justice to the author’s geological observations. With a view how-
ever, to render intelligible the general structure of the Bernese Alps,
we give the following description of the strata from the Lauterbrun-
nen valley to the summit of the Jungfrau.
1. Lowest, proper granite, including strata of gneiss and mica slate.
2. Alpine limestone, (Muschelkalk).
3. Greywacke interposed formation, (Wacke).
4. Lias.
5. Secondary granite, (High granite).
The lowest of these limestones, or that which rests immediately
upon the primitive granite is characterized as follows: Its color is
ash or smoke grey, sometimes with a shade of blue or red, but
wherever in contact with the granite it is white. More rarely it is
black, in which case it becomes siliceous and is veined with Calcare-
ous Spar. Its fracture is even, and mostly large conchoidal, except-
ing where in contact with granite or gypsum, when it becomes gran-
ular. It is considerably siliceous, frequently bituminous, and is regu-
larly stratified in thin layers. It is a remarkably uniform formation,
suffering no other transition than into a white granular dolomite
when in contact with the proper granite. ‘The thickness in some
places is very great, while in others it is very thin, in which case, it
contains petrifactions.
Next in the ascending order, occurs the interposed formation, con-
sisting of a pisiform iron stone, a granitic sandstone (composed of
granitic materials) and a porphyritic greywacke. Its commence-
ment and progress, from below upwards, is thus described. At
first the lime begins to diminish, being replaced by alumina and ox-
ide of iron. It is only in the highest strata of the Alpine limestone that
organic remains begin to occur, such as Ammonites, Mytilites, Tere-
bratulites, &c. At this point, the limestone formation must be re-
garded as having reached its termination. Suddenly organie depo-
Sitions cease; and the strata pass into a quartzose pumice-like con-
glomerate, held together by a calcareous cement. Grains of feld-
—No. 2.
298 Tavels of a Naturalist in the Alps.
spar are also discernible in the aggregate in certain places. By de-
grees, as the formation proceeds, it becomes a homogeneous, siliceous
slate, which in many places is also vesicular. ‘The quartz now sud-
denly disappears, and the particles of feldspar only remain. The
general mass. becomes a blackish, slaty clay with a shining shistose
surface and a coarse cross fracture, in which individuals of white feld-
spar are visible. An increase of lime now commences, and with it
reappear the petrefactions, such as Belemnites, Ammonites, Mytili-
tes, Terebratulites, &c. This porphyritic greywacke-slate may be
regarded as the commencement of the lias, while the pisiform iron-
stone forms the conclusion of the Alpine limestone ; consequently
only the granitic sandstone can be considered as constituting the in-
termediate or interposed formation.
As the lime obtains the ascendancy in the porphyritic slate, the
feldspar disappears, and the earthy granular fracture changes into
a pisi form or concentric granular structure ; the Belemnites and Am-
monites disappear, while the Rerabeatakied Mytilites, &c. still re-
main, but only in the inferior layers. It is of immense thickness,
and is characterized as follows: The color is black; when the lime
predominates, (in consequence of which the layers become thicker,)
its structure is oolitic and frequently crystalline ; but when alumina
prevails, (which renders it shistose,) the cross fracture becomes even
and sometimes splintery ; and finally, when silica is superadded in
large proportion to both, the texture becomes coarse, like that of
greywacke. No formation is so protean as this; at one time, it pre-
sents us with a series of wackes, at another with marls, gryphite-lime-
stone, &c. Indeed, Hvar is of opinion from a close examination ©
the Jura and the Alps that these, as members of one and the same
leading formation, occupy under a multiform alternation with each
other, nearly the entire space between the Alpine and Jura limestone.
It appears therefore, that with a single interposed formation, the
Alps contain but two leading limestone formations, above which oc-
curs, in particular spots, a third; the chalk with Jove limestone.
It eins, in the enumeration of the Alpine series, to speak of
anite, whose existence the author seems to have es-
tablished on very satisfactory grounds, notwithstanding the opinion
of some geologists that what he has taken for granite is only a variety
of sandstone. The observations of Exre pe Beaumont in the
eprint d Oisans* fally confirm the ideas advanced by Huet.
“* This geologist found eee cutting through, and resting upon, deposits be-
longing to the oolite series
Travels of a Naturalist in the Alps. 299
This granite forms the most elevated portions of the Bernese Alps,
and generally reposes upon the lias, though in some instances where
this basis is wanting, it rests upon the Alpine limestone, or even on
primitive granite. The name high granite (hochgranit) is given by
Hvar in allusion to its forming the summits of the mountains. As
represented in the views contained inthe work, it sometimes offers a
strong resemblance in the abruptness of its elevations to trap forma-
tions ; although it ison the whole, more prone to form needle shaped
summits than the laiter rock. The author also calls it halfgranite,
(haibgranit,) probably owing to the differences in internal structure
between it and primitive granite. Some of its peculiarities are the
following: It is very liable to decomposition, and particularly so,
near the summits of the peaks, where masses readily separate into
irregularly shaped fragments, which are stained red or black on the
outside. Even the entire surface in some places is red from oxide of
iron, (whence the name Rottha/*,) or black from the oxide of man-
ganese. It is tolerably fine grained: and the ingredients are in gen-
eral uniformly distributed, with the exception of the mica, which is
sometimes collected into balls by itself. The quartz occasionally
preponderates, and in some cases hornblende is substituted for mica
or is superadded to it.
The peers of occurrence observed by the fossils is the same
throughout the Bernese Alps as has been observed in the Jura.
They appear plentifully, only when the formation approaches its
state of transition, where the lime begins to be replaced by alumina
and silica. If however, they do occur in more homogeneous strata,
that is, in the leading formations themselves, they are principally con-
fined to the lowest and to the highest layers, near the commence-
ment and the termination of the formation. ‘'Terebratulites and a
few other bivalves appear to form an exception to this law, these
fossils enjoying a wider distribution. Another law relating to organ-
ic remains is that their number is, in general, in an inverse order com-
pared with the thickness of the formations. This is quite generally
the case throughout the Alps. ‘The white Jura limestone, wherever
found in considerable thickness as on the Balm near Soleure, affords
no vestige of fossil remains, even when examined from the bottom
quite to the top. It was partly on this account that it was errone-
ously regarded as the oldest formation of the chain. Yet when this
eee tiinieiieninngeiiein
* Red Valley.
300 Travels of a Naturalist in the Alps.
same formation was examined at points where its thickness was less,
petrifactions made their appearance. ‘The same holds true in the in-
terposed marl, and in the members of the lias, the oolites and mus-
chelkalk. When however, petrifactions do occur (which is some-
what rare,) in the thicker portions of a formation, the same species
are always smaller than when found where it is thinner, which fact
has been observed also both by Sruper and Bove. Hver remarks
still farther, that the petrifactions of the Jura prevail through the Al-
pine chain generally, but less frequently and of a smaller size; and
he suggests the law, that the larger the dimensions of mountain
chains, the smaller are the size and number of their fossil contents.
It is natural that such favorable opportunities for geological obser-
vations as the Alps present, should suggest some theoretical views
concerning the origin of formations; and whoever peruses this vol-
ume would indeed be surprised if the highly imaginative tempera-
ment of its author could be restrained to the humble, though often
arduous, labor of mere description. Accordingly, commencing his
concluding section but one, with the motto, ‘“ Sterilis est voluptas
contemplandi nature opes, ubi ad illarum causas indagandas non
procedit ratiocinatio,” he proceeds to give his theory, which may
be stated succinctly as follows: There are three classes of formations,
the primitive, secondary, and tertiary. The primitive is formed by
crystallization or deposition from a fluid state. It includes two se-
ries. The first embracing gneiss and mica slate was formed from
without, inwards; the second consisting of muschelkalk (Alpine
limestone,) lias and Jura limestone, was formed from within, out-
wards. The secondary, to which belong granite, sienite, porphyry
half granite, and also gypsum and dolomite, was formed from an in-
ternal metamorphosis, (chemical change,) attended with the extrica-
tion of gases and upheavings, before the primitive had reached its
fixed state. ‘Tertiary, includes dolerite, basalt and lava, and was
formed from the primitive or secondary by an internal metamorpho-
sis after they had reached their fixed state. This metamorphosis he
imagines to be the result of a living, active principle, pervading all
nature.
It is obvious that this theory is adapted with considerable skill to
the phenomena of Alpine geology ; nor does it so far differ from the
current notions in the science, as to be incapable of an easy transla-
tion into such views. But to propose the living activity of the earth
in explanation of geological appearances, is quite as remarkable as
Travels of a Naturalist in the Alps. 301
it would be, to assign molecular attraction as the cause of mental phe-
nomena.
It was one of the principal objects of the traveller to ascend the
Finsteraarhorn, the highest and most central peak of the Bernese
Alps, and which rises out of the great ice-sea. Several incidents
connected with the execution of this undertaking deserve to be noti-
ced. ‘I'wo unsuccessful attempts were made before the object was
accomplished. The following statements relate to the first journey.
After much fatigue and no inconsiderable danger, from the numerous
crevices in the glaciers, the party encamped near the foot of the
peak at an elevation of 10,000 feet, and on the following morning
commenced their ascent. ‘The snow had become so hard during the
night as to receive no impression under their feet. Over this they
were forced to travel some time to reach the ridge. The ascent at
first was over naked rocks, whose high inclination required the most
excessive exertion. For the first time in his life, the author says,
he experienced the pain of thirst, added to which he was near sink-
ing from fatigue. ‘The only relief to thirst, was found in placing the
lips upon the rocks wherever any drops of water were seen trickling
down. 'Toeat the snow, only aggravated their suffering. Nor was
it sufficient to drink the freshly melted snow-water ; it was requisite
that it should trickle for some distance over the rocks before it be-
came refreshing. ‘This he attributes to the absorption of carbonic
acid from the atmosphere. They were thus advancing towards the
summit, when suddenly, a powerful gale arose from the west. Not-
withstanding its violence increased every moment, they still pressed
forward in the hope of accomplishing the wished-for object ; when
they were within two hundred feet of the summit, they encountered
adeclivity so steep that they were obliged to cut holes in the snow
for their hands and feet to enable them to ascend. This detained
them a long time. The moment, says Hua, was awful, and an in-
describable expression was visible in every counten hey
were on a ridge of snow so narrow as scarcely to allow them foothold.
To the east the Grindelwald ice-sea and the Finsteraar glacier were
perpendicularly below them, forming a dreadful abyss, and on the
opposite side a surface of snow, steeper than the steepest roof, de-
scended among wild crags to the Viescherglacier. From this dan-
gerous situation Huer with four of his companions resolved to ad-
vance, while the rest of his attendants were to occupy themselves in
hewing steps in the snow for their easier descent to the ice-sea. Hay-
302 Travels of a Naturalist in the Alps.
ing given orders to proceed, one of his companions who was in ad-
vance, in climbing along the steep ridge slid off towards the west.
As he fell, Hue1 caught the end of the long pole with which he was
furnished and which projected over the eastern side of the ridge.
At that moment, the snow on which Hvar stood gave way, and in
consequence, he hung dangling over a precipice four thousand feet
in depth, while his companion was in like manner suspended on the
opposite side of the ridge. In this position they remained until their
companions were able by means of cords to secure them from the
death which momentarily threatened them. The undertaking was
now abandoned, and the whole party hastened down the mountain
having suffered severely from the cold.
The undertaking was renewed the following year, on the third of
August ; the attempt however was abandoned in consequence of a
violent snow storm, but was resumed on the ninth, on the evening of
which day the party encamped behind the Finsteraarhorn. It was
a clear moonlight night and the atmosphere was perfectly motionless.
- So bright was the light as to enable Hvar to note down his observa-
tions as easily as in the clearest days, and he could perceptibly dis-
tinguish single dwellings, the least remarkable objects upon the remote
side of the Valais on the Pennine Alps. The whole chain with its
thousand peaks even to Mount Blanc was distinctly visible. In short,
every object appeared far more distinct in the distance by moonlight,
than it had done in an equally clear atmosphere a few hours before
sunset, when it was impossible to discern these remote objects. Ev-
ery thing distant was lost in a sort of magic haze during the prevalence
of day light. The blue of the sky, as described by other Alpine trav-
ellers passed, as the observer ascended, by a singular gradation from
azure through dark green to a dusky black. On the following day the
party reached the summit of the Finsteraarhorn, and erected a flag of
iron wire covered with oil cloth upon its highest peak, which in fine
weather is visible even from Soleure. The party suffered severely
from the cold. The two who erected the pyramid on the summit
for the support of the flag staff were observed to be of a death-like
paleness when they descended to join their companions. The ther-
mometer stood at — 2° 4’ Reaum, and the barometer at 16, 11, 70.
Water boiled at 70° 10’, and alcohol at 53° 2’ Reaum. The mean
of the author’s observations gave the elevation of the peak, 13,033
feet above the level of the sea.
Travels of a Naturalist in the Alps. 303
The volume contains a description of an interesting meteorological
phenomenon, called atmospheric cannonade, (wettilechidsicn). It
was witnessed near the foot of the Jungfrau, but is common through-
out the Bernese Alps. It resembles a distant cannonade. The oc-
currence is most frequent about the time of mid-summer, though it
occasionally happens in autumn. It has no connexion with ordinary
thunder storms. The sky from perfect clearness becomes slightly
hazy in a manner indescribably peculiar as the sounds commence.
It was observed on one occasion by the author in the middle of Au-
gust. "The forenoon was sultry, butclear. At about six, P. M. the
atmosphere assumed a peculiar haziness which led the inhabitants to
predict rain. The wind was northwest, not from the Alps, but tow-
ards them from the valley. ‘The barometer was much agitated, and
the hygrometer, high. The sound was at first repeated two or three
times each minute, afterwards at longer intervals. It was a quarter
past eleven before it wholly ceased.
The weather was cloudy in the morning, rain soon followed. Sev-
eral singular superstitions concerning it prevail among the common
people; some attributing it to the firing of the old feudal lords of
Rotthal, others to that of the Burgundians on the field of Murat,
while the more icin refer it to the firing of cannon at Berne,
Soleure, or Neuenburg.
A section is devoted to the glaciers and the distribution of snow
into the annual melting snow, and the firn. The latter is a granu-
lar deposit upon the highest mountains and valleys, and forms the
ice-sea, or rather the inact The glaciers issue from the jfirn and
descend through valleys and ravines or along the slopes of the
mountains. The red snow, found only in the lower part of the firn
is a lichen, the Palmella nivalis. It is never found in the annual
snow, or upon the glaciers, but invariably in the firn, on sunny slopes
where it particularly flourishes.
he work is not confined to geology and meteorology, but includes
valuable notices in botany derived from the author’s friend Jacos
Roru of Soleure. Entertaining sketches respecting the manners of
the mountain population, their herds, and pasture-lands are also in-
troduced. The style throughout the work is animated and pleasing,
occasionally becoming poetical in the description of Alpine scenery.
304 Remarkable Parhelia.
Art. XIX.—Remarkable Parhelia, seen at Fort Howard, (Green
Bay) Michigan Ter.; by Lt. R. E. Cuary.
Communicated for this Journal.
A very singular and interesting phenomenon was observed in the
heavens at this place, (Fort Howard, Green Bay, M. T.) on the
morning of the 27th of February last. It consisted of a large and
brilliant halo around the sun, with two parhelia within the circumfe-
rence at the extremitics of its horizontal diameter, but little inferior
in brilliancy to the true sun; they were accompanied by luminous
trains or tails opposite to the sun. Immediately above and beneath
the sun in the circumference of the same circle, there were bright lu-
minous spots of an elliptical form, less intense in brilliancy than the
first, but of much greater magnitude. From the superior or more
elevated spot, rays faintly colored, and slightly curved downwards,
appeared to emanate, forming a small portion of an arc of a circle of
less curvature than the halo. Another circle, the plane of which
was horizontal, at right angles to, and of a greater diameter than,
the first, with its center apparently in the zenith, completely surround-
ed the heavens ; its circumference passed through the sun, and two
mock suns, the latter being distinctly reflected in the opposite part
of the heavens.
se
ie
AN
W
Miia
AT
Sibi
About 15° from the zenith, in the direction of the sun, there ap-
peared two faintly luminous arcs of circles, nearly tangent to, and
convex towards, each other, they were but a few degrees in extent.
Meteors of Nov. 13, 1834. 305
Two well defined and tolerably brilliant rainbows, situated upon
the right and left of the Parhelia, with their convexity towards it,
completed this rare and interesting appearance.
This phenomenon was first observed a little before 8 o’clock, the
lower part of the halo being then about 2° above the horizon, its di-
ameter descending as the altitude of the sun increased; arrived
at its greatest degree of brilliancy and splendor 15 minutes before
10, when it began to decrease, and finally disappeared about 15
minutes before 11 o’clock, the total duration of the phenomena be-
ing about three hours.
The morning was extremely cold, the mercury standing at 16° be-
low zero, and the atmosphere was uncommonly clear and serene.
In the afternoon it became cloudy and indicated snow.
The same phenomenon with some modifications in its appearance,
was, | understand, observed at Fort Winnebago, 113 miles south
west from this place, which is in Lat. 44° 30’.
By the accompanying diagram I have attempted to convey an idea
of the position and appearance of the halo, horizontal circle, rain-
bow and parhelia with their reflections as they appeared 15 minutes
before 10 o’clock. A greater number of reflections perhaps, than
were ever witnessed at one time before, all depending upon the same
peculiar state of the atmosphere for their existence.
March 6, 1835.
Arr. XX.—Replies to a Circular in relation to the occurrence of
an unusual Meteoric Display on the 13th Nov. 1834, addressed
by the Secretary of War to the Military posts of the United
States, with other facts relating to the same question; by A. D.
Bacue, Prof. of Nat. Philos. and Chem. in the Univ. of Penn-
sylvania.
Havine found that the inference drawn from my observations on
the morning of the 13th of Nov. 1834,* at Philadelphia, was di-
rectly opposite to that to which Professor Olmsted had been led,
from his observations at New Haven, I felt naturally desirous to
determine what might have been the extent of country over which
* See this Journal for January, 1835, p. 337.
Vol. XXVIII.—No. 2. 39
306 Meteors of Nov. 13, 1834.
the unusual display of meteors seen at New Haven had taken place;
this extent having a direct bearing upon the question of the nature
of the phenomenon. At my request, communicated through the
kindness of the Chief Engineer, the Secretary at War, Gov. Cass,
issued a circular to the commandants of the different military posts
of the United States requesting to be informed whether any unusual
meteoric display had been witnessed at their respective posts on the
morning of the 13th of Nov. 1834
The results of this inquiry, I propose now to put upon record in
as brief a manner as possible. The arrangement adopted in the
record is to begin with the most northern post on our north eastern
frontier, to pass southward along the Atlantic board; then beginning
with the most southerly post of the western chain to pass north-
ward along that chain, then eastward on the northern frontier tow-
ards the original point of departure. Along this line the display of
November 13th, 1833, attracted universal attention.
From Hancock Barracks, Holton Plantation, Maine, Maj. Clarke
reports that no recurrence of the meteoric phenomenon of 1833 was
observed on the 13th of Nov. 1834.
A similar report is made, by Maj. McClintock, in relation to Fort
Preble, Portland, Maine, and its vicinity.
No unusual meteoric phenomenon was observed at Fort Consti-
tution, Portsmouth, New Hampshire, as stated by Maj. Ansart ; nor
at Fort Trumbull, New London, Connecticut, as stated by Maj.
Saunders; nor at Fort Hamilton, New York Harbor, according to
the report of Maj. Pierce; nor at Fort Severn, Annapolis Mary-
land, according to Maj. Walbach ; nor at Fort Washington, Poto-
mac River balow Washington City, according to Maj. Mason.
Maj. Churchhill states that at Fort Johnston, Smithville, North
Carolina, no unusual meteoric appearances were noted on the eve-
ning referred to in the circular, but that no one was particularly en-
gaged in watching for a recurrence of the meteors of 1833
Maj. Gale reports from Fort Moultrie, Charleston Harbor, that
he can find no one in the garrison or its vicinity who has seen any
unusual meteoric display since Nov. 1833; and the report of Lieut.
Williamson from Castle Pinckney, in the same harbor, is to the
same effect. :
Capt. Marchant makes a similar report from Fort Oglethorpe,
Savannah, Georgia,
Meteors of Nov. 13, 1834. 307
From Fort Marion, St. Augustine, E. Florida, Capt. Drane re-
ports that no recurrence of the meteors had been observed, and that
no remarkable meteorological occurrence was recorded about the pe-
riod designated, in November.
No recurrence of the meteors was observed at Fort Jackson, on
the river Mississippi, below New Orleans, commanded by Capt. G.
M. Gardiner.
General Atkinson states from Jefferson Barracks near St. Louis,
Missouri, that no occurrence of the sort alluded to in the circular
was observed in the autumn of 1834 by “any one at the post, nor
was there such a recurrence any where in the west as far as [his] in-
quiries had exten
“Lieut. Col. Vaio fepuns from Fort Towson, on the Red river
below the mouth of the Kiameche, that no recurrence of the mete-
ors had been observed as far as he could Jearn in the section of the
country in which the post is situated.
Col. Dodge commanding the regiment of dragoons, reports from
Fort Leavenworth, on the Missouri river, at the junction of the
Little Platt, that no remarkable meteoric phenomenon had occurred
since his arrival at the post on the 27th of September; he adds
that “a recurrence of an event so remarkable as the one mention-
ed, could not have escaped the notice of the sentinel on post.”
From Fort Snelling, Falls of St. Anthony, Upper Mississippi
River, Maj. Bliss reports that from an examination of the sentinels
who had been on post during the night of the 12th and 13th of Noy.
he could not learn that any recurrence of the meteoric phenomenon
of 1833, had been observed. He gives a particular account of a
very bright meteor seen at 5 o’clock A.M. on the morning of the
9th of Fatioary, 1835.
Lieut. Col. Davenport, commanding at Fort Armstrong, Rock
Island, Upper Mississippi river, Hlinois, states as the result of in-
formation, which is satisfactory to him, that no meteoric phenomenon
was observed on the 13th of Nov. 1834, at his post. He gives the
temperature at 7 o’clock A. M. on the 13th of Nov. as 42° Fah.,
the wind N. E., and the weather fair.
The reports from Fort Dearborn, Chicago, Illinois, commanded
by Maj. Green, and from Fort Winnebago, portage between the
Fox and Ouisconsin rivers, N. W. Territory, commanded by Lieut.
Col. Cutler, state that no unusual meteoric display was noticed there
on the night referred to.
308 Meteors of Nov. 13, 1834.
The return from Fort Howard, Menomoniveille, Michigan Terri-
tory is of the same purport, General Brooke adding that there were
several apparent shocks of an earthquake in Nov. 1834, as eviden-
ced “by a severe rocking of the flag-staff in the night, although it
was perfectly calm at the time.”
From Fort Mackinac, Straits of Michilimackinac, Michigan Ter-
ritory, Capt. Clitz reports that he has ‘made inquiry of the senti-
nels who were on post on the night of the 13th of Nov. last, and
one only, an intelligent young man who was posted at the north an-
gle of the fort saw a shower of meteors in the north between 12 and
1 o’clock, the duration of which as near as he can recollect was about
one hour.”
Maj. Hoffman reports from Fort Gratiot, on the St. Clair river,
that no recurrence of the meteoric phenomenon of 1833 was obser-
ved at his post.
The returns just given, are from eleven posts in the Atlantic
States from Maine to East Florida, from six posts in the Western
States or frontier, and from five on the northern frontier; they agree
in stating, with one exception, that no unusual meteoric display was
noticed on the night of the 12th, 13th of November, 1934.
It is almost needless to observe that the military stations are pla-
ces where observation of any striking meteoric phenomenon may
be expected, at least one sentinel being on post, the reliefs being
posted by a non-commissioned officer, and the sentinels visited at
least once during the night by a commissioned officer. Vigilance
is particularly to be expected in our out posts from which the reports
are quite minute. A Jocal “‘ shower’’ of meteors was observed by @
sentinel at Fort Mackinac, about midnight and lasting about one
hour. Many of the reports do not confine themselves to a state-
ment that no meteoric display was witnessed at the posts, but include
inquiries made in the vicinity.
These reports may I think, be considered conclusive against the
occurrence of any extensive and remarkable display of meteors, S0
far as ordinary observation could have detected such a display.
In reply to letters addressed to friends in different quarters, with
a view to ascertain if special observation had been made on the
morning of the 13th of Nov., I received the following information.
At New York, asI learned from Prof. Renwick, a gentleman
well known for his scientific attainments, assisted by a friend, watch-
ed during the whole night, but saw no remarkable occurrence of
Meteors of Nov. 13, 1834. 309
meteors. Doct. Gibbons of Wilmington, Delaware, observed the
heavens, in connexion with his observations on the aurora, until
about half past twelve o’clock on the morning of the 13th of Nov.
He informs me that he has been in the habit of inspecting the heav-
ens, frequently, every clear evening since November, 1833, and has
observed often an unusual number of meteors for several evenings
in succession, and sometimes the reverse of this. ‘The night of the
12th, 13th of Nov. 1834, was clear.
No unusual occurrence of meteors was noticed at Baltimore by
the city watch, or others, to whom inquiry was directed by Prof.
Ducatell ; nor at the University of Virginia, nor at the University
of North Carolina; at which places, as I learn from Professor Pat-
terson, and Professor E. Mitchell, no special observations were made.
At Cincinnati, Ohio, the night was cloudy, with showers.
President Lindsley of Nashville University, informs me that one
of the gentlemen at the University was on the look out on the night
of the 12th, 13th, but saw nothing remarkable.
The direct observations made at New York, Philadelphia, and
Nashville show that no unusual meteoric display occurred at either
of these places, and the general experience at Baltimore, and Wil-
mington, Delaware, the University of Virginia, and the University
of North Carolina, was to the same purport. As far as public tes-
timony through the journals, can reach this point, it confirms these
conclusions.
I infer that the meteors seen at New Haven, from 1 o’clock un-
til day light, by Prof. Olmsted and the gentlemen who assisted him;
at West Point after two A. M. by Mr. Twining; at Machinac, be-
tween twelve and one o’clock, by the sentinel, were not parts of one
meteoric display, visible over an extensive region of country like the
phenomenon of Nov. 1833, but were local.
It is to be seen from the foregoing statements that the weather
was not the same over the extent of country which they embrace,
while on the 13th of November, 1833, there was a most remarkable
iformity over a much greater surface.
Philadelphia, May 28th, 1835
310 On the Evidence of Certain Phenomena, &c.
Arr. XXi.—On the evidence of Certain Phenomena in Tides
and Meteorology; by W. C. Repriexp.
(From the Journal of the Franklin Institute.)
Tue “ Notes of an Observer,”’* containing some strictures on two
papers relating to meteorology, which are found in the twenty third
volume of the American Journal of Science, are doubtless entitled
to notice from the writer of this article, which would have been more
promptly given, had those strictures met his eye at the time of their
publication ; but he had, unfortunately, no knowledge of their ap-
pearance, till a few days since, when chance brought them under his
observation.
The intelligent writer of the notes introduces his strictures on the
two papers alluded to, by the following remarks :
“They contain a most eee collection of facts, which, if well authentica-
of i h
ted, will be rtance to meteorological science. Some of them,
however, are so stiitilgs “and inconsistent with received theories, that I hesi-
tate to put entire confidence in them, and shall continue to doubt until I have the
most certain evidence of the facts.”
As was partially intimated in those papers, circumstances do not
permit me to set forth in detail the great mass of evidence and au-
thorities by which the statements in those papers. are sustained, oF
even to such an extent as I deem to be highly desirable. It does
not, however, seem necessary that facts in this department of science
should be rejected, or even doubted, for no better reason than being
“inconsistent with received theories ;” for while, in the present im-
proved state of physical science, we are so justly rigid in demanding
correct inductions from well observed or established facts, before we
consent to give credence to new theories, it may be well, perhaps,
to inquire when, and in what manner, the “received theories” im
meteorology have been demonstrated to be true. That the theories
in question have long been received, and that they influence =
control our modes of thinking and reasoning on these subjects, 1S
doubtless true ; and it is believed that the latter often happens, t00,
in the face of much positive evidence of their fallacy. Nor is such
a mental process at all uncommon, even in this age of the exact
sciences, and I have had occasion to see the most unsupported and
* Journal of the Franklin Institute, Vol. xiii, p. 9.
On the Evidence of Certain Phenomena, &c. 311
conjectural hypotheses adduced by able writers, as satifactory dis-
proof of a series of well observed facts. But to return to the “ Notes
of an Observer,’ who proceeds to particularize his exceptions as
follows.
“For example: In p. 132 he says, ‘In large portions of the Pacific Ocean, the
tides are exempt from the lunar influence. At Tahiti and the Georgian group,
near the centre of the Pacific Ocean, the tide rises but one or two feet, and it is
high water at noon and midnight throughout the year, and this, too, in the very
region where the established theory would lead us to expect the lunar tides to be
meaning, if I understand _ Psa paragraph, that this is the prevailing direc
tion of the wind at that place.’
Without inquiring whether the closing inference here quoted be
justly warranted by the paragraph to which he alludes, I have to re-
mark that itis possible that my statement in regard to the tides at the
Society Islands, and certain other parts of the Pacific, may prove not
to have been sufficiently guarded. We should naturally think that,
even in the absence of such lunar influence, the momentum of the
tides from other portions of that great ocean would necessarily affect
the equilibrium of the surface at these islands; and Prof. Whewell,
in his able elucidation of the cotidal lines, has given the time of high
water at these islands, without any direct intimation of such phe-
nomena. But, we have the authority of gentlemen who have_ been
attached for many years to the English missions at these islands,
and who, from their known habits of life, must be supposed to be
thoroughly conversant with the facts of the case, in support of the
statement which I have made. ‘The following statement of -the
Rev. William Ellis, one of the gentlemen alluded to, and who has
returned to England, may be found in his Polynesian Researches, at
p- 289, Vol. I, of the second London edition.
“ Among the natural phenomena of the South Sea Islands, the tide
is one of the most singular, and presents as great an exception to the
theory of Sir Isaac Newton, as is to be met with in any part of the
world, The rising and falling of the waters of the ocean appear, if
influenced at all, to be so in a very small degree only, by the moon.
The height to which the water rises, varies but a few inches during
the whole year, and at no time is it elevated more than a foot, or a
foot anda half. The sea, however, often rises to an unusual height,
but this appears to be the effect of a strong wind blowing some time
one quarter, or the heavy swells of the sea, which flow from
312 On the Evidence of Certain Phenomena, &c.
different directions, and prevail equally during the time of high and
low water. But the most remarkable circumstance is the uniformity
of the time of high and low water. During the year, whatever be
the age or situation of the moon, the water is lowest at six in the
morning, and the same hour in the evening, and highest at noon and
midnight. This is so well established, that the time of night is
marked by the ebbing and flowing of the tide, and in all the islands
the term for high water and midnight is the same.”
A fact which is thus substantiated, and which has become incor-
porated into the very language of a whole people, it would be diffi-
cult to call in question. It is supported also by the testimony of
Messrs. Tyerman and Bennett, in their Journal of Voyages and
Travels,* to say nothing of facts collected from other sources, or
which have the same bearing, though relating to other regions. I will
mention, however, that Mr. Whewell quotes the observation of Capt.
Beechy, that at Papiate, one of the Society Islands, it is high water
every day at half an hour-before noon, and low water at six in the
evening ; and he also informs us that Lieut. Malden (Lord Byron’s
voyage) gives a similar account of the tides at Owhyhee, situated in
a corresponding latitude and position in the northern Pacific. In the
last number of the American Journal of Science,t we have also a
further confirmation of the fact in question, as given us by Mr. John
Ball of Troy, New York, at the close of his interesting account of
the country west of the Rocky Mountains; he says, “ A return from
the Columbia river by water around Cape Horn, touching at the
Sandwich and Society Islands, gave some opportunity to observe the
winds, and other phenomena. ” « During three weeks stay at Tahiti
the tide was observed to rise about one foot, and always highest at
twelve o’clock, noon and midnight, and I was informed that this is
always the case.”
It must, therefore, I think, be admitted, that there is a suspension
or neutralization of the lunar tide-wave in the region in which those
islands are situated. We find, too, that in the Atlantic it is high
water on the toast of Surinam about five o’clock on the days of the
new and full of the moon, and the flood runs to the westward. At
the windward islands of the West Indies, the tide is some one or two
hours later, and, though exposed to the whole tide range of the At-
lantic, the tides are very weak and irregular, not rising more than at
BS glee
* See Boston edition, Vol. II, p. 225. + Vol. xxviii, p. 8.
On the Evidence of Certain Phenomena, &c. 313
the Society Islands. On the southern coast of the United States,
and at the island of Bermuda, in the Atlantic, it is high water about
seven o'clock, the flood tide in the offing at the latter place running
to the northeast. On the southern coast of Rhode Island and Massa-
chusetts, it is high water from seven to eight o’clock. On the south-
eastern coast of Nova Scotia and Newfoundland, it is high water
from eight to nine o’clock, the flood tide off the latter coast also run-
ning northeastwardly. At the Azores, or Western Islands, in lat.
3 ., near the middle of the Atlantic, it is high water about 12
o'clock, and the flood runs to the eastward.* Finally, it is high wa-
ter on the western coasts of Ireland and Spain about two o’clock,—
all on the same days. These statements are approximated from
the American Coast Pilot, and other authorities, care being taken
to avoid the retarding effects of local obstructions as far as possible,
by timing from the most extraneous positions of coast, towards the
open ocean.
Viewing these phenomena in connexion with some other facts, I
was led to suspect that the great tide wave performes an actual cir-
cuit in each of the great oceanic basins, on both sides of the equator,
passing westwardly in the equatorial eed and returning east-
wardly in the higher latitudes, above 25° or 30° N. and S., and analo-
gous to the course which is pursued, as can be demonstrably shown,
by the great currents, both of the ocean and the atmosphere. Ifsuch
be the operation of the tides, certain regions in mid-ocean would
form the foci, or neutral points, in these great elliptical circuits, and
would be but slightly, if at all, affected by the ordinary tides. The
elaborate investigation of cotidal lines in which Professor Whewell
is engaged, will probably show whether this conjecture is well found-
ed, or whether the course of the great tide wave be from the Southern
Ocean, northwardly, through the entire length of the Atlantic, and
in disregard of the direct lunar influence in this ocean, as would
seem to be indicated in his late paper on that subject. The greatest
difficulty attending the inquiry, is im procuring correct observations
m those islands and external points of coast, which bear most de-
cidedly upon the question; and whatever may be its results, ] am
happy to find that a course or method of investigation which has
governed my own inquiries in meteorology, has been adopted on this
kindred subject, by so able an investigator.
* See “ag ace article, Azores.
40
Vor. XXVIII.—No. 2
314 On the Evidence of Certain Phenomena, &c.
The second statement objected to by the writer of the notes, that
“in Peru, at the height of 18,000 feet, the wind has been found to be
fresh from the south-west,’ was given on the authority of Samuel
Curron, Esq., whose interesting narrative of his ascent to the Peak
of Misté may be found in the Boston Journal of Philosophy and the
Arts. vol. 1, see p. 364-5. The authorities for the Sandwich Islands
and Peak of Teneriffe, which were included in my statement, are
also at hand; and I may add that the Rev. John C. Brigham, the
present Secretary of the American Bible Society, in crossing the
Andes, from Buenos Ayres to Chili, at the height of 17,000 feet,
found the wind blowing strong from the west, as he has himself in-
formed me.
There are other facts which seem to indicate the prevalence of a
southwesterly wind over the higher regions of tropical America, such
as the fall of ashes, in 1812, at Barbadoes and elsewhere, from the
volcano of St. Vincent ; and the late fall of volcanic ashes at Jamaica,
and other places, in January of the present year, which appears to
be traced to the tremendous outbreakings of a volcano on the conti-
nent, near the Bay of Honduras.+
It is unfortunate that those who visit high mountains, so generally
neglect to inform us of the direction of the wind in those regions. I
have been led to suspect, however, that in some, at least, of the cases
mentioned by me, those winds were occasioned by the diurnal in-
fluences of heat and cold upon the stratum of air lying upon the m-
clined surface of the mountain. This was first suggested by the
statement of Mr. Brigham, who was informed by the natives that
this wind blew only in the day time, and it seems not unlikely that
most elevated peaks are subject to a similar influence. We have,
however, far better evidence afforded us of the course of the bigh-
er strata, in the movements of the clouds at different altitudes,
which should have been recorded more generally than has yet been
done.
The fact appears, however, to be well established, that the great
trade wind of the tropical latitudes does not prevail at any great al-
titude, nor does it usually cross any elevated region of country, to
say nothing of its being arrested or deflected by its own gravitation
* See Missionary — for 1826, Vol. xxii, p. 153-4, where the direction of
the wind is not mentioned.
+ The voleano of Ceinaina on the shore of the consi ocean, distant eight
hundred miles S. 62° W. dite Kingston, Jamaica.—.
On the Evidence of Certain Phenomena, &c. 315
in mid-ocean, in the Indian seas, and on the bosom of the great Pa-
cific. But to return to the only remaining position which is called
in question by the author of the notes, and which is in the following
words.
“The regular semidiurnal variations of ‘“ barometer is at its maximum
about 10, A. M., and at its minimum about 3, P. M.; at New York it is nearly
the same ; but at Edinburgh, the effect is cemented. the minimum being at 10, and
happened on the following passage in ee mane report of the British As-
Seniation forthe Advancement of Science, p.
This is followed by a condensed statement of the observations
made near Edinburgh, by Professor Forbes, since 1827, which have
been published at length in the Edinburgh transactions ; from which
it appears that near Edinburgh, in latitude 56°, the mean annual
oscillation between 10, A. M. and 4, P. M., is .0106 inches; and
that the St. Bernard observations, 8000 feet above the level of the
sea, and those of Capt. Parry, in the Arctic regions, both indicate a
true negative oscillation, &c.
I readily acknowledge a partial inaccuracy in my statement, which
should have read, ‘‘but in high latitudes the effect is reversed,” &c.
the locality or latitude of Edinburgh not being that in which the
negative oscillation is established; and the error was subsequently
so corrected. Itmay, however, be proper on this occasion to explain
the cause of the inaccuracy. A short time before I was called upon
to sketch the facts in meteorology, to which the foregoing exceptions
bave been made, the paper of Professor Forbes, above referred to,
had met my eye, under circumstances, however, which precluded its
perusal; bat in glancing over its pages, and the illustrations which
accompanied it, I perceived that the Professor had shown a negative
oscillation of the barometer, taking effect somewhere in the higher
latitudes, and his extensive series of observations having been made
near Edinburgh, I was led to infer that this conclusion, or result,
had been directly deduced from these observations. Under this
impression, I ventured to pen the statement in its original form,
which { should not have done, however, unless I had at that time
felt myself certain of an opportunity to give the paper of Professor
Forbes a thorough perusal, before my statement should pass through
the press; but the concurrence of an unlooked-for accident, with a
more speedy publication than I had anticipated, prevented my de-
sign from being realized.
316 On the Evidence of Certain Phenomena, &c.
I have now given the authorities and explanations to which the
author of the notes seems entitled, and it may not be improper to
state, for the satisfaction of those who may have read my articles on
the storms of the American coast,* that the method pursued by me
in investigating the physical character of those storms, has been to
procure a number of copies of clean charts of the Atlantic, and to .
map out all the facts which I was able to collect in relation to any
one of these storms, upon one of these charts, in their true time and
location, so as to obtain a connected view of these facts, both as re-
gards their consentaneous and consecutive relations. The results
have been highly satisfactory—so much so, indeed, that I have not
met with the statement of a single fact which is at variance with the
explanation which | have given of the operation of these storms, ea-
cept in two or three instances, which proved, on further inquiry, to have
been erroneously stated. The historical records of more than a cen-
tury past have been freely resorted to, and the inquiry has also been
extended to other coasts and seas, and has shown the existence ofan
unvarying system, which I have not yet attempted to describe, except
m the most summary manner.
It may well be supposed that, in pursuing this inquiry by the me-
thod of a simple induction of particulars, as here stated, | have not
been able to preserve an unshaken confidence in some of those “re-
ceived theories,” which appear to have been founded on vague gene-
ralizations, or unproved and untenable hypotheses ; and i can hardly
think that the reasonings which have at various times been adduced
in support of these theories, from the time of Halley downards, can
be deemed either conclusive or satisfactory by any unbiassed mind,
that shall give them a strict and impartial examination.
The grand error into which the whole school of meteorologists ap-
pear to have fallen, consists in asc ribing to heat and rarefaction the
origin and support of the great atmospheric currents which are found
to prevail over a great portion of the globe. Nor is it necessary to
perceive, or point out, an adequate and undeniable physical cause for
the production of these phenomena, before we can discover the in-
consistency and fallacy of the reasonings by which the old system of
meteorology has been supported. Such a cause, however, I consider
is furnished in ithe rotative motion of the earth upon its axis, in which
* American Journal of Science, vol. xx., p. 17-51; vol. xxi., p. 191-3; vol.
xxv., p. 114-121.
On the Evidence of Certain Phenomena, &c. 317
originates the centrifugal and other modifying influences of the grav-
itating power, which must always operate upon the great oceans of
fluid and aerial matter which rest upon the earth’s crust, producing,
of necessity, those great currents to which we have alluded.
I have long entertained this conviction, but do not remember to
have seen this great physical influence recognised in any degree, in
its application to. this subject, except by Sir Jobn F. W. Herschel,
in the third chapter of his popular treatise on astronomy ,* where, by
the aid of this rotative influence, he has been able to give us the
most imposing support of the received theory of winds which has
ever appeared, and in which the connection of the trades with the
returning westerly winds, is, with some exceptions, correctly devel-
oped. Sir John, however, has erred, like his predecessors, in ascrib-
ing mainly, if not primarily, to heat and rarefaction, those results
which should have been ascribed solely to mechanical gravitation, as
connected with the rotative and orbitual motion of the earth’s surface,
the influence of which he but partially recognizes in connection with
this and another subject of inquiry. I may also add, that, had this
able philosopher been fully conversant with the facts which relate to
the course and other phenomena of hurricanes, he would probably
have withheld the hypothesis which he has given in a note appended
to the chapter which I have alluded to, although one of the princi-
pal suggestions in this note has, undoubtedly, a proper connection
with the subject.
As I can but seldom allow myself to enter upon the discussion of
these matters, the preceding suggestions may be taken for what they
are thought to be worth by those under whose notice they may
chance to fall; but, to prevent being misunderstood, I freely admit
that heat is often an exciting, as well as modifying cause of local
winds, and other phenomena, and that it has an incidental or subor-
dinate action (though not such as is usually assigned) in the organ-
ization and development of storms, and that, in certain circum-
Stances, it influences the interpositions of the moving strata of the
atmosphere. Its greatest direct influence is probably exhibited in
what are called land and sea breezes, or in the diurnal modifications
whieh are exhibited by regular and general winds. But, so far from
ing the great prime mover of the atmospheric currents, either in
* Art. 179 to Art. 200,
318 On the Resistance of Fluids.
producing a supposed primary north and south current, or in any
other manner, I entertain no doubt that, if it were possible to pre-
serve the atmosphere at a uniform temperature over the whole sur-
face of the globe, the general winds could not be less brisk, but
would become more constant and uniform than ever.
New York, April 8th, 1835.
Art. XXII.—On the Resistance of Fluids ; by Gro. W. Krrty,
Prof. of Natural Philosophy, in Waterville College.
TO PROF. SILLIMAN.
Sir—I perceive in No. 55 of the Journal, that Prof. Wallace has
announced a new measure of the resistance of a fluid in a direction
perpendicular to a plane surface moving in it: viz. That it is as the
sine of the inclination of the plane. Permit me to state my rea-
sons for adhering to the old doctrine, that the perpendicular resist-
ance is as the square of the sine of inclination. It is well known
that the latter measure has been deduced from the alleged facts that
the number and the force of the resisting particles vary as the sine
of the inclination. If it be true that the resistance to a plane sur-
face moving in a fluid is as the number of particles it strikes in its
course, and that the number of particles in any indefinitely thin fluid
lamina is as the area of that lamina, (nei- B
ther of which we think Prof. W. will de-
ny,) it follows that, if BD be a section of
a plane inclined to the direction BA of eee c/ \pD
its motion, and BF an equal section of _ wise Seutans
an equal plane perpendicular to the same J
direction, the number of particles BD will strike is to the number
that BF will strike in the same time as the parallelogram ABCD is
to the parallelogram AEFB; and the resistances are therefore, on
this account, as BG is to BD, or as the sines of the inclinations of
the
Sections ; the resistances to the planes are of course in the same
ratio.
Now this familiar demonstration would seem to settle the ques-
tion ; but Prof. Wallace argues, ‘that the number of particles stri-
king the plane does not depend on the breadth of the fluid column
BG BF, but on the surface of the plane, because the particles that
act on the plane are those in contact with it, and therefore their
On the Resistance of Fluids. 319
number is as its superficial area.” Now admitting it to be true that
the number of material particles in contact with the plane, at any
instant, is the same, whether it be perpendicular or inclined to the
lection of the motion, it does not, we think, necessarily follow that
the number of particles struck in any given time will be the same.
But neither is it evident that the number of particles in contact with
the plane is the same for every inclination of the plane. ‘The bur-
den of proof, however, seems to lie with Prof. W. He has assumed
the general physical fact that the number of particles in contact with
the plane, at any instant, is the same for every position of the plane,
and he has deduced an inference, not formally expressed, indeed,
but surely implied, otherwise the argument is worth nothing, that
the number of particles struck in any given time is as the number in
contact with the plane at any instant. Now we think the fact and
the conclusion may very safely be denied, and it becomes Prof. W.
to shew that they are consistent with some hypothesis ae the
form and relative position of the ultimate particles of a fluid body.
In any hypothesis, we believe the following positions will i found
to hold:
First. Whether the — of particles, at any instant, in contact
with the plane, in different positions, is the same, depends wholly
on the hypothesis.
Second. If the number is the same in different positions, it will
be found that the number of fluid strata struck in any given time is
as the sine of the inclination.
ird. If the number is not the same then it varies as the sine of
the inclination, a the number of strata struck will, in any given
time, be the sam
If Prof. W. can aes any hypothesis with which these positions
do not agree, we will allow he can disturb our belief in the truth of
the law of the square of the sines.
The wide difference between the results of observation and those
of the old theory, would tend rather to dissuade us from admitting
the truth of the new, when we consider what important physical
circumstances are and must be omitted in the conditions.
Waterville College, (Me.)
320 On radiation, absorption, &ec.
Art. XXIII.—Experimental illustrations of the Radiating and
Absorbing Powers of Surfaces for Heat, of the effects of Trans-
parent Screens, of the conducting Powers of Solids, &e.; b
A. D. Bacue, Prof. of Nat. Philos. and Chem. Univ. of Penn.
From the Journal of the Franklin Institute for May, 1835.
Amonc the very interesting phenomena of heat, there are many
which are with difficulty brought under the the eyes of a class, so as
to render them satisfactory to each one, by the test of sight. The
thermometer, even when constructed on a large scale, affords but an
inadequate means of rendering evident the temperature of bodies, to
those who are distant from the lecture table, and the illustrations
made by its use, are at best, rather tame. When the temperatures
to be indicated admit of it, lecturers have, in preference to using the
thermometer, resorted to the freezing of water, to the melting of
wax, to the inflaming of phosphorus, the boiling of water, &c., as
more adequate means of rendering evident the temperatures in
question.
The instruments about to be described, I have found very conven-
ient for class illustration, and always to afford satisfactory evidence
of the positions to be proved. The first instrument is intended to
show the powers of different surfaces in radiating and absorbing heat,
with other phenomena, which will be referred to in the sequel.
To produce a sensibly uni-
form temperature, a prismatic
vessel, ABC DFG, fig. 1, of
sheet iron, of a convenient
size, is filled with melted tin,
and covered at top by a plate
of sheet iron, A F, or, in pref-
erence, by a plate of cast iron, Ss
of moderate thickness. The ~~ ==
temperature of the tin is kept up by an alcohol vce H 1 IK, with
several wicks, fitting below the box, and between the legs which sup-
port it; by this means, the top radiates heat of considerable inten-
sity. I prefer the use of tin, in the box, to that of oil, on account
of the greater cleanliness resulting from its use, and because the oil
gives off at high temperatures an offensive vapor. Boiling water
does not give a sufficiently high temperature to produce rapid action
Fig. 1.
On radiation, absorption, &c. | 321
in the apparatus, and the greater exactness with which it would yield
a constant temperature, is not necessary in such an illustration.
A rectangular frame, LM N O, made of dry wood, to prevent
its warping, of a small height, LA, and of a length and breadth
such as to adapt it to its place upon the cover of the box, A G, is
divided by cross pieces of wood into small squares, or rectangular
compartments, as nm, the upper surface of the frame being perfectly
plain, and parallel to the cover, AF, of the box containing the
melted tin; this frame is intended to support, without the necessity
of contact with each other, small plates of thin metal, or other ap-
propriate material, the surfaces of which are variously coated.
To show the radiating powers of different surfaces, any conven-
ient number of thin plates of sheet lead, or sheet tin, or mica, are
cut to suit the size of the squares, nm, of the frame, overlapping
the inner edges, but not extending to the middle of the small divi-
ding bars of wood; each one of the plates has one of its surfaces
differently coated; supposing them to be of lead, one is coated with
lamp-black, another brightened by sand paper, or coated with tin
leaf, another left tarnished, a fourth coated with gold leaf. Being
placed upon the frame, as at a, a, with the coated sides uppermost,
small bits of phosphorus are placed upon the middle of the plates,
and the frame put in its place upon the cover, A F. The surfaces
which absorb the heat radiated by the cover, A F,, being the same,
the materia] and thickness of the plates being the same, the circum-
stances are alike in each plate, except so far as the upper surface is
concerned ; the plate which is coated with the worst radiator, will
become warm first, and the phosphorus will melt first upon it, and,
generally, the order of melting of the phosphorus will indicate the
inverse order of the radiating powers of the surfaces. As the heat
radiated from the cover is high, the melting of the phosphorus will
be soon followed by its inflaming, and the order thus given will
hardly deviate from the first ; the interference from the film of oxide,
which is so annoying in the modification of the apparatus of Ingen-
houz, for illustrating the relative conducting powers of bodies, is al-
most entirely obviated by the high temperature of the source of heat.
To avoid injuring the coated surfaces, a thin film of mica may be
placed below the phosphorus, the film being large enough to prevent
the effect of the spreading of phosphorus, as it burns.
The plates should be made thin, in order that the result may be
mainly dependent ~ differences in the radiating power of the
Vol. XX VIIIL—N Al
322 On radiation, absorption, §c.
surfaces. I have used plates of thin sheet tin, (iron coated with tin,)
of sheet zinc, and of glass, with good effect. The effects may be
accelerated by coating the under surfaces with lamp black to pro-
mote the absorption of heat ; but in that case, care should be taken
that the thickness is at least equal to that which produces the greatest
amount of absorption.
Instead of the pieces of phosphorus, wax, or other readily fusible
material, may be. used, as in the apparatus of Ingenhouz ; or cones
of wood, weighted at the base, and kept upon the plate, with the
vertex downward, by a fusible material, may be substituted.
It may happen that the lecture table is so arranged as to render it
advantageous to incline the cover, A F, of the box, A G; this will
be readily accomplished by making the cover, part of the box itself,
in which case the melted metal may be introduced through a hole in
the higher side ; as, for example, in A D.
To illustrate the fact that absorption and radiation are propor-
tional. the same square plates, a a &c., may be used ; the variously
coated surfaces are placed downwards, phosphorus is put, as before,
on the upper surfaces, and the frame deposited in its place upon the
cover of the box. The phosphorus will now melt in the inverse of
the order shown in the first experiment, the plate having the best
absorbent surface, heating first. If plates of metal be used, their
upper surfaces should be bright, for this illustration ; but glass, or
mica, which will allow the coating to be seen through, is best,adapted
to the purpose.
The fact that the radiation or absorption of heat does not take
place merely at the surface, but ata definite thickness, which becomes
very appreciable in good radiators, may be satisfactorily shown by
coating the surface of one of the plates with a thin layer of lamp
black and another one with a considerable thickness of the same
material. Ifthe coatings be upwards as in the first illustration, the
phosphorus will melt soonest upon the thinly coated plate ; if the
coatings be downwards, as in the second illustration, the reverse
will be the case.
The effect of transparent screens in preventing the passage through
them of beat not accompanied by light, may be shown by using, in
the nage instrument, plates of glass, mica, &c. of equal thickness ;
theoretically, the differential results are not as free from objections
on the former ones ; but the fact is illustrated almost unexceptionably
since the phosphorus melts first at the surface of the plate, which it
On radiation, absorption, Sc. 323
would not do if the plate were cool, and the fusion resulted from the
absorption, by the phosphorus, of the heat which had passed through
the screen of glass, or mica.
These illustrations I have tried repeatedly, and successfully ; there
are others of a more refined character, which I have not yet had an
opportunity to attempt, but which, I doubt not, might be carried out
very easily. The first of these is the curious property discovered in
rock salt, by M. Melloni, of permitting the passage of heat of low
intensity, as freely as that of high; a piece of phosphorus placed
upon the salt, and another upon a thin film of mica, the under surface
of which should be coated with lamp black, just above the plate of
rock salt, would serve to show this property. ‘That transparent plates
of mica are only partially diathermous, would be shown in a similar
way, and, in fact, by the relative periods of fusion of the phosphorus
just above the plate, and of that upon it, a notion of the relative
quantities of heat stopped and transmitted, might be furnished.
Another illustration which I have tried with success, is that of the
want of specific effect of color on the absorption of non-luminous
heat; a fact which some researches, undertaken by Prof. Courtenay
and myself, and not yet published, indicate. On coating the plates
on one side with lamp black, plumbago, white lead, chalk, prussian
blue, vermillion, &c., it will be found that the phosphorus melts upon
them without regard tothe order of color. Care should be taken that
the thickness of the coatings is such as to give to them each the maxi-
mum radiating or absorbing power ; a thickness which will differ for
each material, but which may, for all, be very easily exceeded.
By a change in the character of the plates, this instrument may
be used to advantage in showing the experiments devised by Franklin,
and executed first by Ingenhouz, for indicating the relative conduct-
ing powers of solids for heat.
That the experiment just referred to does not truly give the rela-
tive conducting powers ofbodies, can, I think, beclearly demon-
strated, notwithstanding that it is found, in all the books, in juxta-
position with the very elegant and accurate method proposed by
Fourier ; with the explanation of its intrinsic defects, it may be,
however, still admitted as a general illustration. ‘To apply the
instrument, plates of the same thickness of the substances to be
tested, as, for example, of tin, iron, lead, copper, pottery, wood,
glass, &c., which can be easily obtained in the requisite form, are
to be coated on both sides with a thick coating of lamp black, or
324 On radiation, absorption, &c.
other good absorbent and radiator, leaving a small strip of the upper
surface bare, to exhibit the nature of the material ; the plates having
phosphorus placed, on mica, upon them, are put upon the frame, and
this is placed on the cover of the box : the order in which the phos-
phorus fires, gives the same indication as in the apparatus of Ingen-
ouz. This effect is more rapid than when cones, or rods, are used,
especially from the lower temperature of the substance which is
commonly used as a source of heat. These remarks do not apply,
of course, to the forms of that apparatus in which hot sand is used.
The second instrument to be described, is intended to show the
common illustration of the fact that bodies have different specific
ts...
Theoretically, this illustration is, I think, inaccurate, but is ad-
missible, like the last; upon this subject, I hope to be able, at a fu-
ture time, to be more explicit ; at present, my remarks are confined
to general illustrations. ‘That different bodies require unequal quan-
tities of heat to raise their temperatures through the same number of
degrees, is illustrated upon equal weights, or bulks, by subjecting
them, when at the same temperatures, to the same source of heat,
and proving that they require different times to arrive at the same
temperature. This idea is a fundamental one, and cannot too early
be inculcated upon a learner. As an illustration, I have three ves-
sels of sheet iron, to contain equal weights of mercury, alcohol, and
water ; these are fastened to a frame, by which they can be dippe
into the same vessel] containing hot water. An alcohol thermom-
eter, with a column of fluid large enough to be visible at a moderate
distance, dips into each vessel. As the heat enters, the thermome-
ter in the mercury rises with great rapidity, that in the alcohol more
slowly, and that in the water lags behind both the others. Instead
of those thermometers, if a cylinder of any metal which is a good
eonductor, and has a low specific heat, such as copper for example,
should, after being coated with a varnish of thickened linseed oil to
protect the wiartaed: be introduced into each vessel, phosphorus pla-
ced on the top, would melt and in- F;
flame first on the metal which dip- ie
ped into the liguid having the least
capacity for heat. In the annexed
cut, fig. 2, a, 6, and c, are the ves-
sels ; d, e, f, metallic cylinders rest-
ing in wooden, or metallic, or mica,
On radiation, absorption, &c. 325
disks, and the whole dipping into a vessel, mn, of boiling water.
The mercury is so small in bulk, that the influence of this strikes the
student immediately ; but the idea which he thus catches at, is refu-
ted by the more tardy heating of the water, which is less in bulk
than the alcohol.
Before the forms of illustration, of the radi- —
ation and absorption of heat, already described,
had suggested themselves, I had contrived
another apparatus, which gave very good re-
sults, and may be, by some, preferred to the
one already described. A long box, abcd
%, of tin, was divided into compartments by ; &
partitions, e f, g h, ik, &c., and a top sol- @ poms n 3
dered upon each, having a conical opening, |
i, m,n, &c., to receive acork, through which ¢ © g i d
a tube, op,nr,ms, lt, &c. passed; these compartments were
made as nearly equal as possible, and the tubes entering them were
selected of as nearly equal bore as possible ; equal measures of co-
lored water were poured through the conical openings into the sev-
eral compartments, so as to cover the bottom to a depth regulated
as will be presently stated. The tubes and corks were now inser-
ted, and cemented ; and each cell thus formed an air thermometer,
the expansion of the air within driving the colored liquid up the tube
entering the cell. That there might be no error from a want of
equality in these thermometers, after bringing the liquid to a con-
venient height in each of the stems, by forcing air into each, or by
dropping liquid from a dropping tube into the tube; the whole was
plunged into a vessel of water, of a temperature sufficiently above
the original temperature of the air within, to give distances on the
tubes, readily divisible into equal parts of sufficient magnitude.
ese degrees were marked by a rude scale, formed by colored
threads, tied around the tubes. One surface of the box was kept
uniformly bright, or regularly tarnished, or coated; the other a d,
was coated with substances of different radiating powers.
The box being placed with the uncoated side towards a vessel of
warm water, the heat enters uniformly that side of the compartments,
but is radiated differently from the opposite side, and the liquid from
the air thermometers is urged more rapidly up those tubes which
enter into the compartments radiating worst, and ultimately arrives
ata greater height, showing a greater stationary temperature, or
€ UJ
326 On radiation, absorption, ¥c.
temperature of equilibrium, between the heat absorbed, and that
which is radiated. If the vessel be now turned, so that the various-
ly coated surfaces are towards the source of heat, the liquid in those
coated with the best absorbents, will immediately begin to rise in
the tubes, and that in those coated with the worst absorbents, to fall.
That the two lateral compartments are exposed to a greater cooling
action than the others, may be an objection to this apparatus ; but it
is easily obviated, and with it the communication of heat from one
compartment to another, by terminating the box at each end bya
small compartment, and separating each of the other compartments
by a similar space; in fact, convenience alone was the reason for
uniting these air thermometers in one vessel.
nother form of apparatus, which is more Fig 4.
simple, I have found convenient ; but it occu-
pies more time than that last described, in ob-
taining the same results. A prism of any con-
venient number of sides, is made into an air
thermometer, in the manner described in speak-
ing of the last apparatus ; and the sides are va-
riously coated ; it fits loosely into a prism of
the same form, but wanting one side; in the
figure, a b ce, represents the eveloping sur-
face, and m no p, the air thermometer. To
show the different absorbing powers of the different substances, the
vessels described are placed as in the figure, before another, A, contain-
ing hot water, hot sand, or any other convenient source of heat. Sup-
pose the side cf the air thermometer which is the worst absorbent
of heat, to be exposed to the source of heat, the air within is expan-
ded, and the position of the liquid in the tube is marked by an index ;
a better absorbent is exposed, and the liquid rises higher ; a worse,
and it falls below its original level ; the experiment can thus be va-
ried at pleasure. The outer sheath, or covering prism, serves to ren
der the surface, not exposed to the source of heat, uniform in its
radiating powers, and to protect those sides which are not intended
to be exposed to the source of heat, from the radiation of the ves-
sel, A, which, otherwise, would affect them sensibly. If the ar
thermometer were a rectangular prism, of course the objection just
stated would not apply ; but the sheath would still be necessary t0
= the radiation from the surfaces not exposed to the source of
eat.
Facts in Reference to the Spark, &c. 327
To show the radiating powers of the different surfaces, the sheath
is turned so that the open side is exposed to the air; the absorption
of heat now becomes sensibly constant, and the greater or less height
of the liquid in the tube, is determined by the less or greater radiat-
ing power of the exposed surface.
The order in which the surfaces are exposed may, of course, be
so arranged as not to require the temperature of the source of heat
to be kept constant.
Such an apparatus, placed before a stove, would make an admira-
ble illustration in a school, or a vessel of water, colder or warmer than
the room, may be used as the radiating or absorbing body. For the
tin vessel here described, a common square glass bottle may be sub-
stituted, without disadvantage. Even a common glass phial, made
into an air thermometer by inserting a tube through a tight cork, in-
to some liquid occupying the lower part of the phial, and provided
with a movable coating of tin foil, gilt paper, writing paper, and pa-
per covered with lamp black, when placed before a fire, or in a room
of which the air is warm, when the external air is cold, brought near
a window, will afford an interesting and instructive illustration.
Philadelphia, February, 1835.
Art. XXIV.—Facts in reference to the Spark, &c. from a long
conductor uniting the poles of a Galvanic Battery; by Josrru
Henry, Professor of Natural Philosophy in the College of New
Jersey, Princeton.
TO THE COMMITTEE ON PUBLICATIONS,
Gentiemen,—The American Philosophical Society, at their last
Stated meeting, authorized the publication of the following abstract
of a verbal communication made to the Society, by Professor Hen-
Ty, on the sixteenth of January last. A memoir on this subject has
been since submitted to the Society, containing an extension of the
Subject, the primary fact in relation to which was observed by Pro-
fessor Henry as early as 1832, and announced by him in the Amer-
ican Journal of Science.* Mr. Faraday having recently entered up-
on a similar train of observations, the immediate publication of the
* Vol. XXII, p. 408.
328 Facts in Reference to the Spark, &c.
accompanying is important, that the prior claims of our fellow coun-
tryman may not be overlooked.
Very respectfully yours,
A. D. Bacue.
One of the Secretaries Am. Phiios. Soc.
Philadelphia, Feb. 7th, 1835.
Extract from the proceedings of the stated meeting of the Amert-
can Philosophical Society, January 16, 1835.
_ The following facts in reference to the spark, shock, &c., from a
galvanic battery, of a single pair when the poles are united by a
long conductor, communicated by Professor Joseph Henry, and
those relating to the spark were illustrated experimentally.
1. A long wire gives a more intense spark than a short one.
There is, however, with a given surface of zinc a length beyond
which the effect is not increased; a wire of one hundred and twen-
ty feet gave about the same intensity of spark as one of two hundred
and forty feet.
2. A thick wire gives a larger spark than a smaller one of the
same length.
3. A wire coiled into a helix, gives a more vivid spark than the
same wire when uncoiled.
4. A ribbon of copper, coiled into a flat spiral, gives a more in-
tense spark than any other arrangement yet tried.
5. The effect is increased, by using a longer and wider ribbon, to
an extent not yet determined. The greatest effect has been produ-
ced by acoil ninety six feet long, and weighing 15 lbs. ; a larger
conductor has not been received.
6. A ribbon of copper, first doubled into two strands, and then
coiled into a flat spiral, gives no spark, ora very feeble one.
7. Large copper handles, soldered to the ends of the coil of nine-
ty six feet, and these grasped by both, one by each hand, a shock 18
felt at the elbows, when the contact is broken in a battery of a sin-
gle pair with one and a half feet of zinc surface.
8. A shock is also felt when the copper of the battery is grasped
with one hand, and one of the handles with the other; the intensity,
however, is not as great as in the last case. This method of receiv-
ing the shock may be called the direct method, the other the lateral
one.
On the Action of a Spiral Conductor, &c. 329
9. The decomposition of a liquid is effected by the use of the coil
with a battery of a single pair, by interrupting the current, and intro-
ducing a pair of decomposing wires.
10. A mixture of oxygen and hydrogen is also exploded by means
of the coil, and breaking the contact, in a bladder containing the mix-
ture.
11. The property of producing an intense spark is induced, on a
short wire, by introducing, at any point of a compound galvanic cur-
rent, a large flat spiral, and joining the poles by the short wire.
12. A spark is produced when the plates of a single battery are
separated by a foot or more of diluted acid.
13. Little or no increase in the effect is produced by inserting a
piece of soft iron into the centre of a flat spiral.
14. The effect produced by an electro-magnetic magnet, in giving
the shock, is due principally to the coiling of the long wire which
surrounds the soft iron.
Appendix to the above—on the Action of a Spiral Conductor, &c. ;
by Prof. Joseru Henry, Princeton College.
TO PROF. SILLIMAN.
Wiru this I send you a copy of a paper communicated by me to
the American Philosophical Society, on the influence of a spiral
conductor in increasing the intensity of Electricity from a galvanic
arrangement of a single pair. As the part of the transactions which
contains the paper has not yet been distributed, I regret that I am
not at liberty to request you to insert the article for more general
diffusion in your valuable Journal. An abstract however of the
principal facts was ordered to be published, and appeared in the
March number of the Franklin Journal. A copy was also sent by
Prof. Bache for insertion in the American Journal ; but as it did not
appear in the Jast number, you will confer a favor by inserting it in
the next.*
Should you wish to repeat the experiments, you will find them
most interestingly exhibited with one of Dr. Hare’s Calorimotors.
Ifa galvanic current of very low intensity, from this instrument, be
transmitted through a spiral conductor formed of copper ribbon about
one inch wide, from sixty to one hundred feet long, well covered
* Then mislaid, but now inserted, see above.
42
Vou. XXVIII.—No. 2
330 _ On the Action of a Spiral Conductor, &c.
with silk, and the several spires closely wound on each other, the
calorimotor will be almost converted into a deflagrator. One end o
the conductor being attached to a pole of the battery, and the other
brought in contact with, or rubbed along the edge ofa plate of metal
attached to the other pole, a vivid deflagration will be produced,
even when the plates are immersed in a mixture containing not more
than one part of acid to five hundred parts of water.
If a copper cylinder of about two inches in diameter, and four or
five inches long, to serve as a handle, be attached to each end of the
spiral by an intervening piece of copper wire and thin cylinders
grasped with moistened hands, a series of shocks will be felt when
one end of the conductor is drawn across the edges of the zinc
plates, the other end being in contact with the copper pole.
Another method of producing the shocks, is to place the spiral
between two batteries each of a single pair, so as to connect the cop-
per of one with the zinc of the other. If the extreme poles of this
compound arrangement be terminated by the copper handles, and
these be brought in contact, holding one in each hand, a deflagration
of the metal will be produced, and a thrilling sensation, scarcely sup-
portable, felt in each arm. The effect is much increased if the
handles are rough: two cylinders of cast zinc terminating the poles,
were found to produce the greatest effect when rubbed on each other.
To exhibit these phenomena in a striking manner, a galvanic bat-
tery of considerable size is required. I have used one for the pur-
pose, containing about forty feet of zinc surface, estimating both
sides of the plate. This battery was first immersed for a short time
in a strong solution of acid to dissolve the coating of oxide, and then
removed to a vessel containing pure water. The small quantity of
acid adhering to the plates was sufficient to produce, by means of
the spiral the deflagration of the metals, which would shock and snap
r many hours in succession, while with a short conductor the bat-
tery in the same state gave no signs of electricity.
This will be found an economical method of exhibiting some very
interesting experiments with the calorimotor. After having shown
the ordinary heating powers of the instrument with strong acid, trans-
fer the plates to a trough containing pure water, and the action of the
coil may be shown for an almost indefinite time, at little or no ex-
pense of zine or acid.
The spiral produces no increased effect when applied to a galvan-
ic trough of one hundred four inch plates. If, however, a coil of
On the Action of a Spiral Conductor, &c. 331
five or six hundred feet of wire be substituted, an increase of action
will be manifest. The length of the coil must be in some ratio to
the projectile force of the electricity, and also the quantity to the
thickness of the conductor, in order to produce a maximum result.
Thus, when a small battery is used with a large conductor, it must
be charged with strong acid.
The action of the spiral conductor depends on the inductive prin-
ciple of an electric current discovered by Mr. Faraday, and is con-
sequently intimately connected with the whole subject of Magneto
Electricity.
If a magnet be fitted up in the ordinary manner, with a spool of
wire covered with silk around the keeper, the intensity of the shock
will be astonishingly increased, if the current generated in the spool
be transmitted through a coil of several hundred feet of fine wire sur-
rounding the legs of the magnet. It is necessary, however, to pro-
duce this effect, that the wire on the spool, and that around the mag-
net, should at first form a continuous closed circuit, and that this be
interrupted at the same instant that the keeper is detached, so that
the induced current may pass entirely through the body.
The intense shock may also be given by generating a current with
One magnet, and accelerated by passing it around a second magnet.
Professor Emmet, of the University of Virginia, more than two
years since, made the interesting discovery that the magneto-electric
current is much increased in intensity by passing it through a portion
of the generating magnet. ‘This interesting fact, which he has appli-
ed with much success, to improve the magneto-electric machine, may
undoubtedly be referred to the same cause as the action of the spi-
ral, and I have succeeded in modifying the application of it in seve-
ral ways.
These magnetic experiments were made on the first or second day
of May last, while on a visit to Philadelphia, with the large magnet
belonging to the museum, and kindly loaned me by Mr. Peal for the
arpose. They were made with the assistance of my friend Mr.
Lukins, but as I have not had an opportunity of verifying them, I
cannot at present give a more detailed account. I have also made
Some preparations for applying the same principle to increase the ac-
tion of a thermo-electric current.
332 Volcanic Eruptions and Earthquakes.
Art. XXV.—Volcanic Eruptions and Earthquakes.
1. Eruption of the Volcano of Cosiguina,—communicated for this
ournal by Col. Juan Gauinpo.
TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN.
Rio Mopan, April 13th, 1835.
Sir—Onr of the most stupendous convulsions of the globe ever
known in this hemisphere took place last January, on the eruption of
the volcano of Cosiguina.
This volcano is situated in Nicaragua, one of the states of Cen-
tral America, and stands near the Eastern promontory of the bay
of Conchagua, separating the waters of the gulf from the Pacific. .
Ican give no more faithful or vivid description of its appearance
and effects in the immediate vicinity, than the following translation
of a report, dated January 29, from the commandant of Union, a
sea port situated on the western shore of the bay of Conchagua, and
the nearest place of any consequence, to the volcano.
*On the 20th inst.—day having dawned with usual serenity—at
8 o’clock, towards the 8. E., a dense cloud was perceived of a pyra-
midal figure, preceded by a rumbling noise, and it continued rising
until it covered the sun, at which elevation, about 10, it separated to
the north and south accompanied by thunder and lightning: the
cloud finally covered the whole firmament, about 11, and enveloped
every thing in the greatest darkness, so that the nearest objects were
imperceptible. The melancholy howling of beasts, the flocks of birds
of all species, that came to seek, as it were, an asylum amongst men,
the terror which assailed the latter, the cries of the women and chil-
dren, and the uncertainty of the issue of so rare a phenomenon—every
thing combined to overcome the stoutest soul and fill it with apprehen-
sion, and the more so when at 4 P. M., the earth began to quake and
continued in a perpetual undulation which gradually increased. This
was followed by a shower of phosphoric sand, which lasted till 8 P. M.,
on the same day, when there began falling a heavy and fine powder
like flour ; the thunder and lightning continued the whole night and
the following day, (the 21st) and at eight minutes past 3 P. M. there
was so long and violent an earthquake that many men, who were
walking in a penitential procession, were thrown down. The dark-
ness lasted forty three hours, making it indispensable for every one
to carry a light, and even these were not sufficient to see clearly
with.”’
Volcanic Eruptions and Earthquakes. 333
“On the 22nd it was somewhat less dark, although the sun was
not visible and towards the morning of the 23d, the tremendously loud
thunder claps were heard in succession like the firing of pieces of
artillery of the largest calibre, and this fresh occurrence was accom-
panied by increased showers of dust.”
“From day dawn of the 23d until 10 A. M., a dim light only
served to shew the most melancholy spectacle. The streets, which,
from the rocky nature of the soil, are full of inequalities and stones,
appeared quite level, being covered with dust. Men, women and
children were so disfigured that it was not easy to recognize any one
except by the sound of their voices or other circumstances. Houses
and trees, not to be distinguished through the dust which covered
them, had the most horrible appearance, yet in spite of these appal-
ling sights, they were preferable to the darkness into which we were
again plunged frédm after the said hour of 10, as during the prece-
ding days. ‘The general distress, which had been assuaged, was
renewed, and although leaving the place was attended by eminent
peril from the wild beasts that had sallied from the forests and sought
the towns and high roads, as happened in the neighboring village of
Conchagua and this town, into which tigers thrust themselves; yet
another terror was superior, and more than half the inhabitants of
Union emigrated on foot, abandoning their houses, well persuad
that they should never return to them; since they prognosticated
the total destruction of the town, and fled with dismay for refuge to
the mountains.”
“ At half past 3 on the morning of the 24th, the moon and a few
stars were visible, as if through a curtain, and the day was clear al-
though the sun could not be seen, since the dust continued falling,
having covered the ground all round about to a thickness of five
inches.”
“The 25th and 26th were like the 24th, with frequent though
not violent earthquakes.”
“The cause of all this has been the volcano of Cosiguina, which
burst out on the 20th. Iam also informed that on the island of
Tigre in that direction, the showers of the 2Ist were of pumice
stones of the size of a pea, and some are even as large as a hen’s
egg: the earth quaked there more than here, but no houses or other
edifices have been thrown down.”
“Here there are many people with catarrhs, head-aches, sore
throats, and pectoral affections, resulting doubtless from the dust :
334 Volcanic Eruptions and Earthquakes.
several persons are seriously unwell, and yesterday a girl of seven
years old died with symptoms of an inflammatory sore throat—
Flocks of birds are found dead, lying in the roads, and floating on
the sea.”
“The showers of dust lasted till the 27th.”
The following is an extract from a letter of my own, dated Feb-
ruary 7.
“¢ Still in total ignorance respecting the place of the supposed vol-
canic eruptions of last month, I can only state my own former mis-
taken conjectures respecting them, and others of the same class to
which they gave rise throughout Central America.”
‘‘ Near Salama, the chief place of Verapas, being on the road
from Guatemala to the port of Isabal, I distinctly heard, on the night
between the 16th and 17th of January, continued noises similar to
those always produced by volcanic eruptions ; however there was
something peculiar in these sounds, often resembling the discharge
of single large guns.”
“On the night of the 22d, I was sleeping on the banks of the
Polochic, about sixteen leagues before arriving at Isabal. I suppose
that near eleven o’clock the apparent firing began ; the guns were
heard at regular intervals. Both myself and all my men had been
constantly accustomed during our whole lives to hear volcanic erup-
tions in all parts of Central America, yet for some hours we were
every one without a doubt that the noise was produced by artillery,
and that it proceeded from the direction of Isabal.”
“T could not but conclude that an action was taking place in that
port; I then again, reflecting on the improbability of such an event,
raised a conjecture that the commandant, in some extraordinary
state of inebriation, was celebrating bis installation, his birth day, oF
some other event: I slumbered and pondered on, still completely
puzzled by the long continuance of the firing.”
“ Towards day-light certainly the noise was confused, and more
resembling ordinary volcanic eruptions; yet I resumed my boat
journey down the river with considerable doubts on my mind, and
the first canoe I met coming up the river, I ordered to be obliquely
questioned as to the state of Isabal, and though the appearance of
the men in it was that of fishermen, I had some ideas that they were
soldiers in disguise, and that their arms were concealed in the bot-
tom of the boat; other travellers however, subsequently dispelled all
my doubts.”’
Volcanic Eruptions and Earthquakes. 335
“J observed nothing remarkable in the atmosphere or appearance
of the night of the 22d, and no ashes, such as I have since heard fell in
other places; neither were ashes seen in Isabal, and the inhabitants
there supposed a volcanic eruption had taken place in some moun-
tain to their south. In Omoa they had the same idea. In Trugillo
showers of ashes fell, and they also supposed there that the sound
proceeded from some mountains due south of them.”
“Tn San Salvador, the federal city, the eruption was supposed to
have been of the yoleano of San Vicento, a day’s journey to the east;
the heart of the indigo country was said to be destroyed, and forty
thousand inhabitants to have perished.”
aK Subsequent accounts have shown the fallacy of all these conjec-
tures
In. Leon, the capital of Nicaragua, the noise of the night of the
22d was accompanied by a violent earthquake, the following day was
dark, and the ashes that fell formed a layer nine inches thick: how-
ever, the loss of seven lives, and the ruin of two farms in the imme-
diate neighborhood of the volcano, have been the only damage done
by it in that state.
Persons at some distance from Quesaltenango, supposed the erup-
tion proceeded from the volcano near that city. The noise in that
direction is known to have been heard as far as Oajaca.
At the port of Balize in the bay of Honduras, the British authori-
ties there were doubtful whether the firing of the night of the 22d
proceeded from a man of war in distress, or a naval action ; in case
of the first, the superintendant ordered the guns of the fort to an-
swer. In the interior of the settlement of Balize, the inhabitants
universally believed that it was myself attacking their port with a
Central American force.
At Peten, to the westward of Balize, it was likewise supposed to
be myself at the head of an independent insurrection in the British
settlement.
At Kingston, and the other southern ports of Jamaica, where the
sound was heard, it was supposed to proceed from the British man
of war Fly, cast on the Pedro bank: however the ashes which sub-
Sequently fell, convinced the observers in Jamaica that a volcano
Was the origin.
At Santamartha in New Grenada, it was supposed to be the firing
of the same vessel in distress: the noise was heard as far as Bogota.
Captain McQuay, who commanded the Fly, was in the harbor of
336 Volcanic Eruptions and Earthquakes.
Carthagena, arid accompanied the governor of that port in a recon-
naissance, both fearing that the firing proceeded from some vessel in
want of succor.
Finally, every where the noise was supposed to proceed from the
immediate vicinity.
In addition to the above, an official communication from the city
of Nacaome describes the pyramidal cloud on the summit of Cosi-
guina at half past 6, A. M. Itseemed of many hues and great den-
sity and at some height separated into two parts, one spreading over
the summit of Conchagua, and the other towards the peak of Per-
spire. Here the ground and buildings were covered to the depth of
seven or eight inches with fine dust and coarse sand in which were
found birds of all kinds suffocated. Some quadrupeds from the for-
est, sought shelter in the town, and the rivers filled with the volca-
nic substances, cast upon their shores an innumerable quantity of
fishes in a torpid state and some dead.
A letter from Omoa speaks of the earthquake and of several erup-
tions by which were wholly submerged three large towns and sever-
al petty villages with parts of the ports of St. Miguel and St. Sal-
vadore. Five of the eruptions had continued for eight days, and
scattered rocks, stones and cinders in all directions to’ the distance
of sixty leagues. One of them burst forth within twenty miles of
Truxillo, and another occurred near Balire.”’
The volcanic agency seems to have operated on an extensive
scale, and to have had vent in a great number of places, and the
country from Bogota about 44° N., 74° 14’ W., throughout the
whole isthmus, certainly as far north as Balire (more than one thou-
sand miles) was convulsed or affected by the concussion.*
2. Earthquake in Chili, Feb. 20, 1835.
The accounts received through commercial sources, of this earth-
quake, are so remarkable, that we shall give a pretty full abstract of
their contents.
One of the most terrific and destructive convulsions with which this
devoted country has ever been visited, commenced on the 20th of
February, 1835—occasioned, as is said by the eruption of the volca-
no of Antuco, in about the latitude of Conception, and about thirty
leagues from the coast. The first and most disastrous shock occur-
* The terror of the oe at Alancho (anticipating | the 2 approach ¢ a “i
judgment day) was so grea
cubineage, were mattek at once.
Volcanic Eruptions and Earthquakes. 337
red on the 20th of February at about half past 11, A. M., and the
shocks continued to occur three or four a day, up to March 6th, and
even as late as March 17, a shock was felt at Valparaiso, which was
sensible to the shipping and on land.
The first shock was felt from Valparaiso, Lon. 71° 38’ 15” W.,
Lat. 33° 0’ 30” S. to some distance south of Conception, Lon. 73°
5’ W., Lat. 36° 49’ 10” S.,—and from the Cordilleras, to the Island
of Juan Fernandez, more than three hundred miles from the coast,
where it was felt with most tremendous violence ; the sea at the an-
choring ground retiring to such a distance, that where there had been
twelve fathoms of water, the ground was laid bare, and soon after
returning with such fury that it completely destroyed the town and
covered it with a deposit of mud several feet thick—the governor
and garrison saving themselves by fleeing to the heights.
It is a matter of history, that between the years 1520 and 1752,
five great earthquakes occurred in Chili. That on the 15th of March,
1657, destroyed a great part of the city of Conception which was
founded by Valdivia in 1550, and was then the capital of Chili—
now only of a jurisdiction—that on the 18th of June, 1730, drove
the sea against the City of Conception, and overthrew its walls ;
and that of May 26th, 1751, completely destroyed that city, which
was again inundated by the sea, and levelled with the ground all
the fortresses and villages lying between Jat. 34° and 409 S. The
shocks continued at intervals more than a month. Not an individ-
ual human life, however, was lost on this occasion except some in-
valids, who were drowned in Conception. In 1751, Conception
was rebuilt on the north side of the river Biobio, about a league from
the sea—only to be again in 1835 destroyed and its population of
25,000 compelled to flee to the mountains and groves, and look
back upon the place of their late habitation of which only a single
house remains standing—and not another within leagues around.
Talcahuana, the port of Conception, lat. 36° 42’ 21’ S., lon. 73°
39 12” W. was shaken down by the first shock, which lasted about
44 minutes—after about 15 minutes the sea retired from the coast,
about a mile, leaving the vessels aground, and then rolled in with a
wave from twenty five to thirty feet high, deluging and entirely devas-
tating the whole town—two successive inundations followed and im
their reflux swept away and buried all the fragments and ruins, in
fact every vestige of the place.
Vou. XXVIII.—No. 2. 43
338 Volcanic Eruptions and Earthquakes.
The scene during the first shock was appalling. ‘The trembling
of every thing around—the boiling of the sea, as when water is heat-
ed over a fire—the mountains and valleys rolling like the waves of
the sea as far as the eye could reach, and producing in the inbabit-
ants the same sensations as sea sickness—the earth opening wide,
giving forth the most terrific moans, and laboring with internal fires,
the sight at a distance, of the awe-stricken Catholics, fleeing, they
knew not whither, for safety—buildings tottering in every direc-
tion,—and now whole blocks of brick dwellings rock from their
foundation. In their fall they meet otbers, and all, as if locked in
death, sink, with a tremendous crash, into the gaping earth, leaving
no trace of their existence save memory, and the smoke and ashes
which arise from the confusion, then the violent rushing of the wa-
ters over the ruins of a thickly populated town, sweeping the wrecks
of the demolished habitations of the rich and poor, into one common
chaos of ruin, was calculated to impress the mind of the beholder
with wonder and astonishment.
The sea rose thirty feet above its ordinary level, and drove into
the town-square the national bark Mapocho, and placed other ves-
sels in imminent danger. On the 22d, a large portion of the island
of Caracana, at the mouth of the bay, was swallowed up. The road
from Talcahuana to Conception is almost entirely destroyed by the
deep fissures and sloughs which have been created ; consequently
the destruction of property and the interruption of the channels of
intercourse which facilitate the subsistence of a town, must
rming.
The condition of the people who formerly inhabited spacious and
convenient dwellings, where now not even a brick is left to mark the
spot, is one of the utmost suffering. The poor people who lived in
the country in small reed-huts have suffered but little —Their hous-
es withstood the shocks, and to them is preserved a roof for shelter.
Those who fled to the hills, erected little shantees, on the spots 0
land least broken up, and were compelled to be constantly at work
procuring the food necessary to satisfy hunger. It is a most fortu-
nate thing for the people of the country, that the shock came at
mid-day. Had it taken place in the middle hour of night, they
would have been compelled to flee for safety without even the one
suit of clothing they now have, making their sufferings much great-
er. Then the circumstance that the inhabitants have no other shel-
ter than the groves, and the approaching cold season, which at Con-
Volcanic Eruptions and Earthquakes. 339
ception commences in April by heavy rains, will aggravate the ca-
lamity, unless it should cause an almost universal emigration to the
central Provinces of the Republic.
The movement of the earthquake was not so violent as it was long
continued. The shock came from a S. E. course, prostrating every
thing in its way, spreading its ravages throughout the provinces of
Conception and Maule, and devastating nearly the ee of the
southern portion of the Republic.
Conception, Talcahuana, Penco, Tome, Arauco, Coneuirel Pem-
uco, Yumbel, Rere, Los Angeles, La Florida, Coelemu, Ranquil,
Cauquenes, San Carlos, Quirigue, Chillan, Talea, Arredan, Con-
gas, Erras, Peural, St. Carlos, Vailoga, and other towns of both
Provinces, have been ruined in consequence of that terrible event.
Talcahuana, Penco and Tome were thrice inundated by the sea,
and in Arauco and Colcuro it rose to the walls. Inthe port of Con-
stitucion also, it rushed back and forth several times, and stranded
the national schooners Juana and Jertrudis.
The number of lives lost, so far as ascertained, was four or five
hundred ; but it was supposed the actual number was much greater.
The loss of lives in Conception does not exceed fifty odd; in Tal-
cahuana, very few.
At San Juan de Dios, some bricklayers who were at work when
the earthquake came on, almost all perished. Children and
grown persons have alike disappeared from the number of the liv-
ing, and in short, the whole presents a scene of deplorable calamity.
From twenty five to thirty towns, beside many small villages
between Conception and the Cordilleras, were scenes of complete
ruin. From four to five hundred lives were lost. just in that section
of country—but the extent of the suffering is not yet known—prob-
ably thrice that number have been buried in the ruins.
A new cathedral, building in Conception, which they say has
been more than fifty years in building, has scarcely one stone left
upon another, and in its fall buried twenty workmen in its ruins.
Effect of the Earthquake at Sea.—On the 20th of February,
(the day that Conception and the places around were destroyed,)
Capt. Townsend, in the ship Nile of this port, was cruising for whales
on the coast of Chili, in lat. 39° 15’. He felt the shock so sensibly
that the spars and rigging over his head shook in such a manner that
it was dangerous to stand under them. ‘Thinking that the vessel
had run aground, he immediately wore ship and hove the lead, but
340 Posthumous Work of the late Col. Mark Beaufoy.
finding no bottom with twenty fathoms of line, concluded it was an
earthquake. Ona subsequent visit to Talcahuana, his suspicions
were confirmed, in the desolation and ruin which that once thriving
port, then presented ; as also in the fact, that the water in the bay
was five or six feet lower than its usual depth. Talcahuana has
been the general resort of American whale ships for several years
past—the harbor being one of the best on the coast. The town is
situated almost on a level with the sea, large hills rising in the rear.
Capt. T. states that he has been on the coast of Chili a number of
voyages during the same month, and thinks he never knew such a
scarcity of whales, fish, and fowls, as in the present year. It isthe
general opinion that the earthquake has had a tendency to drive
them from the coast, The shock was very sensibly felt by Capt.
Cotton of ship Loper, six hundred miles from land.—N. Bedford
Gazette. :
3. Earthquake at Florence.
Early in March several shocks of an earthquake were felt at F'lo-
rence, which seemed to shake the houses to their foundations.
These shocks were preceded by the most furious winds and hurri-
canes.— Atheneum, April 28, 1835.
Vesuvius.—On the evening of the 2d of April, there was anoth-
er explosion of Vesuvius. The shocks were so violent that the five
craters vanished, and were all united to one frightful abyss. Im-
mense masses of rock were projected to a vast height, and fell like
a tremendous shower on the ribs of the mountain.
Art. XXVI.—Notice of the posthumous work of the late Colonel
Mark Beaufoy, entitled, “‘ Nautical and Hydraulic Experiments,
with numerous Scientific Miscellanies—in three volumes, with
plates. Vol. I.”
We have already mentioned the publication of the first volume of
splendid work by Henry Beaufoy, Esq., son of Col. Mark
y. We are indebted to a friend for the following memoran-
da, which we trust will prove interesting to our readers.
As Col. Beaufoy was a zealous and disinterested laborer in the
service of mankind, the following Notice of his Family may form @
proper introduction to a brief notice of his posthumous work.
Posthumous Work of the late Col. Mark Beaufoy. 341
The father and mother of Col. Beaufoy belonged to the respecta-
ble society of Friends, and lived on the south side of the Thames,
opposite to the centre of the city of London.
Their eldest son, Mr. Henry Beaufoy, had a seat in the British
House of Commons early in life; and remained a member of it dur-
ing several parliaments, being often the chairman of a committee.—
Having been educated in part among the English Protestant Dis-
senters, he conducted for a time the concerns of these dissenters in
parliament ; but his motion for a “ Repeal of the Sacramental Test
failing, Mr. Fox afterwards became their parliamentary
leader. Henry Beaufoy was very active also in forming the associa-
tion established in London in 1788, for Promoting Discoveries in
the Interior parts of Africa; and he even by general consent, com-
piled their Memoirs; and in fact was usually employed to engage
the persons who travelled in their employment. He was
also who made the now celebrated Ledyard known in the United
States, though Ledyard was a native of those states.* Mr. Henry
Beaufoy was twice married, but he left no child.
* The account of Ledyard, a saa aie Ledyard himself and from Mr.
Beau ufoy, i is picturesque and in high degree. (See Mr. Beaufoy’s
Meee r, published in 1790.) Mr. Pare a in his publication, quotes and con-
ms Ledyard’s well known general remark on the superior sympathy of women
wivevas strangers in distress, when compared with men. He even does more;
for without noticing the ig ei of the fact, he confirms the fact by his own
personal experience. He had been refused admittance by men into various houses
and perhaps the caution on the part of some of these men had a natural foundation,
But towards night, when the wind blew hard, and rain threatened, and wild beasts
Were soon to be expected to make their appearance; a woman passed by him, and
seeing his distress, bid him follow her; and gave him not only shelter, but food,
anda mattosleep upon. In the mean time, one of the female attendants of the
woman sang over Park an extempore song, to which other female attendants join-
ed in the chorus; and the tenor of the song, W which was precisely adapted to the
case, and to the state of the weather, abundantly proves, that the feelings which
Ledyard and Park had noted in their remarks, were Aabditual in the parties. Mrs,
only put the song applied to the case of Park into English verse, but got it set to
pleasing music by an Italian composer, and she even added a verse to the song.
(See Park’s Travels, p. 263 and p. 198, with the annexed postcript, second edition,
in 4to. 1799.
It may be noticed here, to show the danger of error in geographical conjectures,
that Major Rennell, who had arranged a map of the broader parts of the African
Park’s authority, founded on ocular demonstration, sets the question for ever at
-
342 Posthumous Work of the late Col. Mark Beaufoy.
A sister of Mr. Henry Beaufoy’s, it is believed, (but not with
certainty,) was married to a member of the British House of Com-
mons.
Col. Mark Beaufoy was a younger brother of Mr. Henry Beau-
foy ; and having had a scientific education, joined to an enthusiastic
character, he pursued many scientific objects ; of which only one,
however, will here be noticed.
A particular incident having led him in his youth to attend to
Hydraulics and Naval Architecture, he kept this object always in
his view, from perceiving that his countrymen attended little to these
matters, except practically. The French, on the other hand, he
knew, had recourse to theory, as laid down by their own mathema-
ticians, with the admirable Euler and a few others to help them;
and had modelled their navy accordingly ; also had led Spain. to do
the same ; the English on their side making no further progress in
the art, than such as arose from observing the models of some of the
French and Spanish prizes which they had captured. In 1791,
however, Col. Beaufoy, with some others, strenuously labored to
establish a society in London, for the improvement of naval archi-
tecture, where THEORY should be formed on the basis of experiment.
The project was adopted, and the Duke of Clarence, then an admi-
ral, but now William IV, became President of the Society ; and it
was hoped that useful results would arise both to the vessels of war
and commercial shipping of the nation by means of the plan.
In pursuance of this design, a committee was appointed to conduct
a regular series of experiments; Greenland dock being chosen as
the scene of their operations. This large dock was a private estab-
lishment, and by its large dimensions was well suited to the object 5
but it was not conveniently situated, since it lay two miles on an ait-
line to the east of the south end of Westminster bridge, and most of
the members of the society and of the committee, resided beyond
rest, by determining the course of the great inland river of Africa, generally un-
derstood by the name of Niger, to be from west to east. Unfortunately a secon
journey of Mr. Park into ‘Atrios , proved this decision of Maj. ane to be found-
ed in mistake; for a conclusion opposite to that of Major Rennel may be drawn
from Mr. Park’s own later discoveries, as well as from the evidence of the Lan-
pe — Tuckey, and others. (See Appendix to Park’s Travels, as above, P-
Posthumous Work of the late Col. Mark Beaufoy. 343
this bridge.* The result was, that the experiments had few to at-
tend them, besides Col. Beaufoy, (who had the chief direction of
them,) and that finally Col. Beaufoy had himself to bear the chief
expense of them. He was always, however, assisted by two or
three able men; (among whom was Mr. Garnett, an English gen-
tleman well known in this country ;) and a regular register was most
faithfully kept of all that was done. The first volume of the publi-
cation noticed in this article, comprehends the whole account of these
experiments at Greenland dock, the number of which was, in the
course of six years, between nine and ten thousand; and we are not
surprized to learn that Ear] Stanhope, one of the vice presidents of
the society, was at times present.
Of Col. Beaufoy, individually, we may assert that he was pecul-
iarly qualified for experimental researches. He was active, indefati-
gable, cautious, and exact; he spared no expense necessary to ac-
complish his objects ; and knowing the wants of mankind, and the
searching nature of experience in the hands of those who were to
follow him, he constantly combined in his views wtélity, and a faith-
Sul statement of facts. Others might deceive themselves in conse-
quence of what he related, while Ae was determined never to deceive
others.
But we have not yet done with the notice of Col. Beaufoy’s fam-
ily. The colonel’s wife was a remarkable person, and a real help-
mate to him in all things, as will appear from the following account
given by her son Henry, (who is the editor of the work forming the
subject of this article.) “‘ For some years (says Mr. Henry Beau-
foy, junior,) the calculations [that is, respecting the above experi-
ments| were made at Col. Beaufoy’s residence at Hackney-Wiek,
by himself, assisted by his wife, who contributed no oe
share to the progress and success of the experiments ; for
(being a woman of considerable talent and scientific Se: aba
* * she was a good mathematician and practical astronomer,
familiar with all the details of the observatory, the calculation of
eclipses, &c. ; and by method and strict economy of her time, (while
* Greenland dock is connected with the river Thames on the west side of the
Peninsula, falsely called Isle of Dogs. This peninsula (or Isle of Dogs) has on
the nor th (where its opening lies) Lime-house, Poplar, and Blackwell; and on the
South we find Greenwich and Deptford.
344 Posthumous Work of the late Col. Mark Beaufoy.
the domestic arrangements proceeded with perfect aA yon
was never at a loss for leisure in her husband’s pursuits.
She died in 1800, at an early age, after an illness of a few hours ; an ir-
reparable loss to her husband. He survived her twenty-seven years,
and proved the sincerity of his attachment by not marrying again.
A few hours before he died, he spoke of her with emotions which
shewed that time had not made the smallest diminution in his affec-
tion.” To this account of Mrs. Mark Beaufoy, it must be added,
that this remarkable couple left behind them sons and daughters.—
Of their son, Mr. Henry Beaufoy, junior, we have now to say a few
words.
This gentleman having received a good education, profited by it
so as to be very useful to his father in his pursuits; and his father
in consequence bequeathed to him his manuscripts. He is a mem-
ber of the Royal Society of London, has ascended in a balloon with
philosophical views, but (one instance only excepted) he is believed
never to have appeared much as an original author. He seems con-
tented, for the present, with being the editor of his father’s works,
which is a task full both of labor and responsibility ; this however is
not the precise place to enlarge upon this topic.
The work before us is printed at the Editor’s private press, and is
given to the public. At one period the first volume (namely,
that now distributed) had cost £3000 sterling. It may be supposed
that a smaller number than fifteen hundred copies would have
more than sufficed, for distribution of a work of this nature ; but
although this may be true as regards the two first volumes, the
volume of miscellaneous papers may require the number of cop-
ies now printed ; and objections may have occurred against print
ing the work in broken parts. It may also be supposed, that the
work might have been printed in a less expensive form; but ex-
perience has shown, that works splendidly printed and bound, are
those which are most carefully preserved. This fact was known to
that eminent distributor of books, Mr. Thomas Hollis, a gentleman
who had a kindred desire to disperse knowledge, with the Beaufoy
family, and who often in the books which he gave away, wrote the
words Ut spargam, (that I may spread knowledge,) adding to this
nothing more than T. H., the initials of his name.
It is proper to close this noiiée of the Beaufoy family, by saying
that Mr. Henry Beaufoy, junior, is believed to be, like his grandfa-
Posthumous Work of the late Col. Mark Beaufoy. 345
ther, a brewer ; and we shall explain in a note the respectable na-
ture of this trade, as it exists in the city of London.
Opinions of Col. Beaufoy’s work by very able judges. The first
letter is from one of our best engineers, and was directed to the per-
son from whom he had received the work of Col. Beaufoy for ex-
amination.
Boston, February 18, 1835.
Dear Siv—I have examined, with great satisfaction, the splendid
work of Col. Beaufoy, published and presented to the Academy, by
his son Henry Beaufoy, Esq.
The experiments detailed in this work are amongst the most im-
portant that were ever made in the subject to which they relate.
The only account of them, which has heretofore existed, in the vol-
ume of the Society for the Encouragement of Naval Architecture,
is not to be found in any library in this vicinity, and the publication
of the work of Col. Beaufoy, which is much more full than the So-
. The respectability of many commercial persons in London, is universally ac-
knowledged throughout Europe and the U. States; but it is not so — ly
known that large ep brewers suas among the fone most of sheere racters,
The reason is evident. The brewing trade in London, when on a large eo ete
quires a very enormous capital, and yet the chiefs in a brewing house are under
no necessity of watching the details of the business; these details being simple and
purely mechanical, and alloted to the care of subaltern persons. In proof of the
respect in which some of the chiefs of these establishments are held, we have to
observe (to refer to no other examples) that Messrs, Whitbread (father and son)
were both brewers, and both members of parliament; and that the younger Mr.
Whitbread was married to a sister of Earl Grey, who became premier of England,
ofCommons. Togo no farther: the Jate Mrs. oda: the well known friend of
which penetrated into theearth two stories deep, in order to receive within its walls
@ mass of beer to ripen during a whole season; and George Ill, king of England,
at the period when this cellar was empty, descended to its bottom by a stone stair
Snes benfined by aniron railing. Independent of the large and costly premises of
ith their carts and horses, and their utensils, the proprietors of
das great sane ments found it expedient to have at their command (either by
purchase or lease) public houses, the tenants of which sell in them, none but the
beer of their landlords. In short, great capitals, great gains, and a perfect inde-
pendence as to attention to the details of the ‘isin make this an eligible species
of establishment among persons of great capital, who have no objection to appear
in commercia) concerns in a commertial country.
4d
Vou. XXVIII.—No. 2.
346 Posthumous Work of the late Col. Mark Beaufoy.
ciety’s volume, gives us possession of the knowledge of a mass of
facts, ascertained by most laborious and ingenious experiments, of
immense value to every person engaged in hydraulic engineering.
I cannot but hope that Mr. Beaufoy will continue the publication
of the other volumes, thus increasing the debt which is already due
to him from practical men as well as from scientific investigators.
I am dear Sir, with great respect,
your obedient servant.
The second letter is from a gentleman much distinguished for his
theoretical and practical knowledge of mechanics.
TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN,
Dear Sir—I have with much pleasure given the first volume of
Col. Beaufoy’s work a cursory examination. The Resistance of
Fluids, to which this volume chiefly relates, is a subject of great in-
tricacy, and one in which I have felt a deep interest. I had givenit
sufficient attention, theoretically, to satisfy my own mind fully, that
what is said on the subject in the works, commonly received as sci-
entifical and practical text books is not at all to be relied upon, and
was pursuing my inquiries for something more satisfactory, when I
was referred by a friend to this volume, which, on _ application,
you were so kind as to lend me.
Before Col. Beaufoy commenced his experiments, the labors of
philosophers and mathematicians in this department of hydraulics,
had been chiefly directed to the deduction of a theory, a priori from
the received doctrine of the percussion of fluids; and had for the
most part contemplated only that portion of the resistance, which re-
sults from the direct or oblique action of the fluid on the anterior
disc of the moving body. me experiments had been tried, but
they were comparatively few in number, and having been instituted
for the purpose of confirming some point in the theory, were shaped
with sole reference to that object. Attempts, also, had been made
to deduce the law of resistance directly from experiments; but the
experiments were so few and so little diversified, that such an attempt
could proceed only upon the false assumption that the resistance is 2
single force, or if made up of several forces, that these have a fixed
relation to each other.
Col. Beaufoy regards the resistance as made up of three distinct
quantities, having no necessary dependence upon, or relation to eac
Descriptions of some Shells, &c. 347
other, viz. 1. The increased pressure on the anterior disc of the
moving body, arising from its motion. 2. The diminished pressure
on the posterior disc. 3. The friction of the fluid on the surface of
the body.—By the application of a novel and curious process of
analysis, he has most ingeniously contrived to separate this resist-
ance into these three constituent elements, and to examine the value
and efficiency of each in numerous and distinct classes of experi-
ments. This mode of viewing and treating the subject will at once
commend itself to every one who has given his attention to this de-
partment of hydraulics.
These experiments of Beaufoy have developed a vast number of
facts which are of great value in themselves considered,—yet this
value is scarcely appreciable, when compared with that which they
possess as indices pointing to those general principles, the develop-
ment of which was the ultimate object of all his labors. With ref-
erence to this object he has collated and classified his experiments
with great care and judgment, and doubtless they will eventually
become the basis on which will be erected a theoretical superstruc-
ture worthy of so magnificent a foundation.
I look with great interest for the ‘“'Tentamen Theorie Resisten-
tie Fluidorum Constituenda” of Assessor Lagerhjelm, promised in
a future volume.
Very respectfully yours,
Eur W. Brake.
New Haven, Conn., June, 1835.
Arr. XXVII.— Descriptions of some Shells, belonging to the Coast
of New England; by Jos. G. Vorren. No. 2.
Genus Anatina, Lam.
A. papyratia? Say. Plate, Fig. 1, a, 6, ¢, d.
Shell, subovate, moderately convex, thin, fragile, valves nearly
equal, gaping, not widely, at the posterior margin: beaks, not prom-
inent, placed at about one third the length of the shell from the pos-
terior end: surface, finely wrinkled concentrically, white, somewhat
pearly, covered with a yellowish-white epidermis : dorsal margin,
straight, behind the beaks: posterior margin, also straight, forming
obtuse angles with the dorsal and posterior-basal margins; a slight
Wave, extending from the beaks to the lower angle, forms an indis-
348 Descriptions of some Shells, &c.
tinct arcuation in advance of the angle: remaining portions of the
contour quite regularly rounded: teeth, small, curved forward, point-
ing toward the anterior-basal margin, and supported, in each valve,
by a thin and elevated rib: muscular and palleal impressions very
indistinct.
Length, 0.64 of an inch.
Height, 0.50 do.
Thickness, 0.28 do.
There is reason to believe, that a larger size is sometimes attain-
ed. Smaller individuals have rather greater proportionate length.
Inhabits muddy bottom, Newport harbor, R. I. Obtained by the
dredge from a depth of about fifteen feet. The ossiculum of this
species, Fig. 1, d, (two views of the same enlarged) is small but
stout: it is attached, anterially, by the ligament, to the spoon-sha-
ped teeth.
On comparing the figures above referred to, with shells in the
Philadelphia Museum, referred to by Mr. Say, Mr. Conrad is of the
opinion, that this is the A. papyratia. In deference to this authori-
ty, and inclining to the same opinion, I affix Mr. Say’s name—giv-
ing the figures because, as I think, no figure has been given by Mr.
Say. At the same time, I am bound to remark that, in some par-
ticulars, the description published by that naturalist, (see Journal of
Nat. Sciences, Phil., Vol. I, p. 314) does not well agree with our
shell. He says, for instance, of the papyratia, “one valve very
convex,” while in this, the inequality of the valves is scarcely pe!-
ceptible—and he gives a greater proportionate length (‘ width” of
Say) than I have ever noticed amongst ours. Should this prove @
different species, I suggest the name of A. fragilis.
Genus Astarte, Sow.
A. castanea? Say. Fig. 2, a, b, c,d, e, f.
Variety B.
Shell, sub-oval or sub-orbicular, length not exceeding the height,
thick and heavy, inequilateral, with prominent beaks: umbones,
rather convex: disk, with minute concentric wrinkles, deeper on the
posterior slope, and a few obsolete undulations: epidermis, brown-
ish-yellow, generally quite light, sometimes with a few darker zones:
cartilage-slope, curved: posterior margin, sub-truncated: lunule
and corselet, excavated and lanceolate: within, white, sometimes
with a faint bluish tint: cavity, rather small; inner margin, regular-
Descriptions of some Shells, &§c. 349
ly crenulated in some adult specimens—in the younger, perfectly
smooth. Of large specimens, length, 0.90 of an inch.
Height, 1.00 do.
Thickness, 0.50 do.
The proportions vary ; but of more than twenty individuals, that
which had least proportionate altitude, (Fig. 2, ¢.) had less length
than height.
Found on the beach of Provincetown harbor, (Mass.) in compa-
ny with A. Castanea of Say.
As the propriety of separating this shell from Mr. Say’s, A. Casta-
nea may be doubted, I now give it asa variety. In the form and
arrangement of the teeth, it certainly differs but little, if at all: still,
from a comparison of many specimens, it is believed that it will al-
ways be distinguished, by the lighter color of its epidermis, by its
outline, and other less marked differences. The principal figures in
the plates (a, 6, c, d,) represent a shell with rather more than the
average elevation, but not so much as other individuals in my pos-
session, see f. Should this prove to be a different species, it may
have the name of A. procera.
A. Danmoniensis, Sow. and others. Fig. 3, a, b, c, d.
~ Venus Danmoniensis, Montague, Dill, &c.
V. Crassatella, Blain.
Crassina Danmoniensis, Lam.
I give figures, that a comparison may be made between the Euro-
pean and American shells of this species.
As the crenulation of the inner margin is often made a specific
characteristic, it may be interesting to notice that, in this species, as
in the preceding, our young, and half grown, shells, have their mar-
gins perfectly smooth. The epidermis is very adherent, beautifully
glossy, and varying in color, from light greenish-yellow, through
yellowish-brown, to dark chesnut-brown.
Inbabits gravelly bottom, Newport harbor, (R. I.) obtained by
the dredge from deep water.
Comparing this shell with the figures and descriptions of the books
and with a European specimen in the cabinet of Lt. Harwood, I
Was at once convinced that it was A. Danmoniensis, but supposed it
was now first found on the coast of the United States; Mr. Conrad,
however, informs me that a valve from the Eastern coast, always
considered the same as the British species, has been many years in
Mr. Hyde’s cabinet.
350 Descriptions of some Shells, &c.
Genus Bulla, Lin.
B. insculpta. Fig. 4
Shell, small, white, very thin and fragile, pellucid, oval, impres-
sed at top, regularly rounded and widest below; with many slight
longitudinal wrinkles, a few obsolete longitudinal waves, and very
numerous equal, straight, impressed, revolving lines: spire none ;
in lieu thereof, a pit, not deeper than the origin of the right lip:
aperture, of nearly equal width for one third of its length from the
top, thence, downward, gradually expanding to a considerable
breadth: right lip, regularly arched, sharp, rising from the axis,
with a regular curvature upward and forward, bigher than the shoul-
der of the shell: left margin, above, a thin plate glued upon the
convexity of the second turn, below, rolled into a kind of spiral
pillar which is twisted around, and at a little distance from, the im-
aginary axis of the shell. Axis, void to the summit, where it is
closed by the common origin of the two margins: no proper wm-
bilicus, but a slight chink under the recurved plate which forms the
pillar.
Length, 0.35 of an inch.
Breadth, 0.23 do.
Inhabits muddy bottom in Newport harbor, (R. I.) Dredged in
about fifteen feet of water.
This can hardly be Say’s B. solitaria, (Journal of the Academy
of Nat. Sciences, Phil., Vol. I, p. 245.) It is not, umbilicated at
top, as that species is; having merely a shallow pit in which noth-
ing of the interior whirls can be seen. The solitaria is described
as being “‘ narrowed at the base ;” but though our shell is regularly
rounded in the passage, below, of the right into the left margin, it
is widely rounded; and the widest part of the shell is below the
middle.
B. oryza. Fig. 5.
Shell, very small, white, glossy, not very thin, translucent, ellipti-
cal, a eilly diminishing upward and downward from the mid-
base being rather acute and the summit depressed into a
shallot pit: surface, with numerous longitudinal wrinkles, a number
of impressed revolving lines on the lower portion, and a few more
obscure revolving lines near the shoulder—none of these wrinkles
or lines being visible without a magnifier: aperture, narrow at top,
and gradually widening toward the base: right lip, regularly arch-
Descriptions of some Shells, Se. 351
ed, sharp ; above, originating behind the axis of the shell, and rising
a little higher than the shoulder: left margin, above, a thin plate
glued upon the convexity of the second whirl, below, thickened
and formed into a stout and glossy pillar which is twisted on the ax-
is of the shell: an oblique fold exists at the junction of this pillar
with the convexity of the whirl, and, as the pillar does not reach
the base of the shell, its somewhat abrupt truncation bas the ap-
pearance of an obtuse tooth: wmbilicus none: an interior callus
Strengthens the junction of the right lip with the top of the shell,
and, from the greater opacity of this portion, seems to strengthen the
whole interior of the shoulder ridge.
Length, 0.15 of an inch.
Breadth, 0.10 = do.
Inhabits muddy bottom in Newport harbor, (R. 1.) Dredged
from a depth of fifteen feet.
Genus Natica, Adanson.
N. immaculata. Fig. 6, a, 8, ¢.
Shell, small, milk-white, immaculate, glossy, longitudinally sub-
oval: volutions, about five: suture, not impressed: upper whirls,
very slightly convex: umbilicus, rounded, scarcely modified by the
callus: callus, not very copious, and, entering the aperture under
the upper part of the right lip, runs to the apex, causing a white
spiral line to appear on the exterior surface, just under the sutures :
aperture, rather narrow, regularly and somewhat acutely curved at
the base: operculum, horny.
Length, 0.28 of an inch.
Breadth, 0.22 do.
It probably attains a somewhat greater size.
Inhabits Newport harbor, (R. 1.) Dredged from deep water.
This shell, in form, much resembles Say’s N. triseriata, (Jour. of
Acad. of Nat. Sciences, Phil. Vol. v, p. 209) and is found associa-
ted with it. Itis distinguishable from that species, however, not
only by the broad difference of color, but by the lesser convexity of
the upper whirls, and by the aperture, which is narrower near the
base, and not sub-angular at the bottom of the pillar, and also by
the operculum, which, is more elongate and has a smaller spire.
Fig. 6, b is the operculum of ¢riseriata, and c that of the émmac-
ulata,
352 Descriptions of some Shells, &c.
Genus Turritella, Lam.
T. interrupta. Fig. 7.
Shell, small, subulate, brownish : volutions, about ten, almost flat,
with about twenty two transverse, obtuse, ribs, separated by grooves
of equal diameter, and with about fourteen sub-equal, impressed,
revolving lines, which are arranged in pairs, and entirely interrupted
by the ribs: below the middle of the body whirl, the ribs become
obsolete, and the revolving lines continuous: sutures, made quite
distinct by a slight shoulder to each volution: aperture, ovate, an-
gular above, regularly rounded below, about one fifth the length of
the shell: right lip, sharp, indistinctly sinuous.
Length, 0.22 of an inch.
Breadth, 0.07 do.
Inhabits Newport harbor, (R. I.) Obtained by the dredge.
This shell resembles in some respects the Turbo elegantissimus
and the Turbo simillimus of Montague—the Turritella equalis of
Say, and the Turritella laqueata of Conrad, but, besides other dif-
ferences, none of these are described as having the interrupted re-
volving lines of this species.
Genus Cerithium, Brug.
C. reticulatum. Fig. 8.
Shell, small, turreted, oblong-conical, having a granulated surface
from the crossing of longitudinal obtuse ribs, and prominent spiral
strie: ribs, about twenty, soon becoming lost below the middle of
the body whirl, and presenting distinct rows of granules on the spire:
spiral str*e about six on the penultimate and antepenultimate whirls,
five on tue next above, and gradually lessening in number to the
apex, very rarely with any intermediate smaller strie; the spiral
row of granules next below the suture, rather larger, and forming @
slight shoulder to the volutions; about six, raised, revolving lines,
obsoletely granular, below the middle of the body whirl: volutions
about nine, slightly convex above the body whirl: sutwre; impress-
ed: aperture, oblique, sub-ovate, acutely angular above, widely
rounded below, less than one third the length of the shell: labium,
concave: labrum, slightly waving in accordance with the ridges and
valleys of the strie, and not thickened: canal, a little recurved.
Length, 0.28 of an inch.
Breadth, 0.10 do.
Tnhabits Narraganset roads, (R. I.) and Boston harbor, (Mass-)
Improved Air Pump Receiver. 353
This is undoubtedly the same shell that was described by me in
this Journal, Vol. xxvi, p. 369, and named Pasithea nigra. I had
then before me several hundred individuals, all living, from the
length of 0.15 of an inch down to less than 0.10 of an inch, and
did not suspect that all were immature. I was, however, much
puzzled by its characters, and could find no place for it elsewhere,
than in Mr. Lea’s new genus Pastthea. I am now indebted to Dr.
A. A. Gould of Boston, (through the kind agency of the Rev. F.
W. P. Greenwood) for the means of making this correction, as well
as for the intimation that I had been occupied with the young, only,
of the species. The change in the form of the aperture of this
‘Shell, with increasing maturity, is interesting. While quite young,
it might be considered a Turbo; and Dr. Gould states that it was
regarded, by some, as the Turbo calathiscus of Montague, and so
catalogued: Mr. Greenwood suggests that it may be Say’s Turri-
tella alternata, and the half-grown specimens agree pretty well with
Say’s description of that species; and in the state in which I de-
scribed it, the future well marked beak and canal] are indicated only
by a scarcely perceptible arcuation at the base. The shell descri-
bed by Say in “ American Conchology, No. 5,” as C. ferrugineum
bears a resemblance to this; but his description does not accord
with some marks which appear to be constant in our shell. I take
pleasure in affixing the name suggested by Dr. Gould.
Arr. XXVIII.—Improved Air Pump Receiver, exhibited before
the New York Mechanic’s Institute, Jan. 1835 ; by Joun Bett,
Member of the Institute.
TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN.
Dear Sir,—I send you herewith the drawings and description of
an apparatus for creating a more perfect vacuum, than can usually
be obtained by the common or silk-valve air pump. It is the inven-
tion of Mr. John Bell of this city, and is the subject of a paper by
that gentleman recently read before the Mechanic’s Institute of the
city of New York, by which body I am requested to forward to you
the description and drawing of the apparatus, that if you deem them
worthy, they may find a place in your valuable Journal.
Yours, &c. L. D. Gate,
Cor. Sec. Mechanic’s Institute of the City of New York.
Vor. XXVIIL.—No. 2.
354 Improved Air Pump Recewwer.
“The accompanying drawing represents a metallic cylinder A,
which is to be connected with P, the plate of
a common air pump by means of a screw, and
the vacuum is to be made in the receiver D.
B, is a piston well packed, and fitted to move
up and down in the cylinder; C, a stuffing
box through which the piston rod passes air
tight; E and F, metallic tubes of small bore
communicating with the air pump plate P, the
cylinder A, and the receiver D.
“ Having screwed the apparatus upon the
plate P, open the stop cocks 1, 2,3, and ex-
haust the air within the receivers, in the
usual way until the elasticity of the air with-
in, is no longer capable of raising the valves.
Then closing the stop cock 1, force the pis-
ton B, nearly to the bottom of the cylinder,
by which the air before occupying the whole
of the cylinder is so much condensed that its
elasticity will raise the valves of the air pump
and is by it removed. The air which before be
depressing the piston B, filled only the receive ?74E
er D, is now expanded so as to fill also the
eylinder A, while the piston B remains at the
bottom of the cylinder, close the stop cocks 3 and 2, and then open
1 and elevate the piston by the hand to near the top of the cylin-
der. The air which before elevating the piston occupied the whole
spaces of the cylinder is now compressed into that, occupied by the
bore of the tube E, G, F and a small portion of the upper part of
the cylinder and has now acquired sufficient elasticity to raise the
valves, and by working the pump, as before, is removed. Thus by
elevating the piston B, and exhausting, and then depressing it and
exhausting, provided the apparatus be well made it is believed that
the most perfect vacuum can be formed, equal for all practical pur
poses to the torricellian. The size of the cylinder A, may be i
creased to any dimensions, and the rapidity of the exhaustion will
be in the same proportion.”’ ;
The above apparatus it must be remembered is intended only for
such pumps as have their valves raised by the elasticity of the air
Miscellanies. 355
within the receiver, and does not consequently apply to the pumps
with metallic valves. It is not supposed that a person who should
purchase a new pump, would obtain one of the common kind and
have the ‘improved receiver’’ of Mr. Bell attached to it; but while
he has in his possession an instrument of the former kind, he may
render it equal in the effects produced, to those with metallic valves,
by attaching to it the receiver of Mr. Bell. It is not supposed or
intended that the above receiver should be used in performing the
common air pump experiments, that require only a partial vacuum,
but that it should be confined to those where a more perfect one is
necessary.
MISCELLANIES.
FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC.
1. Oxy-hydrogen illumination. C. U. S.—M. Jose Rowra, Pro-
fessor of oS Be in the University of Barcelona, sent a letter to
y of | a, suggesting an improvement in the
ob he
into a paste with some gum, and then cut into small pieces ; the jet
of oxygen and hydrogen upon it produces a most brilliant light, sul-
phurous acid and water are disengaged, and oxide of calcium re-
mains. M. Araco observed that the French light-house commis-
sion were engaged in effecting a similar plan of illumination; after
“some experience, it was proved that the light emitted was equal to
that of twenty thousand Argand lamps, but this intensity is not con-
stant, because the heat soon hardened the lime so.as to require fre-
quent removal or snuffing, to allow the flame to operate upon the
fresh particles ; another inconvenience is, that the light produced by
a luminous body of such small dimensions as a cylinder of lime can
have but a very slight divergence, and when upon the horizon, its
appearance at each point from a revolving light would be almost in-
stantaneous, so that navigators may fail in perceiving it, and be un-
able to discover the situation of the light house.— Atheneum, Nov.
. Singular preservation of Life in a Molluscous Animal—M.,
Rane, Member of the Royal Academy of Sciences of Paris receiv-
356 Miscellanies.
ed four young specimens of Anodonta rubens, Lam., from Senegal,
and although they had been enveloped in cotton for two months,
they were still alive; he had learnt that these animals live eight
months of the year out of water, upon the ground suddenly aban-
doned by the river, and that they remain during six of these months
exposed to the ardent heat of the Senegal.—Jdem.
3. Isomerism. J. G.—The differences in chemical and mechanical
properties among simple and compound bodies, were the first to at-
tract the attention of the early chemists. When methods were dis-
covered in more recent times by which the elements of compound
bodies could be separated from each other, it was natural to expect
that those which were possessed of unlike properties should also prove
unlike in composition. Nor did the results of analysis disappoint this
expecta ion. It was found that substances differing in properties
were composed either of unlike elements or of the same elements in
unlike proportion, and if results of a contrary character were at any
time obtained, they were at once set down as erroneous, and further
research generally proved themso. But as the art of analysisimpro-
ved, and the chances of error were confined within narrower limits,
the views of chemists in regard to the composition of bodies became
more extended. The vast variety of organic compounds which
Nature, by her mysterious processes of elaboration, has formed out of
the same four simple elements, taught them that the characteristic
properties of different compound bodies depended less on the presence
of unlike elements than had hitherto been supposed. The near ap-
proach to equality in the proportions of the elements of many widely
different vegetable products, showed them how closely substances
might stand to each other in composition, while they were far sepa-
rated in properties ; and when at length it was proved by convincing
experiments, that the elements may be the same and their proportions
identical, and yet different compounds result, it became necessary t0
recognise the mode of grouping or arranging these elements, as alone
sufficient to produce the most striking sensible differences. ‘This last
conclusion was first distinctly pointed out by the compounds of carbon
and hydrogen; it has been confirmed and established by many more
recent investigations.
Until lately the atomic weights of compound substances containing
the same elements in the same relative proportion were always found
to differ, and in this difference there appeared still a sufficient reason
for their unlike nature.
Miscellanies. 357
It was conceivable that in bodies differing as to their atomic con-
Stitution in this one point only, the elements might be more or less
condensed, or otherwise so differently grouped as to give rise to the
observed difference in their properties. But the progress of the sci-
ence has removed this distinction also, and made us acquainted with
instances in which like elements grouped together in like number and
proportion, constitute unlike compounds having the same atomic
weight.
Dr, Dalton, in his reasonings on atomic arrangement, had early
shown that the atoms of compound bodies might be supposed to
group themselves in one of several different ways. Berzelius in 1814
had proved, by his experiments on Tin, that there existed two chlo-
rides and two oxides of that metal, having the same atomic consti-
tution but possessing unlike properties ; and Dr. Thomson in his First
rinciples, in treating of the then supposed identical composition
of the acetic and succinic acids, has made it exceedingly probable
that there did actually exist very unlike chemical compounds in which
the same elements in the same relative proportion were so grouped
pte as to 9 produce the same atomic weight; but it was not till
admi paper by Berzelius, on the composition
, that the doctrine
was j ve this paper he showed that these two acids
on the one hand; and the phosphoric and paraphosphoric on the other,
are identical in ‘composition, and for such bodies he proposed the
term Isomeric (stog equal, epog part). ‘The able and interesting re-
searches of MM. Wohler and Liebig on the acids of cyanogen,
added to the list, by showing that the soluble and insoluble cyanuric
acids 3 $ (Cy+20+H); the cyanic and fulminic acids were also
isomeric.
Many other examples have since been brought forward, and the
investigation of organized compounds is daily adding to our knowledge
on this important subject. The doctrine itself has likewise met with
general reception ; and in adverting to the enlarged ideas it has al-
ready given birth to, we cannot help regarding the establishment of
it as a new bound the science has taken towards that vast extension
it is destined to attain.
4. Water, maximum density of. J. G.—The question as to the
temperature at which the density of water is a maximum does not
seem to be yet quite settled. Deluc first fixed it at 40° Fah, ;
358 Miscellanies.
Sir Charles Blagden and Mr. Gilpin reduced it to 39°; Dr. Hope’s
elegant method gave 39.5° ; Biot, in his Tables gives by calculation,
38.156° ; and the French, in fixing their standard weights and
measures, adopted 40°. More lately, the elaborate researches of
Hallstrom fixed it at 39.38°, in which determination great confidence
was placed. Prof. Stampfer, of Vienna has renewed the investiga-
tion with the adoption of new precaution.
His method was to weigh a hollow cylinder of known bulk, made
air tight, at about 66° Fahr., in water of different temperatures ; and
to insure accuracy, he continued his weighings during a whole year,
so as to have the temperatures of the water and surrounding air nearly
alike. From a great number of results carefully corrected, he
deduces 38.75°, for maximum density. Muncke also has made ex-
periments on the same subject, and found water to have a maximum
of 38.804°. The cause of differences so great must be determined
by further investigations, the thermometers are the most likely source
of error; for though Erman has shown that a very minute admixture
of a saline substance would cause an important difference in the
temperature of maximum density, we cannot suppose such experi-
menters to employ water that had not been several times distilled.
Mr. Crichton of Glasgow, by employing a thermometer tube with
a large bulb filled with water and allowing for the expansion of the
glass, has more recently arrived at a determination agreeing very
nearly with those of Muncke and Stampfer. The true point of
maximum density he fixes at 88.972 Fahr. consequently that at
which water acquires the same absolute magnitude as at 32°, is
45.94°.
5. Gallic Acid. J. G.—Dobereiner obtains pure gallic acid in a
few minutes by the following process. A concentrated decoction of
gall-nuts, mixed with a little acetic acid to decompose the gallate of
lime is shaken for one minute with a quantity of ether. The gallic
acid is taken up by the ether, and by spontaneous evaporation on a
watch glass is obtained in small colorless prisms. If longer digested,
the liquid separates into three portions. The lightest contains the
gallic and acetic acids, if the latter be present in excess ; the next an
ethereal solution of tannin; and the heaviest, the water and extract-
ive matter—Report of British Association.
6. Acetic Acid. J. G.—A most important improvement has re-
cently been introduced into the manufacture of vinegar, which is al-
Miscellanies. 359
ready extensively practised on the continent. ‘The introduction of
this improvement is chiefly due, I believe, to Mitscherlich. It is
founded upon the principle that alcohol, by absorbing oxygen, is
changed into acetic acid and water. For, two alcohol + four oxygen
=one acetic acid+ three water (6H+ 4C+20) +40= (8H+4C
+30) +3 (H+0.)
This oxidation is promoted by the process of fermentation ; and
when the fermentation has begun, is much accelerated by the pres-
ence of acetic acid. The oxidation is effected entirely at the ex-
pense of the oxygen of the air :—to accelerate the process, therefore,
by producing as many points of contact as possible between the li-
quid and the air, the following arrangement is adopted. A large cask
is taken, placed upright with a stop cock at the bottom and a series
of holes, half an inch in diameter, bored one in each stave, a few
inches above it. It is then nearly filled with chips or shavings of
wood, previously steeped in strong vinegar till they are perfectly
saturated. Within the upper end of the cask a shallow cylindrical
vessel is placed, nearly in contact with the shavings, the bottom of
which is perforated with many small holes, each partially stopped
with a slender twig which passes an inch or two beneath the perfor-
ated bottom of the cylinder. The alcohol diluted with eight or nine
parts of water, and mixed with the fermenting substances, is now
poured into the cylinder, through the bottom of which it trickles,
drop by drop, upon the shavings below, becomes oxidized in its pas-
sage, and runs out at the stop cock beneath, already converted almost
entirely into vinegar. ‘The air rushes in by the holes beneath, and
passes out above by eight glass tubes, cemented for that purpose into
the bottom of the cylinder; and so rapidly is it deprived of its oxy-
gen, when it escapes above, that it extinguishes a candle. During
the process much heat is also developed; so that from the temper-
ature of 60° (that of the room,) the interior of the cask rises as high
as 86° F. In the proper regulation of this temperature, much of
the difficulty consists.
A second transmission of the acid, thus obtained, through another
similar cask, finishes the process. ‘The whole is concluded in a few.
hours, four and twenty is considered amply suffieient to convert a
given quantity of alcohol into vinegar.—Idem.
7. Opium. J.G.—Few substances have undergone more repeated
investigations than opium, or been subjected to more varied chem-
360 Miscellanies.
ical torture. Of this some idea may be formed from the following
list of immediate principles obtained from it, as given by Pelletier.
Morphine, a base discovered by Serturner.
Meconic acid, discovered by Serturner.
Narcotine, a base discovered by Derosne.
Meconine, an indifferent substance? Dublane and Couerbe.
Narceine, an indifferent substance? Pelletier. :
Brown acid and extractive matter ; a peculiar resin strongly elec-
tro negative ; a‘fatty oil; caoutchouc gum; bassarine ;- lignine ; and
a volatile principle.—Idem.
8. Nitrogen. J. G.—One of the easiest methods of preparing
nitrogen is to pass a current of chlorine gas through liquid ammonia.
The ammonia is decomposed, muriatic acid formed, and nitrogen
liberated which may be collected in a receiver. Mr. Emmett has
recommended an equally easy and simple process for obtaining this
gas. It consists in fusing nitrate of ammonia in a retort with some frag-
ments of metallic zinc. This metal decomposes the nitric acid, and
nitrogen and ammonia are given off. When collected over water
the latter gas is absorbed. Mr. Emmett employs a small cylinder of
zinc attached to a rod passing through the tubulure of a retort, by
raising or depressing which into the fused nitrate he can regulate
the emission of the gas.—Idem.
9. Sulphurous Acid Gas. Knezaurek has given a very useful
and cheap method of preparing sulphurous acid gas. He introduces
powdered charcoal into a retort and pours over it concentrated sul-
phuric acid, until on shaking it the mass appears moist. On heating,
a constant stream of a mixture of two volumes of sulphurous acid
and one of carbonic acid gas is given off, which continues till the
mass becomes dry. ‘This method may be used with great advantage
in saturating alkalies or preparing the hypo-sulphites.
10. Anhydrous sulphuric Acid. J. G.—Prof. Mosander of Stock-
holm has communicated to me the following very simple mode of
preparing anhydrous sulphuric acid. If oxide of antimony be treat
ed with excess of sulphuric acid till the oxide is saturated, and the
excess of acid then driven off by a low temperature the sulphate
S643, is obtained dry and crystallized. If this dry salt be put into
a retort and heated to dull redness, the greater part of the acid 18
driven off in an anhydrous state, and is easily condensed in a
receiver.—Idem.
Miscellanies. 361
11. On a substance called inflammable snow; by M. Hermann,
(Ann. de Pog. tome 28. p. 566.) J. G.—This substance fell from
the sky on the 11th April, 1832, 13 werstes from the town of Wo-
lokalamsk, and covered to the thickness of 1 to 2 inches a space of
- 8to 10 square rultres.
It was of a wine yellow, transparent, soft, and smelling like rancid
oil. Its sp. gr. was 1.1. It melted in a close vessel, and yielded
the common products of vegetable substances, leaving a brilliant
charcoal. It burnt with a blue flame, without smoke. It is insolu-
ble in cold water, but melts in boiling water, and then swims on the
fluid. Boiling alcohol dissolves it. It dissolves also in carbonate of
soda, and the acids separate from the solution a yellow viscous sub-
stance, soluble in cold alcohol, and which contains a peculiar acid.
The analysis, by oxide of copper, gave
Carbon : i : 0°615
Hydrogen. . 3 0-070
Oxygen . i ‘ 0-315
1-000
which corresponds to the formula |OCH+40OH. I gave it the name
of d’ral élaine, which signifies naa oil.— Annales des Mines, Juin,
1834.
12. Stearine a compound body. J.G.—Chemists have long since
determined that animal fat contains two distinct substances, the one,
élaine, constantly fluid at common temperatures, the other Stéarine,
as constantly solid.
M. Lecanu finds by experiment that Stéarine, especially that ob-
tained from animal bodies, is formed of two distinct solid substances of
unequal fusibility. To the least fusible solid he appropriates exclusive-
ly the name Stearine. It does not grease the fingers like tallow ; it
is hard like wax, inodorous, fusible at 62° Cent., slightly soluble in
boiling alcohol, from which it separates by cold, largely soluble in
warm ether, from which by cooling it separates in shining scales.
Heated in the air it burns like fat bodies, but without the disagreea-
ble odor of tallow.
When saponified, it is completely transformed into stearic acid
and glycerine. This stearine may easily be extracted from tallow,
by treating the latter with five or six times its weight of boiling
ether, which completely dissolves it, and deposites the stearine on
Vol. XX VIII.—No. 2. 46
362 Miscellanies.
cooling. It may also be obtained by solution in hot spirits of tur-
pentine and subsequent cooling. This process will give, from mut-
ton suet, more than a third of its weight of stearine, fusible at 60°.
This is regarded as eminently adapted to bougies, superior to sperma-
ceti and margaric acid, the former melting at 44° and the latter be-
low 60°, while stearine fuses at 62°.—Bull. D’ Encouragement,
Juin, 1834.
13. J.G. On the cementation of iron by means of carburetted hydro-
gen; by M. , Engineer in chief of the mines of France.—
M. Macinrosu, one of the best informed manufacturers of England,
to whom the chemical machinery in the vicinity of Glasgow is in-
debted for numerous improvements, formed the idea of fabricating
steel by exposing iron to a current of carburetted hydrogen. After
various trials, the apparatus which he found the most convenient,
consisted of a cast iron tube, lined internally with the refractory clay,
used in the high furnaces of the Clyde. To prevent the shrinking
which clay commonly undergoes, it is mixed with about one third of
the same clay, baked, and reduced to fine powder. The tubes em-
ployed by M. Macintosh vary in length from four to six feet, and
their interior width from ten to eleven inches. The coating of clay
is two inches thick: it should be thoroughly beaten, and free from
fissures. ‘T'o accomplish this, a cylinder of wood is introduced, whose
diameter is equal to that of the interior of the apparatus ; the clay is
put on in thin successive layers in the manner practised in the fabri-
cation of glass-house pots. The tube has adjutages at each extrem-
ity. One of these serves for the admission of carburetted hydrogen,
and the other for the emission of the gas. These openings may
each be accurately closed so as to cause the gas to remain in the
tube as long as convenient.
The tube is placed in a furnace so that it may be surrounded on
all sides by coal.
Each tube is charged with 109 to 150 pounds of iron, the bars
being placed lengthwise, and detached by small cross bars, in order
that the gas may come into contact with the entire surface. After
the fire is kindled, and the tube is sufficiently hot, a current of car-
buretted hydrogen is introduced, produced by the distillation of coal.
But in order that the gas and iron may acquire the temperature re-
quisite to the cementation, the hydrogen is renewed every half
hour. During this time the gas is deprived in great part of its car-
Miscellanies. 363
bon, and as it issues from the tube burns with a flame which emits
but little light.
he time necessary for the completion of the process depends on
the dimensions of the bars of iron and the temperature to which they
are subjected. When the tube is of a red brown color and the bars
are two inches wide and six lines thick, eighteen or twenty hours
are sufficient for the cementation. The iron may be very easily
surcharged with carbon. I have seen thin bars which were almost
in the state of graphite (plumbago). ‘Trial bars placed in the dises
which close the tube indicated the progress of the cementation and
the moment when the operation should be stopped.
The steel, when taken from the tube, is covered with little blis-
ters exactly like those made by the common methods. I have not
seen the apparatus in operation and can give no details relative to
the manner of conducting it; neither do I possess any statements of
its economy. M. Macintosh, from whom I have the few details
that have been mentioned, is satisfied that the process may with res-
pect to expense, come into competition with the usual mode of ce-
mentation. He considers the stee] obtained by the hydrogen gas as
more homogeneous and of a superior quality to the ordinary. He
has manufactured several tons in this mode in order to demonstrate
the reality of his discovery for which he has obtained a patent.
All the steel fabricated by M. Macintosh has been sold and used,
the greatest part converted into cast steel and employed in the man-
ufacture of fine cutlery and the preparation of instruments which re-
quire steel of the first quality —Annales des mines, tome v. 171.
14. J. G. Determination of the Mathematical Law by which the
elastic force of Aqueous Vapor increases with the temperature ; by
M. Rocue, Professor of Mathematics and Physics in the School of
Marine Artillery, at Toulon. Extracted from the Recueil Indus-
triel, for Mars, 1829.—It has been ascertained, Ist that a moder-
ate increase of temperature, greatly increases the elastic force of
steam; 2d that this force increases nearly in geometrical progres-
sion for every 30° of Fabhrenheit,—the elastic force doubling suc-
cessively for every successive augmentation of 30° from the boiling
point.
The experiments however, both of French and English philoso-
phers prove that the tension of steam at high temperatures varies
very sensibly from this law, and various empirical formule have been
364 Miscellanies.
proposed, more or less exact, representing the law of elastic force:
that of La Place, as stated in the Traité de Physique of Biot, has
the form, F =760" x 10% + bi? + ci? +, &e.
in which F designates the elastic force estimated in millimetres ;
760 the height of the column of quicksilver supported by atmos-
pheric pressure, and a, b, c, &c. constant coefficients which M. De
la Place endeavored to determine by experiment: he found a=
0.154547, 6= — 0.00625826. &c. Such a formula is obviously
rather complicated, and to apply it to high temperatures, the terms
2°, 14, &c. would be requisite ; ¢ representing the excess of the tem-
perature over 212°. But a more simple one may be found, by ob-
serving that the elastic force of the vapor increases for each element
of the temperature, by a quantity which is in the compound ratio of
the existing elastic force, and the increments of what I call the ex-
pansive heat, (chaleur expansive) and which is proportional to the
product of the temperature by the density which it would give to
steam, or to the quotient of that temperature by the volume which
it tends to give to steam agreeably to the law of dilatation laid down
by Gay Lussac. Thus, then the true law will be, that the elastic
force increases in geometrical progression, while the expansive heat
increases in arithemetical progression, and as this expansive heat,
designating by x the excess of temperature above 100 reuee
100 +2 100+ 03
8+0.03(100+2) 11+0. eeaes Og
being the —— of the dilatation or increase of volume for each
00+ 100 Tre
frome ai ir Pos
would be proportional to
degree): and as —_—
we may regard
X-
the increments as proportional to the quotient => ll rs a 032 and e
press the elastic force by the formula,
F=760” x10 = - Te 5032"
nm being a constant coefficient, and 760” the atmospheric pressure-
This Semale i in taking the logarithms, oe
poe log- F = log..160 Sire opis
if F be known by experiment, we shall find m in resolving the
preceding “oe! in n, which will give,
_1 0.032
—- (log. F — log. 760”).
Miscellanies. 365
Now if we calculate the values of n which I call the logarithmic
module of the elastic force of steam, by the table of elastic forces
prepared by the Institute and published in the physique of M. Pou-
illet, we shall find a mean value of n which will be n=0.17, the
other values differing very little from this, the formula becomes
O.17x
og. F = log. 160" +774 6.030
—
In a memoir which I presented to the Institute in the month of
February, 1828, and referred to the committee on the measurement
of high temperatures in steam engines, I have shewn how the mod-
ulus of the vapors of other fluids may be found and their density
calculated, and I found that the maximum of the elastic force of wa-
ter takes place at a temperature of about 770°, at which its density
is found to be nearly equal to that of the fluid in contact, the pres-
sure rising to more than 4000 atmospheres.
15. New Scientific Journals in Great Britain. Ep.—We have
received the first number of a spirited and able Journal published
January 1st, 1835, at Bristol, England, by Geo. T. Clark, entitled
the West of England doumal of Science and Literature—to be con-
tinued quarterly.
This work contains sia posta original papers by able men, and
various miscellaneous information. It will, we doubt not, prove an
important auxiliary to the journals of London and Edinburgh, and
will infuse vigor into that part of the kingdom.
A new Feiuttiel appeared at the above date in London, a
Records of General Science, by Robert D. Thomson, M. D. wi
the assistance of Thomas Thomson, M. D. Regius Professor of
Chemistry in the University of Glasgow. We cannot doubt that
in such hands this new journal must prove a valuable acquisition to
science. The present number contains an important paper by Prof.
Thomas Thomson, on calico printing, and the selections from for-
eign journals are copious and various.
16. Report on the fresh water Limestone of Burdie House, near
Edinburgh, by Dr. S. Hibbert—We have received from the au-
thor his valuable memoir of 114 pp. quarto, with numerous plates.
The existence of fossil Saurian fishes, some of them of enormous
size, beneath the coal formation, is now fully established; and Dr.
Hibbert has described and elucidated the interesting facts, respecting
366 Miscellanies.
these and many other organic remains whose real character—espe-
cially as regards the Saurian or Lizard fish was established by the
personal examination of Prof. Agassiz at the great scientific meeting
at Edinburgh, Sept. 8th, 1835.
Appended to Dr. Hibbert’s memoir is another by Arthur Con-
nel, Esq. on the analysis of coprolites and other organic remains in
the limestone of Burdie House.
The coprolites consist principally of phosphate of lime with a
little fluoride of calcium 83 to 85 parts in 100, carbonate of lime
10.78 to 15,11, and small portions of bituminous matters, alkalies
and silica.
17. Refraction and polarization of heat. Ev.—From the au-
thor, Prof. James D. Forbes of the Univ. of Edinburgh, we have
received a very curious and important memoir on the subject named
above. It was read before the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Jan.
5th and 9th, 1835. We have only room to state the conclusions of
the learned author.
1. Heat, whether luminous or obscure, is capable of polariza-
tion by tourmaline.
2. It may be polarized by refraction and reflection.
3. It may be depolarized by doubly refracting crystals. Hence,
4. Itis capable of double refraction, and the two rays are polari-
zed. When suitably modified, these rays are capable of interfering
like those of light.
5. The characteristic law of depolarization in the case of light,
holds in that of heat, viz. that the intensities in rectangular positions
of the analyzing plate are complementary to one another.
6. As a necessary consequence of the above, confirmed by ex-
periment, heat is susceptible of circular and elliptical polarization.
7. The undulations of obscure heat are probably longer than
those of light. A method is pointed out for deducing their length
numerically.
18, Mémoires Geologiques et Paleontologiques, published by A-
Boué. Ep.—This is the first number of a Geological Journal which
is to appear occasionally.
The present number contains 362 pages and is illustrated by
plates. In common with the Bulletin of the Geological Society of
France, it proves the great and increasing interest in this science
which is felt in that country.
Miscellanies. 367
The name of Boué is a sufficient guaranty that the work will be
conducted with ability.
19. L’ Institut, Journal Général des sociétés et travaux. scien-
tifiques de la France et de L’ Etrangere.—Nos. 95 to 102 except
98. This is a scientific news bulletin and must prove very useful.
20. Adhesive power of the cement of the Castle Rock.
Quebec, March, 1835.
To. Prof. Sirtiman, Sir—To determine its comparative adhesive
powers, three pairs of fire bricks having iron rings rivetted into them
to allow of the suspension of weights, were cemented together two
and two on the 19th November last with three varieties of cement,
each cement being mixed with 4 sand and 4 dry lime. These
bricks were placed from the period they were set until the 24th
eb. 1835, in a cold room where the temperature was often many
degrees below the freezing point, after which they took the following
weights to separate them, viz.
Place of manufacture. Separating weights.
Hull on the Ottawa, U.C. 4 ewt.
Harwich, E Bans x eee
Quebec - 10 “ Inthis experiment the hook of
the balance ie with 94 cwt. and the bricks falling among the
weights were taken up and afterwards bore the 10 ewt.
While on the subject of cement, I may observe that in the peru-
sal of the “‘ chemical and external characters of the lower strata at
the Trenton Falls given at page 196 of vol. I. part 1 of the Lyceum
of Natural History of New York,” I was struck with its apparent
agreement as regards constituents with our black rock, and was also
in consequence induced to ask if it be a hydraulic limestone ?
The geological characters of the two rocks are certainly very dif-
ferent not only as regards the inclination of the strata which is here
great, but also with respect to the occurrence of fossils in them,
these as you well know affording none if we except small seams of
anthracite, certain anthracitic investments and a bituminous gum or
oil, And the fact of the great profusion of organic remains “ con-
tained in every part of the rocks,” as stated by Prof. Renwick,
leads me to the opinion, notwithstanding the presence of the Caly-
mene Blumenbachii, that the formation at Trenton Falls is the Car-
boniferous limestone of Phillips or upper transition limestone of
368 Miscellanies.
most Continental writers; it must be admitted, however, that the
purity, light grey color, and crystalline structure of the upper por-
tion of the rock is against this supposition. F. H. Bappe.ey.
21. Transactions of the Literary and Historical Society of Que-
bec, Vol. iii. part iiii—The contents of this publication are, Medical
Statistics of Lower Canada, by Dr. Shelly ; Canadian song birds,
Mrs. Shepard ; Inscripticn in the heart of a growing tree, Mr. Shep-
ard; Analysis of a mineral water from Gaspé, Ancient document re~
lating to Acadia, Island of St. Paul, Mr. Adams; Temperature of
the springs at Quebec, Mr. Shelly ; Travertine or calcareous Tufa,
H. D. Sewall, Esq. ; Canadian Etymologies, Andrew Stuart, Esq. ;
Geol. Sketch of the most N. E. portion of Canada, Lt. F. H. Bad-
deley, R. E.; Meteorological Journal on Lake Superior, 1824 ;
Meteorological Journal on Cape Diamond, Quebec, Jan. 1832 to
Dec. 1834. :
This spirited society has contributed many important communica-
tions of general and local interest, and we are happy to observe by its
annual report that its library and various collections in natural history,
&c. are increasing ; its library contains between 500 and 600 vol-
umes, and its museum about 600 specimens, arranged and described.
This society, with the sister institutions in Montreal and York, will
do much for Canada, and we trust will meet with co-operation, and
kind as well as valuable encouragement from similar institutions, and
from liberal individuals in the United States.
We learn that the British authorities in Canada are prosecuting
their topographical and geological surveys: able reports have been
already presented by Dr. Bigsby, Capt. Bonnycastle, Capt. Bay-
field and Lieut. Baddeley, and we are informed that the latter gen-
tleman will soon proceed to make observations between lakes Huron
and Nipissing.
22. Journal of the Geological Society of Dublin, Vol. 1. part }-
and ii., 1833-4.—The institution of a Geological Society at Dublin,
Ireland, in 1833, has already given birth to two numbers of their
Journal, extending to 139 pages, and illustrated by maps and plates.
The subjects are,
Part I. The president’s addresses; The theory of Geological
phenomena in Ireland, by Capt. Portlock ; Globular F ormations,
Prof. Stokes, Univ. Dublin; Fossil deet of Ireland, Dr. J.
Miscellanies. 369
Trap of Limerick, Prof. Apjohn, M. D.; Diluvial action in the
north of Ireland, James Bryce, Esq., M. D.; Geology of Erin,
county of Mayo, P. Knight, Civil Engineer.
Part II. Geology of the vicinity of Alten Mines, Finmark,
by John Petherick, Esq.; Vein of Granite in Mica Schist, Wick-
low, R. J. Graves, M. D.; Basaltic District of the North of Ireland,
Capt. Portlock ; Indentification of Strata, the same; Granite south
of Dublin, Rev. H. Lloyd; Geology of the Knockmahon Mines,
Waterford, J. H. Holdsworth; Landslip in Antrim, Js. McAdam,
Esq. ; Cave between Caher and Mitchelstown, Js. Apjohn, M. D. ;
Trap of Limerick, W. Ainsworth, Esq. ; Geology of Frannet, in
Donegal Co., Js. McAdam, Esq.
In these papers there is much valuable local information, connect-
ed more or Jess with general scientific principles ; and we may anti-
cipate still more extended researches.
23. Belfast Natural History Society.—It appears from the min-
utes of the proceedings of the Society, (June, 1834,) that it isin a
course of successful exertion. It has a fine building, a moderate
revenue, without debt ; a museum and library already very conside-
rable, and a sure fund in the zeal and activity of its members.
24. Ichthyosaurus, fossil fish, wood, &c.—Extract of a letter to
the Editor from England, dated May 12, 1835.— Miss Mary Ann-
ing, the female geologist is reported to have discovered the largest
Ichthyosaurus ever found. This gigantic animal must have died and
its bones fallen abroad at the decomposition of the body, just before
they were covered with the lias. The bones lie in the marl as is
usual. This animal I understand, must have been at least thirty five
feet in length and of considerable breadth: the one I possess must
have been twenty eight feet.
The collection in the British Museum, is now very fine. We
have just completed our museum in Newcastle upon Tyne, which, in
the Fossil Flora, much exceeds any in the kingdom. Mons Agas-
siz, lately selected from my museum thirteen varieties of *magnesian
fossil fish (which he had never seen before) for his new and beautiful
work. He is a most intelligent man.
Among the fossil woods which you were so good as to send me,
the one from south of Lake Erie, was dicotylidonous.
* From the formation of the magnesian limestone.
Vol. XX VIII.—No. 2.
370 Miscellanes.
Coal-fields are opening out in this country and railways intersect-
ing the country in all directions. Probably ere ten years are oves
the mail between London and Edinburgh, will be carried by rail way
th on the east and west side of England.”
25. Law of Magnetic attraction and repulsion—Mr. R. W.
Fox, concludes ‘ that the Jaws of magnetic attraction and repulsion
alter according to the distance of the magnets from each other, the
force at small distances being in the simple inverse ratio of the dis-
tance and when further separated, in the inverse ratio of the square
of the distance. This change of ratio in the case of attraction, grad-
ually took place at the distance of from one eighth to one quarter of
an inch, and even at half of an inch when larger magnets were used ;
and in the case of repulsion the change in the law occurred at much
greater distances, especially when the forces of the respective mag-
nets were materially different.
The influence of the terrestrial magnetism may probably extend to
a vast distance from our globe ; and if the magnetic forces be com-
mon to the planetary system, the remarkable uniformity in the places
of the nodes of most of the planets in relation to the plane of the so-
lar equator may perhaps be referred to their agency.—Lon. and
Edin, Phil. Mag. July, 1834.
26. Soap Stone—To tHe Epitror.—Dear Sir—In a late ex-
tract from your Journal I observed a notice of the steatite or soap-
stone of Middlefield, Mass. together with a request that other notices
of this class of minerals might be communicated.
I have observed this mineral in seven places in the Green aa
tain range, and have supposed it to be an extensive formation
stretching through no inconsiderable portion of this chain. In the
town of Bethel in the north part of Windsor County I obtained spe-
cimens of this mineral, which are considerably harder than those of
the old quarry in Middlefield and less unctuous to the touch. In the
town of Grafton in the Northern part of Widham county there is.a
valuable bed of steatite, bearing a strong resemblance to that at Mid-
dlefield and remarkably free from foreign substances. It is exten-
sively used in this region for aqueducts and is found to be a cheap
and imperishable material for this use. From the gentleman who
laid an aqueduct of this kind for our seminary and my own dwelling
house, I learned that the stone is first sawed into blocks about three
inches square, and from one to two or three feet in length and these
|
|
Miscellanies. 371
bored by an augur standing in a vertical position. Thus prepared
the pipes are joined by lead tubes adapted to the bore and an inch
and a half or two inches in length. The whole process, of prepar-
ing and laying the aqueduct is extremely simple and expeditious,
and well illustrates one of the various and important uses to which
this invaluable mineral may be applied.
Very respectfully yours, &e. L. Coteman.
Manchester, Vt. Febuary 20, 1835.
27. Fibres of The Rose of Sharon.*—To Pror. Sittman.—
Dear Sir,—A few days since while collecting together decayed
vines, &c. in my garden for the purpose of covering a fennel bed
for the winter, I cut a quantity of the decayed stalks of the Rose
of Sharon, a perennial flower plant which is in most of our gardens,
and so well known that a more particular description is at present
unnecessary.
The bark on those stalks which appeared to be of the earliest
growth, I observed was cleaving off; and all of them were so far
decayed that the bark was easily stripped from them.
On examining the fibre which appears much like hemp when
first detached from the stalk, I found it strong and capable of being
divided into small fibres like those of flax. I preserved a small
quantity of it, and without attempting any process to prepare it for
use, twisted a few small cords which, together with a sample of the
raw materval, | have taken the liberty of sending to you for a more
critical examination, as well as for the inspection of others to whom
you may think proper to show them, should you think the subject
deserving your and their attention.—I would not presume to pro-
nounce hastily upon the utility or value of this discovery, if such it
may be denominated: but I am prepared to say if the fibres contain
sufficient strength for cordage or canvass, I can discern no reason
why it may not be a good substitute for flax and hemp.
If, upon trial of the sample sent, it should be thought deficient
Jn strength, I would remark that it has been subjected to no macera-
ting process, but has stood exposed to the vicissitudes of the weather
till a natural and gradual decay of its strength may have taken place.
How the cords I send will compare in point of strength with those
of the same size made of hemp or flax, I have had no opportunity for
deciding—I am of the opinion, however, that this will not be found
+ The Hibiscus palustris, or the H. Syriacus.
372 Miscellanies.
objectionable to any considerable degree if at all. You will percieve
that the coat of this plant is much thicker as well as softer and more
silky than that of hemp. Whether the fibres be sufficiently fine for
fabrics of the finest texture, remains to be ascertained, but | am confi-
dent it will prove itself to be at least a valuable material for the man-
ufacture of paper.
The plant is of a robust and healthy character, and is easily grown
in all the good soil of our country. It is also highly productive in
seed, and being a perennial, might be raised with great facility in a
long succession of crops on the same ground, and, as I should believe,
with less labor and a greater product than either hemp or flax.
If my present views of the properties of this plant are not visionary,
I cannot but indulge a hope that the culture of it may be made use-
ful to our country.
Yours very respectfully. SamueL Wooprvrr.
emark by the Elitor.—This vegetable material, judging from
the specimens sent, appears to deserve all the commendation be-
stowed upon it above.
28. A Sea Serpent.—The following statement having been made
by a gentleman of great intelligence and candor, a cool and judicious
observer, who has travelled very extensively and traversed the seas
in many climates, the editor desired a written notice of the facts
which he is permitted to publish without the name of the author;
with him he is however well acquainted and reposes full confidence
in his integrity and in his freedom from any influence of imagination.
Boston, April 5th, 1835.
To Pror. Siritman,—Dear Sir,—On my passage from the Riv-
er La Plata to this country in January, 1824, latitude 341° South,
and 48° West longitude, I saw what was first supposed to be a fish
called an Albicore ; but, on further examination it was discovered to
be a serpent of which I cannot give a clearer description than to say
that a common dark colored land snake is, in miniature, a perfect rep-
resentation. A light breeze prevailed at the time and the sea was
quite smooth. It first appeared within ten feet of the vessel, its
head was, perhaps, two feet above the water and appeared as large
as a ten gallon keg; the eye was distinctly seen. The whole length
of the serpent was about half the length of the vessel, say 40 feet.
The size and circumference of the body, was nearly as large as a bar-
rel; nothing like afin was seen. I could not make out the distinct ap-
Miscellanies. 373
pearance of the tail. The serpent remained almost motionless while
in sight, the head above water and eyes directed towards the vessel.
Rewurk: by the Editor —The distance of the place of observa-
tion being several hundred miles from the nearest coast, this serpent
must have been a denizen of the ocean ; for the huge land snake o
South America could not navigate so far out to sea if indeed they
ever take to the ocean at all. The snake was perfectly quiet, and
appeared quite comfortable and at home on the waves. We must
therefore consider this case as settling the question of the real exist-
ence of a Sea Serpent. The absence of — or arms forbids us
from supposing that this was a swimming sauria
“The Sea Serpent.—Captain Shibbles, of a brig Manhegan, of
Thomastown, from Boston, for New Orleans, which arrived here*
on Saturday last, states that he saw when about nine or ten miles
from Race Point light, what he, as well as the whole crew supposed
to be a Sea Serpent,—he could distinctly see it with the naked eye,
but to be certain, he took his glass and saw his eyes, neck and head,
which was about as large as a barrel—the neck had something that
looked like a mane upon the top of it ;—several times he raised his
head seven or eight feet above the water, and for thirty or forty min-
utes he swam backward and forward with great swiftness. There
were two other vessels near, the crews of which were in the rigging
looking at the same object. Capt. S. states that it was very long,
and that his head, neck and tail and his motion in the water, was
exactly like those of a snake; every time he put his head out of
water, he made a noise similar to that of steam escaping from the
boiler of a steam-boat. One of the crew told us that his appear-
ance and motion was precisely like that he saw last summer while in
the bay, which was said to be a Sea Serpent. The Captain and
crew attest to the correctness of this statement.”
29. New publications. Ev.—Journal of Natural History, by
the Boston Natural History Society, Part I, No. If. This number
contains articles—
On certain causes of geological change now in eaeition in Mas-
sachusetts, by Prof. Edward Hitchcock.
Enumeration of plants growing spontaneously around Wilmington,
N. C., &c. by Moses A. Curtiss, A. M.
* Gloucester, (Mass.) March or April, 1835.
374 Miscellanies.
Upon the economy of some American species of Hispa, by T.
W. Harris, M. D
Descriptions of new North American Coleopterous insects, &c.
by Thomas Say.
Description of a new animal belonging to the Arachnides of
Latreille, from the sea on the shores of the New South Shetlands,
by James Eights, M. D
Chemical analysis of Chrysocolla, from the Holquin copper mines,
near Gibara, Cuba, by Charles T. Jackson, M. D.
This journal does credit to the spirited and promising institution
from whose labors it emanates. Their museum is in excellent or-
der, arranged with science, taste and judgment, and is already ex-
tensive for the time it has been forming; it is an ornament to Bos-
ton, and will become a standard institution for the Eastern States ;
it follows with no tardy steps in the course of the Academy of Phil-
adelphia and the Lyceum of New York.
30. Eulogium on Simeon Dewitt, delivered before the Albany
Institute, April 23d, 1835, by Dr. T. Romeyn Beck.
This is an affectionate tribute to the memory of a great and good
man—a companion in arms and friend of Washington—a patriot and
philanthropist—a man of science and a christian—whose honored
life was extended to almost fourscore, and covered almost half that
of the period of the existence of his country.
31. Treatise on Mineralogy, consisting of descriptions of the
species, with five hundred wood cuts. By C. U. Surparp, Lecturer
on Natural History in Yale College, Corresponding member of the
Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, of the Geological
Society of France, &c. &c. In 2 vols. 12mo. pp. 675. New Ha-
ven, Hezekiah Howe & Co.
The Treatise here announced is the completion of the work, the
first part of which was published in 1832, and of which an account
was given in Vol. xxii, p. 395 of this Journal. Its plan and scope
will be best judged by a few extracts from the author’s preface.
“The eclectic character of my introductory volume, which was
intended to give a view of all the departments of mineralogy ex-
cepting Physiography, rendered it difficult for persons employing it
to avail themselves of other treatises for full descriptions of the spe-
cies. The a was principally owing to my adoption of
Miscellanies. 375
the improvemts of Mous in relation to simple and compound va-
rieties and to the numerical scale for expressing the hardness, and to
my following Brooke in the treatment of the regular forms; not to
mention the circumstance that my artificial tables enumerated a num-
ber of species whose descriptions had not found their way into any
English work. This was foreseen in the preparation of that vol-
ume ; and notice was accordingly given in it, that a second part, de-
voted exclusively to descriptions, and constructed in accordance with
the principles of the first, was in preparation.
‘In addition to the desire of supplying what was thus wanting to
carry out the plan of study which had appeared to me to possess
the greatest advantages, I was stimulated to the attempt, in the hope
of being able to contribute something towards the more satisfactory
determination of American localities; an undertaking for which my
mineralogical travels had afforded me considerable facilities. In-
deed, so numerous had been the discoveries in important mineral
depositories since the last edition of CLravenanp’s Mineralogy, and
the publication of Rosinson’s Catalogue, and so many doubtful
points existed in relation to many of those quoted in these works—
not a few having been erroneously announced, either through inac-
curate determinations of the species, or their occurrence in trifling
and accidental quantity—that the proposed work seemed justifiable
solely on this ground, provided there was a reasonable hope of pla-
cing the subject in a more just light. Besides, it was had in view to
indicate the crystalline forms noticeable among our minerals, a point
which had been so much overlooked as to have created a very un-
favorable impression of the mineralogical riches of the country.
There seemed room also, to perform a desirable service by appro-
priating to the work, the latest discoveries of the German mineralo-
gists, to whom the science is indebted for its most important ad-
vances during the last ten years.
“The alphabetical arrangement of the species has been adopted
because it seemed most likely to subserve the convenience of stu-
dents using my characteristic, or any other, in the determination of
specimens ; as well as that of persons having occasion to refer to
the descriptions for less general purposes, as for example, to learn
only the crystalline form of a particular species, or to obtain infor-
mation respecting its locality. Had the natural-historical arrange-
ment, the chemical, or any mixture of the two, been employed, the
inconveniences of consulting an index must necessarily have been
encountered.
376 Miscellanies.
‘* But while the alphabetical distribution has the advantage at least,
of being independent of all scientific arrangement—concerning whose
present existence many entertain doubts—the two tabular views, one -
at the commencement of this volume, and the other at the conclu-
sion of the second, will present the species grouped in accordance
with two classes of affinities, the first, the natural-historical, the se-
cond, the chemical, resemblance. In the construction of these ta-
bles, I cannot, of course, suppose that I have acyuitted myself to
Be satisfaction of all, when I have but so imperfectly satisfied myself.
chemical arrangement, however, is such as the present
state of chemical science seemed to force upon me without much
choice. A more extensive and accurate analysis of minerals, how-
ever, will undoubtedly produce in it many changes, while also it
it will permit the composition of a considerable number of species,
now left in uncertainty, to be expressed with atomic precision. * *
‘The natural-historical arrangment of the species is principally
that brought forward by Mons. I have nevertheless ventured,
though not without considerable hesitation, to propose a number of
alterations, which will be obvious on a comparison of the two sys-
tems. In making these changes, I have endeavored so to constitute
the genera that the species of each should be bound together by a
similar amount of resemblance. If in the execution of this difficult
task, I have not violated the affinities of the species, an important
advantage will have been secured, in the simplification of the no-
menclature, by the great reduction of genera, especially in the or-
ders, Ore, Pyrites, Glance, and Blende
“The formation of the new order, Picrosmine, appeared to be
indispensable in providing a place for a number of-species, which
Mous had declined incorporating with his system from their defi-
ciency in regular forms. The production of Lusine-Ore was ren-
dered necessary for a similar reason, in order to receive such species
of the requisite structure and specific gravity, as are believed to owe
their formation to the decomposition of other species. The above
mentioned writer does not allow such minerals, provided they are in
a friable state, to constitute distinct species ; remarking of them, that
“it is m direct opposition to the principles of Natural History, to
consider decomposed varieties of one species as varieties of another.”
To the correctness of this as a general rule, I readily assent, allow-
ing it full force when the resulting mass is not homogeneous in its
composition and at the same time destitute of a fixed
chemical constitution.”
Miscellanies. 377
Mr. Shepard’s work is very valuable. His knowledge of mine-
rals is familiar and accurate ; he has visited many of the most import-
ant American localities, and he has exceeded all others in obtaining
rare, beautiful, and instructive American specimens ; his acquiant-
ance with crystallography is exact, and he examines, measures, figures,
and describes crystals with great tact; his work abounds in good fig-
ures, inserted upon the page ; he gives the information that is desira-
ble respecting American minerals ; his style is condensed and perspic-
uous, and by adopting the form of a dictionary he avoids the diffi-
cult question of arrangement, and affords the pupil great facility.
We are gratified that he has generally adopted proper names, and
that he has only added, and not prefixed, the strange iar ecepeansuaie
of Vienna.
We regret, however, that he has not given the etymologies of
names, since a powerful aid is thus brought to the memory, and we
think that he should have been more free in naming synonymes, dis-
coveries and discoverers. We regret that he thought it better to
prefer the complex group of primary forms of crystals now in use,
to the simple and Jucid system of Haiiy, and we cannot think that
any attempt to indicate hardness by numbers can be very success-
| with an inexperienced pupil. Kirwan attempted it long ago with
little utility. In our opinion, hardness is better indicated by a direct
comparison with known and familiar objects ; for the novice cannot
readily bring to mind a considerable list of minerals to which the
numbers refer and then connect the number with both the mineral
and with the degree of the quality: the experienced mineralogist
can indeed do it, but the work is intended mainly for the tyro. We
are gratified to observe that full notices are given of the results of
the chemical analysis of minerals, without which we can feel little
satisfaction in a mere picture of external and physical properties
however perfect ; both together make the portrait complete.
Since Mr. Shepard’s volumes have appeared, we are put in pos-
session of magnificent crystals of fluor spar from Musconongie lake,*
sent by Dr. Crawe of Watertown, N.Y. Some of them are green,
and one mass of that kind in our possession weighed one hundred
pounds. There can be no doubt that Mr. Shepard’s work must have
a general currency and become the standard book in this country,
* One of a group of small lakes in ao mer “ena N. Y. not very remote
from Lake Ontario and the St. Lawrence Riv
Vol. XX VIII.—No. 2.
378 Miscellanies.
and we trust it will not be unknown or unappreciated in Europe.
While we shall always cherish with gratitude our early instructors,
Jameson, Brongniart, Phillips, Hatiy, Brochant and Cleaveland,
we are much gratified, as all these books are now out of print, that
we can substitute so learned, so exact, so complete and so lucid a
work as that of Mr. Shepard.
32. New work by Prof. Brown of Heidelberg—Sharks teeth—
Conrad on shells, &c.
Extract of a letter from Lt. W. W. Mather, dated West Point, June 11th, 1835.
To tue Eviror— Dear Sir—Prof. Brown desires that you would
notice in the Journal, a work of his now publishing, entitled Lethea
Geognostica, or descriptions and figures of the characteristic fossils
of the different geological formations of both continents. The two
first numbers have been forwarded to me, but have not yet arrived.
A work of this kind is a desideratum with every practical geologist.
| Prof. Brown says that the fossil teeth from the mar!
pits of New, Jersey of the following forms,
are the Squalus raphiodon of Agassiz,
rap “ ‘¢ pristodontes “ “
and both belong to the chalk formation ; thus offering an addition to
the mass of evidence in support of Dr. Morton’s views of the geo-
logical character of the New Jersey marls. Mr. Conrad’s work on
fossil shells is more appreciated in Europe than in this country, and it
is to be hoped that he will persevere through all difficulties and con-
tinue it. Itis very highly spoken of in some of the foreign pe-
riodicals.
Prof. Brown in his letter remarks, “Il serait fort dommage, St
le travail de M. Conrad ne seroit pas continué, parceque cest seule-
ment par de semblables entreprises, que nous parviendrai a comparer
parfaitement les Faunes et Flores fossiles des deux continents. Je
me suis fait un devoir, de l’analyzer, et de le recommender dans no-
tre Journal de Geologie.”
33. A comprehensive system of Modern Geography and History,
revised and enlarged from the London edition of Pinnock’s modern
Miscellanies. 379
Geography, and adapted to the use of Academies and Schools in
the United States. By Epwin Wuuiams. New York, Bliss &
Wadsworth.
This is an excellent book, and not inferior in value to any which
have been put forth by this most industrious compiler and author.
The work is of that terse comprehensive character, which distin-
guishes his former productions. It is full of entertainment and in-
struction, clear and judicious in style and arrangement, discriminating
in the selection of topics, abundant in details, and conducted with
that peculiar brevity which leaves not a word redundant or deficient.
It is a valuable class book, and merits general adoption in the
schools.
34. Geological Report on the elevated country between Missouri
and Red River, from an examination in 1834, by G. W. Featu-
ERSTONHAUGH, Esq., pp. 97, Gales & Seaton.
This report is accompanied by a colored section presenting the
geological formation between the coast of New Jersey on tbe Atlantic
and the Red river on the confines of Mexico a distance of 1600
miles. It is introduced by a sketch of scientific geology as it stands
at present, upon the basis of very extended observation in both hem-
ispheres, conducted by a great number of able men possessing col-
ieerely of all requisite science. This sketch is followed by geologi-
cal, topographical and other notices of the extensive region over
which the author travelled and which abounds with interesting and
important facts. This report isa document which geologists, both at
home and abroad, will consult with advantage, on account of the wide
range which it covers, the splendid features of the country and the
scientific precision and perspicuity with which it is described.
35. Report on the new map of Maryland, 1834.—By accident
this important report, failed to come under our observation until re-
cently. It is illustrated by two maps relating chiefly to the tertiary
region, and by a tabular statement of the results of the analysis of
marls.
By agreement with the general government, the triangulation un-
der Mr. Hassler has been made available towards the survey of the
coast of Maryland, and thus greater utility is given to both under-
The geological part of this report while it has a correct scientific
bearing, presents the application of marls to agriculture as a leading
380 Miscellanies.
topic. This arises from the fact that there are immense treasures
of shells—the riches of exuberant tertiary deposits which being par-
tially decomposed or readily susceptible of that process, are happily
adapted to fertilize the soil.
We have no doubt that the united labors of Messrs. Alexander
and Ducatel, will bring this arduous survey to a happy conclusion,
alike useful and honorable to the state and the country.
36. Asclepias Syriaca.—Memorandum of specimen articles man-
ufactured exclusively from the long fibre of the external and internal
cortex of the asclepias syriaca, namely, asclepias thread, netting bags
and purses, tapes, socks, knotting for fringes and daisy trimmings,
fancy fibrous and flossy flowers, flossy feathers in imitation of the
ostrich, papers, hats jn miniature.
We have seen at Salem, in the hands of Miss Gerrish. articles
corresponding with the above list and manufactured from the asclepias
by her own hand. They are very beautiful and command the admi-
ration of all who see them.
We are fully satisfied that the ligneous fibre of this plant, (we do
not refer to the fine glossy down which bursts from the ripe pod and
floats away in the wind) is capable of being wrought into many forms
both of utility and ornament.
The plant is hardy and is raised with the greatest facility.
37. Strontian in Marcellus, Onondago Co., New York.—Ex-
tract from Eaton’s Geological Text-book; second edition, published
in June, 1832, page 109. ‘‘ Carbonate of strontia and lime, (very
vaguely described by foreigners under the name Arragonite) has
been found to be an excellent flux—its excellence increases in the
ratio of the proportion of strontia. In crystals it is found in small
quantities in the geodiferous limerock of Lockport, Niagara falls, &c.
But it has not hitherto been announced in any printed publication,
which has come to my knowledge, in sufficient quantities to be used
profitably by artists as a flux. A few days since, a Mr. William
Deere of Syracuse, (formerly my pupil, now a Teacher) brought me
twenty pounds of this mineral from Marcellus, Onondago County,
midway between Onondago and Skeneatelas, and five or six miles
south of a point on the Erie canal, seventy five miles west of Utica.
It is in connexion with Corniferous lime-rock, probably beneath it,
and equivalent to geodiferous lime-rock. Some specimens seem to
.
Miscellanies. 381
contain a larger proportion of strontia, than any analyses of arago-
nite have heretofore shewn. Its specific gravity ranges between
2.75 and 3.8. Ihave merely tested it by the purple flame ; but I in-
tend to make a thorough analysis soon, unless some one, who has
more leisure, will do it. It appears that tons of it may be had.
Pillars three inches in diameter, for a clock have been made with
it, which may be seen at Syracuse.” It takes a most beautiful
polish.
38. Schoharie Minerals—Mr. Joun S. Bonny of Schoharie,
(N. Y.) desires the following statement to be made in addition to
what has already been published on this subject in Vol. xx, p. 172
of this Journal.
“No. 1 and 2, (see article above named). The acicular variety
of Strontianite, were both discovered by me.
“No. 3 and 4. Heavy Spar, were both discovered by J. Geb-
hard, Jr.
“No. 5 and 6. Two other varieties of Strontianite were discov-
ered by Mr. Gebhard, Sen. and myself in company.
“« Nov tent ie marble quarry) massive Strontianite was discov-
ered by myself and son.”
Where several persons are conteuiparkascmly engaged in search-
ing after the same minerals, it is not remarkable that a difference of
opinion should arise as to the question, who picked up the first spe-
cimens. Whatever discrepancy therefore exists in the present case,
does not in our view, involve any other than honorable intentions in
the parties concerned ; all of whom merit and doubtless have receiv-
ed, the thanks of mineralogists, for these very zealous labors.
39. Geological Survey of Connecticut—The Legislature of this
state at their last session passed a resolve authorising the Governor
to cause a geological survey of the state to be made, and a report
thereon to be presented at their next meeting. Governor Edwards,
has accordingly appointed Dr. James G. Percivat, and Mr.
Cuartes U. Sueparp, to this duty. These gentlemen have
already entered upon their work, and propose to devote the remain-
der of the season to geological travels and researches with a view to
the preparation of a report pursuant to the resolution.
We have no doubt, that Dr. Percival and Mr. Shepard, will ex-
ecute this work with faithfulness, zeal and ability, but the period as-
382 Miscellanies.
signed is too short; for a geological survey, must be the result of
careful and discriminating observation and must involve both multi-
plied details, and enlarged views founded on science. The project
of a geological survey of Connecticut, was brought forward before
the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences, more than twenty
five years ago, by Prof. Silliman, and adopted. A report was
then made by him to that body of the mineralogy and geology of
the vicinity of New Haven, which was published in the Trans-
actions of the Academy, and was we believe, the earliest example
of the kind in this country. No funds being provided for prosecuting
the undertaking it necessarily slumbered.
The discovery of the verd-antique marble and serpentine near
New Haven,—a mineralogical and geological tour in the counties of
New Haven and Litchfield, (This Jour. Vol. I, pa. 201,) the ac-
count of the Trap rocks near Hartford, (Id. Vol. XVII, pa. 119,)
the report of Prof. Mather, on the Geology of the Eastern and North
Eastern part of Connecticut, (Id. Vol. X XI, pa. 94,) and the re-
port of Mr. Alfred Smith, on the geology of the valley of the Con-
necticut, (Id. Vol. XXII, pa. 1,) besides many less important no-
tices, prove that the subject has not been forgotten.
We are however, much gratified to see the project revived by
Gov. Edwards, and that a similar movement is taking place in other
states, in accordance with the spirited effort in Massachusetts, by
Prof. Hitchcock.
The time, we trust, is coming, when all our vast territory will
have been surveyed, geologically, topographically and trigonomet-
rically, and when some master-spirit will digest, arrange and elu-
cidate all the immense store of facts and refer them to their proper
uses both in science and the arts.
The object is well worthy of the expenditure of millions.
40. Uranite at Chesterfield, Mass.—Mr. Sueparon, has lately
found this mineral in the Tourmaline vein disseminated through the
lamine of Albite. It is in crystalline plates and pulverulent; and
is uniformly of an emerald green color. The variety from Middle-
bee quoted in Sueparn’s Mineralogy, is of a pale siskin green
color.
41. Question by B. Thornton, L. S., New York.—Given any
two lines as AB, BC, change one of those lines, and represent two
mean proportionals between the said changed line and the other;
Miscellanies. 383
and let one of the mean proportionals more one of the lines, be
squared, and the square of said proportional subtracted therefrom,
the residue is to equal the square of one of the first given lines
geometrically.
42, Chromate of iron was discovered by the late Gen. Martin
Field, in Townsend, Vt.—Letter to the Editor from Dr. Jacob
Porter dated Plainfield, Mass. March 14th, 1835.
Extracted by O. P. Hubbard.
CHEMISTRY.
1. Phloridzin, a new substance-—Messrs. Koninck & Stay an-
nounce their discovery of a new organic substance in the bark of the
crab-tree, the wild pear, plum and cherry trees, which they name
Phloridzin, and of which they will soon publish a complete account.
—I Institute, Mars, 1835.
2. Preparation and analysis of some essential oils, by M. R.
Blanchet.— Oil of Roses. 0.508 parts of a sample of oil of roses,
which presented all the properties of the true essence of Persia, hav-
ing been burned with oxide of copper, gave 1.380 of carbonic acid,
and 0.555 of water, or in 100 parts, 75.11 carbon, 12.13 hydrogen,
and 12.76 oxygen, a result very remarkably different from those ob-
tained by Saussure and Gebel. Alcohol separates this oil into por-
tions very nearly equal, of stearoptine and eleoptine.—Stearoptine of
Oil of Roses. The process by which this is prepared, is founded
upon its different solubility in alcohol and ether. Mix oil of roses
with 3 parts of alcohol at 33° B., and dissolve in ether the stearop-
tine which is deposited, and remove by repeated washings the eleop-
tine which still adheres to it. Ata temperature of + 25° C, it
presents the appearance of crystallization like butter; is melted at
+35° C., and boils without alteration between 280° and 300° C.,
giving out the odor of boiling fat oil. Ata very elevated tempera-
ture it burns like olefiant gas with a clear flame and no soot. 0.338
of this substance burned with the oxide of copper produced 1.005
carbonic acid and 0.438 water. _ It consists therefore of
By experiment. By calculation. Atoms.
Carbon 85.86 85.98 1
Hydrogen 14.46 14.02 2
384 Miscellanies.
which accords with the analyses of Saussure, and also with the con-
stitution of olefiant gas and parafline.—Oul of balsam copaiba. This
oil, extracted from a specimen of balsam copaiba, entirely transparent
by aqueous distillation, then rectified and dried by chloride of cal-
cium, and entirely colorless, had no action upon litmus paper, at 22°
C. had a density of 0.8784, boiled at 245°, and dissolved at 25°, in
30 parts of alcohol 33° B., in 2.5 of absolute alcohol, in every pro-
portion in absolute ether, and hardly any in 0.5 of the ether of com-
merce ; it was not decomposed under the influence of nitric acid sp.
gr. 1.32, but with the aid of heat gives rise to a body of a resinous
appearance, is colored red by sulphuric acid, and under the influ-
ence of solar light unites with chlorine with the disengagement of a
great quantity of heat, and forms a crystalline body which is depos-
ited on the sides of the base, and passes from yellow to blue, and
then to green. 0.560 of this oil analyzed by oxide of copper, gave
1.777 carbonic acid and 0.588 water ; in a second experiment 0.482
produced 1.543 carbonic acid and 0.510 water. Its composition is
therefore
experiment. By calculation. Atoms.
Carbon 87.74 : 88.51 88.46 5
Hydrogen 11.66 : 11.75 11.54 8
which accords with the analysis of oil of turpentine and oil of citron.—
Hydrochlorate of oil of copaiba. This results from the union of hy-
drochloric acid gas with the oil which the balsam copaiba distilled
alone furnishes, and which has been carefully rectified and deprived
of water by chloride of calcium. It is purified by pressing it be-
tween sheets of blotting paper, dissolving in ether, and precipitating
it by alcohol, and washing. It consists of
By experiment.. By calculation. Atoms.
Carbon 57.95 57.94 5
Hydrogen 8.73 8.50 9
Chlorine 33.04 33.55 1
@ composition similar to that of hydrochlorate of oil of citron, from
which it differs only by its boiling point, by not being sublimed, and
by its reaction upon sulphuric acid.—Oidl of cajeput. The oil ana-
lyzed was brought from India by a scientific gentleman ; was very
fluid, of a clear green and transparent, its aroma penetrating, analo-
gous to that of camphor, taste hot, specific gravity 0.9274 at 25° C.,
boiling point 175° C., soluble in iodine without any action.
Miscellanies. 385
1. 0.536 rectified oil gave 1.510 carbonic acid, and 0.559 water.
2, 0.6225 “ ec 6“ ‘cc ‘ “ec 0.638 c“
{ts composition is,
i 2. By calculation Atoms.
Carbon 77.90 78.11 78.12 10
Hydrogen 11.57 11.38 11.49 © 18
Oxygen 10.53 10.51 10.38 I
represented by the formula C'* H' *+H?O, or by 1 atom of dadyle
and 1 water.—Oul of cinnamon. The distillation of the bark of the
Laurus Cinnamonium, aided by a solution of marine salt, gave two
oils, one lighter, the other heavier than water. The oil of cloves of
commerce is a mixture of these two oils. It boils at 220°; at 25°C. ;
its sp. gr. is 1.008; treated with caustic baryta it is divided into two
unequal parts ; the smaller is converted into resin, and the larger
forms with a base a salt soluble in water. It seems therefore to con-
sist, like the oil of cloves, of two other oils, one acid, and the other
not acid. 0.542 of this rectified oil gave 1.596 carbonic acid, and
0.375 water, in 100 parts, 81.44 carbon, 7.68 hydrogen, and 10.88
oxygen.— Oil of juniper. Juniper berries distilled before they are
ripe, with the addition of saline water, gave two oils. Purified by
washing with saline water, and by repeated Jdistillations from lime,
these oils have the common characters of being easily oxidized in
the air, and of dissolving in every proportion in absolute ether; and
of being but slightly soluble in alcohol of 33° B. They differ also
in some characters ; the first is colorless, sp. gr. 0.8392 at 25° C.,
boils at 155° ; the solution when mixed in equal volumes with rec-
tified alcohol is clear, but is made thick by the addition of a new
quantity of alcohol: the second is colored, sp. gr. 0.8784 at 25° C.,
and boils at 205°. 0.349 of the first, analyzed by the oxide of cop-
per, gave 1.116 carbonic acid, and 0.362 water. 0.551 of the sec-
ond gave 1.748 carbonic acid, and 0.575 water. Their composition
is therefore
£ 2,
Carbon 88.41 87.72
Hydrogen 11.52 11.59
and seems like that of the oil of eos sina 5 conformed to the formula
Cio fs,
The oil of the juniper berries when ripe and preserved does not sep-
arate into two parts; and as it possesses the properties of the second
oil contained in the unripe berries, it appears to have been deprived
of the first by desiccation.—JB.
Vou. XX VIII.—No. 2. 49
386 Miscellanies.
3. Oil extracted from the Spirit of Wine of Potatoes by M. J.
Dumas—Ann. de. Chim. t. 56. 314.—Previous to rectification, spir-
it of wine, whether it be obtained from malt or potatoes, possesses a
peculiar taste or smell which is removed by distillation frequently re-
peated. It has been long known that these properties depend on a
peculiar oil, first detected by Schulec.
Fourcroy and Vauquelin proved that the oil was not a product of
fermentation, but that it existed in grain and could be separated by
treating it with water and taking up the oil from the liquid by alco-
hol. M. Payen has shown that the seat of this oil is in the tegumen-
tary part of the fecula of potatoes. ‘Those who have examined the
oil proceeding from the spirit of barley, describe it as capable of
erystalization, volatilizing with difficulty, undergoing alterations by
distillation and staining paper permanently. Pelletan found on the
contrary the oil from the spirit of potatoes a true essential oil. Du-
mas examined a specimen from the manufactory of Dubrunfaut: it
possessed a reddish yellow color and a very distinguishable smell.
When one breathes the air charged with it, nausea and headache are
produced. Carbonate of potash itiishes the odor considerably
and when distilled with it renders it analogous to that of nitric ether.
In order to free it entirely from alcohol, it is necessary to distil cau-
tiously and obtain a residue of pure oil boiling at 266°, F. or 26
the alcohol passing over first. Dumas suggests that although bearing
some affinity to alcohol and ether it may belong to the family of cam-
phors. The density of its vapor is 3.147 or calculating from its com-
position 3.072. It consists of,
Carbon, - - - - - - 68.6
Hydrogen, = - - = - - - 13.6
Oxygen, - - 17.8
PHicoed, of Gen. Sani: No. 1, 1835.
4, Phosphate of Lime in the teeth and Silica in the skin of the
fusoria.—Rose of Berlin has ascertained that the hard parts
which in certain tribes of infusory animals are called teeth, are com-
posed of phosphate of lime, and that the hard case or cover with
which many of these minute creatures are protected is composed of
silica.—Jameson’s Ed. New Phil. Jour. April, 1835.
Miscellanies. 387
GEOLOGY.
1. On the Proofs of a gradual Rising of the Land in certain
parts of Sweden. By Charles Lyell, Esq., F. R. S—An opinion
has long been entertained that the waters of the Baltic, and even of
the whole Northern Ocean, have been gradually sinking ; and the
purport of the present paper is, to communicate the observations
which the author made during the summer of 1834, in reference to
this curious question. In his way to Sweden he examined the east-
ern shores of the Danish islands of Moén and Seeland, but neither
there, nor in Scania, could he discover any indication of a recent ris-
ing of the land ; nor was there any tradition giving support to such a
supposition. The first place he visted, where any elevation of land
had been suspected, was Calmar; the fortress of which, built in the
year 1030, appeared, on examination, to have had its foundations
originally laid below the level of the sea, although they are now sit-
uated nearly two feet above the present level of the Baltic. Part
of the moat on one side of the castle, which is believed to have been
formerly filled with water from the sea, is now dry, and the bottom
covered with green turf. At Stockholm, the author found many
striking geological proofs of a change in the relative level of the sea
and land, since the period when the Baltic has been inhabited by the
Testacea which it now contains. A great abundance of shells of the
same species were met with in strata of loam, &ce., at various heights,
from 30 to 90 feet above the level of the Baltic. They consist —
chiefly of the Cardium edule, the Tellina baltica, and the Littorina
littoreus ; together with portions of the Mytilus edulis, generally
decomposed, but often recognisable by the violet color which they
have imparted to the whole mass. In cutting a canal from Sodertelje
to lake Maelar, several buried vessels were found ; some apparently
of great antiquity, from the circumstance of their containing no iron,
the planks being fixed together by wooden nails. In another place,
an anchor was dug up; as also, in one spot, some iron nails. The
remains of a square wooden house were also discovered at the bot-
tom of an excavation made for the canal, nearly at a level with the
sea, but at a depth of 64 feet from the surface of the ground. An
irregular ring of stones was found on the floor of this hut, having the
appearance of a rude fire-place, and within it was a heap of charcoal
and charred wood. On the outside of the ring was a heap of un-
burnt fir wood, broken up as for fuel; the dried needles of the fir
388 Miscellanies.
and the bark of the branches being still preserved. The whole build-
ing was eveloped in fine san
The author next notices several circumstances regarding buildings
in Stockholm and its suburbs, from which he infers that the elevation
of the land, during the last three or four centuries, has not exceeded
certain narrow limits. At Upsala he met with the usual indications
of a former elevation of the sea, from the presence of littoral shells
of the same species as those now found in the Baltic. Certain
plants as the G/auca maritima and the Triglochin maritimus, which
naturally inhabit salt marshes bordering the sea, flourish in a mead-
ow to the south of Upsala; a fact that corroborates the supposition
that the whole of lake Maelar and the adjoining low lands have, at
no very remote period of history, been covered with salt water.
The author examined minutely certain marks which had at differ-
ent times been cut artificially in perpendicular rocks, washed by the
sea, in various places ; particularly near Oregrund, Gefle, Léfgrund,
and Edskésund ; all of which concur in showing that the level of the
sea, when compared with the land, has very sensibly sunk. A sim-
conclusion was deduced from the observations made by the au-
thor on the opposite, or western coast of Sweden, between Uddeval-
ale and Gottenburg ; and especially from the indications presented by
the islands of Orust, Gulholimen, and Marstrand.
Throughout the paper a circumstantial account is given of the geo-
logical structure and physical features of those parts of the country
which the author visited: and the general result of the comparison
he draws of both the eastern and western coasts and their islands, with
the interior, is highly favorable to the hypothesis of a gradual rise
of the land; every tract having, in its turn, been first a shoal in the
sea, and then, for a time, a pation of the shore. This opinion is
strongly corroborated by the testimony of the inhabitants, (pilots and
fishermen more especially,) of the increased extension of the land,
and the apparent sinking of the sea. The rate of elevation, how-
ever, appears to be very different in different places: no trace of
such achange is found in the South of Scania. In those places
where its amount was ascertained with greatest accuracy, it appears
to be about three feet in a century. The phenomenon in question
having excited increasing interest among the philosophers of Sweden,
and especially in the mind of Professor Berzelius, it is to be hoped
that the means of accurate determination will be greatly multiplied.
—Lond. and Ed. Phil. Jour., April, 183
Miscellanies. 389.
2. Discovery of Saurian Bones in the Magnesian Conglomerate
near Bristol—Al]though some of the earliest noticed Saurian remains
were the fossil Monitors of Thuringia, discovered in the Continental
equivalents of our magnesian limestone,—characterized by the same
testacea and fishes which occur in corresponding formations in the
North of England,—it does not appear that Saurian remains have
been until now detected in this geological site in our own series.
Recently, however a quarry of the magnesian conglomerate, resting
on the highly inclined strata of carboniferous limestone, at Durham
Down, near Bristol, has afforded some Saurian vertebra, ribs, femora,
and phalanges, together with claws, the latter of considerable pro-
portional size: a coracoid bone has also been found, approaching
very nearly to that of the Megalosaurus. The general character of
the bones seems intermediate between those of this genus and the
crocodile. Dr. Riley, who submitted the specimens hitherto discov-
ered to the Literary and Philosophical Society of the Bristol Institu-
tion, is understood to be preparing a detailed account of this interes-
ting discovery for the Geological Society. The only Saurian remain
hitherto found in this island in a site approaching to this, was a frag-
ment of a lower jaw apparently of a gavial discovered in the lower
beds of the new red sandstone at Guy’s Cliff, Warwickshire. This
fact is noticed in Parkinson’s small work on Organic remains.—
London and Edin. Phil. Journ.
3. On the Origin of the Erratic Blocks of the North of Germa-
ny.—The following conclusions are given as the result of _Kléden’s
investigations on this subject ; they form the concluding paragraph in
his interesting work, entitled,‘ The Petrifactions of Brandenburg,
especially those which occur in the rolled Stones and Blocks of the
South Baltic Plain.” 1. A part of the erratic blocks of the plain of
North Germany, and indeed, by much the larger portion, have a
great analogy to the rocks of the north of Europe, and those rolled
masses which contain petrifactions, also agree in their organic remains
with northera rocks; and indeed, there are even rocks and petrifac-
tions among them which are peculiar to the Scandinavian peninsula,
On the other hand, many of the rocks and petrifactions which are
characteristic of the north, have not been found among the rolled
masses, and those petrifactions which are extremely abundant in Nor-
way and Sweden, are replaced by others in the erratic blocks. 2. An-
other part of the rocks containing petrifactions, which occur as blocks,
390 Miscellantes.
agree in external characters with the rocks of the north, but contain
petrifactions which have not yet been found in Scandinavia. Many
of these petrifactions are amongst the most abundant which occur in
the blocks. 3. A third class belong to rocks which are entirely
wanting in the north, and the petrifactions which some of them con-
tain are never met within Norway or Sweden. 4. The first only of
those divisions of rocks can, with probability, have a northern origin
assigned them ; in regard to the second it is more doubtful ; but we
cannot admit such a view in regard to the third class, and that which
is the richest in petrifactions. 5. The last cannot with probability
be asserted to have been derived from the mountains which bound
the South Baltic Plain. 6. Nor can they have come from moun-
tain masses destroyed in their original situation. 7. They cannot be
supposed to have at an earlier povtl existed in the north, unless we
assume what is very improbable. Thus it appears that the result of
my labors in regard to answering the question of the native country
of the erratic block. is almost a negative one. It is doubtful ifa more
intimate acquaintance with these masses will lead more speedily to the
answer to this question than a fortunate hypothesis. It is certain,
however, that complete investigations on the nature of erratic blocks
will afford a secure basis for inquiries as to their origin, and it is there-
fore to be wished that we should receive numerous and accurate con-
tributions to our knowledge of the blocks of all parts of the South
Baltic Plain. So much, however, is decidedly proved by my labors,
that the great geognostical phenomena of the erratic blocks in the
South Baltic Plain, cannot be explained by one simple event, and
that much more complicated causes and forces must have co-operated
than has hitherto been believed. It is equally evident that we stand
at a greater distance from the solution of the problem than we imag-
ined ; that apparently the key-to the great riddle is not yet found,
and that the question seems now less satisfactorily determined than
—Jameson’s Ed. New Phil. Jour., April, 1835.
4. Analysis of the Fossil Tree seenat pee imbeded in the Sand-
stone at Craigleith Quarry, by Mr. Robert Walker.—Exposed to
heat in gee 4 oe off bituminous matter and water, and dissolves
with in diluted muriatic acid, carbonaceous
matter being at the same time deposited. Its constituents are, car-
bonate of lime, 50.36 ; carbonate of iron, 24.65 ; carbonate of mag-
nesia, 17.71 ; coal, with silica and water 6.15 ;=98.87.—1b.
Miscellanies. 391
5. Wollaston Medal.—The Wollaston Gold Medal has been
awarded by the Geological Society to Dr. Mantell of Brighton, for
his many important discoveries in Fossil Comparative Anatomy,
particularly of the genera Jguanodon and Hyleosaurus.—Ib.
The grounds of this justly merited award were eloquently display-
ed, in an address of Charles Lyell, Esq., the new president of the
Geological Society, and we have great pleasure in adding these re-
marks, as they give a spirited outline of one of the most extraordi-
nary and successful geological developements which has ever been
made.— Am. Ed.
“T have now to discharge the agreeable duty of proposing the
health of a distinguished member of this Society, to whom the Coun-
cil have this day awarded the Wollaston medal. Gentlemen, I have
to propose the health of Dr. Mantell. (Loud cheers.) It was a
great disappointment to me when I received a letter from my friend,
requesting me to attend at your meeting this morning, and to receive
the medal, for him. He stated that he should be unable to receive
it in person, being prevented from coming here, and from meeting
us at this dinner, partly by indisposition, but still more for reasons
which we can none of us regret, a press of professional business at
Brighton. I know that there are many gentlemen now present, who
had not the advantage of hearing in the address delivered this morn-
ing by Mr. Greenough, the announcement of the specific grounds of
the award made by your council, and I shall therefore state that the
medal was conferred on Dr. Mantell for his discoveries in fossil
Comparative Anatomy, particularly of the genera Iguanodon and
Hyleosaurus. There are few of you I presume wholly unacquaint-
ed with the results of some of Dr. Mantell’s labors in this depart-
ment of science—few who have not either read of them in his works,
or seen them in his splendid museum. That collection, now at
Brighton, which has been visited, I believe I may say without ex-
aggeration, by thousands of persons, is of itself a monument of origi-
nal research and talent, well deserving, even if he had never written
on the subject, as high a mark of distinction as the Society has con-
ferred upon Dr. Mantell this day. It is an assemblage of treasures
which the mere industry of a collector could never have brought to-
gether, and which wealth alone, even had Dr. Mantell possessed it,
could never have purchased. It required his zeal, inspired by gen-
ius, and directed by science, to bring to light, and as it were cali into
392 Miscellanies.
existence so many monuments of the former state of the animate
creation. Gentlemen, you will, | am sure, allow me to dwell some-
what at length on this topic, as one which is to me of no ordinary in-
terest, for it is now nearly twenty years since I first had the good for-
tune to become acquainted with Dr. Mantell—before I had the honor
of knowing any one of the leading members of this society—before
indeed I had heard of the existence of the society itself. At that
time the collection at Lewes was in its infancy, yet contained some
osteological remains of that class, for the illustration of which it has
since become so celebrated. Even at that time my friend had in-
dulged sanguine anticipations from seeing a few fragments only of
those bones, of the splendid discoveries which he should make in re-
gard to these gigantic saurians—even then he foresaw some of the
results which have since been realized. I had afterwards many op-
portunities of revisiting Lewes, more than once in company with Dr.
Buckland, and after each interval found Dr. Mantell’s museum en-
riched with new fossils, some of his former theories and conjectures
confirmed, and new views opening upon his mind. As your late
President (Mr. Greenough) did not dwell in his address this morn-
ing on the circumstances of peculiar difficulty under which some of
these anatomical researches were carried on—difficulties which
would have discouraged one of a less enthusiastic and sanguine tem-
perament than Dr. Mantell, I will endeavor to point them out to
you. A geologist who explores the wealds of Kent and Sussex,
never meets with entire skeletons, as at Lyme Regis or at Whitby,
or even small portions of a skeleton connected together. He must
patiently wait and gather a multitude of detached and disconnected
nes ; almost every tooth, every rib, every vertebra, must be taken
from a different place: and as if to make the task still more perplex-
ing, the relics of a variety of large species of saurians are promiscu-
ously mingled together, and scattered as it were at random through
the rocks. I believe that the skeletons in the ancient estuary were
rolled backwards and forwards by the tides, till scarcely any two
bones remained together: to reunite these into a whole, to refer to
each skeleton the parts which once belonged to it, and not to con-
found the different species together, was a task demanding no com-
mon degree of skill, reflection and judgment, and an intimate knowl-
edge of the laws governing the analogies of structure, and the rela-
tions of the different genera of vertebrated animals.
Miscellanies. 393
“Tt was from these scattered elements that the skeletons of these
gigantic reptiles of the Weald were constructed, with which we seem
now so well acquainted—those huge saurians, some individuals of
which this room could scarcely contain, concerning whose osteolo-
gical structure and former habits, we can now reason with confidence,
and which obtain as real an existence in our imaginations as if they
were living this moment in the waters of the Ganges or the Nile.
Mr. Greenough has pointed out to you how strikingly some discoveries
lately made of an assemblage of the bones of the Iguanodon grouped
together in one mass of rock, have shewn the sagacity with which
Mr. Mantell had put together the disconnected remains which were
first discovered. All the bones thus met with in one block were such
as he had previously considered as belonging to the Iguanodon with
no intermixture of those which he had rejected as probably referable
to other saurians. And here I may notice when speaking of the
{guanodon, that there is a peculiar propriety in your awarding the
Wollaston medal to the discoverer of the genus, since I well remem-
ber the evening at the Geological Society, when Dr. Wollaston hav-
ing seen the first tooth exhibited by Dr. Mantell in London, warmly
encouraged him to pursue his researches, and that too, when, as
Dr. M. thought, others were less struck, and less interested with the
subject. But gentlemen, I must trespass no longer on your indul-
gence, and will only remark, that if the exertions of my friend
would have called for our grateful acknowledgments under any cir-
cumstances, how much more so are they entitled to our praise and
admiration when we recollect the peculiar difficulties under which
he has followed up his scientific investigations. . His hours of study
have been confined to those moments which could be spared from
the labors of a profession to which he has devoted the principal en-
ergies of his mind, and I rejoice to say with great and uniform suc-
cess. There have always been some men in the medical profession
who have combined extensive practice at the same time that they
have enlarged the boundaries of some collateral science, and it gives
me great pleasure to declare that Dr. Mantell’s name will be added
to that honorable list, and that after but a years residence at Brigh-
‘ton, his rapidly increasing practice proves that his triumphant suc-
cess is certain. His health is now the only subject of our anxiety,
and that I trust will be soon restored: Gentlemen, I have again to
propose the health of Dr. Mantell, the Wollaston medallist. (Loud
and continued cheering.)”
Vou. XXVITL—No. 2. 50
394 Miscellanies.
MINERALOGY.
1. Triphylme, a new mineral.—Professor Fuchs, of Munich, has
discovered in Bodenmais, Bavaria, and described under the name of
Triphylme, a new mineral, which consists of the Phosphates of iron,
manganese and lithia.—L’ Institute, March 11, 1835.
2. Hydroboracite, a new mineral—Colour white, radiated
and foliated, and soft like gypsum. Specific gravity=1.9. It
is readily distinguished from such minerals as it might -be con-
founded with, by its easy fusibility before the blow pipe. Ac-
cording to H. Hess, it contains the following ingredients; Lime
13.298, magnesia 10.430, water 26.330, boracic acid 49.922 ;
= 100.00.—Jameson’s Ed. New Phil. Jour. April, 1835.
3. Diamonds at Algiers —The Sardinian consul at Algiers,
M. Peluzo, lately purchased from a native three diamonds, which
were found in the auriferous sand of the river Gumel, in the prov-
ince of Constantine. One of them was purchased by M. Dufresnoy,
the other two by M. Brongniart, for the museum and collection of
M. de Dreé.— 1.
4. Allanite of Greenland.—This rare mineral occurs imbedded
in the granite of Greenland, where it was discovered by the late
_ Sir Charles Giesecké. Mr. Allan conjectured it might be a variety
of gadolinite, but Dr. Thomson of Glasgow, who was furnished with
specimens for examination by Mr. Allan, determined that, chemically
considered, it must be owned as a new species, which he named
Allanite, in honor of Mr. Allan. Thomson found it to contain, of
silica 35.1, oxide of cerium 33.9, black oxide of iron 25.1, lime 9.2,
alumina 4.1, volatile substances 4.0,=112.0. The imperfection of
this analysis, shewn by the excess of the constituent parts, rendered
a repetition of itdesirable. Fortunately the Allanite has been again
analyzed by the celebrated Stromeyer, who gives the following as ‘the
result of his analysis: Silica 33.021, alumina 15.226, protoxide of
cerium 21.600, protoxide of iron 15.101, protoxide of manganese
0.404, lime 11.080, and water 3.000 ;=99.432. It follows from
this analysis, that the Allanite, although in composition nearly allied
to the orthite of Berzelius, differs from it in not containing yttria.
It is still uncertain if the Cerin of Haidinger is the same mineral as
Allanite ; and it is equally doubtful if the mineral from the Mysore,
analyzed by Wollaston, belongs to the Allanite’ species.— Ib.
Miscellanies. 395
5. Needle Ore.—This was first analyzed by John, who proved
that it was not, as had been previously supposed, an ore of chrome,
but a combination chiefly of bismuth, lead, copper, and sulphur, in
which the proportions were as follows ; Bismuth 43.20, lead 24.32,
copper 12.10, nickel 1.58, tellurtum 1.32, sulphur 11.58, loss
5.90 ;=100.00. In a late analysis of this ore by Hermann Frick,
in Sacsceddail'n Annalen for 1834, the nickel and tellurium (which,
by the by, John had placed as conjectural substances) were not
found. After repeated analyses, he gives the following as the com-
position of this ore: Sulphur 16.61, bismuth 36.45, lead 36.05, cop-
per 10.59, ;=99.70. The formula of composition, CopBi+2PbBi.
Ib.
_—_—
6. Platina and Gold of the Uralian Mountains.—Iit would ap-
pear, from some late investigations, that the platina occurs in dissem-
inated grains and also in masses of several pounds weight, in serpen-
tine in which it is associated with chromate ofiron. Part of the gold
of that region occurs in quartz veins, along with auriferous iron-pyri-
tes, and grains of gold have also been detected in the serpentine.
The chlorite slate of the Urals probably also contains platina.—Ib. |
7. Idocrase in the Isle of Skye. Discovered by G. B. Green-
ough, Esq.—This mineral was found at the junction of a trap dike
with the calcareous rock it traverses. Its locality is about a mile and
a half south of Broadford, on the way to Kilbride. ‘The dike avera-
ges about four yards in width. Mr. Greenough could not determine
its extent, from the heather, &c. which covers the surface.—Ib.
8. Chiastolite—According to Dr. G. Landgrebe of Marbourg,
as stated in Schweigger-Seidel’s Journal, H. 5, 1830, this mineral
contains, silica 68.497, alumina 30.109, magnesia 1.125, water and
carbon 0.269 ;=100.00. ‘The remarkable structure of this mineral
is well known; we may add, from Weiss, that many salts, as muriate
of soda for example, when dissolved in fatty substances, as butter,
and again crystallized from them, exhibit in their crystals the same
structure as observed in chiastolite.—J6.
9. Antimonial Nickel.—Our latest discovery from the ever inex-
haustible Andreasberg is a very interesting mineral, a combination of
nickel and antimony, resembling at first sight coppernickel ; but hav-
ing attracted the attention of a pupil of mine, Mr. Charles Volkmar
396 Miscellanies.
of Brunswick, Stromeyer and self followed up the examination.
The ore is found in minute thin hexagonal plates, which seem to be
regular, and in interspersed particles, on galena and speiscobalt.
Fracture uneven, passing into small conchoidal. ‘The terminal planes
are of a high metallic lustre, the planes of fracture shining. The
color is a light copper-red, with a strong inclination to violet. ‘This
bluish exterior resembles certain variegated colors, but the character
is the same in its fresh fracture. The powder is reddish-brown.
The ore is brittle. Its hardness rather that of copper-nickel, being
scratched by felspar, but scratches fluor. The specific gravity can-
not as yet be ascertained, on account of the smallness of the speci-
mens. Stromeyer’s analysis is, nickel 31.207, antimony 68.793 ;=
We gave it the name of Antimonial Nickel saapoacey Nick-
el). —Hausman.—Ib.
10. Account of Artificial Felspar, by Professor Kersten.—Pro-
fessor Kersten, as appears from a number of Poggendorf’s Annalen,
No. 22. for 1834, has found distinctly formed crystals of prismatic
felspar on the walls of a furnace, in which copper slate and, copper ores
were melted. Among these pyro-chemically formed crystals, some
were simple, others twin. The surface of the crystals was smooth
or vertically streaked ; fracture conchoidal. Lustre of the crystals
vitreous, and color rose red, passing into violet blue. Are opaque,
brittle, and hardness=6 of Mohs’ scale. Chemical trials proved
that they are composed of silica, alumina, and potash, consequently
the same constituents as felspar. As accidental parts, traces of man-
ganese and lime may be mentioned. Mitscherlich, who examined
these artificial felspar crystals, says, they exhibited the primitive
planes of the oblique prism, and were truncated on the acuter lateral
edges ; a distinct cleavage was observed parallel with the truncating
and terminal planes, which meet under an angle of 90°. Hitherto
every attempt to make felspar crystals by artificial means has failed ;
ence, in a geological point of view, this fact of Kersten’s is of very
great importance.— Ib.
11. Crystals of Oxide of Chrome.—Professor Wéhler has pre-
pared beautiful crystals of this mineral. These crystals were both
single and twin, belonging to the same rhomboidal series as corun-
dum. One of the most interesting features in these crystals is their
great hardness, it being equal to that of corundum.— Ib.
Miscellanies. 397
PHYSICS.
1. New Thermoelectric piles of Nobili.—The first of these,
named pile a rayons, consists of a certain number of thermoelectric
pairs of antimony and bismuth, disposed in rays around a common
centre, and in the same plane. Each of the pairs terminates by a
very fine point directed towards the center of the system, but suffi-
ciently distant to isolate the plates. ‘The communications of one
pair with another are established in the circumference by small arcs
of bismuth or antimony soldered to convenient points, taking care so
to complete the circuit, that the two elements, one of bismuth, and
the other of antimony, remain free, and form the two poles destined
to receive the wires of the galvanometer. ‘This assemblage is at-
tached to a thin wooden disc, open in the middle, displaying the
points, and the whole contained ina circular brass box, in two parts,
also pierced in the center. In one of these last openings is adapted,
in the direction of the axis, a brass tube closed at top except a small
hole in the center, through which can be seen the center of the pile.
This hole should be so small as to prevent the heat of the eye from
acting on the pile, and may be closed with a thin plate of mica or
gypsum. The box has a vice on its side to attach it to any sup-
port. ‘To govern the access of the heat to the thermo-electric
points, a movable sector, pierced with several groups of small holes
of different diameters is attached to the central opening in the bot-
tom of the box.
The advantages of this pile over others, are, greater intensity, the
number of elements being equal, feels the influence of caloric, and
returns to its previous temperature more rapidly ; through the cen-
tral openings may be seen the luminous effect when accompanied
by a calorific effect ; and it is adapted peculiarly, besides all ordina-
ry uses, to researches whose object is the concentration of calorific
rays.
Some experiments made with this instrument.—1. M. Nobili finds
that radiant heat is not polarized in traversing the tourmaline, nor by
reflexion, nor upon ordinary polarizing surfaces, nor upon metallic
surfaces. 2. He caused the rays from a cube of hot iron (not red)
to traverse a lens of rock salt, and concentrated them into a focus, as
luminous rays. 3. He substituted for the iron, the flame of an ar-
gand lamp, and placed before the opening of the pile a small metal-
lic obstacle just large enough to intercept the luminous rays, and ob-
398 Miscellanies.
tained then a slight deviation of the needle which was due to the
calorific rays, which being less refrangible than the luminous rays,
pass by the side of the obstacle-—L’ Institut, Mars, 1835.
ASTRONOMY.
1. Comet of Biela.—Prof. Santini, of Padua, who has been much
occupied with this comet, has made many researches to determine
exactly the orbits of 1826 and 1832, and to assign according to all
the observations of 1832, and considering the perturbations, the new
elements for 1839. These new elements are accompanied with an
ephemeris, comprising thirty-five positions of the comet, with its log-
arithmic distance from the earth and from the sun, every four days
from the 20th March to the 3d of October.
Elliptical elements of the periodical Comet of Biela, having regard
to the planetary perturbations, without taking into account the
resistance of the ether.
1826. coe 183
Passage to the perihelion—mean time at Padua 77d.445152 331d. d.0
Longitude of perihelion 109°45'59//53 sad gra 110°06/16//33
ide - 251 2831 69 248 1536 09 48 131
Inclination upon the ecliptic 13 33 51 09 13 1300 92 13 12 24 49
ngle of the eccentricity 48 1739 70 48 4234 96 48 43 16 80
Logar. of the semi-diameter of the larger axis 0.5516037 0,5483436 0.5483436
Mean sidereal diurnal moti 527'19599 753311736034 533! 938407
Longitude referred to th qui 9. Mar.1832. 0. Jan.1833 23. July 1839.
L’ Institut, Mars, 1835.
MISCELLANEOUS.
1. Introduction of Frogs into Ireland.—It is not generally
known that the introduction of frogs into Ireland is of comparatively
recent date. In the seventeenth number of the Dublin University
Magazine, there is a quotation from the writings of Donat, who was
himself an Irishman, and bishop of Fesule, near Florence, and who,
about the year 820, wrote a brief description of Ireland, in which the
following passage occurs :
“Nulla venena nocent, nec serpens serpit in herba;
Nec conquesta canit garrula rana lacus
‘* At this very hour,’’ says our respected contemporary, “we have
neither snakes nor venomous reptiles in this island ; and we know,
that, for the first time, frog-spawn was brought from England in the
year 1696 by one of the Fellows of Trinity College, Dublin, and
placed in a ditch in the University park or pleasure-ground, from
pelidipemesscreeeeeessmee ae
Miscellanies. 399
which these very prolific colonists sent out their croaking detachments
through the adjacent country, whose progeny spread from field to
field through the whole kingdom. No statue has yet been erected
to the memory of the natural philosopher who enriched our island
with so very valuable an importation of melodious and beautiful crea-
tures.” We may state, however, that we have learned from good
authority, that a recent importation of snakes has been made, and
that they are at present multiplying rapidly within a few miles of the
tomb of St. Patrick.—Dublin Med. and Chem. Journal, vol.v. No.
xv. p. 481.
2. On the Rapidity of Vegetable Organization.—The vegetable
kingdom presents us with innumerable instances, not only of the ex-
traordinary divisibility of matter, but of its activity in the almost in-
credible rapid development of cellular structure in certain plants.
Thus, the Bovista giganteum (a species of fungus) has been known
to acquire the size ofa gourd in one night. Now, supposing with
Professor Lindley, that the cellules of this plant are not less than the
zath of an inch in diameter, a plant of the above size will contain
no less than 47,000,000,000 cellules ; so that, supposing it to have
grown in the course of twelve hours, its cellules must have been de-
veloped at the rate of nearly 4,000,000,000 per hour, or of more
than 96,000,000 in a minute!* and, when we consider that every
one of these cellules must be composed of innumerable molecules,
each of which is composed of others, we are perfectly overwhelmed
with the minuteness and number of the parts itiectins in this single
production of nature.
3. How to make Eatable Food from Wood.t—To make wood-
flour in perfection, according to Professor Autenrieth, the wood,
after being thoroughly stripped of its bark, is to be sawed transverse-
ly into disks of about an inch in diameter. ‘The saw-dust is to be
preserved, and the disks are to be beaten to fibres in a pounding-
mill. The fibres and saw-dust, mixed together, are next to be de-
prived of every thing harsh and bitter which is soluble in water, by
boiling them, where fuel is abundant, or by subjecting them for a
* Introd. to Bot. p. 7.
+ Ina former number of this Journal we gave some details in regard to bread
made from wood and from bark,
400 Miscellanies.
longer time to the action of cold water, which is easily done by en-
closing them in a strong sack, which they only half fill, and beating
the sack with a stick, or treading it with the feet in a rivulet. ‘The
whole is then to be completely dried in the sun, or by fire, and re-
peatedly ground in a flour-mill. The ground wood is next baked
into small flat cakes, with water, rendered slightly mucilaginous by
the addition of some decoction of linseed, mallow stalks and leaves,
lime-tree bark, or any other such substance. Professor Autenrieth
prefers marsh-mallow roots, of which one ounce renders eighteen
quarts of water sufficiently mucilaginous, and these serve to form four
pounds and a half of wood-flour into cakes. These cakes are baked
until they are brown on the surface. After this, they are broken to
pieces, and again ground, until the flour will pass through a fine bolt-
ing cloth, and upon the fineness of the flour does its fitness to make
bread depend, ‘The flour of a hard wood such as beech, requires the
process of baking and grinding to be repeated. Wood-flour does not
ferment so readily as wheaten-flour ; but the Professor found fifteen
pounds of birch-wood flour, with three pounds of sour wheat-leaven,
and two pounds of wheat-flour, mixed up with eight measures of new
milk, yielded thirty-six pounds of very good bread. 'The learned
Professor tried the nutritious properties of wood-flour, in the first
instance, upon a young dog ; afterwards he fed two pigs upon it ; and
then, taking courage from the success of the experiment, he attack-
ed it himself. His family party, he says, ate it in the form of gruel
or soup, dumplings and pancakes, all made with as little of any other
ingredient as possible : and found them palatable, and quite whole-
some. Are we, then, instead of looking upon a human being stretch-
ed upon a bare plank, as the picture of extreme want and wretched-
ness, to regard him as reposing in the lap of abundance, and consid-
er henceforth, the common phrase, “‘ bed and board,”’ as compound-
ed of synonymous terms ?— Quarterly Review, November, 1834.
For Sare—The Cabinet of Minerals of the late Dr. Young, of eneepey
ew York.—This collection was selected with great care, by Dr. Young, and em
braces the rare and beautiful productions of Orange County, N. Y. and Sussex
N.J. Its erystals of = oie Corundum, Franklinite, Brucite, Troostite, Maes:
ite, Hornblende, Bronzite, Idocrase, &c. would be an invaluable acquisition to any
public cabinet; it has been generally priascibeed by PRR to be one of the
select and beautiful collections, ever formed in this cou
Shells belonging to the Coast of New England.—See p. 347.
INDEX TO VOLUME XXVIII.
A.
Acetic acid, 358.
ms, E., on divisibility of matter,
Agassiz’, Prof., great work on fossil
fishes, 193.
Air pam receiver, new one, 353.
Alcohol in wines and b Scaler liquors,
Belfast Nat. Hist. Society, 369.
ells’ spe isi air pump receiver, 353.
Biela’s com
Black rigps of Quebec, a good water ce-
D ?
Boracic a of Tuscany, 143.
Bo er communications, 165.
, Mémoires geologiques et Pa-
fooneaioaien 8,
of potatoes, oil extracted from, Boulders, their buoy ancy at great depths
n the ocean, I11.
3
Aiteatte ct Greenlan d, 394. Bo — A., on the resistance of fluids,
Alps, travel
) ? randes on shooting stars, 97.
Busines gene medicine, 79. an. erigiglesth British association for the advancement
suerte, 300 se ce, notice of its meetings for
ome — oils, i
Ancient iadarnlogy hb y Pr of. Moore, a ore a ee a
Pi coeidbe of, igi —— urdie House, Dr. Hibberts report on
nayarous s me ric acid, the fresh water limestone of, 365.
Antimonial n. anew Bcc a
Apparatus,
various ¢
Apparent loss of weight of the ine Cabinet
y,
ea ae! acid—oxide of iron, ‘an antidote
Artifcial twin = of felspar, 396.
de of chrome, 396.
Asclepias Syriaca,
Assaying the ores Fi manganese, 146.
B.
rere calculating machine and con-
64.
pees Prof. A. D., on the meteors of
Nov. 13th, 1834, 305.
radiation , abso: orp-
tion, conduction, &c. of heat, 320.
Baddele Lieut., on boulders
—geological notices—and water ce-
ment, 111, 367.
Ball, ie, ‘on the geology, &c. of the
country Ww est of the Rocky Moun-
tains, L.
in meteorological obser-
Chemis
cima 2
of ser r sale, , 400.
37.
Carbonate of soda, manufacture of, 143
Carburetted hydrogen in cementation of
iron, ae
Caricography, 270.
Caroline — account of, 114.
Cement,
esive acy of water, 367.
Cementation of iron by carbur etted hy-
droge
Chalk formation of the U. States, 276.
try and mineralogy, 70.
notice
of Dr. Gales’ Ele-
Chiastolit
Chile, reality of the sudden rise of its
coas
Chloride of —— reduction of, 145.
aes Sibi use, arating nitrogen
oa erotncnia,
Chro mate of iron, locality of , 383.
Chrome, artific ial twin crystals of ox-
—— of, 396.
vations at Fort AS eh on the Co-||Cinnamon, oil of, 385.
lumbia river, 1832 a
Barage in Egypt,
Besue ‘ Col.
hydraul Sy ear ie notice of,
Beck, Prot Lewis C., researches
wines an
*)
and other fermented liquors,
work on nautical and||Coal mine on Mt. ebanon,
340.||\Cold, extraordinary seasons
on||—— 0
Comet. of Biela, 398.
E., on remarkable par-
helia seen at Fort Howard, 304.
32.
f, 183.
Jan. 1835, notices of, “77.
of forces, s, 85.
402 INDEX.
Conduction = solids, 320. en ge age Dublin, Journal,
——-——. of water, 151. 1833, and 34, 368
Conrad, T. A, on the tertiary strata of |——_—— Soe. France, Transactions
the Atlantic ‘coast, 104, 280. of, 1833, a
Copaiba, hydrochlorate of balsam of, 384.| _-_——— survey of Connecticut, 381.
—_—-, oil of balsam of, 384. Geology and Geography 72.
Copper mine cm Spain, 144. Geology ¢ - Schohari YY. 172
ores roasting of, 145. ———- of the Adahtie coast, 104, 276,
Crenic acid, 22. 280.
Creoso —_- of the country west of the Rocky
Gipualicoraphion’ symbols, new system|| Mountains,
ol, eom be question, 382.
Croom, H. B., botanical communica-\Gold, discovery of, in Canada, 112.
tions, 165. , 395
Gorton, Thos., on tur nouts O48. roads
Dana, Jas. D., rackets system of crys-|Graham, Mrs., on the reality ‘of the sud-
tallographic symbols 250. den rise of the coast of Chile in 1822,
Dewey, Prof. C., on Caricography, 270.|| 936.
stent Green, Jas., experiments with the ele-
Dewitt, et S., eulogium mental Voltaic battery, 33.
gst gr ow; idolatry ; and a aheesuahy
the Zabians, 201. BH:
E. Ha: re , Prof., chemical apparatus for va-
as purposes, 263.
engicr i nt Fe bh Nw thie Heat, new method of producing, 146.
ae atiengtie Jan. 1835, 336.) 45 ae on, absorptio on and conduc-
fie: Ae 1a a _——, refraction and polarization, Prof.
Erratic blocks of the north of Geraah Fo rbes t memoir on, 366. —
Y;| Henry; Prof. J., on the action of a spiral
conductor, 329.
rigin
meson oils, analysis and preparation
f, 383.
spark, shock, &c.
from a galvanic battery, 327.
FP. Hibbert’s, Dr., report on the fresh water
Featherstonhaugh’s, G. W., reportonthe||__ limestone of Burdie House, 365.
geology o tha elevated. country be- Hibiscus tales or Syriac us, Bye &
tween the Missouri and Red River, Hildreth, 8. P., m ae orological journal
ree at Marietta, Ohio, 1834, 160.
Felspar, artificial twin crystals of, 396. ||Hydrate of cle ae rus, es
Fermented + weg researches on, 42.
Filtration, 150.
Fluids, resistance of to solids, 231, 318.
Food made of wood, 399.
hati acid, a
Ichthyosaurus, ore
ossil fishes
Idocrase in the Isle of Skye, 395.
2’ great work on, 193.||Idolatry and phiigodaby: of the Zabians,
tree, analysis of, 390.
Foster, Wm. on an cae method of|\Iodic acid, process for, 136.
filling long syphons Ss, 268. lodine and oxygen, a new compound of,
evar troduction oe ue Ireland, 398)| 141
G.
cutee: L. D., Elements of chemis-
try, 188.
Gallic acid, 124, 3
58.
Galt, discovery of in Alabama, 27
Galvanic battery, spark, shock nal &e.
-
Treland *ntrndriiction of Ff) qd 1
o
nto, 398.
Iron, cementation of by carburetted hy-
drogen, 362.
——, oxide of, an antidote for arsenic
acid, 135.
Isomerism, 356.
Science and Literature of
the west of Enpiand, 365.
INDEX.
ae — ong Geological Society of
Dublin,
Juniper, sao of, 385.
K.
Keely, Prof. Geo. W., on the resistance
of fluids, 318
L.
Lethxa Geognostica—new work by Prof.
Brown of Heidelberg, 378.
ve na oxychuplecigen illumination
L'Institat, Journal général des pone
et travaux neta de la Fra
et de ’Etrange
Lyceum of Natatal History , New York,
Meceedings of, 189.
—— conglomerate, saurian bones
Magnetic attraction and repulsion, law
Seis
Magne
Makes Ali, 30.
Mangus, best method of assaying the
ores of, 146.
anganesiate of potassa, process for,
Me
Mantell, G. Esq... aiiollaston medal
awarded to, 391.
museum, visit to “by
Pr of. Agassiz, 194.
Maryland, eport on new map of, 379.
Mathematic
Matter, dvi of, 163.
oires eologiqu ués et palzontolo-}
s, 366,
fo]
Mevrolopiest journal at Fort Rd ay
ver on Columbia river in 1832
33, 9.
at Marietta, Ohio,
1834, 160.
at New York, 1833
and 734, 154.
at Penn Yan, N Y.,
1834
Meteorology, evidence of certain phe-
nomena in
Meteors of Nov. 13th, ne 305.
rari i ancie
Srchatic. Nex
sian 172.
Mineral waters containing organic acids, ||
121.
403
aN:
Natural history, 76.
Nautical and hydraulic as
ol. page s work on, 340
Needle ore, 395.
Nile, specie of ther 28.
Nitrog gen,