ia ae

AME RICA N JOURNAL

OF

ss,

SCIENCE AND ARTS.

CONDUCTED BY

PROFESSOR SILLIMAN
AND

BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, Jn.

VOL. XLIL—APRIL, 1842.

(TO BE CONTINUED QUARTERLY.) — -

NEW HAVEN:

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ee eam BY B. L. HAMLEN.

| Mo. Bot. Garden,

ee —————s Se. Lh

=
Aaa

Ant. I.

405

<a

S

VI

be

rs

XL.

XU.

XIII. Temperature of the cities of Rome, (Italy,) nik Mone
York ; by Jerentan Van Renssevasr, M.D, >

CONTENTS OF VOLUME XLII.
OO

NUMBER I.

Notes of a Botanical Excursion to the Mountains of -

North Carolina, &c.; with some remarks on the Bot-
any of the 20 ree Mountains ; by Asa oo
M. D.,

. Account of isi winaeoeined Plants of Central Ohio ;

by Wm. 8. Suttivant,

. Notes hag the pages 5 of the Weitdi dike’ ; ty JAMES

Han
. On ee ‘Pa ventanades of iis Oxide of Ethule, or Perchloric

Ether ; by Cuare Hare and Martin H. Bove,
new Demonstration of the Principle of Virtual Veloci-
ties; by Prof. Tzopore Strone, = - -

. Solution of a Functional Equation, which has been em-

ployed by Potsson in demonstrating the ———-
of forces; by Grorce R. Perkins, A. M.,

2 Experiments on’ Bichlorure of Sulphur and certain car-

- bures of hydrogen ; by Prof. F. Cuever,

. Contifitation of the Remarks made upon “uaiae,* con-

sidered in a medico-legal re of view 3 ia J. Law-
RENCE SmirTH, M. D.,

. Remarks upon an examination of the Peroxide of Man-

; by Henry C. Lea, - -

A Sketch of the Infusoria of the family Bacillaria, with
ssome account of the most interesting species which
have been found in a recent or fossil state in the United

States ; with two plates, by Prof. J. W. Bamey, -

Description of Eight new Species of Shells, native to
the United States ; with a plate, by Henry C. Lea, -

Observations on the Storm of December 15, 1839; by

Witiiam C. Reprrerp, A. M., -

iv CONTENTS.

XIV. Observations and eo on Light; by Prof. Sam- ‘
vEL Apams, M.D., -

XV. The Birds of America, from drawings made in ‘the Unie
ted States and their Territories ; by Joun James Avupu-
Bon, F. R.8., -

. Notice of Fossil Bones from Oregon Tenttory ; by H. C.
PERKINS,
XVII. Objections to Me. Redfield’s Bicavy of Bota, ith
some strictures upon his reasoning Bey Prof. Ropert
Hare, M
XVIII. Abstract of the me of ‘és Eleventh Mosting of
the British Association for the Advancement of Science,
XIX. On the Removal of Carbonic Acid Gas from Wells, &c.,
and Spontaneous Combustion in Wood Ashes; by Prof.
Ouiver P. Hupsarp, M. D.—Combustibility of Wood
Ashes ; by Dr. Jonn T. Plummer, - .
XX. On the use of Hot Blast in the Smelting of eda -
XXI. On the Solar Eclipse of July 8th, 1842; by R.T.P., -
XXII. Bibliographical Notices :—Endlicher’s Enchiridio n Bo-
tanicum : Lindley’s Flora Medica, 182. Tae s Ele-
| ments of Botany, 183.—Botanical Teacher for North
America, 184—Hooker’s Journal of Botany, 185.—
The Annals and Magazine of Natural History, 186.—
Archiv fir Naturgeschichte: Repertorium fir Anato-
mie und Physiologie der Gewichse: Lectures on the
Applications of Chemistry and Geology to Agriculture,
187.—Lyell’s: Principles of f Geology, Lyell’s Elements
of. Geology, 191.—Notes ‘on the Use of Anthracite in
the Manufacture of Iron: American Almanac and Re-
pository of Useful Knowledge for the year 1842: Prof.
_Park’s Pantology, 192.

4

—

|

ae .—On the aippioted'¢ conversion of Carbon into Sili-
.93.—Curious Microscopie Fungus: Yellow Showers
#1 aise 195.—Brief Strictures on Art. XV, Vol. xxxtv, of
this Journal, 197. —Sunset at the West, 200.—Shooting Stars:
in June, 201.—Shooting Stars of August 10, 1841: Meteor-
ology, 202.—Fall of a Meteoric Stone at Grimeberg in Sile-
sia: Meteorite in France: Another Meteorite in France:
Remarks and suggestions with regard to the Ape od con-
struction and use of apparatus for idifyi =

CONTENTS. v

Page.
203:Alabaster in the Mammoth Cave of Kentucky, 206.— a

@ Tubular concretions of Iron and Sand from Florida, 207.—
Spark Extinguisher, 209.—Destructive Thunder Shower,
210.—Elementary composition of vegetable tissue, 212.—
Mr. Lyell and Mr. Murchison, 213.—Carburetted Hydrogen
encased in spheres of Carbonate of Lime: Society of North-
ern Antiquaries: Barometrical Observations made to ascer-
tain the Level of the Dead Sea, 214.—Picture of a Parthian
Archer, 215.—Correction, 216.

NUMBER IL.

Arr. I. A Notice of Prof. Augustine oe De Candolle ; by
EORGE B. Emerson, 217
II. Geological Reports of the ints of New York for 1840, 227
III. On the Manipulations of the Dipping a ae : ~ Prof.
Joun Locke, M. D., 235
IV. The Involution of Polynomials ; by Wo. J. a 239
V. Notice of a Hurricane that passed over New England
in September, 1815; by Noyes Darurne, Esq., - 243
VI. A New Method of dexeseiatatn the quantity of Nitrogen
in Organic ssa enna: by sore VARRENTRAPP and
WALEED é origi the Annalen der
Chemie und Pharmacie, byl cuveacueais: M.D., 258
VII. A Letter to Wm. Whewell, Professor of Moral Philoso-
phy in the University of Cambridge, England, in reply
| to certain allegations and arguments advanced in a
pamphlet entitled a Demonstration that all Matter is
q Heavy; by Prof. Roserr Hane, M. D., - - 260
Vill. Integration of a particular kind of Differential Equations
| of the second order; by Prof. TaEopore Srrone, 273
"IX. Notice of the Seasbiigiia Writings of the late C. 8. Rafi-
““ _ nesque; by 8. S. Hanpeman, » - 280
X. Sir M. Faraday’s answer to Dr. Hare’s scnosed ‘asia 291
* XI. Meteorological Observations, made at the Mines of San
Fernando, situated in the Partido de la Manicaraqua, ee
Island of Cuba; by Joun H. Buaxe, - 4 + 292
XII. Reply to Dr. Hare’s Objections to the Whirlwind.’ a
Ae tah ane ean wee

vi CONTENTS.

Page.

XIII. Abstract of the Proceedings of the Eleventh Meeting
of the British Association for the Advancement of Sci- @ :
ence, held at Plymouth, September, 1841, _- -, 317 Aaa

XIV. An Astronomical Machine, the Tellurium; by Epwin
C. Leepom, M.D., - - - - 338

XV. Abstract of a Meteorological Journal, for the year 1841,
kept at Marietta, Ohio; by S. P. Hitprer#, M.D., - 344
XVI. The Glacial Theory of Prof. saad ie CHARLES

MAcLAREN, - - 46 @

XVII. On a New Species of ‘Trilobite of very uae SIZE ; = 4.

Prof. Joun Locke, M. D., - - 366- |

XVIII. Register of the Thermometer from 1830 to 1839, ken igh ae
at Boston, Mass.; by J.P. Hatt, — - 368

XIX. Chemical isetibnciein of Bituminous Coal = the pits
of the Mid Lothian Coal Mining Company, south side
of James River, fourteen miles from Richmond, Vir-
ginia, in Chesterfield County ; by Prof. B. Sinziman

and Prof. O. P. Hurgarp, - 369
XX. Bibliographical notices :—Linnzus’s Bolan Writings —
jig Index to De Candolle’s Prodromus, 375.—Kunth, Enu-— <4
. << meratio Plantarum : Loudon’s Arboretum et Fruticetum Se |
Britannicum, 376, —Steudel’s Nomenclator Botanicus : 4

Torrey and Gray’s Flora of North America: Mr. Nut-
tall’s Edition of Michaux’s Sylva Americana: Bo‘ani-
cal Teacher, 377.—Agassiz’s Monograph of the Echi-
nodermata, 878.—Boston Journal of Natural History,
379.—Harris’s Report on the Insects of Massachussetts,
injurious to Vegetation : Rogers’ 's Letters on the Man- q
ufacture of as 380. : |

Miscetranies.—Protest of Mr. Charles V. Walker, 383.—Min- Es
eralogical Notices, 386.—Infusorial Animals: Coal Mines i mii
~ Cuba, 388.—Encouragement for the Fine Arts: Geological’ ae
Survey of Louisiana, 390.—Preparation of Freshwater Shells
for the Cabinet, 391.—Bones of the Orycterotherium : Note”
to Mr. Lea’s paper on New Species of Native Shells, 392.— *
Facts connected with a stroke of Lightning, 393.—Separa-
tion of Silver or Gold from Lead, 394.—Suggestions on the
| total Solar Eclipse of July, 1842, 395.—Meteors of April
Fs 18-20, 1841, 397.—Shooting Rust ot Der. 7, 1838, 398.—

BA
Ein a

ugust
metric Minima of Feb. 15-20, iste,
~ teau-Renard, 403.

January, 1842,
1h ao eae SHEET
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a

American Journal of Science. 9

GEOLOGICAL DRAWINGS AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
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of the science of Geology, comprising Stratification, Metallic Veins,
Organic Remains, Active and Extinct Voleanoes, &c. &c.

The drawings are if desired fixed on rollers, adapted for lectures.
Letters addressed to R. Bakewell, Instructor of Drawing and Per-
spective in Yale Collese, at Mr. Ebenezer Jobnson’ s, Chapel street,
New Haven, will be duly attended to

Drawings and Plans of every ‘abditen copied with dispatch.

New Haven, June, 1841.

Mr. Bakewell’s drawings are excellent.— Eds.

B. & W. NOYES,
NEW HAVEN, CONN.

Pusuisuers of Bakewell’s Geology, 8vo. $3.50. Dana’s Min-
eralogy, 8vo. $3.25. Pitkin’s Statistics, 8vo. $3.00. Baldwin’s
Yale College, 8vo. $1.25. Bacon’s Poems, 8vo. $1.50. Kings-
ley’s Tacitus, 12mo. $1.00. Kingsley’s Cicero de Oratore, 12mo.
75 cts. Day on the Will, 12mo. 50 cts. Crocker’s Catastrophe
of the Presbyterian Church, 12mo. 88 cts. Excerpta Latina, 12mo.

cts. Gibbs’s Hebrew Lexicon, 8vo. $2.00. Tablesof tenga ants
used in Yale College with Day’s Mathematics, 8vo. $1.00. School
ae 18mo. 25 cts. Discount 20 per cent. and six months

wholesaled and retailed at the most reduced prices—a
catiheeel of which is printed with prices and discount, ‘Gee gratui-
tous distribution aE ig promptly executed.
ven, June |

_American Journal of Science and Aris.

Tur sons — of this Journal are wanted by the Editors,
who will pay for them $1 each, or give in exchange current num-,
bers as they uae

Vol XI XI. XIV. XV. XVI.

Number i, 2 Ty 2. 1. % )

Entire No 23,24. 27,28. a”, 31. 33, 34.
Vol. ZV. ARIEL’ = ASV. ARN. 8 «=§=6KIX. Be
Number i 1,2. 2. oS g aL 1

Entire No. 35. 45, 46. 54. 55, 56. 59, 60. 81

é

New Haven, June 23, 1840.

10 . Advertising Sheet, &c.

|comprehensive view of the situation, construction, and all essential

ANTHRACITE IRON.
LITTLE & BROWN,
OF BOSTON,

Have published, an oni of the various Iron Works in the
United States, at which Anthracite is employed as a fuel in the
Smelting of Tron Ores, &c., by Prof. Waurer R. Jounson. This
work embraces a sketch of the history of those efforts, which
have at Jength been crowned with success, to render useful this
most important production of our country, and gives a clear and

circumstances of each establishment. ‘The composition, character,
and beating power of several of the principal varieties of anthracite
is also given.
January, 1842.

Associalion of American Geologists.
This body holds its Third Annual pace at Boston, commencing on Monday,
the 25th “ li 1842
for the meeting in Boston
pet i: Seunee sn ie M.D ts.
Cuarces T. Jackson, F.G. 8. (rane) M. 'D. ye, he Secrvtary.”
Prof. Enywarp secenadx, eh;
Dr. Caan den ee sag erons Local Committee.
r.

. B. SrLLIMAN, a D., &c. to deliver the opening address.

Notice to Agents of the American Journal of Science.
Herearter one dollar per number is all that will be allowed on
account, for numbers of this Journal returned in good order from
agents, apcort by special ee

al of Science and Arts, fr
its nit to the ediak es time, can be had of the soar
bers in numbers or bound. B. & B. Situimay.
New Haven, June 23, 1841.

Scale of ae on the Advertising Sheet for the American
Journal of Science.

15 lines or one third of a Page, fae ee 8 | oD

aon 6 si aig bel - * - - 7 8 00

- - 5 00

out 8 “e the cover —15 hanes. old one third we page, - be 4
= One half of a age ah S %

One 3 00

page,
For every insertion after first, one the rr is pete
must fag ipa se Sede ts of insertions.

-—
be ip

*

,

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS TO CORRESPONDENTS, FRIENDS
AND STRANGERS.

Remarks.—This method of acknowledgment has been adopt-
ed, because it is not always practicable to write letters, where
they might be reasonably expected; and still more difficult is it
to prepare and insert in this Journal, notices of all the books, pamph-
lets, &c., which are kindly presented, even in cases, where such no-
tices, critical or commendatory, would be appropriate ; for it is often
equally impossible to command the time requisite to frame them, or
even to read the works; still, judicious remarks, from other hands,
would usually find both acceptance and insertion.

in public, it is rarely proper to advert to personal concerns; to
excuse, for instance, any apparent neglect of courtesy, by pleading
the unintermitting pressure of Jabor, and the numerous calls of our
fellow-men for information, advice, or assistance, in lines of duty,
with which they presume us to be acquainted.

The apology, implied in this remark, is drawn from us, that we may
not seem inattentive to the civilities of many respectable persons, au-
thors, editors, publishers, and others, both at home and abroad. It
is still our endeavor to reply to all letters which appear to require an
answer; although, as a substitute, many acknowledgments are thade
in these pages, which may sometimes be, in part, uo Sgr aa
Eds. °

SCIENCE.—FOREIGN.

On the composition of Chalk Rocks and Chalk Marl by invisible
organic bodies, from the observations of Prof. Ehrenberg; with an
appendix touching the researches of MM. Alcide and D’Orbieny ; ;
by Thos. Weaver, sq., F. Ab Be, LA. &e: From
the L. & E. & D. Phil. Mag. for May and June, 1841. London.
Pamphlet, pp. 48. From the Author.

Report of the Tenth Meeting of the British Association for the
Advancement of Science, held at Glasgow, in August, 1840. 8vo,

pp: om Published by John Murray, London. From the Asso-
ciatio

etaatititein of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Vol. i pe
second; pp. 359-754. From the Socie

iety. oe
Description of a series of Geological Models ; ier Sopwith,

ee fone a assagatle tga rr A2eno+.D PP- Rhus:

2

Catalogue of Fossil Fish in the Collections of the Cure of Ennis-

killen and Sir Philip Grey Everton, Bart. From Mr. Lyell.
On the General and Local Causes of Magnetic Variation; by P.

es
*9
*

Cunningham, Surgeon, R. N. London, 1841. From the Author. —

Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Nos, 17, 18.
1840, 1841. From the Society, forwarded by the politeness of Mr.
A Vavghan, Phil.

Remarks on some Fossil and Recent Shells collected a4 Capt.
Bayfield in Canada ; by Charles Lyell, Esq., V. P.G.S Ss.
1839, 4to. pp. 6. From the Author.

On the Cretaceous and Tertiary Strata of the Danish Islands of ©
Iceland and Moen; by Charles Lyell, Esq. 4to. pp. 13. Frouye
the Author

Accowek ot the Fall of a Meteoric Stone in the Cold Bokkeveld,
Cape of Good Hope; by Thos. Maclear, Esq., F. R. S. ‘London,
1839. 4to. pp. 4.

Further particulars of the Cold Bokkeveld Meteorite; by Thos.

S

5
GS

Maclear, Esq., F. R.S. London, 1840. to. pp. 6. From Isaac
C.

Chase, U. S

Observations on the Loamy Deposit called Loess,” of the basia —

of the Rhine; by Charles Lyell, Esq. 1834. From the Author. _
On the Shells of the genus Conus, in the Lias of Normandy 5
by Charles Lyell, Esq. From the Author.

Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Vol. 15, part

second, 1841. Edinburgh. From the Society

Note sur la esr de I'Eau de Puits, is H. White, See: de I

le Soc. Meteorologigue de Londres. From the Author.

On the Theories of the Weather Prophets; by W. H. Whites |

M. B.S. London, 1841. From the Author.
C oc Woeil sur Petat actnel de nos connaissances en Electricity -
par M. A. de la Rive, Prof. de Physique a Academie de Genéve.
n the Heat of Vapors, and Astronomical Refractions—On be

Theory of the Moon, and Perturbations of the Planets—Note on —

the Calculation of the Distance of a Comet from the Earth—And —

on Currency. All presented by the Author, Sir J. W. Lubbock,
Treas. R.S., FL. R.A.S., F. LS.

The Archaeologist atid. JournsTof Antiquarian Knowledge, No. ly :

Sept. 1841. From J. F. Hallinswall,
Annuaire Magnetique et Meteorologique du corps des Ingenieurs

des Mines de Russe, publies par ordre de S. M. ’ Empereur Nicolas,

et sous les “bn de M. le Comte Cancrine, chef du corps des —

i, et Ministre des Finances, par A. T. Kupffer. 1839.
m M. le Comte coer

fertalen gezeichnet vom verfassen bt in Verlag von Leopold,
Voss. 1838. Purchased for Yale College Library. ;

ey are

Nilsen

3

Encyclopedia ari aeiees Vol. I, containing Dissertations. From
John Dunlop,

Lectures on i Application of Chemistry to Agriculture and
Geology ; six Nos. By Prof. J. F. W. Johnston, Durham, England.
From the same.

Geology of Fife and the Lothians; by Charles Maclearen, Esq.

From the same
oo

SCIENCE.——DOMESTIC,

Geology of Georgia ; by J. R. Cotting. A specimen from the
Author.

Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, held at Phil-
adelphia, for promoting useful knowledge, Vol. 6, new series, Part
Ist, 4to. pp. 300. Vol. 7, Part 2d, 4to. pp. 160. Vol. 7, Part 3d,
Ato. pp. 356. From the Society.

Fifth Geological Report to the rey third General Assembly of
Tennessee, made Nov. 1838, by G. Troost, M.D. Nashville.
Pamphlet, pp. 75. From the ior

A Monograph of the Limniades of North America; by S. Steh-
man Haldeman. No. 3, July, 1841. Phil. J. Do bson. $i to
subscribers, single Nos. $1 25.

Boston Journal of Natural History, Vol. 3d, No, 4.

Description _f an entire head, and various other bones of the
Mastodon; by Wm. E. Horner, M. D., and Isaac Hays, M. D.
Read before the he Phil. San Oct. 2, 1840. 2d series, Vol. 8.
Quarto pamphlet, pp. 48. From the Authors.

A practical description of Herron’s patent trellis railway struc-
ture; by James Herron. Phil. 1841. Quarto pamphlet, pp. 58.
From the Author.

Observations to determine the magnetic intensity at several pla-
ces in the United States, with some additional observations of the
magnetic dip; by Prof. Loomis. Nov. 6, 1840. From the Author.

Observations made at the Parsee Obsers atory, Lat.41° 14’ 40”
N. and Lon. 5h. 25m. 45s. W.; by Prof. Loomis. April, 1841.

Researches concerning the Rho oe meteors of August and No-
—— ; by Sears C. Walker, A.P.S. Jan. 15,1841, From the
Autho

rican of some parhelia observed at Milford and Camden, Del-
— March 14, 1841; by A. D. Chaloner, M. D. From the
Auth

Elementary Geology, by Prof. eae with an introductory
notice, by John Pye Sonith. D. D., F.R.S. Amberst, Mass. 1841.
Published by J.S.&C. Adams. . 8vo. pp. 346, From the Author.

Final 2 ee of the Geology of Massachusetts, in two
ari ej ual ahora — J. S.8C. Adams. :

sched

te

*

4

Memoirs of the American Academy. An account of the mag- ~
netic observations made at the observatory of Harvard University, 4
Cambridge; by Prof. Lovering and W. Cranch Bond. Communi- ©

cated by Prof. — pp. 84, 4to. Boston, 1841. Presented
by Prof. Love

SP ansdisiony “ot the Albany Institute, Vol. II, Parts 2, 3, 4, 5.
Krom the Tastitute.
* Papers en Practical Engineering. © KS gg" by the Engineer
Department, for the use of the Officers of the U.S. corps of En-
gineers. Part Ist, on Asphaltum. From Col. J. J. Abert, Top.
Bureau. 2 copies.

Syllabus to Lectures on Chietsistry ; by Prof. a U. Shepard,

1831. pp. rom the Author. 2 copies. ©
Lyell’ Elements of askazy. (2d American fron the 2d Lon-
don edition.) 2vols.12mo. Hilliard, Gray & Co. Boston, 1841.
From the Author.
ciples of Geology, or the modern changes of the earth and
its satvattant: considered as illustrative of Geology, (2d American
from the 6th London edition ;) by Charles ee F.R.S.:'In 8
vols. 12mo. Hilliard, Gray & Co. Boston, 18
Notes on the use of Anthracite Coal in the Gancinaviahs of Iron,
&c.; by Prof. Walter R. Johnson. Boston, Little & Brown.
12mo. 1841. From the Author.

, ~ A Memoir of Wm, Maclure, Esq. late President of the Acade- — :

my of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia; by S. G. Morton, M. D.

ré
one of the Vice Presidents of the Hisieiton: Phil. 1841. From *

the Author.
SPECIMENS.—DOMESTIC.

_ A mass of supposed native iron, (origin unknown,) Staten Island.
From Dr. James R. Chilton, N. Y.

— of native Copper, from Milwaukie, Wis. Terr. From: Mr. |

Salphuret of Iron, Galena, Mo.
Six cells of porcelain, used in si construction of Grove’s Butter
rom Dr. R. Hare.

SPECIMENS.—FOREIGN. '

Fossils of the Oxford Clay, Wiltshire, England, and Minemls |
from the vicinity of Bristol. From Wm. Senebout} Ksq., Eng. .
Chalk Fossils. From DE G. A. Mante
Minerals from Faroe, Sweden, and ‘Norway. sf From Prof. ésaegea

Forchhammer,

‘aaa From Rev. Mr. Bingham.

thetéoric “sta8, aeetpbt-sblhe.s fallen in 1821 atthe Sandie | i

i

5

A recent Echinus, covnaine unknown ») West Indies. From Capt.
Sheffield, of New Have

MISCELLANEOUS.—DOMESTIC,
Catalogue of John Vaughan’s wines, for sale at Phila., Nov. 14,
1841

Address before the American Institute ; by General rig Tall-
melee. fcoidert of the Institute. New York, Oct. 28, 1841.
ss before the Society of the Alumni of Williarns College,
WE lbasnatrnet, Mass., August 19, 1835; by Wm. H. Dillingham.
From Mr. C. Chauncey.
'wenty First jel Report of the eee Pia of Com-
missioners for Foreign Missions. Boston, Sept.
wenty Fourth Annual Report of the Prone Colonization
Society. Washington, 1841.
Annual Report of the Medical College of South Carolina; by
Dr. Dickson. From Prof. C. U. Shepa
Proceedings of the Mason Street Sabbath School, on the dag
ture and return of the Superintendent. From Mr. S. H. Walle
Catalogue of vee College, 1841. Indianapolis. From
Edmund O. Hov
Catalogue of Be Members of the Society of Brothers in Uitity,
sae College, 1841. From the Society. Do. from W. E. Ro bin

| "Duin of pean t College. Middlebury, Vt. From Prof
C. B. Adams. 1841-4

Catalogue of aloo. College. Amherst, Mass. From Prof.
E. Hitchcock.

Catalogue of the Berkshire Medical Institution, 1

Address to the Alumni Society of the University of - Nasbville on
the study of Theology, delivered at Nashville, Tenn., Oct. 5, 1841,
by the Rev. Le Roy J. Halsey, A. M. From J. Hamilton.”

Report of a Committee of the First Ecclesiastical Society of New
Haven, on the subject of ventilating their meeting-house.

Circular of the Fourteenth Annual Fair of the American Insti-
tute of the city of New York, Oct. 11, 1841.

Official Register of the Officers and Cadets of the U. S. Military

Academy, West Point. New York, June, 1841. From Major De-

- lafield.

Minutes of the Western Literary Institute and College of Pro-
tee Teachers. Cincinnati, 1840. From M. G. * Williams,
*

Report of the New Haven County Medical Society on the expe-
diency of repealing that section of the medical laws of this state
which excludes irregular practitioners from the benefits of laws in
ee collection of fees. 1837. ee

al

6

Hunt’s Merchants’ Magazine and Commercial Review. Nos. 23
and 25, for May and haas/ 1841; with an article on Weights and
i.

Measures. By and from D. J. Browne,
American Apiiiqise Society’s Fifty Third Semi-Annual Report,
with a catalogue of officers and members. Worcester, 1842. For

the Yale Natural History Society, and also for the Library of the
Connecticut Academy. Bye-lawsof the Am. Ant. Society. 1831.
rom Dr. Jacob Porter.

A portion of Catlin’s Narrative of his tc among the Indi-
ans, from pp. 97 to 128. From Wiley & Patna

Second Annual Circular of the —— s Pewake Tnstitute. Nov.

1840. From Charles E. West,

Message from the President of the United States to the two
houses of Congress at the commencement of the first session of the
27th Congress. Washington, June, 1841. From Hon. J. Trumbull,
M. C.

Letters on the Soli of Physicians and Surgeons; by Graviora
Manent. New 8

A discourse on the study of natural science as a means of intel-
lectual culture ; by Prof. George D. Armstrong = Washington Col-
lege, Va. Lynchburg, 1841. Fromthe Autho

“The Monthly Lecturer, pulse by Theodore Releer, New York.
INO. 2, VORA y, 1841

An address on the agriculture of the United States, delivered be-
fore the American Institute in New York, April 14, 1841; by Hen-
ry Coleman, seneg es cee the Agricultural Survey of Massa-
chusetts. From the Aut

Proceedings of the Prosident and Fellows of the Connecticut
Medical Society, in i hap May, 1841, with a listof the Mem- -
bers of the Society. Hartford

Third Annual Report of the Board of Commissioners of Common
Schools in Connecticut, with the Third Annual Report of the Sec-
retary of the Board. Hartford, May, 1841. From Heury Barnard,

se

American Magazine and Repository of Useful Literature. Pub-
lished at Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Albany. Vol. I,
No. 1, 1841; also No. 2 and No. 5, Aug. 1841. From the Edi-
tors.

Examination of a review contained in the British and Foreign
Medical Review of the Medical and Physiological Commentaries ;
by the author, Martyn Paine, M.D. New York, 1841. pp. 56,
pamphlet. From the Author.

Rev. Mr. White’s Sermon before the Charleston Union Presbyte-
ry, in Orangeburg, Ss. Cc. _ Charleston, 1841.

1. ince y, A ‘
An Examination of Beauchamp Plantagenet’s description of the
Province of New Albion; by John Pe ennington. Philadelphia, 1840.

7 f
Scraps, Osteologic and Archeological, read before the council of
the Historical Society of Pennsylvania; by John Pennington. Phil-

pe Se 1841.
rter, Constitution, Bye-Laws, and ey of Order of the Ma-

ad Institute of Education. Baltimore, 1841.

Report of the Joint Standing Connpuact on Education respecting
the expense of the Board of Commissioners of Common Schools,
May Session, 1841. Read by order of the Senate; by Henry
Barnard, Esq., Secretary of the Board.

Stone’s Life and Times of Red Jacket or Sago-ye-wa-tha. 8vo.
ne 484. New York, 1841. From the Publishers, Wiley &

utn

Raper of the Executive Committee of tee American Temperance
Union. New York, 1841. From J.

An Address on the study of Natural "finery: delivered before
the Philomathean Society of Pennsylvania College; by Rev. J. G.
Morris. From the Author.

Catalogue of the Middetown ie rast School, and of the Mid-
dletown Female Seminary. 1841.

Announcement of the Annual course of “pees in the Medical
Department of the University of New Yor

nnouncement of the Annual course of Tella in the Medical
Patig aonb of Louisiana. Eighth Session. New Orleans, 1841. From

L. Rid

Fifth pee Report of the Managers of the Bangor Lyceum.
Ape 13,1841. Bangor. From . Poor.

Catalogue of the Brainerd Academy, Haddam, Ct., 1840-41.
Annual Report of the Boh oo Evangelical Bocity, “ie

11, 1840. |
Speech of Mr. Hotngton, of Connecticut, on the Amendment
to the Bill to i subscribers to he Eistet Bank of the

United Ape. delivered i in rie Senate, July 3d, 1841. From Wm
W. Boardman, M.
Bi aye af Mr. Marshall of Kentucky, on the Bill to ce ih» a
e Proceeds of the Sales of the Public Lands, and to grant Pre
aia Rights, delivered in the House of Representatives of the
G25, July ¢ 6,1841. Washington. From J. Trumbull, M. C.
Address before the Philomathian Society of Mt. St. Mary’s Col-
lege, near Emmetsburg, Maryland, June 30, 1841; by Prof. Aikin.
From the Author.
Annual Announcement of Lectures of Jefferson Medical Col-
lege, Philadelphia, 1841-42.
itution of the National Institution for the Promotion of Sci-
ence. May, 1840. Washington. 2 copies
“hse hd Oration before the Brothers: in Unity of Yale Col-
lege; by Wm. E. Robinson. July 6, 1841. From the Am
~ Catalogue of Bacon Academy, Colchester. Sept. 1841. F
Myron N. Morris, Principal. <

8

Speech of Mr. Trumbull of Connecticut, on the Bankrupt Bill,
delivered in the House o Representatives, August Ith, 1841.
Washington. From the Anthor

Historical Collections of the State of New York; by J. W. Bar-
ber and Henry Howe. New York, 1841, Svo. pp. 608. From the
Com
Lane Collegii Neo Cena 1839. From Eli Whitney.

ongress Document, N Ae 22. Commerce cud Navigation of the
United States. From Hon. Wm. W. Boardm n,

Catalogue of the Officon and Students of an College.
1841-42. From Prof, Hubbard.

Rev. an Rensselaer’s Discourse on Old Age, with a tribute
to the Memory of Joseph Nourse. From the Author.

Prof. Maffit’s jain rae the Literary Societies of the Wes-
leyan University, Middletown.

Introductory Lecture on the opening of his course on Materia
Medica, in the Pennsylvania “ee of Medicine; by Dr. Bird.
From E. B. Gardette, Esq.

MISCELLANEOUS-—FOREIGN.

A Catalogue of old books in all Languages, cousishig chiefly of
Foreign Theology ; ; for sale by D. Natt, London, 1841.

Letter to the Hon. Henry Clay, President of the Ame erican Col-
onization Society, and Sir Thomas Fowle, Chairman of the General
Committee aa the utes eds ae Society, on the Colonization
and Civilization of Africa; by R. R. Gurley. London, 1841.
From the Acie

Notice of a serie of Encyclopedias and Dictionaries, each com-
plete in at ume. Printed for Longman, Orme & Co. Lon-
don, May, 1839.

Catalogue + works in all branches of Education, for sale by
Longman, Orme & Co. — London, May, 1839.

A Manual of Photography, by N. Whittock, London.

Caslogve of Books for sale by Longman, Orme & Co. Lon-

on
e Xa Analytical Catalogue of Dr. Lardner’s Cabinet Cyclopedia.
on

Batic des Livres de Commerce, et Autres qui se trouvent
chez Renard, Libraire. Rue Sainte, No. 71. Paris, 1841

Livres d'Histoire Naturelle. Paris, 1840. J. B. Balliere.

Libraire Medicale de Bechnel Jne et Labi. Paris, 1840.

cugilene des Livres qui se trouvent chez J. B. Balliere. Paris,
1 ‘
Catalogue des Livres des Librairies d’Anselin et de Gautier-Lag-

“a Paris,

lletin Bibliographique de la Librarie de L. Hacker. Patis

9

Principales Publications de Firmin Didot, Freris Imprimeurs
Libraires de l'Institut de France. Paris, 1 1840.

Libraire d’Ab. Cherbulier et Cie 4 Paris, et a Gen

Ceeness des Libraire de Parent-Desbarres, Paris, | 839.

Catalogue des nica eo Livres en depot et en in abd cher
L. Lachette. Paris, 1

Catalogue des Livres qui se trouvant cher Mathias Augustin.
Paris, 1839

Catalogue et Prix des Instrument qui se trouvent chez Rochette.
Paris, ler Mai, 1839.

ibrarie Medicale et Scientifique de Crochard et Cie, Paris.

Prospectus des Publications des W. Coonebirt. Paris,

Christian Spectator. London, June 16th, 1841.

Bookseller’s Catalogue. From Wiley & ‘Putnam

Letter of Application and Testimonials submitted to the Council
of University College, London; by Ed. Wm. Brayley. 1841.

Life of Thomas MCrie, D. D., by his son. From John Dun-

WM’ ‘Cie’ *s Sermons. from the same.
Quarterly Journal of Agriculture. No. 53. From the same.
Treatise on Agriculture and os eee ; by gore

Jackson. Penicuik, Edinburgh. From e.

ae cent of Coleridge’s Ancient Mario, by David Scott.
From the sam

Letters on lise, with special reference to the spread of Chris-
tianity ; by the Rev. Wm. Bagus, London. From the same.

Blackwood’s Mogens for haar J and June, 1839. From the

NEWSPAPERS.—DOMESTIC.

Catskill serie June 24,1841. Fromthe Editors.—Tribune,
Chicago, Feb. 20, 1841. From the Editors.—Zion’s Advocate,
Portland, Maine, gs 23. From the Editors.—Leonarditown Her-
ald, June 10, 1841.—Hartford Times, July 8, 1841.—The Wayne
Standard, Newark, N. J., containing “an important discovery in the
art and process of tanning leather.’—-New York Mechanic, July
31, 1241, and Aug. 7. From the Editors—New York American.
—Catskill Recorder, July 22, 1841, with a notice of this Journal.—
New York American, July 8 and August 4, 1841.—Quarterly Pa-
per of the Foreign Evangelical Society, August, 1841.—Rock ford
Pilot, [linois, Nos. 1 and 2. From the Editors. —The New World,
N. York, July 31, 1841 .—The Repository, Westfield, Nos. 2 and 8,
edited by the students of Westfield Academy. The Montreal
Transcript, July 7, 1841.—Ohio Observer, with the Meteorological
Jou inoftd for May, kept by Prof. Loomis, of Western Reserve Col-
lege. Do. for June, le August, and Se ber.— al

10

Witness, Middletown, July 14. Cattle Show to be held at Hartford,
Conn. Oct. 7, 1841. From Ch. Goodrich.—Jackson Herald, Jack-
son, La., August 21, 1841.—Weekly Amulet, Hanover, N.
September, 1841. From Prof. Young, with an obituary of Prof.
Adams.—Order of Exercises at Commencement at Harvard Col-
ege, Cambridge, Mass. From D. E. Bartlett.—Commercial Bul-
letin, city of St. Louis, Aug. 19, 1841, with a notice of a petrified
tree.—New York American.—The People’s Gazette, Charleston,
Iowa, with a notice of Mr. C. Lyell. From the Editors.—Lancaster
Examiner and Democratic Herald, with a lecture by Samuel Parker,
Esq., Lancaster, Penn., Nov. 1841.—Saturday Chronicle, Phila-
delphia. From President Durbin, with a lecture on fossil geology
by him.—New York Tribune, Nov. 20.—Natchitoches Herald, La.,
Oct. 23, 1841, with an account of some curiosities. —The Ameri-
can Intelligencer, Philadelphia, 1841.—Christian Register, Boston,

with a notice of the meteoric iron in the Yale College Cabinet.—
New York American—Daily Chronicle, Cincinnatii—Republican
Standard, Bridgeport, with an article on natural history ; by and
from J. H. Linsley.—Cold Water Army, Vol. I, No. 6, Bosto n.—
Albany Daily Advertiser, Oct. 29.—New York Commercial Ad-
vertiser, Sept. 24, 1841.—Miners’ Express, Dubuque, Upper Mis-
sissippi, lowa, September, 1 1841.

NEWSPAPERS—FOREIGN. j
e Morning Chronicle, London, June 8, 1841.—A series of the

Foreign Anti-Slavery Reporter. From the British and Foreign
ree Society.—The Sussex Advertiser. From Dr. Man-
ell.

z ee

f
cs

q

ee oe ee ee eee ee eee ee ee ee ee
aa gc i i

ET jet yeti

ii

Arr. |.

CONTENTS. -

——

Notes of a Botanical Excursion to the Mountains of
North Carolina, &c.; with some remarks on the Bot-

any of the ae ie Mountains ; by Asa Sie '

IL. pe of fats opieialiiadl Pikes of Canta Ohio ;

Til.

IV.

V. A

by Wm. 8S. Suxiivanr,

N — sot et the — of the Wenesin States ; ; by laues f

os ea ‘Perchlovits of ne Oxide of Ethule, or Perchloric

Ether ; by Crarx Hare and Martin H. Boye, -
new Demonstration of the Principle of Virtual Veloci-
ties; by Prof. THroporE Strong, -

. Solution of a Functional Equation, which has Seine em-

ployed by Poisson in demonstrating the ea

of forces; by Georce R. Perxins, A.M., -
Bxpasinishie on Bichlorure of Sulphur and certain car-

bures of hydrogen ; by Prof. F. Cuever, - -
Continuation of the Remarks made upon vormengine con-

sidered in a ttn pene! view ; “ J. La
2 _RENCE Surrx, M. D.,
upon an examination of the Peroxide of Man-

iho a

ganese ; by Henry C. Lea, - ts i
A'Sketch of the Infusoria of the family Bacillaria, ieee

some account of the most interesting hich
have been found in a recent or fossil state in the United
States ; with two plates, by Prof. J. W. Barney, .

Description of Eight new Species of Shells, native to
the United States; with a plate, by Henry C. Lea, -

Observations on the Storm of December 15, 1839; by
Wittiam C. Repriexp, A. M.,

Temperature of the cities of iin, (Italy) and itew
York; by Jeremian VAN Renssexaer, M. D.,

Observations and Experiments on mee iy Prof. Site.
vet Apams, M.D., -

The Birds of America, from aiicsriae dia in ‘is Uni-
ted States and their Territories ; by Joun James Aupvu-
Bon, F. R.S., :

Notice of Fos Bones rom Oregon Tentory sb by H.C.
PERKINS, -

=

Page.

“

= z = -
“ as So
- = CONTENTS.

XVII. Objections to Mr. Redfield’s Theory of Storms, with

some strictures upon his reasoning ; by Prof. RoBERT
Hare, M. D.,

XVII. Abstract of the Piccaatiaak of ‘the Eley yenth Nesting of

the British Association for the Advancement of Science,

XIX. On the Removal of Carbonic Acid Gas from Wells, &c.,

and Spontaneous Combustion in Wood Ashes; by Prof.
* Ontver P, Hupegarp, M. D.—Combustibility "of Wood
_ Ashes; by Dr. Jonn T. PLumMeER, —- .

XX. On the use of Hot Blast in the Smelting of sae re

XXI. On the Solar Eclipse of July 8th, 1842; by R.T.P., -
XXIL Bibliographical Notices :—Endlicher’s Enchiridion Bai
tanicum : Lindley’s Flora Medica, 182.—Lindley’s Ele-

ments of Botany, 183.—Botanical Teacher for North
America, 184.—Hooker’s Journal of Botany, 185.—

The Annals and Magazine of Natural History, 186.—

~» Archiv far Naturgeschichte: Repertorium fir Anato-
mie und Physiologie der Gewiichse: Lectures on the -
Applications of Chemistry and Geology to Agriculture,
187.—Lyell’s Principles of Geology, Lyell’s Elements

of Geology, 191.—Notes on the Use of Anthracite in ~

the Manufacture of Iron: American Almanac: and Re-

_ pository of Useful pea for the year 1842: = Prof.

= tes a =

_Park’s Pantology, 193: 3

Md catin tk the sappened conversion of Carbon into Sili-
con, 193.—Curious Microscopic Fungus: Yellow Showers
of Pollen, 195.—Brief Strictures on Art. XV, Vol. xxxrv, of
this Journal, 197.—Sunset at the West, 200.—Shooting Stars

in June, : 201 -—Shooting Stars of August 10, 1841: Meteor-

logy, 202,—Fall of a Meteorie Stone at Griineberg i in Sile-
sia: Meteorite i in France : ther Meteorite in France:

Remarks and suggestions with regard to the proper con-

struction and use of apparatus for solidifying carbonic acid,

203.—Alabaster in the Mammoth Cave of Kentucky, 206.—

Tubular concretions of Iron and Sand from Florida, 207.—

Spark Extinguisher, 209.—Destructive Thunder Shower,

210.—Elementary composition of vegetable tissue, 212.—

Mr. Lyell and Mr. Murchison, 213.—Carburetted Hydrogen

encased -in.snbetes of Carbonate of Lime: Society of North-

bs Danneel Ghearyesions, sage to ascer-

were

ue

Page.

147

ea

a a ae ae a a

pre Pawns

< THE
AMERICAN

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &c.

Arr. I—WNotes of a Botanical Excursion to the Mountains of
North Carolina, &§c.; with some remarks on the Botany of
the higher Alleghany Mountains, (in a letter to Sin Wm. J.
Hooxer); by Asa Gray, M. D.

Tue peculiar interest you have long taken in North American
botany, and your most important labors in its elucidation, indicate
the propriety of addressing to yourself the following remarks, re-
lating, forthe most part, to the hasty collections made by Mr.

to the higher mountains of North Carolina. Before entering upon
our own itinerary, it may be well to notice very briefly the trav-
els of those who have preceded us in these comparatively unfre-
quented regions. The history of the botany of the Alleghany
Mountains, would be at once interesting, and on many accounts
useful to the cultivators of our science in this country ; but with
my present inadequate means, I can only offer a slight contribu-
tion towards that object.

‘So far as I can ascertain, the younger (Wittiam) Bartram, was
the first botanist who visited the southern portion of the Allegha-
ny Mountains. Under the auspices of Dr. Fothergill, to whom
his collections were principally sent, and with whom his then sur-
viving father had previously corresponded, Mr. Bartram loft Phi- 3
ladelphia i in 1773, and after travelling in Florida and u owel
part of Georgia for three years, he made a transient visi
Vol. xx11, No. 1—Oct.—Dec. 1241. 1

2 Botanical.Excursion to the Mountains of North Carolina.

- Cherokee country, in the spring of 1776. In this journey, he as-
cended the Seneca or Keowee River, one of the principal sources
of the Savannah, and crossing the mountains which divide its
waters from those of the Tennessee, he continued his travels
along the course of the latter to the borders of the present State of
Tennessee. Finding that his researches could not safely be ex-
tended in that direction, after exploring some of the higher moun-
tains in the neighborhood, he retraced his steps to the Savannah.
River, proceeding thence through Georgia and Alabama to Mobile.
His well-known and very interesting volume of Travels,* contains
numerous observations upon the botany of these regions, with oc-
casional popular descriptions, and in a few cases Latin characters
of some remarkable plants; as, for example, the Rhododendon
punctatum (which he calls R. ferrugineum), Stuartia pentagyna
(under the name of S. montana), Azalea calendulacea (which he
terms A. flammea), 7'rautvetteria, which he took for a new spe-
cies of Hydrastris, Magnolia auriculata, &c. He also notices
the remarkable intermixture of the vegetation of the north and
south, which occurs in this portion of the mountains; where
Halesia, Styraz, Stuartia, and Gelsemium,+ (although the lat-

ter ‘“‘is killed by a very slight frost in the open air in Pennsylva-
sistas seen enentniary by the side of the birches, maples, and
firs of Canada.

I should next mention the name 2 of Anpré Micuavux, who, at
an early period, amidst difficulties and privations of which few
can now form an adequate conception, explored our country from
Hudson’ s «Bay to Florida, and westward to the Mississippi, more
botanist. A few of his plants
have:not. yet it“ Aeotet rediscovered, and a considerable number
remain among the rarest and least known species of the Uni-
ted States; it may therefore be useful to give a somewhat par-
ticular account of his peregrinations, especially through the moun-
tain region which he so diligently explored, and in. which ‘he

* Travels through North and South Carolina, Georgia, East pe West Florida,
the Cherokee country, &c. ; by Wittiam Bartram. Philadelphia, Wel

t Dr. Torrey has directed my attention to an unaccountable mistake into
the lea Endlicher must have fallen, i in SA ing
ticularly in the supplement his, eaeed ‘p. 1396), where it tre
lished as a new tribe of. @,and a fit o iil 8

ds, attributed to it exter the characters gi

Botanical Excursion to the Mountains of North Carolina. 3

made such important discoveries. For this purpose, I am for-
tunately supplied with sufficient materials, having had the op-
portunity of consulting the original journals of Michaux, pre-
sented by his son to the American Philosophical Society. I am
indebted for this privilege, to the kindness of John Vaughan,
Eisq., the Secretary of the society, who directed my attention to
these manuscripts, and permitted me to extract freely whatever
I.deemed useful or interesting. The first fasciculus of the diary
is wanting ; but we learn from a chance record, as well as from
published sources,* that he embarked at L’Orient on the 29th of
September, 1785, and arrived at New York on the 13th of No-
vember. The private journal from which the following infor-
mation is derived, commences in April, 1787; prior to which
date he had established two gardens, or nurseries, to receive his
collections of living plants, until they could be conveniently
transported to France—one in New Jersey, near the city of New
York; the other about ten miles from Charleston, South Caro-
lina. Into the latter, it appears, he introduced some exotic trees,
which he thought suitable to the climate; and the younger Mi-
chaux, who visited this garden several years afterwards, men-
tions two Ginkgos (Salisburia adiantifolia), which in seven
years had attained an elevation of thirty feet ; also some fine spe-
cimens of Sterculia platanifolia, and a large number of young
plants of Mimosa Julibrissin, propagated from a tree which his
father had broyght from Europe. “From this 3 stock, aoa ai
latter has been disseminated throug

is beginning to be naturalized in many places. ~

» Lhave no means of ascertaining what portions of the country
Michaux had visited previously to April, 1787, when he set out
from Charleston on his first journey to the Alleghany Mountains,
by way of Savannah, ascending the river of that name to its
sources in the Cherokee country, and following very nearly the
route > taken by Bartram eleven years before.t He reached the

x4 * Vide Michaux, Flora Boreali- Americana ; Introd. See also # Sketch of the
oS Botany in Western Ansrice, by Dr. gh the Transylvania

ant informed: that an interesting notice of Michanx j is contained in the Sth volume
9 9f the Dictionnaire ede Botanique, (under the head of Penge)
a work which enfilaanatoly I am not able at this moment to consult,

nara oe accompanied by his son, wbo shorty 2

4 Botanical Excursion to the Mountains of North Carolina.

sources of the Keowee River on the 14th of June, and was con-
ducted by the Indians across the mountains to the head of the
Tugaloo, (the other principal branch of the Savannah,) and
thence to the waters of the Tennessee. After suffering much
inconvenience from unfavorable weather and the want of food,
he returned to the Indian village of Seneca by way of Cane
Creek, descended along the Savannah to Augusta, and arrived at
Charleston on the first of July. His notes, in this as well as
subsequent journeys to the mountains, often contain remarks
upon the more interesting plants he discovered; and in some
cases their localities are so carefully specified, that they might
still be sought with confidence. On the 16th of July he em-
barked for Philadelphia, which he reached on the 27th; and,
after visiting Mr. Bartram, travelled to New York, arriving at the
garden he had established in New Jersey about the first of Au-
gust. Returning by water to Charleston the same month, he
remained in that vicinity until February, 1788, when he em-
barked for St. Augustine, and was busily occupied, during this
spring, in exploring East Florida. His journal mentions several
sub-tropical plants, now well known to be indigenous to Florida,
but which are not noticed in his Flora; ‘such as the Mangrove,

fuilan Bonduc, Sophora onckdenctetia, two or three Ferns,
and especially the orange.* Leaving Florida at the beginning
of June, he returned by land to Savannah and Charleston, where
he was confined by sickness the remainder of thea,summer. Late
in the autumn, however, he made a second excursion to the
sources of the Savannah, chiefly to obtain the roots and seeds of
the remarkable plants he had previously discovered. He pursued
the same route as before, except that he ascended the Tugaloo,
instead of the Seneca or Keowee River, crossing over to the lat-
ter; and, climbing the higher mountains about its sources in the
inclement month of December, when they were mostly covered
with snow, he at length found some trees of Magnolia cordata,
to eaeain which was the principal object of this arduous porn 5

orvaais which, it appears from Michaux’s remarks, was of no unéommon —
rence in those days; and they were obliged to to pursue their journey to that place

‘on foot. sadiniytheammaadimante ond amen meena nte> <2

ei

a
a

neg ee

Botanical Excursion to the Mountains of North Carolina. 5

Retracing his steps, he reached Charleston at the end of Decem-
ber, with a large collection of living trees, roots, and seeds. The
remainder of the winter Michaux passed in the Bahama Islands,
returning to Charleston in the month of May. Early in June he
set out upon a journey to a different portion of the mountains of
North Carolina, by way of Camden, Charlotte, (the county seat
of Mecklenburg, ) and Morganton, reaching the higher mountains
at “ Turkey Cove, thirty miles from Burke Court House,” (prob-
ably the head of Turkey Creek, a tributary of the Catawba,) on
the 15th of June. From this place he made an excursion to the
Black Mountain, in what is now Yancey County, and afterwards
to the Yellow Mountain, which Michaux at that time considered
to be the highest mountain in the United States. If the Roan be
included in the latter appellation, as I believe it often has been,
this opinion is not far from the truth; since the Black Mountain
alone exceeds it, according to Prof. Mitchell’s recent measure-
meuts. Descending this elevated range on the Tennessee side,
and travelling for the most part through an unbroken wilderness,
near the end of June he reached the Block House on the Hol-
‘ston, famous in the annals of border warfare. Several persons
had boon killed by the Indians during the preceding week, and
general alarm prevailing, Michaux abandoned his intention of
penetrating into Kentucky, and resolved to botanize for a time
in the mountains of Virginia. He accordingly entered that State,
— ‘on the first of July at “ Washington Court House,

ville dans la Virginie que l’on trouve sur la cote occi-
Beitales des montagnes, en sortant de Ja Carolinie Septentrio-
nale.” To this he adds the following note: “ Premiere ville,
si ’on peut nommer ville une Bourgade composée de douze mai-
sons, (log-houses.) Dans cette ville on ne mange que des pain
de Mays. Il n’y a viande fraiche, ni cidre, mais seulement du
‘mauvais Rum.” Abingdon, the county seat of Washington
County, is now a flourishing town; but Michaux’s remarks are
still applicable to more than one premiere ville in this region.
From this place he continued his course along the valley of Vir-
ginia throughout its whole extent, crossing New River, the Roa-

ae and. ‘passing by Natural Bridge, Lexington, Staunton, and

‘; thence by way of Frederick in Maryland, and Lan-
=} r, Pennsylvania, he arrived at Philadelphia on ine ‘2ist of
ily, and at New York on the 30th. In August and Septembei

6 Botanical Excursion to the Mountains of North Carolina.

he returned to Charleston by way of Baltimore, Alexandria, Rich-
mond, and Wilmington, North Carolina. In November, he re-
visited the mountains explored early in the preceding summer,
passing through Charlotte, Lincolnton, and Morganton, to his
former head-quarters at Turkey Cove; from whence he visited
the north branch of Catawba, [North Cove, between Linville
Mountain and the Blue Ridge ?] the a Mountain, Toe River,
&c.; and returned to Charleston in December, with two thou-
send five hundred young trees, Prati ail peter: plants. From
January until April, 1791, this indefatigable botanist remained in
the vicinity of Charleston ; but his memoranda for the remainder
of that year are unfortunately wanting. The earliest succeeding
date I have been able to find, is March 27th, 1792, when he sold
the ‘Jardin du Rov’ at Charleston, and going shortly afterwards
by water to Philadelphia, he botanized in New Jersey and around
New York until the close of May. In the beginning of June, he
visited Milford, Connecticut, to procure information froma Mr.
Peter Pound, who had travelled far in the northwest; and at
New Haven took passage in a sloop for Albany, where he arrived
on the 14th of June, (having botanized on the way at West
Point, Poughkeepsie, &c. ;) on the. 18th, he was at. arat fe
the 20th, he embarked at SI b (Whi
more or less on both shores of Lake Champlain, reaching. Mon- Mon-
treal on the 30th of June, and Quebec on the 16th of July.*
The remainder of this season was devoted to an examination of
the region between Quebec and Hudson’s Bay; the botany of
which, as is well known, he was the first to investigate. His
journal comprises a full aud very interesting account of the phys
ical geography and vegetation of that inclement district.

Leaving Quebec in October, and returning by the same route,
we find our persevering traveller at Philadelphia early in Decem-
ber. It appears that he now meditated a most formidable jour-
ney, and made the following proposition to the American Phi-
losophical Society :—“‘ Proposé a plusieurs membres de la So-
ciété Philosophique les avantages pour les Etats-Unis d’avoir

* Pen we a piaiti collected in this jotirsseityk e partictlarly mentions having
found 4 locality i

3 is
Nt md the "high mountains of eathec Carling. aor LeConte on ae it aod

Ay SOS

or
;

Botanical Excursion to the Mountains of North Carolina. 7

des informations geographiques des pays a l’ouest de Mississippi,
et demandé qu’ils aient a endosser mes traites pour la somme
£3600, si je suis disposé a voyager aux sources du Missouri, et
méme rechercher les rivieres qui coulent vers Vocean Pacifique.
Ma proposition ayant été accepté, j’ai donné a Mr. Jefferson, Sec-
retaire d’Etat, les conditions auxquels je suis disposé 4 entrepren-
dre ce voyage..... Joffre de communiquer toutes les connoi-
sances et informations geographiques a la Société Philosophique;
et je reserve a mon profit toutes les connoisances en histoire nat-
urelle que j’acquirerai dans ce voyage.” Remaining at Philadel-
phia and its vicinity until the following summer, he set out for
Kentucky in July, 1793, with the object of exploring the Western
States, (which no botanist had yet visited,) and also of conferring
with Gen. Clarke, (at Mr. Jefferson’s request,) on the subject of
his contemplated journey to the Rocky Mountains, &c. He
crossed the Alleghanies in Pennsylvania, descended the Ohio to
Louisville, Kentucky, traversed that State and Western Virginia
to Abingdon, and again travelled through the Valley of Virginia
to Winchester, Harper’s Ferry, &c., arriving at Philadelphia on
the 12th of December of the same year. Conferences respecting
his projected expedition were now renewed, in which Mr. Genet,
the envoy from the French republic, took a prominent part; but
here the matter seems to have dropped, since no further refer-
ence. to: mate to the subject in the journal; and Michaux left
in February, 1794, on another tour to the Southern
States. ae July of that year, he again visited the mountains of
North Carolina, travelling from Charleston to Turkey Cove by
his usual route. On this occasion he ascended the Linville
Mountain, and the other mountains in the neighborhood; but
having ‘‘differé a cause du manque des provisions,” he left his
old quarters, (at Ainsworth’s,) crossed the Blue Ridge, and estab-
lished himself at Crab Orchard on Toe River. From this place
he revisited the Black Mountain, and, accompanied by his new
guide, Satie explored the Yellow Mountain, the Roan, and
finally the Grandfather, the summit of which he attained on
the 30th of August.* Returning to the house of his guide, he

af + His earlier journals are full of expressions of loyalty to the king under whose
patronage is travels were undertaken ; but now transformed into a republican:

frags au sommet de la plus haute montagne de toute
avec mon compagnon-guide Uhymne de Marseillois, et crit, Vive la Liberté et

8 Botanical Excursion to the Mountains of North Carolina.

visited Table Mountain on the 5th of September, and proceeded,
(by way of Morganton, Lincolnton, Salisbury, and Fayetteville,
North Carolina,) to Charleston, where he passed the winter.

cended the Wateree, or Catawba, to Flat-Rock Creek, visited Flat.
Rock,* crossed Hanging-Rock Creek, and ascended the Little Oa-
tawba to Lincolnton. In the early part of May he revisited Lin-
ville Mountain, the Yellow Mountain, the Roan, and some
others, and then descended Doe River and the Holston to Knox-
ville, Tennessee. Thence, crossing the Cumberland Mountains,
and a wilderness one hundred and twenty miles in extent, he
arrived at Nashville on the 16th of June, at Danville, Kentucky,
on the 27th, and at Louisville on the 20th of July. In August
he ascended the Wabash to Vincennes, crossed the country to the
Hlinois River, and devoted the months of September, October,
and November, to diligent herborizations along the course of that
river, the Mississippi, the lower part of the Ohio, and throughout
the country included by these rivers. In December, he descended
the Mississippi in a small boat to the mouth of the Ohio, and as-
cended the latter and the Cumberland to Clarksville, which he
reached on the 10th of January, 1796, after a perilous voyage:in
the most inclement weather. Leaving that place on the 16th,
he arrived at Nashville on ees: 19th of ett and after maki

a journey to Louisville and back again, he started for Carolina at

- ae set Francaise.” If this enthusiasm were called forth by mere elevation,
should have chanted his pwans on the Black Mountain and the Roan, both of
higher than the Grandfather. 1

diate
Pier) 3 believe this is the only instance in which the name of Flat Rock occurs in
Michaux’ s journal; it is in South rink oy not far from Camden. Here, without
doubt, he discovered Sedum pusillum, Sheena Nutt.) the habitat of which is
said to be “in Carolina Septentrionali, loco dic Rock.”’ Mr. Nuttall, who
subsequently collected the plant at the same \écokey. inadvertently continued this
mistake, by assigning the habitat, “‘ Flat Rock near Camden, North Carolina,’ as
well in his Genera of N. American plants, as in a letter to Dr. Short on this sub-
ject. (Vide, Short on Western Botany, in the Transylvania Journal of Medicine,
and in Hooker’s Juurnal of Botany, for Nov, 1840, p. 103.) Hence some co
has arisen respecting the locality of this interesting plant, since there is botha
Flat Rock, and a village named Camden in North Citing tires the two are
widely separated. After all, Pursh’s habitat, “on flat rocks in North Carolina,
and elsewhere,” proves sufficien ntly correct, ‘tities Mr. Nanall ‘himself, and also
urtis, and others, have sub such tions near Sa

ee Se

? te “:
Pe ee ee 2. mi ~ ee en es Vee

cal
eee me : eh
* ge asa ot ‘ pha See Se ee 5

Botanical Excursion to the Mountains of North Carolina. 9

the close of February, crossed the Cumberland Mountains early
in March, reached Knoxville on the 8th, Greenville on the 18th,
_ Jonesborough on the 19th, and on the 22nd, crossed the Iron
Mountains into North Carolina, descended Cane Creek [which
rises in the Roan,] and spent several days in exploring the moun-
_. tains in the vicinity, with his former guide, Davenport. In
_ April he returned to Charleston by his usual route; and on the
13th of August embarked for Amsterdam in the ship Ophir. This
vessel was wrecked on the coast of Holland, on the L0th.of Oc-
tober, and Michaux lost a part of the collections he had with
him: on the 23rd of December, 1796, he arrived at Paris with
the portion he had saved. ‘This notice of the travels of Michaux
on this continent, will suffice to show with what untiring zeal
and assiduity his laborious researches were prosecuted ; it should
however be remarked, that greater facilities were afforded him,
in some important respects, than any subsequent botanist has en-
joyed ; the expenses of his journey having been entirely defrayed
by the French eoeeaiinlen under whose auspices and direction
they were underta
The name of Snes so familiar in the annals of North Amer-
ican botany, ought, perhaps, to have preceded that of Michaux in
our brief sketch; since the elder Mr. Fraser, who had visited
Newfoundland previous to the year 1784, commenced his re-
searches in the Southern States as early as 1785; and Michaux,
on his first expedition to vienna in 1787, speaks of hav-
- travelled in his company for several days. Webelione; how-
ever, that he did not explore the Alleghany Mount; 1789.
Under the patronage of the Russian government, he returned to
this country in 1799, accompanied by his eldest son, and revisit-
ed the mountains, ascending the beautiful Roan, where, “on
aspot which commands a tiew of five States, namely, Kentucky,
Virginia, Tennessee, North Carolina and South Carolina, the eye
ranging to a distance of seventy or eighty miles when the air is
clear, it was Mr. Fraser’s good fortune to discover and collect
living specimens of the new and splendid Rhododendron Cataw-
biense, from which so many beautiful. hybrid varieties have since
wen obtained by skillful cultivators.”* The father and son re-

: * * Biographical. Sketch of Joux Fraser, the Botanical Collector 3 in Hooker’ 's Com-

10 Botanical Excursion to the Mountains of North Carolina.

visited the Southern States in 1807; and the latter, after the de-
cease of the father in 1811, -rettlinned to” wnt penny _ eames
ued his indefatigable Fdeontohies until 1

Many of the rarest plants of these nica ere made nowt, ae

especially to English gardens and r. Joun Lyon,
Whose’ indefatigable researches are” “highly spoken’ of by Pursh,
Elliott. Tt bith

mountains previous to annie aes charge of Mr.
¢ollections near Iphia, whietehe

Ata later period, how
from Georgia’ as far north at s the - |
ser died at Asheville, in BancbaibeCo!> erty Carolina, some-
dine sebegen AGM ave"1818)° Tam informed by my friend
Rev. Mr. Curtis, that his journals and a portion of his herbarium
were preserved at Asheville for many ines and that it is —
ble they may yet be found.
~~ Mrcuavx the younger, utieew of he Syloa’ siontidieing nites
accompanied his father in some of his earlier journeys, returned
to this country in 1801, and crossed the Alleghany Mountains
twice; first in Pennsylvania prt rn ‘estern States,
sad the next year in North Ca | u - a
Tr erossing from Jonesboro’, T to Morgant ray
Toe River, (not Doe River, as stated pinaneraetoigye RO
ally stopped at the house of Davenport, his father’s guide in these
mountains. The observations of the younger Michaux on this
part of the Alleghany Mountains, in achapter of his pee bat
voted to that subject, are mainly accurate.
~' “Tr the beginning of 1805,” Pursu, as he states in the pre-
face to his Flora, “ set out for the mountains and westerti territo-
ries of the Southern States, beginning at Maryland and extending
to the Carolinas, (in which tract the ifiteresting high mountains
of Virginia and Carolina took my particular wei. ant res
turning late in the autumn through the lower along the
sea-coast to Philadelphia.” This plan, however, was” not fully
carried out, since he does not appear to have crossedthe Alle-
ghanies into the _ Western Valley, nor to have botanized
pain mounte rer sribeensenSrermalis ent ‘the: New: River

7 L a
ee ee oe ae

crosses the Valley of Virginia. At any rate, it is certain that the
original tickets of his specimens in the herbarium of the late Prof.
Barton, under whose patronage he travelled, as well as those in
Mr. Lambert’s herbarium, furnish no evidence that he extended
his researches into the mountainous portion of North Carolina;
but it appears probable (from some labels marked Halifax or
Mecklenburg, Virginia,) that he followed the course of the Roa-
noke into the former State. His most interesting collections were
made at Harper’s Ferry, Natural Bridge, the Peaked Memniatae,
{which separate the two principal branches of the S

the Peaks of Otter, in the Blue Ridge; also, Cove Mountain,
Salt-Pond Mountain, and Parnell’s Pons (with the situation of
which I am unacquainted,) the region around the Warm Sul-
phur Springs, Capon Springs, the Sweet Springs, and the
mountains of Monroe and Greenbrier Counties.

Karly in the present century, Mr. Kin, a German nurseryman
and collector, resident at Philadelphia, travelled somewhat ex-
tensively among the Alleghany Mountains, chiefly for the pur-
pose of obtaining living plants and seeds. He also collected
many interesting specimens, which may be found in the herbaria
of Muhlenberg and Willdenow, where his tickets may be reeog-
nized by the orthography, and the amusing mixture of bad Eng-
lish and. German, (with: occasionally some very wipanins Latin,)

jn which an

“ : , ~
pas eS ee gael Suge apis

In. the winter wt. 1816, Me. Norratt crossed. shen

Lees wii. French Broad

ie Ses ;

ai
(along the banks of which he obtained his Philadelphus hirsutus,
&e.) to Asheville, passing the Blue Ridge, and exploring the
Table Mountain, where he discovered Hudsonia montana, &c.,

- and collected many other rare and interesting plants.*

_ As early as 1817, the mountains at the sources of the Saluda
River were visited by. the late Dr. Macprine, the friend and cor-
respondent of Elliott ; who, in the preface to the second volume
of his Bieeieh, cinodlinc an, ec oe and.n most deserved tribute to

lan
ee

———

¢ L Pot ee ee a +n pee se)
rei spur Blue R Sable ieutein rises

like a tower, is i hill by Me. ‘Nuttall, the Calnehe Ridge. 1 am informed, how-
ever, by my friend Mr. Curtis, who is intimately acquiinted with this interesting
le Mountain |

region, that itis not known by that name, bat i is Pert the Tabi
he, bo

the Linville ay bad

12 Botanical - 1 to the Mountains of North Carolina.

his memory, and acknowledges the important services whieh he
had rendered to that work during its progress. .

- The name of Rarryesaur should also be mentioned in chieeadt
nexion; since that botanist crossed the Alleghanies four or five
times between 1818 and 1833, (in Pennsylvania, ee and
the north of banageecd and also oxplowd the © phe ep Ge
tains. ar

Sie fave years since, the Peaks of Otter, in Apia viel
ted by Mr. 8. B. Buckxtey; and still more recently the same bot-

‘anist has explored the mountains in the upper part of Alabama
and Georgia, and the adjacent borders of North Carolina. Among
the interesting contributions which the authors of the Flora of
‘North America have received from this source, I may here men-
tion the Coreopsis latifolia of Michaux, which had not been
found by any subsequent sn-aonenci ee it Seensceiea - Mr.
Buckley in the autumn of 1840. —
ae nabs eames ‘beanaiery ‘is 0 ‘well acquainted with ‘the

eee’ J of - North Carolina’ 8 Somtenately. vas the Rev: Mr. M. a“
Curtis; who, when resident for a short time in their vicinity,
sisited ae opportunity occurred, the Tabli in, Grandfa
the Yellow Mountain, the Roan, the Black Mountain, ‘&el-and
subsequently (although prevented by infirm health from making
large collections) extended his researches through the counties af
Haywood, Macon, and Cherokee, which form the narrow south-
western extremity of North Carolina. ‘To him we are indebted
for local information which greatly facilitated our recent journey,
and, indeed, for a complete itinerarium of the region south of Ashe
County. But, as the latter county had not been visited by Mr.
Curtis, nor so far as we are aware by any other botanist, and be-
ing from its situation the most accessible to a traveller from the
north, we determined to devote to its examination the poet
part of the time allotted to our own excursio:
- Intending to reach this remote region by ie of the Valley of
Virginia, we left New York on the evening of the 22d of June,
and travelling by rail-road, reached Winchester, a distance of
three hundred miles, before sunset of the following day. | At
sores Ferry, where the Potomac, joined by the Shenandoah,
fo ts way throt ; sh the Blue 2 Ridge, ‘in the midst of some of
: scenery. in the United States, we merely

Rus a Se ee ee Le Se | of Ni h Car olin 12

stopped to dine, and were therefore disappointed in our hope of
collecting Sedum telephioides, S. pulchellum, Paronychia dicho-
toma, and Draba ramosissima, all of which grow here upon the
rocks. We observed the first in passing, but it was not yet. in
flower. On the rocky banks of the Potomac below Harper’s
Ferry, we saw for the first time the common Locust-tree { Robi-
nia Pseudacacia) decidedly pe censtane + probably extends to
the southern confines of Pi y d from this point south
it is every where abundant, but we did not meet with it east of
the Blue Ridge.. From Winchester, the shire-town of Frederick
‘County, we proceeded by stage-coach directly up the Valley of
Virginia, as that portion of the State is called which lies between
the unbroken Blue Ridge and the most easterly ranges of the
Alleghanies. From the Potomac to the sources of the Shenan-
doah, it is strictly speaking a valley, from twenty to thirty miles
in width, with a strong, chiefly limestone soil of great fertility.
-It is scarcely interrupted, indeed, up to where the Roanoke rises ;
but a branch of the Alleghanies intervenes between the latter
sand New River, as the upper part of the Great Kenhawa is term-
ed, from which point it loses its character in some degree, cated
nenbeniiel seamnrietts by the western waters. The same

autenda east through Maryland and Pennsylva-

sang: and even into ae eats of New wack; preerring throughout
e geolog lar and - Our first oe

ag eae. eee Mee 2 Dp mS L me a 3 + enidik ven ha aie as Pee

: drive ‘miles: from Winchester. ‘From the moment we entered the

valley, we observed quantities of Echium vulgare,

that we were no longer sacnieea at the doubt expressed by Pursh

‘whether it were really an introduced plant. This “vile foreign
weed,” as Dr. Darlington, ag lly speaking, terms this showy

plants is occasionally seen along the “road-side in the Northern

- States; but here, for the distance of more than a hundred miles,

it has taken complete possession, even of many cultivated fields,

especially. where the limestone approaches the surface, presenting

‘a broad expanse of brilliant blue. It is surprising that the farm-
_ers should allow a biennial like this so completely to overrun the
Another plant much more extensively introduced here

en in deer north, (where it scarcely deserves the name of a nat-

Ly is Bupleurum rotundifolium, which ante

- we met with abundantly. The Marubiun

14 Botanical Excursion to the Mountains of North Carolina.

sailed ep ekey -seheaeesieatundlined end :Huphorbia..Leth
must also be added to the list of eresapalaneid plants. The> little
Verbena angustifolia is alsoa common weed. We collected but
asingle indigenous plant of any interest, and one which we by
no means expected to find, viz. Carer stenolepis of Torrey,*
which here, as in the Western a to. o-whielt. ‘we: supposed ‘it
confined, takes the place of the n » Wesearcl
ed for its constant companion, C. Shortii, and th t dé ly we
found the two growing together. © Daring + the day’s ride, we ob-
served that the bearded wheat was almost exclusively cultivated,
and were informed that it-had been found less subject to the rav-
ages of the Eph tier: the: ordinary varieties; which may be
owing to the recent introduction of the seed of the betnied vari-
es districts unmolested by this insect.
- The following day we travelled only sixteen thins on our att
but from Mount Sidney made an interesting excursion on foot to
Weyer’s Cave, one of the largest, and certainly the most remark-
able grotto in the United States.. It has been so often described
as to render any account on our part superfluous. Near the cave
we saw some trees of rie P ree Mictne Vent. (T. alba, M
f oe mt and solicetabmm few ray mens with unope ned fi em

} +1. ae eee

- or

on en next aay offered “pte of interest. Near Staunton,
we saw some patches of Delphinium Consolida, where it was

*It is the C. Frankit of Kunth (1837,) and of Kunze’s Supplement to
Schkuhr’s Caricography, where it is well figured : it was distributed among Dr.
Frank's s plarits under the name of C. atherodes, and with the locality of Baltimore

in Pe ia! I had always supposed it to be derived from some part of the
. States ; ; but since it abounds in the Valley of Virginia, it may have been
collected near Baltimore, Maryland! By the way, we hope the excellent eollec-
tions distributed from time to time by the Unio Itineraria are in general, more
correctly ticketed than poor Frank’s small collection from the United States. .Not
to venture beyond the Carices, we may remark that the plant distributed under the
name of C. blanda is C. Careyana, binom fs their C. plant agin eais C, ele and
their C. Vieckii is a variety of the ; their C. tribuloides, Wahl.,

C. festucacea ; their C. seh ic Aapalie var. dba ideii (C. Fitrhacckiitam of; Dewey

isa large form of C. oligocarpa, Schk. (the true C. oligocarpa of Schkukr, but

nek or wher authors, being a small state of Prof. Dewey's C. Hitchcockiana ;) a

that the C. Ohiotica, (formosa, Dewey ?) Hochst., is €. Shortiz. This last, we titi

add; is the C. Jorn of amt Cyprari, which will account for the dis-
y between | ‘ sere pa eres The. €. . juncea

‘not
~e:3 RS hee Seay?

Botanical Excursion to the Mountains of North Carolina, 18

os ke ab naturalized in the time of Pursh. We did not
} lobata, which Michaux first met with in this vi-
meadeak which Pursh, as well as later botanists, found in vati-
ous parts of the valley. Passing the town of Lexington in the,
evening, we arrived at the Natural Bridge towards morning,
where we remained until Monday, and had an opportunity of
botanizing for a short time before we left. On the rocks, we
found plenty of Asplenium Ruta-muraria, Sedum ternatum,
and Draba ramosissima with ripe fruit: in the bottom of the
ravine, directly under the stupendous natural arch, (the point
Which affords the most impressive view of this vast ohaoea ,) we
collected specimens of Heuchera villosa, Michx., in fine flower
on the 28th of June; although, in the higher mountains of North
Carolina, where it also abounds, the flowers did not appear until
near thé end of July. This’ species is excellently described by
Michaux, to ‘whose account it is only necessary to add, that the
petals are very narrow, oe Sieg: like sterile filaments. Although
a smaller plant than Hf. Americana, the leaves are larger, and
vary considerably in the depths of the lobes. It is both the HZ.
villosa and H. caulescens of Pursh, who probably derived: ‘the
latter name ‘from the strong elongated rhizoma, often projec
and appearing like a suffrutescent stem, by which the plant is
attached to the rocks; since he does not describe the scape as
leafy, ‘nor is this at all the case in the original specimens. The
H.caulescens «. of Torrey and Gray’s Flora,* with the syno=
nym, must also be united with H: villosa, which in that work is
chiefly described from specimens ‘collected by Dr. Short in Ken-
tucky, where every thing seems to grow with extraordinary lux-

oe the specimen from Mr. Curtis, the only one from the mountains of North
Carolina which these authors had before them, and which they correctly enough
onsidered as the H. caulescens of ene is in too. Sahin Wis a state lost
from age most of the shaggy rusty hairs which so copiously clothe she petioles and
lower part of the scape ; ead the thse being smaller and more sharply lobed, it
Was ‘as not recognized as the same species with the luxuriant Kentucky plant; but
and large

partly confounded with a different r-flor species, the H. cau-
lescens Be Gray, 1 c. from Buncombe county: The Jatrer (H. Curtis,
Torr. & Gray, ined. has: fs quite as large of Americana, spat+

,
- petals (apparenily desing A heey PE Mee — the _— or -_
calyx ; and the Ar which are |
Foes bom aid of i its Gentneress however, is Geeriod, te sonpionatie nolertet

x

16 Botanical Excursion to the Mountains of North Carolina.

uriance. With these, the plant we collected entirely accords,
except that the leaves are mostly smaller, and more deeply lobed;
but this character is not constant.* Soon after leaving Natural

Bridge, we observed indigenous trees of the Honey Locust,

( Gleditschia triacanthos, ) also Aisculus Pavia ?. ne in cpomning
valley of James River, we noticed the Papaw ( Uvaria triloba,)
and Negundo. The road-side was almost sooner occupied
with Verbesina Siegesbeckia, not yet in flower; and in many
places with Melissa (Calamintha) Nepeta, achichs Mr. Bentham
has not noticed as an American plant, although Pursh has it as a
native of the country. It was, hawawers doubtless introduced
from Europe, but is completely naturalized in the Valley of Vir-
Suing te amemaeiane in North Carolina east: of the ain

“On. Spode he 29th of Sites we Sans the New. River,
arrived at Wytheville, or Wythe Court House, towards evening;
and at Marion, or Smythe Court House, on the Middle Fork of
the Holston, eny-be next -morning». The. vegetation. of this
elevated region is almost entirely similar to that of th
States. The only herbaceous plants we noticed as we a
rapidly along, which we had not seen growing een rere G
lax aphylla, and Silene Virginica: the showy deep red flowers
of the latter, no less.than the different habitus, eaused us eae
der how it could ever have been confounded with the Northern
S. Pennsylvanica. The only forest-tree with which we were’
not previously familiar, was the large Buckeye, (A/sculus flava,)
which abounds in this region, and attains the height of sixty to.
ninety feet, and the diameter of two to three feet or more at the
base.

At Marion, we determined to leave the valley road, and to
cross the mountains into Ashe county, North Carolina; the morn-
ing was occupied in seeking a conveyance for this’ purpose:
With considerable inane we at length procured a carry-all,

* Mach to our eet we did not meet with Heuchera hispida, although
I have since learned from an meetin of Barton's herbarium, that we passed
within a moderate distance of the place where Pursh discovered it. The habitat
given on the hangs ke a Se ee between Fincastle and the Sweet

» and some Speer ag: aeseniee ire: ts. the emg is

%

Ee x, a af Poe: ry

p22 ee eee us a See ene
ee eer eeuee q SUE ore Carolina. 17

(a light covered wagon with springs, drawn a a single horse, )
capable of conveying our luggage and a single person besides the
driver, a simple shoemaker who had never before undertaken so
formidable a journey, and who accordingly proved entirely want-
ing in the skill and tact necessary for conducting so frail a vehi-
cle over such difficult mountain tracks, for roads they can scarcely
be called. We had first to ascend the steep ridge interposed be-
tween the Middle and the South Forks of the Holston, called
Brushy Mountain, during the ascent of which we commenced
botanizing in earnest. The first interesting plant we met with
was Sazifraga erosa of Pursh, but only with ripe fruit, andeven
with the seeds for the most part fallen from the capsules. ~The
same locality also furnished us with a few specimens of the pretty
Thalictrum filipes, Torr. § Gr. (to which the name of T.
im, DC. must be restored,) a plant which abounds along
all the cold and clear brooks throughout the mountains of North
Carolina; where it could not well have escaped the notice of Mi-
chaux, in whose herbarium DeCandolle found the specimen (with
no indication of its habitat) on which his J. clavatum was es-
tablished. The authors of the Fora of North America, having
only an imperfect fruiting specimen of their Z. filipes, and sict
sufficiently remarking the discrepancies between the T. clava-
tum, Hook. fl. Bor-Am. and the figure and gata of a
Candolle’s plant, in regard to the length of the styles, ass the
former to be the true T. clavatum, and described their own ee
| new § But our specimens accord so perfectly with

asa

the figure of DeLessert, (except in the greater, but variable length
of the stipes to the fruit, and in the veining of the carpels, which,

doubtless by an oversight of the artist, is omitted in the figure, )
as to leave no doubt of their identity. ‘The subarctic plant may
be appropriately called 7’. Richardsonii, in honor of its discov-
erer; and some few particulars should be added to DeCandolle’s
character of our own plant.* The flowers of this species are

“© 'Tuatictrom cLayatum (DC.): glaberrimum, floribus hermaphroditis laxe
iiahece filamentis clavatis, gnitiore ellipticis muticis, carpellis (5—10) stipita-
tis stellatim patentibus clayato-lunulatis compressis eviter nervosis stylo brevissi-
mo vix rostellatis, caule gracili inferne nudo, foliis biternatis petiolatis, rel r0-
tundis erenate-ingisis lobatisve subtus glaucis.—T. clavatum, DC. s kom 1. p. 171;

Less. ic. 1. t.6,non Hook. 'T. filipes, Torr. & Gray, fl. N. Am. 1. p. 38.
: umbrosos rivulosque montium eee. (comiit Sem) t

Vol. xuit, No. 1,—Oct.-Dee. 1841. 3

18 Te pets 1 Excursic to the My tai a of North Carolina.

uniformly pieeteet, ‘as indeed they are figured by DeLessert, al-
though DeCandolle has otherwise described them. It isaslender,
delicate plant, from eight to twelve, or rarely exceeding eighteen
rte in height, with pure white flowers. “Dacinge this: asenat
collected Galium latifolium, Michz., }
‘ia we subsequently found this species so— widely. diffused
throughout the mountains of North Carolina, that we were much
surprised at its remaining so little known since the time of Mi-
chaux. On a moist nahiasiine bank by the road-side, we gathered

some which did not again occur to
us. It proves: be: - a species 1 mentioned by Mr. Bentham under
S. serrata, and cribed by Dr. Riddell with the

name of Ss. -gaxatilis,* which apparently i is not of uncommon oc-
currence westward of the Alleghany Mountains. It isa slender
plant, from six to twenty inches high; and the stems often pro-

slender subterranean runners from»their base. _We here
also collected Asarum Virginicum, Linn: in similar situations.
In the higher mountains, the northern A. Canadense takes the
place of the former species, while A. arifolium, Michzx. seems to.
be confined to the lower amueninnd The banks of ae

———

eS SRRATILIS (Ridaell, agit cat. Ohio plante, 1836, P- 14): ‘pilosiu:
vel subglab ovatis : OS!
ordato-oblo ngis obtusis, floralibus ovato-oblongis breviter pe-
tiolatis i integerrimis mequahthie plorumype eilpoinatibainy racemis laxis, floribus op-
positis pincciay % corolla breviter bilabiata, galea rectiuscula.

S, serrata diversa tam floribus quam foliis: ad §. violaceam (Ind. Orient.)
accedere det, ut dixit cl. Benth. (Lab. gen. et sp. p. 434, adnot. sub S. sales
Corolla semipollicaria, labio inferiore tubo superne amplissimo acs
poe Pails Achenia valde tuberculosa.

’s Heterotropa | ined as a distinet stains mi it neslaile,
ie be, the character must he somewhat modified, and two of our American
species referred to it; alth hough the name will be unmeaning as applied to the latter.
According a et the differential characters ters of the two genera may be pre-
sented as follow niet

ASARUM. Tourn., Linn. excl. spec. fei
Pe erigonium eampanulatum, tubo cum ovario connato, limbo tripartite. Stamina
12: filamenta subulata, libera, vel basi styli subadnata: anther breves, extrorse,

nectivo longe subalato superate. aor, perigonio adnatum : styliin colum-
iter concreti, eae papillosis desinentes.

“erassam
(Herb ——

3
Pa
.

5
ze

E
vf
t

Tt SOE tae

and cool rivulets which we crossed few minutes during our
ascent, Were in many places covered by. the prostrate. or creeping
Hedyotis serpyllifoliay. Pores Se Gr. (Houstonia. serpyllifolia,

, which t the eum.
, ob hat a ree ind i 3B SAS UESY WLeAee

mer. ‘This pretty plant has quite the hab of Arenaria Balea-
rica; and the root is. certainly perennial, _ We found it very
abundant in similar situations, throughout this mountain region.
‘Towards the summit of thisridge, we first met with the Magno-
eet (M. auriculata, Bartr.,) which resembles the Umbrel-

la-tree (JZagnolia Umbrelia,) in the disposition of its. leaves: at
edaaxizemits: of the branches. This, as well as M. acumi-
nata (the only other species of Magnolia that we observed,)
is occasionally termed Cucuwmber-tree; but the people of the
country almost uniformly called the former Wahoo ; a name
foci the lower part of the Southern, s Salar, is pone to

i ee am 2

4 _ HETEROTROPA. seat aadldiiants wet —
i ventricosum, trilobatum, fere "fiberom. ‘Weds Tr: -filamenta bre-
vissima vel sabnulla, dilatata, ov: ovario ac creta: anthere (loculi lineares: neares) extrorse,

(jittdenl

ne A basi imo © per. erigonii tubo adnatum : styli 6, discreti, ‘in appendice m bilo

; ultra vita sipmete.. extrorsa plus minus producti. (Herbe Japonice ¢ et Boreali-
ia sepius variegata =

“ee P Poigo ‘urceolatum, a constricta. "Stamina 6 stigmatibus opposite

He: mk tr) 8
datis “patilie, ‘stacniatbas 6 i pat ee peri Pe re-
flexo, alternis ‘ appendiculo ovato erecto ovario affixo,’ stylis obcordatis.— Asarum
Virginicum, Thunb. fl. Jap. p. 190.

~§2. Perigonium prens trilobatum, ae aperta, Stamina consimilia, fila-
— evissimis: anthere omnes extrorse.—Homorropa.

‘is~oiixrenonnons ore o

2. H. anrroxia: perigonio tubuloso- ds limbo brevissimo, antheris bigidt%
diculo brevi crasso superatis, alternis eodemque stigmatibus adhzrentibus, piylia
brevibus crassis vet cer ultra stigmata breviter aut vix _ Brodaste foliis hastato-

is.—Asaru ae Miche. ; Hook. exot. fi.

3. H. Vireintca : perigonio breviter ventric psiaidiiale ato, antheris muticis,
oli ultra stigmata longe mandi apice bifidis, foliis rotundato-cordatis glabris.—

Asarum inicum, Linn.

‘The line of dehiscence of the cells of the alternate anthers in Heterotropa asa-
roides, is said to be nearly lateral, or slightly introrse; so that this character is not
ae, marked, and’ probably will not be deemed of sufficient consequence to

ate generically our two species from the Japanese plant. On the other hand,

thought ine Ldipowe

| h : te divide a genus so well marked
nly two 6 sd saPeia cae Ec

2

Botanical Excursion to the Mountains of North Carolina.

Ulmus alata, or often to all the elms indifferently. The bit- .

ter and somewhat aromatic infusion of the green cones of both
these Magnolias in whiskey or apple-brandy, is very extensively
employed: as a preventive against intermittent fevers; an use
which, as the younger Michaux remarks, would doubtless— be
much less frequent, if, with the same: a ceive deme
aqueous infusion were substituted. a i
Nearly at the top of this moratisins we snaiegabie wateeivdiall
tie awaiting our arrival in perfect helplessness, having con-

trived to break his carriage upon-a heap of stones, and to over-
throw his: horse into, the boughs of a prostrate tree. So much
time was g the poor animal, and in tempo-

rary repairs to the waggon, that we had barely time to descend
conaapedaar the opposite side, and to seek lodgings for the
tim the secluded valley of the South Fork of the Holston.

aay shady places along the descent of this mountain, and in

‘similar. situations. throughout the mountains of North Carolina, we
found plenty c of the northern Listera convallarioides, in fine state,
entirely similar to the. plant from Vermont, G: , DMewHannd.
land, and the Northwest Coast, and agreeing completely with the
figure of Swartz, (in Weber & Mohr, Beitrige zur Naturkunde

_ 1. (1805) p. 2. ¢. 1,) and the recent one of Hook. Flora Bore -
na. It is difficult to conceive why Willdenow should

America:
cite the Ophrys cordata of Michaux under the Epipactis conval-
larioides of Swartz, while there is so little accordance ‘in their
characters; but this has not prevented Pursh from combining
the specific phrase of the two authors into one, while he assigns
slocality for the plant, (New Jersey,) where the Listera conval-
certainly does. not grow. The Rev. Mr. Curtis, I be-
lieve, first detected the plant in these mountains.
- The next day, (July 1,) we crossed the Iron Mechlities (the
great chain which divides the states of North Carolina and Ten-
nessee, and which here forms the northwestern boundary of
Grayson County, Virginia,) by Fox-Creek Gap, and: traversing
the numerous tributaries of the North Fork of New River, which
abundantly water this sequestered region, we slept a few miles
beyond the boundary of North Carolina, after a journey of nearly
ota a cerns nat be ps isla we found hotels or

Pie,
A

"fh Ml cumin ae eal ea rpg RA I

‘it would certai certainly flourish in England. 2 hc ae aka

riz . 9 FP 2
CCC b Cus

ee ee es | | ee ee: ee . * ot
407 tO : oy LVOrth Carolina. %

the Valley of Virginia until we finally crossed the Blue Ridge
and quitted the mountain region. Yet we suffered little incon-
venience on this account, as we were cordially received at the
farm-houses along the road , and entertained according to the
means and ability of the owners ; who seldom hesitated either to
make a moderate charge, or to mochipith picker proper compensation for
their hospitality, which we therefore did not hesitate to solicit,

from time to time. On the Iron Mountains, we met with nearly

all the species we had collected during the previous day, and with
a single additional plant of much interest, viz. the Boykinia aco-
nitifolia, Nutt. We found it in the greatest abundance and lux-
uriance on the southern side of the mountain, near the summit,
along the rocky margins of a small brook, which for a short dis-
tance were completely covered with the plant. It here attains
the height of two feet or more; the stems, rising from a thick
rhizoma, (and clothed below, as well as the petioles, with decid-
uous rusty hairs,) are terminated by a panicle of small cymes,

which at first are crowded, but at length are loose, with the flow-
ers mostly unilateral. The rather large, pure white petals are
deciduous after flowering, not marcescent as in Sazifraga and
Heuchera.— We did not again meet with this plant ; but Mr.
Curtis collected it several years ago near the head of Linville
myst Me.-Buckley aniond it in a the: mountains of Alabama.

an } lie

BANJA ULE VESCLILS lieth alanine a | Tr,

not described i in his’ Flora, Pursh eotlected- it on the
pea in Virginia.* I have little doubt that the Sazifraga
Richardsonti would be more correctly transferred to Boykinia,
as well as the S. ranunculifolia ; and, since the S. elata of Nut-
tall, in Torrey and Gray’s F'lora, is referred to Boykinia occiden-
talis, in the supplement to that work, no pentandrous Saxifrage
remains, except the ambiguous S. Sullivantii, Torr. & Gr.
But the authors of the Flora, having received fruiting specimens
of this interesting plant, do not hesitate to remove it from the
on to which a was provisionally appended, ‘and to Secale it

* "s Phe specimen in Prof. Barton’s herbarium (in fruit), j is ticketed by Pursh:
“ Heuchera villosa, Michz.? Salt-Pond SPIES under the naked knob, neara

“spring. This spring is the highest I have seen.” —I know not the exact situation
of this mountain, from which Pursh beeen many interesting plants.

Boykinia aconitifolia, 1 may remark, would be a very rea ar in cul iva-
tion, and 1 might be expected to endure the winter of New } i

2 Botanical Excursion to the Mountains of North Ce
r iateunats the Ppetbiaing: botanist ers litte

while ha i the saowntcit on the sateen atiaa we met sg ie
with Clethra acuminata, a very distinct and almost arborescent —
species, which is well characterized by Michans: ah he flowers:
were not yet expanded ; but towards the end of July wi
from other localities specimens | in- full: ‘ooeeartia e |

wild, as they are sai y-taning
before the flower-buds: have attained their: fall size, We also. :
aie u Campansles divarisale;: Miche. ; ot. yet ive flomoty: and ob- s
; Michx., a
parsioremrine Raf, 3 not of Doug.) While the character in Mi-
_ chaux is drawn from this. species, the ‘planta Canadensis’ there
mentioned is the nearly allied Dracena borealis of the Hortus =
Kewensis. The two species are mixed in Michaux’s herbarium ; “ee
and, although the latter is almost exclusively a northern plant,
we found the two species growing together on the Grandfather,
Roan, and other high mountaius of North Carolina. Towards
the base of the mountain we saw for the first time
ria of Michaux (Oil-nut, Buffalo-tree, §c. Hi 0 E
Muhl.); alow shrub which is not of detreteieiie occurrence in’
rich shady soil. Its geographical range extends from the Chero-
kee country on the confines of Georgia, (where the elder. ins

*SULLIVANTIA. Torrey & ce jl. N. Amer. suppl. ined.

Calyx. inferne-imo ovario adnatus, limbo quinquefido, Petala . ne sen un-
gra, summo calycis tubo inserta, marcescen mina 5, laciniis
cal pclae: _antherse “ger “Styl 3; ears Y sgioatbos snes

ostris, polysperm

of debiscentibdd, Seinina er a scobiformia; testa membra _relaxata,
aie ultra tpt iar evalem alatim producta. Embryo cylindricus albumine
vix brevior.—Herba humilis, in rupibus calcareis Ohionis vigens ; radice fibrosa
perenni; ania Roose ve radicalibus, rotundato-reniformibus, inciso-dentatis sub-
lo e petiolatis; scapo gracili, decumbente; floribus parvis, (corolla
conspicua, alba.) agian then Gabsiapiapins post anthesin in apicem pedicellorum arete
deflexis.

ae Oxroxss, Seats ? a Meek erga N. Amer. 1. ae 575,

at

us 5, cvs aes

Botanical Excursion to the Mountains of North Carolina, 23
chaux’ discovered it on his earliest visit to the mountains, and
where Mr. Curtis has recently observed it,) to the western ranges
«4 ~*~ of the Alleghanies of Pennsylvania in lat. 40°, where it was
_~ found by the younger Michaux.* It flowers early in the season,
and the oleaginous fruit in the perenne we collected had =
tained the size of a musket ball.
- In wet places, on the very borders of North: Suntan. but. still
within Virginia, we first met with 7'rautvetteria palmata and
Diphylleia cymosa ; the former in full flower, the latter in’ fruit.
Trautvetteria, which 1 doubt not is more nearly allied to Thalie«
trum than to Cimicifuga or Acteea, was collected by Pursh in Vir=
ginia, both on the Salt-Pond Mountain and the Peaks of Otter.
The Diphylleia is confined to springy places, and the margin of
_~ shaded mountain brooks, in the rich and deep alluvial soil which
ees is so general throughout these mountains, never occurring, per-
haps, at a lower elevation than three thousand feet above the
level of the sea. It is a more striking plant than we had sup-
posed ; the cauline leaves (generally two, but sometimes three in
number, ) being often two feet in diameter, and the radical, which ~
are orbicular and-couteslly peltate as in Podophylium, fi
still larger; so that it is not easy (at this season) eéabtain ‘man-
ageable specimens. ‘The branches of the cyme are usually red=
dish or purple, and the gibbons, deep blue and glaucous berries
are almost-dry when’ geo The latter-often contain as manyas
four: perfect seeds; and it is p
not ‘very minute,’ as described i in the Flora of f North Americas
but, in the ripe seeds recently examived, is one-third the lengthy
of ate albumen, as stated by Decaisne, or even longer. The co-
-are elliptical, flattish, and nearly the length of the thick,
slightly club-shaped radicle. ‘The whole embryo is also some
what flattened; so that when the seed is longitudinally divided
in one dicts; the embryo, examined in place, appears to’ be 5
-very slender, and to agree with DeCandolle’s description. The
BE albumen is horny when dry, and has a bitter taste. Along the
i road-side, we shortly afterwards collected the equivocal Vaccinium
: } of Michaux, or Oxycoccus erectus of Pursh ; a low,
‘3 erect, dichotomously branched shrub, with the habit, foliinié; and.
: aeeee jractone: but the flowers of Ozycoccus. It one 00+

24 Botanical Excursion to the Mountains of North Carolina. E

curred at a lower elevation than usual, scarcely more than three
thousand feet above the level of the sea, and in a dwarfish state _
(about a foot high): subsequently we only met with it on the =~
summit of the Grandfather and other mountains which exceed =
the altitude of five thousand feet, where it is commonly three-or :
four feet high. We were too early for the fruit, a small, red or oe
purplish berry, which does not ripen until. August aber
It. has an exquisite flavor, according to.Pursh, whe. found ithe.
plaut on the mountains of —— our, friend Mr. Curtis
informs us that is rather i insipid, ly de wn te of the fine
acidity of the Cranberry. » bez:
On the 2nd of July we. getimed our igonraey y (il vila to
Jefferson or Ashe Court-House, a hamlet of twenty or thirty &
,and the only village in the county. Intending to. make ee
. this: pee our. er while we remained in the region, we
had the good fortune to find excellent accommodations at the
“. house of Col. Bower, who evinced every. disposition to further
our inquiries, and afforded. us: very important peer We
‘may remark, indeed, that during our. res mongst the
mountains, we were uniformly received. with courtesy by the i in-
habitants; who for the most part wanted the general inte igence
of onr obliging host at Jefferson, and could scarcely: be i nade t
comprehend the object of our visit, or why we should come from
a distance of seven hundred miles, to toil over the mountains in
quest of their common and disregarded herbs. Curiosities as ‘we
were to these good folks, their endless queries had no air. of im-
pertinence, and they entertained us to the best of their ability,
never attempting to make unreasonable charges. A very fastid-
ious palate might occasionally be at a loss; but good corn-bread
and milk are everywhere abundant ; the latter being used from
preference quite sour, or even curdled. Sweet milk appears to
be very generally disliked, being thought less wholesome, and.
more likely to produce the ‘ milk sickness,’ which is prevalent in
some very circumscribed districts; so that our dislike of. sour,
and fondness for sweet milk was regarded by this simple people
as one of our very many oddities. Nearly every farmer has a
small dairy-house built over a cold brook or spring, by which the
milk and butter are kept cool and sweet in the warmest weather.
_ We botanized for eevee! days Big the mountains in the im-

e

“Asta
i {}

j fountains of North Carolina, 25 —

7 one side of the village, the news:
n, as ge on the other side, and the Bluff, a
few miles distant in a westerly direction. 'The altitude of the
former is probably between four and five thousand feet above the
sea; the latter is apparently somewhat higher. They are all
composed of mica-slate ; and we should remark, that we entered
na primitive region immediately upon leaving the Valley of
Virginia. The mountain-sides, though steep or precipitous, are
covered with a rich and deep vegetable mould, and are heavily
timbered, chiefly with chestnut, white oak, the tulip-tree, the cu-
cumber-tree, and sometimes the sugar-maple. Their vegetation
presents so little diversity, that it is for the most part unnecessary
to distinguish particular localities. Besides many of the plants
ready mentioned, and a very considerable number of northern ~
“species which we have not room to enumerate, we collected or
~ observed on the mountain-sides, Clematis Viorna in great abun-
dance; T'radescantia Virginica ; Iris cristata in fruit; Hedyotis
(Amphiotis) purpurea, which scarcely deserves the name, since
the flowers are commonly almost white; Phlox paniculata ?
Aristolochia Sipho, without flowers or fruit; Ribes Cynosbatt,
porn baget Michz., (R. triflorum, Willd.) and prostratum,
IT’ Her, ; Allium cernuum, and tricoccum ;* Galax aphylla ; Li-
gittitcom acteifolium, the atrcnig-weenedd roots of which are ea-_
gerly sought and eaten by boys and hogs ;t the Ginseng, here
called sang, (the roots of which are largely collected, and sold
to the country merchants, when fresh for about twelve cents per
pound, or when dried for ae that price ;) Menziesia globula-
ris, mostly in fruit; and the showy Azalea calendulacea, which
was also out of flower, except in deep shade.{ In the latter sit-

' * The latter is known throughout this region by the name of Ramps ; doubtless
i a = Se i of Ramsons, the popular he poe of A, ursinum in Englan

t It is here termed Angelice; while in Virginia it is called onde. Baie,
+) (Travels, p. 45, and p, 367,) who pea it in Georgia, notices it under the name of
;

—

Angelica lnvida, or White-root of the Creek and Cherokee traders: “ Its aromatic

white Fe taldtbaenta; and sells at a great price to the southern Indians of Florida,
ae Noes near the sca-coast, where this never grows spontaneously.” Bar-

“I sect well describes this nesahey under the name of Azalea jutmsiis or

Azalea. “ The epithet fiery I annex to this most celebrated species of Aza-

lea, as being expressive of the ss piareice of its flowers; which are in general of
Vol. xn11, No. 1.—Oct.—Dec. 1841, 4

cm

26 Botanical Excursion to the I

uations we found an arborescent t
(in fruit only,) with large and men
The same species has been collected o e Pokono 6 Monanteise
in Pennsylvania, by Mr. Wolle, and on ie Catskills by Mr. 8.
T. Carey. We should deem it the P. levigatus of Pursh, (not
of Torr., Fl. Northern States,) on account of the solitary and
subsessile fertile flowers, as well as the habitat, were not the
flowers of that species said to be hexamerous.

In damp, very shady places high up the Negro Moitobs we
saw an Aconitum not yet in flower; and on moist rocks near the

summit, obtained a few fruiting Snetinens of a Sazifraga which —
was entirely new to us. Ina single, very secluded spot on the ©

north side of this mountain, not far from the summit, the rocks

“were covered with a beautiful small Fern, which proves to be

the Asplenium Adiantum-nigrum of Michaux, the A. monta-
num, Willd., an extremely rare plant. It is certainly distinct
from the A. Adiantum-nigrum ; being not only a much smaller
and more delicate species, (two to four inches high,) but the
fronds are narrower, the pinne ovate and much shorter, 3-5-
parted, with the pinnule toothed or incised at the apex.

he Veratrum parviflorum, Michz., is of frequent occurrence
throughout this region, but was not yet fully in flower, so that
our specimens were not collected until near the end of July.
The plant is excellently described in the Flora of Michaux,
where it is probably with justice referred to Veratrum rather
than to Melanthiuwm ; since the divisions of the perianth (yel=
lowish-green from dis first,) are wholly destitute of glands, and
only differ from Veratrum in being stellate, and tapering at the

base. I may here remark that the name Melanthium must un- ~

the color of the finest red-lead, orange, and bright gold, as well as yellow and
cream-color. These various splendid colors are not only in separate plants, but

alarmed with the apprehension of the woods being set on fire. This is certainly
pa most gay and brilliant flowering shrub yet known; they grow in little copses
umps, in open forests as well as dark groves, with other shrubs, nae are

the atest of. hills, 94 eepevially where brooks and rivulets wind about t
seven feet in height, and generally but REDS Bie,
or Ars, but branch. set sceantschen Ng greatly ; the young leaves are but very
whilst the shrubs are in bj from which circumstance the plant exhibit’
a Pareier show of splendor.” — rtram’ s estas p- 323.

$ since arranging the North American species of
this fist; E ed Roemer and Schultes in adopting the ge-
nus: sBiieiasithlees of Willdenow, without considering that Me-
lanthium was established by Clayton and Gronovius on M. Vir-
ginicum, and thus taken up by Linnaeus, with the addition of a
Siberian plant, which belongs to Zigadenus.* The Melan-
thium Capense, (Androcymbium, re was added some time
afterwards. —
The rocky summits of the mountains afforded us Sedum tele-

«6 phioides ; Heuchera villosa; Paronychia argyrocoma, which

~~. forms dense silvery tufts on the highest and most exposed peaks ;
Veronica officinalis, serpyllifolia, and agrestis, (all certainly na-
‘tive;) Lycopodium rupestre, in a very beautiful state, and on the
Phenix Mountain we found a solitary specimen of L. Selago ;
Arabis lyrata, with perfectly accumbent cotyledons; Potentilla
tridentata, which we only saw on the Bluff Mountain ; Wood-
sia ilvensis ; Saxifraga leucanthemifolia, which not unfrequently
attains the height of two feet, with a large and slender effuse
panicle; Diervilla trifida, entirely resembling the northern plant ;
eels melanocarpa ; Sorbus Americana, 8. microcarpa ; Rho-
lendron Catawbiense, just out of flower, while &. mazi-
sian er abundant song: the streams and mountain-sides,
expand its blossoms.t In such situations,

Bs somewhat i in tufts, and scarcely exceeding four or five
inches in height. The flowers, which are deep pink, while in
the ordinary form of this region they are nearly white, present
the dimorphism which obtains in several sections of the genus ;
the stamens in some specimens being inserted in the throat of
the corolla and exsert, while in others they are inserted near the
base of the tube and included; in the former the style is uni-
formly short and included, sna in the latter long and somewhat
exserted. These two forms were often seen growing side by

. The Helonias glaberrima, Bot. Mag. t. 1680, on which Zigadenus commuta-
tus, of Schultes is founded, is Z. glaucus ; the specimens came from Fraser’s nur-
sery, but doubtless were not derived from the Southern States. Helonias a,
Bot. mag. t. 1703, is Z. glaberrimus, Michx., not fully developed.

.t These shrubs here bear the name of Laurel; while the Kalmia lini
universal called Ivy, or Ivy-bush.

side; and eared to be aeialty fone ie An
States, we here niall oniei in the iy open wdeds of the Bluff
Mountain, and in similar places farther south. The flowers are
pure white or cream-color, in a deuse and very showy raceme, at
length changing to green. The cattle, which roam inthe woods
for a great part of the year, are sometimes poisoned by feeding,
as is supposed, on the foliage of this plant during the autumn:
hence its name of Fall-poison. The wild Pea-vine, which is so
highly prized as an autumnal food for cattle, is the Amphicar-
pea* The Lily of the Valley, (Convallaria majalis,) which

we occasionally met with in fruit, appears to be identical with
the European plant. It extends from the mountains of Virginia.

to Georgia, where it was long ago noticed by the younger Bar-
tram. We also collected a_lhandsome Phlox, of frequent occur-
rence in rich woods, which differs from P. Carolina (with
which it has perhaps been confounded) in its perfectly smooth
stem, and broader, less pointed ealyx-teeth. The leaves are
sometimes an inch in width, and four or five in length; the
uppermost often ovatesandeolata, and more or- ess cordate. at
the base. ee
A species of Carex, sista allied to €. etacieta, storie
the greatest abundance on all the higher mountains of North
Carolina, forming tufts on the earth or on rocks, and flowering
throughout the summer. On this account it is called C. estiva-

lis by Mr. Curtis, who discovered it several years since, and

genres out its “oman We also met with C. canescens,

* In the large woods, the surface of the soil is covered with a species of wild
peas, which rise three feet above the earth, and of which the cattle are very
greedy. They prefer this pasture to every other, and when removed from it they
fall away, or make their escape to return to it. "—Michaus , (F. A.) Travels, p. 316.

t C. mstivawis (M. A. Curtis, ined.) : s 3-5 gracilibus laxifloris suberec-
tis, infima pedu neula ta, ceteris Subsesilibus, sal ema androgyna inferne mascula,

squamam ovatam obtusam (nune mucronatam) duplo superantibus, stigmatibus
tribus, vaginis foliorum inferiorum pubescentibus.
Hab. a montibus altioribus Caroling Septentrionalis ubique. Julio-—Augusto

floret.— ime nimis affinis ; a1 diversa, culmis foliisque gracilioribus, vagi-
nis aes pubescentibus ; - bracteis vix Waginantibas ; spicis angustioribus et laxi-
floris erectis, rihus- atis ; acheniis slavetewite?) ma-
gis stipitatis. ¢

‘ ae om Fe

es

TF) 6 AP ae CC Se. OT
ow .

Mountains of North Carolina. 29

Linn, ex Booth, (C. Desi, Wahl.) and C. conoidea, Schk.,
on the moist, grassy brow of a precipice of the Bluff; and to-
wards the base of the Negro Mountain, we observed C. virescens
and C. digitalis, Willd.

_ Ina cool, sequestered nosis we fond the true Cardanune
Kidondifolia, Michz., growing like a Water-cress, (for which it
might be substituted, as its leaves have exactly the same taste,)
but producing numerous stolons two to three or more feet in
length. These runners arise not only from the base of the stem,
‘but from the axils of the upper leaves, and very frequently from
the apex of the weak ascending raceme itself, which is thus pro-
longed into a leafy stolon, hanging down into the water or mud,
where it takes root. Its habit and appearance are so unlike even
the summer state of our northern C. rhomboidea, that we could

~The figure of C. gracillima, in Prof. Kunze’s Supplement to Schkuhr’s Carices,

is excellent, except that the immature peryginia are — with more distinct
beaks than I have ever seen. To this genus, areal 26 haps the most extensive
in ‘the vegetable kingdom, after Senecio, Mr. Sullivant Bas recently added another
pecies, an account of which may be appended <i this note. As Dr. Boott had
already dedicated it to the zealous discoverer, without being aware that he had
distributed it under another name, I trust I may be allowed to publish the notes
of this sedulous caricographer unchanged :
Ris Suuiv VANTI Sin & spica ra solitaria cylindrica, fwmineis 3-5 cy-
dricis erectis grac ibus pedunculatis laxifloris, superioribus contiguis, infima
xcnenieae? = basi atte sterli stigmatibus tr ibus, perigyniis ellipticis
emarginatis pellucido-punctatis apice marginibusque piloso-hispidis
vamam ovatam ciliatam hispido-mucronatam subequantibus

~“ Culmus bipedalis, gracilis, triqueter, pilis albis sparsis fon ngis eee

pars _—e gerens 2-9-uncialis. Folia 2 lin. lata, culmo breviora, marginibus n

Visque scabris. Bractea infima vaginans, foliacea, cualmum adzquans, relique sen-

sim breviores, superiores evaginate demum setacee. Spica mascula uncialis, vix
lineam lata, sessilis vel brevi-pedunculata: squame mutice, obtuse, apice cilio-
late, nervo Resins, pallide castanee. Spice feeminee 3-5, laxiflore, 1-14 uncias
nis, 1-13 lineas late ; superiores contigue ; infiina remota (uno exemplo basi
composita) : squame pellucide ciliolate, nervo viridi scabro, hispido-mucronate,
Peduneuli scabri, superiores sensim breviores. Perigynium (vix maturum) 13
lin. longum, § lin. latum, viride, enervium? apice ve a= ciliatum, brevi-
Stipitatum, squamam subequans vel eo paululum longius. Achenium immatu-
rum.’’—Boott in litt.
Hab. in sylvaticis prope Columbum, Ohionis, ubi detexit W. 8. Sullivant, cum
C. sens C. gracillima, etc. vigens. Affinis C. arctate (C. sylvatice, auet.
x el. Boott.—In exemplis fuperritie receptis, perigynia satis matura sunt
canola; mon compresso-plana, enervia pent ad exceptis), apie vix
rostrata. : s

30 Botanical Excursion to the Mountains of North Carolina.

not hesitate to consider it a distinct species. 'The subjoined di-
agnostic character will doubtless suflice for its discrimination.* _

On the 7th of July, we started for the high mountains farther
south, having hired a cumbrous and unsightly, but convenient
tilted waggon, with a pair of horses and a driver, (who rode one
of the horses, according to the usual custom of this region,) for
the eanivayanes of our luggage, and which afforded us, at inter-
vals, the luxury of reposing on straw at the bottom, while we
were dragged along the rate of two or three miles per hour.

Our first day’s journey, of about twenty four miles, was some-
what tedious, as we found no new plants of any interest. We
saw, however, a variety of Lonicera parviflora? with larger
leaves and flowers than ordinary, the latter dull purplish; prob-
ably the Caprifolium bracteosum, var. floribus violaceo-pur
of Michaux. 'The following morning we reached the Watauga
River (a tributary of the Holston) ; and leaving our driver to fol-
low up the banks of the stream to the termination of the road at
the foot of the Grandfather, we ascended an adjacent mountain,
called Hanging-rock, and reached our quarters for the night by
a different route. The fine and close view of the rugged Girand-
father amply rewarded the toil of ascending this’ <a,
where we also obtained the Gewm (Sieversia) radiatum,
the most showy species of the genus. The brilliant Pape
flowers have a disposition to double, even in the wild state, in
which we often found as many as eight or nine petals. This
tendency would doubtless be fully developed by cultivation.
Around the base of these mountains we saw Blephilia nepetoi-
des, and another Labiate plant not yet in flower, which we took
for Pycnanthemum montanum, Miche.

The next day (July 9th) we ascended the Grandfather, the

highest as well as the most rugged and savage mountain we had

yet attempted; although by no means the most elevated in

* CARDAMINE ROTUNDIFOLIA (Michz.): glaberrima decumbens, stolonibus re-
pentibus, radice fibrosa, foliis omnibus conformibus (radicalibus sepe trisectis, sr
mentis lateralibus parvis,) petiolatis rotundatis plerumque subcordatis integriuse
lis vel repando sinuatis, siliquis parvis stylo subulatis, stigmate ee semini-
bus ovalibus.—C, rotundifolia, Michx. fl. 2. p. 30; Hook. bot. misc. 3. t. 109. (statu
ae - exemplis Carolinianis folia caulinia magis petiolata) ; : ers fi.

. 2. p. 3e4. c. a eon sale & Gray, #. NV. Amer. . 83

Caroline Ningo, Kentucky, et

.
in Ceidiesivasin

>
:
“
i

Botanical Excursion to the Mountains of North Carolina. 31.

North Carolina, as has generally been supposed.* It is a sharp
and craggy ridge, lying within Ashe and Burke Counties, very
near the northeast corner of Yancey, and cutting across the
chain to which it belongs (the Blwe Ridge) nearly at right an-
les. It is entirely covered with trees, except where the rocks
are absolutely perpendicular; and towards the summit, the Bal-
| sam Fir of these mountains, Abies balsamifera, partly, of Mi-
; chaux’s Flora (but not of the younger Michaux’s Sylva) the A.
Fraseri, Pursh, prevails, accompanied by the Abies nigra or
Black Spruce. ‘The earth, rocks, and prostrate decaying trunks,
in the shade of these trees, are carpeted with Mosses and Lich-
_ ens; and the whole presents the most perfect resemblance to the
dark and sombre forests of the northern parts of New York and
‘Vermont, except that the trees are here much smaller. The re-
nblance extends to the whole vegetation; and a list of the
shrubs and herbaceous plants of this mountain would be found
to include a large portion of the common plants of the extreme
Northern States and Canada.t Indeed the vegetation is essen-
tially Canadian, with a considerable number of peculiar species
intermixed. Under the guidance of Mr. Levi Moody, we fol-
lowed the Watauga, here a mere creek, for four or five miles
along the base of the Grandfather, until we reached a ridge
which promised a comparatively easy ascent. In the rich soil
of this ridge, at an elevation of about four hundred feet above
the Watauga, we found one of the plants which of all others
we were desirous of obtaining, viz. Carer Fraseriana. Mr.
Curtis had made diligent but ineffectual search for this most sin-
gular and rarest of Carices, along the ‘Catawba near Morgan-
ton,” and “near Table Mountain,” where Fraser is said to have

‘
t
;

ee

* According to Prof. Mitchell’s barometrical measurements, the Grandfather
attains the altitude of five thousand. five hundred and fifty six feet above the sea ;
the Roan, six thousand and thirty eight feet; and the highest peak of the Black
Mountain, six thousand four hundred and seventy six feet, which exceeds Mount
Washington in New Hampshire (hitherto accounted the highest mountain in the
United States,) by more than two hundred feet.—See American Journal of Science
and Arts, Vol. xxxv, p. 377.

t Among the northern species which we had not previously observed im this

cens, Oxalis sl ie Streptopus roseus, Viburnum lantunoides, and Pi rel
i nest condition, and in greater profusion than we args: teh, met
with this, the most shi of North American Orehidacew.

*

32 Botanical Excursion to the Mountains of North Carolina.

discovered it; and we believe that no subsequent botanist has
ever met witli it, except Mr. Kin, whose specimen in Muhlen-
berg’s herbarium is merely diakéted “ Deigher walli in der Wil-
ternus.” Muhlenberg assigns the habitat, “'Tiger Valley, Penn-_.
sylvania;” but Kin probably obtained his plant in Tygart’s Val-
ley, Virginia, a secluded vale among the western ranges of the
Alleghanies, (in Randolph County,) not far from Giesabtier
Mountains, and other localities visited by this collector, as his
tickets prove. Kin cultivated the plant for some time at Phila-
delphia, where it was seen by sev several botanists, and among them |
by Pursh, who table! it for the Mapania sylvatica of Aublet ;
mistake which he did not discover whilst writing his Flotd in
Europe, although he had the cultivated Carer Fraseriana be-
fore him. We were too late for good specimens, but succeeded
in obtaining a considerable number with the fruit still adherent.
The plant grows in tufts, after the manner of C. plantaginea ;
the evergreen leaves are a foot or more in length, and often an
inch and a half in width, with singularly undulate margins; the
slender scapes are naked, except towards the root, where they
are sheathed by the convolute bases of the leaves. 'T'o the de- “3
scription of the spike, fruit, &c., we have nothing of any eaune-
quence to a

Long beltirs we reached the summit we again met with its
new Sazifraga,* which we had previously gathered on the
mountains near Jefferson; but we now found it in great abund-
ance, both in flower, iid with mature fruit. It grew in the

xiFRAGA Cargyana (spec. nov.): foliis radicalibus longe petiolatis glabris

Ceenltieia} ovato-rotundis grosse crenato-dentatis basi truncatis vel subcordatis, j

scapo gracili nudo apice paniculato-cymoso, floribus effusis, pedicillis filiformibus,
petalis tan ceatai-ablongie sessilibus sepala recurva plus duplo superantibus, car-

centibus: 3, apa folie aut bracteis fo liaceis 1—2 instructo : 4, foliis ovalibus ob-
ongisve, nunc argute dentatis, in petohen plus minus attenuatis.

-Crescit in rupibus humidis opacis altisstmorum montium comitatus Ashe, pre-
sertim ad montem Grandfather dictum, alt. 3500—5000 pedes. Junio floret.—
Herba spithamea, rarius pedalis. Flores parvi. Petala consimilia, sessilia, subtri- }
plinervia, alba, immaculata. Filamenta subulato-filiformia. Carpella ovoidei, ig
sn walerres apiculata, oo, subincrassatis,) basi vix aut ne vix coalita,

tem pet totam, egret entralent debigoehtis; me in pleris Saxifragis i
pius 1 Pp Semina ovalia, d (per Jentem au- |
, a SE te Nei eae % ne * .
; aliter ne My ies distinctissima, rote ad sect. Hydati-
eee . a ee at. 1 4

ical Excursion to the Mountains of North Carolina. 33

sniisensnsleion: on the dripping face of a rocky precipice near
our encampment for the night, on the northwestern. side of the
mountain, five or six hundred feet beneath the highest summit.
The vegetation is here so backward, that the Savifraga leucan-
~ themifolia growing on the brow of this precipice was not yet in

blossom, and the Sasifraga erosa, Pursh, in the wet soil at its

base was scarcely out of flower, while at the foot of the moun-

tain it had long since shed its seeds. We were therefore enabled
to. satisfy ourselves that S. erosa belongs to the section | Hydatica,
and that the 8. Wolleana, Torr. §° Gray, from a mountain near
23 ethlehem in Pennsylvania, is only a variety of this. species.
rsh gathered his plant in Virginia, “out of a run near the road
from the Sweet Springs to the Union Springs, five miles from
the former.” But if this species be the Robertsonia micranthi-
folia of Haworth’s Succulent Plants, as is most probable, and
consequently the Aulaxis micranthifolia of this author's subse-
quent Enumeration of Saxifragaceous plants, it must have been
introduced into the English gardens by Fraser, as early as 1810.*
We know not how such a common plant could have escaped the
hotice of Michaux. Under the name of Lettuce, the leaves are
eaten by the inhabitants asa salad. At this place we also saw
an Umbelliferous plant not yet in flower, which we believe to
be. Conioselinum Canadense, Torr. §& Gray, (Selinum Cana-
dense, Michz. ,) @ very rare plant in the extreme Northern States
‘ and. Canada, to.which we had supposed it exclusively confined.
We found plenty of Cimicifuga Americana, Michz., but were
obliged to content ourselves with specimens not yet in flower,
and with vestiges of the last year’s fruit. It should be collected
in September.

We were also too early in the season for Chelone Lyoni,
Pursh, which we found in abundance between the precipice
mentioned above and the summit of the mountain, with the
flower-buds just beginning to appear. Mr. Curtis remarks that

caeaabing cal 7” a
TU Fuh he eae

anise RNe aT OTR

eer SE

* The only feaportant deacue vesetele Haworth’s cane pied * Corolla ir-
regularis, petalis 2 inferioribus elongatis divaricantibus gracilioribus,’

nuda, Haworth, l. c. (of unknown origin,) appears to be the more ordinary and
nearly slabrons form of this species. Mr. Don’s description of S. erosa, fee:
n from the cultivated want, also differs from our plant in =r minor

girs Oot Deo: 1841. a i aie eg

eT, ST
Pees
2
5
ae)
7
°o
gz
&
=
-
oO
=
33
ii
=
=
8
o>
2, ©
a
=
Es
s
a =:
a
fo
Ss
aw
i=]
a ~
<4
7)
=
=|
=
i]
5
Nd

5 — ee = a a eS AT r s x
34 Bot ie to the of North Carolina.

Mr. Nuttall could not have met with this exclusively mountain
plant near Wilmington; and also, that the C. Lyoni of Pursh
and the C. latifolia of Muhlenberg and Elliott, are doubtless
founded upon one and the same species. Both, indeed, are said

to have been collected by Lyon, and the leaves vary from ovate- —

lanceolate or oval with an acute base, to ovate with a rounded,
but scarcely cordate base. Pursh’s character is drawn from a
cultivated specimen. Here we again met with the Aconitum
previously observed in similar situations on the Negro Moun-
tain, and which, being then | only i in cs took for the A.
uncinatum, a species collected 4 ris regia n by Michaux, and
recently by Mr. Curtis and other Soma We were Smee
surprised, therefore, to find that our plant, here just coming into —
blossom, had cream-colored flowers, very different from those-of
A. uncinatum, and more nearly resembling those of A. Lycocto-
num.* On our return to Jefferson, we obtained good se
at our original locality, where it zs very abundant. The weak
stems, at first ascending, become prostrate when the plant is in
flower, and frequently attain the length of seven or eight feet.
As the stem does not climb, and its flowers aré so different from
those of A. uncinatum, it can hardly be the plant mentioned by
Pursh under that species, which he-saw at the footof the Peaks
of Otter, and about the Sweet Springs, in Virginia. It may be
remarked, that the ovaries of A. uncinatum are often nearly
glabrous, and the claws of the petals entirely so: the seéds are
strongly plicate-rugose, with a wing-like margin on one side.

* ACoNITUM RECLINATUM (spec, nov. § Per erreegens) = eaule elongato decum-

bente foliisque palmatifidis glabris, lobis di apicem versus incisis,
racemis paniculisve divergentibus laxifloris Globee sitediss bracteolis minimis,
galea horizontalj conico-cylindracea ore obliquo, labio cucullorum obcordato ab

ungue distante, caleare adunco, filamentis edentilis, carpal glabris 2-4-sper-
mis, seminibus (imm aturis) squamoso-rugosis.
ab, in opacissimis sylvis ad montes Negro Mountain et Grandfather dictos,

alt. 4000—5000 pedes. Julio-Augusto floret—Caulis flaccidus, adscendens v
declinatus, denique procumbens, 3-8-pedalis, ramis gracilibus, seu paniculis laxi-
floris, divaricatis. Folia flaccida; inferiora longe petiolata, (citcumseriptione sub-
orbiculari,) profunde 5-7-fida; segmentis interdam 2-3-lobatis, apice inciso-
dentatis, dentibus mucronatis ; summa subsessilia, 3-5-partita; venis et pagi
quandoque superiori tenuissime pubescentibus. Pedicelli sparsi (pe dunculique
puberuli,) flore longiores, bracteolis 2-3 minimis stipati. Flores minores quam

A. sine uate albi vix flavidis tineti a siccis — La rane ee
Ske eactieaeais Diigais petalorum acters pss alexa 3 saccus ree
ore valde obliquo in labium obcordatum expanso. Ovaria tria, 4-6-ovulata.

meee

6 ge aE, MATOS Ph EPR
ELS ike ee igs
‘ rag 2

=]

[7 ee Pees |e > een eee eed rH th, Mountains of North Carolina. 35

_ Near the summit of the mountain, we saw immense quantities
of a low but very large-leaved Solidago, not yet in flower, which
I take to be the S. glomerata of Michaux, who could not have
failed to observe such a conspicuous and abundant plant, espe-
cially as it must have been in full. blossom. at the time he as-
cended this mountain. It does not, however, altogether accord

- with Michaux’s description, nor does that author notice the size

the heads, which in our plant are among the largest of the
genus. Specimens i in flower were procured by Mr. Curtis, who
visited this mountain at a more favorable season. With the lat-
ter, we found a Geum, which Mr. Curtis had formerly observed
on the Roan Mountain, (where we afterwards met with it in
great abundance, ) and referred, I think correctly, to G. genicula-
tum, Miche., although that species is said to have been collected
in Canada. The lower portion of the style is less hairy in our
Specimens than in Michaux’s plant, a difference which, if con-
stant, is perhaps not of specific importance. In the subjoined
character, I have-supplied an inadvertent omission in the Flora
of North America, where the sessile head of carpels, which so
readily distinguishes this species from G‘. rivale, is not men-
tioned.* Here we again found Vaccinium erythrocarpum, as
already mentioned; and obtained beautiful flowering specimens
of Menziesia globularis, a strageing witled which in this pigs
attains the — “s five or awentain

ee ee ee é 5 Wel ie shibon
wa ee) eee : e ~~ , Met oe

* Geom ceases wee inet adil: sihspaitininn sessili, articulo sty
superiore plumoso inferiorem pubescentem excedente, achenio hirsuto, petalis
cuneato- -obovatis (nunc SEE aut leviter obcordatis) exunguiculatis calycem
equa antibus; floribus mox erecti

8. Macreanum: articulo styl inferiore sursum glabrescente.—G. Macreanum,

M.A. Curtis, in litt.

-Crescit i in Canada ex Michawx: an recte? Var. 8. in umbrosis ad montes
randfather et Roan, Caroline NA ae alt. 5500—6000 pedes, ubi impri-
mis detexit el. Curtis. Julio floret.—Caulis a eat — "felines inferne

pilis rigidiusculis watraniie; superne pilis mollibus patenti erebrioribus villosus.
Folia membranacea ; radicalia nunc palmatim 3-secta, nunc interrupte pinnati-
secta, haud rariusque indivisa vel sublobata in eodem stirpe ; eaulinia trisecta tri-
, lobis acutis ; superiora sessilia.' Flores minores et numerosiores quam
in G. rivali: petala albida; venis purpurascentibus. “Styli pars inferior portione
mum multo, postremum modice brevior, in exemplo Michz. manifeste,

at juxta apicem parce piloso-pubescens ; in var. 8, superne glabrata.
Should the Carolina plant poi prove to be a distinct ay it will of
course retain the name proposed by Mr. Curtis, in honor of his fri nd ; 1
associate in botanical labors, Dr. James F. McRee, of Wilmin, ngten, Novthi abel 1Z

~The only unwooded portion of the ridge which we ascended,

ani exposed rock a few yards in extent, presents-a truly Alpine

aspect, being clothed with Lichens and Mosses, and with a dense

_ mat of the mountain Leiophyllum, a stunted and much branched “4
shrub (five to ten inches high,) with small coriaceous leaves,
greatly resembling Azalea procumbens.* The much denser
growth, and the broader, more petiolate, and perhaps uniformly
opposite leaves, as well as the very different habitat, would seem | ee .
to distinguish the mountain plant from the L. buxifolium of the

tee Barrens of | New Jersey, &e. ; but, ee I think the

wED

on to the Mountains of North Carolina.

* serpyligfotnim, CLedan-esrpy! at lee: :
it is aoe aany-4 to find ects and iattelpes ecnation: distinctive
characters ; since the sparse scabrous puberulence of the capsule
may also be observed upon the ovary of the low-country plant,
in which the Jeaves are likewise not unfrequently opposite ; and
no reliance can be placed on the length of the pedicels. The

y requires some correction: the Ledwm buxifolium of
Michaux “in summis montibus excelsis Caroline), and of Nut-
tall, (so far as respects the plant which “is extremely abundant
on the highest summits of the Catawba Ridge,” that is, on Ta- a
ble Mountain, ) as well as the Leiophyllum buxifolium of Elliott,
(from the mountains of Greenville district, South Carolina,) must
be referred to LL. serpyllifolium, DC. We were too late to ob-
tain the plant in blossom, excepting one or two straggling: spe-
cimens; but we were so fortunate as to procure a few mae
specimens of Rhododendron Catawlhiense.

I should have remarked, that so much time was occupied in
the ascent of this mountain as nearly to prevent us from herbor-
izing around the summit for that day; since we had to descend
some distance to the nearest spring of water, and prepare our en-
campment for the night. The branches of the Balsam afforded
excellent materials for the construction of our lodge, the smaller
twigs with large mats of moss stripped from the rocks furnished
our bed, and the dead trees supplied us with fuel for cooking our
aappe, and for the large fire we were obliged to ae up during |

BabA ge lne enscrt— eeienpente sentence the Grandfather Mountain,
as is he eelbs 24 ser bs EL ES ped tee and have
e doubt that he ‘mistook for Specie of Letopheylliem — rh otged
_ Sept. as p- fone oe ie: Fis * oe gS i

ae

Botanical Excursion to the Mountains of North Carolina. 37

the night. We re-ascended the summit the next morning, and
devoted several hours to its examination, but the threatening
state of the weather prevented us from visiting the adjacent
ridges, or the southern and eastern faces of the mountain, and
we were constrained to descend towards evening to the humble
dwelling of our guide, which sehetabaaecery sine ond belied

Bo. hy storm commenced:

~ Our next excursion was to the Risen Metin a portion of

. ehis elevated range which forms the boundary between North

Carolina and Tennessee, distant nearly thirty miles southwest
from our quarters at the foot of Grandfather by the most direct
path, but at least sixty by the nearest carriage road. We trav-
elled for the most part on foot, loading the horses with our port-
folios, paper, and some necessary luggage, crossed the Hanging-
rock Mountain to Elk Creek, and thence over a steep ridge to
Cranberry Forge,.on the sources of Doe River, where we passed
the night. On our way, we cut down a Service-tree, (as the
Amelanchier Canadensis is here called,) and feasted upon the
ripe fruit, which throughout this region is highly, and indeed
justly prized, being sweet with a very agreeable flavor; while
in the Northern States, so far as our experience goes, this fruit,

even if it may be said to be edible, is not worth eating. As‘ Sar- —

vices’ are here greedily sought after, and are generally procured
by cutting down the trees, “the: datterare are becoming soenee-an Se
vicinity of the ‘ plantati a
versally called. Along t the streams we met. with the mountain
species of Androm ,) doubtless Pursh’s A. axillaris ;
but whether the original. A. axillaris of the Hortus Keecssie
pertains to this, or-to the species of the low country, I cannot at
‘this moment ascertain. A portion of Pursh’s character seems
also to belong to the low country rather than the mountain spe-
cies, and the two are by no means clearly distinguished in sub-

Sequent works. The leaves, in ‘our specimens, are. oblong-lan-

ceolate, finely acuminate, the margins closely beset throughout
with. spinulose-setaceous teeth; and the rather loose spicate ra-

cemes,. (the corolla having fallen, ) are nearly half the length of
_ the leaves.

Hitherto we had searched in vain for the Astilbe decandra ;

but we first met with this very interesting plant in the rich and
‘Moist mountain woods between Elk Creek and Cranberry Forge,

‘

ae
38 Botenical Iedtersiets te the Mountains of North Carolina.

and subsequently in similar nen particularly along the
steep banks of streams, quite to the base of the Roan. Mr. Curtis
found it abundantly near the sources mn the Linville River, and
at the North Cove, where it could not have escaped the notice
of Michaux; and it is doubtless the Spirea Aruncus var, her-
maphrodita of that author.. It indeed greatly resembles Spirea
Aruncus, and at a distance of a few yards is not easily distin-
guished from that plant, but on a closer approach the -resem-
blance i is much less striking. Michaux appears to have been the

It was afterwards collected by Lyon,* and describak oy Pursh
i a specimen cultivated in Mr. Lambert’s garden at Boynton,
We noticed a peculiarity in this plant, which explains the dis-
crepancy ‘between Ventenat and Pursh, (the former having fig-
ured it with linear-spatulate petals, while-the latter found it apet-
alous,) and perhaps throws some additional light upon the genus. |
The flowers are diwcto-polygamous, the two forms differing from :
each other in aspect much as the staminate and. pistillate plants |
of Spirea Aruncus. In one form, the filaments are exserted to |
twice or thrice the length of the calyx, and the ‘spatulate-linear
petals, inconspicuous only on account of their narrowness, are =~
nearly as long as the stamens: the ovaries are well-formed and
filled with ovules, which, however, so far as I have observed, are
never fertilized ; and the stigmas are smaller than in the fertile |
plant, and not papillose. In the other or fertile form, both the |
stamens and the petals are in au abortive or rudimentary state, ~ a
and being shorter than the sepals, and concealed by them in dried ———
specimens, are readily overlooked; the stigmas are large, trun- 7
cate, and papillose, and a pactien: of the ovules. become fertile. '
The Japanese species (Hoteta Japonica, Morr. & Decaisne, the
Spiraea Aruneus of 'Thunberg,) appears to have uniform and
perfect flowers ;+ but the species from Nepal ( Astilbe pen |

'* Muhlenberg’s specimen was also received from Lyon. The only habitat
cited in this author’s Catalogue is Tennessee, and we ourselves collected it within

the limits, as well as on the borders of that State. The late Dr. Macbride found it
in South Carolina, near the sources of the Saluda, |

as

=, aT

Nee

1.4

rr: ee

¥

_ Botanical Excursion to the Mountains of North Carolina. 39

Don, the Spirea barbata of Wallich, but. not of Lindley,) is
probably polygamo-dicecious, like our own species; at least, the
flowers are apetalous in a fragment given me by Prof. Royle, and
the stamens mostly equal in number to the sepals. I have no
doubt that these three species belong to a single and very natu-
ral genus, for which the name of Asti/be must be retained ; for I

_ see neither justice nor reason in superseding the prior name, as

suggested by Endlicher,* on account of the incompleteness of
the character, which correctly describes one state, at — of the
plant intended, by the subsequent Hoteia, the characterof which
ney sonpenianae when applied to the whole genus.+ ‘The

* « Si, quod nunc pecan ae dog Hoteia et Astilbe, Don, revera plant conge-

neres , posterius i re suo descriptum Mee imendum, et prius egre-
stabilitum parvanaiies erit.”” Endl. Gen. Suppl. p. 1416.

. + Since the above remarks were. —— :: cali seen in the Annales des Sci-

ences Naturelles for Jandary, 1841, Hin Deeeishe s additional Vote sur les genres

tilbe et see in which the tw o genera are still held to be distinct, the latter in-

cluding th Ameri ican plant, as originally proposed by this author. The char-
acters os nae to both) are merely these:

a Flores hermaphroditi, vel sepe stam. abortu feeminei. Petala nulla.
stamina 5

~Horria. ict sdrian oF -Petala 5, yi Stamina a 10, quingue pe-
aia pecs a >

mesg si ea sia Astilbe sinbitiiaie is more or less diwcio-polyga-

us, the vie wl sped. already taken is certainly confirmed; and when this acute

tad ier ke botanist becomes spaetied ° with the two states of the
p , stamens of the original .4. are

etin “ At aking ene mina

sii -2 | ot

is come to the s same colon. The lia
may be thus expresse
7 ASTILBE, Fk te Pon: Dorr. , Ge (Hotera, Morr. Y Ditercy
“UA. rivoraris (Hamilton, Don) : floribus sepe dicecio-polygamis, calyce 4—5-
partifo imo ovario tantum adnato, petalis (an sem per?) nullis, staminibus 4-5
nune 8 (ex Don.)—Spirea barbata, Wall. cat. ; Camb. in Jacquem. bot. p. 48. t. 58
x Decaisne.

ES ae

“Hab. in montibus Nepalensibus.

“9. 1% DECANDRA xt gs) : floribus dicecio- -polygamis, calyce 5-partito i imo otario
tantum adnato, (in pl. fert. subnullis), staminibns
10 (in ph. fert.. aortinisveetigieste Arancus-var . hermaphr odita; Michz. penal
biternata, ee Malmais. to34. Astilbe gas Rigs Torr. & Gray, fl.
N. Amer.1. p. aes Hoteia DuSeata, Decaisne, in an - nat. (ser, 2.) 2 2. tid,
hs 11 13, 7 7 Why
— Mab. in bus Qurclines et Tenmdubin:

78. sae piosacs floribus hermaphroditis, calyeis profunde quinquedili sais
ae i ovari plete, petalis oblongo-spathulatis, staminibus 10.—Spirea. Pr z,
Thunb. fl. Japon. - 2u1, non Linn. 8. barbata, Lindl. bot. reg. t. zi

— ica, Mo _ & Decaisne, in ann. sci, nat, (ie s8y ah ne

*
40 Botanical Excursion to the Mountains of North Carolina.

number of genera which are either divided between North Amer-
ica, Japan, and the mountain-region of central .Asia, or have
nearly allied species in these countries or in the two former, is
very considerable: in other cases a North American genus is re-
placed by a nearly allied one in Japan, &c., as Decumaria by
Schizophragma, Schizandra by Spherostemma, Hamamelis
by Corylopsis, &c. Ihave elsewhere alluded to this«subject,
and. shall snaiedaly consider it more bsaated on seen
occasion.

Our next degin seeuieaiiaies tien Grainne. ese to Crab
Orchard on Doe River, in Tennessee, and up Little Doe River to
Squire Hampton’s, where we took a guide and ascended the
Roan. While ascending the Little Doe River, about three miles
from its junction with the larger stream of that name, at one of
the numerous places where the road crosses this rivulet, we
again met with Carer F'raseriana. The plant did not appear .
to be so abundant in this Tennessee locality as at the Grandfa-
ther, but it is doubtless plentiful on the mountain side just above.
We ascended the north side of the Roan, through the heavy
timbered woods and rank herbage with which it. is covered ; but
found nothing new to us, excepting Streptopus 1 asus
in fruit; and among the groves of Rhododendron matimum
towards the summit, we also collected Diphyscium foliosum, a
moss which we had not before seen in a living state. In more
open moist places near the summit, we found the Hedyotis
ee serpyllifolia, still beautifully in flower, and the

eum geniculatum, which we have already noticed. It was
just sunset when we reached the bald and grassy summit of this
noble mountain, and after enjoying for a moment the magnificent
view it affords, had barely time to prepare our encampment be-
tween two dense clumps of Rhododendron Catawbiense, to col- —
lect fuel, and make ready our supper. The night was so fine
that our slight shelter of Balsam boughs proved amply sufficient ;
the thermometer, at this elevation of about. six thousand. feet
above the level of the sea, being 64° Fahr. at midnight, and 60°
at sunrise. ‘The temperature of a spring just under the brow of
the mountain below our encampment we found. to be 47° Fahr.
The Roan is welleeharnctoriet by Prof: Mitchell, as the easiest
pF ced fe ees of z 3 ahs ere

il veal i

Ce ee ee ee ae PY, ee ee 2 mr eV 2 ‘sd
- Botanical EB the J of North Carolina. 41

ing like the ruins of an old castle, near its southwestern extrem-
ity, the top of the Roan may be described as a vast meadow,
[about nine miles-in length, with some interruptions, and with a
maximum elevation of six thousand and thirty eight feet,] with-
out a tree to obstruct the prospect; where a person may gallop
his horse for a mile or two, with Carolina at his feet on one side,
and Tennessee on the other, and a green ocean of mountains
raised into tremendous billows immediately about him. It is the
pasture ground for the young horses of the whole country about

it during the summer. We found the strawberry here in the

greatest abundance and of the finest quality, in regard to both
size and flavor, on the 30th of July.’*

At sunrise we had fine weather and a most extensive view of
the surrounding country ; in one direction we could count from
eight to twelve successive ranges of mountains, and nearly all
the higher peaks of this whole region were distinctly visible.
Soon, however, we were enveloped in a dense fog which con-

tinued for several hours, during which we traversed the south-

western summit, and made a list of the plants we saw. ‘The
oe scsi of this bald and rounded summit are chiefly

zuosa, Juncus tenuis, Carer intumescens, festucacea,
ce of Mr. Curtis, and a narrow-leaved. variety of Os Penn-
sylvanica, the. latter: pags pnagieesies Wate panes peat of the grassy

herbage, ES Rk Be ca pest: " ely and. Can-
adense, , which here only ttain the height of four.to eight inches,
isyrinchium anceps, Smilacina bifolia, Habenaria (Platan-
hur) peramena, Veratrum viride, Helonias (Chamelirium)
dioica, Osmunda Claytoniana, Linn. (O. interrupta, Michz.),
Athyrium asplenioides, Pedicularis Canadensis mostly with pur-
plish-brown flowers, now just in blossom, Trautvetteria palmata,
Ranunculus repens, Thalictrum dioicum just in flower, Geum
radiatum in the greatest.profusion, (it was here that Michaux
obtained this species,) Potentilla tridentata and Canadensis,
Fragaria Virginiana, the fruit just-ripe and of the finest flavor,
‘villosus now in flower, Castilleja coccinea, Geranium
maculatum, Clematis Viorna about eight inches high, Sanicula
M * wneneads rene Hanah. nalenanim, Figen

* Prof. Mitchell of Chapel Hill Uniranitt. in the Raleigh Register ae 3 Ay
1835, andin the aris emai al | a eed
Vol, xi11, No. 1 Oct-Dec. 1841, ca

42 Botanical Excursion to the Mountains of North Carolina. |

, with larger flowers than usual, a more upright
and hinirteired variety of Hedyotis serpyllifolia, Ginothera
glauca 6., Senecio Balsamita, Rudbeckia triloba, and a dwarf
variety of R. laciniata, Liatris spicata, Cacalia atriplicifolia, :
Cynthia Virginica, Aster acuminatus, Solidago bicolor, S. spi- A
thamea, Curtis in Torr. & Gr. fl. ined., a very distinct dwarf :
species, S. Curtisii, Torr. & Gir. l. c. not yet in flower, and S.
glomerata in the same state as at Grandfather Mountain ; also
amayrage erent aio: telephioides, Heuchera vil-
losa, Polypodium
previously noticed,

The only tree is Abies F'raseri, a few dwarf specimens of akich
extend into the open ground of the summit; and the following
are all the shrubs which we observed, viz. Diervilla trifida,
Menziesia globularis, Vaccinium erythrocarpum, Rhododendron
Catawbiense, forming very dense clumps, Leiophyllum serpylli-
folium, Sorbus Americana, two to four feet high, Crategus
punctata only a foot in height, Pyrus arbutifolia var. melano-
carpa, Ribes rotundifolium ; and a low and much-branched spe-
cies of Alder, which Mr. Curtis proposes to call Alnus Mitchelli-
ana, in®honor of Professor Mitchell ; but we fear it may prove to
be a variety of what we deem the A. crispa, Ait. from the moun-
tains of New York, New Hampshire, &c., and Newfoundland,
although it has more rounded leaves, with the lower surface
nearly glabrous, except the primary veins; while in the former
(to which the names of A. crispa and A. undulata are not very
appropriate, ) the leaves are often, but not always, somewhat vel-
vety-pubescent beneath.. To our list must be added an appa-
rently undescribed species of Vaccinium, first noticed by Mr.
Constable.* We made a —— visit to the other seins sum-

- 5 ¥ Stereos Consrabret (spec. noe) ae aerate foliis deciduis ovalibus pall
eUUIAaLY vel ob-

soletissime séerrulatis ciliatis, racemis brevigaimis sessilibus, bracteis squamaceis
eaducis, corollis brevissime cylindricis, antheris inclusis muticis, ovariis 10-

parvis A
locularibus, loculis pluri-ovulatis. 4
In summo jugo * Roan rime weer ie a aR OM HO .

Botanical Excursion to the Mountains of North Carolina. 43

mit, where we found nothing that we had not already collected,
excepting Arenaria glabra, Michz., and descended partly by
way of the contiguous Yellow Mountain.

-Retracing our steps, we returned the next day to the foot of
Grandfather, and reached our quarters at Jefferson the second
day after. We had frequently been told of an antidote to
the bite of the Rattle-snake and Copper-head, (not unfrequent
4 throughout this nin which is thought to possess wonderful
efficacy, called T'urman’s Snake-root, after an ‘Indian Doctor,

who first employed it; the plant was brought to us by a man
who was ready to ntseet its virtues from his personal knowledge,
oe d proved to be the Silene stellata! Its use was suggested by
| 2° i the markings of the root beneath the bark, in which these people
find a fancied resemblance to the skin of the Rattle-snake. Near-

ly all the reputed antidotes are equally inert ; such herbs as Im-

patiens pallida, &c. being sometimes eroplayed:; so that we are

_ led to conclude that the bite of these reptiles is seldom fatal, or
even very dangerous, .in these cooler portions of the country.

About the foot of the Roan and Grandfather, we obtained a

> 4 della, Benth. ) just coming into blossom. Our plant accords with
Michaux’s description, except that there are frequently two, or

even:thiee axillary heads_ besides t the serminal one. The flow-

ers have altogether the structure , and the up-

eT ie a

. per lip-of the corolla is entire ; “so that it eannot belong toMo-
F ante nardella, although: placed as the, leading species of that genus.

dentis solitarii vel aggregati “tend mmaturs. cer sh poe limbo ssa
arc culo ed ocets: (nune abortu quinque ?) loculares ;. loculis pleio-
2) spe

Prof. Peised; i DC. prodr. 7. p. 566,) notices as an extraordinary exception to
the character of Vaccinium, a species with an 8 to 10-celled fruit and a single?
seed in each cell. The first-named character is not unfrequent in the genus ;, sev:
eral of the more common species which I have cursorily examined, exhibit a more
or less completely pa, ovary, but with many ovules in each cell. There
is asmall group, however, (Decacuaya, Torr. & Gr, ined.) presenting a differ-
ent structure, which 3 is best exemplified in V.resinosum, Ait. The 10 carpels of this
enclosed i in the baccate calyx, are. very slightly eoherent with each other,

Probably in. some senate which have the leaves sanelion with resinous
dots. V. frondosum, oN Gunes pal page erocarpon of Dunal,) is sim-
carpels appear to be more coherent cand less ins

Sit “Bee eee

44 Botanical Excursion to the Mountains of North Carolina.

As to the species from which Mr. Bentham derived the generic
name, (Pycnanthemum Monardella, Michz.,) 1 am by no means
certain that it belongs either to Pyenanthemum or Monardella.
The specimen in the Michauxian herbarium is not out of flower,
as has been thought, but nap inflorescence is undeveloped, and.
perhaps in an abnormal state. In examining a small portion
taken from the head, I fount nothing but striate-nerved bracts,
obtuse and villous at the apex, and abruptly awned ; the exterior
involucrate and often lobed; the innermost linear, and tipped

with a single awn. ‘The aspect of the plant, also, is so like Mo- |

narda fistulosa, that I am strongly inclined to think it a some-
what monstrous state of that, or some nearly allied species; in
which case, the genus Monardella should be restricted to the Cali-
fornian ~ Pursh’s P. Monardella, 1 may observe, was col-
lected beneath the Natural Bridge in Virginia, where we also ob-
tained the plant, and subsequently met with it throughout the
mountains. “It is certainly a form of Monarda fistulosa, accord-
ing to Mr. Bentham’s characters ; but the taste is much less pun-
gent, the throat of the calyx less strongly bearded than is usual
in that species, and the*corolla nearly white: We thought it
probably a distinct species; but these differences may be ow-
ing to the aor shade in which it commonly occurs. The P.
Monardella ‘of Elliott, according to his herbarium, is identical

with that of Parsh. We collected in Ashe County several other *

species of Pycnanthemum, and in the endeavor to discriminate
them, we encountered so many difficulties that Iam indwees to
ave a revision of the whole Benue. sd

= Sonia PYCNANTHEMORUM.

82 ap ait dentibus bracteisque subulato-arist atis, rigidis, nudis, corollam
Sees P4 i densi plerumque. terminales. Ovaria barbata. Folia ie,

a

1, P. ARISTATUM ciel ees pekenoe netelaia ovato-oblongis a is subserratis
basi rotu tenuissi osis vel g ‘gp. pnts Nutt.
in j jour. oi Philad. 7. p. 100, ae a Pak ‘OHgannin incanum, Walt. herb.

~ Hab. a Nova Calieed ‘ad Floridam.—Folia floralia nune presen *

= P. HYSSOPIFOLIUM (Benth.) : foliis eer Westie x tusis subinteger-
in ue glabris vel tenuissime subtom jean aceg aristatum, Pursh,

pi 1 sae arcte sone
pire ane

Diz Ca =: Se ee a ae > i le D oo ie . ‘ ¥
0) Carolina. 45

Some | semiitiegdplontte. anerncnes around Jefferson, which
were not previously in la divaricata ;
Cacalia reniformis ; Silphium ; caladianiea ‘the larger form af
seeieatanah auriculata, with oe all the leaves undivided ; the

8. P. aneescens (Torr, & Gray, fl. N. Amer. ined.): -verticillastris ¢ cymosis, dentibu
calycis equalibus triangulari-lanceolatis brevibus obtusiusculis muticis, foliis adenie
“pean eong subserratis utrinque acutis supra eae subs canis

Hab. in Louisiana, Ingalls, Hale, et Alabama, Gates.—Minu per totum quam P. inea-
num ;. Loltie chaistiee ut in aliis utrinque candidly ceteris atau pube brevissima
incanis, Ovaria ad apeegm pearpesyae & barbat

4. P. 1Incanum (Michz.) : ti is, dentib lyci vals eeqnalibus hinckeo:
Tato-sabulatis apes plerumque 1 Becta, folii to-ob] tong — _serrittis bustto-

ih

pes ampla. Ovaria ut Fa Villore-batbots non “apice sipenaats: Hyer ealiaath
— 2 anaaee est P. Loomi wacbiers tt. in jour. acad. Philad. 7. p. 100, quod in
8 ;

ily P. Tunura (Benth.) : v 27] (farih
simplices arcte secundis,) den tiles clge pilabiati So e basi lanceolata one
subulato-aristatis bracteisque apice s pilis s barbatis, 2 inferioribus tu
sequantibus, foliis oblongis acutis v caine prem — cauleque tiles:
Saag arr floralibus dealbatis “roll pycnanthemoides, Leavenworth, in Sill. jour.

343, t.
Variat 1, seed imberbi, fide Bente aes near Pp. 728 — Austr. —— 2, foliis
ovato-oblongis basi aut rotundatis tatu Ashe, enit el.
Curtis in com. Burke, Carol. Sept. yy 3, foliis lanceolatis pao acutis ota a saa
(cum a spare In stirps Leavenworthii (ad Paint Mountain, Tennessee Ori-
ent. exeunte Octobri d eetetel- one fractifors; eyme s' ubsimplices elongati sunt, densi-
Seay mae ae sessilibus arct ec herb. Bart. cum schedula, “ P.
montanum ? Miche. in Virginia juxta Staunton,” manu Purshii inscripta. Dentes caly-
cini attenuato-subulati, barbati ; 2 in-

Sega tate renin -rabenromn nune paulo, superantes. aegis. eerapine

6. a pusruM “epee nov): “verticillastris eymosis, dentine sali bilab
bracteisq ue bo labi rover ibus, sa
lanceolatis utrinque “acutis entintegersini gisbrinsculis soba caule villoso-pubes-
cente.
Hab. in Carolina Septentrionali, csalb u Ashe, cum P. Tullia et P. piloso §. vigens,
ubi legimus ad finem Julii—P. Twlli¢ nimis affinis, sed we . satis A foliis mae
‘ibaa fere integerrimis, nunquam incanis vel ae t
equalibus, ovariis calvis nec barbulatis, ete.—Folia 23 pllcara, <goipol. iewgs peg
sima, ad venas pl. m. pubescentia. Bractes et corolla preecedentis.
7. P. CLINOPODIOIDES (Torr. § Gray, fl. N. Amer. ined.) : verticillastris co
dentibus calycis subequalibus brevibus subulatis bracte sane anescenti- pilosie, es me
Binds Tancolaée utrinque acutiusculi _subserratis breviter Seplatie’» supra glabratis
aie sapleqne molliter pubescenti-villosis.

b. in siecis cirea urbem Novum Eboracum et in Nova Augusto floret.—
Caulis serwad et ultra, pube molli laxa vestitus, ease “Folin $$ pollicaria, nun-
as dealbata ; pagina superiore seepe Ln ee ; inferiore, presertim ad costam et venas

villoso-pubescente. n precedente, et minus barbate. “Dent
Sie “tubo fere dimidio breviores, he eipiinie basi satis coaliti, Stamina modice
_exserta. Qvaria barbata.—Stirpes angustifolia versus sequentem, latifolie ad P. inca-
“um tendentes vel transeuntes ? 1s ene

46 Botanical Excursion to the Mountains of North Carolina.

glabrous and narrow-leaved variety of C. senifolia (C. stellata,
Nuit.) which alone occurs in this region; Melanthium Virgini-
cum, which is a very handsome plant, with the flowers cream-
colored when id first expand; and Stenanthiuwm oneuniie

$3. state subequaliter dent
corymboso-paniculata.

lata.

8. P. Torrer (Benth.) : prs subsequaliter 4 dentato, dentibns subulatis “bracteisque
pubescenti-canescentibus,
tis vix serratis basi in pein bovine sensim angustatis, eaule, stricto pubescente.
—P. a Nutt. gen. 2. p. 337 ©

Ha

b. in Nova C Novum Eboracum, ubi frequens; etiam in Caro-
lin; a Australi, pe ‘Bent Lab up—Faien iquantum m P. lun faci
once foliis longioribus (m inus rigidis) basi ah en attenuatis, verticillastris: contractis
nec capitatis, bracteis : plerngte ubulatis maenaprne ssis, dentibus eee gracili ioribus,
9. B.rmLosum (Nuit) : vealyce subi q lite d Jentib
bracteisque iis | lati subintegerrimis basi scuiie akeeselitng
See Eg i; “1

P. muticum, Benth. Lab. p. ieee partim.—Variat, 1, calyce fere equaliter 5-dentato;.
2, dentibus calycinis 3 Gacctiniibees basi manifeste coalitis; et, ni fallor,

8. LEPTODON : Beco fere eequaliter dentato, dentibus longioribus e basi lato acumina-
tis vel atten teisque yilloso-canis.—An 3?

Hi civita ae occidentalibus, ab Ohio et T: 1 Mi
Var. 8. in ap ait Ashe, Carol. Sept. legimus : ‘etiam: cl. “Boykin ne Georgia mip
cies ab P. mutico certissime ae seme pomeseers! foliis minus rigidis basi

tatis, dentibus Fat den Meeninagiciasist aia ape — hesbaluagy
10, P. Muricum it di brevibus
bracteisque muticis Sar ie vissima ‘canescentibus, f foliis rr ovati« vel ovato-lanceo-
; serratis basi rotundatis (nunc subcordatis) sessilibus subpetiolatisve,

pate cauteqtic laxe maihadaadl glabris aut tenuiter subtomentosis, summis dealba-
“ stemum muticum, Micha. fl. 2. p. 6. t. 32. ~ aan tt muticum, Benth.
le. partm

4]

Folia wel Hs nunc exacte ovata, nunc

ov ga vel sublanceolata, interdum serrata ut in icone Michz., haud rarius serra-

turis ee: vel absoletie, basi seminge rotundata. "Vorticillastri capituliformes,
Ovaria calva.

“a 4, “Calyx equaliter aenatis: Vertiillastri dens dense capit ferme, bracteis rigidis adpres-
sis suffulti, numerosi, paniculato-corymbosi, fere omnes risen subfasciculati. Co-
roll labia brevia. Ovaria calva. Folia sessilia, angusta, crebr

oak P. mpage iebere hag dentibus. Carey pape Srmpissleniiets (swepe acutis)

aise glabriusenlis b i obtusi ilibus, d angulas put Fig a) yi aus
Virgini nicum, Miche.
Variat foliis nunc lato-lanceolatis, nunc anguste linearibus, rarissime (spec. in herd. J,

pec
Carey, vidi) subserratis. Stamin a sepius inclusa, haud rarius vel duo vel omnia exserta,
labia corolle subse ot

pei dimeclalom beats. boeapinque ts es

Bractee eur att breviores. Ovaria sapius. calva. "Palia vin tin

CB ee

B tania E'rcursion to the Mountains of North Carolina. 47
lium; Gray, which is doubtless the Helonias gsraminea of the
Botanical Magazine. We also made an excursion to the White
Top, in Virginia, twenty miles northwest from Jefferson ; a moun-
tain of the same character as the Roan, but on a sinaller scale,

- and with the pasturage of its summit more closely fed. We
: not rewarded, however, with any new plants, and the
cloudy weather obscured the prospect, which is said to be very
extensive. On our return, we found Cedronella cordata, Benth.,

nearly out of flower, with runners often two or thine’: feet in
length. Mr. Bentham has omitted to mention the agreeable bal-
samic odor of the genus, which in our plant is much less power-
ful than in C. triphylla. We saw plenty of Cimicifuga Amer-
icana, but the flowers were still unexpanded. Our endeavors to
obtain the fruit of Cimicifuga cordifolia (common in this region, )
were likewise unsuccessful ; without which it is not always easy
to distinguish this species from C. racemosa. The leaflets of
the former are frequently . large, the terminal ones resem-

$5. — e@qualiter dentatuis. pong oon eh ag corymbosi, terminales, ——— brac-
teis laxis, interioribus brevissimis. Qvaria calva. Folia brevia, remotiuscula
13. P. nupum (Nutt.): glabrum pallide virens, dentibus calycis a sweeten Sansbicaiee
brevibus us pilosis, bracteis exeporiags aaah gsc ee brevissimis subu-
latis ; foliis ova to-oblongis
‘$6. Cilps plied dinates Verticillasiri compl in bracteis dapat ee
solitarit ES aut sepius inestin Soliorum parium np alan ie
14. P. ian tele apete ‘isltics, racy i ‘pouniostuats Vlhieoctith tie,
terioribus ovatis intimis linearibus, dentibus calyeis brevibus acutis, foliis ovato-lanceola-
? glabris.—P. montanum, Nutt. gen.
2. P- 33, et, sic opinor, Miche. fl. 2, p. 8: igitur Monardella montana, Benth. Lab. p. 331.
-inaltis montibus Caroline, Michaux. Ad jugum quod dicit “ Catawba Ridge,”
. Ad radi

te
venit Curtis. Julio-Augusto floret.—Caulis 1-3-pedalis, simplex vel ramosus. Folia sub-
Membranacea; inferiora 2-3-pollicaria, lanceolato-ovata, basi rotundata, petiolo brevi:
iora magis

lanceolata, sensim acuminata, basi acuta subsessilia ; pagina superior,
Tami, et sepe bractee, d li expesite, purpurascentes. Brac uminatissime ;
s equantes. Calyx tubulosus, pilis conspersus, denique subglabratus ; den
tibus brevibus triangul i is purpureis notata, rin-

ens ; labio inferiore profunde trilobato, lobo medio longiore ; superiore integro !
4 ina longule exserta : anthers loculis parallelis. gg lobi (ut in ceteris pyeanatheriaie)

inequales. Ovaria penaea
ecw fant te

P. monarpetta, Michz. erisimiliter est Monarde species! (cf. adnot. nani Cer-
tissime Monarda e iii teciaoses: Pursh! (fide herb. Lamb. et herb. Bart.) etia m Eliottii!

_ P.verticturatum, Pers. _(Brachystemum sane ssasre Michz. fl. 2 pe 6. esniat
Species mihi valde dubia. A

” ‘<

al

48 Botanical Excursion to the Mountains of Noi

bling the leaves of the vine in size and shape, as remarked by
DeCandolle ; in one instance we found them ten enna in 1 diam-
eter; but they are generally much smaller and more divided,
apparently passing into the former species. The number of the
ai does not afford marked characters, since the lowest flow-

of C. racemosa sometimes present.two, while the upper ones
of C. cordifolia are almost always monogynous.

“We were too early in the season. for several i interesting Ses,
especially Composite, and did not extend our researches far
enough south to obtain many others; such as Hudsonia mon-
tana, which appears to be confined to Table Mountain, Rhodo-
dendron punctatum, Stuartia pentagyna, Philadelphus hirsutus,
Silene ovata (which Mr. Curtis found in Buncombe and Hay-
wood —— Berberis Canadensis (which however Pursh

: the mountains of Greenbrier in Virginia), Parnassia
enribiin, ” (which according to Mr. Curtis first appears in Yancey
County, but Pursh procured it from “ mountain runs on the
Pond Mountain, Virginia, and on the top of the Alleghanies near
Christiansburg,” ) and, above all, the new Thermopsis ! (T. Caro-
liniana, M. A. Curtis, mss.) recently discovered by our friend Mr.
Curtis, in Haywood and Cherokee Counties. We were likewise
Unsuccessful in our search for a remarkable undescribed plant,
with the habit of Pyrola and the foliage of Galax, which was
obtained by Michaux in the high mountains of Carolina. The
only specimen extant is among the ‘ Plante incognite’ of the
Michauxian herbarium, in fruit only; and we were anxious to
obtain flowering specimens, that we might complete its history ;
as Ihave long wished to dedicate the plant to Prof. Short, of
Kentucky, whose attainments and eminenj services in North
American botany are well known and ee: both at home
and abroad.*

* SHORTIA,. Torrey & Gray.

Calyx ep AY ; sepala meaner squamacen, striata, sige exteri-
. St e,

ora ovata, interiora oblonga. Cor amina apsula e brevior,
subglobosa, stylo fliformi sidjaltnedic superata, fritocataria: toculie side trival-
vis, valvis medio septiferis, placenta centrali magna persistente. Semina multa,
parva; testa sree conformis. Embryo teres, fectiuscalos, albumine brevior.—
Herba cespitosa ? subacaalis, perenpi, ae ; foliis lo rH rotundatis,
subcordatis, petess ‘nune tis, atu scapi

_ nudis.

GALACIFOLIA, Torr. ec ink Micke cum schedula,
‘ dine neontagase de Carolinie. An Pyrola spec.? an genus novum ?’)

|
|

x
-
Pe,

” latis, mediis oblongo-ovatis [settee dentat

hree new Plants of Central Ohio. 49

teresting region near the end of July, returning
pres York ae way of Raleigh, Richmond, &c.; and found a
marked change in the vegetation immediately on crossing the
Blue Ridge. I cannot extend these remarks to the plants ob-
served in our homeward journey, except to mention that the
Schrankia of this part of the country, which extends to the east-
ern slope of the Blue Ridge, is the S. angustata, Torr. & G

at least we observed no other species. This is doubtless the ‘S.
uncinata of DeCandolle ; but not, I think, of Willdenow. I may
here remark, that the tetistlate-ledved species, (iS. uncinata,
Torr. § Gr. ‘i is the Leptoglottis of DeCandolle, (Mem. Legum.)
as I have ascertained from a fragment of the original specimen in
the rich herbarium of Mr. Webb, which that gentleman obli-
gingly sent me; but I find no neutral flowers or sterile filaments
in the fhumerots specimens of this plant, from different localities,
which Thave from time to time examined.

Art. IL. oe of three undescribed Bien of Sonsted =8 Ohio ;
by Wn. S. Suxxiv.

1. Arasis paTENs (sp. nov.): erecta, hills + Hefdinscutt simpli-

cibus fureatisve undique vestita, foliis radicalibus rosulatis petio-

pete Seti Nite te taal paeeae

libus, summis lineari bintegris, pedicellis -flore majus-
culo (albo) longioribus, siliquis "patentibus sursum curvatis stylo
conspicuo rostellatis.

Hab. Rocky banks of the Scioto River, near Columbus, Ohio.

‘Obs. The far less numerous siliques, widely spreading and
with an upward curvature, and tipped with distinct somewhat
clavate styles, as well as the larger flowers, will readily distin-
guish this species from A. hirsuta, with which it has perhaps
been confounded. It has nothing of the strict habit of that spe-
cies. The septum of A. patens presents descending, rather
straight, and broken lines of tubuli, which anastomose and _ pro-
duce irreeular oblong areole, parallel with the septum. In A.
hirsuta the areole are amorphous, on account of the very tortu-

- OUS, anastomosing lines of tubuli. The septum of A. levigata

has a straight central line, or raphe, extending throughout its
whole length, with reticulations like those of the last species
Vol. xxi, No. 1.-~Oct.-Dec. 1841.

i alle ie a oe

50 ‘Three new Plants of Central Ohio.

Dr. Torrey has given some interesting remarks on this subject,
in the Annals of the ee of Natural bree New _we
A, p. 88. '

2, Fepra umpricata (sp. nov.): fructu subgloboso-inflato. i
bro apice unidentato antice profunde umbilicato, loculis sterilibus
fertili multoties majoribus, bracteis si bspatulato- -linearibus e eciliatis.

Hab. Around Columbus, Ohio,

Obs. This species has the appearance of F. radiata, and F".
Fagopyrum, Torr. & Gray | (which also occurs: in the central
part of Ohio,) but is more nearly allied to F. pumila, of the
south of Europe. _ The inflated ‘sterile cells are in contact from
top to bottom, and have a common dissepiment, (which, how-
ever, is often wanting or incomplete i in the full-grown fruit,) but
there is a deep circular depression in the middle of the anterior
face. The flattened fertile cell is one-nerved on the back, under
a lens; and is produced at the apex into a blunt, somewhat con-
spicuous tooth. :

3. ELeocuaris comrsistsa Cap nov.): culmis ceespitosis valde
compressis (in siccis spiraliter tortis), spica. oblongo-ovata acuta,
squamis ovato-lanceolatis acutis ad apicem sepissime bi
staminibus 3, stylo trifido, achenio obovato-pyriformi trigono
punctatulo nitido apice in breve collum basi styli pbhesvinto-ca
ica coronatum constricto, setis nullis.

Hab. Wet places in the Darby Plains, fifteen miles west of
Columbus, Ohio.

Descr. Culm cespitose, 12-18 inches high, slender, ‘much
compressed, strongly striate, closely invested at the base with a
single, horizontally truncate sheath. Spike 3-5 lines in length,
oblong-ovate, terete, acute, many-flowered. Scales ovate-lan-
ceolate, acute, of a rather firm texture, dark purple on the back,
with a broad white transparent margin, entire, except the apex,
which (even in the young state) is deeply 2-cleft, the segments
contorted. Bristles none. Achenium obovate, pyriform, obtusely
triangular, of a light golden color, shining, minntely pitted lon-
gitudinally ; the raised margins of the pits traversing it in undu-
lating lines. ‘Tubercle sage small, not one-sixth the length

A eted into a. short ange hes

bie agian,

#

- Obs. This distinctly marked species approaches the E. tricos-
taia of Torrey’s Monogr. N. Amer. Cyper. p. 310. It was er-
roneously inserted in my Catalogue of Plants in the Pasko of
Columbus, under the name of Z. tortilis, Schultes.

Two plants, which have been supposed to be itedtlyd or alto-
gether confined to Arkansas, are also natives of central Ohio;
one, the showy E’rysimum Arkansanum of Nuttall, has dtreadly
teen noticed ; the other is the E'ulophus Americanus of the
same author, whith I have collected in the Darby Plains, about
fifteen miles from Columbus; and Dr. Short has also detected
iti In the southern parts of Kentucky.

cian, Nutt. .This genus, which exhibits an union of the
campylospermous and coelospermous structures, has been incor-
reetly described as destitute of vittee. It has, however, three to
four vittee in each interval, and six to eight in the commissure.

Vaterrana crntata, Torr. §& Gray. This interesting plaut is
polygamo-diwcious, at least in the Ohio localities, with the pis-
tillate flowers not more than half the size of the staminate ; just
as in V. dioica, tuberosa, tripteris, and several other European
ee es _— Fi. — Se peg ‘337.

2S Se a ee a ac pa SB A A

Arr. IIl.—Notes upon the Cite ot i West d States ; ; iy
ae: - Janes Harr, State Geologist of New York. ee |

siliaveil edie sdbetinay the: last spring a tour of cid oration
menat the states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, a part of Michigan,
‘Kentucky and Missouri, and the territories of Iowa and WVinwotie
~ ; a few observations upon the geology of this region may not

‘be unacceptable to the readers of the American Journal of Scei-
ence. ‘The tour was commenced with a view of tracing ‘the
rocks wis New York westward, and of ascertaining how far the
‘grouping adopted in the reports already made, was applicable in
the western extension of the series. Another object which was
deemed of great importance, was that of clearly ascertaining and
‘defining: the true position of the rock in which the lead ore od
Hllinois, Wisconsin, and Iowa is found.
sa ae AM city has arson among sli

stroll «..

? Nii ere han oe a” we

=

52 Notes upon the Geology of the Western States.

of the different states; it being evident that the same rock was
known under different names, and the descriptions in many cases
being inapplicable to the same in other places from the great
change in lithological character. Thus far, little attempt has
been made to identify the particular rocks of the lower forma-
tions in distant localities by their fossils. In this condition of
things we have the “cliff limestone” of Prof. Locke, a name
applicable in Indiana and Ohio—and equally applicable, as will
be seen, to another rock on the Mississippi river—and the ‘ blue
limestone” of the same report, given as the lowest member of
the series in Ohio. ‘Thus according to the report just quoted,
and which in fact gives a very accurate account of the rocks of
the state, we have in Ohio only two limestone formations,
whereas in New York we have three very important ones, with
some minor beds. These are, ist. The limestone along the Mo-
hawk valley, the principal member of which is termed by Mr.
Vanuxem, the ‘‘ Mohawk limestone,” a name which with much
propriety might be applied to the whole mass, forming the Mo-
hawk group. This would include the Mohawk, Birdseye, and
‘Trenton limestones, and the calciferous sandrock might also be
included as the lower member of the group. 2d. The Niagara
group, called in the reports Lockport limestone and Rochester
shale. 3d. The ‘ Helderberg limestone group” of Mr. Mather,
including all those limestones of Schoharie and the Helderberg
mountains, or all the rocks between the Onondaga salt group and
the fossiliferous shales of Ludlowville, Moscow, &c. Between
either of these groups in New York, there are thick deposits of
other rocks, (shales and sandstones,) while in Ohio, the two
limestones there named are separated only by a few feet, accord-
ing to the report. Now it becomes very important to know, to
which of the New York groups these two masses belong, and
whether, in progressing westward, certain groups become more
or less important. We have already seen from the New York
reports, enough to anticipate that great changes might be ex-
pected when we should trace the same rocks over twice or thrice
the extent of that state.

The extension of the great coal basin of Pennsylvania be
came another object of interest, from the fact that it. borders the
southern counties of. New York, the lower member of the car-
boniferous system extending within that state, and for the most

Notes upon the Geology of the Western States. 53

" part resting upon what has been very appropriately termed the
Chemung group. 'This latter object was the one first taken up,
and the junction of the two formations traced with as much care
through Ohio as it has been in Pennsylvania and New York.
Again, after the reappearance of the carboniferous group in In-
diana, the same line of observation was taken up and followed to
the Mississippi river. ‘Throughout the whole of this great ex-
tent, the fundamental rock of the system maintains its position
and essential characters in a remarkable degree. The coarse
gray or drab sandstone, and conglomerate of southern New York
and Pennsylvania, is peeeer represented throughout the coal
region of the west.

_ It may not be improper to state here, that the great coal btn
of Pennsylvania and Ohio terminates to the east of the centre of
the latter state, following a general S. W. and N. E. direction.
Nearly along the boundary line between Ohio and Indiana, and
in the same general direction, there is an anticlinal axis, throwing
off the strata in opposite directions, and if ever the upper masses
| existed, elevating them so much that they have been swept off.
Near the centre of Indiana the carboniferous rocks again appear,
| occupying the southwestern part of that state and a large portion
be of Illinois, extending in a narrow belt across the Mississippi river.
| The coal of Kentucky and Tennessee may be a= a part
of the ‘same basin, separated only by the Ohio river. The coal

ij basin of Miss is entirely distinct, being separated by the ele-
y vation of she jones rocks; the same may be said of the Michi-
7 gan coal basin, which is separated from that of Indiana and Tlli-
| nois, by an axis running more nearly in an east and west direction.
» “Inotracing the rocks of this great western region, the carbon-

iferous group forms a good starting point, and having no hypo-
gene rocks, nor even the lower members of the transition or Silu-
rean system, except at a few distant points, this becomes of the
‘greatest importance. The conglomerate, sometimes a coarse
grey sandstone with lines of cross stratification, is the most prom-
ineut member-of the series, and the one which can best be traced
over a great extent of country. On the Cnyahoga river in Ohio,

cone

. it is seen to great advantage at the falls and other places, having
3 a thickness of about one hundred feet: from this place it extends
2 SS. W.towards the Ohio river, and is visible in abrupt cliffs in

many of the southern counties. In Indiana and Illinois it is

54 Notes upon the Geology of the Western Staies.

seen along the Ohio, and at Hawesville and other places on the
Kentucky side of the river.
- In this notice, I shall present only some of the results of my

observations; the details of each rock, with other matter, will

form the subject of a more extended notice hereafter.
I have already stated that the conglomerate or fundamental

member of the coal formation is every where to be recognized, —

whenever we come to that point in the series; it is identical
with a rock of the same character in southern New York, and
the bordering counties of Pennsylvania, and holds the same po-
sition, preserves the same essential characters, and contains the
same fossils. The lower coal beds can be seen immediately sue-

ceeding this rock at the falls of Cuyahoga river, on the farm of | © ae
Henry Newberry, Esq., and also in Jackson, Lawrence and other

counties of Ohio, The same may be seen at Hawesville, Ky.,
and on the opposite side of the river in Indiana. With the ex-
ception of the space occupied by lower rocks in western Ohio
and eastern Indiana, this rock forms a continuous mass of re-
markably uniform character, from the eastern part of Pennsylva-
nia to the Mississippi river.

The old red sandstone group in its red color, and bearing: seales
of Holoptychus and other fishes, I have already stated in my
report, thins out on the Genessee river in Alleghany county in
New York, and does not appear again between that place and
the Mississippi river, in the direction of my observations. Neither
in western New York nor in Ohio, so far as I have seen, is there
any rock separating the Chemung group from the conglomerate.

The Chemung group belongs to the old red or Devonian sys-
tem, and which in New York Mr. Lyell recognizes as bearing a
most striking lithological similarity to the lower part of the old
red sandstone in Forfarshire and other parts of Scotland, both in
the grey thinly laminated sandstones and associated green shales.
This group extends westward through Ohio, bearing its most
essential characters, but there and in Indiana, more than in most
parts of New York, it becomes more evidently distinct from the
Silurian system. The rocks of this group may be seen in Ohio
at the Cuyahoga falls, occupying a thickness of not much more
than one hundred feet, while in New York it cannot be less than
one thousand or fifteen hundred feet. At Akron, and numerous
other places to the southwest of this, along the western margin

iene

a

ant ee
ial gt Sn

Notes upon the Geology of the Western States. 55

of the coal-field, the same rocks can be seen. Near the Cuya-
hoga falls, and along the river below, at Newburgh, and at sev-
eral other places, may be seen the equivalents of the Portage and
Gardeau rocks of the New York reports, but of greatly dimin-

ished thickness. The Portage sandstone, however, is in con-
-, siderable force in many places in Ohio, being known as the
a “ Waverly sandstones” of the geological reports. ‘This term has
~ also been erroneously applied to a portion of the conglomerate of

the coal group when free from pebbles. 'The Chemung, Portage,
and Gardeau groups form the only rocks seen along Lake Erie
shore, from Dunkirk in New York to Cleveland, Ohio, and they
extend still farther west until the limestone from beneath rises

to the surface. These three groups in Ohio present no essential

Re. gigs neces, and may without impropriety be considered as one,

the lower part being mostly of shale, the middle of sandstone,
and the upper part of shales and flagstones. Fossils are not
abundant in the upper member, and no other than fucoides ap-
pear, except very rarely in the two below. In the Ohio reports,
all these rocks are usually spoken of as non-fossiliferous.

The casts of mud furrows which in New York form the dis-
tinguishing character of the Gardeau mass, are in Ohio equally
continued through the Portage and Chemung groups, shewing
there at least, that some of the same causes were in operation
during the deposition of the three. These casts of mud furrows
present some interesting features in the rocks of New York,
which will be more fully explained at another time.

- These groups reappear on the western side of the axis in In-
diana, all together occupying less than three hundred feet in
thickness. It is here that we first discover evidences of a very
important change. The upper part of the mass, which I con-
ceive to be the same as the Chemung, is quite sandy, with a few
traces of fossils characteristic of that group in New York, with

‘here and there thin seams or wedgeform layers of limestone,

made up of crinoidal fragments and broken shells, portions of the
mass being often oolitic. ‘These thin layers contain a species of
Productus, differing from any in the Chemung of New York.
Finally, we discover a mass of limestone eleven feet thick, inter-
Stratified with the sandstone, the lower or smaller portion com-
posed mostly of fragments of organic remains, while the upper
Portion is a perfect oolite. Other thinner masses are seen inter-

56 Notes upon the Geology of the Western States.

stratified with the sandstone, and a few shells and corals are
found in them ; and whenever the thin layers of limestone dis-
appear, the same fossils are found in the sandstone. 'These char-
acters are distinctly seen near New Albany, in the hills known
as the Knobs, to the northwest of the village.

‘Farther to the west and northwest, and above the nun
extending along the Ohio, on: Kothcsidiepaind into the states of
Illinois and Kentucky, there appears as a distinct and import-
ant mass, a limestone resembling that interstratified with the
sandstone just noticed. The lower part of this limestone is com-
pact, very fine grained, and some portions fit for lithographic
stones ; the upper part is coarser, often containing chert or horn-
stone, en finally the uppermost layers are oolite. It everywhere
contains the Pentremite and a peculiar coralline fossil, the Archi-
medes of Le Seur, besides Cyathophyllum and several sheils of
the genera Terebratula and Delthyris. On the Mississippi it con-
tains two or more species of Productus, a large Delthyris, and a
peculiar crinoidal fossil. In the oolitic portion, I saw a single
species of trilobite and a few small shells. ‘This limestone’ can
be traced along the Ohio, upon both sides, almost uninterruptedly
as far as Leavenworth, fifty miles below New Albany; it there
passes beneath the conglomerate, showing very clearly its posi-
tion in regard to the latter and the Chemung group. Beyond
this it does not uniformly appear; the conglomerate, and in some
places, as at Hawesville, Ky., the coal formation coming to the
level of the river. It reappears again about Shawneetown in
Tilinois, and is visible on one or both sides, almost continuously
to the mouth of the river. In ascending the Mississippi above

the mouth of the Ohio, it soon appears, forming cliffs which, be- -

low St. Louis, attain the height of from one hundred and fifty to
two hundred and fifty feet above the level of the water. These
cliffs are turned to very important economical purposes ; small
buildings are erected upon the top, where lead is melted for shot
making ; the cliff serves the purpose of a high tower, the shot
being received below on the margin of the river. This limestone
extends along the Mississippi to near the mouth of Rock river. ~

We have then throughout all this great extent of country, from
central Indiana to beyond the Mississippi river, a limestone dif-
fering entirely in all its most essential characters, and emphat-
ically in its tea from any in New York. Among its fossils

Notes upon the Geology of the Western States. 57

are a few which appear to be identical with those of the carbon-
iferous limestone of Europe, and one of these I am not able to
distinguish from Producta hemispherica.*

I have here already pointed out the relative position of three
successive formations ; first, the old red sandstone group, corres-
ponding both in its upper and lower part with the same series in
Europe ; secondly, a limestone, which is clearly the equivalent of
the carboniferous limestone ; and thirdly, a conglomerate which
is the fundamental rock of the coal formation, and may therefore
represent the millstone grit of Great Britain. It thus becomes
quite unnecessary in this place to point out the striking similarity
in position and other characters of the great coal formation, with
that of Great Britain and other parts of Europe.

Continuing the groups of New York as the standard of refer-

ence, we next arrive, in the descending order, to the great group
of fossiliferous shales so well developed along Cayuga and Sen-
eca lakes, and known as Marcellus, Skaneateles, Ludlowville,
and Moscow shales, which, for the sake of brevity, I shall speak
of under the name of the Ludlowville group. This great group,
Which occupies in New York a thickness not less than one thou-
sand feet, and contains a greater number of individual fossils than
nearly all the other groups, thins out in its western prolongation,
losing at the same time its distinctive paleontological character,
so that when we arrive at the falls of the Ohio, (Louisville, Ky.,
and New Albany, Ia.,) it is represented by one hundred and four
feet of black shale,t nearly or quite destitute of fossils. Farther
west this shale descends beneath the higher groups, and I was
not able to discover it on the Mississippi.
_ The “ Helderberg limestone group” follows in the order of suc-
cession: next below is the ‘“‘ Onondaga salt group,” and below
this, the Niagara limestone and shale group. In New York,
these form three very distinct and important masses, extending
Over great areas and with very considerable thickness, The first
is in greatest force in the Helderberg mountains, in Albany
county, and in Schoharie, where the whole thickness is four
hundred or five hundred feet. This group gradually thins west-
SiS ectincndcitn tee

* I have since been able to identify eo other He sg of fossils from this rock
with those of the carboniferous limeston Eng

a 2 am indebted to Dr. a of New pation ri hes bored — this site
accurate tion of its thickness. _

“Vol. XLIt, No. 1.—Oct. -Dee. 1841. 8

58 Notes upon the Geology of the Western States.

ward, only two or three of its members being amen at
the Niagara river. ©

The second or “ Onondaga salt group,” is im phedtaut Gas
about the central part of New York, being about one thousand
feet thick, consisting mostly of shales and marls containing the
gypsum beds, and all the important salt springs of the state. In
the eastern part of the state it is nearly lost from thinning out, but |
westerly it suffers but tittle diminution as far as the Niagara river. a

The Niagara limestone and its accompanying shale, are we
scarcely recognized in the eastern part of New York, and even ta
as far west as the centre, they form only masses of a few feet in 3
thickness. "The whole however gradually increases westward, =
and on the Niagara river, as well as at Lockport, the two masses ‘Sal
are’ niot less than two hundred feet thick. + 5

_ These three groups are traced far into Canada with little vari-
ation, except that the Niagara limestone becomes thicker and the
shale more calcareous. The line of outerop or strike of this
limestone is from Rochester westward, along a terrace known as
the mountain ridge and which extends by Lewiston and Queens-
ton into Canada, and is rey traced icon as the ee ‘of
Lake Ontario.

Near the western ena of Lake Erie the Niagara linvéstOone
appears above the surface of the water, having been elevated,
and forms a continuation of the axis before alluded to, as extend-
ing from Lake Erie to the S. W., along the borders of Ohio and
Indiana. In the central and western parts of Ohio it is the most
important rock, and is designated the “cliff limestone” by Prof.
Locke. Among its numerous localities may be named Spring-
field, Dayton, the vicinity of Columbus, and several places in
Adams county. In Kentucky, at Louisville, and the falls of the |
Ohio, at Madison and other places in anrepste it appears as wand |
limestone of greatest thickness.
» In examining the upper part of the “ cliff. sinanene” I “lt
it, so far as lithological characters are concerned, a continuation
of the Helderberg group, the Onondaga salt fornistiein having
thinned out almost entirely, having in fact no representative ex- 4
cept a thin layer. of water-lime, which is seen at the falls of the
Ohio and the canal canal below. Louisville, but in other localities is of
less i fen scarcely to be recognized. We have
here then this ‘condition of things~the Niagara limestone,

Notes upon the Geology of the Western States. 59

which commences in the eastern part of New York, a very in-
significant mass, acquiring a great thickness, and becoming the
most prominent limestone ; the salt group, almost entirely thin-
ned out, or so far as to be generally overlooked ; and the great
mass of the Helderberg limestone, so. far thinned out-as to ap-
pear an integral part of the Niagara mass, and if we did not know
that in the state of New York it is separated by one thousand
feet of rocks, indicating an enormous period of time as having
elapsed between the termination of one and the commencement

_. of the other, it might seem right to merge it in the Niagara
; di

_ Farther westward, in the northern part of the state of ings

i - and.in the territories of Wisconsin and Iowa, the Niagara lime-
‘stone becomes still more important, increasing as far as the Mis-

sissippi river, where it is several hundred feet thick, and actord-
ing to Prof. Owen’s report, from barometrical observations made
by Dr. Locke, five hundred and fifty feet. This statement I am
able to verify to a great degree, but the uppermost one hundred
feet should be credited to the Helderberg group, and to the cor-
nitiferous mass of Eaton, which caps many of the high mounds
of this region. (Throughout this great extent of country and for
many miles west of the Mississippi, the upper beds of the true
Niagara limestone are characterized by containing the Catenipora
escharoides, and often a Retepora, above which are the thin mass
of water-lime and the fossiliferous portions of the Helderberg
group. .The Catenipora i is the characteristic fossil. of the upper
part of the Niagara limestone in western New York, and so far
as I know is confined to this rock. Its geographical range is
therefore immense, when we consider the small thickness to
which it is restricted.

_ The thickness of the Niagara limestone is not its most impor-
tant character. It proves on examination to be the lead-bearis
rock of the west, a fact which I had previously anticipated from
the same rock every where containing the sulphurets of lead and
zinc in western New. York—sometimes in isolated particles or
small masses, or here and there a few crystals in a cavity, or in
thin veins in what appeared like fractures or fissures in the rock ;
in truth, presenting the aspect of a metalliferous rock, and indu-
whe the belief that under the proper conditions it might become

y so. ASS out of view the limits of dieazintp or states,

=

*

60 Notes upon the Geolozy of the Western States.

the Niagara is the most important limestone east of the Missis-
sippi river, both as regards the extent of surface occupied by it,
its thickness, and its mineral contents.

It would be quite out of place at present to go into detail re-
garding the lead mines, and the zinc and copper ores, which equal-
ly belong to this rock, as I shall have occasion to speak of these
again in connexion with other facts relating to this subject.

The shale of Rochester, Lockport, and Niagara Falls, accom- — a: “
panies the Niagara limestone every where as it doesin New York,

but at the west it forms a very insignificant mass, generally not iz

more than twenty five or thirty feet thick, and bearing the char-
acter of the upper portions of the same shale in New York, be-
ing a harsh, sandy-like rock, crumbling on exposure to weather,
and almost destitute of fossils.

The “ Protean group,”* or the green shales, Pentamerus lime-
stone, and iron ores, are nearly or quite wanting, being only par-
tially seen in a few places in Ohio, and forininy. nothing worthy
of notice farther west, so far as my knowledge extends. The
peculiar fossil of this group, Pentamerus oblongus, or a species
so similar that 1am unable to distinguish it, occurs in the Niag-
ara limestone in Iowa, and also in Ohio, as I am informed, not
having myself seen it in the latter place. Should such be the
fact, it proves the existence of this shell for a long period afta
the destruction of the same in New York.

In the state of New York the Protean group is anderiasa by
the red shales and sandstones of Medina, the sandstone of Sal-
mon river, and the shales and sandstones of Pulaski. These
rocks ocetipy the basin of Lake Ontario, forming the southern,
eastern; and western, and more than half the northern boundary
of the lake, and may very appropriately all be merged in one
group, the Ontario. In Ohio, Indiana, Kentucky, and Illinois,
the red shale and sandstone, forming so thick a mass on the south-
ern shore of Lake Ontario, has entirely disappeared. Some small
portions of the Salmon river and Pulaski rocks are visible, but
the great mass filling the place of these is limestone in thin beds,
with eins oanee of green shale. In many places thin

ene <6 erry: mieadatorie are e attached to the layers
of limestone e a distinct stratum may be seen,
with the ‘shine? npeclen-t fucoides as characterize this —

i ES a NT

a Oe

“a

Notes upon the Geology of the Western States. 61

New York. This mass is the ‘blue limestone,” of Prof. Locke,
in the Ohio reports, but not, as has been supposed, a member of
the Mohawk group, but a limestone and shale series, represent-
ing what in New York is a shale and sandstone group. The
fossils are essentially the same. Pterinea carinata, Cyrtolites or-
natus, Bellerophon bigketas, Leptenh ? ‘Trinuchtus; and
Graptolites, are the fossils whic li
the same place in New York. Two or more species rob: Isote

_ frequently found in the same rocks. The Isotelus in New * ne '

isa characteristic fossil of the Trenton limestone. This group
is well developed, forming high, abrupt cliffs on the Ohio below
Portsmouth, and at Cincinnati ; also at Maysville, Ky. and Mad-
ison, Ind. At either of these places many other fossils are found
besides those enumerated. In the higher beds are Delthyris and
Orthis, one species of the latter gems the same as occurs in the
Niagara group in New York.

- At Newport, Ky. opposite to Cincinnati, and at one or two

other places in this vicinity, there is a green shale with the Tri-
arthrus, Graptolites, and a few encrinal joints, shewing the same
assemblage of fossils and in the same position as the “ Utica
slate” of New York. The rock below this, which is seen in
place only during low water of the Ohio, is a shaly limestone,
with shells and great numbers of the fragments, with sometimes
perfect specimens of the Isotelus; Dr. Locke of Cincinnati has
a very large individual of this genus. This rock is probably the
equivalent of the Trenton limestone of New York.
~ The Ontario and Mohawk groups are both seen on the Missis-
sippi above Dubuque, containing as elsewhere, a large number of
fossils.* At the same place and below these rocks, there is a mass
of sandstone, but I have not been able to identify it with any
mass farther east.
_ My examinations were not extended far enough to the north
to discover the lower members of the transition or Silurian sys-
tem, which doubtless would be found there, 1 have sufficient
data to feel entirely satisfied of the results of these examinations
as here given.» These may be of some use, particularly as re-
gards es readers of the geological reports, where it is not only
desirable to give extended views, but also to explain, as far as
eps! the rocks now known by different names.

ay is ie ts tlle ples ech shines dean mei egal.

+

62 Notes upon the Geology of the Western States.

The result shews very clearly that there are two great lime-
stone formations occupying the valley of the Mississippi, and
that the lead~bearing limestone is not the same as that immedi-
ately underlying the coal formation.* In some places, both these
limestones are very similar, and in the absence of the neighbor-
ing rocks or fossils, might be mistaken without careful observa-
tion. Both are often light colored, a fact which is common to
nearly all the western rocks as compared with those of New York.
From the light color and mingoerintes ohataater of the Niagara

limestone, it has been s holding the place
of the magnesian limestone of Europe, the true posing: of so
is known to be above the coal formation. Sipartliet

-'The facts here stated show a great diminution, first of inte
matter, and next of shale, as we go westward, and in the whole,
a great increase of calcareous matter in the same direction. A
large portion of that mass known as Medina sandstone is shale,
and in New York is of great thickness, while it has entirely dis-
appeared westward. ‘The Onondaga salt group, essentially a
clayey or shaly one, is in its greatest force in central New York,
while it is entirely wanting westward. The fossiliferous shales
of the Ludlowville group, as already stated, are at the falls of the
Ohio, represented by a little more than one hundred feet, and far-
ther west by still less. Again, all those of the Gardeau, Portage,
and Chemung groups, seem almost obliterated and to give place
to an enormous mass of limestone, which goes on ss
westward as far as known. wh

~The name “cliff limestone,” of Prof. Locke, is very sire
priate for what I have here termed the Niagara limestone, so far
as the western part of Ohio and part of Indiana are concerned,
and I own that after examining these districts I was much grati-
fied with the name. But after seeing a limestone much higher
in the series already described, forming cliffs for several hundred
miles along the Mississippi, the name seems of doubtful propriety:
The name “scar” or cliff limestone of English authors, is ap
plied to one much higher in the series than that alluded to, so
that.the name having once been used for another rock, seas
its adoption for this post at ie =

Albany; Copies a ies ower wy

a,

=a <casgoratntia
* The lead Deering rock of ‘Missonri i is a different ‘one from that of Iowa, Wis-

consin, and Illin

Perchlorate of the Oxide of Ethule, §:c. 63

pny E¥: nadie the Betehdactta of the Oxide é ee or Per-
. chloric Ether ; by: Onane ‘Hane ond: Menrne H. Boye.

Read before the American Philosophical Society, Dee. 4, 1840.

Tue energetic properties of perchloric acid, and its stability
compared with the other compounds of chlorine with oxygen,
led us to the belief that this acid might be combined with the
substance which performs the part of a base in that class of or-
ganic salts which are generally designated by the name of ethers,
and for which Berzelius, in consequence of his theoretical views,
has adopted the name of oxide of ethule. For this purpose a
concentrated solution of perchlorate and sulphovinate of barytes,
in equivalent proportions, was subjected to distillation. The
sulphovinate of barytes may be considered as a double sulphate
of barytes and the oxide of ethule; and we anticipated that,
when heat was applied, adouble decomposition would take place
between the latter and the perchlorate of barytes. So long as
the salts remained in solution, no reaction occurred, but as soon
as they became solid in consequence of the distillation of the
water, a reciprocal decomposition ensued, and a sweet ethereal
liquid distilled into the receiver. This. — is the nesuseeees
of the oxide of ethule.

As this substance is enjechetiqeiaebiedistii it is necessary in or-
der to prepare it with safety, to operate on smal! quantities. We
have employed from seventy to ninety grains of crystallized sul-
phovinate of barytes, with an equivalent proportion of perchlo-
rate of barytes ;* but we would recommend, especially on the
first performance of the experiment, the employment of consid-
erably smaller quantities. The salts should be intimately mixed
ina mortar, and placed in a small retort attached to a refrigera-
tor containing ice, and a receiver similarly cooled. The retort is
to be heated in an oil-bath, in which a thermometer is suspended,
S80 as to indicate the temperature. A wooden sereen, furnished
eensings covered with thick plate-glass at such intervals as

i The. amount of barytes in the perchlorate should be ascertained by an experi-
ment, as it retains water with great tenacity. It may be worth while to mention,
that the perchlorate of potassa cannot be substituted for the perchlorate of barytes,
since the sulphovin is decomposed without acting on it. We were equally un-
successful in an attempt to procure the ether by the distillation of perchlorate of
barytes and concentrated sulphovinic acid.

64 Perchlorate of the Oxide of E'thule, Sc.

to afford a full view of the different parts of the apparatus, should
be erected in front of it, and strings passed around the screen and
attached to a bar traversing on a pivot, and supporting an argand
spirit lamp, by which heat is communicated to the oil-bath, so as
to enable the flame of the lamp to be removed from or applied to
the apparatus, according to the indications of the thermometer,
without exposing the person of the operator. After the heat has
reached 212° F'., below which the salts employed do not react on
each other, it shone be raised very gradually, and the distillation
finished below 340° F. Under these circumstances but little
danger is to be apprehended from the retort, but the ether in the
receiver must be mated with the greatest caution, since it has

in our hands in attempting to remove it with a pipette
eum the stratum of water which covers it. This water, there-
fore, should be removed by the cautious use of strips of blotting
paper, moistened at the end, and introduced into the tube Bite;
ployed as a receiver.

To avoid the danger attendant on sha sieninaitis of hk Ses
in its pure state, it may be received in strong alcohol, since it is
not explosive when dissolved in alcohol. If the experiment be
performed with seventy grains of sulphate of barytes, from one
to two drachms of absolute alcohol will be found suflicient for
this purpose. By the addition of an equal volume of water, the
ether may subsequently be separated from this solution, in small
quantities, for the purpose of examination. But, in this case, a
loss of ether is sustained by the decomposing influence of the
— “sea ‘aie

Diecpenubenate of ethule obtained in this way isa transpa-
ae colorless liquid, possessing a peculiar, though agreeable
smell, and a very sweet taste, which, on subsiding, leaves a biting
impression on the tongue, resembling that of the oil of cinnamon.
It is heavier than water, through which it rapidly sinks. It ex-
plodes by ignition, friction, or percussion, and sometimes without
any assignable cause, Its explosive properties may be show);
with but little danger, by pouring a small portion of the alco-
holic solution into a porcelain capsule, and adding an equal vol-
ume of water. The ether will collect in a drop at the bottom,
and may be subsequently separated by pouring off the greater
part of the water, and throwing the rest on a moistened filter,

supported by a wire. After the water magyar off, ahe-ee

P ig

Perchlorate of the Ovide of Ethule, §c. 65

of ether remaining at the bottom of the filter may be exploded,
either by approaching it to an ignited body, or by the blow of a
hammer. We are induced to believe that, in explosive violence,
it is not surpassed by any substance known in chemistry. By
the explosion of the smallest drop, an open porcelain plate will
be broken into fragments, and by that of a larger quantity, be
reduced to powder. In consequence of the force with which it

_ projects the minute fragments of any-containing vessel in which

it explodes, it is necessary that the operator should wear gloves,
and a close mask, furnished with thick glass-plates at the aper-
tures for the eyes, and perform his manipulations with the inter-
vention of a movable wooden screen.*
_ In common with other ethers, the perchlorate of ethule is in-
soluble in water, but soluble in alcohol; and its solution in the
latter, when sufficiently dilute, burns entirely away without ex-
plosion, It may be kept for a length of time unchanged, even
when in contact with water; but the addition of this fluid, when
employed to precipitate it from its alcoholic solution, causes it
to be partially decomposed. Potassa, dissolved in alcohol, and
added to the alcoholic solution, produces, immediately, an abun-
dant precipitate of the perchlorate of that base, and, when added
in sufficient quantity, decomposes the ether entirely. It would

ear, therefore, impracticable, to form either perchlorovinates or
perchlorovinic acid.

We have subjected the perchlorate of ethule to the heat of
boiling water without explosion or ebullition.

It may be observed that this is the first ether formed by the
combination of an inorganic acid containing more than three
atoms of oxygen with the oxide of ethule, ind that the chlorine
and oxygen in the whole compound are just sufficient to form
chlorohydric acid, water and carbonic oxide with the hydrogen
and carbon.

The existence of a compound of the oxide of ethule with an
acid containing seven atoms of oxygen, led us to attempt to com-
bine, by the same method, this base with nitric acid. For this
purpose we subjected a mixture of sulphovinate and nitrate of
barytes to the same treatment as described above, but the reac-

* Having s suffered severely on several occasions from the unexpected ‘explosion
of this substance, w we would derseetly cheng the Bt oid not & oe eed
ioned above.

Vol. xi, No. 1.—Oct.-Dec, 1841. 9

66 Demonstration of the Principle of Virtual Velocities.

tion, even when conducted with the greatest possible care, is
destructive, hyponitrous ether and gaseous matters being the
principal products obtained. Nor were we more successful in our
attempts to procure a sulphurous or hyposulphurie ether by the
same process. —

Arr. V.—A new Demonstration of the Principle of Virtual Ve-
eo bined by’ eed on Stone.

Ler any body or system of bodies, (or material points,) be af-
fected by the forces P, Q, R, and so on; imagine points consid:
ered as fixed to be taken in the lines in whieh the forces act, and
let p denote the distance of the point of application of P, from
the point taken in the line of its action, ¢ the distance of the
point of application of Q from the point Niten ‘i in the line of its
direction, and so on; and suppose the points to be so assumed
that P, Q, &c. shall tend at the same time to increase each of the
distances p, q, &c. or to decrease them, (the positions of the fixed
points in other respects being supposed arbitrary): we shall re-
gard each force and distance as positive, and it is manifest that
the equilibrium consists in the relation of the forces to each other
being such that their actions shall not alter any one of the cue
‘tances p, ¢, &e.

We shall denote the sum of the products Pp, Qq, &c. by M,
and we shall have Pp +Qq+&c.=M, (1,) then if the rte bal
ance each other, p, q, &c. will each be constant.

We shall suppose that p, g, &c. are each constant, and ait r,
a ‘&ec. become P+ P’, Q@+Q’, &c. but that p, ¢, &c. are yet
each constant ; also that M becomes M+M’/; then (1) will become
(P+P’)p+(Q+Q’)q+&c.=M+M’, which by (1) reduces to

M’

ie ealillalpioee (2); if we multiply (1) by M> Wwe get
PM QM
Pw toy +é&e. =M’, which must exidanily. be identical swith
(2), so as to leave p, q, &c. each arbitrary, hence the coefficients
Tea —_ also those atepmiberrtanegad; and so on:

-p=M’ @=M and so on. Hence it is evident that P’,
Q’, &c. have all the same sign, and that they have the same pro-

eae 21

Se eee

Demonstration of the Principle of Virtual Velocities. 67

portions among themselves that P, Q, &c. have ; also if any one of
them as P’ is=0, then each of the others and M’ will =0, as evi-
dently ought to be the case, for when a system of forces as P, Q, R,
&c. is in equilibrium, the equilibrium will not be disturbed by ap-
plying another system of forces, as P’, Q’, &c. which are propor-
tional to P, Q, R, &c., to the same points severally, and in the
same directions or in directions which are exactly opposite, &c.

We shall use 4, (the characteristic of variations,) when prefixed
to any quantity to denote any indefinitely small variation of the
quantity, the variation being supposed to be positive when the
quantity is increased, and negative when it is decreased. Sup-
pose then that the forces balance each other, and that the body
or system of bodies, receives a very small change of position,
(consistent with its conditions, or with the mutual connections
of its parts in the case of a system,) and that in consequence of
the change of position p, g, &c. become p+4p, g+4q, and so on,
and that P, Q, é&c. become P+45P, Q+5Q, &Kc., also that M be-
comes M-+0M; then (1) will be changed to (P+9P).(p+¢p)+
(Q+5Q) . (¢+0q)+&c.=M+95M; now since SP, op, &c. are
each supposed to be indefinitely small, the products dP . op,
dQ . 9g, &c. will be indefinitely smaller than poP, Pp, and so on,
and are hence to be rejected; .°. rejecting these products and re-
ducing by (1), the above equation will become pdP + qIQ +&c.
+ Pip +Qdq+&c. =0M, and if we assume poP +qIQ +&c.=0M,
(3), we get Pip +Qdq+&c.=0, (4). Now it is evident (as in
(2),) since p, g, &c. are the same in (3) as in (1), that we may
suppose the forces 5P, dQ, &c. to be applied at the same points
and to act in the same lines as P, Q, &c. severally, by neglecting
quantities of the order of the products 9P. op, dQ. dq, &c.;
hence OP, 9Q, &c. will have the same sign, and the same propor-
tions among themselves that P, Q@, &c. have; .". when the forces
balance each other, changing the position of the body or system
(as above, in consequence of which, the small forces, 8P, dQ, &c.
are introduced), does not affect the equilibrium; and (4) which
is called the principle of virtual velocities, will have place when
the forces P, Q, &c. balance each other, as we proposed to prove;
and it may be observed that dp, dg, &c. are called the virtual
mnectinie of the points of application of P, Q, &c.

Conversely if (4) has som the forces will balance each abe
disedtecaecactiacadh Bidirweny do the body or point to which P is

68 Demonstration of the Principle of Virtual Velocities.

applied move with the force P’, and that to which the force Q is
applied move with the force Q’, and so on, and suppose the bodies
or points describe the very small spaces p’, q’, &c. in the same
time ; then if the forces P’, Q’, &c. are applied in directions
which are directly opposite to their several directions they will
balance the forces P, Q, &c.; hence if 5p, 5g, &c. are the virtual
velocities of the points of application of P, Q, &c. if we assume
mp’ for the virtual velocity of P’ when it is applied in a direction
exactly opposite to its direction, mg’ will be the virtual velocity
of Q’ when it is changed to the opposite direction, and so on.
Hence by (4), since the system is in equilibrium, we shall have
Pdp + Qdq4+ &c.4+P/mp’+Q’mq'+&c. = 0, but by supposition
Pép+Qiq+&e.=9, - *, Pomp’ +Q/mq + &c.=0, or P’p’+Q/q/+
&c.=0; now it is evident that P’ has the same sign as p’, Q’ the
game sign as gq’, and so on ; hence the equation cannot hold good,
(since its terms have all the same sign which is +,) unless P’p’
=0, Q’q’=0, and so on; .*. P’=0, or p’=0, or both=0, but on
either supposition, the body to which the force P is applied is at
rest, and in the same way the body to which Q is applied is at
rest, and so on; .’. when the equation of virtual velocities has
place, the forces balance each other, as we proposed to prove. —

Application.

Let P, Q, R, be three forces applied to a material point, and
(for simplicity) suppose the directions of P and Q to be perpen-
dicular to each other and parallel to two rectangular axes # and
y; drawn in their plane through any given point taken for their
origin, and suppose that P and Q, act in the directions of « and
Y, Positive ; then when there is an equilibrium between P, Q, R,
it is evident that R. must act in the same plane with P and Q, in
a direction which is directly opposite to their resultant; also that
R will be of the same magnitude as the resultant.

Let x and y be the co-ordinates of the point of application,
(which is supposed to be within the angle formed by the positive
co-ordinates, ) of the forces when referred to the aforesaid axes ;
take the distances a and 6 reckoned from the origin in the axes
of x and y, such that-a is greater than 7, 6 greater than y, then we
shall have p=a=«, g=b —y; also let.a’, b, be the co-ordinates of
any fixed point in th tubtinaat ditnctiones 2, then evidently a’ is
less than x, and b’ ie Fenn thetaeyés r=a/(r—a’)? +(y—0/)3; the

Solution of a Functional Equation. 69

forces are supposed to tend to diminish the distances p, q, 7, and
by (4) we get Pip+Qsq+Ror=0, (5).

Now since a, 6, a’, b’, are each invariable (because they be-
lens to fixed points), we have 9p = — dz, dg = — or =
= artiye Wy ’ PaEg oy,

, and nod ee these values (5) be-

=

or+ i R — hence, since 6x, dy are arbitrary and

y—v
—R

‘comes — Pdr —

r “4

independent of each other, we must have — R-—P=0,
—-Q=0, or Pa . . R, a ha R, .:. P? +Q?=R/, (8),
x-a’)? — 0b’)? Q y-b

since ( ) mat ) =1, also pip (9) ; hence from (8)
and (9) it is evident that if two forces are represented in quantity
and directions by the two sides of a rectangle, their resultant is
represented in quantity and direction by the diagonal which pass-
es through the angle formed by the two sides that represent the
forces.

For other applications of (4) we shall refer to the Mécanique
Analytique of Lagrange, and the Mécanique Céleste of La Place,
especially to the first volume of the former work.

Arr. VI.—Solution of a Functional Equation, which has been
employed by Poisson in demonstrating the parallelogram of
_ forces; by Greorce R. Perkins, A. M.

~ Porsson, in his able Traité de Mécanique, (see second edition,
Vol. I, p. 44 et seq.) has given a beautiful demonstration of the
parallelogram of forces. He makes his demonstration rest upon
-_ ppeenintton of yx, so as to satisfy the condition,
groz=9(r+z)+9(t—Zz)

Has says, pv =2cos. ax, will satisfy (1), and he further says,
that no other value of gx will satisfy it; but he does not show
how he determined this value of yz; but seems to have obtained
it by induction. Neither does he show why there mers not be
other values of yz, which will satisfy (1).

70 Solution of a Functional Equation.

We propose to determine the nature of gz by rigorous analysis.

From the nature of the function ¢(¢+z2)+9(«~z), which
constitutes the right hand member of (1), we know that its se-
cond differential, with reference to z, is the same as its second
differential, with reference to z; therefore the second differential
of gxpz, which constitutes the left hand member of (1), with re-
ference to z, is the same as its second differential, with reference
to z; hence we have the following condition :

d? 9a. d? pz
bho oe nc | = (2);

d? gr d?.g.
or, which is ‘the same thing, dr? t= soe we (3).

‘Now, since the left hand member of (3) is a function of x alti,
and the right hand member is a function of z alone, it follows
that each member is equal to a constant eel whioti we =

d*.¢.
denote by a?; then we shall have =, * 90 =a (4).

2
Multiply (4) by 2¢z. via and we get 2. 5am =

d.qz
2a°gx. a (5).
d.g¢x\?
Integrating (5) and adding the constant c, we get ea os
a?(gr)?+c (6), or, by a slight reduction, we obtain dr=

(7).

Va*(¢x)?+e an
; 1 eee

- Integrating (7) we get r=~ log. c’ (Var ay rete. ga] (8),
where ¢ is another constant.

Multiplying (8) by a, and passing from logarithms to exponen-
tials, we get e =c’ (v7. a* (gx)? +e+a. 7) (9), vite e is
such, that hyp. log.e=1.

Dividing (9) by ce’ and transposing, we get /a?(gx)* attes) teas

bw
a pcs x _ (10).
Squaring (10) and reducing, We gPb as!
| et aire yt es

Siete da,

Experiments on Bichlorure of Sulphur, §c. 71
_ Dividing (11) by we we obtain

1 ax - ax
s=5,5(¢ —ce’2 ,e ) (12).
This is the complete form of the function sought, since it con-
tains the two arbitrary constants ¢ and c’; substituting this func-
tion in (1) it becomes

1 a(x+z) —a(«-z) “+; @(a~2z) A peie
male —cc’? .é —ce’?,e +e7e'4, he
1 a(z+z) —a(r42) a(xz-2) ~a(x-z)
sale rr appa +e —cc’?.e (13).

If we equate the co-efficients of the like terms of (13), we
nd 1
shall find that e= —4a?, ¢’= Ba substituting these values of

~at

cand ¢’ in (12) we find gr=e wie (14).

It now remains to find the value of a.

When 235 =90°, the two forces oppose each other, and then
gx=0; substituting oe values in sie we get

aaM
o= sa te -3 1
Equation ( 1 (15) givesa=v—1; therefore (14) finally becomes
wh ow BY ced
gos te =2cos.2 (16); this value of gr=

2 cos. z agrees with Poisson’s value yr=2 cos. az, since he shows
that it is necessary to take a=1. Moreover it is evident that no
other value of gz can be found which will satisfy the conditions
of the question, since equation ( 12) is in its most general form.

Bs
Pe

Arr. VII.—Ezperiments on Bichlorure of Sulphur and certain
carbures of hydrogen, made in the laboratory of Jefferson Col-
- lege (Louisiana) ; by Prof. F. Curver.

A current of bicarbure of hydrogen being brought to bear on
some bichlorure of sulphur, under the influence of the solar rays,
the gas was absorbed in considerable quantities with a great
throwing off of heat. The liquid, at first of a very deep pome-

72 Experiments on Bichlorure of Sulphur, &c.

granate red, gradually became orange colored, then of a yellow
orange color. The light refracted by the ball containing the
bichlorure, assumed the finest violet hue, like that produced by
vapor of iodine. 'Thiscolor lasted a very long time.

Among the vapors thrown off at first, the writer thought he
remarked chlorohydric ether and sulphohydric ether.. These va-
pors made the water through which they passed milky, but this.
effect soon ceased. 'Towards the end of the operation, the gases
evolved burned with a very fuliginous flame, like bicarbure of
hydrogen, pure; however they by no means had the same smell.
There appearing to be no absorption, the liquid was gradually
heated to bring about absorption, by producing an atmosphere
of vapors; suddenly the yellow liquid assumed a raspberry red
color, but no marked absorption was effected. Its bulk was very
viscous like a thick syrup; its smell was penetrating and very
enduring, similar to that of blackberries or raspberries; its flavor
was at first sweet, then very pungent.

The next day, a deposit was found of a number of small n nee-
dle-shaped crystals of a deep brown.

Neither water, alcohol, nor ether, appears to dissolve these
crystals to any decided amount ; however, alcohol discolors them,
whilst it colors itself and leaves a drop of red liquid by evapora-
tion. Water casts off from the alcoholic solution a white pow-
dery deposit, and leaves a red drop at the bottom of the vessel.
Nitric acid, cold, appears not to act, but warm, it dissolves the
crystals ul gives a yellow sadinient of sulphur.

The crystals, having been several times washed with atest,
assumed a light chocolate color; after being strained through
pieces of blotting paper, they were discolored, leaving on the
paper a very volatile oil which rapidly disappeared, but there

ined a red stain on the paper, which shows that the volatile
oil is distinct from that species of coloring matter. The crystals
strained through paper, were placed in the pneumatic vacuum in
the presence of sulphuric acid and moist fragments of potash ;
the surface of the acid became of a decidedly roseate hue and
besprinkled with small oily drops; the potash had absorbed
some of the chlorine. These crystals. were then pretty white, and
burned in a very li up and emitting a flame
which betokened the presence both of sulphur and of a resinous
matter. Sulphuric acid appears powerless on these crystals, un-

a tel ae te DB Pte Me ener area

SEP Te

a arcana

Experiments on Bichlorure of Sulphur, $c. 73
less it be that it discolors them. Another part of the crystals,

re having undergone a potash solution, gave a solid and very gluey

deposit of a dirty yellow; the solution became yellowish; the
sides of the vessel, in which the operation was performed, became
very greasy, the deposits, as well as the potash — had a
very strong and decided smell of cucumber. ~

- The red liquor, in the midst of which was the mass of eeheiiey
slightly smoked in the open air, though its point of ebullition’
was pretty high; its density is greater than that of sulphuric
acid, but apart floats even above the water, which betokens a
complex liquid; it is insoluble in water and in ether, but rather
soluble in alcohol ; however, the alcoholic solution having evap-
orated, appears to leave the liquor untouched ; water brings about
a powdery deposit of a currant red.

~ This lige, on distillation, gives a yellowish oil of a flavor
acrid, pungent, and very enduring; it reddens the blue paper,
doubtless by free chlorohydric acid.

The writer further made bichlorure of sulphur prepared cold,
react on two other carbures of hydrogen, oil of naphtha, and es-
sence of turpentine, both as highly rectified as possible. With
the oil of naphtha, the action is lively, and accompanied by a
marked ebullition; the temperature rises rapidly, and a consid-
erable ‘quantity: of chlorohydric acid i is thrown off. A black de-

a yellowish liquid, which, being washed with water, furnished
a yellowish and glutinous mass, floating on the liquid; it was
sulphur impregnated with a very volatile oil, rapidly disappear-
ing from the paper used for straining, and without any sediment.
This mass undergoing a warm preparation with alcohol, consid-
erably diminished in bulk, and, after cooling, oily drops gathered
on the surface. Ether dissolves this species of oil better than
alcohol ; what remained undissolved by the ether, still betokened,
on being burned, the presence of a resinous matter ; it was then
subjected: to the influence of boiling nitric acid, which left a
globule of sulphur. The washings of the distilled liquid con-
tained much chlorohydric acid and also some sulphuric acid.
The deposit left in the cucurbite became blacker and more
plentiful; it burned like resin, and did not appear to contain sul-
phur; it is soluble in nitric tecid, sea and by evolving after a
Vol. xtu, No, 1.—Oct.-Dee. 1

74 Experiments on Bichlorure of Sulphur, Se.

of perfect whiteness; these crystals are of aslightly bitter f
and have no feature of acidity.

With the essence of turpentine, the reaction is. extremely tue; es zi
multuous, the vessel in which the operation was made, was sunk —

in cold water, and yet the matter boiled up considerably ; the
mass became very viscous, but it remained homogeneous. —Dis-
tillation was performed ; a great quantity of chlorohydric vapors
were thrown off by the draught tube; a pomegranate-red liquid
condensed in the recipient ; this liquid exhaled a stinking smell,
pretty similar to that from the products of the distillation of ani-

mal matter. A very black-sediment remained at the bottom of
the cucurbite. On applying nitric acid to this mass, no needle-
formed crystals were obtained as with the naphtha; the wash-
ings of the distilled liquid gave a very viscous reddish mass,
which sank to the bottom, instead of. at homing yellowwieh 0 ven
obtained with the naphtha. —

Not having at my disposal aes means. ais eidiohiene rion aie:
ceeding to organic analyses, I have been unable to ascertain the
composition of the different products to which the reactions
above described gave rise, a composition, the knowledge of which
is.indispensable to a correct appreciation of these products..-dn
publishing this memorandum, I have therefore had no other ob-
ject in view but to point out a few facts relating to the action of
bichlorure of sulphur on carbures of hydrogen, facts which have
appeared to me worthy to engage the attention of chemists, and
susceptible of being connected ‘wah one nnetinet and ht

-underthe Jawsofacommon theory. ea te

_» Deprived of the apparatus and reactives samubeas for this
study, I have deemed it. my duty to give publicity to an entirely
novel subject of study, which, in rv opinion, holds out a cer-
tainty of important discoveries, and A hope and trust that some
American chemist, placed in more. favorable, and
especially one more. skillful, will, by. yee up this subject of
inquiry, ere long enrich the science with eenatab: new and inter-
pepsi

$m.2 ES NAR Gaehee Pee We dean go de ef Rim, Cae es -

eM, FRE tee Mrs ig ge Ys eae ks

eosin

suitable evaporation, it deposits very long needle-shaped crystals ia! ‘

SSN A A ea th a eee

en

Remarks upon Arsenic. 75

SF ; vii. —Continuation note thie Renioehe made upon n Arsenio?
cs ag ; a medico-legal fit wen view ; - J. Lawrence
‘ ae Sun, M. D. of Charleston, 8. ae

aaa Béitore—Since my last mata on this sabe, there has
been a great deal of important matter brought to light by those
of this place (Paris) who were interested with this subject, and I
had prepared a detailed account of what had been done, and was
on the point of sending it, when the report of the committee ap-
pointed by the Academy of Sciences to examine into this ques-
tion made its appearance. I therefore have been induced to send
this instead of the other, as it will encroach much less upon your
Journal, and as also containing statements that are more to be
relied on.
In the examination of poisoning by arsenic, all the excrements,
- Such as matter vomited, urine, &c., as well as all parts of the
body itself, present matter for investigation. The method by
which they all are examined, is essentially the same, each one
exacting the same careful but not difficult manipulations ; no
we ee er necessary to carry them out, and
d such as are to be found at every druggist’s

ee a = antes

a
-
m

To a es in fac Pa

ee ee be to. pro-
| ceed, is to rid ourselves: of-the bigeuic: mundi that forms a latge
? »part of the liquids and solids that are to be examined, (the liquids
, should always be evaporated to dryness and treated as the solids
are.) In-my last letter was stated, what was then considered the
best method of carbonizing the animal matter; but siuce MM.
Danger and Flandin have described another, which from the re-
port of the committee of the Academy, is almost as simple a one
as can be desired, it being greatly superior to that by nitric acid
pvsiqunheraie potash i in many poe “are — will be evi-

ta all. th -—

ee matter aes placed in ina capsule a sitet (evapora-
ting dish,) we add to it about one sixth of its weight of sulphu-
tic acid, and erent “asap until ett acid vapors aoe to eid
Gis te % oe eee crs

* See this Journal, Vol. xx, p. 278.

pear. The matter enters first into solution, and then becomes

carbonized during the concentration of the liquid, which we con-
tinue to evaporate, stirring at the same time with a glass rod.
The carbonization takes place without any swelling up of the
materials, (as is the case when nitric acid is used.) The action
of the heat is prolonged until the carbon appears friable and al-
most dry. The capsule is now left to cool, and then there is
added to the carbon about the same quantity of nitric acid as we
did of sulphuric acid in the first part of the operation. This
serves to convert the arsenious into arsenic acid, which latter is
much more soluble than the former: we again evaporate to dry-
ness, and treat the residue with boiling water, which dissolves
the arsenic acid only, and is always perfectly limpid, and some-
times colorless ; and this liquid also, when introduced into Marsh’s
re sou produces no froth.”
“This

process is much preferable to the carbonization by nitric
much -

atid; for we can more easily manage the operation, and a
less quantity of reactives is required, (an neonsacrene ey
and there never is any deflagration.”

MM. Danger and Flandin recommend the use of idea onal
er quantity of nitric acid than has been stated, but from the pro-
duction very often of phosphite and sulphite of ammonia during
the action of the sulphuric acid upon the animal matter, it is ve-
ry necessary that there should be sufficient nitric acid to convert
these compounds into phosphate and sulphate of ammonia, for
otherwise our experiments would be singularly confused, as will
be shown a little farther on. It would appear that the arsenious
acid in the operation just stated, would be evaporated along with
. the sulphuric acid, but some experiments performed by the com-
mittee before mentioned, with reference to that spe sountas pic
no danger need be apprehended on that score.

I have now stated: the best method to pursue, in ashuae
liquid that may contain all the arsenic in combination with any
organic matter, and also one that is proper to be introduced into
Marsh’s apparatus. The next question that most naturally arises
is, what form of this apparatus is the one that is most calculated
" give us einen results? - he committee of the Academy of

ences lso occupied themselves with this question, and
the following isa detailed account of the instrument sth. hee
received their a

Ete

- ee

AA, an ordinary phial with a large mouth having a capacity of
from ten to sixteen ounces, in which the gas is generated ; B, a
tube little less than half inch in diameter traverses the cork and
reaches nearly to the bottom of the phial ; it is for the purpose of

introducing the liquid to be examined and the sulphuric acid. ©,

another tube of a much small diameter, and bent at an obtuse
angle; this serves to conduct the gas into a tube D, about ten
‘inches long and an inch in diameter, filled with cotton or asbes-
tus. E is a glass tube, (it is to be preferred if it be of refracting
glass ;) its internal diameter should not be more than from one
twelfth to one tenth of an inch, and its extremity should be
drawn out to a capillary opening: F' is a bent sheet of tin per-
forated with two holes, and which serves to support that part of
the tube heated by the alcoholic lamp G.

i

mx
ui ff (Hi, :

sncuinpitviaie g alae emiegensinineaied fitch son samen of. the
phial should be left empty. The zinc and liquor to be tested are

first introduced. The tube Eis then heated by the lamp, after

which we introduce slowly the sulphuric acid through the tube
B. The gas being generated, it first traverses the tube D, where
it deposits most of its moisture, as well as that portion of the
liquor which passes out of the phial along with the gas. The
gas arriving at the point of the tube E that is heated, is decom-
posed, and the arsenic deposits itself a little further up the tube,

in the form of a metallic ring. The gas that passes out of the

extremity is inflamed, and. any arsenic that may still remain
combined with it, is received on a porcelain surface.

- This is the method of operating, that seemed to the committee
most likely to give delicate and accurate results. They seem to
think that fused chloride of calcium is not to be preferred to the
Cotton or the asbestus; but from many experiments that I have

78 Remarks upon Arsenic.

made, it would appear that it was; for the gas passing over the
chloride of calcium is deprived entirely of its moisture, which
does not happen in the other case; and the dryness of the gas
must evidently augment the delicacy of the instrument, for if the
gas contain méisture when it arrives at the point where it is de-
composed, the arsenic, as it is liberated, will combine with the
oxygen of the moisture, forming arsenious acid, which
no metallic lustre, and if the quantity of arsenic be infinitely
small, I see no reason sinc epi eet not undergo this change ; ;
at any rate, the tatis-D; any matter that may” serve
to dry the gas, Se Sa at
Another ren remark to be made about this anintiant is, ahaa
} hydrogen is not decomposed, and it not
povnanra happens that a portion of that decomposed, is thrown
outat the extremity of the tube along with the gas. To obviate
these little inconveniences, I have used the following means,
which appear to be of some service. In the interior of the tube
E, at the point where it is heated, are placed very small fragments
of charcoal, that have been heated to redness in a close vessel
before being introduced, and bending the same tube, as is seen in in
abc, under the figure before described. 'The arsenic b
lected in the tube E, as just meutioned, is described as follows
Ist. By its volatility.
2d. By its becoming changed into a white relate powder
when the tube, open at both ends, is heated in an inclined
position. 4 Sie
“Bd. If-we introduce a little nitric acid into the tube it dissolves
perenne; converting it into arsenic acid, and if this nitrie acid
solution be evaporated to dryness in a capsule, taking care to add
afew drops of hydrochloric acid to the nitric acid before com-
mencing the evaporation—(the reason of this precaution is, that
most nitric acid of commerce contains an organic substance,
which gives to the residue a more or less black appearance, and
by the addition of a few drops of hydrochloric acid chlorine is
generated, which serves more or less to destroy this substance,
and therefore afford us a whiter residue )—the residue will give a
red precipitate if we add to it a drop or two of a concentrated
solution of silver, and it is often well to place a small erystal of
nitrate of silver in the-capsule age occatREn! ee
tends to render the test more delicate. ~ fy ee

a ah aaa

Remarks upon Arsenic. 79

_ Ath. We may collect the arsenate of silver thus formed, mix
it with a little black flux, introduce it in the bulb by the extrem-
ity a of the tube ab, (which extremity is to be subsequently
closed by being heated,) and then heat the bulb, the arsenate ~
will be decomposed, and the arsenic will make its appearance in
the form of a metallic ring in the capillary portion of the tube d,
a ote oa :

“ experimenting with Marsh’s apparatus, we should ef. course
be sure.of the purity of the materials used in generating the hy-
drogen gas, as well as of those used for carbonizing the animal
matter.. We should submit them all to the same examination
alone, as we did in company with the substance which was the
object of our experiment, that is to say, we should evaporate to
dryness the same quantity, or even more sulphuric and nitric acids
and water than was used, and test it with the same quantity of
zinc. . It must be understood. at the same time, that all the re-
agents should be tested before as well as after the experiment.

_.In my last letter, I mentioned that it was generally supposed
afer the experiments. of M. Orfila and others, that the bones con-
tained. sagan and it was also believed that the muscles did;
there havin; been obtained taches resembling in some dente
those. of. arsenic, -which, I gave then as my opinion, were no
doubt caused by the sulahue.ae, phosphorus contained. in the
muscles.

MM. Deager ee Pianie bape been ocenpying themselves
particularly with the investigation of the question of the exist-
ence of arsenic normally, in the animal economy. In their ex-
periments they found that by taking a small portion of a muscle,
and carbonizing it imperfectly, they were able to obtain taches
resembling in all respects those of arsenic, but which in reality
Were not, for they ascertained that they were produced by the
Sulphite and phosphite of ammovia and an animal volatile oil,
formed during the imperfect carbonization ; and also by the aid
of about one grain and a half of each of these salts and eighteen
drops of spirits of turpentine, they formed these taches in con-
siderable quantity ; they have stated that they resemble in all
papecie. those of arsenic, but no one accords with them on that

int. The committee of the Academy of Sciences. stated. what

80 Remarks upon Arsenic.

follows; (which I have convinced myself is correct.) “That the
taches obtained from phosphite and sulphite of ammonia and tur-
pentine, differ from those of arsenic—Ist. By being but partially
“soluble in cold nitric acid, and 2d. By the nitric acid solution
when evaporated to dryness, giving with nitrate of a a a
low and not a red precipitate.”

MM. Danger and Flandin, and still later the committee so
often referred to, have examined also the bones, but were no
more successful in tracing the presence of arsenic in them than
they were in the case of the muscles. M. Orfila, one of the first
who stated that they did contain arsenic, is no longer of his origi-
nal opinion; so that at present the question of the existence of
normal arsenic in the animal economy, is resolved in the nega-
tive; and happy it is for the medico-legalist that he is not embar-
rassed on that point. I may also add that humanity should re-
joice at it, for did arsenic exist in the body normally, and was it
generally known, its use as a destructive agent would be consid-
erably extended, and those using it in a criminal way, might very
justly suppose, that if they were suspected and tried, nothing
would be easier for an ingenious attorney, than to snatch him
from the hands of justice, by forcing certain doubts from the
most skillful medico-legalist ; but whereas, as the question now
stands, facts are too easily brought to light and too well substan-,
tiated, that a doubt should be left upon the mind of any one.

There have been many other taches mentioned, but as they all
except one, depend upon the liquid of the apparatus being thrown
out by the gas upon the cooling surface, where any metallic salt
that it may contain is subsequently decomposed by the hydrogen,
no notice shall be taken of them, as the tube D (in the apparatus
figured) prevents altogether, any thing of the kind happening.
The tache excepted is that produced, when we use a surface
whose glaze contains lead or tin in considerable quantity; the
flame of the hydrogen reduces these metals at that point of the
surface upon which it is directed, and gives rise to a tache more
or less brilliant, although very easily distinguished from that of
arsenic od non-volatile, and insoluble in nitric acid. :

As regards the tache produced by antimony, there is nothing
be said ; ‘bias we treat the matter for examination by sulphu-
rie and nitrie acids, mS aoc it be present, is converted into

uble in water; so there is no-dan-

Examination of the Peroxide of Manganese. 81

ger of introducing it in the apparatus, and moreover, the tests
already mentioned, are sufficient to enable us to Petey: be-
tween antimony and arsenic.

oI shall conclude what I have to say on this mahiaits with the
résumé of the report of the Academy of Sciences

“The committee, resuming the instruction wiiaadinad in ssin
report, think that Marsh’s process, applied with all the precautions
which have been indicated, satisfy the demand of medico-legal
researches, in which the quantity of arsenic, which it is attempt-
ed to exhibit, is always much gues to that which the delicacy
of the apparatus exhibits; (+5545; of arsenic acid existing ina
liquid, is about the extent of the delicacy of the apparatus.)
At the same time it must be well understood, that it is always
to be employed as a means of concentrating the metal, in order
to study its chemical characters, and that we should consider as
nothing, or as extremely doubtful, the indications which it fur-
nishes, if the deposit which is foveeicil ith; teoramtotior part of the
tube, does not permit the experimenter, on account of its very
small quanity, to verify ina = manner, the ¢. harac-
ters of arsenic.”

*“ We will add that in etigg gebater number of ete epiediinks
the examination of the matter vomited, and of that which re-
mains in the intestinal canal, will convince the experimenter of
the ; presence of the poison; and that he: will have only to proceed

of the organs, in cases where the first efforts
have. ‘been fruitless, or in those very rare cases, where preenaned
Speurastadegs ne ee shall indicate to him the necessity.”
is, June 28ih,

pow IX.— Remarks upon an examination of the piodeoseros A
eth an ad by Henry C. Lea.

re of great importance, both to the practical and theoret-
ical chemist, to have the combinations which the different me-
tals form with the acids, investigated, in order that the proper
degree of confidence may be reposed in the various theories
which have been formed from time to time by so many celebra-
wae iu a eden with this view y alone that re a Arn 3 ‘
Vol. 3 ten, Re 1 1 Dette: 4841. il

82 E.
had not time to pursue them far enough to afford any very defi-
nite result. ‘They may however serve to point the way to some
one who has sufficient zeal for the science, to carry them out to
some more useful end than I cou!d hope to attain. I must here
make my acknowledgments to Prof. Booth, in whose laboratory,
and with whose assistance, these examinations were made.

The peroxide of manganese has never been investigated, as
its existence has until lately been questioned by some of the first
chemists in Europe, and the tendency of its salts to convert
themselves into proto-salts, contributed to render it problematical
whether it was not merely the protoxide disguised. It can be
obtained in various ways, but the most convenient is to calcine
' the proto-nitrate gently until the nitrous acid ceases to be given
off. A less troublesome method is to heat the common black or
deutoxide, until part of its oxygen is given off, but this method is
uncertain, as too great a heat converts it into the manganoso-
manganic oxide, and it is almost impossible to obtain the black ox-
ide free from admixture with iron. When obtained by calcining,
its color is of a deep black, and sometimes shining; but when
precipitated from a liquid, as the permanganate of potassa, it is of
a dark brown. It has sometimes been found native, and is then
known to mineralogists under the name of Braunite. It unites
with water and forms the hydrate, which may be readily produ+
ced by precipitating the hydrated protoxide from a proto-salt, and
exposing it to the action of the atmosphere. Obtained in this
manner it appears under the form of a brown powder, but when
found native, it is black and crystallizes sometimes in acicular
crystals, and sometimes in octahedra, resembling in this state the
deutoxide. The peroxide is composed, according to the calcu-
lations of Berzelius, of 43.37 of oxygen to 100 of manganese.

With the different acids it has very various actions; with some
it is converted into protoxide, forming proto-salts; while with
others it immediately forms per-salts, which seem to have no reg-
ular color, some being red, while others are nearly white, brown,
or yellowish ; a dirty white is however the most usual appearance.
I have found it to be the case, that most vegetable acids which
convert the peroxide into protoxide by giving off oxygen, when
ts upon the deutoxide, will form per-salts by the loss of oxy-

They all contain a 6 rated acid, without the
“- ‘incapable of

of the Peroxide of Manganese.

forming any

eg Se nak

SSS)

? -4

Examination of the Peroxide of Manganese. 83

salt. The best test I have met with for distinguishing them
from the soluble proto-salts, to which they in appearance bear a
great similarity, is the yellow prussiate of potash. With the per-
salts it gives a greyish green precipitate, while with the protox-
ide solutions the precipitate formed is white or whitish pink.
The hydrochlorate of platina is also a good test for them, as with
them it forms a yellowish precipitate, but with those of the prot-

_ oxide, it forms none.

_ Sulphuretted hydrogen When this gas is passed over the per-
oxide placed in a tube, which at the same time is heated, the gas
is decomposed, sulphur and water are given off, and the oxide is
converted into a sulphuret of a light green color. The gas
must be passed over until the tube becomes cool, for if the sul-
phuret be exposed to the air while hot, it inflames, acting the
part of a pyrophorus. When digested in fuming nitric acid, a
violent action takes place, the sulphuret is decomposed and con-
verted into a proto-salt, and all the sulphur is precipitated. Ana-
lyzed in this manner, it gave 9.6 per cent. of sulphur, and when
heated in the open air until the sulphur was burnt out and the
oxide converted into manganoso-manganic oxide, it yielded 100
per cent. of manganoso-manganic oxide, which contains 72.178
per cent. of metallic manganese. Now 9.6 of sulphur will com-
bine with 16.51 of manganese, which makes 26.11 per cent. of
sulphuret. There then remains 55.67 per cent. of manganese,
which, if considered as manganoso-manganic oxide, would form
an oxy-sulphuret, containing :

Sulphuret of manganese, - wp <9 26.110
Manganoso-manganic oxide, - - 71.893
98.003

_ Thus in the operation, both the oxide and sulphuretted hydro-
gen are decomposed. The oxide is partly reduced to manganoso-
manganic oxide, and partly to metallic manganese. The sul-
phur from the sulphuretted hydrogen is mostly driven off, but
some of it combines with that part of the oxide which has been
converted into the metal, while the oxygen from the oxide, and
the hydrogen from the gas, unite and pass off under the form of
steam. This oxy-sulphuret very much resembles the substance
formed by gently calcining the red sulphuret ina close vessel,
(during which operation sulphuretted hydrogen is given off,) but

ation of the Peroxide of Manganese.

it upon analysis gave but 92.857 per cent. of wee inbeticwed
ganic oxide, while the first forms 100.
en.—When cyanuret of potassium is added to a. pron

tion of a per-salt of manganese, the cyanuret is precipitated under
the form of an extremely fine greyish green. powder, which re bi. * Stet
mains suspended in the liquid for some time. :

Sulphuric acid.—The persulphate may be penal aa di at i
ing the black oxide in sulphuric acid for several days in the
or when peroxide is placed in dilute acid, itis formed in a
hours, but when the peroxide is used, there is a greater excess .
of acid. This solution is of a beautiful carmine red, but if the Baits: 2
oxide be that precipitated from the permanganate of potassa, the be
solution has somewhat of a violet tinge. It has so great a ten-
«dency to convert itself into protosulphate, that it ean neither be
‘evaporated nor crystallized, and it cannot be kept for any time, as
it is decomposed in the course of two or three weeks. This
ae may be accelerated by the addition of alcohol. - sree

_ Sulphate of manganese and potassa.—This salt, which is the
Siipricaabe; may be formed, according to Mitscherlich,.- by
adding a concentrated solution of sulphate of potassa to one of
persulphate of manganese. It crystallizes of a violet Nanas
and is decomposed by the addition of water.
~ If bisulphate of potassa be digested upon deutoxide of man-
ganese, there is a strong action, which results in the formation of
a double salt, which, upon evaporating, remains under the form
of a somewhat crystalline mass of a dirty white color, and @
pleasant acid taste; it reddens litmus paper, and shows the reac-
tion of the peroxide with yellow prussiate of potassa, and does
not seem to be decomposed by water; but it is most likely the
manganese-alum of Mitscherlich.

| Nitric acid-—When nitric acid is digested upon peroxide of
manganese, it does not form a per-salt, but the nitrate ae
made by adding nitrate of lead to the ennieanie of manganese,
= they are both neutralized.

Hydrochloric acid.—\f this acid be digested upon per or ieee
atid ‘of manganese, there is a perchloride formed of a. dark
brown color, and which decomposes immediately by the appliea-
tion of heat, or in a week or two, in the cold. There then re-
mains protochloride, while chlorine is evolved. - When Herepow
ted to dryness, we obtain

ye ete eee a:

F he Wh

Examination of the Peroxide of Manganese. 85

Dr. John passed chlorine through a solution of three hundred
grains of protochloride, dissolved in 12 oz. water, cooled to 419.
The liquid gradually congealed as the operation proceeded, and
, _ produced a yellowish crystalline mass, which melted at a tem-
== perature alittle above 41°. It was decomposed by evaporation.*
_ . This may only have been the perchloride, surrounded by liquid
lorine, for when I repeated this experiment, at a temperature
re 419, [ obtained a yellowish crystalline mass, which, how-
ever, on being placed between blotting paper to dry it, satya
; " that a yellow liquid imparted that color to the salt, which itself
-- was pink. Idid not however observe that it was decomposed
by evaporation. »
~ Sulphiirous acid.—This acid has no action upon the peroxide,
even when passed over it ina heated tube; and with the deut-
oxide it forms proto-hypo-sulphate. I do not think that the per-
sulphite can be formed unless by double decomposition with
some other salt.
Carbonic acid.—It naan action upon ote peroxide, and as
far as I have observed, it cannot be made to combine with it.
The brown substance mentioned by Thomson, (Chem. Inor.
Bodies, Vol. II,) and formed by decomposing the persulphate of
manganese by carbonate of potassa, is most probably an hydrate
of one of the oxides.

Phosphoric acid.—_When digested upon peroxide, this acid
forms a pink solution, giving the per reaction with tests, and
“which upon evaporation leaves an uncrystallizable pasty mass, of
a pink or violet color, which becomes colorless in a short time,
most probably by decomposition.
~ Boracic acid.—The borate can be readily formed by dissolving
the peroxide in boracic acid. The solution thus formed by evap-
oration leaves a whitish crystalline mass, soluble both in nitric
and muriatic acid.

| - Arsenious acid.-When peroxide is digested in arsenious sod,
i

°
‘
;
i
\
i

Pasa EAE

a ae

they unite and form asoluble pinkish white salt.

If bi-arsenite of potassa be digested upon peroxide of man-
; rtm: it forms a double salt, being arsenite of manganese and
; —

wot ioe Fob eS ae ed ne <b) F ‘ “gusta
ee -. .,.” Berzelius, Traité de Chimie, Tom. IV, p. 170. -
SSN pe ee ee A ES. Ba PS gh a

86 Examination of the Peroxide of Manganese.

~ Chromic acid.—Chromic acid seems to have no action upon
the peroxide, but a chromate may be formed by digesting the
peroxalate in chromic acid. The solution is of a dark chestnut

brown, but it cannot be evaporated or crystallized, as it is a

posed by the application of heat.

Bichromate of potassa has no action —— the deutoxide ae”

manganese.
Oxalic acid.—This acid has a violent effect upon the perox-

ide. Oxygen is given off, the insoluble protoxalate is precipita- ‘

ted, while a soluble peroxalate remains in solution. By careful
evaporation it may be crystallized, but it is very apt to be de-
composed, forming an insoluble salt, most probably the protoxa-
late. It dissolves in muriatic and nitric acid. It was analyzed
by dissolving and precipitating the oxalic acid by chloride of cal-
cium; while another portion was calcined and converted into
dines genobo-menigacic oxide. ‘Treated in this manner it showed
27.4348 per cent. of oxalic acid, and 8.5 of manganoso-manganie
oxide =11.73 of peroxide. This leaves a very large - centage
for water of wilder. Thus

Oxalic acid, - - - 27.4348 :

Peroxide of manganese, - - - 1.30 rexr ee

Water and loss, - - - - 60.8352
100.0000

The 11.73 of oxide, requires very nearly 16. of oxalic acid;
which leaves 11.4348 of free acid, so that this salt, in common
with the others, possesses a great excess of acid.

If binoxalate “Of potassa be digested upon the deutoxide oft man-
ganese, in the cold, a pink colored solution is formed, which by
standing becomes yellow, letting falla pink powder. If the so-
lution of the binoxalate be hot, the action is very violent, and
the resulting solution is yellow. By evaporation it leaves a crys-
talline, almost tasteless mass, partly white and partly green, and
which is readily dissolved in water,

Acetic acid.—Glacial acetic acid does not form a per-salt when
digested on peroxide of manganese. _-

Tartaric acid.—If this acid be digested upon peroxide, oxy-
gen is given off and the prototartrate is formed. But if we dis-
solve deutoxide instead of peroxide, a pertartrate results, which
on being evaporated leaves the salt of a light yellow or straw
color.

Examination of the Peroxide of Manganese. 87

- Bitartrate of potassa, particularly if warm, dissolves the deut-

- oxide of manganese with considerable energy, at the same time

evolving oxygen and forming a tartrate of manganese and potassa,
which is a highly crystalline brownish mass, of hardly any flavor,

24 and soluble both in nitric and hydrochloric acids.

Nee

t

*; .
2" Nae
F gots

Benzoic acid.—When benzoic acid is boiled with peroxide of
manganese, there is a benzoate formed, slightly soluble in water.
Thus obtained, it is a dirty white substanen, of a maytiging oil
pearance.

Succinie acid.—This acid forms a protosuccinate when di-
gested upon peroxide, but with the deutoxide, it, like tartaric
acid, forms a per-salt, which is soluble in water, of a whitish
color, crystalline and very acid.

acenuc acid:—This like the last forms a per-salt with the
deutoxide, and a proto-salt with the peroxide. The resulting so-
lution, by evaporation, leaves the salt somewhat crystalline,
whitish brown, and quite acid.

Citric acid.—With citric acid, both the per and deutoxide act
as towards the last. 'The percitrate obtained from the deutoxide
is a brown, gummy, seemingly uncrystallizable mass, of a pleas-
ant acid taste, slightly deliquescent, and is soluble, although not
very readily, in both nitric and muriatic acids.

Gallic acid.—T he pergallate of manganese may be obtained
by dissolving the peroxide in gallic acid. The solution thus ob-
tained is of a deep brown color, and the salt obtained by evapora-
tion is nearly black. It does not appear to crystallize.

These are all the acids, of which I have been able to note the
action with the per or deutoxide of manganese. I have followed
Berzelius in calling peroxide, that one which might perhaps be
more correctly termed sesquioxide, as its formula is Mn, but as it is
very similar to the analogous oxide of iron, also termed peroxide,
and as it is the highest oxide of manganese which forms combi-
nations with acids, it seems best to apply the term of peroxide to
this, and super or binoxide to the black oxide of commerce.

If time should favor me, I propose to pursue the above subject,
as it is probable that much remains to be determined, concerning
the compounds of manganese, before we can say with peapaent

t we are acquainted with the metal.

"Philadelphia, May 8th, 184}.

88 Sketch of: the Infusoria of the family Bacillaria.

Art. X.—A Sketch of the Infusoria, of the family Bacillaria,
with some account of the most interesting species which have
_been found in a recent or fossil state in the United States; by =.

J. W. Batvey, Professor of Chemistry, Mineralogy, and Geol- —
ogy, in the United States Military Academy.

Parr II.*

Havine given in the preceding part of this memoir, some ac-
count of those Bacillariae which belong to the section Desmidi-
acea, I continue the subject in the present part, by describing he oe
Bacillariae of the section Naviculacea. — ote se

As all the species referred to this section have siliceous cov-
erings, they often occur in a fossil state, and hence their study is
of peculiar interest to the geologist. In beauty of form and ele-
gance of structure, they will bear comparison with almost any clas
of eegces beings.

Secr. If. NAVICULACEA.
Pecrarcas

Free, carapace simple, bivalve (siliceous) <uvain globular,
(may be compared to a Gaillonella with perfect spontaneous divi-
sion or without division.

1. Pyxidicula operculata. (P\. 2, fig. land 1a.) Body spherical,
divisible into two HE WNAPHOT CG: carapace hyaline, internal organs green-
ish yellow, zig to zy line.

I have seen hemispheres, probably derived fen this. species,
among fossil infusoria from Manchester, Mass.,

2. Pyzidicula globata. 'This name has been given to Me: bodies
found in flint. Beautiful figures of them by peer will be found in
Pritchard’s Hist. Infusoria, pl. 12, figs. 506 to 509. It is now suspect-
ed that these bodies are the gemmules of sponges, as the ramified tubes
_ of sponge are often found preserved in the same pieces of flint. °
“8. Pyvidicula? (PI. 2, fig. 2, a,b.) The spheroidal bodies repre-
poe by these figures, occur in the weiter’ infusorial stratum discovered

- * Since the second part of this memoir: was ready for the press; - pare received

poe availed myself of the. ‘onportunity. 10. introduce here aaauagial pie pam
facts which it contains.. Many of these facts will Nii siti in the form of notes,
as tine dost a Soler peaed them in this nee eae
form,

Of. riers Se Stee Py , ane oe | r ee oe
See my eee ey ee ae 2 pe a Aas 89

by Prof. W. B. Rogers’ in Virginia.* Of the real: nature of these
bodies Iam quite uncertain; they agree however with Pyxidicula, in
i. separating into two hemispherical. portions. The surface is beautifully
- marked with rows of circular or hexagonal spots or cells, resembling
those on the beautiful species of Coscinodiseus which accompany these
bodies in the same deposit.

Ganceneinm ,
. Free, carapace simple, bivalve ( silfasasin)s tua exdizuiriegl,
globular or discoid, producing chains [long welateseas ean s]
by imperfect spontaneous division.
- 1. Gaillonella moniliformis. (Pl. 2, fig. 3.) Corpus: dle nae
cylindrical, short, conical at the sides and truncate, form octangular [?]
ircular when seen e soak ovaries green, 7; line. Ehr. Meloseira
j moniliformis, Ktz., Linn., 1833, Pl. 17, fig. 71. M. nummuloides,
Geev. in Brit. Flora, V, p. ne
_ This very beautiful species grows only in salt or brackish wa-
ter, and occurs in great. abundance in various places in the United
States. I first noticed it several years ago, among specimens
of Alge from Providence, R. I. I subsequently found it almost
covering the bottom and shores of Providence Cove at low tide.
I found it again in vast quantities, in salt ditches near the railroad
; at Stonington, Conn., where it formed large fleecy masses, some-
times of several feet in extent. Still more satire I have found
it at Staten Island, and also, auich sqnyiearprise, sity: miles 9
the Hudson River near West Point.t.
"Phe form is not, strictly. octangular, but at. ‘first appears s0
f the two minute projections of the delicate. mae
verse ridges seen near the: “ends of each of the two globules be-.
taasive to a joint. ‘They do not change their form when heated

heir vast extent, and foe being sie! first infusorial aieipduits eed int li Sos
ee of a period anterior to the present epoch. Jam ss ee ” tag = Ragart ie
PRs a pt a8 aut

Specimens from
figures drawn by my self of several of the interesting ae found in these beds.

t The Flora and Fauna of the Hudson River at West Point wotild, in a fossil
state, be-rather puzzling to the geologist, on aceonnt of the singular mixture of
marine and fluviatile species. While ears and Cripmogeton grow in such
Yast quantities in many places as to prevent the passage of a boat, and the sboaees is
covered w ith fuviatile shells, such as Plenorbis, Physa, &e. > a living state ;
Reid sersnatessh-v toc plants snnaleke with bunche a Alen a0

: carpus, &c.,. ofien covered with menine asitic
phytes and marine infusoria hoectone Gaillonella, Echinella, Naunema, pe

Vol. xu, No. 1.—Oct.-Dec. 1841. 12

90 Sketch of the Infusoria of the family Bacillaria.

to redness, nor by action of hot hydrochloric acid. They fuse
with effervescence with carbonate of potassa, and the fused mass
when treated with hydrochloric acid gives silica in abundance.
There can, then, be no doubt that the glass-like filaments of this
species are siliceous. Our species agrees in all respects with au-
thentic European specimens (in Herb. Tor.) collected by Hoff-
man Bang, at Hofmansgave.

2. Gaillonella aurichalcea. (Pt. 2, fg. 4,4 a?) Corpuscles ton
gated, cylindrical, truncate, flattened smooth, contiguous, a simple or
double pierced furrow in the middle of the body, oyaries greenish, -be-
coming golden yellow when dry, z$z line. Conferva orichalcea, Ag.,

Syst. Alg. p. 86. Ne meat Kiz., Linn., 1833, p. 72, 588,

Our species’ (PL 2, fig. 4,a, b,) agrees so closely with Kazing’s .
figure 68, even in the branching character and occasional produe-
tion of large globular joints, (see (c) in fig. 4,) that I feel little
hesitation in considering it as the G. aurichalcea, although I am
unable to perceive the “sillon percé” alluded to by Ehrenberg in
his specific character. This species might easily be mistaken for
a Conferva. It often forms bluish green masses, of full a foot in
extent, and while fresh it is quite as flexible as any Conferva ;
but on drying, it becomes of a light brassy yellow color, and is
then excessively fragile. ‘There is much variation in the diame-
ter of the filaments, and in the relative length of the joints. The
filaments which have the smallest diameter, have, generally, the
longest joints. They retain their forms when heated to white-
ness, and when treated with strong nitric acid. This species oc-
curs in springs, rivulets, &c., and appears as common in this
country asin Europe. In (Pl. 2, fig. 4, b,) is represented a spe-
cies of Gaillonella apparently distinct from figs. 4 and 4 a. It
shows the pierced furrows and agrees in most respects with the
figure of G. aurichalcea given ay Ehrenberg in his memoir en-
titled Die Fossilen Infusorien und die lebendige Dammerde, Pl.
1, fig. 23. It is possibly, only a state of our species above refer-
red to. It occurs in ponds near West Point.

“s ‘
while the rocks below low water mark ate covered with Balani and minute coral-

a and the marine flora ie invepfescnin’ by vast qunesitice of avery wien 08th
siD onia, nov. 6p %y abun.
and an elegant Alga, 2 5 open essageemne i ‘with Delesseria Leprieurii of Montagne,

which was first detected on the shores of Cayenne. (See Seager ae
Naturelles, 2d series, 1 Bee 13, p- 196, and . 5.)

;

rw

Sketch of the Tafusoria of the family Bacillaria. 91

3. Gaillonelia distans. (Pl. 2, fig. 5.) Corpuscles cylindrical,
short, truncate and flattened on the ends, smooth, with two pierced fur-
rows, always separated in the middle, >4+¢ to 74 line, usually Jy.

This species occurs in vast quantities in the fossil state in Ku-
rope. It constitutes a large portion of the slate of Bilin and Cas-
sel, and of the “ Berghmehl” or “fossil farina” of various locali-
ties. It occurs in most of the specimens of American fossil in-
fusoria, which I have seen. It is particularly abundant in the
specimens from Manchester, Mass., which are chiefly composed
of exceedingly minute frustules of this species. It forms here,
a true fossil farina, almost as light as flour, and containing ina
cubic inch many hundred millions of these minute siliceous shells.
It oceurs in a living state at West Point.

4. Gaillonella varians. (Pl. 2, fig. 6, a, b.) Corpuscles flat on
each end, cylindrical surface smooth, ends with fine radiating lines,
ovaries yellow or green, +3 to gly line

Our fig. 6, represents a species which is not uncommon in
ponds near West Point. The discoid surfaces of the individuals
show minute radiating lines quite distinctly.

5. Gaillonella sulcata. (Pl. 2, fig. 7, a,b?) I noticed frag-
ments of this species two years ago in peat from a salt marsh
near Stonington, and among marine Alge in the same vicinity.
I had prepared a sketch and description of it for this memoir,
before I heard of the discovery of the infusorial stratum of Vir-
ginia. _I was, therefore, agreeably surprised to find, on inspect-
ing ‘specime ens of the fossil infusoria from Richmond, Rappahan-
hock Cliff, &c., that this species was very abundant in them. A
careful comparison of the recent specimens from Stonington,
and the fossil specimens from the tertiary of Virginia, has left no
doubt in my mind of their specific identity. The following is
the account of the recent specimens, written several months be-
fore the reception of the Virginia fossils. ‘They consist of frus-
tules, each of which is divided by a transverse line ; the cylindr?-
eal surface of each frustule has a great number df parallel ities
in the direction of the axis, and the ends or flat surfaces show a
rim having lines corresponding to those on the cylindrical surface ;
within this rim is a diaphragm having minute radiating lines.
Chains of thirty or forty individuals are not unfrequent in the in-
fusorial earth of Richmond, particularly in the upper part of the
stratum. These are doubtless the “oblong cylinders” alluded to
by Prof. W. B. Rogers in his Report on the 7 Survey of

ra

92 Sketch of the Infusoria of the family Bacillaria.

Virginia, p. 39. Ehrenberg gives the following description of
Gaillonella suleata, a fossil species occurring in the schist. of
Oran; from this description I suspect it to be closely allied to our
species, and therefore wa its specific characters for the arenes
of comparison.

* Gaillonella sulcata. Corpuscles cylindrical, short, truncate at the
two ends and flattened, furrowed across and in form of cells” (eilicpnte
en travers et sous forme de cellules,) g/g to 7 line.*.

6. Gaillonella? (Pl. 2, fig. 8.) Lospumeies sm crdllesliie
cal, with two lines of | sasions latin’ adhering by alternate ili so as to
form long zigzag chains, and occasionally auricle cled. fait tape acest

The curious ase repneie ten ee PL. 2, fig. 8, appear t to partal
of the characters of both Gaillonella and Bacillaria, showi
the cylindrical corpuscles | of the. prions united by alternate & an-
gles, as in many species of the latter. It is, perhaps, related to
Diaioma auritum of Lyngbye, which is deaceiiea as having the
“joints quadrangular, rounded, with an auricle at each angle,”

and of which Greville remarks that the auricular appendages of |

the angles give to the frustules the appearance of ‘ microscopic
woolpacks.” Having seen no figure or specimen of D. auritum,
I cannot decide as to its identity with our species; I believe, how-
ever, that ours must be different, both from its abundance and
from the remark of Kutzing (Linnea, 1833, p. 585) that D. au-
rilum probably belongs to the Desmidiacez.

Our species consists of large cylindrical siliceous joints, Pe
adhering together by alternate angles in a zigzag’ manner. Most
of the Liastiles show two lines of constriction, as shown in the

figure. The connection of the frustules is by a very conspicuons,
: flexible hinge-like ligament, which often gives to the joints an au-
ricled appearance, which makes the comparison of them to “ mi-
croscopic woolpacks,” or rather bales of cotton, not inappropriate:

The joints usually contain a yellow or ochirentciik substance,
arranged in a stellate manner, and not unfrequently this appears
to be composed of minute globules, (ova?) as shown in the f
ure. This species occurs, in vast quantities, in the Hudson River,
at West Point. It pay be found in some places at low tide, giv-

$$

* In Pritchard’ raat of Infusoria,. Recent and Fossil, I finda hag of Gill
nella suleata, whic! es no doubt that our imens fro

pete ts te n Delong to this species "The living an
ard’s work, bran dtd at Gusbrn by ne Ses npeea s rite!
PACKER AME ok) BOE Ro Meee | lg age Ee Bas

a

Sketch of the Infusoria of the family Bacillaria. 93

ing to the shores a ferruginous color in apeers even as much as a
hundred square yards in extent.

7. Gaillonella ferruginea. Guptinies very einai convex on the
ends, ferruginous, oyal, smooth, having the form of articulated. threads,
often united, almost branching, sol to zoho line

_ Ehrenberg states with a mark of doubt, that it occurs in all
Seeainived waters ; fossil in bog iron ore; and in the yellow
opal of Bilin. A copy of Ehrenberg’s- hoops may be seen in
Lyell’s Elements of Geology, p. 39, (Am. Edit.) and in Pritch-
ard’s Hist. Inf. fig. 129-130. I have often seen in bogs and
small streams, large quantities of a ferruginous colored floculent
matter which dispersed with great ease when touched, and in
which I have sometimes been able to see, by means of the micro-
cs aatigarniceti minute filaments which were apparently mo-
nili I believe these filaments to be the G. ferruginea of
ing which is the same as the Oscillatoria ochracea of va-
rious algologists. The filaments are fragile and incombustible,
and are said to be composed of silicate of iron. (See Pritchard’s
Hist. Inf. p. 199 and 200.)

AcTINOCYCLUS.

tee carapace simple, bivalve, (siliceous) form cy lindrical,

| ( discoid ) divided internally by several radiating partitions ; spon-

tancoite Hiviaien: imperfect in form of 4 chain.

_ Ehrenberg mentions seven species, viz. A. ternarius, A. qua-
‘iiainn A. quinarius, A. senarius, A. septenarius, A. octonarius,
and A. denarius, distinguished respectively by the number of

cells formed by the radiating partitions. Several species occur in
the “schiste of Oran” in Africa, in a formation which M. Rozet

considered as tertiary, but which Ehrenberg suspects is more

ot connected with the chalk.

_ It appears to me to be an interesting fact, that the remarkable

marine infusorial deposit discovered by Prof. W. B. Rogers in
the tertiary formation of Virginia, appears to agree with the in-

fusorial conglomerate of Oran, in containing several species of
Actinocyclus, together with Gazllonella sulcata, and beautiful
punctate discs, which I suspect belong to the genus Coscinodis-
cus. [have seen no account of this last genus, but its name
appears peculiarly appropriate to the sieve-like discs which form

$0 large a portion of the infusorial stratum of peer Va.

“Ehrenberg mentions Coscinodiscus patina as pred

94 Sketch of the Infusoria of the family Bacillaria.

the deposits of Oran, Zante, Caltasinetta, &c. (See Weaver's
View of Ehrenberg’s Observations in Lond. and Ed. Phil. Journ.
for May, 1841, p. 393.) In figs. 9, 10, and 11, are represented sev-
eral fossil species of Actinocyclus from Richmond, Va. ; the same
species also occur fossil in cliffs on the Rappahannock River. In
figs. 12, 13, and 14, are represented the dises which I believe
to bélong to the genus Coscinodiscus. When perfect, the form
seems to be that of a tortis, having the circular bases covered with
hexagonal or circular spots, which present considerable variety
in their size and arrangement in different specimens. The most
usual disposition of the spots is in rows corresponding with the
radii, as shown in the large specimen fig. 14. In consequence of
this arrangement, they also form beautiful spiral rows in other
1s, So that the curves present noi
#8 tides often seen on the back of watches; at other times the
spots are found to form three sets of lines, foakeinig angles of 60°
and 120° with each other, as shown in fig. 12, and on others the
spots are disposed without ‘much apparent regularity, frequently
having a star-like figure in the centre. ‘The spots are so small
on some of the discs, as to be almost invisible even by the high-
est magnifying powers; on others, as in fig. 14, they are quite
large and distinctly hexagonal. The largest discs have not al-
ways the largest spots. There are certainly several species of
this genus in the infusorial stratum of Richmond, Va., but as
have not seen Ehrenberg’s account of the European ee I
cannot venture to name our own.

Note, October 10th, 1841.—Since the above was ready ie
the press, I have seen in the appendix to Pritchard’s History of
Infusoria, living and fossil, some interesting statements of recent
discoveries by Ehrenberg, with reference to the genera of Acti-
nocyclus and Coscinodiscus. It appears that these genera, which
were first discovered in a fossil state in the schiste of Oran, Cal-
tasinetta, Zante, &c., have also been recently found in sea water,
and that many of the living species are identical with the fossil
ones ; indeed, Ehrenberg states that Actinocyclus senarius, C’os-
cinodiscus patina, and G‘aillonella sulcata, species now living,
may be shown as the chief forms met with in the chalk marls
of Sicily, and also that the species of the chalk formations are

yet to bees cols — creatures in the waters of
our seas. naa:

= Sketch of the Infusoria of the family Bacillaria. 95

IT select from the species of Coscinodiscus, described by Eh- _
renberg, the following, as apparently identical with American —
species from Richmond, Va. In connection with the description,

f I give a reference to figures drawn by me from fossil American
species, long before Ehrenberg’s characters for the Species were
received.

Manicienbictati lineatus. (PI. 2, fig. 12, a, b) omeea marked*
by small cells disposed in a series of parallel and transverse lines.
Found fossil in the chalk marl of Caltasinetta, and. in the live
: condition at the Cuxhaven. The cells in this species form par-
allel lines in whatever direction they may be viewed. In large
and well preserved fossil specimens, as many as twenty five
openings were seen near the circumference. Within the live
forms, numerous yellow vesicles are sometimes seen, as in Gail-
lonella. Diameter of fossil, ay to =i,th; living ;;;,th

to siath. Fossil at Richmond, V.
| | radiatus. (Pl. 2, fig..14.) Carapace large,
| marked with cells of moderate size, disposed in lines radiating
from the centre. ‘Towards the margin the cells become smaller
in size. Very abundant in fossil state at Oran, alive near Wis-
mar and Cuxhaven, ;3,th to ;1;th. — Fossil at Richmond, Va.

Coscinodiscus Argus, (? var. of C. radiatus.) Carapace with
large. cells at the centre, and smaller ones at the Lae anion

ee Se ee

te

oar es ~ satis

Li the order of the rays being often interrupted.
k . Fossil. at Oran and Caltasinetta in chalk marl, rina ine sea
is water at Cuxhaven. The cells of the discs from Oran vary very

much in size. The ova are of a greenish color in the living
forms, which are very rare. Diam. ;1,;th to i;th. Fossil at
Richmond, Va.

_ Coscinodiscus oculus-iridis. Carapace marked with rather
large radiant cells, except near the centre and circumference,
where they are smaller. Some of the larger cells in the centre
form a sort of star. Fossil in the chalk marl of Greece; alive
hear Cuxhaven. Diameter, ;};. This large species is curiously
marked, whilst under the microscope, with colored rings, which
are apparently caused by the peculiar arrangement of the cells.
There are generally from five to nine large cells at the centre.
Specimens are found in the infusorial stratum of Richmond, Va.,
Which have the star-like centre and probably belong to this

ae ee ee ee ne ep eee = ee 2 eee ane
*

sci ll

96 Sketch of the Infusoria of the family Bavillaria.

-Coscinodiscus patina. (Pl. 2, fig. 13, a. b.) Carapace large,
* cellsof: moderate size disposed in concentric circles. Cells smaller
towards the circumference. Fossil in chalk marl of Zante, alive
at Cuxhaven. The young and vigorous specimens of live indi-
viduals are completely filled with yellow granules, whilst the

older ones have an irregular granulated mass within them. Di+
“ameter, ;3;th to ,3,th. Fossil at bier Va. Our fignte
shows a small specimen.

Of the genus Actinocyelus, Ehrenberg deaieiteds sivetibelh new
species, which have been found fossil in the chalk marls of Oran,
Caltasinetta, &e., and living in sea water at Cuxhaven, Chris-
tiana and Tjérn. Several of these species haveno’ partitions,
but have surfaces marked with minutely punctate rays. © The
great variety which occurs among the forms of Actinocyclus,
found fossil at Richmond, leave no doubt in my mind, that all
of Ehrenberg’s species will be found among them. [I also be-
lieve that I have seen a living species of this genus, or of Cos-
cinodiseus, in the ooze of the Hudson River, near West Point. ~

For Ehrenberg’s characters for the new ee see ones
Hist. Inf., p. 428-429.

Naedibetsasas x

Free, separate or binary, carapace simple, baci or i nibieliee

(siliceous) having six [?| openings ; never united in form o a

chain by perfect spontaneous division.

On these characters as given by Ehrenberg for the genus Nae
vicula, I would remark that there do not appear to be any true
valves or parts capable of separation without fracture, although
each species will usually break along certain lines or edges into
a definite number of parts. Ihave not been able to satisfy my-
self of the existence of six openings in N. viridis, (see remarks
concerning that species,) and with regard to the species ever
forming chains, I ean state that it is not rare to meet with four,
sometimes even eight united laterally. I have even seen” them
thus united in the fossil state. eg

a. Having transverse strie, (internal cells, ) alr conlle: Suirivellas

Navieula viridis. (Pl. 2, fig. 16; a, b.) Striate, eatapace etraights

fifteen’ striae (cells) in-¢}yth of a. line. Length, g/g to 4 line: -
This beautiful species is one of the largest sponser
both in the recent and fossil state. It occurs all over Europe, and

Sketch of the Infusoria of the family Bacillaria. 97

is equally diffused in this country. I have myself observed it in
Maine, Massachusetts, New York, Ouisconsin and Virginia. It
is easily recognized by means of its large size and beautifully
marked ventral faces. The striz seen on these faces may cor-
respond to internal cells, but I believe them to be linear openings
in the carapace itself, as may easily be seen on the fragments of
fossil specimens. There are three rounded spaces on each ven-
tral face, which I think have been mistaken for openings, but
which appear to me to be thicker portions of the carapace. One
of these spaces is in the middle, and the other two at the extrem-
ities of the striated surfaces, and they are connected by a very
delicate double line (canal?) A similar structure is seen on sev-
eral other species of Navicula, Cocconema and Gomphonema.
The real orifices are shown at ¢, ¢, c, c, in our fig. 16, 6. Moving
particles somewhat like those of Closterium may sometimes be
seen near the extremities. In fig. 17, a, b, Pl. 2, I have copied
from Ehrenberg, (Die Fossilen Infusorien und die lebendige Dam-
merde, Berlin, 1837, Pl. 1, fig. 19,) a sketch in which he repre-
sents the organs of motion, the stomach &c. of this species. The
reference letters having been omitted by the engraver of Ehren-
berg’s plate, I have been obliged to insert them according to what
I believe was their intended position.

~The following is a Manslation: of Ethsenberg’ s explanation of
this figure. (See fig. 17, Pl. —

‘A living specimen of ‘Navicols visite 3 in ‘winch by the i injec-
tion of indigo are distinctly to be seen; the stomach v, the two
great spherical sexual glands s s, and the lamelliform extensions
of the green ovarium, 0’ mouth opening, o’ sexual opening?
a, a, a, a, four movement openings, p the pediform organs of mo-
tion. ‘The visible currents on the body, both when creeping and
at-rest, are denoted by arrows.”

2. Navicula viridula. Carapace straight, lanceolate, linear, very
slender, truncate at the ends, flattened on one side, lanceolate and ob-
tuse on the other, 13 to 15 strie in 735 pete ziytoyyline. Frustulia
viridula, Ktz., Linn. 1883, Pl. 18, fig. 1

_Ebrenberg meutions this as one of Ha species detected by him
among fossil infusoria from West Point. Kutzing’s figure does
not allow me to determine with certainty, which of the various

at West Point, pacnes to this species,
Nol. x xu, No. 1.—Oct.—Dec. 1841. 13

&

EET

eee

98 Sketch of the Infusoria of the family Bavillaria.

8. Navicula ———. (PI. 2, fig. 18.) This figure represents a pam
duriform species, very much contracted in the middle. It occurs in
peat from a salt marsh near Stonington, Conn.

4, Navicula (Pl. 2, fig. 19.) _ This species occurs with the
last, and is nexhans a state of it resulting from its complete spontaneous
division into two individuals by the contraction at the middle.

5. Navicula (PL 2, fig. 20.) This sesembles the preced-
ing very much, but is a fresh-water species, ee ae in ponds neat
West Point, also in streams in irginia.

6. Navicula? striatula. (PI. 2, fig. 21, a, .) 1 refer to this genus
with much hesitation the very elegant wads interesting species shown by
fig. 21 a, b. It is easily known by a set of peculiar and beautiful un-
dubatinsg ridges, represented in the figure, and which giv wre. margin
of the form a ruffled appearance, in whatever position they are ob-
served. One of the faces (a) is lanceolate, the other (b) is somewhat
wedgeform, with both ends obtusely truncate. The lanceolate face
shows a set of fine lines apparently proceeding from the ritlges above
referred to, and reaching nearly to the middle line of the face. I have
sometimes seen two individuals united laterally by their lanceolate
faces, producing a very beautiful form. All the individuals which I
have seen, have been free, without pedicel, and when living, their spon-
taneous motions were very distinct. I have found it in a living state in
fresh-water ponds and streams near West Point, also in Mountain Run,
near Culpepper Court House, in Virginia; and I detected it in a fossil
state among other fossil infusoria from Bridgewater, Mass. (See figs.
6 and 7, Pl. 20, of Hitchcock’s Final Report on Geology of Massa-
chusetts.

In Pritchard’s History of Infusoria, I find two figures repre-
senting N. striatula, which leave no doubt that ours is the same
species. - See Hist. Inf. Pl. 3, fig. 137, 138.)° The following

sting remarks with regard to the organs of panmeemnese in
this genus, are also taken from this work.

“In the small pools left by ebb of the tide near Conntuavettp
Dr. Ehrenberg remarked numerous little bodies, apparently simi-
Jar to Navicula (Surirella) elegans and N. striatula, but which
from their comparatively very great size and structure of loriea,
were easily distinguishable from the latter upon closer examina-
tion. One of these ribbed glass-like creatures was, besides its
size, remarkable Ase its great mobility, and Dr. E. was ena
to investigate its S sys "locomotion much more satisfactorily
ad hithe >in any of the genus. ‘This organ he
it, both in form and size, to what he had

ate
“hal

Sketch of the Infusoria of the family Bacillaria. 99

before noticed in that genus. Instead of a snail-like expanding
foot, long delicate threads projected where the ribs or transverse
marks of the shell join the lateral portion of the ribless lorica,
and which the creature voluntarily drew in or extended. An ani-
malcule ;',th of a line long, had twenty four for every two plates,
or ninety six in the total; and anteriorly, at its broad frontal por-
tion, four were visible. It i is probable that me creature may form
the type of a special group of the Bacillarie

7. Navicula (Pl. 2, fig. 22.) This soni species of Navi-
cula with striate faces, is not uncommon in the infusorial stratum of
Richmond, Va.

6. Without transverse strie.

8. Navicula (Pl. 2, fig. 23,.a, b.) This species is distin-
guished by having two grooves which cross each other at right angles
on the ventral face, presenting a cruciform appearance, and dividing
this face into four equal portions, which are without strie. It is a con-
spicuous species in many American specimens of fossil fresh-water
infusoria, and is very common in the living state. I have found it in
New York, Ouisconsin and Virginia

9. Navicula sigma. (Pl. 2, fig. 24, a,b.) Smooth, carapace lance-
olate, sigmoid, not striate, linear, Micselnts on the straight side.

Our figure represents a sigmoid species, found among marine
Alew at Stonington, Conn. A somewhat larger sigmoid species
occurs in the infusorial stratum of Richmond, Va.

10. Navicula ? . (PL. 2, fig. 25, a,b.) This very remark-
able form I detected among fossil infusoria, from the infusorial stratum
of Richmond, Va. It is lanceolate when seen on one side; on . the
other side it presents the curious outline shown in fig. 6.

Note.—This may possibly belong to Ehrenberg’s new genus
Zygoceros, which is described as having a compressed Navicula-
shaped carapace; each end provided with two perforated horns.
(See Pritchard, |. c. p. 427.

In addition to the American species of Navicula above de-
scribed, Ehrenberg mentions the fallenies as occurring in a fossil
State at West Point, viz.

N. alata, nov. sp.
N. amphyoxys.
N. Suecica.

ole am, however, ignorant of their specific characters; I have
met with many species besides those referred to in the present
memoir, but omit them, as my present object is to present only
the most interesting forms.

100 = Sketch of the Infusoria of the family Bacillaria.

Eunorta.

Free, single or binary, carapace simple, bivalve or multivalve
(siliceous) prismatic, four openings on the same side, two at each
end, ventral side flattened, back conver and often dentate, never
catenate by perfect spontaneous division.

1. Eunotia areus. (Pl. 2, fig. 26, a,b.) Striate, carapace semi-
lanceolate, elongated, two terminal knobs arcuate, 11 striz in +45 line.

hrenberg mentions #’. arcus as occurring among fossil infu-
soria from West Point. I presume that our figure, which rep-
resents a form very common both in the recent and fossil state in
the United States, belongs to this species.

2. Eunotia diodon. (Pl. 2, fig. 29.) Striate, carapace elongated,
ventral side flattened, slightly bidentate at the middle of the back, 19
striee in yy line, gy to zy line

Hab. West Point, fide Bliretibers: Probably the same as fig.

29, which is common both recent and fossil at West Point, and

‘elsewhere in the United States.

3. Eunotia tetraodon. (Pl. 2, fig. 31.) Striate, carapace seml-
lunar, short, flattened or concave on the ventral side, four rounded teeth
on the convex back, 28 strie in +}, line, gis to zy line.

Common among fossil infusoria from Manchester, Mass., a
West Point, N. Y. The ay species occurs at West Point. |

4. Eunotia pentodon. (Pl. 2, fig. 32.) Striate, gi aa semi-lu-
nar, short, five teeth on the convex back, 23 strie in +3, line.

Fossil at Manchester, Mass. Living at West Point.

5. Eunotia serra. (PI. 2, fig. 33.) Striate, carapace linear, aligaty
curved, twelve to thirteen rounded teeth on the convex back, 19 trie
in shu | line, A; to »y of a line.

' figure is from specimens found fossil in Massachusetts. J
have also received it from various other localities. “

I strongly suspect that the number of the teeth on the back of

the four last described species of Eunotia, is liable to variation,
and that the number of species has in consequence been made too
great. See remarks in Final Report on Geology of Massachu-
setts, Vol. II, p. 310, et seq.
6. Eunotia (PL. 2, fig. 27, a, b.) This species was found
in water from a brackish ditch in New Jersey, which was sent to me
for examination by Dr. Torrey. It is concave on one side, convex on
the other, Pi en ond widened pases in eae
It is also minutely striate, —

soria of the family Bacillaria. 101
~~ Cocconets.

"Free, single, carapace simple, bivalve (siliceous) prismatic or
hemispherical, a single opening in the middle of both sides of
each carapace (?), never double or catenate by spontaneous di-
vision.

1. Cocconeis? (Pl. 2, fig. 34.) Represents what I believe to be a
species of Cocconeis. I found it adhering to a small marine Alga from
the eastern shore of Florida.

Beautiful figures of Cocconeis (Campylodiscus) clypeus, drawn
by F. Bauer, will be found in Pritchard’s Hist. Inf., Pl. 12, fig.
516—518. I have received fine specimens of thous. elegant fos-
sils from E. J. Quekett, Esq., of London.

Bacrivartia.

Free, (never fired) carapace simple, bivalve or multivalve (sili-
ceous) prismatic, forming chains or zigzag polypidoms by im-
perfect a ico division of the carapace and perfect division
of the

% Ace oe paradova. (PI. 2, fig. 35.)—The standard bearer.—
Striate, carapace linear, very ponents often fifteen times longer than
broad, yellow, frustules very active, g's to Ay line. Syn, Vibrio paz-
illifer, Muller. See Encyl. Meth. Pl. 3, fig. 16 to 20.

I first detected this species in October, 1840, among Alge
from the Hudson River, near West Point. I am jeddeserest by
Dr. P. B. Goddard of Philadelphia, that it also occurs in abund-
ance near that city. Itis a very interesting species, presenting
by its curious motions and paradoxical appearance, an object well
calculated to astonish all who behold it. At one moment, the
needle-shaped frustules lie side by side, forming a ei
plate ; suddenly, one of the frustules slides forward a little ways,
the next slides a little also, and so on through the whole number,
each however retaining a contact through part of its length with
the adjoining ones. _ By this united motion the parallelogram is
changed into a long line; then some of the frustules slide together
again, so that the form is then much like a standard. Similar
motions are constantly going on, and with such rapidity that the
eye can scarcely follow them. ‘There are few more its ine
objects for the microscope.

_, Several of the positions of these singular productions.are. ail

represented by Miller, (See Enc. Meth. Vers. Pl. fig. 16~20.)

102 Sketch of the Infusoria of the family Bacillaria.

Miller found his specimens abundant on Ulva latissima ; I found
mine pretty common among Enteromorpha, Polysiphonia, and
Potamogeton, which grow together in brackish water on the
flats in the Hudson River, near West Point. ;

2. Bacillaria? tabellaris. (PI. 2, fig. 36, a, 6.) Smooth, carapace
linear, narrow, swollen in the middle, dividing into quadrangular plates
of variable length, ovary lobed and yellow, 3/5 to gy line, (width of
filament.) Syn. Diatoma flocculosum, Kutz., Linn. 1833, 17, fig. 67.
Diatoma flocculosum, Greville, in Brit. Flora, Vol. V,

This species is very common in all parts of the “eye States
which I have visited. It is easily recognized by its zigzag
chains, composed of plates (individuals) of various width, which
have the middle and two outer edges considerably thickened, as
is shown in the side view, fig. 36, b,

In fig. 37, a, b, is represented what I believe to be the full
grown state of the species. It at first view appears very distinct
from fig. 36; but on examination, we find the same thickening
of the middie and ends, and similar transverse lines. The two
varieties or states occur together; both are also found. fossil.
They are very abundant e ditches and ponds near West Point.

3. Bacillaria . 2, fig. 38.) This is a marine vies,
which | found at Stonington, tas and Staten Island, N. Y., a
to filamentous Alg. [It is distinguished by having on each half of its
frustules two lines-which commence near the centre and run straight
and parallel, until they arrive near the extremities, when they suddenly
become falcate for a short distance, and then resume their original di-
rections. The curved portions of the lines have some resemblance to
the upper portion of a pair of tongs. The position of these lines is very
similar to those on Bacillaria Bonne heaii. (See Schlechtendal’s Lin-
ai ht ‘Tab. TV, fig. 1.)

TESSELLA.

Free, carapace simple, bivalve or multivalve (siliceous) pris-
matic, compressed in form of plates, forming zigzag polypidoms
by imperfect spontaneous division of the body, and perfect divi-
sion of the carapace. The chains have spontaneous motion

“Fessella catena. (PI. 2, fig. 39?) Carapace lamelliform, often
broader than ona 4-24 cto series of transverse strie, ngaperes
in +35 line. | -

Fig 39 is cmind Seemapaniai ehhh teaait:x tae sail
viduals adhering to a dried st site Coinage eid Conn. —
pears to belong to J. catena. — 7

}

Sketch of the Infusoria of the faniily Bacillaria. 103

<a. Fracrenarn.

_Free, carapace simple, bivalve or multivalve, (siliceous) pris-
matic, forming chains resembling fragile ribbons, resulting Srom
the imperfect division of the carapace and bod

A. Fragillaria pectinalis. (Pl. 2, fig. 40.) Sitete, aresealin
broad, 2 to 4 times longer than broad, Lidlioin and lanceolate on the
lateral side, ovary yellow, ;4z to 3; lin

The flat ribbon-like filaments of this species are very. common
in ponds, and slow running streams near West Point, and they
often form masses as much as a square foot in extent. The
ments are of a yellowish green color, and resemble flat ribbons
crossed by transverse parallel lines. Great variety occurs in the
size and form of the frustules, but they are generally much longer
than wide. Very minute strie may often be distinctly seen on
the edges of the frustules, as represented in our figure, but some-
times it requires a high magnifying power and skillful manage-
ment of the light to render these apparent.

The masses composed. of these filaments dry to a glistening
silvery mass, which is exceedingly fragile, and which is un-
changed by fire or nitric acid.

This species is not unfrequent in the fossil state, but the
chains are then usually broken up.

Pi. 2, fig. 41, represents a variety (?) of this species with very
narrow tirtstoles, each of which when living, was marked with
two yellowish spots, (ovaries ?) Perhaps this is F. bipunctata.
It occurs abundantly at Detroit, Mackinaw, and West Point.

2. Fragillaria trionodis. Ehrenberg mentions this species as oc-
curring in a fossil state at West Point. I am ignorant of its characters,
and may have confounded it with F. pectinalis, to which species all the
varieties occurring at West Point appear referable.

Merrion.

Free, ine be simple, bivalve or multivalve (siliceous) pris-
matic, wedgeform, forming fragile spiral chains which often ap-
pear like complete circles, and which result from tmperfect spon-
taneous division.

Meridion vernale. (Pl. 2, fig. 42, a,b.) Corpuscles wedgeform,
striate, anterior and truncate and dentate, polypidom spiral, often ap-
pearing perfectly circular, ,'; to zy line. M. circulare, age M.
circulare, Kutzing, Linn. 1833, Pl. 15, fig. 37. ais Ba

104 Sketch of the Infusoria of the family Bacillaria.

This is one of the most beautiful of the fresh-water infusoria,
and excites great admiration in all who behold its elegant form
and markings, under a good microscope. It oceurs in immense
quantities in the mountain brooks around West Point, the bot-
toms of which are literally covered in the first warm days of
spring, with a ferruginous colored mucous matter, about one
quarter of an inch thick, which, on examination by the micro-
scope, proves to be filled with millions and millions of these
exquisitely beautiful siliceous bodies. Every submerged stone,
twig, and spear of grass, is enveloped by them, and the waving
plume-like appearance of a filamentous body covered in this way,
is often very elegant.

The spiral or helicoidal form of the chains is not easily per-
ceived, unless the chains are thrown on edge, (as in fig. 42, b.)
This i is easily effected with Chevalier’s compressor.

- Alcohol completely dissolves the endochrome of this species,
and the solution when evaporated, leaves a greenish resinous
mass. ‘I'he frustules, after the action of alcohol, are as colorless
as glass, and resist the action of fire and nitric acid.

End of the Naviculacee.

Explanation of the figures of Plate 2.—The figures which ‘aecom-
pany this memoir, were all drawn by the aid of a camera lucida, and
to the same scale as was used in the plates of the first part of this
sketch. That scale is shown in fig. 15, which represents +4%ths of a
millimetre, magnified equally with the drawings. In the sketches, a
represents the side of the animal usually seen, ), the other side.

Fig. 1. Pyxidicula operculata, fossil from Manchester, Mass,—flu-

viatile.
Fig. 1. a. Sain 1 ? fossil from Massachusetts. =
Fig. 2. a, b. Pyxidicula ? Fossil in infusorial stratum at Richmond,
Virginia

Fig. 3. Gaillonella moniliformis, recent, m

Fig. 4. 4a. meepscisinys —— geen Havin at ¢ is — a
globular joint.

Fig. 4. 6. Gaillonella aurichalcea ? recent, fluviatile. ve

Fig. 5. Gaillonella distans, recent and fossil, fluviatile. »

Fig. 6. a, b. Gaillonella varians, recent and fossil, fluviatile.

Fig. 7. a, b. Gaillonella suleata. Fossil at Richmond, Va., recent,

7 Stonington, Conn. selnintthaplntesionmpuied of 9m

individuals ; 6, base of one of the joints...

Fig. 8. Gaillonella? ——. 5 Hespeni, leschich wutec.of.tiiooa River

at West Point.

? "ee

Fig. 9, 10. Actinocyclus. Fossil at Richmond, Va.

Fig. 11. a,b. Actinocyclus.. a, base ; 0; side view, showing the al-
ternate elevations and depressions which cause the light and dark por-
tions seen on a. Fossil at Richmond.

Fig. 12. Coscinodiscus lineatus. Fossil in tertiary infusorial. strata
of Virginia, at Richmond, and on Rappahannock River. —

Fig. 13. Coscinodiscus patina. With the preceding.

. Fig. 14, Coscinodiscus radiatus. With the preceding.

Fig. 15. Scale representing 31°,;ths of a millimetre, “magnified
equally with the sketches.

Fig. 16. a, 6. Navicula ihe recent and fossil, fluviatile, ¢, , ey o
the orifices.

Fig. 17. a, 6. Navicula viridis, copied from Ehrenberg. See page 97.

Fig. 18. Navicula 5 marine, at pinaEwa, Conn.

Fig. 19. Navicula , marine, with t ing.

Fig. 20. Navicula ——, fluviatile, West Point, &c.

Fig. 21. a, b. Biililniee: striatula, fluviatile, recent and fossil.

Fig. 22. Navicula ——, fossil at Richmond, Va

Fig. 23. a, b. Navicula ——, fluviatile, recent and fossil.

Fig. 24. a, &. Navicula sigma? marine, Stonington.

Fig. 25. a,b, Navicula , fossil at Richmond, Va.

_ Fig. e a, b, c. Eunotia arcus, fluyiatile, recent and fossil. _c, cross

*

Section.
Fig. 27 - a, ©. e. Eunotia —, brackish ditches, N. Jersey. Cc, cross
28. Eunotia monodon, ‘a é
. 29. Eunotia diodon, |

Fig. 30. Eunotia cose

Fig. 31. Eunotia tetraodon,

Fig. 32. Eunotia eee

Fig. 33. Eunotia serra,

Fig. 34. Cocconeis , marine, Florida.

, Pig. 35. Bacillaria paradoxa, ta Hudson river.

Fig. 36. a, b. Bacillaria tabellar ere recent
Fig. 37. a, b. Bacillaria gbotane full grown ? and fossil.
Fig, 38. Bacillaria , marine, at Stonington, Conn. Recent.

Fig. 89. Tessella catena? marine, at Stonington, Conn. Recent.

Fig. 40. Fragillaria pectinalis,

Fig. 41. Fragillaria bipunctata ?

Fig. 42. a,b. Meridion vernale, fluviatile, recent, and fossil in fragments.
‘Vol. xin, No, 1.—Oct.—Dec. 1841. 14

fluviatile, recent and fossil.

> fluviatile, recent and fossil.

106 Description of Eight new Species of Shells.

Art. X1.—Description of Eight new Species of Shells, native to
the United States ; by Henry C. Lea, Philadelphia.

Tue study of the marine shells native to the coast of the Uni-
ted States, has till lately been somewhat neglected. While our
rivers, particularly the western and southern ones, have presented
to the conchologist a series of shells, remarkable for their size
and beauty, the productions of our coast, more especially towards
the north, are usually small and plain in appearance. A few of
the larger and more showy species were described by Lamarck and
other European writers, and in our own country, Mr. Say early
began to investigate them with great zeal. He was followed by
Messrs. Barnes, Conrad and others, and of late years many have
been described by Col. Totten, Dr. Gould, Messrs. Adams, Cou-
thouy, and others. There can be hardly any doubt however, that
many still remain undescribed. Some of the species have a very
wide range along the coast. In Delaware Bay I have found the
Actaon trifidus, Totten, Cerithium terebrale, C. nigrocinctum, and
C. Greenii, Adams. The Bucecinum ernatum, Say, is found in
the southern states, and in New England, and I have a specimen
from the West Indies. The Cerithium Sayiti, Menke, although
so plentiful in New England, I have not observed here. Those
among the following species, which are marked from Delaware
Bay, were found in the sandy mud adhering to the Ostrea Cana-
densis, Lam.

Genus Cyrena.—Lamarck.
C. purpurea. Pi. 1, fig. 1.*

C. testa rotundato-triangulari, equilaterali, sub-inflata, sub-cras-
sa, diaphana, et purpurea et alba, polita, striis transversis ; natibus
prominentibus ; margine non crenulato.

Shell rounded-triangular, equilateral, sub-inflated, somewhat
thick, partly purple and partly white, with transverse strie ; beaks
prominent ; margin not crenulated.

Length 07. Breadth -07. Diam. -04 of an inch.

Hab. Delaware Bay. Cabinet of I. Lea.

hee beantites little apoyo of Cyrena, has much

* The smallest figures are of the natural size ; the eat large ones, in outline,
in figs. 5,7 and 8, are merely to show the shape of mouth.

Se Pr are

Description of Bight new Species of Shells. 107

resemblance to the Venus gemma of Totten. Indeed I consid-
ered it as such for some time, until I was able to obtain a view
of the teeth, which prove it to be a Cyrena. It may, however,
be also distinguished from the Venus gemma, by its equilateral
form, and want of crenulations on the margin. The beaks are
rounded at the summit. It has usually a dark purple mark along
the posterior margin, which gradually fades off, and the anterior
portion of the shell is whitish. Occasionally, however, it is
nearly all purple, but darker towards the posterior margin, and I
have one specimen which is pinkish. The strie are perfectly
regular, and at even distances. It is, I believe, the smallest Cy-
rena yet noticed. vf
; Genus Moprora.— Lamarck.
M. elliptica. PI. 1, fig. 2.

M. testa transversa, ellipticé, sub-inflata, pellucida, purpureo-
maculata, polita, radiatim striata posticé et antice ; valvulis tenui-
bus; natibus sub-prominentibus; margine crenulato posticé ac
antice ; margarita diaphana et nitente.

Shell transverse, elliptical, sub-inflated, pellucid, marked with
purple, polished, radiately striate posteriorly and anteriorly ;
valves thin; beaks somewhat prominent; margin crenulated
posteriorly and anteriorly ; nacre diaphanous, shining.

ength ‘07 Breadth -1. Diam. -025 of an inch.

_ Hab. Delaware Bay. Cabinet of I..Lea.

~ Remarks.—The area of the valves is divided into three fan-
shaped compartments by the strie, of which the anterior con-
tains about seven, and the posterior about twenty-four. The
purple marks in some specimens are so numerous, as to completely
cover the shell, while others are nearly free from them. They
are frequently zigzag. ‘The dorsal margin appears to be slightly
crenulate. It is strongly allied to the Modiola discors, nexa and
discrepans, and might be confounded with the young of either
of those shells. But its size appears constant, as I have taken
them at various seasons of the year; in addition to which the
difference in shape and marking, and the want of transverse strie,
will distinguish it.

M. puler. Pl. 1, fig. 3.
M, testa transversa, obovata, levi, polita, viridescente, diaphana,
‘purpureis omnete; iene emg natibus et
nentibus, sub-acutis.

108 Description of Eight new Species of Shells.

Shell transverse, obovate, smooth, polished, greenish, diapha-
nous, marked with purple lines; valves thin; beaks ening
prominent, sub-acute. a

Length ‘08. Breadth -15. Diam. -05 of an inch. er

Var. «. Minore, compressiore, castaneo-brunnea, sine line One
purpureis. ” hela

Smaller, more compressed, chestnut-brown, without purple lines, as

Hab. Delaware Bay. Cabinet of I. Lea. esc

Remarks.—This species varies very much, both in form id” a *
color. The var. « may perhaps prove a species. "The markings, — sigh’
as in the preceding species, are frequently zigzag. There are
transverse lines of growth, only visible with a powerful micro-
scope. In form it somewhat resembles the Modiola tulipa. It
might be confounded with the very young of Mytilis edulis, but
the difference in color and shape, as well as in the position of the
beaks, will distinguish it on a very slight examination.

Genus Crepipu.s.— Lamarck,
C. acuta. PI. 1, fig. rea

C. testa ovata, valde convexa, sub-tenui, levi, externé fusca,
intus tenebroso-castanea ; epidermide luteo-fusea : apice acuto,
recto; cyatho sub- ‘stialivtlad, albido, diaphano, sub-convexo,
vix sede trienti teste longitudinis ; apertura elliptica.

Shell ovate, very convex, somewhat thin, smooth, externally
brown, internally dark chestnut ; epidertiie yellowish brown;
apex acute, straight ; cyathus sub- tht alad whitish, diaphanous,
somewhat convex, ‘geareely equal to a third the length of —
shell; mouth elliptical.

Length ‘17. Breadth -1. Height 05. Length of cyathus
‘05 of an inch.

Hab. Delaware Bay. Cabinet of I. Lea.
_ Remarks.—This little species of Crepidula belongs to the Cre- |
pipatella, Lesson, a sub-genus of Calyptrea. The color intet-
nally varies from a chestnut brown to a horn color with browa
marks. The eyathus or diaphragm, in common with our othet
Species, is convex, the convexity usually ending at a regular line,
about one fifth from one side, beyond which it is flat ; it also ge®-
erally comes a little further down on one side than on the other.
It is usually very regular in its form. It bears a slight resem-
blance to the Crepidula glauea, but that shell is flatter when
young than when old; esha shia sera less width,
and want of transverse lines, will immediate hit. It

Pe Pee Ce Ba | kee oe os i
: a v o ptt alg “ NITLCLES. 109

IhawiarwaAe 4 :x Ba ys pee ae

arly to the Crepidula convera, and in-

deed it is with some doubt that separate it. But the two sides are
alike in their curvature, the outside smooth, the cyathus diapha-
nous and not so deeply situated, the color usually much darker,
nd the apex straight. Besides this, its habitat seems different,

GENUS FE tal IR Bs
C. evile. -Pi. 1, fig. 5 a:
C. testa ovato-conica, valde elevata, celaaehtannil dinptinnhy,
albida, longitudinaliter striata; spira obtusa; anfractibus senis,
convexis ; suturis impressis ; apertura eiintich, integra, dentibus
tribus ; labio valde reflexo.

Shell ovately conical, much cigxiaed »sub-perforate, diapha-
nous, whitish, longitudinally striate; spire obtuse ; whorls six,
convex ; sutures impressed ; mouth tical: entire, with three
teeth ; lip much reflexed. :

Length ‘075. Breadth -025 of an inch.

_. Hab. Under dead leaves and mould, on the Wissahiccon creek,
near Philadelphia. Cabinet of I. Lea.

Remarks.—This beautiful little shell bears a strong resem-
blance to tha Pupa evigua of Say, and it is with some doubt
that I propose it. The chief points in which it differs from that
shell are the following. The lip is continuous round the mouth,
and not interrupted by the last whorl, as is the case with the
Pupa, thus being a true Carychium ; the lip is flattened, the
number of whorls is greater, there is a tooth on the outer lip, the
size is smaller, and the shape more elongated. It also nearly ap-
proaches the Carychium minimum, Leach, an European shell,
but may be easily distinguished by its strie, shape, number of
whorls, perforation, and teeth. The tooth on the outer lip is very
variable, being sometimes almost obsolete and sometimes larger
than those on the inner one. Of the two teeth on the inner lip,
ohne is placed at the middle, and the other very near the base of
mu the mouth, and so far in as to be almost invisible on a front view.

The mouth is ‘02 of an inch in length. It appears to be the

only true Carychium yet found in the United States, its small
perforation, hardly amounting to an umbilicus, not being suffi-
sient to ceparags itefae that genus. Jn its shape and yf it

cenne (°/, isum,
aes meet VSS the ge it Oem eeetes PEE Oe ee =

110 —- Description of Hight new Species of Shells.

the distinctive mark of that curious and interesting genus. I
have only met with it on the Wissahiccon, where it does not
seem to be very common.

Genus Pasiryea.—Lea.
P. sordida. PI. 1, fig. 6.

P. testa ovato-conoidea, perforata, tenui, albida, diaphana, levi,
polita; spira obtusa; anfractibus quaternis, convexis; suturis
sub-profundis ; apertura elliptica, intus alba; columella eri:

Shell ovately conical, thin, perforated, whitish, diaphanous,
smooth, polished ; spire obtuse ; whorls four, convex ; sutures some-
what despi ; mouth elliptical, white within ; cotataaita smooth.

Length -075. Breadth -025 of an inch.

Hab. Near Boston. Cabinet of I. Lea.

Remarks.—I found this shell among a number of specimens of
Cerithium Sayii, sent to my father by Mr. Adams from Boston.
It might be mistaken for a very young specimen of Act@on trifi-
dus, Totten, but that species has the fold on the columella, the
same shape and the transverse striee, even in its youngest state.
In the present species, the mouth is acute above and slightly
rounded below, and is -037 of an inch in length. It may perhaps
be considered as the smallest of our marine shells yet described.
- "There has been great confusion among conchologists respect-
ing the group of shells to which this species belongs. Lamarck
placed some marine shells in the genus Melania, but the differ-
ence which must exist between species breathing fresh and salt
water, would in itself warrant their separation. The genus Hwu-
lima, Risso, may perhaps embrace the Pasithe@, but in the for-
mer the mouth is often not effuse, the labrum slightly thickened,
there are non-secund varices, and the spire is frequently curved.
Lowe has lately made a genus Parthenia, which only differs
from Hulima in being white, and having cancellations. This
does not seem sufficient to warrant a generic distinction. The
genus Rissoa, Fremenville, closely resembles the Eulima, and
will also take in part of the Cingula, Fleming, which however
may be a a from others, by having the lip continuous
posteriorly. 'T’ Hydrobia, Hartmann, according to Dr. Gould,
seems to be ch same as the Cingula. The Turritella, La-
marck, having the mouth non-effuse, is easily separated from the
rest. The Pasithea differs from these in its effuse mouth and
acute outer lip. The Niso, meee “satan differs from it in ‘the
large umbilicus. The Pyramis, Brown, judging from the refer-

eam

Wi

neces made to it by Dr. Gould, seems to differ from it but slightly.

The Acteon, De Montfort, ( T’ernatella, Lamarck,) is easily dis-
tinguished from these genera by the fold on the columella, and it
unquestionably has priority over Odostomia, Fleming, and Ja-
minia, Brown. There are also the genera Truncatella, Cho-
ristoma, Alvania and Acmea, which I have only met with* as
synonymes to Rissoa.

Genus Actzon.—De Montfort.
A. parvus. Pl. 1, fig. 7.

A. testa acuto-conoidea, sub-tenui, leevi, alba, nm bilieatii? spira
acuta; anfractibus quinis, platralatis ; suturis linearibus ; ultine’
Sit fratea sub-angulato; umbilico parvo; apertura suits effusa ;
columella uniplicata ; labro acuto.

Shell acutely conical, somewhat thin, smooth, umbilicated ;
spire acute; whorls five, flattened ; sutures linear ; last whorl sub-
angular; mouth ovate, somewhat effuse; columella with one
fold ; outer lip acute.

Estigit ‘075. Breadth -037 of aninch. |

Hab. Delaware Bay. Cabinet of I. Lea.

- Remarks.—In this little species there is nothing very remark-
able. The mouth is 025 of an inch in length, and not very
acutely angular above. It appears to have a thin, horny opercu-
lum, though from the extremely small size of the shell, I cannot
be certain as to that point. The only one of our species with
which it can be confounded, is the Acteon trifidus, Totten, but
the umbilicus, want of transverse strie, and the difference in the
shape of the mouth, will immediately distinguish it from that
shell. It bears énnsioniile resemblance to one or two fossil spe-
cies described by M. Grateloup,t from near Dax, in France.

Genus Ceriruium.—Bruguiere.
C. cancellatum. PI. 1, fig. 8.

C. testa turrita, sub-tenui, tenebroso-fusca, sub-perforata, cancel-
lata, sulcis longitudinalibus, striisque transversis; spira acuta;
anfractibus octonis, convexis; suturis sub-profundis ; basi ken
nea ; apertura elliptica, supra angulata, infra sub-canaliculata ; co-
lumella brunnea; labro acuto; operculo nigro.

Shell turrited, somewhat thin, dark brown, sub-perforate, can-

* The three first genera in Philippi’ - ka _ napmerstie Mollascoram Sicilie,”’ seg
dhe: in Cuvier's ‘« Animal Ki
t Transactio. ns of the the Linnean Society of Bordeaux, fr November, 1858.

aoe

112

cellated, with longitudinal. sulcations, and transverse striz ; spire
acute; whorls eight, convex; sutures somewhat deep; base
brown; mouth elliptic, panics above, sub-canaliculate below ;
salzuibalie, brown ; outer lip acute ; operculum black.

‘Length ‘15. Breadth ‘05 of vi inch.

Hab. Delaware Bay. Cabinet of I. Lea.

Remarks.—T he transverse strize are usually almost obsolete on
the upper whorls, while the longitudinal sulcations become en-
tirely so on about the last whorl and a half. ‘The striz are con-
tinued to the very base, which together with the columella are
brown. The color of the last whorl and a half is generally
yellowish, while the rest of the shell is dark brown. The lower
whorls are frequently much more convex than the upper. The
mouth is ‘05 of an inch in length, and :025 wide. [I at first mis-
took this shell for a Twurritelia, from the fact of the canal not
being added until the shell has attained its full growth. This
species might be regarded as consisting of dwarf specimens of the
Cerithium Sayii, Menke, but it is not more than half the size of
that shell, its whorls are more convex, its cancellations more ob-
solete, and the shape of the canal is totally different, being much
longer and less oblique. It resembles it however in its mode of
growth, the lower wnons Paine entirely different from the upper.

Philadelphia, May 17th, 184

of Dec. 15, 1839.

Art. XII.— Observations on the Storm of cori 15, eo?
by Wituram C. Repriecp, A.

. Read before the Aeriees Philosophical Society, 3 Jan. 15, 1841.

‘ln the table and map which are annexed to these remarks will
be found the observations which have been obtained of the di-
rection of wind in this storm, in the states of Connecticut, Rhode
Island, Massachusetts, New Jersey, and parts of the states of
Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, and New York. ;

‘The arrows on the map denote, approximately, the direction of
wind, at or near the hour of noon, at the several places of observa-
tion. The concentric lines, adiwis at intervals of thirty miles, were
added, not as precisely indicatiag the true course of the wind, but
to afford better means of comparison for the several observations.

Tt will be seen, that of forty-eight distinct sets of observations,
which are comprised in the annexed schedule, about oy, are

* fiom the Transubtiote oF Me American — Society.

OO EE

derived from the meteorological journals of scientific and intelli-
gent observers, or from the log-books of vessels exposed to the
storm; and I take this occasion to offer my thanks to the gen-
tlemen who have so kindly furnished me with their observations.

The position assumed for the axis of the gale, at noon, should,
perhaps, be nearly in line with the position of the ship’ ‘Morrison
and Cape Cod Bay ; at which places the wind was then blowing
from opposite points of the compass, but, as may be seen; notin
actually opposing directions. The Morrison was from China,
bound to New York; and I have reason to believe that her posi-
tion at noon may be safely relied on. The violence of the gale
was here so great that the ship, as Iam informed, was lying to
without canvass. This ship had encountered the western side
of the gale, suddenly, at 7, A. M., and the sun shone chiefly un-
obscured during the greater part of the day.

The gale was severe over the entire surface comprised in the
map, except, perhaps, on its extreme northern and northwestern
portions, and excepting, also, the lighter winds which were ob-
served near the apparent axis of the gale, in the region of Buz-
zards’ and Cape Cod bays, &c., in the afternoon and evening. A
very heavy fall of snow: accompanied the gale in the states of
Connecticut, Rhode Island, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and
Maine ; also, in some parts of New York and southern Vermont.
Some snow also fell in the western and northern. parts of New
York and Vermont, but attended with more moderate and varia-
ble winds, chiefly from the north and west.

The southwesterly and southerly winds, which connect the
westerly with the southeasterly winds in the circuit of rotation,
are found at Nantucket in the afternoon, by the farther advance
of the stort and also in the log-books of anumber of vessels
whose positions were eastward and southward of the ship Mortri-
son, but beyond the limits of the map.

The barometric minimum, as in other storms, appears to have
hearly coincided, in its progress, with the apparent axis of the gale.

My main object in collecting the observations contained in the
subjoined schedule, has been to establish the course of the wind
in the body or heart of the storm at a given time, and apart from
all other considerations. Iam in possession, however, of more
extended observations of this gale. Many of these appear to
agree with some of the following characters or rary of action
Vol. xiu, No. 1.—OctDec. 1841... 15

114 Observations on the Storm of Dee. 15, 1839.

which pertain, more or less, to many of the storms or gales that
visit the United States and other regions. These characters have
claimed attention from almost the earliest period of my inquiries.

1. The body of the gale usually comprises an area of rain or
foul weather, together with another, and perhaps equal, or greater
area of fair or bright weather.

2. The fall of rain or snow often extends, in some direction,
greatly beyond the observed limits of the gale.

3. The gale itself not unfrequently exhibits an apparently un-
equal extent of action, or degree of violence, on different sides of
its apparent axis of rotation. - cee

This peculiarity, as well as the second, is most commonin
winter storms, and in those which sweep over an extensive con-
tinental surface ; and, like other irregularities, is less noticeable :
in the storms which are traced solely on the ocean.

e barometric indications of a gale commonly ented
same pee the observed limits of its action.

5. The body of the gale constitutes a determinate sheet or
stratum of moving air; and of this. sheet or stratum a large por-
tion sometimes overlies another and more quiescent stratum of
air, the latter having, perhaps, a different motion ; as may be of-
ten observed in the common winds of the temperate and higher
latitudes: in which case the gale is either not felt at the surface
of the earth, or the observed changes of wind are found, in part,
unconformable to the whirlwind theory.

6. Owing to the convergent and somewhat variable éondeoaii
storms in the extra-tropical latitudes, as well as to their unequal
rates of progress, two storms will sometimes cover, in part, the
same field, one of which will overlie the other, and, perhaps, #
thin out at its margin, in the same manner as common winds. =
This, also, may occasion a different order of change in the ob-
served winds and weather from that which is commonly noticed
in a regular whirlwind storm.

Owing to such causes, the oscillations of the barometer are of
ten irregular ; and this is particularly noticeable in the higher
latitudes.

7. In most gales of wind there-is, probably, a subordinate mo-
tion, inclining gradually dowiswaed and inward in the circamja-
cent air, and in the lower portions of the gale; and a like degree
of motion, spirally upward and outward, in the central and higher
portions of the storm. This slight vorticular movement is be-

secant een aaa

a

Observations on the Storm of Dec. 15, 1839. 115

lieved to contribute largely to the clouds and rain which usually
accompany a storm or gale ; and is probably due, in part, to the
excess of external atmospheric pressure on the outward portions
of the revolving storm.

8. In storms which are greatly expanded there is sometimes
found an extensive area of winds of little force and variable di-
rection, lying within the circuit of the true gale, and attended
throughout with a depressed state of the barometer. This more
quiescent portion of air in the centre of a gale has been found to
extend, in some cases, to a diameter of several hundred miles.

Tn the case now before us, the direction of the arrows repre-

senting the course of the wind at noon, as carefully drawn ona

larger map, shows an average convergence, or inward inclination,
of about six degrees. But it is not deemed safe to rely upon this
result in a single case, which is liable to be affected by the errors
of observation and the deflecting influences of the great valleys
and lines of elevation, as well as by the errors of approximation
which often arise from referring all winds to eight, or, at most, to
sixteen points of the compass.

It is not intended, on this occasion, to support the foregoing
characteristics by anes extended details of evidence as their dis-
cussion would necessarily demand ; and they are mentioned here
only because the true character of ‘the rotation in these gales, as
well as the necessary or i 1 connexion of this rotation
with other phenomena which attend them, has seemed to be of-
ten misapprehended.

As relates to the whirling or rotary action in the case before
us, it may be remarked, that had we obtained no observations

from the northwestern side of the axis of this gale, it would

have been easy, in the absence of more strictly consecutive ob-
servations than are usually attainable, to have viewed the initial
southeasterly wind of the gale,* and the strong. northwesterly
wind which soon followed, as two distinct sheets or currents of
wind, blowing in strictly opposing directions ; and if we could
so far lose sight of the conservation of spaces and areas, the laws
of momentum and gravitation, together with a continually de-
pressed barometer within the storm, we might then have suppos-
ed one of these great winds, if not both, to have been turned

* Observed between the coast of Massachusetts and latitude 25° N.

116 Observations on the Storm of Dec. 15, 1839.

upward by an unseen deflection, and doubled back upon itself in
the higher atmosphere. But the case neither calls for nor admits
these speculations. If, however, the axis of this gale had chan-
ced to pass westward and northward of our limits of correct ob-
servation, in pursuing its northeasterly course, as did, perhaps,
that of the storm of December 21st, 1826, which has been ably
examined and discussed by Professor Loomis,* it is, in such case,
more than probable that its whirlwind character would not have
been established.

[ Note.—It having been claimed that this and other storms had
been found to blow inward, towards some central point or line, I
was induced to prepare and make public, shortly after the occur-
rence of this storm, a statement of observations on the direction
of the wind at or near sunset, from such evidence as was then
in my possession, and illustrated by a small geographical sketch
or diagram. 'To this sketch, which is here subjoined, I have
now added the latest observations on the 15th, at the following
places, viz. Culloden Point, Worcester, position of ship Morrison,
Stratford, Fire Island, Keene, West Point, Salem, N. Y., and the
position of the barque Ann Louisa. It will be seen that the as-
sumed axis of the storm on this sketch is more advanced in its
northeasterly course than appears in the larger diagram of the
observations made at noon, as seen on the following page.

ie ERR Is pees

; Bia
j - aon
Sere
| =
Ska \ \

YS

v Vat 4

{ havea seen no i clisteclocy evidence that the veld ade Be ies
ter has been wanting in any active American storm.—w.

* Trans. Am. Phil. Soc. Vol. VII, p. 125-163.

MAP
Showing the Direction of tkeWind

placesinthe Storm of
Dec.151839
B

ry
WCREDFIELD
1840

Schedule of Observations on the Direction of Wind in the Storm of

oft the Wind at or near the hour of Noon. By Wiiutam C. Repri

No.

Places of Observation.

A. M.

Sire:

1 Nantucket, Ms, .
2 Woodville, Ms. .

3 Barnstable, ia ‘

0.
4 New a Ms.

5 a 5 Oa

11 Boston,

12 pene Het, ES Me. .
13 Salem, Ms. ’
14 Waltham, Ms. .
15 Worcester, Ms. .
16 Middletown, Ct. .

oO. .
. W New 6m cc,

rw. i‘ *
10 Culloden Point, N. Y.
» Ms.

.

18 Ship Morricon, at sea:

‘Lon. Ti? 60 W.

E. .

N. E, at 7 a.m.

: E. 8. E.
Gale from 8. E. . ; [ J
Sunrise, N.E. mod.
’ E.by N.
do. E. fresh, Hf eee:
N. E. N. E. 2
E. 8. E o E. 8. E ;
E. S. E. : = Bb, E
N. E. . N. E. ‘a
N.. Ee : N. E.
i to|N. W. at Noon.” .
Sunrise, N.E. . |E.N.E. f
E.byN. . |E.byN. fre.sreN af
E, 8. é E. 8. .
Eastward. . Eastward. ‘
WB. 3: [E.N. E.]
eo WN Be ‘ N. E. ;
BRE.
=f [N. by E.]
N. by W.
RE. } By. E] ;
S.E: W.N.W. W.N.W..

6 S.E. at lp. m
» |“ A little 8. of E.”

fin 0.4, eo 1839: With a Map

ee

indicating the Direction

P.M.

Ss. W. ‘
|Clouds broke at W.
before 2 P. M.
E. at 2.p.m.: S. E.

at Sunset.
S.W.

p.m.t Clear
at Sunset,
2pm EAN. Eu: 34

do. E: : SunsetS SE
N. E. Z

E. 8. E. at 2 p. m.
‘E. 8S. E.

Ny) Fes .

Be Ess ‘

Sunset, E. 8S. E.
E. by N.

Es Bo
Eastward. . .
E

N. E. . :
N. . .
N. We Bee

Observers and Authorities.

Laer one:

Report of Capt. ie 8 Brig Colum

Report of James Mitchell, as published by Mr. Espy. —_ [Nantucket.
Observations on board Steamboat Telegraph, by William Mitchell of
Report to Editor of Boston Courier. } T take the mean of E.and 8. E
Letter of Wm. H. BrowntoW. C.R. 3 fortruedirectionat Noon. w.c.n,
Joseph Congdon’s Meteorological Journal. \

Sam’! Rodman’s. do. as publ’d by Mr. Espy. !
Meteorological Journal published at Newport.
bus.

Itake E.by N.as the mean
for Noon.

Marine Reports in Bosto

Professor Caswell’s Mimmaieseicel J outael,
Norwich Conrier.

Capt. Green's Account, as published by Mr. Espy.

Wn. Cranch Bond’s Meteorl. Journal. , I take the mean te the observa-
Robert Treat Paine’s Observations

Letter from Gloucester, in the Boston Newspapers.

Salem Gazette

Monthly Met. Jour., by C. F., in the Boston Daily Centinel.

Met. Journal at State Lunatic Hospital—in National Agis.

db fessor Smith.
Reported by Professor Smith } I take N. by E. for the mean at Noon.

Dr. Barratt’s Met. Journal
Report of Capt. Woolsey, Steamboat Providence. I take the mean of
l. N. 3° E.

N. N. W.
N.N.E till 14 p.m
W.N. W. .

Judge Darling’s Meteorological Journa

Ship’s Log Book—also, Statements of Capt. Benson and his Officers.

No. Places of Observation. A. M. P. M.
19 Portsmouth, N.H. . E. ;* E.
20 Nashua, N. H. : N.-B. . NW. E.
21 Ph stacey Ms. ‘ N - N. E.
Amherst, N.b
tN

22 pent oe.

23 Str Ot he

24 Fire balan Beach, N. y.

25 Concord, N. H. . ‘

26 Keene, N.H. . e
West Point, N.Y. P

28 New-York City, . :

Fort Wood, N.Y. Harbor
xy

35 $i tahook, N.Y.

33 Bark Ann Louisa, off Ab-
secom, N

39 ‘Trenton, N. P
40 Cape May, N.J.

N. by W.
Night of 14, re E
N. by W.

Midnight, N. E.:

, vee coil

Nerttescterty.
“ E.

N. Sorts N. N.W.

N,
N.
N. P
eB. t at Tt Bas
tis :
ban are *
Ne Ee 3
N.N.E
N. 2. 2
Wickas 32 e
W.oB, s r
W.N.W
N. W.
N. W

2
a)
2 2%
eg
pho

=

i=
Bn T

eae

222222
222

tf
a

Cs

S
w

=
Ze,

2AAAZAZAAAZPAAmszszs

S34 ose pe

e/22 2922 2 =
e|22 22°F

Z
=| 2

Observers and Authorities.

Weekly Meteorological Journal, published at Portsmouth.
Nashua T legraph.

itievuciite of W. Atwill and others. ‘a L assume the Fg ei, mean
Professor Snell’s Met. Journal. N.N. E. for Noon

. etn Enquirer. Assumed mean ‘aie noon of 15th, N. pe

J.R. Linsley’s Meteorological Jou

aha Cartwright and Skiddy, em ose at the Beach,
Letter from Concord to 8. G. Arnold ; sale Mr. Arnold.
Rev arstow’s Meteorological Jour
Mitscpoldgical Journal of the Medical Departnent
eg SE Journal of W. C. Redfiel

t. Journal of Medical Officer. Mean pe N. W. taken for Noon.
hae. T. M. Strong’s Met. Jour. Mean of N. N.W. assumed for Noon.

|Met. Report of Keeper of Marine ri + Published at Portland.
Professor Young’s Meteorologica al

William Brand and W. Larkin ; fd steokcunh Journal.

ali ne ai Beck, M. D. Met. Journal, z Mean assumed for Noon,
E. T. Foote, Meteorological Journal. $ N. 28° R,

Silas Setgalt Meteorological Journal,

Isaac Blauvelt; Meteorological Joushak [noon,
Nathaniel Webb and John 8. Crane; Met Jour. Mean assumed for
Ship’s Log Book, and Statement of Capt. Wilson.

F. A. Ewing’s Meteorological Journal.

- |Dr.
: |Marine Reports, and Letter from Cape May, in Philad. Newspapers.

Abbreviations,—N, H. State of New Hampshire ; Me. Maine; Ms. Massachusetts ; R. I. Rhode Island; Ct. Connecticut; N.Y. New-York; N, J, New Jersey,——Nole, My own observas

tions on the lith P.M. h

ly printed N. W. by’ W.; for which read N, W. by

120 Temperature of Rome and New York.

Arr. XTII.—Temperature of the cities of Rome (Italy) and
New York; by Jeremian Van Renssevarr, M. D. (now resid-
ing in Rome.)

TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN.

Sir—It was deemed advisable early last year that one of my
children should pass some time in a milder climate than we enjoy
in New York, and I determined to take my family to France,
Switzerland, and Italy.

When the cold weather drove us from Florence in December,
we found at Rome that delicious temperature, and mild, balmy
air so grateful to the invalid, and there we spent the residue of
the season. Indeed, the effects were so cheering, that I have
come to this city to make the necessary arrangements for a resi-
dence of some years in that delightful climate.

Since my return, very many applications have been made for
a comparison of the climates of New York and Rome. It so
happens that I have with me a fragment of a register I kept in
the latter place, and have prefixed to it an extract from a meteo-
rological journal most accurately kept by a highly intelligent and
observing lady of this city—thus showing the temperature of
each place. Isend them to you for insertion, should you deem
them of sufficient importance or interest to occupy a page or two
of your valuable Journal.

The range of the thermometer speaks for itself ; but I may add,
that vegetation continued green, the orange-trees under our win-

dows were covered with fruit, and many of our rose-bushes were

never without. flowers during the winter. ‘The inhabitants nev-
seeiels called it a bad season.

For incipient diseases of the chest, the climate is admirable,
and therefore I am induced to remain. 'These maladies are very
rare among the natives, as may be learned from the fact that at
the general hospital, Santo Spirito, where there are eighteen hun-
dred beds, besides two hundred kept for accidents, and where all
disorders are admitted, amounting to nearly twenty thousand im
the year, the number of patients with diseases of the chest and
lungs in 1840 was one hundred and seventeen.

Although little proficient in botany, the beauties of the vegeta-
ble kingdom delight — instruct | nie and it was an Lamuasement

Temperature of Rome and New York. 121

in my walks and drives on the lawns and at the villas, to watch
the progress of vegetation in the budding and blossoming of
plants, and 1 often put my observations on paper. Perhaps the
few notes I made may be interesting to some of your readers
aii worship at the shrine of Flora, while not forgetful of Hy-

ria.
hen York, July 22, 1841.

1841.) NEW yoRK. ts)
“Jan. |Cowest /Highest.|Lowest Highest. OBSERVATIONS.
5th} 6°| 23° | 45°) 58° (des. Semis Thunder in on
6th} 15 | 45 | 45 | 50 under
7th] 42 | 52 | 42 | 48
8th} 42 | 49 | 40 | 44 |Thunder.
9th} 33 | 41 | AL | 43
10th} 33 | 36 | 43 | 45
11th} 33 | 38 | 47 | 54
12th) 34 | 42 | 47
113th] 33 3 A9
14th| 29 | 32 | 47 | 52
15th} 28 A7 | 57
16th] 27 | 44 | 48 | 56
17th} 33 | 47 | 43 | 55
18th} 22 | 24 | 43 !} 57
19th} 11 A5 | 58
20th! 18 | 30 | 42 | 57
21st} 25 BT + BF
22d | 32 | 35 |. 40 | 46
24th 27 | 40 | 35 | 48 v .
25th 31 | 39 | 39 | 45 | N. York. Rome.
26th! 28 | 38 | 33 | 42 Fine days, 12 13
J27th| 33. | 39 | 28 | 42 Rain or snow, 16
(28th! 34 | 42 | 40 | 47 Foggy, A overcast, 2
29th) 31 | 34 | 39 | 47 ~<a Shin
30th) 32 | 39 | 33 | 38 31 31
Bist| 28 | 40 | 34 | 44

‘Vol. xuu1, No. 1.—Qet.-Dec. 1841. 16

a caver . OBSERVATIONS
Feb. est.) Highest. Lowest. ant Mi = tt) pe ae
Tst a 350 ae ork. Rome.
pee Bd fe BBof } 36 39 45 Fine days, a)
3d 40 39 F Hany ays 12 11 |
Path 93 ) : ' 48 Cloudy days, “ a
? a
7th } 48 Daisies in profusion.
8th } 53 i
| Oth 4 .
10th 47 )
lith ; ) 4 )
12th ) 40. '
13th , 49 Z
lath meer a = selina. BS 4
15th ‘ : HE AOI
16th : is Re
Th 1s 4 59 Aimond trevsin: ani Se
| 18th ‘ so ia HS
ith iS Se - |Peach trees in full bloom. — pee
20th ; 33
2Ist_ = F
29d 4 Anemonies.
93a
24th ; )
) 25th ) 44 Hail in the e evening. é
| 26th | 30 4 43 Healt to Manna 5. eam
O%th | 34 40 ) 3 se ib ns
| 28th ; 45 42 alte F he tes
ae * 4 a3
1841.{ NEW ME nite 2
March.|Lowest.|Highest.| Lowest. Highest. GREER VATION Soihe5tr “atypia se
B70 2 35 48° |Lauristina, which had arab i winter; vik
35 26 now covered with them. .
34 32 47 #
30 45 ee Cherry trees in ‘full bloom. Pa
19 43 Pear trees oe
25 45 39 Hyacinths, jonquils, tulips. ee
32 45 64 /|Star-flower, pe mews, * ock-gillies :
44 awthorn in full bloom,
44 Plumb trees in full bloom. eee |
45 ald

oF
ite

lsusagseeaeasseeuese 8 BREE

eReSe B SSERSELsESe

ewe}

cava. | ah

36

56

63

56

40 53

56

56 52 67

po pd my aie
= etd : eed ing day, .
9 | mo} bs nee
39 «| 51. | 69 oe

ear Marseilles, I saw them in
on we ‘sth of of — ril.
‘Stra pormegsien ity ull bloom. Carnations.

\A town Sito bloom. In the valley of the
“Ahione, 2 bloom

en ese ER,

=) a, ee eee oe ey 3 Se se ti ZT tho 4123
ms it ‘S

| Ane. SAW-Obestviliines and sitisiebecaie on cndahes by pate
vet Apams, M. D., Professor of te sg et vee
in [linois College, enmnepesmenoy: oe

veka in July, 1838, while ona , Neuieeniee ke excursion, I
accidentally noticed the enn Savion of a bird lying upon the
ground ; and being struck with the delicacy of its tints, I took it
up to examine it. Observing that the vane of the feather. ap-
peared. very thin and nearly transparent, I held it between my
eye and the sky, which was very clear with the exception of a
few fleecy clouds, that contrasted finely with its rich blue. I
was very much interested to observe, that the clouds and all light
colored objects, which were highly illuminated, were seen through
the vane of the feather beautifully fringed with the colors of the
rainbow. I.supposed that this phenomenon depended upon the
‘peculiar structure of the vane of the feather, and intended to in-
vestigate it as soon as I could find leisure. I did not, however,
resume the subject till accident again called my attention to it.

About the 20th of June, 1839, while walking in the College
grove, I happened to observe lying upon the ground some wing-
feathers of the Jay, which reminded me of my former experiment.
I collected the feathers, and after observing the same phenomena
that [ had noticed on the former occasion, I held the vane of the
feather between my eye and the sun, and was greatly surprised
at the gorgeous display of colored spectra that were seen through
it, arranged in the most exact mathematical order, ‘The sun was
seen in its natural position, slightly tinged with red, with its

* To the Editors of the American Journal of Science and: Arts,

_ Messrs. Editors—When “ Observations and Experiments on Light’ were for-
warded to you for a in the Journal of Science, I was not aware » that

‘raunhofer had anticipated the leading investigations of that communication.
Pressing engagements, and frequent attacks of intermittent ree prevented me
from making so full an examination of the works of others on the subject as w

i I have since ascertained, that Fraunhofer has gerinstes the Ladin

results of | my observations, in a series of experiments m made by him by passing a
Beata being es through gratings, and examining the épectra produced through a
'Mleaebehon Light, § 740, et seq.) Ido not find, however, that the
effect of the feather upon light has been before noticed, or that Fraunhofer ever
exhibited the spectra upon a screen. You will oblige me by pros eg as a
note to my communication. age &e. Sam

Minois

College, May 21, 1

ms and Experiments on Light.

brightness considerably dimmed, and formed the intersectii
point of two rows of colored spectra, that crossed each « Yt
nearly at right angles. One of the rows of spectra formed a
acute angle with the shaft of the feather. at its outer extremity,
and the other was nearly at right angles with the shaft. In endl
colored spectrum the side nearest to the sun was a mixture of vio-
let and the contiguous rays of the prismatic spectrum, while the
side farthest from the sun was uniformly red. ‘The sun was
slightly clouded when I made my first observations. Afterwards,
when the sun shone perfectly clear, I observed that the angular
spaces formed by the intersection of the two rows of colored
spectra were occupied by less brilliant spectra, riewrgee in ee
same order as the two rows above described.

“On Monday, the Ist of July, 1839, I varied the euiperbaneiite
above described, by making my observations upon the flame of a
lamp, instead of the sun. I found an advantage in this, as it en-
abled me to change the distance of the luminous object at plea-
sure. In looking through the vane of the wing-feather of the
wild pigeon at the flame of the lamp, I observed spectra, colored
and arranged similarly to those which I saw when looking at the |
sun. I first looked at the lamp at the distance of eight or ten |
feet, and saw the two rows of colored spectra above described |
entirely distinct from each other, with some faint appearances of
spectra in the angular spaces near the lamp. As I approached
the lamp, (holding the feather to my eye and looking at the

flame, ) the colored spectra in the two rows gradually approxima-

‘ted to the flame of the lamp and to each other, their colors at the
‘same time becoming less distinct and approachitis to white light,
while the spectra in the angular spaces became more perceptible.
As I receded from the lamp, the spectra in the two rows receded
from the central flame and from each other, their colors at the
same time becoming | more distinet, and the | oe in the hd
spaces gradually fading away.
~ My next step was, in connection with my adliengety Prof
‘Sturtevant, to introduce a small beam of light into a dark room
by passing it through the vane of the wing-feather of the Jay.
We observed colored aneeians arranged upon’a screen in the-miaar
ner described above. In the y
the eye wa th ak chamber and he retina the sereen. “iia

teas OS
os ty oe

Suirtevant upon the subject, I was convinced that they
to be referred to difraction, produced by the passage of light
igh the minute foramina formed by the crossing and. inter-
locking of the barbules of the feather. This conviction was
strengthened by a microscopic examination of the vane of the
feather, which exhibited an extremely minute lattice-work be-
tween the barbs of the feather, formed by the crossing of the
barbules, and by noticing that the lines, in which the colored
spectra Were arranged, were perpendicular to the bars of the lat-
tice. The similarity between the arrangement of the colors
in the spectra upon the screen, and those of the external frin-
ges produced by difraction, could not fail to be observed, and to
incline me to the opinion that the law of interference establish-
ed by Dr. Young, had something to do with the production of
the chromatic spectra. I was confirmed in this opinion by a
series of experiments and measurements performed by Prof. Stur-
tevant and myself, by which we ascertained, that corresponding
spectra received upon a screen at different distances from the
feather, were not arranged in straight lines, but in curves. ‘The
curves seemed to belong to the hyperbola, and the latter to be
formed by the section of a very acute cone. This is what might
have been eepaanet as our eeiwene were sanscoeneia upon
parallel rays.

~ In order to nadeiiund she Snagdeghin: of the: law of interfer:
ence* to the production of colored spectra by the feather, it will
be necessary to recur to the fundamental facts of difraction. Let
it be borne in mind, that when a beam of light falls upon the
edge of an opaque body, the rays which pass by the edge are di-
vided into two portions, one of which is bent into the shadow of
the opaque body, and the other is bent outward from the body.
‘This separation of a beam of light into two parts is called difrac-
tion. For the sake of brevity and clearness I shall, in my sub-
Sequent remarks, speak of those rays which are bent into the
. shadow of the opaque body as injlected rays, and of those which
4 are bent outward as deflected rays, and I shall use the terms in-
3 Siection and deflection in strict accordance with these definitions.
hte of difraction is a plane passing through an indea

SECE gigy suas in Brewster's Optics, and Herschel on Light.

ert

4 site eee ey = Be ee oY
126 Obs: ti and Experiments on Light.

and a deflected ray which have diverged from the same point,

and is always parallel to and passes through the unmodified beam
of light. When the difracting edge isa straight line, the plane 4

of difraction is always perpendicular to a plane passing through
the difracting edge and the corresponding outline of its shadow.
In an irregular or curved difracting edge the same law will hold
with regard to any indefinitely small portions of it, which wee
be assumed as straight lines.

I am aware that the terms inflection and difraction are. vont as
synonymous by many who have written upon the subject of light.
But without the definitions and limitations, which I have just
indicated, I should be compelled to resort to cireumlocutions,
which might render ambiguous the explanations which I am
about to give of the phenomena of the feather. Again, Iam not
aware that the law which regulates the position of the plane of
difraction has been stated by any other writer, although it is fairly
inferrible from the facts which they have brought forward, as
well as from experiments performed by myself, and which I hope
to notice more fully in a subsequent communication. It will be
seen in the sequel, that the law which regulates the position of
the plane of difraction determines the angle, which the’ wonenes
of colored spectra make with each other.

Let us now turn our attention to the lattice-work formed by

the crossing of the barbules of the feather, and inquire how the
light passing through a single opening would be affected. The
openings of the lattice are of course one of the four varieties of
the parallelogram. The angles of these openings differ in the
feathers of different birds, and in different feathers of the same
eunant Let a bed represent one of these openings; and let us sup-
_5 pose a beam of light passing through it perpendicular to the
| poe [4 teas of the e-em ie is pation’ that each of the sides of
dge; and if we take any
two opposite sides ab, do, the leans rays ‘of one side will be on
in the same direction as the deflected rays of the other, and»
be liable to interfere with each other, and produce colored fringes
pi ooh placed to receive the difracted light, and. these frin-
Be. iediom. cacks-televod [ thexopening in a line perpen-
dicalenball The same will be true of
the other two sieege be, and thus we should have two rows of
colored fringes, whose lines of direction would be perpendicular

~ oa My
ie Daneel to. the parallel sides of the opening, and consequently

2, ;
So a
oe. ee ee
a ees

Ses ig

ae 4

Observations and Experiments on Light. 127

crossing each other at angles equal to those of the opening. But
a part of the light would pass through the centre of the opening
unbent, and would form upon the screen a white i image at the in-
tersecting point of the two rows of colored fringes. Thus it
will be seen, that a beam of light passing through a single open-
ing of the kind above described, would be divided into nine parts,
four being produced by the inflection of the four sides, four more
by the deflection of the same, and one being the remains of the
beam that pass on unmodified. Now let us suppose that a beam
of light, instead of passing through a single opening, passes
through an extremely minute lattice, containing an indefinite
number of such openings, as in the case of the feather. As all
the bars of the lattice are parallel respectively to those which sur-
round each individual opening, it is evident that the general ef-
fect upon the beam will be the same as that of a single opening,
with this difference, that the range within which interference
would take place, would be greatly enlarged, by enabling the in-
flected and deflected rays from different openings to interfere with
each other; and thus the fringes, which are scarcely perceptible,

when formed by a single opening or a single edge, become bril-

liant spectra, when a beam of light. is passed through a lattice of
the kind described. ll this is realized in the experiments with

the feather. It is proper to remark, however, that the central

white. image is probably not formed entirely of unmodified light,

but is partly produced by light slightly inflected by the opposite

edges of the bars of the lattice, and corresponding with the in-

ternal fringes, first explained by Dr. Young upon the principle of
interference. It is not improbable, that some of the deflected
rays fall within the central white image and add to its brightness.
The faint spectra in the angular spaces may be explained by sup-
posing that they are formed by light, which has undergone two
inflections or two deflections, or one inflection and one deflection,
by two contiguous bars of the lattice.
- It should be noticed here, that all the colored spectra, as well as

the central white one, are considerably elongated in a direction

perpendicular to the barbs of the feather. With a very delicate
feather and a small luminous object, the eye can easily distinguish
emis of colored — arranged in the same direction. This is

1.

ght have been expected, and gives us some idea of the ef-

128 Observations and Experiments on Light.

fect produced by passing a beam of light between extremely minute
parallel bars arranged in the same plane very close to each other.
The sun, moon, stars, the flame of a lamp, a small aperture in a
dark room, &c:, are convenient objects to be examined with the
eye through the vane of a feather. When we wish to examine
a luminous object through the vane of a feather, one of a dull or
dark color should be chosen, as a white feather transmits so much
light, as soon to exhaust the sensibility of the retina. For form-
ing colored spectra on a screen a white feather is preferable.
Those feathers taken from the wing and tail, whose vanes ap-
proach the nearest to a plane, give the most regular arrangement
of the spectra. The feathers of small birds, from the greater
minuteness and delicacy of their structure, produce the most bril-
liant and extensive colors. We see here the same principle,
which Dr. Young applied to the construction of the Eriameter.*
In looking through the vane of a feather at a bright object, the
most brilliant spectra are seen on the side towards the outer edge
of the feather. This may be Curia ‘to ‘the meri out * ver
feather towards the edge. —

If the above explanation of the shemale of the since be
correct, it follows, that if an opaque screen be perforated with
circular holes sufficiently minute and near to each other, it would
produce’a succession of colored rings. When a beam of light
passes through a lock of cotton, wool, or raw silk, inflection and
deflection will take place in every possible direction, producing @

blending of all the colors into white light in the centre, and a_

succession of colored rings in receding from the centre. Asin
the feather there is a regular arrangement of the difracting fibres,
there is a ei tr arrangément of the colored spectra. The

of the colored rings produced by transmitting a beam
of. light threagh a lock of cotton, é&c., applies to those produced
by biierreaeiices-n a pitas ee plate of vue covered wig on
particles.

Having satisfied eit with regard to the mucmutave of the
vane of the feather, and the mode in which it operates in produ-
cing colored spectra, I concluded, that, if that structure could be
—_ be — artificial con n , the’ ‘same effects might be
produced as by the feather. shall not detain the reader ss.

ie Hes oe

Observations and Experiments on Light. 129

tailing all the expedients which I resorted to in the subsequent
course of my experiments, but will endeavor to indicate some
modes of imitating the structure and effects of the vane of the
feather more perfectly than can be done by any means which are
at my command, Let it suffice to say, in the mean time, that
silk cloth of a close and delicate texture, a dense gauze of fine
wire, and similar contrivances, answer as clumsy substitutes for
the vane of the feather.

The difficulty of obtaining the necessary materials, and of
commanding the requisite mechanical skill, has prevented me
from executing the most desirable plans, that have presented.
themselves to my mind. A convenient mode of arranging paral-
lel fibres is, to bend a steel wire thus, C_____. and wind a fine
silk thread or delicate wire across its parallel sides. With a con-
trivance of this kind I was able to produce a row of spectra or
fringes in a line perpendicular to the parallel fibres. I made use
of a fine silk thread, but it is manifest, that fibres more minute,
skilfully arranged, would greatly increase the brilliancy of the.
phenomena. In this case, it will be seen that the rays undergo
two difractions in the same’ plane. The second set of fibres
would increase or diminish the effect of the first set, according as
its difracting influence coincides with, or counteracts that of the
first; and it is probable, that both of these effects are produced
<= different rays. A preferable construction would be to take.

- metallic frame and wind the finest platinum wire
across two of its parallel sides, so close as just to admit the pas-
sage of light between the parallel turns of the wire. The wire
may be fastened by metallic bars screwed down upon it, where it
crosses the exterior sides of the frame, and then one set of the
parallel turns of the wire may be cut away, so as to leave only
one set to act upon a transmitted beam of light. ‘Two of these
contrivances might be placed together and turned upon each other,
so that the parallel wires in one could be made to cross those of
the other at any convenient angle, and thus the phenomena of
the feather would be imitated. The crossing of the wires might
be secured by winding the same frame in opposite directions, fas-
tening the wires and cutting them away on one side in the man-
ner above described. ‘The first method, however, is preferable,
asitadmits the change at pleasure of the angles at which the
two sets of parallel wires cross each other. This apparatus

Vol. xx11, No, 1.—Oct.Dec. 1841. 17

130 Notice of Audubon’s Birds of America.

would probably be rendered more perfect by using fine hair, or
wool, or better still a single thread*of the silk worm, instead of a
platinum wire. As difraction takes place at the edges of trans-
parent as well as opaque bodies, probably an apparatus of the
kind above deseribed, made of very fine spun glass, would exceed
atl others in delicacy and power, as refraction in this would co-
operate with difraction. Since writing the above, Prof. Sturte-
vant has suggested the mode of fastening parallel fibres into a
wooden frame by gluing pieces of wood upon its exterior sides.
I have acted upon this suggestion and constructed an instrument
with fine sitk thread, which, though immensely inferior to the
vane of the feather, produces phenomena similar in kind. -

~ As my frontier location deprives me of the means of attaining
the desirable perfection in the constructions which I have de-
scribed, it is hoped that others more favorably situated, will be
able to realize what I have hinted at above. It remains to be
determined; whether art, in the construction of a difracting in-
strument, will ever attain to that perfection which is presented to
us by the hand of nature in the vane of thefeather. Even with
the latter we are able to render the chromatic effects of difraction
and interference as conspicuous to a class of students as those of
refraction. Prof. Sturtevant lectured afew days ago upon the
phenomena of the feather for the first time, to the great satisfae-
tion of his audience.

During the progress of the above investigations, several ing
ries have arisen, which Prof. Sturtevant and myself are now
pursuing, and one or both of us may be expected to be heard
from again upon this oe

Illinois College, April 16, 1841.

Art. XV.—The Birds of America, from drawings made in the

United States and their Territories ; by Joun James AuDUBON,

F.R.SS. Lond. and Ed., &c. &c. Vol. If. New York, pub-
lished by J. J. Audubon: Philadelphia, J. B. Chevalier. .

Tur extended notice we gave a year since of the general de-
sign of this work, and our full account of the author, his pe
history, the surpassing merits of his former work, and the promise
of equal excellence given to the public by the first volume of the

ae

ee —<_ —

Notice of Audubon’s Birds of America. 131

present, render it unnecessary that we should devote much space
or time to the volume before us. To praise it is no longer neces-
sary ; for since we essayed our feeble tribute in commendation of
the undertaking of our enterprising and gifted countryman, the
public have given indubitable assurance that his labors have been

appreciated, in a manner alike satisfactory to the publishers, as it
insures the liberal remuneration of the publication, and to t
author, showing as it does, that it can hardly be said of him that
he “is not without honor save in his own land.” Since the com-
pletion of his first volume he has received no less than three hun-
dred and ninety five new subscribers, of whom nearly one half
are in the single city of Boston; a fact highly creditable to the
liberality and intelligence of that city. Mr. Audubon has now
nearly a thousand subscribers to his work ; an instance of liberal
support of a work on natural history certainly without a parallel
in the New World, and hardly with one in the Old. This insures
the success of the undertaking far beyond the most sanguine an-
ticipation of the author, and enables him to continue to make
marked and decided improvements in the publication as it advan-
ees. Although severe domestic afflictions have meanwhile bow-
ed him to the earth, under the visitation of an overruling Provi-
dence; although the hand of sickness and disease, added to the
combined death of two of his children by marriage, have con-
tributed to render the task rather a means of relief from painful
thoughts than the pleasant employment it once was, we witness
no abatement in the interest or the value of the work. ‘The text
is, as ever, replete with a vast amount of new and important facts,
while the plates, except in one or two instances, continue to im-
prove as the work advances.

The second volume contains seventy plates, one hundred and
thirty six figures of birds, besides a very large number of draw-
ings of plants, insects, nests, &c. &c.; all this, with the text,
furnished for the low sum of fourteen dollars—less than the cost
would be for a single plate! The birds represented in the pres-
ent volume are of seventy species, embraced in families of the
wood-warblers, creepers, (including wrens,) titmice, warblers
and thrushes. These families are those adopted by Mr. Audubon,
and are like those of no other work, but are nearly similar to
those of Mr. Swainson. We have already expressed our disap-
Probation of the system by which the present work is arranged.

work. We will mention a few of the more importan:

132 Notice of Audubon’s Birds of America.

We shall not, therefore, repeat those objections. We will only re-
mark that we see nothing in the present volume to induce us to
change our opinion ; nothing to make good to us the loss of the
usual division into orders ; nothing to reconcile us to the countless
subdivisions into genera on grounds that, to our eyes, seem mere —
specific differences. If any genus would justify this subdivi
ion, it is the old and immensely large one of Sylvia. B

in this case, large as it is, in point of numbers, than to subdi-
vide it into genera with so little perceptible variation one from
another, as exist in the generic characters of -Myiodioctes, Syl-
vicola, Trichas, Helinaia, Mniotilta, &c. &c.; and certainly, it
is far better than to create such specific genera as the last. We
have, however, only our regret to express. We intend to con-
vey no censure for the adoption of this perplexing system, hav-
ing already explained why it was, to some extent, hardly a
matter of choice with the author. Of the seventy species de-
scribed in the second volume, no less than twenty six are not to
be found in the work of Wilson, and of these, seventeen are to
be found in no other works on American ornithology than compet
of Mr. Audubon.

Besides these important discoveries of new species, the work
embodies a large number of interesting, important and novel facts
with regard to old species. In some instances where differences
arising from age and sex have been the means of deceiving natu- ?
ralists, and leading them to divide one species into two or more,
these mistakes have been detected and pointed out in = posed

The bird described as a new species by aadbbeaed in the first
iraluinetat Ornithological Biography, as Muscicapa Selbit, is the
young of the hooded warbler, ape cuculata of W ilson; and
S&S. mitrata of Bonaparte.

. The Sylvia Vigorsii of the same fies been ascertained to be wa
anew species, but the young of the pine-creeping warbler, saa
“ia. pimus of authors.

The Sylvia autumnalis of Wilson, Bonaparte, Nuttall, Audu-
bon aid jal others, is pronounced to be the young of the hemlock
warbler, Sylvia parus. We must confess we are somewhat stag-
gered at this annuneiation, and although we doubt not the writer
believes he had good grounds for his decision in the case, we

Notice of Audubon's Birds of America. 138

must confess that, familiar as we have been with the S. autum-
nalis, we never imagined that its claim to a distinct species ever
would be questioned. We have seen it repeatedly in August and
September on its way south, but never does the writer re-
. member to have scen it in company with the Sylvia parus. It
-may be the case, but we are not yet satisfied that it is so.
~The Sylvia rara is the young male of S.azwrea. Both birds,
— both names, are to be found in Bonaparte and in et

“The Sylvia Childrenii of Audubon’s Biography, is the imma-
ture bird of the common summer yellowbird of authors. This
is an important correction, as writers have since been misled by
the error. It has been adopted by Nuttall, as well as by Rev. Mr.
Peabody, in his report on the birds of Massachusetts. As the
bird breeds, to the certain knowledge of the writer, in this imma-
ture plumage, it is impossible for beginners not to be perplexed
without the knowledge of this fact, namely, that the absence of
the reddish spots on the breast shows it to be a young bird, hoger
not a different species.

- The Sylvia palmarum of Bonaparte, is the same bird stith
the S. petechia of the same as well as of other authors.

- The Sylvia pusilla of Wilson, and the S. sphagnosa of Au-
dubon, Nuttall, and Bonaparte, are not new species, but identical
with Sylvia Canadensis of esareccined cp ie He young wiih in
r ¢ different states of plumage. ©
: ~The Sylvia tigrina of Sonahietes is not the same with the bird
described under that name by Gmelin and Latham, but is iden-
tical with Sylvia montana of authors.
~The bird described by Audubon as a new species, under the -
name of Sylvia Roscoe, is the young of the common Maryland
yellow-throat. This too, is an important correction,

These are some of the more important corrections of errors of
former works, to be found in the volume on our table. They
are all important, and possibly further investigation may add to
their number, and thus reduce yet more the number of species.
It will be remembered that this reduction is one of the most
difficult for naturalists to determine correctly. Writers are much
more prone to create new species than to cancel previous ones
and to study out their identity with others. The young stu+
dent, therefore, owes Mr. Audubon a debt of gratitude for much
labor and perplexity saved him by these investigations.

134 Notice of Audubon’s Birds of America.

In his history of the chestnut-sided wood warbler, our author
says: ‘‘ Where this species goes to breed I am unable to say, for to
my enquiries on this subject I never received any answers which
might have led me to the districts resorted to by it. I can only
suppose, that if it be at all plentiful in any part of the United

States, it must be far to the northward, as I ransacked the borders
of Lake Ontario, and those of Lake Erie and Michigan, without
meeting withit. I do not know of any naturalist who has mee tt

more fortunate, otherwise I should here quote his observations.”
The writer is somewhat surprised at this, as the bird, although
rare, is still occasionally to be found breeding in Massachusetts.
He has known of several nests having been discovered in the
vicinity of Boston, and is under the impression that he furnished
Mr. Audubon, by letter, with a description of a nest and its eggs,
which were five in number. Both were very similar to the nest
and eggs of the summer yellowbird, Sylvia @stiva, and he re-
grets that as the egg of the bird is still in his possession, he was
not aware of the desired information in time to furnish it for the
text of the present work.

In his account of the Sylvia astiva, so universally and so fa-
miliarly known in this portion of the country as the summer yel-

lowbird, Mr.Audubon speaks at some length of the ingenuity .

so often displayed by individuals of this species, in evading the
burthen of the cow bunting. Although not a summer passes
that we do not hear of several instances of the remarkable fact, it
does not seem to be so generally known as so interesting a display
of instinct would seem to deserve. 'To escape the burthen, both
of hatching the eggs and rearing the young of the cow blackbird,
' Ieterus pecoris, the bird displays the surprising ingenuity narrated
in the following extract: “Mr. Nuttall was the first naturalist
who observed the very curious method in which it contrives to
rid itself of the charge of rearing the young of the cowbird. ‘It
is amusing,’ he says, ‘to observe the sagacity of this little bird
in disposing of the eggs of the vagrant and parasitic cow troopi
al. The egg deposited before the laying of the rightful tenant,
too large for ejectment, is ingeniously incarcerated in the bottom
of the nest, and a new lining placed above it, so that it is never
hatched to prove the dragon of the brood. "Two. instances of
this kind oceurred to the observation of my friend, Mr. Charles

Pickering ; and last summer I obtained a nest with the adventl-

Notice of Audubon's Birds of America. 135

tious egg about two thirds buried, the upper edge only being
visible, so that, in many instances, it is probable that this species
escapes from the unpleasant position of becoming a nurse to the
sable orphan of the cowbird. She, however, acts faithfully. the
part of a foster-parent when the egg is laid after her own.’

“The following note from my friend Dr. 'T. M. Brewer, shows
that this little bird is capable of still greater exploits, ‘There is
a very interesting item in the history of the yellow-poll warbler,
which has been noticed only within a few years, and which is
well deserving of attention, both for the reasoning power which
it exhibits, and for its uniqueness, for it is not known, I believe,
to be practiced by any other bird. I allude to the surprising in-
genuity with which they often contrive to escape the burthen of
rearing the offspring of the cow troopial, by burying the egg of
the intruder. Ihave known of four instances in which single
eggs have been buried by the yellowbird, and building a second
story to her nest and enclosing the intruder between them. In
one instance, three of the Sylvia’s own eggs were thus covered
along with that of the cow blackbird; and in another, after a
blackbird’s egg had been thus concealed, a second was laid,
which was similarly treated, thus giving rise to a three storied
nest. This last you have in your possession, and will, 1 hope,
vat to the nerd a putas * well * a people description of

“ The rein alluded to mesic may be thus eatpeds. A nest
of the usual form had been first constructed, of which the exter-
nal diameter was three inches. It is composed of cotton rudely
interwoven with flaxen fibres of plants, and lined with cotton of
a reddish color, with some hairs round the inneredges. The egg

of the cowbird having been deposited in this nest, another of a

larger size, three inches and three quarters in external diameter,
has been built upon it, being formed of the same materials, but
with less of the flaxen fibres. The egg is thus surmounted bya
layer three quarters of an inch thick, and was discovered by
opening the lower nest from beneath. It is agglutinated to the
lining of the nest, having been addled and probably burst. In ~
this second nest a cowbird had deposited an egg, which was, in
like manner, covered over by a third nest, composed of the same
materials, and of warcaele the same size as the second.” -

136 Fossil Bones from Oregon Territory.

It may not be amiss for the reviewer to add to the above account,
that the above triple nest was found in Roxbury, Mass. ; the cotton
of which it was built had been easily obtained by the bird, the
family near whose house it was found having freely distributed
pieces of that article on adjacent trees and bushes, for the express
purpose of being used for nests by the birds. In the third story
of this nest a brood of four young yellowbirds had been went
before the nest was taken.

In speaking of the prairie warbler, Sylvia discolor, Mr. ple
bon says: “I never saw it farther east than the ridges of the
Broad Mountain, about twelve miles from Mauch Chunk.” It
is not an uncommon bird in New York, Connecticut, and Mas-
sachusetts ; we have known of its breeding in each of these

= re are many, Very many interesting portions of this work,
eons of the habits and peculiarities of the genera which it
contains, we should delight in transferring to our pages did the
nature of our Journal permit. Wherever they referred to impor-
tant discoveries we have already briefly mentioned them, and
our limits forbid us to do more ; more especially after having, in
a previous number, already epekin so much zm extenso of the
grperol subject.

_ A third volume of this work is already half aieieietcil - Wheit
it is concluded we intend to refer to the subject again, and to con-
tinue our analysis of the new and important facts on ornithology
furnished by the author. ‘Till then we must bid him once more
adieu, with the full assurance that if his present work continues
to improve as it has done, he will not fail to add even to his pres-
oe we were mahernnptett to believe impossible.

Arr. VE NOR of erat Bones from Oregon Territory, m
a letter to Dr. C. T. Jackson ; by H. O, Perkins.

My dear Sir—Having recently received, by the generosity
of Capt. John H. Couch, of this place, several fine specimens of
fossil remains, some of wihigh would seem to be somewhat rare,
and pethaps unique, when viewed in relation to their locality at
least, I her t hist y and description of the
specimens, together with drawings of the most interesting, in the

an
ae
aan

hope and with the desire, if they are not what I have
them to be, that some one better acquainted with the subject may
aid in determining the animals to which they once belonged.
‘The remains were found by Mr. Ewing Young, in December,
1839, on the Walhammet or Multnomah river, a tributary of the
Columbia, in latitude 44° N. “They were,” to use his own
words, “about twelve feet under the earth.” Among them I
find a part of the tusk, an upper second, and a lower third molar
of the fossil elephant, one of the torial bones of the fossil ox,
which I should judge, comparing this bone with the correspond-
ing one of an ox weighing over eight hundred pounds, could not
have weighed less than fourteen or sixteen hundred pounds, be~
sides several fragments of the shafts of bones, which I am una-
ble at present to determine. But the greatest interest attaches
to the tooth and large fragments which I am now about to de-

Bae ont es j , : H

- The tooth to which I refer, as you will see by Fig. 1, is pris-
matic, fluted, and quadrangular. Its length is two inches and
nine tenths, its breadth at the widest part, from a to 5, six eighths
of an inch ; the outside of the tooth resembles fine ivory. With-

in this is the bony or coarse ivory. ae looking at the crown
Vol. xxu1, No. 1.—Oct.—Dee. 1841.

Bt

138 Fossil Bones from Oregon Territory.

of this tooth you will perceive four facets looking towards each
other, with an intervening, transverse, polished furrow ; and it is
to this part to which I would especially invite attention, and a
careful comparison with the generic characters of ae gethestiee:
as pies: by Fischer,* which I quote: “Dent prim et lan ¢;
‘=> obducti, tritoris, coronide nunc plana transversim
suleata, nunc medio excavata marginalis prominalis.” The lower
part of the tooth is of the same shape and size as the crown, with —
a conical cavity at its base. Itisa ates of the sc aa (Omen
Megalonyx (Harlan)? -

The larger fragments above wahedesh to are two in number;
which from their striking resemblance to the extremities of the
humerus, I cannot but consider as portions of that bone. (See
Fig. 2.) A; head of the bone; B, the greater, C the smaller tu-
berosity. The length of the. lagi fragment (from A to D) is
fourteen inches; its breadth measured across the tuberosities,
seven anda half inches ; the diameter of the head of the hume-
rus, four and a half inches; the circumference of the body of the
bone just below the tatastosities, fourteen and a half inches; from
the summit of the external tuberosity to the prominence E (see
Fig. 4) on the front of the bone, twelve inches. There are the
remains of a large protuberance on the outside of the humerus,
a fittle more than half way down the body of the bone, which
bears a strong resemblance (if my memory does not fail me) to
a marked projection on the humerus of the Orycteropus. Some
small portions of the front and back of the body of the bone are
Ses but the lowest parts on the sides correspond with the

ed surface of the lower extremity, which I will now de-

On this portion are to be seen the external (F) and internal
(G) condyles, and the articulating surface of the elbow joint (H);
and on the back part, Fig. 3,a large deep hollow, I, for the re
ception of the olecranon process of the nlna; the interned larger
half of the articulating surface (Fig. 2, a) presents the appeatr-
ance of a hinge joint, and seems well adapted for progression,
the outer half presents a large smooth, round ball, (Fig: 2,

b,) ‘upon which the head of a radius might freely roll. The
breadth of this. easens: measures across ies Stet va

ee SO ee ee, es 2 Pha ae ai bos a

and a quarter inches ; across the chines agian six ines
its length (from.D to. H) is six inches, |
Figs 3) Pe ” : Fig. 4.

The structure of the upper and lower articulating surfaces, the
great size and ontward situation of the great tuberosity, the prom-
inence on the outer part of the bone, together with the marked
resemblance, so far at least as the adaptation of means to ends
goes, between this bone and that of the ant-eater, led me to ima-
gine that it was probably the humerus of a large animal which
had the power of abducting the bone somewhat, of freely rota-

“ting the fore-arm, and who obtained his food by digging. Whe-
ther it belonged to the same animal with the tooth above de-
scribed, which I suspect may have been the case, I have not the
means of determining with certainty. There are apparent and
essential differences between Cuvier’s plate of the humerus of
the Megatherium and the specimen under examination, although
there. appears to be some considerable resemblance. It still less
resembles that of the fossil elephant, or any other I can find fig-
ured. ._My means of reference however are so scanty, that it
would be folly for a tyro in paleontology to attempt to name it,
and I must mPre, it for wigan and others better qualified to ane i

longs, if not to some one of the megatherio!

140 Objections to Mr. Redfield’s Theory of Storms.

Should these specimens be considered of sufficient interest by
scientific gentlemen, it would afford me great pleasure, on being
informed of the fact, to exchange casts of them as soon as prac-
ticable, for other fossil remains or casts, and to learn their opin-
ions upon the subjects of this communication.

Newburyport, Mass., June 2, 1841

P. 8. addressed to the Editors, Sept. 8, 1841.—Since my com-
munication was sent to Dr. Jackson, I have discovered among
the fragments of bone in my possession, the body of a dentate
vertebra, and what appears to be part of a clavicle, which, from
their strong external resemblance in color and texture, would
seem to have belonged to the same animal with the humerus.

Arr. XVII—Objections to Mr. Redfield’s Theory of Storms,
with some strictures upon his reasoning ; by Roserr Hare,
M. D.,; Prof. of Chem. in the Univ. of Pennsylvanie.

1. Mr. Reprienp’s idea, that tornadoes and hurricanes are all
whirlwinds, involves some improbabilities. It requires that, du-
ring every hurricane, there should be blasts of a like degree of
strength coinciding with every tangent which can be applied to
a circle. Thirty two ships equidistant from the axis of gyration,
and from each other, should each have the wind from a different
point of the compass with nearly equal force. The only modifi-
cation of which this view of the case admits, is that resulting
from the progressive motion which tends to accelerate the wie
on the side on which this motion concurs with that of the whirl,
and to retard it upon the other side. Moreover, as respects any
one station, the chances would be extremely unfavorable that the
same hurricane should twice proceed from the same quarter!
Yet in the course of time it would be felt, at any station, to ae
eeed from many different directions, if not from every point of
the compass.

2. The fact that during the same storm different vessels various-
ly situated are found to have the wind in as many different direc-
tions, may be explained by the afflux of winds from all quarters
to a common focal area, as wellas by supposing them to be in-
volved ina great whirlwind. - Mr. Redfield has —— that he

bserved p A, ae Marne of
ne CLS

ee lads

Objections to Mr. Redfield’s Theory of Storms. Al

tornado; but I think that the survey of Bache and Espy, shows
that it would be inconsistent with the facts to suppose such a mo-
tion, unless as a contingent result, and that it could only be a cas-
ual effect of the currents rushing towards the axis of the tornado.
3. Being of opinion that calorific expansion is inadequate to
explain the afflux of wind towards the equator, the same author
alleges that “the space previously occupied by the atmosphere, so
left behind is by the centrifugal action of the earth’s rotation, con-
stantly supplied from higher latitudes.”’
A. I presume that the meaning of this allegation is, that the cen-
trifagal force communicated to the air at the equator by the di-
urnal revolution of the earth, lessening the gravity of the air thus”
affected, causes it to rise and give place to those portions of the
atmosphere, which existing where the diameter of the earth is
less, have less rotary motion. Admitting an afflux to arise in this
way, could it have any other effect than that of accumulating air
over the equator, compensating by quantity and altitude for the
loss of weight arising from a greater centrifugal force pertaining |
to that region? But on the other hand, if we attribute the ascent
of the air at the equator to heat, the theory of exlorifte circulation
will account for the continuance of the process. -
ascribing the prevalence of westerly winds in the upper
— of the meiner al to = deflection of the trade winds by

Samay
winds, in the Gulf of Mexico, is productive of the Gulf Stream, is
it not reasonable that there should be an aerial accumulation and
current, corresponding with that of the aqueous current which is
designated by the name above mentioned? But not perceiving
that the trade winds cannot be explained without the agency of
temperature, Mr. Redfield, in the following paragraph, rejects the
influence of heat.
-» 6. “ To me it appears that the causes of the great storms may
Se considered to indicate with entire certainty the great law of cir-
culation in our atmosphere, and that the long cherished theory,
which is founded on calorific rarefaction, must give place toa
more natural system of winds and storms, founded mainly upon
more simple conditions of the great laws of gravitation.”
mo acer eenamiaen poss cans as well as others, that Mr. _
edfield considers gr d by heat or electricity, —

142 Objections to Mr. Redfield’s Theory of Storms.

mainly the cause of atmospheric currents. But in the absence of
calorific and electrical reaction, what other effect could gravita-
tion have unless that of producing a state of inert quiescence.
The part which it performs in the mechanism of nature is well
illustrated by that which it performs through the medium of a
clock weight, which is of no use without being wound up. .

8. It is remarkable that the author after ascribing the trade
winds to momentum, as the antagonist of gravitation, loses sight
of it in this summing up of the causes of atmospheric currents.

9. If, as Mr. Redfield alleges, the minuteness of the altitude of
the atmosphere in.comparison with its horizontal extent, be an ob-
jection to any available currents, being induced by calorific rarefac-
tion, wherefore should not momentum, or any other cause dimin-
ishing or counteracting the influence of his favorite agent, gravity,
_ be on the same account equally inefficient ?

10. Assuming that the motion of the air in hurricanes, is always
eiralergs Mr. Redfield considers gyration as a cause of these ter-
rible meteors. How far his language on this. subject is reasona-
ble or consistent, may be seen from the following paragraph,
which I quote from one of his essays. See ie een,
Vol. xxv, p. 125.

11. “ Notwithstanding these general and selatceinaie hortade
tal movements, the equal distribution of the atmosphere over the
surface of the globe, which resulis from gravitation, tends to pre-
vent any very rapid or violent motion in any specific direction, and
consequently to prevent violent and destructive winds. But owing
ie the tenilancy 4 all fluid matter to run into whirls or cirecutts,

to the infl of unequal or opposing forces, a rota-
tive ‘movement of suninessured:,violence.is sometimes produced.
This peculiar movement, which in its most active state is some-
times distinguished by the name of tornado or hurricane, assumes
every possible variety of position, appearance, velocity and extent,
ond 4 as the only known cause of violent and destructive winds or

3,7? a
old. Agreeably to this paragraph, gravitation in lian of being, as
ithe main basis of winds.and-storms,.tends te
produe that e f the at over the sce
of the 1obe dnsi
13. But if it ry ie expansion,: nor less

city, be the cause of are they produced?

Objections to Mr. Redfield’s Theory of Storms. 143

14. He alleges that all fluid matter has a tendency to run into

whirls or circuits, when subject to the influence of unequal or
opposing forces; and that, in this way, a rotative movement a
unmeasured vidence:3 is sometimes produced.

15. If this were true, evidently whirlpools-o or vortices of some
kind, ought to be as frequent in the ocean, as agreeably to his ob-
servation, they are found to be in the atmosphere. 'The aqueous
Gulf Stream, resulting from the impetus of the trade winds, ought
to produce as many vortices in its course as the aerial currents de=
rived from the same source; especially as in the ocean, the great
laws of gravitation have full liberty to act, without any important
interference from calorific changes, to which the advocates of the
agency of such changes in producing wind, will not ascribe much

y where non-elastic fluids are in question. »

16. There are few vortices or whirlpools in the ocean, because
there are in very few cases descending currents, to supply which
the confluence of the surrounding water is requisite. Of course
vertical currents cannot arise from any imaginable cause.

- 17. The conflict of opposing or unequal forees does not produce
curvilinear motion unless there be a successive deflection ; as in-
the case where it results from centripetal force, or the influence of
gravity upon a projectile. If one of two opposite forces be less
than the other, tetardation: will ensue, and a lateral current or
currents, arrying o off Tf en
egmntedi-eocle’ ices sidibuneppasdiaahsieccindner eilcaniiena |
doubt if a whirlpool éver Pgh SORES Rica
resulting from a vacuity.

18. But the author has not informed us how these unequal or

opposing forces are generated in the atmosphere. Without any
assigned cause, he appeals to “certain unequal or opposing forces
by which a rotative movement of unmeasured violence is produ-
ced ;” this rotative movement, although alleged to be an effect
in the first instance, is stated subsequently to be “the only known
cause of violent and destructive winds or tempests.”
» 19. In a memoir on the causes of tornadoes, and in some subse-
quent communications published in the Transactions of the Amer-
ican Philosophical Society, and republished in this Journal, vari-
ous facts and arguments were mentioned tending to prove that
the proximate cause of the phenomena of tornado is an ascend-
ing current of air, and the afflux of wind from all points of the
compass to supply the deficiency thus created.

144 Objections to. Mr. Redfield’s Theory of Storms.

20. In this mode of viewing the phenomena, no difference of
opinion exists between Espy and myself, however we may differ
respecting the cause of the diminution of atmospheric pressure
within the track of a tornado, which gives rise to the nanensong
current.

21. I adduced several facts, upon the authority of the accurate
survey made by that gentleman and his associate, proving that the
effects were, in some cases, inconsistent with the existence of a
whirl; and I mentioned one which could not be explained without
setdbuting it toa gyratory force. Hence I was led to consider gy-
ration as a casual, not an essential feature in the meteors in ques-
tion. It appeared reasonable to suppose that the conflict of conflu-
ent streams of air, rushing towards an axis moving progressively,
might be productive of a whirling motion. The contortion of
six feet of the upper part of a brick chimney upon the lower por-
tion, so as to cause the corners of either portion to project beyond
the sides of the others, was deemed inexplicable, without ascri-
bing it toa gyratory force. Subsequently, however, it occurred
to. me that this fact was more likely to be the result of a local
than of a general whirl; since, in the latter case, the chimney
could not have been twisted as described without being precisely
at the centre of the whirlwind. That such could have been its
position, appeared to me to be extremely improbable, and had it
been so situated, as the whirlwind was estimated to be moving
progressively, at the rate of seventeen miles per hour, it is to me
incomprehensible how the portion which was dislocated could
have escaped an overthrow. Evidently, although twisted upon
its base while concentric with the axis of gyration, it would in
one second of time have been twenty feet upon the windward
side of it, and consequently subject to the tangential force of the
whirlwind. I adduce this, as well as other facts, to prove, that
in tornadoes and hurricanes, there are local whirls, causing bod-
ies, which are of a nature to favor an electrical discharge, to be

~— affected.
22. A fact, irreconcilable with a general whirling motion, has
beusaagpeded. by Messrs. Espy and Bache. . A frame building was
so situated.as to be protected by another edifice in one direction
from the suction of the tornado, and yet was exposed to its influ-
ence as it advanced, and as it moved away. Hence two of the
four posts, on which the frame rested, were so impelled by the

Objections to Mr. Redfield’s Theory of Storms. 145

wind as to make furrows i in the ground, of which one was nearly
at right angles to the other. Evidently such furrows could not
rise from the transient tangential impulse of a whirlwind.

23. Mr. Redfield admits that the confused directions of fallen
bodies is distinctly recognized by all the parties to this inquiry.
Conceding, that amid this confusion, he has been enabled, by a
survey, to show that the directions in which certain trees fell are
consistent with their having been subjected to a whirlwind, it
does not demonstrate gyration to be an essential feature of torna-
does. It is sufficiently accounted for by considering it as a for-
tuitous consequence of the conflux of currents rushing into a
space partially exhausted.

24. Mr. Redfield adopts the singular determination of not noti-
cing “the insuperable difficulties” of the hypothesis which he has
undertaken to set aside. As the advocates of the disputed hypoth-
esis are not aware of any such difficulties, is it correct to allege
their existence, without mentioning the facts - arguments
which justify this allegation ?

25. Without repeating here the evidence and the reasoning
which I have already published on this subject, I will advert to one.
fact which is utterly irreconcilable with Mr. Redfield’s “rotary
theory ;” I allude to the statement of a most respectable witness,
that while the tornado at Providence was crossing the river, the
water which had risen up as if boiling within a circle of about
three hundred feet, subsided as often as a flash of” lightning took

lace. Now etiiionind the water to have risen by a deficit of
pressure resulting from the centrifugal force of a whirl, how
could an electrical discharge cause it to subside ?

26. [have already, I trust, sufficiently shown that the explana-
tion which Mr. Redfield dignifies with the title of his “theory of
rotary storms,’’ amounts to no more than this, that certain imagin-
ary nondescript unequal and opposing forces produce atmosphe-—
ric gyration, that these gyrations by their consequent centrifugal
force, create about the axis of motion a deficit of pressure, and
hence the awful and destructive violence displayed by tornadoes
and hurricanes.

27. I cannot give to this alleged theory the smallest importance,
while the unequal and opposing forces, on which it is built, exist
‘only in the imagination of an author who disclaims the agency
either of heat or electricity. But admitting a whirlwind to be

Vol. xxu, No. 1.—Oct.-Dec. 1841. 9

146 Objections to Mr. Redfield’s Theory of Storms.

produced, not by a deficit of pressure about the axis, but by un-
equal and opposing forces acting externally, in any competent
way whatever, is it not evident that any deficit of pressure about
the axis, consequent to the resulting centrifugal force, could only
cause in the atmosphere a descending current, while it could not
tend in the slightest degree to carry solids or liquids aloft? It must
be obvious, that the stratum of air on the earth’s surface, partak-
ing of the circular motion, must also partake of the centrifugal
momentum, and of course would have the inverse of any dispo-
sition to rush towards the axis so as to be productive of a vertical
blast. Meanwhile the air being rendered rarer by the centrifugal
momentum imparted as above alleged, ponderable bodies envel-
oped by it would have their gravity less counteracted than usual,
and consequently far from acquiring any tendency to rise, would
be unusually difficult to elevate.

28. Icannot help thinking that as respects the application of his

“rotary theory” to account for the upward movement which ap-
to be essential to ence these arguments will amount
to a “reductio ad absurdum

29. Mr. Redfield infers that the whirlwinds of which he assumes
the existence, have a property which he alleges to be observable
in “all narrow and violent vortices,” viz. “a spiral involute motion
quickened in its gyrations, as it approaches towards the centre of
the axis or whirl.”* But is it not evident, that if any fluid mass
be made to revolve by unequal and opposing forces, or by any other
than those resulting from the centripetal force, caused, as already
ee; by suction at the axis, the gyration will not quicken, in
as the gyrating matter may be nearer the centre ; but on
Giitiebiesey, will be slower as the distance from the axis may be
less? It appears to me that the only case in which gyration is
found to quicken in proportion as the matter involved approaches
“the vortex, is that which results froma confluence caused by an
ascending or descending current at the axis of the whirl.

30. So far therefore as Mr. Redfield’s observations confirm the
idea that the whirling motion in tornadoes quickens towards the
- centre, it tends to confirm the opinions which he combats, and t0
refute those which he upholds.

31. Although the efforts which I have made to show that the
eR. tornadoes and hurricanes arise from electrical reac-

~ * See this Journal, Vol. xxx1, p. 130.

ot
Ae 38 Soo

_ Proceedings of the British Association. 147
tion should not be successful; I think it will be conceded that any
theory of storms which overlooks the part poniomonel by electri-
city must be extremely defective. .

32. Both by Messrs. Espy and Redfield the insfitanens of. thin
agent in meteorological phenomena is entirely disregarded, al-
though with the storms which have been especially the subject
of their lucubrations, thunder and lightning and pammectieniies
charge are most strikingly associated.

Arr. XVIU. — Abstract of the Proceedings of the F stow Meet.
ing of the British Association for the Advancement of Science.
Prepared from the Report in the London Atheneum.

Tue eleventh meeting of this Association was held at Ply-
mouth, during the week commencing July 29, 1841. The at-
tendance was large, and the receipts at the meeting amounted to
£1280. he value of the property of the Association is £6955
9s 11d. During the year, £1235 10s 11d have been expended
for scientific purposes. The amount appropriated for ‘similar uses
during the coming year, is £3033 Qs 8d.

“At the general meeting on the evening of the 29th, the Presi-
dent, Prof. Whewell, on taking the chair, delivered an eloquent
address on the Bbiests and progress of the Association. A large
portion of this interesting address was inserted in our last number.

aye Francis Egerton was chosen President for the year ensu-

“The next meeting will be at Manchester in June, 1842.
Sect. A. Mathematies and Physics.

The committee on the reduction of the stars in Lacaille’s Ca-
lum Australe Stelliferum, reported, that the observations are re-
duced, all the computations executed, and the arranged catalogue
édintpleted and delivered to Mr. Raily: to be employed in the con-
struction of the extended edition of the Catalogue of the Astro-
nomical Society.

The Reduction of the Stars in Lalande’s Histoire Céleste,
will be finished before the next meeting of the Association.

The Extended Catalogue of Stars of the Royal Astronomical
Society, will be completed in a short time.

~The following is the report of a committee consisting of ed
J. Herschel, Mr. Whewell, and Prof. Baily, for revising

148 Proceedings of the British Association.

$ of the Stars. “As regards the collection of syno-
nyms, the desetion of errors in mistakes of entry, copying, print-
ing, or calculation, and their rectification, and the restriction
within their just boundaries, of the existing constellations, the
work of your committee has been progressive. * * As re

the revision and re-distribution of the séuthern constellations, a
catalogue has in the first place been prepared of all the stars
within the circle of 70° S. P. D., down to the fifth magnitude,
with their present actual magnitudes, as determined by a series
of observations, made expressly for that purpose, which catalogue
is in course of printing and publication by the Royal Astronomi-
cal Society. With the magnitudes of this catalogue, a chart has
been constructed, of which several copies have been made, and
have been employed for the purpose of grouping the stars in vari-
ous ways, (without regard to existing constellations, ) and with
reference only to forming among themselves the most compact
and striking groups which their distribution in the heavens ad-
mits, and which the correctness obtained in the magnitudes has
now, for the first time, rendered practicable. After trying many
systems and arranging the groups in a great variety of ways,
your committee have agreed on adopting, as the boundaries of
the new regions into which they propose distributing the south-
ern stars, only arcs of meridian and parallels of declination for a
given epoch; thus including each region within a quadrilateral
rectangular figure, whose angular points being tabulated in R.A.
and Decl., may be treated as artificial stars, and thus brought up
' by the ead tables of precession to any other epoch, their situa-
tion among the stars being unchanged. ‘Thus it will become a
mere matter of inspection of a catalogue arranged for the original
epoch, (which they propose to be that of the Royal Astronomical
Society’s forthcoming new Catalogue,) which region any given
star shall belong to. Proceeding then to assign more particularly
the limits of the several regions, they have succeeded in forming
an arrangement, in which (subject to such revision and modifica-
tion as may arise between this and their final Report,) they feel
disposed.to rest. * * As respects the nomenclature of the new
regions, the committee are at present engaged in considering it}
but some principles which will probably influence their recom-
mendation when the: subject is sufficiently advanced for that step,
are stated in a paper, which will appear in the forthcoming vol-

2

ume of the Transactions of the Roy. Ast. Soc. — But there is the

same necessity, (grounded on the incorrectness of : magnitudes, as.

laid down in all existing charts,) for wit ne of the northern as

~ well as southern stars in this respect.» It therefore becomes
worthy of consideration, whether a otaaiien plan may not advan- _

tageously be carried into execution in both hemispheres, © Andas
at all events, the actual state of the celestial charts in both is such
as to admit of great improvement from an assemblage of more
correct photometric data, a general review of all the stars, down
to the fifth magnitude, with this especial object in view, has
been undertaken by one of the members of the committee, con-
ducted on the same plan, the principle of which is explained in
the paper alluded to. This review is in a state of considerable
advancement, and should cireumstances and weather favor, will
probably be completed before the next meeting.”’

On the reduction of Meteorological Observations made at the
Solstices and Equinoxes. Sir J. Herschel reported, that the
whole number of series in hand, amounts to more than three
hundred, being the results of observations at about sixty stations.
During the past year, Mr. Birt has been employed in tabulating,
reducing, projecting and comparing the barometric curves, a
cess which has been completed for the whole of the American
group, (which is by far the most numerous and consecutive,) for
the years 1835, 1836, 1837, and for March, 1838, comprising
eighty eight series made at twenty eight stations. * * The
tabulated results of these reductions and their projected curves
accompanied the Report.

The Astronomer Royal made report on the publication of the
Hourly Observations made at Plymouth, under the superintend-
ence of Mr. W. 8. Harris. 1. The first series of observations
for the thermometer extends from May, 1832, to Dec. 1836, and
contains readings for every hour of the day and night. ‘The
means of the readings are taken for each day, and for each hour
the means of groups of ten or eleven days are taken. 2. The
second series extends from Jan. 1837 to Dec. 1839, and contains
readings of the wet and dry thermometer for every hour of the
day and night. ‘The means of the readings are taken for each
day. 3. The barometrical observations extend from Jan. 1837
to Dec. 1839, and contain readings of the barometer and attached
thermometer for every hour of the day and night. » The:

150 Proceedings of the British Association.

‘taken for each day. It was recommended that all these ob-
rvations be printed in full.

Sir D. Brewster made a Provisional Report on the Hourly Me-
oneeterinn Observations at Inverness and Unst. The hourly ob-
servations at Inverness were recommenced Nov. 1, 1840; but a
difficulty presented itself to their renewal at Kingussie, which it
was not easy to overcome. ‘The observations have in consequence,

been transferred to Balta Sound, in Unst, the most northern of the »

Shetland Islands, already distinguished in the history of science
by astronomical observations made there in 1817 and 1818, by
M. Biot and Capt. Kater. Dr. Edmonston, of Buness, undertook
to superintend the observations, which were begun early the pres-
ent year. The Isle of Unst being in N. lat. 60° 40’, Leith in
55° 58’, and Plymouth in 50° 22’, and all of them nearly in the
same meridian, a series of peculiarly valuable muni observations
will now be obtained.

Prof. Whewell delivered Reports on the seinelnarwntions vial
at Bristol and at Leith. At the former station particular atten-
tion has been given by Mr. Bunt to the effect produced by chan-
ges of atmospheric pressure on the heights of high water. After
a discussion of numerous observations, he concludes that the wa-
ter is depressed by atmospheric pressure almost exactly as much
as it would be raised in the tube of a water-barometer. From
observations made at the latter station, Mr. Ross had made an
investigation of the corrections of the height and time of high
water due to lunar parallax and declination.

A committee (of which Sir D. Brewster was chairman) Te-
ported on the question how far the desiderata in our knowledge
of the condition of the upper strata of the atmosphere may be

by means of ascent in balloons or otherwise, and also
ienoreed brief directions for such observations, with the probable
expense of the necessary instruments.—The principal objects 1e-
quired, are to determine the progression of temperature, and the
law of the distribution of vapor, in ascending from the surface of
the earth to the upper regions of the atmosphere. Observations
of the thermometer and dew point should be unremitted during
ee eieih of the ascent and descent, and of Cone;

their internal motions if any, the number of strata which may F
detected, and the number and direction of the currents a
cy their motion may indicate, will also form interesting objects of —
, observation in conjunction with the preceding. _Cotemporaneous’
3 observations will of course be made on the earth, during the time we
, of the aérostatic voyage, which will possess a greatly increased ,
interest if circumstances shall permit it to take place on the day
when hourly meteorological observations are made at all the prin-

cipal observatories of Europe, according to the plan laid down by

Sir J. Herschel. Portions of the air should be brought down,

for examination, from the highest elevations; and this may prob=

ably be best effected by taking up several glass balloons or bottles.
carefully gauged, fitted with stop-cocks, and filled with water.

The water should be allowed to run out at the proper station, and

the stop-cocks closed. Experiments upon the radiation of heat
would be interesting, although there are probably no known
means of instituting them with all the accuracy which could be
desired. 'To these observations might be added, others of great
interest upon the electricity of the atmosphere, by dropping wires
into clouds, or from stratum to stratum of cloudless air, and ex-
amining the nature of the electricity of their extremity by means
i of a very delicate electroscope, but the observer’s attention must
not be distracted by a great variety of objects. It would be de-
. sirable that two observers, stationed at the extremities of an accu-
rately measured base, should take the altitudes of the balloon, at

the instants the observations of pressure and temperature were
, made.
i . The committee, of which Sir J. Herschel is chairman, for su-
perintending the scientific codperation of the British Association
in the system of simultaneous observations in Terrestrial Mag-
netism and Meteorology, made a report, of which the following
is the principal part :

_ Your committee, referring to their last report for the history of
the magnetic operations in progress up to that time, have to state,

in continuation, that the magnetic observatory at St. Helena was
finished, and the instruments established in August, 1840,—at
Toronto in September, and at Van Diemen’s Land in October of

the same year. The observatory at the Cape of Good Hope was
completed and in activity at the commencement of March in the
current year, under the superintendence of Lieut. Eardley Wil-

162 Proceedings of the British Association.

= | ae From each of these stations, returns have been regularly

received since their respective dates of completion. Previous to

_, . this, there had been received returns of seven months of obser-

__ ‘vations in a temporary observatory at Toronto, and of six at St.

: es Helena. All the observations, as soon as received, have been

° regularly transmitted to Prof. Lloyd, and after examination by

him, handed over to Col. Sabine, under whose superintendence,

assisted by Lieut. Riddell,—(the state of whose health, has un-

fortunately compelled his return from Toronto,) they will be

published, Government having, on the application of the Royal

Society, taken upon themselves this additional expense.- In con-

sequence of this arrangement, the reduction and printing of the

observations are now in progress. he portable observatories of

the Hrebus and Terror were put up at Kerguelen’s Land, and

also at Van Diemen’s Land. At the former station, the May and

June terms were observed,—at the latter, those of August and

September, 1840. During the stay of the expedition at these

stations, the magnetometers were observed hourly ; and the reg-

ular work of the observatory at the latter station under the diree-

tion of Lieut. Kay has been begun, and will be continued on

this doubly laborious plan of hourly intervals for the ordinary ob-

servations, while on the term-days, all the three magnetometers

will be observed at the same instants of time, but at intervals of

two and a half minutes,—the means of confronting this vast in-

crease of labor being supplied by the colonial government, as

administered by that ever active and zealous friend of science,

Sir J. Franklin. In addition to this, and for the sake of mul-

--oecasions for observing the correspondence of magnetic

perturbations with auroral discharges, one hour out of every

twenty four, (viz. from-Ih. 50m. P. M. to 2h. 50m, P. M. Got-

tingen mean time, commencing from Jan. 1, 1841,) will be oc-

cupied with observations of the magnetometers, at intervals of

two and a half minutes, in this order, viz. Bifilar, declination ;

Vertical force, declination B,D; V, D, &c. It is to be hoped

‘that some of the European ehocubilatiie will, at least occasionally,
furnish observations i in correspondence with these.»

Elaine iiss of Lieut. Ludlow, the director of the Madeas

Y; and the first tions, have been receiv-

od it Rappers bservat on the Ast of oe
1841. : CRE Sige aan cet eae tips wich gee

_ Of the foreign European observatories, Brussels, (M. innit '

Prague, (Herr Kreil:) and Milan, (Sig. Carlini:) have regularly
forwarded the term observations for each month to the Royal So~

on

ciety. The Cadiz observatory, (M. sree has pees nee %,

with all necessary instruments.

~ Under the head of Cbiereitorieg entirely new, your commitige
have to announce the establishment of a private one snot
by Drs. Belot and Jorg.

The term-days of May and August, 1840, have isean jalan
markable for the magnitude of the disturbances. Mr. Riddell
has undertaken to have all the observations of these two days
projected in curves, which will probably be soon completed.

_M. Kupffer reports that the observations in the magnetic ob-

servatory at St. Petersburgh commenced Jan. 1, and at Caterine-
burgh, March 10. In the course of the summer, they will be
commenced at Helsingfors; and at Tiflis, in all probability, du-
ring the autumn. The total number of magnetical observatories
which may be at present reckoned on as brought, or about to be
brought, into effective coéperation, is fifty one. —
- On the 12th of November, 1840, the Brebus and Teves left
Hobart Town for their first summer’s research in the Antarctic
Circle, leaving Lieut. Kay with Messrs. Dayman and Scott as
his assistants, in charge of the observatory at Ross Bank. On
board, and during temporary sojourns of the expedition on land
or ice, the observations will be made on the same enlarged plan
as at Hobart Town. The first term will, in all probability, have
been observed in November at the Auckland Islands. The first
point to be determined would be, the point of maximum inten-
sity in the southern hemisphere, the meridian of which had been
indicated by the daily observations in the passage from Kergue-
len’s Land to Van Diemen’s Land, leaving only its latitude un-
decided. Having accomplished this, they will proceed, as rap-
idly as circumstances will permit, to seek and determine the po-
sition of the point of vertical dip. The observations at sea, it
should be mentioned, succeed to the fullest extent of the most
Sanguine expectations; so much so, that the three magnetic ele-
ments are daily observed on board, with a precision perfectly ad-
—— to the actual demands of magnetic science.

~ Intimately connected with a system of simultaneous chesiadee
tions at central stations, is the a of magnetic surveys of the
Vol. xu, No. 1.—Oct.-Dec. 1841.

e

b

.
. a - Proceedings of the British Association.

surrounding districts. It is only by reference to such central
Stations as zero points, that itinerant determinations can be di-
“vested of the influence of temporary and casual magnetic de-
rangements, and brought into comparability with the general
magnetic system of the globe. It is, therefore, of the utmost
importance, that every advantage should be taken of the present
fortunate conjuncture to secure the whole benefit of the simulta-
neous system, and to extend it from points over districts. | Itine-
rant observations, made on a connected system, and precisely si-
multaneous with those at fixed observatories, will acquire, (if ac-
curately made,) all the value of stationary ones, becoming ipso
facto, and at each instant, reducible to a central station. More-
over, by this means alone can the amount of station error for each
element, at the central stations themselves be ascertained ; by
which is meant, all that part of each resolved element of the mag-
netic force, which not being participated in by the surrounding
district, must be attributed to attractions merely local and acci-
dental. Without such surveys, executed at some epoch, this
error cannot be even approximately fixed. If executed at this
particular time, not only will it be settled with precision, but the
surveys will become an independent part of the whole mass of
observation, and be rendered. infinitely more valuable as data for
future reference, than they could possibly be if deferred till after
the conclusion of the stationary observations.

Under this impression it is highly gratifying to your comicaitiele
to be enabled to announce that one very important survey of this
kind,—that of the British possessions in North America—has, on
Hpeimpplicetion of the Beesident and Council of the Royal Soci-

, on a scale both liberal and
tnlinlactory--n young, — and instructed officer, Lieut. Young-
husband, R. A., qualified for the work by a residence and prac-
tice in magnetic observation in the observatory at Toronto,—
having been added to the establishment of that observatory, with
a view to this especial service, for three years, with a non-commis-
sioned officer as his assistant, furnished with every instrumental
requisite, a liberal provision for travelling expenses, and with the
promise of gratuitous canoe conveyance, from the Hudson’s Bay
Company = the territories. belonging to them.. In anticipation,
South Africa, though

e1rptrroatr

; ar ni y
as ye no formal applic iti n-for such a survey has been made, the

ae tee

Proceedings of the British Association. 155

Master-General of Ordnance has ordered a second officer of Ar- —
tillery, (Lieut. Clerk,) to be attached to the Dhamma: at the
Cape of Good Hope.

The magnetic survey of British Guyana od been undertaken
by Mr. Schomburgk, one of the commissioners appointed by Gov-
ernment to determine the boundaries of that province. ‘I'he Af-
rican Expedition has also been supplied, by Government, with the
necessary instruments for observation. From the scientific zeal
which distinguishes many of the officers of that expedition, scarce-
ly inferior to that zeal in the cause of humanity which has led
them to enter on so perilous a service, results highly valuable to
magnetic science may be expected.

‘Mr. Caldecott, astronomer to his Highness the Rajah of Tra-
vancore, has also declared his intention to undertake the magnetic
survey of Southern India; while in the north of that empire we
may expect, from the zeal and energy of Capt. Boileau, that no
exertions on his part will be wanting to secure a similar advan-
‘tage in that quarter.
~ In all such surveys, it is highly desirable that a regular and
concerted system of observation should be followed, and above
all things that the condition of exact conformity to the hours of
simultaneous observation should be adhered to; as well as that,
if practicable, all determinations of important points, intended to
be made with particular care and exactness, should be performed
‘on the term-days ; which object, by the exercise of a certain de-
gtee of forethought in laying out the plan of travel, may doubt-
less be accomplished in the great majority of instances.

The President submitted a series of curves, prepared by Lieut.
Riddell, representing the simultaneous changes of the magnetical
‘elements, observed at Toronto, Dublin, Brussels, Prague, Milan,
St. Helena, and Van Diemen’s Land, on the 29th of May and
29th of August, 1840. He remarked that one of the chief ob-
jects kept in view in the arrangement of the great system of com-
bined observation now in operation, was the extension of the plan
of ‘simultaneous observations at short intervals of time, first laid
down by Gauss: The results of this system had been, that the
observed changes of the magnetical elements were strictly simul-
taneous at the most remote stations at which observations had
been hitherto made ; and that these changes followed in all cases
‘the same laws, the representative curves being similar to one an-

&

_#
156 Proceedings of the British Association.
ie

other in all their inflexions, and differing only in the magnitude
ef the change. This similarity had been found to extend to the
utmost limits of Europe, and to hold at stations as remote as Dub-
lin, Petersburgh, and Milan. It became, therefore, a question of
great interest in the extension of this system to still more distant
stations, to determine whether there were any and what limits
to this accordance. ‘The question was determined by the very
first results of the observations recently established by the British
government, and the observations first mentioned, were selected
as elucidating it in a very marked manner. The magnetical dis-
turbances. which occurred on these days were among the most
eonsiderable which had been as yet observed. .On the former
day, (May 29, 1840,) the declination at Toronto underwent a
sudden change, amounting to L° 52’ in about twenty minutes of

time, while the disturbance of the horizontal force was so great —

as to carry the magnet beyond the limits of its scale. On the
latter day, (Aug. 29, 1840,) the greatest change of the declination
amounted to 1° 26’ at Toronto, and to 1° 18’ at Dublin. The
greatest change of the horizontal intensity at the former station
amounted to .028, or about one thirty sixth part of the whole in-
tensity: while at Dublin the change was even greater, and ex-
tended beyond the scale of the instrument. It is probable that
an attentive comparison of the curves may lead to many impor-
tant results; but there are some which appear upon a cursory
inspection, which Mr. Lloyd said he should now notice. The
first was, that the greater magnetic disturbances appeared to be
synchronous at the most distant stations. This important fact
is exhibited much more evidently in the changes of horizontal
intensity than in those of declination, and if verified by further
comparisons, leads to the conclusion, that the principal forces
whieh disturb. the magnetic equilibrium of the earth, are not of
local agency. The next circumstance which merited attention
was, that the order of the changes was no longer regulated by
the same law at very remote stations; the representative curves
exhibiting none of that similarity alsaady referred to, which was
shown within the limits of Europe, and the epochs.of the sue-
cessive maximaand minima presenting no agreement whatever:

This important fact was first brought to light in the course of a
series of simuult 1s, made by Prof. Bache at Phil-
adelphia, and by himself .at Dublin, in November, 1839, in the

hai

Proceedings of the British Association. 187

hope of determining differences of longitude by means of the
corresponding movements of the magnet at the two stations.
The changes observed in the observations at present under con-
sideration, were however far greater in magnitude, and placed
the phenomenon in a much stronger light. _'The last circumstance
to which Mr. L. invited attention was, that the curves of horizon-
tal intensity presented, at remote. stations, a much neater agree-
ment than those of declination: from which it may be inferred
that a true knowledge of the nature and laws of the disturbing
causes will be better attained by the examination of i
changes, (including, of course, those of the vertical intensity;)
than those which are dependent ape Ae on the nena of the
acting forces.

The President also laid on the table the curves representing
the changes of magnetic declination, observed at Cambridge,
Massachusetts, by Mr. W. C. Bond and Prof. J. Lovering, on the
term-days of May and October, 1840. The corresponding obser-
vations made at Toronto by Lieut. Riddell, were laid down ina
curve in connection with the latter. The results exhibited the
same close agreement in the forms of the curves, and in the
epochs of the successive maxima and minima as had been already
noticed in Europe, although, (as before remarked, ) all resemblance
between this and the European system of changes is nearly ob-
literated. Cambridge is distant about five hundred miles from
Toronto: me mean beesagrcaetscee at tive tectane: ee is now 9° 20
West> =

Sir D. Sesiwsten dence the Gllesning report on the State of
the Inquiry into the action of gaseous and other Media on the
Solar Spectrum. In prosecuting this inquiry, my attention has
been principally directed to the action of the earth’s atmosphere
upon the solar spectrum, and I hope to be able to present to the
next meeting of the Association a map of the bands produced by
atmospheric absorption. I have also made considerable progress
in constructing a map of the spectrum containing the numerous
lines and bands produced by the action of nitrous gas. In sub-
mitting to examination several other gaseous media, my results.
have been principally of a negative character; but in my experi-
ments with solid and fluid media, I have been led to many posi-
tive and interesting results. In order to obtain additional aecu*
racy of observation, particularly near the extremities of the spec-

158 eedings of the British Association.

trum, Mr. Dollond has constructed for me some important pieces
of apparatus for directing and condensing the solar rays; and I
have recently obtained from Mr. Herz, of Munich, a very large
prism, to be used with the telescope, and a series of smaller prisms
for constructing a prismatic cylinder for the purpose of expanding
or magnifying particular parts of the spectrum.

Prof. Whewell stated that the times of high water on the east
coast of Britain, and the north coast of Belgium, Holland, and
Germany, had led him to the conclusion that there must lie to-
wards the middle of the German Ocean, a central space, in which
the rise and fall of the tide vanishes. \ He presented a letter writ-
ten by Capt. Hewett, who was lost in H. M. S. Fairy, in the
German Ocean in 1840. Capt. H. had endeavored to decide the

point by a-series of observations, the details of which are given
in ine letter, and afford strong confirmation of the views of Prof.
Whewell.

Mr. J. Scott Russell read a Notice Supploneentanep to the Sirinee
Report on Waves, a results of experiments made during
the year.

Mr. W. S. Harris communicated a report on the working of
Whewell’s Anemometer at Plymouth during the year past. He
exhibited the curves for the year on a diagram twelve feet high
by seven wide, a red tape line showing the total effect. ‘he
instrument, after having undergone certain improvements, appears
now to be entirely satisfactory. ‘The mean result of the year’s
andorra shows at Plymouth an annual movement of the air
from the 8. S. E. toward the N. N. W. nearly. If we connect
this fact with the results obtained from the hourly meteorological
observations at the Dock-yard, we are entitled to say, so far as
our experiments extend, that there is an annual movement of the
atmosphere in this latitude towards the north, under a mean pres-
sure of 29.9 inches nearly, taken at the level of the sea, anda
mean temperature of 52° Fah. Having traced an annual move-
ment in the air, it remains to determine its rate of motion. ‘This,
although at first sight a difficult matter, he hopes to accomplish
by a mode of experiment now in progress.

Further Researches on Rain, by John Phillips, and at Harraby,
near Carlisle, by Joseph Atkinson, Esq. At previous meetings
of the PR. Mr. P. had offered a series of experiments on

the sipiak:hocacetst exces} ntdilier

s ee eees Baw ee:

ent heights from the sities fated | it appeared that more
was received near the surface of the earth than at higher points.
Further experiments show that these results vary much with the
nature of the gauge employed, and with the local situation of
their exposure. The globular rain-gauge of Dr. Robinson was
explained. A globe of copper stands on a stem with a funnel, so
as to leave exposed to the rain its upper part ; the rain, as it trick-
les down the globe, is caught by the funnel ; when the wind is
high, the drops, as they collect below, are in danger of being
blown off, unless the funnel extends out so as to stand under
about one quadrant of the globe, thus leaving about 270° expos-
ed. In this way, the copper globe always presents a nearly equal
cross section to the descending rain, whether the rain-drops fall
in vertical lines, or in lines considerably inclined. This gauge
had been fitted up on the flat roof of the observatory at Armagh,
in the close vicinity of an ordinary horizontal gauge, the mouth
of which exposed exactly one hundred square inches: the diam-
eter of the globe had also been so regulated as to expose exactly
an equal cross section. Except during the violent gale of Janu-
ary 6, 1839, he had never found the rain to be blown out of the
receiving funnel of the globular gauge. It had been set up since
Sept. 1838, and the mean result was, that the ratio of the quan-
tity received by the globe gauge to that received by the ordinary
gauge is almost exactly 2: 1; this ratio, however, was very much
departed from, on one Ps se during a very severe gale in No-
vember, 1839, in which the barometric column descended rapidly
to a very low point, the globular gauge received 0.76, while not
one drop had entered the horizontal gauge beside it: the curvets
upon the roof, doubtless, having given rise to this remarkable
circumstance, in the manner described by Prof. Bache, of Phila-
delphia.

_ Mr. T. Hopkins presented a paper on the Influence of Moun-
tains on Temperature in the Winter in certain parts of the north-
ern hemisphere. Mr. H. stated, that between the latitudes of
40° and 70° North, there is in the same parallels, a great differ-
ence of temperature, particularly in the winter, amounting in
some cases to as much as 40° or 50° F. The western coasts of
the two continents are much warmer than the eastern, and the
winds generally blow from the sea to the western coasts; and it
has been inferred that the prevailing winds passing over sea to the

* the eastern, is the cause of the
ce a in the tempe This inference, is not however in
accordance with facts, as the low temperature is not proportional
to the distance from the western coast. Throughout this part of

the northern hemisphere, it is found that climate has certain rela’ 9

tions to the elevation of land, not simply arising out of the ele-
vation of that part of the earth’s surface above the general level,
but out of the influence which the elevation exercises on the
atmosphere. After an extensive discussion of facts, Mr. H. con-
siders himself warranted iri concluding that the great difference
in the winter climates of certain parts of the northern hemis-
phere, is attributable to elevations of land intercepting and con-
densing atmospheric steam, and thus rendering those parts wet
and warm, while cutting off the mapphystam the more northern
pee leaves them dry and cold.

On the theoretical omepathtion of Refractive Indices, by. Prof.
Powell.—In the Report on Refractive Indices, which the author
had presented to the Association, his professed object extended only
to exhibiting the results of observation without any reference to
theory. Since that report was made, he has devoted his attention
to the subject of their ¢heoretical computation, and it is the object
of the present communication to state very briefly the progress
made in it. ‘The results in the Report on Indices are classified’
under three heads: 1, those of Fraunhofer; 2, those of Rudberg;
3, those derived from the latest observations of the author, com=
prising many new results, superseding former ones; and others,
the combined results of several sets of earlier observations com-
pared with later. The first series was compared with theory,
1, by the author in the Phil, Trans. 1835, but only by an ap-
proximative and tentative method; 2, by Mr. Kelland, by a direct
and exact method in the Camb. Trans. Vol. 6; 3, for the rays
D and C only, by Sir W. R. Hamilton in the Phil. Mag., 3d
series, Vol. 8; 4, by M. Cauchy in the Nouv. E'rerc. livr. 3-6,
by a most exact and elaborate process. ‘The second series has
been computed only by the author, by the same approximative
method as the first, in the Phil. T'rans. 1836, whence it was re
printed in Peszendorf’s Annalen. Some of the first results be-
iy: to the third series were computed by the author, by Sit
W. R. Hami nes in the Phil. Trans. 1837, and three

of the h : appeared, were recom-
* bi —_ PP

Ps.) . m
; j
2 ;
—_ he nn
beaea oe

‘h hil. Trans. 18:
it was Fenner to maccnaiitl series 2, by an exact method; and
hecessary to calculate all the new aud improved results of series 3.
_ ‘This the author has now done, by means of Sir W. R. Hamil-
~ ton’s formula, and for the sake of uniformity has included series 1.
The results agree perfectly with observation, except in the most
. highly dispersive cases. But here it is found that if an empirical
change be allowed in one of the constants for each we pe a
sufficiently close accordance is obtained.
Prof. Powell also communicated a paper on the refraction of
heat, and one on ceriain points of the Wave Theory of Light.
Prof. Whewell gave an abstract of a Report on the present
state of our theoretical and experimental knowledge of the laws
of Conduction of Heat, by Prof. Kelland.—The problem, in the
solution of which consists the mathematical theory of heat, is the
following :—Having given the state of heating, or the variation
of that state from time to time, at one or more points of a homo-
geneous body of given form and dimensions, to find the perma-
nent or variable temperature at every other point. Thus a ring
is kept at a certain temperature at one point, and it is proposed to
discover: 1. What is the variation from time to time of the tem-
perature-at every other point. 2. What is the ultimate tempera-
tee to mhioh: that, ~ SBF given. aot approaches, as the time

is s increased. From this statement it will appear that the. experi-

facts on which the theory must rest, are the answers to
the following questions... 1. According to what law does a heated
body lose its temperature to the air, or other medium or space, by
which it is surrounded? 2. According to what law is the tem-
perature transmitted from point to point of a body? On the cor-
reetness of the answers which may be assumed as given to these
- Questions, depends the applicability of the results obtained to the
State of things in nature. ‘The Report then proceeded to show
What answers have been given to the above questions by different
theorists, and to explain the evidence on which their truth was
sapposed to be established.

On the temperature of the Air in York Minster, by Prof.
Phillips. It may be remarked that the vastness and loftiness of
the interior of York Minster renders the air within it, in a great

», free from violent sont idranghts, and yet subject to a con-
‘Vol, gus, No. 1.—Oct.-Dec. 184

tinval gentle circulation. While the observations were taken,
(1808—1811,) the building was not heated, and the lights used
were a few scattered tapers. It appears, that from nearly the end
of March to nearly the end of August, the air within the Minster

was colder than the mean temperature of the air without; and -

from nearly the end of August to nearly the end of March,
it was warmer. Dr. Robinson remarked, that by a slight modi-
fication, these observations might be made subservient to the
purpose of determining the rate at which the several strata of air
as you ascend, alter their temperatures as the conditions upon
which their equilibrium depend, is varied; which determination
would have an important ee on the sabject of atmospheric
refractions.

- Prof. Lloyd communicated a paper containing the Resuits of
some acne antes on the phenomena of thin plates in Polarized

ht.

Profs Wartmann, of Lausanne, read a paper on what he calls,
Dalionism. One of the most extraordinary affections to which

the eye is subject, is an incomplete vision of colors, which has’

been called Daitonism, after the celebrated Professor, who was
the first to describe it in an exact manner. He then laid before
the meeting, an extract from a more extended work, containing
in substance, the following observations. The Daltonians form
two classes ;—that of the dichromatics, who discern only two
colors, generally black and white, and who appear endowed with
a remarkable faculty of vision in a state of darkness: and that of

polychromatics, who have the definite perception of at least
three colors. Daltonism is not always hereditary; it does not,
even, always date from birth. Decided colors appear black to
many Daltonians, if they be not illuminated by a very brilliant
light. ‘The number of colors of which the polychromatic Dal-
tonians are sensitive, is not constant; some only see three, others
four, among which blue and red may be expressly mentioned.
The extremes of red and violet are often not distinct; a fact
which the Professor thought to have a connection with the ques-
tion uf the number of elementary colors. The degree of polish

of the Colored surface has an influence on the appreciation of.

colors. Some Daltonians have an equal cognizarice of the bright-
ness and the discoloration of supplementary — _ we do
not recognize as such. 'T'wo colors appear to us ended by @

Issociati 163

£ Proceedings

succession of intermediate tints, which the Dalionians see in con-
trast. The Daltonians see exactly as we do, the mixed rays dis-
covered in the spectrum by Fraunhofer, at least in all that arsed
which appears to them illuminated.

Prof. Whewell, after mentioning some cases of persons affected
with this peculiarity, remarked that he doubted the propriety of
the name now given to this defect: few persons would desire to
be immortalized through the medium of their defects; and Dal-
ton, least of all, requires such a means of handing dow tis name
to posterity.

~ Mr. Dent sireteuted a paper on the preservation of ea olerchaalee
eter balance springs, by forming upon them a thin coat of pure
gold, by means of the electrotype process. Prof. Christie read a
paper on the preservation of magnetic needles and bars from oxi-
datien, by the same process.

On the relation of Sturm’s Ausiliary Functions to the Roots
ofan Algebraic Equation, by Prof. Sylvester. 'The author wish-
ed to bring to the more general notice of mathematicians, his
discovery of the real nature and condition of the auxiliary func-
tions, so called, which Sturm makes use of in locating the roots
of an equation: these are obtained by proceeding with the left
hand side of the equation, and its first differential co-efficient, as
if it were our object to obtain their greatest common factor; the
successive remainders, with their signs alternately changed and
preserved, constitute the functions in question. Each of these

put under the form of a fraction, the denominator of
which i is @ perfect square, or in fact the product of many ; like-
wise the numerator contains a huge heap of fractions of a similar
These, therefore, as well as the denominator, since they
cannot influence the series of signs, may be rejected; and fur-
thermore, we may, if we please, again make every other function,
beginning from the last but one, change its sign, if we consent
to use changes, wherever Sturm speaks of. calculations of sign,
and vice versa. The functions of Sturm thus modified and
purged of irrelevancy, the author, by way of distinction, and
still to attribute honor where it is really most due, proposes to
call “ Sturm’s Determinators,” and proceeded to lay bare the in-
ogy anatomy of these remarkable forms.
~ Prof. Moseley gave an account and drawing of a re for
ting the numerical values of Diefrrise Integrals. 'The

164 Proceedings of the British Association.

object of the machine is to apply to the numerical calculation of
definite integrals, a principle first suggested by M. Poncelet for
the registration of dynamometrical admeasurements, which has
been applied by M. Morin to an instrument called the Compteur,
for registering the traction of loaded carriages upon common
roads, and during the last year, by a committee of the Associa-
tion, to a permanent registration of the work of the steam upon
the piston of a steam engine.

On determining distances by the aid of the Telescope, by
Mr. Bowman. The principle of this method was to observe the
number of divisions of a graduated staff placed at a distance ;
and considerable ingenuity is shown in determining the distance
by making the necessary corrections on this observed number.
The author thinks his method would be more accurate in sur-

veying than the actual measurement by the chain, particularly
in uneven ground; and asserts that the error in taking any dis-
tance could not exceed the thousandth part of the entire distance ;
hence, by dividing the entire distance, even when large, intoa
number of parts, he conceives that great precision would be at-
tained.

Sir J. Herschel transmitted fifteen specimens of jer photo-
graphic copies of engravings and mezzotintos, into the prepara-

tion of which no metallic ingredient enters, the whole being

tinted with substances of vegetable origin variously prepared.
The rays of the spectrum which have eaten away the lights in
these photographs, are neither the so-called chemical rays beyond
the violet, nor the calorific rays beyond the red. The actiomis
confined ree entirely to the luminous rays, and of these more

cially to. those rays of the spectrum whose union forms @
color supplementary to that of the ground-tint; a circumstance,
which, considering the great command of color which this new
variety of the photographic art affords, holds out no slight hope
of a solution of the problem of a photographic se iatareeneeit a
natural objects in their proper colors,

(To be concluded in the next number.)

LN aT ae ee

vic Acid — Wells. 165

| XIX, —On the Feed of Carbonic Acid Gas from

Wells, Sc., and Spontaneous Combustion in Wood Ashes ; by

Otiver P. Hessarp, M. D., Prof. of Chem., Min. and Geol. in
Dartmouth College.

Combustibility of Wood Ashes; by Dr. Joun 'T. Pruner, =
- Richmond, Indiana.

“Tne following verbal statement I received fom T Dr. 8. E. Hale,
a graduate of the Medical School of Dartmouth College. While a
student at Burlington, Vt., a deep well in the yard of the stable
connected with the hotel was to be cleaned. A man was about
to descend for this purpose, but, at the suggestion of Mr. Hale,
waited till he could test the well for carbonic acid gas. A light-
ed candle was adjusted, and on lowering it with a.cord, it was
extinguished at ‘he very mouth of the well. He then applied the
remedy, ignited charcoal, as recommended by me in this Journal,
(Vol. xxxvi, p. 206,) and entirely removed the gas, so that the
candle burned clearly in every part above the water, which was
some twenty or more feet from the surface of the ground; and
the man descended with impunity and accomplished his object. |
This well was situated at nearly the lowest part of the yard, and
in the vicinity of abundant sources of carbonic acid from the de-
composition of animal manures, and may be a constant reservoir
for the accumulation of the gas. Though this be a strong case,
ret in all cases the successful. use of the charcoal once should
not prevent its repeated BEES, even at short intervals, if oc-
casion required.

-1,. Spontaneous Combustion in Wood Ashes.—In September,
1840, my attention was called by a soap-boiler, who was re-
moving ashes from a brick arch in my cellar, to a remarkable
phenomenon he had just observed in the ashes in his cart he
had last brought out. I applied my hand to a spot as directed,
and found the heat so great I could hold it there but a moment
at atime; and on examination of the ashes in the arch from
which these last had been taken, I found the same heat limited

‘to asmall area in the centre of the bottom, which was now cov-

ered by a small quantity of ashes remaining, from twelve to four-
teen. bushels. ‘The ashes formed a heap two feet thick on an
area of about four feet by two feet. They were made of maple

wood alone, burned in close stoves, and were very heavy, and the

166 Spontaneous Combustion.

heat was found in no other portion of them. Those at the bot-
tom were at least one year old, and my family having been ab-
sent during the summer, none had been added, excepting a very
small quantity on the surface a few days previous, for more than
three months.

The burning of boxes and casks in which ashes are very com-
monly kept, is usually, perhaps generally with truth, attributed
to the burning coals taken up with the ashes. Suspecting this
cause, I searched thoroughly for ignited coals among the heated
ashes in the cart and also in the arch, and found no vestige of
coals in any state. It is not probable that any small quantity of
ashes removed at one time from the stoves, even if hot and min-
gled with live coals, and added to a heap on its surface as usual,
should have retained its heat till covered by succeeding additions,
and this heat have remained so pent up for a year, and not rather
have been conducted to the whole mass, and thus entirely dissi-
pated. Besides, the combustion of the wood in my stoves is very
complete—the coals are consumed, and the ashes are commonly
removed before making the fire in the morning, and at considera-
ble intervals ; so that, though I made no examination, it seems
there could have been but an extremely small portion of combus-
tible vegetable matter remaining unconsumed. The floor of the
arch and cellar is sand, and unusually dry; there is nothing pecu-
liar in the circumstances of the arch, and I cannot but attribute
the occurrence to an unknown cause, which in time would _—
resulted, as in the following instance, in

2. Spontaneous Combustion.—This instance came under the
immediate observation of Rev. President Lord, of Dartmouth
College, a few years since. He noticed for two or three days,
throughout his house, that well known and peculiar odor of hot
or ignited ashes, unaccompanied by smoke or the odor of buming
wood. After repeated and unsuccessful examinations had been
made for the cause, attention was finally drawn to the ashes ina
corner of the cellar, which were found in a state of complete
ignition. On being stirred with a stick, the fire, it was found,
pervaded the whole mass, some twenty five bushels, and it was
extinguished by an abundance of water. This heap had been
accumulated during the two years previous. They lay upon
the bottom of the cellar, which was moist, and surrounded on
three sides with brick; nothing intervened between them and

the floor above, and there seemed great reason to fear the house

Combustibility of Wood Ashes. 167

would have been burned but for this timely discovery. If ashes
are liable to such spontaneous ignition, and there is nothing in
these cases known that is peculiar, it suggests the propriety of
arching all receptacles for them if in a eellar, and the necessity
of keeping them always in receptacles constructed of incombus-
tible materials. It is hoped that similar occurrences will be re-
corded for the more clear elucidation of this obscure subject.

The editors have received a notice of two similar occurrences,
in a letter from Dr. John T. Plummer, Richmond, Indiana.

3. Combustibility of Wood Ashes.—Several years ago, a large
wooden box, standing in an old frame building, back of my
dwelling house, and containing ashes, was discovered to be on fire.
Before the fire was extinguished, a hole ten or twelve inches in
diameter had been burned through one side of the box, and the
flames had seized the building. On strict inquiry of the family
that then lived in my house, I was assured by every individual
with one accord, that no ashes had been emptied into the box for
at least two weeks; the box having been filled for that length of
time, the ashes had been thrown elsewhere. I could not doubt
the veracity of my tenants, and therefore was led to attribute the
phenomenon to an incendiary act, to some chemical change in
the contents of the box, or to hot ashes thrown in and the fact
being forgotten by the members of the family.

_ To satisfy myself respecting the origin of the fae, I mentee
the box, and was at once n had co
menced within it. The hole burned through the side of it, was
near the bottom, and widened inward like a funnel, presenting
some resemblance to the holes in the shelf of a pneumatic cistern.
The outside of the box was charred where the flames passed up.

Outside view. :

The inquiry having been conducted thus far, I was induced to
reflect whether an ignited coal could remain buried in ashes to
the depth of two feet, in a state of inaction fora fortnight. If
this pemeeromibls; why should it ultimately become such a source

168 Combustibility of Wood. Ashes.

of danger, while the box and its contents continued undisturbed?
With this inquiry in my mind, I made a memorandum of the
event in my common-place book, and left the subject for future
reflection and research. Years passed, and the memorandum fre-
quently met my eye as I occasionally turned over the leaves of
my manuscripts; but it did not obtain any particular attention...

4, A few months ago, however, I had cause, to congratulate
myself for having made a careful record of the phenomenon re-
ferred to. Our domestic informed me, perhaps two months since,
that the ash-box, (a transverse section of. the trunk of a very
large syecamore,) had “burnt through near the bottom.” The
former occurrence of the same kind, presented itself vividly
to mind, and I eagerly repaired to the late scene of combustion to
pursue my original inquiry, believing the cause, whatever it might
be, to be the same in both instances. The domestic. had poured
a large quantity of water upon the ashes in the morning when
she detected the fire, and she supposed every spark had been’ex-
tinguished. I found, however, that the ashes were now, in the
evening, insupportably hot ; and by means of.a spade, I ascer-
tained that the heat oxiéntled throughout the mass; the blade
when drawn out, hissed when spit upon. _ I thoroughly drench-
ed the ashes, and then sat down to reflect upon the phenomenon.

It soon occurred to me, as highly probable, that ashes, when
taken from the fire-place, contain a considerable quantity of car-
bonaceous matter in a state of minute division; that. ignition of
these particles might exist without being apparent to the eye;
that this ignition might be communicated very slowly to the ear-
‘bonaceous powder in surrounding cold or extinguished ashes, and
thus fire be conducted gradually to large coals, and to the wood-
en vessel containing the ashes.

To deter pine the correctness of my conjecture, I sifted through
the finest Chine: e sieve I could procure, some ashes, which had
been taken from the fire-place the day before, and weighing 642
grs. subjected them to heat in a Hessian crucible. In a short
time the crucible became red hot; but no redness. was visible im
the ashes. At this stage of the process, I thrust a beech splinter
into the ashes, (being careful not to touch the. crucible, ) and i
Ht. fool fire. After allowing the crucible to onal a
: ements; and found they had lost 12 grs. —
quantity of © comminuted cark

n no doubt varies in ee: a

Hot Blast in the Smelting of Lead. 169 -

cels of ashes ; it is sufficient, if it exists in ignitible quantities,
and the particles are in ignitible proximity. It must be remem-
bered, that we should add to this fine combustible matter the
large coals and coarse powder separated by the sieve.

_ It may be proper to add, that the wood we consume, is prin-
cipally beech, sugar tree, and hickory.
>» Thus it appears :

1. That wood ashes contain a considerable quantity of finely
divided coal.

2. That the ashes may be sufficiently hot to ignite this coal,
without themselves being at red heat.

-3. That the progress of this ignition is slow ; and the cans ties
tion may extend throughout a large mass of aaliaik without warn-
ing, until it reach some inflammable material.

__ I have assumed as true, for I suppose it will scarcely be denied,
that the loss in the contents of the crucible, was owing to the
consumption of carbon.*

If my deductions from this humble, but I hope useful research,
are correct, it is not safe to deposit hot ashes even in the middle
of the largest bulk of cold ashes; for although the fresh ashes
may not rest against wood, and nay appear securely remote from
it, yet it is surrounded by and reposes upon combustible materi-
als, which may, as in these two instances, conduct the invisible
fire to inflammable bodies around, and box and pone be be in-
eae in-sheets of flame. , Joun. T. Prum

une 12th, 1841.

Arr. XX.—On the use of Hot Blast in the Smelting of Lead.

_ Tue reduction of lead ore is effected in a great variety of fur-
naces, many of them primitive and simple ; others requiring great
expense in erection, and much practical experience in the man-
agement, Yet these latter often give no better results than the
original ‘log furnaces’ of our western pioneers. The great saving
of labor and certainty of product effected by the furnace described
meey induces the preparation of this article for publication.

nor toexpel hygrometric moisture before weighing, which seems essenti
‘the accuraey of the results.—Eds. mee
Vol. x11, No. 1.—Oct.-Dec. 1841. 22

170 Hot Blast in the Smelting of Lead.

Should the writer be able to repay thereby a moiety of debt which
is constantly accruing against him by the scientific labors of
others, as published in your Journal, he will be much gratified.

To reduce the sulphuret. of lead, merely requires that the
sulphur should be disposed of by combustion; hence a process
so simple is partially effected by the most simple means. Yet
it can only continue successful, when the heat is not so high as
to fuse the galena, and when all parts of the ore «undergoing the
process, are well supplied with atmospheric air to effect this com-
bustion. If the blast be heated and made to diffuse itself equally
through the whole ‘charge,’ carrying with it the flame of light
fuel, pine or other light wood leaving but little coal, the reduction
of the ore is effected with an economy and dispatch, hitherto un-
known in the processes of reducing this metal. The following
is a description of the hot blast furnace, used at Rossie in the state
of New York. The form of the furnace is not new.

Fig. 1. >

4? i
Scale of fan

A ( fig. ‘Ss is a cast iron reservoir twenty four inches square and
twelve inches deep, the iron of the sides and bottom is two inches
thick ; to this is attached the hearth B, with flanges projecting at
the sides, the whole twenty two inches in length, and including
the flanges thirty two inches wide. ‘The hearth descends about
one inch i in twelve, and has a groove for the melted lead to dis-
charge into She rdsccvoir C, in which it is kept fused by a small
fire under it, D, is a cast iron air-chest, making an iron wall sour
teen inches: high, above the sides of the reservoir. It is six i
es thick outside; the iron being about three fourths of an inch

a8 to fuse the galena and thus check the smelting. _

Hot Blast in the Smelting of Lead. 171

thick, leaves the inside space about four and a half inches by
twelve and a half. The blast passes into this chest by a pipe at
E and out at F, whence by a curved pipe it is discharged into the
fire through a ‘twyer’ cast in the air-chest at G, two inches above
on level of the lead reservoir.

Fig. 2.

The lead reservoir A (fig. 2,) is filled with metallic tent; cwhieki
in the process of smelting continues in a state of fusion, and while
the furnace is used is not withdrawn. The ‘charge’ in the pro-
cess of smelting, floats upon the melted lead, and the metal as
smelted falls into it, flows over and discharges through the groove
in the hearth. In working the furnace, the smelter throws im-
mediately in front of the blast, two or three billets of light wood,
say two inches in diameter and sixteen inches long, upon which
are thrown up the ‘charge’ in process, and fresh galena, filling
the furnace near even with the top of the air-chest and sloping
down to the hearth. The blast being let on, strikes upon the
billets of wood and is thus diffused evenly through the vast
charge, carrying with it the flame of the fuel.

It will be perceived that the air passing into the hollow chest,
acts as a refrigerator upon the inner walls, and thereby prevents
their being heated so high as to combine with the sulphur, by
which they would soon be destroyed ; and also by preventing an
accumulation of héat in the walls, keeps the furnace of a uniform

ure, which if not thus moderated would soon run so-hi

172 Hot Blast in the Smelting of Lead.

The air by thus passing through the hollow chest, becomes
heated, and being thrown in this state through the mass of burn-
ing sulphuret, reduces it in a great measure, by the combustion
of its own fuel, the sulphur, the quantity of wood consumed
being less than one fourth of a cord for the product of 2000 lbs.
pig lead. The fuel used is wood only, and that of the lightest
kind ; coal or other concentrated fuel gives a heat too intense near
the blast, and reduces the product in a given time, from one third
to one half.

In operating the furnace, it is necessary to charge it about once
in ten minutes, which is done by drawing the ‘charge’ forward
upon the hearth, (the blast having been previously shut off by a
valve, to protect the smelters,) billets of wood are thrown in, in
front of the ‘twyer,’ and the charge thrown back with the requisite
quantity of fresh mineral, when the blast is again let on. The
furnaces continue to run thus, without intermission, night and
day for six days in the week.

The economy and efficiency of this furnace will be understood
from the following facts. In smelting about 5,000,000 lbs. of
lead at the Rossie smelting works, the average product at each
furnace was about 7,500 lbs. for each day of twenty four hours.
Number of men employed, two at a time, four in all at each fur-
nace. Amount of wood consumed, three fourths of a cord per
day. The cost of mere smelting, not reckoning use of works,
cost of creating blast or superintendence, was as follows :

Two smelters at $1,50 per day, . , $3,00°
Two assistant do. 1,00 « » 2,00.
Three fourths cord prepared wood, at '$2,00 1,50

6,50
for a jrédlae of 7,500 Ibs. or about $1,75 per ton. .
Preparation of the ore.—W here saving of labor is so great an ob-
ject as it is in this country, it may not be uninteresting to describe
the method and machinery used for preparing the ore at Rosse.
The smelting works are situated at a water power upon Indian
Ete at a convenient distance from the mines. ‘The ore in the
lies in a matrix of calc spar, through which it is scattered
rysta sof all sizes and proportions, from galena with a small
per cent. of gai a ng ue, , to ) gangue with a very small per cent. of gale-
t a large proportion of the diggings require to be crushed
and washed in order to procure the whole product of the mines.

Hot Blast in the Smelting of Lead. 173

Fig. 3 is a crusher of cast iron. Into this the ore and gangue
is thrown, and reduced so that none of it is larger than half cai
cubes, and as little of it crushed very fine, as me

Tig,

‘
Et
§ Rock erusher used at Rossie.—a, driving pinion, 6, wheel attached to lower
crusher d, upper crusher, filled with lead and weighed down by lever d.
Whole ent of the crusher, say 4000 | =
« Fig. 4 a coe
% Bis 3) fs
: f
La _ - oer sail ee

- Fig. Aisa tonclaat sieve; A, a square box with iron bottom, Pr
eee with small holes, stispended in the vat of water, B, in

a3 Hot Blast in the Smelting of Lead.

which it is agitated by cam C. The diggings from the crusher
being thrown into this sieve and the lever let into the cam, the
contents of the sieve immediately arrange themselves in strata
according to their relative gravities; first, clean gangue on the
surface, next, ‘middlings,’ being spar with particles of ore attach-
ed, (these are thrown back to be recrushed,) next, lead ore, the
surface of which has more or less gangue adhering, the lower
strata nearly pure. The ore as smelted, contains from five to ten
per cent. of calc spar adhering and scattered through it. The
mineral which passes through the sieve is taken from the vat
and washed in a stream of water upon an inclined table, both so
graduated that the ore remains near the stream and the impuri-
ties may be carried off.

The Rossie Lead Mines.—Of the bubbles of ’36 and ’37, per-
haps none was more wnmercifully inflated than that of the Rossie
lead stock. It is unfortunate for the mining interest in that very in-
teresting and promising region, that this remarkable mine should
have become by a ten years’ lease the property of a company,
and thus made at once the victim of speculation. In taking out
the ore for the first one hundred feet in depth, little expense was
necessary, and the product and profits were large. At the depth
now attained, say from one hundred and seventy five to two hun-
dred feet, permanent and adequate machinery and good engineer-.
ing are required, having reference to working the mine for a long.
series of years. The investments necessary for this can hardly
be looked for until the fee of the land and the rights to the mine
are owned by the same person or company. ‘The amount of lead
smelted from these mines in 1837 and 1838, was 4,137,871 Ibs. ;
in 1839, about 1,200,000 lbs. ; in 1840, about 400,000 Ibs.

‘The primitive rock, (hornblende gneiss,) in which this mine
lies, has but few fissures through which water is discharged, and
hence is easily kept free. It is already wrought one hundred
feet below Indian River, which flows some eighty rods distant.
Whatever may be the difficulties of the present unfortunate tenure
of | this valuable mine, there is little doubt that it will eventually
Oeeenls wrought and yield a uniform and adequate return.
1e VE perpendicularly ; the quantity of ore ina given
ab ut the same, and in all probability is inexhaustible.

ae NE SME ok a
et

—————— -
fe a a 4

Solar Eclipse of July 8th, 1842. 75
ag
pian XXL nara the Solar Beips ov July 8th, 1842.

- A tora eclipse of the sun at any particular in is so unfre-
quent, that only a small part of the inhabitants of the earth ever
has an opportunity of beholding this, the most sublime of celes-
tial phenomena. In April, 1715, the sun was totally eclipsed in
London, and in May, 1724, in Paris; but from those years to

- 1900, or during nearly two centuries, the shadow of the moon

neither has, or will pass over either of those cities. Nor have we
been in this respect, more fortunate. A total eclipse took place
in Massachusetts and the central part of New York on June 16th,
1806; another occurred in part of South Carolina and Georgia on
Nov. 30th, 1834; the third, during this century, will be total in
part of North Carolina, and will happen on Aug. 7th, 1869; the
fourth, on May 27th, 1900, will be total in part of Virginia; and
as the average width or diameter of the moon’s shadow on the
earth, may be considered about one hundred miles, it is evident
that during the nineteenth century, not more than one quarter of
our territory between Maine and Florida, will see a total eclipse.

Strictly speaking, the darkness during a total eclipse, is not as
has been supposed, nearly or quite total; since the moment the
moon completely obscures the sun, she appears to be surrounded
by a mild but beautiful effulgence, which though not too brilliant

to be beheld by the naked eye, sheds sufficient light to render

objects distinctly visible. At Boston, in 1806, it is said, about as

much light remained, during the total obscuration, as is given by
the moon when full, and in Beaufort, S. C., Nov. 30, 1834, only
two planets and four stars of the first magnitude were seen, though

one of them, Antares, was then only six degrees from the sun.
But, although nearly twenty eight years will elapse before the next
passage of the moon’s shadow over the United States, on the eighth
of next July, in a considerable portion of continental Europe, the
sun will be totally eclipsed. That this phenomenon will be ob-
served with interest by those of our countrymen, favorably situ-
ated, cannot be doubted, and it is therefore hoped that the follow-

ing results, deduced from a long and careful computation, may be

useful to those readers of the Journal, who may wish to behold the

‘Complete obscuration of the sun, and who are in doubt whither
to proceed. On this occasion the centre of the shadow will first

176 Solar Eclipse of July 8th, 1842.

touch the earth at sunrise, at a point in the Atlantic Ocean situ-
ated in lat. 37° N., long. 10° W. from Greenwich, or two degrees
west of Portugal; it thence passes across the southern part of that
kingdom, diagonally across Spain, the south of France, Sardinia,
Lombardy, Austria, the north of Hungary, Austrian Galicia, the
south of European Russia, the southwest of Russia in Asia, the
Chinese Empire and part of the North Pacific, to a point in tat.
15° N., long. 148° E., where it will leave the earth at. sunset,
three hours and five minutes after it first touched it, on the coast
of Portugal, and after. describing a cireuit of about ten thousand
miles. The width of the shadow will, as usual, vary somewhat
in its passage across the earth, but in Italy and Germany, it will
be a little more than one hundred geographical miles, so that if
the path of the centre be carefully marked on a good map, and
other lines be drawn parallel thereto, to the north and to the
south, at the distance of about fifty miles therefrom, the places
at which the eclipse will be total, will be easily ascertained, un-
less situated like Venice, just within, or like Ofen, just without, the
limit of the shadow, about which there is some doubt, in conse-
quence of a possible difference between the tabular and observed
latitude of the moon. In this manner it will be seen, that in
addition to the places herein after enumerated, the eclipse will
probably be total at St. Ubes, Evora, and Elvas in Portugal ; at
Badajos, Truxillo, Toledo, Urgel and Gerona in Spain; at Per-
pignan, Carcassone, Montpelier, Avignon, Nismes and Toulon in
France; at Alessandria, Asti, Cremona, Loli, Mantua, Parma,
Maponna, Saluzzo, Savona and Tortona in Italy; at Brixen,
Bruck, Secon (arth, Judenburgh, Marburg, Trent and Villaeh in
Austria; at Orel, Penza and Tambow in Russia; and that the
shadow will pass near the city of Nankin and the islatigha Che
san, in China,

As the approaching eclipse will excite great interest throughout
Europe, and especially in those places where it will be total, it is
earnestly hoped that particular attention will be paid by those
favorably situated, and in possession of suitable instruments, t0
the determivation of the correctness of a recent suggestion, that
tities so frequently noticed at the second and third
oon of. nearly central eclipses, and at all the contacts of the
transits of Venus, may be seen or not at the pleasure of the ob-
server, according as the color of the dark glass, he applies to his

Solar Eclipse of July 8th, 1842. 177
telescope, is red or green. These irregularities, as seen by many,
have been minutely described by Francis Baily, Esq: of London,
in anarticle in the tenth volume of the Memoirs of the Astro-
nomical Society, although it particularly relates:to the appearan-
ces, observed by hiesself, in the south part of. Scotland, during
the eclipse of May 15th, 1836, which was annular there.. Many
of the appearances ddscrituea by Mr. Baily, were seen through’a
red glass at the second and third contacts of the eclipse of Feb.
12th, 1831, which was annular in the southeastern part of this
State. Shortly afterwards, however, it having been ascertained
| | that-a double screen, composed of one light red and one light

gteen glass, would not only render the light of the sun very:
pleasant to the eye, but would far better define the limbs, and
would sometimes ‘even enable me to see a small spot, that was
invisible throngh the dark red alone, a screen of that kind was
adapted to the telescope, and was used for the partial eclipses of

= 1832.and 1836, and those that were central in 1834 and 1838.
| : _ Through this screen no one of the irregularities described by
2 Mr. Baily, has ever been perceived, although carefully looked for.
Indeed so remarkable was the difference between the observed
: and expected appearances of the sun’s limbs at the second and
third contacts at Beaufort, S. C. on Nov. 30th, 1834, that even
, then, asuspicion was excited that the entire absence of all distor-
tion or ‘irregularity in the cusps, just before and after the total
obscuration, was to be attributed to the color-of the screen ; espe-
cially since other observers in the vicinity of Beaufort saw hirotiphe
red screens, many of most of the usual phenomena. ‘This suspi-
cion was strengthened by the observations on the large but not
deipialceclipse « of May, 1836; it was therefore communicated to
several of our astronomers, who paid particular attention to it, at
the formation and rupture of the ring on Sept. 18th, 1888, In
Philadelphia and its vicinity there were many observers, provided
with telescopes of nearly equal optical capacity, but protected by
screens of different colors: ‘The result appears to be, that in every,
or neatly every instance in which the red glass was used, many
or all of the usual irregularities were seen, whilst those observers
who used yellow or green screens, saw these appearances either
greatly modified or not at all. At Princeton, near the northern
boundary of the ring, two skilful astronomers, provided with fi
~ feet telescopes by Dollond and Fraunhofer, were enabled dis-

Vol. x11, No, 1.—Oct.-Dec. 1841.

178 Solar Eclipse of July 8th, 1842.

to see some of these appearances through the red eye-piece
of the former, though none was visible through the green screen
of the latter instrument. At Washington, where the eclipse was
nearly central, no distortion of the limb of the moon could be
seen through the double screen above mentioned, and the cusps
of the sun just before and after the ring, were as pointed as nee-
dles. The Committee of the Philosophical Society.of Philadel-
phia, in their report on this eclipse, say, “This suggestion is one
of great importance, as it seems to furnish evidence of the exist-
ence of a lunar atmosphere, through which, as through our own,

the red rays have the greatest penetrative power. It also leads ©

_ to new views concerning the cause of the remarkable appearances
of the beads of light and the dark lines frequently noticed ; since
it shows that their appearance may be completely modified by a
change in the color, and consequently in the absorbing power of
the screen glass through which they are observed.” It is be-
lieved that on another account will this suggestion if well founded
be of great importance, viz. in its obvious tendency to diminish
if not wholly remove, the discordancies not unfrequently found
in the best observations on solar eclipses and transits of Venus,
and which with regard to. the latter in 1761 and 1769, were so
great as materially to diminish the value of this method of deter-
mining the distance between the earth and the sun.

The elements of the eclipse were computed from the lunar tables
both of Burckhardt and Damoiseau, and as they appeared to differ
in their results by about 13” of longitude, the mean or average
of the results was adopted, which it is hoped will be found more
conformable to observation. As these tables are adapted to the
meridian of Paris, the time of that: meridian has been retained,
but the longitudes of the places are counted from Greenwich,
which is 29 20” 23” Dede of the former. The ellipticity was
considered 535th. 0 correction was applied for irradiation
and inflection, Se if silowed would cause the eclipse at each
place to begin about ten seconds later, and to end about eleven
Seconds earlier than the time herein after stated. The latitudes
and longitudes of the several places, were with a few exceptions,
erate and wz feel Nautical Almanacs. .

fe ice ie Cte *

Na r
dn
SS te 8 oa
se Beonons
38 CEPPERE EP EPPE pore?
> — Caw i Dt AQ eet
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in * 5 =| @ $2 O24 1 Nw to Sonos 3) dale ag
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: ae 8a pp ied Bo eeaeegeeneean SESRREKER SAS SSSSRh 285
5 o n a SRESSSESER St tis ust 4b]
= 32 ie Seg atassangse es: zee |
bo er escent. ; Seesgescsinassege ri
Ne . cooceo SRSesaste DS oy so
, mS. fw = q25S2% eecooc¢ S2LIRBe wWrom
* < iS . tO iN tS nape ges e , SSSAASccSRSRSSReRX BRGES?R g
ee AE 5 ACcdeilia RARE = 4 seeuseseoes|
» se” : a 2 898 SERPS ROR sb sheolad
4 E3 € id : phegggamasens ee: >B°R°RS of
s ae Rao woanon WON SA SERNA Sa8 BOR) &
ss ® =| S BES SS oe 00 Fi 1019 19 DAAGARALBALAGAAS 3 3
FAs 6| op Or OM Ven ar 1D 1D 10 OT VOD AR “ ia I
¢ : BY =} XD UD = OD pag BRAKE Cis tO 99 i ale se a
Sr no? agdogneseeae ee Co ees Mae Me ve
g eS is Ooms BSae Ses OO .9.00 18 Ss
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2 |. BF PPase EDD MOS ts cp TSRQVS SHDr oo
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esl. FRISISESSS pas ne 4| 3°
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232 Silveageheec FSSSSESSSSSS tgsneaes Rae ane g
S88 agansen SORaRS scgcgose Te eseeass asa -Hegeasea = =
hile te egaaeesessaeassenkeges 399288585 ii
| rece gk Rie t ef <h <y aks hts dee or) > oe oe
he age SE FR 4 Doge Ra? — . ae oe Mg ie | mn
A SabeH HH = se eo g°ogcscee a8
hth & be hk & b> vi * oD gcoce , 3 2
ODS BIE ASS BSSBO i coco F
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re 3 “ ™ 0 1 009 ore a
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tier sieges
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oo

a

180 Solar Eclipse of July 8th, 1842.
; Table continued.
Fimipeey 4. Yea os eelpeee
__ Central, at Latitude, Longitude. Central, at Latitnde. Longitude,
bh. m. vs. r h: m. s. 5 / Deeds aap
1945 0 | 43556n| 98 485x,| 202730 | 302018} 120 0.78.
19 47.3 43 17.9 99 58.7 || 2030 0 | 29141 | 121 378 a
19 ¢ 42 393 | 101 85 |} 903230 | 28 41 | 123223 #
19 523) | 41595 | 102181 || 2035 0 | 2649.3 | 125 168 _
1955 0 | 4118.7 | 103976 || 203730 | 2528.0 | 127 245
19 57 30 | 40368 | 104-37.1 || 203845 | 24442 | 128 344
00 53:7 05 46 2040.0 | 23 57.7 495
} 230 | 39-94 | 106571 || 204115 | 23 81 | 131.1207
) 33.239 | 108 7.9 || 204230 | 22140 | 132445
bat & 37 37:1 | 109 29. 204345 | 21139 | 134 305_
) 3649.0 | 130318 || 2045 0 | 20 58 34.9
)12 30 | 35594 | 111456 || 204615 | 18420 | 139 151
15 0 | 35 80 | NB D2 | 20470 | 37.361 | 141 278
}17 30-| 34148 | 114188 || 204730 | 16 348 3 35.
} 2620.0 | 3319.7 | 115 38, 20.4750 | 15161 | 146 33.8
- 20.9290 "| 32.294 | 7: 24 | 20.47 52 4 45.5 | 147 44.2
25 @ | 31,227 1 ee ee
Sergi Duration of the central lead on the north, 3h, aan: 12s,

Phases of the Eclipse at some Hs the teinciga! Cities of Burope a
— which it will be Total, in Mean Time.

: Brescia. Gratz. | Lemberg Mad rid.
5°32 197 ieaialae? oe 49°51! 4274024" 577"
10 13 31) 85 27 93 124 25313 41 52
h. me 8. jh mae] hy mm. 8. pheom. & “) hae,
eee 5 24 3/517 45 | 5 46 12 | 6 24 38 jbefore s.r,
ginning of total darkness,| 6 19 18 | 6 12 53 | 6 43 14 | 7 24 83 | 5 18 45
)pr 6 20 31 | 6 13 42 | 6 44 291 7 2 58 | 5 19 38
End of total darkness 6 21 44| 6 14 31 | 6 45 44 | 7 27 24 | 5 20 30)
i? 7 21 49| 7 14 27 | 7 47 52 | 8 32 321 6 15 36]
Duration of total darkness, 2 26 1 38 2 30 251 145
ipse, 157 46| 156 42|/2 14012 7 54 3
h limbs, 39.11 | 68.50 | 52.88 | 49.747 | 17.780
istance of centres, 1. 00 8. 81 | Al. 53 0. 84 | 18.20
th limbs, 41.11 | 10. 29. 44.15 | 520).
hed, 40.°4..-} 39.01 | 39.90. | 40 ee &
' us ik i are linn a
pee ee Marseilles.| Milan, [Paaua. ) Pavia.
jLatitude, ed Seas” 1 Par ewew Be 6"
aebee: ee eee ec 9 11 48° 55 [11 52 18} 9 9 25_
<% rs a 5 *
# hem. & | hem. s: bh.om, 8.9] hy me
5 202/510 5115 30 14 519 34 |
615 4|6 5 36|6 26 28 | 6 14 3
616 11.|6. 6 14] 6.97 12| 6 15 40
61718|6 6 52] 6 97 56 | 6 16 52
717 -4|7 6201729 9|7 16 32
214 11 413) 2m
157. 2| 155 9911 58 55 | 1 56 58
| 9506 |} 72.098 | 7e.N91 | 37.25
, | 34. 83 | 33. 05..| 92. 47 | 2 Od
= et hy Re hs Peas eee oot

2 PEAS Ve
xe

Solar Eclipse of July 8th, 1842. 181

Table continued,

-E nna.
@, ; re oy Peas? a’ Gi 8 aon

ongitude, 17 6 28| 7 42 6 [12 20 21 é 59 13 |16 22 58

hm. 8. |.hom. 8 fh. m,-s.| hms. {hoom, 8.
ae 554 6) 5 1355/5 32 6 +S 96°50)5 st 131
Beginning of total a 6 51 4416 8 35 Bot 49.) 6 22 26.) 6 48 58 |
earest._ approach, 6 5259/6 9 35 [6 29 11 | 6 23 33 | 6 49 57 |
End of total darkness, 6 54-14} 6 10 34 | 629 33 | 6 24 40 | 6 50 55 |
Eclip: 7 56.56 |.7. 9 53-| 7.31 234.7 25: 9 | 7 53 36.
ID uration of total darkness, 2 30 159 0 44 2 Mt} 1 or
Duration of eclipse, 2 250} 155 58} 15917) 15819} 2 218
Distance of north limbs, 27.76 7.72 | 7925 | 56.755 | 13.166}
ce of centres, 14. 03 | 21. 82 | 38. 72 | 16.29 | 28. 00 |

ce of south limbs, 55 1. 36} 1. 81 | 23.97 } 69. 66

oint first touched, 0 41.% 88°F 39.%. 41.5.

‘The point on the sun’s disc first touched by the moon, or at
which the eclipse- will begin, is counted from the vertex to the
right hand, as seen through a telescope that does mo¢ invert. The
lomaitudes of all the places, except Lisbon and Madrid, are east
of Greenwich. At Lisbon the sun will rise at 4h. 44m., nearly
totally eclipsed. At the following places the eclipse will be
nearly; sa not rete total. ©

_ Places. Dist. of |
Cracow, ee eee Dt iy Sr as 6462 42'53
Innspruck, ths ee ee at 61.09 © 40.59
Eseries = > 6 40 3 55.30 41.16

. . mas 4 AD 5 46.49 35.15 _
Olen | jude), : ; 7 ae, 45.76. |}. 422°
SPelanten OO At PS 6 a2 33 51.93. 40.84
ae tela oh the Eelipee, Maca Vadis Bonide Sélar, Blenatae.

bf: |~ Longitude. . | Right Ascen, | Declination, ay ‘eal time. | ; }
eee ., Bec.

he 40i105 32° 13:8 bo) aL 4138 2 $3 17 252.81 (9"s Latitude | ++0".06
17-06|105 33 3.4810 2 32. 35} i? r. Paral. 8/44
8 0U)1L05 35 26.51)106 35 6.43)22 55.74 S dian 15! 451.37
9 00/105 37 49.55|L06 57 40. 15 i Obliqaity 23°97! 381"

O|L05 40 12.591107 5 66 “i

21 001105. 42.35.63)107 2 47 961% § 35.52
22 06/105 44 58 68/107 5 2 3 45.38

Moors wei HPS ee Rumae Elements:

ad sca ; Lutitnde. } Right Ascen. { Declination. | Hor. Par. Semi-Diam.

ii

84 dy 18! +6 ala 105 dy asin 8 1) 1751 89 54.77

1081 0-bet 261/105 37 23.05 23 16 53 97] 59 55.22

1 00 104 55, 41 24 39 22.201106-1 a6 3 10198 8 96.59 a fies

tf 105 32 0.30| 29 151/106 55 320103 2 9.46 59 57.77 |
00 1106 8 27.03) 25 40.54)107 33 49.30/22 54 92.

09 {106.44 43.09} 22 19.31/L08 12 32.55)22 46 46.02

[22 00 [107 90 6.51] 18 57.73|108 51 12.7022 38 49.

* Boston, December 6, 1841.

182 i siiaailis

iad Art. XXII.— Bibliographical Notices.

‘1. Enchiridion Botanicum exhibens Classes et Ordines Plantarum,
accedit Nomenclator Generum et officinalium vel usualium indicatio ;
auctore Stern. Enpiicner, M.D. Botanices in facult. med. Vindob.

. Leipsic and Vienna, 1841. pp. 768, 8vo.—This distinguished
botanist, having taken the chair in the University of Vienna, so long
filled by the late Baron Jacquin, has prepared an excellent text-book,
on the same plan as Lindley’s Introduction to the Natural System.
The author’s own arrangement in his Genera Plantarum, is of course
followed, and the detailed characters of the classes and orders are
. taken from that work. A list of the genera, with their subdivisions
and principal synony ms, is given under each order; the affinities of
the latter are briefly discussed; its geographical distribution noticed ;
its general properties and uses indicated, followed by a condensed but
carefully digested account of all its useful products, and espe
those employed in medicine. We know not where so much imiportatite
information is to be found within such a narrow compass. We observe
that Prof. Endlicher, following out his views upon the subject of vege-
table impregnation, viz. that the pollen-grains are the veritable orula,
has in this work substituted the term gemmule in place of the letter,
and restored the old name of germen for the ovarium !

2. Flora Medica; a Botanical Account of all the more important
Plants used in Medicine, in different parts of the world; by Joann
Linotey, Ph. D. &c. London, 1888. pp. 656, 8vo.—Our notice of
this work is somewhat tardy ; but it is probably not yet as well known
in this country, at least to the medical profession, as it deserves tO
be. _ Its object is to furnish good systematical descriptions of medici-
nal plants, including those employed in the popular practice in differ-
ent ¢ é $, as well as those which have found a place in treatises on

materia medica. Not being himself a medical man, the author adopts
the motto: “Certa feram certis autoribus ; haud ego vates”—but there
is no lack of original investigation in the discussion of numerous ques-
tions, which must be settled rather by botanical than pharmaceutical
inquiry. The arrangement of the author’s Introduction to the Naturgl
e! _ second edition, is followed ; but, in order to suit the conven- —
e readers who may pret some other mode, the work is
fferent natural orders may be cut asynder and re-
ence ar em Pages are left, and the

ghout Europe,
a professorship ee botany +

raphy. 183

and every. candidate for the doctorate, as well as every licensed apoth-
ecary, is required to sustain an examination upon this science. In the
United States, on the contrary, no medical college within our know-
ledge, has a separate botanical professorship, or requires any know-
ledge of the science as a requisite for graduation; and very few, in-

deed, make provision for a course of botanical lectures! It would not
be difficult to assign the principal causes of this neglect amongst us,
of what is elsewhere deemed not only an important, but an indispensa-
ble branch of medical instruction; but however this may be, we can-
not believe that such a state of things will be much longer eee
sn. Ee

3. Elements of Botany, structural, physiological, systematical, ma
medical ; being a fourth edition of the Outline of the First Principles
of Botany ; by Jonw Linptey, Ph. D., F. R.S., &c. &e. London,
| 1841. pp. 292, Svo.—The first part of this excellent text-book, con-
. 4 sists of an amplified and corrected edition of Dr. Lindley’s celebrated
Outlines of the First Principles of Botany. In its original form, this
f terse and perspicuous statement of the leading propositions of struc-
a tural botany, having been annexed to the American reprint of the first
. edition of the Introduction to the Natural System, is well known to the
botanists of this country ; many of whom, like the writer of this notice,
derived from it their earliest ideas of the science, and have not forgot-

systematical- botany, and the alliances of plants, in a tabular form ; the
latter being an amended translation of the author’s Nirus Plantarum :
this formed the Key to Botany for the use of Classes, (80 pages, 8vo.)
published in the year 1835. In the present form, “the whole of the
structural and physiological part has been corrected with great care,
and made to include the most important views of modern physiologists,
So as to present the reader with a view of the state of botanical know-
» in these departments in the spring of 1841 ;” and the whole is
very fully illustrated with excellent wood engravings. The second
Part is devoted to systematical botany, which is defined to be, “ the
Science of arranging plants in such a manner that their names may be
_ ascertained, their affinities determined, their true place in a natural
system fixed, their sensible properties peers of, and their whole his-
tory elucidated. with certainty and accuracy.” It is principally oceu-
Pied. witha plain and simple account of the natural families, as ar-
Tange by: the lamented De Candolle, with their characters and le
i ,an enumeration of their typical genera, (which are ™

184 ; Bibliography.

illustrated.-by wood cuts,) and a brief notice of their properties and
uses. ‘This is followed by the Alliances of Plants, a conspectus of the
method for grouping the orders employed in the second edition of the
author’s Introduction to the Natural System. To this succeeds a sketch
of a new distribution of the vegetable kingdom; in which the author
gives prominence to some characters employed by Jussieu, «&c., but
which he had until lately deemed of minor comparative importance.
The plan now suggested may be easily made to harmonize with that of
Endlicher. The portion denominated Medical Botany, consists of a list
of the principal medicinal plants which are known in a living state in
Europe, arranged and numbered according to the author’s Flora Med-
ees with a brief indication of their properties and uses.

4 Botanical Teacher Ar North America, sie soho are iisecrsbed the
and common exotic plants growing north of Mexico ; by
reine ea under the’ stipervision of Prof, A. Eaton. « Second
edition, Troy, 1840, . pp. 268, 12mo.—On the first page of this work,
our attention was arrested by a sweeping charge against the teachers
6f botany in this country, which in justice we shall extract verbatim :
“ The second set [of authors ] are actuated by the sinecurism of bota-
ny. ‘Their books are incongruous compilations, to be forced upon pu-
pils by teachers. The teachers are mostly rewarded by book-pedlars,
who are authorized to present them with a few copies and many compli-
ments for this service. Neither of these kind of authors or» teachers
conceive it a duty to make practical botanists of their puplis. Stucemae
are made to believe, and so teach their students in turn, that
lessons make the botanist. Perhapsa few garden plants are sometimgs
shown as a fallacious pretence. Many pelle of our schools, of
fair names, have been occupied for years in this manner.” This isa
apogee charge, if true, which we trust it is not, and is preferred

small the benefit they are likely to derive
from their study, The following morceau; extracted from the. ease
page, will enable our botanical readers to judge for themselves)» ~~
»_ “The student, before he studies vegetable physiology, «and oat
alliances of plants, must understand the seed, with its astigmatous sacs
or teste. The ovule (with all its. appendages. within the stigmiferous
¢.or carpel) becomes the seed, with its testa or tripple [sie] euticles
US outer, sacks, ~<a case of the aol the white meat is the seeds
pisheavering jnside.of-the shell;.and.the very smoot” onto

ve BE

- pe Saas
Ee ,

and the outside rind is the primine. Between the rind (primine) and
shell (secundine) is the fleshy mass, or edible part. This is not con-

idered as one of the coats, being the fungus-like thickening of the
rind. As an edible fruit, the naming is different. Then the primine
is called the exocarp; the secundine, endocarp ; and the interposed
fleshy mass is the sarcocarp. The five coats which are made of the
ovule, if it is true that they are always present, are exceedingly differ-
ent in thickness. It may be well to imagine their existence, for the
sake of convenient analogy, whether or not they have always been
found. In case of the wheat, we find that a coat or two, (perhaps the
whole five,) and the outside achenous or stigma-bearing one, produce,
in miller’s language, shorts, bran, and kernelle, by grinding. But who
can make out the achenous tunic, bearing the stigma, and within it the
primine, secundine, tertine, quartine, and quintine 2? The nucleus or
simple seed, (wheat,) we know to be principally amylaceous and glu-

ous albumen, from the quantity of flour it gives, which is almost a
pure mixture of starch and gluten (paste).”

Other parts of the work are consistent with this ludicrous jumble.
Thus, on page 236, we read of the peach, &c. that the “seed is the
putamen and its contents within the sarcocarp (fleshy part) of a drupe :”
and on page 234, ‘all seeds have this outer tegument, (tqpta or pri-
_ mines,) excepting the conifere@, as pine trees, &c.” Also page 253,

where the Conifers are said to have ‘“ seeds purely naked, not covered
by testa, nor a skin-like envelope ;’’ and, Jest the idea should not be
distinctly apprehended, a note informs us, that “all seeds but those of
this order have a testa, skin, or membranous covering. 3
these only, are truly naked. The gymnospermia of Class Didynamia
_ are naked as it respects the pericarp. But the seeds of that order have
the covering here referred to.” Parietal placenta, we learn from page
- 6, “ means that fie placenta forms a kind of wall about ovules.” It
¢an hardly be necessary to make further extracts to justify the remark
which we premised. Ignorance of the rudiments of structural botany
is of itself no disgrace ; but when young ladies write, and learn
professors supervise such books as that before us, we are reminded of
the title of a chapter, we believe in Fielding, ‘ showing that an author
Writes all tie better for oe some Enowiedgs of the subject of which

t rents:

<A ath Hooker’ 8 Saeual of Botany. —The fourth volume of this inter-
esting periodical commenced with the number for June last ; which? is
occupied with a translation of a paper by Martius, on the Botany of
razil, and st the first portion of a very important paper, by Mr.
Smith, of Kew, entitled “ An eae and definition of the Gener
Vol. XLU, te 1.—Oct.—Dec. 1841. BEES.

186 Bibliography.

of: Ferns, with observations on the affinities of each genus.” The lat
ter is continued in the numbers for July, August, and September; com-
prising five of the seven tribes into which the Ferns of the first divis-
ion, or Polypodiacee, (those with a vertical elastic ring to the spo-
rangia,) are divided. The work exhibits infinitely more care and
consideration than Presl’s Tentamen Pteridographia ; although some
genera appear to be founded upon very slight technical distinctions.
The first tribe, Polypodiee, is represented in the United States by
Polypodium, Struthiopteris, Allosorus, (A. gracilis, J. Sm. = Pteris
gracilis, Michx.) Notholena, (N. vestita, J. Sm. = Cheilanthes vestita,
&c.) Teniopsis, (T. lineata = Vittaria lineata, Swartz,) ; 2d. Acrosti-
chee, by a single Acrostichum ; 3d. Pteridee, by Pteris, Doodia,
(Woodwardia Virginica, Swartz,) and Woodwardia, (W. onocleioides
and W. thelypterioides, Pursh; but is the latter different from Doodia
eee): ; the 4th. Aspleniee, by Scolopendrium, Asplenium, (of
ium is considered a section,) and Antigramma, om nea
um otenr penn Linn.,) but why was not the prior name of
sorus retained for the genus? ‘The 5th tribe, Aspidiea, inobudial Ono-
clea, [for the confirmation of Mr. Smith’s conjecture respecting the
Rhagiopteris of Presl’s Tent. Pterid. see notice of the latter work in
a former@mumber of this Journal,] Woodsia, Cystopteris, (C. fragilis
and C. bulbifera,) Lastrea (= Nephrodium marginale, Michx., N»Gol-
dianum, Hook. § Grev., N. Noveboracense, dilatatum, &c.,) and Polys-
tichum, (Aspidium (Nephrodium, Michx.,) acrostichoides and A. aew-
leatum.) It is but just that the name of Nephrodium, established by
Michaux, should be employed, if employed at all, for some of the
species originally comprised in that genus ; this name should therefore

have been retained for either Polystichum or Lastrea, if the two last

are really distinct genera. The October number is nearly filled with | |
a biographical sketch of the late Allan Cunningham, "he botanical col- ‘
— lt am contains an announcement of the death ‘of Professor —

Lapse senian event took place at Geneva on r thie Oth
of eyes laste

6. The Anadis an Magazine of Natural aio (Londons con-
dactod by Sir W. Jardine, Mr. Selby, Dr. Johnston, Prof: Don, and
Mr. Taylor,) for July last, contains an elaborate paper by Mr. Schom-

on the Urari or Arrow poison of the Indians of Guiana, the
— ees eee with a — of the nnn
it aged

1

7. The Archiv fiir Naturgeschichte, established and for the last six
years conducted by the late Prof. Wiegmann of Berlin, is to be contin-
ued, as we learn from a late number of the Linnea, by Dr. Erichson,
assisted by Dr. Grisebach of Gottingen, Prof. Siebold of Erlangen, Dr.
Troschel of Berlin, Prof. A. Wagner of Munich, and Prof. R. Wagner
of Gottingen. Annual zoological and botanical reports will still be
given: the latter, furnished for some years past by the late Professor
— will hereafter be executed by Prof. Link.

8. A Repertorium fia Anatomie und Physiologie den Gebebeds
with annual reports, nearly on the plan of those of the late Prof. Meyen,
(generally known to English readers, through the translation published
in the Annals and Magazine of Natural History,) is announced by the
accomplished vegetable anatomist, Prof. Mohl of Tibingen, in the
, Linnea; part 8, for 1841.

9. Lectures on the Applications of Chemistry and Geology to Ag-
ort ; by James F, W. Jounstron, Professor of Chemistry and
q in the University of Durham. Part I. On the Organic Ele-
; eae of Plants. New. York, Wiley & Putnam. 12mo. 1842.—It
is a just remark, and those whom. it chiefly concerns are beginning to
appreciate it, “that no department of natural science is incapable of
yielding instruction, —that scarcely any knowledge is superflvous—to
the tiller of the soil.” The botanist, the chemist, or the geologist may,
and indeed | commonly does prosecute his laborious researches from the
mere loye of his favorite science : whatever personal advantage he may
perchance, derive, is small indeed, compared with what he might rea-
». sonably expect from the same industry and talent devoted to other pur-
suits. But to no class, perhaps, are the results of scientific research
practically important as to the proprietors and cultivators of the soil ;
or no art is so connected with all the natural sciences, and so Pteuds
. ent upon them for its advancement, as agriculture. Would the farmer
know what vegetables, or what varieties are best adapted to a particular
climate or soil; which require his richest, and which will thrive upon
his poorest soils; which exhaust, and which on the contrary may
made to enrich his land; what treatment is necessary to perpetuate the
choice varieties, parduerd by long cultivation, but which are continually
liable to ‘run out,’ that is, to revert to their original state ; how the
properties of poisonous plants may be ascertained, or noxious weeds
eradicated ; to these and numerous similar questions botany and vege-
table physiology must render the only satisfactory answer. If his crops”
are threatened -with destruction by insects, zoology alone can throw
light upon their nature and habits, and instruct him how to:

1g8 Bibliography.
them. Would he know what varieties of domestic animals may be
most advantageously raised for any particular purpose, or how certain
qualities may be obtained by cross-breeding ; zoological knowledge
will afford him important assistance. If it be desirable to ascertain
whether a certain crop, or kind of fruit, may be expected to succeed in
a given district; meteorology provides the data for resolving the en-
quiry, by giving the mean temperature of the year, recording the
greatest heat of summer and cold of winter for a series of years, the
liability to sudden and great changes of temperature at particular sea-
sons, the average quantity of rain which falls during each year, or
month. These data, compared with: the atmospheric condition of
country where the crop in question is successfully cultivated, afford the
requisite information. The nature of the soil no Jess demands the
farmer’s attention; the character of the subsoil, and the results that
may be expected from bringing it to the surface ; the cause of the di-
versities which different portions even of the same field exhibit, where
the land is to ordinary observation similar ; these and similar points
geology offers to explain. “gh aaen
Moreover, if a soil be netitrally eS or be yesiieied so iy a long-
continued system of wretched tillage, like that which has impoverished
extensive portions of our Southern States, it is very important to know
whether it may be improved or reclaimed so as to repay the outlay,
and how this may best be effected. Barrenness may be owing to the
presence of some injurious substance, or it may arise from the absence
of an element that is essential to the production of a given crop. How
is the cultivator to distinguish between these two cases, and apply to
each the proper remedy? When a field is exhausted by over-croppings
how are we to ascertain what is exhausted, and consequently what must
be restored to the soil before it can recover its former fertility ? “To
these and to a thousand such questions, ‘“ chemistry alone can and w
give a satisfactory answer.” Jt is true that many useful results have
been 1ed by mere accident, and pursued apart from all considera-
tions of the why and wherefore ; but it is no less true that we know not
half the value of any such discovery, until we understand the _prinel-
ples upon which it rests, and can apply them intelligently to
: Gypsum, for instance, is found wonderfully to fertilize certain
ned while upon others it produces no good effect whatever. It is ob-
Yiou that the farmer cannot derive the fullest advantages from this
: y nor be t a with all its useful appli¢ations, until he under-

Eire

is la oc i

eee et

+

- other ‘ety could they have been more beneficially directed ?

Wi herefore insist upon the utility of such works as the
Agricultural Cheap of Liebig, and the still more practical treatise

of Prof. Johnston. The latter is addressed, not to the philosopher, nor
the student, but to the tiller of the soil himself. It consists of a series
of lectures, delivered before a society of practical a agriculturists ; most
of whom doubtless possess little or no knowledge of chemistry or
geology. It was therefore necessary to begin with the simplest facts
and principles of these sciences, to em employ the most familiar illustra-

previous explanation. In pursuance of this plan, Prof. Johnston has

_ produced a work of the most interesting and popular character, com-

pletely adapted to the end in view, and fully worthy of his reputation as
achemist. The first part of these lectures, the only portion which has
yet been issued in this country, is devoted to a consideration of the
organic elements and parts of plants, the properties of the elementary
and compound bodies which enter into their substance, or contribute to
their growth and nourishment; to the general structure and uses of the
several parts of plants; their mode of growth, and the manner in which

rai absorbed and assimilated.

~The second part, which we understand will soon appear, is to be dee
voted to the inorganic elements of plants, and to the study of the soils
from which these are derived; the constitution, origin, and methods of
improving soils in different districts, and under unlike conditions, with
the general relations of geology to agriculture.. The third, to the na-
ture of manures, their mode of action, &c.: the fourth and last, to the
results of vegetation, the nature, constitution, and nutritive properties
of different kinds of produce, especially in reference to their several
equivalents or powers of supporting animal life ; the feeding of cattle,

the making of cheese, &c.; the constitution and differences of various
_ kinds of wood, and the cipcqmmtintica which favor their growth. After
this general view of the plan and scope of the work, we think it quite

‘Unnecessary to give an analysis of the eight lectures of which the pres-
ent portion is composed. In the first lecture, which is chiefly prelimi-
hary, the author bestows a few thoughts upon the importance of agri-

s “culture :

'. “ That art on which a thousand millions of men are dependent for their very sus-

' in the prosecution of which nine tenths of the fixed capital of all civili-
zed nations is embarked—and probably two hundred millions of men expend their
daily toil—that art must confessedly be the most important of all ; the parent and
precursor of all other arts. In every country then, and at every gexied, the inves-

Ss _ Bention of the principles on which the rational practice of this art is founded,

‘to have commanded the principal attention of the greatest minds.

of every country when the study of agriculture

190 Bibliography.

urgent, and in that country acquires.a vastly superior importance. When a tract
of land i is thinly peopled, like the newly settled districts of North America, New

ed, its special qualities and defects must be studied, and means must gradually be,
adopted for extracting the maximum produce from eyery portion susceptible of
cultivation.”

The British Islands are in the latter condition. _ Supposing capaaia
tion from abroad not to have increased to any important extent, it ap-
pears that the soil of Great Britain has, by improved management, been
made to yield twice the quantity of food it afforded half a century ago};

ural interest in

attempting to secure or maintain important political aicaiaeees in the
state, might with propriety be devoted to the encouragement of experi-.
mental agriculture. ‘The suggestion is as important as itis mesuts
After presenting a plain account of the difference between simple and
compound bodies, organic and inorganic matter, and_ briefly ——
the properties of the four organic elements of plants, viz. carbon, oxy-
gen, hydrogen and nitrogen, Prof. Johnston concludes his first lectins
with the following remarks :

“Such are the several PBL bodies of which the organic or senizcasie
part of vegetable substances is formed. With one exception they are known to
us only in the form of gases ; tine we out of these gases much of the solid parts
ce and of plants are made up, When alone, at the ordinary tem; mperature

Pc gat they form invisible kinds of air ; when united, they constitute
various forms of vegetable matter which it is the aim and end of the art
poe awrite ene: with certainty, and in abundance. How difficult to
understand the intricate processes by which nature works up these raw materials
into her many ‘beautiful ion t how interesti
ways, how useful even partially to to find them out! Permit me, in conclusion, t0
submit to you one reflection. We have seen that oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen,
are all gaseous substances, which when pure are destitute of color, taste, am
smell. ‘They 8908 be distinguished: by the aid of our senses. Man in a state of
e—uner —cannot diseern that they are different. Net so simple
ani instrument sigh taper at once shows them to be totally unlike each other.
This si th re, Serves us instead of a new sense, and makes Us_
the-existence of which, without such aid, we should not

The chemist in his laboratory, is better armed for the investigation of nature than
if his organs of sense had been many times multiplied. He has many instruments
at his command, each of which, like the taper, tells him of properties which ne
i his senses nor any other of his instruments can discover ; and the further his
arches are carried, the more willing does’ nature seem to id her secrets to
ding and the more rapidly do his chemical senses inerease. Do you think that
the rewards of study and patient experimental research are satel to the labora-

€
reach ; you have only to employ gone minds as diligently as you labor with aay
hands, and ultimate success is sure.’
_ Did our limits allow, we should be pleased to give, as spac of
the author’s happy style of discoursing popularly on scientific subjects,

copious extracts from different portions of these lectures ; and espe-

cially from the sections on the relations of water to vegetable life ; on
the source whence plants derive their carbon, nitrogen, &c. ; on the
absorbing and excretory powers of the root ; and on the mutual trans-
formations of lignin, starch, gum, cane-sugar, and grape-sugar ; all of

which subjects are treated with great clearness, and with consummate

ability. But it is unnecessary to make large extracts from a book
which we-hope and trust will soon be in the hands of nearly all our
readers, Considering it as unquestionably the most important contri-
bution that has recently been made to o popular science, and as destined
to exert an. extensively beneficial influence in this country, we shall
not fail to notice the forthcoming per are ey eppert, from
the press.

10. PrincIPLEs OF. Georobe | or t aides changes of the Earth
and its inhabitants, considered as meade of Geology; by Cuares
Lyett, Esq., F. R. 8. Reprinted from the sixth English edition, from
the original plates, and wood cuts, under the direction of the author.
Boston, Hilliard, Gray & Co.: 1842. 3 vols. 12mo.

Elements of Geology; by Cuantes Lyset, Esq., F.R.S.,&c. Re-
printed from the second London edition, from the original plates and

wood cuts, under the direction of the author. Boston, Hilliard, Gray &

Co. : 1841. 2 vols. 12mo.

Our favorable opinion of the above productions has long since and
repeatedly been expressed in former numbers of this Journal. Every
geologist will be glad to find that we have now new and greatly im-
proved editions of both, brought out in the exact form and appearance
of the original. The principal changes are the removal from the Prin-
ciples of the fourth book, which treated of tertiary strata, and a? ineor-
poration of the most prominent facts in it with the Elements. ‘The two

works therefore now occupy ground entirely distinct. The Elements

has grown from one volume, in which the first edition was published,

into two, each equal to the former; while the Principles have been

‘brought down to the latest dates by the addition of much new matter, — : vs
which has appeared since 1837, and some opinions formerly advocated =

are reclaimed as having been superseded by the advance of ‘a philo-
sophy which never rests—its law is progress: a point which yesterday
was invisible is its goal to-day, and will be its a's to-morrow.”

11. Notes on the use of Anthracite in the cen of Tron, with

some remarks on its evaporating power; by ~ rer R. Jownson,

A. M., &e. Boston, 1841. 12mo. pp. 156. C.C. inte we Sa Brown.
“Every gleam of light on this important subject is most welcome to
all who are interested in the prosperity and permanent advancement of

this country. That which three or four years since was deemed im-

possible, is now the subject of daily practice ; and the day is not far
distant when the anthracite iron of Pennsylvania will supersede to a
great extent the importation of the foreign article, by substituting at
home a cheaper and better.

As the amount of experience in this new branch of metallurgic art
is not great, there was no call fora great book. Prof. Johnson has
therefore brought into a compact form all the information which could
be collected on the subject, and tabulated the results of those blast fur-
naces in Pennsylvania which are driven by anthracite, under all the
heads most valuable to the practical man. Our limits do not admit
any extension of this notice, or we would give an analysis of the con-
tents of the volume, which we are now obliged to defer to another op-
portunity. ee

12. American Almanac and Repository of oe renee Zi the
year 1842. Vol. XIII. Second Series, Vol. 3. Boston
liams.—This volume contains the usual amount of titerestifig ae
matter, with the results of the new census, statistics of education, &e.
The astronomical ° portion has changed hands this year, from Mr. R.
T. Paine, who has so long and ably conducted it, to Prof. Peirce, of
Harvard University. The high reputation of Prof. Peirce will insure
woe attention and improvement.

“13. Prof. Park's Pantology.—tIn our last, we inadvertently missta-
ted Prof. Park’s classification of human knowledge, being misled by an
— his tree of

error in the divi s saree We now give the order
correctly.

Saw

8 oe

193.

First Province, PSYCHONOMY.—I. Department, Grossoxoey, in-
cluding Grammar and Languages. II. Pavewtnben including Rheto-
ric, Logie: Phrenics, Ethics, and Education. III. Nomoxoey, inclu-
~ ding Law and Government, and Political Economy. IV. TuEotocy,
including Paganism, Mahomedanism, Judaism, and Christianity.

Second Province, ETHNOLOGY.—V. Gzocrarny, including Sta-
tistics, and Voyages and Travels. VI. Curonocrapny, including Civil
History, Chronology, and Antiquities. VII. Brocrapuy, including Her-
aldry, Autographics, and Sphragistics. VIII. Seema inohieliity

, Romance, and Miscellaneous Literatu :

“Third Province, PHYSICONOMY.—IX. Shinde including
Satire and Analytic Geometry, and the Calculus. X. Acropnys-
Ics, or Natural Philosophy, including Astronomy and Chemistry. XI.
IDiopHysics, or Natural History, including Geology. XII. Anpro-
PHYsics, or the Medical Sciences, including Surgery.

Fourth Province, TECHNOLOGY.—XIII. Arcurrecunics, or the
: Arts of Construction and Conveyance. XIV. Curzorscunics, Agri-
culture, Manufactures, and Commerce. XV. Macnerecunics, or the

Arts of War, by land and by sea. XVI. Cattorecunics, or the Fine
Arts, exclusive of Poetry.

| oie MISCELLANIES.
; FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC.

“Tt On the supposed conversion of Carbon into Silicon, as stated
to the Philosophical Society of Edinburgh, by Dr. Brown. See this
Spgs Vol. xx1, p. 208.
TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN.

~ Dear Sir—You are already aware, that in the beginning of last sum-
mer, a paper written by Mr. Brown, and asserting as the result of a
series of experiments, the formation of silicon, and its consequent
: identity with carbon, was presented to the Royal Society of Edin-
te burgh by Dr. Christison. Notwithstanding the improbability of this
4 result, the high reputation of Dr. Christison as a chemist, and the belief
that he must have entertained a very favorable opinion of the scientific
acquirements of an experimenter whose conclusions, although of a

aracter so extraordinary, he was willing to introduce to the world,
impressed Dr. Mitchell of this city with the belief that the facts thus
brought before the public, merited an examination, which might serve ”
either to detect their error or confirm their truth. As I understand that
“you have expressed a desire to receive some account of the experi
ments which he undertook for this _ in which I had the honor

Vol, xL11, No. 1.—Oct.-Dec. 1841.

*

of acting as an assistant, I have taken up my pen to give you a brief
statement of their results.
~ A considerable quantity of paracyanogen was obtained by exposing
‘the bicyanide of mercury to a low red heat, according to the direction
given by Brown, in an iron tube closed air tight by a plug of the same
metal, traversed by a perforation filled with stucco.. During the ope-
ration the vapor of mercury with a part of the cyanogen, escaped
through the orifice by passing through the pores of the stucco, while
the remainder of that gas was converted into paracyanogen and re-
mained in the tube in the shape of a black porous mass. So far, as
might easily have been anticipated, the results obtained agreed with
those indicated by Brown, as his coincided with those of previous ex-
perimenters. On exposing however the paracyanogen resulting from
this process to heat in glass tubes, instead of the evolution of nitrogen
and the conversion of the carbon into silicon, carburets of nitrogen,
‘ inwhich more or less cyanogen was present, were given off, and the
residue appeared to consist of carbon and not of silicon. This result
entirely, agreed with the habitudes of paracyanogen, as described in
works on chemistry, and was equally inconsistent with the —_
of Mr. Brown.

With the view of making an experiment ona larger scale, which
should prove decisive of the facts in question, the iron tube above de-
scribed was again charged with five or six ounces of the bicyanide of
mercury, and kept for several days at a heat just below redness. The
vapor of mercury was given off through the stucco during the whole
period, but as far as could be determined by the absence of odor and
the application of a lighted taper of flame, unaccompanied by
cyanogen. This treatment should, according to the experiments of
Mr. Cedi: when continued during such a length of time, have been
alone sufficient fo determine the formation of silicon. The tube was
then heated to redness in a wind furnace for four hours, and subse
quently kept at a white heat for as many more. On opening it, the
whole of the materials were found to have been volatilized, while the
iron of the tube remained unchanged, except that in one or two places
a few scales had been formed. These, when detached and dissolved

_ in muriatic acid, left a small quantity of the carbonaceous residue

which remains after the solution of iron in that solvent.
As the heat applied to the bicyanide before it was placed in the furs
nace, must. power hve converted the greater portion of the cya
vhich it con ch blag and according to the eX
shoul d have gh moe

a

Miscellanies. 195

the latter transformation, the conclusion seems irresistible, that the es-
cape of all the materials in the state of gas, while silicon, if produced,
would necessarily have remained in the fixed and solid form, proves,
as far as a negative is capable of being proved, the incorrectness of
that gentleman’s experiments. Respectfully yours, CLarK _—
Philadelphia, Sept. 12, 1841. ra

... 2. Curious Microscopic Fungus, Craterium pyriforme. :

To B. Suuiman, Jr.: Dear Sir—Specimens of this beautiful micro-
scopic fungus, which were gathered on Clapham Common, England,
by Dr. Mantell, in August, were received by me ina living state on the
13th of November. In the letter accompanying them, Dr. M. remarks ;
“I send you a pebble or two of flint, to which is adhering that exquisite
microscopic fungus, the Craterium pyriforme, which is as white as
Show, and upon being punctured gives out a bright scarlet fluid. 1 have
had pebbles on my mantlepiece for months, and yet the vegetable was
alive and bled as usual. 1 therefore hope a voyage across the Atlantic
will not destroy them, and that you will be able to see the phenomenon,
Which to those who have not seen it before is most striking. But prob-
ably you have the species in your own country.”

‘The specimens received were still alive, and exhibited the bleeding
very beautifully.

These specimens having made me acquainted with the form and
mode of growth of this interesting plant, I was led to seek for it
on our own rocks, and on the very first stone which | woes
and which I picked up within a hundred yards of my house at
Point, I found it growing abundantly. Further search showed ania it
is very frequent on the loose fragments of primitive rocks in this vicin-
ity. To the naked eye it appears like snow-white specks, not more
than one fourth the size of a pin’s head; when magnified it appears
like a little cup, with a cover beautifully marked with radiating lines.
On being punctured, it emits a blood-red liquid filled with sporules. It
grows most abundantly in small crevices in hard siliceous stones. 1 do

not find this species mentioned in Schweinitz’s Catalogue of American
J. W. Bartey.

j ‘West Point, Mav entie: 15, 1841 —

8. Yellow Showers of Pollen—In Vol. xxx1x, page 399, of this
Journal, we gave an account of a yellow substance fallen at Troy,
N. Y., and then conjectured to be the sporules of Lycopodium. Sub-
—waily,. our correspondent, W. G. of Otisco, N. Y., sent us a note,
ng that such showers of yellow beeGer were due to the pollen
forest trees, and that they were more frequently observed after
*t gusts than at other aS because the pollen shaken from the

'

(196 Miscellanies.

trees by the wind, was collected by the rain and thrown up into masses.
That this conjecture was correct, will be seen by what follows.

Last June our respected correspondent, Mr. W. H. Blake, of Boston,
sent us an account of a shower of yellow matter which fell on board
a vessel in Pictou harbor, on a serene night in June, and was collected
by the bucket full and thrown overboard; some small portions came
into Mr. Blake’s hands, and was by him examined chemically. It was
found, on Rete Be it to destructive distillation, to give off nitrogen and
ammoni animal odor; to form hydrocyanic acid by passing
through i sinuaieate acid, and to leave a considerable amount of phos-
phate of lime on incineration. From these facts, Mr. Blake was in-
clined to infer that it might be of animal skin, ligt the ova of
some insect.

From the occurrence of these showers always in May or June, or
about the time of the inflorescence of trees, we were inclined to believe
that they were due to the pollen of plants, while the fact that nitrogen
exists always in the albuminous parts of plants, served to account suffi-
ciently for the chemical observations of Mr. Blake. We therefore sent
to our friend, Prof. J. W. Bailey, both the powders of Troy and Pictou,
that he might examine them by his powerful microscopes. In return
we received the following satisfactory letter, addressed to the junior
eed West Point, September 22, 1841.

My dear Sir—I received a few days since, your letter of the 17th,
and its enclosures, which I hastened to subject, as you requested, to mi-
croscopic examination. The powder which fell at Pictou, proved to
be, as you suggested, of vegetable origin, being wholly composed of
the pollen of some species of pine. That this is its real nature, there
can be no doubt; to convince you of this, I send you the following

pemgantre sketches.

‘ a 1 Fig. 2.

Pe EOP A ys

RODE ab

_ Fig. 1, represents pollen grains of Pinus rigida, taken from the flowers.
Fig. 2, various pollen grains from the powder of Pictou. Fig. 8, pol-
len found with fossil infusoria at West Point. That
these are all pollen grains of various species of pine,
no one familiar with the peculiar pollen of Pinus —
can doubt. The analysis given by Mr. Blake, is
not at all incompatible with this statement. Phos- —
phate of lime is a well known ingredient of pollen
of pine. Dr. Dana found 3 per cent. of it in Pinus
abies. The presence of nitrogen in pollen, is, as
you remark, well known.

With regard to the pollen from Troy, I believe it to be all et of
various trees, but am not able to state positively what plants furnished
it. I think no part of it can be sporules of Lycopodium, as our species
of that genus do not flower until July or August ; whereas the powder
in question fell in May. The species too of Lycopodium are scarcely
abundant enough, I should think, to furnish such large amounts of the

Fig. 3.

‘powder. I send you some sketches of the pollen grains of which the
Troy powder is composed. The larger particles, (Fig. 4,) a, a, 4, a,
nae Fig. 4.

compose the greater portion of the powder; I presume there would be
no difficulty in identifying them with the pollen of some tree growing
near Troy and flowering in May. The smaller particles 5, b, b, in

their triangular shape, and the protrusion of pollen tubes from the an-
_ gles, resemble the pollen of various plants of the natural family Ona-
‘grarie. The last figures are drawn to the same scale as those prece-

ding, and were all sketched with the camera lucida eye-piece, anda
moderate power of my Chevalier’s microscope. You will notice that
there is no pollen of pine in the Troy powder. Believe me, very sin-

cerely, your friend, J. W. Batney.
=. Brief. Serietures on Art. XV, Vol. xxxiv, p. 169, of this Jour-
with

—Looking over the thirty fourth volume of the Journal, I met
Sveepiindiiaing article on the Dry Rot. At variance with the pre-

198 Miscellanies.

_ vailing opinion, the writer of that article believes that timber is most du-
rable when obtained from trees cut during summer. I am not prepared
to call in question the correctness of his belief ; but on the contrary, I
am able to say, that as far as my observations have been extended, they
have proved corroborative of it. ‘There are some points, however, af-
fecting his theory, which, I think, require further consideration. *
Agreeably to his view, the sap of vegetables is confined to the al-
burnum during summer, but on the approach of frost, it retreats to the
heart-wood, where it remains during winter. And thus, he supposes,
the fluids of the tree continue to circulate between the heart-wood and
alburnum year after year while the tree lives. As the writer speaks
of the “exact thickness of the alburnum,” I presume he means by the
term alburnum, ald the white-wood, or all those concentric layers which
lie exterior to the colored central portion of the trunk ; and from which
they are separated by a well defined circle. If this presumption be
true, it appears to me that grave objections rest against his theory.
The summer and winter reservoirs, which he appropriates to the sap,
are not always of equal capacity ; indeed, they are very rarely, if ever,
precisely so. Some trees between one and two feet in diameter, have,
as I find by calculation, thirty eight times more alburnum than colored
wood. Others, of smaller dimensions, on a transverse section of the
trunk, show a mere speck of heart-wood, capable of holding not more
than a two hundredth part of the fluids of the alburnum. If a dedue-
tion be made from the capacity ‘of the central wood, on account of su-
ior density of structure, the difference will be still greater in the
contents of the two reservoirs. The author of this theory, (perhaps I
ought to say hypothesis,) must then either find an autumnal ore for
the excess of moisture, or abandon his opinion
Again, p! ogists tell us, without reserve, ‘that heart-wood consists
are “dead and ies formed central layers.” If all vital action has
ye in this | of the tree, it is not only unnatural to suppose

oy ate se. eekcy

lifeless hae
ae. his ninth aabelas I was . with the sc tees extraordinary
: “The results of these experiments accord with a known
Bet ix in regard to the sugar maple, namely, that no sap can be obtained
from the tubes of the alburnum of that tree, and therefore they ‘ are
obliged to eid the hole for the tube through the alburnum, into the
heart-wood before it will run.” The truth is, that if the bark be be re-

the s laceration of

copious flow of Pie

199

through the bark of this tree and barely ppanscone -wood.below, yet
at this trifling outlet, the sugar water has continued to discharge itself
all day. Waggons not unfrequently on driven. over the exposed roots,
so.as to grind off the bark; and , 1 brought i

tact with the tree, so as to rub the we off from the trunk : from these

wounds, there always flows, at the close of winter, sugar water enough

to moisten the road for a considerable distance from the tree. _ Our far-
mers in the west, where the Acer saccharinum abounds, never think of
boring more than an inch or two into the tree; the object being merely
to secure a hold for the inserted tube. Were. they to extend the

into the heart-wood, they would not. only soon destroy the tres ‘Dut
they would never be compensated for this additional labor ; and I ven-
ture to say, they would not obtain one drop of fluid Foca the heart-
wood ; whence, on the contrary, the writer before us, imagines all the

Sugar water is derived. On warm days in winter, I have seen the stump

and trunk of sugar trees cut down in that season, moistened from the
bark to the central colored layers, by the water oozing from.all parts of
the alburnum; while the heart-wood, to all appearance, was as ‘ dry
as a Ledamatiols ” I may add: it is well known that in summer, when
the writer quoted supposes the sap to be restored to the alburnum, no
fluid can be obtained from the tree by boring into it. __
_ The Acer saccharinum is one of those trees, whose colored ites,
bear a very small proportion to the bulk of the alburnum. e
Perhaps in this connection, T may be pet to make a collateral

resented a nie holding'a tub with ‘both hands, at the foot of @ tree,

from which issues a stream wi arabolic cur
if I recollect vighily, another eal stends near with another ¥end
to slip under the jet, the moment the tub should become filled. We
have no such trees as this, in the west. It is questionable whether the
engraver ever made acquaintance with a sugar tree. There is nia
ho art or study which is not facilitated or enhanced by. the ittor
of general knowledge.
~The writer, in order to sustain his opinion, further sensi, pies
“may be found in the practice of the pioneers of our western hard
wood forests ; there, as I have been informed, they used to girdle their
trees in the winter, for the very purpose of having them rot and fall
wh and thereby save the necessity of cutting them.” The practice
of ; trees, is still prevalent ee the west; the object aes
g . e ti But Lam oo ae

Py
re

”

200 Miscellanies.

for this purpose ; that season is chosen, as far as I have learned, simply
because it is the most leisure period in the year. For the same reason,
fire-wood is generally cut at that time.

The hop-hornbeam ( Ostrya Virginica) is considered a very unfit
species of wood for durability ; and is scarcely ever used on that ac-
count. On the 26th of June, 1830, I had a tree of this kind cut
down, the bark taken off, and the trunk, whose widest diameter was
seven inches, converted into two posts and a rail. The posts, support-
ing the rail, were set in the ground the next day. Here they remained,
exposed to all the vicissitudes of Se till last fall, when they were
removed to make way for a neater fa e parts inserted in the
earth, were very much decayed and ‘opieauidiis ; but the exposed por-
tions of the posts and the a, although deeply cracked while seasoning
in the air, real the centre to the ver 'y exter ior

ers. Thus, coritrary to the desory tions us, the alburnum proved
to be as durable as the heart-wood. A transverse section of one of the
posts, shows an area of heart-wood, one third less than the alburnal area.

_ This is an interesting: question ; and I hope it will receive a more
accurate investigation Joun T. PLuMMER.
Richmond, Ind., Febery; 1841,

5. Sunset at the West.*—In a former number of this Journal, the fact
of the splendid radiations of light at sunset, as it occurs in the state of
Illinois and west of several of the great lakes, was mentioned to show
that the cause exists in the atmosphere or above the earth. One of
these splendid sunsets was seen in this city on the 21st of August, 1840,
The western horizon for 40° perhaps on the east side of the sun, and
as many aboye it, was of a bright blood-red color immediately after
sunset, except where the blue light in three distinct radiations passed,
as from the sun, in a perfectly straight line through it, and widening of
course as it passed upwards. No line could appear more straight than
that which bounded the blue light. The whole was brilliant.

In is, a similar appearance is often seen on the east side of the
horizon, directly opposite the sun, and as it has just disappeared below
the horizon. My attention had been called to this fact by a friend from

t state, a few days before I visited Niagara Falls. On the evening
of September 9th, at the Falls, I had the pleasure of seeing this same
phenomenon in the east. The sun set with no uncommon appearances
except the stream of white light which rose high towards the zenith
from a thunder cloud behind which the sun disappeared a little before
it came to the horizon. As crossed from Goat Island just afier sun-
ar, ammo oar ae ha yur bt wan

201

7 a strong red light over'the sky south of east was limited on the
rth by a bright blue radiation. On the north of that was a yellowish
rae radiation, then a radiation of blue~ light, and then a pale yellow
light which extended quite across to the sage aondins: the northwest,
at an Mannion of about 35°. This appearance was si
time in this city. Is it not connected with the ‘ athe i

_ Rochester, N. Y., Sept. 17, 1840.

6. Shooting Stars in June.—The following extracts from various”
sources, relating to shooting stars seen in different years about the 15th
of June, are perhaps worthy of being published in connection, for the
Fecore of calling the attention of observers to this period.

. C, Herrick.

ng my excursions that these igneous meteors are in general more common and
luminous in some regions of the globe than in others; I have never beheld them
s0 multiplied as in the vicinity of the volcanoes of the province of Quito, and in
the part of the Pacific Ocean which bathes the volcanic coasts of Guatimala. The
influence which place, climate, and seasons appear to have on the falling stars,
distinguishes this class of meteors from those which give birth to stones that fall
from the oy ae (azrolites,) and which probably exist exe the boundaries of our
atmosphere.’ on Humboldt'’s Personal Ni » trans. by Helen M. M. Wil-
liams, 3d ed. ies 1822-9, Vol. I, pp. 75, 76.

__ The season which appears to be referred to in that part which I hare
put in italics, is from the 15th to the 20th of June, 1799. Possibly the
original i is somewhat exaggerated in the translation.

“Q) “‘ We did not, in consequence, reach Koum Kalé, ull two in the morning,
fot Sane 18, 1812,] when we found a boat waiting for us in which we went imme-

y on board the frigate, [anchored off the entrance into the Dardanelles.]
Dittiog our passage there, I was surprised at the number of meteors, called falling
stars, which [ observed in the clear sky: we were only half an hour rowing to the
ship, and in that time I counted nineteen.”—Journal < a& Tour in the Levant, by

William Turner, Esq. Lond. 1820, 3 v. 8vo. » Vol. I »p-4

(3.) “* Here in the torrid zone, the sea of an indigo ee eles, rolled in uniform
— and began oe shine generally, and with. great splendor, during the night ;

which we had hitherto seldom observed. This magnificent appear-
ance, the frequent bghtaings and innumerable falling stars, together with the
greater sultriness of the a air, seemed to indicate a higher degree of electricity in
the nent, ” &¢.—Spic and Von Martius’s Travels in Brazil, 1817-20, trans.
- Lond. ‘1824, Vol. I, p. “105. [Refers to a date between June 12 and 15,

“Vel. xLU, No. oe. -Dec. 1841. 26

_ A day or two later, in lat. 10° N., lon. 234° W.

* Variable winds cool the atmosphere; numerous falling stars, coming particu-
Jarly from the south, shed a magic light,’ &c.—Jb. p. 110.

sempre the first of July, 1817, when a little south of the equator :

-“ Falling stars illumined the night ae whee sated than in the northern zone,
and generally fell pine midnight in the south, and towards morning in
northeast.—Jb. p. 1

(4.) In an account of the meteoric shower of Nov. 13, 1832, as seen
at Brussels, is this remark :— .

“Tl en est qui ont prétendu se rappeler que les mémes signes avoient précédé
de auplaces jours i bataille de Waterloo ;”—[June 18, 1815.] Gautier, in Bib.
Univ. de Geneve, 5 98.

7. Shooting Stars of Arigtiat 10, 1841 vey few observations made
in this country on the meteors of August 10, 1841, were published at
p- 399, of the last yolume, The following European observations,
communicated to me, with others, by M. Quetelet, agree with those
above mentioned, in showing that the meteoric sprinkle of August 10th,
did not fail the present year. It will be remembered that after 10h.
45m. P. M. on the 10th, the moon, sixteen days old, was above the ho-
rizon ; and further, that of the meteors visible at any time, one person
cannot detect more than a fourth part. E. C. H

1. Ghent, Belgium. Professor Duprez, watching in the S. W. quad-
rant, saw alone, during three hours, Sifty eight shooting stars, as fol-
lows: viz. from $h. 30m. to 10h. six; 10h. to 11h. fifieen; Lih. te
12h. twenty four; 12h. to 12h. 30m. thirteen. Nearly all were very
brilliant ; moving from N. E. to 8. W. and leaving luminous trains be-
hind them.

2. Parma, Italy. M. Colla, with a friend, observed on the night of
Aug. 9, 1841, eighty shooting stars between Sh. 44m. and 2h. 14m. of
the next morning ; on the night of the 10th, two hundred and eighty
three, as follows: viz. from 8h. 47m. to Sh. 59m. five; 9h. to 9h. 58m.
thirty five; 10h. Im. to 10h. 56m. forty one; 11h. Im. to 11h. 59m.
thirty seven; Oh. Im. to Oh. 58m. forty four; Ih. 2m. to Th. 59m. forty
four; 2h. 2m. to 2h. 58m. forty three ; 3h. 2m. to 3h. 40m. thirty four.
On the night of the 11th, he observed eighty two, between 8h. 37m. and
midnight.

8. Meteorology.—In Vol. xx, p. 402, we gave a notice of the labors
of M: on of te 7 in France, relative to a grand generalization of

phenomena and the resulting laws, and added an extract
ofa ile ee M. Morin t senior editor.

In a subsequent. See soul, (220 m

iit

act and ample information, as far as attainable, relative to the meteoric
nomena in North America for the years 1719) 1721, 1724, 1726,
1731, 1733, 1738, 1749, 1763, 1764, 1766, 1769, 1776.

_ If it should be in the power of any person to furnish the information
to M. Morin, either through this Journal or the mail, he will promote
the common cause. His address is Vesoul, France, or care of M. Ca-
say Jeewry, Bookseller, Quai des Augustins, No. 111.

9. Fall of a Meteoric Stone at Griineberg in Silesia.—On the 22d
of March, 1841, at 34 P. M., the inhabitants of Heinrichau, who were
abroad in the fields, heard three heavy reports like thunder-claps in the
air, and soon after, a whizzing noise which ended ina sound like that of
a heavy body falling to the ground. The sky at the time was almost
wholly clear. Some persons went in the direction from which the sound
came, and after proceeding about one hundred and fifty paces, found a
fresh hole in the earth, at the bottom of which, about half a foot below
the surface, they found the stone which had just fallen. The stone
(which is of the form of a four-sided pyramid) is evidently a fragment
of a larger one which burst in the air; three of its sides are broken, the
fourth is covered with the thin black crust peculiar to meteorites. It
weighs two pounds four ounces. A fuller account of the occurrence,
and of a chemical examination of the meteorite by Weimann, will be
given hereafter.—Poggendorff’s Annalen, Mch. 1841.

10. Meteorite in France.—Galignani’s Messenger mentions that at a
late session of the French Academy, a communication was received
from M. Delavaux, stating that on the 12th of June, (1841,) between
One and two o’clock in the afternoon, the sky being without a cloud, an
explosion was heard at Chateau Renard, in the department of Loiret,
louder than several pieces of artillery firing together. He suspected
that this must have proceeded from an aérolite; and on going to the
spot where the noise had been loudest, found there the marks where the
aérolite had struck the earth, as well as several fragments of such a
body, lying about. Most of these fragments were small, but one
weighed thirty pounds, and another six pounds.—New York Observer,
Aug. 14, 1841.

11. Another Meteorite in France.-—A meteor of unusual size, being,
according to some accounts, as big as a tun, fell near Bethune, (N. lat.
S04", E. lon. 24°,) in the Pas de Calais, France, making a rushing noise

like the passage of a hurricane.—Ib., Nov. 13, 1841.

oon Remarks and suggestions with regard to the proper construction
and use of apparatus for solidifying carbonic acid ; by J. Jounsron,

A. M., Professor of Natural Science in the Wesleyan University, Mid-
dietown, Ct.—The remarks I have to make, have reference to the con-
ditions required in order to obtain the greatest quantity of liquid, and,
as a matter of course, of solid carbonic acid, from a given mmnliy of
materials. |
The different sets of anperaine for solidifying aclatin acid that have
been made in this country, with one or two exceptions only, it is believed,
have been constructed in every essential particular, precisely like that
of Dr. Mitchell,* who enjoys the honor of having been the first in
America to repeat the beautiful experiment of Thilorier. This appa-
ratus accomplishes the object perfectly ; but the quantity of solid acid
obtained from it at a single charge, as it is ordinarily used, is probably
ably less than the Sage sided: ia eves id
a little different management.
- In order to obtain the sitvnice eieailac dt Sha acid, in the liquid
form, from a given quantity of materials, it seems to be requisite that
three points be particularly attended to. First, the capacity of the re-
ceiver should sustain a proper ratio to that of the generator ;+ secondly, es
the quantity of materials used should be sufficient very nearly to fill the eo
generator; and thirdly, the difference of temperature between the re-
ceiver and generator, when the liquid acid is distilled sowie —_ or
as great as practicable.
As it regards the first point, without presuming to tae ae on
the subioth, my experience leads me to think the capacity of the re-
ceiver should be about one sixth of that of the generator ; certainly it
should not exceed one fifth. In the apparatus used in this institution,t
the receiver is but little more than one seventh of the capacity of the
generator, but at every operation, when the generator is p
charged, it is completely filled with the liquid acid, and the probability
is: ‘that 1 more might be obtained if it” was a little larger. If
were more than just sufficient to contain the acid in the
liquid Titi that distills over, all the additional space would of course
be filled with the same acid in the form of gas but exceedingly dense,
So as to cause = covcninal diminution in the quantity of liquid. Tn x

Te eee Ce Ne ee

i ae of the 2 Franklin Siadioeia: Vol, xx, p. 289, and Vol. xxx, p. 346, of this
Journa

= ae. Mitchell gave the name, generator, to the vessel into which the bicarb-
nate of soda, sulphuric acid, &c. for forming the carbonic acid, are east and
<r d that the ue vr iagoreedt into which the liquid acid is distilled ; and his terms

t Described in Vol. xxxv “ 1, p. 297, of this Journal. It is there stated that the
capacity of the receiver is aa ee one pint, but it should have been three gills.
The mistake was made by attemptin ‘10 ascertain’ its capacity by ex external meas-

rement 1 leadlidl ine " a

Dr. Mitchell’s apparatus, the capacity of the receiver is about one fourth
of that of the generator, which is probably so Lied occasion con-
siderable loss in this way...
~ Bat it is important also that there didi cidinindnnenrin
the generator, or in other words, that the materials. used to charge it,
should very nearly fill_it. After introducing the vessel of sulphuric
acid and inserting the plug, there must of course remain a little space
filled only with air ; and this probably is necessary, for after chemical
action takes place, the several substances formed appear to’ occupy a
little more space than before. But if possible, the quantity of soda,
&e. used, should be such that the sulphate of soda which is formed, and
carbonic acid in the liquid state, should entirely fill the generator. If
then the receiver is of the proper capacity, after the liquid acid is dis-
tilled over into it, there will ‘remain only the space it previously oceu-
pied in the generator to contain the gaseous acid, which of course must
be lost; but this is the least loss which the nature of the case admits of.
~ When our apparatus was first constructed, (the generator of which
holds five pints,) we were accustomed to use at a charge two pounds
of the bicarbonate, and sulphuric acid’ and water in proportion, from
which we obtained but a very little of the liquid in the bottom of the
receiver; but upon increasing the quantity to two and a half pounds of
soda, with sulphuric acid, &c. in proportion, we were at first a little sur-
prised to see the liquid come over until the receiver was entirely full,
and with such rapidity as to leave the impression upon the mind, that
more might have been obtained if the receiver had been a little larger.
Once or twice only we have made use of two charges of two ponnds
of soda each, condensing the whole of the liquid acid obtained into the
receiver, which, however, was then scarcely filled. If therefore we
may put confidence in these results—and we believe they may be relied
on—we arrive at this conclusion, that two and a half pounds of the
bicarbonate of soda, with sulphuric acid, &c. in proportion, used at a
single charge in an apparatus of the capacity of ours, will afford quite
as much or more liquid carbonic acid, than five pounds of soda, &c.
used at two separate charges.
_ The third point mentioned above as requiring attention, is the differ-
ence of temperature between the receiver and gencrator during the
distillation of the liquid acid into the receiver. This may be accom-
plished either by heating the generator or cooling the receiver, but the
ene the best method. Dr. Torrey informs me that he has
sometimes surrounded the receiver with a powerful freezing mixture,
with lesley effect. pad ial even unite the two mutliels using
but us pressure of the gas eS SO
rapidly with the in fniisiretioe of temperature, that it can scarcely be con-
sidered safe to eis heat to any part of the apparatus.

Laie

206 Miscellanies.

After the liquid acid is obtained in the receiver, in order to prevent
the waste of the solid by being blown from the cup as it forms, I find
considerable advantage in having the cup made quite deep in proportion
to its diameter, and allowing the liquid acid to escape from the receiver
by as small a jet as possible.

13. Alabaster in the Mammoth Cave of Kentucky.—After crossing
within the cave, several streams in boats, an apartment has been reach-
ed, the roof of which is decorated with the most gorgeous ornaments of
alabaster, so much like a work of art as to surpass credibility. They
are white and semi , and are thrown out from the rock in
the form of rosettes, leaves; wa curled enrichments of the composite
capital in architecture. I have not had the pleasure of visiting the lo-
cality myself, but send you this sketch from a collection of the orna-
ments. which | have just seen in the cabinet of Miss Longworth of our
city. These were procured ina recent visit to the caves, by her sister,
Mrs. Anderson, who has given me a yerbal description of ‘* Cleaveland’s
cabinet,” as the compartment has been denominated. I was at first
at a loss to account for such beautiful formations, and especially for
the elegance of the curves exhibited. It is however evident that the
substances have grown from the rocks by increments or additions to the
base ; the solid parts already formed being continually pushed forward.
If the growth be a little more rapid on one side than on the other, a
well proportioned curve will be the result ; should the increased action
on one side diminish or increase, then all the beauties of the conic and
mixed curves would be produced. The masses are often evenly and
longitudinally striated by a kind of columnar structure, exhibiting @
fascicle of small prisms, and some of these prisms ending sooner than
others, give a broken termination of great beauty, similar to our form
of the emblem of “ the order of the star.”’ The rosettes formed by a
n disk surrounded by acircle of leaves, rolled elegantly out
ward, are from ova inches to a foot in diameter. Tortuous vines,

eaves at every flexure, like the branches of a chan-
delier, ru running more than a foot in length, and not thicker than the fin-
ger, are among the varied frost-work of the alabaster grottocs ; common
stalactites of carbonate of. lime, although beautiful objecis, lose by
contrast with these ornaments, all of their effect, and dwindle into mere
clumsy awkward icicles. In order to give yourselves and your readers
some idea of the acanthus-like curl of some of the leaves, I send you 4
pencil sketch of one of them. It is the original scrap, and does the
subject great injustice ; you will readily see that there are several “ un-
- nformable” lines, as. at a, not in the original, but pagteson SiG at

se at rela sie AG)

tufts of “ hair salt,” native sulphate of magnesia, depending like adhe-
ring snowballs from the roof, and periodicall detaching themselves by

e
their own increasing weight. Indeed the more solid alabaster orna-
ments become at last overgrown, and fall upon the floor of the grotto,

7, Wy

Yi

which was ovina covered with numbers quite entire, besides a haga
of others broken by the fall. It seems to me that geologically these
elaborate works of fairy gnomes may be considered in part the effect
of unbalanced pressure, either hydrostatic or solid, modifying chemical
and mechanical action. While the arch of the dome sustains the solid
Mass above, any liquid or semi-liquid would be forced through the
pores with a power proportionate to the depth of the cave beneath the
surface, counter pressure being removed by the cavernous opening.
Have the dynamics of deep pressure, liquefying or perhaps solidifying
gases, &c. received the attention which is due to them in a geological
point of view? Your much obliged friend, Joun Locke.

~ Medical College of Ohio, Cincinnati, Oct. 26, 1841. ve

» 14. Tubular concretions of Iron and Sand from Florida.-—The fol-
lowing statements respecting the subject ped ab tie head of this ar-

ticle, are contained in a letter to the senior editor from Lt. James T.
Gerry, of the navy, dated United States ship Warren, Pensacola, Sept:
14, 1840.

‘The all. in the vicinity, as well as for half a league in the ition;
is ferruginous, and large detached pieces of good iron ore are fre-
quently found. The most remarkable character of the specimens is,
that they form strata of regular horizontal tubes, proceeding from a
bank of red sand into the river, and becoming harder in the water and
in the weather. In every instance they were hollow, but when the spe-
cimens were taken from the visit of the bank, the cavity was filled
with sand.

Many tubes that sppelres well Reptbthc in the bank, with the exterior
covering apparently perfect, would not bear removal, but crumbled
with the pressure of the hand. The specimens taken from the river,
three or four feet under water, were the most compact, and always
exhibited the horizontal position like those above tide water.

The beach is composed of sand, with the addition of the river de-
posit of soft mud ; the ‘‘ Rocky Point” being the only exception in the
neighborhood, which extends about eighty yards into the river.

After pulverizing any of the hardest masses of these ferruginous
concretions, the resulting substance was, in every particular, like the
great mass in the bank, except that it contained more iron. Nothing
like petrifaction could be discovered in these concretions or in any body
in the vicinity. Thus far Lt. Gerry

His last remark precludes the supposition that these concretions were
formed around vegetable stems which have since decayed and been re-
moved ; and indeed there is not the smallest appearance of any foreign
body: in these remarkable tubes. They are of various dimensions, from
the size of a goose quill to that of a finger, and even of a human arm;
we actually slipped one of them upon the fore arm to the elbow. like a
coat sleeve. Several tubes of different sizes sometimes occur. in ‘the
same mass—some of them are straight and you can look through them ;
others are tortuous and irregular in size as well as form; sometimes
flat, and again collapsing into a continuous mass without a cavity. In
some of them there is recorded on the exterior the perfect ripple mark,
waving in graceful curves as the waters flowed with ceaseless attrition
wet their surfaces.

_ Some of the tubes are very firm, like a strongly coherent sandstone
fully. soaked with oxide of iron; but in all, the magnifier, if not the
naked eye, detects the grains of sand, invested with or penetrated by
iron.

The iron is in the condition of peroxide, and it is blended with the
quartzose sand in every proportion, some of the sand and especially
that in the tubes being almost white.

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j

munication be made between the chim-
ney and the opening C, by means ofa ~

erruginous concretions are not uncommon, as in the columnar and
pea-shaped argillaceous iron ores, in the bog ore, the ctite or eagle
stone, and the hollow balls resembling bomb-shells; but for the form
of the latter, and for the tubular structure now under consideration, it
is not, perhaps, easy to offer a reasonable solution.
There cannot, however, be a doubt that the iron has been brought in
by water, and that the form which the concretion assumed has been
determined by extraneous causes.—Sentor Enrror.

15. Spark capcentsiih
e, N. H., July 19, 1841..
To the Editors of the American Journal ~ panei and Arts

-Mimilonsu-=- Avpoged is a drawing of an apparatus, which I “ain tried
on a small scale, for destroying the smoke and sparks of locomotive en-
gines, and it operates effectually. It
consists of a revolving fan, operating in
a cylinder on the top of the chimney, or
it may be placed in any other situation
fit Sieh Be

B, hus i: L Fig E> ee 1

A, the. wits oo the engine. When
the fan is in motion, there is a rush of
air through the apertures, C, into the
cylinder, from whence it is driven
through the funnel E. Now if a com-

funnel F, the operation will be mani-
fest ; all the smoke and sparks will be
drawn out of the chimney at D, through
the funnel F, into the fan cylinder, from
whence the pipe E may conduct them on the ground or to the fire; the
wings of my fan are semi- cylindrical, with the concave side to the air.
This form will throw off more air, and cause a stronger draught through
C, which may be regulated by the velocity of the fan. The fan may
be driven by the steam after it passes the piston, by placing a small
float wheel at the top of the eduction pipe ; this pipe may be enlarged
at the top so that the passage may not be diminished when the wheel
is | placed there ; the dotted lines inthe drawing show the position of this
pipe in the famndy’: : the wheel is placed in the large part g, and pro-
pels the fan by means of a gear at the top of its shaft, shown at / in
the figure ; the doors at the top of the funnel F may be raised whi while
: ‘the steam.
Vol. xn, No. 1.—Oct.-Dee. 1841. 27

210 Miscellanies.

I trust, through the medium of your Journal, this. will meet the eyes
of some who are es in locomotive machinery, and will test my
plan on a large scale. ; F. G, Woopwakrp.

16. Destructive Thunder Shower.—The thunder storm of the eve-
ning of September 14th, 1840, will long be remembered in the counties

of Onedia, Madison, and Onondaga, in central New York, for the =

damage it occasioned in the burning of buildings and the destruction of
animal life. There were several circumstances attending this storm,
which, from their — character, appear to deserve a particular
notice.

The first of these was the low temperature, which had existed for
arrece wi 8 harem as the following table will show.

Yorelock. —-Doveloek. “Wind.
September 11, 48° - Se SS WE.
12, 43° 55° N.
f° o83; 62° ORE eB NGS. Ba Behe
ne Seo 14, 56° 65° = N. Bis" See A
cc Ss. Ww

: 50° 66° :

A temperature as low as this, has ernie been deemed incompati-
ble with the formation of thunder showers, much less of such an aston-
ishing development of electricity as the evening of the 14th exhibited.
All the days noted, with the exception of the first, which was ieee
with a little rain, were clear, and remarkably fine.

Another novel circumstance was the firmness of the wind in the
north for so long a period, and the approach of the shower from that

quarter. A thunder shower in central New York from the north isa
very rare occurrence, not witnessed oftener perhaps than once in fifteen

years. The most common point of their appearance is from W, to

8. W., eight out of ten perhaps rising within that part of the h

ation has shown, that whatever may be the course of the Jower
‘currents of air, (and no less than four have been distinctly noticed, ex-
isting at the same time,) the upper is almost invariably from the west; —

and from some cause not perhaps as yet well understood, thunder “arr

rarely deviate essentially from this direction.

» Another remarkable feature of the shower was the total absence of

‘any wind, so far as we observed, or have heard. ‘The clouds moved
very slowly; the rain poured down perpendicularly, and there were
none of those fitful gusts, or sudden changes, that generally mark the

violence and. Se eee showers. Very little conaaae

: observ: observed i ine ine, rey although the con

¥ Miscellanies. | 211

perature, and the quarter of the heavens in which the shower origina-
ted, is difficult to account for. It resembled one of those tropical
storms which announce the breaking up of the dry, and the commence-
ment of the wet season.

- About the middle of the afternoon of the 14th, masses of clouds were
ited in the N. and N. E., and the presence of the cirri con-
nected with them, clearly indicated their character. At 5 0’clock dis-
tant thunder could be heard; and at dusk the horizon from N. to N. E.
was almost constantly illuminated by continued flashes of lightning.
These seemed to originate mostly from two points, one nearly N. and
the other about N. E.* The movement of these clouds was so very slow,
that the storm did not commence until past 9 o’clock in the evening,
and was at its height from half past 9 till 10 o’clock. During the ap-
proach and continuance of the shower, the appearance was strikingly
sublime. ‘There was scarce a moment in which streams of electric
fluid were not pouring from the clouds in dazzling brilliancy ; and peal
after peal succeeded each other with such rapidity, that the roar and
rattle was continuous and deafening, and so violent that windows, build-
_ ings, and even the solid earth, trembled with the concussions. It was
not the deep rolling thunder of the summer cloud, in which only an oc-
casional discharge of electricity reaches the earth; but those sharp,
instantaneous and crashing reports, which told that the fire of heaven’s
artillery was as effective as it was rapid. That such was the case is

acres, it struck in no less than five different places. As already observ-
pa there was no wind, and the rain poured perpendicularly in sudden
_ dashes ; now, as though the sluices of the clouds were opened, and then
ie: iting as totally as if they had been instantaneously closed.

_ ~The destructive effects of the lightning show that the central points
of the storm passed from the north; one, a little west of the central
part of Onondaga county, and the other crossed in the same direction
‘over Oneida and Madison counties. We have noticed in the journals
_ Of these three counties the destruction of no less than nineteen barns,
with sheds, cowhouses, &c., and in the county of Cortland, two barns,
one dwelling house, and several outhouses ; and every where in the
course of the showers, great numbers of horses, cattle, sheep, and
swine were killed. Fortunately, although several dwelling houses were
struck, and many persons were knocked down or severely peas
there were none killed, so fer as we have learned.
cea eer

es —

ag Elbe remambored that the place of ebavain was about fitsen miles
W. of S. from Syracuse, Onondaga Co

212 Miscellanies. ot

» According to the record of an eastern paper, the number of buildings
destroyed in the United States by lightning up to the first of September,
had been about fifty; and of these, four fifths were barns. Several
houses had been struck that were not burned, while a barn so visited
rarely escaped. These facts, taken in connection with the destructive
results of the storm of the 14th on barns, and the very great loss of
property sustained, would seem to point out the imperative necessity of
securing these buildings by rods, or the owners from loss by insurance.
It cannot be too forcibly impressed on the mind of the farmer, who of
all others is most liable to suffer in this way, that the danger of losing
his barn is much greater than that of having his house destroyed; and
that their liability to destruction by lightning is most imminent at pre-
cisely that period when, by the labors of the year, the greatest value is
accumulated in them

It may be seeintjeiebi ‘aay as a singular fact, that on the evening of
the 13th, cold and severe frost occurred at several points in the Caro-
linas ; indicating a remarkable departure from the ordinary meteorolo-

ical condition of the atmosphere at that season of the year, and possi-
bly having some direct connection with that state of things se gen- is
erated such an unusual ee of electricity at the north. W.G. + 2

Otisco, N. ¥., January, 184. :

17. Elementary composition of vegetable tissue—M. Payen, has been
engaged in the microscopical and ap investigation of the different
tissues, and has read some memoirs on the subject before the French
Institute. He concludes, 1. That Ties which constitutes the mem-
branes of plants, when purified from all encrusting or deposited matters,
is perfectly aopsomeneons in chemical composition throughout the whole
extent of the vegetable kingdom. 2. That this substance, which may
be represented af the formula C?4H18O°, H?0, is isomeric with sta

and inuline. 3. That its physical properties, and doubtless af

its nutritive qualities, are modified by the degree of aggregation ; when
very dense, it resists different chemical agents and the digestive powers

ina tea rome manner. 4. Medulline, fungine, lichenine, have 20

existence as distinct proximate principles ; properly purified, they prove Re
to be identical with 8 5. Gluten does not form a tissue, but is 54
an immediate principle, enclosed in the cells of the albumen of the ;
seeds of am! Cerealia. 6. Azotized substances accompany all vege: 4
table. , and are found in all cells in their forming state ; but
they are not a constituent of the membrane of cellular tissue, nor of :
any vegetable tissue 3 Vegetable. membrane may be thus distin- ;
guished: ame animal ‘membrane : the, former have a ternary composi- |

tion, from which nitrogen is excluded ; the constantly offer a qua- A |
ternary comy including ni ae Vid. Ann. Sci..Nat. Aug: 1840. 4a

= +; Miscellanies. es ‘ 213

18. Mr. Lyell and Mr. Murchison.—Mr. Lyell, the distinguished Eng-
ES lish geologist, now in the United States, | having finished his course of
___ lectures in the Lowell Institute in Boston, is warmly solicited by many
: of the first citizens of Philadelphia, to repeat his lectures in that city ;
~ we understand that he will comply with their wishes, and thus afford to
= them, as he has done to the citizens of Boston, a rich intellectual treat.
tS Mr. Lyell’s lectures, like his writings, are analytical ; unfolding the co-
pious and accurate results of his own wide-spread and scrutinizing re-
a? searches in many countries, he leads his audience forward through the
i very paths which, for twenty years he has himself trod, in acquiring the
knowledge whose rich stores he lucidly displays along with that which
others have contributed. The elementary information which he im-
parts, is the result rather than the text of his instructions.
It were to be desired that this highly gifted philosopher were al-
: lowed sufficient time to follow out this most instructive mode of teach-
SS ing, until every department of the science shall have been fully iilus-
3 When, in conclusion, a synthetical summary of general princi-
ples, founded on the ample basis of his own detailed and exact observa-
tions, combined with those of other geologists, would present in one
perspicuous and convincing view, the grand elements of the science.
His pictorial illustrations are ample, and some of them of magnificent
dimensions and imposing splendor. Mr. Lyell’s writings present a
model of skillful analysis of geological phenomena, conducted with
logical accuracy and with great candor. _ They are > adorned bya style

the highest order of scientific classical literature, and we trust that his
active and successful researches will be continued for many years,
cheered and aided as they are by one to whom, as the companion of
a his travels, all his views and efforts are as familiar as they are inter-
He now proceeds to the Southern States, as far as South Caro-
_ lina and Georgia, and will return to give his course in Philadelphia in
‘February. The Middle, Western and Northern States, and Canada,
z will oceupy his spring and summer; and he will embark for England
Ses _ in August, at the end of a year from the time of his arriv
oe ? . Mr. Lyell’s visit is most acceptable to the American geologists, who
~ @xpect his presence and assistance in Boston, at their meeting, April
25, 1842, and we trust that the subsequent year may afford them the
additional gratification of the presence of Mr. Murchison, than whom
No oné is more eminent in active and successful labors in the common
cause. This naa has just returned to England from a second
visit to the Russian empire. ‘He has been to Moscow, and to the
Asiatic flank of the Ural Mountains. His tour has been most success-
ful, and he will be able to throw much light on the geology of @ great

es

>

214 4 Miscellanies. .. | ieee

part of Russia. The emperor loaded him with honors and gave him -
every facility for travelling to any part of his vast empire.”* We un-
derstand that a canal was cut for his accommodation and that of M. a
neuil, his companion. |
19. Carburetted eee encased in spheres of Carbonate of Lime.
—Extract of a letter to the Junior Editor, dated Boston, Sept. 22, 1841.
__ My dear Sir—A short time since my attention was attracted by a
few small white particles which had collected on some gas-light burners,
and which on examination I was much surprised to find were lime.
The burners were more than a mile from the works, and I was satisfied
it could have proceeded only from the purifyers, which contain lime.
Pursuing the enquiry, I have discovered. a great number of hollow
spherical bodies, formed of carbonate of lime, and filled with carbu-
retted hydrogen. They are from 7th to =th of an inch in diameter,
and, the crust or shell being thin, they are easily conveyed, by the
current of gas flowing through the pipes, even to sg nl in chambers
more than a mile distant. Yours, truly, Joun. H. Bake.»

20. Society of Northern Antiquaries.—Extract of a letter from Prof.
Charles C. Rafn, Secretary of the Royal Society of Northern Antiqua-
ries, to Dr. Jacob Porter, of Plainfield, Massachusetts, dated Copenha-
gen, May 19, 1840.

* Are Frode and Semund Frode are the first, we know, who, during
the latter half of the. eleventh and beginning of the twelfth century,
exerted themselves for the preservation and promotion of the old Da-
nish literature. After them, in the subsequent centuries, follow a series
of meritorious individuals, in whose footsteps we are now treading, ~
making strenuous efforts in the same direction, and for the attainment
of the same end. Through the combined exertions of active men, we

have: the satisfaction of seeing this noble. literature by degrees awaken

a greater interest, and acquire more numerous cultivators in both hemi-
spheres. It rejoices us that you are inclined to take an active shares
in such exertions.” —_. ak c
: 2) — Observations made to ascertain the Level ft ake bs
we TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN.

Sir Tekin the following observations, made to ascertain the level
of “the Dead Sea, Sea, might be grind to you, I take the liberty to for-
ward the same. They were made by S$ hog? Wilkie, W. Woodburn,

Ee myself, Sng to, ay will see Nie eelienhiashscrale

_ You will be concerned to learn, that the scloatal penton who sug-
gested these observations, (Sir David Wilkie,) recently died near Gib: _
raltar, on his return from a visit to the Holy - He had secured a
large amount of memoranda at Jerusalem, Detd Sea, Bethlehem, and
other places in Palestine, from which he hoped to create a new and»
better order of scripture painting; in which, had his life been spared,
a he would undoubtedly have succeeded. But his work is done, and the
. gifted pencil which has so often made the canvass breathe, is forever
= laid aside. With sentiments of respect, I remain your obedient and
Be humble serv servant, E. R. Beapue.
os Aleppo, August 27, 1841.

Barometrical Observations. Sg
_. Placess |Barom. |Therm, | Weather. Time. {| Remarks.
\2Y.958 | 594° fine Mar. Ist |Level of Mediter.
Jerusalem, 27.488 | 55 fine « 3d
es St. Saba, 35 threat’ning rain] “ 4th) |
= ater, 31.372 | 68 do, wind x. | “ 5th Jevelof Dead Sea.
BE etchay ne et P0554 26 rain “5th
: “nd ee ts farther up, |29.106| 674 foggy * 6th 7
{Four and a half hours : , *
above Jericho, } 28.406 | 70 fine ete
Jerusalem 27,278 | 644 high wind “ 6th |

Recapitulation, without reference to Thermometer.
Jerusalem, higher bern the Mediterranean, : oe 2,520 feet.

ae ee eRe, thes
____ Dead Sea, nt ‘a - Sa er ie Lm
Jericho” ewe ss yo ee

22. Picture of a Peonen Archer, by David Scott.—Mr. John Dun-
“top of Edinburgh, well known a few years ago as a most intelligent and
amiable traveller in this country, has recently transmitted for the Trum-

| bat Gallery of Yale College, a splendid picture by Mr. Scott, an artist

“ of the Edinburgh school. This painting is three feet ten ihokies, by
“ » three feet three inches, and is superbly framed in the Elizabethan pattern.
Mr. Scott completed his studies at Rome, where he imbibed a decided
partiality for the works of Michael Angelo, to the most beautiful of
whose Sybils some resemblance is traced in the face of the Parthian
archer.

. _ The figure is massy and powerful, like some of the forms of American
Indians whom Mr. Dunlop had seen and admired beyond the Mississippi.
In illustration of Mr. Scott’s genius, Mr. Dunlop has been so kind as to
forward to us a copy in-folio of twenty four engraving? « of designs by

*

:

*

i

a

- . ee :
eG. ” Mitgcellaities.
Se * “
a this artist, illustrative of Coleridge's Ancient M + which met the de

cided approbation of the author of the ballad. There is great muscu-
lar and intellectual character in these designs ; indeed, Mr. Scott is said to

_. have sacrificed much to form and character, foregoing the soft and beau-
" tiful contrasts which are . generally more delightful. Inthe Art Union, of
London, a paper: devoted to the fine arts, the intellectual power of Mr.
“Scott’s productions is fully appreciated. Among his late works, the
Alchymist is distinguished. ‘“ The wily professor is swinging back in
his chair amidst a ‘erowd of votaries worthy of Chaucer’s fancy, and
holding in his hand some redoubtable elixir, whose virtues, known and

unknown, are sufficiently impressed on the arch chemist’s countenance.”

-

ee

The Parthian Archer is a figure of great force, and the splendid bow
‘which he holds bent, with the arrow drawn to its head and ready to let
. fly, is after the representations of the Parthian bow found on ancient
vases? A drawing of it was furnished, last winter, to Mr. Dunlop, by
‘Sir John Macniel, late ambassador to Persia. The bow is bent back-
s hoe and when unstrung takes the form of a C: “there is eee
t exerted in the flexion than is apparent to the eye.” The
ghadios of Young’s Night Thoughts will recollect the allusion respect-
ing our past thoughts sind actions—
«“ Whose yesterdays look backward with a smile,
Nor like the Parthian wound him as they fly.”’

23. Correction. — Messrs. Editors: Since writing my article upon the
Melanians, (Vol. x11, p. 21,) I have been able to examine living indi-
viduals of Melania undulata, Say ; and find that it is not congenerie with
Nerita aurita, Mill., as I supposed from a comparison of the shells.

=

..» . The former is a true Melania, whilst the latter belongs to the Cerithide,

of which it constitutes a new genus, next to Potamis.
ninco Cuavicer. Shell like Melania, but with a sinuated labrum,
Goer Mag its junction with the columella. ae C. aurita: icon.
g. pl. 12 ‘and 13, the latter being C. tuberculosa. The
characters of the animal are those given to Meldnia by Deshayes in
his Sain of Lamarck, Vol. VIII, p. 427,8
Genus Trocuira. I propose this name for the genus of shells call-
ea Plinstia by Capt. Brown, the latter being preoccupied in zoology:
Ex. T. alba, Brown’s Zool. Text-Book, pl. 86, fig. 17; T. nitens, Lea’s
Contributions, pl. 4, fg. 113. Mensa S. S.. Harpeman.
Near ig 4 one

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ILLUSTRATIONS TO PROF. J.W.B

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ADVERTISING SHEET
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AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

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languor, and Jassitude with which its devotees are afflicted, and for

1) Advertising Sheet of the

which they repeat the dose to relieve, are sensations of its own cre-
ation. But in consequence of the exclusion of those deleterious
principles from the Elixir of Opium, it is not liable to derange the
functions of the system, nor injure the constitution and general
health; hence its high superiority in all those cases in which the
long continued and liberal use of opiates are indicated and necessary
to allay pain and spasmodic action, and induce sleep and composure,
as in cases of eg burns or scalds, cancerous ulcers, and other
painful affection

been accustomed to the use of Opium, this preparation will affor
gratifying substitute, as it operates effectually, as an anodyne pa
ing pain and spasmodic action, which is the grand desideratum in
its use.

_ | TESTIMONIALS.
From Dr. alton. the eminent Chemist oe 4) a ew Ph in proof of
ccomplishment of this dis

Dr. Joun B. cag NN having made ni 2 te me the process
by which be prepares his Elixir of Opium, and wishing me to statel
my opinion concerning it, I therefore say, that the process is in ac-
cordance with. well known chemical laws, and that the preparation
must contain all the valuable principles of Opium, without those
which are considered as deleterious and useless.
J. R. CHILTON, M. D., Operative Chemist, &c.
New York, December 29, 1836.
Having witnessed the effects of Dr. J. B. McMunn’s Elixir of
Opium, we are of opinion that it is a valuable preparation, and re-
ponies | it to the patronage of the profession

F. U. JOHNSTON, M. D.,

Physician to we City and Marine Hospital.
‘ JOHN W. FRANCIS, M. D.,

Rate Prof. of Midwifery i in Coll. of Phys. and Surg. N. Y.

JOHN C. CHEESEMAN, M. D.,
Surgeon to the New York City Hospital.
sg age K. HOFFMAN, M. D.,
Bord, to Marine Hosp. N. Y., and late Surg. in the U. S. N.
JAMES WEBSTER, M M. D.,
|» Prof. of Anat. ag eit in the Genega Med. Coll. N. Y.
New York, February 18

07> Physicians who ut not heretofore used this preparation in
their practice, are respectfully requested to give it a trial ; they will
find it one of the most valuable forms in which an ‘opiate can be
exhibited.

ae,

And to choke: persons who, from necessity or other causes, ene :

American Journal of Science. 3

Druggists and physicians can be supplied at the — wholesale
price by. addressing their orders to A. B. & D. SANDS, Druggists,
79 and 100 Fulton street. Sold also by all the th Druggists
in New York, Boston, and Philadelphia. Retailed in New York by,
A. B. Sands & Co., 273 Broadway, corner of Chambers street; by
D. Sands & Co., 71 East Broadway, corner of Market t street ; by

Rushton & Aspinwall in all their stores; by Souillard & Delluc; by
Adamson & Olliff, 6 Bowery, and by nearly all Apothecaries. Sold

in Boston by William Brown, 481 Washington street ; by Smith &
Fowle, 138 Washington street ; by Brewers, Stephens & Cushing,

_jand by Reed, Wing & Cutler. Sold in Philadelphia’ by Charles
JEllis & Gan 56 Chestnut street; by Dr. Jane, 20 South Third

street; by D. B. Smith, and W. Hodgson, Arch and Sixth street.
Sold in Baltimore by G. K. Tyler. In New Orleans by Sickles &
Co. Sold in ee Haven by L. K. Dow, and by G. N. Seagrave,
and in Fair Haven by H. L. Scranton, and by Druggists generally
in all the cities of the United States. Price 25 cents.

PHILOSOPHICAL APPARATUS.
JOSEPH M. WIGHTMAN, &
No. 33, Cornutt, Bosron,

Manufacturer of path: eechanicagen! Chemical Appa-

Among which, are ieakes ~e illustrating Inertia, Attraction,
and other Laws of Matter.

Morton.—Laws of Falling Bodies, Compound Motion, Sets for
ease “of Gravity, Models of Cycloidal Pendulums, Pints dane
chrone, or line of swiftest descent, Law of Central Forces, show
ing that bodies in rapid rotation always select the shorter axis, Laory

xwood Balls for collision.
Mecuantcats.—Complete sets of various sizes, from $25 to
00.

Hyprostatic and Hyprauiie Apparatus, in great variety.
Pyeumatic.—Lever Air-Pumps, on Leslie’s construction impro-
ved. Barrel 4 inches and plate 13 inches diameter; patent Single
Barrel Lever Air-Pumps, on table stand, and also of portable size
for Academies; Common Air-Pumps, and Condensing Syringes ;
with a great variety of Apparatus adapted to the different sizes.
Enecrarcai Prate Macuines.—Improved construction of all
sizes. Cylinder do. 6 to 10 inches diameter, Batteries, Jointed and
Universal Dischargers, Balance, Gold Leaf, and other Electrome-
ters, enn Houses, Cannons, &c. &c. &c.
at.—Compound Blowpipes, Parabolic Reflectors silver

plated; 3 in cases with Apparatus, Gas-holders, Cast Iron Mere

2

4 Advertising Sheet of the

Cistern with Gas-holder, improved from the best English, Lamp
Stands with improved Shifting Rings, Spirit Lamps with Glass Caps,
Furnaces of various sizes, Oxygen Retorts of Iron with tubes, tight
joints. without luting, Pyrometers, Porcelain Mortars, and Evapora-
ting Dishes, Nooth’s Apparatus, Bell Sai Alembics, tubulated
and plain Retorts, Glass Tubes, &c.
pricaL.—Lenses, Mirrors, oS ai "Models of the human Eye,
Single and Compound ‘Micros scopes, Telescopic Kaleidoscope, Phan-
tasmagoria Lanterns, imported by J. M. W. and warranted superior
to any other, with EON rau of sliders on Astronomy, Natura
History, Ancient and ostume, View &e.
AsTRONOMY, Ceeckon sen Pe alae —Orreries, Telluri-
ans, Globes 18, 12, 10, and 6 inches diameter, Clinometers for tak-

Rain Gauges, Barometers and Thermometer rs.

notro-Maenetism.—A very great variety of Apparatus and
Machines for Motion, Shocks, and Sparks, ie; cakes this inter-
esting branch of science.

Gaxvanrsm.—Batteries, improved construction of different sizes.

J. M. W. would refer to his Catalogue for further information,
copies of which will be sent per mail on application. All letters
post pard.

Sets of Apparatus for the various departments of science, are put
up for Schools, Academies, Colleges, &c. at all prices. Respecting
the quality of the apparatus manufactured by J. M. W., he has the
pleasure of referring to the Editors of the f ier of Science, and
also to the following awards from 2 Fairs of the Mass. vec

ech. Association held in Boston. SruvEer Mepat, 1837. GOLD
oe — eS Mepat, 1839.

ston, Bice, i,
Pro e. Hitchcock's Final Report on the Geology of
ie Massachusetts.

Published by J. H. BUTLER, Norruamrron, Mass.

Apams, 229 Broadway ; in Philadelphia, by the Booxsencers.
Tae work is in two quarto volumes, and contains more than 800
pages of letter press, one Geological Map of the State, one Map
ome ‘the strike and dip of the strata, the axes of elevation and
depression, the systems o} ce the course of the diluvial fur-
rows, and of the veins and beds of ore in Massachusetts ; also more
bei fifty Bere of are size, and nearly three hundréd Wood
mn printed beyond the number required by

the Iegiure. ann “aa

ing the idchadtion and direction of strata, Reflecting Goniometer,|

For sale in Bone, by Lirrie & Brown ; in N. York, by Josian

Te ee ee Oe eee, ee

| American Journal of Science. 5

~lnF
= aa?

5 .
DANIEL DAVIS, Jr.
No. 11 Cornnitt, Bosror, Mass. |
. Manufactures and keeps constantly for sale,
Instruments to illustrate the Principles of Ganvantsm, EvectRo-
Dynamics, Magnetism, Evectro-Macnetism, Macneto-Evec-
Tricity, T'HEeRMo-ELEcTRICITY.
aG- Improved Maeneto-Execrric Apparatus for Medical use.
Colleges, Academies, and School Teachers, supplied on the most!
reasonable terms.

Will shortly be Published,
A MANUAL OF MAGNETISM,
INCLUDING
-E LE

BY DANIEL DAVIS, Jr.

Assisted by several scientific gentlemen.

MAGNETISM, ELECTRO-MAGNETISM, MAGNETO-ELECTRICITY, AND ALSO
THERM ICITY.

This work, though mainly intended as a companion to Davis’s
Magnetical Apparatus, will comprise a sufficiently full account of th

elementary principles of those branches of science of which it treats,

6 | Advertising Sheet of the

to peels! it to be used as a Text Book. It will contain descriptions)
s experiments which may be performed by means of the

ssihliks pri will be illustrated by more than 100 wood cuts, ac-
companied by full explanations. A number of the instruments are
of recent invention, and have not previously been described.

The Manual may be obtained by applying to Mr. Davis as above.
It will contain ped 150 octavo pages. Price 624 cents

Boston, March, 1

NEW ENGLAND GLASS COMPANY,
BOSTON, Mass.

Preemie at the suggestion of Prof. Silliman, of New Haven, un-

abroad, hereby give notice to scientific men and others, that they
are prepared to execute orders for any form of Glass connected with
these departments of science, equal in durability and workmanship
to the best specimens of Bohemian manufactures, and at reasonable’
prices. They would specify as always on hand the following neces-
sary articles of Chemical Glass.

Berzelius’s Digesting Glasses, in nests; Digesting Flasks, hee
ed sizes, of anew and most approved pattern; Gas Bottles, Woulf?
do. ; Retorts, Plain and ‘Tubulated ; Precipitating Jars, the usual!
form, and also the tall Hydrometer Jars, (Eprouvettes of the
French ;) Tubes thick and thin, and of any size, also Solid Rods ;
Tube Funnels for Gas Bottles and Woulf’s Apparatus ; Capsules,

sizes ; Dropping Tubes, Acid Bottles, and Wide Mouth
Bottles for Salts ; ; Funnels ; Nooth’s Apparatus; Mortars, Electri-
cal Cylinders, and every description of Philosophical and Pneumatic

also prep ared, as heretofore, to execute all orders with
which they. may be vored, for every description of Flint Glass, at
corresponding with the times.

prices
emmy Waser, Agent.

Boston, No. 9 Doane street, March 5, 1842,
edtietP

American Journal of Science. 7

Philosophical Instruments, Manufactured and Sold
BY N.B. & D. CHAMBERLAIN,

Nos. 2 ann 9 Scnoor Srreet, Boston.

Attwood’s Machines, with Seoul Clocks, Weights, &c. com-
plete, eight feet high, $25 , $50, and $100. Tables with Spring
Pistols, &c. for Compound Bégien and Forces, B6. Whirling Ta-|

es and Fixtures, complete for a variety of experiments, $25 aval
$35. Mechanical Powers, in complete sets, $25, $40, and $100.
Hydrostatic Presses, Hydrostatic Bellows, Hydrostatic Paradox,
Glass Barrel Lifting Eaton and Improved Forcing Pump, and)
Stand, with Cisterns, Hose, &c.

Air Pumps, all worked with the Simple Lever.

No. 1, eight inch plate, barrel 7 by 21 inches, $25. No. 2,
eight inch plate, two barrels 7 by 2! inches, $35. No. 3, twelve!
inch plate, barrel 11 by 34 inches, has a barometer gauge, $75..
No. 4,* thirteen inch plate, barrel 13 by 4 oP ey $125. No. 5,
fifteen inch plate, barrel 13 by 44 inches, $150

ell Glasses are fitted to all the different parnps, from half re
to fourteen gallons. Prices from 25 cts. to $12.

Electric Machines.—Sixteen inch plates with two conductors,
well proportioned and finished, $25. ‘Twenty four inch plate, with
two edie 2% $40. Twenty eight inch plate, two conductors,

o $60. Thirty inch plate, two conductors, $75. Thirty
cae plate, two conductors, $85. Forty inch plate, two con-
cioga $125 to $150. Fifty five inch plate, two negative con-
ductors, two vice rubbers, prime conductor 7 feet by 8 inches,
$400. All the usual varieties of apparatus accompanying the above
machines, at fair prices.

Chemicals.—Cylindrical Gasometers, with Webster’s Improved
Compound a Cisterns with Gas Holders, Retorts for Oxy-
gen, Lamp Sta , Gas Bags, Pyrometers, &c., Chemical sien
all sizes and ee

Galvanic and Electro-Magnetic Apparatus.

Working Models of Steam Engines,. $35, $60, to $100. Sec-
tion Models of Steam Engines, $12 to #18.

Astronomicals. —Orreries, Season Machines, Tide Dials, Globes.

For further and more particular information, see Catalogues,
which will be lormened on application.

oston, March 11,

|

b
t . epee, one by Prof dimsted. Yale Colton, one b by
Prof. Young. otk College, one by Prof. Hopkins, Williams College, one oe
Prof. Whipple, Oberlin Collegiate Haniel raha al of No. 3, and some t
how in use in aciakeinbes in the United 8

8 Advertising Sheet of the

~ In the course of Publication, a New Edition of the

NORTH AMERICAN SYLVA,
OR
A DESCRIPTION OF THE FOREST TREES
OF THE
UNITED STATES, CANADA, AND NOVA SCOTIA;

Considered particularly with respect to their use in the Arts, and
their introduction into Commerce ; with a Description of the most
useful of the Evropean Forest Trees.

Illustrated by 156 finely colored Engravings.
TRANSLATED FROM THE FRENCH OF F. ANDREW MICHAUX,
Member of the American Philosophical Society, &e. &c. &c.

To which will be added three additional volumes, containing all the
Forest Trees discovered in the Rocky Mountains, the Trr-
riTory or Oreaon, down to the shores of the Pacirie and into
the confines of Canirornta, as well as in various parts of the
Unitep STates.

| Illustrated by 122 finely colored Plates.

|

| BY THOMAS NUTTALL, F.L.S.,

Member of the American Philosophical Society, and of the Academy of Natural
Sciences of Philadelphia, &c. &c. Ke.

Ue sells to he completed in Six Volumes, “Tnpéttal bv0.. With
Voces 278 Plates.

The figures in the three additional volumes, will comprise one| ,
hundred and twenty two Plates, finely colored, mostly of new sub-
jects, or such as have not been before published in the Sylva, exe-
cuted with the strictest fidelity to nature, under the eye of the Editor.
Additional remarks on the uses and economy of the Forest Trees 0
he United States, will also be given, so as to complete, as far as

American Journal of Science. 9)

most splendid works ever published in America. It will be pub-
lished in six volumes, in imperial octavo. The first volume is now
ready, and the succeeding volumes will be published at short inter-
vals, so that the whole shall be completed at an early period.
The price of the whole work, with the Plates finely sei, will
be Forty Four Dollars—the first and second volumes, Eight Pitlets
each ; and the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth, Seven Dollars each;
payable on delivery éf each Sombie: hae thé Plates uncolored,
the price will be Five Dollars per volum
ose persons who possess the former velit of Michaux’s work,
can procure the three additional volumes separately, and thus com-
plete their copies. Price with colored Plates, Seven Dollars each ;
with Plates uncolored, Five Dollars each. They are requested to
transmit their names as early as possible.
Subscriptions received by the Publisher.

J. DOBSON, No. 106, Chestnut Street, Philadelphia.

J. DOBSON has also in course of Publication,

Monocrapuy or THE FAMILY Unronip3, or Natapes or Lamarck,
(fresh-water bivalve shells,) or NortH America—illustrated by
figures drawn on stone from nature, and finely colored. By T.
A. Conrap, Curator of the Academy of Natural iE of
Philadelphia, &c. &c. &c. Of this work, Nos. 1 2 have
been published—each number contains five “ch ioe: Sp ;
price per number $1. Also, by the same author.

Fossits or THE Mepiau Tertiary OF THE Cilia Srares. Of
this work have been published No. 1, containing 17 Plates, price
$1.50—and No. 2, containing 12 Plates, price $1—to be com-
pleted in four numbers.

A MowoerapuH or THE Limnrapes, or Freso-Water Univatve
Sueiis or Nortu America, by S. S. ae Member of
the Academy of Natural Sciences. Nos 2, and 3, are publish-
ed, each containing 5 most splendid cee! Plates, price $1 each,
to be completed in about eight numbers

Nortn American Herperouoey, ora meieitbitin of the Reptiles
inhabiting the United States. By Joun Epwarpvs Hoverook,
M.D., &e. &c., with very numerous and splendid colored Plates,
to be completed i in five volumes royal quarto. Price per volume
$ The first volume of this magnificent work is now in press,
and will soon be ready.
> Orders for all classes of AMERICAN AND ForeIen Posiios-

— including Magazines and Periodicals, American, English,

Hrench , German, &c., promptly executed.

2

10 Advertising Sheet of the

Geological Map of Nova Scotia.

Messrs. LITTLE & BROWN bave recently published a new
Map of the Peninsula of Nova Scotia, intended as a Topographical]
Guide for travellers, and to illustrate its geological structure, con-
structed according to the observations and discoveries of Messrs.
Jackson and Alger, and conforming topographically to the most re-
cent surveys, ‘The map is done up in pocket form, and is accom-
panied with directions as to the routes, &c. Price 624 cts.

AUTOBIOGRAPHY,
Reminiscences, and Letters, of John Trumbull, from 1756 to 1841.

New York and London: Witey & Purnam. New Haven:
B. L. Hamten, 1841.
This volume of 450 pages, on a beautiful paper with a large
type, is illustrated by a frontispiece portrait of the author, drawn
by his own hands, and by more than twenty other prints of
scenery, costume, portraits, military plans, &c.
This work is for sale by Witrey & Putnam, New York, and by
B. L. Hamien, New Haven, and by their agents.—Price $3, in
cloth covers.

ASSOCIATION OF AMERICAN GEOLOGISTS.

Pror. Eowarp Hircucock’s Appress before this Association
at their second meeting in Philadelphia, in April last, has been pub-
lished by the subscriber in an Svo. pamphlet of fifty pages, on fine
paper, in accordance with the resolution of the meeting.

mbers of the Association and others who wish this address,

a
small edition of the Address, with the proceedings of the Associa-
tion at their two meetings, (viz. in Philadelphia, April, 1840, and
April, 1841,) as they are published by the Secretaries in the Amer-
ican Journal of Science, with a list of the members of the Associa-
tion: these two under one cover.
: Prof. Hitcheock’s address will be sold to members at one dollar
for six copies; to non-members ‘at one dollar for four copies, oF
25 cents each. It is expected that the money will accompany the
orders. The Address and Proceedings, under one cover, will be
sold at one dollar for three copies, or singly, at fifiy cents each.
Either of the above may be ordered through any of the book-
sellers who act.as avents for the American Journal of Science. ;
B. Sittimay, Jr, One of the Assistant Secretarves.
ae

NOt va

American Journal of Science. 1]

New and most important work for all those con-
cerned in Iron Works.

J. DOBSON,
No. 106 Cuestnur Street, Paiwapevputa,

Proposes to publish by subscription, the following most important
work.

A COMPLETE THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL TREATISE

ON THE

MANUFACTURE OF IRON.

Comprising a full account of its different ores, their analyses,
&c., the various processes and ample descriptions of the Furnaces,
Forges, Rolling Mills, &c. &c., with nearly 70 very large plates,
which are all drawn to a scale, and may be considered as working
drawings—to include a translation of the whole of the great work

So
on Iron of Messrs. Le Branc and Watrter, and contain all its nu-
merous plates, with additions from other sources, and numerous
analyses of the Coal and Iron Ores of this country and Europe, to-
gether with the Statistics of the Coal and Iron of the United States,

and abstracts of the most important Patents relating to Iron, with
critical remarks—also an Essay on the Smelting of Iron with An-
thracite Coal, as now practiced in Pennsylvania—by S. W. Ros-
ErTs, Esq., Civil Engineer—to be published under the superinten-
dence of J. C. Boorn, Esq., Professor of Chemistry applied to the
Arts, at the Franklin Institute.

It is scarcely necessary to speak of the value of a work such as
this, which must be of the greatest interest to the Practical Iron
Master, as well as to every one concerned, either directly or indi-
rectly, in this most important subject. The great French work of
Le Branc and Watrer, being confessedly the most complete that
has yet appeared, it will be reproduced in this, with additions—the
Plates are all drawn to a scale, which will enable any one to con-
struct, by their means, whatever may be required. The Essay on
the Smelting of Iron with Anthracite Coal, by Mr. Roserrs, will
be found very interesting; it is the production of a gentleman of
talents, and of sound judgment and unwearied research, who, highly
favored by his position, has given the subject much attention. The
numerous Analyses of the Coal and Iron Ores, both of our own
country and Europe, will afford much interesting and useful infor-

ieee

mation; while the statistical portion will be drawn from the most,

+

12 Advertising Sheet of the

authentic sources. Ricnarp C. Taxtor, Esq., a gentleman well
known for his talents and accuracy in research, has promised his
valuable assistance.

It is also intended to give abstracts of the most important se
patents relating to Iron, accompanied with critical remarks—
whole forming the most complete work on the subject that has om
been published i in any ‘eountty-—and the only one of the kind in the
English language.

=
CONDITIONS.

The work will be put to press as soon as there are 150 subscri-
bers—and but a limited edition will be published.

It will be published in 8 parts, each part to contain 8 or more
very large folio plates, with the accompanying te text.

é price per part will be five dollars, payable on delivery.

As it is desirable to put the work to press as early as possible,
gentlemen who may wish to subscribe, will confer a favor by trans-
mitting their names to the publisher without delay.

JORDAN & COMPANY,

sea General Agents for Reviews, Magazines and Periodi-
3s, 121 Washington, opposite Water St., Boston

The New York Review, $5; the North American, $5;
Boston Quarterly, $3; the Dial, $3; Silliman’s American hon
nal of Science, $6. Also, the Ladiew’ ete $3; Graham’s La-
dies and Gentlemen’s Magazine, $3; e Khickorbocké, &5;
Hant’s Merchants’ Magazine, $5; the ‘Christian Family Magazine,
$1; and all the Foreign Reviews at $3 each, or taken together, $2.
oO Messrs. J. & Co. give constant ppalayweoh to intelligent men

in the oeeusation of these and other wor
Octo

Dr. J. R. CHILTON,

PRACTICAL CHEMIST, &c.,
No. 263 Broapway, New York,

Kreps constantly for sale at his establishment, a general assort-
ment of Philosophica shemical Apparat Chemical Prepara-
tions, and every thing necesssary for the stud y of Chemistry and
other branches of Natural Philosophy—among which are the fol-

lowing :

American Journal of Science. 13

Pixi’s Frencu Arr-pumps, witH GLASS. BARRELS ; other air-
pumps with brass barrels, single and double, of various sizes, to-
gether with the various apparatus used with them

arge and small Puate Exvectrrican Mack CHINES, CYLINDER
Exectricat Macuines, and a variety of Execrrican APPARATUS.

Exectrro-Maenets, iemcibted on frames, of various sizes, capa-

ble of supporting from 20 to 3000 Ibs.
Page’s Compounp Mucwut and Exectrotome, for producing
brilliant sparks and powerful shocks. T: e instrument, with a
contrivance attached by which the "oteatipeat the shocks can be
modified at pleasure, which renders it one of the most convenient
instruments for the application of electricity as a gp agent in
the cure of disease, and for physiological experiments.

Small working models of Exe prego Mncecaieis Macuines, of
different kinds, and a great variety of Exectro-Macneric Instrvu-
MENTS for the purpose of illustrating the theory of Execrro-Mae-
NETISM.

Gatvanic Barrertes on Prof. Faraday’s plan, and others, for
deflagration, &c. Ca torimotors of different sizes.

Gas-notpers—Compounp Biowpipes—PorraBLe PNeuma-

o
_
mn
rm
a
i
a
°
w
Q
fi
z
—
4
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Qo.
te
<q
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-_
wn

Es, Funneus, Mortars, &c.—Inon Retorts, of different sizes—

ELL GLassEs, plain and supa, GrapvuaTepD Bett Guassses,
Toses, &c.—W outr’s Apparatus, Guass ALEmBiIcs, STOPPERED
FUNNELS, yeep Be Jars.

Nooth’s Apparatus for coke GCM water with carbonic acid.

Apparatus for solidifying carbonic a

Guass ConpEeNsING SYRINGES or toe Pumes—Maeic Lan-
TERNS, with AsTRoNoMIcaL and other Surpes—Acare and STeen
Morrars.

Porcetain, Wepewoon, egy it and Brack Leap Cruci-
BLEs—Murrves and Curre

Berzelius’s Spirit Lamps, with Sranps and Rives, Guass Spir-

1T Lamps—Mopets of Crysrtats in wocd, in boxes containing one
Manes different forms—DaauerreotyPe APPARATUS complete.

An assortment of Platina vessels, such as CrucisLes, Capsu.es,
Spoons, Forceps, shies pHa Wire, Fort, &c.—Sets of
Biowripr APPaRaTus neatly fitted up.

A large collection of Minerats, ys sale by the single specimen
Or in sets.

07> Particular ears paid to the analysis of ores, minerals,
mineral waters

New York, Sune 19, 1841.

*.

14 Advertising Sheet of the

GEOLOGICAL DRAWINGS AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
rk. ROBERT BAKEWELL would inform Professors of Col-

lezen, Principals of Academies, Lyceums, and other Literary Insti-
tutions, that he keeps on hand Drawings and Diagrams, illustrative
of the science of Geology, se Stratification, Metallic Veins,
Organic Remains, Active and Extinct Volcanoes, &c. &c.

The drawings are if desire fixed on rollers, adapted for lectures.
Letters addressed to R. Bakewell, Instructor of Drawing and Per-

spective in Yale College, at Mr. Ebenezer Johnson’s, Chapel street,
New Haven, will be duly attended to

Drawings and a of every diction copied with dispatch.
New Haven, June,

Mr. Bakewell’s jane are excellent.— Eds.

B. & W. NOYES,
NEW HAVEN, CONN.

Pusuisuers of Bakewell’s Geology, 8vo. $3.50. Dana’s Min-
ralogy, 8vo. $3.25. Pitkin’s Statistics, Svo. $3.00. Baldwin’s
Yale College, Svo. pro: Bacon’s Poems, 8vo. $1 60. Kings-

the Will, 12mo. 50 cts. Crocker’s ‘Cutastiopbe
of the Presbyterian Church, 12mo. 88 cts. Excerpta Latina, 12mo.
38cts. Gibbs’s Hebrew Lexicon, 8vo. $2.00. Tables of Logarithms,|
used in Yale College with Day’s Mathematics, 8vo. $1. hool
Geology, 18mo. 25 cts. Discount 20 per cent. and six months
credit.

Books wholesaled and retailed at the most reduced prices—a
catalogue of which is printed with prices and discount, for gratui-|
tous distribution a promptly executed.

New Haven, June 25, 1

American Journal of Science and Arts.
Tue following numbers of this Journal are wanted by the Editors,
who will pay for them $1 each, or give in exchange current num-
s as they appear.
Vol.

<i... 3m. XIV. XV. XVI.
Number 1,2 2 hi 1 1, 2.
Entire No. 23,24. 27,28 29 31. 33, 34
Ve See. RXTE XXVi. -XXVN. XXIX. . 3L
Nowher cco 2 VR 5: @ 1, 2 ¥ 2 x

Entire No. 35. 45, 46. 54, 55, 56. 59, 60. 81.

New Haven, June 23, 1840.

Ree

| American Journal of Science. 15

ANTHRACITE IRON.
LITTLE & BROWN, .
OF BOSTON,

Have published, an acegunt of the various Iron Works in the
United States, at ‘which Anthracite is employed as a fuel in the
Smelting of Iron Ores, &c., by Prof. Warrer R. Jounson. This

d
comprehensive view of the situation, construction, and all essential
circumstances of each establishment. The c omposition, character,
and heating power of several of the principal eh A of anthracite
is also given
January, 1849,

Association of American Geologists.

This body holds its asa Annual Meeting at Boston, commencing on Monday,
the 25th of April, 184
rs for the ales in Boston
Sanus EorGE Morton, M. D

Cuanrues T. Jackson, F.G.S., (ane ar i: <a, Secretary.
Prof. | hewaas Hircxcoce
Dr. Cuarues T. Ja KSON, Local Committee.

Mr. Mosss B. Gicir anes : ;
rof. B. Srruiman, LL. D., &c. to deliver the opening address.

Notice to Agents of the American Journal of Science.
Herearrer one dollar per number is all that will be allowed on
account, for numbers of this a returned in good order from
agents, except by special agreem
Entire sets of the American Foti of Science and Arts, from
its commencement to the present time, can be had of the fates
in numbers or bound. B. & B. Sinuiman.
w Haven, June 23, 1841.

Scale of charges on the Advertising Sheet for the American
Journal of Science.

15 lines or one third of a page, - _ - -
One so of a page, 3 ign ila ia rs
One pa -

Clsiets 6 on the cover.—15 fini or one third of a Page,
On fap Bes

For every insertion after the first, one half the awe rates.
Must be accompanied with directions as to the number of insertions

THE

AMERICAN.

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &c.

©

Arr. L—A Notice of Prof. Augustine Pyrame De Candolle ; by
Grorce B. Emerson, Pres. of the Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist.

Ar a meeting of the Boston Society of Natural History, held in
their hall, Nov. 17th, 1841, the President read portions of a letter
from his friend, Edward Tuckerman, Jr., containing, together
with many interesting facts relating to the botanists of England
and France, the melancholy intelligence of the death of De Can-
DotLE. After reading this letter, the President went on to say :

Thus has set one of the great lights of botany—a man, who,
for the vastness of his works and the comprehensive idea he had
formed of the extent and ends of the science, has not left his
Superior, hardly his peer. May I be allowed to take this occasion
to say a few words upon the works and character, as a botanist,
of the man whose loss we are thus called to deplore.

Avevstixe Pyrame De Canpotie was born in Geneva in 1778,
of an ancient family, which, as long ago as the sixteenth century,
was distinguished in the republic of letters. From his earliest
years he seems to have devoted himself to botany; for already
in his twenty first year, in 1798, he published his History of Suc-
culent Plants.* In the preface to this work he asks, in the sim-

* Plantarum Historia Succulentarum, published in Paris by Dugour and Durand,
in two folio volumes with colored plates. This contains descriptions of succulent
plants, not of any one natural order, but of those having sufficient resemblance to
be associated, They are mostly of the orders Crassulacee, Ficoidew, and Cacta-
©ee, with some species of aloes, and a few others. ‘They are precisely those
Plants of which it is important to have good figures, as of most of them it is nearly

Vol. xu, No. 2.—Jan.-March, 1842. 28

218 Notice of Prof. De Candolle.

plest manner, indulgence for the youth of its author, at the same
time admitting that every book must plead its own cause, and
promising to endeavor to make up in zeal for the deficiencies of
his experience and knowledge. There certainly could have been
no affectation in this modesty, for it shows itself just as clearly
in every future work ; and that zeal must have been no less real
which held ont to the last years of his laborious life.

'I'wo years after, in April, 1800, he laid before the National In-
stitute, in manuscript, his Astragologia.* This was committed to
Lamarck and Desfontaines, at that time two of the most distin-
guished botanists of France, and who ever after seem to have
been his firm and honored friends. They reported very favora-
bly upon the work, observing particularly upon the extent of his
researches, and the exactness and precision of his descriptions.
From this time he began to be well known, and from this, too,
probably, dates his connection with Lamarck, with whom he was
afterwards associated in editing the Flore Frangaise. His connec-
tion with Lamarck and with the Flore Frangaise, was of momen-
tous consequences to him. It was the first edition of this work,
as he himself declares, which, by initiating him in his youth into
the elements of botany, decided his taste and his fate for life...

It must have been about this period that he spent six years in
traversing all the provinces of France.{ In every one he herbo-
tized; every where he studied the vegetation, and every where
made, or obtained from public or private collections, specimens
and documents.

In 1804, be published in oneiic his Essay upon the Medical
Properties of Plants, It was his inaugural thesis on taking the
degree of doctor in medicine in the Faculty of Paris.

In the same year he delivered his first course of lectures 0”
— the substance of which he introduced in the ‘‘ Princi-

mo possi to make dried specimens. echt is accompanied by a beautiful colored
i gure by ;Redouté. If it were intended, as it see ms to be, to give a pretty fal

sa gape’ until the publication of the latter work.

was shed in Paris in 1802, in one volume falio, by Garnery,
the press « ‘Tt Sites descriptions of a great number of species,

many of them F ahigahd and t on allied, often gum-bearing Leguminose.

It is illustrated ath eae plates by Redo!

t Preface to the sixth volume of Flore Francie, p. 10.

$ Flore Frangaise, vi, preface, p. 7.

ee ee

Notice of Prof. De Candolle. 219

ples of Botany” prefixed to his edition of the Flore Frangaise,
which was published immediately after. In this edition he ad-
ded the surprising number of two thousand to the species of plants
(twenty seven hundred) previously described in the Flora,* and
in the sixth volume of the edition of 1815, he makes an addition
of thirteen hundred more, thus raising the number of species be-
longing to France, under the empire, when it comprehended the
Italian and German provinces, to six thousand, about a fifth part
of the total number of plants then known on the globe.

In preparing this last edition, he had called to his aid all the
best botanists of France, increased to a large number by the
publication of the former editions of this very work; and he
makes express acknowledgment by name, to forty three for
France proper, ten for the Italian provinces, and five for the Ger-
man. ‘These great additions were made with scrupulous care,
for he introduces the description of no plant of which he had
not an authentic specimen.

It is not easy to say how it has happened that the Flore Fran-
gaise has not attained a celebrity, out of F'rance, more nearly pro-
portioned to its preéminent excellence. It is, without question,
the most complete Florat that has ever been made ; the Prelim-
inary Discourse and the General Principles giving every thing
that is necessary to an understanding of the work, and the “ Ana-
lytical Method” presenting the only tolerable substitute since the
time of Linneeus, for the artificial system of that great man, in
solving the first question that always presents itself in examining
a plant—what is its name? The very fact that a single editor
could have enlarged, by more than one half, the flora of his na-
tive land, and that too the native land and the seat of the labors
of Tournefort, the Jussieus and Lamarck, should bave turned
all eyes towards it. This side the ocean and the channel, in-
deed, as beyond, all eyes have been occupied with the treasures
that have been flowing in from both Americas, New Holland, the
Pacific islands, Farther India, and the coast of Africa ; and the
Browns, and Hookers, and Grevilles, and Lindleys of England,
and the Nuttalls, Elliotts, Bigelows, Torreys and Grays of America,

* Flore Frangaise, p. 1. t Ibid. p.

+ The English Flora of Sir J. E. Smith, is a mere flora, and takes it for ome
that the reader has learnt the principles of the science from some otlier soi
Besides which, it gives nothing of the natural orders

220 Notice of Prof. De Candolle.

have had enough to do to examine and describe the plants they
have been gathering, or that have been sent home to them.

DeCandolle did not wait to ask how his labors were received
abroad. In 1808 he became an inhabitant of Montpelier,* and
took charge of the botanic garden there, which he raised to the
highest perfection. For ten years from this time, he must have
been beyond measure diligent. He thoroughly explored the
south of France, gave courses of lectures at the Faculty of Med-
ecine in Montpelier, published, in conjunction with Lamarck, a
_ synopsis of the plants of the French flora, gave a catalogue of the
plants in the botanic garden of Montpelier, published figures and
descriptions of the rarer plants of France, several articles on geo-
graphical and agricultural botany, in 1813 his Elementary The-
ory of Botany,t and, in 1816, a second edition in octavo, of his
“‘ Rissay on the Medical Properties of Plants.”

- THe object of this work,{ is to ascertain the relations which
subsist between the medical properties of plants, their external
forms, and their natural classification. The dedication is curious:

“'To the botanists who laid the foundation of the Theory of
Natural Relations,—J. and G. Bauhin, Tournefort, Magnol, Ray,
Morison, who. had an anticipation of it; Bernard de Jussieu,
who proved it; Adanson, who developed it ; Antoine-Laurent de
Jussieu, who subjected it to fixed laws; Desfontaines, who con-
nected it with vegetable anatomy; Richard, who threw light
upon it by the analysis of fruits; Robert Brown, who extended -
it by the examination of the pieces of New Holland.”

Considering the uniform justice and generosity of De Candolle,
this dedication is remarkable for its injustice in omitting the name
of Linnens, to whom, as he confesses in this very work,$ is due
the first perfectly distinct enunciation of the principle which it
is the object of the “ Essai” to prove—that plants of the same
genus have the same properties; those of the same natural order,
similar properties; and those of the same natural class, some
analogy in their properties; and he admits that Jussieu adopts

Sterner ag

Fr :
orie Elémentaire dela Botani Lee A d edition was
published in 1819. ee

+ Essai sur les Propriétés Medicales des Plantes, bel an leurs formes
exterieures et leur ur classification naturelle. Paris. Crochar

§ Essai, Introduction, p. 4. bath ae

|
|

Notice of Prof. De Candolle. 221

this opinion.* The omission is, moreover, inconsistent with the
profound respect with which he always refers to the great sys-
tematist.

In the midst of and by means of this multiplicity of labor,
DeCandolle was commencing what he meant to be the great
work of his life, and what, if he had lived to complete it as it was
begun, would have been tee the most remarkable work on bot-
any ever executed—I mean his Natural System of the Vegetable
Kingdom.+ He seems to have entered upon it with a full sense
of the greatness of the undertaking before him, and with a lofty
and resolute, but ever modest purposet of devoting his whole
strength and time, with all his immense resources and all the
accumulated ability of a life devoted to the preparation, to its
accomplishment. One is reminded of the heroic perseverance
with which Saussure, from the banks of that same beautiful lake
of Geneva, had for so many years cherished the firm resolve to
scale Mont Blanc, and make known the new and strange phe-
nomena which its naked top should present; or of that more
than heroic purpose, cherished and kept still at heart through a
whole life of preparation, of the far greater Milton, to achieve
something worthy to be remembered in future years, and to place
his name with those of 2

“Blind Thamyris and blind Meonides,
= Tiresias and Phineas, prophets old.”

De Candolle’s plan was no less than to arrange and describe,
in their natural orders, all known plants, giving to each order the
fulness and completeness of a monograph. We who now look
back upon his work, can see how far he soared above those whom
he hoped to equal, Lamarck, Willdenow, Vahl, Persoon. Few
works give us better executed examples of the Pesoniah method,
of forming general conclusions from the careful observation of
particulars, and thence going back and reéxamining the particulars.
He first minutely examined all the species of a genus, and thence

* After quoting Amen. Acad. V; P- vin for this opinion of bows he adds,

“'M. de Jussieu adopte !a méme opinion.” Introduction, p.

t Regni Vegetabilis Systema Naturale, sive ordines, genera et species plantarum
secundum methodi naturalis normas digestarum et descriptarum. Volumen Pri-
mum, Parisiis, samptibus sociorum Treuttel et Wurtz, 1818.

crn ipsam curam, hoe opus quod nemo 4-088 nos, nemo apud Meese ts oscre
midus hodie aggredior. Prolegomena, p. 3

222 Notice of Prof. De Candolle.

drew his generic characters. From a similar full examination of
all the genera of an order, he drew the ordinal characters. ‘This
done, he returned to the genera and species, and rejected from the
generic what had been sufficiently expressed in the ordinal, and
from the specific, what had been distinctly stated in the generic
characters. Thus, applying the highest logic to his work, he
gave a model both of analytical and synthetical investigation,
which has done much to raise botany to the rank which it holds
among the sciences, and set an example by which every succeed-
ing botanist has profit
Besides this general pinpeitical which involved many years
of diligent and methodical labor in his study, he made special
preparation which few, up to that time, had attempted. He
visited and carefully examined all the herbaria, even at that time
immense, of France and England. He noted their contents;
and obtained the codperation of nearly all the distinguished bota-
nists then living. Nor was it with living botanists and with her-
baria alone that he had to do. He studied with minute and pa-
tient care whatever had been previously written of plants. For
evidence of the extent of his investigations, we have only to refer
to his history of almost any plant he has described. For Hepa-
tica triloba,* for example, he refers to volume and page, and ac-
companying figure, if any, of more than thirty descriptions before
the Species Plantarum of Linneus; to fifteen more under the
name given in that work; to six additional ones, under other.
names; to five more for the American variety; and he had be-
sides examined six authentic specimens! Thus we have refer-
ence to full sixty descriptions and six herbaria for a single plant.
~The first volume of the Systema was finished in Geneva, to
which place he had in this busy interval removed, interrupted, it
is said, in the midst of his peaceful labors, by the demon of party
spirit. It bears the date of October, 1816. It contains only five
+ A-second volume, containing six orders,t and finished
in the same elaborate manner, appeared in 1821.

betes amcor amumeena een e
x Vide Mog. Veg, Val eo 216.
y 2, Magnoliacee, Anonacew, and Menispermee.
ie

t Berberidee, Podoph liew, nnhpecee, Papaveracee, Fumariacee, and
Crucifere = x ces
Ab itiful mnre curious plants

described i in the firet volume: of the of nnn ocily ge yes in Bre herbaciam

Notice of Prof. De Candoile. 223

But De Candolle had ufdertaken a work perhaps beyond the
strength of any man, whatever might be his capacity ; and I be-
lieve no other volume has appeared.

_ In November, 1823, he finished, at Geneva, the first volume of

‘a work of infinitely less pretensions, undertaken at the urgent

request of his friends, which he offered and intended only asa
rapid survey of plants, to precede his great work, the completion
of which he still kept in view. He gave it the .modest title of
Prodromus.* The first volume, Benn et fifty four orders,
was published in 1824.7

In the next year came the second volume, containing only ten
orders, showing that his materials were rapidly accumulating un-
der his hands, and that he had imperceptibly enlarged his plan.
This was accompanied by a volume of Memoirs on the Legumi-
nose,{ with numerous plates. In 1828, ’30, 736, 37 and 738,
appeared successive volumes of the Prodromus, and within this
period, ten memoirs on various subjects, with plates, now collected
in one volume.$

During all this time, his vee ao were going on at the Museum
in Geneva; among others, a course on agricultural botany, of
the substance of which we have some portion in the graceful dress
in which it is presented by Mrs. Marcet in that admirable volume
which she called “Conversations on Vegetable Physiology.”’||

of De Lessert, was edited cs B. De Lessert, with one hundred plates by Turpin,
and vabliched” in Paris in 1820. A similar volume, still better executed, also un-
der the direction of Turpin, and with one hundred of his engravings, and many
beautiful dissections, was Saree by De Lessert in 1823, in illustration of the
Second volume of the Sys eas

* Prodromus Systema Nataralls Regni Vegetabilis. Parisiis: Treuttel et

Vurtz. Pars P 18

t In 1837, De ‘Sociale published a third volume of Illustrations in the same style
and of the same size of those just noticed, containing figures of some of the rarer
plants in the first four volumes of the Prodromus, together with those of others
not described in that work.

¢ Mémoires sur la Famille des Légumineuses. Paris: 70 planches, 4to. pp. 525.

§ Collection de dix agree hoor servir a |’ Histoire du Regne Végétal. Paris:
Treuttel et Wurtz, 1828—18

I This has nei eer in this country under the title of “ Blake’s Bot-

by thu

ful whether he knew enough of it to distinguish a sedge from a bulrush, or a moss
from a lichen. Would that this shameless kind of piracy were confined to a
Solitar : ® 2 :

224 Notice of Prof. De Candolle

In 1826 he had prepared for public&tion his work on the organs
of plants,* another portion of his course of botanical lectures.
Rich as they had become from his extensive reading, from observa-

tion, and from the constant suggestions of his vigorous and original

mind, it was no longer just to withhold them from the public.
In this work on Organography, following out the hint given by
the German poet Goéthe,} taking advantage of the light afforded
by those who were successfully engaged in exploring the animal
kingdom, and gathering conclusions from the immense number of
new facts presented by other botanists, and by himself in prepar-
ing the Prodromus, he exhibits a fuller and more philosophical
view of vegetable structure, what had previously been given, in
the language.

Five years after, in 1831, he completed his great work on Veg-
etable Physiology,{ also taken from his lectures, a rich storehouse
of facts, upon the properties and functions of the organs of plants
and the forces external and internal which act upon them. The
title of Physiology he admits to be not the most proper which
could be devised ; and he would have preferred that of Organo-
dynamy—the dortien of the organs, as more descriptive of the sub-
ject of his treatise.¢

One of the most interesting portions of this work, at least for
‘the young philosophical student of botany, is the Appendix;
marking out, as it does, the limits of the science in its most im-
portant particulars, and indicating to the physiologist, the travel-
ler, the cultivator, the chemist, and the natural philosopher, as
well as to the botanist, to what points it is important that atten-
tion should be directed, to advance still farther the boundaries of
our knowledge. How many inquirers have these questions al-
ready stimulated to action! Many of these questions he would

Organographie on : en Raisonnée des Organes des Plantes.
a Paris, 1827. 2 v.
i Org, Veg. p. 8.
+ Physiologie Végétale, ou 9 sega des Forces et des Fonctions vitales des
Veégétaux. Paris, 3 vols. 8
§ Aroceding: to the idea of De Candolle, vegetable physiology is but one depart-
tag

ly comprehended by one who is
ig aig Principles in their other forms. Adequately to understand the
PAAR of , must study atmospherical influences, the action of light,

electricity and san the laws of slain the nature of soils; and whatever can
be known of the laws of life, ; ;

eae Fa -

es aa
_ Notice of Prof. De Candolle. 225

himself have solved, but feeling that he had laid out more work
than the longest life could suffice to execute, and anxious to com-
plete the Prodromus, he frankly imparts his plans, his doubts, and
his suspicions, hoping that younger and less busy laborers —
clear sie vt one and complete the other.

He more than once intimates his intention of Siti the
sxibtieasion of the Physiology with other works which should
cover the whole ground he had gone over in his lectures. In the
preface to the Physiology, he gives the titles of those which he
intended, if time and health and will should serve, to send forth,
to fill up the great plan he had laid down. 'To complete the

. fundamental portions, in addition to the two works he had al-

ready published, he proposed to himself methodology, which
should deduce from the study of the organs, the principles and
methods of classification. For the principles on which this was
to be executed he refers us to the ‘‘ Elementary Theory ;” for the
conclusions, to the Prodromus.

mong the accessory branches of the science, he includes,

1. Botanical Geography, which, from the two preceding, infers
the laws or general facts relative to the distribution of plants on
the surface of the earth ;*

2. Oryctological Botany, which would comprehend the history
of fossil vegetables, considered in their relations both to the strata
of the earth and to the forms of recent plants ;

3. Historical Botany, exhibiting the steps by which botany
has arrived at its present state.t

Among the practical parts, he reckons,

1. Agricultural Botany, the application of the principles of the
preceding to the culture of vegetables, on which he had twice
given a course of lectures;

2. Medical Botany, their application to medicine ; on which
subject he apparently meant to enlarge the work already men-
tioned, upon the medical properties of plants;

* On this subject he had published, in 1809, the article ‘* Botanical and Agri-
cultural Botany,” in the Dictionnaire d’ Agriculture, and in 1820, the article ‘* Bo-
tanical Geography,” in the Dictionnaire des Sciences Naturelles, besides the in-
troduction to the second volume of Floré Francaise, explaining the botanical map
of Fra

ance.
t The pithdle Phytography, in the Dictionnaire Classique d'Histoire Naturelle,
contains an outline of this portion, extracted from his lectures upon the subject.
Vol. xu, No. 2.—Jan.—March, 1842. 29

226 Notice of Prof. De Candolle.

3. Economical Botany, which was to comprehend the study
of all the other modes of making plants subservient to the wants
of man; a part of the subject which he looked upon as still to
be written.*

Such are some of the works he contemplated, which he had

long familiarly considered, and for which his whole course of
study had been a preparation. In what words can we sufficiently
lament the Joss to science and to humanity of a man who ha
laid out so broad a plan of useful labor, and had given such ex-
amples of the manner in which he was hastening to complete it!
It is to be hoped that the manuscript notes of the extensive
courses of lectures to which he refers, may supply his son, or
some other equally competent person, with the means of filling
up the outline he has sketched.
_ Eight years of unremitted and obstinate labor had been con-
secrated to the study of the immense family of the Composite.t
This intense devotion, the natural effect of his native and char-
acteristic ardor, proved too much for his health, already affected
by severe study, and undermined, it is said, by a constitutional
malady. What constitution could have held up under labors so
immense? We know not the particulars of his end; the burden
was too great, and the body of the wise and strong man failed,

It is impossible to estimate the extent and magnitude of the in-
finence of the writings and character of such a man as De Can-

le. The science to which he devoted his life must always
feel it ; it cannot go back. His vast plan once laid down, noble
spirits every where and in all future time will strive to realize it.
His great idea of the science once spread before the world, no
one can hereafter aspire to the worthy name of botanist, who is 2
mere collector and labeller of specimens, or a mere dissector of
nts. He must aim to fill his mind with the extensive and va-
rious and exact knowledge of other sciences, and of all parts of
his own, which this great man has shown to be essential to an
accomplished botanist. ;

; From an article on the geographical distribution of the plants used as food, in
the “ Biblio ue Universelle de Geneve,” for Apri and May, 1836, we conceive
hopes that } . Alphonse De Candolle ip-ongiged in a work of this kind,

been given with the same fulness and minuteness of description and reference
—_ characterize the Systema, they | would have occupied twelve or fifteen vol-
um

eS oes. ee
Pas fy ee
ra a ies

Geological Reports of the State of New York. 227

ae

Gathering our materials only from his works, there is very much
which we should delight to know, in regard to De Candolle, of
which we are now almost entirely ignorant. We would gladly
learn what was the discipline and what were the studies of his
early years; whence he gained his beautiful and simple Latinity,
whence the clearness and elegance of his style, and his severe
and exact logic; by what wise arrangement of his hours he ac-
complished so much, and made such attainments in the knowl-
edge, not only of living plants, but of herbaria, and books, and
various sciences. We know him asa philosopher and a botanist,
and we understand and feel the power of his mind and the force
of his genius. We would gladly see him in the higher relations
of friend, and father, and citizen—we would know him asa man.
We hope that we shall not long remain without a life of him by
some one capable of understanding his works and appreciating
his character.

Arr. I[.— Geological Reports of the State of New York for 1840,
communicated by the Governor to the Assembly, Feb. 17, 1841.
[Assembly, No. 150.]*

By these reports of the geological corps, the survey of the state
is nearly completed, and after a partial continuance of the work
for this season, the final report is to be made. The desired work
on the geology of this great state may be anticipated in the be-
ginning of the next year. It is generally understood that the
final report will be made by the corps in the manner already
done. For the mineralogy, zoology, botany, and paleontology
of the state, this is the proper course. Tt is to be hoped, how-
ever, that the geology will not be divided into four great districts,
but that the maps, and sections, and descriptions, will present be-
fore the public one general view. This is the more important,
as the four districts assigned to four principal geologists have no
natural geological lines of separation, but are connected in the
most intimate manner. The importance of a chief geologist, or
of the most complete harmony of views, becomes ob¥ious, ex-
tending, as do several of the strata or groups, through more than

* Communicated for this Journal by the author.

228 Geological Reports of the State of New York.

one of the districts, the designations of the rocks, their position,
connection, and organic remains, demand the language of one
mind. Hoping for a harmonious and splendid work, let us take
a brief review of the progress of the survey for the last year.

As the general groups had already been announced, and are
considered correct, the additions have been made chiefly from
the filling up of the less observed parts of the state. ;

1. Facts in respect to the salines at Onondaga lake. By bo-
ring at Syracuse to the depth of two hundred and sixty five feet,
one hundred feet deeper than any previous boring, brine of much
greater strength was obtained. Taking saturation at 100°, the
old well yielded brine of the strength of 56°, on the scale; while
the new well gives the strength of 78°, a difference of nearly
forty percent. 'The average number of bushels produced in the
two preceding years, was 2,700,000; and this amount may now
be greatly increased. ‘The importance of the salines to the state
and to the country, needs no remark, and the means of making
them more valuable are ably considered by Dr. Beck, pp. 18-23,
and by Prof. Vanuxem, pp. 141-5.

2. The amount of hydraulic limestone in the western part of
the state, and of nearly the same excellent quality. It lies at
the base of the terrace of limestone, which is so prominent in
Erie County, and may be traced from Niagara River to Cayuga
Lake. It is attended every where “by numerous and copious
sulphur springs,” or springs yielding sulphuretted hydrogen gas.
From Black Rock. eastward, it occurs in many places; abounds
at Williamsville, where it is burned and ground for cement by
thousands of barrels. It occurs at Rochester also. The differ-
ence in the quality of the hydraulic lime is attributed more to the
burning than to the stone itself. Many of the strata appear to
grow thinner in the western district, and some to disappear. See
Report, pp. 150-8, Hall. This terrace bounds on the south all
the beds of gypsum. p. 156.

_ 8. Discovery of abundance of primary limestone on the north
and the west shores of Lake Janet, is of great importance to that
part of the state-—Report, p. 126, Emmons.

The ‘#teel ore” of the Duane bed is wrought at once into cut-
ting instruments of fine quality. Prof. Emmons does not state
that the ore is steel, or that it is made into steel, but the fact that
good edge tools are formed of it. p. 134, 135.

Geological Reports of the State of New York. 229

A. The Trenton limestone is an important rock for its marble,
in Schenectady County, and particularly in Saratoga County. It
is a fine grained and durable stone. On one of the strata of it at
Glen’s Falls on the Hudson, the upper surface contains marks
“like those produced in soft mud by drops of rain.”—Report, p-
97, Mather. ?ipple marks are shown on “ brown sandstone on
the road from Cattskill to the Mountain House, one mile above
the toligate.” p. 85. The chloritic and talcose rocks of the west-
ern part of the valley of the Hudson, are considered by Prof.
Mather, as “metamorphic with intrusive rocks interstratified :’
and he extends the metamorphic rocks into the western part of
New England. pp. 93 and 96. In this opinion he is opposed by
‘some of our distinguished geologists, and cannot be followed with-
out far more and much stronger proof than has yet been offered.
Indeed it seems obvious that the metamorphic theory is an easy
method of breaking down the usual distinctions of the rocks. A
fine section of the rocks “from the summit of the Cattskill Moun-
tain, south of the Mountain House, to Cattskill Creek,” is given
on pages 78-81, Mather.

5. The report of the paleontologist contains very important
matter, and some interesting corrections.

Mr. Conrad distinguishes our rocks of the Silurian system, “for
the sake of convenience,” into three subdivisions, the Lower,
Middle, and Upper, Silurian series ; it seems also to be quite a
natural arrangement. The danger is that the classification has
been made too early, and that adequate examination has not set-
tled the entire distinctness of all the series. A great proportion
of them however are satisfactorily ascertained. ‘There is some
doubt about the termination upwards of the Lower series. It is
limited by the Pentamerus oblongus limestone in the report, and
the lowest stratum in the Middle is made Rochester shale. If
we understand it, this Pentamerus limestone at Rochester is to-
wards the lower part of the shale, and at Lockport is found en-
tirely above the Rochester shale, which is much thicker there
than at Rechester; there would be no diffculty in the natural
arrangement in making the Red or Medina Sandstone the upper
stratum in the Lower Silurian.’ But the Pentamerus limestone
must go with it, in whatever series it is placed.

» On-p. 31 is a tabular view of the whole series, with the cor-
responding rocks of Murchison, and the characteristic genera of

“Sra pt a ve

230 Geological Reports of the State of New York.

organic remains. The Rochester and gypseous shales are given
as the equivalent of the Wenlock Shale of Murchison. The fos-
sils placed against Nos. 7, 8 and 9, belong to the lower rocks, as
Triarthrus and Isotelus to the Trenton limestones. Against No.

9 should staud the shell Pentamerus oblongus, or if a trilobite — .

must be introduced, it can be neither of those mentioned, but
Asaphus longicaudatus. Where is the statement that the remains
against Nos. 5—9 have been found even as high as the Rochester
shale ?

The limestone of Tully, or Tully limestone, is considered as
identified with the Aymestry limestone of Murchison by two spe-
cies of shells, Avicula reticulata and Alrypa didyma. p. 31.

The fronds of Fucoides are often very prominent, but the
structure like that of the rock in which they exist; of other
plants, scarely more than impressions remain. The petrifying
material of the corals is commonly siliceous earth; but of the
Crinoidea, is limestone, whether they lie in calcareous or siliceous
rock. p. 40.

Several new genera and many new species are described, and
many yet remain for the final report. pp. 48

Several important corrections are announced.

The Calymene Blumenbachii, as the trilobite in the Trenton
limestone was called, Mr. Conrad considers a new and unde-
scribed species; it is named by him Calymene senaria, from its
place in so old a rock. It no longer is an instance of an animal
that “escaped into remote seas,” and lived in a much later era
than its period of destruction here. “ Calymene platys of Green”
is stated to be C. Blumenbachii, and to agree with it in place
also; so that this fossil is found where it ought to be, and no
longer throws uncertainty over the age of our rocks.

The evidence is now thought conclusive by Mr. Conrad against
the existence of any fresh-water shells in the strata below the car-
boniferous, “in which Uniones occur in Pennsylvania.” ‘The
supposed Unio in the sandstone at Medina turns out to be some-

thing else, the Planorbis “ probably a Bellerophon,” and another
to bie: Sh allied genus. This correction is the more neces-

shells “are associated with two marine genera, Liu-
gula and Orthocera.” Probably the existence of fresh-water
fossils in that sandstone had been a matter of high surprise to
most geologists ; the evidence decides the case. p. 41. :

w
waif t
, aA

ae

mek yd
Geological Reports of the State of New York. 231

| In former reports, Mr. Conrad has spoken of the Cambrian
system below the Silurian, as being developed along the eastern
part of the state, but in this report he speaks of the Silurian sys-

_ tem as “composed of the oldest fossiliferous rocks yet discovered

_ in North America.” p. 26. No reason is given for this change;

whether Mr. C. now refers these rocks to the Silurian system

itself, or considers them as metamorphic rocks of this formation.
He states ‘the oldest fossiliferous rock hitherto known” in our
country to be the “calciferous sandstone” of Eaton, which con-
tains ‘two species of Lingula, a small univalve, and something
resembling fucoidal remains.”’ p. 28. Prof. Eaton speaks of or-
ganic remains in a rock below this, and others have judged the
same. ‘The final report will doubtless clear up this matter, which
seems rather obscure. It does not follow because some remains
have been found, that much more extensive and particular exam-
ination will not discover others in the same or associated rocks,
till we pass beyond the region of petrifactions.

“'The mixture of species” sometimes occurs “‘at the junction
of two formations,” (groups.) This fact shows the necessity of
great care in the division into groups, and renders the “exact
line of demarcation” between them somewhat uncertain. It is
not necessarily opposed, however, to the notion that ‘sudden
convulsions of the earth’s surface” have caused the destruction of
most of the existing forms of life, nor does certainly prove that
the temperature of the ocean has suddenly or gradually changed,
because it is easy to see that many individuals might for a time
withstand sudden or gradual changes or convulsions, unless it can

__... be shown, as it cannot, that the convulsions were so great that the
as then existing forms of life must be destroyed by them. The
. continuance of some species through several successive groups or

mations, is a fact of similar consequence, and admits the same
easy solution; it certainly is no obstacle to the stratigraphical
atrangement, because such species have no characterisizc value,
they designate or characterize no particular group,—they belong to
no particular rock, and need no minute observation to give them
their due estimation. p. 26.

There is a correction also of a former statement opposed to the
notion of the impression of birds’ feet in sandstone. "Hpe termi-
nations of the Fucoids “sometimes rudely resemble a human
hand, whilst others are not unlike the foot-mark#of birds.” p. 33.

232 Geological Reports of the State of New York.

Though these are maintained to be fucoidal remains in our sand-
stone; it is conceded, that the ‘curious foot-marks,” the Orni-
thichnites described by Prof. Hitchcock in the new red sand-
stone, “ peculiarly characterize that system.” p. 43. This har-
mony of opinion is an indication of the firm foundation of this
part of the science.

The shells formerly referred to the genus T'crebratula, are said
to belong to other and extinct genera. The mistake has not been
made by our own geologists alone, if mistake it is. The shell
remains, and a name so distinguished as that of Sowerby, sustains
it. True it may be, that what is now defined to be a T'erebra-
tula, may not exist in our rocks; but to mention no more, Del-
thyris (Terebratula, Sow.) tripartita seems to be a common and
widely spread species. p. 35.

A conclusion drawn from the state of the organic remains, has
great interest, viz. that the depositions took place ‘in the bed of
an ocean), undisturbed by violent currents or greatly agitated wa-
ters.” This is derived from the finely preserved parts of even
fragile shells, only one stratum being known in the state as an
exception, “ where the shells are in a fragmentary condition.”
p- 26, 7. This is true also, as we know from a previous report, of
only a small portion of the Pentamerus in the limestone at Roch-
ester, the rock referred to. As in many others the “ valves of bi-
valves are found apart,” so are they in this; often changed so
that the hinge is fitted to the mouth; often the valves lie cross-
wise ; more often piled above each other and petrified in masses,
the convex matched into the concave side of another valve; often
entire shells with their valves unmoved; and, often the surface
of the stratum and sometimes the interior, with fragments of
valves connected in any way. ‘The indication of a disturbing
power is here considerable. Is not the evidence far greater in
the case of the encrinal limestone of Lockport, and the thin stra-
tum of it at Rochester, where the fragments of the stems of en-
crinites are promiscuously jumbled together, and the surface made
up of portions of shells, porites, encrinites, &c.? Beautiful speci-

meus of the pais encrinal limestone have been spread abroad
from Lockport...

The Grccinnilientte caine are not more numerous or im-
portant, than were to be expected from the state of seologioe!
knowledge wher the survey had been in considerable part

Geological Reports of the State of New York. 233

| ~ Murchison’s work on the Silurian system had not appeared, and
the field was new and to a great extent unexplored. After all
that had been accomplished by Prof. Eaton in his survey of the
strata along the Great Western Canal, and by others, the explo-
ration, as connected with general geology, could scarcely be said
to have been begun. Probably others yet remain to be accom:
plished. ‘Too many groups may have been formed. While Cryp-
tolithus tesselatus retains its place with some others in the Llan-
deilo flags and in the lower part of the Trenton limestone, and
in that of the Mohawk at Fonda and in other places, that rock of
| Wales may yet find its equivalent in our series. The greater
number and variety of our groups may not involve all those de-
scribed by Murchison, but only the fullest examination should
be satisfactory.

Finally. 'The discoveries which have been made by the pale-
ontologist. These are many, and of great interest. Omitting all
the organic remains which have been identified with the Euro-
pean, and the many new genera and species, there are several
general facts of great value.

First: The identifying of the sandstone of Blossburg, Penn.
with the old red sandstone of Europe, a part of the Devonian
System. The geological positions of the two rocks are very

nearly or quite the same; and the remains of the fish, Holopty-
chus nobilissimus, (apd. baton only in the old red sandstone,
seem to settle the point conclusively. The stumbling block of
our geology is thus removed. The Blossburg sandstone is the
upper part of the Devonian system. The Chemung group, as it
is called in the geological reports, forms the lower part of the

vonian, and is characterized by the same shells. pp..42 and 43.

| Second: The carboniferous system in Pennsylvaaia and Ohio,

contains many species of shells found in the same system i
Europe. Even “at Engineer Cantonment, Missouri River,” the
Shells of the carboniferous system are found, as well as at Pitts-
| burgh and on the Alleghany Mountains. Eleven species are
| named as common to the carboniferous strata in our country and
; Europe. p. 43.
| Third: ‘Well characterized and undoubted oolite, in the state
of Ohio,” is for the first time announced in this report. p. 44.
“Two European species of Trigonia, both of which are re-
Stricted to the oolitic system,” are presented as the proof. It has
Vol. x~u, No, 2.—Jan.-—March, 1842. 30

934 Geological Reports of the State of New York.

long been known that the oolite of Saratoga County could not .

belong to the oolitic series of Europe

Fourth: Eleven species of organic remains are given to iden-
tify the lower cretaceous series of New Jersey, Delaware, and
the Atlantic states further south, with that of Europe. p. 45. Mr.
Conrad discovered the middle division of this series at Wilming-
ton, N. C. The upper division is stated to exist in South Caro-
lina and Georgia, and to abound “in the southern counties of
Alabama and in Florida.” p. 45.

Fifth: The “lower terijary” was first noticed by Mr. Conrad,
and shown to be the same with the “Eocene formation.” ‘In
Georgia, and more rarely, in Alabama, a portion of the formation
assumes the character of burr stone,” containing beautiful shells
finely ‘“‘silicified,’ which we admired years ago, and were com-

to separate the rock from the Paris burr-stone, which is des-
titute of shells. On the Potomac, at Fort Washington, is the
same lower tertiary, and at Claiborne, Alabama, Mr. C. found in
it “about two hundred species of shells and corallines, many of
which are identical with the Eocene species of Europe.” p. 46.

Sixth: The rocks of the older Silurian system, terminating
upwards with the Pentamerus oblongus limestone in this report,
seem to be bounded on the south by the Mohawk River and the
Erie Canal nearly, and which are covered by the mouutain ridge
at Lockport and Niagara River, &c., reappear “at Bedford
Springs, and in the vicinity of Cincinnati, Ohio,” according to
the discovered fossils. p. 32. Indeed, the organic remains at the
west seem likely to identify more of the rocks. What an nplift-
ing of the strata in Ohio, must have taken place, or a mighty
wearing away of the incumbent series which extend westward
under the waters of Lake Erie, or a cutting off of the Silurian
of this State from that of Ohio by the ridge through which the
Niagara River passes.

In conclusion, reference might be made to the unnamed fucoids
of the Niagara deidacotie: which are abundant below the lower
falls of Genessee, and the numerous shells and fucoids above this
sandstone, which remain to be identified or to increase the num-
ber of the species, Standing as we do on these remains, the
coming and final report is 1 ear to reveal a world of mysteries
and settle a host. ape “Hiffieulties::

sibin Tare as i eee
WA si

At Lockport, is found a coralline, probably a Porites, which
for distinction’s sake, I will call P. gypsea. It occurs alone, or
with laminated gypsum, often clear and fine selenite, diffused
through it; or rather, the petrifaction of carbonate of lime has
been converted into the sulphate, and crystallized where it was
formed. Sometimes this Porites is divided, as if by a saw, into
Separate portions, straight; and the sections at various inclina-
tions to each other. The cuttings are narrow, sometimes a fourth
of an inch wide. The gypsum still lies in many of these appa-
rent straight cuttings or saw-cuts; in others the gypsum has been
dissolved, and the cuts are empty. Some of the specimens have
great beauty. It is evident that the petrifaction has undergone
this operation. How should it be divided by these straight cuts?
Could the sulphuric acid be generated in that place, and for any
reason follow a course which appears to have been drawn by a
rule ?

Arr. IIl—On the Manipulations of the Dipping Compass ; by
Joun Locke, M. D., Prof. of Chem. in the Med. Coll. of Ohio,

~ and Lecturer on Nat. Philos. in the Ohio Mechanics’ Insti-
tute.

Messrs. Silliman—Every practical magnetician is aware of
the great difficulty in obtaining consistent results, with even the
Most improved dipping apparatus. In my late communications
to your Journal, it appears that I have succeeded, with an appa-
ratus made by Robinson of London, so far that the discrepancies
between the results of the two needles used, seldom amount to
One minute of a degree. In the same communications I alluded
to some peculiar manipulations which I adopted first at Davenport
in Iowa, in September of 1839, and to which I attributed the su-
perior consistency of my subsequent results. Having been hon-
ored with a verbal request by several distinguished collaborators,
that I would communicate my views on this subject, I am indu-
ced to lay before your readers the following remarks.

- In the instrument used by me, the dipping needle moves on
small pivots supported by straight polished agate edges, on which
they roll like a wheel upon a rail. As such a motion is not only
rotary but progressive, the centre of the needle is carried out of

236 Manipulations of the Dipping Compass.

the centre of the graduated circle, by the same rotation which
brings it to the true dip. ‘To restore the pivots to their place, two
Vs and two inclined planes* raised by a lever engage them at
their sides and at their ends, adjust them laterally and longitudi-
nally, raise them just clear of the agate edges, and, by a reverse
motion, lower and deposit them, and with them the needle in
their proper places. Now the most objectionable anomaly has
been, that when the same needle has been once adjusted by the
Vs, read, and again simply raised by the Vs, and lowered appa-
rently in the same place, and read again, there would be a dis-
cordance in the readings, often amounting to five minutes of a
degree. JI felt the full weight of these anomalies in my first at-
tempts to determine the dip, and found tomy mortification, that
the mean results of the usual eight reversals and sixteen readings,
with two different needles, would sometimes differ as much as
six minutes of a degree.

_I finally reflected that if the pivots conld always be made to
re-sit on exactly the same points, the readings must always agree,
and that the apparent anomalies must arise from slight imperfec-
tions of form, and slight and imperceptible, but really essential,
changes of position of the points of support to the pivots. With
this view I endeavored by all possible means, so to use the appa-
ratus as to bring the bearings at the same points, and especially
‘that the pivots should perform their rotations on the same trans-
verse section; or, in other words, that the same ring or circle of
theireireumferenee, should always rest on the agate edges. To
accomplish this, the following points received attention.

1. The Vs and inclined planes, which raise and fix the needle
to its place, were so er as to. allow of no shake or lateral
Motion of their own.+

"2 The distance between ie agate edge and the inclined
plane, opposed to the end of the pivot operating as an end check,
was made as nearly equal as possible.

“3. Although the pivots had some “end chase” or longitudinal
freedom’ between the end checks yet in use, each pivot was al-
bei o_o over oe wee ‘schema end check by means of a

Me
*# TH he oe eee £ *
—

‘opposite the end of the pivots sch ine tonlly
two parts of a Viv separated.» inde © a

+ I have lately examined one. of Gambey 3 instruments, which was decidedly
faulty in this particular.

i a
‘eel be,
eos

Ses

ak

pr i
Uae

Manipulations of the Dipping Compass. 237

slight pressure with the pencil against the side of the needle ;
say, when the face of the needle is westward the pivot is shoved
over till it is checked on the west side, and when the face of the
needle is eastward it is drawn over until checked on the eastern
side.

4. When the needle has been placed in the compass and ts
reading noted, it should not be immediately taken out and revers-
ed, but be suffered to remain exactly on its bearings, and the
compass be carefully reversed in azimuth, and with it, the needle,
when the second reading should be made, after which the needle
itself may be taken out and reversed. The reversals and read-
ings will then have the following order:

1. Face of the compass east, and face of the needle east.

2. Face of the compass west, and face of the needle west.

3. Face of the compass west, and face of the needle east.

4. Face of the compass east, and face of the needle west.

In the above, it will be seen that although the needle in rela-
tion to the face of the instrument and to the “ points of compass”
assumes four positions, yet to attain them it is removed from its
place in the Vs but once, and that is between the second and
third reading.

I am aware that it may be objected to all of this, that although
I may obtain consistent results, still they may not indicate the
true dip, for if the pivots of each needle be alike, although not
perfectly cylindrical, and alike placed with reference to the axis
of the needle, the mean results would agree to the same error.
To this objection we observe first, that it is by no means proba-
ble that two pivots intended to be cylindrical should both assume
another form, and both be exactly alike, and that these forms,
even supposing them to be alike, should be alike placed in refer-
ence to the needle’s axis ; and secondly, we would remark that
although we may involve an error by our consistent mode of ob-
servation, it would be a constant one, both in quantity and kind,
might be ascertained by a great number of comparisons with the
results of other instruments, or by other obvious means, and be
Corrected by a constant equation.

As an example of the order of reversals observed by me, I
ee below the result of my observations at Baltimore, April 28,

238

Manipulations of the Dipping Compass.

At the first square northeast of the Washington Monument, called How-
ard’s Woods. 6h. 37m. to Th. 47m. A. M.

Sdn

mggn

Necdle No. 1. A’ North.

&

44h

[ 8572 39.5

Mean=71 34.94

______ Needle No No. 2.. A North.

oe Sage gprs We < er fe
Ww Ww. 71 16
w. E. 71 30.5
E Ww. 71 08
B North.
E E. V1 6d
Ww Ww. 74, 39
w gE 1. 52
E Ww. 71°34.5
8)572 29.5
~ Mean=71 33.7

Mean of No. l=7t 34.94

2/143 0864

Mean total=71 34.32

At the Botanical Garden of St. Mary? FS — Baltimore, April 28,
. MM.

Peg

Maas

12h. 50m. to 1h. 1
‘eedle No. }. A North. Newala No.2. A North. |
E. 70°35/.5 E E. 71°53/.5
w. 73 00 w Ww. 71 44.5
E. 70. 35.5 w E. 71 48.5
| w. 73 07 E w. 71 45.5
B North. B North.
E. 72 46 E E. Zi. 37
Ww. 70 20 Wi. a We 71 32.5
E. 72 38.5 w E. “1 32.0
w. 70 14 E w. 71 16.5
| S)a73 16.5 8)573 10.5
| Mean=71 39.56 Mean=71 38.81
Mean of No. 1=71 39.56 _
2)1 143 18.37'_
Mean toal=71 39.18

At both iidalities Mr. Nicollet made observations on the same
day and nearly at the same hours with a similar apparatus, ma-
nipulating at my request in the same manner as I have just de-
scribed. The results were remarkably coincident, as have been
others at the same localities.

oward’s Woods.
Prof. "Bechis Aug.

By
By Prof. Locke.

Apa 23, Tost 34.
By Mr. Nicollet, April 28, Ted, 71 34.
By Maj. 10, 1841, 71 31

Graham, June

oR

71
71

St. Mary’s College,

034) Prof. Rocks did not coee at this locality.

Locke, April 23, 1941, of 2
33.8

'9| By Moj. Graham, June 11, 1841, 71

a
Tnvolution of Polynomials. 239

hier IV. _The Invshitian of Palicsinmite sg by ¥ Ww. J. Luwih,
Civil Engineer, Germantown, Penn.

Ir any binomial a+b be raised by actual multiplication to the
2d, 3d, 4th, 5th, and nth powers, we find that the first and second
terms éf the powers are a* +-2ab, a°+-3a?b, a'-+4a*b, a> +5a%6,
and a"+na"~'b respectively.

Let it be required to raise to the 5th power any expression
a+b+c+d-+e, consisting of at least five terms.

Then considering b+ce+d-+e first as one term, then as wobde
up of btetd+e, and subsequently regarding de as one term ;
and retaining only the second term of the first involution, and
the first and second of the others, we have

atb+etd+te’ :

=but+b+c+d‘et+&e. ( =5ate+&c.)
=5.4a+b+e°de+&c. ( = 5-4a*de+&c.)
=5:43a+b'cde+&e. ( =543a?cde+&c.)
=5:4:3-2abede+&e. (=5:43-2abede+&c.)

Hence, if P=coefficient of abcde, then wil g = coefiicient of

PF. r \ P
a* bed, 5.3 = coeff. of a®be, 5.34 = coell. of a*b, and 5346 —
coeff. of a5.

If our root had consisted of more than five terms, P would

have represented the coefficient of the product of any five terms,

ls
5% the coeff. of the product of a*, and three other terms, 5:5 the
coeff. of a® multiplied by any two dther terms, &c.

The coefficient of a? bed is also the coefficient of abcd, abe?d,
abed?, &c.; the coefficient of a%be is the coefficient of ab*c,
abe*, abd*, &c.; and generally, any term can be substituted for
a@inthe above expressions. For either of the terms 4, ¢, d, e,
can be placed first in the root, when it will be subject to the same
Operations as have been performed on a, and will consequently
be substituted for it. Our remarks, therefore, in relation to the
Powers and coefficients of @ are equally applicable to the powers
and coefficients of all the other terms.

240 Involution of Polynoniials.

We see that when the powers of a are connected with the pro-
duct of other terms, a is changed into a? by dividing the coeffi-
cient of a by 2, a* into a* by dividing its coefficient by 3, &c.
That is, the power of any term may be increased one by dividing
its coefficient by the index of the power to which it is to be raised.

And conversely, the power of any term may be depressed one by
multiplying ws coefficient by the index of its power.

We have not yet ascertained whether the law may be extend-
ed to those terms in which the powers of two or more terms of
the root are combined, as a?c7de, a*c*, &c.

Let N be the coefficient of a*c? od, and put c=m--n, then
Na?c?d=Na?dm+n* =2Na*dmn+&c. Hence, N= 4 coeff. of

a?dmn=% coeff. of a*cde. Therefore, coeff. of a?c?d=4 coeff.
of a’ cde.

Again, let m be the coefficient of a*c*, and putting c=m+n,
we have Ma*c*?=Ma?m-+n*°=3Ma?m?n+&c. Hence, M=$
coeff. of a*m?n=4% coeff. of a? 2rd.

Therefore the coeff. of a2c?=4 coeff. of a2%c?d= es 33 coeff. of

arele=r55 coeff. of abode= 55 A similar process applied to
any combination of the powers of the terms of the root, will evi-
dently show, that the coefficients are governed by the law which
has been given. We remark then:

1. That P, the coefficient of the product of as many terms of
the root as there are units in m (the index of the power) =”
n-1l n—2 3271

2. That the coefficients of terms involving the powers of one
letter and the product of others are obtained by dividing P by 2,
this quotient by 3, this again by 4, &c., the last divisor being
n—1, aud the final quotient 7.

3. That the coefficients of terms combining powers of two or
more terms are obtained by dividing these results by 2, 3, 4---~
n —2 successively.

A. That the coefficient of any term a”b’cd=

P nn=1n=2--->m+h and
1, 2, 3----- mI, 2,3 ----6 r 1, 2, 3----- r
that the conttidiant ad a "hed a1 n—2----- m-+1. Ifthe
root contains only @ and b, orc, d, e, &c. are each =0, then all the

Involution of Polynomials. 241
terms containing these letters SPaPeane from the erantion, and
we have a+b =a"+na™"b +n zt aft y HS"
a"~°63+&c, in which n, »—1, n—2, rt arise from — decrease
of the powers of a, and the depoeiisnhere from the increase of
the powers of 6. This is the well known Binomial Theorem.

Put a+b"=a"-+na ~'6 + Aa*~*b? +Ba"-°b34+Ca"-4b44 &c,

If a third term c is introduced, we shall have the following ad-
ditional terms:

2Aa"-2be+-3Ba"-2b2c+4Ca"-*b3ce+- 5Da"— 5 b4c+&c.

If a fourth term d is now introduced, we shall have again as
additional terms :

2:3Ba"-*bed+3-4Ca"-*b2cd +-4:5Da"~*b*cd+&e.
If a fifth term e, we must again add,
2:3:4Ca"- 4 bede+3°4:5Da"- *b*cde+&c.

We must not forget that there are several terms in the expres-
sion for the power, involving like powers of different letters, (as
a‘h*cd, a*b‘cd, ab?c*d, and abe*d*,) and having like coeffigients ;
but only one of each of these terms has been given ; this being
sufficient to indicate the magnitude of all the coefficients.

When 7 is large and the number of terms in the root is small,
it is most convenient to find the coefficients of a binomial, and
afterwards obtain from these the additional coefficients for the
other terms, as shown in the last process. In many cases, how-
ever, it is better to find the higher coefficients first.

Example 1. Find the coefficients of a+b+c*. Here we have

P=3x2=6, 3 = 3, and the form of the power is atbtc=

i voces
Er. 2. Find the coefficients of ee”
4

reas =4x3x2=- -
ae se = ee BB a* be
cou 2 ee
— - ee | a‘

Hence a}b+c+d‘= =a*+-4a*b-+-6a"b* + 12a" be-+ Bdabad + 8
Vol. x1, No. 2.—Jan.-March, 1

242 Involution of Polynomials.

Ex. 3. Find the coefficients of LS it
Here P=5 X4X3X2X1= 120
P

z= - - - 60} a2bed
aa . - - 30] abc
2
eae - - 20| a%be
er se
| 539- - ee - 10: shag
ee ee ee
s : |
i

_ Hence pidbacde wa-45a'b+ 100%%? + 20a°be 30a*b*c
+604? bed +120abcde+&e

If the number of terms in the root is caine than the index of
the power, the excess produces no change in the coefficients, as
no more than 7 letters can enter any term of the power, é

Ez. A. Find the coefficients of a+b+c+d’°,

_ The binomial coefficients are 1, 6, 15, 20.. The introduction
of the third term c, gives us 2A=30, 3B=60. And the fourth
term d, gives 2°3B= 120, 3-4C=180.

Hence a+b+e+d°=a*+6a°b+ 15a‘h? + 20a3b* + 30a*be
+60a*b?2c+120a* bed+ 1800°b2cd+&c.

Or we might have found P as before, Gbserving that as two
terms are deficient in the root, P must have at least two divisions
before the consequent coefficient can enter into the expression of
the power.

P=6x5x*4X3 x2 720 sess
P

* tex - - - 360 a? bede
er? ;
2, eee - ~ 180| a2b?cd
ee ear ~ 120] a%bed
P 3 i
22-3 - = °°601 @3b2e

PEE al RAAB Ae a Ce dow Lake tale 2 ee SNe Lies

Hurricane in New England, September, 1815. 243

234 = rd 20 athe
Ae

53490= - Sree Fs 453

S348°7 - - 6 a®b

But e=0, and f=0. Hence, a+b+e+d° =a* + 6a%h +
15a4b? +30a*be+60a°b2e+ 120a% bed + 180a2b2ed+&c. ©

Arr. V.—Notice of a Hurricane that passed over New EI nisland
in September, 1815; by Noyes Daruine, Esq.

1. Some ci t ttending thi kable storm, induced
me at the time, to make a collection and abstract of all the news-
paper accounts of it which I could find. I was enabled from my
situation, then in New York, to make the collection sufficiently
ample to present a pretty full view.of the storm in the greater
part of its extent. Believing that the fruit of my labors may in-
terest and perhaps be useful to those who are engaged in the in-
vestigation of ‘“ Atlantic hurricanes,” I am induced to offer it for
publication.

1. Accounts of the Storm at Sea. ‘i

2, Lat. 17° 54’ N,, lon. 63° 10’ W., Sept. 18: Schr. Pheniz, St.
Barts. Violent gale at that island on the 18th, which lasted thirty
hours, from N. W.—W. and 8. Forty vessels driven ashore.

8. Lat. 21° 18’, lon. 719 5’, Sept. 20. Ship William, Turks
Island. Violent hurricane at that island on the 20th from N. E. to
S. W.; unroofed and blew down houses, &c. Lasted from morn-
ingto4P.M. ©

4. Lat. 32°, lon. 74° 50’, Sept. 22. Schr. Return, experienced
a tremendous gale from 8. E., which compelled us to cut away
foremast. ‘About 4 P..M., very heavy sea struck her and carried
away bowsprit, bulwarks, &e. | If the gale had not abated, she
must have gone down. Another account.—On Friday, 22d, Schr.
Was in lat. 33°, lon. 74°. 55’. At 6 A. M., a gale commenced at
S. E., which sontisiadl with great violence till 7 in the evening,
At 3 P. M. cut away foremast.

5. Lat, 32° 25, lon. 70° 10’, Sept. 22. Sloop Experiment, ¢ on
the morning of the 22d was upset, in a heavy gale from N. W.

244 Hurricane in New England, September, 1815.

which lasted eight hours, and remained on beam ends twenty two
hours and then righted. Captain and mate taken off the wreck by
Schr. Nelson, on the 24th, in lat. 38° 2’, lon. 75° 15’.

6. Lat. 33°, lon. 74°, Sept. 22. Schr. Rover, ina terrible gale
on the 22d, lost main-mast and most of the canvass.

7. Lat. 33° 10’, Sept. 23. Brig Sarah, from St. Pierre’s to New
London; a very heavy gale and tremendous sea from 8. E. to
S.S. W.

8. Lat. 34° 20, lon. 70° 50’, Sept. 23. Schr. Indian Queen, ex-
perienced a tremendous hurricane about 12 at night from E., and
knocked on her beam ends. Gale lasted about four hours. An-
other account says five hours.

9. Lat. 34° 21’, lon. 71° 37’, Sept. 23. Brig George, experi-
enced a tremendous gale from 8. E., which lasted twelve hours.

10. Off Cape Hatteras, Sept. 22d, Ship Minerva, in fifteen fath-
oms water, encountered a tremendous gale from S. E. to N. W.,
main topmast carried away. At 3 A. M. wind shifted to north-
ward, and became more moderate.—Sept. 22d, Ship Pheniz,
experienced a most violent gale, which commenced at S. E. and
ended in four hours at E.S. E. Lost topmasts, yards, &c.— Schr.
Ruby, capsized on 22d. :

11. Lat. 36° 30’, lon. 74°, Sept. 22. Brig Morgiana, experien-
ced a heavy gale, which swept the decks.

12. Lat. 36° 44’, lon. 73° 17’, Sept. 22. Schr. Thetis, experien-
ced a heavy gale from N. N. E. Lost fore and main topmast, &c.
23d, night; Schr. Spartan, from Marseilles to Baltimore. Sept.
2d, was in lat. 35° 58’, lon. 38°. On the 24th, was in lat. 37°
32’, lon. 72° 14”. On the 23d in the night experienced a very
heavy gale from S. E. and 8.

13. Lat. 37° 30’, lon. 72°, Sept. 23. Brig Statira, in the Gulf
Stream, experienced a violent gale which carried away mainmast,
yards, sails, &c. On her beam ends a considerable time after the
gale. Another account.—On the 23d commenced with strong
gales from 8. E., close reefed topsails, &c.; at 3 P. M., took in
fore topsails ; at 4, took in main topsail, gale increasing hove to;
at A. M. brought her more head to the wind; at 1 A. M., bal-
ance reefed the topsail ; at 2, deck load shifting, cut away main-
mast and she fell before the wind ; at 3 sea swept the deck ; at 10
gale abated, sea continued very high and irregular, being in Gulf
Stream. Wind now shifted to W. S. W. as judged, for the com-

Hurricane in New England, September, 1815. 245

‘

pass would not stand at any point during the gale. Schr. Meri-
no, from Port au Prince to Boston, was in lat. 37° 18’, lon. 749,
on the 24th; experienced a heavy: gale, carried iene deck load
and bowsprit.

14. Off the Capes, Sept. 23. Schr. Traverse the Ocean, for Bal-
timore, took the gale of the 23d, and was driven a long way 8.;
split her sails, &c.

15. Lat. 37°, lon. 76°, Sept. 23. Schr. Sally, exinitedebe a
heavy gale at E. N. E. to W., which lasted seven hours.

16. Off the Capes of Delaware, Sept. 23, mght. Brig Polly,
nearly on soundings, experienced a severe gale from S. W., cut
away foremast, lost sails, é&c.

17. Off Barnegat. Schr. Alecander. A severe gale commenced
from E. N. E., which continued till 7 A. M., when it calmed and
directly afterwards came from W. N. W. with great violence;
stove in bulwarks. Never experienced a more violent gale.
Schr. Fair American, for Alexandria, on the 22d was in lat. 39°
36, lon. 70° 40’. Next day experienced a tremendous hurricane.

18. Lat. 39° 45’, lon. 72° 17’, Sept. 23. Brig Connecticut, ex-
perienced a gale in which she lost her bowsprit, &c. Brig Amigo,
for New York, was in lat. 39°, lon. 71° 30’ on the 24th. Had
a violent gale for four hours on the 23d.

19. Lat. 40°, Sept. 23. Brig Othello, for New York, in forty

fathoms water; gale beginning from E. S. E. and veering round to
W.S. W., blowing a storm from 4 A. M. to noon. Coming into
New York the 26th. Brig Morgiana, Sandy Hook, W. N. W
twenty leagues; upset about half past eight in a violent hurri-
cane.
20. Lat. 40°, lon. 72° 50’, Sept. 23. Brig Henrico, experienced
the gale most violently. Ship Balloon, from Amsterdam to Phil-
adelphia, was in lat. 40°, lon. 72° 3’, on the 24th. Experienced
asevere hurricane from 8S. E. to S: W. on the 23d; lost main
and fore topmasts. Another account.—Sept. 21, lat. 41°, lon. 649,
Sept. 24, lat. 39°, lon. 72°: severe hurricane on the 23d, from
8. E. to S. W.

21. Lat. 40° 10’, jom: 70°, Sept. 22. Schr. Rising States, ex-
perienced a heavy gale from E. N. E. to W. S. W.; heavy cross
searunning. Brig Abaellino, fifteen leagues westward of south
Shoals of Nantucket. Severe gale—carried away bulwarks.

22. Lat. 41° 41’, lon. 60°, Sept. 22d. g7wo vessels spoke, but
no mention of the gale.

246 Hurricanein New Engiand, September, 18165.

23. Lat. 41° 51’, lon. 63° 45’, Sept. 22. Ship Mandarin, on
the 22d, experienced a heavy rolling sea, but little wind; then
about one hundred and fifty miles 8S. E. of Boston.

24. Lat. 42° 28’, lon. 66°, Sept.23. Ship Thomas, wind from
N. W. to E. and 8.; part of the day moderate, and part fresh
breezes.

25. Off Cape Ann, Sept. 23. Schr. Two Sisters, sixteen leagues
off Cape Ann—felt nothing of the gale.

26. East of Cape Ann, Sept. 23. Schr. Leopard, when five

leagues E. of Cape Ann; experienced the gale very severely—
thrown on beam ends. Brig Caroline, two hundred miles N. E.
of Boston, a fresh breeze from N. E. to 8.
27. Sept. 23. Ship Prudence, twenty leagues S. E. from St.
George’s shoals, had a tremendous swell from S. W. and Jay to
under reefed mizzen stay-sail, expecting a gale, but had nothing
more than a balanced reef breeze ; at iii net balanced reefs
again, with strong westerly winds

28. Sept. 24. Brig Fredonia, on 23d in ‘et 36° BY, lon. 73°
20’, and on 25th, Cape Henlopen, W. N. W. fifty miles; on 24th,
a tremendous gale commenced at E. N. E. but shifted to N. W.
Schr. Gov. Shelby, from Bordeaux to New York, arrived October
5th. Sept. 18th, was in lat. 39° 40’, lon. 48° 30’; experienced
the gale within two days’ sail of port, but received no injury.
Since then, there has not been at sea a one knot breeze. Schr.
Comet, from St. Barts to Baltimore: in the edge of soundings
experienced a heavy gale; lay to ten hours—25th, took a pilot;
26th, came into bay.

2. Accounts of the Storm on Land. :

29. Philadelphia. Great part of Friday night (22d) wind, a
gale from N. E. with heavy rain. Early Saturday (23d) veered
to N. W., and continued a gale, with torrents of rain, for several
hours. Between 8 and 9 o’clock wind slackened,. rain ceased,
and clouds broke away in W. and S. W. About noon weather
clear and mild, with a gentle westerly breeze. During the after-
noon the sun greater yous of the time obscured with flying clouds
from W. and Ni W,

30. New York. "Thursday plghs.?. (21st) violent storm - wind

and rain set in from N. E. and continued till about 2 o'clock at
night, when it suddenly shifted to N. and N. W., and blew with

Hurricane in New England, September, 1815, 247

increased violence. Friday (22d) gale all day from N. E. and E.,
with heavy and incessant rain. Gale increased in the evening,
continued till 4 o’clock, Saturday. At 2 o’clock in the morning
backed round to N., and by 9 o’clock was at N. N. W., when it
was most violent. iy the course of the forenoon gradually backed
round to 8. W.

31. Bridgeport, Ct. Account is lost, but I find inatable which
is subjoined, the following :—Wind N. E. at 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 2 past
10, and. N. W. at 11 o’clock, of 23d.

32. New Haven, Ci. Friday night and Saturday morning (22d
and 23d) severe storm of wind and rain. Did damage to roads
and bridges, wharf inundated; six and a half inches of rain fell
during storm; streams much swelled. Wind N. E. from morning
of 22d to morning of 23d; noon of 23d W., evening S. W.

33. Martha's Ciaeieadh Mass. Gale very severe.

34. Lyme, Ct, Account lost, the following is from the table :—
Wind N. E, at 6 and 7 o’clock, 8. E. at 8 and 9 o’clock of 23d.

35, New London, Ct. Storm commenced on Friday (22d.)
During that day and night a heavy fall of rain, wind N.E. Next
morning (23d) wind increased, at 7 o'clock very violent, soon
after almost a hurricane. The tide which commenced flood about
6.0’clock, covered the wharves before 9, and at 10 o’clock had
risen three or four feet higher than was ever known. ‘The rise
had been so rapid, that the buildings in Beech street were deluged
before the inhabitants felt their danger, and in thirty minutes after
danger was apprehended waves rose four to six feet in the streets.
Now stores were falling, buildings unroofed, trees falling ; this
destructive scene was short. Soon after 11 o’clock the wind
shifted to the westward and abated, when the sea returned with
the velocity it came in, though it should have run flood till 12;
and the storm ceased. ‘The destruction of trees in all towns in
the neighborhood was immense. _ Intelligent farmers estimate
half the best fruit and forest trees fallen. 'The showers which
fell over this city and neighborhood were of salt water. The
leaves of tender fruit trees and shrubs and of many forest trees,
Without frost, shrunk in a few hours after the gale as though they
had been scorched. During the strength of the wind, in the ed-
dies, the air was extremely hot and suffocating. ohinthia account.
For two or three days wind blew from N. E., not very hard;
about 8 o’clock it shifted to E., when its sonatas commenced.

ey

248 Hurricane in New England, September, TT ll

Between 9 and 10 o’clock veered to S. E., when it blew most vio-
lent.—October 4th. The brooks which run through this place
continue brackish. Some wells in the country have become
racki
36. Stonington, Ct. Storm raged with great violence. . Every
vessel went ashore. Thirty buildings were destroyed or injured.
The following is from the table :—Wind N. E. at 6, 7, 8, and 9
o’clock, and 8. E. at 10 o’clock.
37. Newport, R.I. Commenced about 9 o’clock, wind 8. E.
by S., and continued unabated two hours and a half, men it sub-
sided.

38. Didusviediy Ct. Wind dering: tn most of the sesh blest moder’ ‘Yaee

ately from the east with pleasant weather until ‘Thursday, (21st )
when it became cloudy and uncommonly raw and cold. Friday
morning (22d) it began to rain and continued the whole day.
At night blew fresh from N. E., gradually inereasing till about 8
o’clock, Saturday morning (23d) when it veered to E. S. E., and
blew with tremendous fury from that point to W. S. W., till near
12 o’clock, when it abated. Many trees were levelled.

39. Fair Haven, Mass. Morning, wind blew from S. E., very
hard. About 9 o’clock shifted to S. and remained two hoursa
tremendous gale. About 12 o’clock was 8. W. and continued so
the rest of the day, blowing hard with heavy rain most of the
time. Windows covered with salt water; trees turned black.

40. New Bedford, Mass. Account lost; the following is from
the table :—-Wind S. E. at 6 o’clock and continued there till 12.

Al. East Greenwich, R. I. Gale commenced about 7 o’clock
and continued till 12. Tide rose seven feet higher than was ever
known. Meeting-house unroofed.

42. Warren, R. I. 'Tide rose about seven feet above common
spring tide. Trees, buildings, &c. demolished.

A3. Providence, R.I. At 7 o’clock, wind shifted from N. E. to
8. E., at which point it seemed to be settled in the course of half
an hour. At 8 o’clock, from being cold, the air became suddenly
very warm; so much so, that standing by a window looking
eastward, sensations were felt not unlike standing before an oven
moderately heated. At 9 o'clock, scuds run very low; the sky
when visible looked very glassy, something like brass. The
atmosphere seemed aaa impregnated with saline particles,
quite perceptible to the taste. At 94 o’clock it blew a gale,

ta Cat
Ps

"Hurricane in New England, September, 1815. 249

continued to increase in violence till 11, when the wind shifted
to S.; the tornado then began to abate. At 12 o’clock, wind
veered to S. W. by S., when storm ceased. Another account :—
A storm of rain from N. E. commenced on Friday, (22d,) and
continued with little intermission till Saturday morning, (23d,)
when wind was from E. Between 8 and 9 o'clock wind shifted
8. E., and continued to blow, increasing in violence, till 114,
when it changed to W., and damage stayed.

44, Poughkeepsie, N. Y. Gale, but little or no damage done.
_ 45. Worcester, Mass. Thursday [Friday?] evening (21st)
[22d ?] heavy storm (rain) commenced, with strong N. E. wind,
which had been blowing twenty four hours before from that quar-
ter. Early Saturday morning (23d) the wind increased, and rain
descended in torrents, and continued with but short intermissions
until about 104 o’clock, when the rain abated and the wind sud-
denly shifted to S. E. and blew a hurricane, blowing down trees
and chimneys. We have traced a column of near sixty miles
in width, with nearly the same devastation. No parallel in this
country. Period of destruction about one hour. Wind came in
gusts with increasing violence until its utmost height, when it
gradually subsided to a gentle breeze. A suffocating current of
air, as from a hot bath, accompanied the middle stage of the tem-
pest. The destruction of forest trees incalculable. Grapes in a
garden had a taste of salt on their surface. Flocks of gulls were
seen after the storm on Saturday, in a meadow near Worcester,
and others about the same time in Grafton. ‘Toward evening
they flew toward the sea. Water which fell in Uxbridge, Graf-
ton, Worcester and Sterling, salt.

46. Boston, Mass. Storm of rain from N. E. commenced on
Friday, (22d); through the day moderate ; at night rain increased,
and wind somewhat violent. During the night it abated. Sat-
urday morning storm renewed its violence. Wind with accumu-
lating severity from E. till near Ll o’clock. At this time shifted
to S. E. but increased in violence until 12 o’clock, when it began
to abate, and between 1 ‘and 2 o’clock shifted toS. W. At2
o’clock danger from wind over, and at the close of the afternoon
it had entirely subsided. About 12 o’clock, two hours before
high water, when the gale from the S. E. was at its height, the
tide rose very high. After change of wind it did not continue to
tise ; the wind compelled a fall earlier than natural. Glass-house

Vol. xxi1, No. 2,—Jan.-March, 1842. 3

v Fae
250 Hurricane in New England, September, 1815.

blew down about 11 o’clock; trees were thrown down. Every
substance exposed to rain incrusted with salt; windows lost their
transparency from the salt; leaves have the appearance of frost.
Same observed some miles interior. Another account :—Storm
commenced at 4 o’clock from E., with heavy showers. At 9
o’clock fresh gale from E. with slight rain; at 4 before 11 shifted
to S. E. without rain, and by 12 o’clock a violent hurricane. At
2 o’clock gale had abated ; and at 6 o’clock moderate weather.

A7. Salem, Mass. Saturday, (23d,) violent gale began about
9 o’clock, greatest fury about 114 o’clock. Began at S. E. and
filled the air with rain as briny asthe ocean. At the time of
greatest violence changed to S. W., and then did greatest dam-
age; it afterwards changed to 8.8. W., and before 3 o’clock the
sun appeared. Not suffered as much as our neighbors. Loss of
barns, out-houses, orchards and fences severely felt. Few vessels
injured. Another account:—Morning, wind at E., about 11
shifted to S. E.; between 1 and 2 o’clock got S. W., and soon
subsided ; pleasant before night.

48. Northampton, Mass. Storm very severe only on Satur-
day (23d).

49. Amherst, Mass. All the country within this place, Brook-
field, Tolland, New London, New Bedford, tempest raged about
equally. Great destruction of trees. The following is from the
table :—wind at 113 o’clock 8. E.; at 14 o’clock subsided.

50. Provincetown, and Wellfieet, Cape Cod. he gale was but
slightly felt.
~ 51. Troy, N.Y. Great rain, sudden and unusual rise in Hud-
son River. Sunday, (24th,) most of the wharves covered several
feet deep.

52. Portsmouth, N. H. Buildings considerably injured.

53. Counties of Bristol, Barnstable, Plymouth, Norfolk,
Worcester, Middiesex, Essex and Hampshire, Mass. Reports
that would fill columns. Damages pretty equally felt in injury of
meeting-houses, dwellings, chimneys, barns, and trees. All fruit
shaken off. In all places to leeward of salt water, pastures ruined
by the salt spray, and the whole of trees and vegetables so blight-
ed and changed as to exhibit the appearance of destruction by
fire and smhoke, 2 eee ee ys

| tA ki Be Ve

SE rr

Hurricane in New England, September, 1815. 251

3. Accounts showing the force of the wind in . several parts of
Massachusetts.

54, Abingdon. Church destroyed.—South Peal Steeple
blown down.— Wareham. Steeple blown down. —Cambridze-
port. Three dwellings demolished.—Dorchester. Seventeen
houses unroofed, sixty chimneys blown over, and. five thousand
trees prostrated.—Cape Towns. No accounts of severe damage
except at Sandwich.—Chelsea. Elm tree seventeen feet in girth,
blown down.—Marblehead. Fourteen vessels on shore.—G'lou=
cesier. Vessels ashore, and buildings blown down:—Davvers.
Storm violent, not greatly destructive. Pear tree imported and
transplanted by Gov. Endicott in 1680 stripped of half its branch-
es. Oaks that braved the tempest one hundred years thrown
down.—Andover. Spray of salt water reached it, giving every
thing it descended upon a saltish taste, and blighting every fibre
of vegetation.— Newburyport. Ornamental trees suffered much ;
buildings injured.—Jpswich. Less damage done to vessels than
other parts of our shore—Lynn. Buildings suffered —Wenham.
Steeple blown down.—Saugus. Severe, trees blown down,
barns, &c.— Wells. One man killed by falling of a tree.

55. I subjoin the table which I constructed, at the time of col-
lecting the accounts, for the purpose of presenting a view of the
storm simultaneously in different places, during the forenoon of
the 23d September, 1815.

View of the Hurricane in the forenoon of Saturday, Sept. 28d, 1815.

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252 § Hurricanein New England, September, 1815.

56. The following facts appear to me to be established by the
foregoing accounts.

ist. The hurricane commenced in the West Indies, and moved
northward at the rate of twelve or fifteen miles an hour.

2d. Its course from St. Barts was about W. N. W. to Torks
Island, and thence to Boston (nearly on the same meridian) it~
was a curve convex to the west. (See account of Schr. Sally,
lat. 37°, lon. 76°, for the most western point of the curve.)

3d. Previous to the arrival of the hurricane in New England,
a N. E. storm had prevailed along the Atlantic coast for more
than twenty four hours. (See accounts, New York, New Lon-
don, Norwich, Worcester, and Boston. )

Ath. For some hours previous to the hurricane, there was a
great and rapid condensation of vapor, producing a heavy fall of
rain in the line of the N. E. storm. (See accounts, Philadelphia,
New York, New London, Norwich, Worcester, Boston and Troy.)

Sth. The hurricane (that is, the violent blow) was mostly from
the 8. E., blowing into and at right angles to the N. E. storm, at
its peter termination.

6th. As the 8. E. wind apstanihaes the line of the N. E. storm, —

it was deflected into an E. wind. (See table, Salem, Boston, and
New London. )*

7th. The general~form of the hurricane in and about New
England was that of an eccentric ellipse, with its longest diame-
ter N. E. and 8. W.; wind blowing N. E. on the N. W. side;
N.N. W. and W. N. W. at its south end; S. E. on its 8. E. side,t
curving into an E. wind at its junction with the N. E. current ;
wind blowing from S. at the easternmost part of the hurricane.
The whole body of the hurricane, in this form, moved to the
north or on the meridian.

ae - May Wwe not rather suppose that the more violent S. E. storm pursued its own
course of rotation in this direction by E. and N. E. without regard to the previous
N. E. wind which it had superseded ?—Eps.

¥ Did not this 8. E. wind pertain more nearly to the centre of the path of the
hurricane ? ? For we find that the ship Prudence, twenty leagues from St. George's
Shoals, had a tremendous swell from 8. W., which woald appear to have been
produced @ on the S.E Pan n of th the gale. Ligss

ae
on 444

Determination of Nitrogen in Organic Compounds. 253

Arr. VI._—A New Method of determining the quantity of Nitro-
_ genin Organic Compounds ; by Drs. Varrentrapp and Witt.
# bi » ‘Translated from the original in the Annalen der Chemie und
en Pharmacie, by J. Lawrence Surrn, M. D. of Charleston, S.C.

_. Messrs, Editors—In this letter I send you a translation of such

parts of the original article of Drs. V. and W. as may enable one
to thoroughly understand this valuable addition to what is already

known upon the subject of organic analyses; neither the first nor
the latter parts are here taken notice of, as the one is merely a
detached account of the various processes that have been pre-
viously employed to estimate the quantity of nitrogen in organic
compounds, and the other, the mention of some analyses made
With the view of comparison.

“'Phis method has for its basis the peculiar action of the hy-
drated fixed alkalies, upon organic substances containing nitrogen,
when subjected to a high temperature. It consists in the separa-
tion of nitrogen in the form of ammonia, and estimating the lat-
ter, either under the form of the muriate of ging and ammo-
nia, or from metallic platinum.”

“Tf one melts an organic substance free foie nitrogen, together
With the hydrate of potash, the water of the potash becomes de-
composed, (as Gay Lussac has shown,) its oxygen combines
With the carbon and hydrogen of the organic matter, and its
hydrogen passes off in the form of gas.

For a perfect result of the above nature a high temperature is
required, as well as a considerable excess of potas
‘i “When on the contrary, the organic substance contains nitro-
gen, the free hydrogen combines with it and forms ammonia.
Since the observation of this fact, the only use that it has been
put to, has been that of ascertaining the presence of nitrogen in
an organic compound.”

The first and chief difficulty that presented itself to Drs. V.
and W. in making use of this method to estimate the quantity
of nitrogen, was that when a substance was very rich in that
element, the whole of it would not be converted into ammo-
hia, ‘en that a portion by combining with the carbon formed
cyanogen, which would pass off or be converted into hydr
acid, and the latter unite itself to the potash. But upon experi-

254 Determination of Nitrogen in Organic Compounds.

ment these gentlemen found, by employing a sufficient excess
of hydrated alkali and a temperature not too low, that every
cyanide and all other substances that contained nitrogen not nn-
der the form of nitric acid, would become decomposed by this
means, and all the nitrogen be converted into ammonia.

‘Our method, which is based upon the peculiar property already
stated of all substances containing nitrogen, in which this element
does not exist in combination, under the form of nitric acid, con-
sists in the complete interception of the ammonia, by means of
hydrochloric acid, and subsequently weighing it in a solid form
as chloride of platinum and ammonia.”

The apparatus used by Drs. V. and W. is such as is represented
in the annexed figures. It consists of a furnace, such as is ordi-
narily used in organic analyses, with a tube of hard glass drawn
out at its closed extremity. The length of this tube should be

from twelve to fifteen inches, and its inner diameter about three
lines. To the open end of this tube is attached an apparatus, some-
what similar to Liebig’s alkali bulbs, but differently constructed to
facilitate the pouring out of the liquid, which is placed within it,

It is composed of three bulbs a, b,c, the two first being about one
and a quarter inches in diameter, and the latter about five lines.
The tube connecting these bulbs is about a line in diameter, and
drawn out at its extremity g by means of a spirit lamp. The bulbs
are filled to about the height represented in the figure, with pure

Determination of Nitrogen in Organic Compounds. 255

hydrochloric acid of the ordinary strength, and this part of the
operation is done by applying the mouth to the extremity d, and
drawing the acid through the extremity g.

‘As means of decomposing the organic substance containing
nitrogen, that is to say, of oxydizing its carbon and hydrogen, we
make use of the hydrate of potash, or soda mixed with caustic
lime, in such proportions, that the mixture when exposed to a
strong heat will not melt, but only slightly run together. This
mixture has the advantage of being easily pulverized, and of not
attracting moisture very rapidly, and generally it is managed with
the same facility as the bioxide of copper or the chromate of Jead.
We have preferred latterly the mixture containing soda, in prefer-
ence to that with potash; because the hydrate of soda, on account
of its smaller atomic weight, contains more water, and conse-
quently more oxydizing material than the same weight of the
hydrate of potash. Also the mixture of the hydrate of soda and
lime attracts moisture less 1 me Lily cis of potash and lime ;
and moreover, the hydra’ of soda requires but twice its weight
of anhydrous lime to form a ‘eahesatte: aa will not melt at a red
heat. For one part of. potash three of lime are necessary. The
easiest method of preparing it, 1 3 the lime in a solution
of known concentration, of eitherof the above alkalies; heat the
mixture to redness in acrucible, and rub it to a fine peter. Or
we may rub up quickly one of the alkalies (first melted and then
cooled) in a warm mortar, and then mix intimately with it anhy-
drous lime in the proper proportion. In this latter case, the lime
must be first slaked and then heated to redness as a fine powder
before being used. The mixture prepared in either of the above

as “* ~, Ways is once more heated to redness to drive away all mixture

and then preserved in a well stopped phial.”

In performing an analysis, the process is as follows:

“The burning tube, clean and dry, is half filled with the alka-
line mixture, and that is the measured quantity to be mixed with
the su ieiucied about to be analyzed, which is first dried and
Weighed in the ordinary method. The quantity of the substance
employed should vary according as it contains more or less nitro-
gen. When rich in this element about three grains, but when
its quantity i is quite small about six grains should be used.”

“'The mixture of the weighed substance with the m
quantity of the alkaline powder, is done in a porcelain mortar

256 Determination of Nitrogen in Organic Compounds.

with a flat bottom, (which has been previously slightly warmed, )
and with a very gentle movement of the pestle. If these pre-
cautions are strictly observed, no loss of material will result by
its sticking to the sides of the mortar, or bottom of the pestle.
If the mixture be pressed too hard, or if it be rubbed too fine, or
if the mortar be not perfectly dry, a portion of the substance will
adhere to its sides. After introducing the mixture into the burn-
ing tube in the ordinary way, the mortar is rinsed with the alka-
line powder, with which we fill the tube to within an inch of its
mouth, in which is placed a loose mom of asbestus that has been
heated to redness and cooled.” —
_ The use of the asbestus is to prevent the gas that is generated,
from projecting any of the powdered alkali into the apparatus con-
taining the hydrochloric acid, which accident would of course
cause a serious error in the result.

“With a tight cork we oe tube containing the mixture
to the acid apparatus, and by warming slightly the bulb a, by
bringing an ignited coal beneath it, we

it, we are able to ascertain whe-
ther the apparatus is tight, for iftso, the ‘liquid will be chased from
the bulb a. The tube is now heated as in the case of ordinary
organic analysis, by placing ignited coals at the front part of the
furnace, that contains none of the organic substance. The cork
must be kept as warm as possible, so that it may contain no mois-
ture, which by absorbing ammonia, may cause a loss of nitrogen.
So soon as the first part of the tube is red hot, we carry the fire
slowly back upon that part containing the substance.’

_ “Carbonic acid is formed, the oxygen in the water of the hy-
drated alkali combining with the carbon of the substance, the free
hydrogen combines with its nitrogen, and ammonia is formed,
which is absorbed by the hydrochloric acid. Hydrogen or carbu-
retted hydrogen (according as the substance contains more or less
earbon) is evolved, and this passing through the acid without being
absorbed, enables us to see the progress of the burning.”

_ “Tt may be well to remark, that a continued current of gas 1s
evolved, but there need be no apprehension of the escape of the
ammonia, for its absorption is so complete and goes on with such
rapidity, that one has rather to apprehend a recoil of the fluid;
if the current of gas is only stopped for a moment, the fluid rises
in the bulb a, and if the fire be carelessly attended to, it will
enter the tube d, and thence the burning tube, rendering the ex-
periment useless.”

i

Determination of Nitrogen in Organic Compounds. 257

Drs. V. and W. state that when the body contains a large por-
tion of nitrogen, this accident is more to be apprehended, and
they recommend the mixing of an equal weight of some sub-
stance free from nitrogen, as for instance, sugar, with the body
containing nitrogen, and with the alkali lime, which by forming
gases not absorbable by the acid, will cause no error, re —
any accident.

“ After the whole length of the tube is ws hat feck outcail
longer generated, when all the carbon of the substance is burnt,
and the mixture inthe tube appears white, the small end.of. the
burning tube is broken, and a quantity of air drawn through the
burning tube, and absorption apparatus, in order to bring all the
ammonia in the tube in contact with the hydrochloric acid; the
air is drawn through by means of the extremity g, a small tube
containing potash being placed between it and the mouth, to pre-
vent one from inhaling the acid vapors.”

“We proceed to analyze fluids exactly as in the burning with
the binoxide of copper. A little of the alkali lime is first intro-
duced into the burning tube, and upon that is dropped the little
bulb, containing the known quantity of the fluid to be analyzed,
with its capillary extremity broken off, and then fill the tube as
before with the alkali lime. The operation goes on more regu-
larly, if we eommence by heating the first third of the tube to
redness, and then warming that part of the tube containing the
bulb, from which the fluid is expelled, which disseminates itself
over the middle part of the tube, without being decomposed ; if
we now carry the fire from before backwards, a gentle and con-
stant current of gas will be evolved.”

“ After the burning is complete, and the air passed through the
apparatus, the contents of the absorption appafatus are emptied
into a‘small porcelain capsule. With a dropping tube we intro-
duce first into the apparatus, a mixture of alcohol and ether,
which must beshaken backwards and forwards, and then added
to the first:fluid. ‘The bulbs are now washed with water, until
it-affords no acid reaction, and all the washings added to the hy-
drochlorie acid containing the hydrochlorate of ammonia. The
washing with alcohol and ether has for its object the dissolving
of any carburetted hydrogen which may be formed during the
burning, and by collecting in the bulbs would prevent the» water
from coming perfectly in contact with sides, and thereby ren-

Vol. xxir, No. 2.—Jan.-March, 1842.

258 Determination of Nitrogen in Organic Compounds.

dering a complete washing difficult. Seldom is more than an
ounce to an ounce anda half of fluid needed for the removal of
all the hydrochlorate of ammonia.”

“'T'o this fluid, now containing hydrochlorate of ammonia, an
excess of a pure solution of the chloride of platinum is added,
and it is then evaporated to dryness, either first by the aid of a
spirit and then by a water bath, or entirely by the latter means.
From a well conducted burning, the chloride of platinum and
ammonia that is obtained, is always beautifully yellow; but if
the material contained a great deal of carbon, or was burnt with
difficulty, then the chloride of platinum and ammonia is of a
darker color. . This color though, has little or no effect upon the
aecuracy of the result, supposing the washing to have been care-
fully done.’’. vaicetoueses ’ ’

_ Upon the residue in the porcelain capsule, after it has cooled,
amixture of two parts of. absolute alcohol and one of ether is
poured. This dissolves the excess of the chloride of platinum,
and no part of the chloride of platinum and ammonia. It is
immediately known, whether there has been an excess of. the
chloride of platinum, by the fluid assuming a yellow color; if. it
is colorless, then there has been a deficiency.”

“The washing of the residue is performed easiest by holding
the capsule, after the fluid has been poured upon a weighed filter,
perpendicularly over the same, and washing. the precipitate in,
with the solution of alcohol and ether. .The filter must be
washed by the same mixture until it passes without color or acid
reaction. The precipitate and filter are dried on a covered cap-
sule or weighed tube at 212° Fah. and weighed. It is well, .
in order to continue the result, to decompose the chloride of pla-
tinum and ammonia by heat, and out of the residue. obtained,
calculate again the quantity of nitrogen, and if the chloride of
platinum was pure, the quantity of nitrogen caleulated. by this
latter method will not differ from the double chloride.”

In decomposing the chloride of platinum and ammonia, it must
be done by heating it, enveloped in its filter, gradually to redness ;
for if it be done too hastily, the vapor of the muriate of ammo-
nia and chlorine will remove mechanically some of the platinum.
The chloride of platinum used in this process, must be perfectly
pure, and Drs. V. and W. state, that it is difficult to obtain spongy
platinum without a trace of muriate of ammonia, by simply de-

s

Determination of Mitrogen in Organic Compounds. 259

composing the chloride of platinum and ammonia by heat. They
therefore recommend that the spongy platinum used to form the
chloride, should be well washed with hot distilled water, before
being dissolved in the nitro-hydrochloric acid. '

“If we weigh the nitrogen as the chloride of platinum and
ammonia, we have one hundred and seventy seven parts of it for
every two thousand seven hundred and eighty eight of the double
chloride, but if as metallic platinum, one hundred and seventy
seven parts for every twelve hundred and thirty three of the
metal.” it: Milas,

“'The weight of the chloride of platinum and ammonia remains
constant under a long continued drying at 212° Fah., as well as
that of the filter, after it has been completely washed.. If there
be a trace of acid remaining on the filter it becomes dark .and
friable.”

I believe that now all the important steps in this operation have
been fully detailed, and I shall conclude with a translation of a
letter of Prof. Liebig’s, that was attached to the original publica-
tion, in order that it may be seen, how highly this new method of
estimating the quantity of nitrogen in organic bodies is esteemed
by that distinguished chemist.

_“T have had the pleasure of being constantly present at the
development of the experiments by which Drs, ¥V. and W. by
degrees have arrived at the method, which they have here de-
scribed, I regard this new method of estimating nitrogen as one
of the most important improvements in organic analysis, because
it determines the quantity of nitrogen with a certainty and pre-
qsion which until now were wanting, The whole opreation is
completed in a few hours, and with all the accuracy of the deter-
mination of the carbonic acid. Idoubt not that this apparatus
will very soon replace the ordinary method, to the contentment.
of all analytical chemists.—J. L.” .

The little experience and observation I have had of it, verify
the opinion of Prof. Liebig, and in simplicity it is every thing
that can be desired.

Geissen, November, 1841.

260 Prof. Whewell’s Demonstration

Art. VIL —A Letter to William Whewell, Professor of Moral
Philosophy in the University of Cambridge, England, in
reply to certain allegations and arguments sidianedel in @
pamphlet entitled a Demonstration that all Matter is Heavy ;*
by Rosert Hare, M. D., Professor of Chemistry in the Uni-
versity of Pennsylvania.

1. Dear Sir—I thank you for your kind attention in sending
me a copy of your pamphlet entitled a “ Demonstration that
all Matter is Heavy,” comprising a communication made to the
Cambridge Philosophical Society.

2. I conceive that to demonstrate that all matter is heavy, is, in
other words, to prove that all matter is endowed with attraction of
gravitation, or that general property which, when it causes
bodies to tend towards the centre of the exact is called weight.
Hence to assert that all matter is heavy, is no more than to say,
that attraction of gravitation exists between al] or any masses of
batts t

. You say, “it may be urged that we have no difficulty ir in con-
onion of matter which is not heavy.” I have no hesitation in
asserting, that there should be no difficulty in entertaining such a
conception ; since I cannot understand why any two masses
may not be as readily conceived to repel as to attract each other;
or neither to attract nor to repel. Is it not easier to imagine two
remote masses indifferent to each other, than that they act upon
each other? Is any thing more — to understand than that
a body can act where it is not? ue ‘°

A. Itisalso mentioned by you, that it may be urged “that iner-
tia and weight are two separate properties of matter.” Now 1 will
not only urge, but also, with all due deference, will undertake to
show, that the existence of inertia may as well be proven, and

ee estimated, bp means-of repulsion as eit means of
attraction.

se * ‘ransstions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society.
"wereld that Dr. letter wonld be om understood by our
vaidontl we ion” of Prof. Whewell, as it has prob?

ce
ably been seen by few persons in peasy It will accordingly be found in full at
the end of Dr. Hare’s letter. —Eps. sais

that all Matter is Heavy. 261

§. Suppose two bodies, A and B, to be endowed with reciprocal

attraction; or, in other words, to gravitate towards each other.
Being placed at a distance, and then allowed to approach, if, after
any given time, it were found that they had moved severally
any ascertained distances, evidently their relative inertias would
be considered as inversely as those distances.

6. In the next place, let us suppose two bodies, X and Y, en-
dowed with the opposite force of reciprocal repulsion, to be placed
in proximity, and then allowed to fly apart. The distances run
through by them severally, being, at any given time, determined,
might not their respective inertias be taken to be inversely as those
distances ; so that the question would be as well ascertained in
this case, as in that above stated in which gravitation should be
resorted to as the test?

7. It seems to me that this question is sufficiently answered, in
the affirmative, in your second paragraph, page 7, (p. 269,) in
which you allege, that “one body has twice as much inertia as
another, if when the same force acts upon il for the same time,
it acquires but half the velocity. This is the fundamental con-
ception of inertia.”

8. In the third paragraph, fourth page, (p. 261,) you say, “that
the quantity of matter is measured by those sensible properties of
matter which undergo quantitative addition, subtraction and di-
vision, as the matter is added, subtracted or divided, the quan-
tity of matter cannot be known in any other way ; but this mode
of measuring the quantity of matter in order to be true at all,
must be true universally.”

9. Also your fourth paragraph, fifth page, (p. 268,) concludes
With this allegation, “and thus we have proved, that if there be
any kind of matter which is not heavy, the weight can no longer
avail us, in any case to any extent, as the measure of the quan-
tity of matter.”

10. In reply to these allegations let me inquire, cannot a matter
exist of which the sensible properties do not admit of being
measured by human means? Because some kinds of matter
can be measured by ‘those sensible qualities which undergo
quantitative addition, subtraction and division,” does it follow

Hat there may not be matter which is incapable of being thus
measured»? And wherefore would the method of obtaining phi-

262 § —=«-—Prrof» Whewell’s- Demonstration

losophical truth be “ futile” in the one case, because inapplicable

in the other? Because the inertias of A and B have been discov-
ered, by means of their gravitation, does it follow that the inertias
of X and Y cannot be discovered by their self-repellent power ?
Why should the inapplicability of gravitation in the one case
render its employment futile in the other?

. It is self-evident, that matter without weight cannot be
estimated by weighing, but I deny that on that account such
weightless matter may not be otherwise estimated. The inertias
of A and B cannot be better measured by gravitation than those
of X and Y by repulsion, as already shown.

12. You seem to infer, in paragraph second, page sixth, (p. 268,)
that we should be equally destitute of the means of measuring
matter accurately, “ were any kind of matter heavy indeed, but not

, in proportion to its quantity of matter, as other kinds.”

13. If in the case of all matter weight be admitted to be the only
measure of quantity, it were inconsistent to suppose any given
quantity of matter, of any one kind, to have less weight than an
equal quantity of another kind; but upon what other than a
conventional basis is it to be assumed, that there is more matter
in a cubic inch of platinum than in a enbie inch of tin; ina
cubic inch of mercury than in a cubic inch of iron? Judging
by the chemical efficacy of the masses, although the weight of
mercury is to that of iron as 13.6 is to 8, there are more equiva-
lents of the latter than the former in any given bulk, since by
weight twenty-eight parts of iron are equivalent to two hundred
and two parts of mercury.

14, Weight is one of the properties of certain kinds of matter,
and has been advantageously resorted to, in preference to any
other property, in estimating the quantity of the matter to which
it appertains. Nevertheless, measurement by bulk is found ex-
pedient or necessary in many cases. But may we not appeal to
any general property which admits of being measured or esti-
mated? Faraday has inferred that the quantity of electricity, is
as the quantity of gas which it evolves. Light has been con-
sidered as proportional in quantity to the surface which it illu-
minates with a given intensity at a certain distance. ‘The quan-
tity of caloric has been held to be directly as the weight of
water which it will render aériform ; and has also been estima-

|

©

that all Matter is Heavy. — 263

ted by the degree of its expansive or thermometric. influence.
eg scale-beam is more delicate than the thermoscope of Mel-
loni

a In the last paragraph but one, seventh page, (p. ay) you
suggest, that ‘“‘ perhaps some persons might conceive
identity of weight and inertia is obvious at once, for both are
merely resistance to motion ; inertia, resistance to all motion, or
change of motion ; weight, resistance to motion upwards.”

16. I am surprised that you should think the opinion of any per-
son worthy of attention, who should entertain so narrow a view.
of weight, as antagonist of momentum, as that above quotedy
“that it is a resistance to motion upwards.” Agreeably to the
definition, given at the commencement of the letter, weight, in
its usual practical sense, is only one case of the general force
Which causes all ponderable masses of matter to gravitate
towards each other, and which is of course liable to resist any
conflicting motion, whatever may be the direction. When in
the form of solar attraction, it overcomes that inertia of the
planets which would otherwise cause them to leave their orbits,
gh gravitation “resist motion upwards 1”

. In the next paragraph you allege, that “there is a difference
in piles two kinds of resistance to motion. Inertia ts instanta-
neous, weight is continuous resistance.”

18. It is to this allegation I object, that as you have defined
inertia to be “‘reststance to motion, or to change of motion,” it fol-
lows that it can be instantaneous only where the impulse which
it resists is instantaneous. It cannot be less continuous than the
force by which it is overcome.

19. Gravity has been considered as acting upon falling bodies by
an infinity of impulses, each producing an adequate acceleration ;
but to every such accelerating impulse, producing of course a
“change of motion,’ will there not be a commensurate resist-
ance from inertia? and the impulses and resistances being both
infinite, will not one be as continuous as the ot

20. I have already adverted to inertia as the continuous antag-
Onist of solar attraction in the case of revolving planets.

21. Agreeably to Mossotti, the creation consists of two kinds of
Matter, of which the homogeneous particles are mutually repel-
lent, the heterogeneous mutually attractive. Consistently with

264 Prof. Whewell’s Demonstration

this hypothesis, per se, any matter must be imponderable ; being
endowed with a property the very opposite of attraction of
gravitation. This last mentioned property exists between masses
consisting of both kinds of particles, so far as the attraction
between the heterogeneous atoms predominates over the repul-
sion between those which are homogeneous. It would follow
from these premises, that all matter is ponderable or otherwise,
accordingly as it may be situat

22. Can the ether by which, neichciiad to the undulatory theory,
light is transmitted, consist of ponderable matter? Were it so,
would it not be attracted about the planets with forces propor-
tioned to their weight, respectively? and becoming of unequal
density, would not the diversity in its density, thus arising,

affect its undulations, as the transmission of sound is influenced

by any variations in the density of the aériform fluid by which
it is propagated ?
With esteem,
I am yours truly, |
Rosert Hare.

Demonstration pe all Matter is Heavy. By the Rev. W1ut1am WHE-
weELL, B. D., Fellow of Trinity cies and Professor of Moral
Philosophy. [Read February 22d, 1841.]

The discussion of the nature of the grounds and proofs of the oat
general propositions which the physical sciences include, belongs rather
to metaphysics than to that course of experimental and mathematical
investigation by which the sciences are formed. But such discussions
seem by no means unfitted to occupy the attention of the cultivators of
physical science. The ideal, as well as the experimental side of our
knowledge, must be carefully studied and scrutinized, in order that its
true import may be seen; and this province of human speculation has
been perhaps of late unjustly depreciated and neglected by men of
science. Yet it can be prosecuted in the most advantageous manner
by them only : for no one can speculate securely and rightly respecting
the nature and | Proofs of the truths of science without a steady posses-
—_ of femme nae >and solid, portions of such truths. A man must be
c. — a natural historian, in order

concerning mathematics, and mechanics,

and natural history; and the mere metaphysician who without such

_ preparation and fitness sets himself to determine the grounds of mathe-
matical or mechanical truths, or the principles of classification, will be
__ liable to be led into error at every step. He must speculate by means

of general terms, which he will not be able to use as instruments of
discovering and conveying philosophical truth, because he cannot, in
his own mind, habitually and familiarly, embody their import in special
examples.

* Acting upon such views, I have already laid before the Philosophical
Society” i Cambridge essays on such subjects as I here refer to; espe-
cially a memoir “ On the Nature of the Truth of the Laws of Motion,”
which was printed by the Society in its Transactions. This memoir
appears to have excited in other places, notice of such a kind as to
shew that the minds of many speculative persons are ready for and
inclined towards the discussion of such questions. J am therefore the
more willing to bring under consideration another subject of a kind
closely related to the one just mentioned.

“The general questions which all such discussions suggest, are (in
the existing phase of English philosophy) whether certain proposed
Scientific truths, (as the laws of motion,) be necessary truths ; and if
they are necessary, (which I have attempted to shew that in a certain
sense they are,) on what ground their necessity rests. ‘These questions
may be discussed in a general form, as I have elsewhere attempted to
Shew. But it may be instructive also to follow the general arguments

into the form which they assume in special cases; and to exhibit, in a

distinct shape, the incongruities into which the opposite false doctrine
leads us, when applied to particular examples. This accordingly is
what I propose to do in the present memoir, with regard to the propo-
Sition stated at the head of this paper, namely, that all matier is heavy.
“At first sight it may appear a doctrine altogether untenable to as-
ert that this proposition is a necessary truth: for it may be urged, we
haye no difficulty in conceiving matter which is not heavy; so that
matter without weight is a conception not inconsistent with itself;
which it must be. if the reverse were a necessary truth. It may be
added, that the possibility of conceiving matter without weight was
shewn in the controversy which ended in the downfall of the phlogiston
theory of chemical composition; for some of the reasoners on this
subject asserted phlogiston to be a body with positive levity instead of
Pty which hypothesis, however false, shews that such a supposition
possible. Again, it may be said that weight and inertia are two sep:
Hse properties of matter ; that mathematicians measure the quantity
of matter by the inertia, and that we learn _ experiment only that the
Vol. xt, No, 2.—Jan.-March, 1842.

266 - Prof, Whewell’s Demonstration

weight is:proportional to the inertia ; Newton’s experiments with pen-
dulums of different materials having been made with this very object.
- “] proceed to reply to these arguments. And first, as to the possi-
bility of conceiving matter without weight, and the argument thence
deduced, that the universal gravity of mpatter is not a necessary truth, I
remark, that it is indeed just to say that we cannot even distinctly con-
ceive the contrary of a necessary truth to be true ; but that this impos-
sibility can be asserted only of those perfectly distinct conceptions
which result from a complete developement of the fundamental idea
and its consequences. Till we reach this stage of developement, the
nana and indistinctness may prevent our perceiving absolute con-
dictions, though they exist. We have abundant store of examples
of this even in geometry and arithmetic; where the truths are univer-
sally allowed to be necessary, and where the relations which are impos-
sible; are also inconceivable, that is, not conceivable distinctly. Such
not distinctly conceivable, still often appear conceiva-
ble and stables owing to the indistinctness of our ideas. Who, at the
first outset of his geometrical studies, sees any impossibility in suppo-
sing the side and the diagonal of a square to have a common measure ?
Yet they can be rigorously proved to be incommensurable, and there-
fore the attempt distinctly to conceive a common measure of them
must fail. The attempts at the geometrical duplication of the cube,
and the supposed solutions, (as that of Hobbes) have involved absolute
contradictions ; yet this has not prevented their being long and obsti-
nately entertained by men, even of minds acute and clear in other
respects. And the same might be shewn tobe the case in arithmetic.
It is plain, therefore, that we cannot, from the supposed possibility of
conceiving matter without weighty infer that the contrary ae not eee a
truth.

novesary
Our power of judging, fries the Goigpatibitiyy or incompatibility of
our conceptions, whether certain propositions respecting the relations of
ideas are true or not, must depend entirely, as I have said, upon the
degree of developement which such ideas have undergone in our
minds.. Some of the relations of our conceptions on any subject are
evident upon the first steady contemplation of the fundamental idea by
a sound mind : these are the axioms of the subject. Other propositions
ee deduced from the axioms by strict logical reasoning. These
propositions are no less necessary than the axioms, though to common
PRL = evidence i is sand different. Yet as we become familiar with
Kate i ir hs are deduced. from the axioms,
their trath also b ident, and the vain nts becomes: inconceiv-
able. Whena person has familiarized himself with the first twenty-six

me :

propositions of Euclid, and not till then, it becomes evident to him,
that parallelograms on the same base and between the same parallels
are equal; and he cannot even conceive the ri When he has
a little further cultivated his geometrical powers, the equality of the
square on the hypothenuse of a dace: ica to the squares on
the sides, becomes also evident; the steps by which it is demonstrated
being so familiar to the mind as to be apprehended without a conscious
act. And thus, the contrary of a necessary truth cannot be distinctly
conceived ; but the incapacity of forming such a conception is a condi-
tion which depends upon cultivation, being intimately connected with
the power of rapidly and clearly perceiving the connection of the
necessary truth under consideration with the elementary principles on
which it depends. And thus, again, it may be that there is an absolute
impossibility of conceiving matter without weight; but then, this impos-
sibility may not be apparent, till we have traced our fundamental con-
ceptions of matter into some of their consequences.

“The question then occurs, whether we can, by any steps of rea-
soning, point out‘an inconsistency in the conception of matter without
weight. This I conceive we may do, and this I shall attempt to shew.

“ The general mode of stating the argument is this :—the quantity of
matter is measured by those sensible properties of matter which undergo
quantitative addition, subtraction and division, as the matter is added,
subtracted and divided. The quantity of matter cannot be known in

any other way. But this mode of measuring the quantity of matter, in

order to be true at all, must be universally true. If it were only partially
true, the limits within which it is to be applied would be arbitrary ;
and therefore the whole procedure would be-arbitrary, mre asa method
of obtaining philosophical truth, altogether futile.

. “ We may unfold this argument further. Let the contrary be sup-
posed, of that which we assert to be true: namely, let it be supposed
that while all other kinds of matter are heavy, (and of course heavy
in proportion to the quantity of matter,) there is one kind of matter
which is absolutely destitute of weight; as, for instance, phlogiston, or
any other element. Then where this weightless element (as we may
term it) is mixed with weighty elements, we shall have a compound, in
which the weight is no. longer proportional to the quantity of matter.
If, for example, 2 measures of heavy matter unite with 1 measure of
Phlogiston, the weight is as 2, and the quantity of matter as 3. In all

Such cases, therefore, the weight ceases to be the measure of the quan-

tity of matter. And as the proportion of the weighty and the weight
less matter may vary in innumerable degrees in such compounds, the
Weight affords no criterion at all of the quantity of matter in them.

268 Prof. Whewell’s Demonstration

And the smallest admixture of the weightless element is sufficient to
prevent the weight cone _— taken as the measure of the quantity of
matter.

~ But on this Lignctintcin how are we to distinguish such compounds
Pein bodies consisting purely of heavy matter ? How are we to satisfy
ourselves that there is not, in every body, some admixture, small or
great, of the weightless element? If we call this element phlogiston,
how shall we know that the bodies with which we have to do are, any of
them, absolutely free from phlogiston ? nit

“ We cannot refer to the weight for any such assurance; for by sup-
position the presence and absence of phlogiston makes no difference in
the weight. Nor can any other properties secure us at least from a
very ore clomacasoney' for to assert that a mixture of Fin 100 or 1 in
10 of would always manifest itself in the properties of the
body, must be an arbitrary procedure, till we have proved this assertion
wy: experiment ; and we cannot do this till we have learnt some mode

‘the quantities of matter in bodies and. parts of bodies ;
wich is exactly what we question the possibility 6f, in the present
ypothesis.

“Thus, if we assume the existence of an element, phlogiston, devoid

of weight, we cannot be sure that every body does not contain some
portion of this element; while we see that if there be an admixture of
such an element, the weight is no longer any criterion of the quantity
of matter. And thus we have proved, that if there be any kind of mat-
ter which is not heavy, the weight can no longer avail us, in any case or
to any extent, as a measure of the quantity of matter.
» Tmay remark, that the same conclusion is easily extended to the
case in which phlogiston is supposed to have absolute levity ; for m
that case, a certain mixture of phlogiston and of heavy matter would
have no weight, and might be — for oe in the #4
ceding reasoning.

“I may remark also, that the same wuebeie would follow, by ~
‘same reasoning, if any kind of matter, instead of being void of weight
‘were heavy indeed, but not so heavy, in proportion to ite quantityof
epee as other kinds.

~ “On all these hypotheses there would be no possibility of measuring

re mnatter by weight at all, in any case, or to any extent.
pehretives ‘bevurged, that we have not yet reduced the hypothesis
for mathematicians

measure quay of mater, not but me other va
of. while > eared ab aby eee
“aT TTR tae eh ony: oe ae? he ge yee Care Se TR IN ay

lc =

“To this I reply, that, practically speaking, quantity of matter is
always measured by weight, both by mechanicians’ and chemists: and
as we have proved th is procedure is utterly insecure in all. cases,
on the hypothesis of weightless matter, the practice rests upon a con-
viction that the hypothesis is false. And yet the practice is universal.
Every experimenter measures quantity of matter by the balance. No
one has ever thought of measuring quantity of matter. by its inertia
practically ; no one has constructed a measure of quantity of matter in
which the matter produces its indications of quantity by its motion.
When we have to take into account the inertia of a body, we inquire
what its weight is, and assume this as the measure of the inertia; but
we never take the contrary course, and ascertain the inertia first in
order to determine by that means the weight.

» “ But it may be asked, Is it not then true, and an important nid
truth, that the quantity of matter is measured by the inertia? Is it not
true, and proved by experiment, that the weight is proportional to the
inertia ?. If this be not the result of Newton’s experiments mentioned
above, what, it may be demanded, do they prove?

~“'To these questions I reply: It is true that-quantity of matter is
measured by the inertia, for it is true that inertia is as the quantity of
matter. This truth is indeed one of the laws of motion. That weight
is proportional to inertia is proved by experiment, as far as the laws of
motion are so proved: and Newton’s experiments prove one of the
laws of motion, so far as any mete can i aoe or are
Pipi to prove them.

“ That inertia is pipes to ae is a : lew equivalent to that
ies which asserts, that when pressure produces motion ina given body,
the velocity produced ina given time is as the pressure. For if the
velocity be as the pressure, when the body is given, the velocity will
be constant if the inertia also be as the pressure. For the inertia is
understood to be that property of bodies to which, ceteris paribus, the
Velocity impressed is inversely proportional. One body has twice as
much inertia as another, if, when the same force acts upon it for the
Same time, it acquires but half the eghelhds This is the fundamental

ption of inertia.

“In Newton’s pendulum experiments, the pressure producing motion
WAS ‘eeCertain‘resolved part of the weight, and was proportional to the
Weight. It appeared by the experiments, that whatever were the mate-

‘Mal of which the pendulum was formed, the rate of oscillation was the

Same; that is, the velocity acquired was the same. Hence the inertia
of the different bodies must have been in each case as the weight ;and
this assertion is true of all different kinds of bodies. pAb abs

270 Prof. Whewell’s Demonstration ie

_ “ Thus it appears that the assertion, that inertia is universally propor-

tional to weight, is equivalent to the law of motion, that the velocity is
as the pressure. The conception of inertia which, as we have

a the fundamental conception is, that the velocity impressed is in-

versely proportional to the inertia,) connects the two propositions so as
to make them identical.

“‘ Hence our argument with regard to the universal gravity of matter
brings us to the above law of motion, and is proved by Newton’s expe-
riments in the same sense in which that law of motion is so proved.

‘“* Perhaps some persons might conceive that the identity of weight
and inertia is obvious at once; for both are merely resistance to mo-
_ tion ;— inertia, resistance to all motion. _ change of motion)—weight,
resistance to motion upwards. >

_ “ But there isa difference in these two kinds of resistance to motion.
Inertia is instantaneous, weight is continuous resistance. Any momen-
tary impulse which acts upon a free body overcomes its inertia, for it

es its motion: and this change once effected, the inertia opposes
any return to the former condition, as well as any additional change.
The inertia is thus overcome by a momentary force. But the weight
can only be overcome by a continuous force like itself. If an impulse
act in opposition to the weight, it may fora moment neutralize or over-
come the weight; but if it be not continued, the weight resumes its
effect, and restores the condition which existed before the Rhian
acted.

‘** But weight not only produces rest, when it is resisted, but poi
when it is not resisted. Weight is measured by the reaction which would
balance it; but when unbalanced, it produces motion, and the velocity
of this motion increases constantly. Now what determines the velocity
thus produced in a given time, or its rate of increase? What deter-
mines it to have one magnitude rather than another? To this we must
evidently reply, the inertia. When weight produces motion, the inertia
is the reaction which makes the motion determinate. The accumulated
motion produced by the action of unbalanced weight is as determinate
a condition as the equilibrium produced by balanced weight. In both
cases the condition of the body acted on is determined by the opposition
“ the action and reaction.

_ Hence inertia is the reaction which opposes the weights when un-
wieied But by the conception of action and reaction, (as m
bene aanereiees a. they are measured by each éthet:: and

| that all Matter is Heavy, e71

Nabe has .

fallacy in this reasoning, for it proves a state of things to be necessary
when we can so easily conceive a contrary state of things. Is it denied,
the opponent may ask, that we can readily imagine a state of things in
which bodies have no weight? Is not the uniform tendency of all bodies
in the same direction not only not necessary, but not even true? For
they do in reality tend, not with equal forces in parallel lines; but to
a centre with unequal forces, according to their position: and we can
conceive these differences of intensity and direction:in the force to be
greater than they really are ; and can with equal ease suppose the force
to disappear altogether. POM
“To this I reply, that certainly we may conceive the weight of bodies
to-vary in intensity and direction, and by an additional effort of imagi-
nation may conceive the weight to vanish: but that in all these suppo-
sitions, even in the extreme one, we must suppose the rule to be uni-
versal. If any bodies have weight, all bodies must have weight. If
the direction of weight be different in different points, this direction
must still vary according to the law of continuity ; and the same is true
of the intensity of the weight. For if this were not so, the rest and
motion, the velocity and direction, the permanence and change of bod-
ies, as to their mechanical condition, would be arbitrary and incohe-
rent: they would not be subject to mechanical ideas ; that is, not to
ideas at all; and hence these conditions of objects would in fact be
inconceivable. In order that the universe may be possible, that is, may
fall under the conditions of intelligible conceptions, we must be able to
conceive a body at rest. But the rest of bodies (except in the absolute
negation of all force) implies the equilibrium of opposite forces. And
one of these opposite forces must be a general force, as weight, in order
that the universe may be governed by general conditions. And this
general force, by the conception of force, may produce motion, as well
as equilibrium ; and this motion again must be determined, and deter-
mined by general conditions ; which cannot be, except the communi-
cation of motion be regulated by an inertia proportional to the weight.
“¢ But it will be asked, Is it then pretended that Newton’s experiment,
by which it was intended to prove inertia proportional to weight, does
really prove nothing but what may be demonstrated @ priori? Could
we know, without experiment, that all bodies,—gold, iron, wood, cork,—
have inertia proportional to their weight ¢ And to this we reply, that
xperiment holds the same place in the establishment of this, as of the
other fundamental doctrines of mechanics. Intercourse with the external
World is requisite for developing our ideas ; measurement of phenomena
is needed to fix our conceptions and to render them precise; but the
‘Tesult of our experimental studies is, that we reach a position in which

272 Prof. Whewell’s Demonstration, Sc.

our convictions do not re experiment. We learn by _..

truths of which we ietvenmes see in necessi This is the case Janitin

the laws of motion, as I have repeatedly pine ee to shew. The
same will appear to be the case with the proposition, that bodies of dif-
ferent kinds have their inertia proportional to their weight.

“ For bodies of the same kind have their inertia. auanesans to their
weight, both quantities being proportional to the quantity of matter.
And if we compress the same quantity of matter into half the space,
neither the weight nor the inertia is altered, because these depend on
the quantity of matter alone. But in this way we obtain a body of
twice the density; and in the same manner we obtain a body of any
other density. Therefore whatever be the density, the inertia is pro-
portional.to the quantity of matter. But the mechanical relations of
bodies cannot depend upon any difference of kind, except a difference
of density. For if we suppose any fundamental difference of mechan-
jeal nature in the particles or component elements of bodies, we are
led to the same conclusion, of arbitrary, and therefore, impossible, re-
sults, which we deduced from this supposition with regard to weight.
Therefore all bodies of different density, and hence, all bodies what-
ever, must have their inertia proportional to their weight.

‘“‘ Hence we see, that the propositions, that all bodies are heavy, and
that inertia is proportional to weight, necessarily follow from those fun-
damental ideas which we unavoidably employ in all attempts to reason
concerning the mec l relations of bodies. This conclusion may

perhaps appear the more startling to many, because they have been _

accustomed to expect that fundamental ideas and their relations should
be self-evident at our first contemplation of them. This, however, is
far from being the case, as I have already shewn. It is not the frst,
but the most complete and developed condition of our conceptions which
enables us to see what are axiomatic truths in each province of human
speculation. Our fundamental ideas are necessary conditions of know-
ledge, universal forms of intuition, inherent types of mental develop-
ment; they may even be termed, if any one chooses, results of connate
intellectual tendencies; but we cannot term them innate ideas, without
ee up a large array of false opinions. For innate ideas were con-
d as capable of composition, but by no means of simplification 5
as. most perfect i in their original condition ; as to be found, if any where,
in the most uneducated and most uncultivated minds; as the same in
all ages, nations, and stages of intellectual culture ; as capable of being
referred. to at once, and. made the basis of our TeASOnINgSs without any
special acuteness or effort :-in all which ci the fundamental

ideas of which we have. ok Parone tn, ngatebetn ae eo
stood.

5

va

%

Integration of Differential Equations. 273

_ “Tshall not, however, here prosecute this subject. I will only remark,
that fundamental ideas, as we view them, are not only not innate, in any
usual or useful sense, but they are not necessarily ultimate elements of
our knowledge. They are the results of our analysis so far as we have
yet prosecuted it; but they may themselves subsequently be analyzed.
It may hereafter appear, that what we have treated as different funda-
mental ideas have, in fact, a connexion, at some point below the struc-
ture which we erect upon them. For instance, we treat of the mechan-
ical ideas of force, matter, and the like, as distinct from the idea of
substance. Yet the principle of measuring the quantity of matter by
its weight, which we have deduced from mechanical ideas, is applied
to determine the substances which enter into the composition of bodies.
The idea of substance supplies the axiom, that the whole quantity of
matter of a compound body is equal to the sum of the quantities of
matter of its elements. ‘The mechanical ideas of force and matter lead
us to infer that the quantity both of the whole and its parts must be
measured by their weights. Substance may, for some purposes, be
described as that to which properties belong; matter in like manner
may be described as that which resists force. The former involves the
idea of permanent being; the latter the idea of causation. There may
be some elevated point of view from which these ideas may be seen to
run together. But even if this be so, it will by no means affect the
validity of reasonings founded upon these notions, when duly deter-
mined and developed. If we once adopt a view of the nature of know-

. ledge which makes necessary truth possible at all, we need be little
embarrassed by finding how closely connected different necessary tr uths
are ; and how often, in exploring towards their roots, different branches
appear to spring from the same stem. - WHEWELL.”

Grange, August 31, 1840.

Arr. VIIL—Integration of a particular kind of Differential
Equations of the second order ; by Prof. Taropore Strona.

. : d?y

THe equations which we propose to integrate, are Fo +
: d?y | 2pq—q+ldy
dtu ds
~q?a?2b2y2%-2y=0, (2), in which y and u are the only variable
quantities, « being considered as the independent variable, whose
differential (denoted by dw) is supposed to be constant or invarla-
ble, and y is supposed to be a function of u. ;

Vol. xu, No. 2.—Jan.-March, 1842. 35

29 rt eo Wy 4 grardtutt*y=0, (1), and

274 Integration of Differential Equations. $e

_(1)is taken from Vol. III, p. 537, second edition, of the Traité
dn Calcul Differentiel et du Calcul Integral, par S. F. Lacroix ;
and (2) is deduced from (1) by changing the sign of the last
term, or which comes to the same thing, by changing 5? in (1)
into —b?, that is, using bV —1 for b. We shall put 2pq—q+1
=c, (a), and shall use the characteristic, /*, when prefixed to any
differential expression, to signify that its integral is to be taken
with reference to the variable, from its value m, to the value m;
or m and m are two values of the variable, and the integral is sup-
posed to be taken from the first limit », to the second m.

Lacroix remarks that y=, oon(a? —x? ii cos. bu?z, is a par-
ticular value of y, which eainien (1); in which u! is to be re-
garded as constant in taking the integral, x and its functions be-
ingthe only variables, and the integral is supposed to be taken
from ¢=0 to «=a, which are the first and second limits of z.

We have also found by integrating (1) (by the method of se-
sies) that it is satisfied by the particular value of y, which is de-
noted by y=u'~f delat —v?) ” cos.bute, when p is positive,
and such that 1 —p is positive, and not an indefinitely small quan-
tity, and it is to be noted that v and its functions ‘are considered
. as the only variables in taking the integral, uw? being regarded as
constant. Hence if we use A and.B to denote two arbitrary con-
stants, we shall have (by the well known theory of integrals)

the complete value of y, the expression y=A if; dz(a? — —02)
cos.butr + Bu’ ay dv(a? —v?) *cos.buty, (b), in which p must
not be considered as an indefinitely small quantity, and 1—p is

positive and finite ; since the limits of z and v are the same in
(6), we may change v into x, and then the value of y may be

put under the form y = hy, dx(a? —22) ‘cos.bulc (A+ Bu
ho ime

(a? eo) a (¢). If we put l-~c=e, 1-2p=f, or c=1—@,

2p=1—F, (d), we get uw “(a2 —29) =w(a* — 22), and if we

substitute the oe oe in(a), we get by a

slight reduction bee ou u‘(a? —; 7 i- os (u(as —zx*) *), hence,

when ¢ is very small, using” hyperbolic logarithms and rejecting

Integration of Differential Equations. 275

the terms which involve e?, e*, &c. we get (by the exponential
‘ c 1- = rite & WM

theorem,) u (a? — x?) ae 1+ elog.u(a? — x? yr, which when

substituted in (c) gives y= f dz(a2 =)" ‘cos.bule(A+-B+

Belog.u(a? —x? 4 ), in which (although e is supposed to - indefi-
nitely small,) we may suppose that A+B is yet represented by
A’, and ¢B by BY, A’, B’ being arbitrary finite quantities; .-.
emel i
y=[“de(a?—2?f cosibule| A’ +B! log. u(a? —2*)*) now when
é is very small, (gq being finite,) f is also very small, and (d) gives
2p=1~/, or p=4 by rejecting 4 in comparison with 4; hence
when p=$ (and qg not indefinitely small) we get for the integral
of (1), (observing that p=4 gives c=1,) y= [ds(a* ~2)-3

4
cos.butr (Ate log.u(a? ~ x*)9 , (e), A’, B’ being the two arbi-
trary constants which (1), an equation of the second order of
differentials, requires that the complete value of y should have.

We may observe that Lacroix’s integral will always satisfy (1)
when p is positive and not indefinitely small, but it will not sat-
isfy (1) when p is negative ; also our integral will always satisfy
(1) when p is negative, (whether it is indefinitely small or not ;)
but when p is positive and greater than unity it fails to satisfy it.

. —1 1-g
Again, if we put c=0, we get by (a) P= a and Oy =—-p,
and the particular value of y which we have. found, becomes

}-9 1 P F
yauf™ dv(a? —v?) ** cos.bu%v, and if we put ee it will be-

(P:R CELA, Yo ag
come y=u/ dv(a? —v?) 74 cos. ie or if we put a xt we
+ 0 .
: 1 .v Ai f
get 1- q=2ig -.q=a577) apd 2q -2=— a7 4) and y=u (@

pe aad d?
(a? —y? \icos,(2i + 1)u2**'v, and (1) becomes es
the value of y being a particular solution of it; it would now
be easy after the manner of Lacroix to deduce (from what has
here been done) the second class of the cases of integrability of
the equation of Riccati; but as it is sufficiently obvious, we shall

—49
Zap, 2th —
+a*yu?'t! =,

276 Integration of Differential Equations.

not stop to give it, but shall refer for the process to the same vol-
ume and page of Lacroix’s work that we have done at the com-
mencement of this paper.

We will now show how to find the integral of (2). ‘If we
change b into bV —1, in (b), we shall have the complete value of
y in the general case when p is positive and less than unity ; and
if p=4, «=1, by making the same change in (e) we shall have
the complete value of y in this case of the general integral.

If p is positive and greater than unity, we must change 5 into
6 —1 in Lacroix’s integral, and change —v? in ours into +72,
then using A and B to denote two arbitrary constants, we get

4 if dx(a* —2) ‘cos. buley/=1+B af ves doa +v? e
cos. bu%v, (f), for the complete value of y. If p is negative and
finite, we must change ~—2? into +-z? in Lacroix’s integral, and
b into 6V —1 in ours, then using A and B for the arbitrary con-
stants we shall have y= A ef. : dx(a? + x? ys cos.bute + Bu. ie

ys dv(a? ~v?) *cos.bulv/ —1, (g), for the complete value of y-
We will now give some applications of what has been done to
differential equations which can be reduced to the form of (2).
d*y Ady
dart & de
B*zx"y=0, (h), and Et + AS Brey=0, (7), in which x and
y are the only variables, y being considered as a function of 7,
© being considered as the independent variable whose differential
dr is supposed to be constant, and e is supposed to be the base of
hyperbolic logarithms ; if we change the independent variable
from z to uw, we must not consider dr to be constant, but we may
suppose du to be constant ; also in (h) and (7) we must suppose
| d(°Y
eee i vetted to pes
dr? D: to = We shall now put u=2""",

Suppose that we would integrate the equations

n+2=m, and du= constant in (h), then since y is regarded as 4 ;

fonctieneh and w of 2, we get by well known formula of

dy
. +e ap , du. im aa
differentiation ies Se me z"-}, and | “ —

pe NS ee ee ae pg Tae te a) 7° Milano ae
g 1 Equations. Q77

m— aa i ¢
(m—1)x"-2 a mt ~ en~*, or since u=2", we get a=
a(Z
mu d r zl lll eal ,
¢ a ,and \dv} =m(m — 1) = 2 oe —— 7 sa ; by substitu-

iy)
y q\ de
d.

’ d:
ting these values of ae

u
, and t"=—, In (A) we get bya

A-1\ dy. B?
aE Se OS Gee

d?y
slight reduction <— ay" a+ a > hag “8

Reduced to the form of (2) by putting ret ee Sees
63 = 2q-—-2=-~1, or q=3; -" i Se? ae also a? = 1:
hence the integral of (xk) is found the same way as that of (2)
given above ; hence we have y expressed by a known function
of w, then putting for u its value x”, we have y expressed by a
knew function of z as required. Ronin, if we put u=e"*, we

dea,
dy dydu dy dy dx} _

d*y
ee de du de” due ae dus "a

a Substituting these values and w=e"* in (¢), we have by a
By

small reduction mart (M5 ye udu PE “=0, (2); hence if we
B?

put 2pq—qt1=1+>, a? =1, OF a 2q -—2=-—lorg=3, we

Shall have pitt ; then the value of y is found in terms of x,

asin integrating (2), and by putting for w its value e"*, y be-
Comes known in terms of z as required. The equations (h) and
(*) were proposed in the Mathematical Miscellany by Prof. Peirce,
at p. 399, first volume; we gave an answer to them in No. 8 of that
Work, which was incorrect in several particulars, which we shall
hot stop to notice any further than to observe, that uw, the inde-

“Pendent variable, when integrating with reference to x in La-

Croix’s integral, and v of our own, was involved in ove of the
limits of the integrals, so as to be a function of x or v, which ought
Not to have been so, but the error was not noticed by us in time
Sufficient for correction before the solution was published.

278 Integration of Differential Equations.
We will J : d?z dz : Qu
e will now reduce the equation w dak? Hi —2a'uz—F7, (m),

d'z dz
to the form of (2); (m) is easily changed to dar — 2a’

(- 2 — FHSS and if we put y=z+ = we have se a

2a'y= 0, (nv). If we put 2g—-2=0 or q=1, a?=1, b?=2a’,
c=1 or 2gp—q+1=2p=1, we get p=3, and (2) wil become
the same as(n). Hence if in (e) we put g==1,a?=1, b=V —2a’,
we have y=a/fda(1 2?)-*eos.urV — HBB faa (1- 22) -2
log.[u(1—z?)]cos.ueV —2a’, (0), for the complete value of y,
which is the integral of (n). If weuse e for the hyperbolic base,
= urd 2a) ual Bal

we get by known fonts cos.ur V patents 5} .

and if we put r=cos.p we get dz (1—2?)-? = — dy, 1l-7?=
¥ rani 2008 4 u/2a'.cos.p
sin.?9, cos.uxV = 2a! ; by substituting

21 caekaeat a
these values in(o) we have y= — ‘dy ( ov tal cos. 4 icicae

B’
fad log.usin.*9), the abi beipg taken from cos.g=0 to

B/
cos.y=1; or if we pm Ed 5 and = >, by A and B, we have by
interchanging the limits of Me eal and changing its sign,
(which makes no alteration in its value,) y= ef dy(e “Se aid

tLe oan p (a +B log.usin.? *); the integral being taken from

cos. = 1 to cos. = 0, or if we put 7 = 3.14159, &c. (= the
semi-circumference of a circle whose radius =1,) we get fe
fia (¢ ~ ww Ba.208.p pe ee) [A+B log.usin. 9), 0 and 5
denoting the limits. of g; or (since cos. becomes negative in the
second quadrant) we shall obtain the same value of y by putting

y=f- dye S91 4 4 Blog. usin. 9), (m’), the integral being
taken’ Hom'>=0; topes, (mt) will be found on trial to satisfy
(nm), and since iti jent arbitrary constant 5;
y is the complete i integral of (n) as required.

OO

Integration of ae 279

yi? ,
Since z al Y) We get z=y — a =/f* de (Ae or a)

+B af “dge" ~/2al o00.9 (i sre sin. +), or if we still denote
Aa‘b’x (for brevity) by A, z= aE aaa fas (ad 2al.cos.p 1) 4B
Sd (t08. w+ 2log. sin.) ag el 8? (p). If we put B=o

A=1, we get z= aie f. dv(¢ A a 1), which is a particus
lar value of z that satisfies (m), and agrees with the value used
by Laplace in the supplement to the 10th book of the Mécanique
Céleste, Vol. IV, p. 60, (of the supplement,) and he expresses it
as his opinion that the complete value of z cannot be found by
any of the known methods ; we will add that the same particular
value is to be found in the profound. commentary by Dr. Bow-
ditch, at p. 973, Vol. IV.

d?
Again, if p=0, (or is indefinitely small,) (2) becomes at

l-qg d ‘
—4 —q?a7b?u2?-*y=0, (¢), which is not satisfied by La-

l-c ‘ss
eroix’s integral, but our integral w Os dv (a? —v’) *cos.bul
Vv =I, which (since l—c = 4, (a?—v?) "=, rejecting indefi-
hitely small quantities,) becomes I, uidv cos. bux VW — 1 =

-abul abut abud "
é 4

sin.abud
ees Slt gts =r oP (where e= the hyper-

bolic base,) will satisfy it; it is also evident that (q) ought to be
abu ~abul

Satisfied by each of the valuesy=e ,y=e — , whichon trial

will each be found to satisfy (q), hence if A and B denote two

arbitrary constants, the complete value of y that satisfies (¢) is

fk: me
Also, if p=1, (or if 1—p is indefinitely small,) (2) becomes

d?

eyeiss on — grat bias? y=0, (r), which is not satisfied by

Our integral but Lacroix’s integral will satisfy ws. tag bes \aame

(a2 '1,) y= [* de cos. bu'e V— “ania

280 Zoological Writings of Rafinesque.

-q abu ~q ~abu' ‘
satisfy it; .°. the values y=w "e :. =u ‘e : - will each sat-
isfy (r), and if A and B denote two arbitrary constants, y =

ud -abu' “=
(Aen + Be "\ xu 1 is the complete value of y that satisfies

(r). Thus far g has been supposed to be different from zero ;

d*y dad
but if g=0, (2) becomes sath = 0 or ud*?y+dydu=0, -’-
Adu
udy =Adu, or dy=Tr1 or y=Ah.l.u+B, where A and B are

the two arbitrary constants which the integral requires. ‘Thus
we believe we have integrated (2) completely ir all the cases
which can occur. :

“ Arr. IX.—Nolice of the Zoological Writings of the late C. S.
Rafinesque ; by S. 8. Hatpeman.*

Constantine SamveL Rarinesqure, was born “at Galata, a sub-
urb of Constantinople,” October 22d, 1783, and died in Phila-
delphia on the 18th of September, 1840, of cancer of the stomach
and liver. While yet an infant, his parents removed to Marseilles,
where he remained some years, previous to being removed to Leg-
horn. It is apparent throughout his works, that he considers him-
self a great traveller; thus the motto to his “ Life of Travels” is

‘Un voyageur dés le berceau,
Je le serais jusqu’au tombeau.”’

He states that his parents took him to Asia while he was an
infant, that he saw the coast of Africa, and names the places he
would have seen, if he had been allowed to accompany his father
to Canton! According to his own account, he commenced the
study of natural history at an early age, which is certainly the
fact, as his “description of four new species of birds from Java,”
(seen in the Philadelphia museum, ) was published in the Bul. des
Sciences in 1803, when he was but nineteen years old; and his
Florula Columbica and Delawarica, were presented to Dr. Barton,
for insertion in his Med. and Phys. Journal, the year following.

* A notice of the Botanical Writir of pickin es er eks So
Vol. xx, p. 221, April, 41.0 i of Rafin ges se ppeared ) urnal

que”

Zoological Writings of Rafinesque. 281

Rafinesque was a most industrious man, and passed a great
deal of work through his hands, relating to almost every subject.
His life was made up of a series of vicissitudes, and _ his efforts
Were retarded by poverty, and the consequent necessity of making
aliving. His greatest fault asa naturalist was not so much, per-
haps, the shortness and resulting obscurity of his characters, as his
passion for ‘new species,’ and the recklessness with which he pro-
posed them, without sufficiently examining the works of his pre-
decessors. The author who pursues such a course, treats his fel-
low-laborers with disrespect, and prevents his works from being
as much consulted as they may deserve ; for there is nothing to
compel other authors to wade through unsatisfactory descriptions,
which must, in many instances, be referred to established species.
Rafinesque was very credulous, which led him to believe the ex-
aggerated accounts of the vulgar; and to write essays and found
‘species,’ upon grounds which should be beneath the notice of
any naturalist. :

In giving a list of his zoological works, it is more with a view
to point them out for the use of those who follow him in the va-
rious branches upon which he touched, than to write a critique
upon the whole, as this would be impossible ; and nothing would
be gained by it, as each department must eventually be consulted
by those interested. We notice them as nearly as we are able, in
chronological order, and believe the omissions will be but few.

1810. Caratteri di aleuni nuovi generi ¢ nuove specie di ana-
mali, §c., 8vo. pp. 105. "This work is principally devoted to fish,
illustrated by many rude figures, upon seventeen quarto copper-
plates. It isa good work. Thirty pages, and three plates, are
devoted to botany.

Indice D’Iitiologia, §*c., Svo. pp. 70, and two plates. This
Work contains about three hundred and ninety species of Sicilian
fishes, (one hundred and ninety of which are marked as new,)
and twenty eight new genera. It is noticed at length by Swain-
son, in Fishes, éc. Vol. 1, pp. 60-3 of the Cabinet Cyclopedia.
Mr. S., who spent several years in Sicily, states that Rafinesque
anticipated many of the genera of Cuvier, and thinks most of his
_ Species will yet be brought to light, he having identified many of
them himself.

“tett. Description of two new genera of Crustacea, and a new
Species of Atlantic fish. Sent to the Lin. Soc.
Vol. xx, No, 2.—Jan.-March, 1842. 36

282 Zoological Writings of Rafinesque.

Zoologie Sicilienne, §c. Containing about three hundred and
sixty new species, independent of those already published. Un-
published ?

1814. Précis des découvertes, Sc. This pamphlet contains
many descriptions of new animals, commencing with two new
genera of bats, the first of which he calls Cephalotes, which con-
tains a new species; and the Vespertilio cephalotes of Pallas, or
C. Pallasi, Raf. Geoffroy had previously formed a genus Ceph-
alotes and called this species C. Pallasii. The characters of Geof
froy’s genus require incisors 4; and Rafinesque’s 2, the number
in C. Pallasii; which is referred improperly, to his genus. Suill
Rafinesque’s genus is not new, it having been previously charac-
terized as a new genus of Illiger, under the name Harpya, which
name (under the Greek form) has been subsequently applied to a
genus of birds by Cuvier. Genus ii, Atalapha, Raf. has ° incis-
ors, and besides a new Sicilian species, he cites the Vespertilio
Noveboracensis as A. Americana. He says of his species, Nos. 3
and 4, “j’ai changé Je nom trop court et équivoque de Mus en
Musculus!” This change is very unexpected from an author
who has done so much in abbreviating names. Genus iii, a
Mediterranean cetacean, not noticed by subsequent writers, is
considered doubtful. Oxypterus, Raf., was by many consid-
ered an imaginary genus, until a second species was discover-
ed by Quoy and Gaimard. Sp. 6 and 7, Gerbillus soricinus and
Talpa cupreata, observed in North America. Of five new species
of American fish, Centropomus albus, is perhaps the Labrax mu-
cronatus; C. luteus, Perca flavescens; and Sparus mocasinus,
Pomotis vulgaris, Cuv.; a Linnean species.* Rafinesqne remarks
of the Crustacea, that “after the fishes, it is in this class that [
have made the most numerous discoveries in Sicily ; of about
one hundred and eighty species that I have observed here, nearly
the half are new; they will be all figured and described in my
Sicilian Plaxology ;” and of the insects, “my discoveries in this
class are less numerous; I have about twenty new species.” Be-
sides a hew genus, the species described are four of Lepisma, two
Acari, a Formica, and two Aphides. We cite these to fortify our
opinion that Rafinesque had little or no knowledge of Entomolo-

* Among the Sicilian fish is one named Esox reticulatus, a name subsequently
applied by Lesueur to a well known Anierican species.

Zoological Writings of Rafinesque. 283

gy; asa great part of his American new species" belong to these
genera, and to Julus; genera with which every one is familiar.
The remainder of the ‘* Précis” is taken up (except the botanical
portion) with new species of Cephalopoda, worms, and Z00-
phytes.

Principes fondamentaux de Somsalogie ou les diols de la No-
Ea etc. “'T'he Laws are necessarily familiar to all pro-
fessed naturalists; but we have never before met with so wel-
come a digest of. them. Somiology is designed to express the
Science of organized bodies in one word, and seems derived from
soma, a body, and logos, a discourse ; and, without it, two must
be used, as Zoology, and Phytology or Botany.”* French is re-
commended as the language of Natural History, instead of Latin.
Another rule should have been added, viz. when a new species
is characterized, which has nothing to enable one to recognize the
description as belonging to a distinct species, it becomes necessa-
ry to state wherein it differs from an allied and well known spe-
cies.

Specchio delle Scienze, §e.,2v. 8vo., Palermo, 1814. This
work was published monthly for one year, when it was discon-
tinued, for the want of sufficient support ; a fate which has befall-
en all the periodical works of this author. He even states that
the last number was detained by the printer, although indebted
to him, but he must afterwards have succeeded in getting it, as we
possess it. There area number of zoological articles in it, among
which are descriptions of two new genera of fish, histo and
Nemochirus. Osservazioni microscopiche,t are principally devoted
to new species of Infusoria. An article on the Sicilian Phocide,
Sives five species under four genera, retaining the Linnean name
for “ P, Vitulina,’’ under which name several species have been

* Loudon’s Mag. V,76. These laws are not well known, or we would not have
80 many barbarous names imposed upon the science from day to day. Our author
Was particularly happy in his nomenclature, for which he ten the gratitude
of all natu ralists. Barbarous names, he says, should be expunged; such as Messer-

midia, Hoffmansegga, Krascheninikofia, etc. We protest, however, against the
injustice of crediting a genus to an author who has merely varied a name from
its 0 original eee as Lepidosteus, Agass., instead of Lacépéde, who named this ge-
nus Lepisostens. If Agassiz is to have the genus, the species follow of course;
and a rule Siods leads to such a result, must be * Ise,

t Arthrodia, anew genus of ae seems to be identical with Oscillatoria.
We do not pretend to determine the right of ety , between Rafinesque and other
authors, in the instances cited in this articl

284 Zoological Writings of Rafinesque.

confounded. Aglophema, Raf. has precedence of F. Cuvier’s
Arctocephalus ; Aglophema pusilla (Phoca pusilla, Lin.) being the
type of both; Rafinesque, however, calls it A. phoca, changing
the specific name without cause. Authors are not agreed upon

the habitat of this species, but its range may be extensive, or dis+ _

tinct species may be confounded under the same name.

The “ Prodromus of Sicilian Herpetology,” suggests such ‘im-
provements’ as Batrachus, for Bufo; Ranaria, for Rana; and Hy-
laria, for Hyla! and contains notes of ‘a considerable number of
new species.

Thirty siz new genera of Marine animals of Sicily. Of five
mollusks, Oxynoe is said to differ from Sigaretus, by having an
external shell ;* and of three Limaces, one (T'ylodina) appears to
be identical with Testacellus. Artedia differs from Planaria by
having two little tentacles. As we will have occasion to refer to
his section of Porostomes, we give its characters here—Porosro-
mi-Animali senza bocca apparente, e nutrendosi con pori superfi-
cial ; quasi sempre gelatinosi e natanti. Vol 2, p. 165.

1815. Description of Balena gastrytis, a new Mediterranean
species. In the Palermo Port Folio.

Analyse de la Nature, S§¢., pp. 224, Svo., with a portrait.
Among his manuscripts, I find a sketch of his life written as by
another person, wherein it is stated that he esteemed this work
more than any other of which he is the author. We cite his or-
ders of Mammalia, the three first of which form his sub-class
Chiropodea. 1. Primatia, 2. Chiropteria; 3. Exogenea (Mar-
supials); 4. Stereoplia (Solipeda, Ruminantia); 5. Pachyder-
mia; 6. Anodonea (Edentata); 7. Gliria; 8. Ferea; 9. Amphi-
bia iPheen, Manatus); 10. Cetacea.

1816. Observations on the Sturgeons of N. America, and de-

Scription of a new species, Accipenser marginatus, for the Phil.
Soe. of Philadelphia.

Circular address on Botany and Zoology, §&c. Thisisagen-
eral invitation to all to forward the author specimens, &c. for ex-
change, as “rare pamphlets, and publications not in my posses-
SION. geiacg oI shell: receive thankfully any kind of information or

, such as discoveries, publications,

vroceedinige ae individ tn learned societies, &e. I particu-

* See the note to Pl. 49 icthaaptoka, edition of the iin Animal.

Zoological Writings of Rafinesque, 285
larly beg for complete sets of the natural orders and families of
orchideous, ombelliferous, liliaceous, grasses, mosses, lichens , ma-

ihe? Tine plants, labiated, leguminous, é&c., and for specimens, or the

~~. eharacters of all the new genera..... I beg the coéperation of all
++. my friends and correspondents; inviting it to communicate
“every particular, even of the most trifling nature, or obsolete, re-
lating to the properties, qualities, uses, employments, &c., of all
plants and animals; provided they are unpublished, else it will
be sufficient to let me know (or send me if rare) in which works
“ae or pamphlets they are already published.”

we These extracts show that our author was preparing to get as
many materials from every quarter as possible, evidently with
the intention of getting new genera, species, and observations,
from the labors of others. That he had an especial interegt in
getting assistance from all parts, is evident from the avidity with
which he attacked every subject.

There are two prizes offered on the cover of the Atlantic Jour-
nal, which place the intention of these requests in a still stronger
light. They are, “ Fifty dollars in books for the best memoir
on the effects on the earth and mankind of the geological flood
or floods, all over the globe as far as known; including all ac-
counts without exception, preserved by history or traditions, among
all the nations of the earth. Twenty five dollars in botanical
books and herbariums, to the author of the best synopsis of all
Native phenogamous plants of the U. S. as far as known; provi-
ded that not a single one already described or published in Amer-

ica or Europe be omitted ! !”
», The absurdity of these prizes is sufficient to make one doubt the
Sanity of the man ; for who could be induced to write a synopsis
- Of American plants for such areward! Judging from the appear-
ance of the specimens, his method of preserving plants was more
Simple than any recommended in books, as it consisted in placing

* Thus among his MSS. lost by shipwreck are the following, most of which he
intended to re-write! A greater piece of presumption than this list indicates, can-
Not be cited, when we consider the talents and the means of the man. His indus-
trious habite would never have compensated for his extreme carelessness and want

library containing scarcely any thing modern.— Critiques des genres, &c.
Vestigation of all generic names of plants and animals.—menities. Nearly one

red tracts on Zoology and Botany.—Fauna Sicula, with nearly four thousand
*Pecies.— Genera of Birds, with many new genera.—Synopsis of all known species
of quadrupeds and fishes.

286 Zoological Writings of Rafinesque.

the newly gathered examples between paper (without pressure)
where they were left without being disturbed, until required.*

The circular contains a prospectus of a Flora and Fauna of N.
America, in which he proposes to figure every animal and plant
on wood, and that every one may have such a portion as he may
require, partial sets are indicated as a fauna and flora ornata, eco-
nomica, dietetica, Virginica, &c. &c., amounting to no Jess than
one hundred and fifteen varieties of flora, and nearly as many of
fauna.

1817-18. American Monthly Magazine. This periodical con- “Gates

tains many descriptions of bats, reptiles, fish, crustacea, &c. and
Notrema, a curious genus of shell from the Ohio, which resembles
Fissnrella. 'The name is changed to Tremesia iu the Monograph
of Qhio shells. This animal is said to have been discovered by
Audubon, and communicated to Rafinesque, who described and
figured, without having seen it. It certainly cannot be admitted
into the systems of malacology without further investigation.
His Mazama (Ovis montana, Ord.) is identical with Aplocerus of
Smith, and was probably first published.t If this is the case,
Smith’s genus Mazama is left without a name. Many new spe-
cies of Aphis, (and two new genera,) are described in this period-
ical; and, in the extended article “on water snakes, several spe-
cies of Sea-serpent are named, principally from newspaper para-
graphs. See a list of these papers, appended to the Florula Lu-
doviciana.

1819. Seventy new genera of animals in the Journal de Phy-
sique, Vol. 88. This paper is too long for analysis... Two Chei-
roptera are noticed, and some “genera” of Helix proposed. The
fishes described are reproduced in his Ohio fishes ; and many of
the genera, especially among the zoophytes, are fossil.

Several genera and species of fish are described in the Jour.
Acad. Nat. Sci. Vol. I, and in the first volume of the American

he greater part of his fossils resembled his plants, as any stone which was
marked with the slightest ridge or furrow, or bore any vestige of organic remain,
was carefu ully preserved, together with strange looking pebbles and waterworn frag-
ments. Bushels of such trash were sold at the sale of bis effects, for trifling sums,
but the seis pee absolutely worthless; the localities even being unknown.

i were man: specimens of Unio, m ostly od: d valves, among them
1 it includes Smith's genus. Subulo! one species being called Mazama ‘ites and
another M. bira These names are taken from Azara. See Hunter's trans, vol. I,

p- liland 145.

Journal of Science.* Of these we are acquainted with Fixoglos-
sum alone, which is founded upon natural characters, and isa
good genus. ‘

Without knowing their precise date, we will here notice a se-
ries of articles from vols. 5, 6, and 7 of the An. Gen. des Sci. Phys.,
published at Brussels. Ours is a detached set, and we may there-
fore have omitted other articles from the same wotk. ,

Prodrome d'une Monographie des Turbinolies du Kentuky,
_ par C. S. Rafinesque et J. D. Clifford. Five sub-genera and six-

Aas '
~~ teen species are described.

Monographie des coquilles bivalves et fluviatiles de la riviére
Ohio, (with figures.) As Rafinesque was the first to make known
the greater part of the westeri Unios, it is but fair that those who
study this genus, should exert themselves to identify his species.
They are surrounded by fewer difficulties than those of Linneus,
yet there is little doubt respecting the latter, and as Rafinesque
sold examples of his species to any one disposed to purchase, he
Certainly must be credited with the disposition to afford every as-
sistance. The most complete collection of authentic specimens
how existing, is that of Mr. Poulsont of Philadelphia, who also
possesses many of Rafinesque’s unpublished MSS. and drawings.f
Most of these species are, in fact, so well established, that it is a
mere affectation to assert that they cannot be identified. The
greater part of Mr. Swainson’s sub-genera of American Unios in
the Cabinet Cyclopedia, were previously indicated by our author.

‘he same paper contains a division of the genus Cyclas into sub-
genera, but without any notice of Pisidium.

_ Sur les animaux polistomes et porostomes. The former are

: Zoophytes, the latter Infusoria, which with the older authors, he
Supposed to take their nourishment by means of pores, whence
the name. As an example of the style, we transcribe a few of
the introductory observations. “ Des erreurs accreditées pas des
Savans illustres, admises tacitement comme des vérites démon-
trées par la foule des copistes et des esprits superficiels qui se con-
tentent de croire sur parole, sont bien difficiles a dctruire ; néam-
EET gt ae ee ee

* Several reptiles are described here, also.

t Our cabinet contains three shells not in Mr. Conrad's list, viz. Unio pallens,
Metaplatos and bicolor; the last is a variety of U. dilatatus, Raf. Mr. P. is so liber-
wie he gives every facility to those who wish to consult his fine collection and

Ty. '

t We have a considerable number of these.

288 Zoological Writings of Rafinesque.

moins i] est du devoir de ceux qui ont verifié et constaté les faits
réels qui les détruisent, de chercher a les divulger et a éclairer la
domaine des sciences. .... Il est plus facile de copies des erreurs,
que de rechercher la vérité, et qnand elle est découverte, elle a
souvent bien de la peine a percer les nuages de l’ignorance ou des
préjugés scientifiques.” :

emarques sur trois erreurs ichthyologiques. “The first is the
absurd division of fishes into osseous and cartilaginous ;” the se-
cond, that authors consider the Pleuronectes as thoracic instead
of jugular; and the third, that the prepared fish roe called botargo,
does not belong to the Mugil, but to the Tunny.

Sur quelques animaux hybrides. This apocryphal account,
(founded upon hearsay, ) relates to such animals as Felis domes-
tiea, Didelphis Virginianus; and Procyon Vulpes.

Sur le genre Manis, et description d’une nouvelle espece. Three
species (two of which are Linnean) are described under two sub-
genera, which, with changing specific names, has enabled our
author to append his name to them all!

Western Review. Several articles are inserted heey but we can
only mention the Canis leucurus, a white tailed fox of Kentucky:

1819. Twenty four lectures on the natural history of the Uni-
verse, the earth and mankind, animals and plants. (MS.) These
unpublished lectures are in our possession ; they treat of astrono-
my, meteorology, geology, mineralogy, crystallography, &c. Nine
of them constitute the zoological portion, and indicate but little
talent. The introductories are good, and those devoted to Ameti-
can geology amusing, from the singularity of the views advanced.

1820. Fchthyolighs Ohiensis, one vol. 8vo., pp. 90. Oue hun-
dred and eleven species are described. It is a valuable contribu-
tion to this branch of science, and Prof. Kirtland’s labors in the
same field will rendera particular notice unnecessary. He very
properly separates the broad-mouthed, from the narrow-mouthed
Lepidostei.

Fishes of the Susquehanna. (Unpublished MS.) The de-
scriptions are too short to enable one to make out all the species ;
and, as usual with our author, species are multiplied on the
strength of the locality. “Perea interrupta, Raf.” is Labrax lin-
eatus, Lin. ; Esox chlorops = reticulatus, Les. ; and Luxilus ver-
rucosus, is probably Cyprinus cornutus, Mitch. Thirty seven
species are described, and thirteen are certainly omitted, which
gives fifty species to the Susquehanna. Among the omissions

KD de a
lg
Rt

Zoological Writings of Rafinesque. 289

are all the cartilaginous fishes: viz. Sturio ; Petromyzon Ameri-
canus, Les.; P. (Bdellostoma) nigricans, Les. ; and Ammoczetes
bicolor, Les. Lepisosteus osseus, Lin. is omitted also.

Annals of Nature. This tract contains eighty one new species
and a proportionate number of new genera of animals, The first
twelve are ‘“‘Mastosia or Sucklers,” including three bats, a Me-
phitis, (probably the common species, which varies much, ) a spe-
cies of Spalax, two of Gerbillus, three of Lemmus, and a Sciurus,
Of four birds, Milvus leucomelas appears to be Nauclerus furcatus,
Lin. Hirundo phenicephala, (head scarlet,) is given on the au-
thority of Mr. Audubon, who, however, does not describe it. The
first reptile described is a species of Necturus, a genus proposed
for the Salamandra Alleganiensis, afterward described under a
new generic name by Dr. Harlan. Several species of Triturus
follow, this name being applied to the reptile Triton, (there being
a molluse Triton, ) because the two are inadmissible. The reptile
has precedence in point of time, (at least, this is our impression,
and Laurentj* could not have been, under ordinary cireumstances,
deprived of his genus, merely because Lamarck thought proper
to adopt the name for a different one. Many of the serpents nam-
ed in this pamphlet, are evidently described from hearsay.

1831. Enumeration and account of some remarkable natural
objects, &c. This tract is chiefly devoted to fossils, and is partly a
catalogue of objects which he had for sale. His Mazama salinaria
is minutely characterized from a horn. This ‘unique specimen of
teat beauty and value,’ is in our cabinet; but those who wish
to possess so desirable an object, can be gratified, if they will take
the trouble to break the prongs from the horns of a Cervus Cana-
densis, and deposit them where the inside porous portion may
become filled with minefal matter.

1832-3. Atlantic Journal. This periodical is principally filled
With the productions of the editor, although sometimes over fic-
titious signatures, which can never mislead any one acquainted
With his style. Art. 13, on the Mexican Jaguars. He cites sev-
eral instances in which these animals have penetrated into the
Western States. Art. 14, Cougars of Oregon. He acknowledg-

* According to Cuvier, Laurenti’s name was applied to a larva; consequently. it
Cannot be retained, and that of Rafinesque must stand. See Harlan’s Researches,
P. 165, note *,

Vol. xx11, No, 2.—Jan.-March, 1842. 37

290 . Zoological Writings of Rafinesque.

es several varieties, but contrives to make species out of them
thus: Var. Oregonensis, dark brown, &c..... Is it not a peculiar
species? Felis Oregonensis.—I find in Leraye’s travels,* that a
smaller animal nearly similar in color, but not longer than a cat,
is found, &c. Isitanew species?) Felis macrura, Raf. Art. 10,
Aquila dicronyx, Raf., appears to be“identical with Holiaetus,
Washingtoni, Aud. The old genus Condylura of Illiger, is repro-
duced under the name Astromycter. We have seen Rafinesque’s
Psephides, “a new tubular fresh-water shell of the Allegany
mountains,” and consider it the case of a larva. Whether the
many species of fossil shells which Rafinesque has described,
from the Alleganies of Pennsylvania, are new, will of course be
determined by the geological survey of this State, (Pennsylvania, )
which is drawing to a close.

1836. A life of travels and researches, Sc. We close this ar-
ticle with a few extracts from this work.

* Mr. Gibbs, consul of the U. S., received me well; he was
also a banker and merchant. I became his secretary and chan-
cellor. I dwelt with him ina palace till 1808, when I took a
house of my own and became a merchant, having made a small
fortune in his employ within three years. Shortly after my arti-
val, political events made Sicily the residence of the court of Na-
ples, and broke all our communications with Italy and France.
The produces of the island fell to a low rate: it was by trading
in them that I acquired my first personal fortune, as well as by
discovering in the island several new drugs and sources of trade.
Such were the squills, rosemary, wormwood, bay-leaves, &c. I
established a manufacture of dry squills on a large scale: the Si-
cilians were wondering at me for this, as they made no use of
them, and fancied they were a new tin¢torial article; which I let
them believe....I wrote in Italian through prudence, rather than
in French. Prudent considerations had already induced me to
add the name of Schmaltz, my mother’s name, to my own, and to
pass for an American.”

“Swainson went often with me in the mountains; he cartied a
butterfly-net to catch insects, and was taken for a crazy man or a
wizard ; as he hardly spoke Italian. I had once to save him from

ee ee an a a I aga

* These travels cannot be received as zoological authority ; the species, therefore,
that Rafinesque has founded upon them, (Am. Monthly Mag. v. 1, p. 435,) are not
worth looking after.

M. Faraday’s answer to Dr. Hare’s second Letter. 291

being stoned out of a field, where he was thought to seek for a

instance of perseverance and industry. May this inspire youth-
ful minds with a wish to do as well; and the friends of sciences
with the wish to know me, or patronize the labors of my old age:
permit me at last to produce under their shield, those works,
fruits of my travels and researches, which I desire to leave'as
monuments of my life and exertions.

“If I have often gone beyond the actual state of knowledge in
my views and opinions, or anticipated on future knowledge, it
was with the noble aim of adding my mite to the mental improve-
ment of mankind. If my discoveries and projects have not been
Speedily admitted, I leave them as a legacy to those superior
minds who will be able to appreciate them, and bestow me the
justice often denied in my days: to the friends of useful sciences,
of virtue and peace, to the wise philanthropists, to the enlighten-
ed, liberal and impartial men of both hemispheres.”

Near Marietta, Pa., April, 1842.

Arr, X.—M. Faraday’s answer to Dr. Hare’s second Letter.*
| Royal Institution, Dec. 24, 1841,

My Dear Sir—On reading your second letter to me in Silli-
man’s Journal, (published July, 1841,) I wrote a brief answer
back, but find from Dr. Silliman, that it has been mislaid. I
therefore send this brief note to say that I hope you will excuse
any controversial reply.@ I do not find any reason to change my
Opinion as to. the matters referred to in yours to me: and as far as

should have occasion to answer for my own part, I would rather
tefer the readers of the Journal to my papers and my former reply
to your first letter. As to the new and important matter into
Which your last letter would lead me, J am not sufficiently clear
in my mind, upon the evidence we as yet have, to wish to enter
into it at present. Ever my dear Sir,
With the highest esteem, yours very truly,
M. Farapay.

Dr. Harz, &c. &c. &e.

* Communicated from M. Faraday to this Journal.

”

292 Meteorological Observations at San Fernando, Cuba.

Arr. XI.—Meteorological Observations, made at the Mines of
San Fernando, situated in the Partido de la Manicaraqua,
Island of Cuba, Lat, 22° 20 14” N., Lon. 73° 51! 27” W.

_ of Cadiz, at an elevation 554 feet above the sea; by Joun H.
Buaxe, of Boston, Mass.

$0 kf pea bs
y= Er oa — ie
Spe Pee) gee Ee es pee
parr, | § $n & |me | mee fp eee aos cael
140.) € | s | ae | a= | as | oe | ok
P/E) Ee |e bee bee
& | m | & = & |
Janu’r i :
aa 10.6| 67 | ° | .° | & | °. |A shower.
2 La 68 63
dais 13.5 66 62 74
al 13.5} GL_| 67 | 60
5 (29.981 15.5| 6 | 71 | 6 | 80 | 63 | |
eae 29.26) 19. | 68 8] Drizzling.
es .21| 19.5} 71 76 67 84 84...
Pry 23] 83 68 | 74 | 6 | 86 | 116°
ee 23} 21.5) 65 72 65 74 99
10 19.23/18. | 66 63
iL 10; 29. 67 67 lil
2 15} 28. 69 3 68 93 115
3 ell S75 68 3 68 89 106
q £22) 25. 68 70 123
) ao| 23: 67 Y 65 113
20) 21. 60 67 109
2 55) QT. 68 64 107 |Hazy
3 P.1)) 67 85 | 107
) 9,20) 21. 70 61 ,
) 20) 21. 67 62 71 81
25] 21. 64 ) 69 81 84
) eal 19, 68 71 81 106
7 25} 21. v1 72 98
} 24. 29.15) 18.2] 69 | 76 | 72 97
D 26) 16.5) 73 ; fo 84
>» 1929.19) 23.5). 73 , 72 ene storm.
7 |29.90| 93.5] 72 1 | 68 97 |Drizzling.
3 eo, ies tae 5 70 74 | 108 Thunder without rain.
). 429.22) 13.5) 70 5 70 | MO show
30°. 129.10) 19. | 71 ‘6 69 80 | 101 5 een.
h's1 29.28] 12.51 74 72 | 97 [an

Barom. Average for the month, 29.208)
Se Maximum altitude, 29.28
Minimum altitude, 29.10 | Total of _— ane during the
Sraive Average for the month, 19.) | month, 2.74 in
ta _ Extreme trad 29. Greatest eae ‘that fell in one show-
8.3 jer, 1-20 inch
749° Number of ‘haiienbil 4,
78, _ Showers with lightning, 1.
60. Prevailing wind during oa month, eas-
Mean in sun’s 8 rays, 92.6 y-
Maximum in sun’s rays, 123, Prevailing clouds, cumulus.
Minimum in sun’s rays, 80,

.

Rain, &c.

Meteorological Observations at San Fernando, Cuba, 293

“3 =
ze 4 g2 | Be
.| & | e® fae rial avid-ae
Sole |, al ee Hibs SP, | ere
aad 2 § | Ho | BS | mo] ws | MS REMARKS.
| &| 2? | 6° |e" eb | ee
airie = a a 4
Feb '
] 18.5| 73 7 | 73 | 79 | 106
2 SLeAsuds / 73 83 | 125
3 182} 71 ) 71 110 = | Drizzling.
12, 67 64 izzli
17.5} 62 ) 64 65 | 105
) 17.5| 71 ) 66 95 95
| 69 t 69 71: |} 12
3 ‘ 70 74 68 80 80
) 17.6| 70 t 72 94 | 110
10 17.5| 68 ) 70 112
20.3) "71 60 107
, 16.5) 66 3 70 75
13 18. | 64 2 67
19.5| 70 Bi er] er | io
16. | 65 , 82 | Drizzling.
) 14 67 106
17 1% 5).%0 4 66 84 | 114
. 1%,2|. 72 $ 69 | lol
) 19,1. 72 83 | 102
20.5; 72 89 99
18.4| 70 ) 67 74 | 122
20.5| 61 > | 67 | 8 [12 |.
3 13.2| 69 74 | 102 | 116 | Drizzling.
ps an ef 72 83 | 123
20. 72 | 72 | 195 |Drizzling.
} 20. | 72 > : re Drizzling.
20) 11. | “73 } 7
3 9.33} 9.5) 74 3 74 81 92 | Thunder storm.
) 29.17! 7.8) 74 >} 68 85 |Shower.
Barometer. rages for the
month, 29.213
Sion alitade, ? ant Rain, &c.
Minimum altitude, 29.11 Total of water ers during
Hygrometer. ge a for the the month, .59 of an
month, . 16.5 Greatest quantity a fell in one
Extreme dyritan! : 21. shower, .20 of an inch.
Extreme moisture, . 7.8 Number of showers, 2.
Temperature. Mean for the Showers with lightning, 1
month, . 70. Prevailing wind during the month,
Moicinvdin 4 in sinde, 87. | easterly, but variable.

Minimum in shade,
Mean in sun’s rays,
Maximum in sun’s rays, 195.

Minimum in sun’s rays, 65.

Prevailing clouds, cumulus.

294 Meteorological Observations at San Fernando, Cuba.

@ 3 G B #£
ee Ge eae Cae €
[eg {e%| eg] e*| ef] s2
DATE, 8 = ec ee ee ae Ps REMARKS.
HO. 1 G1 BE ae ieee 408s Let, Jone
PIB] Ee |e |g | Fe | ge
é jie - - B
Ma
8} 9.) 7% 4 é0 56 Drizzling.
AS) 17.5) ‘4 68 80 90 |Shower.
29.241 9, ) id 68 92 99
29.01) 20.3 74 66 74 82 (Shower.
29.07) 21.5 ) 65 92 | 122
29,25] 12. 3 65 92 81
29.20) 15.5} ) 86 84
221 17. | 69 69 | 82 | 127
29.11} 21.5) ) : ‘ “98 | 124
29.08) 20. ) } 2 | 97 | 100 |High wind.
: 10) 22.8) bp S6. | Wil
: 29.15} 23. 69 | 106 | 117 |Thunder storm.
13 29.31! 20.5] 5 | 97 | 110
: *\29.41) 10. ) : 80 | 107
' 29.34) 13.5) 68 L 88 | 120
A7| 24. & 2 92 | 106
29.23) 10.5 ) 7 | 100 | 138 |Showers.
: 29.26} 10.8 ) 93 83 ower
29.22) 13. ) 3 86 | Shower.
29.24) 10.5) 112
.23| 95) 7% 78 91 95
> (29.21; 11. | 73 84
3 19] 10. | 73 78 82 | 115
29.13} 12.7; 74 78 81 85 |Drizzling.
98} 10. | 75 78 : 82 Thunder storm.
21-32) |-'6S 6 76
20; 20. | 65 70 72 106
3 30) 14. | 69 74 ‘ *82 | 84
> RO 26) aRererg 76 75 80 | 124
) 24) 10. | 71 76 82
29.241 10.51 72 | 76 | 77 | 100 | 120
Barometer. ee for the
month, 29.20 :
Max initia ‘alttiide; 29.41 “Rain, &e.
_ Minimum altitude, 28.98} Total df water deposited during
Hygrometer. Average for the the month, 2.49 inches.
month, . . . 146] Greatest quantity that fell in one
Extreme dryness, 24. |shower, 1.13 inches.
: moisture 9 Number of showers, 7.
Temperature. Mean for the Showers with lightning, 2.
month, ae 73.5° Prevailing wind during the month,
Minim bas the shade, 79 westerly, but very variable.
) in the shade, 65. | Prey; ae clouds, cirrus.
Mean in sun’s rays, . 96.

Maximum in sun’s rays, 138.

Minimum in sun’s rays, 74,

, eo oe | ee | _
' S

Q, : 5 z.
a Cuba. 295
Co Mb RMT £ ernando, Uaout.

3 s 2 =
a. |g & BH Be
o a5) eh oe 4} 28 ]
4 8 | £3, | 88 | 4,.| Fo | fe
1840; 2, SPR | wa | ee] ee | | es REMARKS
3g 5 ae ee _ ee ae
a ee e E pe |e =.
April
1 |29.30| 10. | ti | 87 | 98
2 ).23) 11.5). 75 ri 79 90 | 114
3 30) 11. 1 60 | 101:'| Ht |?
4 31) 11. 1° 76° | 80 80 82 96 :
5 39} 12. s2 | 92 105
5 .30| 10.5] 77 80 | 80 88 | 115
{ 28) 10.5) 76 79 82 128
.23| 11.5} 70 2 | %9 92 |Windy.
.23| 10.2] 76 79 79 | 103 | 116 in.
8.5) 78 80 76 | 112 | 122 |Thunder, but no rain.
: 8. 78 77 88 | 105 i
4 i ee nt 5 79 77 90 Rain.
3 ; 7.5) % 79 77 97 85
: 7.5| 75 81 82 | 100
> : 7.5 79
) : ’ 80 79 110
/ (29.23) 8.5) 76 | 80 79 93 | 135
3 129.28) 8.7) 78 82 82 92 | 129
» © (29.33) 9.4 77 82 82 92 | 111
) -129.33}.10.5] 78 81 81 94 | 110
e0.3e|12..| 77 81 80 62 | 117
2 =: (29.28) 13.5} 80 79 116
§ 129.27) 14.5 81 80 106
29.21} 12, 81 79 109 :
> (29.19) 11.5] 71 | Bt | 79 113 |Rain.
> 129.18} 11:5) 76 81 79 95 | 108 |Rain.
129.22) 11.5] 76 | 80 | 77 | 92 Thunder storms.
D129 Qt ALS VF 82 80 | &8 | 113 |Thunder storm.
) |29.34] 12.3) 80 81 under storm.
| 30 129.33} 12.5 81 82 123
Barometer. sere for the
month, 29
Rain, &c.

Mexirian es ; 29.29
Minimum altitude, . 29.18
Hygrometer. pent for the
10.5

month,

Extreme deynedis ; 14.5
Extreme moisture, . 7.5

Temperature. Mean for the
78.

month,
Misicstin § in ia bine:

82.
Minimum in the shade, 70.
1.

Mean in sun’s nes 1

Maximum in sun’s rays, 135,
Minimum in sun’s rays, 82.

Lal
o

Total of water deposited during

‘the month, 2.09 inches.

Greatest quantity that fell in one
shower, 1.

Number of showers, 7.

Showers with lightning, 3.

Prevailing wind during the month,
northerly.

Prevailing cloud, cirrus.

296 Meteorological Observations at San Fernando, Cuba.
eee,

Ee

TTT TT TST.
a f |4.| 4, | #4} g¢
& {sg |]s5|s8| si | sa] 88
DATE,| & {[ 3 Sa noe betes | eg ioe REMARKS.
1940. ] ¢ | § | ce} ge |] ae] ae] af
g£|&ile° |e |¢ | gf] §8
a | mo] e & & = &
Ma
1” e908 12.1 % | ° |-@ | & | 2 Ishower.
2 33} 12.5; 83 Shower.
3 ).22) 12.3) 79 82 80 | 102 95
f rd es ae 85 80 94 | 111 (Shower.
peel Stee Ie fs 80 79 88 83
6 ) H.t 6 82 77 | 104 99 |Shower.
) 10.5} 79 84 82 |} $838 87 |Drizzling.
3 125) 80 83 79 92 | 122
) 15} 12.5) . 79 84 82 | 103 99
10 ) 13.4. 7B; | £82 83 95 | 113
] 58 135, 77 62 81 98 | 101
Be .22| 12.8) 78 82 ye | 920.7 1-922 hower.
13 20) 11. | 76 80 vet 92° | 181 hower
14 21) 12:7; §1 78 75 94 86 hower.
15 12.2| 74 77 80 | 109 hower.
16 08| 11.5} 73 85 hower morn and eve.
j 10. 75 74 76 |Shower—a rainy day
3 08} 10. | 74 76 73 hower—a rainy day.
) 08} 10.8} 73 75 hower—a rainy day.
) 6:5! 75 79 108 | 106 er.
10.5} 75 79 79 {105 | 106
2 10. | 76 78 79 86 | 104 |Shower.
3 22) 10.2; 76 79 77 83 hower
, 9. 76 79 77 | ats Shower.
16) 10.2). 76 79 79 | 109 86
: 13) 10.5} 76 79 79 8 |: Shower.
; .08} 11. 80 78 98 :
98 29.08 98 "6 80 78 et and heavy rain
nia tes cloudy during
29 j29.15) 10. | 74 6 78 94 day, but Hite pt
‘ het wers occasional, an
30. (29.13| 10. | 76 80 79 82 at night heavy rain. ;
31 j20.14, 9.31 74 | 76 | 76 Se ee

Barom. Average for month, 29.159]

Maximum altitude, 29.33
~ Minimum altitude, 29.06
Hygr. Average for month, 11.1
reme dry ; 13.
Extreme moisture, 8.5
Temp. Mean for month, 78."
Maximum in shade, 85.
Minimum in shade, 73.
Mean in sun’s rays, 98.
Maximum in sun’s rays, 122.

Rary, &c.

| Total of water ana during
the month, 20.28 in

Greatest soul at one time,
7.3 inches.

Number of showery days, 21.

Showers with lightning, 15

Prevailing wind, easterly, but
very variable.
1 Preyailing clouds, cirrus, cumu-

Minimum in sun’s rays, 80.

‘aoe cae and nimbus.

a, ae

L =. IML ,° Pa.
4 gical. C , Cuba, 297
tea
: 3 FE E 2 2
ae ee fc | ge
“ an 3 n 7 a 5 so
: | S| 8, | Be Ss [266 i288
may’ |e | gl | wo | mS he le REMARKS
1640. / £ | 3 | as | 38 | 3? {ae J ek ae x,
| &]s s+ Pe ef | Bs
ale eal eel ee ae
June 9 Ee Le ee
] 04) 9. % | 9 74 86 A rainy day, | :
2 11} 8.4 , | 78 7 | 108 A rainy day, ay
3 lke 79 | 78 | 84 | 120 ie
4 ).23) 7.5 » | 80 80 86 | 98
) s aa) ) 79 76
6 ).26| 9. 3 | 80 85 | 118 Slight aig P.M.
22) 6. ) 76 2 A shower, P.M.
3 ‘ 78 >. |. 99 Sh mes
) ) ; 78 4 95 A shower, P. M.
) ‘ m3) 80 ) 92 {118
2110. j 80 4 81 A shower, P. M.
12 ‘ y j 85
3 9 } 78 , 79 | 108 (A shower, Pp. m.
J 8 Oe tea ; A shower, Pp. mM.
ae sé 78 } 75 A shower, P. mM.
) 76 86 A shower, P. M.
‘ ). D 3 77 200 -4a8
18 : 3 Roh 88, 86 | 95 |A shower, P. m.
) ). : 76 82 : 95
) & pvt 84 |. 97
y 91 7 98 92
, B 4 |) 77 90 | °80 89 | 103
3 ; 2} 76 90 78 ill
84/10. 91.5| 77 A shower, P. M.
.28] 5. 74 90 oR? 106 |A shower, P. m.
) = 29.24110.5 | 86 87.5) 78 | 410 | 108
24 82 89 90 | 102 |A shower, Pp. m.
3. 29 94] 7. |. 82.5). 79.5] . 76.5) 104 _ |A shower, P. m.
>. 29.23,85 |. 76.) 88 1% 95 | 128 i shower, P. M.
|} 30 )29.9218.5] 77 | 89 | 76.5) 83
Barometer. Avemge for the |
“month, 3 29.
Maximum aliitnde, . 29.35 Rain, &c.
Minimum altitude, . 29.04 | Total of water deposited during
the month, 14.56 inches.

Hygrometer. erin for the
month 7.3

Extreme dabei 10.5
Extreme moisture, . 5.
Temperature. Mean for the
month, . 82.4°
Maximum in the stide: 91.5

Minimum in the shade, 71.

Mean in sun’s rays,

Maximum i in sun’s rays, 128.
imum in sun’s rays, 75.

Vol. xzu, No. 2.—Jan.-March, 1842.

Greatest fall of rain in one show-
er, 2.5 inches.

Number of showers, 17 days.

Showers with lightning, 17 days.

Prevailing wind, easterly.

Prevailing clouds, cumulo-stra-
tus,

298 Meteorological. Observations at San Fernando, Cuba.

= |3s |3s 2 2 : : San Fernando, Is!
2 \2 {8 sa} ga/S | & $a jand of Cuba, Lat. 22°
eH] 22185] o4] o3 18g | Ss | Se [20 14N., Lon.
. S cs —" coal
$4) 28} 25) So) oe | es | as | ax (51! 27" W. of Cadiz.
montus, | “2 oe is et woe as Ea Ee
e a 5 ae Be te Bol aa Remarks, 1839.
2 o 2 om S) s = s.5
e |e je |e ae ee
January. |66.9°\71.5° 68.3°| 79.7°| 95.2°| 79° | 57° | 117°\4 days showers, lo
Mean 69.99 heavy rain,
February. |68.9 |73. (69.8 | 87.1 | 98. | 78 | 57 | 117 |6 days showers.
Mean 71.4°
March. |73.2 |76.6 |69.9 | 90.9 |105.8 | 82 | 62 | 135 |9 days showers.
Mean 73.2°
pril. [73.8 |78.7 |70.6 | 99. {110.9 | 83 | 64 | 130 (6 days showers, 2 of
Mean 74.6° them with lightning.
a 80.6 |75.3 [101.4 |102.1 | 85 | 71 | 119 |24 daysshowers, 15 of!
Mean +4 90 them with lightn’ g.
June. {78.5 [82.2 |75.7 (100.4 {111.3 | 85 | 72 | 129 (21 days showers, all
Mean 78.9° with li ing
ly. {78.5 (83.1 |78. |101. {106.5 | 86 | 71 | 131 |22days showers, 21 of
ean 80.5° them ghin’g
August. {79.7 |83.2 |76.1 | 99.6 |100. | 87 | 71 | 120 |20days showers, 15 of
‘Mean 79. em Ww ghtn’g
ptember.|78.2 82.7 |74.6 | 93.7 | 96.8 | 86 | 68 | 121 |16days showers, 11 off
Mean 78.6° di em with lightn’g
74.9 178.3 |73.5 | 85. | 99.7] 81 | 70 | 110 |22 days showers, 1 off
Mean 75 oF them with lightn’g.
November. |70.7 |75.7 69.8 | 83.9 | 96.3 | 80 | 65 | 121 |2 days showers
Mean 72.7°
December. |66.8 |71.3 [64.6 | 91.9.|101.6 | 77 | 51 | 122 [6 days showers, 20 of
Mean 67.9° them with lightn’g. !
Mean temperature of the spring, : ‘ . 75.2° F.
Mean temperature of the summer, 79.6
Mean temperature of the autumn, oP aa. 3 75.7
Mean temperature of the winter, i 7 . 69.7

Mean temperature of the year,

The greatest variation of temperature in one a ty dating the month of January,
was 13°; in February, 13°; in March, 13°; in April, 12°; in May, 13°; in June,
11°; in July, 12; in August, 13°; in September, 15°; in October, 9°; in No-
vember, 11°; in December, 18°.

Ne he degree of humidity of the atmosphere was imperfectly determined
by wetting the bulb of a delicate thermometer covered with cambric, with 4
of alcohol, and noting the number of degrees which the mercury fell below the
temperature of the air in the shade.

To the very useful averages of the eat ah for the year, we take the liberty of
the following: —Eps

from his ree
Average of the maximum temperature in the s sun’s rays, 122.66°
Average of the temperature at noon in the sun’s rays, 110.3
Average of the maximam temperature in the shade, i B28
Average of perature at noon in the shade, 78.1
verage of the minimum temperature in the shade 64.93
Average of the temperature in the evening, a

Average of the temperature at 8, 4. ae ‘hale, pee; 5
Average of the temperature at 8, a.m. in the sun’s rays,. 92.8

|

4
ts Mr. Redfield’s Reply to Dr. Hare. 299

Per. XIl.—Reply to Dr. Hare’s Cuesiee & to she Whirlwind
Theory of Storms; by W. C. Reprrexp.

An article entitled “ Objections to Mr. Redfield’s Theory of
Storms, with some strictures on his reasoning ; by Roserr Hare,
M.D., Prof. of Chem. in the Univ. of Pennsylvania,” which
lasitewe in the last number of this Journal, and is also found in a
modified form in the London, Edinburgh and Dublin Philosoph- .
ical Magazine for December, has given occasion for the notes
and remarks which follow.

The several series of facts and observations, showing both the
rotary and progressive movement of great storms, which I have
published, together with those which have also been adduced by
Reid, Milne, Dové and Piddington,* are deemed sufficient to es-
tablish the whirlwind character of these storms. In the absence,
therefore, of contravening facts of a reliable character, it seems
incumbent on an objector to set aside these facts and observations
as unfounded and inaccurate, or to show that the results which
they appear to establish have been deduced erroneously. This
task Dr. Hare has not attempted; and I might therefore have
been excused from replying to his objections and strictures ; as
these cannot affect the results which it has been my chief aim to
establish.

But the nbecceniiens which I have published extend als to the
So-called tornado or water-spout, and with similar results :+ while
Mr. Espy and Dr. Hare have each in turn advanced his the-
ory of tornadoes and storms, founded on a@ priori reasoning or
Speculation, and on alleged deductions from phenomena observed.
Hence, perhaps, originates this fourth attempt, from one or other
of these sources, to discredit the results of my principal inqui-
ries ; being, however, the first from Dr. Hare.

* See this Journal, 20 : 20-40; 25: 114-121; 31: 115-130; 35: 201-223; a
Paper read before the’ Am. Philos. Soc. 1841, ee N.S. vol. 7,) and san into
the present volume of this Journal, p. 112-11

Reid on the Law of Storms, Weale, Lond. 1

Transactions of the Royal Society Bainburgh, Vol. 14, p. 467-487.

Poggendorff’s Annalen, Jan. 1841,

Piddington’ s first and second iiscaciee on the Law of Storms in India. Calcutta.

t See this Journal, Vol. xx1, (July, 1841,) p. 69-77. Do. Jour, Frank. Inatit.,
Vol. 3, third series, p. 9.

?

300 Mr. Redfield’s Reply to Dr. Hare.

Moreover, I have sometimes ventured to offer summary skete

es of other results or conclusions which seemed to follow from —
the above mentioned and other developments, which came under

notice in pursuing my meteorological inquiries.* These sketches
or conclusions were given, partly as notifications and partly be-
cause I was not willing it should appear in after years, that such
results or conclusions as I have noticed had been overlooked in
conducting my examinations. These inceptive statements seem
to have occasioned many of the “strictures” and criticisms which
Tam now to notice. ;

Dr. Hare says that my “idea that tornadoes and hurricanes are
all whirlwinds, involves some improbabilities,” and that it requires
that ‘‘during every hurricane, there should-be blasts of a like de-
gree of strength coinciding with every tangent which can be ap-
plied to a circle,” and that “ thirty two ships equidistant from the
axis of gyration, and from each other, should each have the wind
froma different point of the compass with nearly equal force.”
The only modification he admits, “is that resulting from the pro-
gressive motion which tends to accelerate the wind” on one side,
“and to retard it upon the other.”

I could never have imagined that any “ idea” of mine necessa-
rily involved the conditions here specified; and if the fact be such,
Dr. Hare would have rendered some service by making it manifest.
The modification admitted by him, vitally important as it is, shows
only one of the conditions which would doubtless prevent any
such perfect symmetry of results as he demands; to say nothing
of the practical error of supposing that the course of the wind in
a whirlwind must coincide with the tangents of a circle. He
alleges also, “that as respects any one station, the chances would
be extremely unfavorable that the same hurricane should twice
proceed from the same quarter.” If by this is meant that the
changes of wind at any one station in the same gale, are not
likely to come back to the same point of the compass from which
it had before blown, except by an extraneous force or influence,
we'shall in this be able to agree. He states further, that “in the
course of time it would be felt, at any station, to proceed from
many different directions, if not from every point of the com-

Ne oe ep - ’
* See this Journal, 33: 50-655 also, various incidental remarks and statements
in other papers. ae

3

=

vane

eta od

eae

Mr. Redfield’s Reply to Dr. Hare. 301

The first of these conditions is verified by observation,
cept as I have shown that the changes in a regular whirlwind

iin will not, in the true wind of the gale, be likely to exceed

sixteen points of the compass at any one station. It will be diffi-
cult, however, for Dr. Hare to show, that the regular changes in
itvobreatve whirlwind storm, as truly exhibited at any fixed
station, should run through every point of the compass; although
this may sometimes happen to a ship moving in the storm.

Dr. Hare does not appear to perceive, that the several condi-
tions above referred to, are for the most part, no more predicable
of the whirlwind storm, than of the affluent theory of storms
which he advocates.

Dr. Hare states, that “the fact that during the same storm dif-
ferent vessels variously situated, are found to have the wind in
as many different directions, may be explained by the affiux of
winds from all quarters to a common focal area, as well as by sup-
posing them involved in a great whirlwind.” This might be
true, as [ have virtually stated elsewhere, provided that the di-
rection of the wind at such vessels was found, at a given time,
to be towards such a “focal area ;” which does not happen: the
observed differences of the winds from these centripetal direc-
tions being nearly equal to ninety degrees, (or a right angle,)
as has been repeatedly shown.*

T have formerly stated that “I have observed in the effects of the
New Brunswick tornado, numerous facts which appear to demon-
Strate the whirling character of this tornado, as well as the inward
tendency of the vortex at the surface of the ground.”+ But Dr.
Hare thinks, “that the survey of Bache and Espy shows that it
Would be inconsistent with the facts to suppose such motion, un-
lets as a contingent result.”” Now, without inquiring whether the
constant whirling action to which I alluded be a contingent or a
necessary result, it is proper to notice, that the great question be-
tween us is and has been, have storms a gyratory character?
To me, the facts established by all the strict observations which
have been made and properly stated, proclaim the affirmative.
We shall probably find, on a strict examination, that even the

* See this penance 25: 116; 31: 117-118; 35 : 210-215. Jour. Frank. Instit.
1839, Bea d p. 363-378, Dové in Poggendorff’s Annalen, Jan. 1841.
pp. 10.4

t See hes nawaei, 35: 207.

302 Mr. Redfield’s Reply to Dr. Hare.

surveys of Prof. Bache, though not comprising all the nartichiitea :

which I deem essential to a right view of the case, may yet be

best explained by admitting a general and continued whirlwind
action.

Dr. Hare next adduces an imperfect quotation on the law of
atmospheric circulation, as depending on the earth’s rotation, cen-
trifugal action, &c.: and presumes me to mean, “ that the cen-
trifugal force communicated to the air at the equator, causes it to
rise and give place to those portions of the atmosphere,” from
adjacent latitudes, which “have less rotary motion ;” and pro-
ceeds to comment on this presumption. I beg leave to assure
Dr. Hare that he has greatly misapprehended my meaning: and
furthermore, that I have never found any evidence of the sup- —
posed general ascent of the air from the lower to the upper at-
mosphere in the equatorial regions.

In my first essay, the prevalence of westerly winds in the upper
regions of the atmosphere, was incidentally and partially ascribed
to the deflection of the trade winds by mountains. Dr. H. alleges
that this explanation harmonizes with the theory of Halley. He
adds, ‘‘In fact as the water accumulated by these winds in the
Gulf of Mexico, is productive of the Gulf Stream, is it not reason-
able that there should be an aerial accumulation and current, cor-
responding with that of the aqueous current above mentioned ?”
This comes nearer to my views of the course of circulation in
the atmosphere, but does not so well accord with the common
theory of the trade winds. That the alleged accumulation of
water in the Gulf of Mexico by the trade winds, is the main
cause of the Gulf Stream, Dr. Hare may perhaps show hereafter.
The contrary would appear to have been settled by the levellings
which have already been obtained. °

Dr. Hare intimates that the trade winds “cannot be explained
without the agency of temperature ;” he alleges also that I “ re-
ject the influence of heat ;” and proceeds to quote a paragraph
from which, as well as athets, he infers that I “consider gravita-
tion, uninfluenced by heat or electricity, mainly the cause of at-
mospheric currents ;” and he inquires, “ what other effect could
gravitation have, in the absence of calorific and electrical reaction,
unless that of producing a state of inert quiescence ?”
speaks of my treating momentum as “the antagonist of gravita-
tion.” [p. 141-142, par. 5-8.]

eo

me Mr. Redfield’s Reply to Dr. Ehabe: : 303
oe 4,
‘

__. Now to all this, I answer: 1. That, to my apprehension, the

essential features of the trade winds can be best explained with-
out assigning the agency of temperature as the chief moving
2. It is an error to say, that I reject the influence of heat.

3. I consider the influences of momentum, centrifugal force, and .
centripetal action, as being comprised in the laws of gravitation.
4. It is true that I do not consider “ electricity” as a general
cause of atmospheric currents; for the reason, that so far as I
know, this has never been shown. 5. That the only effect of
gravitation, without calorific or electrical reaction, would be to
‘produce ‘a state of inert quiescence,” in the atmosphere of a
moving and rotative planet like our own, is to me inconceivable.
6. I have never considered nor asserted “momentum” to be “the
antagonist of gravitation.”’ In the paragraph which is quoted by
Dr. Hare, I had suggested the courses of great storms as indica-
ting the law of circulation in our atmosphere, and which I deem-
ed to be founded mainly on the laws of gravitation. By some
mistake, he has given the phrase “causes of great storms” ing
stead oé courses ; and proceeding on this error, he calls it a sum-
ming up of the “causes” of atmospheric currents: although he
alleges at the same time, that I here admit but one cause.

it is next asked, “If the minuteness of the altitude of the
atmosphere in comparison with its horizontal extent, be an objec-
tion to any available currents being induced by calorific rarefac-
tion,” as he states I have alleged, se wherefore should not momen-
tum or any other cause di: the influence
of gravity, be on the same account reqealls inefficient?” To this
I answer:—1. Momentum, and the other modifications of the
gravitating power, are of far greater magnitude and force than the
influence of the mere difference of temperature in the several
geographical or climatorial zones. 2. The main tendency or re-
sult of this greater force is to produce horizontal, not vertical
motion. 3. The words which I have italicised, show only the
misapprehension corrected above, and which appears to run
through the strictures which Iam noticing. By “available cur-
rents,” as above quoted, I here understand the great currents of
the atmosphere, constituting the trade winds, &c.

In succeeding paragraphs [10-12] Dr. H. criticises the terms
by which I have endeavored to point out, that a whirling or ro-
tative movement is the only known cause of a violent and desiruc-

tive force in winds or tempests ; as the last clause of the paragraph
quoted by him should read. There is little probability that my
meaning has been misunderstood by general readers; and it ap-
pears afterwards to have been divined by Dr. Hare himself.
After a short comment on the functions of gravitation, Dr. H.
inquires—‘ But if neither gravity, nor calorific expansion, nor
electricity, be the cause of winds, by what are they produced ?”’
I answer, 1. According to my apprehension, the gravity which
induces a nearly equal ‘distribution of the atmosphere over the
surface of the globe,” may and does, in its modified influences,
constitute the main basis of winds and storms. 2. That calorific
expansion is a “cause of winds” is universally admitted ; but,
that it is the chief cause I cannot perceive. 3. If “electricity”
be the cause of winds, it seems incumbent on Dr. H. to show it.
~ For my own part, having never attempted to write out or es-
tablish a theory of the winds, in the common acceptation of the
term, nor yet, of the origin or first cause of storms, I have no
gccasion to go into these inquiries any further than relates to my
present purpose. It is true that I entertain some definite views
on these points, which have resulted from observation and in-
quiry ; but the choice of time and occasion for their more full
development, and also of the evidence on which they rest, belongs
to myself rather than to. another. I do not intend being diverted
from my ordinary business, or from the results of direct observa-
tions in storms, by engaging in a controversial discussion of those
general views of the alleged cause of winds, and of the physico-
mechanics of the atmosphere, which now prevail ;. and which are
held by men of the highest attainments in physical science. And

in relation to storms, I have long held the proper inqniry to be,

What are storms? and not, How are storms produced? as has
been well expressed by another. It is only when the former of

ese inquiries is solved, that we can enter advantageously upon
the latter.

T have stated, incidentally, that all fluid matter has a tendency
to run into whirls or circuits, when subject to the influence of
unequal or opposing forces, &c. Dr. Hare says that, “if this were
true, evidently whirlpools or vortices of some kind, ought to be
as frequent in the ocean, as agreeably to my observation, they are
found to be in the atmosphere.” That “the aqueous Gulf Stream,
resulting from the impetus of the trade winds, ought to produce

ee, — S, -

Mr. Redfield’s Reply to Dr. He Tare
as many vortices in its course as the aerial currents derived from
the same source ;” and he adds, “ there are few vortices or whirl-
pools in the ocean,” for reasons which he bas chosen to assign.
[14—16. |

Now the alleging that aqueous currents have an equal tendency,
with aerial ones, to run into “vortices,” belongs to Dr. H., not
tome. In the ocean, we can but partially observe the upper sur-
face of superficial currents, moving apparently unobstructed on
the more quiescent waters beneath, and with the relative equality
of motion in the parts generally maintained. I see not how the
_ unimpeded movements of this denser and nearly non-elastie fluid
are to produce vortices equal in number or magnitude to those
which occur in the inferior layers of an elastic aerial current,
moving on or near the surface of the earth, over obstructions and
inequalities, and with other disturbing conditions almost innume-
rable. Of Dr. Hare’s views of aqueous vortices it is unnecessary
to speak, but, there are mariners, if I remember their statements
aright, who can give him an account of the frequency of ocean
or Gulf Stream vortices, somewhat different from that which he
advances. Whenever a stream or current of water of moderate
depth moves over an unequal bottom, there is found no lack of
Vortices, of various forms and dimensions, some of which exhibit
both upward and downward movements, often of considerable
Velocity.

Dr. H. doubts if a whirlpool ever takes place without a cen-
tripetal force resulting from a vacuity. Isee not how this doubt
ean militate against my views of vortical action; but I have
myself seen many hundreds of such whirlpools or vortices, and
-have occasionally watched their developments with much in-

After commenting on certain arbitrary conditions “ of opposing
or unequal forces,” Dr. Hare desires to be informed how “une-
qual and opposing forces” are generated in the atmosphere ; pro-
ducing sometimes whirlwinds of unmeasured violence. [17-18.]
It may be readily seen, that aerial currents of unequal temperature
and velocity, superimposed one upon another, and all moving over
@ surface of unequal character and with frequent elevations, and
Subject also to the influence of adjacent currents, must often move
Smapeally, and in unconformable directions ; thus unavoidably

, to some extent, into vortices, eddies or circuits, of various
Vol. xx11, No. 2.—Jan.—March, 1842. ¢

Mr. Redfield’s Reply to Dr. Hare.

sanliiien and activity ; some of which, may occasionally become
extended and spin on an upright and moving axis, with that vio-
lent and continued action which characterizes the tornado or water
spout. Indeed, it must be obvious, that uniformly direct lines of
motion, belong not to our atmosphere or system. But, as before
observed, I have here no special concern with the origin of these
or other vortices; the simple fact of their existence being all that
is necessary for me to maintain.

Dr. Hare then proceeds to state, that in former papers on the
causes of tornadoes, he has adduced facts and arguments ‘“ tend-
ing to prove that the proximate cause of the phenomena of a tor-
nado is an ascending current of air, and.the afflux of wind from
all points of the compass to supply the deficiency thus created.”
He also states, that ‘in this mode of viewing the phenomena, no
difference of opinion exists between Espy and himself, however
‘they may differ respecting the cause of the diminution of atmos-
pheric pressure,” &c. [19-20.|

I have no desire to offer strictures upon the views of a respected
professor of science ; but it seems proper here to inquire how an
ascending current of air is thus obtained, and whether this effect,
which perhaps may be due only to an excess of lateral and sub-
jacent pressure, on the exterior of the tornado, be not here adduced
as the cause of the effect.

Dr. Hare has been “led to consider gyration as a casual joe
not an essential feature’ in tornadoes, and he adduces the dislo-
cation and partial turning of a chimney top on its base, in the
New Brunswick tornado, as being due toa local whirl within the
body of the tornado, and proving that in tornadoes and hurricanes
there are local whirls. p. 144. .

I have long since ascertained, that loos whirl winds are not of
very rare occurrence in great whirlwind storms; the New Bruns-
wick tornado itself having been one of several violent local whirl-
winds which occurred within the limits of a somewhat remarka-
ble storm of the above character. This tornado also sent off a
duplicate vortex or whirl not long after its passing the Raritan;
the path and violent effects of both whirlwinds having been dis-
tinetly traced ona field of unripe grain; the smaller one branch-
ing off to the right of the main track, where, after causing some
calle it Ptesend into the Raritan marshes, and was no more

But the 1, onlv of “ casual”

amen from being bate

Mr. Redfield’s Reply to Dr. Hare.

and limited occurrence, appears to be a constant attribute of the
tornado ; although not always exhibited with uniform intensity
and effect in its path, owing apparently, to the frequent rising or
narrowing of the vortex, and perhaps other causes.

In his paper as found in the English Journal, Dr Hare says,—
“A fact which is admitted by Mr. Redfield, was considered by
Espy and Bache, as well as mysélf, to be irreconcilable with the
idea that a general whirling motion is essential to tornadoes. I
allude to the circumstance, that when several trees were pros-
trated one upon the other, the uppermost was found to have fallen
with the top directed towards the point towards which the meteor
was moving; while the direction in which the lowermost trees
were found to have fallen indicated that they were overthrown
by a force in a direction precisely the opposite of that which had
operated upon those above mentioned.” —Phil. Mag. [24.]

It is an error to allege that I have “admitted” a fact such as is
here stated. On the contrary, in careful explorations made on
foot, through an aggregate extent of more than fifty miles of the
tracks of various tornadoes, I have never met with such “a fact,”
or combination of facts, as Dr. Hare describes. In all the cases
that I have met with in which trees have fallen one upon another,
if their tops pointed in opposite or nearly opposite directions, these
directions have never been parallel to the course pursued by the
tornado ; but always in directions more or less transverse to the
same: and I consider ty opposing allegation as one of the chief
errors of my opponen

The trees which as fallin in directions which are more or
less backward from the course pursued by the tornado, are almost

-invariably found on the left side of the track, exterior to the line
of its axis: But few of these point directly backward, and still
fewer can be found near the axis, as the hypothesis of my oppo-
nents requires. Of the trees found with their tops pointing di-
rectly forward, or nearly so, a small number have been seen on
or near the right margin of the track, with appearances which
showed them to lie as they first fell; a fact which seems equally
fatal to their hypothesis. Some trees, along and near the line of
the axis, are, however, found pointing in this onward direction,
and much stress has been laid on this fact, by one of my oppo-
nents: But it appears, on examination, that in all these cases the
trees have been torn or twisted from the transverse position in

308 ; Mr. Redfield’s Reply to Dr. Hare.

which they first fell; owing, as I infer, to the more violent force
exhibited at and immediately behind the center of the whirl, or
at the point which may not inaptly be termed the heel of the
vortex.*

It is trne, however, as I have “admitted,” that vibe trees are
found to have fallen one upon another, the top of the uppermost
tree points in a direction more offtward than the one beneath; as
is seen by the diagrams and schedules of Prof. Bache, and as may
be inferred, perhaps, from the sketches given by Professors Olm-
sted and Loomis:+ And it is equally true, that this fact no more
favors the hypothesis of a directly inward motion, than that of a
whirlwind; but, as an abstract deduction, is “reconcilable” with
either. The proper generalization of this class of facts I have
attempted to give in my paper on the New Brunswick tornado;
which is ‘that the uppermost or last fallen of these trees points
most [or more] nearly to the course pursued by the tornado ;’ i.e.
more nearly than the underlying tree which first fell; divergence
from the course of the tornado being still a marked feature of
these overlying prostrations.

L have never found a directly backward prostration on the line
of the center, or axis, of the tornado. This, as well as the above
mentioned facts, will be found sufficiently “irreconcilable” with
a direct “afflux of the wind from all points of the compass,” ‘in @
central and non-whirling course,’ “ towards a common focal area.”
_ In the same Journal, Dr. Hare says he “cannot understand
how the opposite forces belonging respectively to the different
sides of the whirlwind, can be made to bear successively upon
one spot, so as to cause trees to fall in diametrically opposite di-
rections.” Phil. Mag. (25].—Neither can I understand this, if
each of these “opposite directions” be parallel to the course of the
tornado, as is alleged by Dr. Hare, in the passage last noticed.

Dr. Hare next tells us—* A fact, irreconcilable with a gen-
eral whirling motion, has been recorded by Messrs. Espy and
Bache. A frame building was so situated as to be protected by
another edifice in one direction from the suction of the tornado,
and yet was exposed to its influence as it advanced, and as it
moved —— : ents two oe the four parts, on which the frame

* See thi somienysangs 1841, pp.
t See this Journal, Vol. xxxu, p. aes Vol.xxxvu, p. 343.

Pe
Mr. Redfield’s Reply to Dr. Hare. — 309

_tested, were so impelled by the wind as to make furrows in the
ground, of which one was nearly at right angles to the other.
Evidently such furrows could not rise from the transient tangen-
tial impulse of a whirlwind.” pp. 144, 145. . [22.]

In the English Journal, Dr. Hare alleges that one of the four
posts on which the building was supported, “was first moved to-
wards the tornado, as it advanced: while Prof. Bache shows us
that the tornado advanced from south 80° west, to north 80°
east ; and that the posts were first moved “to the west of north.”

But on what grounds this “ fact” is pronounced “irreconcilable
with a general whirling motion,” I am wholly unable to perceive.
For, had he closely examined the whole case, he would hardly
have failed to see that the movements of this building, as describ-
ed by Prof. Bache, are fully “ reconcilable” to an involute “ whirl-
ing motion,” such as I allege to be characteristic of these torna-
does ; and that there was no necessity for resorting to the gratui-
tous hypothesis of its being ‘‘ protected by another edifice in one
direction,” or even that of “the suction of the tornado.”

If a whirlwind figure having a diameter of three or four hun-
dred yards by the scale of Prof. Bache’s figure, [Plate II], fig. 3,]*
be drawn on tracing paper, with involute whirling lines repre-
senting, horizontally, the course of the wind from the exterior to
the interior of the tornado, and if the center or axis of this figure
be passed from west to east along the line pursued by the axis of
the tornado as indicated on the plate, revolving at the same time
to the left with a velocity greatly exceeding its advancing motion,
it may be seen that the wind of the whirl will be indicated as
beginning at this building from nearly south, 7. e. moving “ to the
west of north,” nearly, or in the general direction of the first
furrows in the ground. «It will also be seen, that the wind of
the whirl, changing by southwest, and having its gyrations
quickened near the center, would, immediately after the pass-
ing of its axis, exhibit its greatest force from the western quar-
ter, corresponding to the second movement of the posts in the
ground; the wind veering from thence towards the northwest as
the tornado passed away: thus showing two directions of wind
Which sufficiently coincide with the first movements of the posts
of the building “to the west of north,” and subsequently “to the

*See Jour, of Franklin Institute, Vol. III, third series, 1841, pp. 273 and 276. ©

it Beith:

310 Mr. Redfield’s Reply to Dr. Hare.

eastward,” or “nearly at right angles” to its first course; accord-
ing to the descriptions and plan of Prof. Bache, who gives the
course of the axis as “east 10° N.,” the building being to the
southward or on the right of this line.

I say nothing here of the protection afforded by “an edifice”
which after the first moment, according to the hypothesis of mo-
tion adopted by Messrs. Espy and Hare, was constantly more or
less to leeward of the building so protected. By applying to
Prof. B.’s plan, as before, a compass card, moved from west to east
without revolving, we shall find their wind to commence nearly
at east, passing thence through south to southwest, and possibly
to west southwest, near which it would terminate. Thus, the
first effects of the wind, when, even upon the hypothesis of “suc-
tion,” the building was unprotected, could not produce the first
motion in the direction “ to the west of north,” which may per-
haps be fairly taken at 5° or 10° west of north; and the wind,
on their hypothesis, would hardly appear to have reached a point
which could produce the second movement “to the east.”

I have been thus particular in this examination, because the case
thus alleged by Dr. Hare is a further specimen of the erroneous
inductions which have been made and relied on by my opponents.
In examining the plans referred to, it should be observed, that
the sketch of prostrations in the orchard, which is included in
fig. 3, is evidently on a more reduced scale than that given in the
plan of the building ; otherwise, the buildings must be of size
sufficient nearly to have covered the orchard. This change of
scale may cause some confusion unless particularly noticed.

That the velocity and consequent force of the whirling move-
ment of the tornado is maintained by the direct pressure of the
surrounding atmosphere, rather than by the “ suction” alleged by
Dr. H. I can readily conceive; but that the “impulse of a whirl-
wind” of this character is generally found to be “tangential” to
its axis, which he seems to considera necessary condition, I do
not admit.

Dr. Hare appears to concede, that my survey of this tornado
shows effects which accord with whirlwind action ; but he seems
desirous of limiting this admission to the prostration of “certain
trees,” and alleges that this survey “does not demonstrate gyt@-
tion to be an essential feature of tornadoes,” and that “it is suffi-
ciently accounted for by considering it as a fortuitous consequence

—— ee

Tee.
Mr. Redfield’s Reply to Dri Hare. 311

of the conflux of currents rushing into a space partially ex-
hausted.” [23.

Now I cannot but think, that readers who have no theory to
support, will view the results of my survey in a very different
light. Dr. Hare omits to mention, that the survey comprised the
entire breadth of the visible track, at perhaps its broadest place ;
that it was intended to include every tree prostrated within its
limits; that it essentially agrees with the main features of the
more partial surveys of Prof. Bache; that I have shown by clear
inductions from all the prostrations in the survey that the whirl-
ing motion was one general effect, comprising the entire width
of the track; that the tornado must have arrived at this ground
in nearly its most perfect action, having just left the surface of
the Raritan river; that the axis of prostration was not found in
the center of the track, but nearest its left margin; that the main
rotation was wholly to the left or in one constant direction ; and,
that the leading features of the prostration found in this survey,
have also been observed as constantly oceurring, in the tracks of
many other tornadoes.*

I may add, that ina careful exploration of the track of this
tornado for several miles, I found nothing to contravene the re-
sults presented in my published survey ; the general features of
the prostration being greatly analogous to those which I have
given.

Dr, Hare side it singular, that I should have declined noti-
cing the “insuperable difficulties” of the hypothesis of ‘a cen-
tral and non-whirling course in the wind of the tornado,’ to which
Lhave alluded in bringing forward facts and inductions which
Seem to contravene this hypothesis. He states, also, that “the
advocates of the disputed hypothesis are not aware of any such
difficulties,” and intimates the impropriety of the allusion “ with-
out naming the facts and arguments” which justify it. [24.]

- I considered it more proper, however, to rely solely on the sur-
vey and inductions which I then presented ; as these appear sufii-
cient to set aside, not only the hypothesis itself, but also some of
the chief deductions from the phenomena of this tornado which

Se

* See this Journal, 41: 69-77. Do. Jour. Frank. Instit. Vol. 2, third series, p.
40-49,

312 Mr. Redfield’s Reply to Dr. Hare.
.

have been put forth and relied on by Mr. Espy and Dr. Hare.*
Besides, I had no wish to assume a controversial attitude, in as-
sailing by argument, an hypothesis which virtually discards the
observations of mankind in all past ages down to the year 1835.
The testimonials of these observations appear in the names and
terms applied by all people-in all languages to this small but vio-
lent class of storms. ‘ The facts’? demanded, I had supposed,
were furnished on that occasion in sufficient numbers.

Dr. Hare next adduces “the statement of a most respectable
witness, that while the tornado at Providence was crossing the
river, the water which had risen up, as if boiling, within a circle
of about three hundred feet, subsided as often as a flash of light-
ning took place ;” which he alleges to be a “‘ fact which is utterly
irreconcilable with Mr. Redfield’s “rotary theory.” He adds:
“now supposing the water to have risen by a deficit of pressure
resulting from the centrifugal force of a whirl, how could an elec-
tric discharge cause it to subside?” [25.]

For the supposition here made, as well as for “the water which
had risen up,” Dr. H. seems alone accountable; as his witness,
Mr. Allen, speaks only of “the effervescence produced by the
tornado in the water” having “ perceptibly abated.” The water
he states to have been “in commotion like that in a huge boiling
caldron ;” but, that which rose up from the surface, he describes
as “misty vapors resembling steam,” which “after the flash,
seemed sensibly to diminish for a moment.’’+ I cannot perceive
that the fact thus alleged has the least unfavorable bearing upon

my views of rotative action.. Therefore, without considering the

optical effect which may result from a flash of lightning, or the
immediate conversion of clouded vapor into rain, which often-
times suddenly follows, I will only state, that another competent
observer, who was very near this whirlwind when it left the
Western shore and who watched its progress across the river, has
described to me the appearance of the cloudy sprays or mists
blown from the surface of the water, and which filled the lower
extremity of the tornado, but he has mentioned no sudden dis-
appearances of the same. He did, however, observe the whirl-
ing action of the tornado with great distinctness, both when it
pica ee Hoar sc alae eee
* See Journal of cha Franklin Institute, Vol. 20, new series, 1837, p. 56-61;
also Vol. 2, third series, 1841, p. 356-359.
+ See this Journal, Vol. xxxvirr, p. 76.

Mr. Redfield'’s Reply to Dr. Hare. 313

first entered upon the river, and in its effects upon the sails and
position of a schooner with which it came in contact ; and like-
wise, as exhibited by the circling or whirling directions of the
various objects carried into the air, as it came off the high grounds
on its approach to the river. The highly intelligent eye-witness
of my opponent, also describes “the misty vapors’? as ‘“ entering
the WHIRLING vortex ;” thus showing from his own observation,
a fact which fully vapeeii my views, and is fatal to. the objec-
tions, and hypothesis of motion, set forth by Dr. Hare. _ Moreover,
there were decisive memorials of a general wating action found
along the path of this tornado.

Dr. Hare chooses also to say, “ that the explanation which Mr.
Redfield dignifies with the title of his ‘theory of rotary storms,’
amounts to nothing more than this, that certain imaginary non-
descript unequal and opposing forces produce atmospheric gyra-
tion, that these gyrations by their consequent centrifugal force,
create about the axis of motion a deficit of pressure, aud hence
the awful and destructive violence displayed by tornadoes and
hurricanes.” —“I cannot give to this alleged theory the smallest
importance, while the unequal and opposing forces, on which it
is built, exist only in the imagination of an author who disclaims
the agency either of heat or electricity.” p. 145. [26-27.]

The recital of this passage appears necessary on account of the
gross error into which Dr. H. has here fallen. I have never at-
‘tempted to dignify any “explanation,” induction, sketch, or essay,
‘with the title’ of my ‘theory of rotary storms.” It must, at

“least, have been a mistake of person. I have little fondness for

theory-making ; and as little respect for hypotheses of winds or
storms, other than those which result directly from sufficient and
reliable observations. Neither have I disclaimed “the agency of
heat,” as already stated ; but it may have been my offense to have
disclaimed “electricity” as a known cause of storms. My cur-
sory explanations of the action of a whirlwind or tornado, even
as shown up by Dr. Hare, are, in my view, better suited to the
Observed facts of the case than i whieh he or Mr. Espy has
0. fered.

I do not solicit for my views even that “smallest importance”
which is denied them in the mind of my critic; but the attention
With which he has treated them, both here and abroad, does
not appear to agree well with the liomprement With the facts

Vol. xru, No. 2.—Jan.-March, 1842.

314 Mr. Redfield’s Reply to Dr. Hare.

before him which are shown in my survey of the tornado, and
also with the numerous observations made in great storms, which
I have published, it is both vain and absurd to pretend that my
views of their rotation are founded only in imagination. Iam
not conscious of having “built” or indicated any “ theory,”
views, suggestions or explanations of storms or whirlwinds which
have not been based on observations of my own and facts other-
wise ascertained, sufficient in my view to warrant them; the
‘unequal and opposing forces’ even included: although, I have
not always urged these facts upon the attention of my readers;
having, not unfrequently, reserved them for more appropriate oc-
casions. Hence, my alleged proofs have been chiefly confined
to the progressive course and rotative action developed in storms;
which last, strangely enough, has been so pertinaciously denied
by Mr. Espy, and now by Dr. Hare.

- My opponent next attempts to show, “ that any deficit of pres-
sure about the axis” of a whirlwind, “ consequent to the resulting
centrifugal force, could only cause in the atmosphere a descend-
ing current, while it could not tend in the slightest degree to
carry solids or liquids aloft.” p. 146. Iwas also surprised to find
this hypothetical downward current in the midst of a whirlwind
alleged asa necessary condition, on former occasions, by Mr.
Espy. If the allegation be trne, it must be easy to show that
the ascending currents in chimneys should become inverted: for,
so far as simple gravitation is concerned, it can make little differ-
ence whether the rarefaction be mechanical or calorific.

But the ascending effects in the interior of a whirlwind have’
been too often witnessed by myself and others to require discus-
sion. Indeed, it would almost seem that the objectors had been
precluded from all opportunities for correct observation. There

the objects elevated cannot be seen in the central and lower parts
of the whirlwind; owing, as I have had good occasion to know,
to the great sivbialny velocity of the central gyrations.

Dr. Hare appears to suppose, that gyration in a revolving fluid
mass will not quicken as it approaches the center, unless as —
ing from a centripetal force “caused by suction at the axis.”

A constant centripetal force I have already recognized on this
as well as former occasions. But this by no means requires or
Sreclaces <e: Ciccone eaten anal eRe nS"

ce

are numerous cases, however, in which the upward movement of ~ ry .

ory

ef

Mr. Redfield’s Reply to Dr. Hare. 315

yields to its influence. But in the cause assigned for this force,
as well as in the specific directions of the movements produced,
we differ essentially. So far from ascribing this quickened gyra-
tion to the “suction” alleged by Dr. Hare, 1 know of no such
power in the uninclosed atmosphere; conceiving, that neither
rarefaction nor any other known cause can here occasion “ suc-
tion,” according to the common use of this term. Air, whether
rarefied or not, can never ascend but in obedience to a pressure
or force, suflicient to exceed both its own weight and that of all
the atmiosphere which lies immediately above it, or in the imme-
diate direction or locality of its motion. This erroneous hypoth-
esis of “suction,” in some form or other, appears to lie at the
bottom of the various speculations and inductions of my oppo-
nents.

In noticing the nisiliy involute and quickening motion which
I allege as observable in ‘all narrow and violent vortices,’ Dr. H.
gives an erroneous reference for his quotation; and the latter seems
also to be somewhat inaccurate. Ido not see that his specu-
lations on this quickened motion ‘towards the center or axis of
the whirl,’ can affect either my views, or the disputed fact of gy-
ration ; and they are sufficiently answered by observations pub-
are in my first paper,* as as well as by the remarks made above
on centripetal force. :

Dr. Hare thinks that so fat as my observations show the quick-
ening of the whirling motion towards the center of the tornado,
they tend to confirm the views of my opponents and to refute
“those which I uphold. To. me it appears that this is an entire
abandonment of his ground. It is the general fact of gyration
Which lam chiefly concerned to uphold, and which has been
combated by him and his predecessor in this controversy. I dis-
pute with no one as to how it may be produced. Should better
explanations of this fact than mine be offered, they will be cheer-
fully adopted. In the meantime, I shall adhere to my observa-
tions and opinions, rather than to the hypotheses and speculations
of my opponents.

Dr. Hare thinks, “ <ht any theory of storms which overlooks
the part performed by electricity, must be extremely defective.”
I do not perceive that the part performed by electricity in a gale

* See this Journal, Vol. xx, p. 45-46.

316 Mr. Redfield’s Reply to Dr. Hare.

of wind, squall, tornado, or other storm, ever constitutes an essen=
tial feature of the same: but, the part so performed, appears to me
to be only incidental and subordinate to the action and main ef-
fects of the storm. Electricity is not wind, nor water, nor vapor;
but an imponderable matter or effect, which is not known to ex-
ert any constant mechanical force or action upon the effective
currents of the atmosphere. “Thunder and lightning and con-
vective discharge,” are but momentary or transient exhibitions of
electricity, producing no visible effects upon these currents; what-
ever may be their agency in restoring the disturbed equilibrium
of the different atmospheric elements. The electricity developed
by a steam boiler is not considered as producing the steam or its
jet, or the condensation of the latter; but is itself produced by
these. Even were it shown that a stream of electricity was con-
stantly developed between the rarefied column of a moving tor-
nado and the surface beneath, I cannot see how this could be as-
sumed as the cause rather than the effect of the local rarefaction.
If the part which electricity performs in a storm be essential, or
controlling, its functions ought to be distinctly pointed ont.

I would humbly suggest that the old practice of forming or in-
venting theories or schemes of action for the powers of nature,
ought to be mainly abandoned. The Wernerian and Huttonian
theories are well remembered; and how small would have been
the progress of the science to which they relate, had its cultiva-
tors. continued to exhibit only the spirit and philosophy of the
early advocates of these theories; and how much less, if guided

by a philosophy so speculative and untenable as that of the affiu--

ent and up-moving hypotheses of winds and storms? More strict
and extended. observations and inquiry, with greater caution in
the adoption of hypotheses, whether old or new, would in my
meet, tend greatly to the advance of meteorological science.

» Observation, rather than “lucubration,”’ has been my employ-
ment when manengtie from other duties: and if the results of ob-

do not accord with the “lucubrations” of Mr. Espy and
Dr. Hare, I conceive that Iam in no degree responsible for the
difficulties of their position.
Now-York, Januagy, 13,1842...
ob Mae rntareiey 2

Proceedings of the British Association. 317

Arr. XIII.—Abstract of the Proceedings of the Eleventh Meet-
ing of the British Association for the Advancement of Science,

held at Plymouth, September, 1841. [Prepared from the Re-

port in the London Atheneum.| Concluded from page 164.

Sect. B. Chemistry and Mineralogy.

Mr. R. Henr communicated a paper on the influence of the
Serro-cyanate of potash on the iodide of silver, producing a highly
sensitive photographic preparation. "The author being engaged
in experiments on that variety of photographic drawing which is
formed by the action of the hydriodic salts on the darkened chlo-
ride of silver, with a view to the removal of the iodide formed
by the process, from the paper, was led to observe some peculiar
changes produced by the combined influences of light and the
ferro-cyanate of potash. He found that the ordinary photographic
paper, if allowed to darken in sunshine, and then slightly acted
on by any hydriodic salt, and washed when dry, with a solution
of the ferro-cyanate of potash, became extremely sensitive to
light, changing from a light brown toa full black, by a moment’s
exposure to sunshine. Following out this result, it was discov-
ered that perfectly pure iodide of silver was acted on with even
greater rapidity, and thus it became easy to form an exquisitely
sensitive photographic paper. ‘The method recommended is the

following: highly glazed letter paper is washed over with a so-
lution of one drachm of nitrate of silver to an ounce of distilled
Water ; it is quickly dried and a second time washed with the
same solution. It is then, when dry, placed for a minute in a so-
lution of one drachm of the hydriodate of potash in six ounces
of water; and being placed on a smooth board, gently washed
by allowing pure water to flow over it, and dried in the dark at
common temperatures. Papers thus prepared may be kept for
any length of time, and are at any moment rendered far more
sensitive than any known photographie preparation, except the
Calotype, which it quite equals, by simply washing it over with
a solution formed of one drachm of the ferro-cyanate of potash
to an ounce of water. These papers may be washed with the
ferro-cyanate and dried in the dark: in this dry state they are
absolutely insensible, but they may at any moment be rendered
Sensitive by merely washing them with a little cold water. The

318 Proceedings of the British Association.

paper is rendered quite insensible by being washed over with the
above hydriodic solution, and from the photograph thus fixed
many copies may be taken.

Some researches on the development of the Electrical Force,
and an inquiry into the nature and properties of the New Ele-
ment or product of electrical action described by Schénbein, by
Mr. F. De Moleyns. The statements made by Prof. Schénbein
at the Glasgow meeting (see Vol. xxi, p. 43) respecting the new
element which he called ozone, attracted the attention of Mr. De
Moleyns; and the paper now read contained some of the more
important results of his experiments. In the report alluded to,
Prof. 8. states that the disengagement of the “ odorous substance”
depended, 1, upon the nature of the positive electrodes ; 2, upon
the chemical constitution of the electrolytic fiuid ; and 3, upon
the temperature of that fluid. He added, that his experiments
went to show that well-cleaned gold and platina were alone ca-
pable of disengaging the odoriferous principle, and that the more
easily oxidable metals, as well as charcoal, did not possess that
property at all. The results of Mr. De Moleyns’s investigations
appear to prove: 1, that the disengagement of the peculiar odor
is not confined to the Jess eastly oxidable metals: 2, that by cer-
tain arrangements, all metals, when positive electrodes, may be
made to develope the odoriferous principle : 3, that certain posi-
tive metals, not acting as electrodes, will evolve this principle:
A, that charcoal forms no exception to this rule: 5, that all sub-
stances, whether crystalline in structure or otherwise, possessing
the property of appearing luminous by friction, or of yielding
sparks when struck, also possess the property of discharging, un-
der such circumstances, the peculiar odor: 6, that iron and nickel
develope this principle more strongly than any other metal. Mr.
De Moleyns, observing the odor to be produced at the points con-
necting an electro-magnetic machine with the battery, construct-
ed an apparatus by which magnets were made to revolve within.
a glass cylinder, which could be exhausted at pleasure, or filled
With various gases; by such means he obtained a vacuum, and
operated in dry air, collecting the matters evolved over distilled
water, and by such modes he proved that ozone could not only
be evolved in a dry atmosphere, but also in a vacuum—mercurial
and common. ‘These and other experiments led Mr. De Moleyns
to the conclusion that the ozone of Schénbein, which he proposed

319

to name electrogen, must be admitted into the list of supposed
elements: that it was not a union of an electrolytic compound
whose action was unknown ; and that probably it exists in coms
bination in various forms of matter, which at present are consid-
ered elementary, but which in reality are not so.

A paper on manures considered as stimulants to Cnyletadions
was communicated by Dr. Daubeny. The author discusses the
question as to the sense in which manures can be considered to
act as stimulants to plants. It is evident that if the term stim-
ulus be understood in an acceptation similar to that in which
it is employed with reference to the animal economy, it ought to
be confined to bodies, which by their presence, assist in promot-
ing the secretion and assimilation of the nutritious materials pres-
ent, and ought not to include such as themselves afford materials
for secretion. 'Thus salt and other condiments do not themselves
nourish the animal; but by their presence, induce its secreting
surfaces to assitnilate more readily the substances presented to
them. Now, it becomes a fit subject for inquiry, whether ma-
hures operate in the former manner or in the latter; and likewise
whether the fact, that certain of them act less beneficially at sub-
sequent periods of their application than they did at first, admits
of being explained om the recognized principle that “ stimuli lose
their full effect upon living matter when frequently repeated.”
Dr. D. adduced several facts which led to the inference that the
nitrates of soda and of potassa operate favorably upon certain
crops by communicating to them nitrogen; and the reason why
these salts sometimes have appeared to leave the land in a worse
condition than before their use, is not owing to their being stim-
uli, and therefore amenable to the law above quoted ; but is be-
cause the free supply of nitrogen afforded by the decomposition
of the nitrates, had caused the plant to absorb a larger portion of
those other ingredients, such as phosphate of lime, silicate of po-
tassa, &c., which are present only in a limited quantity in the
soil, thus tending to exhaust it of these materials, and causing
thereby an inferior crop to be produced on the following -year.
Now, though it may be true that the nitrates in this manner in-
directly stimulate the vital energies of the plant, yet it was con-
ceived that the term stimulus had better be abandoned with ref-
erence to such cases, as its adoption might lead to an erroneous
impression in the mind of the farmer with respect to the proper

320 Proceedings of the British Association. .

mode of restoring to the land its original fertility. If the theory
suggested by the author be the true one, it will follow, that the
proper remedy would be, not to discontinue the use of the ni-
trates, but by the application of bone manure, &c. at intermediate
periods, to restore to the land those other ingredients which had
been abstracted from it in too large a quantity. To determine
what materials are wanting, and in what proportions they ought
to be applied ; (independently of the empirical plan of ascertain-
ing, by repeated trials, the substances, which, by their addition
succeed best in remedying the deficiency,) two methods present
themselves. The first, a difficult one, is to learn by a minute
analysis of the soil, whether the ingredients which the crop re-
quires are actually present, and to add of these a quantity equal
to that which the intended crop is calculated to contain. The
second, a more practical scheme, is to estimate in the first place,
how much of these substances exists in the crop taken off the
ground, and then to add to it at least an equivalent quantity of
manure. ‘The Doctor suggested, that in farming: establishments,
a kind of book-keeping should be undertaken, on this principle :
a debtor and creditor account being made out of the quantity of
nitrogen, of earthy phosphates, of alkali, &c. abstracted in the
form of crop, and restored in that of manure each year. He
concluded by specifying certain points relative to this subject
which require further investigation. 1. To confirm or disprove
his theory, with respect to the operation of the nitrates, by deter-
mining whether they actually diminish. in quantity, and finally
disappear after several. successive crops have been grown upon
land impregnated with these salts.. 2. Whether the same applies
to common salt and other mineral manures as to the nitrates, or
whether any of them act directly as stimuli. 3. More extended
and exact data relative to the amount of alkaline and earthy salts,
and of nitrogen present in the various crops cultivated by the
farmer, as well as in the manures he employs.

A practical method of determining the quantity of real Indige
in the Indigo of Commerce, by Dr. Samuel L. Dana, of Lowell,
Mass. U.S.A. Dr..D. directs that 10 grains of indigo reduced
to an impalpable. powder should be boiled in a Florence flask a
few minutes, in 2402. of a solution of carbonate of soda, mak-
ing 30° to 35° on 'Twaddel’s hydrometer; then add 8 grains of
crystals of muriate of tin, and boil for half. an hour; a beautiful

a a + ee
4 me a <
fp 8

Proceedings of the British Association. 321

yellow solution of indigo will be obtained. Withdraw the flask
from the lamp, and introduce into the solution 500 water-grain
measures of a solution of 50 grains of bichromate of potash in
4000 grains of water. The indigo blue, with a trace of indigo
red, will be precipitated, while the other components remain in
solution. Filter the precipitate through a double weighed filter,
washing the mass with 1 oz. of muriatie acid, diluted with 3 oz.
of boiling water; wash with hot water till water only returns;
separate, dry and weigh the filters; note the weight of the pre-
cipitate, burn one filter against the other; the difference is the
silica contained in the indigo, which deducted from the weight
of the precipitate, gives the quantity of pure indige. Mr. Walter
Crum, who communicates the above, adds, that carbonate of soda
With protoxide of tin does dissolve indigo, and forms a yellow
solution, but so slowly that he doubts if all the ten grains are
acted upon. He thinks Dr. Dana must mean soda-ash, which
contains a notable quantity of caustic soda; but a much weaker
solution of caustic soda would answer the purpose.

On the disintegration ef the Dolomitie Rocks of the Tyrol, by
Prof. Daubeny. The author attempted to explain, without re-
sorting to volcanic agency, the abrupt form, extraordinary height,
naked outline, and fissured surface of the dolomitic rocks of the
Tyrol. He attributed these characteristics to the slow rate at
which decomposition proceeds in rocks consisting of pure dolo-
mite, and the'strength of the cohesion which binds together the
particles of this rock, owing to which, even those portions which
stand prominent in consequence of the removal, by the agents of
destruction, of their contiguous parts, often remain unaffected by
those mechanical forces which would cause the projecting por-
tions of a rock Jess unyielding in its texture, to become detached.
The cause therefore of the greater height maintained by the do-
lomites of the Tyrol, than by the pyroxenic rocks which accom-
pany them, seems to be the inferior rate at which decomposition
has proceeded in the former, whilst the bold and jagged outline
they display, may have been produced by the tenacity with which
their parts cohere. The sterile character of these same rocks,
even in parts which are not precipitous, appears to be owing to
the slowness with which they decompose, as well as perhaps to
the absence of organic remains. The Professor concluded with
some suggestions as to the means of fertilizing rocks containing

1

Vol. x11, No. 2.—Jan.-March, 1842.

322 - Proceedings of the British Association.

. magnesia, when from the slowness of their decomposition they
continue sterile; and proposed in such cases to acceierate the dis-
integration by pouring upon the sub-soil dilute sulphuric acid.

r. Prideaux communicated the results of inquiries into the
causes of the increased destructibility of modern copper sheathing.
Experiments made on various kinds of copper sheathing immers-
ed in sea water, showed, that in the laboratory, under parallel
circumstances, they do not observe the same order of durability
and waste, as they had done in use. The cause of comparative
waste appears therefore to be, in part at least, due to external con-
ditions ; and of these, two classes may be noticed ; one depending
on the connexion with the ship, the other on the circumstances
of her employment. Of the first class, two suggested them-
selves,—the position on the ship’s side, and the nails by which the
copper is fastened. The lower part of a ship’s copper seems to
suffer much less than the upper, so long as she continues in deep
water; but when she grounds at low water, if on black mud,
this part suffers most from the action of sulphuretted hydrogen,
peeling off in blue flakes. The influence of the nails offers rather
more chemical interest. They are never of pure copper, and
being very numerous, all in contact with the copper sheets, whilst
their heads present also a considerable metallic surface to the salt
water, they may produce very decided effects, either preservative
or destructive, by a slight electro-chemical diforence: Various
experiments were tried, which proved that most nails are destruc-
tive. The conclusion resulting was this, that the nails might be
rendered slightly electro-positive to rolled copper, by the addition
of zinc, which would not injure their flexibility nor enhance their
cost. The test»by the galvanometer would, after a little prac-
tice, be easily applied, in making up the svete for casting them.

Another mode of protection is offered, by coating the coppef
when new, with fish oil, which in one instance has been of sig-
nal ‘service. The preservative effect of coal-tar was also noticed.
This tar had trickled down over the copper from the wood-work
above, and had crossed the sheets just where most subject to the
wash and friction; and whilst the naked metal had been quite
worn away, ‘the coal-tarred streaks remained entire ; the surface
of the copper, on melting off the tar, being as perfect as when
fresh from the roll. Bat it ‘remains to be seen whether it will
keepa clean surface fr y incrus-

J

t ie

Proceedings of the British Association. 323

tations. Experiments are now in progress to Aetenmine this ques-
tion.

New schemata process for the anideutiia of i
Acid for medical use, by R. D. Thomson, M.D. The i importance
- of this acid as a remedial agent, induced the author to bestow
much attention upon a mode of producing it always of uniform
Strength. Having tried all the processes for this purpose, proposed
in this country, he was satisfied that none of them afforded an acid
of uniform strength. The process recommended by Dr. Clark of
Aberdeen, was superior to every other, but an objection to it is
the great difliculty of procuring pure cyanide of potassium. The
author believes the following process to be less liable to objection
than any at present used. The first step consists in forming a
pure cyanide of lead. ‘This may be done in various ways, either
by precipitating acetate of lead by hydrocyanic acid, as prepared
from the ferrocyanide of potassium and sulphuric acid, ina stop-
pered bottle, or by distilling the mixed materials into a Wolfi’s
bottle containing a solution of acetate of lead. In either case a
definite compound of cyanogen and lead will be obtained, which
is to be carefully washed and gently heated. The next step in
the process is to decompose it by means of sulphuric acid. In
order to obtain an acid of the strength of the Acidum Hydro-
cyanicum dilutum of the London Pharmacopeia, or containing
about two per cent. of absolute acid, the following formula is re-
commended.

46.36 grains of cyanide of lead.
2 fluid drachms of dilute sulphuric acid. Lond. Pharm.
6 fluid drachms of pure distilled water,

Introduce the cyanide of lead into a stoppered bottle ; mix the
acid and water in a glass vessel; allow the mixture to cool, and
then pour upon it the cyanide of lead. Close the stopper, and
agitate the fluid and salt together. After standing for some time,
pour off the supernatant liquor from the precipitated sulphate of
lead, and preserve it in a stoppered bottle. This formula is
founded upon the circumstance that the dilute sulphuric acid of
the London Pharmacopeeia contains in each fluid drachm about
9.5 grains of oil of vitriol (SO?HO). Two drachms will there-
fore contain nineteen grains of oil of vitriol. The quantity re-
quired for saturating 43.36 grains of cyanide of lead, is only 17.4
grains ; but the small excess is useful in preserving the a

324 Proceedings of the British Association.

On the radical of the Kakodyle Series, by Prof. Bunsen.—
The easiest method of procuring pure kakodyle is the following.
Chloride of kakodyle, carefully freed from the oxide by treatment
with strong hydrochloric acid, is allowed to stand some time over
chloride of calcium and quick lime, to remove the water and all
excess of acid. It is then introduced into a distillatory apparatus
carefully filled with carbonic acid, and containing some slips of
clean sheet zinc. Any of the metals which decompose water
will answer, but zinc is the best. It is probable that hydrogen
or carbon would produce a similar decomposition with suitable
modifications of the apparatus. The vessel is then hermetically
sealed, and the mixture of zinc with the chloride, is exposed for
some hours in a water bath to a temperature of 212° F. When
the decomposition is complete, a white saline mass is formed,
which melts into an oily liquid between 240° and 248° F’.; while
the tube is still hot, the point of the tube leading into the con-
denser is dipped below the surface of boiled distilled water: as
the apparatus cools, the water rises into it. The tube is hermet-
ically sealed: the water dissolves chloride of lime, leaving the
excess of zine and the kakodyle, which falls as an oily liquid to
the bottom. This is rectified twice or three times, filled with
carbonic acid as before; the water being afterwards removed by
chloride of calcium in the usual way. ‘Thus obtained, it isa
colorless liquid, transparent and of a high refractive power, in
appearance and odor much resembling the oxide of kakodyle,
and ignites instantly on being brought in contact with air, giving
off water, and carbonic and arsenious acids.

Abstract of a letter from Prof. Liebig to Dr. Playfair —This
letter announces the discovery of a white crystalline substance,
in large quantities, obtained by M. Schunk: from the lichens
which are employed in preparing archil, (Lecanora tartarea, é&¢.)
by extraction with ether. It differs from erythrine, and the com-
pounds described by Dr. Kane, in its insolubility in water. It
dissolves readily in alkaline solutions, and is capable of being
again precipitated by acids, if the solution be recently made ; on
if kept standing for some hours, acids produce no precipitates: !
has been decomposed, and is converted into carbonic acid, an
orceine. If the substance be dissolved in baryta water, and the
clear solution boiled, a large precipitate of puahensie of baryta
occurs, and the filtered tion, large quan-

St ves, on Vay

-
Proceedings of the British Association, 325

tities of orceine. From this circumstance a number of phenom-
ena in the color of lichens can be explained, which Dr. K. has
described in his work on that subject. Prof. L. also states that
he has performed many experiments on the legumin of beans,
and some other leguminous plants. He has arrived at the con-
clusion, that this body is identical with the casein in milk of ani-
mals. It has precisely the same composition, and contains the
same salts,—(phosphate of potash, potash, magnesia, lime and
iron,)—as the casein of milk. Prof. L. also mentions, that Drs,
Will and Varrentrapp have devised an excellent method for deter-
mining the amount of nitrogen in organic bodies. The substance
is mixed with a quantity of caustic potash and hydrate of soda,
and heated to redness in an ordinary combustion tube. All the
nitrogen in the substance escapes as pure ammonia, which is con-
densed in a small and neat apparatus, containing dilute hydro-
chloric acid. This solution is mixed with chloride of platinum,
evaporated to dryness in a water-bath, and the excess of chloride
of platinum is washed from the ammonia chloride by a mixture
of ether and alcohol. From the metallic platinum which remains
after the ammonia chloride is heated to redness, the quantity of
nitrogen is to be calculated. In conclusion, the Professor states
that he has repeated all the experiments of Dr. Brown on the
production of silicon from paracyanogen, but is not able to con-
firm one of his results. His experiments prove that paracyanogen
is decomposed by a strong heat, into nitrogen gas, and a residue
of charcoal which is exceedingly difficult of combustion.—Dr.
Parnell stated that he too had repeated the experiments of Dr.
Brown, without being enabled to verify any one of his results.

The following papers were also read before the Section.

On some instances of restrained chemical action; by E. A. Parnell.

On some subjects connected with the sulpho-cyanides; by the same.

On the direct formation of cyanogen, from its elements ; by G. Fownes.

Experi riments showing the possibility of fire from the use of hot water in warming
buildings, and of manor in steam-engine boilers; by Goldsworthy Gurney.

‘the production oj or hydrogen by the action of vegetable matter

on solutions containing fry y E. Lankester, M. os

On the composition of sanity diabetic sugar; by R. D. tame M.D.

On spontaneous combustion ; by Messrs. Booth, rai, and Hearde

Section C. Geology and Physical ax to

Mr, J. E. Bowman read an extensive paper on the Upper Silu-
rian Rocks of Denbighshire, and stated that a re-examination

326 Proceedings of ithe British Association.

had furnished him additional proof of the correctness of the ar-
rangement of these rocks, which he had proposed in a paper read
at the Glasgow meeting.

A report was read from the committee appointed at Glasgow,
for obtaining instruments and registers to record shocks of earth-
quakes in Scotland and Ireland. 'T'wo instruments were devised
and set up for this purpose, about January 1, 1841, near Comrie,
in Scotland, viz. the common Pendulum Seismometer, and the
inverted Pendulum Seismometer. No very important results had
hitherto been obtained, and it is now proposed to adopt new in-
struments of greater scope and sensitiveness than those before
employed.

On the occurrence of some minute Fossil Crustaceans in Pa-
leozoic Rocks, by Mr. John Phillips.—After mentioning various
places in which these animals have been found, he states that he
had lately observed in Pembrokeshire, in the lowest shales of the
mountain limestone, within ten feet of the old red sandstone,
beds of Cyprides very similar to those in the black shales of the
upper coal measures in Manchester. 'These are probably the most
ancient specimens of the group yet discovered. ‘I'he circumstan-
ces under which these Crustaceans are found at the present day,
appear to agree with those attending their occurrence in a fossil
state; the recent Cyprides seem destined to consume the perishing
parts of animal and vegetable substances, and the fossil species
are generally associated with portions of fishes near Manchester,
and elsewhere. Probably these remains occur under many cir-
cumstances, but to ascertain all the conditions under which they
lived, requires attention to many sorts of strata not often sus-
pected to contain remains. Very remarkable conditions occurred
when the old red sandstone ceased to be deposited: for then, after
a long series of formations, with no trace of organic remains, we
find in the beds immediately above, thousands of minute Crusta-
ceans, bone beds, layers of Brachiopoda, &c. of marine origin;
and encouraged by this example, we may expect to find them in
beds of still higher antiquity.

A paper was read by Mr. W. Walker, on the Geological Chan-
ges produced by the Saxicava rugosa in Plymouth Sound.—The
S. rugosa appears to be the prevailing perforator of the limestone
rocks, and it is the author’s opinion that these operations have
been carried on during such long periods as to destroy rocks, and
make deep water where shoals previously existed.

Proceedings of the British Association. 327

An account of the Fossil Organic remains of the southeast
coast of Cornwall and of Bodmin and Menheniott, by C. W.
Peach.—The line of coast examined commences at Veryan, four
miles south of 'Tregoney, and extends eastward by Gorran, the
Blackhead, and Fowey, to East Looe. The cliffs are composed
throughout of quartzose and slaty rocks, hitherto supposed by Mr.
Conybeare and others to be destitute of fossils. But along the
whole line, Mr. P. has detected traces of Brachiopodous shells and
corals, and the stems of encrinites are of frequent occurrence.
From Veryan to Gorran the quartzose rocks rarely contain traces
of shells, but in the calecareous}slates in contact with dykes of
greenstone at Blackhead, remains of corals resembling Turbino-
lepsis, and of the genera Cyathocrinus, Spirifera, and Orthoceras
occur. Eastward, at Pridmouth, a fine specimen of the Platy-
crinite was found, with the column, pelvis, arms,,&c. In the
slate quarries of Fowey, remains supposed to be those of fish,
and corals of the genus Favosites were detected. Near Polman,
occur encrinital stems nearly a foot long, together with remains
of trilobites, corals of the genera Cyathophyllum, and Favosites,
Spirifers, Orthoceras, and a fossil with a structure resembling that
of the Sepiade. At Pentlooe, an equal-valved bivalve, resem-
bling Uncula, and a species of Orthis, have been found; and at
East Looe another fine specimen of an encrinite, with column,
arms and tentacula attached; also specimens of Cyathocrinus,
Fenestella, Turbinolopsis and Orthis. At Bodmin, the author has
detected encrinites in the slate quarries, and in those of Menhe-
niott in Liskeard the eye of a trilobite in good preservation. On
the beach below the cliffs at Port Mellin, near Mevagissey, the
author observed traces of a lacustrine deposit, containing roots
and branches of trees, and the elytra of beetles, exposed after a
heavy gale. ~

~Aletter was read from Mr. T. B. Jordan, of the Museum of
Economic Geology, on copying Fossils by a galvanic deposit.—
In applying the method ordinarily used in electrotyping, some
difficnity was experienced by the author in consequence of the
irregutar form of the fossils, parts of which would not relieve
from the wax or plaster matrix in which the copper is afterwards
deposited. Mr. J. therefore adopted a compound of glue and
treacle, (used by printers for their inking rollers,) as the material
of the moulds, the elasticity of which admits of its leaving the

328 Proceedings of the British Association.

adherent portions without breaking. The mixture is applied hot,
and allowed to harden for twenty four hours, when it will come

off without injuring the finest parts. The matrix'thus prepared

requires a strong varnish to protect the back and sides from the
action of the liquid in which it is to be placed, and only one copy
can be made from each matrix, but the impressions have none of
the defects so apparent in those produced in the ordinary moulds.
Different lights and shades may be given to the copper impres-
sions, by a galvanic process, which the author considers capable
of improvement, and application to other purposes. For a dark
object on a light ground, the surface is brushed over with the
argento-cyanide of potassium, giving it a silver face, which may
be removed to the desired extent from the portions requiring to
be dark, by a dilute solution of nitro-muriate of platinum. Other
tints may be produced by using a solution of gold; and all may
be considerably varied by changing the time during which each
solution is allowed to act.

Prof. Owen communicated the second tind conehiding portion
of his Report on British Fossil Reptiles. After some prefatory
observations on the general nature and affinities of the recent and
extinct reptilia, and the parts of the organization of the latter,
which by their modifications afford the best character for their
determination, the author proceeded to give a recapitulation of
the leading peculiarities of the Enalosauri, which formed the
subject of the first part of his Report: and a brief summary of
the results of the labors of previous geologists and anatomists, in
the field which the second part of his Report had led him to ex-
plore. The first section of the Report was devoted to a descrip

tion of a large reptile, the type of a new genus, to which the
- name Pliosaurus was given, and which formed the link connect-
“ing the Plesiosaurus with the crocodile family. ‘The most con-
spicuons character of this genus consists in the cervical vertebre,
which are considerably shorter than those of the dorsal region:
- in this respect it differs from all recent Saurians, the vertebra of
which are characterized by retaining the same length throughout.
From this cause, the neck of the Pliosaurus is short, compared
with that of the Plesiosaurus, and approaches the condition of

£4
;

been found in the Kimmeridge clay of Market Rasen, Weymouth,
and Shotover. From differences in the relative proportions of
_ these bones, Prof. O. considers them to have belonged to two
~-» distinct species of Pliosaurus. The remains of the Saurians of

the crocodilian family, which complete the transition from the
Hnaliosaurians to the terrestrial lizards, were next noticed. The
Report included descriptions of the fossil crocodiles in the British
| formations below the eocene tertiary strata_to the oolite inclu:

sive ; and it was observed, that the extinct Species deviated from
the organic type of the existing crocodiles, in proportion as their
remains occurred in strata geologically more remote from. the
present time. Not any of the species were identical with those
now known to exist, and the modifications of structure in which
they differed, were much more considerable than any which dis-
tinguish the skeletons of existing species from each other. The
extinct species agreeing with the present crocodiles in possessing
the ball-and-socket articulation of the vertebre, in which the
cavity is on the fore part, were first described. Of these, the
Crocodilus Toliapicus is found in the London clay of Bracklesham,
at Sheppey, and in beds of sand underlying the red crag at Ky-
son. 'The Crocodilus cultridens of the Wealden formation Prof.
O. now considered sub-generically different from the crocodiles,
and proposed for it the name of Suchosaurus. Grontopholis cras-
| sidens, another species from the Wealden, was described by Prof.
O./as more completely mailed than any of the crocodile family ;
its remains occur in the Tilgate Forest and near Battle Abbey,
aud in the Purbeck limestone at Swanage. The next family of
extinct cro¢odilians considered by Prof. Owen, are characterized
by the biconcave structure of the vertebrae. Remains of the
first of these, Teleosaurus Chapmanni, are abundant in the lias
of the Yorkshire coast; and 7’. Cadonensis, which abounds in
the oolitic formations near Caen, in Normandy, also occurs in the
Oolite near Woodstock, and at Stonesfield. Remains of two other
Species were noticed. ‘T‘he second genus, Steneosaurus, distin-
guished from the last by the sub-terminal position of the nostril,
is fromthe Kimmeridge clay at Shotover, and from the oolite of
Stonesfield. One of the most interesting specimens, exhibiting
the form of the brain in a cast of that part, is in the Woodward-
. jam Collection at Cambridge. A third division was for the-
time described as occurring in British strata, possessing the ball-
Vol. xx, No. 2.—Jan.-March, 1842. 42

- LLL

330 Proceedings of the British Association.

and-socket articulation of the vertebre, but with the position re-
versed, to which the name Streptospondylus has been given by
Von Meyer. It has been found in the lias near Whitby, and the
oolite near Chipping Norton. Prof. Owen next proceeded to de-
scribe the remains of some gigantic Saurians, ranging from the
greensand to the volite, and which rivalling the modern whales in
bulk, may be presumed to have been of strictly aquatic, and prob-
ably of marine habits.. They have the biconcave structure of the
vertebrz, and the long bones show no trace of a medullary cavity.
Of the first of these, named by Prof. Owen, Cetiosaurus, (de-
scribed in report of Proc. Geol.,,Soc.) the vertebra and other bones,.
found in the lower oolite of Chipping Norton, belonged probably
to an individual forty feet in length. Prof. O. has assigned to
this species the name of C. hypodlithicus ; and to another species
the name of C. epiodlithicus, remains of which, including a ver-
tebra eight inches in length of body, and nine inches in trans-
verse diameter, occurs in the Yorkshire oolite at White Nab.
The ninth section of the Report was devoted to the description
of a large marine Saurian, teeth of which were frequent in the
chalk of Barnwell, and in Sussex, in the Folkstone galt, and the
lower greensand near Maidstone. From the structure of the
teeth, Prof. O. had assigned to it in his ‘ Odontography,” the
name of Polyptychodon. Several bones of a gigantic Saurian, dis-
covered by Mr. Mackeson in the greensand quarries near Hythe,
were considered as probably belonging to the same genus. Of
the genus Mosasaurus, only a few vertebrae have been found in
the English chalk formation. Teeth, resembling those of the
Mosasaurus, but differing in the elliptic form of the base of the
crown in a transverse section, have been found in the chalk of
Norfolk, and were described by the generic appellation, Leiodon.
The report next proceeded to the account of the extinct species,
which manifested, in the enduring parts of their organization, an
intimate relationship with the numerous and varied tribes of the
smaller and lower organized Saurians: of the present epoch, to
which the term Lacertians or Squamate Sauria were applied.
Prof. O. observed that in this, as in the foregoing divisions of the
Saurian order, the ancient world possessed very singular and also
very gigantic species, which have now utterly perished, and have
given place to carnivorous and herbivorous quadrupeds of more
active habits and higher organization, The first. fossils noticed,

iisitiien

| Proceedings of the British Association. 331

were referred to a small genus of Lacertians from the chalk for-
mation in Cambridge and Maidstone, to which Prof. O, had given
the name Raphiosaurus ; a portion of the lower jaw containing
twenty two awl-shaped teeth, and another specimen consisting
of twenty dorsal, two lumbar, two sacral, and a few caudal
vertebra, with the pelvic bones, were described. Part of the
lower jaw, with teeth, of another lizard about as large as the
Iguana, was described as occurring in the eocene sand under the
red crag at Kyson. Remains of a Lacertian were next described
from the celebrated oolite at Stonesfield. The structure of these
bones indicates a close affinity to the scincoid lizards, the largest
forms of which now exist in Australia, where they are associated
with Araucarie and Cycadeous plants, with living Clavagelle,
Terebratule, and Trigonia, and with the peculiar marsupial
quadrupeds, the remains of all which forms of organized beings
characterize the same stratum and locality as does the present
extinct Lacertian. Prof. O. next proceeded to notice the more
remarkable and gigantic forms of terrestrial Saurians of the same
period, from the eocene tertiary to the oolites. Of these, the
Megalosaurus, Iguanodon, and Hyleosaurus had been described
by their original discoverer, Dr. Mantell, and by Dr. Buckland in
his ‘ Bridgewater Treatise.’ Prof. O. after pointing out additional
peculiarities of structure discovered in specimens subsequently
found, and the uew localities from which these specimens were
derived, observed that the name Iguanodon, by conveying the
idea of a gigantic Jguana, created an erroneous idea of its affin-
ities. No existing lizard differed more from the Iguana than did
the Iguanodon, in the absence of the ball-and-socket joint of the
vertebree, and likewise in the structure of the teeth, which is
characterized in the gigantic extinct herbivorous reptile by nu-
merous parallel medullary canals. The femur of the Iguanodon,
in the process continued from the inner side, near the upper third
of the bone, deviates from all modern Lacertians, and approaches
nearer the crocodiles, but surpasses them in the development of
the ridge in question. Adetailed description of the skeleton,
founded upon nearly all the remains of the Iguanodon yet dis-
‘covered, was next given; the form of the claw-bones of ‘the
Iguanodon, and especially of some enormous ones recently dis-
covered with other bones at Horsham, was described, and from
a comparison of these with other specimens fromthe Isle of

332 Proceedings of the British Association.

Wight, and with those preserved in the slab containing the Maid-
stone Iguanodon, Prof. O. stated it to be his opinion, that the
animal did not possess the peculiarity of having the fore legs pro-
vided with compressed, and the hind legs with depressed claws,
but that the narrow compressed curved claws occasionally found
in the Wealden, belonged to another extinct reptile. ‘This sec-
tion of the Report concluded with a notice of all the British
localities, and the strata in which those remains had been discov-
ered. ‘I'he anatomical peculiarities of the Hylzosaurus, another
large extinct reptile of the Wealden clay, discovered by Dr. Man-
tell, were next described; and an account of the microscopical
structure of the dermal bones was given. ‘This remarkable rep-
tile combines the sub-biconcave structure of the vertebree, with
crocodilian scute, and a plesiosauroid form of the scapular arch.
The teeth not uncommonly found in the Wealden strata, for-
merly supposed to belong to the Phyiosaurus cylindricodon of
Jaeger, and more recently to the genus Rhopalodon of Fischer
de Waldheim, Mr. O. showed to be quite distinct from both, and
stated that if they were not the teeth of the Hyleosaur, they
must belong to some unknown genus of Lacertine Saurian. The
remains of the genera T'hecodon and Palgosaur, from the mag-
nesian conglomerates near Bristol, and of the genus Cladeiodon
from the Keuper sandstone of Warwickshire, were next described.
These were the most ancient of the Saurians yet discovered in
Great Britain, and although they differ from modern Lacertians
in the implantation of their teeth in distinct sockets, agreed with
them in the form and structure of the teeth. The last genus of
Saurians described, (Rhiynchosaurus, O.) is new to science, and
the remarkable peculiarities of its cranial anatomy, together with
its vertebral characters, and the structure of the ribs, and some of
_the long bones, were given in detail. Characters of the croco-
dile, lizard and tortoise were combined in the forms and connex-
ions of the bones of the skull, a nearly entire specimen of which
had been transmitted by Dr. O. Ward, of Shrewsbury, to Prof.
Owen from the Grinsill quarries of the new red sandstone, where
the foot prints of a reptile agreeing in size with the Rhynchosat-
rus were not uncommon. Reasons were adduced showing the
high probability that they were the foot prints of the Rhyn-
chosaurus: they differ in shape from those of the Chirotherium,
which were shown, in the concluding part of the Report, to be-

4

long to Prof. Owen’s new genus Labyrinthodon. In the seven-
teenth section of the present Report, were described the remains
of the flying reptiles (Pterodactylus macronyr) from Lyme Regis
and the oolite of Stonesfield. Some remains of undetermined
Saurians from the bone bed at Aust Passage, and other localities,
were noticed. The nineteenth section contained an account of
the fossil Emydes, Trionyces, and Chelonie, hitherto discovered
in British strata. The Chelonia Harvicensis, and two new spe-

cies (C. breviceps and C. acutirostris) from the eocene clay at

Sheppey, were described; and the characters of a new genus,
(Cimochelys,) the remains of which are found in the chalk near
Maidstone, were given in detail.

The indications of Chelonian reptiles in more ancient strata
were then noticed, and the femur of a tortoise, from the new red
sandstone near Elgin, was described. The fossil reptiles of the
order Ophidia, discovered by Mr. Owen in the London clay at
Sheppey, have already been noticed; to these were added de-
scriptions of a smaller species of Paleophis, from the eocene sand
at Kyson, and of a much larger species not less than twenty feet
in length, from the London clay at Bracklesham. ‘The last sec-
tion of the Report was chiefly devoted to the details of the deter-

. mination of remains of the fossil Batrachians, identical with the

so-called genera Mastodonsaurus and Salamandroides of the
German Keuper, and on which the characters of the genus Laby-
rinthodon are based. Reasons were given, showing the high
probability that the foot prints referred to the Chirotherium, were
those of the Batrachian genus Labyrinthodon.

The following papers were also communicated :

On the Post-Tertiary Formations of Cornwall and Devon, by Mr. Bartlett.

On the stratified and epee volcanic products in the neighborhood of Ply-
mouth, by Rev. D. William

On the aor Cardinia af Agassiz, as characteristic of the lias formation, by
H. E. Strickla

On the Seta of organic remains in * raised beach, in the limestone cliff
under the Hoe, at Plymouth, by E. Moore,

Account of the strata penetrated in Sis an Artesian well at the Victoria
Spa, Plymouth, by Edward Moore, M. D.

Notice of the discovery of some fossils on Great Hangman Hill, near Combe
Martin, North Devon, by Major Harding.

Sect. D. Zoology and Botany.

_ the Geographical Distribution of the Animals of New
Holland, by Mr. Gray.—0Of the ninety four species of mammalia,

vd

Proceedings of the British Association.

(belonging to thirty three genera,) which are found in Australia,
it appears that fifty eight inhabit New South Wales, of which
forty one are peculiar to it, and thirteen common to it, and other
parts of the country ; twelve species inhabit South Australia, six
are peculiar, and six are common to other parts. Nineteen spe-
cies inhabit Western Australia; twelve peculiar, and seven com-
mon. Five species inhabit the Northwest coast, all of which are
peculiar to it; two species the north coast, one of which has not
been found elsewhere. In Yan Diemen’s Land are found twenty
one species; eleven are found only in that country, and ten com-
mon to it and the continent. One species is found in Norfolk
Island, which is also found in =” ew South Wales, but not in Van
Diemen’s hands:

On tr ble marin tebrata inhabiting the Aigean
Sea, by Mr. E. Forbes.—T hese animals were taken in the harbor
of Nousa, in the island of Paros, which is extremely rich in marine
productions. The depth of the bay is geuerally from seven to
ten fathoms; the bottom, sand and weed. Amongst the sandy
heaps at the bottom of this bay are two new animals. The first,
a zoophyte of the family Actiniade, which is free and vermiform,
and which lives in a tube of its own construction,—a combination
of characters hitherto unnoticed among the helianthoid polypes.
The second is a tubicolar annelide, which lives in a strong gela-
tinous tube, bearing a remarkable analogy to the sac of certain
entozoa. These two animals are noticed together, as in each
case the peculiarity of the organization and habits is the result of
a similar adaptation of form, in two very distinct tribes, to a sim-
ilar locality.

On a new Glirine Animal from Mexico, by J. E. Gray.—This
animal was brought from Mexico by Mr. J. Phillips, and is pecu-
liar for having large cheek pouches which open externally on the
sides of the cheek. This conformation has hitherto been observed
only in four genera of glirine animals, which inhabit exclusively
the northern half of the American continent, as the genera Sac-
cophorus, Saccomys, Anthomys, and Heteromys. ‘These cheek

are used by the animals to carry their food, as the mon-
keys of the Old World use their internal pouches, which are found
between their cheek and the mouth. ‘The first of these genera
has been long known ; and it has been believed that these ‘aligek
pouches hung out of the side of the cheek like pockets; but this

- a
ri
‘

Proceedings of the British Association. «835

does not appear to be the case with the genus under consideration,
or with the Anthomys, which was so called because F. Cuvier
found their cheek pouches filled with flowers. If it were not for
these cheek pouches, the animal before us might be taken for a
Gerboa, with which it perfectly agrees in the softness and color
of the fur, and in the length of the hind-legs and tail, which has
a brush at the end, so that it may be at once distinguished from
the other American genera, above enumerated, which either have
an elongated scaly tail, like a rat, or a very short one, like a lem-
ming. Mr. Gray is inclined to consider this animal as the repre-
sentative of the genus (Dipus) Gerboa, which is confined to the
more temperate part of Africa, as the genus Harpalotis is repre-
sentative of the same genus in Australia. ‘The combination of
the forms and color of the Gerboa with the external cheek pouches
of the pouched rat, at once marks this animal as a new genus,

which I propose to call Dipodomys or Gerboa rat, designating the
species after its discoverer, D. Phillipsit.

Col. Hamilton Smith read a paper on the Colossal Sepiade.—
He detailed all that was known of the existence of animals of
enormous size, inhabiting the ocean, belonging to the class of
Cephalopods. However incredulous some naturalists might be
regarding the existence of these animals, he had collected sufti-
cient evidence to convince him that animals of a very large size
belonging to this class now inhabited the waters of the ocean.

he paper was illustrated by numerous drawings, and one was
a sketch of the beak and other parts of an enormous Sepia, still
preserved at the Museum of Haarlem, where they were seen by
the author.

The following papers were also read :

Some none on the Natural History of the Wheat Midge, Cecidomyia Tritiel,

by Prof. Henslow.
On the aooloay of the county of Cornwall, by J. Couch.

Report on the drawing up, printing and circulating of, queries concerning the
human race, for the use of travellers and others
Report of the Committee on the growth and vilality of seeds
On the habits of the eel, and on the freshwater fishes of Austria, by Capt. Wid-
dington, R. N.
On sinks! exhalations as affecting plants, by Mr. Bal
On natural history as a branch of general education, “ Mr. R. Patterson.
“Selieme for io ly observations on the Me Oe! of bisds, by * de ee

.

“& iz .
336 Proceedings of the British Association.

Comparative view of animal and vegetable physiology, by Mr. Bartlett.
Remarks on the Flora of Devon and Cornwall, by Rev. W. 8S. Hore.
Account of a Thylacinus, the great dog-headed onan one of the rarest and
largest of the marsupiate family of animals, by Prof. Ow
Account of two Peruvian mummies, by Mr. P. F. eal
On the yarieties of the human race, by Dr. Caldwell.
Sect. E.— Medical Science.
The following papers were communicated to the Section.
Facts as yet unnouiced in the treatment of sqninting, by Mr. J. V. Solomon.
General obscryations on the pathology and cure of squinting, by J. gen M.D.
A case of albuminous Ascites, with Hydatids, by Sir David Dicks
Observations on a serene disease hitherto undescribed by ries on diseases
of the skin, by Dr. A. T. iia
Report on poisons, by Dr R
On the treatment of Le s opium, by Dr. Theophilus Thompson.
On Empyema, by Mr. Square.
On two fascia on the eyeball, by Mr. B. Lucas.
Some observations on a case of deafness, dumbness and blindness, with remarks
on the muscular sense, by Dr, Fowler.
- Seet. FE’... Statistics,
The following scien were communicated to the Section.
Statistics of Plymouth, Stonehouse and Devonport, by Mr. H. Woolcombe.
On the vital statistics of Sheffield, by a local committee
Account of the Polytechnic Schoo] of Paris, sa J. fleywood,; Esq.
On the loan funds in Ireland, by Mr. H. J. P.
On the income of scientific and literary a i and the amount paid for rates
and taxes in the year 1840, by Mr. Rylan
ecount of the Central Statistical Comuifivion't in Brussels, by the Belgian gov-
ernment; from Prof. Quetelet.
Results of experiments on a system of small allotments and spade husbandry,
by Mrs. Davies Gilbert
On the agricultural products of Cornwall, by Sir C. Lem
Report of the Manchester Statistical Society, on the mie of the working classes
in the borough of Kingston-upon-Hu ull.
Statistics of education in the city of Bristol, by Mr. Fripp
omparative statement of the income and eipewainire of certain families of the
working “en in Manchester and Duckenfield, during the years 1836 and 1841,
by Mr. W. Nei
Account of re Mon de Piété of Rome, Paris, and other continental cities, “sf
Mr. er.
On the Hipinis of the clergy of the Established Church in Scotland.
oe on the importance of keeping exact registers, in different ranger of
facts meteorology, physics, chemistry, fin agriculture, zoology,
phy riology and economy, by Prof. Quetelet
On the economie statistics of Sheffield

Sect. G.. tae Science. ,
Mr. G. Rennie read a paper on the Propulsion of Vessels by
the T'rapezium Paddle-wheel and Screw. 'The author gave an

Proceedings of the British “a_i ws

account of the various experiments to which he had been led,
on the propulsion of vessels by various forms of paddle-floats and
by the screw. It was generally admitted that the paddle-wheel
is the best means of propulsion with which engineers are at
present acquainted, and various attempts have been made for its
improvement. ‘There are several objections to the square or rec-
tangular floats, particularly the shock on entering the water, and
the drag against the motion of the wheel on the float’s quitting
- the water; both of which gave rise to considerable vibrations.
He had been led, in considering the improvement of the paddle-
wheel, to have recourse to nature; and the form of the foot of
the duck had particularly attracted his attention. 'The web of
the duck’s foot is shaped so that each part has a relation to the
Space through which it has to move, that is, to the distance from
the centre of motion of the animal’s leg. Hence he was led to
cut off the angles of the rectangular floats ; and he found that
the resistance to the wheel through the water was not diminish-
ed. Pursuing these observations and experiments, he was led to
adopt a float of a trapezium or diamond shape, with its most
pointed end downwards. _ These fpats enter the water with their
points downwards, and quit it with their points upwards, and ~
then arrive gradually at their full horizontal action, without shocks
or vibrations ; and after their full horizontal action, quit the wa-
ter without lifting it or producing any sensible commotion be-
hind. After a great variety of experiments, he found that a pad-
dle-wheel of one half the width and weight, and with trapezium
floats, was as effective in propelling a vessel asa wheel of double
the width and weight with the ordinary rectangular floats. The
Admiralty had permitted him to fit Her Majesty’s steam-ship Af-
rican with these wheels, and he had perfect confidence in the
Success of the experiment. Another means of propulsion is the
screw, which had been applied with success by Mr. Smith in the
Archimedes. In examining the wings of birds and the tails of
Swift fish, he had been particularly struck with the adaptation of
Shape to the speed of the animals. The contrast between the
Shape of the tail of the codfish—a slow moving fish, and the tail
of the mackerel—a rapid fish, is very remarkable ; the latter go-
ing off toa point much more rapidly than the former. | From
these observations he was led to try a screw with four wings of
@ Shape somewhat similar to these, i bent into a conical sur-
Vol. xxi, No. 2.—Jan.-March, 1842.

338 An Astronomical Machine, the Tellurium.

face, the outline being a logarithmic spiral. He found also that
certain portions of these might be cut off without diminishing
the effect. With respect to ascertaining the friction of the screw
on the water, great difficulty exists; but he would refer to his
experiments, published some years ago in the Philosophical 'Trans-
actions, in which he measured the friction of the water against
a body revolving in it, by the time which a given weight took
to descend ; this body consisted of rings, and he found that the
friction or resistance through the water did not increase in propor-
tion to the number of rings.

The following papers were also communicated.
. Report on railway constants, by Dr.

Remarks on the connexion which exists between improvements in pitwork oa
the oie oF te ma ae in Cornwall, by Mr. Enys.

ruscott’s plan for reefing paddle-wheels, by Mr. Cha
a plan of disengaging and reconnecting the paddle-wheels 4 aman
by Mr. J. Grantham
na floating breakwater, by Capt. Taylor, R.N.

Further report of the committee on the forms of vessels, by Mr. J. S. Russell:
* On an improved sight bite rifles and other fire-arms, ~ Mr. C. 'T. Coathupe.

On Capt. Couch’s chock channels, by Mr. Snow Har

On Arnott’s stove, and the construction of Neosat os, and their anblice-
tion to the aati of ventilation, peor. J. N. Hearde

Report of the committee on altel constants, by Mr. Edward Woods.

On the granite quarries of Dartmoor, and their railways and machinery, by Mr.
W. Fohescn

Report of the committee for applying a principle of Dynamometrical admeasure-
ment, invented by M. Poncelet, to the construction of a permanent indicator for
steam-engines,

On a system of trussing for the roadways of eapension bridges, by Mr, Rendel.

On the Plymouth breakwater, by Mr. Wm. Stu

_ Arr. XIV.—An Asironomical Machine, the Tellurium ; by
Epwin C. Leepom, M. D., of Plymouth, Penn.

_ Tuts isa machine for representing the motions of the earth
and moon. ‘The earth, whose axis has its proper obliquity to the
ecliptic and keeps its parallelism, revolves round the sua in an
ellipsis similar to the natural orbit, and moves with such a velo-
city that an i imaginary line joining the centres of these two bod-
ies, the latter being situated in one of the foci of the orbit of the
former, describes equal areas in equal times. The diurnal rota-
tions of the planet are also. shown, each complete turn on its axis

An Astronomical Machine, the Tellurium. 339

being made in a sidereal day, or 23h. 56m. 4s. The moon moves
eastward round the earth and completes a sidereal revolution in
27d. 7h. 43m. ; its nodes shift round contrary to the order of the
signs, and its apogee has its direct motion eastward, the former
completing a sidereal revolution in 18.6 years, and the latter in

In contriving this machine I have availed myself somewhat of
the inventions of other artists. To effect the unequable motion
of the earth in its orbit, I have had recourse to a combination of
elliptical wheels similar to that used by Dr. Desaguliers in his
Cometarium. There isa little Planetarium described in Fergu-
son’s Astronomy, in which the parallelism of the earth’s axis is
preserved in the same manner as in this. But this machine, in-
dependently of the elliptical orbit and unequable motion of the
earth, is very different from that, as will be apparent to any one
who may compare them.* (See Brewster’s Ed. Ferg. Astron.
Vol. If, p.6.) Although these particular parts are the inventions
of preceding artists, still I think I may venture to assert, that this
machine, considered as a whole, constitutes a new combination
in mechanics.

In Plate IV, this machine is represented as it would appear to
an eye situated directly above it. Plate V exhibits a lateral view
of the wheelwork. In either plate the ball W represents the
sun, the ball U the earth, and V the moon: # is an index for
showing the place of the moon’s ascending node, e is another
index for showing the place of its apogee, and m is a winch by
which the machinery is moved. The earth is surrounded by a
little brass ring s; which is set upon four pillars ¢ ¢, and has the
Signs of the zodiac marked upon it. Upon this ring, which moves
With the earth and keeps its parallelism, the geocentric places of
the sun, moon, its ascending node and apogee, can be seen.
123 4, Plate V, is a wooden frame, in the top of which are two
equal elliptical grooves similar to the earth’s orbit, and which
have their foci all situated in one straight line. Within the
frame are two elliptical wheels, K and L, which are of the same
Size and eccentricity as these grooves, each wheel having its axis

* About fourteen years ago I made the first machine of this kind. At that time

and for several years afier, L believed myself to be the original inventor of this

Mode of preserving the parallelism of the — 8 axis, but 7 was at length unde-
eeived by a perusal of Ferguson's book. et i ea

340 An Astronomical Machine, the Tellurium.

situated in one of its foci. The axis of the wheel L also carries
a large circular wheel M ; next to which is placed a pinion N,
upon the upper end of whose axis the winch 7 is fixed. Qisa
stout metallic axis of the same size as that which carries the
wheel K. These two axes pass perpendicularly through the
boards 1 and 3, the upper part of each axis where it comes
through the board 1 being situated in one of the foci of one of
the elliptical grooves. Upon the upper ends of these axes two
arms # and 7 are tightly fixed. Two other arms R and S are
fixed upon their lower ends so as to be perpendicular to A and 7.
'T is a narrow metallic plate which is connected with the arms R
and $ by two movable joints: this plate assists in regulating the
motion of the machine. Into the arms / and 2, are inserted two
axes f and g, which pass up through a movable frame 5 67 8 and
turn freely within it. The lower ends of these axes project into
the elliptical grooves in the board 1 and slide along these grooves
when the machine is in motion, the arms # and 7 being so con-
trived as either to lengthen or shorten according as the distance
of the groove from its focus increases or diminishes.

‘The movable frame 5 67 8 contains a number of wheels, Which
serve to rotate the earth on its axis and give motion to the moon,
its nodes and apogee. A metallic supporter Y has inserted into
it a long and narrow socket, which passes up through a hole in
the plate Z. Upon the upper end of this socket a small brass
arm a is fixed, which holds a pinion 0, whose axis forms an angle
of 234 ee & with the perpendicular, and carries the earth U.
C is a pinion whose axis passes up through this socket and is sur-
mounted by a very small wheel whose teeth act upon the leaves
of the pinion 0. D, F, and H, are three wheels, each of which
is fixed upon a separate socket. The socket of the wheel D
turns upon the socket which is fastened into the supporter Y-
The socket of F turns upon the socket of D; and the socket of
H turns upon that of the wheel F. Upon the upper end of the
socket of Da small circular brass plate ¢ is fixed, into which,
near its edge, is inserted a small flattened socket, through which
passes a flattened wire which carries the moon V. The lower
end of this wire rests on another circular plate d, which is fixed
upon the socket of the wheel F and has an oblique position,
forming an angle of 5 degrees with a horizontal plane passing
through its centre. This wire is kept constantly applied to the

An Astronomical Machine, the Tellurium. 341

plate d by means of its own gravity, and slides along this plate
as ¢ turns round, the wire alternately rising and falling in its ~
socket ; consequently the orbit in which the moon V moves must
always be parallel to the plate d, and form an angle of 54 degrees
with the plane of the ecliptic. ‘The index e, which points to the
moon’s apogee, is fixed upon the socket of the wheel H. The
axis g carries four wheels A, EK, G, and I, which all turn as one
wheel. Next to the wheel A is placed the pinion of a wheel B,
whose teeth act upon the teeth of a small wheel p, which trans-
mits motion to the pinion C. The teeth of the wheel E act
upon the teeth of the wheel O, whose axis also carries a wheel
P, which gives motion to the wheel D. The teeth of the wheel
G act upon the teeth of the wheel F'; and lastly, motion is trans-
mitted from the wheel I to the wheel H by means of an inter-
vening wheel r.

When the winch m is turned by a steady hand, the leaves of
the pinion N act upon the teeth of the large circular wheel M,
and turn it and the elliptical L on their common axis with an
equable motion. The teeth of Lat the same time act upon those
of the wheel K. As K turns, the arms # and # both move in the
same direction and carry the movable frame 567 8 parallel to
itself, over and over the top of. the large stationary frame 1 2 3 4.
The earth U is carried along with the moving frame, and has the
parallelism of its axis also rigidly preserved. As the ends of the
axes f and g slide round in the elliptical grooves, in the board 1,
it is apparent that the orbit described by the earth U, must be an
ellipsis of the same size and eccentricity as either of these grooves.
When the earth is in its perihelion, as represented in the draw-
ing (Plate V,) that part of the circumference of the elliptical
Wheel L, which is farthest from its axis and has the greatest ve-
locity, is applied to a part of the circumference of K which is
nearest to the axis of the latter wheel, consequently the earth
must have its quickest motion. When the earth comes to its
aphelion, these elliptical wheels have a reverse position with re-
Spect to each other, which gives the earth its slowest motion.
These elliptical wheels working together in this manner, give the
earth U the same unequable motion in its orbit, that the real
earth has in nature.

The wheels A, E, G, and I, all make one complete turn on
their common axis g during an entire revolution of the earth

342 An Astronomical Machine, the Tellurium.

round the sun. The wheel A contains 293 teeth, and the pin-
ion which belongs to the wheel B contains 8 leaves, consequently
B must make 363 turns during one turn of the wheel A. The
wheel B contains 80 teeth, and the pinion C contains 8 leaves;
consequently C must make ten turns during one turn of the wheel
B, and ten times 36% or 3664 turns during one revolution of the
wheel A, that is, in one year. he little wheel upon the upper
end of the axis of the pinion C contains the same number of
teeth as the pinion 0, therefore the earth must turn on its axis in
the same time as the pinion C; it must make 3664 diurnal rota-
tions ina year, each rotation being performed in a sidereal day or
23h. 56m. 4s. The wheel E contains 167 teeth, and the wheel
O contains 25 teeth. Consequently O, and also the wheel P,
must make 612 turns during one turn of E. The wheel P con-
tains 72 teeth, and the wheel D contains 36 teeth, consequently
D must make two turns during one turn of P, and twice 612 or
13,2; turns during one turn of the wheel E, or in one year. As
the circular. brass plate c is fixed upon the socket of the wheel
D, this plate must turn with the wheel and carry the moon V
13.°. times round the earth U ina year, which is equal to the
number of the moon’s sidereal revolutions in this time. The
teeth of the wheel G act upon the teeth of the wheel F. The
wheel G contains 20 teeth, and the wheel F contains 372 teeth,
consequently G must make 18,°, turns, while F turns once round,
As the wheel G makes but one turn on its axis ina year, the
wheel F must require 18,°, years to perform a revolution. The
oblique plate d, to which the moon’s orbit is parallel, being fixed
upon the socket of the wheel F, the plate must turn with this
wheel and carry the moon’s nodes round contrary to the order of
the signs, so as to perform a sidereal revolution in 18,5 years.
The teeth of the wheel I act upon the teeth of the wheel r,
which, as before stated, transmits motion to the wheel H. The
wheel I contains 20 teeth, and the wheel H contains 177 teeth,
consequently I must make 817 turns in order to turn F* round
once. As the wheel I makes only one turn in a year, the wheel
H must be 837 years in performing a revolution. ‘The index ¢,
which is fixed upon the socket of H, must turn with this wheel
and also perform a revolution in 812 years, which is the time in
which the moon’s apogee performs a sidereal revolution ; there-
fore, this index will show the proper motion of the apogee.

See

This machine being rectified by the astronomical tables for any
particular time, if the winch » be then turned from right to left,
the machine will exhibit the vicissitudes of day and night, vari-
ety of seasons, new and full moons, eclipses, anomalies of the
sun and moon, or year after year. .

As the earth has the same unequable motion in its elliptical
orbit that the real earth has, this machine will show the sun’s
true place correctly for a great length of time.

A table showing the dimensions of the wheels of the Tellurium, number
of teeth, ee.

Wheel A, 293 teeth, 12 teeth in an inch of circum. Diam. 7.77 inches.
» Wheel B, 80 teeth, 8 teeth in an inch of circum. Diam. 3.18 inches.

Pinion of wheel B, 8 leaves. Diam. =4;)ths of an inch.

Wheel p, 24 teeth, 8 teeth in an inch. Diam. ;,ths of an inch.
_ Pinion C, 8 leaves. Diam. ;%)5ths of an inch. vs
_ Wheel E, 167 teeth, 8 teeth in aninchof circum. Diam. 6.64 inches.

Wheel O, 25 teeth, 8 teeth in an inch. Diam. ;88;ths of an inch.

Wheel P, 72 teeth, 8 teeth in an inch. Diam. 2.86 inches,

Wheel D, 36 teeth, 8 teeth in an inch. Diam. 1.43 inches.

ie G, 20 teeth, 12 teeth in an inch of circum. Diam. 53,ths of
an in

Wheel F, 372 teeth, 12 teeth in an inch. Diam. 9.35, aan Ta

~ Wheel I, 20 teeth, 8 teeth in an inch of circum, Diam. ;%,ths_of
an inch.

Wheel H, 177 teeth, 8 teeth in an inch. Diam. 7160 inches.

‘Wheel 7, 40 teeth, 8 teeth in an inch. Diam. 1,8, inches.

~ Elliptical wheels K and L. The longer diihidter ‘of each wheel, 10
inches, Distance between the two foci =1;,ths ofan inch. Both of these
wheels contain the same number of teeth.

' Wheel M, 280 teeth, 8 teeth in an inch. Diam. 11544, inches.

» Pinion N, 16 leaves.

peBllip ical. grooves in the Sete 1. The longer diameter of each
groove, measuring from the middle of the groove on one side to the
middle of the groove on the opposite side, 10 inches. Distance be-
tween the two foci ;yths of an inch.

a s 4 ; ; : Etre
Wire Raiey > sik gh aed ide's UG é ; a *

344 Meteorological Journal for the year 1841.

Art, XV.— Abstract ie a ernest anne for the pus
kept at Marietta, Ohio, Lat. 5' N., Lam. 4° 28
W. of Washington ites poby Bik nt M. D.

MOMETER. BAROMETER.

THER: fi s
z £3
Months. ES 2.\8% | Prevailing winds. :
s |&\ 8 ome. gig
o }3 - 2 3
= Z a 2 3 lg g = &
gS .
zig\5| |e /8 5/8 Fara
naary, {32.47/59} ~ 21) 3187} N. W., W., 8. W. 3 ;
February, |33.00/57 14, 1/31 N. W., 8. W. f
March, (42.33'80 13) 3/4 BW By BOB:
April, 46.66 82 13) Si N., 8. W.
May, 60.20 92 3/3 N., 8. W., 8.
June, 75.2794 4 N., 8. W., S.
July, 71.43 92} 3 Bij Si Wey Ne
-}| August, 70-5390) 98S) N., 8., 8. E.
sptember, 66.28/91 10) 3 8.5 8. Bip Np
October, 48.44/78 13) 1) ey ee
November, '43.20,79 10! 20! 3 wae TF
December, (36.33 60) 1 |_| & 25) 5138 8. W., 8. Bs
Mean, (52.18 205) 160 42.82 se

Remarks on the year 1841.

a

The past year has not been remarkable for any striking changes
in the temperature, or commotion in the elements.
heat for the year is very near that of this climate for a series of
years, being 52.18°. ‘The distribution varies very considerably,
as it is divided amongst the seasons; some springs being cool,
others warm; so also with summers and autumns, while the gen-
eral amount varies but little in different years. The winter was
comparatively mild, the mercury sinking below zero only on two
’ mornings during this period. The mean is 32.519, being two de-
grees cooler than that of 1840. There fell but eight or ten inches

; snow at different times. The Ohio river at Marietta was
closed only for a few days by the ice—from the 3d to the 8th of
January, but navigation was impeded by floating ice as early as
the 21st of December. In February, there was some severe
weather, from the 10th to the 15th of the month. ‘The mercury
was at 8° above zero on the morning of the 11th, and only 12°
above at noon ; at this pened we often have the coldest weather
in the year. ‘The Ohio > was again filled with floating ice, and
for a few days boats Seman on: after the 20th of the month,

Meteorological Journal for the year 1841. 345

the river was free from ice until the breaking up of the Alleghany
river. The Ohio has at no time been over its banks ; on the
30th of March it was nearly “ full banks.”

The mean temperature for the spring months, was 49, 73°,
which is several degrees below that of 1840, or that for the aver-
age heat of this place. April was uncommonly cool, being only
46.66°, while the same month in 1840 was 56.57°-—a difference
of neaily 10°. The consequence was the retardation of the
blossoming of fruit and other trees for several days past the usual
period. In 1838, the apple bloomed on the 17th of April, and
in 1840 on the 15th; while this year it was not in full bloom
until the 30th of that month, and did not entirely shed its blos-
soms before the 20th of May. Other trees were retarded in
nearly the same proportion. From the 10th of May to the 11th
of June, there fell but little rain, being only about half an inch.
The lack of moisture at this season of the year, when the roots
of cereal plants are usually in their most vigorous state, was se-
riously felt in the crops of wheat and grass, especially the latter,
which afforded but a small crop compared with other years. In-
dian corn, owing to the cool and dry weather in May, did but
barely appear above ground, as late as the 10th of June, and
many farmers feared an entire failure of the crop; but refreshing
showers after that period, and the heat of June, soon awakened
its dormant powers, and an average crop was obtained in this
part of Ohio; while west of us on the Scioto river, this crop was
hearly a connate failure, the drouth continuing in the valley of
that stream till late in June.

~The mean temperature of the summer months was 72.41° ;
which is nearly 2° above that of 1840. During these months,
there was a seasonable supply of rain, and vegetation was healthy
and vigorous. The last of June, when the wheat crop had nearly
attained its growth, during a period of wet sultry weather, the
cuticle of the stem was attacked with a rust or mildew ; it appear-
ed to arise from an exudation of the sap, like a heavy dew, on
the leaves of forest trees; after a few days, the stalks were cov-
ered with minute reddish spots of mould, raising quite a cloud
of dust when disturbed by the reapers. This took place while
the grain was in the milk; the consequence was, a lack of those
nutritious juices which secfect the kernel, and the grain was
nken and tight, affording an undue oop of bran when

‘Vol. xii, No. 2,—Jan.—March, 1842.

346 The Glacial Theory of Prof. Agassiz.

manufactured into flour. Very few fields in the southern portion
of Ohio escaped this calamity; while the crops of this grain in
the northern part of the state being later in ripening, suffered
muc

The summer was attended with no tornadoes, or violent gusts
of wind, to do any material damage.

The mean temperature of autumn was 52.80°, which is about
23° warmer than that of last year. The warmth of this period
gave the Indian corn full time to ripen before the appearance of
frost, the first of any severity being on the 18th of October.

Crops of potatoes, beans, and oats, were very good; that of
sweet potatoes was uncommonly fine. Fruit was not abundant,
being injured by the frosts of May; apples were plentiful in some
districts, while in others within a few miles, they were an entire

ure. Peaches were quite prolific on the hills back from the
river, and near the Ohio, also, if located on the top of a high hill.
Trees in this situation rarely fail of producing fruit ; and those
who set new orchards now, look out for exposures of this kind.

The amount of rain for this year has been ABs inches, which
is about the average for this climate. It is 3 7,5; inches greater
than that of 1840, and nearly a foot greater than that of 1839,
which was an uncommonly dry year.

A brilliant aurora was observed about the 18th of November,
but I did not happen to witness it.

Marietta, Ohio, January 5, 1842.

es |

Arr. XVI.—The Glacial Theory of Prof. Ageasts ; ; by Cares
Mac iaren.*

__Tuis is perhaps the fittest term to designate the novel opinions of
. Agassiz. Glaciers are properly long narrow masses of ice filling
: ‘the bottom of Alpine valleys, but M. Agassiz thinks that sheets of ice,
such as are met with in Greenland, covered the whole surface of Eu-
i and all Northern Asia as far as the Caspian Sea. This conclu-

. This article is republished from a little tract which Mr. Maclaren had the
kindness to send us, entitled “The Glacial Theory of Prof. Agassiz of Neuchatel,
being an outline of facts and arguments adduced by him to prove, that a sheet sheet of

e enveloped the northern 3 of the globe at a recent geological epoch; by
Beans Maclaren.” As it is the best review of the subject which has met our
eye, we deem no apology petiont to our readers for republishing it here.—Eps.

=e
ee
a

The Glacial Theory of Prof. Agassiz. 347

sion, which has been adopted in whole or in part by Professor Buck-
land, Mr. Lyell, and other eminent geologists, has been deduced from a
careful study of the phenomena attending glaciers, some of which are

Swiss philosopher advanced in his opinions step by step. He first sat-
isfied himself that in the Alpine valleys where glaciers still exist, they
once rose to a higher level, and extended farther down into the low
country than they now do. Next he discovered indications of their
former existence on Mount Jura and over the whole Swiss valley ; and
connecting these with similar indications found in the Vosges, the Sean-
dinavian Mountains, and elsewhere, and with the well known fact of
sheets of ice covering the northern shores of Siberia and entombing
the remains of extinct species of animals, he came to the conclusion,
that at a period, geologically speaking, very recent, all the old world
north of the 35th or 36th parallel, had been enveloped in a crust of ice.
Whence the cold came which produced this effect, and why it after-
wards disappeared, are questions he did not feel himself bound to an-
swer, but which might, perhaps, be answered hypothetically. In real-
ity, if we suppose the Northern Atlantic from the 39th parallel filled
up and converted into dry land, it is extremely probable that Britain
would have the ice-bound climate of Labrador, with which it corres-
ponds in latitude ; and the conversion of the said land into sea would
bring back the order of the seasons which we now enjoy. Even
though M. Agassiz’s opinions should not be fully esabtished, they still
afford us a new geological agent of great power and widely applicable,
which may help us to an explanation of some phenomena very difficult
to account for with our existing means of information.

Form, Magnitude and Composition of Glaciers——The subjoined
figure is not a section, but a view of a glacier as it would present itself
to an eye raised considerably above it.

ab, (fig. 1,) The gla-
cier: a represents one of, a
the forms of its surface, &
in which it is bristled with fam’ RAM,
cones of snow or ice, call- ay
ed aiguilles or needles: b (aay
is the other and more usual | pa
form of the surface, con-
sisting of narrow ridges or corrugations, like waves fixed by frost.

¢ d, Lateral moraines, consisting of long lines of boulders and gravel,
which having been detached by frost, rain, lightning, or aval
‘from the rocks flanking the valley, settle on the two sides of the Sciae.

ae

348 The Glacial Theory of Prof. Agassiz.

The heat reflected from the rock fuses a portion of the ice nearest it,
or hastens the evaporation, rendering the sides of the glacier a little
lower than the middle, and giving the mass a convex shape. ‘The frag-
ments rest in the hollows thus produced, and assume the form of the
roof of a house, one side sloping down to the rock and the other to
the ice.

e f, The terminal moraine, a line of boulders and gravel at the lower
end of the glacier, which it pushes before it when advancing, and leaves
behind it when retreating. In the latter case it looks like a low mound
or barrier across the valley. The terminal moraine. is a continuation
of the two lateral, but they are not always found uni

_r r, The rocks forming the flanks of the valley. ce

In the higher parts of the Alps, the Serpoltinkas snow forms vast ex-

tended masses joining the peaks and ridges, and these, called mers de
glace, or “ seas of ice,” exhibit scenes of grandeur and desolation which
have been the wonder of travellers. The glaciers are branches or off-
shoots from these, filling the valleys which descend from the higher
regions to the asin Glaciers pass down sometimes to so low a level
as 3000 feet above the sea in Switzerland ; but they do not originate at
a lower elevation than 7000 feet, and they rarely exist on isolated
mountains, whatever be their height. In the upper part they consist of
granular snow, called nevé in the Alps, which is changed into minute
crystals of ice by the infiltration of water, arising from the outer por-
tion of the snow being melted by the sun. As we descend from the
higher end of the glacier, the crystals, which are rather irregular
fragments, become gradually larger. Towards the lower end they are
from half an inch to an inch anda half in diameter, and in some rare
cases three inches. If a section of the glacier is exposed, the upper
strata (for it is generally stratified) are found to be full of cells, and its
substance becomes gradually more compact downward, the lowest part
being the most solid. The strata are thick at top, thinner in the mid-
dle, and disappear towards the bottom. Glaciers contract in breadth
and depth as they descend; one a league broad at the head will some-
times be only 150 or 200 yards at the foot. The thickness varies from
80: to. 100 feet at the lower, and from 120 to 180 feet at the higher end.
M. A adopts these measures from Hugi, and seems to reject the
notion of older writers, that some glaciers are 500 or 600 feet in depth.
Glaciers are of all lengths—from 100 yards to 15 miles.

Every glacier discharges a stream from a vault in its lower end i in
summer, which disappears in winter, except in some cases, where the
water is believed to come from deep. springs, with. ene suffi-
ety high to keep their vacoamien open.

a

The Glacial Theory of Prof. Agassiz. 349

re are numerous open rents or fissures (called crevasses) in every
sini caused partly by the uneven surface over which the glacier
glides in its downward motion—partly by the unequal expansion of the
upper and under strata of ice. These fissures are of all widths—from

a quarter of an inch to thirty feet or more ; they are largest and most |

numerous at the sides, but sometimes extend completely across ; they
occasionally reach from top to bottom, but more frequently stop at a
certain depth. Their direction is generally across the glacier’, but they
often become oblique at the sides, as the ice moves faster there than at
the middle ; and hence, viewed on the great scale, they present a curved
or arched appearance, with the convexity turned towards the head of
the glacier. ‘The fissures are largest and most numerous at the lower
end, and in the parts which are much inclined. In a steep valley, a
glacier, with its wave-like ridges, its bristling cones, and the pointed
rocks piercing its surface here and there, has been aptly compared to
a cataract stereotyped.

cones or needles of ice, as at a, figure 1, are thus accounted
for by Agassiz: The glacier, in passing along a valley whose bottom
is very uneven, breaks into numerous vertical prisms ; and the summits
of these, having their angles wasted away by the sun’s heat and evap-
oration, gradually assume the conical shape.

Glaciers descend into regions where the annual temperature is eight
or nine degrees above the freezing point; and, to use the words of Cox,
there are localities in Switzerland where you may almost touch grow-
ing corn with the one hand, and the ice of the glacier with the ‘thes

y of course waste away at their lower end rapidly in summer,
partly by fusion, and partly by huge fragments of the ice falling off, in
consequence of the upper beds expanding faster than the lower, till the
outer mass loses its balance and topples down.

Motion of Glaciers —The geological action of glaciers depends
chiefly on their motion, the true cause of which has been clearly ascer-
tained for the first time by M. Agassiz. Previous writers on the sub-
ject, including the celebrated Saussure, attributed the motion of the gla-
cier to gravitation, or the tendency of the mass of ice to descend by its
Weight from the upper part of the valley to the lower. This explana-
tion accounted very imperfectly for the phenomena, and the opinion of
Agassiz, deduced from a careful attention to facts, is now almost uni+
versally adopted. He considers the motion of the glacier as the con-
Sequence of expansion, and this expansion operates chiefly in the

tion in which least resistance is experienced, that is, along the
valley downward, and is caused by the congelation of infiltered water.
The influence of the sun and of warm widide melts part of the upper
Surface, and the water so produced percolates into the spongy mass,

a es

350 The Glacial Theory of Prof. Agassiz.

where it is soon frozen, and in freezing expands, according to a well
known law. The upper strata, imbibing more water than the lower,
dilate in a greater degree, but the lower strata, in dilating, carry the
upper with them, and thus produce rents or crevasses. Again, the
flanks of the glacier imbibe more water than the middle, and by their
greater expansion give a curved form to the crevasses; and the lower
end imbibes more water than the upper, in consequence of the more
frequent rains and alternations of frost and thaw. Besides, as the upper
end of the glacier, in expanding, pushes the rest before it, the accu-
mulated effect of the whole expansion falls upon the lower end, which
is found to travel quickest. The motion, too, is most rapid in summer,

parts, the glacier creeps along slowly but surely. In 1827, M. Hugi
constructed a hut on the glacier of the Aar, at the foot of a fixed rock .
called Im Abschwung. It was found that the hut had receded 2200 feet
from the fixed rock in 1836, and 4400 in 1840, showing that it had
advanced about 250 feet per annum in the first nine years, and 550 in
the four last. Taking summer and winter together, its motion had been
about eight inches per day in the first period, and eighteen inches in
the second. In glaciers which are much inclined, the motion is more
rapid than this.

Polished and Grooved Surface of Rocks.—The glacier in its course
downward carries with it the fragments of rock, gravel, and sand which
lie under it. These adhere to the ice, or are embedded in it, and as
the mass glides slowly along, they abrade, groove, and polish the rock,
and the larger masses are reciprocally grooved and polished by the
rock on their lower sides. The effects of this abrasion on the bottom
of the valleys may be conceived from the pressure applied. A cubic
yard of sandstone weighs two tons, and if we assume the average
ante of glacier ice to be two-thirds of that of common river ice, the

upon each square yard of rock at the bottom of a glacier 100
feet deep, will be equal to about sixteen tons, or the general pressure
will be as great as would be produced by a bed of sandstone twenty
four feet thick. Thus the various materials under the ice are pressed
against the rock with am enormous force, while an equally great force
of another kind, produced by the congelation of water, propels them
downwards. ‘The sand, coxttng like emery, polishes the surface ; the
pebbles, lik ratch and furrow it; and the large stones
scoop out grooves in it. Portions of these substances, and of the rock
too, are ground to the state of fine clay, and the whole of the movable
matter, stones, pebbles, sand, and elay, are in course of time thrown
out at the lower end of the glacier, where they form the terminal
moraine.

The Glacial Theory of Prof. Agassiz. 351

The ice, in consequence of its tendency to dilate, and its numerous
fissures, accommodates itself to the sinuosities of the rocks which con-
fine it, cutting off the smaller projections, and rounding and_ polishing
the larger, which assume the form of domes, and were termed roches
moutonnées by Saussure. Agassiz’s eighth plate gives some fine exam-
ples of these rounded swells. Owing to the immense pressure, the
included. pebbles of conglomerates, and the hardest veins inshpelndia
rocks, are cut away to the very same level with the softer parts peas
envelop them.

Thus, one of the marks by which the ancient existence of glaciers
can be detected in situations where they are no longer seen, is the pol-
ished, striated, or grooved appearance of the rocks. Sometimes it is
very distinct, but in many cases it is not visible, because the surface of
most rocks wastes away by disintegration or decomposition, unless it is
well protected by a covering of clay or turf. The most satisfactory
specimen near Edinburgh, is in the quarry on the south side of Black-

' ford Hill, at a place laid open a few years ago, where the rock leans

forward, forming a sort of vault. The surface of the clinkstone here,
for a space of ten or twelve feet in length, is smoothed, and marked
by strie@ or scratches in a direction approximating to horizontal. We
accompanied M. Agassiz to the spot about two months ago; he
expressed doubts as to some other supposed marks of glacial action
near this city, but on seeing those at Blackford Quarry, he instantly
exclaimed—* That is the work of the ice.” On the top of Salisgury
Crags, at a quarry about two hundred yards from their south extremity,
the polishing is very well seen at intervals over a space of twelve or
feet just at the edge of the precipice ; and strig, running east
and west, will also be discovered here by an eye accustomed to observe
them, though they are much less distinct than at Blackford Hill. In
quarrying the Crags’at this spot, the rock had been cut back about one
hundred and twenty feet from what was originally the edge of the pre-
cipice, and this part, which had been well protected by the turf, was
only exposed about 1822 or 1823. We have little doubt that similar
appearances would be presented if other parts of the — equally
distant from the edge of the pigeons were any laid
north end of the Castle y polished, aa the groovings
on the western sited of Corstorphine Hill, described many years ago by
Sir James Hall, are well known. We have observed similar marks of
abrasion at Craigleith Quarry, Craigmillar Hill, and elsewhere. .
_. These marks of abrasion, both on rocks in situ, and on boulders
found in the soil, have been usually attributed to the action of the cur-
rents of water, rolling along stones and gravel, an explanation felt not
to be satisfactory, but adopted for want of a better. It is admitted that

352 The Glacial Theory of Prof. Agassiz.

rocks in the channels of rivers are often worn smooth; but Dr. Buckland
contends, and apparently on good grounds, that straight parallel strie
and grooves never are, and cannot possibly be, produced by the action of
gravel and stones in a stream. ‘The abrading material, say a fragment
of rock, if it rolls along, will perhaps make occasional indentations, or
now and then an irregular scratch ; but it cannot produce straight, par-
allel, continued strie or grooves, unless held fast by some substance
which prevents it from rolling, and gives its motion a determinate direc-
tion, as the cutter in a grooving plane is kept in a fixed position by the
wood. Now, the ice of a glacier (or iceberg) is an agent which an-
swers this purpose admirably ; we see that it actually produces the
effects described ; we know no other agent capable of producing them ;
and it is therefore inferred that where well defined stri@ or grooves are
found on rocks, we have evidence of the former existence of moving
masses of ice.

_ Moraines.—These afford eter evidence of the ancient existence of
glaciers after they have disappeared. Long terraces or banks of gravel
are occasionally found on rocks forming the sides of valleys, high above
the bottom, and where the surface they rest on is much inclined. Ge-
ologists have felt the difficulty of accounting for these deposits. Their
situation is inconsistent with the idea that they were formed by running
water ; neither could they be deposited on the margin of lakes, because
their parts are often found not to be on the same level. Again, they
aregfound stretching like bars across the mouths of valleys, in situations
from which a great current, so far from depositing them, would have
swept them away, if they had previously existed. Now, both kinds are
well accounted for on the supposition that they were the moraines of
glaciers ; those on the sides of the valley afi lateral, and those bar-
ring up its mouth being terminal morain

Again, we sometimes find one or two 0th ridges of gravel stretching
through a wide valley lengthwise or obliquely, without discovering any
thing in the shape of the valley to indicate why the current, if water
was the agent, should have accumulated the movable matter here, rather
than spread it over the surface. This also is explained, if we assume
that it was a medial moraine. When one valley opens into another, the
two lateral moraines on the inner sides unite, and the compound glacier,
besides having a line of blocks and gravel on each side, has a third
stretching along the middle, and which is therefore called a medial
moraine. There are examples in Switzerland of glaciers with three,
four, or six. medial moraines. Now, were the glacier to melt a
owing to a change of climate, these three, four, or six medial mo
would form as many ridges of gravel running along the bottom of a
valley, or obliquely through. it, and. would resemble deposits occasion-
ally seen in this country.

When a compound glacier is long, the different moraines, lateral and

medial, sometimes become blended in their progress downwards, and

spread out into a broad sheet; and if the ice were to disappear, we
should. find the whole bottom of the valley at this part covered with a
confused assemblage of fragments of rock. This is — ties oc-
ee met with in Scotland.

_ The materials of moraines are not stratified, but huddled sels in
Seaton The fragments are generally somewhat rounded by mutual
attrition, but some are angular. They may be distinguishedfrom the
banks of gravel formed at the margin of lakes by their internal strue-
ture, a the difference of level ase their — aaa and also by
their form

We are not ee sure of the precise aie of eal moraines,
but the terms employed by Agassiz (digues ow remparts) lead us to
suppose that they form long mounds with rounded sides. Like the
others, they are not stratified internally; but, from the manner of their
formation, they contain more finely triturated matter, namely, clay,

_ sand, and small gravel. Agassiz seldom gives precise measurements ;

but he mentions one terminal moraine, (that of Viesch,) which is thirty
feet high, and much more in breadth. Glaciers sometimes advance for
a term of years, and then retreat for another term. When a glacier
is retreating, it forms a new terminal moraine every year, and when it
again advances, it pushes the more recent ones before it till the whole
are blended into one mass. Now, if the disappearance of the glaciers
took place gradually, as it seems most reasonable to suppose, we ought
to find in the lower end of some of our valleys a series of little trans-
verse mounds, like x, 9, in figure 5, below.

Lateral ‘mata increase in size towards the lower end of the val-
ley, and for an obvious reason: The fragments which fall at the head
of the valley are slowly carried downwards by the glacier in its course,
and they are joined in their progress by those which fall from the rocks
in the lower part of the valley. Blocks which fall into the nevé or
granular snow high up, sink into it and disappear for a time ; but it is
curious, that except those which tumble into crevasses and reach the
bottom, they all afterwards rise to the surface. Agassiz thinks, that
the internal dilatation. which makes the glacier travel downwards, also
operates upwards, and carries all included masses to the surface. Itis
certain that an enclosed boulder is never seen in the terminal section of
a glacier, where the composition of the mass can be best observed. In
i also of the sides of the glacier travelling faster than

the middle, and of its breadth generally diminishing towards its lower
end, it very often happens that the blocks of medial mealies ien ee
way to the sides and join the lateral ones. whi td a Ne BEE

Vol. x11, No, 2.—Jan.-March, 1842. 45

354 The Glacial Theory of Prof. Agassiz.

» The ascent of blocks from the middle or lower part of the ice to the
surface, explains another curious fact—that though the general motion
of the glacier is along an inclined plane downwards, scratches are ofien
found on the rock inclined in the opposite direction ; that is to say,
supposing the surface of the glacier to dip at 10 degrees to the north,
you will find scratches dipping at 10 or 20 degrees to the south, or
even vertical. ‘These are caused, in Agassiz’s opinion, sometimes by
inequalities in the bottom of the valley, but frequently by enclosed
blocks working their way upward by the expansion of the ice, while
the glacier is travelling downwards.

Figure 2 represents the usual form wi a lateral moraine in the cross
section, and as it would appear on a surface considerably inclined ; m
the mass of gravel form- | Fig. 2. one > Fig. 3.

raine would have if the ice were melted, and the matter left on the
surface of the valley.

Retreating glaciers form a terminal moraine every year, as mention-
ed in page 353; and in
this case we might expect
to find a series of mounds. |
transverse to the valley =.
like x y, figure 5.

. Erratic Blocks.—Sin- |=
$e blocks of huge size —
are ofien seen resting on the surface of the glacier, and ioesili
downwards with it. ‘These are generally angular, and they often stand
‘on pedestals of ice, as in figure 4, where a is a tabular mass of rock,
and’d the pedestal of ice.* Agassiz describes one he saw on a glacier,
which measured 20 feet by 12, and must have weighed 100 tons or
more. «In accounting for the pedestal b, he observes that gravel, when
it 'rests on the surface of a glacier, being heated through and through
wy the-sun’s oe melts the ice below it, and gradually forms a pool or
well init A. “A latge block, on the other hand, has only its upper sur-

whilethe*inferior mass, remaining cold, protects the ice
below=both fromi the: action of the sun’s rays, and from the evapora-
ee like water, “oe ill in the open 2 airy mee,

Fig. 4. Fig. 5.

_ terwards to disappear,

| The Glacial Theory of Prof. Agassiz. 355

while small stones often sink into cavities, large ones seem hoisted on
pedestals. Masses of all kinds tend towards the sides of the om
and many of these huge blocks are found scattered along the flanks of
the Alpine valleys, some having remained there, stranded as it were.
Others are found in the middle, far from existing ice, and were proba-
bly left there when the glacier disappeared. _We have thus an expla-
nation of the erratic blocks so common in this country, when’these do
not come from very distant stations. Being stranded by their greater
weight, while the smaller matter moved onward, or left sticking om the
soil in consequence of the final fusion of the ice, we can understand why
they are often found perched on the sides of steep declivities.

_ Blocs perchés, so named for the reason just given, are sometimes
found; in very singular situations.

Let a, figure 6, be the surface of the glacier, r the top of a pines
ing rock in situ. The ice has the block } floating on it; it encom-
passes the fixed rock nearly on a level with its summit, and in travelling
downward strands the block upon it. The block may be stranded on
the very summit, as C. ree Fig. 6. as 9 Ak 2
Supposing the glacier af- peri care 7

here we would have an_
angular block perched on (==
an isolated hill, or as Agas-
siz terms it, a pyramid, ; a

with a steep declivity below ie sank we ‘woukd be puzzled to conceive

7 what agent it was planted in so singular a situation.

Figure 7 represents erratic blocks in a different situation, but quite
as singular. 7 is a projecting fixed rock, rising considerably above the
glacier aa; the reflection of the sun’s heat from its surface melts a
portion of the ice, and forms a cup-shaped cavity round it. Into this
cavity blocks of various sizes fall by their weight from the surface of
the ice as, it glides onward, and settle on the flanks of the hillock. Sup-
posing the glacier to disappear, this conical rock would have a ring of
Stones like a coronet encircling its summit, and we would be apt to
wonder at the mysterious agency which brought them there, and left
the lower parts of the hill destitute of them: Agassiz names various
—— rocks amidst the Alpine glaciers with such circles of stones

round them, or with single blocks stuck upon them, as in figure 6.
The same phenomena oe on Mount Jura, where no glaciers now
exist.

~ Creux and Lapiaz.—On the sides of the Swiss valleys, round holes!
such as cascades make, are sometimes found in the rock ; but in places
remote from running waters, and where the form of the surface wil

356 The Glacial Theory of Prof. Agassiz.

not permit us to suppose that any cascade could ever have existed. In
other cases, a long, sinuous, dry, water-worn gutter or channel is ob-
served, the course of which runs across, instead of along, the natural
declivity of the ground. The study of the glaciers has enabled Agas-
siz to find a key to these enigmatical phenomena, which had perplexed
previous inquirers. Streams of water flow along the surface of a gla-
cier, and when one of these falls into a fissure which is open to the bot-
tom, it often forms a cascade, and cuts a round cavity in the rock with the
gravel and sand which it either finds there, or carries down with it, as
some of our rivulets work out the hollows termed cauldrons. When no
fissure exists, the stream sometimes cuts a funnel or shaft (couloir, en-
tonnoir) through the ice by the action of gravel. If the glacier is trav-
elling downwards, the cascade will travel with it, and convert the round
cavity in the rock into a long gutter; or, supposing the water to reach
the bottom without falling in a cascade, still, in finding an issue below
the glacier, it will be compelled to follow the sinuous openings left by
inequalities in the bottom of the ice, and thus take a course at variance
with the natural inclination of the surface. We have here an explana-
tion of the creux, or holes, and the long water-worn gutters found in

such unlikely situations, which bear the local names of lapiaz orkarren. .

These are chiefly observed where the rock is soft, and are seldom vis¢
ible on the granite.

Stratified Gravel on sides of Valleys—When a small peutial of
stratified gravel or sand is found adhering to the side of a valley, high
above its bottom, the conclusion usually come to is, that a lake or arm
of the sea had once filled the whole up to that level, and that the de-
posit is merely a remnant of one much more extensive. has
shown that this conclusion may be erroneous. When the streamlets
flowing on or under a glacier, cannot find an escape below, they often
form small lakes at the surface on its flanks, and, as in other lakes, the
gravel and sand carried into these, arrange themselves in strata. This
stratified deposit may be continuous with, and form as it were a portion
‘of, a lateral moraine, which is not only unstratified, but which follows
a line probably far from level. Here again the _— of existing ~

eiers enables us to explain very anomalous ap i

eae - Glacier Barriers —A glacier descending a a‘ opening into an-
other, Sometimes pushes forward till it forms a dike or barrier across
ovleinen: Behind this the water collects and constitutes a lake, which
sments till it breaks the icy barrier, or flows over it, producing fright-
ful inundations. In 1815 the glacier nt Getroz formed a dike across
the valley of Bagnes, sf ike went on increasing till 1818, when
it was 500 feet” hgh and 80 long Tw noe then burst by. the pressure

of the waters of the Drance. 1 terrible ravages as far

nS fay

oe

down as Martigny. The lake of Distel, on the Saas, those of Rufnen
and Gurglen, in the Tyrol, and that of Passey, on the Adige, are also
formed by glaciers. The last has burst its dike six times, with the most
destructive effects, since 1404. Agassiz traced decided marks of an
ancient glacier at the north side of Ben Nevis. This glacier, he thinks,
had closed up the valley of the Spean, and formed a lake in Glenroy,

in which the banks of gravel} called Parallel Roads, were deposited.

. The barrier being of ice, which subsequently melted, the absence of

any marks of its existence is accounted for. At present we shall not
Stop to inquire whether this theory or Mr. Darwin’s is the more probable,
Alluvial Deposits.—Agassiz thinks that the floods produced by the
bursting of such lakes as those described, and by the fusion of the ice,
tore up the moraines, scattered their materials over the country, and
formed the unstratified boulder clay, and the stratified sand and gravel
resting upon it, which now cover nearly the whole surface of the low
ooumntey.
_ Ancient extent of Glaciers in Switzerland.—The traces boa ancient
lateral moraines are seldom very distinct; yet in the lower valleys,
where no glaciers now exist, in that of the Rhone, for instance, between

. Martigny and the lake of Geneva, several may be seen ranged in par-

allel lines, one above another, at 1000, 1200, and even 1500 feet above
the river. Terminal moraines are found half a mile, a mile, a league,
and even several leagues from existing glaciers ; but these are in se-
condary valleys, and belong to the period when the glaciers were re-
treating into the narrow limits which they now occupy, while the floods
which occurred at this period had obliterated those of the principal
valleys. The striated’ and polished surfaces, which had a more dura-
ble existence, are found at great heights; among other examples, on
Seideihorn, (an isolated mountain in the Alps, now destitute of glaciers,)
2590 feet above the bottom of the valley, indicating that ancient gla-
ciers of this depth or more existed here. The boulders also, or blocs
és, the creux or pits, and the /apiaz or water-worn gutters, were
sik observed far beyond the present limits of the glaciers. This first
Step in the argument conducts Agassiz to the conclusion that the whole

‘of the Alps, at some ancient period, formed. one vast mer de glace, the

ice descending to the level of the great Swiss valley which separates
these mountains from Jura.

But the same indications of glacial action exist on Mount Jura, which
Tuns parallel to the Alps, divided from them by the great Swiss valley,
fifty miles in breadth. This. chain, which is of moderate height, is
now entirely destitute of glaciers, and, owing to the nature of the rock,
the marks of abrasion are remarkably numerous and distinet.. They are

found on the side fronting the Alps from the bottom to the

=e
358 The Glacial Theory of Prof. Agassiz.

from Ecluse, near Geneva, to Aarau, a distance of 130 miles. (Sur
tout le versant meridional de Jura, depuis le Fort de I’Ecluse jusqu’aux
environs d’Aarau.) When the surface is newly exposed, it is smooth
as a mirror, marked with furrows and fine scratches, and exhibits the
roches moutonnées, or rounded undulations and domes, But the most
characteristic fact is, that the furrows do not run from the summit down-
ward, but in a horizontal or oblique direction, along the face of the
ridge, showing that they were impressed by a body moving parallel to
the chain along its southern flank. In form and position, they are, in
short, precisely similar to the furrows produced by existing glaciers on
the sides of the valleys along which they move... Further, these polish-
ed and striated rocks are not confined to the declivities of Jura, but are
found equally at their foot, in the bottom of on great tare mexalloys
wherever the rock is calcareous,*

In addition to these striated and. alishell cites rae has a mo-
raines, and in these moraines patches of stratified deposits are found,
‘such as are now formed in small lakes on the flanks of glaciers. It has
thousands of erratic blocks, distinctly derived from the Alps ; and, that
nothing might be wanting to complete the chain of evidence, Jura has
its lapiaz, or water-worn gutters, where no water now runs; its creur, .
or water-worn pits, in situations not dominated by any rock whence
a cascade could fall; and its salient peaks, surrounded by coronets of
boulders, as in Kees 7. Now, as no ridge occurs between the Alps
and Jura, it is evident that the mass of ice which pressed against the
southern declivities of the latter to the height of 3500 feet or more,
with a force sufficient to cut and groove the surface longitudinally,
must have extended far into the great valley or low country ; and as
striated rocks and travelled boulders are also found all over the bottom
of that valley, and on the Alps at its opposite side, we have before us
a concatenated series of facts, leading almost inevitably to the cenclu-
sion that a mer de glace, or vast sheet of ice, once enveloped the Alps
and Mount Jura, and covered the whole of the low country between them.
Hemmed in by the two mountain chains, the ice could expand only in a
northeast or southwest direction, and Agassiz infers from the direction of
the stria, that in the middle and northern part of the valley the motion

was northeastwards, or towards the lake of Constance.
Erratic Blocks of the Alps and Jura.—The large Alpine boulders
found on Mount Jura » forty or fifty miles from their native rock, have
been a stumbling block to geologists for the last half century. As the
subject, though: tier discussed in books of science, may be new to
sone neiiiiae egal we:shall: premize a shor! account of the vena

Jandatan eens

ve

ii: il

The Glacial Theory of Prof. Agassiz. 359

Mount Jura rises at some points to the height of 5,000 feet* above
the sea, and 3,500 above the great valley of Switzerland on its south
_ side. The Alps run parallel to Jura at the distance of fifty miles, and

We = « their higher summits have an elevation varying from 11,000 to 15,000

‘A

¥

’ primary rocks, granite,

feet above the sea ; but the northern skirts of the chain are a great deal
lower, and their diated from Jura scarcely exceeds thirty miles. The
following diagram will sees an idea of their relative position:
~MVBP, The chain of ‘ Fig. 8. wet
the Alps extending north- re
east and southwest.
11,22, 3, The chain of
Jura, running parallel to
the Alps.

SS, The great valley of
Switzerland separating the /
two chains. &

‘G, The lake of Geneva; Sy
N, the lake of Neuchatel.
' The Alps consist of

gneiss, &ec., in the centre,
flanked by secondary. Ju
ra consists of different for.

mations of limestone, all bling to the oolitic series.

“The two chains, in distancé, bearing, and position, may be compared
to the Ochil and Pavia hills. If we suppose the Ochils to be
twice, and the Lammermuirs six times as high as they are, and the
valley between them, constituting the basin of the Forth, to be three

or four times as deep as it is, we shall have a pretty good idea of the
physical features of the district under consideration.

“Now the fact which has so long exercised the ingenuity of geologists
is this. Hundreds‘of huge fragments of primary rocks, distinctly re-
cognizable as portions of the Alps, are found perched on the southern
declivities, or resting in the interior valleys of Jura, forty or fifty miles
from their native lodality' ; and geologists have been perplexed to dis-
cover by what agency these erratic blocks have been transported across
the great Swiss valley, and placed in the singular situations where we

them. The magnitude, external appearance, and distribution of
pth tian et ae Worthy of notice.

Bes

* The measures are always in French feet, which may be converted in Eng
lish by adding one fifteenth.

rt a
a Si

360 The Glacial Theory of Prof. Agassiz.
Von Buch, Escher, and Studer, have shown, from an examination of

the mineral composition of the boulders, that those on Western Jura,
11, have come from the region of Mont Blanc, M, and the Valais, V gues

those on the middle parts of Jura, 22, from the Bernese Oberland,
and those on Eastern Jura, 3, towards Aargau and Zurich, from

Alps of the Petits Cantons, P. The blocks have thus been derived from

the parts of the Alps nearest, generally speaking, to the localities where
we now find them, as if they had passed across the valley in a direction
at right angles to its length.

The blocks are generally angular, and therefore had not been exposed
to much attrition, either from agitation amidst gravel, or from mutual
action. Many of them are of prodigious magnitude. © The famous mass
of Pierre @ Bot, containing 50,000 cubic feet, and weighing probably
4,000 tons, equals a goodly mansion in size, namely, one of 30 feet in
front, i in n depth, and 40 in n height. lt rests on a part of Jura 2,177

the level of the lake of Neu-
chatel, we: ‘Near Chaumont there is a group of granite blocks, which,
from their magnitude, their number, and their juxtaposition, look like a
hamlet of cottages. The large Alpine boulders of Jura, in short, may
be counted by hundreds, and the small ones by thousands.

The boulders are distributed in zones on the terraces, which, like the
steps of ‘a stair, form the out-goings of the different formations. The
highest are disposed in rings, as in figure 7, round the lower summits
of Jura, at a height between 3,000 and 3,300 feet above the sea. The
other zones occur on the terraces below this; the first at elevations
from 1,900 to 2,400 feet ; the next at 1,600 to 1,800 feet ; and the last
descends to the level of the lake of Neuchatel, 1,324 feet above the

Moreover, these travelled blocks penetrate into the transverse
and into the interior valleys of Jura, and some are even found at the
back of the chain, near the Doubs.*

Saussure attributed the transportation of these boulders to a debacle,
or great current, rushing from the Alps; and Von Buch, finding that one
‘current would not account for the phenomena, assumed the existence
of several. But the inadequacy of such explanations is obvious.

Ay The Alps; J, Mount Fig. 9.

Jura, with the great valley, |
fifty miles wide, between
thei. Fs

e, The southern declivi-
ties of Jura, upon which —
most of the erratic

PFT, (4i5.2..] “I'L £D.Ssr Agass . :

vs, , The interior valleys, and b, the nae of the chain, where some
of them are found,

n, The lake of Neuchatel. “ ‘
. 8, The lake of Geneva.

The difference of altitude between the Alps and gros distrbutted
over a space of fifty miles, gives an inclination of no. more than two
degrees. Now, no current could force, or rather float, masses of ston e,
weighing 1,000 tons, across an uneven valley of such breadth, although
the difference of level were-much greater. Even if the valley had
then been filled up with gravel, or other solid materials, and formed a
regular inclined plane, as Ebel and Dolomieu assumed, the blocks could
not have been moved over it by water; or, if moved, they would have
been rounded by attrition; and, instead of being disposed in zones,
they would have been accumulated pel mel at the bottom of Jura. It
must be kept in mind, that the erratic blocks are found on the Italian
side of the Alps as well as the Swiss, and that currents and inclined
planes would be required in both directions.

A more recent hypothesis, which assumes that the boulders were
transported by icebergs when the great Swiss valley was under the sea,
is much more plausible. Agassiz objects to it, that it does not account
for the coat of sand and gravel covering the sides of the mountain on
which the large blocks generally rest, nor for the striated, grooved, and
polished surfaces, nor (he might have added) for the Japiaz and creuz,
and the lateral moraines which deviate from a horizontal position.

It will be anticipated that Agassiz transports the boulders across the
great valley on a bridge of ice. He observes that the eastern Alps, as
they haye disturbed the dilwvium containing bones of elephants, must
have been raised up since that deposit was formed, and their upheaval
is the last cataclysm, or geological convulsion, which has visited Europe.
Previous to this event, an immense mass of ice had covered the surface
of the northern parts of the old and new world; “but when the up-
heaval of the Alps took place, this formation of ice was raised up like
the other rocks; that the fragments detached from the fissures of up-
heaval ( fentes du soulevement) fell upon its surface, and without being
rounded—since they were not exposed to friction—moved along the in-
| * elined surface of the sheet of ice, in the same manner as the fragments
| of rock which fall upon glaciers are carried to their sides in conse-
quence of the continual movement produced in the ice by its alternate
thawing and cone ans at me different hours of the day, and the dif
ferent season

“ After = naieannl of the Alps, the earth must have recovered a
higher temperature; the ice in melting produced large funnels (enton-
noirs) at the places where it was thinnest ; wiles of erosion were ex-

Vol. xin, No. 2.—Jan.—March, 1842.

362, The Glacial Theory of Prof. Agassiz.

cavated at the bottom of these openings, in localities where no current
could exist unless enclosed between walls of ice; and, when the ice
disappeared, the large angular blocks were found resting on a bed of
rounded pebbles, of which the acellon, often passing into a fine sand,

orm the base.”

The description of the supposed md attending the upheaval
of the Alps, though it forms the very kernel of his theory, is less clear
than the other parts of M. Agassiz’s work, which is generally very per-
spicuous ; and instead, therefore, of giving the substance of his state-
ments in our own language, we have translated the two most important
passages literally. Ina paper read before the Helvetic Society of Nat-
ural History in 1837, containing the germs of the theory, more fully
unfolded in his new work, he thus expresses himself :—

“ The appearance of the Alps, the result of the greatest convulsion
which has modified the surface of our globe, found its surface covered
with ice, at least from the North Pole to the shores of the Mediterranean
and Caspian Seas. This upheaving, by raising, breaking, and cleaving
in a thousand ways, the rocks which compose the prodigious mass that
now forms the Alps, at the same time necessarily raised the ice which
covered them; and the debris detached from so many deep upbreak-
ings and ruptures, naturally spreading themselves over the inclined sur-
face of the mass of ice which had been supported by them, slid along
the declivity to the spots where they were arrested, without being worn
or rounded, since they experienced no friction against each other, and,
even when arrested, came in contact with a surface so smooth; or, af-
ter being stopped, they were conveyed to the margin or to the clefts of
this immense sheet of ice, by that action and those movements which
characterize congealed water when it is subjected to changes of tem-
perature, in the same manner as the blocks of rock which fall upon
glaciers, approach their edges in consequence of the continual move-
ments which the ice experiences, in alternately melting and congealing
at the different hours of the day and seasons of the mente at caseiiaiea

Philosophical Journal, No. 48, p. 378.

_ The words in italics indicate an opinion that some of the boialdent
might have slid from the Alps to Jura on the surface of the ice,
while others adhered to it, and only travelled as the angular. blocks

on glaciers now travel. Nothing equivalent to these words oc-
curs in the Etudes, and even the distribution of the fragments by the
more tardy | is not very clearly explained. We are not sure,
for instance, whether he means that the ancient mer de glace rose above
Jura, and determined he: Progressive motion of the ice in a direction
away from the Alpine chain chain at right gndets bearing the boulders first
detached over Jura into the basin of the Doubs, and. that, owing to the

The Glacial Theory of Prof. Agassiz: 363
gradual fusion and subsidence of the ice, the later boulders were stop-
ped in their motion by that mountain and settled on its southern decliv-
ities. He seems, however, we rather think, to mean, that the glaciers
of the Aar, the Kaisdei: and the Rhone, were lateral and. auxiliary to
that of the great valley ; that the dilatation of the ice (and the motion
of the boulders) following the course of the troughs in which it lay,
was northwest in the lateral valleys, and northeast or southwest in the
great valley ; and that the blocks resting on Jura are to be considered
as stranded on one side of the great glacier, the motion of the eastern
portion of it being northeast, while that of the western was southwest.
We see some objections to this conclusion. The transference of blocks
from B, for instance, (figure 8,) should not have been right across to
2-2, but diagonally to 3, or 1-1, according as the expansive motion of
the ice was northeast or southwest. A theory, however, which explains
so many facts, is not to be rejected on account of minor difficulties,
which future researches may clear up.

When the mer de glace was melting, the first openings through it
would be formed where it was thinnest. The water engulfed in these
would seek out channels where the fissures or vaults under the ice left
room for it, and valleys of erosion would thus be excavated, sometimes
at variance with the natural declivity of the ground, and which would
afterwards become the channels of rivers. Such valleys do occur, and
the explanation is simple and probable. But account should have been

taken of the heat developed along the fissure of upheaval, which would

produce floods of water at the most elevated points; for when the
granite ascended from below, though it was in a solid state, it must have
brought with it the temperature of the region from which it came. The
heat thus generated must have been increased by the enormous friction
on the pre-existing primary strata, when they were fractured and bent
up; and the ice in contact with these strata, which surrounded the high-
est summits of the Alps, must have been first melted. Here was an
‘obvious source of formidable debacles, which must have produced great
changes on the surface of the adjacent countries.

As portions of the old alluvium, containing bones of the fossil ele-
phant, have been found turned up on the flanks of the Alps, Agassiz
infers that deposits of clay and gravel existed before the icy envelope
was formed ; that these must have been broken up and remodelled by
the streams arising from the fusion of the ice; and, consequently, that
part of the existing alluvial cover is derived from the wrecks of one
more ancient. :

When the ice retired from the great valley or low country, into the
lateral valleys of the Rhone, the Rhine, the Aar, and others, the for-

mation of moraines would begin; and the clay, sand, and gravel thus

_ Collected at particular localities would be dispersed and remodelled by

364 The Glacial Theory of Prof. Agassiz.

the bursting of glacier lakes, occasionally formed in the upper parts of
valleys by barriers of ice. Hence the origin of a second portion of
the existing alluvial cover.

The deposits of clay and gravel spread over the great Sieg valley,
must be due to floods arising from both the causes just mentioned.
These floods, Agassiz thinks, must have had a depth of not less than
300 feet, for the sand and fine gravel found on the higher parts of Jura
have been washed off from the lower to this height. Masses of ice,
forming icebergs, would occasionally float = — and carry boulders
from one place to another.

Sheets of ice occupied the lakes of Geneva, Neuchatel, and others,
at this time, and prevented them from being filled up by ue dispersion
of the alluvial matter.

The clay containing the bones of fossil elephants on the sides of the
Alps, he considers as contemporaneous with the deposits entombing
similar remains on the northern shores of Siberia, and he infers that
one and the same catastrophe had enveloped these districts, and all
the northern parts of both continents, in ice. The catastrophe had
arrived suddenly ; for, as Cuvier remarks, the Siberian fossils show by
their numbers that the animals had lived where their remains are found,
and by the actual preservation of the flesh and skin in some cases, that
they had rested but a short time on the ground before the ice covered
them. The retreat of the ice, however, had been slow, as demonstrated
by the moraines forming a series in some valleys, with a gradually
decreasing range, both in extent and elevation. The present glaciers
may be considered as the puny and feeble representatives of that vast
erust of ice which formerly enveloped the northern parts of the globe.

great incrustment of ice necessarily extinguished organic life,
so far as its domain extended. The animal tribes which then perished
—the mastodon, Elephas primigenius, rhinoceros, and others,—have left
their remains in n the alluvium, and are found closely to resemble the
existing races, which were of course introduced after the ice disap-
peared, and the region acquired the temperature necessary for their
=

. Agassiz thinks that a similar great and sudden depression of temper-
ature probably served the same purpose at earlier periods, by clearing
the Blobe of one zoological group, to make room for another.

. of whose rocks fragments are found transported to a dis-
tance, in different directions, are considered as centres of dispersion,
by Agassiz. Thus, the Alpe, whose boulders strew the plains of Swit-
zerland, Italy, Austria, and France, form one centre of dispersion,
embracing Jura within its range. ‘The’ Vosges (in Alsace), which ex-

it the same pliesomens" ona prmeecbeer ti sl The at

The Glacial Theory of Prof. Agassiz. 365

vennes are probably a third; and the Pyrenees a fourth. We have
one of vast magnitude in the Scandinavian mountains, whose travelled
blocks are found scattered over northern Europe, from the shores of
England to Moscow. In this country Agassiz considers the Grampians,

_ the Cumberland mountains, and those of Wales, as centres of dispersion.

There is a question arising out the theory, which he has not touched

upon. If we suppose the region from the 35th parallel to the north

pole to be invested with a coat of ice thick enough to reach the sum-
mits of Jura, that is, about 5000 French feet, or one English mile in
height, it is evident that the abstraction of such a quantity of water
from the ocean would materially affect its depth. The area of the
Space extending 55 degrees on each side of the pole, is pretty correctly
two-sevenths of the whole surface of the globe. Supposing two-thirds
of this space to be dry land, and the spongy coat of ice equal to two-
thirds of its bulk of water, and assuming, what is pretty near the truth,
that the sea occupies three-fourths of the surface of the globe, we find
that the abstraction of the water necessary to form the said coat of ice,
would depress the ocean about 800 feet. Admitting further, that one-
eighth of the fluid yet remains locked up in the existing polar ices, it
follows that the dissolution of the portion which has disappeared would
raise the ocean nearly 700 feet. ‘The only very ‘Uncertain element
here is the depth of the ice; but even if this should be reduced ‘one-
half, we would still have an agent capable of producing a change of
350 feet on the level of the sea. We are besides leaving out of view
the southern polar region, which it is now known embraces a great
extent of land. If this was also covered with ice, the change would
be much greater than we have assumed.

These very original and ingenious speculations of Professor Agassiz
must be held for the present to be under trial. They have been deduced
from a limited number of facts observed by himself and others, and
skilfully generalized ; but they cannot be considered as fully estab-
lished till they have been brought to the test of observation in distant
parts of the world, and under a great variety of circumstances. Suppo-
sing the theory to be substantially sound, the magnitude of the conse-
quenees it involves will undoubtedly bring objections to light, which may
render modifications necessary, both in its principles and its details.
In the mean time, it assists us in resolving some difficulties. [t contri-
butes, in a greater or less extent, to explain the dispersion of erratic

. blocks, the dizarre situations they occasionally occupy, the banks of

clay and gravel found on the sides and at the mouths of valleys, the

. striae, polishing and grooving, observed on the surface of rocks im siti,

and of large stones in the till; and it promises to throw light on what
is at present a very obscure subject, the origin of the older and newer
alluvium.

366 New Species of Trilobite.

Arr. XVIIL—On a New Species of Trilobite of very large size; by “a wa
Joun Locxg, M. D., Prof. of Chem. and Pharm. in the Medical Col- is,

lege of Ohio.* Communicated to this Journal by the author. ee

Isotelus megistos.

Clypeo, antice elliptico attenuate marginato postice arcuato, et ter-
minato utrinque aculio ; cauda postice elliptica, antice arcuata ; articu-
lus abdominis octo.

The shield is anteriorly n pa perfectly elliptical, broadly and thinly
margined, posteriorly arcuate, and terminated at the angles by spines
or pointed processes extending backwards beyond the two first abdom-
inal articulations. The eyes are prominent, large, furnished exteriorly

each with a crescent-shaped cornea, and placed rather nearer to the
posterior edge than to the outer margin of the shield. From the corner
of each eye a sutural. line extends forward, meeting at. the anterior
margin of the shield, and enclosing a lozenge-shaped, leaf-like frontal
space. Abdomen trilobited; middle lobe cylindrical ; articulations eight,
bending flatly ove# the middle lobe, and descending abruptly at their
lateral extremities, which are broad, flat, and rounded beneath, and ad-
mirably fitted to sliding over each other when the animal should con-
tract or roll himself, according to a well known habit of the genus.
Tail posteriorly elliptical, anteriorly circularly arcuate, length measur-
ed horizontally, less than two thirds of the width, having two obscure
longitudinal depressions continuous with the abdominal furrows, and -
converging towards an obscure posterior tubercle. The anterior out-
line of the tail exhibits three slight lobes, (corresponding with those of
the abdomen,) the two, exterior of which are very uidad marked “4
a transverse depression.

When the posterior shell of the tail is decorticated an interior ‘shell
is exposed, which forms all round a deep trough or “ cavetto,” beauti-
i marked with a‘ venalian” of eccentric curved and branched lines.

bove named posterior tubercle is very nearly the “ focus” of the

« elipic” outline of the tail, is just anterior to the marginal cayetto,
and is the centre around which the curved lines originate, each passing
a little further back than the other and advancing outwardly and for-
ward una, they. ania disappear on the anterior, margin of the

“* cavetto.

* Read before te ‘nialhainatibinsitetete Catia Philadelphia, April 6,
1841, - Had a Be hte? s ; i nt!

Distinctions.—This Isotelus resembles the gigas, from which, how-

* _ ever, besides the aculeate processes, it is distinguished by the perfectly

~ elliptic terminations, by the simple (not raised) margin of the shield,
and by the proportions of the tail, the gigas having e length 4ths,
and the megistos ths only of the width. The latter is also much more

"prominent than the former, and the tail and sides much - more abrupt in
their descent. From the megalops and the stegops it is clearly distin-

guished by the eyes.

_ History and mathematical proportions.—The first fragment (see out-
line on Plate III) was discovered by myself in Adams county, Ohio, in
1838. It was about six inches of the marginal “‘ cavetto” of the tail,
beautifully veined, marked with the tubercle, perfectly elliptical, and
coinciding with the énd of an ellipse twenty two inches long and twelve
inches broad. The second specimen was an entire tail found at the
same locality ; this, upon admeasurement, was found to coincide with
an ellipse of exactly half of the dimensions of that which suited the
first specimen, and showed, by a fortunate fracture, the internal mar-
ginal cavetto. ‘These two specimens were both — and described
by me in the Ohio geological report for 1839.

The third specimen (see outline) was discovered in autumn of the same
year by Wm. Burnett, Esq. on the hills at Cincinnati, and presented to
me soon after. It was partly covered by the crystalline blue limestone
in which it had been imbedded, and it was not until the winter of 1840-
41 that I dissected it out of its gangue, and found that it hal an acu-
leate shield, and that it exhibited the animal almost entire.

It is of the same dimensions as the second specimen, and measures
nine inches and three fourths in length, and six inches in breadth. The
first fragment must therefore have been from a specimen nineteen inches
and a half long, and twelve inches broad. These gigantic dimensions
Suggested the name maximus, which I gave in the Ohio report, but which,

for obvious reasons, I have changed to the more classical Greek term of
the same import.

_ The fourth specimen was. discovered by Mr. Carley, of Cincinnati,
who was the first to discover the aculeate shield, for in the Burnett spe-
cimen this character was still concealed. Mr. Carley’s specimen ap-
pears to be a young one, for it is only about three inches long. It was
obtained in the bed of the Ohio river about four or five hundred feet
lower than the situation which furnished the Burnett specimen. My
Own first specimens were found within thirty feet of the top of the blue
limestone formation, where it is overlaid by the cliff limestone. Now
_ the character of this magnificent species of trilobite has been ascer-
tained, it is evident that fragments of it are abundant in our blue lime-
stone, which is undoubtedly the equivalent of the limestone of Trenton

*,

368 Register of the Thermometer, kept at Boston.

Falls, N. Y., called the Trenton limestone. The most common frag-
ment found is the corner of the shield with its thorn-like ke ts
(see the figure, Plate III.) For the information of geologists, | would

observe, that figure 2 was found just below the stratum most abundant in

the genera D yris, Turritella, and Trochus, and that Mr. Carley’s

specimen occurred in the en of the Isotelus gigas, ay the 5 ighiaa :
lithus tesselatus.

Arr. xv 11L—Register fiche Sar from 1830 to 1839,
kept carga wee? th J. Pp Bait:

“e

96 93'29 57196 14/46

be chs al bo

From the table it will be seen, that the mean lerhporatute of
every month except January, was lower in the ten years from
1830 to 1839, than in the ten years from 1820 to 1829.

Two years (1836 and 1837) were of remarkable coldness. In
these years, the eetipiote grain and corn were cut off to such an
extent, that large importations were necessary to supply the de-
man

“The thermometer rose to” 99° on the Qist and 22d of July,
1830, and the 26th of July, 1834, and fell to 10° below zero on
= Ath of. January, 1835, and 24th of January, 1839,

— roa 7, a.M., 2 and 9, p. ».
1841.

Meanof th’
1l0y’rs f'm
1820 to ‘29,

Chemical Examination of Bituminous Coal. 869

Arr. XIX.—Cheinical examination of Bituminous Coal from
the pits of the Mid Lothian ‘Coal Mining Company, south

_ side of James River, fourteen miles from Richmond, Vir-

- ginia, in Chesterfield County; by B. Situman, Pyafesso# of
Chemistry, &c. in Yale College, and O. P. Hugsarn, Professor
of Chemistry, &c. in Dartmouth College.

‘Turer specimens of fair average quality, not selected for any
apparent superiority, were taken from a hogshead of the coal,
sent by the President of the company, A. S. Wootpriner, Esq.,
and experiments were made upon portions of these samples indis-
criminately taken.

Physical Characters.—The coal is in the fresh fractured sur-
face of a jet black color ; lustre, resinous and splendent ; fractnre,
slightly conchoidal ; splits easily, parallel to surfaces of deposition
which are strongly marked; the’ two sets of islines considerably
distinct in large masses and in small specimens very distinct,
showing a rhombic structure, in several specimens before us,
making with each other angles of 78° and 102°.

Thien 4 is another series of faces, very lustrous and spleridabs;
that also intersect at angles of 78° and 102°. These two series
of faces cross each other and the surfaces of deposition, and give
rise to two rhombohedra that incline in opposite directions. By
these the coal is intersected so frequently as to divide it into lay-
ers of a line in thickness in one direction. ‘The coal is compact,
and the specific gravity of three samples taken as above, was

B. 1312
C. 1,284
3. 3877-.3= at A 292, “Bae er. water being 1.
No. 1. Sixty three and a half grains were coked for two and

a half hours, in an iron bottle in a draft furnace, and the gaseous |

products were collected dry over mercury.

a. All the jars of gas, eighteen in number, were examined by
caustic potassa.;. the: digeonia acid was thus absorbed, and was
equal to 80 cubic inches, or bes ad parts, being two fifth parts of
the volume of the gas.

b. Binoxide of nitrogen gave in jar 1, a slight redness, thus in-
dicating oxygen gas.

Vol. xtit, No. 2.—Jan.—March, 1842. 47

370 Chemical Examination of Bituminous Coal.

c. Acetate of lead added gave no indication of sulphuretted «

hydrogen.

d. Sulphate of copper gave no indication of ammonia.

e. The gas remaining in jar 1, after removal of carbonic acid
gas, having been generated at the lowest temperature, burned
with the clear, dense, yellow flame of olefiant gas.

jf. The gas remaining in the other jars, after the removal of
the carbonic acid gas, was entirely combustible, and burned
with a flame resembling that of a mixture of carbonic oxide and
light carburetted hydrogen.

g. The volume of all ei gases of f and g was equal to 120
cubic inches, or 2425

Ratio of carbonic ei 80 cubic inches, 1600 patts: 2
“ . combustible gases, 120 do. do. 2425 “ :3

h. The coke of No. 1, was very light, jet black, shining and
soft, and was not estimated because it was mixed with portions
of iron from the interior of the bottle.

The following samples were coked for two hours in a draft
furnace, in covered Hessian crucibles. The coke was harder
than in the process in the iron bottle. Its color was jet black
internally, and gray at the top of the mass, where probably the
air had slight access, and was about twice the bulk of the coal
employed.

The coke of 2 and 5 was burned ina platina capsule over a
spirit argand lamp, till the carbon was all consumed. The results
are as follows in the table, reduced to centesimal proportions.

No.2. 63.5 grs.coalgave - - - - 83,8 coke.

wee ee ie = fe: eo.

A. 100. ‘“c ‘“ ba r pe 67.6 *

5, 200. ‘gts. coal gave 128, 4b ge grs. which for3=64.2 “

2° Sy a 5 Sum Average

54.76 F 56.1 | 110.86 | 55.43

2

By bABAL, ne 67-6)! 8.1 | 16.51 |: 8.25
pea 37.63 32.4 | 35.9} 142.65 | 35.66
a 8898" A ctl 100. ae
Coke, per cent. | 68.17 62.36, 67.6 | 64.2 | 257.33 64.33

an es

age

Chemical Examination of Bituminous Coal. 371

’ Three specimens, Nos. 6, 7, and 8, (taken as heretofore ,) of 50
grains each, were coked in close covered platina crucibles over an
alcoholic tainp, and then removed to and ignited in a draft fur-
nace at a white heat. The coke from all these was jet black,
shining, porous, and soft.

The carbon being burned off in a platina capsule, the results
were as follows, reduced to centesimal proportions.

6 yj 8 | Average.
‘ ‘ 63.4 | 60.8 | 59.2 61.1
shes, . ; é 4. 7.1 | 10.4 ro |
Volatile matter, 32.6 | 32. 30.4 + 3L6
100. 99.9 /100. 99.8

\Coke, per cent. 67.4 | 68. 69.6 | 68.2 ~

The average of both series is given below.

First series. [Second series Average.
Cie, so 55.43 | 61.1 = 1768.26 |
Ashes, ate 8.25 71 7.67
Volatile matter, . 35.66 | 31.6 33.62 _
99.34 | 99.8 99,55
Coke, . : ‘ 64.33 | 68.2 66.31

Two specimens of 100 grains each, were heated in fine pow-
der to 300°, and sustained a loss of 1.9 grains, and 2.1 grains;
average loss 2 per cent.; this was moisture, which is of course
included in the per coatage of “volatile matter.”

No bitumen or liquid matter was distilled over in the coking
of No. 1.

The ashes in every case were very light, and of a clear gray-
ish white, indicating no pyrites or peroxide of iron, and were in
no degree attracted by the magnet.

The ashes of No. 7, being 3.6 grains, were treated with dilute
nitric acid; 2.4 grains were insoluble residuum, chiefly silica ; and
the soluble matter was lime and al vase slightly colored by wulda
of iron and manganese.

' The analysis of the coal, shows in the general average, (which
may be regarded as approaching nearly to practical results, where
the coal is employed in the large way,) proportions of solid carbon
and volatile matters, which render it well adapted to the most
important purposes in the arts, and probably, with a low and well
managed heat, to the production of gas for illumination. Its

\

mo

372 Chemical Examination of Bituminous Coal.

.ashes are of a kind and in such a state as to Offer no inconven-

ience in using it asa fuel. The coke also is in excellent form
for producing intense heat.

‘To show more. particularly the resemblances of this coal, we
cite below, a collection of the analyses of various coals, some
dry and others fat coal, froma Report on the Manufacture of
Iron, made to the Legislature of Maryland, by J. H. Alexander,
Esq.

Frost-

burg. | Scot- Stafford-|N | New: | Staf- |Rive de|Cannel.
Mary- | land. | shire. “| saaths [castle ay Gier. | Lanca-
| land. Clyde. | Ti ipton, shire.
sae * ee t+ 1
Carbon, 66.3 | 64.4 | 67.5 | 60.5] 67.5) 62.4) 66.5 64.72
143] 46| 25 | 4. | 25] 35] 2.
Wy otek matt’r, 19.4 | 31. | 30. — 135.5} 30. | 34.1] 31.5 35.28) 31.6
100. |100. |100. 100. |100. 1100. \100. |100.
* Dry coals. - + Fat coals.

The Newcastle coal, analyzed by Karsten, gave 68.5 per cent.
of coke. The average of our Poca by the last series of ex-
periments, is 68.2 per cent. of cok

The following table will show the relations of the Mid Lothian

~ coal in its amount of coke.

Clyde, 69. Rive de Gier, 68.5
Tipton, 70. Lancashire, 64.72 Cannel.
Newcastle, 64.5 __ Mid Lothian, 64.33 aver. Ist series.
nde 70. st 68.2 aver. 2d do.
sf 68.5 i 65.9 general yee

Staffordshire, 65.9

The average of the three sas aeccataan upon the Rowatl coal,
gives 67.6. .

It appears that the Mid Lothian coal of Virginia, i is viceddemabalie
the same as the best coals of both Europe and America, while it
me eet identical with the Newcastle coal of England.

proportion of excellent coke, is almost two thirds of the en-
tire Petaett: of the volatile matter, which is about one third part,
more than three fifths are combustible, and in a form to act very
adv vantageously in producing a bright and hot blaze, while only
one thirteenth part of incombustible, earthy and metallic matter
remains in the form of f ashes. This proportion of incombustible
matter is a positive for being a nduc it makes
the’ fire hotter: by retaining ‘end: accumulating t the heat. Count

Chemical Examination of Bituminous Coal, 373

Rumford caused balls to be made of clay and fine coal moistened
and kneaded together, the object being not only to economize
the waste coal, but also to accumulate and radiate the heat.

As in the Mid Lothian coal there is very little iron, it is not
likely that the ashes will readily form slag or clinker to obstruct
the bars of a grate, or to accumulate like a fungus, upon the walls
of a furnace.

Should there be occasion to convert the Mid Lothian coal into
coke, it would afford that very important fuel of an excellent
quality. If the. process were conducted at a low heat, it is proba-
ble that a very brightly burning gas would be obtained, fitted
for illumination, especially if it were mixed with a requisite pro-
portion of the gas from rosin, as is done in the gas works in Bos-
ton, where Pictou coal of Nova Scotia is employed for this pur-
pose. ‘I'he Mid Lothian coal contains so little sulphur, that for
every practical purpose it may be regarded as free from that com-
bustible which is so injurious to the working of bar iron and steel
by the forge and hammer, especially in the very important opera-
tion of welding. From repeated trials made with the Mid Lo-
thian coal by our smiths in this city, it appears perfectly well
adapted to their uses, especially where a hollow fire is desired,
and when a powerful heat is necessary for large work witha
strong blast. One of our best smiths, having made a comparative
trial of the two, remarks, that it does not ignite as soon as the
Neweastle coal, but gives a surer good welding heat, and lasts
hearly one quarter longer.

This coal is an excellent fuel for a parlor grate. No bitumen
exudes during its combustion; on breaking a heated mass by
the poker, there is no liquid tar covering the separated frag-
ments, but a bright flame instantly kindles on the newly exposed
surfaces, which radiates heat powerfully and illuminates the room
with a cheerful radiance. :

There being no liquid bitumen, the combustion of this coal is
attended with less smoke than is usual with bituminous coals;
with a well drawing vent, there is scarcely a perceptible odor and
no deposit of coal dust in the room and upon the furniture.

rom a considerable experience in using it by us in a family
parlor, it proves to be a very desirable fuel. We presume that it
would prove an excellent fuel for locomotives and for steam en-
gines, as it is abundant in flame so important to the production of

374 Chemical E'xamination of Bituminous Coal.

steam, while its coke maintains a solid ignited mass, ready at all
times for the renovation of the activity of the blaze on the addi-
tion of more coal or of wood.

In a grate it burns very well when mixed with the anthracite,
and the fire is active, cheering and enduring.

The Mid Lothian coal, being remarkably free from pyrites,
there appears to be no serious danger of its producing spontaneous
combustion—an accident which, in the case of mineral coal, is
generally attributed to the fermentation of pyrites; the sulphur
and the iron both attracting oxygen from water, as well as from
the air in the interstices of the coal, until it becomes ignited. It
should not be forgotten, however, that many combustibles besides
coal, are liable to spontaneous combustion, and therefore care is
always to be observed in disposing of them in store-houses, on
ship-board, &c., especially when accumulated in large quantities.

From the absence of sulphur, we should think this coal well
adapted to the manufacture of bar-iron, and that in employing it
for locomotive engines and the boilers of steam-ships, or of fixed
establishments on shore, there can be no cause to fear that it will
injure the metal, whether of iron or copper.

As to its use in sitting and sleeping rooms, there can be no in-
jurious influence to health, provided there is a good draught up
the chimney ; otherwise every species of fuel is dangerous, as
the gases produced by combustion are all deadly; but, witha
good drawing vent, there is no more danger from the Mid Lothian
coal than from any other, and no danger indeed from any.

It is worthy of remark that whenever a coal fire becomes lan-
guid on account of the discharge and consumption of the gas, @
billet or two of wood instantly renews its activity and prepares
it for the reception of more coal, which is then promptly kindled.

Presuming, of course, that the coal furnished to us by the pres-
ident of the Mid Lothian company, presents a fair average of the
‘produce of the mines, we hesitate not to recommend it as an eX-
cellent fuel, which has no occasion to shun a comparison with
the best mineral coal of this country or of Europe.

Yale College Laboratory, Feb. 7, 1842.

Bibliography. 375

Art. XX.— Bibliographical Notices.

1. Carnot1 Linnaz1 Systema, Genera, Species Plantarum uno volu-
mine. Editio critica, adstricta, conferta; sive Codex Botanicus Lin-
neanus, tectum Linneanum integrum ex omnibus Systematis, Generum,
Specierum Plantarum editionibus, Mantissis, Addimentis, selectumque
ex ceteris ejus botanicis libris digestum, collatum, contractum, cum plena
editionum discrepantia exhibens : In usum Botanicorum practicum edi-
dit brevique adnotione explicavit Hermannus Exernarpus Ricurter,
M. Dr. Prof. Dresd., ete. Leipsic, (Wigand,) 1840.—This book is, as
its title denotes, a complete digest of the writings of the immortal Lin-
nus upon systematic botany, an undertaking of great labor, and, we
believe, very faithfully executed. It forms a volume of 1100 pages of
the small folio or imperial octavo size, (the same as that of the new
edition of Steudel’s Nomenclator,) closely printed in double columns ;
prefaced by some critical and explanatory editorial observations, and
by a complete list of the botanical writings of Linnzus, with notices of
the different editions, a catalogue of the authors cited by Linneus, &e.
The prefaces, dedications, and introductory observations of all the sys-
tematic works are next given ; and the body of the work is devoted to
the genera and species, in which, by a well arranged system of abbre-
viations, nearly the whole Linnzean text, and the changes or variations
of the different editions, are brought within a moderate compass. Such
a thesaurus is of great value to botanists, and especially to those av
do not possess the original editions of all ihe works it comprises, m
of which are exceedingly rare. To the volume is appentled a euikis
index to the Linneean genera and species, with all the original synonymy,
entitled : In Codicem Botanicum Linneanum Index Alphabeticus, Gen-
erum, Specierum ac Synonymorum omnium completissimus, composuit
atque edidit Dr. G. L. PetErmann, which is paged separately, and oc-
cupies 200 pages, printed in triple columns, extending the work to above
1300 pages. It is published at 16 Saxon thalers.

2. Genera, Species, et Synonyma Candolleana, alphabetico ordine

_ disposita, seu Index generalis et specialis ad A. P. De Candolle Pro-

dromum Syst. Nat. Regni Vegetabilis: auctore H. W. Buex, M. D.
(Berlin.)—An index of the genera and species contained in the Pro-
dromus of the lamented De Candolle, and of their synonyms, has been
greatly needed, those of the several volumes of that most important
work extending only to the genera. This want Dr. Buek has in part
Supplied by publishing an index to the fifth, sixth, and first part of the
seventh volumes of the Prodromus, that is, of the immense family of

376 Bibliography.

the Composite. It is comprised in 228 pages octavo, (Berlin, 1840,)
and is entitled the second part of the work: the first, an index of Vols.
I-IV, of the Prodromus, sea announced as in press a year or two
since, has not yet reached u

As to the Prodromus, Tala the gifted author was not spared to ”

finish his herculean task, it will doubtless be continued, and, we trust,
duly completed, by his justly distinguished son and successor, Prof. Al-
phonse De Candolle, with the aid of those botanists to whom a conside-

assigned. It may perhaps be important to the botanists of this country
to know, that the elaboration of the Scrophularinee, Labiaia, Hydro-
phyllacee, and, we believe, the Polemoniacee, has been long since un-
dertaken by Mr. Bentham; the Convolvulacee, by Prof. Choissy, of
Geneva; the Primulacee and Lentibulacee, by Mr. Duby; and the
Plumbaginacea, by Mr. Boissier, of Geneva ; the Solanaceae, by Prof,
Dunal, of Montpelier; and the ie aaadican, by Mr. Decaisne, of the
Royal Museum, Paris; to all of whom good specimens of the rarer or
less known and. local species of these respective orders from different
parts of this country would doubless be welcome and yery useful.

3. Kunth, Enumeratio Plantarum, Vol. Il. Stuttgardt, 1841. pp-
644, 8vo.—We learn that the third volume of this work has recently
appeared ; and that it comprises the orders Araceae, (including Lemna
and Pistia,) Typhacee, Pandanacee, Naidacee, Juncaginee, Alisma-
cee, Palmacea, Juncacee, Phylidracee, Restiacea, Desvauxiacee, and
Eriocaulonee.

4. Loudon’s Arboretum et Fruticetum Britannicum abridged : or the
hardy trees and shrubs of Britain, native and foreign, scientiealy
and popularly described ; with their propagation, culture, an
the arts, and with figures of nearly all the species: Abridged from the
large edition in eight volumes, and adapted for the use of Nurserymen,
Gardeners, and Foresters.—This useful and well digested abridgment
of a very important, but somewhat unwieldly and expensive work, is to
be comprised. in ten monthly parts, published at five shillings each, and
will contain ma many species or varieties introduced into Great Britain sinee
the year 1838, ‘when the large work was completed. Only the first
part (published i in December last) has as yet reached us: this extends
to p. 128, and includes the orders from Ranunculaceae to Zisculacee,
following the arrai t of De Candolle’s Prodromus. The original
work is a and justly valued in this county as well as in England ;
and th

i marae edition will :

when secure: Biel a very ‘cadineive: x circulation. —

aS

ee ee ee ae

Bibliography. 377

5. Steudel’s Nomenclator Botanicus, 2d edition.—We noticed this
work in a recent number of this Journal, (Vol. x11, p. 378,) while in

_ the course of publication: the remaining fasciculi (XI-XIII) have since
_ been received, which complete the work. It enumerates six thousani

two hundred and eighty two genera, and seventy two thousand four hun-
dred and seventy eight species of Phanerogamic plants.

6. Torrey and Gray’s Flora of North America: Vol. 2, part 2.
March, 1842. This number, as well as a large portion of the preced-
ing, is occupied with the Composite ; and this vast family is not yet
finished ; but will apparently require at least half of the ensuing num-
ber for its completion.

7. Mr. Nuttall’s Edition of Michauzx’s Sylva dativads —We are
informed by Mr. Dobson, the publisher of this work, that it is at length
definitively finished, in six volumes, imperial octavo, with 278 plates.
Mr. Nuttall’s additions can be had separate in three volumes, contain-
ing 122 plates, to complete all former editions of Michaux’s Sylva.

This labor of Mr. Nuttall is looked for with great interest by all, and
when it appears on our table will be the subject of further notice.

We also learn from the same source, that the first volume of the
revised edition of Holhgook’s North American Herpetology is also
in press.

8. Botanical Teacher, Second edition; by Laura Jounson.* (Sec-
ond notice.) In 1834, the first edition was published under the super-
Vision of Professor Eaton. It was dedicated to the Hon. Stephen Van
Rensselaer, and received particular marks of his favor and patronage.
In the present edition improvements have been made, and it is partieu-
larly prepared for the pupils of teachers, who use the eighth edition of
Eaton’s North American Botany. The last named work having grown
to a large octavo of more than six hundred close pages, teachers were
in want of a cheaper book, to put into the hands of pupils. Sucha
book was found to be very difficult to construct. It was necessary that
it should be plain—though it must be technical and truly scientific—and
Contain all the genera and species of North American plants, excepting
the lower orders of Cryptogamia, and so much of these orders as
might be needed in students’ exercises.

—

hd *
* Dr. Gray’s notice of this book on page 184 of the present volume, having
requested

‘given maar to the authoress and to Prof. Eaton, we have
Prof.

blish the above, drawn up by himself. Miss Johnson's work is:
before the ty and they will judge of it for themselves.—Eps..
Vol. xxir, No. 2.—Jan.-March, 1842. 48

378 Bibliography.

The Rev. Mr. Phelps had prepared a book of this kind, to accompany
the British Flora of Dr. J. E. Smith, President of the Linnean Society
of London, which was well received. His method was adopted by
Miss Johnson, with some amendments. ‘The Botanical Teacher gives
Lindley’s concise generic descriptions of the genera, without abbrevia-
tions; but the specific descriptions are given by abbreviations. By
using but one set of words, a general system of North American plants
is compassed in a small volume of 268 pages.

This treatise is universally approved by all correct teachers of bot-
any, who have seen it. On a hasty view, the abbreviation plan may
appear forbidding. But by a card properly adjusted, the reader sees
every abbreviation at one glance of the eye, without opening the book.

Being prepared by an experienced teacher for the use of her own
pupils, and for the general extension of the science among young
scholars, (for whom she considers botany as better adapted in early
youth than any other study,) nothing is charged on the work for au-
thorship. Therefore a class of a dozen pupils can be furnished for
about half as many dollars.

As it is fitted for the vest pocket, and contains all North American
plants, ( excepting some recent discoveries in California and other dis-
tant regions,) it is most perfectly adapted to the wants of experienced
botanists, who collect plants in fields and foregs.

Errors, misprints, and omissions are to be found in it as in all books.
But considering the great care and labor required in reducing a general
system of the botany of a continent to a book of a hand’s breadth and
thickness, the errors are very few.

mF Monographie @ Echinodermes vivans et fossiles, par L. Agas-
siz. 2d livraison, contenant les Scutelles.

M. Agassiz’s Monograph of the Echinodermata, living and fossil.
2d livraison, comprising the family Scutella, seams ) Ato. pp. 131, and
27 plates. Neuchatel, July, 1841

In Vol. xxxvu, p. 369, of this Journal, we saiciattnad the appearance
of the first livraison of this work, and gave an abstract of its contents.
That part, it will be remembered, was devoted to the family of the
Saleniarii, and a conspectus of the genera and species of that family
will be found in the notice alluded to. The present livraison embraces
that part of the family of the Clypeastroides containing the Scutellarii.
It is prefaced by an iiteresting petmpter on the » iste, different divis-
ions, general form, stri s, and geo-
logical and geographical distribution of Pm oie:

In twenty seven. elaborate plates, in part colored, we are presented
with about two hundred and thirty distinct figures, including enlarged

ee

a

Bibliography. 379

parts, and the descriptive text is full, and accompanied with a copious
synonymy and references to other authors. We regret that our pres-
ent limits do not permit giving a full conspectus of the genera and
species of this group; but we must content ourselves with giving only
the genera and the number of the species under each.

I. Rotula, (Klein,) 2 species. I]. Runa, (Agass.,) 2 species. III.
Millita, (Klein,) 5 species. IV. Encope, (Agass.,) 11 species. V. Lo-
bophora, (Agass.,) 4 species. WI. Amphiope, (Agass.,) 2 species.
“VIL Scutella, (Lam.,) 12 species. VIII. Echinarachinus, 4 species.
IX. Arachnoides, (Klein,) 1 species. X. Scutelleria, (Agass.,) 5 spe-
cies. XI. Laganum, (Klein,) 14 species. XII. Echinocyamus, (Agass.,)
11 species. XIII. Moulinia, (Agass.,) 1 species.

Like all the works of this distinguished author, the present livraison
is marked by its great fidelity and the beauty of its mechanical execu-
tion ; and our constant wonder is, how Prof. Agassiz can carry on at
once so many great works as we know he has in hand, and yet devote
to each a measure of labor which few other naturalists can command
fer a single object.

e beg again to call the attention of American naturalists to the re-
quest of M. Agassiz, that all who are so disposed, will send him spe-
cimens of the Echinodermata of America, for whi¢h due acknowledg-
ment may be expected.

10. Boston Journal of Natural History. Published by direction of
the Boston Society of Natural History. Boston: Little & Brown, 1842.
Vol. IV, PartI. pp. 136, with 7 plates—This part contains the follow-
ing papers :
~ Art. I. Dissection of two adult dromedaries, a male and a female,
by J. B.S. Jackson, M.D. Il. Descriptions of the Fishes of the Ohio
river and its tributaries, by J. P. Kirtland, M. D. III. Observations on
the genus Scalops, (Shrew moles,) with descriptions of the species found
in North America, by J. Bachman, D. D., Charleston, S.C. IV. On
the occurrence of the Phosphate of Uranium in the Tourmaline locality
at Chesterfield, by J. E. Teschemacher. V. Descriptions of twenty
four species of the Shells of New England, by J. W. Mighels, M. D.,
of Portland, Me., and Prof. C. B. Adams, of Middlebury College, Vt.
VI. Deseriptions and figures of the Araneides of the United States, by
Nicholas Marcellus Hentz. VII. Descriptions of two new species of
Fishes, by D. Humphreys Storer, M.D. VIII. On a new species of
Rafflesia from Manilla, by J. E. Teschemacher. IX. Remarks upon
Coral Formations in the Pacific, with suggestions as to the causes of
their absence in the same parallels of latitude on the coast of South
America, by Joseph P. Couthouy. X. Niagara Falls—their physical

380 Bibliography.

changes, and the geology and topography of the surrounding country,
by James Hall. XI. Note to the editors respecting Fossil Bones from
Oregon, by Henry C. Perkins.

A glance at this list will show that the present number of this Jour-
nal is more than usually rich in subjects of important and general in-
terest to all naturalists. It speaks alike of the thrift of the Society of
which it is the organ, and of the zeal and ability of its members.

11. Report on the Insects of Massachusetts, injurious to Vegetation.
By Tuappevs Wittiam Harris, M.D. Published agreeably to an
order of the Legislature, by the Commissioners on the Zoological and
Botanical Survey of the State. Cambridge, 1841, 8yo.—We have not

yet had an opportunity to examine this important work, but from our
knowledge of the eminent qualifications of the author, we are confident
that the book i is one of great value, alike to the intelligent agriculturist
has earned . for ‘ait much honor, throughout the lasxned world, by
her liberal patronage of science ; besides which she will doubtless re-
ceive in the increased resources of her own people, an abundant. pecu-
niary recompense. We hope to be able to speak more partioulery
of Dr. Harris’s Report, at some future day.

12. Publication of Rogers’s Letters on the Manufacture of Iron; by
J. H. Avexanver, Esq., with an Appendix.—Will shortly ,be pub-
lished, under the editorship of Mr. J. H. Atexanpver, of Baltimore,
“ Letters on the Manufacture of Iron,” by Samuet Rogers, of Mon-
mouthshire, South Wales.

Of this book, a notice appeared in 1829, in the preface to the Manuel
Complet du Maitre de Forges, by M. Landriu, of Paris, in the follow-
ing words :—

“ C’est dans cet état de la question,”—namely, after M. Landriu,
having completed the list of metallurgic writers anterior to the reform-
ation of the phlogistic theory, has farther illustrated the subject by

ference to the systematic and learned labors of Hafrenfratz, the
immense scientific and practical knowledge of M. Karsten, and the
splenic Se an critical memoirs of M. Misllargee* que Samuel Roger
étallurgiste aussi éclairé que modeste, rédigeait en Angle-

aoe son Traité du Fer (an Elementary Treatise on Iron-making, 1819)
dans les mémes ot il ne craignait par de manier le doli du pud-
deur. 2 y exposait aves. clarté et simplicité les principes scientifiques
de la Sidérurgie ; trait qu’on pouvait extraire le fer 4 l'état de pu-
reté de toutes les . matiéres dans lesquelles il était combiné, avec tous
les combustibles qui avaient le carbone pour principal élément; et fai-

ee

Bibliography. 381
sait voir a quelles substances le fer devait sa propriété de devenir
cassant,”’ etc. etc.

‘Cet ouvrage devait faire la matiére de trente lettres in folio, dont
Roger fit imprimer les deux premiéres afin de se procurer des sous-
cripteurs. A l’annonce de cette publication et a la lecture de V’intro-
duction dans laquelle le plan en était savamment developpé, la terreur
s’empara des maitres de forges Anglais: ils craignirent que le savant
chimiste ne portét la lumiére dans une carriére od ils avaient soin
@entretenir l’obscurité ; ils résolurent d’étouffer ce beau génie et ac-
coururent en foule dans le Monmouthshire pour racheter au prix de
lor un monopole qui allait leur échapper. Roger eut la faiblesse de
céder aux offres de ces avides Bretons et ses élucubrations restérent
enfouies dans les cabinets de trente personnes intéressées a les cacher
de tous les yeux.”—Landriu, tom. I, pp. 11 and 12.

With less of the somewhat theatrical pomp under which M. Landriu
saw fit to introduce his notice, another, grounded upon the careful pe-
tusal of the said thirty letters and personal enquiries among those under
and with whom Rogers had worked, was made by Mr. Alexander, in
his Report on the Manufacture of Iron, noticed in Vol. xx1, No. 2, of
this Journal,

Under these concurring testimonies there is reasonable ground for
believing that the book will be found to contain matter of importance
for all who are interested in the subject.

Mr. Alexander stands in no other light with regard to the publicatio
than that of friendly editor, as we are informed; adding nothing of his
Own except a review of the experiments on the expansibility and point
of fusion of this metal, and the results of his own experiments on the
fusibility of different earthy and metallic silicates which are found in
or may advantageously enter into the composition of the furnace cinder
or slag.

The design of Mr. Alexander in taking the trouble of this publication
Was, as well toaid the family of Rogers—some of whom are understood
to be struggling in obscure poverty somewhere in Wales—as in fur-
therance of a corpus of treatises on the subject, which he proposed to
Publish in the interest of this most important branch of American man-
ufactures, under the general title of ‘Contributions to the History of
the Manufacture of Iron;? to which his Report, &c. before mentioned,
was meant to serve for introduction.

In the introduction to that report he mentions Rogers and his work
in the following terms : acit

“In 1819, Samuel Rogers, a working hand about one of the estab-
i ts in Monmouthshire, but in many regards an extraordin
Person, had yet, by some means, acquired a very judicious comprehen-

382 _ Bibliography.

sion of the aim and application of the science of chemistry ; and sev-
eral of the remarkable discoveries of the last fifteen years in this man-
ufacture, are to be found, either in germ or more distinctly brought out,
in certain letters, which, during the year mentioned, he wrote and pro-
posed to publish. There was reason to suppose that the effect of his
views, if adopted, would have tended to equalize the proportionate pro-
ducts of establishments of different sizes, and possessing different natu-
ral advantages; but the interest of the large and favorably situated
manufactories was not to encourage this equalization, or, as they thought
it, rivalry ; and by temptations of whatever kind, Rogers was induced to
give no more than his first three letters to the public. But, a few copies
of this work as he prepared it, still exist in manuscript, and one of them
is now in my possession. Upon a careful perusal, I cannot but think
that the iron-masters overrated the influence which the entire publica-
tion would have had ; and Rogers was, perhaps, acute enough to come
to the same conclusion. However, it would have been unjust in any
treatment of the same subject, to have withheld the honorable mention
of himself and his work, which I have thought proper here to make.”

In Vol. x1, p. 376, we inserted a brief notice of the labors of Mr.
Alexander for the diffusion of correct information, both historical and
practical, upon the manufacture and uses of iron, and we then gave an
outline of his Report to the Governor of Maryland, upon this most
important subject.

The publication named at the head of these remarks, forms a second
step in the series of elucidations which we are authorized to expect, and
for which Mr. Alexander, (an unpaid laborer in these important re-
searches,) will impose upon his country a large debt of gratitude. No
person in these states has undertaken such a labor, and all who are able,
in consequence either of their scientific or practical knowledge, to con-
tribute to the great result, will we trust be forward to sustain an enter-
prise of such magnitude, and connected with so widely diversified and
momentous interests. We rejoice that the work has fallen into the
hands of a gentleman so well qualified and so zealously disposed for
its effectual performance. We understand, that in the current season,
Mr. Alexander will lay before the Legislature, a statistical account of
the manufacture of iron, as it now exists in Maryland ; giving, as nearly
as can be ascertained, particulars relating separately to high furnaces,
foundery cupolas, and establishments for bar and plate iron ; showing
also how many of each are in activity, the fuel and raw shai’ re-
quired by each, the number of men employed, the amount a
in the scale of some unit of calculation of steam and water power, the
quantity and value of the products of each, &c. &c. It is extremely
desirable to have similar results obtained in all the Northern and East-

he eee

Mis li ed. i 383

ern States, and especially in Massachusetts and Connecticut, in which
states not only much of the coarser forms of iron, but of cutlery also,
is manufactured. We are given to understand that Mr. Alexander's
third*number in his series on iron is in progress, and that it will present
the exposition of his microscopic researches into the crystallography
of crude iron.

MISCELLANIES.
FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC.

1. Protest of Mr. Charles V. Walker.

"-Baitorial Remarks.—lIt is with much reluctance that we give publi-
city to the remarks of Mr. Walker, as it is extremely desirable, in mat-
ters of science, to avoid personal controversy, and we are not sure, that
in the present case, the blame is not in part our own. The truth is, we
were in doubt whether the letters of Mr. Sturgeon, referred to by Mr.
Walker, were intended for publication or not. The subject-matter
seemed to justify if not to require it, and we were iSnorant of any per-
sonal claims that intérfered. Still, the letters were retained in hand, in

hope of hearing farther from Mr. Sturgeon, and they were at last
published so late, that it seemed as if an apology was due for their delay.

If we have exposed Mr. Sturgeon to criticism, by publishing what
was intended to be private, we sincerely regret it; and on the other
hand, Mr. Walker may feel that he has cause to complain that his re-
monstrance has not appeared sooner. Being friends of peace, we have
been hoping to hear from Mr. Sturgeon or Mr. Walker, that the claims
of all parties were satisfactorily arranged ; but as we have no such in-
formation, we cannot act impartially (as it appears to us after much
consideration) without giving Mr. Walker’s own statement of the ease—
and we are not sure, after all, that we have not taken the course that
Will fail to give satisfaction to any of those concerned or to the public.

TO THE EDITORS OF THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.
Kennington Grammar School, Feb. 1, 1841,

Gentlemen—In this Journal, Vol. xxx1x, pp. 28-36, is an article rela-
tive to some experiments made with an extended series of the constant
battery, containing extracts from two letters addressed to you by Mr.
William Sturgeon, in the latter of which that gentleman has labored
hard to connect himself, to the exclusion of those who experimented

him, with a certain important experiment—the heating of the pos-
itive ‘electrode beyond the circuit. Had he confined his observations

384 Miscellanies.

to that periodical of which he is the editor and proprietor, (the Annals
of Electricity,) they might have rested undisturbed on my part ; but
when he publishes this new version of the affair in another quarter of
the globe, selecting as a vehicle a journal of such established repufation
as yours, whose pages are read wherever science is cultivated, and
urges as a reason for publishing this new version, the want of clear-
ness with which my account (as read before the London Electrical So-
ciety) was drawn out, I feel that I should be wanting in justice to my-
self and those who were with me, if I suffered it to pass unnoticed.
With respect, first, to his charge against me of want of clearness; I
shall not attempt to confute this, but refer your readers to his descrip-
tion on page 31, and mine (which you have copied verbatim) in pages
33, 34; and if a comparison is drawn between these, and it should
appear that mine is deficient, though I confess I am at a loss to discover
in what, be it so: palmam ferat qui meruit. ‘There is one thing most
assuredly conspicuous in his, which, he may think—though he should
have thought so before, when he corrected the manuscript and the proof
sheets, for they were all submitted to his inspection—is not recognized
in mine ; I allude to the frequent recurrence of the pronoun J, The
account I drew up was descriptive of a series of experiments, carried
on by Messrs. Gassiot, Mason, Sturgeon, and myself, at the house of
Mr. Gassiot, and at his sore expense. ‘The sole object was to advance
the interests of science, through the medium of the London Electrical
Society, and not to found individual claims to individual experiments,
when each by agreement was contributing his own share to the com-
mon stock ; you may judge, therefore, of the surprise with which I
saw the experiment in question, not only claimed by Mr. Sturgeon as
his, but also as being undertaken from certain views which he had long
entertained. If he had entertained these views, he had a marvelous
manner of concealing the experiments he had based on them; we, in
our innocence of what good things were in store, were plodding on
that extended series of experiments on decomposition, with

such a finttony as had never been excited before, and yet our chief man
(for he was the only scientific man by profession among us) is unable
to avail himself of the first opportunity that ever occurred to him of
bringing his views to the test. Only a few of his experiments were
attempted, he says. If you, gentlemen, were personally acquainted
with Mr. Gassiot, and had seen, I will not say the liberality only, but
the ardor with which he encourages every attempt at experimental de-
monstration, you d wonder what change could have come over
him, that he should have te Mr. arene. experiments last on the
was strange to lowe SRI months ; aiid ned chile

Miscellanies. 385

it at the very outset, neither did he when I sent the manuscripts for his
revision,—it passed as a portion of the joint stock when the whole was
laid before the Society, and he allowed it to pass through the press and
be published without asserting any claim. Nor am I aware that he
attempted to appropriate it, until M. De la Rive drew attention to its
importance, by endeavoring to repeat it. The want of success which
attended M. De la Rive’s endeavors, Mr. Sturgeon attributes to my
faulty description, and this affords him a plausible pretext to lay his

_ own version before the American public, lest they also should fail from

alike cause. I would gladly know what there is in my description
which prevented M. De la Rive from producing the same results. Surely
that philosopher is not to be charged with deficiency of intellect and
want of skill in manipulatién; it requires very little of the former to
comprehend the description I have given, and no large share of the
latter to follow it. If you will refer to the Proceedings of the London
Electrical Society, (a copy of which is forwarded to you by the order
of the committee,) you will find on page 167, an abstract of a transla-
tion of M. De la Rive’s experiments, and will see from that, that he
perfectly comprehends me, but fails on account of the battery he used.

From this you will see that the motives assigned by Mr. Sturgeon

are merely imaginary, but if real, they little became him—they

should never have fallen from his pen, because, after the experiments
were finished, the notes were offered him to prepare, but he declined
them; and when I, at the request of the others, undertook the task, I
sent the prepared manuscripts to Mr. Sturgeon, as well as to the rest,
for his corrections or ‘observations, if he had any to make; and
they were returned from him with some emendations, but with no re-
mark in connection with this experiment. Surely when he tells you
that on account of the lateness of the hour many of his experiments
were not entered into, he might have said that the battery was changed
three different times, at each of which he was present, and on each of
which there must have been opportunity. I am surprised that ina
Joint undertaking like this, he should talk of Ais experiments, as distinct
from those of the rest, but still more so, when these were kept secret
from. us.

With regard to the experiment in question; | it poe to have seamen
like many others in all the sciences, from merel
He and Mr. Mason were amusing themselves with the wires, and observ-
ing the length of the are of flame, and the phenomenon of the heated
€ctrode presented itself; but neither knew which electrode it was
until they had examined. And this, I think, you may gather from Mr.
Sturgeon’ s own words in his first letter, dated October 9, 1838, where
he says—* the wires were made to ng poles, still the same thing
Vol. xtir, No, 2.—Jan.-March, 1842.

386 Miscellanies.

occurred.” Why were the wires changed, unless with the i impression
that a particular something, connected with the nature of the wire,
might be concerned in producing the effect? I cannot pass over the
letter from which I take that extract, without remarking on the great
want of courtesy on Mr. Sturgeon’s part in sending you an account of
experiments made for the Electrical Society, the date of his communi-
cation being a week antecedent to the day when they were read before
the Society.

In conclusion, I would advert to a slight error into which Mr. Stur-
geon must have fallen in his over-anxiety to be correct: he tells you
the zine was amalgamated ; lest your readers should, in preparing a
battery of this kind, be led to incur the trouble and expense of this, I
would remind them that the zinc was in the condition in which we re-
ceived it from the workmen.

_ With every apology for trespassing so much on your time and ef
ed pages, ve me, silica dias obedient servant,

heaters : Cuartes V. Warns.

2. Mineralogical Notices, by Dr. Lewis Feucktwanger, —The in-
defatigable mineralogist, Breithaupt, has, according to Berzelius’s an-
nual report for 1839, discovered eight new minerals: viz.

1. Trombolite, (Fg0ugos, numb, stiff,) a phosphate of copper resembling
an opal from Retzbanja, Hungary, of a sp. gr. = 3.38 to 3.4; is of
green color, opaque, and conchoidal, vitreous fracture ; according to
Plattner’s analysis, it appears to have the formula Cu2P+ 16H.

2. Allomorphite, a sulphate of barytes, containing 2 per cent. of sul-
phate of lime, of papillary form, and found in an ochre mine near
Unterwirbach, Duchy of Schwarzburg.

3. Anauxite, (avav§ys, not growing larger,) from the suiannicst
Bilin, of volcanic formation, resembles in appearance the Pyrophyllite,
but on heating does not swell but peels off; is translucent on the edges,
dark greenish white, fine granular, foliated fracture, sp. gr. 2.264 to

. Contains silica 55.7, and water 11.5; the balance is alumina,
ealcia, and protoxide of iron

4. Polyhydrite, a silicate of oxide of iron from Breitenbrun, Saxony,
is of a hepatic color, vitreous lustre and opaque, sp. gr. 2.1 to 2.142 ;
Contains 29.2. per cent. of water.

‘5. Serbian or Miloschin, forms a protruding layer in a mountain in
Servia. Serbian i is blue or bluish green, acquires a lustre on rubbing,
4 ‘and sp. gr. 2.131; it crumbles by water
with a noise ; it containg principally alumina, less silica, oxide of
chrome, a wits of magnesia, and 22. 8 water’ 4

*

Miscellanies. 387

6. Violan, a silicate of alumina, magnesia, lime, much protoxide of
iron and soda, and occurring at Piedmont with manganesian epidote ; has
waxy lustre, deep violet blue color, nearly conchoidal fracture, amor-
phous, opaque, uneven, brittle, sp. gr. 3.233, does not change on
ing, but may be brought by a higher temperature to a clear bead. —

7. Tombacite, an arsenical nickel ore, with a little sulphur, and

mall trace of iron or cobalt, occurring near Lobenstein in Voigtland ;
in color it resembles the magnetical iron, sometimes with a greenish
brown hue ; its streak is black, appears to belong to the hexahedral
system, is brittle, non-magnetic, sp. gr. 6.637.

8. Hepatic blende, a mineral mostly wax-yellow, from Saxony, in
the mine Hochmuth near Geier, Himmelreich-Erbstollen, between
Marienberg and Wolkenstein, and also from Cornwall. The color varies
from pea yellow to pink brown, transparent; the streak is either col-
orless or yellowish gray, forms botryolitic and reniform conglomerates,
fracture conchoidal, and a sp. gr. 3.7 to 3.78, and, according to Platt-
ner’s experiments, is said to be a sulphocarbonate of zinc, it containing
zinc, sulphur, and carbon. It decrepitates on heating, yielding water
and a little sulphur, smells like sulphuretted hydrogen, and then like
coal tar, and then becomes gray ; it is decomposed by hydrochloric
acid, disengaging sulphuretted hydrogen ; the gray substance remaining
from before is soluble in nitric acid, leaving sulphur and carbon, the
first of which may be val and separated.

It may be inferred from the experiments of Plattner, that this mineral
consists of sulphuret of zinc formed by water, and intensely mixed with
bitumen or other carbonaceous compound ; for it is not to be presumed
to contain any carburet of sulphur, which would in those instances distil
over unchanged, unlike the above.

Hess has described a new mineral, which he calls Volborthite, consist-
ing of vanadiate of copper, of yet undetermined degree of combina-
tion. It forms crystalline needles of olive green color, papillary ; is
translucent in splinters, has a yellowish green streak, and a sp. gr. 3.55;
on heating grows black, yields a little water; it melts before the blow:
pipe, and by increased heat yields a slag like graphite, extending upon
the charcoal with some metallic copper; by soda the copper is redu-
ced instantly, and vanadious soda is formed.

Gigantolite,* by Nordenskiéld, from Tammela, Finland. One of the
crystals of that mineral measured two and a half inches in diameter.
This mineral resembles the Fahlunite, and all the harder varieties of

rs patae eS

* What name could we give to our gigantic We of beryl, topaz, apatite,
tourmalines, zircon, rhomb-spar, lead, fluor-spar ; the fo raWae peel
New York, some of which measure twelve to fifteen sick in

388 Miscellanies.

tale; it has been described and analyzed by the Count Trolle Wacht-.
meister ; its color is steel gray to brownish, yields on heating, water
with some ammonia ; it contains silica 46.27, alumina 25.10, oxide of
iron 15.60, magnesia "3. 80, protoxide of manganese 0.89, potassa 2.70,
soda 1,20, water 6.00, and a trace of fluor, and has a formula of

RSi-+ Alsi +H?,

3. Infusorial Animals—Baron Von Humboldt presented to the
Academy, from M. Ehrenberg, of Berlin, specimens of the argillaceous
and peaty formation found beneath the city of Berlin, at twenty feet
under the surface. It was full of small infusorial animals, all alive,
with living ovaries, and capable of reproduction. He had discovered
similar formations in other parts of Prussia ; and he mentioned as a
curious fact, that of 1,728,000 cubic feet of matter taken out of the
port of Swinemunde, on the Baltic, in 1840, one half of it was com-
posed of microscopic beings. ‘The sandy plains of the Lamburg con-
tained strata of fossil song twenty eight feet thick —Literary Ga-
= Noo. 13.

4. Coal Mines in Cuba.
To the Editors of the American Journal of Science and Arts.

_Gentlemen—In the belief that no account has appeared in any Amer-
ican publication, of the extensive coal mine which has been discovered
in Cuba, the progress made in the examination of which I have for a
year or two past watched with much interest, I send herewith a notice
pee by M. Castéles in the “‘ Diario de la Habana,” of the 7th

of August. The mine is situated in the Partido de San Miguel, about
six miles from Havanna, and is particularly interesting on account of
its locality and the quality of the mineral.

_The coal is of two kinds, one of which, denominated ‘“ chapapote,”
is the most abundant. One hundred parts of this sell! fifty parts of
len and afforded ane le

_ Carbon

ae £ - “ 71.84

> . & - a f - . 622

ak x Hydeogen, : 8.40
_ Ashes composed of ae, ox. iron, Hon mn fies, 13.51
ds 99.97

men, Heo = esteem and respect, your friend and
Joun H. Biake.

Miscellantes. 389

» “The abundance and good quality of the coal are the two particulars

embraced in this article to which we should like most assuredly to give
a greater extension. Almost at the lower extremity of a hill whose
inclination is not very steep, they have opened a rectangular well of
our yards in superficies, and eighteen in depth, and at one yard exca-
vation they met the coal, which continues to the above mentioned depth,

. the quality of the ground being, as well at this point as in the others, a

calcareous and ferruginous layer. At the distance of forty five yards
up the declivity, they have opened another well, three yards wide, two
broad and forty deep : in this place, the coal was found at the depth of
Seven yards, and continues to the bottom, at which point and in the cen-
ter of it, they made a bore of fifteen yards, always meeting with coal.
At the four sides of the bottom, they have opened a straight gallery,
thirty yards in length, in which the vein continues horizontally without
any interruption. In this well, terminates another gallery, which open-
ing from the bottom of the other, communicates with this, the drain
being obtained by means of oxen.

“On the road to Tapaste, and on the summit of the hill, at a distance
of four hundred yards from the preceding well, they have opened ano-
ther, the vein of coal beginning at the depth of fourteen yards. It re-
Sults then, that in the small space aboye mentioned, is found a vein of
coal of forty eight yards perpendicular, and more than sixty in surface,
in the part bored up to the month of April last, interrupted with layers
of stone, and some spots of chalk, though of small extent and rare.
The bed of coal is almost horizontal; the difference of the depth at
which it is found, is one yard in the first well, seven in the second,
and fourteen in the third, depending upon the variation of the surface
of the declivity of the hill.

“The mine Prosperidad was examined by Mr. San Richard, an English
engineer, who came to Cuba for this purpose: he wrote to the Society
the following, which we take from a copy now under our eyes :— De-
scending into the well, 1 became astonished at seeing such a vein of
of coal; never have I seen or heard till now, that there is in other
places a similar vein, and I believe that I should not be mistaken in say-
ing that there are few persons who have seen another so extraordinary
as this. The coal from the surface, to the depth of a few yards, appeared
to me to be charged with bitumen, and a coal of very good quality for
coke ; that which I have seen made with it, is, in my opinion, of su-
perior quality. From the above mentioned distance to that of forty or
fifty yards that 1 descended, the quality of the coal changed much to
its advantage ; it is less bituminous, contains a greater quantity of oxy-
gen, and is much more compact. I saw at the bottom of the well gal-

leries opened to the four winds, to the length of twenty or thirty yards,

‘

390 Miscellanies.

and it is all around full of coal. There is also at the east, a gallery |

a few yards from the bottom, to the extent of forty or fifty yards, all
surrounded with coal, so that they see nothing else on all sides.’ ”

5. Encouragement for the Fine Arts.—George Combe, Esq. under
date of March 16, 1841, writes to the senior editor of this Journal :

“T am glad to hear that Mr. Ives (sculptor and modeller in stat- .

uary) has obtained so much patronage among you. It appeared to me
that there is no lack of genius for art in the United States; all that is
needed is encouragement. Scotland was too poor to encourage artists
by buying their works, until we formed an association, to which any
one who chooses subscribes five dollars; we buy pictures with the
furids, (last year they amounted to £3,000,) and draw lots for them.
The annual exhibition has recently opened, and it is very creditable to
the country. The improvement in art, within my recollection, is very
great, and the public taste is improving in proportion. Such a scheme
is what your country wants.”

We hope that the valuable suggestion of Mr, Combe may be favora-
bly regarded, both in the revival of institutions already existing for the
improvement of the arts, and in the creation of new and effective asso-
ciations.

Twelve months have passed since the above remarks were written,
and they have lain among our unpublished miscellanies until we can
have it in our power to confirm their justness and. propriety.

6. Geological Survey of Lowisiana.—We are happy to learn from
Prof. Wm. M. Carpenter, of Jackson College, Louisiana, that he has
for some time past been engaged in making, by direction of the legis-
lature, a geological examination preliminary to a complete survey of
that state. Prof. Carpenter is well known to the readers of this Jour-
nal by various interesting geological papers in our previous volumes,
and we rejoice that the legislature of Louisiana have had the wisdom
to select, from her own sons, one so able to answer their liberal views.
From Prof. Carpenter’s letter we extract the following.

~ Notice of an interesting Fossil_—The sketch represents the crown
of a molar tooth, which was taken from a jaw bone found at the ie
of forty five feet below the surface, in digging a
well in a prairie iyenty or thirty miles from the

and as the distoweadag! saw aed remarkable: ad
the jaw except the circumstan t such a depth ediant

‘

Miscellanies. 391

7 the surface, it was thrown away, and this crown was all that was saved.

i - Deseription :—horizontal section of body quadrilateral, with the angles
rounded and the sides slightly curved. The crown has two transverse
ridges, the summit lines of which are slightly curved; between the
extremities of the ridges on each side is a small tubercular dibiieon,
anda mahi elevation borders the anterior and posterior extremities of

’ the crown
length, rer kahoey a Ess
Size of By, { eee, Me
| _ Length of the summit of the ridges, 0.55 of an inch. | Distance of the
| Summits of ridges from each other, 0.42 of an inch. Height of ridges,
0.36 of an inch.
It is without doubt the fifth molar of the left lower jaw of a Tapir,

_ which appears to me to be very near to the one now inhabiting South
America, as the form and size of the tooth is nearly the same as in that

animal,
Jackson, La., October 19, 1841.

. Weovoreiion of Freshwater Shells for the Cabinet—We make
the following extract from the letter of a distinguished correspondent,
whose shells have been in much demand among collectors, and whose
mode of preparing them is the result of obseryation and experience.

“ Tt is well known that these shells are composed of animal matter
and carbonate of lime, thinly laminated. Many of them are more or
less covered with mucus, lime, clay. and oxide of i iron, sometimes indu-
rated, so as to require a steel instrument to remove it. Hence the first
operation is to remove this extraneous matter by hand-brushes, and then
with dilute muriatic acid @ remove the free lime and accidental colors ;
then, after a thorough rinsing, and as soon as the water has dried from
the surface, saturate the shells with the finest spermaceti oil, which
should be left on them for several months if convenient, but wiped from
them as clean as possible with a woolen cloth before putting them in
the cabinet. They will then feel like steatite, and exhibit a transpa-
rency and beauty which I could not obtain in any other way. Shells
which have once been exposed to the air, without the animal, and have
become thoroughly dry, can never be restored to their primitive beauty,
because the water of the animal matter in them has. evaporated. They
become opake, and a.slow decomposition, like that of salts, takes place,
by the evaporation of the water of erystallization ; but the oil taking
the place of the water, as the latter evaporates, increases the transpa
rency of the shell, as it does that.of paper, and the superfluous oil may
be ‘so. effectually remoyed at the proper time, that the shells. will not
soil the fingers or smell unpleasantly ; ; but any considerable exposure
to the air and light will soon injure their appearance.”

392 Miscellanies.

es 8. Bones of the Orycterotherium. ae til

Dear Sir—Dr. Perkins is under the erroneous notion that rays em
on the ‘ Orycterotherium,” in the Journal of proceedings of the Roan.
ican Philosophical Society, is a description of the new genus, whereas
it is only intended as a scientific notice. My memoir before the Soci-
ety, of twenty one pages letter paper, with numerous figures, is now in
progress of publication. , :

The “ protuberance” on the humerus referred to by Dr. P. is there
noticed, together with numerous other details not now mentioned, and all
of which leave no reason to believe Dr. P.’s bones to have belonged to
a distinct species. He is certainly iengiant in giving the specific title

of ** Oregonensis” to his remains. R. Haran.

Philadelphia, Feb. 1, 1842.

9. Note on Mr. H. C. Lea’s paper in the last number of this Jour-
nal.—Among some interesting additions to the known species of our
native shells in the last number of your Journal, I find a shell described
under the name of Pasithea sordida, which has been known to me for
several years, and had been regarded as a variety of Act@on trifidus,
Totten. A re-examination of numerous specimens confirms this opin-
ion. The species presents the following varieties, the type being char-
acterized by three well impressed and several indistinct revolving lines.

Odostomia trifida, Gould. Invert. of Mass., p. 274, fig.

Actaon trifidus, Tott. Am. Journ. a XXvi, 368, pl. 1, fig. 4.

Var. a. With two well impressed lines.

«6. With one well impressed line.
* - ¢, With all the lines obsolete.
_ © d, With one well impressed line, and the columellar fold in-
distinct.
* ¢, With the lines obsolete and the fold indistinct.
=" sordida, H.C. Lea. Am. Journ. Science, xi11, 110, pl. 1,

Pdeeice a and } are most common in the vicinity of New Bedford.”
In most of the individuals, which would, at first, be referred to varieties
d@ and é, the fold will usually be seen far within the aperture. But oc
casionally it is wanting, and a roughness of the columella indicates fais
to be the result of disease or accident. Without the intermediate va-
rieties, € might be supposed quite distinct from the type, and many
species have been proposed with much less reason. But having a large
“number of the shells referred to by Mr. Lea, among which are all the
above varieties, I cannot hegers it as entitled to spenieee rank .

if.

|
|
|

- Miscellanies. 393

br /

Mr. Lea is in error in supposing that his shell and the Cerithium
Menke, (C. reticulatum, 'Totten,) among which it was found, are
m Bost Ithough in Col. Totten’s description of the latter spe-
cies, Boston harbor is mentioned as its habitat, it has not probably been
found north of or within Cape Cod, its extreme limit being Province-
town, where it was found by Dr. Gould. The shells in question were
obtained in Dartmouth, Mass., where they were clinging to the Zostera
marina below low-water mark. Very respectfully,

a
E

C. B. Avams.
Middlebury, Vt., Feb. 15, 1842.

10. Notice of some facts connected with a stroke of lightning, in a
letter from Rev. James H. Linstey,* dated Stratford, Conn., Sept. 9,
1841, :

Prof. Sitttman—Dear Sir: Early in June, 1821, four men, who
had been engaged in fishing, were cleaning shad upon a plank ten or
twelve feet in length, one end of which was resting upon the edge of a
stump, and the other upon an empty flour barrel, the latter being to-
wards the river. A large pile of the offals of shad was lying around
the stump ; a steel pointed pitchfork was standing by the plank, which,
as well as the prongs of the pitchfork, was smeared with the fish-oil.
A heavy shower had commenced, and the men took : shelter in a shed
about twenty five or thirty five feet off, when the lightning struck the
Stump, splitting it to pieces, until it came down to the fishes’ entrails
and heads that were piled around it. Below them it did not affect the
stump or the ground, nor injure the plank, or the pitchfork by it on the
barrel ; but took the ground at the lower end of the barrel, and thence
ploughed a furrow until tt came to a rock about five feet in length or
two or three feet horizontal thickness, weighing several tons, through
which it passed, leaving one side broken in several pieces, and the
other side unbroken, with a square face, as if sawed through. T he
rock is thinly laminated, but the lightning did not separate the lamine ;
it cut across nearly at right angles, i. e. varying only twelve degrees,
the lamine being nearly perpendicular to the horizon. From the rock,
the lightning passed to the water and disappeared. In a few moments,
however, many dead fishes of various species rose upon the surface
of the river; they appeared to come up “as they do when the ice over
them in winter is struck by an axe.” The effect upon the men in the
shed was singular: one was seen from the dwelling house (about five
rods distant) to stoop down as though picking up something with both

* The facts were communicated to Mr. Linsley by Mr. S. Crowfut, the owner

of the place where the event occurred.
Vol. xx, No. 2.—Jan.-March, 1842. 50

394 Miscellanies.

hands; he would then rise and extend both hands high in air, and then”

stoop down again as before; this action he repeated several times ; at
length he called to those in the house, saying, that “‘ the lightning is so
thick upon the ground that you can pick up corn-baskets full of it.”

_ His mind was evidently for a short time injured by the shock. Two

of the other men, who had just sat down as the shock came, were found
leaning back against the wall, stunned, as if asleep. ‘The fourth re-
ceived little or no injury.

The persons in the house, (Mr. C. believes about a dete andes of
whom had naked feet—said that at the moment of the shock their feet
felt as though some person had tossed a chip of wood on them, while
those with shoes on did not perceive this sensation.

In addition to this, an empty boat lay a short distance from the rock
struck, and when the shower was over, the men who came there in the
boo attempted to return in it, but on entering it immediately filled and

. On examination it was found that every nail in the boat had
haa and that the leaks were thus caused.

The points which I conceive of any importance in this transaction,
are, Ist. The good evidence furnished, or the corroboration of a long
known fact, that oil is a powerful non-electric, as the fluid passed over
or under the whole length of the plank covered with the refuse of
shad. 2d. The sensation given to all the bare feet of persons five rods
distant, without affecting the hands and face, was uncommon. Is it not
probable that the skin of the feet, being usually covered, was more deli-
cate and therefore more sensible to the shock? The floor of the house
where these persons were, is several feet higher than any point touched
by the lightning. 3d. Did the electric fluid reach the fishes in the
river? or were they killed by the mere shock in the air acting up-
on the water? 4th. Is it possible the nails in the boat could have
been started out by the shock, and if so, in what manner? Was the
concussion of fir so great upon the plank of the boat, that the nails
were thus drawn by the plank ? or was this result produced by the
electric fluid acting upon the nails? 5th. Is it possible to explain or
show cause why the lightning should leave so smooth a surface through
the rock which it severed, especially when acting not.with nor directly
at right angles to the natural cleavage or laminw of the rock and not
separating any laminz ?

Some person a short distance further up the river, who saw the col-
umn of ‘electric fluid fluid descend on this occasion, remarked, ons “ it ap-
peared to be about the size of a common bar-post.

iL betes f silver or gold from lead.
Prof. Sintiman—Sir : ing over a former number of your
Journal, (Vol. xxxv, fife 2, Pet 1839,) I find on page 321 an

a
|

-

Miscellanies. 395

article on cupellation, where the writer proposes to separate silver or

gold from lead by oxidizing the alloy in the external flame of the blow-
pipe on a slip of mica. This process is undoubtedly original with him,
but a much better one has been practiced by me more than thirteen
years, when | first learned it from Prof. H. Rose of Berlin.

Take a few grains of bone ash, make it into a paste with a little
saliva, spread it about one line thick on a piece of charcoal, and make
a shallow impression in it, to receive the globule of metal. Expose it
to the heat of the blowpipe, so as to burn it white and hard, and then
melt the globule of the alloy on it, and keep it in a constant red heat,
till the lead is all oxidized.

The advantages of the bone ash over the mica are manifold. 1. It
is easier to be obtained, and every where the operator can prepare a
little if he should not be supplied with it. 2. The metal will remain
in the concavity of the bone ash paste, and not be liable to run down
and be lost, as on the mica. 3. It. is never necessary to change the
material ; the bone ash absorbs the litharge*which collects on the mica,
and impedes the process, so that the remaining metallic globule has to
be transferred to a fresh slip of mica. 4. The color of the paste, after
the operation is finished, gives an indication as to the nature of some
impurities of the metal; lead alone makes it appear yellow; a small
Proportion of copper changes this yellow color to greenish. Respect-
fully, your obedient servant, Georce Encetmann, M. D.

St. Louis, Jan. 22, 1842, :

12. Suggested observations relating to the total solar eclipse of July,
1842, visible in Eurape.—The sun is supposed to belong to the class of
nebulous stars. The nebula that surrounds him is however, at ordinary
times, very incompletely visible, being hidden by the effulgence which
his reflected beams pour upon the eye from the atmosphere, and from
the whole assemblage of terrestrial objects in the field of vision. It is
only when this effulgence is withdrawn, and evening is far advanced, or
the morning yet distant or scarcely beginning to glimmer, that this
nebula may be observed in its remoter parts, lifting itself above the
twilight, and forming the celestial phenomenon known commonly as
the “ Zodiacal Light.” Atsuch times, however, the central body and
the brighter regions of the nebula are concealed beneath the horizon.

Our only opportunity, therefore, for a complete observation of the
zodiacal light, in its brightness near the sun, in the gradations of bright-
Ness as it recedes from that orb, and in the relative visual extensions
estimated along the zodiac and across it, would seem to be on those rare
Occasions when one may stand, during a total solar eclipse, quite within
the path of total obscuration. I suppose, however, that no such occa-

396 Miscellanies.

sion has yet been distinctly improved, for the purpose above indicated ;
nor—however probably that circumstance may be the result of a too
limited information on my part—have I seen reason to expect that the
one just at hand is likely to be so improved, otherwise than incidentally
and very imperfectly. It will be impossible for the astronomers, intent
as they must be upon telescopic observations, to do full justice to the
phenomenon in question, and almost equally impossible for any other
man who shall not have anticipated in his reflections the specific aspects
to which the attention ought to be essentially devoted.

Before quitting this topic, may I be indulged in making an inquiry
that naturally grows out of it? Is not the light which, in a total eclipse
of the moon, makes her dark face visible to us, derived, in a greater
measure, from this equatorial nebula of the sun, than from the refrac-
tive effect of the earth’s atmosphere? If the intensity and extent
of the zodiacal effulgence shall be detected at the occurrence of the
coming eclipse, or by any other means, it may be possible to reply
very. satisfactorily to this inquiry. I would not unhesitatingly assume
that a reply substantially satisfactory might not be derived from facts
already well known. I must own that, hitherto, I have not even under-
taken to speculate concerning the amount of illumination, at the moon’s
surface, due to the terrestrial atmosphere,—a question which would
seem, at first view, to be of moderate difficulty, if only the dispersive
and refractive powers of common air are exactly ascertained. .

But I pass on to some suggestions respecting a phenomenon of a
different class. ‘T'o observers just within the path of total obscuration,
—and perhaps, very transiently, to those situated deeply within it,—
the telescope will probably reveal a fine thread of light, edging some
part of that dark limb of the moon which is in near proximity to the

sun’s corresponding limb. I infer this probability from a similar as-

pect,—which may indeed have been observed at other times, and re-
corded, although I have no knowledge that it has been,—that was wit-
nessed by myself, through an excellent instrument, from the station of
New York, on the occasion of the annular eclipse of 1838,—or rather
the | eclipse which just failed to be annular, at that station, on account,
ly, of an irregularity in the moon’s outline. In any event, it
must be rare that the phenomenon under consideration can be exhibited
so strikingly as it was on the occasion alluded to, from the very cit-
cumstance of my station being at or near the limiting boundary, upon
the earth’s surface, of the annular aspects. On that occasion I noticed,
several minutes before the time of nearest completion of the ring, the
fine cusps of the sun’s unobscured crescent prolonged by a hair-breadth
line of brightness, totally diy verse, in color and intensity, from the sun’s
. As the cusps approached, the line or thread of light in advance

Miscellanies. 397

of each, shot round the moon’s edge, between them, rapidly, till, ata

certain time, the threads from the two met and joined in one,—thus
uniting the cusps. Ata certain time following the instant of nearest
formation of the ring the thread became again disunited, and the reverse
phenomena of those just mentioned took place.

In meditating, at the time and occasionally at subsequent times, upon
this, to me, surprising phenomenon, I could obtain no glimpse of a so-
lution respecting the probable cause, unless by supposing the existence
of a lunar atmosphere: It is, I admit, only in one point of view that I
can be held excusable for offering these phenomena as proof upon this
high and much questioned topic, antecedently to having myself de-
monstrated by a rigid process the mode in which a lunar atmosphere
implies and accounts for just those appearances which I witnessed.
But, although I am not without my reasonings to fortify the conjecture
above presented, those are not to my present purpose. An excuse for
my boldness, if I need one, may be found in the nature of my present
object, which is simply to invite attention to expected and interesting
phenomena, on the part of observers among my: countrymen who may
be favorably situated abroad for devoting to them the requisite attention,
as well as on the part of any others to whom these unpretending thoughts
may find way and whom they aay concern. tA, CucF-

13. Meteors of April 18-20, 1841.—About 8 P. x. on the 18th of April,

1841, at Vidalia, Louisiana, Prof. Forshey noticed an unusual number

of meteors in different parts of the heavens, and on tracing their paths
backwards, found that they traversed the constellation Virgo. Having
commenced precise observations at half past eight, and continued them
for three hours, he saw in two hours and a quarter, (forty five minutes
being lost in recording,) sixty meteors, of which, all but five, passed with-
in 10° from the common radiant point. These meteors were very unlike
those of the August shower ; being chiefly without trains, and of a red-
dish color, few of them of the first magnitude, and the greater number
of the third and inferior magnitudes. Their velocities were remarkably
equal and gentle; their paths short, and their light first increasing and
then waning. Prof. F. determined their radiant point to be in a line
drawn bom, Spica to 6 Virginis, somewhat nearer to Spica, about R. A.
198°, S. decl. 8°. The convergent point was therefore in longitude
19°.6, and lat. N. 0°.3, while the observer’s motion was towards a point
of the ecliptic, in long. 299°. This gives a deflection of the path of the
meteors, relatively to the true path of the observer, of 80°.6; and
hence their true velocity cannot have been much less than that of the
set or about sixteen geographical miles per second. This obser-

vation of the convergent point of these meteors, Mr. Walker regards

398 Miscellanies,

_as strongly confirmatory of the cosmical theory of shooting stars, inas-
much as it seems to demonstrate the existence in this group, of a plan- —
etary velocity, like ihat of the December group observed in 1838, (see
this Journal, Vol. xxxv, p. 361, and Vol. xxxv1, p. 355,) in a direction
normal to the observer’s motion, and incapable of resulting from it.—
Proc. Am. Phil. Soc. ii: 67.

Observations at New Haven.—From 1\h. to 12h. P. M. of April
19, 1841, Messrs. F. Bradley, A. B. Haile, and i watched in the

S. W. quadrant only, in concert with Mr. 8S. C. Walker and others, at
Gemeente During this hour, we saw thirteon shooting stars, whose

ths we recorded on the star-chart. Of these, two exceeded the first
magnitude ; two equaled the first magnitude ; three were of the second ;
five-of the third, and one of the fourth. The average time of visible
flight was one third of a second. No definite radiant was observable,
but only a general westward tendency. At Oh. 30m. (20th) we began
to watch in the sky at large. Clouds soon came over from the west,
and by one o’clock A.M. the sky was so much obscured that we were
compelled to desist. In this half hour, we saw three meteors in the
N ; two in the E., and two in the 8. No very definite radiant could
be determined, but it appeared that the radiant region was then east
of the meridian, and about 70° or 80° in altitude. For five nights
following, the sky was wholly overcast. It may be worthy of mention
that efiewe was a moderate display of the Aurora Borealis on the nights
of the 19th and 20th. E. C. H.

14. Shooting Stars of Dec. 7, 1838.*—In a paper communicated Jan-
uary 8, 1839, to the Meteorological Society of London, by J. H. Ma-
verly, Esq. of Gosport, he states the following observations :—‘ On the
day after this storm, (of Dec. 2, 1838,) there were showers of hail and
rain, two double rainbows, and one lunar rainbow at 61 P. M. On the
night of the 7th, between 71 and 10, he noticed ninety seven meteors,
om fifty six eastward of the meridian, and forty one westward of it.”

*® So great was the display, that Mr. M. says, ‘ had this phenomenon
occurred between the 12th and 15th of November, those who maintain
the opinion of the annual appearance of showers of meteors, would
have pronounced this pemrsemetenr appearance to have been their di-
urnal periodical return.”—Proc. Meteor. Soc. Lond. i: 9.

In the Institut for October 14, 1841, M. Colla states, that at Parma,
in Italy, — cor ante of December 7, 1838, during three hours, he ob-

3 ae ere ce eee

* For observations made i in this ey and elsewhere, see this Journal, Vol.
xxxv, p. 361, and Vol. xxxv1, p. 355.

Miscellans#, — 399

served one hundred and fourteen shooting stars. This fact was an-—

nounced in his Astronomical Annual for 1840, p.

15. Determination of Longitude by Shooting Stars.—It has been
Stated that Dr. Maskelyne first suggested (in 1783?) the utility of cor-
responding observations of shooting stars and the larger fire-balls for
the determination of differences of longitude. It appears, however,
that George Lynn is entitled to the credit of a distinct proposal of this
kind, made much earlier, in a paper entitled “A method for determin-
ing the Geographical Longitude of Places from the appearance of the
common meteors called Falling Stars,’ published in the Philos. Trans.
of the Royal Society of London, for 1727, No. 400, p. 351. A sug-
gestion somewhat ledicomnechontvies was made still earlier by Dr. Hal-
ley, in his account of a large meteor seen in England March 19, 1719,
(Philos. Trans. 1719, No. 360.) He says “a considerable use might be
made of these momentaneous phenomena for determining the geograph-
ical longitudes of places. For if in any places, two observers by help
of pendulum clocks, duly corrected by celestial observation, exactly
note at what hour, minute, and second such a meteor as this explodes,
and is extinguished, the difference of the times willbe the difference
of longitude of the two anaes as is well pies

16. Ancient Medawrobipedt Me nda.- The foll
copied from entries made by the Rev. James Pierpont, eames of the
first church in New Haven, Conn.) on the blank leaves of an almanac
forthe year 1692, (by John Tulley: Cambridge, Mass. : printed by
Samuel Green and Bartholomew Green, for Samuel Phillips.) The
dates being in the Julian style, must of course be advanced ten days to
bring them to our present reckoning E. C. H.
- 1692. Tuesday, February 23. At night an unusual eastern storm of
furious wind and rain began, and continued till Sabbath following.
Rivers higher than ever known. Tee: bridge carried away :
Great damage through the country.

Thursday, March 3. The aforesaid storm renewed, and continued for

July 1. Latter end of June, multitudes of caterpillars fell on corn,
and did much spoil in some places, but were remarkably checkt with
us.

July 4. Excessive hot, and a sore drought about the time.

July 9. Excessive hot again. About the time a severe drought.
Indian corn almost spoiled : all signs of rain vanisht in drought.

July 11. Unexpectedly, and without ahi signs, a long shower,
which revived all things languishing be

400 Miscellanies.

July 14, More rain, so that every thing was fully recovered to ad-
miration.

August 11. A plentiful rain.

December 21. In the evening, two dracones volantes, [meteoric fire- Teas
balls, | of unusual dimensions were seen ; on the extinguishing of one,

a noise like a great gun was heard: both light and noise were affright-
ing to many. See

17. Description of Russell's Planetarium, with improvements.—This
great orrery is drawing towards its completion. When finished, the
zodiac will describe a circle of more than 48 feet.

The celestial sphere is about 4 feet 8 inches_in diameter, and con-
tains the Sun, Mercury, Venus, the Earth and thé Moon. The superior
planets are placed on the outside of the sphere ; Jupiter, Saturn, and
Herschel, having their satellites revolving around them in their proper
order, with their inclinations to the plane of the ecliptic. Saturn has
his two concentric rings, with their proper inclination and direction.

_ This armillary sphere is a beautiful structure, and is an important
addition to the orrery first made by Mr. Russell.

-The whole machine will weigh about one ton and a half, ond is com-
posed chiefly of cast and wrought iron, and brass, with but little wood.
It contains about 500 cog-wheels, large and small, principally of brass.

The Earth revolves on its axis, inclined as in nature about 232°, and
remains parallel to itself, exhibiting perfectly the manner in which the
changes of the seasons are produced, and the variations in the lengths
of the days and nights. The other planets also reyolye on their axes
duly inclined to the planes of their own orbits, so that the causes of the
vicissitudes upon each planet are readily comprehended.

The Moon revolves around the Earth in an orbit duly inclined to the
plane of the ecliptic; making ascending and descending nodes, the
retrograde motion of which is also given, so that the circumstances
under which eclipses of the Sun and Moon happen, are clearly shown.
seas libration of the Moon is also exhibited,

_ The Sun is represented by a gilt globe about 15 cmaihas in Gatenter,
revolving in about its proper time.

' The primary planets are represented by beautiful glass globes made

aknarah some attention to their relative magnitudes and telescopic

appearances. —
Vesta, Juno, Ceres, and Pallas, are all to be introduced in the ma-
chine; their motions and great inclinations being properly represented.
Jupiter, Saturn, and Herschel, will furnish us with their splendid little

esas

Miscellanies. AOL

18. Abstract of Mr. S. C. Walker’s paper entitled Researches con-
cerning the Periodical Meteors of August and November, read before
the Amer. Phil. Soc. Jan. 1841.—This paper contains—Ist, Tabular
ae Statements of the relative velocities derived from corresponding obser-
Vations of the same meteor at different stations, chiefly from Quetelet’s
Catalogue. 2d. A catalogue of remarkable appearances of, shooting
| stars, also from Quetelet, with additions. 3d. Bessel’s position of the
earth, in the ecliptic, at the date of the principal November showers.
| _ 4th. The convergent points hitherto observed for the relative paths of

the meteors of August, and 5th: Of those of November. The term pe-
riodical is restricted to the meteors, which, at a particular season of the
year, tend towards the convergent point for that season. Sporadic is
applied to the unconformable meteors seen on the same. occasions.
Extraordinary showers of the second table are placed in the former
class, and are considered as differing from periodical meteors only in

bers. ‘The convergent point, as far as noticed for the periodical

ee meteors, is not far from the antipode of the earth’s tangential direction.
ee The average relative velocities in table first, with the known convergent

out points, for August and November, and other parts ofthe year, as far as
#5 observed, afford on the cosmical theory, the most plausible estimate of
_ the elliptic elements of the orbit of periodical meteors. The well-known
formuls for computing these elements are stated; and the differential
formule are investigated for computing the probable errors of such ele-
ments, arising from errors of the relative velocities and directions de-
rived from the foregoing tables. The most plausible elements of the
periodical meteors, are thus found to have their perihelia inferior to that
of Mercury, and hence are only seen by us when near their aphelia ;
the orbits being necessarily very eccentric, or flattened, and their incli-
nations very great. Since many millions of these bodies are annually
encountered by the earth, including chiefly those which move in orbits
having small parameters, analogy leads to the inference, that the plan-
etary spaces inferior to Venus, abound in these bodies, of which only
a small ‘proportion ever reach the earth’s mean distance, or become
visible to us. This suggestion of a far greater aggregation of these
bodies near the sun, is supported by the analogy of the resisting medium
encountered by Encke’s comet, which is only sensible at a distance
from the sun below that of Venus. Bessel’s objections to the theory of
the resisting medium, that it is indicated by no other phenomenon in
nature, may be in some degree obviated by this analogy ; since a very
thin, light body, might be sensibly resisted by a great roultitude of 7

small meteors or asteroids, though their effect is insensible-on Mercury
and the other primaries, owing to their superior mass and density, and
as’ Encke remarks, also insensible on Halley’s and Biela’s comets,

Vol. xir, No. 2.—Jan.—March, 1842. OE pce eee as

lee

=

+

402 Miscellanies.

whose perihelion distances, respectively, correspond nearly with those
of Venus and the Earth. It is only necessary to suppose that in some
planes these bodies exhibit a greater tendency to the formation of clus-
ters, or possibly of flattened rings, in order to account for anniversary
periods of remarkable showers ; since the earth revisiting the same plane
at the same season of the year, and at the same distance from the sun,
may or may not encounter one of these clusters or parts of a flattened
ring. But these clusters continuing to moye in the same plane, the earth
must, if it meet them at all, do so at anniversary periods. On the sup-
position of a flattened ring, the mode having the same radius vector as
the earth, these displays might o¢cur for several anniversaries, and then
cease for an indefinite period, owing to the motion of the apsides of the
ring ; till the anomaly which has a radius vector equal to the earth’s
mean distance, again coincides with one of the nodes of the ring. Hence
the connexion between the periods of the second table, as far as regards
our knowledge of them is accidental, since they depend not on the or-
bital period of these bodies round the sun, but on the circumstance of
the earth’s encountering one of these clusters, or planes abounding in
them, which is regyjated by a law of distribution of these bodies in plan-
etary space, that must always remain unknown, for want of data for its
determinatton. |

The author conjectures that the meteors termed sporadic, by Quetelet;
which have no common convergent point, may have their perihelia su-
perior to those of the periodical meteors, and their aphelia far superior
to that of the earth. In such a case, their orbital velocity would be as
great as that of the earth, or greater; and as they move in all varie-
ties of direction, the earth’s tangential motion does not cause them to
tend, relatively towards a convergent point, in nearly an opposite direc-
tion, as it does with meteors moving very slowly in their orbits, whatever
may be their true directions in space.

A brief history of the opinions and theories of writers on this sub-
ject is given; and an oversight pointed out in Prof, Erman’s. paper,
quoted by the author in an oral communication of August 2ist, 1840.
This relates to Prof. Erman’s minimum relative velocity of the meteors,
which, instead of being 0.83, of that of the earth, may be indefinitely
small, and therefore in his formule [Artronomische Nachrichten, No.
— a ew give a motion of the convergent point cir great.

den ntidiasaeieatl ame ee | lS f this 2 peat
at two different dates on he: ee sie 10th of yest last—Pro-
ceedings of the American Philosophical Society, Feb. 1841.

*

|

|

|

5

tee
&

Miscellanies. 403

19. Barometric Minima of February 16-19, 1842. —During the vio-
lent gale, which swept along the coast of the United States a +4
15th and 20th of February last, the oscillations of the
very extraordinary and perhaps unprecedented. In Boston, the follow.
ing were the observed altitudes of the mercury in that instrument, re-
duced to the temperature 50°, to the mean — of the sea, and to sed
true level of the cistern.

Feb. 15, 10h. 30.36

“16,13 = 28.47 fall: 1.89 in 27 hours.
“- 17, 19 30:39 rise 1.92 in 30 «+
— “ 18,° 2 30.39 stationary 5 hours.
mo MOY Sor Q :29.46-° fall O99 ti VE a
037 "+

2 30.43 rise
Kéjiount of oscillations 5.71 inches in 4 <a 11 hours.
aes least height [ had ever previously noticed in Boston, occurred
, st, 1827, viz. 28.62, and the greatest on Jan. Ist, 1839, 31.11.
Fro rom the above, it appears that the extreme range in Boston, in the
course of many years is 2.64 inches, nearly three quarters of which
were twice experienced in 57 hours sistance ek 15th and 17th last.
Boston, March 7, 1842. Y 9B
At New Haven, Conn.; the bargneptre meant oegurned Feb. 16ty
10h. P.M., the column, when red ;
Sone dagen blew: from °S: 62° E:; on the 17th, from’N.
88° W.—Eps.

dii08.

20. Meteorite of Chéteau-Renard.—A fragment of the meteorite
which fell near Chateau-Renard, in France, June 12, 1841, has been
examined by M. Dufrénoy. The meteorite appears’ to have burst, at an
elevation which cannot be determined, into several pieces, of which two
only were seen to fall on the earth, about forty paces apart. One of
these pieces falling on a rock was broken into a. multitude of small
fragments; the other buried itself to a depth of about 20 centimetres,
(8 inches, ) and has separated into but a few fragments, of which the
largest is'85 centimetres (14 inches) long, and 11 centimetres (44 inches)
wide, :

The exterior of this stone is covered with the black crust which is
observed on all meteorites. Its fracture is granular. A small vein tra-
verses the whole mass. Externally this meteorite resembles trachyte ;
it is of a clear gray, and is composed entirely of crystalline portions,
Which cross each other as in the volcanic porphyries. However, the
spherules of metallic iron, which are scattered with much uniformity,

mass of the stone, indicate a different nature from that
of any terrestrial product, for iron is not found here in a metallic state :

404 Miscellanies.

at least its discovery has been alleged, and that in a doubtful manner,
in but three or four localities. This aerolite resembles, on the contrary,
in a remarkable manner, some of the slags of the furnace. Examined
with a strong magnifier, two distinct minerals are recognized: one im-
perfectly lamellar, presents in some parts bands analogous to those
which characterize the hemitropic masses of albite or labradorite : the
other, of a vitreous fracture, might be taken for quartz, if we did not

ow from numerous observations, that this mineral is not found in true
voleanic rocks, nor in those of meteoric origin. Besides these two min-
erals, the eye detects small black glassy globules, analogous to perlite.
These are evidently the product of fusion, and their gray, interior, which
is like the general texture of the stone, has not been altered by the heat.
Finally, there are to be detected small shining black plates, which are
particularly collected about the veins which traverse the stone. ‘These
small plates resemble the scales of | graphite which exist in some varie-
ties of gneiss. The gravity of the stone is 3.56: that of the grains of
metallic iron, extracted by the magnet, is 6.48
_ Before the blowpipe, a fragment is Spuinedntaly reduced to a black
hollow scoria, like that of the exterior crust of the stone. This proves
that the crust is the result of the fusion of the exterior parts, which are
oxidized to a very high degree by their contact, when at an elevated
temperature, with the atmosphere.

M. Dufrenoy gives the following as the result of three analyses which
he made.

Silica, : , 38.13
Magnesia, : : ‘ ‘ : : 17.67
Protoxide of iron, . ; ‘ : ; ~ 29.44 ©
Protoxide of Eth : . ‘ . a trace.
Alumina, - < y $ ; ») 782
ime, ‘ é IR F ‘ 14
Metallic iron, d j . ; é oh
Nickel, ; 1.55
Sulphur, ‘ j i 39
«#~ Potassa, 3 ‘ ‘ 27
Soda, 86--99.97

_ Ot grouping together the shuhaasta whic are eon binisd=
iron and nickel, 9.
take : § Fg eae
pea re iduble 3 in alate ; - B162 &
Matter insoluble in acids, and not related to ay
—— - 38. 17.99: 71
haa | Phhotta, Iuly 2 22, 1841, No. ahi

* |

INDEX TO VOLUME XLII.

pitiiey reelinatam, a new plant, 34.
dam * o Mr. Lea’s paper
ene mee shells, "305
, observations and experiments
on light,
Zassiz, gical gd of, 346.
Monograph of the Echinoder-

ae
Agriculture, applications of chemistry
187.

Botany, Lindley s Elements of, 183.
Boulder.
‘othe spe. iat ey 358.
ye, M. H., on perch ther, 63.
Brathan, Sm ieatiees described by,

Bre T. M., notice of Audubon’s
_ bins of America, 130.
~“R Association, proceedings of, 147,

and geolog to, C.
Alabaster in Kentuck , 206
Imanac, America Cabinet, iy peebomation of fresh-water shells
Analysis of bitaminous coal, 369 for, 3
Aniuals, infasorial, Carbon, non-conversion of into silicon,
Anthr th
ele manufacture of irony hae acid, solidification of, 203.
Antiquaries, No Northern, rae of, 214. Carboni acid ee St. spalle; removal Ss
rabis paten:
Arsenic, me disks legal remarks | upon, 7. Carburetted a ny * Sieh ihe laa
oon wood, combustibility of, ke “iat chive Lonard ne ‘met ite of, 403.
} ‘ eori
pomical machine, the Te urium, \Che wn iat 49 ae ments on bichlorure of
A > . T i su pho
don s Birds of America noticed, ‘Coal, bituminous, analysis of, 369.
s mines in

B.

mechs iq sketch of, 88.
iley, J. W., on the Infusoria of the
family Bacillaria
na

195.

microscopic fangoey

raceme et ope 196
Barometric iim at Boston, Feb. 1
ee 1842, 4

Sea
Bibliographical notices, ~~ 37.
Bird ca, Audubo' s, 130.
indemsae’ coal, I, analysie of 369.
Blake, J. H (

Combustion apontindes; in wood ashes,
165.

Compass, dipping, manipulations of, 235.
Con

assets tubular, of iron and sand,

opper rae th rg gies of, 322.

nse Lane pyrifo
G6-||Crustaceans,
” eeuaiahon, process for, 395,

03.
eT R. ., on the level of the Rane

sail S06.

Daltonism, 162.
Darling, ,on the hurricane of Septem-
3 5, 243.

ber

Dead Sea v Acs 1 of, 214

in Cuba, sa ghey 49g Je, A. P., biographical notice
oal mines in Cuba, 388. i Of :
Blast, hot, i in peat fe Ce of lead, 169. atin’. index to his Prodro-
mu 8,

Bon 6 lah |

on the pitts reports of

Dew ¥;,C;
ine is el of Sani Yor

ms = ine West, 200.

“Teache

Botany, Hooker's

ihe 84, 377.
Aba of, 185.

e

eer of 273.
ippinig compass, fie 8 ge ae 235.
Dolomitic rocks of yet,

Dry rot, 197.

é

406

Dufrenoy, M., analysis of meteorite, 404.
E.

Echinodermata, Agassiz’s Monograph of,

Eleoch
assess: G. B.,
De Candolle,
Endlicher’s Heekaation Botanicam, oe
ann, G., on the s — tion o1 f sil-

‘ogrephieal n notice of

ut ions, differenti ial, integration @ : :

Erratic blocks, a 5
Ether, perchloric, ¢, 63.

Ethule, perenloraia of the oxide of, 63. ||
rk, 209.

Extinguisher, spar!

4
Faraday, M., letter to Dr. Hare, 29
Fedia ambilicata, anew — 0. ;
Feuchtwan agape mineralogical n Ae

Fine arts, en couragement of, 390.

Eclipse, hina? of ‘Saly 8, 1842, 175, nae :

- INDEX.

Bice

|Haldeman, 8. of , correction to his paper
| onthe Melan: ns, 216.
got of the zoological
writings of Rafinesque,
Hall, Jase, on the geology of the West-
ern es, 51,
ee Fe Pi , register of the thermometer
from 1830 to
Hare, Clark, pag conversion of carbon into

silicon, 193
cchloric ether, 63.
R., objections to Mr. Redfield’s
bees eu storms, 140.
Mr. Redfie ld’s reply to, 299.
y to Prof. Whewell’s

repl
monstration that all matte er is es

Heat, ‘aeeduadieg of, 161.

3 Herrick, E. — on meteors of “Apri 18—
20, 184

on shooting stars in June,
_ on shooting stars of Aug.

meteorolog

Fors eatstin Prof., on achat of April, 1841,
397.

Fossil bones from Oregon, 136.
sec he red in Louisiana 7 290.
ong c remains in Ciakeill. Sev.
cle es, British, 328.
Foss ite; copying of, by galvanism, 327.

Fresh-wa r shells, preparation of for’
po Shae ‘301.
Function

al equation, solution of, 69.
ungus, microscopic, 195.
G.

Gaylor ord, W., destructive thunder storm,
pt. i4th, 1840, 210,
a oe reports of the state of New

vey of Louisiana, 390.
real Lyell 8 sn and Princi-

of the Western States, notes

m2 m, 51,

fil 1841
ildreth, 8. P., poate

Hubbard, O. P., chem
Mid Lothian ton 369.

removal of carbonic

acid gas from vella, 165.
on spontaneous combus-
tion in wood ashes, 165, 166.
urricane ne September, 1815, 243.
Hydrocyanic acid, process for, 323.
nit rogen, carbuirested, in terse of car-
nate of lime , 214

6
fodices refractive, 160.
“0 digo, ‘experiments upon, 320.
Infusoria of the cay Bacillaria, 88.
Infusorial anim
ary sind sail, Harris’s report

Invertebrata, two marine, 334.
lution of pol ials, 239.

i 4 Vie a ff OF

srboa rat, description of, 334.
Gerry, J. T., on Sabolar concretions of
and sand in Florida, 207,

i=

me 2, Johnston, mA

Rogers’s Letters on the manufacture
wees megistos, a new trilobite, 366. _
J.

Johnson, Miss L., Botanical Teacher,
, on solidifying carbonic
"J. F.W., Applications of Chem-

__ botanical excurion 10 the
mountains of North Carolina, &c., 1,

istry and Geology to Agriculture, 197.
&

v3 "185.
ical examination of

SP Te a ye Uae ae Cornea

ee et ee ee

-

_ . ping compass,
Locomotive spark extinguisher, 209

INDEX.

K.
Pemey roduction of, 324
in oe Tie lead, 16
i.
Lea, ai or epeta rs: of new shells, ao
TOXi

Lead, , smelting of, “r
Leedom, E. C., seiton of of an astro-
nomic mac
.J., on ae involution of poly-

s, 239.
“ane criacnes 0 and experiments on,

Lightning, facts connected with, 393,
Limestone, “hapa ec, = — York, 228.
Lindley’s Elements of Botany, 183.
Me Mt

Linneus’s — erin, 375,
Linsley,

with, a stroke of lightnin , 393.
Locke, J., on alabaster in t 1e Mammoth

Cave of Kentucky, 206.

new species of trilobite, 366.
on the maniplatians 0 f the dip-
30

Mi
the use of the hot blast||Mid Lot
9, Mi

Nitrogen compor
|Northern ‘Antiquaries, Society of, 214.

¥

407

ars cathe Americana, new edi-

croico fungus, 195.

n coal, easianlc of, 369.
inera

Mines, wh gh in Cuba , 388.

Min nima, bar ‘ometric, 403.
oraines,

Mo
Murchison, R. 1., travels in Russia, 213.

N.

Natural History A “ina of, 186.
on Journal of, 379.

Naviculacee, ase of, 88.

New he. geological reports of, 227.

organic

0.

Organic compounds, nitrogen in, 253.

e bieiatih dage bones of, 392.
me facts connected O

, 318.

zone, a new element
P.

Paddle-wheel, and screw, onidlei a of
eo sels
on _barometrie minima of

Feb. ies, 1842, 4

Longitude, Wa by on the ne eclipse of at
stars, 39§ es 1842, ¥75,'
ee = ern Panties, Park's, 192.
sais 8 pie Parthian A oo picture of, 215.
ge C., "i visit to the ara States, Perchloric

Elements and Principles of Geol-
ogy, 191
M.
sgt ren) C., on the glacial theory ©
gas
Magaetim, terrestrial, observations i in,
ae Cave, wae alabaster i in,

ese, peroxi ide o:
ancrcs as stimulants . efetation, 319.1)
Matter demonstrated to be heavy, 264.

eorite of Chateau Sica ; 408.
Meteorites tt in France,
ries neat bee journal at Marietta, Ohio,

cone moranda, ancient, 399
checramees ns in Cuba, 292.

es vont, James, meteorolo,

Pollen, showers

Polynomials,

Pycnantbemum, Sotioenbis of the genus,
44,

eriodical aoe ‘of August and No-
vem

Perkins, &. R. ., Solution of a functional

equation,
Ht: ‘notice of fossil bones from

Oregon Territory,
Photographic copies of engravings, 164.
cal notes in
Planaidoha: Russell’s, described, 400.
lants, new § a
Plummer, J. n the combustibility of
wood ashes, iéz
on the wiye’s rot, 197.
eke

nid

R.

es C. S., zoological writings of,

Meteorolo Rain- sense globular, 159.
Meteors of April i we 1841, 397. Redfield, W. C., bis theory of storms,
riodical, of A ngust and No-|| Dr. Hare’s objections to to,
vember, 401. of Dec. 15th,

Michaux, A, botsuial researches in the
United States, 2.

1839, 112.
reply to Dr. Hare’s “ ob-
jections,’” 299.

- lead, 169.
- Smi th, J by ae ’ on the de
‘ti

« Strong, T demonstra sation of th princi- | W

40s INDEX.

Rogers, S., am on the manufacture||Sullivantia, a new botanical genus, 22.
of Tron, 380 ‘ps Sulphur PL a ots ure of, 71.
Rossie lead mines, 174. Sunset at t est,
ot, dry, Sbkbreations % upon, 197. Survey, g cotogical, ‘of Louisiana, 390.
Russell’s Planetarium, description of, +,
400. T°
w: Tellurium, an astronomical machine,
Salines at a Lake, 228. Boss aur, ndence oF mountain on
aurians, fossil, 150. ;
Saxifraga Care en, a new plant, 32, gre Rome and New York,
sott’s picture ofa Parthian anthers 5 215. compared, 120. ;
, fresh-water, perparat ion of, for ~” of the year ear 184
cabinet ets, 391. t
wt specien of 106, 392. 1 sears — of, ies + 1830 o
Shooting 5 ae meaprnnmare of tongh, et scott, » destructive, es Mth,
by, 309. :

in, ree 201. 2] .
of Apri 13-20, 184 1, 307, pee wheel it v, 336.

es of,
of Ang. 10, 1841, 2 |'T wining, A. C., suggestions on the solar
de of Dec 7, 1838, <i e = os, 182, 305,
& ‘asp alleged conversion ia Q ame bi de,

Silliman, B., remarks on Mi Epotian Vaccinivm Constable a new dian, 42,

= we ensselaer, J. Laat the 2 pea of

sed compounds
s on arsenic, 75.

of, 212.
}
Solar solipe of July 8, ay! 175, 395. Velocities, v irtual, principle of

<
+
Lo pt W..

¥

as.
shooting, determination of longi-||
399, t
Walker, C _Y.oprote tof,
s.

tude by,
in Jun

of ‘April 73-90; Pat 397,
wi a 10, 1241, 20
c. 7 ri

ma Hare’s reply, 260.
irlwi ‘of storms, 299.
sean ‘Sir David, death of, 215.
; Spontaneous : combustion in,

S ey
Petes ster oh ote to Mr. iad
eld’s reply, 299.
eat of virtual veloci
differential cr iat ied
Mr. _ Walk

2 ow,

| _ [Seeder » Sr os pV: REECE:

TR at“ ote

sullivant, Wm. 3., acrount of three un-|/Zodiacal light, t, 395.
escribec plan caine Ohio, 49, cree rng fangs, 29

nella a of ni vinwtle crasue; slementary composition A

60x64. >
Vessels peopeins of, bY paddleawheel p
Paieored, 526:

383.
6 of omg meteors of ©

4
4

ee a See ee ee ee ee ce

adawnre, he
Hane tebeseeeretsaeied Trenep ened

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