] bigs a
urt—Tityia..uw=(t- T) 2 =(- TS mz,
Thus, temperature at m= aT (0-1/2. nS ae a ve
Whenes, putting »= vertical force due to an element ty at. m,
and taking the Secenacession [ot Se Sha ul line,
ae eos eiei the 2 with the constant Aen Signo gnome
gees si
Prof. W. A. Norton on Terrestrial Magnetism. a
dv= A(T +(t- TI )P Co edy=a(T4(e- Te) For )ag(r)
Oe (r\da(r)
oe v=AT oe ne Apr oee ond ae igh masii
(SAT .F(r)do(r)+A(t—T)
paolo homey, M and N, we have
«4 p= ATM +A(t - ~T)N=AM. T+ANG-T
a the same process we obtain for the eee force due to. ‘the
re pB v’=AM.T+AN(t'—
lence the expression for the effect of the 5 at arc, AB, is
v—v'=AN(t—?t’)=c(t-?’) 1,
If we consider the action of a second lamina, the value of c may
be different, but ¢—¢ will remain very nearly the same, except
at considerable depths where the rate of variation of the temper-
ature may be different, or the arc AB may be diminished by the
absorption of the ethereal waves in their passage to the surface.
If we neglect these possible variations of t—¢, and add together
the actions of the different lamine, we obtain for the actual ver-
tical force
V=C(t—7’) i : (2.
in whieh C is the sum of the values of ¢ for the different laminee.
If we take account of the variations of t—t’, we shall have the
actual force equal to the sum of a series of e ions of the
form ¢(t — t’) in which both ¢ and ¢—?¢ will be more or less dif-
ferent. It would seem, however, that the changes in the value
of ¢—?’, from absorption or other causes, must be very slight.
In fact if the absorption be always a certain fractional amount of
at atm! there will be no change of ¢—?’ from this cause.
it will onl be n Aer bah bas And if the ab-
the variation of temperature is uniform for the ‘extent of the
are AB, is not strictly true. From the equator to the latitude
45°, and even beyond this, the rate of diminution of the tempe-
rature for every degree —— memes increases. The
Szcoxp Serres, Vol. IV, No. 10.—Jal
10 Prof. W. A. Norton on Terrestrial Magnetism.
give it, (that is, supposing C to be determined a priori. If C be —
determined from observations made at the point of maximum va
riation of temperature, the values of V given by equation (2) will —
be too small south of this point and too great north of it.
To obtain a formula for the horizontal component of the direc- —
tive force, we may proceed in the same manner as for the vertical —
component, except that we now multiply the force Pa, fig. 5, —
by the cosine of the angle aPH instead of aPC. We shall there-
fore have for the entire action of the isogeothermal line AB, fig: —
4, the expression A’t. (1). Hence, that of all the isogeother=
mal lines, or of the whole acting surface, will be reduced to that —
of the single are which crosses these lines at right angles ; the mag- —
netic intensity of the different points of this arc being Pp i
tional to the temperature, and the effective forces upon the needle w
varying according to some function of the distance. Now, as in 3
the present enquiry all the active particles lie quite near to eee
their temperatures may be considered the same and equal to that 4
of the earth at the station of the needle: or, if there is a sensible
variation at the lower layers, Fig. 7.
the augmentation towards the
south will be compensated for ee Ca eee ;
by equal diminution to- |
wards the north. Hence, de- sf
signating the are pm, fig. 7, aes
by y, and the distance Pm by =.
r, the expression for the hori-
zontal force due to this are is ae
Jdh= fA'T .F"(r)dy= AT PE ryan). 4
Integrating between the limits r=Pp and r=PA, and designating —
the value of the integral by P, we have 4
H’=A’T.P; 2H! =24'P.'T 3
and thus finally the total horizontal force /
5 a bs & : (3.)
This is the expression for the entire vefleet of a eagle lamina.
For different laminze C’ may be different; and beyond a certail —
depth T will j increase. If the supposed absorption of the mag- —
netic emanations be a certain constant fractional amount of the :
in ah certainty whether T is —— be tke : pers cia p
on gat yo constant fog. all places. 4
Prof..W..A. Norton on Terrestrial Magnetism. 11
_ It remains to aanteeante a formula for the declination of the
needle: We have already seen that the magnetic needle is every
where at right ache to the line of equal molecular magnetic in-
tensity traced upon the earth through its station; which line we
have assumed to be the same as the isogeothermal line passing
through the same point. We — therefore only to seek for a
formula which shall make known the direction of the isogeo-
thermal line at a given place and Ba the needle at right angles
to this line of direction. Such a formula may be derived from
— s formula for the determination of the mean annua
a of a place. This is
T=(¢—r) (sin’s. sin"d’) +7 é 6" te
where ¢ is the maximum equatorial temperature, t the minimum
temperature at each of the two poles of maximum cold, and
0, 0’ the distances of the place
from the two c old poles. Let
C, fig. 8, represent the north
pole of the earth, A and A’ the
two poles of greatest cold, B
a given place, BL the direc-
- 8.
For the eo line,
since 'T’ is constant, dT =0.
Hence, if we differentiate
equation (4), and put the dif-
ferential equal to zero, we shall
have a relation between dé and
di’, the variations of 5 and % in passing from the point B to its
consecutive point ron the isogeothermal line. Thus, putting
—t=C, we
=c(n sin"~'d cos 5 sin"d’d3 +-n sin"~'0’ cos 9 sin"bd5’).
Multiplying and dividing by sin-"*! 6 sin-"* 10’,
e(n cos 6 sin 6’d5+-n cos 5 sin 5dd’)
= sin-"t! 6 sin-"t 6’ ee!
Hence, cos 6 sin 0'dd+ cos & sin ddd/=
ds sin 0 cos 0
Belg = ag tae. 8 ae)
If we drop the perpendiculars rs and rt upon BA’ and BA pro-
duced, we have Bt=d), and Bs=d0’. Put Br=k, angle rBi=a,
and angle rBs=a’. If in the angle A’BD we conceive two arcs
to be cee fanet B respectively roll epee to BA’ and BD,
the isogeothermal line will lie vhere reen these two
ndiculars ; for it is ae in this situation that in passing from
neem
a hae, eS wee. =
12 Prof. W. A. Norton on Terrestrial Magnetism.
B to r it can happen that ¢ will be increased and 4 diminished,
and therefore that sin”) sin"’, in formula (4), can remain the —
same. Now Bs=Br cos 7Bs, or di’=k cos a’; and Bt=Br cos
dd
rBt, or dd=k cosa. Hence =
cos a ‘
cos qi and, by equation (5),
neglecting the minus sign; putting also ~=angle A’BD, ‘4
sindcos 0 cosa cos a a
cos 0 sin 0” cos a’ cos (w—a)’
] .
sin 6 cos 0 cos a i
cos J sin 0’ cos u cos a+ sinusina cosu+ sin wu tan a é é
eo
sin 9’ cos 6 — sin 6 cos 9 cos u
Whence, — sin 4 cos 0’ sin wu 7 +
cot 6 tan 0’ :e
or, tan a= ——_——_ - cot u. a
sin u
If we put S=ABA’ w=180 -8, and a
cot 6 tan 0 .
tan a= ing. +o Bisicty ; ; (6.) +
This formula gives is angle DBL. Subtracting this from 90° :
we obtain nBA, the angle included between the direction of the
—_ and BA(®). The difference between this and ABC wil ©
be the declination of the needle, which will be east or west, =
according as one or the other of these angles is the greater. 3
The first of the equations above gives the following, which —
may be used as a tentative formula in place of equation (6):— __
__ cosa tan d
cos (w—a) tand’ : ; : : (7)
the latitudes and longitudes of the two poles A and A‘ eing
given, we readily find CB, AC, and A/C, and the angles ACB,
A’/CB.
The formule which have now been investigated, viz. (); 3
_ and (6), serve for the determination of the vertical and hor
Distribution, Food and Climate of the Mammoth. — 18
Are. General Geological Distribution and probable Food
nd Climate of the ‘Mammoth ; by Prof. R. Owren.* ’
Tue remains of the Mammoth occur on the Continent, as in
England, in the superficial deposits of sand, gravel, and loam,
which are strewed over all parts of Europe; and they are found
in still greater abundance in the same formations of Asia, especial-
ly in the higher latitudes, where the soil which forms their ma-
trix is perennially frozen.t Remains of the Mammoth have
been found in great abundance in the cliffs re —_ mud on the
east side of Behring’s Straits, in Eschscho y
America, 66° N. lat sy iuilodsipebdieatduaapeecttcmeeaneies
tier quantities, as far south as the states of Ohio, Kentucky, Mis-
souri, and South Carolina. But no authentic relics of the Ele-
phas primigenius have yet been discovered in tropical latitudes,}
or in any part of the southern hemisphere. It wou
that the primeval oon formerly ranged over the whole nor-
thern hemisphere of the globe, from the 40th to the 60th, and
possibly to near the 70th degree of latitude. Here at least, at the
mouth of the river Lena, the carcass of a Mammoth has been
discovered, preserved entire, in the icy cliffs and frozen soil of
that coast. 'T’o account for this extraordinary phenomenon, —
ogists and naturalists, biased more or less by the analogy o
existing Elephants, which are restricted to climes where the Gen
flourish with perennial foliage, have had recourse to the hypothe-
sis of a change of climate in the northern hemisphere, either sud-
den, and due to a great geological cataclysm,$ or — al, and
brought about by progressive alterations of land and sea.||
* Extracted from Prof. Owen's British Fossil Mammalia, 8yo. -wtpene: 1846.
| Hedenstrém, in his * Sur vey of the _Laechow Islands,” on seeteediatere
coast of Siberia, remarks, “ tl
of these bones; and that eine the omens traders have Sey in me habit of
The fossil leet eee remains plein in India, belong to a species more
nearly allied to . icus.
uvier, “ Digna les Révolutions de la Surface du Globe.” It is obvi-
ous that the frozen Mammo rs at the mouth of t na, forms one of the strong-
est, as well as the most striking, of the celebrated anatomist’ s assumed “ proofs
that the revolted on the earth’s surface had been sudden.” Cuvier affirms th
the Mammoth could not have rea its pose in the low temperature of
enagpt pas auparavant t les lieux s out ate gala pe n’auraient vivre
pus ut ve te
is ’ Geology,” in which sua nomena that had been sup-
banished fore ever all idea of a slow and gradual revolution, a were
attempted to be accounted for for by the gradual ¢ eratic ordinary nid iiek.
* Jameson’s “ Cuvier’s pie. the Earth,” Svo, p. 16, 1813.
ae aka ee ae tee
14 _—— Distribution, Food and Climate of the Mammoth. j
{ am far from believing that such changes in the external world |
were the cause of the ultimate extinction of the Elephas prim
‘The wonderful and unlooked for discovery of an entire Man ~
moth, demonstrating the arctic character of its natural clothing; i
mains, as well as upon the structure of its teeth, viz., that, like
the Reindeer and Musk Ox of the present day, it was capable of 4
existing in high northern latitudes. cee
The circumstances of this discovery have been recorded by I
Mr. Adams in the ‘Journal du Nord,’ printed at Petersburg 10
1807, and in the 5th volume of the ‘Memoirs of the Imper ae
Academy of Sciences at St. Petersburg,’ of which an excellent —
English translation was published in 1819,
nearer, he landed, climbed up a rock, and examined this new ob- —
ject on all sides, but without being able to discover what it was.
The following year he perceived that the mass was more disel i
gaged from the blocks of ice, and had two projecting parts. To
wards the end of the next year, (1801,) the entire side of the a0-
imal and one its tusks were quite free from the ice. On his 1
LO pat ‘
ei pate
Distribution, Food and Climate of the Mammoth. — 15
turn to the borders of the Lake Oncoul, he communicated this
extraordinary discovery to his wife and some of his friends, ‘but
their reception of the news filled him with grief. The old men
related how they had heard their fathers say, that a similar mon-
ster had been formerly discovered on the same peninsula, and
that all the family of the person who had discovered it had died
soon afterwards. The Mammoth was ec regarded as
an augury of future calamity, and the sian was so much
alarmed that he fell seriously il but feiiehatael convalescent, his
first idea was the profit he might obtain by selling the tusks of
the animal, which were of extraordinary size and beauty. The
summer of 1802 was less warm and more 2 stormy than usual, and
the icy shroud of the Mammoth had scarcely melted at all. At
length, towards the end of the fifth year, eae 1203.) the desires of
the Tungusian were fulfilled; for, the parts of the ice between
the earth and the Mammoth "having melted more rapidly than
the rest, the plane of its support became inclined, and the enor-
mous mass fell by its own weight on a bank of sand. Of this,
two 'Tungusians who accompanied Mr. Adams were witnesses.
In the month of March, 1804, Schumachoff came to his Mam-
moth, and having cut off the tusks, exchanged them with a
merchant, called Bultunoff, for goods of the value of fifty rubles.
Two years afterwards, or the seventh after the discovery of
the Mammoth, Mr. Adams visited the spot, and “ found the Mam-
moth still in the same place, but altogether mutilated. The
prejudices being dissipated because the T'ungusian chief had re-
covered his health, there was no obstacle to prevent approach to
the carcass of the Mammoth; the proprietor was content with
his profit from the tusks; and the Jakutski of the neighborhood
had cut off the flesh, with which they fed their dogs during the
searcity. Wild beasts, such as white bears, wolves, wolverines,
and foxes, also fed upon it, and the traces of their footsteps were
seen around.” 'The skeleton, almost entirely cleared of its flesh,
remained whole with the exception of one foreleg, ( probably
dragged off by the bears.) The spine, from the skull to the os
coccygis, one scapula, the pelvis, and the three remaining ex-
tremities, were still held together by the ligaments and by parts
of the skin. 'The head was covered with a dry skin; one of the
ears, well preserved, was furnished with a tuft of ‘hair. The
point of the lower lip had been gnawed ; and the upper one, with
the proboscis, having been devoured, the molar teeth could be
perceived. The brain was still in the cranium, but appeared
dried up: the apie injured were one forefoot and one hind-
Pa
tne dee Es A
Pee
*
16 Distribution, Food and Climate of the Mammoth. '
on the skull. ‘The skin, of which about three-fourths were saved, —
was of a dark grey color, covered with a reddish wool, and coarse —
long black hairs. The dampness of the spot where the animal —
had lain so long, had in some degree destroyed the hair. ‘The :
entire skeleton, from the fore part of the skull to the end of the
mutilated tail, measured sixteen feet four inches ; Its height was
nine feet four inches. The tusks measured along the curve nine —
feet six inches, and in a straight line from the base to the point,
three feet seven inches. ee
Mr. Adams collected the bones, and had the satisfaction to 7
find the other scapula, which had remained, not far off. He next
detached the skin on the side on which the animal had lain, —
which was well preserved ; the weight of the skin was such, that
whether any of its bones were buried, but principally to c¢
all the hairs which the white bears had trod into the gr
t. Petersburg ;_
skeleton is now mounted in the museum. of the Petropol
Academy.* Bc
It might have been expected that the physiol
quences deducible from the organization of the ext
which was thus in so unusual a degree brought to light,
have been at once pursued to their utmost legitimate boundary;
in proof of the adaptation of the Mammoth to a Siberian climate; ;
but, save the remark that the hairy covering of the aa
must have adapted it for a more temperate zone than that as |
signed to existing Elephants,t no further investigations of the
relation of its organization to its habits, climate, and mode of life,
* A part of the skin and some of the hair of this animal, were sent
Adams to Sir Joseph Banks, who presented them to the Museum of the
x The hair is entirely separated from the skin, exce
one small part, where it still remains firmly attached. It consists of tw
es d there are sev: ieti i
where | compact
ving Elephant.
toison dont cet animal était
gue toi pal était convert semblerait méme
nisé pour supporter un degré de froid plus orand av
need coil ann Pleech Peta froid i
aes
> = Po
Distribution, Food and Climate of the Mammoth. — 17
appear to have been instituted; they have in some instances,
indeed, been rather checked than promoted.
Dr. Fleming has observed, that “no one acquainted with the
gramineous character of the food of our Fallow-deer, Stag, or Roe,
would have assigned a lichen to the Reindeer.” But we may
readily believe that any one cognizant of the food of the Elk,
might be likely to have suspected cryptogamic vegetation to have
entered more largely into the food of a still more northern species
of the deer tribe. And I can by no means subscribe to another
proposition by the same eminent naturalist, that “the kind of
ood which the existing species of Elephant prefers, will not ena-
ble us to determine, or even to offer a probable conjecture con-
cerning that of the extinct species.” The molar teeth of the
Elephant possess, as we have seen, a highly complicated and a
very peculiar structure, and there are no other quadrupeds that
derive so great a proportion of their food from the woody fibre
of the branches of trees. Many mammals browse the leaves ;
some small rodents gnaw the bark; the Elephants alone tear
down and craunch the branches, the vertical enamel plates of
their huge grinders enabling then to pound the tough vegetable
tissue and fit it for deglutition. No doubt the foliage is the most
tempting, as it is the most succulent part of the boughs devoured ;
but the relation of complex molars to the comminution of the
coarser vegetable substance is unmistakeable. Now if we find
in an extinct Elephant the same peculiar principle of construc-
tion in the molar teeth, but with augmented complexity, arising
from a greater number of the triturating plates and a greater pro-
portion of the dense enamel, the inference is plain that the lig-
neous fibre must have entered in a larger proportion into the food
of such extinct species. Forests of hardy trees and shrubs still
grow upon the frozen soil of Siberia, and skirt the banks of the
Lena as far north as latitude 60°. In Europe, arboreal vegeta-
tion extends ten degrees nearer the pole, and the dental organiza-
tion of the Mammoth proves that it might have derived subsis-
tence from the leafless branches of trees, in regions covered dur-
ing a great part of the year with snow.
_ We may therefore safely infer from physiological grounds, that
the Mammoth would have found the requisite means of subsist-
ence at the present day, and at all seasons, in the sixtieth parallel
of latitude; and relying on the body of evidence adduced by Mr.
Lyell in proof of increased severity in the climate of the northern
emisphere, we may assume that the Mammoth habitually fre-
quented still higher latitudes at the period of its actual existence.
“Tt has been suggested,” observes the same philosophic writer,
times, the
“that, as in our own ti northern animals migrate, so the
a ian Elephant | | Rhmoceros may have wandered towards
Sewliti: Seace eae ae ae 2g ae eee ae ace
Srconp Series, Vol. IV, No. 10.—July, 1847. 3
‘a :
TESS a ea ly
~ occurrence of such destructive changes. Our comparativ
Se etre of the progress and duration of species within
18 Distribution, Food and Climate of the Mammoth. a
heat of that brief season, the Mammoths would be arrested in
their northern progress by a condition to which the Reindeer and —
Musk Ox are not subject, viz. the limits of arboreal vegetation,
which, however, as represented by the dominating shrubs of Po= —
lar lands, would allow them to reach the seventieth degree of —
latitude.* But, with this limitation, if the physiological infer
ences regarding the food of the Mammoth from the structure of
its teeth be adequately appreciated and connected with those
which may be legitimately deduced from the ascertained nature —
of its integument, the necessity of recurring to the forces of
mighty rivers hurrying along a carcass through a devious course,
extending through an entire degree of latitude, in order to ac-
count for its ultimate entombment in ice, whilst so little decom=—
posed as to have retained the cuticle and hair, will disappear.
And it can no longer be regarded as impossible for herds of Mam= _
moth to have obtained subsistence in a country like the southern — |
part of Siberia where trees abound, notwithstanding it is covered —
during a great part of the year with snow, seeing that the leafles
dant remains, in showing that, like the Reindeer, the nor
extreme of the temperate zone was its metropolis. say
Attempts have been made to account for the extinction
race of northern Elephants, by alterations in the climate of
hemisphere, or by violent geological catastrophes, and
extraneous physical causes. When we seek to appl
hypothesis to explain the apparently contemporaneou
of the gigantic leaf-eating Megatherian of South Ame a,
geological phenomena of that continent appear to negative
ely briel
the his-
‘orical period, is surely insufficient to justify, in every case of ex+
tinction, the verdict of violent death. With regard to many ol
he larger Mammalia, especially those which have passed away
from the American and Australian continents, the absence of sv
ne extreme points of Lapland, in 70° north Jatitude, the
y feet; and at Enontekessi, in Lapla
Note on Carex loliacea. 19
cient signs of extrinsic pen change or convulsion, makes
it almost as reasonable to speculate with Brocchi,* on the possi-
bility that species like individuals may have had the cause of their
death inherent in. their original constitution, independently of
changes in the external world, and that the term of their —_
ence, or the period of chaste of the prolific force, may
been ordained from the commencement of each species.
Arr. II].— Note upon Carer loliacea, = , and C. gracilis, Ehrh. ;
by A. Gra
-Unver the name of Carer loliacea, two distinet species pave
long been confounded, which, although they have been of late
to some extent distinguished, yet their history and synonymy
still require elucidatio
. Linneus established his C. loliacea upon a Swedish plant,
indicated in the Flora Suecica, No. 840, to which the specific
name was first applied in the Species Plantarum, with the
phrase: “C. spiculis subovatis sessilibus remotis androgynis,
capsulis ovatis teretiusculis muticis divaricatis.” He further de-
seribes it as having from four to eight small ovate spikelets scat-
tering at the apex of the culm, and the perigynia “ovate, obtuse,
pointless, and rounded on the lower side ;” and proceeds to com-
. mare. it with ©. muricata , (which as to the Flora Suecica, is sta-
by Wahlenberg to be the C. stellulata, G'ood.,) from whieh it
is said to differ in its smaller size, and in the less divaricate ob-
tuse fruit. I suppose that there is no authentic specimen pre-
Served i m the Linnean herbarium.
_In the year 1802, Schkuhr figuredt and described what he,
1 much hesitation, took for C, loliacea, remarking however
_ that this Linnean species was a very doubtful plant, and that
- what he had taken for it was probably only a variety of ©. mu-
: ricata ; ‘which seems to have been the case
‘Tn the next year the real C. loliacea was, as I suppose,
taken up by Wahlenberg, a botanist 1 most likely to’ oe
gustissimis. ae
In 1805, Wildeher4 gave a new phrase, viz. “KO. aan sino.
‘gyna composita, spiculis + deen inferne | is subapprox-
imatis, stigmatibus bi binis, 2 Sagnad bus ellipticis obtusis en om
s ge, Ea ol, iii, p. 104.
= Gina by tah pire = oe Va 959 al 1803. p. 147.
20 Note on Carer loliacea. ‘a
pressis erectis.”* This character was evidently drawn from the
specimen in his herbarium marked fol. 2, the source of which is —
not recorded, and from which Kunth has also recently derived —
an additional description of C. loliacea; while the fol. 1, holdsa
Swedish specimen of a different plant, sent by Swartz under the :
te
name of C. loliacea, which (judging from a memorandum 5
on inspection several years ago) is most probably the C. tenella —
of Schkuhr. This C. tenella, Willdenow remarks, is the same —
as ©. loliacea, but is incorrectly delineated and described by —
Schkuhr as having the spikelets masculine at the summit. 7
is the beginning of the confusion, soon further complicated by —
Schkuhr himself, in which these two very distinct species have —
ever since been involved. 2
Schkuhr established and figured his C. tenella, in the first part —
of his work on Carices, in 1802, (No. 15, t. Pp, f. 104,) upona —
plant which he found in the herbarium of a friend, who was ig
entirely ignorant of its source, or even whether he had collected —
it himself or received it from a correspondent. This friend, as —
he elsewhere states, was Hedwig. Schkuhr’s herbarium shows ™
that he subsequently received the same species from Sweden, —
through Thunberg, ticketed “C. loliacea, Linn. Nordlandia-
ae
aa
perigynium is distinctly beaked, the staminate flo plainly 2
1 ame
aby : ohacea. Accordingly, in his S
on (1806, ) he united the two, (but Without explaining
* Wild. Sp. Pl.4,p.997, 0
Note on Carer loliacea. 21
mistake he had made in figuring as C. gracilis, something differ-
ent from the Ehrhartian plant ;) and, following the cue which
had been given him by Swartz, Willdenow, and 'Thunberg, erro-
neously referred them both to C. loliacea, Linn. Under that
species, consequently, these two synonyms have been generally
ever since, notwithstanding the discrepancy in the posi-
tion of the staminate flowers, which in C. gracilis, HArh., (C. te-
nella, Schk.,) are correctly described by Schkuhr as at the apex ;
while those of C. loliacea are rightly characterized by Wahlen-
berg and Willdenow, and indeed by all succeeding writers, as
occupying the base of the spikelets: and the difference in the
perigynia, &c. of the two species is not less decisive. Yet even
ahlenhere has aes Pte adduced the synonym in his Flora
; where he given a further and most excellent |
account of the genuine C. loliacea, particularly contrasting it with
his own C. tenuiflora, which is indeed the nearest related species.
He notices the « squame albicantes, omnium tenuissime,” and
well describes the perigynia as follows: “Capsule in singula
spicula 3 vel 4, ita obtuse ut apice fere rotundate, utrinque con-
vexiuscule nervose, ob formam suam Spinto bus Loli temulenti
haud dissimiles, ut nomen omnino bonum
While the C. loliacea, Linn., is, so a as I am aware, re-
stricted to the north of Europe, the C. gracilis, Hhrh. has a
parently a wider range and is mucff more abundant in the new
world than in the old. It is the well-known C. disperma, of
Dewey ; who, while he noted its soisediaae to C. loliacea,
Schl. ( stir Schk.,) conceived it to be distinct by its termi-
staminate flowers—a point in which it does indeed differ
from the 08 C. loliacea, but not from the plant which Schkuhr
mistook for i
‘The two plas are so distinct in appearance and character,
that the wonder is they should have been so jong confounded.
_ But I know of only two botanists who have distinguished them,
get: Nylander and Mr. Tuckerman. As to the former, ‘my
ormation is indirect. Ruprecht, in his recent critical enumera-
tion of the plants which grow around St. Petersburg, has a “ Ca-
rer orp Schkuhr, et Fl. Petropol. Bene diversa est a C. loli-
acea, L.., utrasque exposuit cl. Nylander in Spic. Fl. Fenn., ii, No.
92 et 93. a I have no acquaintance with the work of Nylander
here cited, nor do I know its date; but I possess, through the
kindness of Dr. Fische her, _specimens ticketed “ Carer
Nylander: ad ope inlandize, y
cord. w: ith the Ame C. «hand and, so far as recollection
3 ‘Wahl. Fl. Lapp., p. 232.—In his Flora he forther adds, that the
les are a lip a half long,” which i is “ally one-third longer than are
aot gat Fi. Petropol. Diatribe, p. 84. 1845.
= in question should stand as follow: es.
22 Description of three New Carices. ‘ q
and memoranda may be trusted, with the “C. gracilis, —_
Upsal,” in Schkuhr’s herbarium
Mr. Tuckerman, in his Enumeratio Carieum, (1843, ) p: 19,
of Wahlenberg and Fries; and he inclines to the opinion, 7
_ the specimen es which Schkuhr figured his C. tenella, out «
“ Hedwig’s herbarium, was received by Hedwig from Muhlen- —
berg, and therefore may directly represent the American aaa
This is not unlikely; but Mr. Tuckerman does not appear to —
have been aware that this species is also a native of the north of ©
Europe, and had been gathered at least as early as the year —
1780. He justly remarks, also, that it is:scarcely credible that —
Schkuhr’s figures 24 and 104, can belong to the same species.
I have already given what I believe to be the explanation of this
F scastmciovar y:
It would therefore appear that ~ “gms ne the two species ;
aS ee eee
1. C. vonracea, Linn. - Wall. ;
(excl. syn. C. tenella ma C. mad
No. 14, f. 91, nor Suppl. No. siiencl®. .
2. C. craciiis, Ehrh.; not of Schk. Car., f 24, nor of R..
C. tenella, Schk. Car., f. 104. C. loliacea, Schk. Car. Su
p. 18; not of Linn., ee. ©. disperma, Dewey ; not of Kunze,
Car., ag 33.* ° Mg oe
Arr. IV.—Description of Three New Carices, and a New S De
cies of Rhynchospora; by Joun Care 3
Carex Gray: spica mascula solitaria pedunculata ; ;
feemineis 2 globosis densi- (25—30-) floris exserte pecans 1
yb | tiatietan aenceth ‘and leafy.
- ape broad, rough on the margin. Ste
: fertile spikes globular, occasionally s
spans 2, eo distinct and separate, 14 inch in d
3 C. disperma, | trom
by Rugel, is an be:
very - es which hi pei: Regt oe a
Were be on the hiya ee range of the “species for th
" The eo hich Prof. Ku nal bask
ered on os harelgeeh Monntain North AG
species
: Description of three New Carices. 23
the perigynia are erect, much shorter, (6-7 lines long,) slightly sii
serrulate towards the apex of the beak, and only 15-20-nerved. _
3
ea
Though closely resembling C. intumescens, these constant char- %
acters and a marked difference in aspect, appear to entitle thie:
plant to rank as a species.*
CaREX PLATYPHYLLA: spicis 4; mascula 1 erecta gracili pe-
dunculata ; femineis 3 erectis filiformibus laxe 3—4-floris incluse
pedunculatis, suprema mascule approximata, ceteris remotis foli-
oso-bracteatis ; bracteis spicas paulo superantibus ; stigmatibus 3 ;
perigyniis triquetris ovalibus striatis brevissime rostellatis squa-
mam ovatam hyalinam acutam vel mucronatam subsequantibus,
ore obliquo integro.
Hab
er than the spikes. Perigynia triquetrous, finely striate, nar-
| a light
. .
however, it is quite distinct. It forms, with C. pla
a, erect
, all on
a
.
te” AEG ne
__ here indicated, closely resembles that of C. digitalis.
24 Description of three New Carices.
short peduncles nearly included within the small sheathing bracts,
or the lower partly exserted; and by the triquetrous fruit; nue ~
merous, leafless, diffuse, and at length prostrate culms; and broad
radical leaves. In the varying formsof C. anceps, the perigyniun
is constantly more obtuse on the angles, and more obovate in.
outline ; and the bracts are always long and leafy, the upper é:
ceeding the culm. In C. digitalis, Wil/d., and the closely alli
C. retrocurva, the leaves and bracts are also long and grassy, com- —
monly exceeding the culms, and the lower spikes are generally
on much-exserted, filiform, more or less pendulous peduncles. —
The perigynium of the present species, the smallest of the group
5
C. vulpina A L.,¢ : near Columbus, 01
vant ; and also a single specimen from Illinois
by Dr. Engelmann of St. Louis.
Whirlpool and Rapids below the Falls of Niagara. 25
- Ruyncnospora Kyresxerntt: culmo trigono gracili ; mae
numerosis in glomerulis 4—6 distantibus aggregatis; nuce le
obovata substipitata setas 6 retrorsum hispidas zequante cabercals
triangulari subduplo longiore.
Hab. In pinetis Nov-Cstdie detexit cl. P. D. Knieskern, M.D.
Culm 12-18 inches high, branching from the base, slender,
nearly smooth: leaves short and narrow. Spikes small, seta-
ceously bracteate, forming small distant clusters igiteieh but the
entire length of the culm, each subtended by a long foliaceous
bract. Nut rece lenticular, attenuate at the base. ‘Tubercle
compressed, broad at the base, about half the length of the nut.
In its characters this species is closely allied to R. capillacea,
Torr., from which, however, it is readily distinguished by the
shorter and more numerous aggregated spikes, and the much
smaller nut and short bristles. In general appearance it more
cies. I learn from Dr. Knieskern, that it grows yay ert on
banks of iron ore in the Pine ‘barrens of New Jersey. He
distributed it, as new, under the name of R. Grayana, which
name being preoccupied by Kunth for the R. Elliottii, Gir. Mon
Ethynch., 1 dedicate it to the discoverer.
*
Art WV ae Observations on the Whirlpool, and on the Rapids,
below the Falls of Niagara ; designed by illustrations to nod
count Faas the origin of both; by R. Baxewein, New Have
On my return to England soon after visiting the Falls of Niag-
ara in the year 1829, I published in Loudon’s prin are
memoir illustrated by drawings, exhibiting the physical structure
of the country along the river Niagara, with special secre to the
e movement of the falls ; in the course of my remarks I en-
deavored to prove from the conformation of the strata, and the ero-
sive action of water, that the falls were once at Queenston. Du-
ring the six days that I remained there, I made several sketches
of the falls and the surrounding scenery, little ye at the
time that I should ever see the cataract again. I returned to
America to reside in the summer of 1830, and i in the autumn of
44 org the i cord le which in 1827 were
esccatt poe The ~ gaaae which then
ecwnl pat: Vol. sag No, 10.—July, 1847.
26 Whirlpool and Rapids below the Falls of Niagara.
flowed over these projecting bare rocks, in descending, spread 4
out into magnificent festoons. The beautiful feature which
I formerly saw has disappeared. 'To this it may be said, that
the waters of Lake Erie were unusually low in 1846, and
this may account for the retreat. But I would reply, that no
diminution was indicated by the banks of the river. I was tol
in 1829, by one who had resided there forty years, that a differ-
ence of level was perceptible only when a strong southwest wind
— over the wide expanse of Lake Erie, driving its waters —
o the mouth of the river. Not having made a very careful
pref of the edge of the American fall, I am not prepared to say, —
whether any material change had taken place, with the exception —
of its being apparently more broken in the centre, where the cut- —
ting process appears to go on with great activity. It is stated by —
residents there, that a considerable alteration had taken place, —
from the falling of masses of limestone rock from the middle of the —
scene. | :
magnificence while making a drawing of what is called the
cave, situated half a mile below the ferry on the American side.
This cave or ledge of bare rock, has just the appearance that —
the rocks over which the American falls are now precipitated,
would present, if the waters were suddenly withdrawn. The —
same broken outline appears in both instances, giving evidence —
that in each case the most violent action had beard in the centre. 7
When the cataractewas here, the space between the American —
fall and the commencement of the ‘cave’, was in all probability, —
an island, presenting a similar appearance to what the falls now |
have. There is still a small stream flowing down the pe :
where once a mighty torrent fell.
What surprised me much on my second visit, was the compara- —
tive stillness in which the mighty work of discharging the surplus —
and eighty feet was carried on. In father Hennepin’s curiously
interesting description of this “vast and prodigious cadibeles “e
water,” he represents himself or his friends as being so overcome
by the noise, that the hands were applied to the ears by way of |
dampers. ‘The marvel to me is, that they make so little noise. —
It cannot be denied, however, that the state of the atmosphere
and direction of wind, have much to do in regulating the
‘produced by the ‘ of this i ense body of water. :
mina remark, I will now confine myself :
Whirlpool and Rapids below the Falls of Niagara. 27
able to add any thing to the interest which will ever be felt by
those who visit the falls, and its vicinity, my labor will not be
altogether in vain.
Fig. 1.
A Birds-eye View, or Map of the Ravine from the Falls of Niagara to the Whirlpool.
= <——— - = = \\ SIRE
K. Canada.—U. United States.—The dotted lines represent the outline of the
ancient valley, partly filled with drift, H.—F. Ravine. —C. Whirlpool.—B. Sum-
mer-house.—D, E. Quartzose rock seen below the surface of the water.
tion may be had by reference to the drawing, fig. 1, giving a birds-
eye view of the country from the falls to the whirlpool, a distance
of three miles. Perhaps I shall make myself better understood
y giving a description of the ravine from Ato B. The width
of the river at the ferry is about eleven hundred and forty feet.
The height of the rocks, one hundred and eighty feet. On
the verge of the precipice, a little below the American falls,
there is a path which leads directly to the Summer-house, d
situated immediately above the whirlpool ; this path continues
cl g ipice. About half a mile down, we
ose to the edge of the precipice 0 ee. which
bare
he traveller as he
ripple, having the appearance of dark bottle-green marble, varying
28 Whirlpool and Rapids below the Falls of Niagara.
at times into blue, with yellowish and greenish veins, the latter due
to the foam which seems as if imbedded as it streams down in long
wavy lines. ‘This solid representation of water, gave an addi-
tional novelty to the scene. About one mile from the falls the
sides of the ravine gradually converge, diminishing of course the
width of the river. Half a mile still lower,* following along by
the edge of the precipice, the stream takes a gentle turn to the
eft. ‘The water on each side is seen to ripple ; then commences
a chain of waves preceded by deep furrows, which converge to a
point in the middle of the river, indicating not only the rapidity
of the current, but also the upheaving of the waters, rising, as
has been ascertained by measurement, eleven feet above the level
at the sides; after this, it is broken into foam and spray and
dashing on with impetuous fury, pursues its wild career for about —
ters of Ontario. ig
While standing on the precipice at the Summer-house ]
. t
considerably the space through which the waters apparently es-
cape. The curved line, DE, indicates this projection. ere
was something impressively grand in the whole scene as contem-
plated from this point. The drainage of four great lakes cover- —
ing an area of about 135,000 square miles, escapes at the northern _
a a ae ae
* I observed a steamboat intended to ply between a landing place, which bad —
been constructed at great expense down ng ipice to the water’s edge, at the ©
base of the falls, &c. ; but on trial, the engine h BE not power sufficient to contend —
ie forever abandoned. In
la
e p Pe 4 ¢
od! Reece i © oe
boat in the rapids. Hone
t Am. Jour. of Sci;, Vol. xtvis p.- 7S hugt auqeeceeene
ts character of a, a, a, a, fig. 35.
when these were fully ossified, it is easy to conceive that they )
might have been anchylosed into the structure in
Professor Agassiz stated a principle of comparative ‘anatomy, in
conversation on this subject, which is highly important, viz. that —
the structure of adult fossil animals, that lived as early as the new
red sandstone period, corresponds more nearly with the embry-
onic structure of existing animals than with their adult develop
ment. Taking this principle in connection with the above draw-
ing of the embryo-frog’s foot, we are led to the conclusion, that
the animal which made these ‘huge footmarks was probably a Bar |
trachian. 5
It may seem a strong objection to such a Seaman that ‘the i
animal was a biped: for what an anomalous being would a biped
frog be, a feet twenty inches long! And yet ihe is one a |
ped Saurians existed in the new red sandstone vende we kn
from the case of the Rhyncosaurus: and the Pterodactyl proba
bly walked for the most part upon two legs. And it is quite a
easy to admit the existence of biped Batrachians as biped
ans. ‘There is also reason to suppose, that some of these animals
may have been somewhat intermediate in their characters,
have exhibited, like the Rhyncosaurus and becca a struc:
ture now found only in several classes of animals
mae 2
2
Genus Orozoum, (0s, the giant Otus, and Zaor.)
Foot tetradactylous, pachydactylous ; toes all directed forward
the inner one shortest ; the second longer, and the third the i
impressions on mud, three by the inner toe, four by iba sec
and three by the two pe toes. 'T'wo bones of the metacarp!
articulated to the phalanges of the two outer toes, make a dis
impression. Cushion beneath the carpus arching che
sone tp pward posteriorly. Animal bi ipedal,
. Sha ast Régne Animal, Tome ii, _s
Two New Species of Fossil Footmarks. 55
Otozoum Moodii. (Fig. 1, A.)
Divarication of the outer toes, 35°; do. of the inner and sec-
ond toe, 15°; do. of the outer and third toe, 12°; do. of the two
middle toes, 5°. Length of the inner toe, 8-5 inches; do. of the
second toe, 10-25 inches; do. of the third toe, 8 inches; do. of
the outer toe, 8:5 inches; do. of the foot, 20 inches; do. of the
step, about three feet. Distance between the extremities of the
outer toes, 13 inches. Width of the foot behind the phalanges
and metacarpus, 5 inches; do. of the toes, from 2 to 3-25 inches.
Length of the phalanges of the inner toe :—proximal phalanx, 3
ich; of the distal, 5-4 inches (?) Divarication of the axes of
the feet, 30°. Distance to the right and left of the middle of the
moved, 2:5 inches. Integuments of the bottom of the foot, ru-
gose and irregularly papillose. ad ai
Distinctive Characters.—F our thick toes directed forward and
making strong phalangeal impressions, distinguish this animal from
all others that have left their footprints in the sandstone of New
land. The number of phalanges, also, in the toes, separates
it from every other. As only one of the tracks of the animal
is entire enough for description, I should have suspected some
deception in both these characteristics; but sufficient remains
of the other tracks, to identify them by their repetition; par-
ticularly in respect to the phalangeal impressions of the two
outer toes. , +
Situation and character of the Deposits containing these
tracks.—The tracks above described are all in relief, and the
rock is a very coarse gray sandstone, the grains eae. Onn 3
large as buckshot. Yet every thing is exhibited most pee
Nearly the whole slab is covered with rain drops most beautifully
exhibited, and shown upon the drawing, fig. 1. The ayaa an
to have been made upon a fine micaceous sand, which has little
more coherence now than when the animals trod upon it. But
the coarse material that was subsequently brought over this fine
56 Two New Species of Fossil Footmarks.
to the edges of the water. They run sr east and west, and —
in the direction of the strike of the strata; and in one or two ©
places upon the slab figured above, we can see where the water
acted by gentle undulations upon ‘the fine micaceous sand,
upon the coarse grit, partially wearing them both away, or intel
mixing them ; and some of the large tracks look as if the sand
had been so wet that the impressions were partly filled up by
the sand sliding into them. Only the second track exhibits the —
outlines of the parts entire. On that, the ha gf am rise from —
one to two inches above the. general surface. The extremities —
of this track have been broken off accidentally, except the inner
one which is obscured by lying too near the edge of the water. —
It is obvious however how far it extended. As I have before —
mentioned, the second large track on fig. 1, forms the type A |
which I have restored the others, or rather, completed them ; for
some of the toes remain in all cases, and so far as they go,
confirm the characters exhibited by the second. It is only a
of the phalangeal impressions that shows the rugosities or pap
of the skin: yet I can sacined doubt but we have them exhib
on some of the protuberance
All the left-hand side of ‘the slab, represented on fig. 1, for
about half its length, embracing the first two of the large tracks,
has been split off an inch or two lower than the other part of the
slab. This makes no difference in the large tracks, except #
make them stand out in higher relief; but it brings to light se
eral of the smaller tracks, which, although of the same
must have been impressed at a later period—probably one or %
years later—than those scattered among the rain drops.
I have not been able to find any certain example of claws
upon the large tracks. Most of the toes are somewhat mutilated
at their extremities; and in general, the sides ee rap
on the last phalanx, so that if claws existed on fe
think they did—they must have been short ‘id, blue,
Circumstances under which the tracks of these anim
made.—Have we any facts in this case indicating the
stances under which these tracks were made and re
outh side of Mount Holyoke whieh: here runs nearly east
west. It curves Po aio however, as it crosses the river.
on the west we have Mount Tom, as the continuation of
yoke is called. On the.east we have a primary range
Two New Species of Fossil Footmarks. 57
pee which the east end of Holyoke abuts, with only
a narrow space between. It is obvious then, that this locality
must have been the north shore of an estuary, opening southerly,
and extending to what is now Long Island Sound. That it was
salt-water is evident from the occurrence of fucoids in the same
basin, a few miles south. Now we know that the current through
this estuary was either north or south, for the ripple marks have
an east and west direction, and in size they correspond wit
those made by the waters of the Connecticut on the sand in the
same region. ‘T'he direction of that stream also is south; and
some have thought that the floods of that stream may have
brought in the sand which filled the tracks. But the locality
must have been defended from a northerly current by Mount
Holyoke, whose elevation doubtless formed the shore on which
the animals trod. Indeed, it would be exposed to no current
that I can conceive of, sufficiently powerful to move such coarse
materials, except the waves and tides from the south. And yet,
a deposit at least six inches thick of coarse sand, was brought in
over the tracks. It seems difficult to conceive how any river
floods should have raised the waters of an estuary enough for this
Oarse ma-
haps also we
58 Prof. E. N. Horsford on Gilycocoll,
Arr. oe ae ilgroesat ( Gelatine Sugar) and some of its Pro
ts of Decomposition ; by Prof. E. N. Horsrorp. Aa ;
3, 2
(Continued from Vol. iii, p. 331.)
some of them are formed, as rewarded the labors with the com-
pounds already described. Of these, two, the double supa
glycocoll and oxyd of ammonium, and the anhydrous sulphate ot
glycocoll, have especial interest, as they throw much light over
the constitution and nature of this body. |
i |
Anhydrous Sulphate of Gilycocoll.. -
? 3°, ei
By dissolving glycocoll in hot spirits of wine, cooling, adding —
sulphuric x drop by drop, and setting aside in a quiet place,
after r two there are formed beautiful elongated thin flat
prisms with eieled angled terminal planes. From another portion
the salt crystallized in the most delicate attenuated tables of the
greatest brilliancy. It is soluble in water and hot diluted alcohol,
and quite insoluble in absolute alcohol and ether. It tastes sou!
and reddens litmus paper, does not change ~~ exposure to the
air, and loses no weight by 100° C. (212° F
Combustion with chromate of lead gave the following reo )
I. 05147 grm. gave 0:-4257 cashanis acid and 0°2509 water.
Il. 0-3134 0-2574 “ 0-1616 < Cm !
Ill. 01541 “ « 09-1260 « «
IV. 0:3397 “ “ 0-7039 platin-salammoni
V. 0-4248 « |< -qwith chlor of sbariahn’ ©. “4673 grm. ak
phate of baryta.
In per cent. ies oat agreeing with,
Ill.
Carbon, 22:55 22-40 22-30
5-41 bile
and some of its Products of Decomposition. 59
Repeated combustions did not enable us to lessen the per-cent-
age of hydrogen. The variation from the theory is, doubtless,
to be attributed to the absorption in the chlorid of calcium tube,
of a small quantity of sulphurous acid, which escaped from the
combustion tube. This explanation tmnfortunately occurred after
repeated analyses had consumed the
This constitution is remarkable in tie field of organic chem-
istry. On its borders we have a similar instance in anhydrous
sulphate of ammonia, NH,+S0,.
Sulphate of Hydrate of Gilycocoil.
OG:
This salt was obtained Sac a solution similarly pre to
that which yielded the anhydrous salt, except that the solution
was boiled with sulphuric acid, instead of the latter ‘being added
to the cold solution. It crystallizes in short prisms, reminding
one of sulphate of copper, and the crystals, though small, are of ex-
ing beauty and agar of form. ‘They do not change
upon exposure to the a
A single detdaiiiniatiot only was made, and that of the nitro-
gen. ‘The other determinations were not made, from want of
e, all subsequent efforts to form the salt having failed.
By Veorunteayyp and Will’s method :—
" 03367 grm. gave 0° 3943 grm. platin-salammoniac.
In per cent. expressed, Nitrogen 12°37.
‘This corresponds with the formu
, H, NO,, 8O,, HO,
which requires 12°17 per cent. of nitrogen.
Basic Sulphate of Gilycocoll.
(a.) 3G1 HO, 2S0,, 2HO.
If to a solution of glycocoll in diluted spirits of wine
ric acid in excess be fdded, and set aside, in tastier hours
long rectangular prismatic crystals form upon the bottom of the
containing vessel. A very considerable excess of sulphuric urie acid
did not change the constitution of the crystals. ;
They taste and react acid, 3 ot the salts already describe .
suffer nothing from exposure to r.
Combustion with chromate of Laas! gave the following results:
I. 0-4199 erm. gave 0°3528 carbonic acid and 02149 water.
IL. 0:3944 « “ (-3219 3 ts 0°1974
Ill. 0-:2399 « « by Varrentrapp and will’s method, 0 ‘5067
grm. platin-salammoniac
IV. 0-6866 grm 4 ad o-4928 sulphate of baryta.
‘V. 05808
VI. 0-4532 « tc ws Sad ‘“ ee
Vil. 04960 « « 93500 “
60 _ Prof. BE. N.Horsford on Glycocoll,
In. per cent. expressed the above determinations correspond
ith v.
wit I. IE.
Carbon, 22°91 22:25
Hydrogen, 568 5°56 ai hades hy eet |
Nitrogen, states OSL WIT! none eel
Sulphuric acid, . 24:62 2462 2420 24-40
These numbers give the formul
(C,H, NO.,, HO)+2(80,, HO). :
kas of the estimated per cents. and analytical E
results follows :— i
Theory
Carbon, - * « . - IZ equiv. = 72 22:29
ydrogen, “ be . - Bos, (eee ES 5:
Bate - - - * 3.85 se AD 13-00
: - : ‘ 14. Se 34-68
Sulpharie acid, - - : ees ae BD 24:76
j 323] 100-00
The following formula is submitted as expressing the rational
pemeacee of this salt :
Gl HO, SO, HO+Gl HO)+(Gl HO, SO, HO).
The following sulphuric acid compounds were. none of them
completely analyzed. They were prepared in small portions
while seeking to obtain a neutral sulphate of hpi ot glyco-
coll; and it was not until the capacity of this body to combine
with others of such different nature, and in such varied propor-
tions became fully apparent, that ‘the existence of so complex
and unusual compounds was believ
The crystallized salts were for the ‘most part groups of elon-
gated prisms.
Baste Sulphate of Glycocoll.
(b.) 3Gl, 280,, HO.
The constitution of this salt differs from that of the preceding in
the amount of water. As both of them were dried in the air over
sulphuric acid, and_ suffered no change, this difference is attrib-
utable doubtless to the degree of concentration, or difference of
_ temperature. It will be observed that it corresponds precisely
"with a basic aa RE. (d), whose constitution is given on
page 380 of the last v
» With chlorid of ha 0-2182 grm. of crystals, gave 0° ‘9u0
om eee. of baryta.
per cent. sulphuric acid 27-74.
3 tie This corresponds with the formula
3(C, H, NO,)+2S80,+HO,
PE acire 27-87 parts in 100. As the probable ational on
stitution of sie salt the following is submi ok : ale
(Gl, SO,+Gl, HO)+Gl, SO,. ican ee
and some of its Products of Decomposition. 61
Basic Sulphate of Glycocoll.
(c.). 3(Gl, HO)2S0,, HO.
_ A mixture of the salt (b) with the previously described one
(a), doubtless gave the crystals for the following determination :
0°3076 grm. gave 0-2300 grm. sulphate of baryta, which gives in
per cent, expressed, sulphuric acid 25-65; corresponding with the
above formula. 'The following is more rational.
(Gl, SO,, HO+Gl, HO)+(Gl, HO+SO, HO).
This requires 25-47 parts of sulphuric acid in 100.
-s (d.) 2(Gl, HO)+S0.,,.
Another salt gave by combustion with chromate of lead,— _
From 0-3039 grm., 02872 grm. carbonic acid, and 0-1680
gm. water; which expressed in per cent., give carbon 25°77,
hydrogen 6-01. These numbers correspond with the formula —
ee 2(C, H, NO,, HO)+S0.,,
which requires carbon 25°26, and hydrogen 5°26.
Gilycocoll and Sulphate of Oxyd of Ethyl.
bo HO, AeO, SO,. ,
"The particular circumstances of the formation of this salt, be-
yond those already given, viz. a solution in hot spirits of wine, or
mM water to which absolute alcohol was added, are not ascertained.
With chlorid of barium, 0:6470 grm. gave 0-3036 grm. sul-
phate of baryta: which in per cent. give of sulphuric acid 17-27.
This quantity of acid corresponds with the formula
0 4 re 37 Cc, H, 0, sO,,
which requires 17-62 per cent. of sulphuric acid.
Nitrate of Gilycocoll.
‘ Gl, HO +NO,, HO. ae ager oF
_ The capability which this compound possesses of uniting with
bases enveloped the earlier conceptions of the nature of glyco-
coll in obscurity :—an obscurity from which the changes the
bitrate of copper salt experienced upon subjection to heat, and
the simple combinations with the oxyds of silver, copper and
lead, did not in any degree relieve it. It was then suggested
é, }
prale oxy direct combination of
. in
*
| i
Drocuured it Ww oying nitric instead
of hydrochl
i
62 Prof. E. N. Horsford on Glycocoll,
We prepared it by dissolving glycocoll in ‘strong nitric acid,
and setting the solution over sulphuric acid to crystallize. Oc-
casionally large tabular crystals, apparently belonging to the
monoclinate system, are formed. Not unfrequently, however,
the salt crystallizes in needles, especially if the fluid has been
warmed.
They do not deliquesce upon exposure to the air. They taste
and react acid. ‘They were dried over sulphuric acid. Combus-
tion with chromate of lead gave the following results :— ie -
I. 0:4509 grm. substance gave 0-2954 grm. carbonic acid,
and 0-1963 grm. water. a
II. 0:4968 grm. substance gave 0°3122 grm. carbonic acid
and 0°2054 grm. water.
T'wo analyses, according to Varrentrapp and Will’s method,
gave respectively 10-04 per cent. and 10-64 per cent. of nitrogen.
From this it is evident that this method cannot here be employ-
ed :—a fact with regard to nitrates, to which attention has already |
been drawn by the chemists just mentioned. ae
Failing in this, a determination was made by the quantitative
method of Prof. v. Liebig. .
The proportions of carbonic acid to nitrogen in four tubes,
were: 17:9, 14:7, 10:5, 24:11; or, together 65:32=2: 1.
In per cent. expressed the above determinations give
L
i. I.
Carbon, - - - 17°86 17-15
Hydrogen, - - - 4:83 4:59 ae
Nitrogen, - : - J 20-50
These correspond with the formula
, H, NO,, HO+NO, HO, :
as will be seen by the annexed estimates and results of analysis.
Theory. | Exnenatetig
17-49
Carbon, - - - - - 4 equiv.
6 o¢
_ Boussingault by drying the salt at 110° GC, (230° F.) obtained
as already noticed the anhydrous compound C cm, NO NGy
Oxalate of Gilycocoll.
Gl, O, HO.
_ An aqueous solution of glycocoll with oxalic acid, evapore
_ upon a watch glass, crystallizes in rays reminding one of “a cross: a
- Section of wavellite. If alcohol be added to a solution of glyco
# in oxalic acid, the latter in excess, the solution becomes —
milky, with the separation of oxalate of glycocoll. If added in
small quantities and successively, it crystallizes with the beauty
and some of its Products of Decomposition. 63
that characterizes all or nearly all the compounds of this body.
Dessaigne obtained the salt directly from hippuric acid by em-
ploying oxalic instead of a stronger acid, to effect the decomposi-
tion. It does not alter upon exposure to the air.
Combustion with chromate of lead gave the following :—0-3600
grim. gave 0:4227 grm. carbonic acid, which in per cent. express-
ed, gives carbon 32-02, corresponding with the formula
3? C, O,, HO,
C 4
which requires 32-43 per cent, of carbon.
Acetate of Glycocoll.
Pe Gl, HO, A, 2HO.
This salt is readily prepared by dissolving glycocoll in acetic
acid, and adding absolute alcohol drop by drop, till the solution
ecomes turbid, and then afterward at intervals, as the crystalli-
zation proceeds. The salt analyzed was prepared by adding ab-
solute alcohol in excess to a concentrated solution of glycocoll in
acetic acid, (the latter in excess,) by which the salt was thrown
do t was then redissolved by heat, and set aside to cool and
crystallize, by which slender prismatic crystals of great beauty
Were obtained.
On combustion with chromate of lead, 02981 grm. gave 0°3644
gtm. carbonic acid and 0-2031 grm. water, which in per cent.
expressed correspond with carbon 33-33, hydrogen 7°57. ‘The
formula
C,H, NO,, HO+C, H, 0,+2HO,
requires of carbon 33-33 per cent. and of hydrogen 6°94 per cent.
) Palmatinate of Glycocoll. 4
By dissolving palmitinic acid and glycocoll in hot spirits of
wine, and Setting aside to cool, the excess of acid rises to the sutr-
Ce in the form of an oil, while the salt crystallizes in white, thin,
».)) Tadiating scales or blades of the greatest brilliancy. ‘The
wed layer, above, which with the whole mass becomes solid,
roe be readily removed, and the remainder pressed in silk and
_ “e@ in the air over sulphuric acid. Combustion with chromate
. t lead gave the following results :
Me Pie
1. oe * mm.
~ Carbon, - 6130)» 623 © 50°84
Hydrogen, - 9-45 ea re 944
Rio Be
my 3, :
___ bitter, gives neither acid nor alkaline reaction, does not deliquesce |
— 2
nl
. ie
. grm. sulphate of baryta, =65°34 per cent. of chlorid: of -barmm, —
giving the formula C, H ne BaCl, 2HO, which pe 55°3h F
= pet cent. of chlorid of barium
ae Gilycocoll and Chlorid of Potassium,
64 _ Prof. BE. N. Horsford on Gilycocoll,
With these, no formula embracing palmitinic acid and leo
has been found. The ee a al
C,H, NO,;, C,, Hy ,0,+12H0, Poe eal
pm 51°31 per cent. of- cauts and 11-16 per cent: hiyaioaal
which would correspond with the carbon, but not with the sa
gen determinations.
Gilycocoll and Bi-chlorid of Plokinuae A: atta
Gl, PtCl,, 2HO. Ke
n to a concentrated solution of glycocoll in water, a con-
centrated solution of bi-chlorid of platinum is added, and then
absolute alcohol drop by drop, the solution becomes turbid, 7
in a very short time, ‘ecu cherry-red crystals attach themselves _
to the sides of the vessel. Or if the concentrated aqueous s
tion be evaporated over sulphuric acid, after a time, groups
prismatic crystals are é
They become instantly covered with a bright colored erst
upon exposure to the air, manifestly with the loss “d water: #7
0-3679 grm. substance gave 0-0872 erm. platinu :
— Age) cent. Ce =33-03, which corresponds swith the for
HN, Prcl 2 +2HO,
which requires 33 26 per cent. of platinum.
Glycocall and Chlorid of Boirnni
Cl, a ajar
measurement. They appeared to belong to the thane system;
the combination » P. Po. » P ». ie 4
The addition of alcohol to the solution changed shi fom Lo
that of slender flat needles. i
The salt is soluble in water, more so in hot than in cold, pee
or change upon exposure to the air. ‘
Dried over sulphuric acid, 0- 6715 grm. substance gave 0: 3933
ware
a. Gl, ek
This compound was prepared by dissolving elechenls a0
rid of potassium in water, and evaporating over sulphuric ac
,
and some of its Products of Decomposition. 65
When the solution had become very concentrated, fine needle-
formed crystals filled the whole mass. They deliquesce readily
in the air.
A single combustion with chromate of lead, gave from 0-4992
grm., 0: rm. carbonic acid = 16-58 per cent. of carbon.
The formula C, H , NO,, KCl, requires 16-92 percent. of carbon.
Gilycocoll and Chlorid of Sodium.
_ A concentrated solution of glycocoll. and chlorid of sodium
in water, gave upon addition of absolute alcohol and standing a
length of time, crystals containing both of the above mentioned
ingredients. A quantitative examination was not made.
Gilycocoll and Bi-chlorid of Tin.
By dissolving glycocoll in the least quantity of water, and ad-
ding bi-chlorid of tin, after a time, crystals containing both in-
gredients of the solution are formed. ‘They were not more par-
ticularly examined.
Gilycocoll and Hydrochlorate of Berberin.
Gl, Ber, HCl.
This salt is obtained by adding a hot solution of hydrochlorate
of berberin in spirits of wine, to a concentrated solution, in ex-
cess, of glycocoll in the same menstruum. Upon cooling, the
whole mass becomes solid, and consists of myriads of the most
delicate needles, of a brilliant orange color and bitter taste. The
salt may be washed with water, as glycocoll is therein readily sol-
uble, while the salt of berberin is not.
The salt dried at 100° C. [212° Fah.] and burned with chro-
mate of lead, gave the following results:
0:1563 grm. substance gave 0°3485 grm. carbonic acid and
grm. water, which expressed in per cent. give carbon
60:80, hydrogen 5-87. ‘These correspond with the formula
C
wh) 4 4 3 42 18 O,, HCl, ‘
which, containing berberin with the constitution given by F'leit-
ann,* requires 60-21 per cent. of carbon and 5°03 per cent. of
hydrogen.
Gilycocoll and Potash.
_ By dissolvi lycocoll in diluted caustic potash and evapora-
mn ting ‘to Seer cons cones over a water bath, crystals in the form —
, 4g delicate needles, containing the two ingredients, are form-
ey may be rapidly washed with spirits of wine. ‘l'hey
@ rapidly in the air, even over sulphuric acid. Dissolved
et, the salt gives a very strong alkaline reaction. It was
rther examined.
es * Liebig’s Annalen, Bd. lix, s. 166.
Conn Series, Vol. IV, No. 10.—July, 1847. 9
66 Prof. E. N. Horsford on Gilycocoll,
Glycocoll and Hydrate of Baryta. :
It has already been mentioned, that glycocoll rubbed with oak
verized hydrate of baryta, in a mortar, becomes almost instanta-
neously semifluid. Upon diluting the solution, and setting aside,
after a time crystals containing both baryta and glycocoll were
deposited. The salt was not analyzed. Its iets in all
onc corresponds with that of the oxyd of copper, silver —
and lead, noticed below, and there exist, doubtless, similar salts _
of anni, ieee and magnesia.
Glycocoll and Oxyd of Copper.
Gl, CuO, HO.
This salt may be prepared by adding to a solution of glycocoll —
sulphate of copper and caustic potash—and addition of absolute —
SS by dissolving hydrated oxyd of copper, with the aid
eat, in a solution of glycocoll, an ing absolute alcohol: —
—or lastly by boiling the anhydrous oxyd of copper, in excess,
with glycocoll. If the latter be pergola it must be filtered
ot. In this case, the filtrate in a is resolved into
a solid mass of the most Sscate. Sis ds ~~. color. More
carefully examined, it is found to consist of exceedingly delicate
needles. The addition of absolute aleohol to the concentrated
peor precipitates the whole salt ; to the diluted, less perfectly.
t 100° C. [212° F.] 0°5443 erm., at the conclusion of sev
alee had lost 0:0438 grm. = 8-04 per cent. =one atom of water.
With this loss the color passed through a light green to a shade
in which a lavender or violet tint is discernible.
The analysis was made with the substance dried in the air over
sulphuric acid.
ieee with chromate of lead gave the following ae
a. 0 2030 erin substance gave 0°1538 grm. carbonic acid wil 4
00912 grm. w c
IL. 02373 bie ty the method of Varrentrapp and Will, = "
0-4762 grm. platin-salammoniac
Ill. 0-1745 grm. gave 00592 erm. oxyd of copper.
IV. 0-2871 grm. gave 0-0972 grm. = of copper.
Which expressed in per cent. give
eo Il. Ill. ae ae ,
Carbon, 20°66 ite ig ae
oe” A | <<; aut) eel
‘ao trogen ea 12-6 ieee ia
«Gee, Oxyd of. copper, — 33. 85 2 BBE
These give the formula C,H,NO,, CuO, HO, as will be |
seen Re comparing the theoretical and analytical results. :
~
and some of its Products of Decomposition. 67
| Theory. _ | Experiment.
Carbon, - 4 equiv. = 24 99-92 | 20-66
Hydrogen, 5. me 5 4-35 4-99
Nitrog [ae 4 12-20 12-65
Oxygen, - 4 “ == 32 27: 27-81
xyd of copper, be Ses 34-61 33-89
| 47| lovwo | —~*100-00
With the loss of an atom of water, we have the salt
H, NO,,
which it will be seen is precisely the composition derived from
Boussingault’s analysis of the salt dried at 120° C. = [248° F-.]
ee page 373.
Gilycocoll and Protoxyd of Lead.
al, PbO, HO.
This salt was prepared by dissolving with the aid of heat, prot-
oxyd of lead (obtained from the peroxyd by long continued heat)
i a concentrated aqueous solution of glycocoll, and the addition
of alcohol till it began to be turbid. In a few hours it separated
in prismatic crystals that slowly increased in size for several days,
particularly with successive additions of absolute alcohol. The
crystals remind one of cyanid of mercury.
A single combustion with chromate of lead gave from 1-3967
C, H, NO,, PbO, HO, |
Which requires 12-83 per cent. of carbon.
Boussingault’s analysis was made from the salt, dried at
120° C., [248° F.,] leaving C, H, NO,, PbO.
Glycocoll and Oxyd of Silver.
rae Gl, AgO, HO. bai
If oxyd of silver be added to a solution of glycocoll, it readily
_ dissolves with the application of heat. With the addition of alco-
hol the above compound erystallizes in wartform crystals, which
, n exposure to light. J
This salt was not anal zed, as Boussingault’s analysis of it,
dried at 110° ©, [230° F.] as already noticed, gave the formula
There 3 rey C, H, yp ASV. aot
bal ere is scarcely a doubt that corresponding compounds ot co-
Ss nickel, manganese and iron protoxyds with glycocoll, might
With nearly equal facility be prepared.
ae are perhaps analogous to those of ammonia
per and nickel oxyds, when the latter are dissolved in the
68 Prof. E. N. Horsford on Gilycocoll,
Gilycocoll and Nitrate of Silver.
1, AgO, ‘ 7
If the filtrate from a cae determination of the hydrochlo-
rate of glycocoll be evaporated to concentration, and set aside —
over sulphuric acid, in a little time tolerably regular crystals of
the above salt may ‘be obtai ned.
t may be procured by dissolving glycocoll in nitrate of silver:
or by dissolving oxyd of silver in the solution of the nitrate of —
glycocoll.
Upon melting, it explodes with violence. When exposed _to
moist air it deliquesces; though it remains unchanged over sul- —
phuric acid. .
The salt dried over sulphuric acid, on combustion with chro-
mate of lead :—
I. 0-9300 grm. of substance gave 03550 grm. carbonic acid
and 0-1880 grm. water.
II. 0°7840 grm. of the same gave 0:2950 grm. carbonic acid —
and 0°1560 grm. water.
IIf. 0-6469 grm. of the same gave 0:0258 grm. chlorid of silver.
In per cent. gases
I. Il.
Carbon, 10-11 10-26
7 ac 2:24 2-21 age
Silv a 49°83
giving the pei C,H, NO, , AgO, NO,,
as the annexed estimates and results of analysis will show :
(henry | Experiment
arbo 4equiv.= 24 10 16 210-18. ah”
Hydrogen, 4 “© = 4 ‘69 me Bee
Nitrogen, og et ee 11-86 ioe
Oxyge ; 8 6 = 64 ‘76 coe ee ee
Ox. silver, 1 * ==116 49-53 eS oe
236) 100 00 hive
Gilycocoll and Nitrate of Copper.
Gl, HO, CuO, NO,, CuO, HO.
This salt was analyzed by Boussingault, and may be consid-
ered as a compound of hydrate of aac with nitrate of Cony, ‘
united to hydrate of oxyd of coppe “ef
(Gl, HO + CuO NO, ) + Cud, HO. | ee
i bi and Nitrate of Potash.
: 1, KO, NO,. 5s oe
This salt forms readily from. a solution of sides in nitt
~ of potash, upon the addition of absolute alcohol. No quantitative
analysis of it was made. ‘The above > formula i is derived from the :
on page 373. ae
and some of its Products of Decomposition. 69
Gilycocoll and Bi-sulphate of Potash.
Gl, SO,+Gl, KO, SO,,.
By dissolving bi-sulphate of potash in water and adding a
solution of glycocoll, throwing the whole down with alcohol, re-
dissolving by heat and setting aside to cool and crystallize, the
above salt is obtained in semi-opaque prismatic crystals.
A single determination from the salt dried over sulphuric acid
gave from 0-6873 grm. of substance 0:6200 grm. sulph. baryta.
In per cent. giving sulphuric acid =30-94. The formula
ee , H, NO,,80,+C, H, NO,, KO, SO,,
requires of sulphuric acid 30-83 per cent.
Gilycocoll and Bi-chromate of Potash.
If glycocoll be dissolved in an aqueous solution of bi-chromate
of potash, and absolute alcohol be added till the liquid becomes
turbid, and the whole set aside, in a little time crystals will be
formed.
These, even under the liquid, in a few days become decompo-
sed, with the deposition of carbon. They were not further ex-
amined,
Gilycocoll and Urate of Ammonia.
Gl, U, Amo, T.
_ When to a hot filtered solution of urate of ammonia, glycocoll
is added, in a little time as the liquid cools, long semi-o
needles shoot out from the sides of the vessel. The addition of
alcohol after the first crystallization, causes the separation of a
cond tion. :
Upon di ving in hot water os Mei of glycocoll and
urate of ammonia, and cooling, a flocculent mass was thrown
down, which the addition of seshel increased, and which, when
examined with the microscope, proved to consist of e gly
minute prisms.
e salt dried over sulphuric acid and burned with chromate
of lead, gave from 0-2926 grm. substance, 0:3463 grm. car
ron and 0-1144 grm. water, which equal carbon 32°46, hydrogen
m
he
me 4 NO,, C, 2 H, O,+NH, 0, C, N, Hi, 0,;
tequires carbon 32:30, hydrogen 461. ‘ais
Similar flocculent precipitates were obtained from solutions o
glycocoll in both urates of potash and soda. ——
ra Gilyeoeoll and Uric Acid.
~The import ; ound of uric acid that would
Ae importance of finding a compound of ur peepee
so dissolve in water, suggested the effort to combine it with
ycocoll.
mS
70 On the Potato Disease.
Two atoms of glycocoll united to two of uric acid wom
equal three atoms of cyanate of glycocoll:
C,H, N, 0,40 NPs, 0.=A0C/H, NO,, Cu NO)
a compound ‘that may be presumed readily to dissolve in water.
All effort to this end, however, proved unsuccessful. Urie acid —
remained unchanged in the most concentrated solution of glyco
coll, even with the long continued application of heat. é
Glycocoll and Benzoic Acid.
a these two bodies exist in combination in hippuric acid, it |
to be presumed that a reunion might be effected. To this
ent solutions of the two in spirits of wine were made and poured —
together. After a time the glycocoll on the one hand and the
benzoic acid on the other erystallized out.
The same result attended the effort to combine cinnamic acid,
cane sugar and neutral phosphate of lime with glycocoll. oy
(To be continued.) a
Hy
Arr. [X.—On the Potato Disease.
Recherches sur la Nature et les Causes de la Maladie des Pommes le A
Terre, en 1845; par P. Harting, Professeur a l’Université a’ U tree iy
Amsterdam, 1846. a
De Ziekten der Aardappelen i in het Algemeen, door Prof. von Martius. :
Of de Aardappel Epidemie der Laatste Jaren. Berigten en Med-
deelingen door het Genootschap voor Landbouw en Kruidkunde
Utrecht
Tue above are the titles of two of the most extended scien !
tific investigations of this subject that have yet a
work of Prof. Harting is particularly valuable, as containing a
methodical and extensive series of microscopic observations which (
seem to have been made with much care and accuracy. It is ik —
lustrated by colored plates, showing the tissues, the cells, &., of
the potato in its healthy state, and proceeding through the one :
di :
‘Inencement and various stages of disease.
Prof. Harting is clearly of the opinion that the disease is nt
to be ascribed to a parasitic fungus ; but that the fungus is an
described and
~ Floccis fertilibus a crn aap parce septatis, ramis pa
bus, sporidiis terminalibus whet
pro si oe oe
same class as those which are found in vinegar, &e. ey
On the Potato Disease. 71
Another species Spicaria Solani, is thus described. °
Floccis albis, decumbentibus dense intertextis, ramulis fertili-
bus vulgo quatuor erectis, sporidiis minimis ovalibus concoloribus.
Some of these species are only found in the internal cavities
this instance the potatoes were of a particular variety from the
vicinity of Coblence. The fungus belonged to the genus Oidi-
um, (Link,) or Oospora, (Wallworth, ) and was named by Prof. H.
Oidium violaceum. Its characters are :
F'loccis ramosis violaceis, fertilibus in sporidia subglobosa sece-
dentibus. It is therefore quite different from any of the others.
Von Martius does not appear to have met with this, but he de-
_Seribes several other distinct varieties. Payen mentions one of
the same nature, but of an orange color.
_ These fungi seem not to be capable of spreading by infection.
A large number of experiments were made upon this point ; some
of their sporules were placed in contact with freshly cut potatoes
and allowed to remain in contact under favorable circumstances
for many days; in no case was a fungus of the same species re-
produced. This would appear to be conclusive, but von Martius
and Payen, both obtained results of a different character. In
any case we may conclude that it is not a very easy matter to
Spread infection in this way. Sb bm
When | he brown or black liquid matter, which appearing in
the sacs of the cells, is the first visible proof of disease, is placed
he disease is read
Later ~
habditis sometimes appears of the
itis so ce ise ey
- Harting has made a partial chemical investigation of the
he diseased portions of the
tubers. The reaction of the sound portions was acid, that of the
diseased alkaline, with an evolution of ammonia. As wena
Supposed from this, the quantity of nitrogenous compounds
Was reduced in the unsound portions, disappearing at last almost
72 On the Potato Disease.
entirely. ‘The brown and black parts contain a greatly increased —
proportion of insoluble matter; the increase is chiefly owing yi
the deposition of brownish granular matter, in the cells. :
matter is insoluble in water, in ether, in boiling alcohol, in acids —
or alkalies, and exhibits most of the properties of. ulmin, result»
ing from the composition of the substance ee in the cellu- —
lar liquids. We will here quote Prof. Harting’s words.
“Cette matiére est le resultat des Gace qu’ont subi :
Valbumine et la dextrine dissoutes dans le suc cellulaire, et dela —
fécule, que, aprés s’étre transformée en dextrine, y contribue aussi. —
“Tl est trés-vraisemblable que c’es t Valbumine, qui soit transfor
mee la premiere, puis la dextrine, enfin la fécule, qui résiste le
plus long-temps, et dont l’alteration est encore peu visible meme
aun état trés-avancé de la maladie.
“'Tontes ces transformations chimiques, appartiennent
grande série de phénoménes, comprise sous gén
fermentation, et qu’on pourrait désigner ici plus particulieé:
par le nom @humification, or d’ulmification.”’
the microscope in the cells, and by chemical = is proved
be identical with the brown matter of the
Prof. Harting, led on by these facts, Beant 3 find i in the t
perature of the air and earth, the cause of this disease. He
collected a large number of observations upon this point. The
winter of 1844-1845 was sone and ‘igorous, and the cold a
cially severe during M
- During the months of July and August, the relativdl hun
_ was above the maximum of the sam edins
sot more Sieaatie The great heat of*the air sire
moisture caused a rapid developement of the plant, andsot cO
On the Potato Disease. B
an increased transpiration was necessary, but was always checked
= ew increased pressure of vapor in the middle of the day; this
of course deranged the circulation and caused the liquids in the
circulation to begin to ferment. This view is supported by the
fact that in Holland the parts first attacked were the leaves and
stalks, the parts more directly in contact with the air. In Scot-
land and some parts of Prussia the disease made its appearance in
September, for the most part; the temperature of the earth was
then higher than that of the air, and accordingly the disease gen-
erally attacked the tubers first. But when we acknowledge all
of these extraordinary facts, we still are forced to look for some
special predisposition to disease among the potatoes themselves.
In what this special predisposition consists, it is not easy to say.
It has not been the same in all species of potatoes, some have
almost escaped while others of another kind in the same neigh-
berhood have been almost utterly destroyed; it must reside in
the plant itself, either in the structure of its tissues, or in the
_ chemical state of its juices. It has been noticed that the potatoes
of late years have had a much greater tendency than usual to
germinate. This indicates an unusual molecular movement in
the juices, which under the influence of moisture and the atmo-
sphere, in place of changing the starch into dextrine and dextrine
into cellulose, ferments and causes the disease.
Potatoes planted during the early morning have in some in-
stances been almost entirely free from the malady, while those of
€ variety planted in the afternoon, after lying in the sun
his case, it seems possi-
.
htige
rtainly furnish ample
the cause of this dis-
dence on a single crop. Unhappy
d are mou examples of
N.
74 | Report on Meteorites.
Arr. X.—Report on Meteorites; by Cuartes UpHam SuEps 1
M.D., Professor of Chemistry in the Medical College of Sout
Carolina, and in Amherst College, Mass. he
(Continued from Vol. ii, ii Ser., p. 392.)
CLASS U1. Meratuic.
Orper First. Malleable, homogeneous.
Section 1st. Pore. ke
1. Walker county, Alabama.—This mass was described ty i
Dr. Troost in Vol. xlix, p. 344, (1845.) Through the assistance of —
_L F. Sowext, of Athens, Ala., I am able to “supply a few addi-
tional details, a eke the occurrence of this unusually etl
treaty for it during two or three years, before being able to obtain
possession of it. The original mass was irregularly oval, resel
bling the figure here sketched.
TUNITY ~
mri til
“Tt was without any sec prominences or depressions; _
teeters by a smooth, black crust. It was found with the
tremity projecting above the soil gesting the idea, t
driven into the ground by the force of Pio mike Upon
s.
ea
Report on Meteorites. 75
er end, the finder (Mr. Speaks) placed his foot to rest, while
abroad on a hunting excursion. Its unusual appearance attracted
his attention, and led him to remove it to his house as somet ing
valuable. ‘The mass was found remote from any settlement, in
enumerated,—the calcium being most abundant.
2. Scriba, (Oswego,) N. Y.—My description of this mass was
published in Vol. xl, p. 366, (1841.) To that account may now
be added the statement of Mr. John G. Pendergast, communicated.
to me in a letter dated July 15, 1846. “I saw a mass of iron at
Oswego in 1834, in the possession of Mr. Rathbun, (a black-
smith,) which I judged to be meteoric. Mr. R. had obtained it
on that day from his collier, who had been down to deliver a load
of charcoal, and stated that he found it in the woods, some where
in the vicinity of his coal-pit. ‘The circumstance of its being
Second witness, to the conditions under which the mass was found.
It appeared important however, to omit no circumstance relative
to its discovery, for the reason that it does not possess that pecu-
liar emical composition, which has heretofore been regarded as
confirmatory of the extra-terrestrial origin of similar productions,
and on which account, I hesitated in my first notice to include
it among undoubted meteoric irons. Its resemblance however, to
the Walker county, Ala., iron, not only in composition, but in the
: surface and
Senerally smooth sur black color of its crust, and still
More, in the freckled figures developed upon its polished sections
;) Mitric acid, establishes an analogy of the most marked kind
between the two bodies. And as it seems unreasonable to ascribe
the large drop-shaped mass of Alabama, either to a terrestrial or
an artificial source, I feel authorized in claiming a meteoric origin
76 : Report on Meteorites.
Section 2d. Atioyep. Sub-section, CLOSELY CRYSTALLINE.
3. Babb’s Mill, 10 miles north of Greenville, Green county, —
Tennessee.—This mass was described by Dr. Troost in Vol. xlix, —
p- 342, (1845.) Judge Peck has afforded me (under date of Dee.
14, 1845) some additional particulars, relating to the locality, from
whence he had obtained a specimen, in its natural condition. His
remarks are as follows: “Of the two masses found in Green coun-
ty, the first, as well as I can recollect, weighed twelve or thirteen
pounds ; the other which I have, weighs upwards of six pounds.
The former was injured by having been heated and cut. It ex-
hibited however, a crystalline structure, when small portions were
torn or broken asunder, though the grains were very small.
was homogeneous; and formed as malleable and tough an iron, as
I have ever seen. The second mass (of about six pounds) I was
fortunate enough to obtain, just as it was found.”
Fig. 7.
This specimen was in the most obliging manner transferred 0
me, in exchange, by Judge Peck; and with the exception of #
few hundred grains taken from an angle, has been preserved pre
cisely in its original shape. It exhibits in the most perfect mal
ner that peculiar moulding (consisting of somewhat irregular ba —
sin-shaped depressions of various sizes, connected with blunt
_ rounded angles and edges) which marks so many of these pro —
ductions.* A wood-cut does but inadequately render these app? —
_ * Having observed that this kind of surface occurs in masses of artificial iroM)
both cast and malleable, if it have been a long time exposed to the action of weath- —
er, (as in iron palings and posts, as well as in eannon,) | cannot avoid attribue =
. Oo t n t rial -
influ
Report on Meteorites. 77
rent. ‘The black coating of oxyd of iron, so often investing me-
teoric iron, is here nearly replaced by broad patches of a thin,
yellowish, ochrey brown incrustation.
Sp. gr. =7:548. It is close grained and perfectly. compact,
taking a very high polish, and exhibiting at the same time, a
color rather whiter than that of steel. It shows no crystalline
figures on being corroded with nitric acid ; although on very close
inspection, minute, whitish spots, (isolated and collected into
patches,) may be seen here and there, scattered without order
over the surface. When broken, it presents a fine granular tex-
ture, attended by a high silvery lustre.
r. Troost found the mass he obtained to contain, iron 87-58,
nickel 12-42, remarking however that the ratio of the nickel given
was probably too high, and that the compound might contain
other ingredients, My own specimen affords me, iron 85-30,
nickel 14-70, with traces of calcium, magnesium and aluminium.
4, Claiborne, Alabama.—Vol. xxxiv, p. 332, (1838.) Vol.
xlvili, p. 145, (1845. )
5. Livingston county, Kentucky.—V ol. ii, ii Ser., p. 357, (1846.)
6. Dickson county, Tennessee.—Vol. xlix, p. 337, 1845.)
7. Texas, (Red River.) —Vol. iii, p. 44, (1821.) Vol. viii, p.
218, (1824.) Vol. xvi, p. 217, (1830.) Vol. xxvii, p. 382, ( 1835.)
Vol. xxxiii, p. 257, (1838.) Vol. xliii, p. 358, (1842.) Vol. ii,
8,) which must have formed a somewhat poimted extremity
of the original mass. From the base of this, a slice was taken,
ing a lump of five pounds of the annexed form. Its sides
show for the most part, the natural crust of the iron; but where this
‘4S Not the case, the surface has been cut and polished, or is coarsely
Crystalline with large tetrahedral and sub-hackley faces, occa-
Sioned by the breaking off of what were apparently projecting
Prongs. ‘Its polished faces show a very high lustre, with a color
f nearly the same whiteness as German silver. He at a
Proper angle, they discover very distinctly the same crystalline
which are still more distinctly brought out by the ac-
‘ences, which have acted upon masses not perfectly homogeneous either in compo-
sition ot in density. For this reason perhaps, the Lockport iron, which is very
b ith amygdaloidal kernels of magnetic iron pyrites, presents an un-
and j surface.
iad
78 Report on Meteorites.
tion of acids. The etched surface is illustrated in the accompa- _
nying figure. ‘The pattern is strikingly peculiar, as well as beau- —
tiful. The bright shining veins, which resist tha action of the
acid, are rarely 1 nearer together than the ;zth or ;';th of an inch;
Fig. 8.:
i a WY 2 ¢
and these in place of being continuous, are interrupted at frequent fj
intervals. In their course also, they frequently exhibit little tr .
angular enlargements, the sides of the triangles curving in :
The soy 3° included between the shining lines, and which h forms 4
at least ,;ths of the whole, is every where finely freckled as if
depending upon a granular texture, and even bears some analogy
to what is familiarly known as crystallized tin, or Moiree met —
allique.
Its hardness is very tinusual, no iron with which T am
-_ quainted offering on the whole, so much resistance to the oper
~ + tion of slitting. «Mr. Rockwell gives as its composition, iron
. 92-291, and nickel 8-146. My own result in a single unalyeae
_as follows: :
aa Nickel, : : ; ‘ Veo?
Insoluble, : : ; ; -500
_ S$ulphur and loss, . oe See oe
Report on Meteorites. 79
Sub-section, COARSELY CRYSTALLINE.
9. De Kalb county, Tennessee.—Vol. xlix, p. 341, (1845.)
10. Asheville, (Baird’s plantation, near French Broad River,
siz miles north of Ashevilie,) Buncombe county, North Carolina.
—Vol. xxxvi, p. 81, (1839,) and Die Meteoriten, von P. Parrscu,
Wien, 1843, s. 116.
As this county has of late afforded two other localities of mete-
oric iron, I have taken pains to ascertain as nearly as possible the
exact position of each. The Hon. T’. J. Clingman informs me,
that this locality is six miles north of Asheville, on the estate of
Col. Baird, who is of opinion that other fragments may there be
found, as he has within two years observed small pieces of rusty
iron in the same field from which Dr. Hardy’s mass was obtained.
Farther experiments on the composition of this iron, enable me
to add to what was before made known, that it contains cobalt,
Magnesium and phosphorus; and that the nickel is Sometimes
present in a ratio as high as 5 p.c., while the silicon is consider-
ably below 0-5 p.c., as formerly quoted.
ll. Guildford county, North Carolina.—Vol. xl, p. 369, (1841,)
and Die Meteoriten, von P. Parrscn, s. 114.
12. Carthage, Tennessce.—Vol. ii, ii Ser., p. 356, (1846.)
13. Jackson county, Tennessee.—V ol. ii, ii Ser., p. 357, (1846. )
Orpver Seconp. Malleable, heterogeneous.
Section 1st. AmyepaLora..*
14. Hommoney Creek, near base of Pisgah Mountain, (ten
miles west of Asheville,) Buncombe county, North Carolina.
_, 1 he present iron was brought to light through the perseverance
of the Hon. T. J. Curvemay, of Asheville, to whose liberality I
am indebted also for the possession of so interesting an object.
He informed me in March, 1846, that while in the adjoining
county of Haywood, he had accidentally been told by a Mr. Clarke,
‘Hat his son had a mass of ore, five or six pounds in weight, that
was very black and heavy, and which they could not break with
: point aR :
had been mislaid and probably lost. His description howev- .-
Se aig closely with that given by the father. He learned
also tom the young man, that the mass had the appearance of
: * The present } : L ie ie 7s 1 4 e fthe previous
efi: Was made it becomes necessary to create a new section for the reception
of this remarkable variety. In some oephens it resembles the amygdalo-peridotic
*pecies from Siberia pe Atacama. It differs however, from them both, in the
more diminutive cavities, and still more in this, that these cavities are almost
wubetely empty, The term amygdaloidal therefore, is here applied, in analogy
with its use in geology, for describing the vesicular traps.
%
80 Report on Meteorites.
having been melted, one side being flattened, while from othe
parts of it, there were projections (“spurs”) as long as a man’s —
finger, which he could batter down with a stroke of the hammer. 7
He said he obtained it a year before in Buncombe county, ina field, —
where he was of opinion that more of the same might be found.
Mr. C. afterwards visited the neighborhood in which the speciieey
occurred ; and was there assured by a young man, that he J
seen the piece that the Clarkes had described, and that he knew
of another much larger piece, similar to it, at an old house on the
Clarke farm, where the smaller had been found.
On procuring the mass, (which weighed nearly twenty-seven ;
pounds, ) Mr. C. communicated to me the following particulars
respecting it, which may perhaps be given in this place as gen-
erally descriptive of its aspect. ‘It is rather flat on one side, as
though it had been laid when semi-fluid on a somewhat plane |
surface, while its other sides are arezuls with cavities and va-
rious inequalities. It has no appearance of ever having been —
ammered, and externally looks like a genial from a black
teoric iron, Mr. C. was led to qnestion its eennenees } “But
it is too large, and much too to be with cin
der. It has some malleability, though it may be broken if struck —
on its thinner projections and edges. Its knotted appearance, —
toughness and malleability, together with the peculiar form of
the broad side, or bottom, and that of the large end, indicating —
that a greater than human force must have been applied to the —
mass, and evincing that it was cleft by an explosion from some -
large bo ody, lead me on the whole, to rest in the inference, rr x
it is of foreign origin.” Mr. C. likewise remarked, that its ex- —
ternal appearance would be well conceived of, if we supposed al
ordinary mass of meteoric iron to be thrown into a forge-fire, and
Mia er at fused at its surface, suddenly to be withdra ,.
pe A
Its shape may be judged of by the figure on the opposite page.
As frequently happens with these productions, a hires peter
may best be obtained by likening them to some familiar ob
this specimen strikingly reminds one of the head of a reptile.
_ figured, it reposes on its flat and broad side, and the dark shad
at the left, is in the place of the nearly vertical section, suppa
to represent the junction of the animal’s head with its ‘body.
™measures eleven inches in length, se seven in breadth ; sete
Report on Meteorites. 81
an ash colored earthy matter. This last was undoubtedly de-
rived from the circumstance, that the mass was for a considerable
time employed as a support for fuel in the fireplace of a farmer’s
kitchen. Upon the under side, there adheres over a few inches,
Fig. 9.
g id tty
ri
Cpg4 ‘
i ee,
hs 2;
1,
4) pf G
& crust of an earthy, black amygdaloid, scarcely distinguishable,
unless freshly broken, from the iron itself; and in one spot,
hearly buried within the substance of the iron, a few grains of a
dull, yellowish, gray olivine were noticed, similar to those found
m the Bi especially upon the
thinner edge and at the small extremity of the mass, its structure
gtow smaller and more remote from one another. No deeper
¢ ton than one inch has yet been made in the mass; it is there-
fore possible, that the central portions may be nearly compact.
The fresh racture has a color and lustre, intermediate between
and magnetic iron-pyrites. Et :
Whete the en hate highly vesicular, exhibit the most delicate
wi ! attian figures, consisting of very minute and thickly
Stcoxp Sznizs, Vol. IV, No. 10.—July, 1847. i
or
82 Report on Meteorites.
interspersed triangular figures, distinct midi to be easily ;
with the naked eye, but under a microscope exceedingly be
to which it also approximates in the tuberose conformation of
exterior surface.
Hardness about that of grey cast iron. Sp. gr. = 7:32.
It is composed of iron, (with traces ‘ 98-19
of chromium and cobalt, )
Nickel, 0-23
Carbonaceous, insoluble wuatier and loss, - 1:58
100: 100-00
The vellc eh. olivine-like grains consist of silicic. acid, lime
magnesia, and oxyd of iron
Section 3d... AmMyG@DALO-pYRITIC.
15. Lockport, (Cambria,) New York.—Vol. xlviii, p.. 388
(1845.) Vol. ii, i Ser., p. 374, (1846.) In addition to
nickel, copper, phos sphorus and silicon, found in i
others, I have detected cobalt.
Section Ath. PyRiro-PLUMBAGINOUS.
16. Black Mountain, head of Sw annanoah River,
of Buncombe county, (fifteen laos east of pe om NA Y
My first knowledge of this iron was derived from a remark,
tained in a letter from Hon. T. J. Crineman, dated Feb. 17, 1846,
to the following effect: “Dr. Hardy informs me that he gave a
very remarkable looking specimen of meteoric iron found in this
county, (Buncombe,) to the late Col. Nicholson of Charleston
. C., who died at Abbeville in that state, six or seven years ago.
Being i in Charleston, I applied to the executors of Col. Ne fori
mation respecting that portion of his effects, which would be
to include this specimen ; but my inquiries were without su
vious to this date however, I had been informed by
‘Tuomey, who was then the state geologist that he had s
specimen of malleable iron in the cabin Barratt of
ville, which led me to address a letter ‘ ‘this gentleman, re
to the subject, from whom I received the following pie bs
Jun
ie
Report on Meteorites. 83
* On communicating a description of the mass to Dr. Hardy, he
replied, “I have no doubt that the specimen referred to is the
same which I gave Col. Nicholson. It was found at the head
of Swanannoah river, near the base of Black mountain, towards
the eastern side of Buncombe county.”
The fragment weighs only twenty-one ounces; and, judging
from the size and shape of that side which still exhibits the natural
outside of the meteor, it is evidently a portion of a mass that must
have been much larger. Its texture is throughout, highly erys-
talline, having all the lamine (which are unusually thick ) arranged
conformably to the octahedral faces of a single individual. 'These
layers, which commonly have a thickness of one-tenth of an
mech, adhere to one another with much tenacity, so as not to
be separable by any ordinary force. ‘They manifest a slight ten-
dency however, as the result of weathering, to separate into
granular portions of the thickness of the layers themselves; the
particles being somewhat oval in form—a result which seems to
flow from the existence of very minute veins of magnetic iron-
pyrites: for when a surface of the iron is polished, it exhibits the
appearance of being mapped off into rounded patches by thin
veins of the pyrites; and on the application of nitric acid this
_ Structure is still farther developed by the corrosion of the veins.
Within these areas, the structure of the iron, when etched,
Searcely seems crystalline; at most, exhibiting a few faintly
marked crossing lines. A somewhat similar structure is visible
in the Cocke county iron.
The mass contains several rounded and irregular nodules of
plumbaginous matter, (from half to one inch in diameter, ). with
which again (and often situated in the midst of the kernels) are
found large pieces of foliated, magnetic iron-pyrites. this
Tespect also, the present iron is closely related to the Cocke
county iron.
_ Its sp. gr. = 7-261.
_ It consists of nickel, (with traces of cobalt,) . 2°52
en ee ee Ee
__ Insoluble matter, sulphur and loss, . . 1-44
oe, 100-00
VW. Cocke county, Cosby’s Creek, Tennessee.—F or our earliest
Notice of this truly wonderful locality of meteoric iron, we are
indebted to Dr. Troost, (see Vol. xxxviii, p. 250, 1840,) and
for an additional account of its composition by myself, see Vol.
_-Xtin, p. 354, (1842.) The history of this locality 1s still far-
ther illustrated by the following particulars, derived from two
eters from Judge Jacob Peck of Jefferson county, ‘Tennessee,
the one dated July, 1845, and the other ‘December, of the
Same year.—Extract from the former, which was addressed to
is:
84 Report on Meteorites.
Dr. J. H. Kain of this city: “The large mass of meteoric -" q
found some years ago in Cocke county, (on a creek
Cosby’s,) fell into the hands of some persons who tried to bre
it with sledge-hammers, but not succeeding, they placed it upon
what is here called a ‘log-heap,’ where after roasting for some
time, it developed certain natural joints, of which advantage
was taken with cold chisels and spikes, for its separation into
fragments. These were put into a mountain waggon, and
transported thirty or forty miles to a sort of forge, and there —
hammered into ‘gun-scalps,’ and other articles of more com- —
mon use. Some remnants of the mass fell into the hands of 4
Dr. Troost. The original mass was one of rare character, and —
ought to have been preserved entire. Much of it was com 4
of large and perfect octahedral crystals. Its weight was abouta —
Another mass weighing one hundred and twelve pounds, —
was found near the locality of the larger one. This also was —
malleable, very white, and easily cut with a sharp instrument —
It was picked up by a mountaineer, who supposing it to be sil a
ver, asked fifteen hundred dollars for it. After retaining it for |
some years, he finally sold it to a friend of mine for a small sum, —
who transferred it to Dr. Troost.” ae
Extract from the letter of December, 1845, to myself: ‘Tit
weight of the mass has been variously estimated; but I am cer
mained. On searching, it was found by a little girl of the fa
It weighs rather more than a pound, and had been preserv
the family as a nut-cracker.* a
fiset F
“The great mass was found on a hill, or rather on an 0
ah eminence, at about one hundred feet above the bed of Cos
creek. I was at the place after the mass was taken away. —
formation was a hard clay-slate, and very little impression %
eft at the spot, except some stains of red oxyd of iron. M
Saale.
__* This specimen I owe to the kindness of Judge Peck. —
Report on Meteorites. 85
who claimed to be the owner of the land, took me there, under
the impression that I should be able to aid him in discovering a
mine of pure iron near the spot, especially, as the mass of one
hundred and twelve pounds was found in the same immediate
vicinity. ‘The search of course was to no purpose. The mass
of one hundred and twelve pounds appeared to me to be identical
in character with the fragments I have seen of that supposed to
weigh a ton.”
The sp. gr. of this iron, as given by Partsch, (Die Meteoriten,
p. 151,) is 7-26. I have found that of the included magnetic
iron-pyrites, to be 4-454,
OrDER Pin. Brittle.
Section Ist. Pure.
= 6915. In
duction, either natural or artificial, induces me to retain it in the
Category of meteorites.
a Section 2d. Awwoyen.
_ 20. Otsego county, New York.—The precise locality of this
Very curious iron cannot at. present be given. It came into my
Possession under the following circumstances. ‘Two or three
Persons from Otsego county submitted a number of specimens to
we
nd
86 Report on Meteorites.
coating, save on one side, where it had been partially
polished. The application of a drop of dilute nitrie
acid to this side, brought into view the most beau-
| tiful, raised lines, closely compacted together, and
crossing each other in every direction. Its hardnes
«et Be alles
_ of all the known meteoric iron-masses, I have contented m
abled me to make respecting its composition. It dissolves
* difficulty in nitro-hydrochloric acid, at the same time evolv
sulphuretted hydrogen, leaving behind minutely divided c
(plumbago) and a heavy whitish powder. This latter, fused w
carbonate of soda on charcoal, gave what appeared to be me’
tin. The clear solution saturated with ammonia, afforded {
ies
\ Report on Meteorites. 87
oxyd of iron that corresponded to 94:57 per cent. of metallic
iron; and the solution possessed an intensely azure blue color,
which I ascertained to proceed chiefly from the presence of cop-
per, though nickel and cobalt were also both detected in the
liquid. ‘This little meteorite, therefore, contains the following ele-
ments :—iron, copper, nickel, cobalt, sulphur, carbon, tin? and
possibly chromium.
Notwithstanding this specimen comes from the same county
with the Burlington iron, still its peculiar physical and chemical
properties, leave no doubt of it having formed a totally indepen-
dent body ; and for aught that yet appears, two hundred and sev-
enty-six grains in weight constitutes the totality of the fall!
Appenpix To Cuiass L.
and obtained the mass. The tree, under whose roots it was
ound, must have been fifty or one hundred years old. Ih
the mass (whose weight was about fifteen pounds) to the
eaitimore Academy of Science, in whose keeping it was lost
Sight of, during the destruction of their building by fire.”
- (To be continued.)
-
88 Geological Results of the Earth’s Contraction.
oes yas ah Cae he
Arr. Xl—A General Review of the Geological Effects of the —
Earth’s Cooling from a state of Igneous Fusion; by James —
D. Dana. 2
iy former papers in this Journal,* the writer has endeavored to _
illustrate the origin of many of the earth’s features, by refer- —
ence to the necessary consequences of cooling from a state of
igneous fusion. In conclusion, a summary of the results arrived
at is here offered, in order to aid the reader in a cautious and
comprehensive revision of the subject; for its bearing upon the |
history of our globe is so important and of so universal a charac:
ter, that it cannot receive too close attention. If there has been
e hypothesis of the former fluidity of the earth, we have
deemed it necessary to discuss. The proofs of an approxi
uniformity of trend in the earth’s features, and consequently 01
prevailing structure in the very nature of the crust of our globe,
lace the question almost, if not quite, beyond doubt. ‘The
vestigations of W. Hopkins, Esq., showing on astronomical
that the whole is not now solid, afford still stronger confirmation
of the hypothesis, and fully authorize the adoption of it as a basis
of reasoning. ae
can be dee
amount of precession, cannot be less than one-fourth of the ear
at the mean inclination of the earth's axis to the place
have changed since solidification commenced.
Geological Results of the Earth’s Contraction. 89
It should be remarked, that in the following summary the
lu
many results, than has often been urged. We mention no authori-
ties for any of the conclusions stated, as they are already Sabet as
as known to the author, in the previous articles alluded to,*
General Review of the Consequences of the Earth’s Cooling.
- ag of the surface after the fluid material had lost
its perfect fluid
e change Cue slow, and hence the rock formed hav-
sufficient to give the crust apparent two directions of easiest fracture,
whose mean courses are .b. vibes nd N.E.b. N.; yet varying muc
ad probably depende nt to a great degree on the early direction of
tmal and isodynamic lines, “(thie Journal, iii, 392.
n the progress of this cooling, commencing with its first begin-
sing, the surface necessarily presenting large circular or elliptical areas
hs continued mss as centres of fluidity and eruptive action,t (ii, 345;
-) Subsequently, a gradual reduetian in size of these centres of
igneous action ais init frequent extinction.
aca
* We add here a reference to the valuable memoirs on sla cleavage, by W.
, Esq., in the Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., No. 7, p. 309, and n ta pp. 74-105,
See also this Journal, last volume, p- 430, and a 110, in this nu
See also on the effects of Bohne, De la Beche’s om Coobernil, Devon
and W. Somerset, 8vo, London, 183 P d w sa
? - 9
: Long sustained heat of a requisite and searcely varyi ng temperature, is ae
essential circumstance demanded for the distinct crystallization of mos minerals
os
in aa ong koe! known eles va streams after be eat incrusted over,
ly or irregu-
en years ooling. Yet they pass to the cold state too rapidly
i for a ail éeyetallization 2 all the several iauiediows of the rock, and thus
te the absolute necessity of the condition state
re, that a granite-like saakutoah’ ote Oe cool. ab
Gi,
femark satther € that # a long-contin aoe uniform hd magus of some am
ee, is a condition of the greatest importance in chemical combination. “he
wher the most complex compositions take nd when the requisite degree
of heat cific a is aan ined, and the means of sustaining an stittna ett
ture are at hand, we may predict that some chemical compositions wil
be made € to hat 1 ire indirect processes. The reason
ace di Mf which now require indirect p s
for * hes ha B, if Mee clair that with difference of temperature 1s connecte
" Fiber, ’and difference of eee A power both cohesive and chemical.
Wel 3 p the surface of the as also are many of the points here
mentioned, (ii , 335.) "See Beer and Madler's charts
Szcoxp | Szrizs, Vol, IV, No. 10.—Saly, 1847. 12
90 Geological Results of the Earth's Contraction.
A boiling movement or circulation (up at centre and down around
the sides) in the vast circular areas of igneous action, owing to escap-
ing vapors, and dependent mainly on the jemperatere being greatest
below at centre and least at the surface and ‘laterally.* As this circu
latory or cyclosis movement occurs in material whose mineral ingredi-
ents or products differ in the temperature of solidification or of fo orma:
tion, it determines to some extent the distribution of these mineral con
stituents, and of the rocks which are formed. In later periods,
cause Ere ee a feldspathic centre to volcanic penta having basal-
tic sides, (ii, 343.
s refrigeration went on, the centres of eruption becoming mostly
extinct over large areas, and remaining still active over other areas of
as great or greater extent :—for cooling, wherever commenced, would
relation to the structural lines,) and so gradually ‘cmerEe the wee
area and encroach upon the more igneous portio
If. Contraction, as a consequence of solidification, attended oT :
a diminution of the earth’s oblateness
a. Rate of contraction in different parts unequal, according to. ‘the
progress of refrigeration; and after the formatio or ot a crust, as
beneath the crust than in the crust itself, (iii, 96, 181.)
b. Contraction beneath the crust causing a ada of the suri
. Subsidence greatest where the crust was thinnest or most yie
D
stiffened by cocling ;—the large areas that continued to abound in is
ous action therefore becoming in process of tim epressed thé
those areas that were early free (or mostly so) from such action,
ae 3; iil, 181.
. Subsidence of the surface progressive ; or, if the arched crust
aes subsidence, a cessation, until the tension was such as to cal
fractures, and then a more or less abrupt subsiding, (iii, 96.)
ferent parts, and also in early periods from extensive igneous ac
(ili, 95, 181.)
III. Fissures and displacements of the crust, owing to -
contraction below it drawing it down into a smaller
arc ; also, from a change in the earth’s oblateness.
a. Fissures influenced in direction by the structure of the eal
' ¢erust,—because of the existence of such a structure, and also
*
The boiling action in Kilauea, inka ap ears in general character, cl0
Hike that of boiling water. In the great 0 feet in diameter, there is
of jets over the surface prec ity in a boiling fluid, wi
ear the no
so remarkable that it “eo Bes gs accounted for by supposing that a
pre of fire here cam the surface, and aan sete Fe afier |
istance visible. :
Geological Results of the Earth’s Contraction. 91
the tension causing fractures would be exerted with some reference to
the structural lines, the tension and the structure being both a simulta-
neous consequence of cooling, (iii, 394.
b. Direction of fissures modified by the relative positions of the large
areas of unequal contraction, and whatever the actual course, frequently
attended by transverse fractures, (iii, 395, 396.
¢. As the force of tension acts tangentially in a great degree, (like
he borders of large subsiding areas sooner or later experiencing
deep fissurings and extensive upliftings through the tension or horizontal
force of the subsiding crust; these upliftings frequently in parallel se-
ties, of successive formation, or constituting a series of immense paral-
ges, instead of being single un-
Structure of the earth’s crust; ranges som
aving a general conformity to the outlines of contracting areas, or be-
Cause proceeding from an inequality of force along parallel lines of ten-
sion over a subsiding area,* (iii, 185, 385.)
_ IV. Escape of heat and eruptions of melted matter from below
through opened fissures.
_@. Igneous ejection of dikes an effect and not a cause of displace-
ments, (iii, 99, 185, , n+
6 Some points in the wider fissures continuing open as vents of erup-
tion. The outlines of large contracting areas being liable from the
Cause just stated to deep fissurings, these therefore likely to about
most in volcanic vents, (iii, 98, 186.
¢. Heat from many fissures giving origin to hot springs.
(Ue
bg The writer would remark here, in order not to be misunderstood, that in ae+
wee evati es of fissures, by the lateral
les he ros a
Borneo, and that by East Mindanao, Sangir and North Celebes,) as well as
es in the mou 388.
te
92 Geological Results of the Earth's Contraction.
d. Distribution of the heat attending submarine action, causing ree
morphic changes
V. Earthquakes, or a vibration of the earth’s crust, consequent
on a rupture, internal or external, and causing vibrations of the
sea besides other ce, (iui, 181 e me
VI. Epochs in geological history, (iii, 187.)
VII. Courses of mountains and coast lines, and general fort of
continents, determined to a great extent by the general direction
of the earth’s cleavage structure, and the position of the large
areas of greatest contraction.
Continents (or areas of comparatively slight contraction) oft
therefore present ranges of mountains near their borders,
ese mountains are highest and abound most in volcanoes around —
the largest ocean, (the Pacific, iii, 398.) Thus the existence of
such continental areas determined the existence of the mountains
they contain ; and also the mountains in their turn, determined to
some extent the position and nature of subsequent deposits form-
ed around them, effecting this either directly, or by influencing
the courses of ocean currents during partial or entire submergel-
ces, or by determining i outlines of ancient seas of different _
epochs. According to this view, the general forms of continents, —
and those of the seas, however modified afterward, were to 4
great extent fixed in the earliest periods by the condition and
nature of the earth’s crust. 'They have had their laws of growth,
involving consequent features, as much as organic princes he
this remark, we refer not, under the _“_ continent, to the sit
Bas
“
f heat, going on for ages,
the fractures attending the — folding and uplifting of strata w!
the sea. Similar views, of earlier date, are offered by ae Beche, in his
‘ omerset, 8yo, 1839. The i
zation of the anthracite coal of the rem ab aged fe tie to be attributed
ogers niger! to this cause. (Trans. . Amer. Geol. and &
73.) | va
yr er
=
J
ae
®
ad:
>
=
°o
9
°
fond
as
°
=
Ss
=]
[=]
Gerhardt’s Organic Chemistry. 93
Arr. XII.—Review of the Organic Chemistry of M. Cartes
GrRHARDT.*
ascribed to the great difficulty of classifying the immense array
of facts, and harmonizing the various conflicting theories—a task
indispensable as a preparation for such a work and at the same
time exceedingly delicate.
Liebig in his Traité assumed as the basis of his system, the
heory of compound radicals, and commences with the asser-
Hon, that “organic chemistry is the chemistry of compound radi-
cals.” Is Was a most ingenious application of the electro-
chemical philosophy of Berzelius to the investigation of this class
of compounds, and was supported by so many analogies as to
tender it very probable; at the same time it admitted the appli-
cation of the received nomenclature to these bodies. These rad-
leals are generally however purely hypothetical, and when we
are able to isolate substances having the composition assigned to
; they are found to possess none of the properties which
theory would require. Recent experiments have shown that
melion and mellonids have not the composition ascribed to them
by Liebig, and that mellon cannot be regarded as a compound
- Cyanogen and kakodyle must however be excepted, as
eompounds which comport themselves im many respects like ele-
mentary bodies : |
u ary 5 5 j ;
The progress of discovery has shown, that this hypothesis is
put poorly adapted to form the basis of a system of classification,
or the discovery of nearly every new body requires the assump-
tion of an imaginary compound to explain its reactions in accord-
ance with the theory of radicals; and so uncertain are the princi-
‘€s which are to direct us in the application of this theory, that
different chemists often assign very different rational formulas
‘© the same compound. ‘There have been not less than seven
- different formulas proposed, to express the arrangement of the ele-
ments in alcohol; each author seeking by his own to explain —
ue practical relation. Thus cards it as the bi-hy-
drate of olefiant gas; Liebig as the hydrated protoxyd of ethyle,
Witte sien yn eee ans ORE
* Précis de Chimie Organique ; par M. Cuartes Geruanpt, Professeur a la
3 od f © zm 0. ,
Faculté des S 8vo. Paris, (Fortin, Masson et
Cie.) ne Sassen wa ort pl Plage oe» Me of M. Gerhardt’s valu
able work, to M
£. "
frre r. Tuomas 8. Honr, lately from the Laboratory of Yale College,
and now Chemi: to the jogivel. koxwagik tah Canadas. "
94 Gerhardt’s Organic Chemistry.
letters in an anagram, as the case may require. M. Liebig seems —
to have felt its deficiencies, for after describing in the first vol-
ume of his Traité, a number of bodies as derivatives of compound
radicals, in the succeeding portions of the work he returns to the
old divisions of acids, alkalies, essential oils, ete. By)
his mode of viewing organic compounds resulted from the
idea of dualism in chemical compositions, which had found advo-
cates in the great majority of chemists since the days of Lavoisier, —
and has been perpetuated by the received system of nomenclature:
And although there have been at different times those who have |
and .
KS among its adherents the most distinguished chemists of
France. It rejects entirely the idea of a binary arrangement m
attempted some
of the metalli
Gerhardt’s Organic Chemistry. 95
_ There are however some exceptions to this law; a few syn-
thetical processes are known by which we can unite the ele-
ments of simpler compounds to form one more complex. 'T'wo
polymeric bodies are known which are formed by a grouping to-
gether of several molecules of aldehyde; and many of the essen-
tial oils undergo a similar change by action of sulphuric acid.
he decomposition of organic substances by heat offers some re-
markable instances of this kind; in the dry distillation of wax
:oH,,O, we obtain paraffine, which is C, ,H, ,.
_In view of these relations, observes our author, “we may con-
der all organic substances as the result of the combustion of
others more rich in carbon and hydrogen, or reciprocally as the
. Ple and complete manner, which does not have recourse to hy-
— “ — confines itself strictly to the limits of experience.
“In the examination of organic substances, we observe that
bes which correspond in their chemical ae oe present
— ion in the proportions of their <
elements. “The alcohols, embracing wood-spirit, spirit of wine,
* 2
_ mula; the equivalent ratio between the. proportions of
and hydrogen must also be identical. Formic acid CH,
_ tie acid C,H, O,, valerianic acid C,
%6 Gerhardt’s Organic Chemistry. 7
potato-oil and ethal, are examples; their composition is resp
tively CH ,O,, C, H ,O,C,H,,O0 and C, ,H,,0.* ws
if = single equivalent ‘of oxygen which each of them con
s, were united with two equivalents of the hydrogen to form
water, aie: carbon and hydrogen in the residue of each would be —
in the proportion of 1 to 2. By oxydizing agents the ale
lose two equivalents of hydrogen and gain one of oxygen, giving —
rise'to the formic, acetic, valerianic and ethalic acids, in each ha ‘
the proportions of these elements still bear a similar relation t0 —
each other. Hence if we know the composition of any. deriva- §
tive of spirit of wine, we can at once foresee that of ¢ a Si A
product derived from any other body of the group.
Substances like these having a likeness in characters ¢
— a similarity of constitution are denominated homo
and are to be carefully distinguished from those which
each pian merely in physical characters, and which
analogues. For example, wood-spirit resembles acetone i
inflammable, odorous, very volatile, and soluble in water, while F
fore which contain the one O, and the other O,, or one N
the me cannot be inal onan while bodies con
6: H,, or H,,, may very well be so, as in t
hols “alsendlen ieee: M. Gerhardt has adopted some genele —
formulas to express these relations; R, representing the carburels _
of hydrogen; RO, those bodies which like alcohol, contain one —
equivalent of oxygen; while other oxygenized com
designated as RO,, RO,, &c: Those containing ni
represented in a similar manner, thus RN, RN,O
In order that two or more bodies may be homologu
sufficient that they can be represented by the same genera
H,,0,;,00n
vo Hy, O, are designated by the ‘general formula RO,,
formulas it will. be oe that our author divides the qui
Sabet water . The equivalent of most of orgs
usually adopted, for reasons W
. Gerhardt’s Organic Chemistry. 97
each of them R represents a compound in which the carbon and
hydrogen are in the proportion of 1:2. (These bodies are homo-
logues, and the relation of their elements is such that they may ev-
idently be derived from each other by the abstraction of equal
equivalents of carbonic acid CO, and water H,O. This is
then the most simple ratio, and is selected as the term of com-
parison. It is not however the most frequent; generally the hy-
os is less than two, and when it exceeds it, the excess is
, more than two equivalents.
“When homologous bodies are decomposed into other homolo-
gues, they lose or fix atomically the same quantities of carbonic
acid, water, oxygen, &c.”” This principle is illustrated by the
group of alcohols so often referred to; when converted into hy-
drocarbons, they give up one equivalent of water, and in the
formation of acids they severally lose H, and fix O. From this
it follows that a geometrical ratio between the elements of ho-
Fe: eee, ,
4
us substances is not necessary ; bodies having the follow-
proportions of C and H may be homologues:
H
Rol tirte=..13.(.24-2) 4: 4= 4;( 8-4)
BER Bre.22( 44-2) 6: 8= 6:(12-4)
meet AR 531042) 8:12= 8:(16—4)
ing Beit:: 34=16 : (3242) 16 : 28=16 : (32-4)
de ,
2 ments. In the first group, each compound by losing in equiv-
alents of hydrogen is reduced to the normal ratio, and in the
Second, the addition of four is required.
nh 1s
S it is expressed by a similar exponent with the sign minus ( — ).
Wood-spirit CH; O, alcohol C,H, 0, potato-oil C, H,, 0
ay oe C8 ..O by this notation, homologues of the
& number of equivalents of hydrogen equal to twice that of “pf
the carbon, (this bein ion of 1:
g the proportion of L: : .
the excess or deficiency of hydrogen is the same in both ; a ae
hether they can be expressed by the one formu
eon Sens, Vol. IV, No. 10.—July, 1847. 13
98 Gerhardt s Organic Chemistry.
The salicylic acid C,H,O,, and the anisic C,H, O,; are
monobasic and contain three equivalents of oxygen; in ‘the first,
the deficiency of hydrogen is 14—6=8, and the second =16—
8=8. Theseacids may then be represented by the formula R-*O,.
This proportion between the elements of a compound does
not, however, necessarily — a homology ; there are some ex-
ceptions which depend in some way upon the peculiar grouping -
of the elements. ‘Thus ordinary ether C,H, , O, is represented
by the same general formula as alcohol Rt O, but the chemical —
characters of the two are entirely different and ‘do not allow us to
consider them homologues. It is then necessary to add asa con-
dition of imma a similarity of chemical cecraea ae por gs |
arrangement which will always be correct, because it is fi
in the constitution of the substances themselves. .
he important relations which the combustible elements sus
to their carbon,” and M. Gerhardt has accordingly constructed
upon this basis a clieaaididaaiie i which all organic substances
are arranged in a tabular form. Those containing the
at
signated by the number of equivalents of that substance. Ea
family is divided into the carburets of hydrogen and those ¢ot-
taining oxygen and nitrogen, so that we have R, RO,, RN, &e.
top are marked at the head of their respective columns, the pro-
portions of hydrogen. This — i better understood - a —_
of a part of the 1st and 2d famili
'Family.|Gen. formula. Rr? R
‘ {C.H,, C.H,,
- oe: acetene { pes ae gas.
RO i) alcoh ie
at A ats ie ot aldehyde.
: hg iO.
acetic acid.
ie C,H,045
| f Cott
{oan =
marsh gas, S
CH,0, CH; oxyd |
wood-spirit. res ees carbon.
{ CH,0,, CO,, cra
formic acid. | : bonic acid gas”
Gerhardt’s Organic Chemistry. 99
By this arrangement we are able at once to give a new substance
a place, and to determine its relation to other series of compounds ;
those bodies which are homologues are always found in the same
vertical column, and hence in looking over the table, we see at
what families homologues of any particular form exist,
and how these may be formed from other bodies of the same
family. This may be illustrated by an extensive class of homol-
ogous acids of the form’ RO,, which are here given with their
lies and formulas
1. Formic, OO. he te Le
— 2. Acetic, H, O, | 12. Lauric, Sey | beam
3 Metacetonic,C, H, O, | 13. Cocinic, 0,,H,,02
4. Butyric C, Hy OU. [te Myrimac, . Wig Shae ee
5. Valerianic, C re: a 5 kage
6. Caproic, C, H,.O, | 16. Ethalic, C,,H,,9,
7. Enanthylic, Cc, H,,0O, | 17. Margaric, C,,H,,9,
8. Caprylic, ©, H..O, | 18. Anamiritic, C,,H,,0,
9. Pelargonic, C, H,, 0, | 19. Stearic, Cis
10. Capric, eH. .0,
_ The acids of the Ist, 2d, 5th, and 16th soeeilics are derived
directly from alcohols of the formula R*+20; and in the 2d we
find aldehyde C, H, O, a derivative of sinahol: Pes fixes one
‘equivalent of oxygen ” _ the acid. Spermaceti in the 16th
combining with an seit 2 of oxygen; it is consequently
a homologue of aldehyde. No homologues of alcohol are
known in the other families; but in butyral C, H, O, and bees-
C,, H,, O, we have bodies corresponding to aldehyde, and.
enanthole and menthol are probably the aldehydes of the 7th and
10th families. We may anticipate that future researches 1
discover an aldehyde and alcohol for each of these acids, and fill
gh the 11th and 15th families by a similar series. our acids
this group have been added to the list within ee last two
years,* and butyral was but recently discovered asa product of
the destructive distillation of butyrate of lime. — Lae ear
ng that ethal, an alcohol, a4 organ ne ac pot-
upon spermaceti its corr ng al : :
obtain aldehydes f from bat WE and acids, and alcohol Is "rom
lic or azoleic, “
» the metacetonic, discovered by Goulet) ; ee igo, ob ie soli % ‘
vaste not jot: to be |
ree tek for. 7.
reo i ae Tor ;
ae
Ee
ge
o
Be
Be
Ss caniptire ot nape wi ith a new acid, the ¢ caprylc.
100 Gerhardt’s Organic Chemistry.
In this series we observe a regular gradation from the i
soluble formic and acetic acids to the solid fatty acids at the
te of the scale. Those from the 4th to the 10th inelde
sive are oily and sparingly soluble, and present a regular increase
of about 20° Centigrade in their boiling points; higher in the
scale they are solid at the ordinary temperature, and “the stearic
group, with the exception of the formics, are produced in t
oxydation of oleic acid by nitric acid.* Stearic acid by the. at
tion of the nitric loses two equivalents of carbon and four of
hydrogen i in the form of water and carbonic acid ; and yields the
margaric ; which by a farther oxydation affords several of the
volatile acids of the series. The other solid acids yield the same
results, and are perhaps sagetbaaiahl products in the hat eee of
the margaric by nitric acid.
By the action of nitric acid upon wax, we oxydize a
of its carbon and hydrogen, and obtain a series of bodies lower -
ocess, it cannot yield succinic acid, which ielokgt to sie) Ath
mily, but we obtain instead its homologue in the 2d family,
oxalic acid.
The results of science are continually demonstrating th
versality of the maxim of Linneus, Natura non Jactt
We see bodies posse ssing the most dissimilar physical characte
but agreeing in constitution, when arranged acccording to t
chemical relations exhibiting such a gradation that it is - i
which but one or two homologues are now known to te eee
seo of a complete series, __ a
Phe e ia. tee which we have given, will illustrate the features :
classific founded ed as it is u the
Scientific Intelligence. 101
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
J. Cuemistry anp Puysics.
l. Congelation of Mercury in three —. sto virtue of ve ee
roidal state, in an incandescent crucible, (Lett om M. Faraday to
Boutigny, Ann. de Chim. et de Phys., xix, tosh aoe ; 383. )—In
producing congelation of mercury by virtue of the spheroidal state, |
first heated a crucible to redness and maintained it at this temperature ;
1 then introduced some ether, and then solid carbonic acid; into this
mixture in a spheroidal state, I inserted a metallic capsule containing
about 31 grammes of mercury, and in two or three seconds it was
solidified. It seemed strange indeed that mercury put into a red hot
crucible — come out congealed.
. w Test for Prussic Acid, and on a simple Method of
preparing nes Siiphecaaned of Ammonium ; by Prof. Lizzie, (Liebig’ ~
Annalen, Jan., 1847; Chem. Gaz., April, 1847.)—When some sul-
phuret of amamor nium and caustic ammonia are added to a concen-
trated aqueous solution of prussic acid, and the mixture heated with
a addition of pure flowers of sulphur, the prussic acid is converted
a few minutes into sulphocyanid of ammonium. This metamor-
Pot depends on the circumstance, that the higher sulphurets of am-
monium are instantly deprived by the cyanid of ammonium of t
excess of sulphur they contain above the monosulphuret ; for sana
if a mixture of prussic acid and ammonia be add ed to the pentasul-
of ammonium, the solution of which is of a deep yellow et,
and the whole gently heated, one sulphuret of ammonium is soon
colorized; and when the clear colorless liquid is evaporated, and the
admixture of sulphuret of astantall expelled, a white saline mass is
obtained which dissolves entirely i in alco |. The solution yi
ng or a Dai colorless crystals of pure sulphocy
monium. O small quantity of fre spe ce moniur
fo convert, in thn. presence of an excess of sulphur, u unlin
cyanid of i
ay
boiling, and kept at this temperature ae
The monium has been expelled and the liquid has again be ee Ae 4
de posited, or excess of, sulphur is is now removed by f t 10 3 oo
the liquid eva evaporated to c rystallization. In this wards 33 o —
€
- 100-105; Chem. Gaz.
102 Scientific Intelligence. °
of dazzling white’ dry sulphocyanid of ammonium are obtained, which
may be employed as a reagent, and for the same purpose as the sulpho-
cyanid of potassium. Of the 2 oz. of sulphur added, 3 an oz. is
undissolved. es
The behavior of the higher sulphurets of ammonium towards prussic
acid furnishes an admirable test for this acid. couple of drops of a
prussic acid, which has been diluted with so much water that it no
4
; Perle: i
longer gives any certain reaction with salts of iron by the formation of a
"
prussian blue, when mixed with a drop of sulphuret of ammonium ant
heated upon a watch-glass until the mixture is become colorless, yields
a liquid containing sulphocyanid of ammonium, which produces with
persalts of iron a very deep blood-red color, and with persalts of cop-
per, in the presence of sulphurous acid, a perceptible white precipitate
of the sulphocyanid of copper. ay
4. Detection of minute traces of Alcohol ; (Monthly Jour. Med. Sci, —
Dec., 1846.)—Dr. R. D. Toomson proposes in place of the distillation
of a liquid suspected to contain alcohol, and trusting to the odor of |
alcohol in the product, which is the usual mode
chromic acid, which as is well known, produces a characteristic eme:
and Barreswil, h
=
Py
Chemistry and Physics.
103
the same time much moved. ‘The gastric juice thus obtained was almost
The stomach of a dog of the size
of a poodle contained from fifteen to forty gr
ms. of a liquid, which flow-
ed out spontaneously ; that of a large pointer, from thirty to ninety grms,
From this fluid a magnesian :
% 5 ) per cent. of magnesia, 62°122 La, and 21-212
Was obtained by exhausting the
6 er Ct BAe yee A j
. Equivalent number of Titanium, (L'Institut, Mareh 10, 1847.)
~he equivalent of titanium has been determined from the ecard of
Wanium by M, Isidore Pierre, Professor at Bordeaux. He obtained, in ~
& series of five experim
104 Scientific Intelligence.
portion of the chlorid is ry to penne during the experiment, -
through the humidity of the air; and i S way M. Pierre accounts
for the variation in’ the pone results. oe resi that the first three
— scale, 25°13) for the equivalen eo
7. On the compounds of Iron with Soda ; by M. Karsten, (Bericht
Berlin Akad., Nov. 5, 1846; Chem. Gaz., March, 1847.)—The deters q
mination of the amount of carbon ins the differems kinds of bar ¥
substances takes place in indefinite proportions, uninterruptedly, from
0 to the maximum amount of carbon, which is about 5°93 per cent.
The classification of the carburets of iron in three divisions, bar iron,
steel, and pig iron, is consequently not necessary, i.e., not sequins rc
the combining proport — but wholly arbitrary.
o determine the amo’ nt of carbon, the best methods of separating
the carbon from iron setae mployed ; but in order to ascertain the
By elementary we with oxyd of copper, the carbon be-
ing calculated from the carbonic acid gas, 4-2
By elementary poh with sonal So a potash and chro-
mate of le a 5
exper - - -
By decomposition of obloria of copper - - -
experiment, - - - -
By decomposition of perchlo ria of iron:
1. Experiment with sublimed chto#id of iron, -
_ 2. With perchlorid prepared in the moist way,
By decomposition of thie of silver,
2d experiment,
As all bar iron contains more or tex casas some decision
- made as to the limits up to which it should be called bar iron,
below eh steel. If the limits are fixed by tices that bar
steel whic h becomes so hard by cooling in yr ig having
ceria that it gives sparks with quartz, this effec
- the iron has taken up 0°5 of carbon.
Sse
»
Chemistry and Physics. 105
ty; with more carbon the ou te increases, but the malleabili-
ty and tenacity of the steel are diminished; when it amounts to 1°75
per cent. the steel is very slightly malleable ; with 1-9 it can scarcely
be welded red-hot, and with 2 per cent. it breaks to pieces under the
mer. In this state the steel might already be called pig iron; but
may be beaten in the cold, and does not possess the property of sep-
paral @ portion of its carbon i in the: en of graphite when allowed to
cool very slowly pit fusion. This occurs only when the carbon
amounts to 2:25 3 per cent. If, therefore, a jine of demarca-
tion were to Stee wn Se ton steel and pig iron, which should be
a upon the combining proportions, 2°3 would characterize this
The more carbon the pig iron takes up, from that minimum to the
maximum of 5-93 per cent., the lighter does the color become, and the
greater the hardness of the white variety, which is analogous to hard-
ened steel. ’ The gray variety, with an equal amount of carbon, which
_* analogous to unhardened steel, will be softer, that is, will separate the
graphite on solidification, the slower the cooling. The gray pig
sh contains the same bon as the corresponding
When abe solidification is sudden, gray iron is scarcely formed,
oscause the entire amount of carbon remains chemically combined
h the iron, and is not separated as graphite
lo 1 preparing cast steel, the process is purely empirical, the eye of
~ Workmen being the weight and balance in determining the amount
f carbon j in the material to be employed. To manufacture cast steel
with certain properties, those materials must be selected in which t
curately calculated proportions, produce a cast steel containi
= Ratan’ s aia phe ri to this ee
large quantity of alumina in the analyses of some
ae
&’Mount of carbon is s known, and which, by being fused together in ac- es
ing that
bronzes iron
res, d, it was found nen it origi .
ae in the soda, which had been kept for some aby the ‘ola | — Ee heat
aeapncotten is uniform in strength, and fires quicker than the fines
whi Tock is variable in texture, and liable to be crossed by wae
ou hy f they be slight, may destroy the correctness of the result with-
' being discovered by the operator. —
140 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
The difference in the action of the two agents, that of the powder
being slow, that of the cotton sudden, the imper rfections of the
ber of experiments. Great care was taken in the experiments described
below, to compare fairly the two explosives.
The regent was prepared with the passat acids of commerce;
sulphuric, sp. gr. 1°85; nitric, sp. gr. 1-49; ; time of immersion about —
twenty minutes. After the superfluous acid was thoroughly: ‘removed -
or neutralized, the cotton was immersed in one of the e oxygenating $0
ion pgm by Prof. Schonbein, and dyed a light straw bagi
ort, it was the article of commerce, prepared by Messrs. C. & F.
leenitiy of Philadelphia, who are patentees of gun-cotton for the nie
States. sample accompanies this n
In May last the writer entered the wallace at os i exam:
ined and measured the bores in which the blasts were to be scharged,
to in the table below. hee notin ng the e eet » the opinion of the miners
themselves is given. When the results soni better than were expected
rom the proposed charge of powder, they were marke ervor.
When less, moderate ; and when equal, goo
The a: nen from the tables is believed to be a fair sam
of the whole. ery instance the writer was present during the
charging, and dncharging of the blasts, fe all were made at | least 50” e
feet below the surfac
Extract from Table of Experiments.
s|{ $ £1 3° 1S" 14
e, Side Sok tee eg Or
s| ooh s|3|selesl./5/5| [4 4
S fg €|2|)5e/stigsiale|.¢|4
s| 8 ei] si|zeliesiesi2/2| &| 2
elo ay man eek are fd geo ee te
hal “th Inch.iInch. Inch. Inch.’ Oz =
tough slate wit
So & ; ‘oti SF } 18 | 14 |paper 6 | 93) 1 |good|none
4 C. a 16 14 hs 6 93 1 8° rd One
5\powd. * 18 | 1% -./6 | . |modJde
ie We 13 5 - | -. | . |modjdense
| Se a & cae? 17} 18 8 10 | 13'sup. jnone
9| C. jred ash coal, 451} 14] . - | 19 | 161184) Q4sup. |’ “
10) €. “ 14 |paper| 12 | 10 4 1 «|e
12|.C. |white ash coal, 36) 14] “ |10] 6 “
13|_C. 36 ol CI ee 134114 Sroa. =
June 7
Dowonre and Mz Hi on chs ing gun-eoton to Fa ethet
obtained an incomplete solution ; re n analysis the part ¢
formula C,,H,O,+2NO sicltieas of Xyloidine
these bere ,) and the insoluble, the ala 2 20,-43N0,- MH :
>
, enling, the SHO, w
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 141
two added together, ose C,,H,,0,,-++-5NO,, Pelouze’s formula for
roxyline.* With cane sugar, glucose, mannite, sugar of milk, dex-
_trine, and gum, acetate fulminating compounds have been formed b ..
these cena They have succeeded in ONO the nitric man-
Ox.
its texture should iform; the surface very omaaie
is paper is to be floa ¥: n the surface of a solution of one part
_ of silver in thirty ~ distilled water, observing the usual pre-
paced ia a large vessel full ofp pure ama ti is next hung up to dry
rthus prepared shoul p rom the light and presery:
Tr 4 paste case, but not packed too Mioeslyes ‘twill 7 for months.
hevoatons kept in vessels covered by opaque paper ma used to
“Tot taker a proof, a smooth glass is made quite level upon a suitable
support, and upon it are poured a few drops of a solution of 6 parts
hitrate of silver, 11 parts crystallizable acetic acid, and 64 parts distilled
Water; (half of the water should be taken to dissolve the nitrate, and
i remainder added about an hour after the acid has been mixed with
on.)
the firs
t por
he nitrated
paper z next to be applied to this liquid on the glass, t
side down rds, and sanciee by the hand until there isa per ite"
fact with ‘hie glass without any folds or bubbles. One or more plec
‘moist paper, according to the thickness, are then to be placed _
this ; next a second glass of the same size, and the whole being properly
Secured, i is used in the camera as a daguerreotype plate. fourth
re varies according to the temperature, and is about one-iou
that required for plates prepared with chlorid of iodine
ae ge
: sii the Soraniaet
from including with
* In Vol. iii, p. 295, there is an error por
=
142 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
e scraped upon it and 4
being
The positive proof is made by the usual process, the expose being
as far as possible to the direct sunlight ; about twenty minutes being ;
To fix this proof, it is to be taken into a darkened apartment, soaked
for fifteen minutes in pure water, and then put into a solution of J part
simple and of easy execution.
7. Report on the Aurora Borealis.—Aurores Boréales, 1
Acconfpagné d’un Atlas de 12 pl
Bravais, LiniignddK, et SILJIESTROM eee
The following notice of this great work is from M. Bravais. He si
rks; :
. : * i il
I have divided my general review of the subject into eight paragraphs.
In the first, I examine the much controverted question, as to the natu
*This is one of a series of twenty-six volumes of large Svo, and seven -
atlases, published as the results of “Voyages de la Commission Scientifique 4%
Nord, en Scandinavie, en Laponie, au Aire aux Ferde, pendant les année
é +
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 143
of — segments lying generally below the auroral arches, or at
to the orientation, the height, and the he er of the arches. I under-
stand by amplitude, the angular distance between the east and west
sides measured on the plane of the horizon and on the north sides of
_ tesky. At Bossekop, the summit of the arc is not only eight to ten
= degrees to the left of the magnetic north, but the deviation goes on in-
“ $ the arch rises from the north toward the zenith and from
the zenith 1 to the south. The amplitude increases quite regularly dur-
ing this movement of the arc. It does not become one hundred and
y Cegrees until the arch has passed the zenith to the pao part of
Sky.
It also results from our pisses: ov that the curve of the arch is
Similar to that of a small circle of the celestial sphere. This
small circle Erajecied u ef ia vertical ae ite eoeeins the cul-
. point
its connection with the theory ass'
the simultaneous variation ie the heights and amplitudes, (adopt-
ing the theory of Hansteen,) I have found the mean elevation above
the earth to be 227 kilometers, (140 miles Eng. statute,) which cor-
eee to the upper limits of our atmosphere, or the region of falling
“The t third f the aurora borealis.
paragraph is devoted to the rays 0
The ra ys ( s (steamers) are columns of light suspended in the air; they
sndergo refs id movement or changes, and appear to converge towa
the magnetic scniths where they thus form what is called the corona.
pee ole go bl ae ee ool i yaca
1838, 1839 et 840, sur la corvette La Recherche commandée par M. Fabvre, Lieut.
‘ ia anit pubhiés a reac du Roi sous la direction fast hi o Pxutieas
a Nord.”’
eolo ey
tal Ge raphy, by aes A
i and its Lite
€, 2 vols.; Zoology; Sink:
of the Vo oyage, = ols.
-
144 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
With reference to the relation between the column and the arche
have shown, in discussing our observations on partial corona, that
Bi
whence it is obvious that the simple ray is the result of an —_
ment of the auroral light in lines parallel to the dipping needle.
arched form results from this, that if two rays exist meas
they tend to place themselves-so that their common place shall be per
pendicular to the magnetic meridian, as if the equilibrium of two rays
were not stable except in this position. But how this condition of sta
bility is consistent with the idea that the rays have an electric sar
and origin, is yet enveloped in myste
minous currents, exhibited in*the ranges of columns, onl
either from the east to the west or the reverse, are not equally frequent
in the different directions ; thé same remark applies to the modes of
en in the arches from the north to the south and from the
uth to the north. I state the facts on this subject without pretending
ts offer any explanation
We have rved the extra-zenith corona so frequently, as to be
able to affiens a the coronas may appear in all possible directions
relation to the observer, and that their sedineciiows with the m
zenith is a simple result of linear perspective.
In the fourth paragraph I have treated of the auroral sheets.
fifth paragraph relates to the colors of the calenel lighty: wo
are less varied than sate supposed ; for but three or four
shades were observed b
In the sixth paragraph i ‘consider the facts which may lead he ob
server to suppose that the aurora is situated but a small distance from
hi Although believing that their appearances are mostly deceptive, i
I do not affirm that all observations of this kind hitherto made are!
cessarily incorrect. I next treat of a resemblance, between the mead p
orientation of cirro-cumuli clouds in parallel bands optically convergemy ‘
and auroral arches a
In order to detormine the altitude of auroral arches, M. ae Z
“eed pers oe eee at opposite extremities of a base of e,
rs (10 miles); and we arrived at rien result that the height at :
fekaee sri 50 elenetots (31 miles). A longer base is necessary [°°
a more precise determination. For sat investigations, the base line
should be about 100 kilometers ns (60 miles), and. in the direction
of a terrestrial magnetic meridia “of
e last paragraph c contains ee: remarks on the frequency :
the phenomena, its duration, ‘hour of appearance, its possible co
ance during a succession of days. I show that the € progressive |
urora, and sustains the view that it a. to our
and almost exclusively to its upper gions
Miscellaneous Inielligence. 145
8. Hieroglyphical Mica Plates from ihe Mounds; by E. Gzo.
Squier, {in a letter to Prof. Silliman.)—You have probably observed
of inscribed plates of mica were recently discovered, in excavating an
ancient mound near that place. These plates are represented, in the
account, as oval in shape, measuring seven by ten inches, and “ cover-
uncement has created some degree of interest, and elicited some in-
quiries, it will not be out of place to observe, that one of the plates has
n placed in our hands, through the kindness of a friend, residing at
the point mentioned. The form of the plates and their size are cor-
Posit of which occurs upon the Schuylkill, not far above Philadelphia.
Although the discoloration, following the planes of crystallization, falls,
ik iM places, into right lines, it seems utterly unaccountable that they were
. x ‘Mistaken for the work of man! This is another illustration of the
Be _ Nery loose manner in which. facts relating to our antiquities have been
Va : oose
ole. They were undoubtedly used for purposes of ornament. Mica
18 common in the mounds, sometimes cut into the form of scrolls and
other ornamental plates. I have taken a bushel of the sheets from a
Single mound.
9. Water-Power of Europe, (Mining Journal, April 10, 1847.)—A
been addressed to the
sat annually applied to the evaporation of the water on the surface of
the globe, and of the dynamic force of the streams of continents. He
; or, in other words, equal
fo melting a bed of ice of nearly thirty-five feet in thickness, if spread
Over the globe. The motive force of the streams in Europe is,
according to M. Daubrée, equal to between 273,508,970 and 364,678,620
om the 19th March, 1847. According to the mean of
tlons, its elevation was about 177 miles. A brilliant a
rors. lis was seen at New Haven, on that evening, but no aa
arch was visible bere up to 114.30. p, at. E. C, H.
zs, Vol. IV, No. 10.—July, 1847. 19
146 Bibliography.
11. Volcanic Eruption at the Cape Verds.—There was a ie
eruption about the Ist of April, on the island of Fogo, (of the A
Verd group,) which continued ten or fifteen days, throwing out chon
ers of earth and stones to a great height, and emitting huge streams
of lava, which, running down the mountain, destroyed many houses
and plantations, and caused some loss of life. All vegetation and ma-
ers of stones and the lava. The shock was distinctly felt on the neigh
boring islands, and caused much alarm at Port raya, where the vibra-
tions were very violent and almost unceasing for seven or eight days. :
The crater of Fogo is 12,000 feet above the sea, and eruptions occur ‘
once in twenty or thirty years.—Salem Reg. ay
12. Science and the Arts at Harvard.—The Hon. Assorr Law-
the invention and manufacture of Machine ne department 1s
already occupied by the Rumford Professor in that institution, Prof. ?
E. N. Horsf q . : -—
13. Association of American Geologists and Naturalists.—The F
(20th) of September, 1847, at 10, a. m., continuing for one week th i:
after. at age i Bin
Officers of the Association elected at the last meeting : Fabia
Chairman, Dr. Amos Binney.* . :
easurer, Prof. B. Sttuiman, Jr. ©
Secretary, Dr. J. Wyman. =
Standing Committee.—The President, Treasurer, and Secretary
ex officio. Dr. J. EF. Horgroox. Prof. H. D. Rocers. Prof. B. Et
LIMAN. Pres. E, Hircwcock. Wuittiam C. Reprie.p, Esq. L
NER Vanvxem, Esq. L. C. Becx. Joun L. Haves.
Local Commitiee.
Hon. Naruan Appieron. Dr. A.A. Goutm ssqta
Hon. Assorr Lawrence, Dr. D. H. Srorer., ~~
Joun A. Lowest, Esq. Dr. S...Casor, Jt. dice
Dr. Joun C. Warren. Dr,.C,. Te JACKSON nei ae
Prof, A. Gray. Francis Anger, Esq. ae
1. Elementary Geology;
President of Amberst College
tory notice by John Pye Smith,
York, 1847
—
Bibliography. 147
It isin some respects peculiar; its structure is highly methodical; the
subjects are presented in distinct propositions, with definitions, princi-
approbation from many geologists and reviews which are prefixed to
the work, especially the beautiful notice of the distinguished Dr. John
Whose impressions are obtained from nature quite as much as from
books ; whose facts are correct, whose views are sound and tenable,
and who is therefore a safe guide.
2. Dr. Manteli’s Geology of the Isle of Wight.—At the moment of
closing the present number, we have received a copy of this new and
ra work of Dr. Mantell, of which a fuller notice will be given
ter.
3. Medical Botany, or descriptions of the more important Plants
sed in Medicine, with their history, properties, and mode of adminis-
vation; by R, Ecesretp Guirrirs, M.D. Philadelphia: Lea an
Blanchard, 1847 ; pp. 704, 8vo. Illustrated by 338 wood-cuts.—The
author of this volume is well known to be particularly qualified for this
heey by his botanical, as well as medical and pharmaceutical
; and it strikes us, cu mination, that it has
|. Prepared with much care and faithfulness, and that it will take its
place at once as the standard work on the t in this country. A
without foundation in nature. The plants which are really important
i the materia medica are described in full,
*" Production ; the others are more briefly noticed ; nees
Which are faithifully made, both to the botanical and medical aban,
4, ea of the Barth
~ + Tinciples of Geology—or, the Modern Changes 2
nd its toto f ates LAs as illustrative of Geology; Seca
“ils, "7, Seventh edition, entirely revised, with plates, maps an? woo’
cals: London: John Murray. 1847.—This work, heretofore 1g e
A ahes and four duodecimo volumes, ned
i, agreeably to a modern
now appears In
s in scientific works of frequent
148 Bibliography.
it is unnecessary to say any thing of the excellence of a work, whose
oN eines has been long established and which no one can rea ad
t both pleasure and instruction. One of the most striking peculiarities Ma
in this edition is seen in the more frequent reference to American facts
with which the author’s two visits to this country and extensive travels
in . have made him acquainte
. A Dictionary a Modern Gardening ; by Gzo, Wm. _onnsox
1847. 1 vol. 12mo. te 635.—This is a useful sompunlioed of all :
a)
for the United pete: by judicious additions and omissions. The vol-
ues is abundantly illustrated with figures in the text. ‘The articles,
‘apple,’ ‘ pear,’ ‘cherry,’ ‘plum,’ ‘ peach,’ embrace a brief and judicious
selection of those varieties -~é ba which experience has shown to be
well suited to the United yr
Manual of d Making, comprising the location, construc-
tion, and improvement of Roads (common, Macadam, paved, plank, ete.)
d Railroads ; by Wm. Gituesris, A. ‘ey C.E., ee “of hi
Engineering = Union College. New York : A. S. Barnes & Co.
12mo. pp. 336. 1847.—If the well cxisbiuihed prince bp “of road build
ing, which are so plainly set forth in Prof. Gillespie’s valuable work,
and so well illustrated, could be once put into general use in this coun-
try, every traveller would bear testimony to the fact, that the author is
a public benefactor
" Thanesctiond of the American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia,
Vol. ix, New Series, part iii.— —p. 275. Description of New Fresh Water
and Land Shells, with figures ; by I. Lea.—p. 288. Observations
made in the years 1838-1843, to determine the magnetic dip and ine
tensity in the United States ; by John Locke, M.D., Prof. Chem. aod
Pharm. in the Med. Colle ege of Ohio.—p. 329, Observations? of the
magnetic dip made at several positions, chiefly on the southwestern and
northeastern frontiers of the United States, and the magnetic ree
at two positions on the river Sabine, in 1840; by Maj. J. D.
The following officers of this Society » were elected on January last.
President—Nathaniel Chapma
Vice-Presidents—R. M. Pushes; "MD, Franklin Bache, MDs
A. Dallas Bache, LL.D. 4
Secretaries—Hon. J. - Kane, Robley Dunglison, M.D., A. L. Bi
wyn, M.D., J. F. Fraze be
Dounseliors for Three Years—Robert Hare, M.D., Wm. Hembel, —
C. D. Meigs, M.D., rp Vethake. :
Curators—E. Peale, J. P. Wetherill, John C. Cresson.
reasurer—George Ord.
Biet
yey
ProcrEpines oF THE AMERICAN a ag ta Nosy ie iv,
eae mber, 1846.—p. 279, Letter from Dr. Franklin to Dr. Kimmersly,
effect of a so on Mr. Holder’ ty ale . 285, Observation by a
on the gn of wig of of heat, including hie. result that eras
thrown on r so as to produce a reduction of temperature.—p- 267;
marks on the Cocpascatar theory; Prof. Henry j
Bibliography. 149
7. Jan., Feb. and March, 1847.—p. 299, ae t of officers for the e yea
ey the C orpus luteum ; Dr, ‘Meig s.—p. 311, A missing star in Lalande’s s'Chart,
n probably to be “LeVerrier’s planasy pa pre pe: the position of this
Git in 1795; S. C. Walker
© Procerpincs or THE AcapEMy oF Naturat Scrences or PoitapELrn ATA
Vol. iii, No. 7, Jan. and Feb., 1847,—p. 143, Observation on fossil — in the
va Scotia coal mines, by R. Brown, Esq.; in which he remarks of one tree, “ it
has exposed two long roots, one branching to the north and the other to “the south,
about seven feet each way. They are very broad and flat, and are genuine Stig-
rte al ™ > Sat at ae at rootlets, but — areole are not to “ aber }
hav d some large pieces, as also some of the bark of the tree, which is
apparenily on irre ularly” fluted Sigillaria.’ nine 149, Description ean new Insects ;
S. Haldem lethsia haar peligro Chorea (n. gen.) pulsator, fe distincta,
Saihoote sisi ge icollis, Stenu Bp ea, Ploiaria macalat n the Cra-
nium of the Zeuglodon from the Up r Eocene of South stele M. Tuomey.
“Length 143 Salton greatest brea ae 4 in.; height 54. It was evidently a
i d
cea, ‘
54, Remarks on the birds observed in Upper California; Wm. a includes
6 new ate amza, instituted for Paras’ fasciatus, (Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., ii,
arious valuable observations on known species —New Coleoptera of
the Duhted. States; F. E£. Melsheimer : “pune species the genera Donacia, Or-
ni eruc
ycha, Graptodera, Systena, Crepido era, 1, Payliades, Aepinkors na, her thpen mis, —
lia, Chetocnema, erma, hrema molpus . Cryptoceph ~~ Mona
chus, Gastrophysa Phiedos, Tritoma, Triplax, rpeoperding rc a
a, Dr'Me aspis, Exochomus, Chilocorus, Seyinnt us. rip-
0. 8, ‘tien ch and April.—p. 185, Ay living hybrids in oad wa” between
Gui inea fowl and the ocay 58 ori at and W. Kite.—p. 190, Larva of
the Cicada septende —) Miss Morris.—p. 191, vicar of eat dust ve an-
thracite furnace flues; Prof. bith —p- 199, ¢ minidis Wilson
om Cuba ; _ a orageecte! —p. 200, Remarks on the birds ‘observed in sp
Charo Agassiz mentioned t fact ascertained pe saheves, that the
Wfishes of America sth Pee! om pair of gills less than those of the old world.
~P- 195, Microse copic exam n of Gun-cotton; Dr. Bacon.—p. 196 and 200,
Deseripti tion of New Shells of Fie Exploring Expedition, (three ahah tl of Partula,
sh bled one of Balea, five of A nella, seven of Helicina, nine of Cyclos-
» and four of Truncatella; A. A. erie p- >. 198, A new species 0: of Manatus,
ease 126, April, 1847.—On Genus of In-
ND ae, 5 . Hist. Oo. pril, _
avis Trachyphleus ; J. Walton.—A ah species of Dawsonia; R. ee > reville —
‘alves DES . er.
inhabitants of the No sg : Retz etzius, eee th _, Nem age ; -, ett
ms A © Arceuthobium n Oxycedri A. R. de —On — o nh ‘
s of 0 enus ste ictoracts pose eh “Sate
er er bai.
bather On the N dpec on de es,—On species ; Chevreu a
ee EL P, heap ae _ lear es 6 Bd poe the genus Godoy and its ana
rember On de Meduse of the
the Nomeridn; de Quatrfages Paley agen wd De
| ee 3 E. Forbes. era and specie ey
mt us Godoya and its analogues; E. lanchon.—On the Development of the
150 Bibliography.
vabrse and anomalous corolla in the Manumemecen ans papier 5 ae M
ibid, rongniart. dil
‘ : 6.—
schist of on M. Rouault.—On the elasticity and shite a
tissues of the human body; G. Wertheim.—Jan. 4, 1847.—On pyroxy! ine Pelo
nees; Peligot
ae: C
Arcuiv Fir Naxvaameeinmen Berlin, 4th Heft, 184 oie rd
Proteus; H. Freyer.—On t tractile cells of the embryo 0.0f of Planarias A. BD :
ret YOR oe ns, a. pe a ne site th
of Crustac ea, Fam. Cladocera; J. E. Shédler.—Notice e: works and imei ae
mammalia pi birds, for the per ied A. ee
APPE NDT:
Rerriniions, of Fossil Shells of the Collections of the Exploring Ex-
pedition u er the command of Cuartes WIi.xgs, U.S.N., obtained
1. Bellerophon undulatus. —Sparingly compressed, back of whorls
rounded, surface smooth, having a series of distant plipations crossing
ck parallel with the lines of growth, (or nearly V shape with the
angle rounded, ) giving it an undulate outline, plicae most abrupt on pos-
dilated laterally. Diameter of species 3 inch; thickness through the
centre g ~y an inch; about four tie ie in a distance of half an inch.
er s Hill
ameter. Resembles a Goniatite, but there are no septa.—Jllawarra.
3: Platyschisma ? depressum.—Large, very much depressed, subor-
dicular, spire very low; whorls three or tithe much flattened, back
kalau OW Fiat surface without markings pting strie of growt
Diameter 43 inches—Harper’s
_& P Drees. iri ;-filata.—Shell rather short turreted ; whorls
", Separated by a distinct suture, back tri-carinate, the middle carina
largest, subacute ; aperture orbicular.—Large specimens are ieloas lines
long, and five b: oad at base.—Harper’s Hi 1 and Ilawarr.
ee Pleurotomaria ears apsiga er depressed, whorls eo or five,
Fagg rounded, low-carinate, W n obsolete oes either ng eae
farina; vo lutions separated by a distinot suture.—Specim of an
tein in diameter, about al an inch in length. Big ive = ill.
Natica Tilaw
%. Patella tenella. a Shéet F desen apex pointed, slightly recuryed,
pot projecting beyond base; base oblong ovate, narrow est benea ae the
mals len ngth about twice greatest breadth. Lens th, of base 8 of an
et ts of an inch, On the specimen, which is a neatly pre-
trated b is
a detailed he of these and other fossils yt moar vgs al yes
ures, will a cones
j the Government Geological . 7
be per ready oe se ae hs interesting associations of ies and sera a ms
» Perceived, eo a sitar would remark, that the species with few e a aor oe
pbiained by hi Pat the localities. He offers here no opinion as Pp
: received
sett writer would acknowledge the very cnacntial aid he has kindly
Agassiz in the study of many of the species.
152 Fossils from Ausiralia.
served cast, only a small portion of the original shell remains,
which it appears that the surface was smooth, and marked only by fa
lines of growth.—Harper’s Hitt. “3
PentaDiA, (nov. gen.)—This name is proposed for singular flat fos: —
sils, which have one side quite smooth, the other delicately and closely
marked with parallel subcrenulate ridges having the angles of a regular
pentagon and concentric. Two of the specimens are casts of the exte-
ance of a Spatangus. si
entadia spatangus.—Form pentagonal or approximately twelve
sided, suborbicular, with five broad and rounded folds (one |
eg a
ais 5
aes
7 eo
the five angles at the centres of the triangular sections ; and at the cen
Diameter 2 inches ; thickness $ inch.—J/lawarra. itt
entadia reniformis.—Resembles a single segment of the prece-
ding, with a broad lateral wing-like prolongation, nearly as large as the
segment. It is quite thin, and its shape is reniform, though somewliat —
arcuately flexed. The specimen is undoubtedly a perfect individual.—
10. Lentadia trigona.—Shape triangular, slightly arcuately flexed
It is thicker than either of the preceding, and has a rounded margia-
haf ees
Z
11. Lingula ovata.—Quite small, regularly broad ovate, acute at beaks
margin not at all truncate; valves thin, very convex; surface smooth
** squarish.”"—I/lawarra. -
12. Terebratula amygdala.—Qblong ovate, attenuate above, thickest
about the centre, valves about equally and regularly convex, inferior
tata.— Illa : de
13. Terebratula elongata.—( Verneuil, Paleozoic Rocks of Rt
P- 63, pl. ix, fig. 9.)—Scarcely differs from this species as desc!
and figured by Verneuil.—iawarrégiis i: se at ad ee
7
;
Fossils from Australia. 153
14. Productus fragilis—Subquadrate, with front angles rounded,
er broader than long, hinge line straight, nearly of the breadth of
_ the shell, front straight, upper valve very convex, irregularly longitudi-
nally striated, with some concentric plications, sometimes with occa-
sional rudiments of spines, front and sides rather abruptly reflexed ;
beak small, projecting but little below the hinge line, and the apex
not much inflexed.—Length of hinge line 14 inches; depth of con-
cavity below, over half an inch.—This species is very unlike the bra-
chytherus in its less prominent beak and longer hinge line. It is near
rugosus, but is much thicker and more convex above.—ZIllawarra.
15. Solen (Solecurtus ?) ellipticus—Shell very slightly convex, very
regularly elliptical, with no trace of a beak, breadth little less than
half the length, anterior part rather more than one-third the whole
length ; smooth with fine scarcely apparent concentric striz, supero-
anterior margin slightly depressed, and perhaps two or three faint radi-
ations from the hinge over the lateral surface (apparent in the cast of
the under surface of the valye, but not of the upper) ; cast of the a
mowing no teeth though apparent! erfect.—Length 1-4 inches ;
height 48, L.—Ilaw a - fe
_ 16. Solen (Solecurtus?) planulatus—Shell flat except a slight
bending over the postero-dorsal portion ; no beak, elliptical in outline
with the inferior and dorsal margins straight, and the anterior and pos-
terior extremities of equal breadth ; breadth more than half the length ;
surface smooth with some faint concentric undulations and lines o
t, prolonged and narrowing what ind; sides flattened,
urface from the beak to the posterior angle obliquely trun-
cate and exteriorly subcarinate; cardinal a inear, :
beak from anterior margin 4% L; apical angle 138°; projection of
above cardinal margin one-eighth of an inch.—J//awarra.
Concave ; surface unevenly plicate and having some
erally and posteriorly, plications large rounded and smooth, t
ah. mostly becoming obsolete towards middle of —_ ie
oa D 3 ’ ; : . - . : ; ;
gth 42 inches ; height ,% L; thickness ive terior extremity
much Narrower, the flank less inflated, and the front more areptly ‘dee
“ate—Iawarra. wale
Steoxp Seniss, Vol. IV, No. 10.—July, 1847. 20
154 Fossils from Australia.
’ CLEOBIS a fers en.)—Shell inequivalve, inequilateral, thick,” ral
verse subova naan (or nearly so.) Beaks large, salient and incu
Posterior margin broadly rounded and a little dilated. Ligament in-
ternal. Hinge line flexed to one side at middle and passing beneath ~
the lower of oo. beaks. Valves thin. Surface marked unevenly with —
regular concentric striz of growth and without radiations.—This genus
appears to be near the Ceromya of Agassiz; but of this we cannot be
certain, as the palleal and muscular impressions are not visible. There —
is much external resemblance to the Avicula cuneiformis of Verneuil, i
(Russia, pl. xli.) The beaks are prominent and incurved, but are not ;
flexed at all forward; they project over or overhang the cardinal i, 4
the summit being separated from it by an intervening space, J
valves are quite thin, the thickness being less than a line ina lange i.
species measuring seven inches in length. a
19. Cleobis grandis. —Thick, very convex, right valve lasgests front Bs,
very abrupt; anterior part about one-third the whole length; inferior
margin regularly arcuate ; surface concentrically striate anda little un
dulate e—hengih of large specimens seven inches, height apne
ness 38°, L; ‘apical angle 105° —Jllawarra
20. Cleobis g rapilisepRosembling: C. gra , but more projecting ft
anteriorly ; soetes portion, about two-fifths oe whole length.— “|
2:9 inches; height #2; L; thickness tes L; apical angle aes
Ii
21. Cleobis ? Petidi« Subeliintanies domewhat Sompimeabiie tater
surface flattened; marked with concentric lines of growth;. i :
margin straight at middle, parallel with dorsal ; postero-dorsal ‘margi 4
much dilated.—Length 34 inches; height probabl +825 L; thickness —
ie
aaa —Iilawarr ra. we
om
of Astarte. Yet the form is more transverse and pn than is
Sessvernviaiia of that genus, and the ligament is longer, occu
whole cardinal area. The beak of an interior cast has the sum ob
liquely truncate, and the lateral surface just posterior to middle 1 mage aes
or less flattened. The la muscular impressions are
elliptical or suborbicular, with the upper side often strai
smaller anterior is situated under the beaks as in Astarte.
ae hr
2
y Fossils from Australia. 155
Rapin thick, Although we have not yet made out the teeth of
ie binges we propose to describe the species under the generic name
oe
23. sor intrepida.—Thick, somewhat transverse, neatly but
length.
ora ~ oblong; larger marked with a number of fine vertical striz
on the lower posterior quarter; antero-lateral surface of the interior
with re parallel flattened areas, the one adjoining the muscular im-
pression convex, (concave in the cast.) —Length sot —_ height =8°5 L;
eis L; apical angle about 120° .—Iillaw
acaie cyprina. —Thick, transverse, anesecore more than one
a “© ae than height; palleal impression very distinct, inner sur-
0 very minutely rugose, below palleal impression radiately
plicate ; posterior muscular impression not excavate, crossed verti-
cally b ld; large anterior deeply excavate, convex, crossed by a
few faint vertical lines, which are closer towards the posterior margin ;
smaller somewhat excavate, oblong sigmoid. Cast with antero- lateral
surface simply a in flattened.—Length 2345 = height To bs
thickness 58, L; al angle about 118°. —Tilawar
25, Astartila sgiiercei —Thick, slightly longer sai the height; in-
ner surface smooth, palleal impression rather faint; posterior muscular
impression large and v very distinct, very slightly excavated, not inter-
sected by a vertical fold; larger of the two anterior deeply excavate,
the excavation deep and v very abrupt on the upper side, four or five
Sire crossing the muscular impression vertically near posterior margin;
smaller anterior oblong sigmoid, but not excavate. Cast with antero-
| surface simply somewhat flattened.—Length of cast 14 inch;
height #00 L; thickness 788, L; apical angle 112°.—Ilawarra.
Astartila ei —Rather thin, somewhat tra Seeeers surface
shining, with faint lines of outs muscular ssions
Scarcely excavate and palleal impression faint; the larger anion very
even and without vertical. strie or sical “a slight fold in the sur-
just anterior to posterior muscular impression, and a i
a : ular impre f
simply very slightly flattened.—Length 1 to 1? — height “he L;
thickness 22, L; apical angle about 113°.—Illawar :
“21. Astartilacyelas,—Rather thin, slightly iranverse surface mark-
ed unevenly with concentric striz 5 posterior muscular impression very
distinct but hardly excavate, a fold i in the inner sa of the valve just
St to it; both of the anterior muscular impressions strongly poche
Vale; the larger without vertical strize; the smaller placed obliquely so
tat the cast of it is a linear trenchant ridge ; palleal impression ve
mewhat plicatulate. Cast with summits us
Siiisiinaboe surface scape flattened, and another eee cee acjoin-
ing anterior muscular impression.—Length 15 inch; heig! ee
> kness sis L; thickness of cast 7% L3 @ apical. angle
RB. Astartile transversa.—Thick, transverse, eng fl 4 ioe
j ion
er than ev ; nt age corcits — pnpqeri ss
aie
156 Fossils from scuuinee %
the muscle; large anterior somewhat ve without sensei stri
small anterior obliquely excavate; palleal impression not very distine
Cast with antero-lateral surface of beak strongly flattened in two aralle
two strong anterior muscular impressions, and one posterior less distinct,
the smaller anterior linear, and situated vertically on the front ; the pale
leal impression entire, and not quite reaching to the anterior musc
impression. No cardinal area to the shell, but a strongly defined one
long linear, and but slightly widen ee tly. We refer the ul
nota ? oe se Morris, to this gen
29. ecta.—Very catalina, narrowing much posteri+ 4
orly, ‘engl Qh t times the breadth, dorsal margin a little convex, inferior a
straight at middle; lateral surface not depressed, marked with concentri¢
in the lines of growth; palleal and posterior muse mpressions
faint, both of the anterior strong, a convex linear area adjoining the
— upward. Interior cast having a nests narrow and ea
a 45 L ; thickness 29, L; apica aa he cast resent
bles much piso os rimeva, pl. xix, ie 5 5.—Illawarra. —
nia —Ver inequilateral, tongels er ere
arcuate, interior strongly concave just postezior to middle, “i on
surface dep el palleal i ieiitientoal distinct ; anterior and |
muscular impressions excavate. Cast with cardinal areas concave and
tirely closed ; beak somewhat prominent. “pate external.
impression entire, se pare the margin. Three muscular impressions
to each valve, two anterior and one posterior; the larger anterior, sub-
orbicular, smaller antori, facing the same way with the largets' and
Situate above its upper angle; posterior faint. Surface marked
with oe eg — of growth, ‘Cast of summit of. a slender
point. Shap y of Donacilla and rie te but it “differs in
its entire palleai. on and has also two anterior muscular il
Z Fossils from Australia. 157
a ,
ressions which belong together, to each valve, as in Corbis. From
e impression of the hinge of a left valve, there appear to be no prom-
centre. The form is more transverse and the teeth less distinct
than in Corbis. It has not the long lunate muscular impression of
ucinda.
_ 81. Pyramus ellipticus.—Oblong, length half greater than breadth,
ower margin arcuate, sides evenly convex, surface strongly but un-
_ evenly marked with regular concentric strize, posterior and large ante-
_ Mor muscular impressions rather indistinct, not excavate ; palleal im-
_ Pression perceptible and posteriorly plicatulate. Cast of beak acute at
apex.—Length 13 inch; height 74°, L; thickness +4, L; apical angle
__ 487. Another specimen, probably same species, three inches long.—
. 4 Harper’s Hil.
82. Pyramus myiformis—Oblong, length two-thirds greater than
breadth ; exterior smooth, with faint strie of growth; lower margin
nearly straight, lateral surface below somewhat flattened ; muscular im-
pressions distinct, posterior not excavate, large anterior a litile so above,
smaller anterior deeply excavate, and the surface of attachment facing
Same way with the larger; palleal impression faint. Cast having
the beak terminate in a minute cylinder, and having the lateral sur-
ce, from the summit obliquely downward and backward, depressed.
Sg 148° or 150°. The front and posterior margin are more broadly
Tounded than in the preceding, the lower margin straiter, the apical an-
gle much larger.—J/lawarra
Carinate from the beak to the posterior angle, and
flat tdinal area; palleal impression distinct, somewhat enantet
: “pper part of posterior muscle, about half greatest height—IHawarra.
as = Nucula ——? Harper’s Hill.
2% Cypricardia rugulosa.—Oblon :
thitd whole length, narrowing rather abruptly from the beak posterior-
‘ > Posterior surface (flank) broad and flat truncate, _— celina
_ ‘Margin extending from the beak to the lower posterior angle; cardina
te
part C } 4 ‘ 4
longitudinal folds.—Length 2-9 inches; height
158 Fossils from Australia. \
flank nearly flat and te broadly into the — — 5
surface with a depressed area, extending from the beak to middl
inferior margin ; tinier margin ‘straight at middle ; surface mark
unevenly with fine strize of eeomth which are regularly concentrie.—
—Length 33 inches; height +8, L; thickness 33, L; apical a on
about 142°.—Illawarra. said
Myonia, (nov. gen. )—Shell thick, oblong transverse, inequivalve, ve-
ry inequilateral, much aping behind. Palleal impression strong,
tire. Muscular peacaigene three to = — two anterior and one
posterior, all excav he front, on the ro!
ed carina between ha flank and lateral siainies Aalei thick. Lat
surface strongly flattened at middle or even concave.—Resembles m
Panopzwa and Pholadomya, especially Agassiz’s Arcomya}; but di
in its entire ving impression, its second anterior muscle, as wel
other prvi
nes me anterior part about hal the posterior ; pices rece us.
38. Myon nalida, —General form of the M. elongata :—but
ii
sions deeply excavate, and marked with deep verbal sulc cations ; + pa
impression very strong with slender vermiform erosior ns
urydesma elliptica. Somewhat es and dilated antes
riorly and posteriorly, ieanerorsa, right valve le t; beaks | :
ous ; lateral surface not flattened; surface near = smooth
gle 124°. Ee
40. Eurydesma polo —Thick, tumid, saborkichiaas not: transverse
very evenly convex; beaks contiguous; lateral surface every Ww!
convex; surface adel with faint concentric lines of growth th and
trace of radiations; inferior margin and lines of growth, psi:
biculate.—Length and breadth 1,9 — thickness 74% L;
gle 97°. — Harper’ s Hill? en cus
41. cr ig tata simplex. ste Blan gate, length rather. more thant
the height, very inequilateral, enlarging a little posteriorly 5
line horizontal, straight, a and rounding into the e posterior ma
liquely truncate in front; inferior r margin arcuate; lateral st
#
um A Fossils from Australia. 159
oe i ®
| 42. Modiolopsis siliqua.—Elongate, length nearly twice the height,
ry inequilateral, enlarging a little posteriorly ; front obliquely trun-
cate; anterior part less than a fourth whole length; dorsal margin
_ Straight and nearly horizontal, inferior margin straight; lateral surface
flattened but not concave ;_ posterior surface rounded or scarcely cari-
nate near summit of beak ; surface marked with irregular obsolescent
plice and showing also lines of growth.—Length 1} inch; height
(greatest) 32, L; apical angle about 130°. Near Mytilus Teplofi of
__ Verneuil, (Russia, pl. xix, 17,) and Modiolopsis faba, of J. Hall, (N. Y.
-Falzeont. Report, pl. xxv, fig. 6.)—Jilawarra.
_ 43. Modiolopsis prerupta.—Elongate (length about twice the great-
est height), enlarging somewhat posteriorly, dorsal margin straight or
very slightly arcuate, rounding into the posterior margin ; inferior ex-
__ eavate anterior to middle; front abruptly truncate ; lateral surface ex-
* Cavate from the beak posteriorly downwa n obli 1
+3
o.
¥
~The fibro
.
*
yery much broader
— 46. Modiol sis acuti Deco aThick, elongate, :
_ Posteriorly ; cardinal ao straight, very oblique, very much shorter than
unded ; inferior margin ex-
t posterior to beak ; lateral
from beak to pos-
‘Shell 3 front acuminate, posterior broadly ro
_ ‘Stor margin very convex, hardly carinate ; s :
CONcentric folds, aad some lines of growth. Anterior muscular impres-
are more allied to
ior muscular im-
i
4. Judging from this texture, the specie oh Modiolopsis (Hall)
Avicula chan Mytilus, although baving a large and strong anter
Pression, Be -
: ee om ; * "
» jee
60 Fossils from Australia.
sion large and deeply excavate, scarcely marginal. Texture of
finely fibrous as in preceding species.—Length 33 inches ; ue
tween cardinal line and line of elongation of shell about 32°.
bles much a Gervillia in its oblique form.—Illawar
47. Avicula —— ?—Very near A. volgensis of Merial Re
p- > ta pl. xli, fig. 13.—Specimen from Illawarra...
48. ten comptus.—Suborbicular, costae 20 to 22, withédes
ings, regular, prominent, low triangular with we 8 concave fate 2
which have usually at middle a slender costa and one or two sit
less prominent either side; ears rather large and longitudinally s
—Length and height 24 inches; distance at lower margin bety
middle of two coste a fifth of an inch. Only one vaive was o'
and that was convex. Near P. Fittoni of Morris, ee
pl. 14, fig. 2,) but ra ys much more numerou 198-— Har s Hill,
49. P.
intermediate smaller costa.—Length of specimen 14
inch nearly ; distance of middle of two coste at lower margin about
+ of a lin tay a mneh valve was cbtained and thatat
vex. “eore
50. Pee Aopen lus —Large, nearly orbicular, one valve
flat, the oshet convex ; flat-valve pe — ntric undulations
fave very near sriaoth with scent striations; $s
more distant and rather more distinct’ on ee e convex valve; ears
crossed obliquely by a few folds and. striate loi itudinally. -
and height 43 inches; thickness 14 inch.—Illau ee a
The foll Pato additional species of fossil shells from’ A sctratia
collections are described by Morris in Strzelecki’s N. S. We
D. Sox he
’s
G. Sowerby in Darwin on Volcanic Islan -
From Harper’s. Hill :—Bellerophon micromphalus (a. ): ;°R
schisma oculus (J. S.) M., P. rotundatum (M eca lanceolata
Spirifer subradiatus (G BS); rydesma corda Ml.) 5
(lsocard S.); Pecten illawarrens
localities, besides several species from Glendon, rapater 7 ec
described by Lonsdale, and several new species of coal plants
Illawarra and Newcastle, *
it Mineralogy and Cues iansale: a oe Mineral Species, by W. Haiprneer,
108.—Coal and Iron in India, 109.—On Staty Cleavage, by Daniex Saarre, 110.
Geological Society of London, Re ie marks on a Boulder Mass of Native
ih Copper from the southern shore of Lake Superior, by Forrest Suepnenrn, 115.
—On Fossil Trees found at Bristol, Conn., in the New Red Sandstone, 116.—
Observation on the Basaltic Formation on the northern shore of Lake Su-
’ erior, by T. R. Dutton, 118.
Meters ead Zoology.—Notes on a Tour to Madeira, Teneriffe and Cape Verds,
from the Journal of the Voyage of Dr. J. R. T. Vocet to the Niger, 149.—On
iM the fundamental type and homologies of the Vertebrate Skeleton, by Prof.
Owes, 123.—On the Pe of ee Seyaes, by M. Aveustz pz Saint
‘Huarre, 130.—Ear 131.
; onomy.—The Planet Pe and its as to the Ferrurpations of Ure:
nus, 132;
ee Intelligence —Facts in Physiological Chemistry, by J. Lisste, 135.
em: 38.—Experiments on the use of Gun-Cot-
a ton for blasting—its value compared with that of blasting Powder, by Tuomas
. Apans, 139,— We 140.—Process for Photogr aa upon. paper, #
oe M. Bianguditr-Evnann, 141. —Report on the Aurora Borealis, 142.—Hie
-_glyphical Mica Plates me m the Mounds, by E. G. Squier: Water-Power "of
Europe : Auroral Belt of April 7, 1847, 145.—Voleanic Eruption at the Cape
ae Vash Science and the Arts at Harvard: Association of American Geologists
ee,
Be ementary Geology, by Eoward Hircrcocs, D.D., LL-D., 146.
br Mayrax’ $ sanOw soe of the Isle - Wight: Medical Botany, or descrip-
ties, and imode of istietcaans by R. Eeresrecp Grirritn, M
tet of Geology—o " r, the Modern Changes < the Earth — its Tabata con-
“Modern Gardening, b y Gro. Wr. Euan A asia of Road Making, com-
. bi ssa construction, and improvement of Roads and Railroads, by” sea
: Piz, A.M, C.E.: Transactions one Sager Philosophie ical So- :
Peg Philadelphia, 148."
List of Works, 148. BO i eke Se
: Appeniis — Descriptions a Foul Shells ‘of the Collections of the Exploring a
s under re RLES — U. 8. N.—0 —obtained in ——, = Jame
‘D. Seeker
eT aE cease: RURRERL SRE ERENT
ERRATA.
: of 2. 114 faa a: leas and p- 24, Ime 17 from top, for “1 i ie <
4 “ superan tibus.”—P, 64, line 16 from top, for “ bright,” sen light. oe =>
a rom top, for u ‘Class 1 il, yy read te Class | Sects ge 2? 4, after 0 note at ttom, in- ne ae
nt Eps.
Vali, p. 205 in the formal of Eee ale Os
The next No. of this Journal will be published on the first of:
CONTENTS.
Arr. I. On Terrestrial Magnetism; by Prof. Witt1am A. Norton,
Il. General Geological Distribution and probable Food and Cli-
mate of the Mammoth ; by Prof. R. Owen, . - -
Til. Note +28 Carex loliacea, ee and €, — se igh
. Gray, -
IV. Bissceigiion of Three Es Catlses, aid a New Speci of
Rhynchospora; by Jonn Carzy, -
V. Observations on the Whirlpool, and on: the Rapid ae che
Falls of Niagara ; by R. Baxewett,
VI. On certain Improvements in the Sapaipudhicn and Supply of :
the Hydro-oxygen Blowpipe, by which Rhodium, Iridium, or
the Osmiuret of Iridium, also Platinum in the large bh have
~ been fused; by Prof. Roserr Harz, M.D., -
in Massachusetts and Conneeticut, or, of the Sage that -
\" made them; by Rey. Epwarp Hircncocx; -
a vi. Glycocoll (Gelatine Sugar) and some of its Products of f Dee
ee | composition; by Prof. E. N. a cee .
ae & x On the Potato Disease, - -
~ BX. Report on Meteorites ; by Prof. eee Urnam Seciaa
XI. A General Review of the Geological Effects. of the
Cooling from a state of Igneous Fusion; by James D. Dax
XI. Review of the Organic oe of M. CHARLES ios |
ran ae a We Honr, :
SCIENTIFIC Inte
Chemistry and Pi sprains of ated n three seconds, by v
5 the spheroidal state, |
MBER, 1847.
* SCONDUCTED BY
AND
“
JAMES D..DANA.
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a ida, assisted by James K. Wurrri.z, Wu. H. Wexp, O. H. P. Stem, cee B.
~ B. B, Hussey, and renee: ‘AGGS.
a e James
om an eal Reproduction of
> by Joun Witiiam Daw-
produced by t a of civilized man, in the
earth’s surface, and the numnbers and distribution
a the nz
he vicissitudes which many parts
rom the Kai Eainbiargh New aiawionhs pag Api 1947, vol. xlii, p. 259.
— Vol. TV, No. 11—Sept., 1
162 Mr. J. W. Dawson on the Destruction a nd
by civilized men. The forests have been destroyed, 1
inhabitants extirpated or obliged to adopt new modes of life, n
animals and plants introduced and naturalized ; and, indeed,
revolution effected in all the departments of organized nature, in
the lapse of a single generation. To notice a few of these chan
ges, with reference more especially to the destruction and parti
reproduction of forests, is my present object. The facts which]
i = ees to state have been collected principally in the province of ‘
~ Nova Scotia. be:
“In their natural state, Nova Scotia and the neighboring provil
ces were covered with dense woods, extending from the shores —
to the summits of the hills. ‘These woods did not form detached —
ii
i
vering of trees. When viewed ;
proportion to the prevalence of
lines of the evergreen coniferee. or of t
contours of the deciduous trees; and
have been more numerous and destructive, In clearing
: Reproduction of Forests in British North America. 163
“auses of the progress of fires above referred to, it is probable that
- 4 certain state of the growth of the forests, when the trees have
_ attained to great ages, and are beginning to decay, they are more
readily destroyed by accidental conflagrations. In this condition
the trees are often much moss-grown, and have much dead and
dry wood; and it is possible that we should regard fires arising
from natural or accidental causes, as the ordinary and natural
agents for the removal of such worn-out forests.
Where circumstances are favorable to their progress, forest fires
fire which occurred in
have perished in this conflagration. In this case,
rought, and a forest
other causes
as in most cases to cause
from the
the blackened surface. This has been the fate of — districts _ .
ak
consider them more in detail.
164 Mr. Ki W. Dawson on the Destruction and
niferous trees, the fire often leaves nothing: but ~~ trunk
branches, or at most a little foliage, scorched toa 5
color. In either case, a vast quantity of wood resi
sumed, and soon becomes sufficiently-dry to furnish food f
new conflagration ; so that the same portion of forest is ne
be repeatedly burned, until it becomes'a bare and desolate “bar
ren,” with only a few charred and wasted trunks Danrcds above —
ova Scotia and the neighboring colonies ; and as these me
tracts could not be immediately occupied for agricultural purpo-
ses, and are diminished in value by the loss of their timber, they —
have been left to the unaided efforts of nature to restore thei
original verdure. Before proceeding to consider more particularly
the mode in which this restoration is effected, and the appearan-
a Sg I may quote, from an article in
the views of Mr. Titus Smith, secretary of
the Board of pee pala of Nova Scotia, on this subject.
views, as the sates of aie and careful observation , are entitled z
to much respect. . :
in the midst of a forest, and
pe within sixty prs the ana will aalien be cov: overall
young growth of the same kind that it produced of old.” 4
ming the above statements to be a correct summary of the priné
pal modes in which forests are reproduced, we may:
eproduction of Forests in British North America. 165
ere the wood is merely cut down and not burned, the
me description of wood is immediately reproduced, and this
_ may be easily accounted for. The soil containsabundance of the
Seeds of these trees ; there are even numerous young plants ready
to take the place of those which have been destroyed; and if
the trees have been cut in winter, their stumps produce young
ots. Even in cases of this kind, however, a number of shrubs
_ and herbaceous plants, not formerly growing in the place, spring
et Up; the cause of this may be more properly noticed when de-
Seribing cases of another kind. This simplest mode of the de-
_ Sttuction of the forest, may assume another aspect. If the orig-
inal wood have been of kinds requiring a fertile soil, such as
maple or beech, and if this wood be removed, for example, for
firewood, it may happen that the quantity of inorganic matter
thus removed from the soil may incapacitate it, at least for a long
time, from producing the same description of timber. In this case,
Some species requiring a less fertile soil may-occupy the ground.
For this reason, forests of beach growing on light soils, when
temoved for firewood, are some times succeeded by spruce and
[have observed instances of .this kind, both in Nova Scotia
are , without the destruction of
= the whole of the vegetable soil, the woods are reproduced by a
_ more complicated process, which may occupy a number of years.
Waite frst stage, the burned ground bears a luxuriant crop of herbs
and shrubs, which if it be fertile and not of very great extent,
May nearly cover its surface in the summer succeeding the fire.
: This rst growth may comprise a considerable variety of species,
5 Which we may divide into three groups. ‘The first of these con-
's of herbaceous plants, which have their roots so deeply
buried in the soil as to escape the effects of the fire. Of this
kind, is a small species of Trillium, whose tubers are deeply im-
bedded in the black mould of the woods, and whose flowers
may sometimes be seen thickly sprinkled over the black surface
of woodland very recently burned. Some species of ferns, also
mn this Way, occasionally survive forest fires. A second group Is
whose seeds are readily transported by the
Wind. Of this kind, is the species of Epilobium, known i
Nova Scotia as the fire-weed or French willow, whose feathered
“eds are admirably adapted for flying to great distances, and
Which often covers large tracts of burned ground so completely,
hat its purple flowers communicate their own color to the whole
Surface, when viewed from a distance. ‘This plant appears to
Prefer the less fertile soils, and the name of fire-weed has been
© "en to it, in consequence of its occupying these when their
Wood has been destroyed by fire. Various species of Solidago
and Aster, and other composite plants, and Ferns, Lycopodia, and
166 Mr. J. W. Dawson on the Destruction and
Mosses, are also among the first occupants of burned ground, ¢
their presence may be explained in the same way wit
Epilobium ; their seeds and sporules being easily scattered
the surface of the barren by wind. A third group of sp
found abundantly on burned ground, consists of plants bea
edible fruits. The seeds of these are scattered barren
sh and
4,
first to make its species of vaccinium, called im
Nova Scotia, -berry wintergreen ( Giaultherta
procumbens); the (Cornus ca
wild strawberry. d that some plants may be found
in recently burned d presence may not be expli
ble in ve quainted with the facts,
can deny that all the in any consider
quantity, within a urrence of a fire,
ic
vegetation is speedily furnish
sightliness of its appearauce is t
of food are furnished to a great variety of animals, and
tility of the soil is preserved, until a new forest has time t
spread it. (did arate
With the smaller plants which first cover a burned distt
great numbers of seedling trees spring up, and these, though
afew years not very conspicuous, eventually overtop, @
ed, abundant s
or yellow birch, or of other trees of large dimensions, pe
ceeds these, usually consists of poplar, white or a4
wild cherry, balsam fir, scrub los aldars and other aby
stature, and usually of rapid growth, which, in good soils, pteP
the way for the larger forest trees, and occupy permanently, 0
the less fertile soils. A few examples will show the conta? —
which thus appears between the primeval forest and that’ which :
Succeeds it after a fire. Near the town of Pictou, woods chie!
Consisting of beech, maple, and hemlock, have been succe
Reproduction of comes in British North America. 167
ite birch and ey A small clearing in woods of maple
ech in New Annan, which, thirty years ago, was under
vation, is now thickly covered with poplars thirty feet in
height. In Prince Edward Island, fine hardwood forests have
been succeeded by fir and spruce. The pine woods of Miramichi,
destroyed by the great fire above referred to, have been followed
bya growth, principally composed of white birch , poplar,
and wild cherry. When I visited this place, a few years since,
second growth had attained to nearly half the height of the
zi — = the ancient pines, which were still standing in
‘great nu
As ei stated, the second growth almost —_— includes
many trees similar to those which preceded it, and when th
smaller trees have attained their full height, these re other hsaen
capable of attaining a greater magnitude, o them, and
finally cause their death. The forest has a odnined its last
stage, that of perfect renovation. The cause, of the last part of
the process evidently is, that in an old forest, trees of the largest
size and longest life have a tendency. to prevail, to the exclusion
of others. For reasons which will be afterwards stated, this last
forests, in countries begin-
the seeds necessary for the
may refer to the same
nan seeds of; m many forest trees,
; 2 aay y the poplar, poi he bite, al the firs, and spruces, are fur-
persed by birds, which are fond of the fruit; the same remar mark
to some other fruit-bearing species of less frequent occur-
renee, When the seeds that are dispersed in these ways fall in
te towing woods, they cannot vegetate, but when they are
deposited on the comparatively bare surface of a barren, they
teadily grow ; and if the soil be suited to them, the young plants
Merease in size with great rapidity.
~ Itis possible, however, that the seeds of the trees of the se-
Stated that deeply buried tubers sometimes escape the effects of
fre, and, in anes manner, seeds imbedded in the vegetable
or buried in cradle hills, may retain their vitality, and: be-
ing supplied by the ashes which cover the ground, with alkaline
Solutions well-fitted to promote their vegetation, may spring up
asupply of seed could be furnished from any extraneous
ource. It iseven probable that many of the old forests may
-
168 Mr. J. W. Dawson on the Destruction and :
already have passed through a rotation siniticn ‘to that above:
tailed, and that the seeds deposited by former preparatory
may retain their vitality, and be called into life by the f
conditions existing after a fire. This is a point, however,
ing for its establishment a series of experiments Wwhieb
not yet been able to underta
If, as already suggested, Secon fires, in the uneul
ming the state of “barrens,” producing an i
lacitn and wild fruits suitable for the sustenance of animals whi
could not subsist in the old forests ; and these gradually hetiel
ed, would keep upa succession of young and vigor
che
3dly, The progress of restoration may be interrupted by suc
re segs likely t to occur soon after = yer
_ Reproduction of Forests in British North America. 169
ly, When the ground is permanently occupied for agri-
purposes, the reproduction of the forest is of course
_ prevented. In this case, the greater number of the
smaller plants found in the barrens disappear. Some species of
the Solidago and Aster, and the Canada, thistle, as well as a few
smaller ati remain in the fields, and sometimes become
troublesome w he most injurious weeds found in the cul-
_ tivated ground, are not, however, native plants, but foreign:spe-
s, which have been introduced with the cultivated grams and
Tasses ; the ox-eyed daisy or white weed, and the crowsfoot or
mittercup, are two of the most abundant of these.
~ When a district has undergone the last change, when the
es
*
y
Sombre woods and the shade-loving plants that grow beneath
It was
‘ies, which disappear before the
Comes, when unmolested, more numerous on the margins = pe
wid: Pigeon has its favorite resort in the barrens during a great
Places. Carnivorous birds and quadruped found in such
plac d quadrupeds are fo
in numbers proportioned to the supplies of food which
they The number of instances of this kind might be in-
Stated | to a great extent if necessary ; enough has, however, been
5. {0 illustrate the fact |
“Reoxy Senizs, Vol. IV, No. 11.—Sept., 1847. 22
170 Mr. J. W. Dawson on the Destruction, Ge :
Nearly all the animals above noticed, and many others,»
pear when the country becomes cultivated. There are, hi
other species which increase in numbers and at once ada
selves to the new conditions introduced by man. The
(Turdus migratorius) resorts to and derives its subsistence » f
the fields, and greatly multiplies, though much pers
sportsmen. The Fringilla nivalis, a summer bird in
becomes very familiar, building in out-houses, and.
barns in search of food. The song. sparrow. ani
finch, swarm in the cultivated ground. The yellow bird
eestiva) becomes very familiar, often building in garden
golden-winged woodpecker resorts to the-cultivated fields,
ing grubs and worms from the ground. ‘The cliff-swallow ex
changes the faces of rocks for the eaves of barns and houses,
and the barn and chimney swallows are everywhere ready 10
~— themselves of the accommodation afforded by bui
‘The acadian or aise owl makes its abode-in barns during winter.
he bob-1 the king bird, the waxwing or cherry bird, and —
ong the species which profit by the —
. lar cr: quad but
clearing of the al A Of t
_ locusts, which, in dry seaso
m
burned barrens and collie fields, than in ’ the pent
It may be remarked, in general, that there is pene
ing in Europe the cultivated grounds, and either be
‘noxious to man, which has ‘ait in the indi
studied in its details, would form a subject of erent
the zoologist and physical geographer. “
Gerhardt’s Organic Chemistry. 171
r. XIV.—Review of the Organic Chemistry of M. Cuarues
ERHARDT.
Dh aes
We have already seen that M. Gerhardt halves the equivalents
a, st substances, taking the equivalent of hydrogen to be rep-
nted by the weight of its atom. Chlorine, bromine and iedine
h unite with hydrogen, volume for volume, are also divided
that their volumes correspond to that of oxygen. In many
etions in which carbonic acid and water are evolved, they are
— Obse be in the proportions ©, O, and H, O,, or in quan-
tities double those which are regarded as equivalents in mineral
chemistry. It will, also be observed that in the formulas of all
those substances which like alcohol and its derivatives are ordi-
narily Se agen: by four volumes of vapor, the equivalents of
and oxygen are divisible by tw o and those of hydrogen
by foxx, This has Jed many chemists to consider the oxygen in
organic compounds as: arate double the equivalent ascribed to
it in mineral combinations. If we regard C, O, and H, O, as
Tepresenting s single edtivalents it will then be necessary to double
as of mi
(Concluded from p. 100.)
the formul. neré | chemistry in order to harmonize the two.
: If on the other ha d these represent two equivalents, the formu-_
las of organic compot ds must be divided ; and this last course
has been adopted by M. Gerhardt.
protoxyds oF the inieade ‘corresponding to water in their
_ fomposition, will hence be expressed by M, O, and the equiva-
Matsof metals oatheptie will be one-half the number usually
Dd sper valents of organic acids are generally deter-
2 ‘mined from their eile salts, and in the monobasic acids the
sgh corresponding to one atom of silver is taken as the equiv-
alent of the salt: thus the acetic acid is C, H, O,, and the ace-
tate of silver C, (H, Ag) O,, in which it is ‘impossible to ——.
He existence of water or oxyd of silver, which are H, O
The equivalents of chlorine, bromine and iodine, will by this
atrangement, be like oxygen represented by a single volume ;
those of hitrogen, phosphorus and arsenic, are also divided, while
carbon. ‘with sul
¢quivalent of water is represented by H, O and equals two’ vol-
of vapor, hydrochloric acid is HCl =2 vol. vapor, and ammo-
hia in like manner is N H, and its ¢ quivalent is expressed by two:
Yolumes.—( Précis, Vol. I, pp. 47
Mode of Combinati jon.—-Many com mpounds have the power of
© one or more of their equivalents of hydrogen for a
metal; thus producing a series of compounds known as salts.
°f those metals w hich unite with chlorine in smgle equivalents,
172 Gerhardt’s Organic Chemistry.
are able to exchange themselves for hydrogen, equivalent for equi
al he acids are then to be regarded as salts of hydrogé
and the view which regards them as compounds of an anhy'
acid with water, is inadmissible, as the monobasic acids con
but one equivalent of hydrogen, which is replaced by a
while water contains two equivalents of that element. As
mode of combination is that designated by title of me
equivalent substitution. In these as im the salt compo
tain elements are capable of being replaced by others,
altering the molecular constitution of the organic substan
phenomena of metalepsis are divided into two classes, thos
which hydrogen is replaced by chlorine, bromine or iodine,
those where oxygen is exchanged for sulphur, seleni
rium. The two metaleptic groups are illustrated by the
ing examples, eel
Metalepsis of Hydrogen. pes “din
CH, Formene, (marsh gas.) bu a
_ €(H, Cl) Chlorinized formene, (chlorid of methyle.)
ho | Brominized formene, promi of methyle. ee
Hut I formene, (iodid of methyle.)>
Cc
compound which conta elements of the acid; thus ben
C,H, with nitric acid NHO, forms an equivalent of wate!
the new substance C, H, i NO In this and analogous
Gerhardt’s Organic Chemistry. 173
to form water and the remaining elements are left in combina-
tion.” ‘The action of nitric acid and benzene may then be thus
resented.
), H, —-H,)+(NHO,-—0)=C, H, NHO, and H, 0.
residue NHO, replaces H, in the compound.
) distinguish this phenomenon from metalepsis, M. Gerhardt
pled bodies. "This beautiful law admits of a very extended
a pplication, and renders useless the various hypothetical radicals
Which have been assumed to explain the diflerent reactions of
organic compounds, “4
Another class of combinations are those formed by the direct
Union of two bodies, of which we have examples in the compli-
cation of two molecules of the oil of bitter almonds to form one
of benzoine ; chlorine and hydrochloric acid also unite directly
Sereda undoubte
capability of extension than that of any other science.
momial
8enus is that which contains only the organic elements, and is
designated as the normal species.
es is Species of the genus Acetate.
ormal Acetate, (Acetic acid, ) C; H, O..
Potassic do, (Acetate of potash,) © C,(H, K) 0,
Atgentic do (Acetate of silver,) ry (H, n 2
2
a
(Chloracetate of potash, ) U, (!, a
‘Chloracetate of silver, ) C, (Ci, Ag) O,.
174 Gerhardt’s Organic Chemistry.
The terminations in ate and uref are restricted to saline com
binations; the hydrocarbons have their ending in ene ; the
genized volatile liquids, like the alcohols and essential ols,
and the alkaloids in ine.
The. second part of the work is devoted to a consider
with the separation of the elements of water. We kno
present those which are capable of exchanging one, two or three
equivalents of their hydrogen, constituting monobasic, bibasic,
and tribasic salts. The terms bibasic and tribasic are often
an iP the compounds of neutral monobasic salts with certain
xyds; the acetate of lead unites with two equa
Fe’ =H, then the peracetate of iron is C, H, re “ —
In the same manner the sesquioxyd of antimony re 0, : |
arsenious acid As, O, unite with the bibasic acids and form com :
pounds in which Sb, is substituted for H, or Sb, er aa -
oF
:
our author as Sb =H. Tartar emetic is an ‘instance of
class of compounds; when the acid, tartrate of sie cd
parates, which is C,H, KSb O, Aq. _ It ‘3 fom yrmed
:H, KO,+ Sb, 0,26, H, KSbO, + H, 0. fora
Gerhardt’s Organic Chemistry. 175
here loses but one equivalent of its oxygen, and it is the residue
b, O,=Sb, O,—O which replaces H,; we may represent
‘$bO by Sb =H, and the composition of the salt is then
©,H, KSb’0,+Aq, while that of tartaric acid is C, H
mh a
. Oy
___ Ata temperature of 212° F. the combined water is expelled and
a 428° I’. the equivalent of oxygen which we have considered
isting in Sb: unites with two equivalents of the hydrogen and
lved in the form of water; the reduction of the oxyd is
complete and a new salt results, which is pap =
as according to the notation of M. Gerhardt, the equivalent of
"antimony replacing hydrogen is Sb, =Sb’, itis C, H. K Sb, O,.
The oxyd of uranium is analogous in constitution to that of an-
tmony, and M. Peligot has obtained a double tartrate of antimony
and uranium, which, dried at 212° contains C, (H, U Sb) O,;
at 392°, a decomposition similar to that of tartar emetic takes
Place, and the whole of the hydrogen is expelled in the form of
Water, the residue contains C, USbO,=C, U, Sb, O Tse
ious and boracic acids form with cream of tartar double salts,
analogous to tartar emetic and undergoing a similar decomposition
by heat—(Précis, Vol. I, pp. 498-502. )
~ These ‘singular compounds are so far removed in many of their
from ordinary saline compounds, that it is difficult to
fusion in other cases, and it is better to view them, as in
Jatt ep sow ew
a
2B.
g
=
=
=
Rape
5
g
.
ey
me
£
:
=
The oxalate of chrome and potash is but partially decomposed
t by potash or salts of lime. It is worthy of notice that the
acids, a portion of whose hydrogen is metaleptic or re-
Placeable by chlorine, do not like the tartaric acid form compounds
'n which M” is substituted for the hydrogen. :
1¢ number of equivalents of oxygen in an acid bears a cer-
relation to its basicity. A monobasic acid may contain two,
three, or four equivalents, a bibasic acid from four to eight, and a
Mbasie acid six or seven; two, four, and six being the minima
‘S
pis
ler te
176 Gerhardt’s Organic Chemistry.
of oxygen found inthe three classes. _When a monobasic a
exposed to the joint action of heat and of a basic oxyd, as
or baryta, it loses one equivalent of carbonic acid, and is transfor
ed into a compound which is either a hydro-carbon like benz
This se
bibasic acid or two, and monobasic and perhaps a neutra
pound, with the elimination of three of carbonic acid. In many
of these reactions a portion of the oxygen and hydrogen is also
disengaged in the form of water.—(Précis, Vol. I, pp. 78-80.) _
The solubility of acids in water bears a certain relation to theit
equivalents and to the amount of oxygen which they contain; —
in those containing atomically the same proportions it is inversely
as their equivalent ; this is well illustrated by the class of acids
mentioned on page 99. When the carbon is the same, the sol
ubility increases wi the:
y sol
so, and the cinnamic least of
tion of the elements of water, and forms a
the peculiar properties of neither of its co
nizable. ‘Those formed by a monobasic acid are neutral, but
cohol it forms the sulpho-vinie acid; it combines with the
drocarbons, as napthaline and benzene, with sugar and 5
with azotized bodies like indigo, and with acids, as the
acid are mono
acetic,
: ok e ;
Gerhardt’s Organic Chemistry. 177
ci
acid. Similar coupled acids are formed by oxalic, carbonic,
acids and others with the alcohols. — .
le couples of sulphuric acids are often found by the sim-
ple mixture of the two bodies, but with the hydro-carbons of a
high equivalent it is necessary to dissolve them in the fumit
acid or expose them to the vapor of anhydrous sulphuric acid,
and then heat the product with water; in this way the sulpho-
acetic acid was formed by Melsens. The lime and baryta salts of
| these acids are soluble in water, although the sulphates o
ese bases are quite insoluble.—(Précis, pp. 98-104.)
The nitric acid being monobasic does not form coupled acids
With neutral bodies like alcohol, but its action upon monobasic
acids yields a series of azotized acids which are themselves mo-
nobasic ‘as (1+1)—1=1. The benzoic acid, when boiled for
some time with strong nitric acid, yields the nétrobenzoic, which
contains: the elements of one equivalent of each of the acids
lnus One equivalent of water, C, H, 0, +-NHO,=C,H, NO,+
s+. ‘The residue
It is the final product of the action of nitric acid upon indigo,
— Sacine and
hol by the
7?
a 3 2
isC, H, O, and it is derived from this by the complete
jAlthou ht 7 id i obasic, the existence
: 8h the sulphuric acid is generally regarded as monobasic,
thane and acid salts, and its ruanivon vith Ne anic substances, clearly shov
acid. '8 a bibasic acid. Int respects it is owikiaghe contrasted with the nitric
Neutral hich is truly monobasic, forms no acid or double salts, and yields only
Fwil-teeiate belies
Src “so
_“BcoxD Szntes, Vol. 1V, No. 11—Sept.,1647. 3
178 Gerhardt’s Organic Chemistry.
Anhydrides.—Many organic acids by the action of heat, Je
the elements of water and are converted into substances w.
in-accordance with the theory which regarded the acids as
pounds of a dry acid with water, have been styled anhydrot
acids. ‘These substances are neutral in their reaction and. the
he anhydrides formed by the action of heat alone,
of certain bibasic acids which lose their basic ee
form of water. Some monobasic acids as the stearie ai
"is re class we may dauremiently sender all those cna ;
which gnde: certain circumstance ume the elements of ;
and | s. Isatine when dissolved | in a solution
in Sie way geberates an isatate, and when thi acid is.
Amides. i subjects have been the cau
uy. to chemists that the action of ammonia wi
ce
ammouia by the abstraction of the elements of water ;€
2NH,=C, H, N, O,4+2H, O, and by the action o
alkalies reassumes them and1 regenerates the oxalate
When ammonia is added to a polption of "eblorid ‘of
viewed as aang in many seni compound ais
7§ Caw Sees
Gerhardt’s Organic Chemistry. 179
- sate relations as amide. Oxamide itself, might be viewed as
containing this substance. The ammonia gives two equivalents
its hydrogen to combine with the oxygen of the organic sub-
Thus C, H, O5+ 2 NH: In other cases the whole of the
ee of the organic substances, ammonia loses one,
uivalents of its hydrogen and leaves NH,, NE
or N only i m oii on.
The amides of the monobasic acids are derived from one ee
alent of the acid and one of ammonia by the elimination of H, O;
> gee acid, C, H, O, and NH,= benzamide C, H, NO
+H The ainides of the bibasic acids are formed in the
e manner from one equivalent of acid aud two of ammonia
bythe neo of two of water. When but one equivalent
ia enters into the reaction, an acid amide is obtained
ah may be eo as analogous to the coupled acids already
Nit ete afords on 76.) The acid oxalate of ammonia C, H, O
On. eh NO :
Us ainda salts by heat, and the amides of the other
y Se obisined ee the action of ammonia upon their ethers,
Moet he number of ‘amides which may be derived from a sin-
nee is often very great.* ‘The amide acids themselves
thay form amides pee is the amide of aspartic acid, and
wie oe wt ‘with an alkali takes up H, O and loses ammonia
js. % cy ee which is itself an amide. By peri aid of
ferred to this
¢ athides of phosphoric acid, the reader is re
I iii, No.7 » p. 105.
180 Gerhardi’s Organic Chemistry.
certain ferments, asparagine is completely converted into succi
of ammonia.
3 | 4
mixed with strong acids, or when its salts are boiled wit
lies, it reassumes the elements of water and regenerates a fi
and ammonia. The cyanic acid is the amide of carbor
dride (carbonic acid gas), and like the other amides, 1
ammonia and the acid under the influence of acids and
A large number of azotized acids are included in. this ¢
(Précis, Vol. I, pp. 110-120.) leet ages
Lthers—These are compounds resulting from the. action of
mineral and organic acids upon the alcohols, and like the amides
contain the elements of both their constituents minus the ele-
ments of water. Those of the monobasic acids are formed from
one equivalent of the aleohol and one of the acid, by the abstrac-
the elements of water, but the acids in these sup >
be detected by the usual reagents ; the chlorid and ¢
ethers, or vinic acids. The bibasie acids with |
alcohol yield coupled acids (see p, 176) which ar
these and similar reactions, “the substances j
one of the elements at the positive ¢
scale, predominates, are attacked by o:
elements which are placed at the negatiy
or by compounds in which these n atively ctric eleme
predominate.” The acids, chlorine, bromine and some me
chlorids are thus electro-negative, while the alcohols, hy
bons and ammonia are electro-positive. This division is
sity only relatively true ; thus benzoic acid by its oxygen
ative to alcohol, but is positive to chlorine and nitric ac
act upon its hydrogen.—{ Précis, Vol. II, pp. 495, 496.
Gerhardt’s Organic Chemistry. 181
4 » In the amides and ethers the ammonia and alcohol -are active
by their hydrogen, which unites with the oxygen of the acid; if
r
of aleohol and the formation of amide. In this way
laguti has succeeded in forming an immense number of amides.
len ammonia is added to oxalic ether in a quantity insufficient
n oxamide, a beautiful crystalline, neutral compound results,
was first discovered by M. Dumas an i
represented by Am Al. Oxamethane is an example of a
large class of similar compounds which are formed by the action
of ammonia upon the bibasic ethers; M. Gerhardt adopts for
them the generic name of amethanes. The sulphuric ether of
Wood-spirit, with ammonia, forms su/phamephylane, which is
SH,.O, Am Al, the ether being SH, O, Al,.
_ The ethers of the organic acids are often formed by heating
the acid with alcohol, but the action is slow and incomplete, and
they are best obtained by distilling a mixture of the alcohol and
ether of wood-spirit however, constitutes the princi-
t of the essential oil of wintergreen, Gaultheria procuin-
similarity between the odors of many ethers and those _
fruits, renders it not improbable that the odor of the
Benzoic ether has been observed as
| the dry distillation of the resin of ‘Tolu balsam. —
rs of the hydracids contain, like the other ethers of
3 H i . .
Hydro-chloric “ether is chlorinized
1; when heated with potassium it is a
id of potassium and a crystalline compound which
This is decomposed by water into potash and an
which was described by Léwig as the radical ethyle,
H, NHO,. The corresponding compounds of wood-
182 Gerhardt’s Organic Chemistry.
spirit are the derivatives, a homologous body formene CH ,, which —
is marsh gas. oe
The product of the action of sulphuric acid upon aleohe
i
umes of vapor, the elements of two equivalents of aleohol minut
ul have
shown that the vegetable and animal fats are decomposed by the
action of potash, lime, and other energetic bases, furnishing 4
fatty acid and a sweet soluble substance, to which the name of
glycerine is given. ‘They were hence regarded as salts of glyce
rine, until it was shown that this body could not exist in them,
when Berzelius proposed to consider them as compounds of the
acids with the oxyd of a compound radical, lipyle, which formed
stearine is represented by 2C,, H,,0,+C,H, oO, 3H ee
1,H,,0,. The glycerids are decomposed’ by alkalies with —
the assimilation of the elements of water ; concentrated sul a s
ric acid acts in the same manner and forms a coupled @
the glycerine ; ammonia decomposes them and yields
of the acid: this has been observed in the case of 0
which produces margaramide. gee
he principal glycerids known are those of the group of
homologous acids mentioned on page 99; all of these acids,"
the exception of the formic, acetic, and metacetonié, are known (0
have corresponding glycerids. The phocenine obtained by ei"
dae ee
* Seegagetma. | CR ee
Gerhardt’s Organic Chemistry. 183
) be identical with the butyrine of butter, and like it is decom-
posed by potash, with the formation of glycerine and a butyrate. .
Among the other glycerides are oleine, that of castor oil, and
upon it by sulphurous acid gas. The glycerids are
ized by evolving the pungent oder of acroleine when de-
y heat.
ls.—'The organic alkaloids area class of nitrogenized
bod hich unite directly with acids. Ammonia may
taken as the representative of them. This substance combines
with nitri¢ acid NHO,,, and with the nitrate of copper NCu Q,,
in both cases forming neutral salts. As the compounds of am-
Monia with acids present a close resemblance to the salts of pot-
ash, it Was proposed to regard them as containing a compound
metal NH, which replaces the hydrogen, ed nitrate of am-
monia NHO, NH. »» is upon this view N(NH,)0,, assimilated
: of potash NKO,. But this view is ——— but by
their salts, the latter as the ammonia-nitrate of copper
., Must be assumed to contain another compound
; and from the complete similarity between puts
; acide alkaloids, their salts according to t
each contain a compound metal which is com 5
nts of the alkaloid plus an equivalent of en
the immense number of hypothetical compounds
heory requires, and the imperfect analogy upon whieh;
, it is preferable to regard the alkaloids and ammonia
ich unite directly ‘with. acids and metallic core
for example, combines with nitric acid to form
yay N, OO, MO 53 and with nitrate of ean
odies beh be. divided into two classes ; the frst are
mposed of carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen.
ont 1 these is low they are volatile ligne but when this
ey are of ine ot volatil
f these exist ready formed in plants,
ained when tobacco is aes with a solution of
earches have shown that it is formed in the pro-
i : probably true of conine. These alkaloids,
P
184 Gerhardi’s Organic Chemistry.
at least the four first named, are very poisonous. The second —
class includes those which contain oxygen; these are all so
and crystallizable, and with but a few exceptions, obtained from -
plants, of which they constitute the active principles. Urea
the only alkaloid which is found in the animal organism, and
only natural one which we have been able to reproduce artificial
The action of ammonia upon oil of mustard and of sulphure
and seleniuretted hydrogen and ammonia upon aldehyde, affo
alkaloids in which sulphur and selenium replace oxygen. 4
sine is one in which acesenic replaces nitrogen.
M. Hoffmann, in his late beautiful researches, has dise
several new alkaloids derived from anilene C, H, N, by arep
rai
beautiful instance of substitution by the residue of nitric acid.
It is anilene in which NHO,, —Oreplaces H,, and is represented
by C, (H, NHO,)N; although it contains the elements of a
powerful acid its neutralizing power is the same as anilene itself.
The researches of M. Gerhardt have shown that the alkaloids,
like ammonia, act by their hydrogen upon oxydized bodies 1
form compounds which correspond precisely to the amides. The
oxalate of anilene when decomposed by heat loses two equiva
lents of water, and forms oranilide, which, like oxamide, rege
erates oxalic’ acid and the alkaloids by the influence of acids
alkalies. ‘he anilide of formic acid has also been obtained, am@
sulphanilic acid which is monobasic, and corresponds ‘to the 0% |
amic. The oraluric acid is a coupled acid in whieh urea >
tains the same relation as ammonia in the oxamic ; in its decour
carbon, which is oxydized at the expense of the water, and forms 2a
carbonate of potash, while anilene and hydrogen gas are evolved ae
C,H, NO,
liberated hydrogen combines with it and forms anilene ey
liberation of two equivalents of water C, H, No, +68 :
C,H,N+2H, 0. The same result is obtained by the acti
of sulphuretted hydrogen, the sulphur separating. It is from a
decomposition of binitric benzene that nitraniline is obtained
e
o
‘
1
e
Gerhardi’s Organic Chemistry. 185
orm well characterized salts, being converted into alkaloids,
ine and benzoline, or amarine of Laurent.) The alka
lamine and ammeline, obtained by Liebig from the de-
186 On the Nummulite Limestone of Alabama.
Art. KV Uh the relative Age and Position of the so-called 4
Nummutite Limestone of Alabama; by C. Lye, F.RS.
and V.P.G.S. oe
In a former paper, published in the Quarterly Journal. of
Geological Society of London,* I stated that the limestone ec
taining abundantly the Nummulites Mantelli, Morton, which oe
curs near Suggesville, Clarksville, and other places between th
rivers Alabama and Tombeckbee in the state of Alabama, wa
stituting any part of the cretaceous formation as had fo
* Vol. ii, p. 405, May, 1846.
_t Quart. Journ. Geol! Soc., vol. ii, p. 409, May, 1846
+ Sir Murchison announced to the Geological
Alabama was not cretaceous, as Morton and Conrad had supposed,
net — had considered it, but was of the age of the terrain ni
iaritz. 2: 5 ae
E
On the Nummulite Limestone of Alabama. 187
fo)
—
a
&
<
a
is)
=)
oo
Ss
—
a
@
a oo
Lj
fo)
=
°
=
5
®
Qu
=
5
, but allied to some of the bodies
her tertiary species and a Maestricht fossil, were associated by
Composed of minute cells. They appear to me to belong to the
same generic group with the tertiary Orbitolites, and such ap-
Pears also to have been the opinion of Defrance, for we can
Searcely doubt that these are the bodies alluded to by him (in the
spt a
Spece”? peer basin) ‘a les
ouve vivant dans les
ginopora of Quoy and
188 On the Nummutite Limestone of Alabama.
As the subject stands at present, then, we have no right to in
fer from the presence of an Orbitolite however abundant, that —
the stratum in which it occurs belongs to one period more than
another between the commencement of the cretaceous epoch
and our own times. if
In my former paper, I endeavored to point out the cause of
the obscurity in which the true age of the Orbitolite limestone of ”
Alabama had been involved, it having been considered sometimes
as ah upper cretaceous group, and at others as intermediate
tween the cretaceous and the eocene formations. 'The accomp
cupies more than one hundred feet of the face of the same ¢
from its summit, while at the base the lower members of the
*“The Plagiostoma dumosum of Morton, is decidedly a Spondylus-” te
On the Nummulite Limestone of Alabama. 189
careous series crop out from beneath the horizontal and incumbent
beds of sand and clay. This twofold composition of the mass of
strata in the bluff at Claiborne, is expressed at A, in the annexed
ii (fig. 1,) and I verified a similar mode of juxtaposition
Fig. 1.
Clai- Alabama
ne. ar. Clarke County. Bettis’s Hill.
_ River.
e sand, ma ey é&c., with henge sete thal. —2, White or rotten lime-
stone ; Zeuglodon, nautilus, &ce., e —3. Orbitolite limestone, eocene.
tOverying sand clay, &c., eocene.
of the two series of beds in several places in the interior of Clarke
County, where the limestone often ends abruptly and is succeed-
ed sometimes in the same ridge or hill by the newer beds, (No. 4.)
the latter having evidently filled up the inequalities of a previous-
ly denuded deposit, after which, the whole was again denuded.
~T have eropricsed several details and repetitions of the same
phenomena in the country represented in the above diz
1): ane have been obliged to give a considerable inclination to
| se in the distance of twelve or more miles between
i
ta and Cardita es Cardita parva, Omani pre-
lerea eequorea, Oliva Alabamensis, Pleurotoma. ( (sev-
formation below. Mr. Conrad has ag nl
ection at Claiborne, and I hope soonto give a fuller
with the observations which I made there in 1846.
one, No. 2, only the lower portion is seen aa for it
#
‘
190 On the Nummulite Limestone of Alabama.
is cut off at the top of the bluff by the newer series of beds No.4, _
but in many parts of Clarke County, as near Bettis’s Hill and near
Clarksville, the same No. 2 is found more largely developed. It —
is characterized among other organic remains by a large Nautilus —
which hardens on exposure to the air, is not divided by lines
stratification, and is for the most part made up of Orbitolites of oF
rious sizes, with occasionally a Lunulite and other small corals, —
with specimens of Pecten Poulsoni. The origin of this limestone
like that of our white chalk, the softer varieties of which it much
resembles, is I believe due to the decomposition of corals, and
like our chalk downs, the surface of the country where it prevails
is sometimes marked by the absence of wood, by which all the
other deposits in this part of Alabama are continuously coverel.
The spots where few or no trees appear are called “ bald prairies,”
but in some places, and at Bettis’s Hill among others, the Orbitolite
rock produces what is termed a “cedar knoll -? the red cedar,
Juniperus virginiana having exclusive possession of the grouné.
was much struck with the resemblance of such ealeareots
tracks, covered with the trees above mentioned, to certain chalk :
and there by shrubs of juniper. “?
At St. Stephens, on the left bank of the Tombeckbee tiv
Alabama, a similar limestone with Orbitolites forms a perpe
cuneiformes Lonsdale, Scutella Lyelli; Con., and several mom
I shall now conclude by adverting briefly to the result a
comparison which I made of the fossils contained in the &€ ee
strata of Vicksburg, on the left bank of the Mississipph 1700 ot :
position of which is indicated at 4a in the wood-cut on the D&
page, with those of other eocene beds forty-five miles further
at 4a, the Orbitolites Mantelli abounds, together wit :
Poulsoni, Dentalium thalloides, Sigaretus arctatus, Con
On the Nummulite Limestone of Alabama: 191
forms most characteristic of tertiary as distinguished from
condary formations.
Fig. 2.
. ‘Jackson. —_ Pear! River.
_ - _ Ps b
‘. .
-
oe: * East.
1. Mud of alluvial plain of Mississippi.—2. Superficial drift.—3. Freshwate :
ae i land shells,—4. Eocene strata. —5. Cretaceous strata —Length of section
ty miles; ~~ g
re. in les
er shells collected by me at the same place, several of
believe identical with Claiborne species, belong to the
Voluta, Oliva, Terebra, Rostellaria, Murex, Plurotoma,
lla, Natica, Turritella, Crepidula, Dentalium, Corbula,
~actra, Lucina, Cytherea, Cardium, Cardita, Pectunculus, Nu-
tala, Pj a, Pecten, and Ostrea. With these are corals, teeth of
fish, &e. I was shown the remains of a Zeuglodon procured from
the n ighborhood, at a place five miles south of Jackson, on the
tight bank of the Pearl river, but as I did not visit the locality I
_ “hot point out the precise place in the eocene series which it
“ples. Some of the accompanying corals, however, were
ificall those occurring with the shells above
Jackson, and one of my informants stated that this
bed was immediately under “the rotten limestone.”
18, 1847.
rer
192 Magnetism of the United States and its Vicinity.
Art. XVI.—Notice of some recent Additions to our Knowledge
of the Magnetism of the United States and its Vicinity;
by Exras Loomis, Professor of Mathematics and Natural I
- losophy in the University of the City of New York.
Iv the forty-third volume of this Journal I have given a dix
cussion of all the observations of magnetic dip in the United —
States with which I was then acquainted; and in the
seventh volume I have given the comparison of these obs
tions with Gauss’s theory. Quite recently we have receiv
most important addition to our stock of observations, from M
Graham, Prof. Locke, and Capt. Lefroy, published in the
actions of the American Philosophical Society and the
Society of London. In order to make the American Jourt
complete depository of our knowledge upon this subject, itt
proposed to present an abstract of these new observations accom”
1 y a few remarks, iba
The observations of Major Graham were made in the yeas
1840, ’41, 43, 44, and ’45. Those of 1840 were made with® —
dipping needle constructed by Troughton and Simms, apie :
servations, the usual precautions were observed of reversing tt fe
poles of the needles, and reading with face alternately east
west. The following is a summary of Major ran’
servations. a
Taste [.
OA I my Longitude. Di
(Lake Pohenagamook, . | 47°28" a 2 77
Beau Lae, E ‘ 3 AF 44 69 3 77
Madawaska River, . 47 22 68. 19 a7
River St. John, : 47-17 68 27 7
Fish River, . é 47 15 68 35 q7
St. Francis River, . 47 11 68 54 77
r iver, . 5 47 WU 67 57 a7
Little Black River, fy Sealy sig! ee 77
iver St.John, . 474 67 47 77
Falls of St. John, ye 67. 45 77 2
Peconk Hill, 46 59 67. 47 77
Big Black River, 46 57 69 27 77
Aroos peeks 46 47 67 47 77
- | Blue Hill, i 2 46 38 67. 47 17
River St. John, 46 35 69 53 7]. 2%
Branch of St. John, 46 25 7o 4 77
were Hill, >. 46 67 67. 47 TES
lource of St. Croix, 45. 57 67 47 76
Taschereau’s, 45 49 70 24 76
45 39! qo 16 7e"
Magnetism of the United States and its Vicinity. 193
Tasre 1.—Continued.
eae Station. Latitude. Longitade Dip.
\Kennebec, . : 43° 20! 69° 58’ GO? as
| Canaan Corne 45 0 71 #31 76 23°§
ee Mempheemagos, 45. oO 2o13 76 ‘4
s Poin 45 0 53°29 76 40°7
44 48 68 47 76 11°6
63-5 70 44 94 S5i-o
42 22 mt o 74 17°8
42 21 a1 4 74 94
41 24 af ee 93°: 201d
4o 43 74 1 72 28 2
39 57 hae! ae
39.17 37 71 se £5
38 53 pe VAs
ey ae 94 Oo 61 36°8
31 44 93 15 61 15°9
i é arn se g3 45 60 57
| 29 44 “ 5t 58 32-9
ht oF Bissioeippi 28 59 Bg 21 58 42:2
ae tions of Prof. Locke were made with instruments
manufactu d by the late Mr. Robinson of London. The dip-
ping compass was furnished with two needles, each of six inches
in length. The intensity apparatus was of the model invented
by Prof. he, the needles being vibrated in a glass vessel nearly
od . The observations of 1838, 39, and 740 hay~-
ready been ae into this Journal, are not here repeated.
= Pia summary of the observations of 1841, 42,
Tass il.
Latiude. | Longitude.| Dip. | Intensity.) Date.
; 48°. 6} 88° 47' | 78°..7°6 } or | 1843
, 47 88 1 [78 38°5 | rg10 | 1843.
¢ 47 28 | 88° 8. 77 135 a ae 1843
a te 47 28 | 88 a7 20°7 | 1842 | 1843
: 47 27 | 88 23 497 54°5 | 1861 |
z 46 52 77. 132. 1°865 1843
8G) Bale Be) oe [ae
i 58- i I
oe ~ 3 = 3o°2 | 1861 | 1843
; 45 54 76 38°8 | 1864 1843
43°33 95 13-0 | 1836 1844
43 113 34 44°2 1808 (1
43.48 74 38°8 1°806 1844 |
sean Ss wee fe 74 48°38 | 18 1844
42 53 74 36°5 | 182 1844
= 42 * 34 41°6 | 1°792 1844
* 42. 25, 73 32°4 | 1815 | 1843
42 22 14 5-7 I 1842
: 42 22 94 14:9 | 1774 | 1842
: 42 16 73 13°7 | 1828 1843
: 41 52 73 Ho} © 1844
4t 41 74. 5:0 | 17%
41 30 53. 8-0 | 1824 | 1843
41 26 73 0°0 1-817 | 18.
‘ 41 18 73 = 1-774 | 1842
: 41 16 72 55:9 | r805 | 1844
: | 40 43 43 | 7a 37°72 1783 | 1842
Val. IV, No. st Ti Raat I 25
194 Magnetism of the United States and its: a
Tasre Il at Chabiundd,
é Station. __j Latitude. | Longitude. Dip. Intensity.
Newark, ¢is oa 5 i 40° 43" | 74° 10! | 72° 487-5 1-784 {1
Wellsville, .¢ .|vego 38 + So. 44.) 72. 35-3 | orga ae
Pittsburgh, : i : 4o 32 86: 29°] 4a 43°57) 1803 | 1
New mepeaith, ‘aa 40 30 | 74 25 | 72 43-2 | 1785 «fT
Pri 2 i : 4G 22 fo 7 3g} 72 39-5 1. aBs Se
Tren 40 13 | 74 40 | 71 59-0
Wheeling, 4o 8 | 80 47 | 72 ‘9 3]. Pores
I 40; 6 fe ¥eR. 47) 72 Oo
Philadelphia +. 42939. 57 753 10.492 -.0-§ |. 7-7
Sag urg, tess. 55 77.40 | 71, 57:1 |. 1-78bem
Mt. St. Mary's College, ‘ 39 41 77.18 | 71 46:3) 1:97907m"
Cumberland, » | "39 39 78 44 | 71 36-0]. 1-789 7
re, i ; |. 4439: 359 76 37 | 71 36°8 |. 1-780
Cincinnati, . F ‘ F Bo. 6 84 22 | 70 25°4| 1:996)
Washington, F : | 38°53 pe 9 1 1 9 Saaey 1-786 |
Georgetown, 38 5 77. 3 191 19-0} 12768.
Mount Vernon, 38 41 998. 9 | 902 5a25 78 =
The observations of velpe Lefroy were made in the ¢
of a plan for a magnetic survey of a ¢ onsiderable po
North American continent at the expense of the Bai
ment. "This surv survey. was High ie ~ the British Asst
with an inclinometer of nine inches by Gambe
nometer of seven inches diameter; a portable
ometer ; an azimuth ¢ ier oe a portable decinomett
circle, and returned to Toronto near the close - bit
He thus passed directly abe bedi region of grea
tensity in the northern sphere. The Pilowing
tains a summary of ae t of F Capt Lefroy’s observa
includes also a. few observations by Messrs.
and Rae
—
Pink UL. a
_ Latitude, Longitude. f i ee
66° 16’ N.| 128° 3o! he 82° 560} |
64 31 124 44. |82 34°3| 1
61 5r 121 25 | Bs 52*3) 1
6r 10 113 45 =| 82 44-5 E
58°43 | 411 18 81 37-0] 3
+ £98005 a1 116735 80 480).
T5644. Gl 1m 86 Rr 306 | e
57-24 (| rar 35. 181 16°81 |
ae |
ei
mt
ie
“be
z
bea
hp.
Magnetism of the United States and its V
Tasie Hi.— Continued.
ter +2 Station.
svg 4: 3
water River,
e dela Loche, .
te : ‘
t Devil’s Portage,
le Rock Portage, .
Slave Lake,
=
MOO CCOCORF MB KR RH NN:
— ~ oon -
sim RRR RR RR BRR D
atitude, Longitude, ip.
O of Ni .g2° 26) W.| 83° 47/2),
39 110 49 80 36:2
34 10g 44 80 36°4
21 92 56 83 36:2 .
15 rog .23 80 19°7| i
5 108 51 80 37-0 .
56 118 34 78 46:2 :
54 | 107 47 80° p42") 3:
46 106 30 80 38-7] I:
43 105 50 80 40:3} 1:
7) 104 4 80 30-9},
34 104. 33 80 16-5 Is
33 115 53 7 39:0] 4
32 93 5o 33 23 I
28 103 30 30 "Shy
sara 107 54 30 «9 8
ay. 94 ie 2 pie
a5 2 ae |
» 6 = 42 te) 5a 6
4 56 95 30 2 38:8
4. 37 of 181 Se
i 30 102. 10 io 34-2
42 96 26 1 47°9
4 21 It I 20-9
5 of 44 ra 5
5 7 I 10°0
wa Ae 19 80 24:9
50 t10 30 "8 33°5
48 lor 28 80 24-4
‘42 98 1 {80 45-4
34 ~~ | 109 19 78 41-0.
31 112 57 97 54 +2
Si: } fon ty 80 16-8
I 100. 40 80 0:0
cl 104 48 | 79 1172
} 12) } 100 30 op. 7 |
} 10 : | 99 32 80 28 -2 r
ae, ae 80 26-5
9 4pa08 90 178 2878 ff
51 106 13 78 30-7
1.97 13 Bo B54 4)
| 107. 4 78 16-6} 1
SF: 97 4 80 24-4 I
46 | % 4 | 79 39:0
34. | 96 fo [79 (61
Ree pea aes
37 96 21 57°4
i eee “2
19 96 45 32-6.).5
II 9 37 78 57'1 | 1
53 97 (2 70. 173
BEN IGE 39°) B75
a3 .| 94 41 98 105245;
eh. AE lao 78 26-2)
aes dedge chek 574
46 | 87°40 = | 78 24-0)
39 > 89 34, | 78,266
37 gh et
Bod? [iQ Z agar
2 At 6 Aven TAA,
196 tia tsa anaes a
: Tasxe III. =~ Wintiqnad: ce ie
: ation, Latitude. _ Longitude. Dip. ia
Pointe ‘Tonnere, » ~s | 48° KON. 89° 3" W.) 78° 23% | 1-876 |
Otter Island, — 48 6 86 17. |79 43:6} 18or |
Michipicoton, 47 56 85 5 |78 6-4) 1855 {1
Gargantua, . 47 37 85 11 77 561 | 2-016 |
Pointe aux Crépe, 46 58 84 58 79 AL 1877 |
ebec, . 46 49 71 16 77 15:3) 1814 |F
Pointe aux Pins, 46 29 84 41 77 14-7 |° 4:86"
e Rivers, 46 19 72 36 77 10:7} 1-826 }
Little River, 46 18 78 43 77 28°5| 18381
Lac du Grand Vase, 46 18 79 26 77 21°7| 1846 [1
Tessalon Point, 46 16 83 31 76 59°3| 1852 |
Lake Nipissing, 46 13 7 59 77 95} 1836)
Fort la Cloche, 4G 19; | 5B 5o*2| 1802 |
Snake Island, 4ES 9 [PSE G 77. 5-5 | 1833 |
Pointe Baptéme, | 46 6 | 77 26 77 26°6| réaa]t
orel, ; 46 3425. [oe 77 17-0} 815 |
Lake Hu , 46 0 | 81 50 => 5-6) 1840;
Ricolet Falls, Se Sy. |1¢ BEN 76 45:4| 1870)
ingsey, 45 48 | 72°19 77 40-0| 1808 —
Grand Calumet, 45 45 76 40 76 44:4} 182
Pointe aux Chénes, 45 37 74 55 76 55-4| 18
La Combes, 45 32 4 9 76 50-6] 41
tread, 8, 1 45 30 73 36 97 «~8:64°% Se
Point Aylmer, . 45 29 75 48 76 41:0} 183 ae
Isle d'Urval, : 45 24 73 46 77 ater | 18 a
Stanstead, . 2a? 2) >. 127% 56 7 19 ‘34> Aa
Penetanguishene, - 14 2 80 1 76 20+1} 16 &
git ting BREE > + 148-45 | 81 bo [75 4-8] 2
orento, 4. i ee +. a (8 13:57
Niagara, MESES: 9 74 46-8) 1
Port Sarnia, tf 58. 82 34 74 15+7| v8:
Buffalo, 42 52 78 54 37-0} r81
a tan Aa 4239 | 73 45 | 74 44-6)"
Detroit, . -| 42 24 8360 73 38-8] 7
Cambridge, . 42 22 1 8 74 19°5| 17
mherstburg, 42 6 83 13 73 29 9 L’
Providence, 41 49 712 [94 0-0
West Point, 41 24 74 t+ 173 30-4) 4
ew Haven, 4r 18 72 57 53 27-4| 1
lew York, 40 49 74. 3 72 7. ary
Princetor 40 22 74 40 72 43-5 17783
Philadelphia, 39 75 10 71 59:0}. 1-793
Baltimore, . 39 17 a a1 41-4} 17782
Wa shington, 38 5S toe th 3-8 a
Remarks on the Preceding Observations. of
The preceding observations of dip. ‘combined with t
viously made, enable us to draw the lines of equal dip 10)
northern part of the United States in a very stislactory ”
‘Locke supply the deficiency in the northwes
+ ea of Lieut. aga extend over a be
i ah Ww.
half of an United States; + but with | the
Magnetism of the United States and its Vicinity. 197
five observations of Major Graham, the southern half of this coun-
_ try is still an untrodden field. Cannot some volunteers be found
to do for the south, what has already been done for the north?
- The observations of the magnetic intensity, possess, if possible,
a greater interest than those of the dip. The region of greatest
‘- intensity for the northern hemisphere has now been surveyed;
what is the result? The greatest intensity anywhere ob-
served in the northern hemisphere is 2-099; the intensity in Peru,
as observed by Humboldt, being called unity. This intensity in
“Peru was formerly supposed to be the least which would be found
: nha part of the globe ; but an intensity has since been found
‘
Be
“a
S
times greater than it is at the somihes If it is proposed to ex-
i the observed phenomena a by a permanent magnet situated
Neeog the surface that we are very little nearer them at one point
-of the earth’s surface than at another; we must place the poles
full three thousand miles below the earth’s surface. Then to
explain the high intensity observed in Siberia, we must introduce
Second magnet whose axis makes a considerable angle with the
But all this has been attempted in vain. Such hypoth-
y be pro-
‘ounce toatl a Andere If we call the intensity under the
ue Sees South America unity, this intensity slowly increases
_ 88 We travel northward, amounting to 1:4 among the aes India
Islands, while at New York it amounts to 18. Lin S passing
all those places on the earth where the intensity is the
Same, are called lines of equal intensity, or isodynamic lines.
: ‘The Particular object of the expedition undertaken by Lieut.
_ *ttoy, was to trace out the line of 1-8, and determine the posi-
t the point of greatest anne this continent. “This
t
198 Magnetism of the United States and its Vicinity.
Beering’s straits, including the great northern lakes anda con
siderable part of Hudson’s bay. The isodynamic line of 1-85i8 —
a smaller oval included within the former, and passing nearly
through Fort Mackinaw. 'The isodynamic line of 1-875 isan
oval 446 geographical miles in length, and 170 in breadth. Its —
centre is in latitude 52° 19’ n., and longitude 92° w. ; where the —
ae is 1878. These are the results which accord best with
| bs See sae
ed anomalies, which, in our ignorance of their cause, we ascribe —
by terrestrial induction, diminishing th
"ing a difference of more than Jive degrees.
local attraction deserve a particular examination.
. On the Trap Teff of the Connecticut Valley. 199
Arr. XVII.—On the Trap Tuff, or Volcanic Grit of the Con-
necticut Valley, with the bearings of its history upon the age
of the Trap Rock and Sandstone generally in that Valley ;
_ by Rev. Epwarp Hircucocx, President of Amherst College.
> ee yee eee ee, Oe
CANT, aut 3 ;
(Read before the Association of American Geologists and Naturalists in Wash-
Cm ington, May, 1844.)
ly my Reports on the Geology of Massachusetts, I have given
abrief account of a rock under the name of tufaceous conglom=
that part of the valley within the state of Massachusetts, and
- Ihave observed in them the following varieties.
A Lithological Characters. ‘i i
A rd reddish micaceous sandstone, with more or les 3 of
ic matter, mostly dust or scorie. It is more or less meta-
, often abounds in greenish spots, and passes insensibly
e sandstone. es
Conglomerates.—There are several varieties. — The most
n consists of rounded masses of trap, and occasional masses
nd grey sandstone, imbedded in a scoriaceous base. ‘The
is
10d e}
“hoe
‘ter,
usually more or less rounded, but do not appear like the smooth
200 On the Trap Tuff of the Connecticut Valley.
granite, quartz rock, clay slate, &c. These rocks appear more
or less crystalline in the structure of their cement, and contait,
especially, foliated nodules of calcareous spar.
3. Volcanic Breccia.—This is composed of angular fragments
of trap, of a highly ferruginous character, with a small proportion
of cement of the same character. “This rock abounds in the inige
ridges of intrusive trap in the vicinit :
mygdaloid, with a somewhat compact base, and nodules
of calcareous spar. 'The base has the aspect of indurated vol .
canic mud. ;
5. Volcanic Slags.—These differ but little from the amygie 4
loid, except in being more vesicular, and the cavities are emply.
They cannot be distinguished from recent vesicular lava, excef
in not being so fresh.
6. Concretionary Nodules—These are made up of concent
coats and are a dirty color and highly —— Ther
rarely more than three or four inches in diam
7. Common G'reenstone.—This differs =e at all from. the
greenstone that constitutes the great mass of ~ de: of this val
ley, except perhaps 1 in being usually more c
8. yritic Trap.—This takes distinct cele of folds
into its composition, and has a gray base more argillaceous thal
greenstone. The same rock occurs in connection with the fs
cipal ranges of trap, '®
Relative Position and Stratification of these Depots
The usual dip of the strata of sandstone in the valley of |
necticut, is easterly, averaging about 15° or 20°; and the
ranges of trap appear to have been protruded to the surface
tween the strata. Consequently they lie upon the sandsto
seen on the west side of the range ; while on bs east side,
the trap soft occurs. After receding a greater or les
from the trap range, we find id tuff interstratifie
?
. Lan :
is also, for the most part, distinetly stratified conformably
Fig. 1.
Sandstone. Trap. Sandstone. Trap tufa. Sandstone.
S Opec = ye Ke a
‘Section across Mount Tom from west to east.
On the Trap Tuff of the Connecticut Valley. 201
Fig. 2.
Sand- Trap
Trap. stone. tufa, Sandstone.
pe te
FREI Neos WNL
Section across Mount Holyoke southeasterly.
sandstone. I say for the most part; because when the mass
is considerably thick, the west or the lower portion of it, is
usually distinct greenstone, having no more stratification than
) in any other position. And so in the amygdaloidal and
coriaceous varieties, the stratification is indistinct, and indeed,
proportion as the igneous agency predominated, the rock loses
division into layers, and exhibits it where the aqueous agency
dominated.
Boal Topography.
Nearly all the examples of this rock which I have discovered,
.
Connecticut. Starting at Belchertown, we find the ridge run-
‘nearly west for several miles, then turning south to Connecti-
‘river, and forming Mount Holyoke. Continuing across the
tiver, it rises into the still higher ridge called Mount Tom ; and
ice in a | i icut. ‘The top of this whole
Within this -ncinal trap range, and on its back
mA great curve of the rincipal trap range, i
Side, that all the deposits of nit tuff, with which Iam acquainted,
ick woods, it is difficult to explore it. On the op ite side of
= river, a still larger deposit occurs in orthampton,
Srnies, Vol. IV, No. 11.—Sept.,1847- 6
202 On the Trap Tuff of the Connecticut Valley.
on the back side of Mount Tom. In West Springfield, another
natrow deposit is marked, as if imposed directly upon the princi-
pal range of trap; though it is doubtful whether there may not _
be sandstone interposed. Some very interesting boulders of one —
variety of this rock have been found in Amherst, torn off proba-
bly from the back side of the trap range running northerly through —
Sunderland, Deerfield, and Greenfield, where we still find a sim- _
ilar rock forming a part of the range. I have, also, seen many
years ago, boulders of the tufaceous conglomerate, a few miles
oan of Hartford; but whether any large ledges exist there
now not é
fu
a
:
,
be
a
45
2
Organic Remains.
a single very distinct example does occur. It is a vegetable sten
from one to three inches in diameter, scarcely flattened. I four
it in boulders of the porphyritic trap that has been descri
the ledges I have not found any vegetable stems. The
oulder in which I have found these stems, is about two
diameter, ‘and three of these stems run. parallel to one
Massachusetts ; although I was there obliged to refer them
trap rock, not having understood, as I think I now do,
tions of the trap tufa. | “
On the Trap Tuff of the Connecticut Valley. 208
Mode and Period of the Production of the Trap Tufa.
_ Such are the facts in regard to this formation. I now come
to the mode and period of its production.
Two positions in relation to this subject, I think will be easy
to prove. The first is, that this rock must have been of contem-
_poraneous production with the sandstone in which its beds are
Interstratified. The very fact of their being interstratified, shows
that they could not have been subsequently injected. They are
ided into layers, if not as thin, yet often as distinct, as the
Consequently, after the deposition of the sandstone
_ on which they rest, they must in some similar manner have been
posited, before the layers of sandstone, now above them, were
med over them
he second position is, that these rocks must have been the
it product of igneous and aqueousagency, The stratification
and mechanical structure of some of the varieties clearly prove
the agency of water, while the vesicular and concretionary struct-
nical layers, are equally conclusive proofs of the agency of
heat, Indeed there is no part of the trap formation in this val-
fit form the tufaceous conglomerates above described : while,
ither mix with the sand and gravel, nor come
204 Onthe Trap Tuff of the Connecticut Valley.
sufficient to destroy all their organic structure, yet great enough
to convert them into-a scoriaceous mass; or if the organic mat-
ter had been driven off, to fill up the space with such matter ren-
dered vesicular, (as in the particular case which I have described,) _
by the gas ting from the decomposition of the organic com-
pounds. Thus we might have organic remains in nearly melted —
rock, and thus might volcanic matter be made to take a stratified _
structure ; but when quiet was again restored on the ocean’s bed, —
new deposits of sandstone and shale would take place. After all
this, the principal eruption of trappean matter might take place
along nearly the same line, and the principal ridges of unstrat-
for)
greenstone: for how could that elevate strata lying ben |
must, therefore, have been originally deposited with its present dip,
or elevated by some other agency than the trap. But on thet
side of the trap ridges, we find numerous examples wh¢
strata have been elevated very much more than the gene
which greater slope, however, dies away as we recede
trap. e for an example, the section given on fig. 2;
crosses Mount Holyoke near its east end from Amherst
easterly into Belchertown. Beneath the trap the dip is as
generally, the dip is southeasterly, although not usua
than 20°; and I see not how this can be explain oe
On the Trap Tuff of the Connecticut Valley. 205
considerable distance from the ridge of trap, so as to dip 45°.
But at this place is another fact still more conclusive to prove the
elevation of the strata since their deposition. Those strata, dip-
ping about 45°, are often covered with the most perfect foot-
marks in connection with raindrops, and not one of them have I
ever seen in the least distorted, as if the animal had walked on a
The mud was so delicate as to retain the impressions of
each phalanx of the foot most perfectly, and yet it has not yielded
at all laterally. No one at all familiar with the tracks of living
or extinct animals, can doubt that the surface must have been
_ hearly level when these markings were made. The same is
_ @ssentially the case at the Horse Race, three miles farther up the
Stream, and indeed at almost every. locality of footmarks the
ope of the strata appears to me too great not to have shown the
ie - slidings of the animal, if he walked upon it at the same dip which
: itnow has. For I have some examples where the effect of walk-
i
j and the general fact may here be stated, that, with one ex-
‘ion just discovered, (July, 1847,) it is only on the east or up-
Side of the trap ranges that the footmarks occur, doubtless be-
se the water was too deep when the rock was soft. My the-
a
2
FI
a)
:
ia)
3
=)
o>
ban |
=]
Qu
©
co)
a
ie)
isn)
&
a.
@
Qu
3
g.
a
‘3
Es
a
E
3
4
5
E
Qu
3
4
is)
5
S.
1
| — ic agency was so common as we know it was during the vol-
‘period, vertical movements of the surface must have been
206 On the Trap Tuff of the Connecticut Valley.
nding t
the whole formation, was not the result of the protrusion: of
trap. deposition, as
maintain, or of some other upheaving force? I incline
last supposition for the following reasons :—
marks on the fine sandstone are at right angles to the f
course of Connecticut river; and as 1 was looking at t
Prof. W. A. Norton on Terrestrial Magnetism. 207
day, close at the water’s edge, I saw that they appeared to be con-
_ ‘tinued beneath the stream. But on close examination I found
quite a deposit of mud above the rock, and on this mud the cur-
2 rent
d geological reasoning, to regard these sandstone strata as
up by some of those later movements, probably by lateral -
ire, which folded up the Green, Hoosic, and Appalachian
Terrestrial Magnetism; by Wusm A.
Na
ss tural Philosophy m
ware
Professor of Mathematics and
College.
oe (Concluded from p. 12.)
Declination of the Magnetic Needle.
HE first computation was of the declination for London, as-
the poles of greatest cold to be coincident with the mag-
poles. The result was a declination a number of degrees
Small. After two or three trials I found that by placing hy-
208 Prof. W. A. Norton on Terrestrial Magnetism. .
Taste I.
BR Eee canara Lati- Declination. ican pole.
aden sama *_|Computed. | Observed. Lon. |P. dist.
London, o° Ow. 4! w424° of w
Paris, 21 £.148 j22 4
n, E. |45 3 w.
Géttingen, BE. |51 7 Ww.
erlin, 24 B.|52 4 30 w.
Spitzbergen,| 11 4o x. 7 o Ww.
Ww, 37 37 £./5 9 E. 8 x.
Tobolsk, 68 16 £. /58 6 Ej10 29 x.
r 42 §. 147 10 E} r 16 &.
116 26 E. /39 I wr 48 w.
Stretensk, [117 40 x. 52 56 w.] 2 52 w.
Jakutsk, 129 45 &. 62 30 w. 5 50 w.
Tschernoljes 136 23 z. (61 52 w 3 30 w,:
The Azores,| 26 w./36 11 w.j23 45. w.
New York, | 74 1 w.|40 20 w.| 5 23 w.
Washington, 77 =F w.i38 29 Wir 4t w.
ana, 7 12 w.i23 20 £] 5 30 x.
St. Louis, 15 w.|38 27 B18 44 RB.
35 25 w./57 30 £j28 19 x.
93 0 w./50 35 zg} 8 E.
93 0 w.|55 5o E| 7 E.
93 0 w.60 o Bi 5 E.
and for the Azores, from Barlow’s “ Chart of Magnetic ©
Equal Variation.” The observation for Havana was “e
1816. None of the other observations date more than
Prof. W. A. Norton on Terrestrial Magnetism. 209
years back. 'The observed declinations for the United States
were reduced by Professor Loomis to the epoch of 1837.
~The following table contains the mean annual temperatures of
the different places in Table I, as computed from Brewster’s for-
mula, with the values of the distances 6 and 3’ used in the caleu-
lations of the declinations. 'The formula is
nat T'=(¢—1) (sind sind’)+7
and with the assumed values of the constants,
T= (28°(~19°)) (sin‘asins”)-19°=47°(sin‘9sin'y)-19° . (8)
anki? * ; + ‘
wee Taste UU. :
iM. Annual Temp.
computedjobserved De Pees,
10°5| 10%4 --0% 1 Jakutsk,
10 +7] 11 -o +o °3]/'T'schernoljes,
413-5} 13 6-071
9°7| .9 8 —o--1|New York,
2 -7| 8 -8-+o -9|Washington,
3) -4 haa -3) Havana,
5 -o 4 -4-+0 ‘6{St. Louis,
-o| —1 | -ofLon. 93° W., Lat. 50
‘9} 6 . Lo ‘g}Lon. 93° W., Lat. 55°
3 +3) 13 |-4o -3)Lon. 93° W., Lat. 60
Te) 3 +1 -olSitka,
g
=
S
B
=
&
4
f=
3
5
35°
)
B
E
8
oD
jak
o
a
ey
ones
r of the equator,
ducing this to the
level of the sea we have 31° nearly. ‘The value to be er
=17°2; the mean of which is —18:-4.. The most pero 7
values of ¢ and zt are then 31°, and — 18°. ‘Ebe. following, table a
was calculated with these values, taking n= 3; or by wee fo
T= =49%(sin*6 sin®y’) _ 18°.
mula the temperature of a place, and by formula (6), di
from this by differentiation, the pephmamen of the
needle.
Taste III.
MW. Annaal Temp
Rince. sap ired| Dit. Shanes
Berlin, g's 8\+-0°-5| Havana,
ow, 41 ‘4i—o +3 Washigion,
etensk, 3-5} 3 -o-4+o0 -5j8t. Louis,
Tschernoljes} —6-4) —7 |+0 -6}Lon. pe Lat. 50°)
ga, _ |x 6.72) 6 ho +2} Lon. 9 8° W... Lat eel Se
SOE 15 6! 16 we Bibi “93° W. Lat, 60°
\Fa
2
15°, and its longitude between 65° a 95°, Western
its longitude is from 65° to 72°; in Asia from 80° to
the eastern and northern parts of Non America from 85°
and in the western part from 70° to 85°. hi
aes obtain only on this pee eed As to the Asia
n the meridian of Paris, over the Atlantic Ocean, and
nah this continent, it is to be taken 160° east of the m
great as those of the longitude and latitude of the J
_ it. aren from ‘lables II and ILL |
. for the calculation of the mean tem
place may be regarded as. having its. particu
uts given in Table I, show me we
; 4 Prof. Wi A. Norton on Terrestrial Macnéetism. 211
ned te
x
p
idian of Paris westward, across the Atlantic Ocean, and
© tend to counteract each other, but it would seem that
t of the former must preponderate, and therefore that
direction of the isothermal line may materially differ from
given by formula (6). The indications are, however, -
teferring to a chart of isothermal lines, constructed from
ations, (see Kaemtz’s Complete Course of Meteorology,
edition, Plate VI,) it will be seen that generally the
of these lines is in fact similar to that of the lines traced
line, of the two systems of lines, are however generally
ited by a moderate interval. ‘The comparison is here con-
to the Temperate and Frigid Zones.
212 Prof. W.A. Norton on Terrestrial Magnetism.
We may lay down the following great truths as apparently
established by this discussion. ; niet
1. Lines traced upon the,earth’s surface such that the
needle is every where perpendicular to their direction, have a
neral
small displacement of the situation of the place is taken into
count, in the other neglected. (hs ig
In what precedes, I have assumed, on the authority «
David Brewster, that the isothermal and isogeothermal lines
parallel to each other. If a more extended and minute inve
gation should reveal differences in the direction of these t
classes of lines, it may be found that the lines of equal m
magnetic intensity to which the needle is every where perpel
dicular, correspond more nearly in their direction with the
isogeothermal lines than with the isothermal lines, to wh
isogeothermal lines have been assumed to be parallel. “ter ae
=
The small differences which appear to exist between the
geothermal lines and the lines to which the needle is perpendl
molecular magnetic ‘intensity is not only approxima ly
tional to the temperature, but must be rigor ously eonnecte
it by some law. - : = aes asi Fis ait . C nag ;
Prof. W. A. Norton on Terrestrial Magnetism. 213
ew. Horizontal Intensity.
- The formula which has been investigated, for the horizontal
component of the directive force, or the horizontal magnetic in-
oom of a place, is
Hor. intensity = C’ T (10.)
in Which C’ is an unknown constant, and 'T the thean annual
_ temperature of a place ; understanding by the mean annual tem-
ture, the mean intensity of the heat of the earth at the place.
mperatures are experimentally obtained by means of thermom-
eters, which give the height of the mercury above an arbitrary
zero, and by an arbitrary scale. It is not to be supposed, there-
fore, that any of those in use furnish the proportional absolute
~~ eee of heat. ‘The only resource, then, is to add arbitrarily
that accord with observation. .The following table gives
tesults obtained for a number of places, by adding 15° (cen-
de) to 'T'° (centigrade. The formula was
t+15°
11.
Hor. intensity =H ~~ Tis (11.)
‘which H is the observed horizontal intensity for some partic-
ular place, 'T’ the temperature at this place, and 7 the temperature
the place for which the horizontal intensity is required. «For the
Western continent H = horizontal intensity at New York = 5291;
ee ft Enrope pe, H= horizontal renee at Paris= ‘518. The tem- :
és and aBtinatiotie these being derived from the same author-
Sas ie declinations, with the addition of Sabine’s Report on
etic intensity of the earth. 'T’o avoid repetition, I ou
re remark that the observations employed in the subsequen
: of this article were derived from the same sources.
oF toe ~Tasre IV.
flor - if rl ae:
i Hor. lateusity.
Stile octal Diff. Place. lsceapraked observed Dift.
| 518
; Paris, :
"443 ae 4-034 Moscow, | +382 | +504 rida
‘500 | -481 ae Christiania, “410, | +437 Rear
-482 +-.018] Konigsberg, ‘422 | ‘479 teed
571 | -576 |—005] Berlin, “A741 Bop 02°
5 | -576 |+oor| Edinburgh, ‘478 | “4 ,
591 616 |—025] Gottingen, ‘494 10 |—"01
9645 |— ‘London, +406 5 pb.021
753 |+017} Milan, +568 HH "00
820 | -821 |—oo1] Marseilles 43 |+041
Naples, 632 | -657 |\—025
ey : —_ . 25°, W. coast)
: 882 | -936 |—054 ad 954 | 814 |~-060
- Equator, do. 854 | +920 |—-066
re, do. *g2t "920 +001}
114. Prof. W. A. Norton on Terrestrial Magnetism.
The second result for the equator, at the end of the table, was
ssdanlotad from ‘814, the observed horizontal intensity at <= ;
25°, W. coast of Africa
The following observed elements were obtained by cottnlian
from the tables and charts of Sabine, Gauss, and Loomis: Chapel —
Hill, inteasity =1-77; dip=68° 37’; St. t. Augustine, pepe
1-66, dip = 63° ; Key West, intensity = 1-55, dip = 58°;
tor, E. coast of S. America, intensity = 1-06, dip == 28P,; lati u
250, W. coast of Africa, intensi ity =1°3, dip ‘=519 18! ; #4
W. coast of Africa, intensity =-920, dip =0°. f
It will be observed that the differences for Europe are gre
than ies America. The clawing table was calculated aie:
form
: , 14.209
Hor. intensity =H. =~ 12.
Pi 20? A i
Tape V.
Pines, | -sinpated. cheered Di Pluce
0 | -408 | -504” |—og4] London,
Christiania, | -424 | +437 |—o13] Milan,
Konigsberg,| -438 | -479 |—o41 Marseilles,
Berlin, -481 cee tae Naples, _
Berio! pe 460 | °® +040] Lat. 25°, W. coast o
eeneate _ 500 | -510 |—-o10] Africa,
< : EON do.
More accurate results might be obtained by making the
latins from the observed horizontal intensities of a gre
ber of places. H
Theoretical investigations have Eien a to the law t
change of temperature of the earth is proportional to that
Square of the cosine of the latitude, and Chae eso are
lead to the same conclusion. "Assuming this law to be true,
temperature must every where be proportional t
the cosine of the latitude, ai or minus some number.
T= =A cos. lat.+-C. This gives the formula
cos*] +0 he +cos 21+C0
cos*L+C ~" 1+cos 2L+6 ~°
éand L denoting two different latitudes, and
intensity at L. The results given in tbe ‘following able 3
Culated from this formula, taking C= esp H = horizon
Le ity at New York = 5291, i
Hor. intensity =H
Prof. W. A. Norton on Terrestrial Magnetism. _ 215
: Tasrez VI.
- Hor. intensity. , Hor. Intensity. ;
_|computed. observed, = saa ‘computed. aoe Die.
453 ‘409 |-+'044 | Prairie du Chien, -492 505 |--o13
“481 |+-022 | Dubuque, ‘Sor | +516 |--015
482 |+4-016 } Louisville, +561 | +598 | --037
499 O t. Loui 562 616 | --054
or |+4-or0 | Lat. 35°, E. coast
Tt |—-oo3 of U. States, 618 665 | —.047
07 | +-013] Lat. 30°, do. 691 753 | --062
—005 | Lat. 25°, do. 756 821 | -—-065
49 |—-008 | Lat. 20°, do. 813 872 | --05
76 j|—o16] Lat. 15°, do. es 892 | - +03.
32 j—-o11 | Lat. 10°, do. "89 919 |--026
76 |—-o21-] Lat. 5°, do. 914 g9t7 |=-003)
Equator, do “921 936. | =-015)
Tt will ua served that the differences are greatest between
itudes 15° and 35°. But the observed elements are less
t would appear, however, that the supposition that
in formula (13) is incorrect. It will be seen that the de-
lestions for latitudes south of New York are almost all in
ney, while those for places north of New York are in ex-
More accurate results might accordingly be. obtained by
Ing some number from 1+cos2l and 1+cos2L. Table
calculated in this manner, or from the formula
intensity = itcos2h—C_ ‘ NS Bl a.
nt values were given to © for every rem —
Were empirically obtained from t rved tem
es in the following manner. Kaemtz in his Course > of
slog sy, furnishes the following table of seer ares
Lpeeliiens i
9 19 hee: PE ES
ol Br ,
ai Go!
62° 3
ok Alet &
66 48
taking ‘the data of the second column of this table, we find
t the difference between. the temperature at the equator and
perature at a certain latitude varies as 1 — cos Zlat.—C:
at two different —— dand L, the differences are as
~C: :.1—cos2L—C. ~The ieluc: of C oe. ety or
change either of st latitudes Jor L. If we take L=
and give successively to / the values 32° 20’, il 24/,
4° 51’, ip 57’, we find for C the the values 211,
220, 240. Ie we take L=38° 24 and 1 =41° 30’, C=
“500. Now by taking L=latitude of New York, and 7 = latitude :
of the place for which the horizontal intensity is to be computed,
ically substituted in equation (14), and used in calculating h
— table.
- Taste VII.
for. intensity. a
Place Computed: Observed. Diff. Valves
Me 5 ; f ‘440 “409 +031
Washington, . : : 73 576 --003
“aga 9 fill; Latcg6°,.- > . 635 645 --:010
St. Augustine, Lat. 30°, . 759 -750 -+ 009
Key West. Lat. 243°, . 816 826 - O10
By taking the data furnished by the third column of the sm:
table of temperatures just given, I find that on the western c0a
of Europe and Africa, the difference between the tempera
the equator and the tem mperature at a given latitude, va
1—cos nlat., m having various values for different latitades
2 to 15. This ‘makes the temperature proportional to
and at
oat PU. Whence re Kota ts 1— cos nl, and T-
as Oo oe
em —cosnl). For any other latitude (L.) we have in
manner T — ~Peg iol cos nL). These equations giveT
:T—T”:: 1—cosnl: 1eos nl, We have therefore for
calculation. of ite horizontal? mmenety on the coast of Europe,
following formule.
1+cosnl+C :
l+cosnL+C’
Hor. intensity =H
Or, assuming C=0, SE
1+4cos nl 4 O
1+eosnl***
Table VIIL. contains the results of numerous sshvaliagall
with this Pa ea e waine es - n, as given in the _ ihe
Hor. intensity = H,;——
Was proportional to 1—cosnlat. H w
ey at latitude 25° on west coast of Africa. The te
equator on the west coast of Africa was taken at 2
Thi ence between this and the temperature at :
wag 2 ok by means of the table given on vege 215
Prof. W. A. Norton on Terrestrial Magnetism. 217
3 g, what the table shows to be true, that the difference varies
al latitude to another proportionally to 1—cos 2lat.
- Taste VIII.
ne Hor, Intensity. :
htt Computed. Observed. Diff. “e
Hat. 25°, W. Ss Aiea; Y B14 %
Chris rt iania, é is -454 -439 +o17 15
. ‘ ‘ . . ‘504 504 “9000 v5
464 -446 +:018 16
510 — 175
488 485 +003 v7
510 50g +-oor 66
523 518 +005 a7
: . 530 ‘571 —O4I 1°85 _
les 538 543 —-005 195
(85°, Ww. coast of Aftiea, 665 “650 +-015 2
306, do. “743 746 mark 2"
me; dy: eg : 878 "833 +055 2
BAY Pape Maer 4 “961 "900 +-061 2
i 0°, do do 991 “920 +071 2
e value of m was assumed the safe for Moscow as for Chris-
A direct calculation from the observed temperature at
w gives n=1 (nearly), and horizontal intensity =-6 (near-
or London n was assumed the same as for Paris. This
~~
5
: = ert to che pala ‘estimated from a point
- S&C M4 . low
obtains at the two cold poles. At these vote de the oe
htal intensity is very feeble. The result just stated will then
i with the fundamental principle of our theory of the mag-
3 tee -. ree uingere ose of each particle of the
modi intensity is nearly proport ional to the intensity
* he heat over and oe that which obtains at the poles of
; cold: b
| earth decreases more ra
ey of: heat, and becomes cconeall feeble at the zero
without becoming absolutely zero at this, or per-
Szrizs, Vol. IV, No. 11.—Sept., 1847.
get
i
c
218 Prof. W. A. Norton on Terrestrial Magnetism:
haps any other known temperature. We shall see hereafter that —
it is not necessary to suppose that the molecular magnetic force —
becomes zero at the magnetic poles, in order to explain the fact —
of the horizontal intensity becoming reduced to zero there.
Vertical Intensity.
The formula obtained for the vertical intensity is,
er. intensity = C(t —¢’ ‘
distance, as the square of the cosine of the Jatituc
magnetic needle. If. therefore we denots fe ae
elie needle. it theretore we denote this by d, we
Substitution in formula (16), iM Sucigehreed seas Te ete
Prof. W. A. Norton on Terrestrial Magnetism. 219
iitirisong os! 1-59 21-+5°
bone Ver. intensity = C pee _ aieti a )
8% — by V the observed vatical intensity at some par-
ar place, by L the latitude of this place, and by D the decli-
tion Ped the needle there, we have
4 cos 2(1 — 5°) — cos2(1+5°). cosD
New NEE = vay 2(L — 5°) = cos 2(L: 45°) cosd * he)
It was remarked on page 10, of this volume, that it might be
necessary to increase the results of formula (16), except in
ts latitudes, by reason of the deviation of the change of tem-
ware from the supposed law of uniformity. If any term or
‘is to be added to formula (17) on this account, it must be
some function of the differential of cos?Z, that is, of sin 22.
_ In the calculation of the following table, V was taken equal to —
| 17236 = = vertical intensity at New York; except for St. Louis,
buque, Louisville, and Badan, (the first result, ) whose verti-
i tepsities were computed from that of Cincinnati (1°643.)
esate IX.
Ver. Intensity.
Place. computed. observed. Die
—————
Cincinnati, 1°705
Prairie du C hien,| 1
que, a ees
Louisville, 1633
ouis, 1-649 | 1636
Lat. 35°, E.
dia Isles
Lat
of s. America, ‘600 | °771
outh of latitude 20°, the difference becomes large. For this
Teasons m may be assigne ned. 1. Errors in the “observ ed” el-
ts obtained by estimation. 2. The deviation of the change
from uniformity. 3. The inaccuracy, in the vi-
' of the equator, of the supposed law, that the variation of
Ipetature is proportional to the variation of the cosine of twice
latitude ; for this law supposes that on each meridian the tem-
“A ure has its maximum value at the equator, whereas Captain
Perrey has found that the warmest point of each meridian is
_ Point of intersection with the magnetic equator. This is
ly the principal source of the errors in low inuaniaenss The
out iderably too small. In the calculations which
< for the eastern. continent, (Table X,) this source of error
220 Prof. W. A. Norton on Terrestrial Magnetism.
does not exist, since the magnetic nay crosses the geographi-
cal equator very near the coast of Afric oh
We have “— that for the coast of a and of Africa, the —
excess of the mean temperature at the equator over that at any —
latitude Z, is sropaitinal to 1—cosni; m having various values
at different latitudes, intermediate between 2 and 15 This
makes the formula for the vertical intensity in western Europe
and Africa,
cos n(~ 5°) — cosn(1+5) cosD
cosn(L— 5°) — cosn(L.+5° ‘cosd.
This formula gives results too small in the lower latitudes. |
can however be made to represent the observations Py: in r
L
i eee — This being done, we have ©
Vor ntengueV cae —5°) — cosn(I4+5°) cosD Eee ri §
Ver. siitinitly av:
cing the factor
2 ee a ee
the differential variation of temperature. F'or the diminut
temperature in passing from the equator to any latitude /,
portional to 1—cosn/. The differential of this, or the
tial variation of temperature, is sin nl. ndl. btaini
af sletaity at Paris. The same values of n were |
calculations of the horizontal intensities, (see Table vill)
Taste X.
Ver. Intensity. .
com) computed, jobserv: ao Diff. Place. I
Hein
ast Mila 3's
1007 | 1-org |- 007 Marseilles, ‘i
1-330 | 1°353 |--023]} Lat. 35°, Ww
v35r | ir +011} coast of ‘Africa,
1°223 | 1-257 +034} Lat.10°, do. do.| +
1-284 | 1282 |4°002}Lat. 0°, do. do.| _
ie cistetincke between the results of computation a
—— cannot but be
Si
Prof. W. A. Norton on Terrestrial Magnetism. 221
as remarkably small, when it is considered that these are first
determinations in which the nicest attention to accuracy would
_ An elaborate discussion can alone decide the question of the
| origin of the small differences (not due to errors of observation)
__ that exist. between the computations of vertical and horizontal
intensities and declinations, and the observed values of the same:
_ -etermine whether they are not attributable (partially or en-
_ tirely) to thermal differences between the magnetic crust of the
eatth and the air, variations in the constitution of this crust in
s = ‘passing from one point to another, &c., or are referable to small
deviations of the theory from the truth.
Dip and Total Intensity.
al intensities. Denoting by E the error of vertical intensity
by d the dip of the needle, the error (e) entailed upon the
il intensity by this, will be e= Esind. The error e’ entailed
y that of the horizontal intensity will be e’ = Ey cos d.
will then be nearly E sind +E’ cosd. ‘This error, except in
‘low latitudes where the formula for the vertical intensity is
oretically inaccurate, is every where less than 0-1, and gener-
only a few hundredths. Denoting the total intensity by
i 4 COS @, 94
We have, tangent of error of dip due to E= yy ‘i and, oa
| ‘sin d
nt of error of dip due to E’= e 7 . Hence, tangent of total
error of dip = ce °F mised (nearly.) Without going into a
detailed calculation, it may be seen that the ‘eine of the ves _
exceed 4°, (except near the equator on the western continent,
Where the cn fe the vertical intensity is theoretically inac-
“Curate }) and is generally very much less than this.
It has been ascertained, from a discussion of the observations
Which have been made upon the intensity and dip, that the in-
is not a function of the dip; or that the intensity 1s not
‘sarily the same, though the dip is the same. This fact
's that the horizontal and vertical components of the inten-
—
222 Prof W.A. Norton on Terrestrial Magnetism.
sity cannot be functions of the same element; for, if they —
when this element remained the same, both these forces would
remain the same, and thus both the dip and intensity would be
unaltered. The isoclinal and isodynamic lines would therefore
coincide: It accords therefore, with the theory under di jon,
Ww.
?
same at two different places, the variation of temperature may
be different. dtl
Magnetic Poles.—Magnetic Equator.
The true magnetic poles of the earth are the points on its sut-
8,
nearly so. Let AB, fig. 10, repre-
sent a great circle passing through
p, one of the cold poles. If we
the magnetic intensity of the c Seat
two particles m and m, equally distant from p, is the same. Now:
the acting forces of these particles will have the directions fe
tion that the isogeothermal lines are circles; inithisovieitaidy f
Prof. W. A. Norton on Terrestrial Magnetism. 223
cold poles, is doubtless not strictly true; nor have they probably
the precise form of any curve disposed symmetrically around p,
Se Gye lita Nota
bs * ‘ Rena
ae
ich led to the more accurate determination of this point. he
to which he arrived, is that the pole of maximum intensity
Situated about in long. 90°, and latitude 474°; or nearly on
ame meridian with the pole of greatest dip, and about 20°
of it. Let us attempt to determine the situation of this
from theoretical considerations. nn
he first place let it be observed that the horizontal intensity
wle of maximum intensity will be situated on the meridian on
Which the greatest difference of temperature obtains, pro
this difference also occurs at a lower latitude than the greatest
idian. The truth of these presumptions may be estab-
y deriving from Brewster’s formula for the temperature, a
al expression for the variation of temperature in a direction
io
224 #Prof. W. A. Norton on Terrestrial Magnetism. ’ ;
perpendicular to the isothermal line. It has already been seen
that the general expression for the variation of temperature an-
swering to an indefinitely small change of place is, ; hae
Cn (cos 6 sind’ dd + cos # sin ddd’)
sin-"* 1d sin—t 0
(19.) 2g
Fig: 11: a
5 hen nO
éT =
Let C, fig. 11, be the geographical pole,
A, A’ the two cold poles, A being the
American pole, BL the direction of the
isogeothermal line at B, Bn an are per-
pendicular to BL and nu, nv ares perpen-
dicular to AB and A’B. Let Bn=k and
denote the angles ABn and A’Bn by 6
and b’. Then dd=Bu=Bn cos ABn=k
cos 6; and di’=Bv=Bn cos A/Bn=k
cos b’. Substituting in equation (19),
: i) 5 L
,__ Cn(cos 5 sin 0k cos b+ cos & sin 5 k cos b’)
R= sin-"*'§ sin" 197
; _ cos § sin % cos b+-cos © sin 3 cos by
And dP eT sin="# 9 sing?
Now the calculations of the declination which have been
show that b and b’ diminis i
make the expression (21) for dT’ greater in proportion as we
nearer to the meridian 93°, or thereabouts. Omitting cos
cos 6’, the numerator becomes cos 4 sin 0’ +. sin d cos = sin(
This’ will be the greatest when §+5/=90°; and since 4’ re
the same on the same parallel of latitude and é diminishes
the angle ABA’, as we go westward towards the meridian *
it is plain that +0’ will be equal to 90° at the lowest latif
may be regarded as equal to unity. It is only necessary
establish that on each meridian the greatest value of dT obt
where d+6’=90°, and that a greater value obtains at this
Prof. W. A. Norton on Terrestrial Magnetism. 225
on or near the meridian of 93° than on any other meridian. We
will attempt to establish the latter first. Let us suppose that
_ This supposition is an unfavorable one, since it will make the
value of dT for other meridians than 93° greater than expression
(21) makes it. Upon this a ie becomes
_ cos d(cos 4d sin 6’-+-sin 5 cos 68 oy in (5 +0’)
sin-“t! 0 sin7"t 07 an Aamo he" Leip.
and for the pent where 0+0/= pi.
(23.)
: sin-"t1 6 sin-"+ 10! sin? 3 sin® 6”
q putting n=4, the value which accords best with the observations
of temperature. Now making the calculation of the declination
the latitude 50°, and longitude 93° W., by formula A O) I find
$5249 40’, 0’= 63° 56’, b=0 (very nearly), b/=3°, 5-+0’=88°
aw e same calculation for London (latitude 51° 31) gives
ns here 18%, #=62° 20, b=12° 55/, b= 349 17", 34 = 99° 47
4 point where 6 +0/= 90° is then in latitude "50° aap
the meridian 93° W.. For other meridians it is north of 5
This is evidently the case for the meridian of London ; and oo
itis true for other meridians, east or west of 93°, appears from
ct, a from the various a . of declination
eT ree
: its vicinity b=0 nearly), an Y= nape
ty and its vicinity 6 0 (ven _ constantly from
mi ; as se
t that at St. Louis (long. 90° 15’, lat. 38° 37! ) the sum of
—_ b loes not — 10. Now, let us sup-
Seciends: Vol. iy No. ic Bepts 1847.
226. Prof. W. A. Norton on Terrestrial Magnetism.
cos b sin (3+2") (24.) ie
sin-"F'd sin-"*'0’ -
For the point where 5+-0’=90° this becomes 240
cos 0° avi?
sin-**'d sin-"t1 0 (25-) vnc te)
(25) is less than the value of (21) for latitude 50°. South of
this latitude let us suppose that b’=6 in (21), which gives
cos } sin (+0) Here
sin-"*10 sin-"+287 eg
(26) is greater than (21) south of 50°. If therefore we show —
that (26) is less than (25), we shall have established that (al)
decreases south of 50°. The denominator of (26) is ;
than that of 25. It will only be necessary then to show that th
numerator of (26) is less than that of (25). At 50°, b/=3°,
= cos 3°=:99863. 6 may be regarded as zero.
tails of the calculations of declination show that the ae
O°
3
7°) it is 113°. Thus at latitude A792; 3° south of 50°,
pet re of (26) is less than sin 96° = -99452. It follows ther
that (21) diminishes, as we follow the meridian 93° 2 south fom
the latitude of 50°. North of 50° the increase of 0’ té i
diminish (21). Dropping b’, (b being equal to zer0,) brag?
sin (0-+-0/ )
Se en oes Ea
Whether this fraction, and consequently eee will increase,
minish, depends upon the value given a ss
as approximately determined by Bree or £, there will b
continual increase from 50° no oe as we be
n=;, and at the same time t=31° and t= ~ 18°.
the form ;
ttn “pales (- 19°) ta eg goe? me
T=(31°- (—182)) baste ia bet
Prof. W..A. Norton on Terrestrial Magnetism. 227
‘ we ined > Tasuie XI.
,* (Temperatures. | (Temperatares. Temperatures. [~
ae its n=}I0 erveg) Dit N= Fiobserved bean n= § observed pie.
Lon = ow 26° 6} —8%0 |-F 194) 71} 80 |-FO%-9) -BF-0 = 0.) o-vo
{Lat {ar +5 sa, 44, onal at is Sina
‘ 0. 3-3} 215 {o--8) 2 -g 2-5-0425 2 15] 0.10
—5 -o| -7 -o|+2 ‘ol-5 6 -7 -o 41 -4/-6 -4 -7 -0|++0 6
4-v}) 3:0\41 0) 3-9 3 -o}to 9 3-5 3 -o}+0'5
5 ol 4-4\40 4-4 4-4) 0-0 4-11 4 -4|-0'°3
6 +9 6 alto -o 6-4 6 :0'+0 “4 6-2] 6 -0|40 72
9 °7| 8 8|4+0 -9 9-4} 8 -8|+o 6 g°3 8 8/40 °5
II ‘9| 12 -7\|-0 °8 ie 8 12 °7}-0 ‘O11 -8| 12 °-7|-0 "9
12 ‘6 ti tah 6 13 -o|-0 ‘4/12 6 13-0 rie
15 -6 o/-0 4 rr ‘9 16 -o aie: 15 -6. 16 -o
ya 5 o|—2 +5} 23-7) 25 to|=1 -3124 “4. 25-0 me
tediow making n= 4, and making the calculations for various
latitudes north of 50°, I find. that sorprersiOn (27) and (21) re-
L very pike: constant. The v f (21) does not hg
e than 0-01 from 50° to 60° of Werte If we suppose
very small fraction greater than $, then (21) will oe
50° northward. In fact, that (21) will decrease for n nearly
to unity may at once be seen by considering that, when
(21) is reduced to its numerato
other meridians than 93°, or Saves, the diminutions
o ‘cos b/ are greater in going north, and thus (21) di-
of the point where 6+6/=90, even for n=%.
termine the variation of (21) south of this point, we will
. same mcreersions (25) and (26) as for ‘the meridian a
v York, for the meridian of which ’ at the point above
“is about 20°, ae is _ to 10519. It. follows,
ch 5-5" bite 100° ==
8+0/=90°, the aoe sab (26) i is less than sin
» While the: nurerator of:.(25).=c0s.109 =" ‘90481. The
“p 26) is greater than’ that of (29). Hence. ( )
his point.
point where J +9’ =90°, or from very neat shit 5p lige
‘Meridians at a distanis 93° sitll
e fro etailed
we = 1 inishes southward.
to make out distinctly that (21) dim hat, south of the
ic the angle vacant d and © is zero) than for ev : ery such me-
at. every considerable latitude. By making Sediwrovehle
228 Prof. W. A. Norton on Terrestrial Magnetism.
suppositions we obtain from (21) for the meridian 93° the ex-
__ cos B’ sin (8 +97) |
pression “Sin-** 1d sin" 107
eos bsin (845 ©, :
pression —"=a¢1§ Leena - Now for the same latitude 4 is less
» and for any other meridian the ex-
for 93°, or thereabouts, than for any other meridian, while 0 is
the same; and therefore south of the point of maximum on 99°,
| on Sin @+2)
or of latitude 50°, the numerator of the fraction sin="F 18 sin td!
is greater and denominator less, and therefore the fraction itself
greater upon this meridian than any other. Again near thisme-
ridian 0’ for 10° south of 50° is less than 2°; and some 15° from
it the value of } exceeds this amount. The maximum value of —
(21) for the meridian of 93° is then greater than its value at the —
same latitude (50°) on any other meridian, or at any lower latr —
tude. We have also before made out that it is greater than the
value on another meridian at the point for which 6 +0/=90°, OF
any where to the north of this. It only remains then to show that
it is greater than any value between this point and 50°. The ex
sin
and that for the value of (21) between the two points just me
..,. cos bsin (645) ne
tioned Binet identi We have already seen that the de-
nominator of the first fraction is less than that of the second for
each of the two points in question. As the denominator of
second gradually decreases from one point to the other, it follo\
therefore that it is continually greater than that of the first.
,: ence between these points the second fraction is less. tl the
rst.
. ea . : . . ; i
pression for the maximum value in question is oe sine
ee
We conclude therefore that the pole of maximum intensity i8
situated about in latitude 50°, and longitude 93° to 100°.
may be necessary in expression (21) to assign different: ues
n for different quarters of the oe deca from # to 1. 4n™
Prof. W. A. Norton on Terresirial Magnetism. 229
(21) cannot be made to extend to the cold poles except by sup-
‘posing » there equal to unity. '
If we consult a chart of isothermal lines, we find the greatest
variation of temperature to be set down for about longitude 90°
W, and latitude 45°; and that this occurs at a lower latitude
than the maximum variations on other meridians; which nearly
accords with the theoretical conclusion obtained above.
It is to be observed that all the considerable changes of total
intensity in high latitudes, are almost entirely attributable to chan-
in the vertical intensity. In latitude 50° on this continent,
tor to 40°; and that the changes of temperature in this direction
‘accord very well with the changes of magnetic intensity in high
latitudes upon this continent, as exhibited by Sabine’s chart.
GENERAL RESULTS.
_ The following points appear to have been conclusively estab-
‘shed by the foregoing discussion.
All the magnetic elements of any place on the earth, may
edu rom the thermal elements of the same ; and all the
features of the distribution of the earth’s magnetism may
tically derived from certain prominent features in the
tion of its heat. ee
the magnetic elements, the horizontal intensity is nearly
7 : easu a en-
ae) etween the mean temperatures at two points
"d at equal distances north and south of the place, in a di-.
‘one another the most intimate physical 2 ape
he principle of terrestrial magnetism, in so far as
ena of the magnetic needle are concerned, must be confined
¢ earth’s surface, or to a comparatively thin stratum of the
S of the earth.
230 Dr. Mantel?s Isle of Wight.
5. The mechanical theory of terrestrial magnetism which. has
been under discussion, must be true in all its essential features. _
3
rer)
8
roel
5
a
<
co
=
o
S
5
OQ
5
rer)
See
Ss
=|
2 *
o>
se
co
>
po]
oo
ie)
oar)
%
=
e,
wn
—,
<]
E
from a very small number of magnetic data determined by ob-
servation, and the mean annual temperature of the place.
e great importance of these results cannot well be questi
ed. Whether or not they be regarded as supporting the theoret-
ical views of the physical nature of magnetism which have been
briefly alluded to, they cannot fail, it would seem, to throw some
additional light upon this hitherto mysterious subject. ‘They al-
so link together in the closest. bonds of union, the two sciences
of Terrestrial Magnetism and Meteorology, and confer a new
value upon the observations made in each of these two great de-
partments of science. hy
Sees
aha
Art, XIX.—Notice of Dr. Mantell’s Isle of Wight.* *
in connexion with the vicinal coast of D
Sussex, it is full of interesting historical
coast the Romans first made their landin
__ The present
it contains 430 pages, and is illustrated by 20 plates,
a geological map of the Isle of Wight, and 36 ligno
res
wane Hc remains. By Gippon ALcernon MaxteL., Bsq:, LL.D., F.R.S., A’
“The Medals of the Creation,” “ Thoughts on Animalcules,” &e.
} “That beautiful island, which he who f oat ca, amend
Wide world his future path may lead him." Whee ep a through whatever part of
Dr. Mantell’s Isle of Wight. 231
wood-cuts. It is got up in the same elegant style of paper and
typography as the Medals, and is intended as a companion both
_ tothe tourist and the geologist. The Isle of Wight, long a fa-
Vorite resort of travellers and invalids, is now for a part of the
year, the residence of the royal family, and of course presents
‘New attractions to a loyal people. The work of Dr. Mantell is
therefore in harmony with the era, and as we understand, meets
a wide demand.
_ Although the Isle of Wight is visited by the general traveller
with particular reference to its picturesque scenery, it possesses,
inthe language of the author, still stronger claims to the atten-
__ hon of the natural philosopher, for, the strata of which it is com-
posed present phenomena of the highest interest, which elucidate
Some of the most important pages in the earth’s physical history.
Notwithstanding the publications of Sir H. Englefield, Mr.
Thomas Webster, and other able observers, and of the models
of Ca
ity of the inhabitants, and that thousands of intelligent strangers
_ Who annually traverse the island, pass unconsciously over a coun-
ty “rich in the spoils of nature and teeming with objects of the
_ jighest interest to the instructed observer.” This deficiency of
7 knowledge is supplied in the work before us, and its usefulness
Snot confined to. the travellers in this small island, since the
Wed, and the conclusions drawn, have an important bearing
ipon the geology of similar regions found in other countries. It
‘itus, transported by currents t
depth of she sea ; caeeabeos and argillaceous deposits
silex having taken place at. uncertain intervals. The fossils
_ Prove that the Sbeaiicmrsdined with innumerable beings of the
_ Mstal orders of vertebrate and invertebrate marine organisms, be-
0 1gin o for the most part to species and genera now unknown ;
and in the chalk are seen, for the last time, that numerous tribe
; ‘Cephalopoda, the ammonites, of which, so far as our knowl-
232 Dr. Mantell’s Isle of Wight.
edge at present extends, not a single species is known either in
the tertiary strata or in more recent deposits: with the chalk the —
hole race of the ammonites disappeared. With respect to the
vegetable kingdom of the cretaceous period, the presence of nu-
merous marine fuci attests the nature of the marine flora; and —
the fragments of drifted coniferous wood, fir-cones, stems and
leaves, which are found in the flint and chalk in some localities,
prove that the dry land was clothed with pine forests and cyca-
deous plants. The occasional discovery of bones and teeth of
reptiles, shows that the islands and continents were tenanted. by
oviparous quadrupeds. Of birds and mammalia not a vestige has
been discovered. ae
Wealden Formation, so ably investigated by Dr. Mantell
and other English geologists on the opposite coast of England,
has been fully made out in the Isle of Wight, and we may there- _
fore presume that it is continuous beneath the English channel. —
n h ”
he wood was rhineralized by calcareous and not by siliceous
matter, and the bark was generally turned into lignite. : :
“In the clays for several hundred yards, both to the
u an was IS
proved by Dr. Mantell.. These bones are washed out by the 2
and strewed along the shore, subject to the destroy fos :
of
Dr. Mantell’s Isle of Wight. 233
_ Compton bays must have belonged to one hundred and fifty
* or two hundred individuals, and they prove that the country:
: teemed with colossal viviparous quadrupeds, some of them
ndicating animals more gigantic than even those of Tilgate
__ On the shores of this island, bones are found of all the well
wn Wealden reptiles, the Iguanodon, Hyleosaurus, Megalo-
Saurus, and Streptospondylus, besides the Cetiosaurus and Plesio-
ul Dr. Mantell estimates the entire length of the fossil
thigh and leg bone found in Sandown bay to have been over
tine feet. A toe bone measured six inches long and fifteen in
circumference.
The body of the Iguanodon must have been equal in magni-
tude to that of the elephant, and its limbs of proportionate size.
ne of the thigh bones in the British Museum if suitably invest-
rith muscles and integuments, would form a limb seven feet
circumference.
The animal was a vegetable eater, and probably found its food
i§ the palms, ferns, cicadew and conifere of that era. The
t extremities, massive and unwieldy, resembled those of
hippopotamus or rifinoceros, and were supported by a very
§ short* foot furnished with claws like those of some tur-
high, and must have presented a monstrous appearance
to that of any existing animal.t Remains of the Hyleo-
“tus and Megalosaurus are also found in the Isle of Wight—
le latter about thirty feet long and the former of half that
of the Cetiosaurus or whale-like lizard—of the Strep-
dylus or lizard with reversed vertebre, the ball being placed
y upon the vertebra, and bones of the Plesiosaurus, have
n found in this island.
hort in Proportion to the colossal bulk of the animal; buta single separate
the yg ae been found to measure thirty inches in length, and the Jast
€ toe to which a claw was attached, was five and a half inches long.
‘ Ancient World, p. 212.
* elephant rarely oh ag height of eleven feet. Eleven hundred ele-
¥amined on a particular occasion in India, did not present a single indi-
eleven feet in height.—Ansted’s Ancient World, p. 213, note.
| “30
Series, Vol. IV, No. 11.—Sept., 1847.
234 Dr. Mantell's Isle of Wight.
The Iguanodon, Megalosaurus and Hyleosaurus appear to have ~
formed a peculiar group of land lizards—the first herbwoomey ‘
the second carnivorous, and the last not yet determined. ‘
The 12th and last chapter of Dr. Mantell’s work contains a
detailed: notice of the geology and topography of the neighbor
ing coast, which abounds with interesting and instructive in
among which the petrified forest of the oolite of the pi
Portland is one of the most remarkable.
The retrospect which closes the volume a so fine a specimen
of geological induction that we insert it entire.
“In attempting to interpret the ke records of the earth's
physical history, the geologist is often in the condition of -
obse curely related Seer oot na. Bearin
eapition of a distinguished philosopher, ‘that the. ete
theory can never fall from our lips with any grace or fitness, v
less it appear as the simple enunciation of those general
with which by observation alone we have become acqu
nature have Sahai in this part of the globe, during the’
periods embraced by, our researches, is so conclusive, that the
attentive reader will perceive the following inferenc
as they may appear, naturally —_ from the facts that ae :
been submitted to his observation. - ath
“I, The Oolitic Epoch. ~The most ancient deposits |
prehended in our Excursions, are the upper beds of an
by mm of great extent—the Oolite- which is ch
n
stems and foliage of palms, arborescent and herbace
cycadeous plants, aad conifer ; with bones and teeth oft wre
trial reptiles, and of marsu ial and insectivorous mami
These beds
Dr. Mantell’s Isle of Wight. —=—S——285
and constituted an island clothed with pine-forests and cyeadeous
: “I. The Wealden Epoch.—The country with its pine-for-
: ests was gradually submerged, and formed the beds of estuaries
estuarine shells. Bones and mer od terrestrial reptiles, and of
tiver fishes, with stems and fragments of coniferous wood, were
also drifted into the estuaries and bays by the streams and rivers.
- The — subsidence of the sea-bottom covered by these fresh-
continued, and the sediments acquired an exclusively
hale character, till at length the accumulated deposits of a
ver formed an extensive delta, many hundred feet in thick-
was marked by the enitante of the entire era now none
‘the greensand formation, to a depth sufficient to admit of the
cumulation of the deep sea deposits, of which the greater part
| Cretaceous beds of England, and of the adjacent portion
juropean continent, consist. The Wealden sediments
Seiciin But the ocean of the halle extended far
onsiderable portion of modern Europe, and its waves reached
eve, World, and covered part of he continent of North
, ocean swarmed pes numerous forms of yi 8
8, belon ing — eat measure to specie es an
u
and its contemporari ies, and covered with pine-forests, cyca-
and ferns, flourished up to a late period of the cretaceous
IV. The ‘onthe bed of the chalk ocean was
nat UP, and se rs sok eo areas were elevated above the sea,
covered with aligenation, and tenanted by pachydermata and
ammalia; the dry land of Peerte during this period was
sive e than at enanenent Ses time
—_
236 Dr. Mantell’s Isle of Wight.
“Tn the basins and depressions formed by the submerged site.
tions of the cretaceous strata, new sediments began to tale place ;
the sea which deposited them’ teeming with marine animals, dis-
tinct from those of the preéxisting ocean. Localintrusions- of
freshwater deposits, abounding in the spoils of the land and its
inhabitants, denote the existence of islands or continents, tenant- —
ed by mammalia allied to the tapir, elephant, rhinoceros, horse,
deer, &c.; and the vegetable remains consisting of palms and
dicotyledonous trees, sais an approach to the flora of the —
warm regions of the south of Europe. > * How long before thé ‘tee divides :
to the arts or to commerce ; yet I cannot leave altogether un-
tamed—thou Ican hardly do more than name—the discovery
. ooh cotton, pal the application of electricity to the smelting of
e ho
be realized, theiy plan will be of the —reinaian value to this country,
oF even — proportionate value to some of the Queen ’s most
jony a
; and the saving of coal in England, an object not
immense.
rom the sciences cultivated, extended, or encouraged, I advert to
of the Association itself. . The importance these
Their direct results have been ere bene-
science ; their indirect effects in uniting men of the same pur-
and not tess in bring-
together those whom seas and empires divide, but whom the same
i are equally re-
g a word) which
Dn p e
ishing; ; and we have met cordially on common round to assist and
hoporable and service-
ye orage on one another in _— 7 of objects
‘While, however, this feet. is produced, whether our meetings be
or in Cambridge, in —— or in Dublin, in Liverpool or
i a whether they be in England or in Genoa, in Milan
not forget, that if we raise the sta andard of science
_ country, i raise the national venaorord aay and its just in-
other countries; and that whi
256 Address of the President of the British Association,
¢
aee than on its military glory. _ Without for a moment undervaluing
whom in past ages as in the present, England is, beer
ca
they proceed, and esa from past experience, may justly claim
confidence of the state.
‘“« The interest of our nation in science has kept pace with the
sor Onaga given by public authority to the cultivation of science.
‘* Our national collection may now be’ compared, at ee
but thank fally, with those of other countries ; remembering, also,
o
greatly owing to the talents and labor of the eminent head of thé
partment, Mr. Gray, whom I see here. The fossil divisions, under.
care of my zealous, laborious, and able friend, Mr, Konig, @
haps superior—in some classes beyond comparison. mal
times as
even distinct results, but all showing the progress of physical ® va
edge or the means of extending or familiarizing it amongst see
finish my Address.
“But I cannot conelude. without ptt the University
the phen alike on this assembla
poe that Sir W. Petty, the Wrens, Seth Ward,
his associates; an and that here, for fourteen years, our own |
Address of the President of the British Association. 257
good Robert Boyle, preéminent amongst early observers, and ever
eminent for Christian principle and devotion, cultivated -_ science ;
and, without for a moment under Yor the mighty names which °
honor ~ Cambridge —whie h do more, which do ie, to Sa lan
. and our common -n —we ma claus in Oxford the kee z
4 having Gburished and sent forth the men ae first laid the basis of the
_ greatest of the scientific associations of the world.
_ “Here, then, the British Association gladly accepts the welcome
Row tendered to it within this ven nerable Un niversity. It was aires
pect at the.venerable seats of ancient learning, whence have been
used through the land for many centuries the benefits of a large and
l education, and the blessings of Christian instruction ; where it
the earnest and habitual endeavor of those who teach—m may it be
@ the desire of those who le ate sanctify the acquirements of
by the graces of the Spirit
feel iia Ihave very inadequately estes the duties of the
lin which I have been placed. Wherever the failure is less ap-
verence
the improvements of modern arts have ne reatly aciated the
res A they brought together Irom
sig pubes as alga trig. ing hepa aaron
the Prophet
e ry scene, Dihinents
this great Association or in the der mame
great = Univer willingly, gladly, ie cheerfully, lay its tribute
altar of
os aaa IV, No. 11.—Sept., 1847. 33
258 Theory of Transit Corrections.
Arr. XXI.— Theory of Transit Corrections ; by Exocu F. Burr.
Aw accurate determination of the element of time is so essen- _
tial to the purposes of astronomy, that whatever may serve to _
to simplify or saat Bau modes of obtaining it, may justly
be deemed of importa
In expounding the etey of the transit instrument, the reason-
ing necessarily partakes much of a metaphysical character. From
this cause combined with limited space, a specific object or the
necessities of a popular exhibition, arise certain assumed prit-
vation, inequality of the intervals between the wires, the
passing over these intervals, error of collimation and devia
of the optical axis from the plane of the meridian. A few
38 ig will be made with reference to these corrections in
An observer is liable to error in estimating the instant at ¥
a star transits the wire which indicates the plane of the m
To correct for this error, and reduce its probable amoun
Let e= error of one orients and © -= the mean of a nu
of observations. Then £ 5 is probably less than e. ried
: probability that e is less than i when all the errors denoted by
are of the same sign, and one eee 5 in this case has no adv
tage over the other. But these errors probably have not a
same sign; but some are negative while others are positive,
thus tend to cancel each other. This constitutes an advall
of se latter expression and ome it probably less than the fi
iminution of error by taking a noe is probably in P
portion to the number of ceri Let <= = the a
of a number of observations, and - == the mean error |
the number of observations is increased by unity. ‘Then
Theory of Transit Corrections. 259
is probably less than <. For if the numerator of the first ex-
Pression is not probably greater than that of the second while its
denominator is greater t
he second, since there is as much chance that e will be negative
__ a8 positive.
_As the probable reduction of the error of observation is in pro-
Portion to the number of wires, it becomes important to connect —
. Let e=
or at the middle wire and e’= sum of errors at all the wires.
ete’
hen according to the method just stated, aad is the mean er-
f the fraction expressing the mean, than the error at the mid-
at an extreme one. bes ;
When the intervals between the wires of the transit. are une-
tained in the usual manner, when the interv
7= true time at the mean of the wires. _
q,d,,d,, etc. = equatorial distances of the wires from the mean.
®,€,,e,, etc. = errors of observation at the wires.
= declination of the star.
260 Theory of Transit Corrections.
é
Then the observed times for a transit with five wires will be
yrd,.seccd+e,
¥. ck: d,, .806, de;
y+ d,.secd+e,
' 7+ d,.secdO+e,
and their sum, 5y+D.secd+ EH =5y +E sinte Del
E
Dividing by 5 we have y + (1).
Now it is evident that if 7 is taken to represent the time of
transit over the middle wire, and the equatorial intervals be equal,
the sum of the coefficients of sec 0 is zero, and there is a liabi
to just as large an error of observation at each wire. me
time of transit at the middle wire would be found 7 + = aC
result no more accurate for the ges wire than was "ti pre-
vious one for the mean of the w 7
If to expression (1), the Heodiet of the equatorial distance ¢
the mean of the wires from the middle wire be applied d with :
proper sign, 7, which represents the true time of sven
mean of the wires, will become the true time of pa
middle wire, and ‘the expression (1) will become identical
pin gran eh the same result will be obtained as if ~
pee optnclinen had al ro u
Soot
been as far from the middle as is the one corresponding to:
the other side, and then using these reducing times in obte
a mean.
Let 7= true time of passage at the middle wire d’, a”,
true times between the middle and other wires.
Then
reed’
ytd" +e,
id” ~~
ek 6;
will be the observed times of the transits. Now conceive @
tity + b added to d’, such that d” + p=d” ’, and also @
quantity + 6’ added to d’, such that d’+6’=d’”. In this
when the quantities are added, the second column will disapp
and dividing by 5, we have 7 5 : as accurate a result as
tained when the intervals between the wires are all equal ; §
the observer is liable to just the : same errors at the wires. _
Theory of Transit Corrections. 261
- formula which is strictly accurate, is, in its common form,
hain are. sin (15. yy.are 1”. sec 0)
ye=
Where yz= time of e from one wire to another,
ss y= equatorial interval between them.
_ But there is another known form, which, while it indicates the
operations to be performed more clearly than the last, is some-
mes otherwise more convenient for use. It may be thus de-
Monstrated.
Let © = are of a diurnal circle intercepted between two wires.
y = arc of equator intercepted between the same.
_ @’= a part of x equal to y.
= yy.sec 0,
af. yy. sec 0.2
Pe
pO tes cc fal
= sin 2= sin|
: ) -c0s 5 = sin (m.«.sec 5).cos 0
COS jas
sin®.(m.x.sec 9)
ia Ye. ee
are (m.. x . sec 0)= sin(m.ax. sec 0+ +ete.
y* . Bec? 0
= 5 a de
~ But are (m.xsec 0)=2. sec 9
3 sec? 0
vasyt St etc.
2,sec?0\
And ya=yy.sec 6 (144 -}:
tion of the transit axis from the plane of the prime ction
expressions ¢. sec. ‘
~9).sec 3; so that the equated error of the clock becomes
5/4. sin ( ) . * In these expressions ¢ is
i latitude of the place of observation, A the right ascension of
one a, c, the deviation and error of collimation. It is
n that *
262 Theory of Transit Corrections.
emplified with reference to ¢, and consists in subtracting two —
equations, one of which is the sum of several such equations of —
the error of the clock as contain large coefficients’ of c, and the —
other the sum of an equal number of such equations as contain
small coefficients of ¢, and such coefficients of a that their sum —
will nearly balance and cancel the other coefficients of @ in the
. subtraction. Then the error of the clock disappears, the term —
into which a enters being very small, may be neglected, ande —
becomes known. The superior accuracy of this method, which
we find assumed, it may be well to establish. ee
Before proceeding farther, however, it should be observed that
while the expression for the effect of the error of collimation —
upon the time, needs in strictness of theory to be subjected to
the same modification as that which commonly expresses the time —
of a star between two wires, the difference between the value
this expression and the true correction
Beet Fe ae a ae ee ne beet
can be shown that the coefficient of either is integral, an
there is no likelihood that its factor is any less than the ce
ponding factor of the term which expresses the effect of
errors of observation in the common method, it follows that
* probably much less than that incident to the ot
t=! —y —a.m' —c.n
t=’ —y" ~a.m"—c.n"
“
Theory of Transit Corrections. 263
be three equations of the error of oe clock, the transit axis bein:
assumed perfectly horizontal. hen if ¢ is sought, the coef-
ficient of one part of the effect i“ the errors of observation on
n value i is
(n—n’)— ens (m—m’)
/—m
But n—n’ is always a proper fraction in our latitude for instru-
ments having only a southern exposure, and is in fact as far as
‘he latitude whose tangent is “3. The same is true of 7’ —n",
/ ne
. emt and m’ — m’’, But i is also a fraction, since the
i Deere sec 0’ — sin pce: sec 0”
er ote ORE — tan 3”)
= sec 0’— sec 0”,
Differentiating cos y. tan 0” we eke a g.sec? 9”, dd”,
and sec 6” we have sin 5”. sec? 5”.
we have cos ¢.sec? 0”. dd”> sin sae .sec? 0”, dd” when
90°— 9. From this we have
os y. (tan 0’— tan 6”)>(sec 8’ — sec 3”),
same is true when one of the Sraargerie is negative, since
frvations will not be made the horizon. Then
> >f —n’’ when the sieichd aaa is less than the
ment of the latitude of the place of observation. Hence
ni!
ollows that the reciprocal of (99) pees (m—m’),
Di ich j is the coefficient of one part of the effect of the errors of
observa: 97 in the lat. of New Haven, i. e. when
5” =76° 56’, and may be found by calculation to be 76. H
it appears that if one of the two coefficients is a small fracti
the other must be integral. oe
The remaining point is evidently established, if we show
there is no likelihoo
Scientific Intelligence. 265
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
I. Cuemistry anp Paysics.
#1: On Ozone; by M. Berzetivs, (Berzelius’s Jahresbericht, xxvi;
Chem. Gazette, 109, p. 71.)—After detailing the results of Marignac’s
Ozone is most probably a peculiar modification of oxygen; but con-
sidering the circumstance that it is not produced by absolutely dry
‘gases, he has left it undecided whether it may not perhaps contain
The ioe: uncertainty, however, has been removed by an experiment
of De la Rive. Chlorate of potash is fused to remove all moisture,
then a slow current of dry oxygen disengaged from it; this is
ssed through a glass tube of about one line internal diameter, into
i two pieces of platinum wire have been fused, so that they are a
I distance from and opposite to each other. Now when a current
ectricity is conveyed to the earth through the wires of the con-
ctor of an electrical machine in action, a succession of sparks results
n the wires, and the oxygen is thereby converted into ozone,
ve thus arrived at the highly important result, that ozone is
lar element, and likewise that it is not an unknown combina-
own. I may call to mind the effects of phosphorus upon oxygen
: rarefaction under the air-pump, which have not yet been
? Sznizs, Vol. IV, No. 11.—Sept., 1847. Mo
266 Scientific Intelligence.
$ Cy
The equivalent of this substance then is represented b
which differs from the formula of glycocoll only in the
N.
A notice of some of the characters of the two substances will
to show their close affinity. Both glycocoll and alcargene are ¢
of exchanging one equivalent of their hydrogen for a metal ;
addition to this character in which they resemble acids, act the |
organic bases by combining directly with acids to form definite ¢
lizable compounds. Some of these corresponding combinations
here represented. ;
Glycocoll, C,H,NO, Aleargene, Cn
Argenti “ C,(H,Ag)NO, |Argentic dts 8 | Ag)
Hydrochloric “~~ C,H,NO,HCl|Hydrochlorie * C,H, A
se characters we may add that both glycocoll and alcargen®
readily soluble in water, Sparingly soluble in alcohol, crystallize W™
0 cane Calera ag tn mere
* For a notice of the history and nature of ozone, see this Journal
oie i 1, ii Se ol. ii 7 958 d 369 :
_ 1 Phis Journal, ii Series, yol. iii, pp. 267-258 an ma %,
a +See the corrected reer, for Ueanketnnes in M. Gerhardt’s Précis de |
# ‘ “as I, p- * ‘ 7 gos Fiala Kniss
Chemistry and Physics. 267
facility, and are not volatile without decomposition. They also resem-
ble each other in having no deleterious action upon the animal system,
ey that is very remarkable in a body which like alcargene con-
lains more than 72 per cent. of arsenic. From these facts the conclu-
sion seems unavoidable, that aleargene is the arsenical species of a
nd double their equivalent, is well known. This however is
y a probable conjecture, and I shall take the earliest opportunity
ll send you as soon as they are completed.
May 25th, 1847. ae é
Varrentrapp and Will's Method for the Determination f Nitro-
i ies i i ion of nitro-
S, generally, with bodies in which the proportion of nit
it atiscs bois the impossibility of perfectly nga
neous absorption of the ammonia—a partial vacuum and a conse-
Tush of the ocd in jets into and across the bulb. Not unfrequently
268 Scientific Intelligence.
Fig. 2—Schlossberger’s Apparatus, ‘
It consisted of two little flasks, of the size used in alkalimetry
élight modification of the apparatus ' nted in fig: aP
realized all the expectations entertained. It is entirely safe. e.
, May, 1847. : os sei
Chemistry and Physics. Te
4. On a quick Method of determining the quantity of Nitrogen in
Organic Substances; by Eve. Peuicor, (Comptes Rendus, March,
1847.)—The method of Varrentrapp and Will was considered a great
_ improvement in the determination of nitrogen, particularly on account
ea saving of time, &c. But this process although requiring only a
Mia, and consequently the ammonia. —_- 2 /
For this last determination, the author prefers the solution of caustic
n may ade in less than half an hour, with an accuracy at
a m :
to that obtained by the usual methods which require never
hours
Nu ble or expense. G. C. ScHAEFFER.
_ Preparation of Sulphocyanid of Ammonium ; by J. Lizzie, (Lie-
1 O-
SS: < oz. sol. caustic ammonia, sp. gr. 5 :
phuretted hydrogen, and then mixed with 6 oz. of the same solution
am , -
Monia; 2 oz. fl ; iar
uct of the distillation of 6 oz. prussiate-of potash, 3 oz. sulphuric
and 18 oz. wat
hides and iron salts forming prussian and other blues. ,
On ws ae 2
of caustic ammonia is added to some of the solution in a
270 Scientific Intelligence.
thin glass tube, it may be boiled for hours without decomposition.
Acids produce the contrary effect, causing the immediate destruction
of the nitrite. sae
Pelouze. i
7. On a new Mode of estimating the Nitrates, and particularly Nitre;
by J. Petouze, (Comptes Rendus, Feb., 1847.)—The solubility of all
the nitrates preventing any application of the usual methods, an yet
the large quantity of nitre consumed annually in the manufacture of
gunpowder requiring some mode of determination approaching accu-
racy, many ingenious processes have been devised, and of these a very
complete history is given in the first part of the paper. a
method has been recently proposed by M. Gossart, which cons
in mixing the salt with sulphuric acid and decomposing it by a nor
solution of protosulphate of iron—the completion of this action be
determined by ferrideyanid of potassium, for when this indicates
tion the quantity of nitric acid or nitre.
M. Pelouze considers the process as original with M. Gossart,
happy in its invention. Certain difficulties however, have led.
provements by Pelouze, which seem to give the method a high
given off, and into oxygen, which produces the perchlorinatio
iron. Thus:
Chemistry and Physics. 271
_ Inthe first part of the process the continual escape of vapor and gas
prevents the entrance of the oxygen of the air—after this there is no
: farther danger, as iron in a strongly acid — is peroxidized with
= much difficulty, even by exposure to thea
ote general it is best to use the nitrate in a : sblid form—but to prevent
Be variations in small samples of crude nitre, it is-best to dissolve a large
2 pany. and take the proper proportion of the solution for analysis.
: course this process only indicates the wr of nitrate and does
fy hot show the adulteration of nitre by nitrate o Oe
8. On the Composition of Quinoidine ; by h ee (Liebig’s An-
: balen. )—Quinoidine has been considered by some chemists as a mix-
ture of quinine and cinchonine with resin, which prevents crystalliza-
tion. Others rs regard it as a distinct alkaloid. Liebig however found it
Oe
isa se fusible solid.
other acid is named from the plant, Moringic acid—its formula
3 his is a colorless or yellowish oil, solidifying at 32°, sol-
in ‘alcohol, and decomposed by sulphuric acid when boned ie it.
10. On the en of Tartaric Acid ; by 1. Nicxias, (Comptes
us, Aug., 184 Noeldner described as a peculiar acid that
resulis from the , fermentation of tartrate of lime containing im-
. rzelius pronounced this acid, — e pseudo-acetic y
to be a mixture of acetic and butyr ric
a does not decide upon this point, in shies that an acid is
2d containing the elements of acetic and butyric acids, having the
sition C,H,O,. This would be isomeric with Gottlieb’s metace-
experiments given by a author are not quite conclusive to
Separate penne < of this a
ML On the ion of Forvidcyanil of Potassium ; ~ A. and
Warren, ( (Buc. Rep, xliv, p. 42; Chem. Gaz,» June 1, 1847.)—
. of
ile boiling, good ehlorid of lime added until a filtered sample ap-
‘ation ; the _. chisiaede are purified by recrystallization.
On the Method of separating Cobalt from see EE praposed
swil ; by A. SrreckeRr, (Liebig’s Annalen, Feb., 184 i ; Chem.
May 15, 1847. )—A short time since M. Bar reswil ee a
- * See this Journal, vol. ii, ii Series, p. 260.
272 Scientific Intelligence.
very alkaline liquid is rendered turbid by boiling, with separation of
—
Poppy Oil; by M. Diese, (Archiv. de Pharm. in Chem.
Common nitric acid colors pure olive oil green; a mixture of ¢
rape oil produces a yellowish grey color, and with poppy oil a
ish white. After about twelve hours, pure olive oil is itself ¢
the determination must therefore be made before that time “— e
15. Ona Ready Method of determining the Amoun
Rendus
apparatus for continued distillation, the ammonia expelled by !
the solution decanted and the ether evaporated. The amount of
tine is then determined by sulphuric acid of known strength, ace
to the usual alkalimetric method .
This process was found to give results closely
Chemistry and Physics. : Q7s
ly which together with the nicotine and their salts, give the snuff the
er of exciting the mucous membrane of the nose.
The following per-centages of nicotine in several Prens h oa
sone can tobaccos,*’ were determined by the above mentioned
method
7 - pore cent. of hicotine in the dry tobacco.
73
“ete 6 6s 17
‘ 6:29 6 se 66
« 4°94 a6 “se 6s
i 3°21 14 6s 6
a 6:87 “ “ t7
di 6:09 “ 66 “cc
2:29 (1 6s “
* Havana, less than 200 i ss
Lee
oO
=
ao.
f=
Q
_
@
an
°
a
=
=
ie)
i
=
Oo.
=>
be)
4
=
oO
~
Qa.
3
-
E=*)
Ae
oO
5~
fap)
=
Cee
°
=
S
=
This water was found to hold in solution bicar-
of ammonia ‘and carbonate of lime. Insects too are often pro-
in vast numbers amid ammonia exhalations. In order to test the
t effects of this substance, the author determined to try the exper-
of mixing ammonia with the food, and the carbonate was chosen
“ide less modified in its effects than any ee salt, by the action of
vo pigs of nearly equal weight were fed with the same tind And
of food, with this. exception, that one took 1 100 grammes of car-
of ammonia in solution, each day. ‘This diet was continued for
months, during which time the health of the animal receiving” this
T treatment seemed not in the least affected. Repeated irae
bing onia.
most curious effect of this diet was upon the urine 5 saat from
deni urine froma
that other site we the ane must have at-
on
of conditions ;- but we cannot deny that the results are sus-
of as a different interpolations’ from that er “he the
274 Scientific Intelligence.
17. On several Detonating Compounds formed by the action of Nitric
Acid upon Sugar, Dewtrine, Lactine, Mannite and Glycerine; by Ascacne
Sosrero, (Comptes Rendus, Feb., 1847.)—Several of these compounds
simultaneously. The sugar compound on analysis, showed a replaces
ment of 2 equiv. hydrogen. The glycerine compound requires care in
WwW
slowly, with stirring, it dissolves entirely with no visible reaction, The —
addition of water precipitates a heavy oily looking liquid, which may
which it is quite insoluble—it dissolves freely in alcohol and ether, is
without smell, and of a sweetish pungent and aromatic flavor. It must
be tasted with great caution, as a quantity sufficient to moisten the end
of the finger, when applied to the tongue produces the most unpleasant
elects of nausea and headache, which last for several hours. No
analysis of this compound has been made. iy
18. On the Exhalation of Bicarbonate of Ammonia by the Lun
by Lewis Tuompson, (Phil. Mag., Feb., 1847.)—The moisture exh
drop or two of pure muriatic acid, and evaporated to dry
ment of the residue by potash, produces the usual reactions 0
19. — of a Concretion from a Horse’s Stomach, perfi d
har
by Mr. re)
markable for its size, weighing 112 Ibs. It is of an oval shape,
surface, brownish-grey color, and breaks in concentric Jayers'
d 10
hydrochloric acid ; the insoluble residue collected on a counte
filter, dried and weighed ; after incineration and weighing, i J
insoluble inorganic matter 0-45 per cent., which, deducted from
former weight, gives insoluble organic matter 0-64 per cent.
To the filtered solution was added a weighed portion of in
dissolved in nitro-muriatic acid, and the whole then precipt
ammonia. oh previously ascertained the amount of ee
iron yielded by an equal portion of the same iron wire, the 4
Chemistry and Physics. Q75
in weight of these two precipitates gave for the phosphoric acid 32-40:
To the filtered solution from the phosphoric acid, was added caustic
: in excess, and the whole boiled until the ammoniseal vapors
. € magnesia thus obtained was collected upon a filter, washed
with boiling water, incinerated and weighed ; it yielded magnesia 14-45
cent.
— portion of the powdered concretion dried over sulphuric
“ti in vacuo at ordinary temperatures, yielded hygrometric moisture,
: pe ei ; “incinerated, it yielded volatile matter (water and ammonia),
0
dn hier 7. Daeceik the amount of ammonia, another portion of at
powder was introduced into a small tubulated retort, with carbona
{
t
adapted to its tubulure a nitrogen bulb, such as is used in ultimate or-
¢ analysis; this also contained dilute hydrochloric ete The
ure in the retort was evaporated to dryness; and at the close of
ysis, tod yielded 0-71 per
ence the composition of deb con w seni is as follows :—phosphoric
82:40 per cent., magnesia 14°45, water 50°35, ammonia *71, insol-
inorganic matter -45, insoluble bomen matter “64, hygroscopic
= 100-00.
m be seen from this, that the ammonia is too small to be consid-
an essential ingredient of the concretion. _ Assuming it to exist
“hygros
a it will be seen that the concretion is nou mainly of the
E By Calculation.
ne, cid, 8356. = + 2PO4, 88°70
Magnesia, BRGGeesd cee 3Mg0, 15°20
Water, —s-_-55 1.89 . “ 24Aq. 51:10
1 100-00
‘ tea! pits for charring wood, a yellowish hit deposition.
deposition, it was found to consist of acetate of
lime was probably derived from the soil, but as acetate of
Not volatile, it must be carried up mechanically by the vapors
pyroligneous acid and other volatile substances, given off by the
rring. a...
21. Reducing Copper Ores by Electricity, (London Mining Jour —
i
ypper Or
nal.)—Having published several communications on this subject, in-
quiring the nature of the process, and also descriptive particulars from
tor, the precipitation of copper commences at once, and is com
a long or short period, according to the temperature, the concent
the liquids, and the extent of metallic surfaces—the state of the coPf
becomes greatly changed as the liquor becomes weaker. To: drt:
this, they take advantage of the following phenomena: After som
utes’ action, there exist four strata in the liquids; at the bottom
dense solution of sulphate of copper, then a less dense solution
same salt; next, a sulphate of iron, and on the surface a less de
lution of the same. If, therefore, we arrange at the level of
these liquids, suitable apertures for the addition or removal of the
they can be kept at a uniform state of density, and thus the coppet
-ways pure, and in the same physical condition. i
For convenience, the liquids are now arranged in vertical, instead
horizontal, layers; they are then-to be-separated by a diaphragm
permeable to eleetricity, but not to liquids—pasteboard answers pe
ly well for this, and lasts for months. The apparatus is then arran
as follows: A chest of wood, lined with lead or some suitable mas
contains the solution of sulphate of iron; into this chest a 0um
eases are i
Mineralogy and Geology. arr
ee contact of the two liquids; the sulphate of iron thus floats gbove
sulphate of copper, and the apparatus fulfils all that is required.
Ata temperature of 68° Fah., 10°73 feet of surface will receive 15-444
grs. of copper in 24 hours, perfectly pure, and immediately fit for ham-
_ ering or passing through the rolling-mill. This nea of cop-
Tepe no difficulties, requires no refining, and gives no scoria.
ng,
- sesglegag consider _ as a metallurgical result 50 es cent. of the
ned in sheet per cent. in fragments, mh require
fon: « an . 25 per a of. powder requiring subsequent refini The
vlicction of galvanism to smelting appears to be reduced to the sim-
ee form, and lesen on the largest scale can be obtained.
iit
Il. MINERALOGY and GEOLOGY.
1 M. Nordenskiéld upon Diphanite, a new Mineral Species from
the Emerald Mines of the Ural in the neighborhood of Cather SRE:
anslated from Poggendorft’s fovea,’ Vol. 70, p. 554, and co
ted for this Journal, by W. C, Lerr at.) —His excellency the min-
of the interior, M. Porowsky was so good as to transmit to me
rald mines of the Ural, upon which in addition to a white mine-
ieembling.« mica, there were several blueish, transparent prismatic
als, very similar in their appearance to apatit
closer examination it turned out that these — substances, re
at as they are in appeara nee, are one and the same mineral,
t both by its superior hardness and by the difference of its ite
befor the blowpipe, is quite distinct from either of those sub-
he iapterarel j in question, as I shall presently show, is one of the
of hydrous double silicates and I propose for it the name Dipha-
om dc and gars, with or - its presenting in different di-
as a totally different appearan
phanite occurs in regular six- ‘sided prisms with a remarkably dis-
‘than those due to the foliated fracture were no
prisms when viewed sideways are of a blueish san they have
Cous lustre and are transparent; but when viewed perpendicular
¢ cleavage, the mineral appears white with a pearly lustre, and is
i film that is under
278 Scientific Intelligence.
takegyssomewhat of a yellowish tinge. Salt of phosphorus dissolves
readily, with a residue of silica, to a clear glass, which upon “oe
nese mf
ote Colonel von ip dewielosl? has analyzed this substance wih
and accuracy. The most complete analysis of three, all bi is
ing Panvenves closely, gave the following results.
Oxygen. Oxygen.
Silica, - - - 34:02 - : - 1766 (15
Alumina, © ° S28. oo gpg eS whens 20:23 (18)
Lime, - : : 13-11 3°66 (16) )°
Protoxyd of iron, - - 3:02 0-68 (3) 4:57
Protoxyd of manganese, 1:05 0:23 (1)
Water, - - : as Ot & J ‘ . 4°16
—
Hence we deduce for the composition of this mineral,
2Ca? Si+3.Al2 Si-4H,
the Ca representing or comprising the reas: po ab en
Mn+3F on a
In accordance with this formula, the nite of the analysis wou ld be
- - - - - - a ae
ilica,
Aloming ‘ é ‘ ¥ ‘ s
Bini . : é : :
Beaty’ ef ir - - :
Protoxyd of manganese, | - - - ‘
Water, - - ‘ ‘
2. Mineralogical Notices ; by Cuartes Urnam Saran,
(Communicated for this Journal.)
Tautolite on the north shore of Lake Superior. —This singular,
pean obsidian was presented to me by Mr. Thomas R. Dutton, 00
no shore
inches wide, traversing a stratified greenstone or amygdaloid, '
ated upon Simpson’s Island, as well as upon Fluor Island, wh
———— fracture, and a shining vitreous lustre. Its ,
65...7-:0. Gravity 3-86. It breaks with the greatest facil
ing more brittle sheik a Before the i it fuses into 4
t forms in its pres we sett a striking daisiemnnt with the’ :
we a mineral found on the south side of the lake in connexion
7 oe _ — ‘sized masses of a pure sD
Specimens of which were two ease —
ae Forrest S Shepherd.
Mineralogy and Geology. 279
_ Farther account of the Arkansite—Mr. W. S. Clark, a student in
Amherst College, having recently furnished me with a good sized spe-
cimen of this mineral,* in which it presents itself in very beautiful crys-
c
tion first described, and besides in present-
ing the new faces a, which result from t 1e
fee us to employ the reflexions of a lamp
light in place of the ordinary window bar. e
le value obtained for M was constantly
Eres 101° and 101° 15’, and that for a
2
?
3°.
ced, which did not disappear b
olic solution of nutgalls, a rich re
t. Clark receiv d hi acti from Dr. Hitchcock, to whom it had been
. W.B Pomel «| the Medical College of Memphis, Tenn. Rev. Mr.
New Orleans, from whom ined my rst specimens of Arkansite,
@ that he received them from Dr. Powell, who was the original discov-
locality at Magnet Cove. _ ugied
ournal, ii Ser., vol. ii, p. 250. *
280 : Scientific Intelligence.
in sulphuric acid, and the solution remained clear on boilin; st
y conclusion from the foregoing is, that the Arkansite is a Nio
of yttria and thorina ? adil
Native Platinum in North Carolina.—In November last, I rece
in a letter from Hon. T: J. Clin man, of Asheville, N. C., as
niform grain of native platinum, with the following remark.-—* :
closed metallic grain was given me by a friend, who says it was
among the gold of one of his rockers. It looks like native plat <
Its weight was 2-541 grs. There was no difficulty, by means ©”
physical and chemical properties, in identifying it with the suvsl
of interest to me, as the first specimen of that mineral found in the
ted States.” : tien migtcola ee
Fearing however that the grain might have originated in a for ‘
cality, | addressed particular inquiries to Mr. C. on this head,
ceived from him the following additional statements.—* The P
Specimen formerly sent you, was taken from the gold rocker |
Lyon, the overseer of Mr. Erwin. Mr. L. isa man of wre.
and all persons who know him entertain no doubt whatever of I
Soa
Mineralogy and Geology. 281
fe rete the specimen as represented. Mr. L. had no suspicion of
being any thing more than silver, which was known to be found with
the gold. The place at which he obtained it, was in Rutherford Co.,
‘near the line of the new county of McDowell. I would have sent you
his certificate, but I had no doubt that other specimens would be found.
In fact, almost every miner to whom escribed it said, he had seen
such
Oxyd of Cobalt with the Brown Hematite Ore of Chester Ridge,
r. Phi v, 239.)—Dr. Boyé exhibi-
containing a small quantity of oryd of cobalt,—the sur-
ore is in some places covered with a thin film of oxyd of
ution with water. The oxyd of cobalt which remained in the solu-
with the manganese, was discovered both by its reaction in the
way, and by the blue bead it yielded with salt of phosphorus.
in, Mr. C. observes, “'They were brought 10 me by a friend, Mr. Willis,
eahe impression that they might be platinum, They were mixed with t
b
structure they are hackly, or sub-fibrous. Hardness=2-5...3-0. Gr.=
-12-9. Color that of palladium. Malleable, but when thinned out under
mer it becomes brittle. Scarcely acted upon by nitric acid, or by hydro-
alone; but in the two slowly ortho save — of is po
- Heated before the blowpipe on charcoal, it melts: as soon as
¢ into a globule which aves off a white smoke, at the same time colorin
right ye} while the charcoa turning white,
cold. If Allowed to cool, the globule crystallizes beautifully, with ac
i lor changed from grayish white to a distinct
ing the heat, the globule gradually wastes away
S$ than half its original bulk, crystallizes less distinctly, grows less fusible,
ined from the
kened by a film of lead supposed to be obtain L
it was only pericial and could easily be rubbed off; but the grains
ou were of a steel grey color, and when fractured were seen lo have t ~
or within as externally. Some of them indeed had a color more nearly
wish, and yielded slightly before breaking. #
. Note by M. D’ Orbigny on the Orbitolina, (mentioned by Me
Lyell, at p- 186, this volume.) .
To C. Lyx, Esq.
Dene Sink have been long acquainted with the fossil body, whi
you forwarded to me, and at this moment I a m printing in an ele
tary work, all the mistakes concoring it; itis, in fact, of all.
that perhaps which has n most often misunderstood, and I sk
call it the greatest culprit in geology. It isa genus nearly allied to
Orbitolina, and which | have named, in consequence of this analogy,
Orbitoides. It has always been taken for a nummulite, aan it i
from it by the most marked characters. ave Known m eClEs:
Paris, 18th June: ret a
ber of tertiary and cretaceous shells; it came to me gi
information respecting it, and | am anxious to know pity you four
You rs, Auctpe D’Orsi¢?
“Sy Glapredtions on the Drift Furrows, Grooves, Seats and
the same rocks at the present level of the lake.
ewe or peste be knife ; while in chap laces were <
and furrows as above mentioned. ‘These appe whi ch
described, are all upon rocks in place, ree could not, i ‘think, hav
sulted from natural structure. Nor could they have result
causes now in operation on the se me this ae bod
Ly of similar ones whose stumps have been
ving been charred by the fire eg over them, it is
iltiiemad oe
evident that the present level of the lake has not varied materially dur-
ing the last six or seven hundred years. Such trees may be seen on
tage Lake, Point Keeweenon, and also near the old trading post on
rth shore, north of Montreal River. Such a lapse of time or
‘the no
different heights. The present level of the lake is reported to
hundred and twenty seven feet above the tide of Hudson’s Bay.
me the drift furrows will be found on ail the prominent rocks
these two bodies of water. So faras I had opportunity to ex-
invariably discovered them on the mountains intermediate.
Ill. Zoonoey.
Le supe :
Condyles two, articulating surfaces lunate, and almost enclosing
amen. um. Foramen magnum ov.
| the cranium equal to its diame-
wae ass
284 Scientific Intelligence.
ter across the zygomatic processes; jugular foramen 4 inch in diame-
ter; temporal bones small, mastoid portion thick and strong but not
forming about 30° of a circle, inclining inwards and backwards; max-
ill thick sil strong, vertical section triangular; a cavity for nerves
and vessels runs within at the points of the roots of the teeth; alveo-
lar. process thick ; palatal bone strong, anteriorly pene and hor-
izontal, posteriorly descending below the alveolar process.
and anterior portion of maxille orate walls of the
nasal canal smooth; sutures squamous; in the left maxilla one tooth
ie?
“
3
oO
=
Ss
=
=,
i?)
i
a
n
2.
a
a
Oo
oO
fs]
3
'
a
3
Et)
=
4]
Qu.
“
oO
a.
og
i)
a
3
°
x
“=
D
=
“2
mn
@
=
-—
is]
Foal
oo
oO
pa
is)
=
=}
—
ee
divergeney of the roots, this specimen agrees with the figures of Dr.
Harlan and Prof. Emm
This fossil is particularly interesting, as it removes every doubt, if
any remain, of the true character of the animal to which it seloaiall ee
The deutite: occipital condyle shows it to have been a mammal, while Ras
the squamous sutures and a symmetrical form refer it to the Cetaceny
Dimensions.—Length 14$ in. ; greatest breadth a in.; height me :
length of ena meled portion of tooth Z in. ; breadth 3 in. it w as evr A
idual.
_ Geological position.—The teeth described by Dr. Gibbes er aan ound
in the oldest of the calcareous beds of the eocene of Sout Carolids,
which contain Cardita planicosta and other well-known eocene
Zoology. 285
ana with Gryphea mutabilis and Terebratula Harlani, which are
0 common to the cretaceous formation. And the fossil just deseribed
found in upper beds of the eocene; so that the zeuglodon must
gh the whole of the eocene period; a period which
vn, in one night, a small tree ten inches in diameter, the stump of
n, containing beautifully distinct impressions of their teeth, is now
the cabinet of this institution. ey have not been disturbed, and
still be found there, though very wild.
ere is, in the zoological collection of this institution, a well pre-
d skin of one, which was obtained in Alabama by Mr. McMillan,
31, while he was in the service of the University.
aver dams are still visible in several parts of South Carolina, where
nhimal was often seen in the early history of that state, and where,
eve, it still exists,
: oe of a new rapacious Bird in the Museum of the Acad-
ion of Falco magnirostris, Gmelin,—so does the young Cymindis
ee All authors, however, except Dr. Latham, ¢
rstand the
is a common South American species of the genus Astur. oe
oF Latham, in his article on F. magnirostris, Gen. His., vol y ps
282, gives a description of a bird suspected by him to be the species
intended by Gmelin, which applies very well to Cymindis eayanens
Gm., in young plumage, but not to C. Wilsonii.
e named this species in honor of Dr. Thomas B. Wilson, asi
slight tribute to his merits as a man, and his munificence asa paaieee ia
zoological scien
Nat. Sci. Philad., iii, 154, Feb., 1847.)—Bill short, tapering to
point, acute and compressed. Both mandibles entire, ridge of up
elevated, and curving nearly from the base; the depression for th
nostrils large, oval and exposed ; the nostrils opening beneath a mem.
brane in the depression. Wings very short and much rounded.
very long and a Tarsus long. aa
_ Chamea fasciata, Nobis. Ground Tit.
arus fasciatus, Nobis, Proceed. Acad. Nat. Sci., vol. ii, p» 265.
phe eae bird, placed provisionally among the Titmice, !
now made t ae of a new i Senne not tt able as yet, to.
uch a position it so much resembles, At the same time
very slow, monotonous, singing, chickadee note, like pee
peep ; at other times its notes are varied, and a slow whistling,
ued pwit, pwit, pwit, pwit, pwit, » May be heard
ant weather towards spring, I have heard them answering one a
sitting upon a low twig, and singing in a less solemn strain, not
a sparrow, a lively pit, pit, pi irrrrrrrr, but if dist eeigeate? at
comand their grating sco
IV. Astronomy.
__ 1. New Planet.—On the first day of July, 1847, at t 108
Mr. Hencke, (the discoverer of the planet Astrea,) residing at
in East Prussia la, discovered a star of about the ninth 76
me ked on the Berlin Star Chart. Its place was 257° 6'
Astronomy. 287
_S. Dec. 3° 42’ 5”. On the 3d July, at 1b 45m, its place was
r 40’ R, A. and 3° 51’ 5’ S. Decl, “The new star was now in all
a ye gen hitherto unknown. At Berlin, July 5, 1847, at
- Encke found its place to be 256° 51’ 345, S. Dec.
net was observed in London, by Mr. J. R. Hind, July 10th, .
d at Philadelphia, at the High School Observatory, Mr. ’S. C. Wal-
,0n the 4th August. Ina notice in the N. Am. and U.S. Gazette, .
- E. O. Kendall communicates the following elements of the new
i, computed by Mr. Hind, from Encke’s observation of July 5,
Epoch, Bs July 0. 288° 56’ 54”
_ Perihelio 8 17 24:1
187 25 35- ifm. eqx. say:
i be Sa 1
Angle of eccentricity, 13 49 20
Mean distan 2:5216
Sidereal Sarid 4-004 years.
Neptune, its supposed Ring and Satellite.—Several European
Dn
net Neptune. Mr. Lassell, of Liverpool, observing with his
ian reflector, of two-feet aperture, first announced its existence,
er, 1846; and in January last, Prof. Challis, of Cambridge,
e eid Noithumiberland reflector, was disposed to believe Mr.
on. The ratio of the diameter of the ring to that of the
le is abet that of 3 to 2. The angle made by the axis of the ring
a parallel of declination, in S. preceding or N. following quarter,
65°. Other observers, however, with equal means, cannot
any such rin
La assell has announced to the London Times, his verification of
t
at ne Harvard ae July 14th, 1847. Its place, July
m, was 165 24m , N. decl. 85° 17’. en through
ehh it adhitives a “highly condensed central light, sur-
by a diffused nebulous oC with a faint tail stretching
Na direction opposite to the s
© Same comet had previous “aly tibdo discovered by Mr. Mauvais, of
July 4, 1847, its place being at 13" 36" 56%, R. A. 228 8" 13,
- decl. 80° 26’.
Vesta, (from a letter from Prof. Madler to Lieut. Gilliss, pone
rvatory, May Parseebing for this Journal. )—
8 very near to the earth in April and May, [ undertook to measure
ter, and obtained five sets of observations his give sixty-six
fifteen 10 a degree). I have reduced the measured angles, by
Ing them nd te 3 pre daa the angle of a a fixed star (ita by
r frac
288 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
VY. MisceLtaneous INTELLIGENCE.
1. Fall of Meteoric Stones in Iowa; by Cuarces Urnam Su RDy
M.D., Prof. of Chem. in the Med. Coll. of S. Car., and in Amherst
ture occasion. The facts here presented are derived from the Rey. —
Revsen Gaytorp, of Hartford, Des Moines County, lowa, who v
fragments, and lost as it is feared to the purposes of science. e ira,
ments forwarded to me by mail, and which are referred to in the fo
lowing letter, leave no doubt of the genuineness of the production d ]
scribed. They consist of little globules of nickeliferous iron dispersed _
through the greyish feldspathic mineral, so common in meteoric stont
The fall took place in Linn County, and is well described in the follow
ing letter of Mr. Gaytorp,
oe
or the firing of a heavy cannon half of a mile distant. These
succeeded by several fainter reports, like the firing of small ¢
platoons. Then there was a w izzing sound heard in different
CHebar and occasionally a small lump of some metal is to
Enclosed in this sheet I send you three or four small ones. °°?
taken out as large nearly as a grain of corn. A man from wh
ied a fragment insisted that they were silver. He had g
portion of the rock to obtain this silver, and he t
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 289
are all that have’ been found, as far as I could learn. The atmosphere
atthe time of this phenomenon was mostly clear, somewhat hazy, so
warm as to cause the snow on the ground to be somewhat soft. The
u em-
The smoke appeared in two places, apparently about
ht feet a
Irom the reports which were heard, to be towards the southeast, or rath-
er south of east.”
artford, July 12th, 1847. " fy
Gutta Percha, (Lond. Jour. Bot., No. Ixi, Jan., 1847, p 33.)—
i$ isa vegetable substance, which though only known to Europeans
few years, is now extensively used in the arts for various purposes,
substitute for caoutchouc, because it has the valuable oo of
anyl numerous well specimens, (though
ately without corollas,) Mr. Lobb judiciously sent small sections
wood, which is peculiarly soft, fibrous an , pale-colored,
j ? . .
fling, for I could only ascertain that it was occasionall em-
: r wood-choppers,) instead of
buffalo horn. So long ago as 1822, when | was assistant-sur-
290 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
meaning the gum, or concrete juice of the plant, and Percha (pto- —
nounced Pertcha) the particular tree from which it is obtained. I could
not help thinking that the tree itself must exist in Sumatra, and per-
haps derive its name from thence, the Malayan name for Sumatra be-
ing Pulo Percha; but though the Straits of Malacca are situated only
one degree to the north of Singapore, I ah vis find that es
stance has ever been heard of there or in Sum
was framed could be moulded into any other form, by dipping it i
boiling water till it was heated through, when it became plastic as clay
regaining when cold its vriginal hardness and rigidity
Montgomerie goes on to say that he otselined the Parang han-
on a sent for more of the substance, and that on instituting ex ;
, he ascertained that Gutta Percha was likely to prove @
tuloable material for making those parts of surgical instruments W
had hitherto been formed of caoutchouc, the latter having the incon
ence of being easily injured by damp and hot weather in t 0
The Medical Board of Calcutta highly approved of Dr. M.’s su
pie the Society of Arts in London awarded him its gold medal ‘fe
isco
tines prevented Dr. M. at that period from visiting the forests
the tree grows. de, however, ascertaine from the natives’
Montgomerie accordingly addressed his are to the celebra
Brooke, resident at Sarawak, and was assured by. that cpaileeaid 0
inhabits commonly the woods: there also, ans is called Niato by
ple, who are not, however, acquainted with the properties of the
The — is ofies six feet in diameter at anyminens an beli
1842, when the substance first came into notice. T
however, to fear that the supply must shony decrease, and th
from the wasteful mode in a which the natives onllect: it, ¢
Portion for several suce ars; but this process is too §
the yans, and is see the | less likely to be a
ests are common rty. The people fell the tree, —_ of
prope
me collect its milky juice in a trough formed of
plantain leaf, when being expert to the air, it soon congue
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 291
Dr. Montgomerie suggests, among the less immediately obvious uses to
which Gutta Percha is applicable, that of making raised type for the
_ Dlind, and embossed maps for the same unfortunate beings: it takes a
__ Inthe abstract of the new patents, given in the October number of the
Magazine of Science and the Arts, we notice that C. Hancock, Esq.,
s taken out a patent for improving the manufacture of Gutta Percha.
He suggests several methods of purifying the substance, which general-
_ lycomes home much mixed with extraneous matter :—i i
solved by heat and strained; or passed through a screw press; or mel-
ted by the addition of rectified oil of turpentine, and after filtering
through flannel or felt the solvent may be evaporated. In every case,
Gutta Percha should form a residuum, of the consistency of dough
tty, this plastic state being gained by the maintenance of a suitable
erature during the above process.
Hancock would combine Gutta Percha with Caoutchouc, and a
hese, Mr. Hancock also prepares a light porous and spongy
1, suited for stuffing or forming the seats of chairs, cushions,
es, saddles, &c.; likewise, springs of clocks, clasps, belts, gar-
and string. Wherever the requisite is flexibility and elasticity, then
should be diminished :—and increase
rmness is wanted. By prolonging ee much hardness
ve
firmly in one.
umerous
ta
ai Submitted to analysis,
carbon 87:8, hydrogen 12:2; while according to Faraday,
¢ gave carbon 87-2, hydrogen 12°8.
.
292 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
The action of solvents is also similar with the two substances. Wa-
ect: ether and
ter and alcohol have n er ost volatile oils produce
only imperfect solution. solvent is oil of turpentine, which
roduces a clear and colorless solution, from which the Gutta Percha
may be obtained unchanged, by evaporation. iptiadl
specific gravity of Gutta Percha is 0-9791, that of caoutchouc
being 0:9355. “Sagal y
Prolonged exposure to a temperature of about 300°, produces trans:
lucence and a deeper gray color; but hot or cold water gradually ree
store the primitive appearance. ye
An application suggests itself to us which we have not as yet seen —
mentioned. e refer to its use as a substitute for cork and other ma-
terials for air-tight closure of chemical vessels, oe t
Wc. are to be passed. There is no doubt that in the
chemist, this substance will soon become one of his most valt
materials.
3. Smelting Copper Ore.—There are establisl ts fe smelting
per at Boston and at Baltimore. At Boston the smelters have long &
per ton, at Boston, for 20 per cent ore; freights from Cuba are
$6, and from Chili $15. We publish at page 276, an account
te
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 293
the ill fortune to be treated very frequently with much incredulity. It
will be interesting for the reader of the following remarks, to recur to
Rev. Mr. Clarke’s notice, since what in the one case is a matter of con-
. _— as to the origin of the cylinders, will be found in the other, to
a subject of direct observation. C. U. Sueparp.
b
ses are all found to be cylindrical, like hollow flut
muffs, of which the smaller ones remind
n see placing the head in this cavity in
bright sun, the concentric structure of the cylinder is quite appar-
far as | am yet informed, they do not occur in e
limited to a space of about five miles
Now the question naturally arises, what is the origin of these
? believe the first idea was that they had fallen from the
ing down such lofty imaginations, and to
igh descent, but I prefer truth, when it can be discovered, to the
theory ce, then, set aside the idea that they fell
294 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
up, nor close to leeward of any wall or perpendicular bank from which
they seem to have originated—the nearest well-formed small ones being
sixty yards to leeward, and the large ones one hundred yards. All
nearer than this are fragments that have not gone on to completion, but
broken down in their passage, and the different portions of the wree
form the nuclei of others. Many however are found blown to the
windward side of walls or over the lee side of banks. Indeed, they
obliterated them in many places.’
rts and Sciences at Harvard.—In our last number mention was
of the munificent donation of Mr, Abbott Lawrence of Boston,
towards establishing a school of Practical Science at Harvard, On ac
rmip-
had
“ For several years I have seen and felt the pressing want in our
munity, (and in fact in the whole country,) of an increased number
house or the ocean. But where can we send those who intend oy eo
owe ass
4
a
3
a.
na
5
a
©
5
°
—
%
=.
8
4
~
. Ha ands are ready to work upon those
aati and where shall sagacious heads be taught to direct .
s Z
“Inventive men laboriously reinvent what has been produced pies
Snorant men fight against the laws of nature with a vain ene
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 295
purchase their experience at great cost. Why should not all these
start where their predecessors ended, and not where the n? Ed-
hem t
lations of the world. It seems to me that we have been somewhat neg-
lectful in the cultivation and encouragement of the scientific portion of
_ our national economy.
er. nhe
nature has denied, should be as far as possible supplied by art.
must make better farmers, through the application of chemical and
ltural science.
@ need, then, a school, not for boys, but for young men whose
education is completed, either in college or elsewhere, and who
to enter upon an active life as engineers or chemists, or In gen-
as men of science, applying their attainments to practical pur-
S$; where they may learn what has been done at other times and
T
| ng.
have thought that the three great practical branches to which a
ranches, starting from the same point, depending in many re-
he same principles, and gradually diverging to their more
athemati |
tion of knowledge and an all-important study for the mining en-
» and the key to the processes by which the rude ore becomes
pe loyed
’, Carpentry, masonry, architecture and drawing, are all —
should be pursued to a greater or less extent in one or all o
poe di y e °
iabastnes hool as I have endeavored to describe in con-
n with the University, and under the care and general guidance
overnment, requires buildings with suitable lecture-rooms and
pi ppa with models and plans, and a place for their
and safe keeping, together with a Cabinet, where every de-
296 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
scription of wood, ores, metals, &c. &c., may be deposited for the use
fi
a large number of pupils.
6
work in it day by day. Such teachers will soon gather around them —
**To carry out this course of education in its practical branches, —
there Should be the most thorough instruction in engineering, geology, —
chemistry, mineralogy, natural philosophy, and natural history. Chem-
istry is provided for, and in the last two branches, instruction might
perhaps be given by the present College Professors. In addition to
these, it would be necessary to obtain the services at stated periods of
eminent men from the practical walks of life. ‘The law school is
science should number among its teachers men who have practi sill
and are practicing the arts they are called to teach. Let theory b&
proved by practical results, sa
_ “To defray the expenditures, means must be procured for the erecy
tion of suitable buildings, (not including dwelling houses) the pura
Y
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 297
ge. :
I therefore propose to offer, through you, for the acceptance of the
ident and Fellows of Harvard College, the sum of fifty thousand
he details. however, and conditions of this donation, may be here-
between: the Corporation and myself. 1 now leave the
subject in the hands of the gentlemen composing ee sais
e hope and faith that the plan may be adopted, nomen 2a ot t
h expedition as may be consistent with economy; @ that it
ve to be honorable to the University, and useful to the country.
you, dear sir, to believe t remait ne your
5
Pe oe yee
sy e 7, 1847. ee . ood { ppt eee ies
ND Szrixs, Vol. IV, No. 11.—Sept., 1847... 38
298 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
. On some New Researches in Animal Chemistry, (extracted from
a letter from Professor Liszic to Dr. A. W. Hormann, Phil. Mag,
xxx, 412, June, 1847.)—I am at present occupied with the investigation
of the constituents of the animal fluids which are found without t
blood and lymphatic vessels. The fluid from flesh, for example, re
which, as such, must produce chemical and electrical effects! To the
latter class I refer all the observations of Matteucci, which can now be —
easily explained. oa
I have further found that the flesh of the muscles of oxen, fowls,
sheep, calves, and the carnivorous pike, contain creatin, prepared by
Chevreul eleven years ago, and which, from Berzelius’s not being @ e
to reproduce it, has since then, in a measure, disappeared from the —
field of science. Creatin is a beautiful substance, having the formula
‘ 10,- At the temperature of 100° C. it loses 2 equivs. of waler,
and becomes C,N,H,0,= glycocoll- ammonia or caffein-+ ame
ogen and water. Heated ina stream of hydrochloric acid, creatin lo
four equivs. of water and takes up one of hydrochloric acid. By
ent from those of creatin. It becomes now soluble in water, a0
with bichlorid of platinum a fine crystallized double salt.
I have, finally, discovered two other new bodies in the same #
finds in plants only potash-salts, should have chlorid of sodium 31"
it, by: means of which the phosphate of potash of the seeds and —
ne
* I fou
contained certainly alkaline phosphates, and that scurvy is he
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 299
explained “0 the deficiency in the salted meat of the alkaline ne
o the formation of blood. The soup from boiled meat con-
tains the soluble phosphates of the flesh, and the meat itself the i insolu-
Neither the soup nor the flesh alone can maintain the processes
of life, but both must be taken together. The English have in this re-
— hit upon the proper practice. In a theoretical a of view their
7 is more correctly combined than that of the Germ
__ Still more wonderful results have been obtained by the ‘oxydation of
2, the second oil-of bitter almonds, and aa third a fluid ethereal
dy with a composition similar to metacetone. The aldehyde was
alyzed as aldehydite of ammonia, of which a ay aor quantity
nnd: From oil of bitter — the most beautiful benzoic
iP rtly oto partly beneficial in their action. I have caused the
; riments of Mulder on his protein to be repeated. The sub-
Tepar _ re Fleitmann in this laboratory, according to his new
“ and supposed to be free from sulphur, we contains 1:5 per
likewise a similar see vest - Laskowski.
Paleontographical Society of London.—The Paleontographial
s o instituted the present y ne and as organized, Sir
La Beche, is President, and Prof. Bell, Prof. Forbes,
, es Lyel, Esq., Prof. J. Phillips, and other men of distinction are
Hil
rom on Prospectus we observe that it is the — of ~ pene!
jure and describe as complete a stratigrap se British
ils as can be.accomplished, genie both the published pc 7
ublished species. — It is pro oposed that the work shall be quarto, and
each plate shall, on the average, contain about twenty figures,
ating half as many species, or more, accor rding to circumstances.
x Work will be produced in the form of monographs, by various au-
' ms aa nt of the series, the whole of the British
y fossils are in course of being described and figured, under
inpeniaieddeince of Mr. A Wood, Mr. F. E. Edwards, Mr.
, Mr: Smith, of Jordan Hill, and other gentlemen of well known
al experience. No precise order of publication will bean’ :
ut it is proposed that monographs of portions of the secondary
shall also be produced as early as the nature of such “andewakings
a toe abe ho are being executed by the Messrs.
se-
lations have been carefully made, which show, that if 1000
s be acquired, and 1250 copies be printed, sixty plates and
“te may be given annually to each member for his subscription
a World, or Picturesque Sketches of Creation
iplecy., with its applications to mining, engineering, archite ‘
re, &e.
300 Bibliography.
8. Osituary.—Ithamar B. Coawe; M.D., of Watertown, was 16d
in Perch Lake, Jefferson Co., N. Y., June 2. 1847. Suddenly called rom
life, he was deeply lamented by the public and affectionately mourned
by his particular friends. He fell a sacrifice to his ardor in the pursuits
of natural history. In the study of geology, —— and botany,
had long been successfully engaged, and had accumulated a rich treas-
ure of specimens in these departments, while a had made himself by
his own discoveries and by exchanges, the mem of many of the natu-
ralists of our country and of Europe. He was returning from a
four years. A wife and three children receive the cordial meee h
of numerous friends over the land.
Dr. Crawe was born i in the state of Connecticut, =an wa s des
fession and pursuits. At the close of his medical studies, he recel
his diploma from the hand of Dr. Mott. He settled in Watertown
after his graduation, and, having made it his residence most of the’
since, he had endeared lomaelt toa wide circle of his fellow citiz
the strong powers of his mind. To that part of the state bia c
source of public sorrow ; ‘ to us all] cerliy afflictive.
Rochester, N. Y., June, 1847.
VI. Brsuiocraruy.
I. Geology: Introductory, a and Practical. :
> ee F.G.8., Professor of Geology in ‘Spring
lege, London, &c. &e.
he geological works of Prof. Ansted have been for :
before the world. The Geclogy was published in 1844, in t
than 1 i
: ) ages.
oe parts.—I. Introduetory. Il. Deseriptive Geology. Ul ‘-
eolo
I. The Introduction, in four chapter’, explains the object of
work, the action of present causes, the classes of rocks and the
concerned j in their pa ey the nature and valiae of fossi
Te ee and of the results which it affords.
I cond Part, in forty-eight chapters, describes, 1 ae
siferous or stratified rocks—u nder the heads of the older and the
Paleozoic period. The seconda ary period. The —— pe
The desorption of crystalline and unstratified roc ;
_HIL The Third Part, in seventeen chapters, eam
Ticultu:
eae practical geology occupies more than half of the
Bibliography. 301
hese volumes are illustrated in all, by three hundred and sixty-seven
aie, oe illus
ience, with cautious aaa, n theory. We perused it soon
er it with much instruction and pleasure: nor have
‘we remained silent regarding it from any want of a just appreciation of ~
its. i
lorers of oi tog with whom Great Britain abounds ; vit “ a
ved himself to be a very diligent student of - science, an
s. His learned and wither
we can therefore recommend to the askin of geology as an
important addition to his library. It is worthy of a much fuller review
analysis; but as much time has elapsed since its appearance, and
has been extensively noticed'in other journals, we now hasten to his
y recent wor ‘
- The Ancient World, named at the head of this article. The
g that sik us a month since, on the opening of the package pa
on, was, that a volume had aotually dropped down upon us from
ancient world, ae ais it is quite a mistake that the art of printing
y four hundred old.
strict keeping wath, ats subject, the covering and external adorn-
be are in a style of ultra antiquity, while its interior
sents fine pa the best typography, and finished illustrations in
: iundred and fortyieavan wood-cuts, besides two vignettes—one of
th is a restoration of the caaenite of the cold pera as it existed
ha tera in land.
€ volume is in the form of a large duodlesi of more than four
sd pages. It is divided under three periods :
le First, or — Epoch; the Second, or Middle Epoch; and
third, or Epoc
ae are in all sixteen chapters and (1.) an o-sapiriant chapter
Ee general structure and phydivel laws of the pla
er the first epoch the principal subjects are cooult in the fol-
T
The period of the prezoic, or non- -fossiliferous o primary rocks.
That of the invertebrate and Silurian rocks.
Berl fishes and Devonian rocks, or the old red sandstone.
— cohapa plants and the era of coal.
The magnesian limestone, or Permian system. *
r the sesh e
The new red sandstone or Triassic system.
jas and marine reptiles.
“Wealden and ian meen and flying reptiles, &c
Ss peri its animals. °
considerations on the secon ndary epoch and its ter-
= the third epoch : i
‘The introduction of land animals, and the early tertiary.
i
302 Bibliography.
13. Europe, between the early tertiary and the historic period..
14. India, Australia, and New Zealand, during the tertiary period.
15. South America in the same era day
16. General results of geological investigations. 13a
If then our readers are disposed to enquire for the cui bono? of t
“« The object of this work is to communicate
trated by numerous Examples and appropriate Diagrams '
Ton L. Suitn, A.M. Cleveland, Ohio, 1847. 12mo, pp- 39% —
ence, and teaches only a selection of his knowledge. Only «
1s thoroughly acquainted with a science, is able to write a use
mentary work upon it. No notion is more absurd, than that one’
knows little of a subject is fit to write books for those who know
ing. Such is not our present author. ,
3. Hints to Young Architects, calculated to facilitate thew P
cal Operations; by George Nigurwicx: and with Ad
to persons about building in the Country; by A. J. Downin
York and London. Wiley & Putnam: 1847. 8vo, pp- 157.
as added among other things a
uctory chapter, entitled, * When to build, what to
©
4
Bibliography. 303
a ” which unfolds in an attractive form, the epee . i
taste good sense involved in these considerations. The book will
be well appreciated by all who are about to indulge their arohiteclarah
a as well as by professional architects.
. Gossz: The Bi set pe Jamaica. Post. 8vo. London, 10s.
nt be hinki Ee Picturesque Sketches af POcaatibe Post.
= bak
R’s Screntiric Memorrs. Part 17. Containi ing Scumipt’s Contributions
“eae ive Physiology of the invertebrata, being a due pect there al
gal on; FrEsNEL on polarized
Jamin on Metallic Reflection; Dove's Researches on the Electricity of ra
NSACTIONS oF THE Ew ibibo Society or Lonpon, 4th ade of 4th
e. 5s. The 5th —_ completing the volume, will shortly appear
Reroxs OF THE SIXTE sig Hooke. Su or THE Britisn Association, Lon-
OM ha of 47390 stars for the beginning of thé year 1800, from the observa-
is of Lalande i in the Histoire Celeste ; reduced at the expense of the British As-
‘the Advancement of obese under fe immediate superintendence
late Francis Bailey, sq. , 1847.
T 96 stars in the goatkors Hemisphere for the beginning of the
m the hear vats of the Abbe de Lacaille, made at the Cape kon
ts 1751, 1752; reduced at ‘he hag ge of the Brit. Assoc. un
erintendence of the late Prof. Henderson. don, 1%
His iB of Briti 4. D. Bartlett on a new Fuligula
No. 129, Ji ule 1847. Development of the Gebiadde and Echinide
1
‘alconer, on Gamoplexis, a new genus of Orchideous plants
Pear &c., of Chiton and Chitonellus; W. Gri th i 10
chidi rr. Arnott on Samara leta,L.; G. Newport on Cryptophagus ce
Zoo... be. w. tet on ava new Ae eee Bird . E. Gray, on 4
Vol. x 0. 130 Jul n Band §
Allman. rs sis aes ih the ieee G. F K. Thw
P. W. Maclagan.—Two Asiatic ecies of Carabu us; T. Tatu
Shells; J. G Jeffreys. New Chateidites of N. alle F. Walker.—
Iceland; C. C. Babin ngton.— en he e power je livi plant to restrain th
oration of the cell sap; H. hl.—On the
minate in seeds belonging to “ferent fatnition A. eet
Ee ee
Chili; J. E. Gra ay,on a new genus of Emyde; 4. Whi e, on
the Eastern ide .
habroptiiua: Ayo ety E. Doubleday, on new Lepidoptera ; GR. ‘Gr
_ Arcuiv FGR Rivee
rigidus, a new Entomostraca of the gro up Cladoc J. E. Schédler
oe WwW Le and Memoirs on Insects , Spiders see ‘Cotnibek: for the yea
aie Pikes pags On og yo of the Sepia having the function bef
E. Hi r Lehre von der Furchungen; 4 Kolliker —On the Se
ris ‘ss pam is art wir, ie cdnanni, eee oteuthis and Alciopa; 7
the family Ecpleopoda; J. J. » .—Two new genera of i ells, D
and Amphichena, with aca on nCyamiu Ervilia and Entodesma; R.
lippt.—Peruvian Coleoptera; G. F. Erichson
ASSOCIATION OF AMERICAN GEOLOGISTS AND NATURALISTS:
Tue 9th Annual Meeting of this Association, will be held p
of aes at Boston, ee. the week commencing 4
r
A large and interesting — is expected.
ineralogy an and M. Nordenskiold upon Diphanite, a new Min ri
‘cles from the Emmet Mines of ‘es Ural ie Dip ste, of Sie
t, 277.—Mineralogi
te
ivi of the ee of = + tai by M. Se dames Noa
mars
¥ tion — a
o the Museum of the Academy y of N atural po ach f Ph ‘iladel
Casas , 285.—Chamea, a new penne Birds allied to "Patus, by W
pee Me ee » 256.—Neptnne, its —— Ring aad Satellite : ‘New
us I Intl gence Pao Meteorie Stones in ‘Towa, i Cuanies tide
tn, 958.—Gutia ha, 289.—Smelting Co eae te 5 ion
indrical masses sof F Sone Orkney, rts and Sciences at Harvard,
On some Researches in Animal Chany pac eeabe pom a ag Bi from
Lizzic, to. Dr. A. W. Horrmax,) 298.—Paleontographical Society of
; .— Obituary.—Ithamar B. Crawe, M re 300,
ee Geology; Introductory, Descriptive, and Practical. II. The
Forid, or pa tea ae Sketches of Creation, by D. T. Ansrzp, _ =
-£.G8., < ‘atural Philosophy for the us
oagne ee numerous examples an nd appropriate diagrams, by Fises
Eheaare! Hi Young ‘ama ts, calculated to facilitate their
; and with Additional Notes, by
oo d
hottaiti ; for ¢ * practical et
oy re noto=1 =1." oe
e often sarnpel spel read ¥ ‘acid ace often
;
CONTENTS.
Bae ‘XI—On the Destruction and partial Reproduction of Piss
ests in British North America; by Jonn Witu1am ae
Esq. of Pictou, - .
XIV. Review of the Organic Chemo of M. OGussiis Geman
by T. S. Hunt,—(concluded,) .
XV. On the relative Age and Position of the ales Nweniilag
Limestone of Alabama ; by C. Lystr, F.R.S. and V.P.G.5.,
XVI. Notice of some recent Additions to our Knowledge of the
Magnetism of the United States and its pe Py Prof.
Extras Loomis, = -
XVII. On the Trap Tuff, or Witcaile Grit of the Cosnectiell Vale
ley, with the bearings of its history upon the age of the Trap
Rock and Sandstone eatin in that Diagks ; ee Rev.
_ Epwarp enires Ste :
vancement ar ae, - |
XXL Theory of Transit Ccctaetons. es ee Pr. Bom
Rents tk INTELLIGENCE.
Bag eat Ey ot org ig zone, by ‘M. Berzevivs, 260.— n the
es and Alcargene S. Hurt, 266.—Varren ner and will
for the — of Ring ren; An Improved Apparat "
Horsrorp —On a fee ick ee d of determining i
in Organic Sub s, by Euc. Pevieut: Preparati
monium, by J "ae e the t Decempositivn of mI
E nse wear IS Mod ng
os ag by J. Peiouzs, 270.—On
On the Fat Acids of ibe Oil of io y by P. W
Tirtarie . ‘i by i egies On the
sium, by A dC. W re ath
tg te ‘proposed wi Barts i, by A. Sr
in Vin Mo
Popp: “Oil,
min by the ees by f Lies pi cata 2
“aoe d_ by | Mr Char
ERICAN JOURNAL If
SCIENCE AND ARTS.
.
CONDUCTED BY
SILLIMAN axp B. SILLIMAN, Jn.,
AND
JAMES D.
DANA.
12, NOVEMBER,
TO CORRESPONDENTS.
Py ch, ication, published in this Journal ar
an Reo the lapis of the author. Any larger number ar of copies will be
ae iy oy wish to have print ted.
- “Fhe titles of communications and of their authors must be fully given.
Notice always to be given when communications sent to this Journal, have beer
are to be, published also in other Journals. ;
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all works of which notice may be desired in this Journal. Iti .
somis ~oe hit may tave riiorter 2 pitted wilt send a notice of them, that:
h AC wy publications.
Tue American JournaL or Screncr, Second Series, which
January, 1846, is published on the Ist of January, Maxehs: May, ily, ep
N of i ing Two Volumes
“Compnure Sets of the First S Series of this Journal, Fifty Volumes including:
cnnie. 9 Only a x very small nambe number remain. For terms, address B. s
S. W. Arey, Mobile, 4la—W. M. BR fives: Esq
Montreal —Jony Foreman, Tortnte ev R. Morais, P. Ma
€o. Oren a! Sorgen: and Alabama.’
Mr. Joux C. AncExn, confidential general Agent.
Pig W. James is our Agent for the Western States, lows, and
: BA Eyton taper _* — * B. es Z T Dern
INSTRUCTION IN CHEMISTRY
CONNECTED SCIENCES,
AT
TALE COLLEGE, NEW HAVEN, CONN.
HE new Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry, connected with
Institution, will be opened on the Ist of November.
Pupils will however be received and temporarily accommoda-
on the Ist of October.
The Department of Chemistry applied to the Arts, &c. will be
der the charge of Prof. B. Sizuman, Jr.
That of Chemistry applied to Agriculture, will be under the
ge of Prof. Joun P. Norton. ;
Every facility will be afforded to pupils who wish to acquire
thorough knowledge of elementary or applied Chemistry, Min-
alogy, and Metallurgy, and the terms of tuition will be as mod-
te as the nature of the case will admit, and proportioned to the
quirements of the pupil.
he annual Course of Lectures on Elementary Chemistry, by
tof. B. Siuman, will commence on the 2d of October, at 12
» and continue with five lectures each week until about Jan-
Ast. Ticket $15.
- Norron will commence a Course of Lectures on the ap-
CATIONS OF SCIENCE TO AGRICULTURE, in January, 848. This
tse will continue about two months, and there will be four
ures in each week. The object of these lectures will be to
$ can enjoy the advantage of attending to other ag of
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ic; and they can also have easy access to large libraries an
ific collections. New Haven is a place of easy access
s of the Union, and is the resort of nearly six hun
in the various departments. Board and lodg
BRITISH SHELLS.
Convincep of the importance for the apie of the N
tive Species, of possessing carefully named rudimentary Co
tions of BRITISH SHELLS, R. fiat of Wey nba ;
been induced to devote his attention more Mite ie to that
branch of Conchology, and favored by the prolific nature of t
Dorsetshire and neighboring coasts, is enabled to offer arran
collections at the following very moderate prices :—
100 ote. (containing 1 to 3 of each Species,) £2 fi
200 do. 6
300 ns do.
400 do. do.
R, hs AMON has unusual opportunities for procuring m:
the rare British Shells, and has always on hand an ext
Eins of British Fossils.
_ Noy 7
ory 1847 .
CHEMICALS AND CHEMICAL APPARA'
The subscriber is constantly receiving from Europe, fesh
plies of the Berlin Apparatus and French Chemicals, and
established an extensive Manufactory on his premises,
prepared to execute orders for all kinds of Chemical and .
sophical Apparatus, at short notice.
The proprietor being the sole and only authorized ager.
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forms of Apparatus for the a ak gcse ee
&c.
ake apliealin, “3 Post
EDM wy RENT, “Pract ¢
THE
AMERICAN
JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS.
[SECOND SERIES.]
Arr. XXII—A brief Notice of the Life, Researches, and Dis-
—coveries of Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel; by Sir J. F. W.
_ -Herscuer.*
_ Prrepricn Wituerm Besset was born at Minden, July 22,
1784. His father held an office of local administration under
i a considerable commercial house at Bremen, (Kuhlenkamp
my Sons. :
_ A boyish story is told of his grinding a glass with emery in a
_ ‘Sacer, and remarking, with delight, that it m some degree con-
_ Sehtrated the rays of the sun; perhaps in rude imitation of some
qaarked, while com ring the
T representation on a planisphere, that ¢
aon atiaeted from the Annnal Report of thei
Stcox Sznizs, Vol. IV, No. 12
306 Life, Researches, and Discoveries of F'. W. Bessel.
young, and as manifesting that capacity for becoming earnestly
interested in a subject to which the natural faculties of the mind
are best adapted, which is all that can be understood by an early
bent of genius.
Earnest attention and zealous occupation with the business be-
fore him, of whatever nature, seems, however, to have beena
primary feature of his character. In his new situation he speedi
but gained a thorough insight into the general nature of the
business of his firm; and, entering into all his duties with un-
common diligence, rapidly acquired the approbation and confi-
dence of his employers ; leading him to hope that the more Te
sponsible situation of supercargo, in a voyage to the French and
Spanish colonies and China, might be offered to him. ‘To prepa’
himself for this great object of his ambition, he commenced the
study of the French and Spanish languages, and of navigation,
taking for his guide in that branch, the old work of Hamilton
Moore. The rules and processes of nautical reckoning delivered
in that work as precepts, without their theoretical grounds, I
duced him to seek the latter elsewhere. He procured a pe
treatise on astronomy. This directed him in the right cours’,
and proceeding from book to book, and mastering their difficulties
as best he might, he found at length an effectual bar to furthe
progress in his entire unacquaintance with mathematics. He im-
mediately entered on a course of mathematical reading, and noW
we hear no more of commercial projects, or of the voyas®
had so ardently desired. Every leisure hour (and they We®
‘to observes
t
tonishing. Trains of original research and learned inguiry Ope
tances, hardly advance beyond the’
po:
become so celebrated by ne 2 ae
by Halley. ‘These 0D Fa
from oblivion by Baron Zach,
eee epee Moe ere ere
Life, Researches, and Discoveries of F. W. Bessel. 307
his search among Harriott’s papers, in the possession of the Earl
of Egremont ; and, being the first observations of this remark-
able body made with any kind of instrumental aid, their reduc-
tion was an object of undeniable importance. This task Bessel
executed in so masterly a manner, as to call forth the warmest
eulogies from Olbers to whom he communicated them, and to
excite the strongest desire in him to secure for astronomy one
Whose’ future eminence in that science he clearly foresaw, and in
ho sparing or measured terms predicted. This performance, his
first public work, appeared in Zach’s Monathliche Correspon-
z, and was immediately followed by a theoretical memoir,
of great importance, “ On the calculation of the true anomaly in
orbits nearly parabolic.” So expert had he become in cometic
calculations, that Olbers, having placed in his hands, on the night
of the 1st of November, 1805, four observations of the comet of
that year, he returned them to him the next morning, with the
elements, whose calculation had occupied him only four hours.
is seven years’ engagement with Messrs. Kuhlenkamp was
; but, instead of entering on the mercantile world
on his own account, we find him placed forthwith, at the recom-
examination than for precise astronomical determinations. Among
l€ More especial objects to which his attention, ‘as an observer,
Was there directed, may be mentioned a series of : micrometrical
Measures of the distances of the sixth, or Huygenian, satellite of
Saturn from the ring, made with a Newtonian reflector by the
d of the projection micrometer, with a view to the better deter-
Mination of the mass of Saturn and of its ring, by means of the
Perturbations caused thereby in the satellite’s motions. ‘This
308 Life, Researches, and Discoveries of I’. W. Bessel.
he bore with resignation, taking refuge from his grief in mereased
exertions. These brought on, or at least exasperated, an mtermat
complaint, arising, in the opinion of his physicians, afterwards
verified on actual examination, from the abnormal and fungous
growth of some intestinal organ, under which, after much pro-
tracted suffering, he at length succumbed, and expired on the 7th
An extensive and minute account of the labors of this ulus
principal among them.
ever continued a favorite subject with him; and in 1835, ne we
for this return of it to its perihelion) had signalized his first ave
rence in the cometary matter of a polat
, e ( Astronumische Nachrich-
D
;
a
‘
%
2
5
a
14
24
P.
in
ras their complexity will admit, the
a. their theory brought into the m¢
Life, Researches, and Discoveries of F. W. Bessel. 309
ten, No. 310) the effect produced on a comet’s orbit by the reac-
tion of the matter of these jets, so projected forth from the nucleus
into space, a subject of mathematical calculation. And it may
4 hot be irrelevant here to notice that other phenomena, of a totally
different nature, exhibited by the same comet subsequent to its
perihelion passage, as observed in the southern hemisphere, appear
to authorize conclusions, which, though not precisely identical
with those of Bessel, have yet so much in common with them,
that the assumption of repulsive forces as a means of accounting
for cometary phenomena, must henceforward take its place among
theses which cannot be lightly rejected, but must come to
be tested by the combined aid of rigorous mathematical deduc-
tion and increased refinement of observation.
_ In anote appended to one of the numbers of the Astronomische
Nachrichten (No. 175), the following remarkable expression of
humacher occurs:—‘It may almost be said that one exact
and able calculator is capable of doing better service to astronom-
ical science than two new observatories.” It was in the capacity
of such a calculator (taking the word in that enlarged and emi-
Rent sense in which the writer doubtless understood it,—a calcu-
lator thoroughly master of every resource of theory, and capable of
_ bminging them all to bear on the subject of discussion) that Bessel
undertook and completed, while yet young as an astronomer, his
gteat work, the Fundamenta Astronomia, a work which it is
ult for any astronomer, and least of all an English one, to
Speak of in measured terms. It affords the first example of the
fomplete and thorough reduction of a great series of observations,
_ ‘Sounded, in the first instance, on a rigorous investigation, from
- the observations themselves, of all the instrumental errors,
earried out on a uniform plan, neglecting no minutie which a re-
fined analysis and a perfect system of computation could aff
the fair eer oe —
teal astronomy. Independent of the deduction of the places
of the stars, of the instrumental reductions, and of the local data,
zap Stuisitions which this work contains on the several urano~,
310 Life, Researches, and Discoveries of F. W. Bessel.
tion. In the reduction of these observations, however, his final
improvement, which does away altogether with the necessity of
using special tables for the several uranographical corrections,
and for individual stars, and renders it practicable, by the calcula-
tion of a system of constants for each star, and an annual table
common to all the stars, to provide for the reduction of all merid-
ional observations, was not yet adopted. That capital step,
which has so infinitely facilitated all subsequent reductions, was
not made till somewhat later, and had nearly been anticipated by
Mr. Baily, who, on his part, and independently, had been occu-
pied about the same time ona similar simplification.* In fur-
therance of the important object of facilitating the reduction of
observations of the planets, as well as of the fixed stars, on a
uniform system, he prepared and published, in 1830, his Tabule
egiomontane, a work of the greatest utility and influence on
the practice of astronomers in this respect.
vision which Bessel bestowed upon it. The complete investiga-
tion of instrumental error was a subject on which he was at —
every period remarkably scrupulous, and not without reason, a _
the dreadful consequences which have followed its neglect in
more than one instance clearly demonstrate. In Ais opinion,
100,
reputation of no artist, however distinguished, could be held to —
ispense with the most careful and searching scrutiny into the
errors of his workmanship; or, with the most refined application,
both of experience and theory, into the amount and laws its
flexure, whether of the telescope or limb, by its own weight in
different positions. In fact, no astronomer has ever gone deeper
into the theory of instruments, or exemplified that theory by
more elaborate experimental inquiries. ‘The finishing hand Was —
put to a most remarkable memoir on the effects of flexure, bat s
a very short time previous to his death, which has only just gre
cae
the light (see Astronomische Nachrichten, No. 577, et seq); et |
publication having been directed in his will. ,
_ The improvement of Carlini’s tables of the sun was the ye .
ject and result of the first five years’ observations with Cary’
circle and Dollond’s transit ; though other objects of ine
Were not neglected, especially that of an exact determinatioa:
"places of those stars in which large proper motions
‘But when in the year 1820, the circle of Cary
a
ly, Wem. Astron. Soc., vol. Xv, p- 324, W
fee ait eee ei heres, Bee Of te Se
Life, Researches, and Discoveries of F. W. Bessel. 311
replaced by the larger and more accurate meridian circle of Reich-
-enbach, a wider field of inquiry was opened out, and a task un-
dertaken and completed of which astronomy is only now be-
ginning to reap the fruits. This was no less than a determina-
tion of the places of all the stars, down to the ninth magnitude,
in a zone of the heavens extending from 15° south to 45° north
declination. Previous to entering upon this great work, how-
1821, and completed on the 21st of January, 1833, in 536 zones,
arrange-
aa catalogue was commenced in 1830 by Professor Weisse ;
but the promised work has not, we believe, yet appeared. Bes-
tion of such will be of inestimable value in the correction of
their elements and the theory of their perturbations.
nature, which Bessel was destu 2
“atry-out.to its completion, terminating in a discovery of
‘ate importance, in the determination, beyond the reac
ogg doubt or cavil, of se = of a fixeg
; OL Cygni, pitched upon for his attacksap
Westion, a had so bid defiane
oo and which seemed des
312 Life, Researches, and Discoveries of F'. W. Bessel.
proofs of the imperfections of our instruments and the inade-
quacy of our methods, was one which combined, with distinct
grounds of @ priori probability in favor of its proximity to our
system, peculiar advantages for the application of the mode of
observation contemplated. The proper motion is remarkably
large,—the greatest, with one exception, yet observed. This of
itself affords some presumption of proximity. Another, less
equivocal, is found in the fact, that it is demonstrably a binary
double star, whose orbitual motion is remarkably rapid when
compared with the apparent angular distance of its individuals,
indicating a large angular dimension of the orbit mutually de- —
scribed about each other as seen from the earth. As regards its —
adaptation for micrometric observation, two minute stars, at the —
respective distances of 8/ and 12/ from the middle point of the
pair, situated with respect to that point in positions differing by
very nearly a right angle, permit no parallactic movement to take
place without effecting a change of apparent distance from one
or other of them ; so that the maximum rapidity of change with
respect to one shall cotrespond to the minimum and near eval-
escence of such change with respect to the other, a very impor-
tant circumstantial character of the reality of any observed move-
the parallax attributed by Bessel to this star, and of the near a> 3
proximation to its true amount. ieee
The discussion of these observations involved considerations —
of very great delicacy, chiefly turning on the effect of temper — |
ture on the focal distances and metallic mounting of the a 4
as well as on an infinity of minute considerations as to the effects
of refraction, &c., and of instrumental errors on the measures © |
angles of such magnitude in various positions with respect whe |
the vertical. Every thing of this nature has been made ee
subject of minute and careful inquiry in four very elaborate rd
pers forming part of the first volume of a series of essays
sche Untersuchungen), of which we shall have further ‘ ise
s The first of these enters in its fullest extent
oryeand formule of an
devoted toa
t
Life, Researches, and Discoveries of F. W. Bessel. 313
- features of this second memoir, deserves to be noticed a happy
application of the general resolution, by continued fractions, of
am equation of finite differences of the second order, to the ex-
pression of the course of a ray refracted through any combina-
- tion of spherical surfaces. The third of these memoirs relates
concluded from the whole inquiry, are to be found in the Ninth
Essay, Vol. IL. of the Astronomische Untersuchungen, already
and therefore describing the prime-vertical. By the use of this
od, the differences of declination of two stars passing nea
the zenith of any given’ places, or the change of declination of
one and the same star at different times, comes to be m e
Upon avastly increased scale by’ the interval of its two transits
over the vertical, expressed in time. — It is therefore independent
Bessel has also
cs astronomer at the he
314 Life, Researches, and Discoveries of F'. W. Bessel.
with peculiar adaptations, devised by himself, for facilitating the
handling, setting, and reading of the circle. On the reception of
this instrument, which was erected in the observatory about |
end of 1841,.a mode of determining the nadir point proposed by
Bohnenberger, by reflexion of the wires of the instrument itself
in mercury, by which the instrument is made its own vertical ©
collimator, was adopted and brought into constant use; a full ac-
count of which, and of the extreme precision so attained, will
be found in Nos. 480 and 481 of the Astronomische Nachrichten.
e possession of this admirable instrument enabled him to re-
sume, with every advantage he could desire, an inquiry of the
greatest importance, but at the same time of the utmost delicacy,
which had long engaged his attention. The first suspicion of a
want of perfect uniformity in the proper motions of certain fixer
stars, among which Sirius and Procyon may be especially pat-
ticularized, occurred to Bessel in 1834. Pond appears also, at an
earlier period, to have become impressed with the same idea.
The observations of declination made at Kénigsberg, previous to
the erection of the Repsold circle (see Astron. Nachr. 422), had
.
y
5
#
Ey.
4
centre of gravity. Time only, and assiduous observation, ¢a* —
esas?
4 each other with equal Rae? Th
Life, Researches, and Discoveries of F. W. Bessel. 315
standard of length; for which purpose a fac-simile of the toise
of Peru was chosen, being a measure aux bouts which the prin-
ciple of construction of the apparatus rendered a necessary con-
dition. The actual vibrating ulum was a ball suspended by
awire, the suspending apparatus being made to rest alternately
on the upper end of the toise and on the flat support of its lower
end, the tangent plane of the lower surface of the ball being
brought to a constant level by the use of the lever of contact.
The series of experiments made with this apparatus was publish-
ed in the volume of Memoirs of the Berlin Academy for 1826,
though the date of their communication and reading was two
a With a series of pendulum experiments of very especial physical
Oo
intimate nature or chemical constitution of a body which deter-
decision which modern: science requires. All idea of such spe~
cific attraction is, however, completely done awa
esult of the elaborate series of experiments set on foot |
Bessel for this purpose, which form the subject of a Memoir pre-
oh is so easy to misunderstand the true gist of
0 stat ise. Suppose ap of gol
rmed into three spheres, and placed wit!
of an equilateral triangle —will ig Bie weil fi
this inquiry, that it nay be wf
d, a pound of lea sd é
ea
316 Life, Researches, and Discoveries of F'. W. Bessel.
sented to the Berlin Academy in 1832, and printed in their Me-
moirs for. 1830; every substance examined, including meteoric
iron and stony masses, having given exactly the same coefficient
comparison of the new standard with the Peru toise, which had —
served for the measure of the pendulum, forms the subject of @ Z
Memoir printed in 1839 by order of the Prussian government.
inent as were his mathematical resources, and his aptitude —
for bringing them to bear in the most advantageous and effective —
manner upon every point of practical application, there is; per —
haps, no subject, among the multitude of those which at differ —
ent times engaged his attention, in which these qualities were —
more singularly called into action, in combination with his
triangulation was not considerable, the extreme points connecter
being only about 120 English miles distant, still few. trigonomet:
rical operations have been executed of greater circumstantial i=
portance, inasmuch as it had for its especial object to connectthe —
operations of Struve in the north of Russia and Fi and
2
one hand, and those of France (and consequently also’ of Britaia)
on the other, with the Bavarian and Austrian surveys.” The
only was wanting between Trunz, the furthest point of this 138
mentioned operation, and Memel, to bring together these detached A
and re
The astrou
:
Life, Researches, and Discoveries of F'. W. Bessel. 317
tion of data obtained at such enormous cost and labor, in Indi
in France, in Britain, and elsewhere. ‘To grasp the whole of
the inquiry, he was led to enter Upon a recomptltals
itudes of all the principal stations in the Britishe
and finally to recompute entirely, accord
of combination used in his o¥ Pr
318 Life, Researches, and Discoveries of F. W. Bessel.
however, did not satisfy Bessel, and he actually recalculated the
_ Whole of the work by his own method, producing a result-agree-
ing with the mean of the four determinations alluded to within
a fraction of a toise. 1 ee ae
We are still very far from having exhausted the long catalogue
of Bessel’s astronomical labors. His memoir on the precession of
the equinoxes, honored with a prize by the Berlin Academy, and
his researches on the planetary perturbations, might well demand
some especial notice, did not our necessary limits forbid it, am
oblige us also to pass unmentioned, otherwise than generally, the ;:
astonishing host of contributions with which, from time to time,
he enriched the periodical literature of astronomy. ‘The greater
proportion of these are contained in the Astronomische Nach-
richten—so great a number indeed, and many of them of such
extent, that perhaps it is not exaggerating to say that at peri |
fifth part of that collection, (now consisting of twenty-four vor —
umes, ) has emanated from his pen. The Zeitschrift fir Astre
ome, the Kinigsberger Archiv fiir Naturwissenschaften, se
Monathliche Correspondenz, and the Supplements to the Berlin
Liphemeris, contain also many and valuable communications 10"
him.* And when it is recollected that many of these P ofoand ne if
essays of great length and deep interest, abounding in
research and new conceptions on almost every subject with
astronomers are conversant, we shall see catise to admire NO’
the indefatigable industry of the man than the extent erin |
tility of those powers which produced such a profusion.
uable matter. Some of these essays, retouched and oe
'm part of a work entitled Astronomische Untersu ial
Astronomical Researches, two volumes of which have appeared,
+
der Physik, occur oceasional commun ") op we.
Gteresting one in vol. Ixxxii, ( FUL
d was understood to be in preparation when his labors 2
by illness. ; pacer
UNUEASS cf tee ae ae eee
eg ee
tn epee dg, . :
3 observation, without the intention of
Life, Researches, and Discoveries of F. W. Bessel. 319
_ In the year 1842, Bessel for the first and last time, visited Eng-
d, and was received in a manner befitting the high estimation
in which his merits were held. His unaffected and pleasing de-
portment, the charm of his conversation, and the rich fund of
information and instruction it afforded, will be remembered with
:. Pleasure and regret by all who had the good fortune to be in his
company
r to Le Verrier and Adams: He had, in fact, with a view to
this undertaking, engaged a young and promising astronomer,
Mr. Flemming, to reduce anew, with the utmost rigor, all known
observations of Uranus, including the Kénigsberg observations
of that planet, and to compare them with the tables. This
was the groundwork of his intended researches. Mr. Flemming
completed the reductions, which are in the possession of Mr,
Schumacher, and died soon afterwards, and the fatal malady of
Which, after two years of continually increasing suffering, Bessel
| f died, made its appearance, and interdicted every serious
The scientific character of Bessel will have been easily col-
‘ected from what has been said of particular branches of his ex-
tensive labors, One leading feature of it was the concentration
of all known data on each particular subject of inquiry, with the
View of expressing from them, by the highest and most refined
application of mathematical and computistic power, the utmost
they are capable of affording in the direction of numerical pre-
“ision ; and as a means to this end, to satisfy this earnest longing
alter precise results, an equally earnest and successful endeavor
that of always working up to an immediate and definite object ;
tither that of arriving at some positive result, more perfect
know! i ed at once the improvement of
die a obstacle which opposed pieeies bo aaelt™
on to
declare, that the desire of merely accumul:
using
* altogether alien to his tastes; and tk
‘Tesults from observations, by,
S
%
320 On the Properties of Ozone.
theory of instruments—the mode of detecting, compensating, and
practice of, every delicacy in their use, were such as has never
een su . Equally great in perfecting old methods of ob-
servation and in suggesting new, the practice of the modern
German school of astronomers is almost emphatically Bessel’s
practice ; and he was deservedly looked upon as’a guide and
model, not only in Germany but by Europe. ae
Bessel was, of course, elected into almost every academy
Europe asan Associate. He became a Foreign Member of this
Society in 1822. As he advanced in years and in reputation,
distinctions of a different kind were conferred upon him; among:
others, the order of the Dannebrog by the King of Denmark, —
and that of the Red Eagle, with the title of “Geheimer Regie
rung’s Rath,” and the order of Civil Merit by his own sovereigty
whose favor he constantly experienced, and whose attentions du-
ring his last illness were of the most benignant kind, and sooth
ed, though they could not alleviate his sufferings. ie
Y a oe
Arr. XXIIL—On the Properties of Ozone; by fen
ScHOnBein.* inlet
By a number of experiments made by myself and repeated Py
others, it has been demonstrated that ozone (which I ig ne
a eae
formed into the peroxyd of the metal even at very low tempera
stures. The several facts I have lately ascertained, an¢ W’
3 to state, will give further proofs of that power: _
al, b Prof. Schénbein, ina letter to ‘
| saogived. through Prof. Beck of Cam
#
On the Properties of Ozone. 321
1. Ozone has the property of decomposing ‘the protoxyd salts
of manganese, throwing down that metal in the shape of the
— of peroxyd of manganese and setting at liberty the acids
f the said salts. If aqueous solutions of sulphate, nitrate and
muriate of manganese be shaken with atmospheric air whick
been strongly ozonized in the usual manner, (by means of phos-
phorus, ) ozone rapidly disappears, the saline solutions become tur-
bid, hydrate of peroxyd of manganese is precipitated in the
_ shape of little scales of a brownish color, and sulphuric, nitric
or muriatic acid set at liberty. To cause the decomposition
scribed, it is not required to dissolve the salts, the latter being
acted upon by ozone even in their solid state. I make use of
this remarkable property of ozone to prepare a specific and deli-
cate test for that curious substance. Small strips of the whitest
ltering paper are drenched with a weak solution of sulphate of
“tet of manganese, suffered to dry, and kept in stoppered
i
F
;
<
j
.
- On introducing such paper into ozonized air, it rapidly assumes
_ abrownish tint, growing darker and darker, the longer the test
_ Paper is left suspended within the air. If the atmosphere hap-
_ pens to be strongly ozonized, the distoloration makes its appearance
_ after a few seconds suspension. I hardly need mention that the
test paper turns brown when exposed to the action of oxygen,
Which has been obtained by the electrolysis of water, and exhib-
its the peculiar electrical smell. The said paper may also be
used to prove that ozone is formed by electrical discharges taking
mn itt i oxygen or atmospheric air. By exposing a bit of
test paper to the action of the electrical brush, (playing in air
r oxygen,) it undergoes the same change of. co. ‘as it does
‘Within air ozonized by phosphorus, or within the oxygen ‘pro-
duced by electrolysing water. But as under the first mentioned
citeumstances, only very small quantities of ozone are generated,
it requires rather a long action of the electrical brush to turn the
‘paper brown.
ectrical discharges continually taking place in our atmos-
_ Phere, and ozone being invariably produced by them, it necessa-
_ tly follows that some small portions of that oxydizing agent are
_ Ptesent in atmospheric air. The correctness of that conclusion
_ 8mMost easily proved by the means of my test paper ; for on being
€Xposed to the action of free circulating air, it gradually assumes a
brown tint, whilst the paper remains perfectly white, when kept
Selosed within a bottle filled with atmospheric air. — —- to.
a
a
th
or
pay
Week
.
322 On the Properties of Ozone.
_Lhaye tried to produce images by drawing with a solution of
sulphate of manganese upon paper, and exposing the latter (when
dry) to the action of atmospheric air which has previously been
strongly ozoni the means of phosphorus; and I may say
that I have obtained very pretty results. The drawing or Wil
ting. comes out within a few minutes, first exhibiting a yellow-
ish tint and afterwards a deep brown shade. Gaseous sul
acid, readily uniting with the hydrate of peroxyd of manganese
very pretty class-room experiments to show the action of ozone
plication. I may add that my test paper after having beeu j
turned slightly brown by ozone serves asa test for sulphurous acid
_ 2. Ozone enjoying so many properties in common with chilo-
rine and bromine, I suspected the two latter bodies would act like
sooner has the mixture been exposed to the action of solar ligt
is
peroxyd transforming the basic salt into a neutral one. _Chloriné
and bromine act in a similar manner. If aqueous chlorine
bromine be added to a solution of the subacetate mentioned, unt!
the whole precipitate first formed has disappeared, and the m=
ture becomes limpid again, very soon after, the liquid will becom?
turbid, peroxyd of lead being thrown down. To show these
them in bottles, containing some ozone, chlorine or. bromne-
After a certain time these strips will have assumed @ bro mo
lor resulting from the peroxyd of lead formed under, thes?
n es. : : ; _ aan ae
Ancient Sea Margins. 323
in the solution so that about half its bulk rises above the fluid,
‘the formation of ozone will immediately ensue, provided the
temperature be 15° to 20°R. Part of the ozone formed, acts
pon the saline solution and transforms part of its protoxyd of
manganese into permanganic acids, whose presence is indicated
by the beautiful deep red color which the solution assumes in
the course of a few hours. The same richly colored fluid is
obtained by shaking a solution of sulphate of manganese or
cheap manganese salts in dilute phosphoric acid with ozon-
air. -
_ Having drawn up a detailed account of these and other exper-
iments, which before long will be published in “ Poggendorff’s
Annalen,” I take the liberty to refer the readers of your period-
ical to that Journal. ° .
~ Enclosed you will find some specimens of manganese draw-
ings and writings produced in the manner above described. B
exposing them fora short time to the action of gaseous sulphurous
) acid, you may easily destroy the image, &c., and restore them, by
Ozonized air.
: pee, XXIV.—Ancient Sea Margins ; by Rosert CuamBers.
TO THE EDITORS OF THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. ,
oe = 1 Donne Terrace, Edinburgh, July 9, 1847.
_ Gentlemen :—I beg, through the medium of your pages, to
call the attention of American geologists to a line of investiga-
ton, from which I have been led by inquiries of my own in this
Country, to expect some important results. It is that of natural
terraces, benches of land, and other forms of the surface, which
_ @ppear to indicate the former presence of the margin of the sea.
Hitherto ancient beaches have been chiefly inferred from the
aati of shells, but I am satisfied from my researches here,
lat they can be detected with equal certainty from the configur-
ation of the ground and the presence of sand, gravel, and other
‘materials, such as are usually found on beaches. In tland, I
have by this means ascertained the existence of a series of ancient
beaches, from 64 to 616 feet above the level of the sea at high
Water of ordinary tides, besides a few at inferior elevations, but too
Much huddled to be described with precision. And these are not
_ Marked at one place only, but many of them appear at various
_ Places all around the island. In each several gi they are per-
me pnlaces
be distinctly
which had f
324 Ancient Sea Margins.
such places—though several of them are remarkably persistent.
More generally; one of those present at place A is wanting at
place B, while another is perhaps substituted. There is no diffi-
culty, however, in seeing that those common to the two situa-
tions are the memorials of one set of pauses of the sea, as they
always appear at certain elevations, with intervals which, though
in some cases small, are always peculiar and characteristic. In
short, there is here evidence that the process by. which the rela-
tive level of sea and land has changed in our island at the era of
the superficial formations, was one which did not move the land
in the slightest degree off the plane which it had previously
occupied, as
P "s
I need scarcely remark, that, in consequence of what we have
heard for some years, of the unequal changes of relative level in
South America and Scandinavia, every step of this investigation
was attended by a battle with my prepossessions. The facts,
however, are of so clear and palpable a nature, that there is no
gainstanding them. And perhaps there is no necessary inconsis- .
tency between them and the observations of Messrs. Darwin and
Lyell. Any how, it has appeared to me exceedingly desirable to
cisely the same elevations,—proving that France and ;
stood in the same predicament as the island of Great Britain with
respect to the change of the sea level, by whatever means that
had been brought about. : a ‘3
Since then I have been led to inquire after the heights of the
this point, and which coming from different minds must needs
bear some incompatibilities, there does appear enough at least 10
awake a strong Suspicion of the uniformity in question, and
and in the Mindar islands in the Gulf of the St. Lawrene~
Phe phrase might describe a geognostic feature of this 1s S
tan which I do not know any more remarkable. _ I find als
2 Profs. Rogers, on the tertiary formations of Easter
my own phrases) between the nivel
, 1839,) a description of what they 3
ee
cule is anita ee ih ica ae en Se ree sh pe ie cane Uy Ul Sia
ods SS A at an oo fs
SLPS Eo ee ee Rees CRN eR Neen aay. Se Ae eke Sn RE I Wie ee ee GS
a alga Blea pda, (a yecaks 1 areas
Ancient Sea Margins. — 325
Potomac and Rappahannock, which, besides being from sixty to
seventy feet high over several miles, is in the main lithologically
a perfect counterpart to many examples of the terrace at the
same height on the British coasts. There are even more striking
comcidences than these. The gravel plain at West Point, if it can
he considered as connected with the sea margin of a former era, is
in harmony with one of the greatest of the British terraces. Nay,
among the elevated terraces which Mr. Roe has describedas stretch-
ing along the sides of Lake Ontario, there are some which come
Surprisingly near to certain similar formations which others have
described in this country. ‘There may be nothing here but acci-
dental coincidence ; indeed it may be admitted that most prob-
ably there is nothing else in the case. It were well, nevertheless,
to make sure.
_ For this purpose, I now beg to suggest to the geologists of
America, the propriety of examining such examples of ancient
beaches as may be within reach in their several districts, with a
view to settling the question one way or another. ‘To all in
America’ who. have written on kindred subjects, I would re-
Spectfully recommend this inquiry, than which none could be
More easily conducted. The first point should be, to find other
instances of the sixty-four feet beach; in this country it is usu-
ally a broad terrace of sandy or gravelly materials, presented
towards the sea or along the banks of tidal rivers. If really a
general feature of America, as of Britain and Ireland, I should
€Xpect it to be found in many situations along the banks of the
n. Anexamination of the form and constitution of this
terrace will fit the enquirer for discovering the higher beaches ;
‘0 which, however, I do. not think it proper to attempt affording
any guide by the elevations of those found in Scotland, as ob-
ously, if there be.any correspondences these will have more
te as evidence, if we can say that the two sets of facts were
-atrived. at independently. Ishall only remark that terraces be-
tween one hundred and fifty and three hundred feet are more
likely to be efficient as tests than any of lower altitude excepting
only the sixty-four feet beach, because in that higher range of ele-
‘tions the intervals are wide and more characteristic. Accurate
Measurements by levelling from a-certain specified datum are of
Course desi and the results should be published from time
b]
0 time.. J need scarcely say how much gratified I should feel by
any communications to myself upon the subject.
326 Prof. E. N. Horsford on Glycocoll,
Arr. XXV.—Glycocoll ( Gelatine Sugar) and some of ite Pro-
ducts of Decomposition ; by Prof. E. N. Horsrorp. ph
on) om
(Concluded from p. 70.)
sve
‘Sty 0
Propucts or Decomposition or GiycocoLd. ~
cess several times, at a certain stage, not definitely ascertained, the
m
Some of the crystals were nearly cubic, reminding one of chlo —
rid of sodium, others were rhombic with feathered m
They taste and react acid, and do not change upon. expos
the air. oe
mr sulphuric acid and analyzed, they gave the wer
ts. (ome
ing resu
1. 04302 grm. of sub. gave 0:2031 carb: acid and 0-2099 water.
Il. 0:3526 « ““ 0°8062 platin-salammoniac.
lil. 03574 « “" 0-8300 platin-salammoniac.
IV. 0:4958 « “06090 sulphate of baryta.
Expressed in per cents. gz mae peare
I. I. HES e4, oe
Carbon, 12-87 5 bes ease”
Hydrogen, 5°42 gre ie dian eee
Nitrogen, di 23 14-40 14-63
Sulph, atidje asx eis A185"
H, NO,, SO,, HO+NH,0, SO, HO, © |
as the juxtaposition of the per cents. of analysis and those de
rived from direct estimate wil show : Sole eee eer
Theory.
12:36
ge ie eid eo hee Care ae et aca ey ee
PA a oe ee aL gs a Pe ee a
Syeey s eee a ee
and some of its Products of Decomposition. 327
_ This result supported the view that glycocoll contained not
only the elements of fumaric acid and ammonia, but contained
them in such form or arrangement, as would yield to an active
To obtain this acid,.glycocoll was treated several hours, over
amoderate heat with sulphuric acid, in the manner above de-
_ ‘Stribed—repeatedly diluting and evaporating. The sulphuric
acid for the most part was thrown down with oxyd of lead, an
_ the last. traces accurately removed with solution of baryta. The
filtrate was then evaporated to concentration over sulphuric acid.
_ Ina few hours rhombic prisms of unexampled beauty and per-
fection, of the combination, oP, OP, crystallized. from the
nh. :
:_ Their taste was exceedingly sour. In water they dissolved with
difficulty and in ether and alcohol they were absolutely insoluble.
With potash, ammonia was evolved from them. : “ef
Combustion with chromate of lead, gave the following results.
I. 0:1922 grm. of sub. gave 0°1048 carb. acid and 0:1008 water.
; a4 ce oc
TL. 02350 0-5700 platin-salammoniac.
‘Orin per cent.: : L IL.
we Carbon, 14-86 wee
Hydrogen, wei os
Nitrogen, yee Ny ie ren
With these results it was found impossible to construct any
a; containing only the elements of glycocoll, that could
have been derived from the action of sulphuric acid, The first
&&tion of the acid would be the abstraction of ammonia,
If in excess it ‘was conceivable that the remaining member
Would be subdivided, giving oxalic acid and an oxya¢ ‘the rad-
teal of ‘Dumas’ alcohol and ether series.
| | C,H, 0.= 20 +4
"die
328 Prof. E. N. Horsford on Glycocoll,
The latter uniting with sulphuric acid would give a compound
that might not be thrown down by baryta and which with the
ammonia, after the precipitation of oxalic acid would give-ainn
C, H, 0, 80;, NH, 0. a
Upon heating the body with potash—dissolving in hydrochloric
acid and adding baryta, a copious precipitate followed, establish-
ing the presence of sulphuric acid. The small quantity pore
prevented a determination of the quantity of acid. is for-
mula requires 13°86 p. c. of carbon, 16-36 of nitr gen, and 681
p. c. of hydrogen. - ; Paes
It is not considered as established but merely as indicating ap-
proximately the action of sulphuric acid. ; %
A concentrated solution of the crystals gave with baryta a
crystalline precipitate that redissolved in hydrochloric acid.
With chlorid of calcium, upon the addition of ammonia, a
crystalline precipitate was thrown down. $e, ali’
Want of time as well as of substance, postponed the further
examination of this interesting body. frig "
*, :
xi
When a moderately concentrated solution of glycocoll is sub- a
jected to a current of chlorine gas, the latter is rapidly absorbed,
and an instantaneous and copious evolution of carbonie acid 1%
succeeds. Heat and sunlight both facilitate ‘the action. — A con-
venient method was found in connecting with a stream’ of di
chlorine gas, a Liebig’s potash apparatus, filled, as far as‘1s usu
for a combustion, with a solution of glycocoll. . It is only neces-
sary that the rapidity of evolution equal that of absorption. mar _
At the end of the third day the process was interrupted, an@
the liquid evaporated toa syrup consistence. A drop of this —
syrup yielded, upon the addition of ammonia, a white erystalline
precipitate with both chlorids of barium and caleium. SS an
pon saturating with baryta, filtering and washing with aben”,
lute alcohol, it was found that but a small fraction of the glyee
coll had been oxydated.
the conclusion of this period there was still glyeocoll ae
Chlorid of barium gave the precipitate from the concentrated 5
lution after neutralization with ammonia. This ere agortor™
e any action of chilorios ape, lycocoll ; a vite ‘the ac-
soce of an impurity eh hydrogen, oF te
and some of its Products of Decomposition. 329
_ When washed and dried the baryta compound was no longer
soluble in water, not even with long continued boiling. It was
however promptly dissolved in dilute hydrochloric acid. It con-
tains neither chlorine nor nitrogen.
e baryta salt alone was analyzed.
Combustion with chromate of lead gave from—
[. 03218 grm. of sub. 0-1544 carb. acid and 0-0547 water.
Il. 06627“ - 05210 sulphate of baryta.
_The only formula which can be derived from these determina-
C, H, O,+Ba0.
Which requires : |
j Estimated. Found.
rbon, i he 3 equiv.— 18 12:36 13-08
Hydrogen,-.- - - - ]3 He 2-05 1-89
re ee Fe, 48 32-99 33-38
ieee Se 766| 5260 | 51-65
| 145-6 | 100-00 100-00
The same remarks are applicable to this formula that have
been made concerning the preceding.
It is recorded chiefly to show that chlorine does not act upon
yeocoll as upon many other bodies, by which a certain number
of atoms of hydrogen are replaced by an equal number of atoms
of chlorine,
The action may be conceived to be the following:—
C,H, No, +5HO+3Cl=C, H, 0O,+NH, Cl+Co, +2HCI.
_ The same body was obtained by direct addition of a solution
ot permanganate of potassa to an aqueous solution of glycocoll.
_ After boiling a length of time with nitric acid, the same pro-
ct of decomposition was formed. f
___ When pulverized chlorate of potash in small quantity and at
intervals is added to a solution of glycocoll in hydrochloric acid,
4 slow oxydation goes -forward, and a product is obtained, in
Which, as in the cases above noticed, baryta gives apparently the
“ame white crystalline precipitate.
Action of Caustic Potash.
The brilliant fire red color assumed by glycocoll when heated
- With caustic potash, has already been noticed. — if the solution be
evaporated to extreme concentration, the evolution of ammonia
and hydrogen continues, until at length the mass becomes solid.
When treated with hydrochloric acid, hydrocyanic acid is evolv-_
éd, and if iron salts be present Berlin blue is formed. When dis-
Solved in water the addition of chlorid of calcium is followed by
_ instantaneous white precipitate, w i 2s not dissolve in
_ etic acid—a precipitate of oxalate
Stcoxp Series, Vol. 1V, No. 12.—Nov., 1847,
330 Prof. E. N. Horsford on Glycocoll,
The decomposition may be illustrated by the following
sche — ; '
ne -
1 equiv. cyanogen, . : C ee bei: :
1“ ammonia, las, ym ga :
7. SRR pid, Se i eee
2 ‘“ carbonic oxyd, . Oo. Pre ee
7 “'™ hydrogen,- . : ae. a ee
Bee ~~ ghyeocoll oc Oye By Np Oe
Gilycocoll and Hydrosulphuric Acid.
The readiness with which glycocoll enters into combination,
and the interest attaching to sulphur compounds in the products
of decomposition in the organism, suggested the treatment with
hydrosulphuric acid. pee
Taurin, according to Redtenbacher,* is—
7, oy, nO, 8, ey
which he observed contained the elements of two atoms of sul-
phurous acid, aldehyde, and ammonia: a4
ete 0), BNO Sj-C,z.H,.0, NH, 0,8; 0,- :
The union of these several ingredients he succeeded i
atoms of water and two o
e ; 4 i yas: Pe is:
Taurin also contains the elements of hydrated glycoeoll, two
sulphur : i
C,H, NO,,8,=C, H, NO,, 2HO,S,. ae
It was conceivable that by treating a solution of glycocoll
with hydrosulphurie acid, and exposing the product to oxydation,
a compound, consisting of glycocoll, water, and sulphur in the
above relations, might be obtained, ie
wo atoms of Cystine: s
ac, H, NO, S2) : ii
contain the elements of three atoms of hydrated glycocoll, ae
which ammonia has been withdrawn, and in which four atoms °
pa a have been replaced by an equal number of atoms
sulphur : |
C,, H,, N,O, 8,=C,, H,, N, 0,,+8,- NH,-9
=2(0, H, NO, 8,). ais
The evolution of the latter product was also not impossible.
Long continued and repeated efforts, however, gave No arhin ie
result ; the hydrated glycocoll recrystallizing from the solution
nth neither accession nor loss.
Liebig’s Annalen, Bd. lvii; 8. 170. wee
nee Of oat St fe¥ F isis:
:
© obtain either of the above results another experiment q
:
and some of its Products of Decomposition. 331
Glycocoll was dissolved in quinqui-sulphid of potassium, spirits
of wine added, and the solution evaporated through several
_ weeks, over sulphuric acid, to dryness.
An efflorescence had crept up the sides of the containing ves-
sel and the bottom was covered with crystals. Upon treating
the whole with hot water, sulphur was separated, which was fil-
tered off and the filtrate slowly evaporated to syrup consistence,
from which the whole became a solid crystalline mass.
Toa solution of the crystals, addition of sulphuric acid caused
the evolution of sulphurous acid and the separation of sulphur.
ere was the usual product of exposing the quinqui-sulphid of
potassium to the air—hyposulphite of potash.
_Upon adding bi-chlorid of platinum to a second portion, a pre-
“pitate of platin-chlorid of potassium followed, without the evo-
ution of sulphurous acid or separation of sulphur. ‘There was
then left in the solution—
which equals, C, H, NO,, HO, S, O,,
C, H, NO, 8, —H,,.
ConsTiITuTION oF GLYCOCOLL.
The enquiry presses itself, where in the general subdivisions
of chemistry does glycocoll belong? Is it a base? Is it an acid?
Or is it a salt ? :
The combinations into which it is capable of entering seem
only to embarrass reply.
e following table of the principal compounds of glycocoll
that have been analyzed, and the adjoining table of correspond-
Ing compounds, chiefly from inorganic chemistry, will not be
Without interest in the determination of this question.
: As an Acid. :
C, H, NO,, CuO (Aq) | $O,, CuO
C,H, NO,, PbO “ | SO,,PbO
C,H, NO,,AqO “ |SO,, AgO
- As a Base.
a.
C, H, NO,, SO, | AgO, so,
C, H, NO,, NO. | AgO, NO,
b
C,H, NO,,$0,,HO| Zn0,SO,,HO
C, H, NO,, HCl, HO | BaO, HCl, HO —
C,H,NO,,0, HO - HO
KO, ¢
332 Prof. E. N. Horsford on Gilycocoll,
Cc.
C, H, NO,, HO, A, 2HO | NH,, A, 2HO
As a Haloid Sait.
C, H, NO,, KCl | Hg Cl, KCL.
As a Bi-chlorid of Platinum.
of
C,H, NO,, Ber, HCl | Pt Cl,, Ber, HCl
C,H, NO,, BaCl, (2aq) | Pt Cl,, Ba Cl
As Ammonia.
C, H, NO,, PtCl, (2aq) | H, N,, PtCl, (Gros.)
or as haloid salt,
NH, Cl, PtCl,
As an Amphid Salt.
C, H, NO,, AgO, NO, | HgO, NO, +.Ag0, NO,
C, H, NO,, KO, NO,
| ‘As of the Magnesia Series.
7, BY NO; 86, HOBO oo. ne, os N
C, H, NO,, 80,, NH, 0,80,+(2aq).. . 2
Ls, + © «MgO, 80, KO, S0,4(Gen
2 MgO, SO, NH, O, SO,+(624)
Basic Salts.
Sey ee BO } NO, HO | 3 CuO, NO, HO
2(C, H, NO,) HCl, HO| 2NH,, ZnCl,HO
3(C, H, NO,), 280,, 2HO | 3Hg, O, 2NO,, 3HO
And further :
C, H, NO,, HO, AeO, SO, | SO, HO, AeO, SO, .
C, H, NO,, U NH,0, 0 | HO, U, NH,0O, U
In the above tables we have representatives from almost evely
class of compounds in the domain of chemistry, and yet the
are severally typified in the combinations of glycocoll. ‘dg:
We have it uniting with. bases ;—a characteristic of acids:
uniting with acids ;—a characteristic of bases: wniting
amphid salts; a characteristic of amphid salts.
pound ; playing the part of bichlorid of platinum in ga
Ow appearing in the magnesia series and again replacing “aa
vill not be out of place to trace this relationship t0 at @
hemistry a little further, if it may aid in armving
tion of the place glycocoll should hold.
Pier
&
mo
We have it replacing a haloid salt in a binary chlorine CO —
aes
SS aaa
‘
and some of its Products of Decomposition. 333
The great truth that the San evi properties of bodies
depend upon the form, volume and density of their atoms, or to
use another form of expression, that ing every change of these
atiributes of the atoms, there is a corresponding honed in the dis-
linguishing properties of the masses, is every day acquiring a
more profound significance
The chemical and physical differences aero phosphoric,
pyrophosphoric and metaphosphoric acids, ut the counter-
parts of different forms, volumes and den ilies assumed by the
same elements in the same relative proportions.
_ The same is true of cyanic, fulminie and cyanuric acids: of
oryd of methyle and alcohol: of hydrated acetic acid and formate
oryd of methyle.
It is well known that the several members of groups of isomor-
phous bodies ;—the alums for example, have many chemical and
physical attributes incommon. They have also common form
and volume.
It requires a a little expansion of the thought naturally aris-
ing from the consideration of these facts, to -
quiry: are not acids as such, indebted for their distinguishing
characteristic to a common peculiarity of form among their atoms ;
and bases to another for theirs, and salts to another for theirs ?+
Let this conception be entertained for the moment, and connect
a , the peculiarities of glycocoll the following considerations.
ave already seen that. ge contains the elements
of Rienarade of anvno ag ;
C, H, NO,=NH;,;
Se It may also be pater as opal re ‘hydrated aoe of
ryl
. C, H, NO, =O, B20, 0; NG;
a sugar j in which aleohol and carbonic acid ate véplaied by wood-
Spirit and cyanic ac
e effort to beh methyl alcohol by : wos distillation of gly-
ee es wlntieees in strong potash, f
* Mitscherlich and Ko
; 1 The following colervmbitig relationship may be worth recording.
Cy Hy he = glycocoll.
Cy Hs = eo, X 3= grape sugar.
C, "i 5 5 ) Op = sugar of lead.
Hy he
: Cy Hg - O, HO = nitrous ether.
on nese bodies. ye nea taste. Is it dependent Gr aie arrangement
o their t smallest par ? ie
pre is here reminded of the large iioeaber of acids of 1 ula (R) 40 as
the so sourness 0; f this class dependent 5a a on Scitarity of form ?
334 Prof. E. N. Horsford on Gilycocoll,
Dumas has suggested that the compound produced when an-
hydrous sulphuric acid is conducted into an atmosphere of dry
ammonia, may be considered hydrated sulphite of amidogen: »
NH,, SO,=HO, NH,, SO,. dicks
Kane on the other hand, suggests that it be regarded as hydra-
ted sulphuric acid, in which one atom of oxygen is replaced by
one atom of amidogen. . sit
: NH,, 80,=S Rin, H. es
3. Glycocoll may be regarded as a succinate of amidogen,
o NUL, Cy oO;
4. Or as malic acid in which one atom of oxygen is replaced
by amidogen. ' .
, H, O,= atom of malic acid.
by
glycocoll a body identical in elementary composition with aspat-
Instances of metamorphosis of this description are not S
agin.
infrequent in the records of chemical investigation. ©
The conversion of styrol into metastyrol by heat* and by pes
into alloxanic acid: the metamorphoses of phosphoric a
heat, and other similar phenomena by contact with alkalies, lend
Support to the supposition, that it may yet be possible to effect
po of the metamorphoses above suggested—or some which
follow. ;
6. It would not be more unexpected, than was the artifcis
preparation of urea, to make glycocoll by combining wed '
grape sugar. lee ,
0, H,N, 0, + C,H, 0, = XC, H, NO,)
‘Uren. Half atom of grape sugar. | Hydrated glycocoll.
(2
med glycocoll and ammonia, fumaric acid is driven out.
and Hoffman, yichig’s Annalen, Bd. liii,s. 311. a
/ GLicbig. | Libig and Webler,
The circumstance that in the preparation of the gre
ray
;
PPT eT aL Oe shoe cate eed) ye oe
and some of its Products of Decomposition. 335
the following consideration... If upon separating the fumaric
acid, it were to unite with uncombined glycocoll, there would
arise a compound containing the elements of asparaginic acid.
, H, NO,+C, HO,=C, H, NO,
Pumaints of sical Asparaginic acid.
8 Two atoms of glycocoll contain also the elements of allo-
| phanie ether
2(0, H, NO,)=C, 8, 0, G, HUN, @,
Glycocoll, Ether. Allophanic acid.
9. Hydrated glycocoll contains the elements of nitric ether.
,_NO,, HO=C, H, 0, NO
eBre are two bodies of the most opposite properties, one fluid
and volatile, the other solid and cannot be su d
Ve have a similar instance in the two forms of chlorid of
a nde the volatile discovered by Gay Lussac and the solid
y Serrul
We hive another in aldehyd and metaldehyd—a liquid and a
Solid bod
y-
10. Two atoms bf glycocoll and one of ammonia contain the
4 elements of the creatine of Chevreul, recently rae by Liebig.
20, H, NO,) +NH,= C,H, ,N
kee Creatine.
i. The base derived, by Liebig, from creatine, bY, 4
With baryta water, which se separates urea (as NH,),
contains the elements of glycocoll and oxyd of | mE in It con- ©
tains also the elements of the Lactamide of Pelouze.
2H, ,N, 0, =e a ee = C, H, NO, = C,H, NO,,
‘ $ ee
Creatine. Urea. New base, al
6, 1,0 = 0, H, 0,, NH,
Sepa of methyl, et.
_ It will no longer seem strange that a body having so many re-
lationships as a re here exhibited, should rs its place in the
@stablished elaine of chemical compounds wi th difficulty.
The conclusion to which we have arrived in the progress of
the j ee above sawibad, is, that glycocoll may at the
Sane time be an acid, a base, and a salt, since it has properties in
Common with each, that distinguish each from the other two.
, In the possession of such a variety of attributes as attach to
: these | three classes of = glycocoll is is fas ee in
od
* Licbig’ s ‘nuesben Bd. lix, 8. 292,
336 Prof. E. N. Horsford on Gilycocoll, —
Constitution of Hippuric Acid.
It has long been observed that in the preparation of hippuric
acid, if the heat be too high or the evaporation too rapid, ben- —
zoic acid alone is obtained.*
If it be treated with sulphuric acid and peroxyd of manganese,
carbonic acid is evolved, benzoic acid crystallizes from the hot
filtered solution, and in the filtrate from the crystals sulphate of
ammonia is formed.
Berzelius{ has remarked that sulphuric acid may be considered
as a compound of benzoic acid and a body of this constitution :—
Uy HUNG:
a
4
Pelouze had attempted to prove that hippuric acid consisted of -
one atom of hydrocyanic acid, one of oil of bitter almonds, and
one of formic acid:
Hydrocyanic acid — =. =
Hydrobenzoylic acid ie C. or ae 0,
Formic acid = ff. Hees ae
Hippuric acid a aae ae ee
0
: é s 18 8 -
Fehling$ entertained the view that it consisted of benzamide
and fumaric acid. | os
Benzamide cs rin Hy ON Gee
Fumaric acid 4.0. db ot + Se
Hippuric acid
C, NK+3HO+HCI=KCI+NH,+C, HO;. |
, * " for
Sch Phar., liv, s. 30. Erdmann, abl
Practische Chemie, xiii, s. 422. Dumas, by treating hippuric acid with hypoohl®
rous acid, Annales de Chem. et de Phys., lvhi, p- 307. i ’ , aoe
B esbericht, 1840, s. 701. jmnilar sugse™
836, s. 462. In the Bericht for 1831, s. 240, a simi re-
s perfect analysis of hippuric acid, is to be found. It is agai"
ericht for 1840, s. 704. Ba
en, Bd. xxvi, s. 60.
i eee oT
:
a,
:
:
:
Pa
——~P- 646.
86.
_ Szcoxp Series, Vol. IV, No. 12.—Nov., 1847.
and some of its Products of Decomposition. 337
Glycocoll contains the elements of fumaric acid and ammonia.
If the former alone be taken from hippuric acid there remains
benzamide. .
C,, H, NO,-C,HO,=C,, H, NO,.
Hippuric acid. Fumaric acid. Benzamide.
Physiological Relations of Gflycocoll.
hed. ;
he occurrence of this acid in the urine of horses and cattle,
and of men who live chiefly upon vegetable food, is well known.
These facts taken in connexion with the newly developed con-
stitution of hippuric acid, suggest an inquiry that may not be
without interest, viz :— :
_ Are glycocoll and benzoic acid, as such, a part of the tissues of
the animal body ?—of the albumen, caseine, and fibrine, sup-
plied to it as food? and finally of the corresponding bodies in
the seeds and juices of plants. iso
‘1. Braconnot obtained glycocoll by treating glue with sulphuric
acid; Mulder and Boussingault by treating glue with caustic pot-
ash; and Keller obtained it by treating the tissues or the fluids of
the body with benzoic acid.
The group of atoms constituting elycocoll resisted more firmly
the destructive action of sulphuric acid and potash with the aid
of heat, than the remaining members composing glue. ‘These
Were for the most part oxydated or consumea. —
The albumen, fibrine, and caseine received into, and secreted
ftom the blood, no sooner become parts of the living RRO
than they commence their return to the original carbonic acid,
‘ammonia, sulphates, phosphates, water, etc., from which they
Were derived. They commence oxydation. This, however,
* L'lnstitut, No. 399, 279, and No. 401, 294. Journal de Pharmacy, xxviii,
t Phil. Mag., xx, p. 501. fs
1640 288: Age B . lvi, 638. Liebig’s Avn., Bd. xiii,
+ 8. ‘
s. 108. Central Blatt.
§ Liebig’s Ann., Bd. liii, s.
al
f hee
—
43
338 Prof. E. N. Horsford on Gilycocoll,
as a member of hippuric acid, as it escaped oxydation with the
potash and sulphuric acid.
2. Fumaric acid is present in a great variety of plants.* in
raginet we have the elements of fumaric acid and ammonia,
which with the requisite metamorphosis would become gly-
coco
2(NH,, €, HO;)=C, H, N; 0, =AC, H,’NO,).
2. Schliepert iy treating ‘aingingl sie chromic acid, obtained
among a variety of products benzoic a :
It is found frequently in the Volepsabl kingdom, for example
in gum-benzoin.
We have then benzoic acid and glycocoll (asparagine ) in the
vegetable kingdom, in the tissues of the animal body, and in the
form of Phi ete acid in the urine.
It remains to be ascertained if they be present in the animal
and denehabls albumen, fibrine, and caseine.
Formation of Uric Acid Concretions.
Keller observed both urea and uric acid in the urine after ihe
separation of hippuric acid, and therefrom concludes that Ure's
suggestion that benzoic acid might be employed to prevent the
formation of uric acid concretions, is too has
sty.
The following experiment may ‘have in connection with: this 4
subject sufficient interest. to justify its being recorded
The morning urine from mixéd animal and vegetable diet, was
evaporated over a water bath to thick syrup consistence, and
tested for glycocoll. Neither in the alcoholic extract, nor in the
residue, could a trace be recognized with the oxyd of copper test.
Nitric acid gave a precipitate of urea, not, however, in large
_ quantity. oll
At ten o’clock the next evening, four grammes of glycoc
were dissolved and taken in water... No consciousness of hav
taken any thing unusual was s felt. The next morning urine Te
acted acid. Its color was the same as that of the previous day:
Upon evaporation to syrup consistence, it presented a much
quantity than before. One portion was supersa rsaturated with: of
centrated oxalic acid, accurately neutralized with carbouns
soda and extracted with spirits of wine. Another portion was 4
supersaturated with acetate of lead and treated with hydre-
phurie acid. Upon evaporating to syrup the extract of the 6:
and the filtrate of the second, and testing both with the ha
copper, no trace of glycocoll was discovered. The glycoc™
, 8. 368. Liebig’s Ann., Bd. xxxi, &
we aeese a eee the number will be greatly increased. OAL; Bee :
eee Ni. Se
pe ees Se ae etd eee Os
a BS,
is
: glycocoll i
and some of its Products of Decomposition. 339
then disappeared. In its place were urea and uric acid, both in
larger proportion, as compared with the quantities of the pre-
If we deduct, as has already been shown, half an atom of
grape sugar from two atoms of hydrated glycocoll, we obtain
s
, Ej}, N70 + O70 2047 BEN, 0,
It is conceivable that glycocoll should thus divide, and that
the sugar should disappear in the products of oxydation.:
By treating it with nitric acid, with this view, no such result
was obtained. Concentration or dilution, a strong heat or a mod-
erate and long continued heat, gave no urea and no oxalic acid.
One of the products is noticed on page 329.
Uric acid (as bibasic) may be contemplated as a cyanurate of
C,, H, N,0,=C, N, 0;,0,°H, NO
If benzoic acid be capable of withdrawing glycocoll from uric
acid, the remaining member, in the presence of water, would
furnish the materials for carbonic acid and ammonia:
Cc, N, 0,+9HO=6CO0, +3NH.,.
No great confidence can be placed in a single result of this de-
Scription. Still whatever worth it has, seems to support the sug-
gestion of Ure. Uric acid is found where the products of de-
Composition are too imperfectly oxydated.* ‘Those who suffer
Could a part of the products destined to consume oxygen be
2 Withdrawn, the usual supply through the lungs might be adequate
‘0 the complete oxydation of the remainder, and thus the forma-
_ tion of uric acid concretions be rendered impossible. Glycocoll
A series of experiments upon given diet, with and without
benzoic acid, could not fail to solve this important question.
, With this investigation, and particularly with the products of
decomposition of glycocoll, which so far as here recorded, may
be considered rather as qualitative than quantitative, 1t 18 our pur-
_ Pose to proceed with as little delay as possible.
Note.—It may not be improper to state that Baron Liebig em-
Ploys his own time and that of his assistants, and the appliances
of his private laboratory, in grea in labors to ascertain
| eat part,
Methods of cheap and expeditious preparation, that he may spare
yale nt en CT aa Ne TT cr ae
* Liebig’s Thier Chimie, 2e. Ausg. 8. 125.
ay
340 Prof. E. N. Horsford on Glycocoll, &§c.
the time, means, and patience of the young chemists in his school.
He brings to bear his vast experience in this most difficult of all
chemical labor—the preparation in their purity of ‘chemical
substances. ;
He had been employed six months in finding out a better
method than that of Braconnot or Mulder, for obtaining gelatine
sugar, when in the winter semestre of 1845-46, I expressed a
wish that he would give me, for a change from the labors in
which I had been for some months engaged, a crystalline body,
whose study would increase my knowledge of organic chemistry.
In compliance with this request he gave me some three ounces
of exquisitely beautiful transparent. prismatic crystals, whose
analysis I employed myself immediately in makin e@ re
marked to. me of the method of preparation and of some of its
properties, and of much more that I could not retain, and I went
to the back journals to ascertain what investigation of it had been
made; at the same time making repeated analyses of the pure
body, its hydrochlorate and anhydrous sulphate. iw
he result of this labor and a review of Boussingault’s anal-
yses, satisfied me that the constitution of the body, combining.
with acids, bases, and salts, was—
C, H, NO,. Mh
When I had come to this conclusion I had not read the article
in the Comptes Rendus, containing Dessaigne’s discovery, and
felt indebted to no one for the constitution of the body.
Gerhardt’s suggestion that the body was— b
C, ee, NO,=C,H,,N, O
=
big and Gmelin, I could not reconcile with the analysis the
anhydrous sulphate; and this also came under my eye after MY
opinion of the constitution had been formed. ° , ts
“ig cs s | og 3 fi :
with his annotation, or C, H, NO, «4, according to that of Lie-
firming the suggestion of Dessaigne, that hippuric acid was 4
compound of benzoic acid and gelatine sugar. ‘The latter how-
fter my paper went into the hands of the conductor of Lie-
?
oo ;
yt ely Se :
in Erdmann and Marchand’s Journal, appeared. This ashes?
was not the body, but its hydrate doubled. . 7
‘
.
;
;
Pe gees LE SS eke tesa RS CARE Lg See yl SSR ayy eee? ye Sh SS See oe eR
Be TaN eS ety ee ee? ee eo le
ps ace “4 sic eg
Singular Property of: Caoutchouc. 341
Art. XXVI.—Singular Property of Caoutchouc, illustrating
the value of Latent Heat in giving Elasticity to solid bodies,
and the distinet functions in this respect of latent and free or
sensible heat ; by Cuartes G. Pace, M.D., Prof. Chem. Na-
tional Medical College, Washington, D. C.
stretched, it becomes quite hot from the development of latent
caoutchouc has been in common use, yet I believe no special ob-
servations have been made upon this point, and the following inter-
esting fact, first noticed by me about ten years ago, has excited
‘ho particular attention. If when the strip of rubber is in the
sttetched condition, it be quickly cooled, which can be readily
one by wetting it, and evaporating the moisture by vibrating or
Moving it rapidly in the air, it will be found to have lost its elas-
heity, and may be left for an indefinite time without regaining
us elastic property. It resembles a piece of frozen rubber in
Some respects, although not quite so rigid. A piece of this sub-
Slance, which has become stiff and inelastic by exposure to a
4 great degree of cold soon regains its elasticity by immersion in
al atmosphere of 70° Fahr., or even much: below this. But the
tubber deprived of its latent heat by compression, I have kept in
a2 atmosphere of 80°, for several weeks, without its returning to
ts normal condition, If the heat be raised much above
80°, or if it be placed in contact with a good conductor at»
80°, it gradually recovers its latent heat, and ina few
and finger, it contracts powerfully in these parts, leav- .
ig the others unaffected, and presenting the appear-
in the figure—of a string of k beads, i
y be preserved in this state for any length
of time, if not handled, and kept at a moderate tempera-
‘ Me said to be positive and } negative. The junction
342 Singular Property of Caoutchouc.
seen in the figure, showing that there is no tendency to distri-
bution or equilibrium of latent heat between the two portions.
hen the inelastic strip is inclosed in the hand, a slight degree
of coolness is felt from the rapid absorption of heat.
have been led to revive these interesting facts, in consequence
of arecent observation of the difference, in this respect, between
the native and the artificial rubber. The artificial rubber is at
present prepared in two ways; first, by solution in turpentine
and subsequent drying, and chiefly now without the aid of any
solvents, by merely grinding the native rubber to a pasty mass,
and reducing it to thin sheets between a succession of heated
- rollers.* In both of these preparations, the peculiarity of the na-
tive rubber, above noticed, is hardly perceptible. It is somewhat
remarkable that the interesting substance, gutta percha, appears
very much like the India rubber when rendered inelastic as above,
or by exposure to cold. This valuable modification of caout-
chouc, gives according to Dr. Maclagan, by ultimate analysis,
carbon 86°36, hydrogen 12:15; and caoutchouc, according to Far
aday, gives carbon 87-2, and hydrogen 12-8. The gutta percha
yields by destructive distillation similar products to caoutchouc.
Like caoutchoue it is soluble in coal naphtha, in caoutchoucine,
and in ether, and insoluble in water and alcohol. “Its most
remarkable and distinctive peculiarity, as stated by Dr. Macle
gan in his communication to the Scottish Society of Arts, is the
*
effect of heat upon it. When placed in water at 110°, no eflect
is produced upon it, except that it receives the impression of the
nail more readily; but when the temperature is raised to 145° or
long pieces or flat plates. When in the soft state, it possesses all
the elasticity of common India rubber, but it does not retain this
property long. It soon begins again to grow hard, and in a short
August 31st, 1847. son
We TUN eae itt Se Js eee
{es
" During the operation of rolling, great quantities of electricity are dev eloped: af
Prof. Dewey on Caricography. 343
Arr. XXVII.—Caricography ; by Prof. C. Dewey, M.D.
(Continued from Vol. iii, ii Ser., p. 356.)
No. 213. C. intermedia, Good. Schk., No. 18, Tab. B, fig. 7.
- Spicis androgynis distigmaticis pipe? confertis alternis, superi-
oribus et inferioribus pistilliferis vel raro superne sta: miniferis, i in-
termediis staminiferis perrard diccis ; reer a esta ence
- fructibus ovatis rostratis bidentatis convexo-concavis margine cili- _
_ ato-serratis vel serrulatis, squama ovata acuta paulo teniftoriian’s
culmis erectis inferne foliatis.
ulm 12-18 inches high, triquetrous, leafy towards the base,
tough on edges above ; leaves linear, flat, striate, rarely as long as
the culm ; spikelets many, ovate, clustered, alternate e, the highest
and lowest pistillate with often a few staminate florets at the
apex, the intermediate often wholly staminate, and sometimes all
the spikelets staminate entirely or the plants dicecious; stigmas
eo: an ovate, rostrate, serrulate on the margin, convex on the
side and concave on ‘the lower ; pistillate scale ovate, acute,
| alitle longer than the fruit.
Common in the north of Europe, and by some considered a
_ Variety of C. arenaria ; first recognized in the plants of Arctic
_ America by Dr. Boott ; ‘lately found in Wisconsin by I. A. Lap-
_ fam, Esq. The fruit ‘of C. arenaria, L., is broader, ee lanceo-
~ Tate, From C. Sartwellii, Dew., which has also lately been
Pued by Dr. Cooley in Mich., this is clearly different,
e No. 214. ©. maritima, Vahl. Schk, Tab. W, fig. 74.
Ic 1-3 cylindraceis sub-pendulis cum squami
iat I ass is illiferis 1-3 cylindraceis ee
oribus
“Culm 10-18 inches on erect, Saito leafy towards the
tase ; bracts long and leafy, scarcely sheathing ; staminate spikes
common nly two or more, with ovate and awne scales ; ——
- Spikes 1-3, cylindric, close jointed, pendulous, and. the peduncles
_ Sarcely sheathed at the base; stigmas two ; fruit ovate, ‘neg
3 compressed, obtuse, apiculate or very short beaked, nerve
tes scale ovate, acute and awned, or oblong emarginate and
awned, aoe that the be ae ae
Common in Norway. Found by M7
Ros and Cambered House, (Boott,) rei iby Dr. Bichestoms,
344 Prof. Dewey on Caricography.
No. 215. C. salina, Wabl. Schk. Tab. Cece, fig. 185.
Spicis staminiferis 1-2 erectis cylindraceis, inferiori sessili ;
spicis pistilliferis 2~3 cylindraceis erectis subdistantibus brevi-
dunculatis bracteatis densifloris distigmaticis ; fructibus ellip-
ticis brevi-apiculatis se convexis ore integris, squama 0
longa acuta brevi-aristata brevioribus.
Culm 8-16 inches, leafy evonaes the base, with long and \ealy
bracts often undulate at their origin ; staminate spikes about two,
erect, oblong, with oblong and obtuse scales or varying to lance-
olate, the lower one often with some fruit ; pistillate spikes 2-3,
erect, saa scarcely sheathed. at base, rather close-fruited ;
stigmas two ; fruit ovate or elliptic, roundish, short-apiculate or
rostrate, convex on both sides; _pistillate scale ovate, oblong,
acute, short-awned and longer than the fruit.
ound in Arctic America by Beechy and Drummond, (Boot
and common on the shores of Norway"
No. AiG. C. aperta, Boott.. Boott in Hook., F'l. Bor. Am., No.
82, Tab. 219.
Spicis staminiferis, 1-2, lindraceis cal spicis rstiliferis
or = en: indracei
Culm 12~18 inches Mish, adic triquetrous, rough « pas We 3
edges, with sheathing leaves towards the root which are shorter :
scales; pistillate spikes two to four, oblong, erect, oa es
0
approximate above, often staminate at their = un dis .
bh
but appears differe
No. 217. C. glareosa, Wahl. Schk. Tab. Aaa, fig.97
Spica termimali androgyna inferne staminifera oblonga ane
culata ; spicis pistilliferis binis (1-2) oblongis sessilibus. is of
—<. nervosis convexis, squamam ovatam acutam
matis distigmati icis densifloris ; fructibus oblongis a supe :
geo
Pate at Ae eg ee eee Te
Hite
Prof. Dewey on Caricography. 345.
scale ovate and oblong and acutish ; pistillate spikes 1-2, approx-
‘imate and sessile ; stigmas two; fruit ov ate-oblong, acuminate,
a herved, convex above, and longer than its ovate and acute
_Found .in Greenland by Homeman, (Boott,) and not uncom-
mon in Nor way.
No. 218. C. elongata, L. Schk. Tab. G, fig. 25.
Spica composita ; spicis 6-12, ovatis oblongis subsessilibus sub-
proximatis distigmaticis inferne staminiferis erectis subdensi-
oris; fructibus ovatis tereti-acutis convexis ore brevi-dentatis vel
subintegris, margine subscabris, subpatulis, squama ovata obtusa
ongioribus.
Culm 12-20 inches high, erect, leafy below, svicubtrons and
scabrous ; leaves linear often surpassing the culm; spikelets nu-
_ Merous, six to twelve, ovate, oblong, sub-remotish, nearly sessile,
te at the base; fruit ovate, acute orlong acuminate, con-
Vex, fine serrulate on the edge, nearly entire at the orifice or
slightly toothed, slightly cata pistillate scale ovate and ob-
tuse, about half as lon ng as the fruit; plant yellowish-green.
_ Found i in Russian America by eae. (Boott,) and common
in Europe.
No. 219. ©. Heleonastes, L. Schk. Tab. Ti, fig. 97.
‘Spicis ee ovato-globosis sessilibus confertis inferne
Staminiferis ; fructibus ovatis acutis convexis subbidentatis sub-
Patulis vix bootie serrulatis, squamam ovatam oblongam obtu-
Sam Vix superantibus.
Culm near a foot high, erect, with linear leaves about half as
le ovate, sessile, a qemaneny
B
Cad
S
ie")
ie)
se
5
Ss
es
ot
>
pressed, slightly two-toothed, some diverging, very aietaly
scabrous on the edge ; pistillate scale ovate and oblong, obtuse, or
ae slightly apiculate, a little shorter than the fruit ; plant
t gre
Found in Arctic America by Drummond and Richardson,
Boat; and common in the marshes of Swede
. Boott refers C’. Carlioniana, D., to this plant, and if that
had are than one androgynous spike, the reference would be
. Carltoniana seems very diverse from the other, and far
rote from the figure of C. Heleunastes, Sc
No, cal C. aang tole Boott. In Hook. Flor. Bor. Am.,
o. 158, Tab. 226
_Stie staminifera sadies pedliaige'ytisdcind longo-peduncu-
; Spicis pistilliferis tristigmaticis longo-cylindraceis distanti-
folisceo-bracteatis ; fructibus ovato-lanceolatis rostratis biden-
= Saconn Serizs, Vol. IV, No. 12.—Nov., 1847. 44
346 . Prof. Dewey on Caricography.
tatis, squamam lanceo-aristatam multo “superantibus ; foliis latis
longisque :
Culm two feet high, scabrous-triquetrous; leaves long and
broad in the middle and much shorter at the root and smaller;
Found at Columbia River by Douglass,—Boott. This ae
did Carex is indeed amply furnished + with leaves.
No. 221.. €. paradosa, Willd. Schk. Tab. E, fig 21.
>
a,
"eile
ec)
S
he
a)
®
int
oO
=
EY
ot
=
2
S
; fe
bets
a
>
oF
bow
a
Oo
oP)
~”A
2
eee
a
q
be]
S
nt a 2:
Sa 222. C. nardina, Fries.—C, Hepburni, Boot in Ho y
FI. Bor. Am., No. 6, Tab. 207. A ma
Spica solitaria androgyna apice staminifera ovata distig matin;
fructibus ovatis vel ellipticis acuminatis compressis brevi-bidenta- :
tis margine scabris, squamam ovato-oblongam a eee antibus; 2
foliis setaceis hispidis culmum brevem eequanti
ulm 3-5 inches high, with rough setaceous iaived cheathie
the base and long as the culm; staminate — ms a roe pm
of the spike with narrow lanceolate scales; sti .
ovate, acuminate, acutish, convex, ateirentottt : "pistilate ‘ak 4
oblong, broad, about as long as the fruit.
ound on the Rocky Mts. by Drummond—Boott. a
No, 223... 0, Pyrenaica, Wahl. ; me
a
ree mnie androzyna apice staminifera tristigmatiea —
: bapeneiiors fructibus numerosis. angusto-oblongis conico-H ri
ra 1. :
etris brevi-rostratis divergentibus, squamam ovatam 0
: ha ntibus
icin high, triquetrous, with leaves. towards 1
and flat and hokriy as long as the culm; spike at
ve, at the summit staminate, "°°
rs
Prof. Dewey on Caricography. 347
Tnhabits the Pyrenees, and was found on the Rocky Moun-
given by Persoon, on which the flowers are erect and often chiefly
staminate.
No. 224. C. estivalis, Curtis. Gray, Am. J. of Sci. xlii, 28.
Spica terminali androgyna superne stamenifera pedunculata
cm squamis numerosis staminiferis oblongis subobtusis ; spicis
pistilliferis 2-4 gracili-cylindraceis suberectis laxifloris bracteatis,
infima pedunculata inferne distanti-flora ; fractibus tristigmaticis
elliptico-triquetris utrinque teretibus ore integris glabris, squama
ovata obtusa seepe mucronata longioribus.
Culm 16-24 inches high, slender, triquetrous, leafy towards
base ; leaves linear, flat, pubescent, nearly equalling the culm ;
bracts leafy, long’ at the lower spikes, scarcely sheathing ; spikes
nu; slender, cylindric, suberect, the terminal spike androgynous
h numerous staminate flowers below ; pistillate spikes sessile
Pas C. virescens.
1845-6, Dr. Boott described fifty new
; w
from its near
and thus had
been the plant described as the Linnean species, as It was also
More common and more striking. The differences have long
been remarked ; and Mr. Blliott, in his pl
is form was described in this Journal, Vol. x1,
ean name. Omitting the references t
348 Prof. Dewey on Caricography.
correct reading would be, No. 36, C. comosa, Boott. As the plant
of Linnzus also inhabits our country, it becomes necessary to
give its characters and distinguish it from C. comosa, Boott. —
No. 225. C. pseudo-cyperus, L. Schk. Tab. Mm, fig. 102.
2as three; fruit |
and finally reflexed, bidentate or with diverging forks; pistil- a
the fruit; bright green, in tufts on the borders of ponds and
reams. . a
vary also, as on our plant, from short and straight to longet and
some diverging or furcate. oid
has larger and thicker stem, leaves ale
forks are longer, deeper, ' much«spreading and partially recurved,
plant, though not very abundant. When compared, the t
readily distinguished by the fruit, though so much alike very
many characters. 7 "eG
N. B. The Carex, Vol. xlix, p. 48, should be C. Tuckermamy —
ott.
Note.—As several species of Carex, which have been described :
as having stigmas 2 or 3, have been found to be different pee
it is probable that more extended observations will prove all |
ane different species which have a different number of SYo""" —
lifer in the form of the seed or achenium.
Pare
Prof. Dewey on Caricography. 349
Additional specimens have thrown much light on the following
species.
C. Woodii, D. Vol. ii, ii Ser., p. 249.—C. tetanica, Muh.,
(not of Schk.)
_ With all his accuracy, Muh. confounded C. plantaginea and
C. anceps ; described as C. conoidea, a plant distinct from that
species of Schk. already figured by the latter; and gave C. tetan-
tea to a species very different from the description and figure of
Schk., Tab. Oooo, fig. 207, which was also described in this
Journal, Vol. xi, p. 312. Hence C. tetanica, Muh., must have
the plant of Muh., and as certainly not C. tetanica, Schk. ;
Wood speaks of it as erect, bright green, slender, a foot to twenty
inches high, growing singly or not in tufts, presenting a beauti-
l appearance, culm obtusely triquetrous, and having fruit in
maturity frequently open and oblique at the orifice. It needs
only to be added that Muh. himself doubted, as well he might,
whether his plant was identical with the plant of Schk., as it
clearly is not. be
_ C. tetanica, Schk., has obovate fruit, with a short but distinct
‘Tecurved beak, of the dock-jaw kind, as its name implies, and the
Surface is distinctly scabrous or short hirsute, with an ovate, short
‘acute scale, the lower ones often mucronate, the upper ones of
the form given by Schk., Tab. Oooo, fig. 207. ‘The fruit of
C. Woodii has no such beak as is given by Schk. to his C. tetan-
ita, and is glabrous, growing on two pistillate spikes, sometimes
one or three. It has undoubtedly been confounded with a nar-
tow leafed’ C. anceps, though it differs so greatly from it in sev-
eral respects. ;
No. 226. C. oligocarpa, Schk.
Vi-vaginatis; fructibus subrotundo-triquetr *
Mntegris glabris, squama ovata oblonga mucronata subduplo-lon-
floribus :
_ Stigmas three ; pistillate spikes 2~4, usually three, with 3-6 fruit,
dunculate; fruit obovate, roundish three-sided, short rostrate or |
distant, loose-flowered, upper one sessile, and the lower short pe-
te, smooth, at the orifice entire ; pistillate scale ovate,
350° = Action of Sulphuretted Hydrogen upon Nitric Acetene.
long, mucronate, white and membranous on the edges, shorter
than the fruit; plant fine green. —
The striking resemblance of this plant to the figure and lan-
guage of Schk. is obvious. The difference also between it and
C. Hitchcockiana is manifest. It is not at all pubescent, and the
fruit of OC. Hitchcockiana is much longer on plants of equal size,
much longer and more conic rostrate, more terete at both ends,
and when its beak is recurved the form is wholly different from
this, and its scale and mucronate point long as the fruit. A
sight of the two dissipates all notions of their identity or very
close resemblance, though one form of it has been thus misplaced.
But C. oligocarpa, Muh., is not this plant. T'hat was deserib-
ome others, is now rectified.
Arr. XXVI1L— On the Action of Sulphuretted Hydrogen upon
Nitric Acetene; by T. S. Hunr. ig
sy
In my communication of May 29th,* on the relations betweet
glycocoll and alkargene, I stated that nitric acetene (the hyp
nitrite of oxyd of ethyle of Liebig) is decomposed by sulphuret-
ted hydrogen with the separation of sulphur, and suggested that
from analogy we might expect the formation of a new alkaloid,
which from the known tendency in bodies of the acetic series 10
polymorphosist+ might be derived from the elements of two equiv-
alents of the ether, and possess the composition C, H,. N, Os
having the same relation to glycocoll that alkarsine has to alkat-
wr gO Rg Sty Ae, Beans ee
st osis ; this includes those reactions which consis!
tion or ti f another substan combination of t
acids and of chlorine with certain hydrocarbons 0
amid. 4th. Diamorphesis ; this implies a division or breaking Op aig
ound into simpler forms, as when an equivalent of cyanuric acid 1s rest ;
tinto three nic acid; or glucose under the influence of certain
and alcohol, ;
Action of Sulphuretted Hydrogen upon Nitric Acetene. 351
ne. Although my subsequent experiments have not verified
this conjecture, they have led to the discovery of a new reaction
which is not without interest.
The ether employed in the following experiment was prepared
after Liebig’s method, by passing the nitrous vapors, evolved by
the action of nitric acid upon starch, into a carefully cooled mix-
ture of alcohol and water, and condensing the volatile product in
atube surrounded by ice. It was washed two or three times
with water and finally dried by chlorid of calcium. ‘Thus pre-
pared it had all the characters assigned by Liebig to the pure ether.
I. An alcoholic solution of the ether mixed with a little water
of ammonia, was placed in a tubulated retort surrounded by ice
deposit sulphur. Considerable heat was evolved and a portion
discolored the salts of lead.- It was now carefully neutralized
by dilute sulphuric acid and distilled ina water-bath to one half.
__ The residue in the retort was carefully examined and was found
_ tobe simply sulphate of ammonia. 'The alcoholic distillate had
a slightly alliaceous odor like mercaptan. In one i
Water; the liquid was alkaline to tumeric paper. little hy-
dtochloric ee was added, the liquid boiled, filtered, mixed with
4 solution of chlorid of platinum and evaporated to dryness in
&water-bath. The residue washed with alcohol, left a quantity:
of yellow salt, which, under a magnifier, presented te form
of brilliant octahedrons which were readily recognized as the
Mmonio-chlorid of platinum. :
IIL. These trials led to the conclusion that the reaction result-
edin the complete decomposition of the nitric acetene into am-
Monia and alcohol, and’ the following experiments placed this
beyond a doubt. Having ascertained that the alkaline sulphurets
and hydrosulphurets effected this decomposition, @ solution of r
twenty grains of hydrate of soda was saturated with sulphuret-
352 Action of Sulphuretted Hydrogen upon Nitric Acetene.
ted hydrogen. This was mixed with about two ounces of dilute
alcohol and 300 grains of the ether, and the solution being care-
fully cooled by ice, a slow current of sulphuretted hydrogen was
passed through until the decomposition was completed. An al-
coholic solution of the ether was then carefully added to decom-
pose the excess of the gas in the solution; it was then separate
from the precipitated sulphur and neutralized by dilute sulphu-
ric acid. The liquid gave an abundant yellow crystalline precip-
itate with chlorid of platinum and contained a large quantity
of sulphate of ammonia, besides which, nothing but the salt of
soda could be detected. :
IV. A dilute solution of hydrosulphuret of ammonia was placed —
in a strong bottle with a well ground stopper, and cooled by a
bath of ice-and water. A small portion of the ether was then
added, and the bottle immediately closed: The reaction was
violent, and owing to the great volatility of the ether, it was
necessary to confine the stopper; when the action was finished,
another portion was introduced, until by successive additions of
hydrosulphuret of ammonia, 250 grains were decomposed. The
clear liquid was then separated from the precipitated sulphur,
neutralized by dilute sulphuric acid, and agitated with oxyd of
to remove the excess of sulphuretted hydrogen, it was then
submitted to distillation in a water-bath until about 200 grains of
liquid had passed over. This had the smell and taste of dilute
spirit of wine; when warmed with a mixture of bichromate of
potash and sulphuric acid, the latter was readily reduced with the
evolution of aldehyde, which was at once recognized by its at
n this reaction one equivalent of nitric acetene and six of sul-
phuretted hydrogen yield one of alcohol, one of ammonia, two of
water, and six of sulphur :—
C, H, NO,+6HS=C, H, 0,NH,+2HO+6S.
As M. Laurent has lately confirmed the observations of x
Gerhardt, that nitric acetene is produced by the action of mitri¢
acid upon brucine, we are enabled by this reaction to form alco”
hol by a new process, independent of the fermentation of glucose
and from a compound much higher in the organic scale
The nitric ether of wood-spirit, nitromethol, isalso de
by hydrosulphuret of ammonia, although less rapidly t
se an
ra
P. 8: Since the above was written, I have received th
Copp has already investigated the action of sulphuretted
1 upon nitric acetene, and has arrived at the same result
oe
nal de Pharmacie et de Chemie, from which [learn that Mi hydro
as my
:;
Description of the Meteorie Stone of Concord.’ 353
‘self. But as the remarks in my last communication (p. 266) re-
quire ‘some explanation, I here publish my results, and an fa
count of the processes employed. M. Kopp has also shown that
the nitric ether (nitrate of oxyd of ethyle of Liebig) is pee 8
posed in a similar manner by hydresulphuret of ammonia wit
the production of ammonia and sulphur-alcohol or mercaptan.
Montreal, July, 1847.
7 inthe ic SS } ll in
Arr. XXIX.—Description of a Meteoric Stone which fe
Concord, New Himpanice in October, 1846; by Prof. B.
‘Sitiiman, Jr. ig a ae ’
“ance here narrated, 1
‘Stcown Serres, Vol. IV, No. 12.—Nov., 1847.
354 Prof. B. Silliman, Jr.’s Description
described above. I am well aware that it is an easy thing to be
deceived, but sure I am that if mistaken in this instance, no man
will be able to undeceive me. The pieces which broke out by
the fall I gave to Rev. William H. Ryder, now of Nashua, N. H.,
about three years since. I have often exhibited the ‘stone and
related the manner by which I became possessed of it. There
has never been any published account of it.” * * * * i
earth. The accompanying
figure is a correct delineation
and of the exact size. Some
small fragments have been
detached but the main por-
tion weighs only 370$ grains. . -
Physical Description.—Its external. surface is every where
glazed with a brilliant enamel of a grayish white, with occasiona
patches of deep brown metallic stains. The glazing is found also
on the cracked and broken surfaces which penetrate deeply into
spots. The whole stone bears every mark of having beet ™
nutest particles. :
he blowpipe indicated the presence of silica, soda and nit
nesia. It dissolved in carbonate of soda with offervence® in
forming a glass which was nearly opake on cooling. ease
platinum forceps it fused on the edges, and emitted a yea of a
cent light, while the flame beyond the mineral was color y-
t a yellow. Ina close tube: no escape of water oF ar?
reumatic odor was perceived, and the mineral was unchange
heat. The produced by its fusion alone in |
| : aclear and bubbly one, which had no:
-
of the Meteoric Stone of Concord. 355
Chemical Composition.—So little of the mineral was at my
disposition without breaking the principal mass, that no other
qualitative examination was made than that with the blowpipe,
and this was the less important from the fact, that the pyrognostice
characters were so decisive as to the absence of all metallic oxyds.
All the fragments which could. be found were carefully ground
in the diamond mortar and then in agate, and 390 millegrammes
of this powder were attacked by hydrofluoric acid, after the man-
ner recommended by Bunsen. When it was judged that all the
silica had been removed as hydrofluo-silicic acid, the residue was
of alumina, iron, phosphoric acid, lime, é&c., was easily ascer-
ammonia and oxalate of
Oxyd of mercury was next added to the boiling and concen-
trated solution, which. was subsequently evaporated to dryness,
The filtrate from the magnesia, which contained nothing but
alkaline chlorids, was evaporated in a platinum vessel of known
line residue had the taste only of chlorid of sodium, it was dis-
solved and treated with bichlorid of platinum, ch i
a water-bath to dryness, and treated with alcohol.
chlorid of potassium and platinum was obtained, and the conse-
quent purity of the chlorid of sodium was inferred. The amount
ee chloria of sodium obtained was equivalent to 0106 mm.
‘sod ;
da. ORAL |
The weight of the meteorite employed = 390 grms. We
have found,— - zu eo
' Magnesia, 0471 or 12076 per cent.
Soda, . 0106 “« 2718 “
. Now the known composition of tersilicate of magnesia Mg 3Si,
is, magnesia 12°98, and silica 87-02 per cent. =100. . And the
Composition of simple silicate of soda, Na +2Si,
and of silica 59°63 per cent.= 100. — a ug
_ Then. 12-98 : 87-02: 12076 : 80-959=the silica requisite to
form a tersilicate with the magnesia : a
And 40-37 ; 59-63; :2:718 : 4014 the silica needed to form a
Simple silicate with the soda.
is, of soda 40°37,
356 Description of the Meteoric Stone of Concord.
We have then— ) 1 pe
Silica 3 atoms, ; . - .80°959 é
Magnesia latom, .... .. 12-076 r2%
Tersilicate of magnesia, . , 93-035
Silica 1 atom, ‘ : ‘ 4-014
mOdR A yest. ‘ 2-718:
Silicate of magnesia, . _ 6:18 B nie
Bey, 0thcte cies ot di -bisak 99-767
Or stating the analysis in the usual form we have— ;
Stal ing: ssscboa esas denies oc cestnsan, sents oll
Magnesia, ‘ ; : : : 12076,
Soda, tralia tin: > ; 2218
: | 99-767
Loss and hygrometric moisture, ; 0-233
8 100000
ville in South Carolina, and which he states,* ‘is a tersilicate of
magnesia.” Jor this mineral Prof. Shepard has propose Ce
name of Chladnite. It is believed that the mineral now undet
consideration is identical with that in the Bishopville stone, and
should therefore be called by the same name. The analysis
above given was commenced by myself, but being called iad
from home before its completion, I entrusted it to my friend i
pupil, Mr. B. W. Bull of Hartford, to carry through, which he
did in a very satisfactory manner. = gaia of
In conclusion I would say that the chemical constitution |
the body under consideration, in connection with the very
factory testimony of Mr. Noyes as to its falling from the aim®
leaves no doubt in the mind of ‘the writer, that it is a me
Yale College Laboratory, July 24, 1847,
W. Lonsdale on Tertiary Corals from the United States. 357
Arr. XXX.—Remarks on the Characters of several Species of
- Tertiary Corals from the United States, in reply to Mr.
Dana.* (Extracted from a letter from W. Lonspae, Esq. to
C. Lyei, Esq.) Ms
Kynsham near Bath, June 21st, 1847.
My Dear Lyell,—I am much indebted to you for sending me
additional specimens of Hndopachys Macluru. 'They have been
carefully considered ; but they have not led toa change in the
‘printed opinion; which is perhaps too’ briefly expressed. It
states that, “the Alabama coral was progressively altered in as-
pect, by the development of tubercles, secreted through foramina
connected with the internal structure.” (Geol. Journ., Vol i, p.
514.) This remark refers especially to a difference between En-
dopachys and typical species of ‘Turbinolia, in which no forami-
na had been noticed in the walls, nor any external changes: but
in the generic characters of Endopachys, the boundary wall is
said to be “ progressively thickened by papille secreted from
of No. 2, are supposed to support the original inference.
er pa oe He he interior outwards, are
: Certain ‘structural agreements between Endopachys and Den-
drophyllia are loded to in the notice,t though from the manner
* Silliman’s Journal, ii ser., vol. i, p- 220. :
t Consult also wood-cut, fig. a, ‘ ba, and specific characters.
+ Geological Journal, vol. i, p. 514, 515.
f,
358 W. Lonsdale on Tertiary Corals from the United States.
in which Mr. Dana mentions an agreement, a reader would infer
that I had totally overlooked them. In Dendrophyllia ramea,
a certain but limited connexion apparently exists, for a time at
least, between the animal matter which occupies the interior of a
stem or branch, and that which invests it. The great thickening
of the coral, however, is effected by means of the mantle which
covers the exterior and forms more or less concentric layers.
of specimens No. 2, and it was with reference to the successive
layers formed on the surface of Dendrophyllia by the externa
mantle ; and the evidence in the Alabama coral of a totally differ-
ent operation, that the term Endopachys was adopted, certain
structural agreements having been shown to exist between the
two genera. ge
_ Thope this explanation if clear will vindicate me from having
inconsiderately named your coral.
3 repora tubulata, Mr. Dana says, “is an Oculina,” Pp. 221.
Your specimens had only twelve lamelle.* Oculine have more
than twelve. Madrepore have only twelve. This structural -
tinction is very generally accepted. Internally the American coral
agreed far more closely with Madrepora than Oculina, so ‘ ar as }
state of preservation warranted an opinion. ‘The chief objection
to the generic assignment is in the mode of developing additional
abdominal cavities, and this was felt at the time; but not mem
tioned because I was not certain that that process was univers
throughout the genus. Mr. Dana in his work, p. 486, received
long after the notice was printed, describes three species of Mad-
repora, in which the normal process is apparently deviated from.
n this, however, I would not for a moment rest as a justification.
{named the coral after a careful examination of the imperf -
evidence before me, and placed it in the newest, allied, established
genus, the specimens not justifying the proposing a new genus:
Ihe reply to the critic might be : It is not an Oculina:
Columnaria? sexradiata.—The note of interrogation worn
not have been omitted by Mr. Dana. It is statedt that the f
resented, is generically if not specifically allied to the fine
ayte you kindly gave me, and is labelled “ Caryophyllia—™
ieut. Holland, Prince’s Island, west coast of Africa.” de
- # lee notkés, Geological Jc ;
i Sen hth ata aa aa deta
Observations in reply to Mr. Lonsdale’s “ Remarks.” 359
| Astrea calicularis, (auct.) is found in the Mediterranean. If I
_ am right in identifying Esper’s figure with the African specimen,
generically, and I have no doubt there is no agreement whatever
between Astrea or Astroitis calicularis and the American fossil,
every essential character being different, except that the additional
stellated cavities are in the Columnaria? sexradiata interstitial,
but even in this respect, there are many important differences—
__ Mr Dana should have thought a little more, or given fuller
grounds for dissent. ‘
| Astrea hirto-lamellata? (it must be for the future, Astrea Ma-
_ Tylandica, Conrad.) This fossil is said to be closely allied to the
_ Preceding. (Query, Col? sexradiata? or Astroitis calicularis?) In
the notice of the fossil* allusion is made to a subdivided star, and
though the statement is cautiously put, I had little doubt at the
time of the inference being correct. That process is one of th
leading characters of Astrea as rightly restricted by Ehrenberg,
and it is totally wanting in Columnaria? or Astroitis. Of Mr.
Dana’s Pleiadia no.full account has, I believe, been published.
Thave troubled you with a long letter of personal justification,
it is due to yourself to shew, that I did not abuse the trust
you kindly committed to my care.
Arr. XX XI.— Observations in reply to Mr. Lonsdale’s “ Re-
: marks ;” by James D. Dana.
_ Tur ordinary coral Zoophytes have been so imperfectly stud-
led in a zoological point of view, that no discredit whatever
can properly attach to errors of judgment in the cultivators of
this department of science. ‘This is especially true with regard to
Mr. Lonsdale, whose labors evince throughout, careful and assid-
Yous study of the best authorities in this branch of science, and
4 suiccess well worthy the honor conferred on him by the Geolo-
_ Seal Society of London.
The ‘suggestions in the volume of this Journal referred to by
him, made by me after protracted researches among living species
- Zoophytes, were thrown out to promote the interests of science,
ind if erroneous, will be as readily retracted, and for the same
. But several facts are believed to sustain my former con-
‘lusions which I will endeavor to explain. !
Genus E’ndopachys.—The pores or foramina described as char-
*eterizing this genus, I have observed in the Dendrophyllia ni-
sTescens,+ (D.) from the Feejees, and also still more perfectly in
the D. scabrosa,t (D.) closely resembling specimens I have seen
Geological Journal, vol. i p. 500. jee
t Report on Zoophytes, p. 387. - eel «Ree:
360 Observations in reply to Mr. Lonsdale’s “ Remarks.”
of the Endopachys. This character according to my observations,
is one of the least important among corals. In Astrea, Poeil-
lopora as well as Dendrophyllia, (and also other genera,) there is
every variety in this character, from the most solid, to the most
cellular texture: ‘The same species at times is full of pores in the
early state and becomes quite solid in a more advanced condition.
rom the manner in which the coral is secreted, it is also obvi-
ous that the character cannot be important. The secretions take
place among the tissues, beneath the skin. 'They are sometimes
so general as to form a solid texture without visible pores, and in
other cases, where certain of the animal fibres do not add to the
secretions, there are pores larger or smaller, oceupied by these
animal tissues. These tissues form a communication between the
in points, so as to raise minute. prominences on the surface ; and
send after the points are more or less elongated, the secretion
rous structure, as in D. scabrosa, &c. o
the animals grow, the pores which contain living fibres in
the young state, often gradually diminish by the secretions from
the surface of these fibres, which themselves are gradually dis-
appearing, and the coral which was before very porous ma
an
ea aye
If Mr. Lonsdale means simply by “thickening from within,”
that nourishment and calcareous material are distributed outward
rom the visceral cavity, (which I suppose is not precisely bus
view, ) then his character will apply to nearly all coral zoophy ei
for all cellular coral species have free circulation of the chyloe
fluids wherever there are tissues, and these i are deriv! 7
_ from the stomach and visceral cavity ; and the invisible geen
the more solid species may also have this function ;
or not, the character is of little importance.
a eel
Observations in reply to Mr. Lonsdale’s “ Remarks.” 361
There seems therefore to be reason for dissenting from Mr.
Lonsdale, as to the importance of the characteristic upon which
he has established his genus.
Madrepora tubulata.—The genus Madrepora, characterized by
an apical polyp to each branch, graduates into Manopora (D.),
when the distinction of apical polyp is lost. The latter are folia-
ceous and glomerate species having the cell of the Madrepore in
every particular, but with irregular calicles or none ; they include
the species of the genus Montipora of Blainville, based on the
existence of warty prominences over the corallum between the
cells, (a character without importance and of impracticable appli-
cation ;) and also a part of the Porites of Lamark, (Porttes spu-
mosa, &c.) And as the transition is very gradual there are inter-
mediate species, two or three of which I have referred to Madre-
pora, since they have regular calicles although the apical polyp
cannot be distinguished.* But the structure of Oculina is in no
respect represented or approximated to. Indeed the mode of bud-
ding of this genus, allies it more nearly to the Astrea family, in
which certain branching species show the alternate gemmation at
apex characterizing Oculina. Hence the species referred to’ is far
removed from Madrepora; and if it be not an Oculina (by having
but twelve lamella, and twelve tentacles to the polyps) it must
either belong to a new genus, or else the characters of Oculina
should be so extended as to include it. I have been long con-
Vinced that the number 12, has been allowed too much authority,
and have so far infringed upon it in my treatise on Zoophytes as
to unite the genera Porites and Goniopora into a single family.
But from Mr. Lonsdale’s figure, it is evident that the animal
had normally more than 12 tentacles, and that the lamelle are
Ut 12 in number because part are obsolete. The strie around —
wg are a more correct indication of the character of the ani-
al, than the lamellz alone. 3
Columnaria? secradiata,(L.) Astrea hirto-lamellata, (Mich. )
—These species are still more ambiguous cases, bout which
there may be an honorable difference of opinion. Having exam-
ined the corals referred to, I came to the conclusion, which I
ll hold, that in one essential character, the species ate rather
allied to the Caryophyllia family, than the Astrea; notwithstand-
a enn tT ey GE
the Ets interesting to trace the transitions between Oren er igh to tg 2
on . ies, in which the ‘4
zontally growing species, form a series, almata,) whose edges
iL is composed. | The
y nepal
ie same manner other Madrepor@ pass Into ies with stout branches, in whic
terminal belie is hardly distinguishable ( and the allied) ; and the
Nes Step isa Hamaraed Manopora. Thus there are two lines of gradati
G qT
Srcowp Szrizs, Vol. IV, No. 12.—Nov., 1847. 46
362 f Notice of a Water-Spout.
ing the structure of the coral. As in conchology, the calcareous
secretions sometimes may entirely mislead.
The Astrea calicularis, and other species figured by Quoy
and Gaymard, in the Voyage of the Astrolabe, are closely like
Astreeas in their corals. Yet the polyps are very prominent above
the coral when expanded, each very much projecting, and attach-
ed to the adjoining only at base. They are like the Goniopore in
this respect. An Astrea increases by a lateral summit growth
and budding, the summit gradually extending, and at the same
time forming young polyps as buds. When the polyps are con-
ination before describing it.
In this species, and also in specimens of A. Marylandica, ex-
amined by the writer, the polyps do not appear to bud by sub-
divisions, | : 4
The relation of the species designated by Mr. Lonsdale Colum-
naria (?) serradiata, to the Seema Oitanisetin, is only in mode
of growth and not in structure. BFS
Ant, XXXIL—Notice of a Water-Spout ; by Eutas Looms:
On Friday morning, Aug. 20th, 1847, it was my good fortune t0
witness a water-spout in unusual perfection. I left Erie, Pent.
in a steamboat for Cleveland, Ohio, about seven o’clock, with a
pretty fresh breeze from the west southwest. 'The sky was for the
most part clear; but there were numerous floating clouds, an fa
particular one dark mass of clouds arose in the west affording som
indications of a shower. These clouds passed nearly over our
boat, but brought us no rain. As they moved off to the east,
half past eight, an imperfect water-spout was seen, in black
of a funnel-shaped cloud, suspended from the base of the
mass already mentioned. It bore some resemblance
phant’s trunk, and curved downward towards the south. It ce
peared dangling in the air, and terminated at a distance from ti
be a equal to the length of the trunk. No particular
tion o: ‘ ; “. wm mere
_* the water was noticed beneath it. In a few munv hich
3+
had Ppeared ; but presently a second spout was notice’ W""
=
4
Notice of a Water-Spout. 363
uniformly until it united with the mass of clouds above. It was
hearly straight, but by no means upright in position; the top in-
ed was expanded somewhat in breadth. It now appeared to
have no connection with the water, except that the same smoky
| a The wind continued fresh all day, with numerous flying
_ Gouds, but although a good watch was maintained, po further
the top like a mushroom.
It is difficult to estimate the dimensions of this spout, on ac-
Count of the uncertainty with regard to its distance. It was pre-
sumed to have been distant about five or six miles from our boat,
NM Which case the length of the column could not have been |
“an half a mile; its-diameter at the top must have been more
than twenty rods, and at the bottom about half as great. As the
umn contracted in length, its diameter at one time must have
een nearly forty rods. hig
,. 1 distance of the spout was such that it was impossible to
distinguish any clear signs of rotation; but from its analogy with
other phenomena, it is presumed to have been a whirlwind, pre-
“sely like the little whirls which are so common on land. Wher
“whirl is formed over a bed of sand, the dust is raised in the
Centre, and presents the appearance of a solid column which trav-
els slowly along with the current in which it is fo . When
the whirl passes over a large body of water, the water is raised
In the form of spray ; and the result is a column of water instead
of a column of sand. The quantity of water thus elevated is
Probably extremely small, the column consisting of little more
dense fog or cloud. In the case just described, the whirl
364 J. D. Dana on Cohesive Attraction.
ly sufficient to wet the deck.
Arr. XXXIII—On Certain Laws of Cohesive Attraction ; by
James Dana. sz
Read before the American Association of Geologists and Naturalists, held at
Boston, September, 1347. °
Spee
observed facts, sess ae those of the most obvious character.
the attraction in solidification. I a
ouk
Association to a brief statement of a series
to consider what observation teaches on this subject, and wi
every inorganic solid aro
Coarse-grained structure of bar-iron is correctly called its cre
line structure; for the grains ‘are all formed by the process ©
crystallization; and in steel we perceive the same texture, hc
‘of
. * Course of Lectures on Natural Philosophy and the Mechanical ‘Arts, by Tho a '
Young, M.D., 2 vols. Ato. London, 1807. Vol. i, : E sey * ee an <
1} Brécis Elementaire de Physique, 2 vols. 8vo.”’ Paris, 1824. Vol-ip p18
J. D. Dana on Cohesive Attraction. 365
crystallized material ; and any one familiar with granite can pick
out its mineral grains and exhibit their crystalline character; and
if granite is crystallized in its intimate texture, so are all aggre-
gate rocks made up of granite material. Indeed a general survey
of the inorganic world develops the truth that here the power. of
erystallization rules, like vitality in the organic kingdoms. A
crystalline texture may not always be apparent. This is the case
internally with ice, or a fragment of quartz crystal, although there
isno doubt that in each of these instances, the forces of ecrystal-
lization were the cause of solidification. This is also true of the .
finest grained steel, as just observed, and. some basaltic rocks,
But we find, from the. transitions in structure, that the apparent
absencé-is owing to the extreme minuteness of the grains and the
compactness of texture.
If then, crystallization and solidification are properly. one and
He same process, the laws that govern in crystallization are the
laws of cohesive attraction. 'The science of crystals instead of
treating only of certain singular polyhedral forms assumed by
minerals, is the study of the fundamental agency by which inor-
sahic matter is governed in its aggregations: and in place o
Sceupying a short chapter in our text-books on physics, and there,
&% would often seem, in the way or out of place, it should be
made to stand prominently forth as embodying and exemplifying
me of the widest elemental truths of nature.
_ Let us then look at the facts, in order to arrive at these laws.
Some of the deductions are by no means new. We commence
with the simplest principles, in order to present a general view of
” ject ; and a few familiar. facts in crystallography are illus-
"ated with figures, as the subject may interest some who are not
acquainted with them. BOG aii Fete
l. It is, in the first place, an established fact that the different
lization, Every species has certain fixed, determinate, angles,
As this is a general truth; these fixed angles, for each species of
More strongly than in others. For a cube or pan there must
_ beat least three such directions, corresponding with axes in the
366 J. D. Dana on Cohesive Attraction.
form ; and if the prism has oblique angles instead of being rect~
angular, these lines of strongest attraction must have a corres-
ponding obliquity. Hence the angles referred to, as characteri-
zing cahesive attraction, are angles between certain imaginary
lines, or axes, in whose direction the attraction is strongest.
Again: the crystalline forms in nature are well known to have
fundamentally fixed relative dimensions, indicated by the modi-
ticulars for different substances. —_
_ These facts are the only hints which nature gives us respecting
the axial dimensions of molecules. We proceed on the only posst-
ble grounds for any conclusion on this point, when we infer that
molecules have corresponding relative dimensions with the crys
talline forms, and the same specific angles between the funda
* A square prism and a cube as presented in nature, may have actually the
same dimensions, Owing to the distortion of the one or the other. But the funda-
mental nature of their forms, may, notwithstanding, be obvious to the eye.
the cube (having equal faces and axes) all the edges will have similar seconm %
ane ona
such @
a
any edge equally inclined to the faces of the cube. In the prism, the pl
alway i ; aces
st
or a full exposition of this subject,
pparent exceptions to t] p pnosed
tabasheer and some n ‘polarize li -» D. Three conjugate diameters, two equal, (7.) Oblique rhombic bi fl pris
“_E. Three conjugate diameters, unequal, (8.) Oblique ri re
t L. E. and D. Phil. Mag., August, 1847, xxxi, 101. lee eg
Be i
* ‘ue se tow
ides s¢ bBe gproies ath
SCRE? $4 a
’
rE
k
:
3
;
f
J. D. Dana on Cohesive Attraction. 369
new species of crystallization. In the diamond, the same prin-
iple may have operated. If the crystal when. first formed is
Sill imperfectly hardened, contraction would continue for a
0
Aitrate of potash polarized light, like a regular crystal, only
jes eta ial
Power: of polarization. ‘These facts extend instead of limiting
our proposition, proving that the molecules of some substances,
ven in the liquid state, may have the inequiaxal forms, generally
detected only in solids.* oe ee
: hy — —_ j - “ ; I F, 8
ae Sir David Brewster, after mentioning his grand discoveries with reg
ss and other substances by tension, sug-
| the mutual pressure of
the l :
Press one another, and each will have an axis of double refraction in the direction
line joining their centres, in the same manner as if they
, an external force.”
as an additional cause. Pressure at the Ih ,_woul
Poles, and this waghd waiby an irregular solid of the ellipsoid, inco
Srconp Szrizs, Vol. IV, No. 12.—Nov., 1847. _ 47
370 J. D. Dana on Cohesive Attraction.
After these observations, I continue with the statement of facts
and the inferences they sustain.
2. In crystals which have unequal axes, the physical qualities
of the crystal (such as color, hardness, lustre, é&c.) are differen
in unlike directions ; and they are uniformly alike in the direction
of equal axes. This symmetrical character indicates that—
Il. In the aggregation of molecules by attraction, only equal
or homologous axes unite. :
3. The electrical polarity of many crystals; the occasional dis-
similarity of form in the opposite extremities of the same prism ;
the facts with regard to compound crystals, as well as direct ex-
periments with magnets on the process of crystallization, show
Al. The ares of cohesive attraction in molecules have oppo
site polarity at opposite extremities ;—that is, the opposite poles
are positive any ae or north and south, as these terms are
.
ordinarily used.
4. Many geniculated crystals, are geniculated alike at equal dis-
tances from the middle of the prism, (or, are like a column bent
alike at two places equidistant from the middle.) ‘They have be-
character of the polarization in crystals, The effect of this flattening of the sur-
face of the molecule by pressure is probably seen in the curious crystals of anal-
cime,* whose structure has been developed by this distinguished hilosopher. In
the case of glass and other substances, that receive the power 0 polarization by
sath it would seem from the facts just stated, that it depends upon a ee.
y compression of the spherical molecule to a spheroidal or compressed shape ;
the shape is a — of pressure; but as in crystals, the polarization may be de-
polarization of molecules will depend not only on their form, but also on
By polarity we imply simply that relation between the diametrically om
which the part A of one molecule unites t0
fixed axes.
« Crystals of the tesseral system to which analcime belongs. do not P
light; but in specimens of this mineral, a peculiar system of "1D
dpvesied by Brewster: they suggest at once, that like certain cooled ¢
a ss, the structure has arisen from a change of form in the molecules ¢eP* awe
ae.
has beet.
4 ; ee Mee y ie gin
:
J. D. Dana on Cohesive Attraction. 371
they were enlarging, evincing tha
ely. whe polarity of molecules may be reversed by extrinsic in-
é.
fluence
__5. Twin crystals have one half of the crystal in a reverse po-
Sition from the other.t This may be imitated by cutting a crys-
tal in halves, and after a semirevolution of one half, applying the
parts again together; an oblique crystal will thus have a reén-
ering angle, as in fig. 5. If in fig. Fig. 4. Fig. 5.
5, A be the position of the nucleal og Aa
Molecule for one half, B must be
that for the other. The mode of
aggregation for a simple crystal is
that shown in fig. 4. ‘I'he attrac-
fon between the two molecules
ought them together in either
come thus geniculated simultaneously at both extremities, while
adi
ee)
=]
-
=
S
—
oO
-~
i
fae)
S
=)
122)
=
i)
=)
io)
mh
a
in fig. 4; and in the other, the two“
Were in opposite positions, yet so close in proximity that union
took place by the adjacent poles without allowing of the change
of position necessary for direct union. In the former, the same
poles of the vertical axes, are in the same direction; and in the
latter, they are in opposite directions. ‘There could not be such
inversion of the molecules, if the axes were a result of t
act of union. Hence,— saad
VY. The axes and polarity of cohesive attraction in solidifica-
tion exist before the union of the molecules, instead of being a
consequence of that union. Pitas
6. The forms of inequiaxal crystals vary somewhat with a
change of temperature; and at certain temperatures, specific in
fach case, some substances undergo abruptly a total change of
form, both as to the direction and relative lengths of the axes.
Hence, =
_ YL The arial lines of cohesive attraction, are not indefinitely
fived in position, but are some way modified in direction and force
by erature. .
_ Thus far we have considered the general polar condition of co-
hesive attraction in solidification, its liability to a reversion of the
Na
* See an article b the author, in the American Journal of Science, for 1836,
ae XXX, p. 275, aid particularly p. 292; also Mineralogy, the chapter on Crys-
f " :
t We consider here but a single kind of twin crystals, in the briefest manner
sible, as dhe fete he sufficient for our deductions, © See farther, Amer. Jour. of
nce, and Mineralogy, as just referred to.
372 J. D. Dana on Cohesive Attraction.
poles like ordinary magnetic polarity, and its varying in direction
with the changes of temperature. There are evidences of other
modifications in the condition of the attracting force, which we
er consider.
7. The same species of matter often presents a variety of forms
in ay crystals, built up on a fundamental type. For example,
when the type is a cube (fig. 6), the ee may occur as cubes;
or as cubes with the edges truncated (fig. 7); or with the edges
beveled (fig. 8); or with the angles replaced (figs. 9, 10), and so
Fig. 6. Figs 7. Fig. 8. Fig. 9 wea pr
one
on. If then a certain - state of the attraction in a molecule will
produce the primary cube, some variation from this state is ne
cessary to produce another form, and a different variation for
every different vasa 4p plane. ° ‘Consequen ntly,— °
VIL Attraction of cohesion in molecules of a given kind, is nol
an unchangeable _ but singe of variations of condition.
8. The secondary visi af orystiils, as related to the axes of
the fundamental form, have fixed ‘simple ratios. fag: Msgr ate
i
wl KAN
4
—ae
mma Fig. 12.
LBA
SuRnnuas TT anaes
rTtty es yaw =
HA TH a
Gch aoe Bi wt paacesanne iss
SRSR GMM me me EGA EPP
COC CEE nen mee
fase fast Pr BEER
aan SCE : a a
of 1:1 (fig. 11). “Other planes (as in fig. 8) may ase is
1:2: (fig. 12), 123 TO Sand thet Fig
simple ratios. Planes on ‘the angles (figs.
9, 10) referred to the three axes, may have
the ratios (indicating their positions) 1: 1:1
(fig. 13), 1:2:2, 1:33, 1:2:4,2:3:6,
. 9:15, and so on. Hence,—
VIL. "The variations which. the. attrac-
tion of | cohesion undergoes, take tig ac- |
rdin mple ratio, 7
\
= aN
va
ab
flit
OH
Uf
S03
AU
Sie AD =
aN
Bi
kolo. 8
J. D. Dana on Cohesive Attraction. 373
_ 9. Similar parts of crystals, with a single class of exceptions,
are similarly modified. Now as the similar parts are those, simi-
larly situated as regards like axes, it follows that—. %
e homologous parts of molecules similarly and simul-
taneously undergo this variation as regards the attraction.
10. In the excepted cases just alluded to, only half the similar
parts are modified alike. In the cube of boracite, only half the
angles have similar secondary planes (fig. 15); in pyrites it is usual
to find only one of the two beveling : oe
planes in fig. 8, on each edge, as in Big:4* ph
. 14; it is an alternate one through- wor
out, so that the form is still symmet-
neal, and this is uniformly true. The
right and left handed quartz are other wooo
examples. Consequently,
_X. In some cases, the parts of a molecule on opposite sides of
a pole undergo a different amount of variation of attraction ;
this takes place symmetrically with regard to all the poles.
oat. In the formation of a cube with truncated edges, the cube
18 not finished out on the edges. ‘There is therefore a diminution
of the force of attraction in the line of the primary axes, since
ese axes fail of completing the cube.. Hence,—
7 XI. If the state of the attraction which produces a primary cube
or prism is considered its normal state, when s ry planes
12. In the enlarging cube, the mole-
cules are added in planes of increasing
adth, as in this way only would the
form continue to be a cube. If we
consider the case, we find that the cen-
tral molecule attracts a molecule by
each of its poles, and also simultane-
y its axes unites with four B’s, the
B’s, simultaneously, while in the act of union, unite with BY, By,
B, B’; and thus the square form is retained. This is a simple
Statement of the process. |
If now when the B’s are uniting, their lateral axes do not act
at the same time, then the forming cube will have the edges trun-
374 J.D. Dana on Cohesive Attraction.
cated as in fig. 11. To understand this we must study the steps
in the process. Fig. 17 represents the same secondary planes asin
* fig. 11, without the primary faces. It is obvious that in the enlarge-
ment of such a secondary, when the summit molecule is annexed,
its lateral axes do not act as they do when a cube is f bs
Fig. 18.
Fig. 19.
that when G is added to the extremity of the central axis, W°
molecules, G, G, are added on either side of F, and none: laterally
to G. This figure represents the formation of the ss
plane having the ratio 1; 2, as is evident from inspection; and fig.
7 or 18, another with the ratio. 1:1. 1 ers
If the period of time oceupied by the union of a molecule be
represented by p, then when the lateral axes act only after i
period of time p, and then add a single row of molecules, the sé
condary plane is the truncating plane 1:1; for the plane Hav =
the ratio. 1: 2, in which two are added laterally to one termin® >
or what is equivalent, one laterally for every half a one senaioe
the time would be 4y ; for the plane 1: 3, the time would Dem -
J. D. Dana on Cohesive Attraction. 375
_ To understand the origin of planes on an
angle, we must again consider the actual cir-
cumstances. "ig. 20 (the same secondary as
in fig. 13) will aid the mind in conceiving of
it. Here, when the summit particle unites it-
self, it adds nothing laterally, as was the case
also in fig. 17; when another unites beyond,
then four particles are united, one by each lateral pole ; but these
four add nothing, until still another particle is added to the sum-
mit. In this case there is an interval of time p, between the ac-
tion of the terminal and lateral axes, and another interval p’, be-
tween the adding of the four molecules and the action by their
ateral axes. And this is the difference between the plane trunca-
ting an angle (figs. 9 and 13), and another truncating an edge of a
cube, (figs..7 and 11.) This plane truncating an angle has the
fatio 1: 1:1. Fora plane 1:2:2, the times will be each 4p,
and for any plane 1: m:n, the times will be 1p and +p’.
It appears that the lateral axes act less speedily therefore for the
ttuncating plane of an angle, than for that of an edge; the centre
_ Of the former in a cube is 54° 44’ from the centre of a face of
_ the cube,.and the’ centre of the latter from the same is 45°.
We have before’ observed, that the production of secondary
forms depends on the fact, that the force of attraction in the axes
of the molecules when secondaries are produced, is less than that
Which is exerted when the primary prism or cube is formed. But
We cannot suppose the whole force of attraction in a molecule to
be different in different circumstances. No facts nor reasoning
Would sustain this conclusion. We may admit that the attraction
fused state of the attraction, any more than a primary could be
. 80 produced. In each case there must be as many distinct axes
376 J. D. Dana on Cohesive Aitraction.
as there are planes. When therefore the principal axes lose their
concentration, this loss consists in a distribution of the force into
subordinate axes intermediate between the primary axes. Fora
truncation of the edges of a cube, the intermediate axes would
ve their poles just at the middle point between every two poles
of the primary axes; for a truncation of the angles, the poles
would be at the middle point between every three poles. We
have remarked upon the symmetrical arrangement of seco!
planes in general, and this would follow from the necessary sym-
metrical arrangement of such axes. Moreover the length of time
, will be greater the farther the secondary pole is situated from
the primary poles. And this is true in fact. The pole for the
octahedron is the most distant, being at the central point between
three primary poles.* The number of combined secondary forms
may still seem mysterious. But a crystal, in its capacity asa
unit, would necessarily have a corresponding character in its dif-
ferent parts to the molecules of which it consists, and consequently
the attraction exerted by the molecules in these different parts —
would correspond, occasioning thus the secondary planes. More-
over the relative extent of the several different kinds of planes,
will depend primarily on the relative force of action in the differ-
ent sets of axes. ey 2 iat
These considerations lead us to conclude, that— re
XIL. The diminution of attracting force in the primary ates
on which the formation of a secondary depends, consists an the
partial action of this force along intermediate axes, synumet”
situated with reference to the primary axes; and the greater 0
less amount of diminution, determines the kind of distribution
of fluor spar. These different circumstances would result, pro-
* Here is evidently basis for mathematical calculations of some inte have evi-
1 In the case of substances that ve dom crystallize or never, we hi ei
dence that the polar forces are very w ‘he attractive force m b
J.D. Dana on Cohesive Attraction. 377
-XIIL The direction of cleavage may indicate in any species of
matter which set of axes is dominant, the primary, or a sec-
ry set. ee
“In the preceding paragraphs, after ascertaining the general po-
1g aconstant force, as might be inferred from the ordinary
definitions, appears therefore to be complex in: its actions, yet
simple in the general laws by which this complexity is produced.
terial, sometimes, or whatever may sustain an exci
Be
forms, But if there is nothing: to sustain or excite this concen-
tation, or the action is quiet, or.if bodies around, induce it, owmg
more diffused, and
y axes multiply.* All the crystals of a locality or re-
Th
e origin of secondary planes, is
by Prof. Necker. How far they
; 1e brief ae ae acer
hich I have seen in the Philosophical Magazine, vol. xiv, p. 216. . Necker
oe that there is a tendenc. ta erystals to take er PPP hee ~ orn
llecules ; he seco ixes are destro ifferen j
Yetal ce uenats A ring 20: iow h %, vecened, there.is no ten-
* The theo Ss a ih
ry above offered with regard to t
Hear that presented in 1839 to the Royal Society,
Solidification ; by this concentration, roduced, the secondary axes
love their force The View I had gathered from the abstract of M. Necker’s me-
x is given in a note to page 100 in the author's Mineralogy, 2nd edit., New
en,
Seconp Srrizs, Vol. IV, No. 12.—Nov., 1847. 48
378 ” Jude Daniaon Cohesive Attraction:
cahedron; that of Boonville, New York, occurs. in short’ six-
sided prisms. That of the Rossie lead region in complex com-
binations of different secondary planes with the primary.
IV. These facts indicate, that the variations of attraction
producing secondary forms, depend often on surrounding bodies
Savoring the concentration or diffusion of the attracting force;
and if obliqaely attached, they are distorted in this direction.
These facts, which are of common observation, show that—
nan enlarging crystal, one axis (or tivo) may have the
action of attraction more accelerated or retarded than another by
extrinsic infiuence, and this acceleration or retardation affects
equally all crystals forming together under common circum-
stances. . .
tedly ; and the latter mode only, could produce the result i
the inorganic kingdom.*
ers, and of young in animals, and the seriate arrangement of pee
1y tes the buds fm
ccessive series of two, four or six, or some other fixed numbers z
é rows, ‘i
. hae
(Zooph., p. 89 ) is another iJustration of intermittent th; for here the bed
Leia Baga “iui arabe others)
ent sides of the growing plant (five, in many plants, and siz in many fi a
: : pat ee
J. D. Dana on Cohesive Attraction. 379
- We infer therefore that when cleavage is produced, the union
of layers of molecules takes place by an intermitted action ; that
is, with regular successive variations or pulses in the intensity of
the force of attraction. This intermitted action when reduced
to simply the adding of single layers in succession, becomes con-
tinuous. On these principles there might be every variety of
this quality in nature, and there should be no necessary con-
nection between cleavage and strength of attraction. We there-
fore infer that—
XVI. The action of cohesive attraction is often intermittent,
producing seriate results, (as exemplified in the cleavage of crys-
tals,) and the specific rate of intermittent action is different for
unequal axes.*
1
¥ gravity, and by rate of solidification or of chemical combina-
supplied, as the crystallization goes on, it is obvious that the mi-
aute points crowded together might elongate into crowded prisms,
tite, , . 2 ‘
Successively, for the simple reason, of universal application, that
duces temporary exhaustion, or, that force is exerted intermitted
The pulsation of molecular | is
on lie at the basis of the universal
y Mr. J.
before thia Aegociation,* and also by Faraday,’ we cannot doubt. The
dulatory theory of light must be received as fully demonstrated : and if itis an
ether that pulsates, it is molecular force which makes it pulsate, and this implies
* ction in molecular force itself. ; ek Bis :
‘The attraction of cohesion is shown by cleavage to be intermittent in intensity ;
| intermission of time in the exertion
of the force, or a variation in rate of pulsation
Many crystals have their surfaces covered
with parallel striations which con-
sist of alternations of two or more sets of planes. Thus
ar
cubes of pyrites very
generally have their faces marke with strie which are oscillations betwee
Plane replacing the edge, and either the face of the primary cube, Bt nother plane
of the: ome octahed t spar have faces which consist
n and well known, show fre-
of minute cubes. These facts, and they are comm |
quent intermittent mode of action in the different axes of molecules, (or a seeming
Strife between different sets,) producing what has been called an * oscillatory com-
of pla <8)
® Rep. Proc. for 1845, and also this Jour., xIviii, 352, and ii Ser-, ii, 401.
+ Phil. Mag., May, 1846, and this Jour., ii Ser., ti, 401.
380° J. D. Dana on Cohesive Attraction.
and produce a fibrous structure. Such a structure is common in
arrow seams in rocks, proceeding either from this cause, or
perhaps-in part from the electric influence of the adjoining
walls of the seams, | :
The concentric structure is another result depending on the
rate of solidification connected often with the rate of chemic
combination. In ‘the first place the nucleus is always a cluster
of molecules, instead of a single one as for a simple crystal.
The structure sometimes commences around some’ foreign body
as a centre, though the aggregation is often without any proper
nucleus, except that of the cluster of molecules that first. soli
ified. The second principle, on which the concentric structure
depends, is the tendency of a body to communicate its own con-
dition to other bodies within its influence. ‘This law—the law of
equilibrium, and contact, or-catalysis in chemistry—is one of the
universal laws of existence. According to it, either a collection
of molecules entering the solid state, or any foreign body already
solid will tend to bring. adjacent bodies into the same.oran il
termediate condition. If susceptible to this influence, the parti-
cles adjoining become assimilated, and ‘unite to the nucleus;
these again act upon others adjoining, and thus a spherical form
» as a result of successive development. In
is produced, ee
that has cooled with extreme slowness, there are often spherical
aggregations of crystals. Here, in some sin
eral of the aggregation first began to form ;
process was continued, according to this law of influence, ar
temperature ; and consequently, when the cooling is most gre
ul 8 es large amount
In other cases, a solution is infiltrating through aclay or sntice
something (it may be a harder point or spot, or some organic 0”
ject) determines the commencement of solidification at certain
points in the clay, and from this, the process continues by simple
propagation, as just described. ‘The stratification of the clay»
or texture arising from gravity, favoring infiltration laterally 0
J. D. Dana on Cohesive Attraction. 381
than vertically, will often cause such concretions to be flat; and
me very numerous, a bed of concretions is
changed to a solid bed of compact rock..
» Instill other cases, a molecular change of the same general
character and on- the same principle, goes on after consolidation
has taken place.
» The structure. of such concretions must depend on the ma-
terial constituting them. The mode of formation, and the gen-
eral property that attraction has a definite relation to distance from
acentre, wall give them a similarity of character, in correspond-
s. The constituent crystalline grains, when any are a
parent, will have necessarily a corresponding position with refer-
ence to the centre. A foliated mineral which in one part had the
foliation concentric in the spherical mass, would have for the rea-
Son stated, the foliation concentric throughout ; and a fibrous min-
eral, with the fibres radiating from the centre, would retain this
Structure regularly,* _ ;
These considerations sustain the conclusion, that—
~ANVLL Cohesive attraction produces spherical concretions, about
@ cluster of molecules as a nucleus, through the tendency of mole-
cular action or condition to propagate itself ; and concentric ag-
Sregations begun, act under the general influence of the radial
action. of attraction in a mass, which action, other things the
Same, is equal at equal distances from a centre.
_ We might consider other effects of cohesive attraction, and ex-
tend our remarks to liquids and gases. But this paper dy
Teached an undesired length, although giving but the outlines of
4 subject that admits of great extension; and the consideration
of liquids and gases in the present state of our knowledge would
Bare us in speculations that we have purposely endeavored to
Vold,
We have thus endeavoted to follow out the various facts pre-
Sented by matter as it exists around us. Observation has proved
More profitable than closet speculation in animal and vegetable
Physiology ; and so it will be with regard to the grand organizin
force ‘of the so-called inorganic kingdom,—the basis of Minera
Physiology. The fact that the attraction of molecules is liable
to modifications of condition, and especially the simple yet fixed
relations between these modifications, nothing but a crystal could
Make known to us. Yet the principle is as wide as the universe
IN its application ; for we live in a universe of molecules, and all
the grandeur of physical nature is the result of molecular forces.
_* The concentric structure here explained is analogous in many respects to tl
Circular and spheri rms in vegetation. growing lichen extends itself cir-
pialr, owing to progressive assimilation or development. This proves no simi-
Y of nature between the organic forces and ve attraction; it only shows
that ‘different forces nder a common law.
382 J. D. Dana on Cohesive Attraction.
Through the preceding pages I have intentionally avoided al-
lusions to the actual nature of molecules, as the conclusions are
independent of any views on that subject. Even form and size
are not essential to the deductions, as what has been designated
the lengths of the axes, may be viewed as the inverse ratio of the
attracting force in the axial directions. If the existence of an
ether be insisted upon as surrounding the molecules, the relations
are none the less correct. “
The facts however prove that in the action of cohesive attrac-
tion there is a limit to penetrability, fixed in different ‘directions
for given temperatures; and this limit-is essentially a limit of
form and size ; and as the phenomena of light are dependent on
molecular forces, we cannot deny to molecules color and other
qualities of sensible objects. )
The ether appealed to in order to explain the phenomena of
light,—admitted to have none of the qualities of matter and yet
often spoken of as a real existence,—is a kind of machinery, sum-
moned for the sake of an explanation; and since we may now
believe that instead of such an ether ¢apable of pulsations, pul-
sating molecular force itself will afford as perfect an explanation
molecules and their relative dimensions, as ascertain
tals, are their real forms and relative dimensions.
The phenomena of heat as explained by received theories,
seem to present a similar objection to the view we here take, siee
an ether or a mysterious imponderable agent is supposed to inter
vene between the molecules in the expansion of solids, and by
its arrangement to cause the change of axial directions. But the
assumption of this tertium quid gives us no aid in understanding
the change of axial direction, and the general law with regard t@
attraction, on which we must fall back in either case, will -
much simpler without it. Neither, as my friend Mr. J. D. Whelp-
ley has argued, is this hypothesis necessary in order to explad
from this source for doubting the conclusion that the forms of
ined from ¢1
ial force. ‘The variations
hich have been pointed out are caused by induction, accordin 8
— ee San first
* See note 379. This principle, i of gravitation when BM
te, page 379. is principle, like the theor gra becoming
presented, rose into view to simplify, just when tlveoretvea! SCIEN OD eee ag
encumbered with rapidly increasing perplexities. a ae
J. D. Dana on Cohesive Attraction. ~ 383°
of different sizes (or in other words of different temperatures),
there would be between them a tendency to equilibrium of size
(or in common language, to a mean temperature) ; and thus this
simple law of mutual influence will explain enlargement or con-
traction from variations of temperature; and the variations from
in form:
_It exerts attraction in every direction; but this force on oppo-
Site parts is so related that one molecule attracts another by one
Side and repels it by the opposite (polarity ):— 7
_ In solidification (and sometimes before?) this attraction is axi-
ally polar; it admits of various degrees of axi concentration or
iffusion, ($ 7 to 12,) of acceleration or retardation of action,
($ 15,) and of different degrees of radial force, which variations
take place under the general law of mutual influence, or tenden-
cy to an eguilibrium:— Bae pee
- This attraction acts by pulsations; in solidification there are
compound pulses (undulations in intensity) consisting of a
ing intermitted or seriate results
(cleavage ), which results are in all cases specific ; the same pul-
‘The lati f heat and magnetism, are illustrated in a valuable article in
this voluthe, pi Prof. W. A. Noon! pp- 1 and 207; and some following pages
contain an interesting memoir on heat and light by Prof. Draper.
384 J.D. Dana on Cohesive Attraction.
active states,—the former changing to the latter under the action
of light or the chemical rays,—will be different states induced:
by or through rapidity of pulsation, the rapid pulsation of mole-
cular force (causing or constituting what we call chemical rays)
inducing the same rapid action in molecules under their influ-
ence. Magnetism: may be a condition in which the attractive
force is in constant active onward transfer from particle to particle,
and galvanism, a condition of similar transfer while an exciting
cause 1s in operation. ;
In hemihedral prisms like those of tourmaline and topaz,
the molecules must have been in this magnetic condition ; for they
exhibit polarity now when heated. In the right and left handed
quartz and similar cases, where while forming one side of a
molecular pole must have been differently affected from the op-
posite, we may believe that the pulsations were: alternate along
each axis, a, b,c; this would in fact be a spiral action and it
would produce a right and left handed crystal, according as the
spiral action was to the right or left. o
We accord in many particulars here stated, with the general
theory of molecules and molecular forces presented lately, with
Some important shades of difference, by Whelpley and Faraday,
and based on that of Boscovitch. sisi
The explanations offered show that very many of the phe-
nomena of physical nature, may be understood on the idea that
whose laws have beer under consideration, But no property of
cohesive attraction explains the limits and roportions obset
in chemical combination. ‘The ultimate nature of the molecule,
or of the forces constituting them, (on which we forbear from
remark in this place,) is our only appeal for an explanation of these
chemical relations. When fully understood, it may appeat t
cohesive attraction with all its laws, is only a necessary result of
this peculiar constitution. We need yet some facts to make it
obvious how both classes of phenomena, those of aggregation
and chemical combination, may be united in one continued —_
These theoretical suggestions on molecules are annexed to
the preceding article, partly in elucidation of some facts before
stated, but more especially to exhibit the bearing of the principles
on different theories respecting the constitution of matter, and
to show that what may seem to be discrepancies are not -
cessarily so. : hain
There is a strange variance between the chemist and erystallo-
grapher. In treatises on chemistry, a theory of molecular forms
1s often presented as the truth ina chapter on crystals, the ee
of which is taken for granted in all the other parts of the Wer.
Examination of several Waters of Hartford, Conn. 385
Nature with more consistency, points to a unity of truth. This
truth cannot be reached through any one avenue of science.
Chemistry teaches us the laws of combination governing mole-
cules, and the attendant operations of molecular forces ;—crystal-
graphy indicates to us the forms of molecules and the laws
which govern in molecular aggregation ;—the eye being sensible
to the movement of molecular force, optics teaches us the rapid-
ity, character, and physical effects of its pulsations :—and we add
by our thermoscopic instruments, another sense, for ascertaining
other laws of molecular action. When the mind is fully opened
to all these several sources of light, their concentrated beams will
enable us to see beyond doubt the minute molecule almost with
the distinctness of visibility.
Arr, XXXIV.—Results of the Examination of several Waters
from Hartford, Conn. ; by B. W. Buu.
Tur different samples were taken from wells in the city of Hart-
lord, Conn., May 28th, 1847. Their localities are as follows :—
No. 1 is froma well in the State House Yard, northwest corner.
No. 2 is from the well of H. Seymour, 16 Main street.
No. 3 is froma well on the grounds of the American Asylum.
No. 4 is from Lane’s Coffee House, North Main street.
4and 2 from the northern and southern extremities respectively.
€ gases contained in the waters were not estimated, as the im-
Mediate object of the investigation was to ascertain the amount.
Of solid matter; neither was their action upon lead o ed,
Which -would have been interesting if time had allowed, more
btained by Prof. B. Silliman, Jr., in his
show conclusively
sulphates in
ably with organic matter in other ‘modifications ; e
tived from the fact that those portions from which the crenie acid
386 Examination of several Waters of Hartford, Conn.
centration and evaporation highly colored, the color disappearing
upon ignition. This reaction was observed upon all the samples
from which this acid was separated, but a deficiency of material
precluded the quantitative estimation of it in all] but No, 3, in
which the amount was 2°6 grains in one gallon, a quantity not
sufficient to saturate the excess of base. The large excess mn
most of the waters may appear to exceed the bounds of proba-
bility, but repeated and concurring experiments show the results
to be correct. In the deficiency of knowledge in relation to the
modifications in which organic matter exists in combination with
bases in water, and the unsatisfactory methods which we possess
for its determination, it was preferred to state the results as ob-
tained without attempting to estimate the organic matter with
which the excess of bases is supposed to be combined. Its pres-
ence was abundantly proved by the action of nitrate of silver
solution upon the specimen under examination. 3
ere were no indications of phosphates, apocrenic acid, or of
potassa. The soap test, as might be inferred from a glance at the
table, indicates that they possess.in an eminent degree the prop-
rdness, becoming, with the exception of No. 3, imme-
diately and perfectly opaque upon the addition of the test to the
Waters contained in a wine glass, accompanied in Nos. 1 and 5
with the formation of a curdy precipitate occupying nearly balf
the bulk of the tested liquid. The order of succession, consid-
ering No. 3 the best, would be 3, 4, 2, 1, 5.
The following tables are the results of the analyses. - Table L
shows the specific weights and the amount of solid contents as
found by evaporation and ignition in conjunction with a n
weight of pure anhydrous carbonate of soda, added to prevent
loss by the decomposition of any chlorid. of magnesium ; the
weight of No. 5 is that found by analysis. The weights and meas
ures used were the French gramme and decimals, and the Jiiré,
but are reduced in the tables to standard Troy grains, and the U:
S. gallon of 231 cubic inches, the weight of one gallon distilled
par at 60° F. being taken as 58°328,886 grains. _ aide
the footings of this and the next table, arises from the loss
ygen which the bases undergo by the formation of haloid § ihe
with chlorine.. qaattes
Table IIL. In this table the results of the analyses are combined
as they may be supposed to exist in the waters in their bat sf
state. The method recommended by Fresenius has been # lor wi
; ed in reconstructing them, and the conclusions, though #
_eriticism from the well known impossibility of accurately FPR
sentially from reality. 5 sree
Examination of several Waters of Hartford, Conn. 387
_ Table IV. gives the relative proportion of water and solid con-
tents in 1000 parts.
‘I would express my indebtedness to Prof. B. Silliman, Jr.,
for many valuable suggestions during the course of the accom-
panying analyses.
<< , TABLE I.
|
No. 2. No. 3. “No. 4 No. 5.
100044 | 1:00010 | 1-00078 | 1-00106
32-157 119-334 37/102 {69-046
[ No. I.
Specific weight, ‘ 1-00081
‘Amount in grains of solid con-
tents in one gallon, as found 41-479
_»y evaporation, ;
TABLE Il.
Constituents of one gallon in grains, as found by actual analysis, without
reconstruction.
: ae Nor 2. No.3.) No. f No. 5.
Chlorine, , 7. 12765 | 3563 | 2407 | 9517 | 21-07
> big Sd 2.296 | 2114 | 1-023 | 2710 3-061
arbonic acid, . . 6-449 | 3-429 561 | 3-826 4-533
Lime REO 12192 | 7-671-| 7-075 | 8103 | 10-358
Magnesia, . .. 1168 | 1-116 555 | 4-621 293
Alumina andiron, . ‘ 2:26 ae ‘261 traces.
ee ae sae TE ane O48 a ee sane
a 7-437 | 6-362 | 6893 | 13-764 | 23-718
oe eT eee | Sara ‘817° |» -261 526
ey : : : . traces. .}))), «s04s — ae *
‘tric acid, . ‘ cies 2 age Dae one
as 43563 | 29996 | 20-153 | 37-063 | 69-046
‘TABLE Ul |
Contents in one gallon as recombined. 2
SEO ae eee Cece een Se meee 5
fobs i i "7 No. le] No. 2.
Bulphate of limes. sc es) ete ee
/Chloria of calcium, é Jing he. tae 6°
Chlorid of sodium ; - A
Chlorid of magnesium,
reek
Alumina Bad Wop
solu ag Ages GT ana haat | :
aa } % A“ 3
i rs neg cwtth de See’ ‘gh es
Magnesia combined with crenic
me) Re etter ee
te .
renate of do
of do.,
: acid,
388 Prof. Draper on the Production of Light by Heat.
TABLE Iv.
Relative proportions of water and solid constituents in 1000 parts.
Gpicme _No.T_j_No.2 {No 3.|_Nod
LO a 999°289|" 999-449) 999-669) 999
Sulphate of lime, . : A : - .
Chlorid of calcium, . : +112 070 “0:
hlorid of sodiam WL, :
Chlorid of magnesium, ‘041 023 022,
Carbona ime +225 13] 021
Carbonate of magnesia, “019
Alumina and iron 004 038
Alumina, ‘: ie. : 014
Silica, °° eae 018} “0 014
Carbonate of soda equiv. to erenate, “022 “109 119
lagnesia combined with do. + ie 013 076
ime, .. PONIES “ys “iia: ge eee
Loss, “010 046) excess 01 be:
'1000-000! 1000-000 1000-004 1000-000 1000-
Yale College Laboratory, New Haven, Aug. 9th, 1847.
a |
.
Arr. XXXV.—On the Production of Light by Heat; by Joun
Witt1am Draper, M.D., Professor of Chemistry in the Univer-
sity of New York.* — ee ss. ede
AttHoven the phenomenon of the production of light by all
solid bodies, when their temperature is raised to a certain degree,
635°, Sir Humphry Davy at 812°, Mr: Wedgwood at 947°, and
Mr. Daniell at 980°, As respects the nature of the light einen
there are similar contradictions. In some philosophical works .
considerable repute, it is stated that when a’solid begins to pee
it first emits red and then white rays; in others it is asserted Wi
a@ mixture of blue and red light is the first that appears. — diffi
have succeeded in escaping or overcoming many of OF a
culties of this problem, and have arrived at satisfactory sol bed
of the main points; and as the experiments now to be eit
lead to some striking and perhaps unexpected analogies er! as.
light and heat, they commend themselves to our attention *
having a bearing on the question of the identity of thos eae |
derable principles. It is known that heretofore T have
#
Prof. Draper on the Production of Light by Heat. 389
0 believe in the existence of cardinal distinctions, not only be-
een these but also other imponderable agents; and I may
therefore state, that when this investigation was first undertaken,
it was in the expectation that it would lead to results very differ-
ent from. those which have actually arisen.
_ The following are the points on which I propose to treat :—
1. To determine the point of incandescence of platinum, and
to prove that different bodies become red-hot at the same tem-
perature. —
2. To determine the color of the rays emitted by self-luminous
.
bodies at different temperatures. This is done by the only relia-
v
8. To determine the relation between the brilliancy of the light
emitted by a shining body and its temperature.
_ Here we shall find that the intensity of the light increases
far more rapidly than the temperature. For example, platinum
at 2600° emits almost forty times as much light as it does at
__ As I prefer to give a complete description of the apparatus em-
ployed in these investigations after the general results are stated,
it is sufficient here to understand that the source of light is in all
instances a very thin strip of platinum 1:35 inch long and ,',th
of an inch wide, brought to the temperature under investigation
by a voltaic current. Platinum was selected from its indisposi-
tion to oxydize, and its power of resisting a high temperature
Without fusion. @gnSt ORE. erty
_ The slip of platinum, thus to be brought to different tempera-_
tures by an electric current of the proper force, was fastened at
expansion and thereby its temperature. For this purpose I have
Used the coefficient of dilatation of Dulong and Petit. ‘The tem-
peratures here given are upon the hypothesis of the invariability
of that coefficient at all thermometric degrees ; they are therefore
I was able to vary the force of the electric current 1p the platinum,
and thereby vary its temperature. My first attempts were to dis-
cover the point at which the metal begins to emit light.
e
room, the temperature of which was 609; after I had re-
Mained there cient length of time to enable my eyes to be-
390 Prof. Draper on the Production of Light by Heat. \
at the eighth division when this took place. The metal had
therefore dilated ;1,, of its length; the elevation of its tempera-
ture was about 917°, which added to the existing height of the
ee 60°, gives for the temperature of incandescence
aes
To the correctness of the number it may be ‘objected, that
owing to the narrowness of the metallic strip it is not well caleu-
lated to make an impression on the eye when the light it emits 1s
so feeble; nor can we take the dilatations given by the index, as
representing the uniform temperature of the whole platinum,
which must necessarily be colder near its points of support, by
reason of the conducting power of the metals to which it 1s
attached.
Physiological considerations would also lead us to suspect that
the self-luminous temperature must vary with different eyes. he
ceived it at the same time.
that all bodies have not the same point of incandescence. But I
think the experiments of Mr. Wedgwood on gold and enti
are decisive of that question ; and, moreover, I have reason to
With a view of determining directly whether different bodies
vary in their point of incandescence, I took a clean gun-DS" >
and having closed the touch-hole, exposed the following oiare
ces in it to the action of the fire :—platinum, chalk, marble aglt}
spar, brass, antimony, gas-carbon, lead; each specimen “
_ the platinum was in the form of a coil of stout wire. vo] and
When one of these bodies was placed in the gun-barre per
the temperature raised, it is clear that any difference 1n ps the
of incandescence would be detected by the eye. Rig ok-
ignition of platinum required a higher degree than 1ron, ‘the
ing down barrel the coil of oe | should be dark, —_— o
barrel itself begins to shine; or, if the platinum was 1™ visibly
cent first, the wire should ‘be seen rari the barrel 1S.
Prof. Draper on the Production of Light by Heat. 391
bet; and these results might be corroborated by observing the
inverse phenomena, when the barrel is taken from the fire and
they all became incandescent at the same time as the iron barrel
itself. I could not discover the slightest difference between
them, either in heating or cooling; and it is worthy of remark,
that the lead was of course in the liquid condition. But the chalk
taking place. I infer then that all solids, and probably melted
metals, shine at the same thermometric point.
_ The temperature of incandescence seems to be a natural fixed
int for the thermometer; and it is very interesting to remark
OW nearly this point coincides with 1000° of the Fahrenheit
thermometer, when Laplace’s coefficient for the dilatation of pla-
| aan is used. Upon that coefficient the point of incandescence
Is 1006° F
__ In view of these considerations, and recollecting that the num-
ber given by Daniell is 980°, and that of Wedgwood 947°, I be-
lieve that 977° is not very far from the true temperature at which
Solids begin to shine. It is to be understood, of course, that this
is in a very dark room. i: 8
I pass now to the second proposition. The rays emitted by
the incandescent platinim were next received on a flint glass
Prism, placed so as to give the minimum deviation, and after dis-
ion viewed in a small telescope. A movement could be given
‘0 the telescope, which was read off on an annexed scale. How-
ever, instead of bringing the parts of the spectrum under meas-
urement to coincide with the wires stretched across the field of
the instrument, I found it more satisfactory to determine them by
bringing them to one or other of the edges of the field ; a process
Cence, such as are in the sunshine and daylight, I therefore pre-
Viously determined the position of the fixed lines in a spectrum
formed by a ray of reflected daylight which passed through a
- fissure ,', of an inch wide and one inch long, occupying exactly
a
392 Prof. Draper on the Production of Light by Heat.
the position subsequently to be occupied by the incandescent pla-
tinum. Fig. 1. represents the results of this observation.
mec Db Eh Pe G Hep oe
Fig. 1, | | | i i| | [Pf aytigh. af
6. | / 21307. :
4, /1326°
Spectra of incandescent platinum at different temperatures,
.. The strip of platinum was now placed in the position of the
by the naked eye, yet the loss of light in passing the prism and —
telescope was so great that I found it necessary to carry the tem —
perature to 1210° before a satisfactory observation could be made.
nated as red and greenish gray; the former commencing at hi
line B, and the latter continuing to. F, The magnitude and
other relations of this spectrum are given in fig. 3. pee
he voltaic current was now increased, and the temperature
rose to 1325°. The red end of the spectrum remain —
the result. nf ‘
: The temperature was now carried to 1440°.. I thought i
red extremity was advancing more to the line A: the blue hae
undergone a well-marked increase. It reached. consi Bail
Yond the line G, as shown in fig. 5... 6 ssn 0
On bringing the platinum to 2130° all the colors. were present a
ne exhibited considerable brilliancy.. ‘Their extent"was SOW” —
aegianier than that of the daylight spectrum, as is $°¢?
Prof. Draper on the Production of Light by Heat. 393
_ Having thus by repeated experiments ascertained the contin-
ued extension of the more refrangible end as the temperature
tose, it became necessary to obtain observations for points below
1210°, the limit of visibility through the telescope. I therefore
carried the prism nearer to the platinum, and looking with the
unassisted eye directly through it at the refracted image, I found
it could be distinctly seen at a temperature as low as -1095°.
Under these circumstances the total length could not be compar-
ed by direct measurement with the other observations, and the
tesult given in fig. 2 is from the best judgment I was able to
tm: the colors were red and greenish-gray.
The gray rays emitted by platinum just beginning to shine
appear to be more intense than the red; at all events the wires
im the field of the telescope are more distinctly seen upon them
than upon the other color. I give them the designation of gray,
for they appear to approach that tint more closely than any other ;
and yet it is to be remarked that they are occupying the position
of the yellow and green regions.
_ Already we have encountered a fact of considerable impor-
tance. The idea, that as the temperature of a body rises it be-
gis to emit rays of increasing refrangibility, has obviously to be
taken with a certain restriction. Instead of first the red, then
unduly spread out. But in the interference spectrum, where the
Colors are arranged side by side in the order of their wave-lengths,
the centre is occupied by the most luminous portion of the yel-
low ; and from this point the light declines. away on one side in
Scorn Serres, Vol. 1V, No. 12.—Nov., 1847. 50
394 Prof. Draper on the Production of Light by Heat.
the reds, and on the other in the blues, the terminations being
equidistant from the centre of the yellow space.
Now if the rays coming from shining platinum were passed
through a piece of glass, on which parallel lines had been drawn
with a diamond point, so as to give an interference spectrum,
even admitting the general results of the foregoing experiments
to be true, viz. that as the temperature rises rays of a higher-re-
frangibility are emitted, it is obvious that it by no means follows
that the first ray visible should be the extreme red. Our power
tion in the direction of its red extremity. :
I may here remark, that the general result of these exper
ments coincides exactly with that of M. Melloni respecting heat
and lower thermometric points. In this second memoir,* he
shows that when the rays from copper at 390° and from incan
descent platinum are compared by transmission through a rock-
salt prism, as the temperature rises the refrangibility of #
calorific emanations correspondingly increases. ‘Those philoso-
phers who regard light and heat as the. same agent, will there-
fore see in this coincidence another argument in favor of theit
opinion. gi
In view of the foregoing facts I conclude, that, as the tem
perature of an incandescent body rises, it emits rays of light of
an imcreasing refrangibility ; and that the apparent departure
from this law, discovered by an accurate prismatic analysis, 4
due to the special action of the eye in performing ‘the fi
of vision. epee
As the luminous effects are undoubtedly owing to a vibratory
movement executed by the molecules of the platinum, 1 —
from the foregoing considerations to follow, that the frequency :
those vibrations increases with the temperature- et er
In this observation I'am led. by the. principle, that “toa pa
yellow, blue,
trum.
.
Laases
Soe ee BITS. BS * Taylor’s Scientific Memoirs, vol. i, p56.
i
Prof. Draper on the Production of Light by Heat. 395
that a ray falling near the edge, and one falling near the back,
after dispersion, will paint their several spectra on the screen;
the colors of the one not coinciding with, but overlapping the
colors of the other. In such a spectrum there must undoubtedly
be a general commixture of the rays; but may we not fairly in-
quire whether, if an elementary prism were used, the same facts
would hold good; or, if the anterior face of the prism were cov-
by a screen, so as to expose a narrow fissure parallel to the
axis of the instrument, would there be found in the spectrum it
gave every color in every part, as in Sir David Brewster’s original
experiment? M. Melloni has shown how this very considera-
tion complicates the phenomena of radiant heat; avid it would
seem a very plausible suggestion that the effect here pointed out
Must occur in an analogous manner for the phenomena of light.
_ I proceed now to the third branch of the inquiry,—to exam-
ine the relation between the temperatures of self-luminous bodies
and the intensity of the light they emit, premising it with the
following considerations.
_ The close analogy which is traced between the phenomena of
light and radiant heat lends countenance to the supposition, that
the law which regulates the escape of caloric from a body will
determine its rate of emission of light. Sir Isaac Newton
Ma geometrical progression. The fallacy of this was subse-
quently shown by Martin, Erxleben, and Delaroche ; and finally
_ Whilst Newton’s law represents the rate of cooling of bodies,
and therefore the quantities of heat they emit, when the range
of temperature is limited, and the law of Dulong and Petit holds
to a wider extent, there are in our inquiry certain circumstances
ilosophers.
same modifications as
for heat; a fact con-
Veniently designated by the phrase “ideal coloration of heat ;”
396 Prof. Draper on the Production of Light by Heat.
and further, that the color of the heat emitted depends upon the
temperature of the radiating source. It is one thing to investi-
gate the phenomena of the exchanges of heat-rays of the same
color, and another when the colors are different. A perfect the-
ory of the exchanges of heat must include the principle of ideal
coloration, and, of course, so too must a law of cooling applica-
ble to any temperature.
There is another fact to some extent considered by Dulong and
Petit, but not of such weight in their investigations, where the
range of temperature was small, as in ours, where it rises as high
as nearly 3000° F.; I mean the difference of specific heat of the
same body at different temperatures. At the high temperatures
considered in this memoir, there cannot be a doubt that the capa
city of platinum for heat is far greater than that at a low pomt.
This therefore must control its rate of calorific emission, and prob-
ably that for light also. i$
rom these and similar considerations, we should be prepared
to discover that as the temperature of an incandescent solid rises,
the intensity of the light emitted increases very rapidly.
ss now to the experimental proofs which substantiate the
foregoing reasoning.
ratus employed as the source of the light and meas-
ure of the temperature was the same as in the preceding e
ments,—a strip of platinum, brought to a known temperature by
the passage of a voltaic current of the proper force, and connect-
ed with an index which measured its expansion. —
The principle upon which I have determined the intensity of
the light is that first described by Bouguer, and recently int co
ced by M. Masson. After many experiments I have been led to
conclude that this is the most accurate method known. bs
Any one who will endeavor to determine the intensities of lights
by Rumford’s method of contrasting shadows, or by that of equally
illuminated surfaces, will find, when every precaution has been
used, that the results of repeated experiments do not accord.
There is moreover the great defect, that where the lights differ 2
color it is impossible to obtain reliable measures, except by resort:
ing to such contrivances as that described by me. a
-Bouguer’s principle is far more exact; and where the lights
differ in color, that difference actually tends to make the ai
more perfect. As it is not generally known, I will indica a
nature of it briefly. iia
- Let there be placed at a certain distance from a scree of —
paper, a candle so arranged as to throw the shadow of a ruler,
other opake body, on the screen. If a second candle be place’
also in front of the paper and nearer than the former, the
re is a cel
See i ‘ . ee
oe * Phil. Mag., August, 1844.
Prof. Draper on the Production of Light by Heat. 397
the shadow. This distance is readily found; for the disappear-
ance of the shadow can be determined with considerable exact-
ness. When the lights are equal, Bouguer found that the relative
distances were as 1:8; he inferred therefore, correctly, that in
the case of his eye, the effect of a given light was imperceptible
when it was in presence of another sixty-four times as intense.
The precise number differs according to the sensibility of differ-
ent eyes, but for the same organ it is constant.
‘Upon a paper screen I threw the shadow of a piece of copper,
which intercepted the rays of the incandescent platinum: then
taking an Argand lamp, surrounded. by a cylindrical metal shade
through an aperture in which the light passed, and the flame of
which [ had found by previous trial would continue for an hour
almost of the same intensity, I approached it to the paper until
the shadow cast by the copper disappeared. The distance at
which this took place was then measured, and the temperature of
the platinum determined.
The temperature of the platinum was now raised; the shadow
became more intense, and it was necessary to bring the Argand
lamp nearer before it was effaced. When this took place the dis-
tance of the lamp was again measured, and the temperature of
the platinum again determined.
* In this manner I obtained several series of results, one of which
18 given in the following table. They exhibited a more perfect
accordance among each other than I had anticipated. ‘The in-
tensity of the light of the platinum is of course inversely propor-
al to the square of the distance of the Argand lamp at the
moment of the obliteration of the shado
Table of the Intensity of Light emitted by Platinum at different Tem-
peratures. 4
tain distance at which its light completely obliterates all traces of
a 4
Temperature of Distance of Argand lamp
m.
the platinu Experiment], { Experiment 2 ee Totensity ne light.
youl ne ape hs
1 -00 54-00 54-00 0:34
2015 39-00 41-00 40-00 0-62
2130 24-00 24-00 24-00 1-73
2245 18-00 00 1 2-92
2360 14-50 15:50 15:00 4-40
2475 11-50 11-75 7-24
9-00 9-00 9:09 12-34
In this table the first column gives the temperatures under ex-
amination in Fahrenheit degrees; the second and third the dis-
tances of the Argand lamp from the screen, in English inches, in
two different sets of experiments: the fourth the mean of the
two: and the fifth the corresponding intensity of the light.
From this it is at once perceived, that the increase in the in-
tensity of the light, though slow at first, becomes very rapid as
398 Prof. Draper on the Production of Light by Heat.
the temperature rises. At 2590° the brilliancy is more than thir
ty-six times as great as it is at 1900°. sagt
’ Thus, therefore, the theoretical anticipation which we fou
on the analogy of light and heat is completely verified ; and we
discover that as the temperature of a self-luminous solid rises, it
emits light in a greater proportion than would correspond to the
mere difference of temperature. To place that analogy in a still —
more striking point of view, I will here introduce some experi-
ments I have made in relation to radiant heat. No chemist, so
far as I am aware, has hitherto published results for high temper-
atures, or endeavored to establish, through an extensive scale, the
principle of Delaroche, that “the quantity of heat which a hot
body gives off in a given time by way of radiation to a cold
body, situated at a distance, increases, other things being equal,
in a progression more rapid than the excess of the temperature
of the first above that of the second.”
As my object on the present occasion is chiefly to illustrate the
remarkable analogy between light and heat, the experiments no
to be related were arranged so as to resemble the foregoing that
is to say, as in determining the intensities of light emitted by 4
shining body at different temperatures, I had received the rays Up-
on a screen placed at an invariable distance, and then determines
their value by photometric methods; so, in this case, I recel $
the rays of heat upon a screen placed at an invariable ais
and determined their intensity by thermometric methods. fh
this instance the screen employed was in fact the blackened sur
face of the thermo-electric pile. It was placed at a distance
astatic needles could not be affected by the voltaic current ign
f the wires
e experiments were conducted as follows :—The needles of
the thermo-multiplier standing at the zero of their s¢
taic current was passed through the platinum, which imm
rose to the corresponding temperature, and radiated its heat dl s
face of the pile. The instant the current passed, the ere
the multiplier moved, and kept steadily advancing upon ie d the
At the close of one minute, the deviation of the needle ané ”
temperature of the platinum were simultaneously noted, ane ©
the voltaic current was stopped. tipliet
Sufficient time was now given for the needle of the pe
to come back to zero. This time varied in the Lavan
according to the intensity of the heat to which the pue "ag
‘posed: in no instance, however, did it exceed six minutes,
Prof. Draper on the Production of Light by Heat. 399
inmost cases was much less. A little consideration will show
that the usual artifice employed to drive the needles back to zero
by warming the opposite face of the pile, was not admissible in
ese experiments.
. The needles having. regained their zero, the platinum was
brought again to a given temperature, and the experiment con-
aan as before. ‘I'he following table exhibits a series of these
results.
Table of the Intensity of Radiant Heat emitled by Platinum at differ-
ent Temperatures. :
| Temperature of the Intensity of | acne 8 0 tee 2 en
_____ platinum. Experiment 1. Experiment 2 Mesh
980° 75 1-00 37
95 1-00 20 1-10
1210 1-40 60 1-50
1 1-60 2-00
1440 2-20 220 2-20
i 2:75 2-85 ps
1670 65 75 70
1785 5-00 © 00 00
900 +70 90 }
| 2015 60 -60 3-60
2130 10-00 10-00 10-00
2245 12:50 12-50 12:50
Peagt «2260 15-50 15°50 15-50
Xs In this table the first column gives the temperatures of the pla-
tinum in Fahrenheit degrees; the second and third two sets of
platinum upon the thermo-multiplier for the :
_ Of course it is understood that I here take the angular devia-
tions of the needle as expressing the force of the thermo-electric
current, or in other words, as being proportional to the tempera-
tures. This hypothesis, it is known, is admissible. _ :
It therefore appears that the quantity of heat radiated by in-
candescent platinum at 980° being taken as unity, it will have in-
creased at 1440° to 2:5; at 1900° to 78; and at 2360° to 17°8,
hearly : the rate of increase is therefore very rapid. Further, it
may be remarked, as illustrative of the same fact, that the increa-
sed quantity of heat radiated by a mass of platinum in passing
from 1000° to 1300°, is nearly equal to the amount it gives out
in passing from common temperatures up to 1000°.
_ I cannot here express myself with too much emphasis on the
temarkable analogy between light and heat which these experi-
m
400 Prof. Draper on the Production of Light by Heat.
It is not to be forgotten, however, that in the case of light we
necessarily measure its effects by an apparatus which possesses
special peculiarities. The eye is insensible to rays which are not
comprehended within certain limits of refrangibility. In these
experiments, it is requisite to raise the temperature of the plati-
num almost to 1000° before we can discover the first traces of
light. Measures obtained under such circumstances are depen-
dent on the physiological action of the visual organ itself, and
hence their analogy with those obtained by the thermometer be-
comes more striking, because we should scarcely have anticipated
that it could be so complete.
Description of the apparatus employed in the foregoing exper-
ments.
The source of light is in all instances a slip of platinum foil
1:35 inch long, and ,',th of an inch broad, ignited by the passage
of a voltaic current, and placed in such a position that its dilata-
tion could be measured by the movements of an index over @
graduated scale.
In fig. 7, a6 represents the slip of platinum, the upper end of
which is soldered to a stout and short copper pin a, firmly sunk
ock of wood ¢, which is immovably fastened on the basis
dd of the instrument. A cavity e, half an inch in diameter, 18
sunk in the block c, and into this cavity the pin a projects; S°
that when the cavity is filled with mercury, a voltaic current may
be passed through the pin and down the platinum.
Fig. 7.
dtiert peer? of the platinum d is fastened to 4 ond
ate lever bf, which plays on an axis at g, the axis W -
brass holes supported on a block A. Immediately beneath the pla
Prof. Draper on the Production of Light by Heat. 01
finum strip, and in metallic communication with it, a straight
: copper ‘wire dips down into the mercury cup m;on this wire.
there is a metal ball x, weighing about 100 grains. The further
end of the index plays over a graduated ivory scale pp, which
Is supported on a block q, and can be moved a little up and down,
(§0as to bring its zero to coincide with the index at common
ure
' The action of the instrument: is readily understood. In the
Mercury cup e dip one of the wires N of a Grove’s. battery of
or four pairs, the other wire P being dipped into the cup m.
When the heat has been very high and long con-
tinued, the limit of elasticity of the platinum is somewhat over-
Passed, and it suffers-a slight permanent extension. But as the
y seale p p can slide up and down a little, the index is readily
_ Teadjusted to the zero point
The temperature of the platinum depends entirely on the force
of the current passed through it. By intervening coils of brass
Wire of lengths adjusted beforehand, so as to resist the current to
bi given extent, any desired temperature may be reached. I
found it convenient to intervene in the course of the current one
of Prof. Wheatstone’s rheostats, so as to be able to bring the
index with precision to any degree, notwithstanding slight changes
M the force of the voltaic battery.
_ The following are the dimensions and measures of the instru-
Ment I have used:—Length of the platinum strip, 1°35 inch;
length of the part actually ignited, 1-14 inch; width of ditto,
aoth of an irich; length of the index from its centre of motion
‘0 the scale, 7-19 inches; distance of the centre of motion of
x from the insertion of the platinum at the point b, 22 inch ;
multiplying effect of the index, 32°68 times ; length of each di-
ison on the ivory scale, 021 ich. | From this it would appear,
by a simple calculation, using the coefficient of dilatation of pla-
tnum given by Dulong and Petit, that each of the divisions here
Used is equal to 114-5. Fahrenheit degrees. For the sake of per-
Spieuity I have generally taken them at 115°.
The Grove’s battery I have employed has platinum plates
three inches long and three-quarters wide; the zinc cylinders are
‘wo inches and a half in diameter, three high, and one-t
Stconp Sxikims, Vol. IV, No. 12.—Nov., 1847, 51
402 Changes in Albuminous Substances during Digestion.
thick. As used in these experiments, it could maintain a current
nearly uniform foran hour. I commonly employ four pairs.
mong writers on optics, it has been a desideratum to obtain
the lever, in making a self-acting apparatus, in which the
platinum should be maintained at a uniform temperature, not-
withstanding any change taking place in the voltaic current. © —
University, New York, Feb. 27, 1847.
ut
Arr. XXXVI—On the Changes which the Albuminous Sub-
stances undergo in the Stomach, during the process of Diges-
tion; by Prof. Mutper, of Utrecht. (Translated. from. the
Dutch, by Dr. Ave. Vincxer.) see apes
I Last year demonstrated,* that the fibrin of blood undergoes
no change in composition by solution in muriatie acid and precip-
itation by carbonate of ammonia. ie
The results of my analysis, employing in the present mstance
my last experiments on the amount of sulphur in these substan-
ces, were as follows :— : i ase
Dissolved and thrown down with
Undissolved fibrin, carbonate of ammonia.
C, 52-7 BRT! 3
‘ 6-9 —669
Ny: -Dsios Saket Pade d -ag / 1658
Oy 6 ase RP Beet get G UE
Ss UR tity gad cotterst aE
0
’ : : 3 3 . ‘ Ag ae
The phosphorus has not been determined in the dissolved Pd
tion ; but as vitellin loses phosphamid under the influence of ai
acid and ammonia,t it is probable that fibrin will have paca
i phamid a
ss * Scheik. Onderz., Deel iii, p. 470. ste pews
a Pbiscis + Von Baumhauer in Scheik! Onderz., Deel iii, p: 284. sage
yp at
Changes in Albuminous Substances during Digestion. 403
|The same experiments were repeated on casein and albumin,
and the following results obtained.
A small quantity of muriatic acid was added to milk; a pre-
cipitate fell, which was washed for along time with water: At
last the mass began to be gelatinous; in ‘this state it was mixed
with water and set aside at a temperature of about 40°C. After
some hours the whole was dissolved, and the butter rose to the
top. ‘The watery solution was decanted, thrown down by car-
bonate of ammonia, and the precipitate washed with nwak en; alco-
hol and ether, and dried at a cy of 130° C.
05568 germs. produced 0:0033 ash f
I. 1586 “ gave after being burned with caustic soda and
nitre, 0:07, Ba O, SO*.
‘TL 1-914 germs. gave 0:101, BaO, SO
I. 06512 « me ash, gave 83 is cent. of moist N at
169-5 and 766 m
I. 06542 « “without ash, “ 85 cub. cent. of moist N at
16°-5 and 766 m.
I. 05652 * nae of ash, “ 1:1065CO2 and 0:3569 H20.
IL 06113 « « “ 11885 “,..“ 03816. “
— me ? Undissolved casein.* Dissolved and thrown down.
ew; 53:8 344.4
po A, we 7-01 69
oe, 156 15-01 15:30
We ORB se 23 23-96
8, sree S46 f° O61 ° 0-73
Casein as I have shown as well as Schlossberger,t is a ope
body; it consists of different protein compounds, of which th
_ body that I have now studied constitutes the chief element. It
is characterized by a somewhat smaller amount of sulphur, and
hd distinguished besides from the mixture hitherto called casein,
by the circumstance that it contains more oxygen. It shows the
werhon of sulphamid-protein. ©
Without SN2H4.
684 3%, 54-1
5 C, . 53°5 ‘
wart : : 70 é 69 Z 70
ae ons sels Wb v5. 147
0, j netgecn gig ginal: S65 BBQ CON Co NRA
a 8, . f 0-6 . eee . i tliat
100-0 98°7 100-0
Albumin of eggs, ¢ ed by heat, was mixed with diluted
“Muriatic acid, and after “the addition of a small piece of rennet,
Set aside at a temperature of 40°C. After some days the albu-
min was completely dissolved. To the filtered liquid carbonate
“SRecheik. Onder. Déel iv,
ihe Deel ii, p- 453, iia und Pharmac., April, 1846, p. 92.
404 Changes in Albuminous Substances during Digestion.
of ammonia was added, and the precipitate washed with ‘witty
alcohol and ether, and dried at 130° C.
7 gave 0-004 ash.
0-645, free of ash, 87 of moist N at 179 5 G. and ir mi ms
ob 0 640, *
L. 0- a & ae 107 Co: and 0358 Ho,
+ 0:5 cc if4 0- 998 a4
AY 108 gta 0:1465 of sulphate Z avi - means of caus-
tic soda and n
II. 0-938 peo ‘0: 118 of sulphate of barytes. bs
Undissolved albumin.* Dissolved and precipitated. .~ Mean.
é. II. '
C, - 68S . 6274 .. Saisie 53:0 |
H, ‘ 70 j 6:93 (4243 698 , 6-9
N, » 16S ’ 15:97... 15°60 aingdbs
O, «520 : 92:53. 22HB. 2 22S
oe et Albee stirs 4-650. 1:73 ; 18
0-4
The phidejphoriid probably fot detclniod in thie precipitat tated
albumin, was not determined. The quantity of the sulphur ex-
ceeds that in albumin by 0:2; however, I do not doubt that -
increase must only be ascr ibed to an error of si star
showed at any: rate the reaction of sulphamid.
| Without SN2 bist 34
CG, 53-0 53-0 54:9
H, 6:9 6:8 ‘0
N, 158 14:2 147
O, ‘ 92-5 29-5 934 |
8, 18 : c Cee 4 ee
100-0 065%" 100-0 ©
Thus albumin has not been changed in composition, as regards
the C, N, H, O and SN? H,, and it appears that no new combi-
nation of albumin i is produced during the digestion in the stomac
Is this the case also with casein? No other conic aaairar a be
drawn from the above analysis than that, either casein of
already a substance richer in oxygen, or that the production 0
such a combination is caused du uring the solution in the
Let us now compare the organie group which remains,
deducting the elements of sulphamid from fibrin, hair and this
dissolved casei
pit Hair. ‘Dissolved casein
Gis sais ER So ee as SPO Toe Pe
Bie vay STORE . 9 Cup Teac ee eee
MaDe Layil (ABR oP . bo Bah veualgees A
i ae
ORL gk , 2 * Schieik. Onderai, Deel ivy p. 223.
Scientific Intelligence. 405
and let us place next to it the group, occurring originally in casein |
and albumin :
: Albumin fi eg Albumin from blood,
eee . 54:8 ‘ Oe <4 ao
ee Dey dace eee -ssaenre a
we, . 15-1 ‘ ae ORE i: es meee”
eeiO, ‘ 23-0 MSs ian gi wD"
it will now easily be seen, that there exists a considerable differ-
ence. In the first three groups is contained evidently less C and
lore O :
a They are expressed by
Atoms. Calculated.
C, ; : P 36 ; ~ 986
H, Ph eed 4 54 i ; i 6-7
N, $ oes 8 : ; S99
uce fibrin, while albumin. remains still albumin in the stomach
and probably undergoes no other change, except in the proportion
of sulphamid it contains.
406 Scientific Intelligence.
ing for those crystals which possess a simple refraction, and as the an-
gles of these last are not subject to the slight variations which affect the
results in other isomorphous groups, it appeared to me of interest to
verify the principle of M. H. Kopp,* upon some oxyds erystallizing } in
the regular system.
Mineralogy presents us many compounds crystallizing in the regular
system to which chemistry applies the most diverse formulas. — I here
ciie them with the notation of Berzelius.
Poegite weight.
Magnetic iron, (FeO, Fe,0,) . . -
Octahedral ligt iron x martte), (Fe,O,) . 476 to 4° 65
Spinelle,.. . (MgO, Al,O,) . 8-48 to 3°62
Gahnite, . . (ZnO, Al,O;) , . 423
Ceylanite,of the Ural (Abich) (FeO, Al,O, )+2(MgQ, Al,0;)
of Vesuvius, (Abich) (FeO, Al,0,)+9(MgO, Al 292};361088
Chlorospinelte of Slatoust, ¥ (M450, Fe,0,)+11(MgO; Alp0s)
ee (74 (73
(G. Rose “ 1} (MgO, Fe,0,)+6(MgO, AlL0,
)
Chromic iron (crystallized), 5(MgO, Cr FeO, Cr,0 y.
masts (compe) et (MgO, Cr, ee ao rf
3°59
sie Sie Pechtad (owe (3Fe0 TolytFe 0h
4 “* - Arendal, (Mosa (FeO, TiO, ) :
“ & Uddevalla: (Plantardtirs) (2(FeO, TIO 2 bRes0; » ee
Franklinite, (Abich,) (FeO, Mn,O »)-+(Zn0, ata Oz) 519
Periclase, (Damour, ) (18Mg0, Fe, ) eee
Perowskite, (H. Rose,) (CaO, Ti iO.) ey 4017
Braunite,t Mn,O,) Rivet
i The octahedrons of ‘braunite Go! not “belong a re vet set te )
for the pens of Age ie and 109°-46' (over eB peak edge 1 » fo ot
t. Marcel, while it is 1099-28"16" in fie regular octahedron. Bat this differ
= sg is not so great as that which exists between the angles es of substa eo ee
roNe > ious, as for example, those of the different carbonates, of ther
syste
We may sl, add to the preceding list the Banimennite, or manga sete
ganic onze which crystallizes i (5 oct tahedron’ with wie oes jee ne pee pind
ts is however, much greater, (105225 an ndi oe We may how
ieapietaerethee sce angles may differ in substances messr ta ne ot
‘See on this subject ws of te er +f 9 ee ee
ise > 97) , Mr, depen (Compt:
Chemistry and Physics. Or
according to the preceding formulas, we fail to find it, and often are
surprised to see that the specific weight of a mineral presents but slight
oscillations which scarcely accord with the widely varying composition
attributed to its different varieties. For example, it is not easy to un-
derstand why titaniferous iron has always a specific weight, varying
only from 4-745 to 4-78, while it is composed sometimes of equal equiv-
alents of ferric oxyd and ferrous titanate, and sometimes of one equiva-
lent of ferric oxyd and six equivalents of ferrous titanate.
These anomalies disappear entirely wo we write = cere oxyds after
one formula, OM, similar to that of water OH,, and in which M can
be replaced by different metals in indefinite cine provided that
See the oxyds thus represented with their atomic volume, _—
equals the product.of the atomic weight divided by the densit
oxyd, OM, 11-0
Oligist iron, OF e?, 11:4
Braunite,t OMn§ , 112
Peppenetc i iron, O(Fef$Feds), 11-4
_ Gahnit O(Al8$Zn3), 10-9
“Spinel O(AIf4Mnd) 5 10°6
O mentee fee 10°6
Eiiorccpincil, O(Al8*Fefy Mg”), 10-6
_ Chromic i iron, O(AlPeFesCpHilgy Fe") 11-2
_ Titaniferous iron, O( TiexFefyFe?) , 10-9
: _ Franklinite, O(Fes"MngxZa¥Fe) » Ill
_ Perowskite, Ot Fieg a8 2 11:2
» Peticlase, | O(Fef¥Mg?) 5 109.
Tam obliged to indicate by letters the most of those fractional num-
, of which the sum is equal to two equivalents. It is easy to re-
= these letters by their numerical values, which are de orn from the
formulas we a previously given. In ‘the sam e manner | suppress
etails of wegen re wee relative to the atomic volume.
in the m inerals. It is Neti rare that a mineral is ee Anil and
Ways modifies re epocite weight, it is evident th at we cannot oben a
humber rigorously exact in dividing the specific weight by the atomic
“Na of the a gun o be chemically pure.
— — Hed
valen! H, Fe
Mu
acts with oh 8 (Mangus of hydrogen to form 3H 20, My resting in Parneen
If w ooo the ar I of titanium - Tiz03 (TiO, Berzelius), ‘Tig beco
Pate ‘then Tig=Tia equals H.
ilk wal = cosine ( that M. Gerhar rata divides the ordinarily received equiva-
lents of hydrogen and metals The he MO then become M20, and the
eens Hig. MyOa, See See this Journal Sean 171, this volume.]
t Hausmannite ves an atomic v: of 12-2.
408 Scientific Intelligence.
nal.)—The columbite of North America has the same crystalline form
Cl . . : : ‘ 80-06 s
Protoxyd of iron, é e _ 12:59 e
Protoxyd of manganese, . .» 597 ee
Oxyd of tin, . . i . 0:96
Oxyd-of copper and lead, . - a 044
100-02
The specific gravity in fragments was 5°323; in powder, 53202. |
This-columbite comes nearest in composition and also in specl'™
gravity to that examined by M. Schlieper. : (oy Se ee
ve on a former occasion shown that the different aa gravity
.
of the crystals of the Bavarian columbite wing tot different pro”
cry ! n columbite was owing to in the different
portions of niobic and pelopic acids which are found
been
~* Cua=Cuz, cuprosum;. Asa—=As} arseniosum- Ee
Chemistry and Physics. 409
4
from tantalic acid, if I had had only the American mineral at my dis-
posal. But both the acids were so perfectly identical in all.their prop-
erties with the two acids prepared from the Bodenmais mineral, that I
did not find the least difference, even as regards the specific gravity.
the specific gravity of pelopic acid is considerably higher than
that of niobic acid, when the two are heated in the same manner the
higher specific gravity of the Bavarian columbite is thus satisfactorily
explained.
- Thaye moreover found small quantities of tungstic acid in the acids
from the American columbite, as well as in those from the Bodenmais
Mineral. .
- 3. Diamond converted to Coke, (Proc. Brit Assoc., 1847, Athen-,
No. 1028.)—Dr. Faraday exhibited some diamonds, which he had re-
ceived from M. Dumas, which had, by the action of intense heat, been
0
nductor.
4. On Different Properties of the Various Rays of the Solar Radi-
; i ine, Chlorine and
Bromine, in producing and preventing the Fixation of Mercurial Va-
through certain coloring media, through the vapors of the atmosphere,
and through red, orange and yellow glasses. Having directed a ca-
mera obscura upon the sun when its disc appeared quite red, he obtain-
1a. ; red sun had pro-
ic effect, although the surrounding spaces had been
Szconp Serixs, Vol. IV, No. 12.—Nov., 1847. 52
A10 Scientific Intelligence.
sufficiently affected by the photogenic rays proceeding from the zenith
his proved that the red rays
photogenic effect, as had taken place with the red light of the sun.
He made the same experiments with crange and yellow glasses, a0
obtained the same results but in different periods of time. The photo-
genic action of the red rays is 5,000 times longer than the white light,
that of the orange is 500 times longer and that of the yellow 100
times. ‘The destructive action of the red rays is 100 times longer than
that of white light; the orange 50 times, and yellow only 10 times.
When a plate has been exposed to the destructive action of any pat
ticular ray, it cannot be affected photogenically by the radiation which
has destroyed the first effect; it is only sensitive to the other radiations.
. R. Hunt remarked that his own observations had led him to the
conclusion, that instead of having to deal with three differently colored
rays, we ad to deal with three distinct principles,—these three colors
being a property of only one of them. Light, heat, and actinism he
ors of light.—Mr. Maskelyne objected to some of these conclusions: —
5. Report on the. Influence of Light on the Growth of Plants; by
R. Hunt, (Proc. Brit. Assoc., 1847, Athen., No. 1027.)—The author
associated in the sunbeam; that germination being e ected an
first leaves formed, light—the luminous rays—become essential to the
plant to enable it to secrete the carbon obtained from the carbonic aci@
of the atmosphere ; and that the increased action of the heat rays 1S
essential to insure the production of the reproductive elements sien
etable life. It is found that the chemical principle of the solar Tay"
is more active, relatively to heat and light, during the spring than
any other period of the year; that as summer advances this pore
minishes and luminous force increases, whilst with the autumn
light and actinism are subdued, but the calorific radiations increased.
‘Thus we find the conditions of the light of the seasons vary!Dg we 4
the necessities of vegetable life. The production of chlorophy!,
the coloring matter of the leaves, was shown to be due to the joint
Chemistry and Physics. 411
action of light and actinism—the first being necessary to effect the
secretion of the carbon and the latter for the oxydation of this deposit-
ed carbon.
6. On the Application of Photography to copying Microscopic Ob-
jects; by Dr. Carpenter, (Rep. Brit. Assoc. for 1847, Athen., No.
! —Numerous specimens of Daguerreotype and other photo-
r
graphic paper, recommended this application of the art to the attention
of naturalists. .
7. On the Quantity of Electrolysis as affected by the Extent of th
W. R. Grove, Esq., (Proc.
t. Assoc. for 1847, Athen., No. 1028.)—The experiments here de-
bh
rangements, both as regarded the generating and also the conducting
“portions of the circuit. A single cell of a zinc and platina diaphragm
amount of gas whatever be their size; and th ize of el
terpreted by many, and regarded as establishing that the size of @lcc-
libera
Perience which the application of voltaic electricity to the electrotype
and its kindred arts has promoted, this error has now for some yea
been removed. 1 believe 1 was the first to point out the necessity of
electrodes equal in area to. the battery plates in order to yield the full
412 Scientific Intelligence.
amount of gas which a battery is capable of yielding ; and at the Royal
Institution in the year 1840, I showed a voltameter constructed on this
principle, which yielded mixed gas from a battery of four square feet
ce, at the rate of 110-c. i. per minute. ‘The voltameter used in
certaining the amount of decomposition per minute, and then placing
in the battery the porous cells, which had been previously soaked in the
same solution of copper,—again decomposing, and calculating from the
difference the diminution of area. The following is the table of ex-
ote made with that view—and which will in great part explain
itself :— a oboe
Experiments on Relative Sizes of Electrodes.—September 24th, 25th,
26th, 1845.
. x o ee Fe
No. ells of | ng Surface exposed | Surface exposed | tity of Gas |»
Gia panery} Mecmmied in | Supsneaper™ | SPLacccshors |. “ane uper
__ in series, BAB sapcns f each plate. sq. inches. minute,
— . 8 8 Asrace, J
1 id. 8 72% id.
* : - a eT ee en a en ge
2) 8 72 67.
Eas hee»
1 28 4
Wire 09
2 4 32 72 - - 205 Y
56 20°3
48 20
40 20
32 19°4
24 188
16 16
8 12
: 1 35 fa
Ww 1
Remarks.—Battety in these €xperi cb nitric acid, sp: gr. 139, sulphuric
acid, 1:22, or 1444 ws fan's separates charged with nitric acid, sp. gr. 19%, |
__ Dr. Faraday remarked on the importance of this investigation, and
its application to the principles of electro-telegraphic communications;
garded as a continuous fluid substance, and is treated mathematiey 7
on hydrodynamical principles. By means of a new general equat file
in hydrodynamics, which the author has discovered, he shows that 2"
ament of the fluid may continue in agitation without lateral sp! ied a
and that motion may be propagated along it uniformly, pointe areal
consist of vibrations partly longit
Chemistry and Physics. 413
planes passing through the axis of the ray, and is alike in all directions
xis; in a plane-polarized ray, the transverse motion is in
tances.
been enabled to preserve the electricity of a small sphere in an ex-
5
—
Pos
oO
fs]
Qo
2.
=]
©
S
=
@
g
-™|.
°
°
™
ay
Lx |
as)
bev]
bon
oa.
~-
La
®
ao
a
b=]
S
QO
oO
°
Los}
7
°
Pi
°
i=]
J
was the same as when
rolled up into the form of a cylinder, the quantity of electricity being
the same—and that the intensity of a circular area was the same as
that of the sphere into which we might conceive it to be transformed.
0 electrometer, ing on the attractive forces exerted between a
¢
414 Scientific Intelligence.
charged and neutral plane, was here exhibited to the Section, and was
said to be susceptible of great accuracy in measurements of this kind,
that in the electrical jar the charge is not dependent on the thickness
of the coatings but on their extension. If we could suppose a single
y only in the universe—and to be charged with electricity—there
appears no reason from experiment to suppose a priori, an unequal
nd conductors
~ connected with them ;—we had, in fact, a chargeable system, with
convex coatings. We have only to consider the opposed areas. Here,
n
points is established. ‘The attractive force between the spheres a
ints, 4
an i
-
5
<
3)
a
=
‘<
fos]
S
2.
=
mM
-
a
sa)
i=)
=]
a)
i")
a
°
lene)
onal
=
"@
&
3
=)
S
Q
o
Rn
5
4
®
a
=,
oO
g,
&
point g, a the distance between the nearest points of the spheres, b
r the fadius. When both hemispheres are equal, the whole force Wil
Mineralogy and Geology. A415
Fis”? ] v Cit
vary as in (a Ory As the distance between the spheres increases,
tween this sphere and a second sphere placed beneath it, and charged
with a given quantity of electricity, were predicted with great precision.
crystallization cannot be discovere The conclusion must be, that the
ifference between the crystallized and the amorphous states cannot be
exactly determined, since the microscope shows in this case no crystal-
lization where the pyroelectricity is a proof that we must suppose a
crystalline structure. :
2. On Sulphato-Chlorid of Copper, a new Mineral ; by Prof. Con-
NELL, (Proc. Brit. Assoc., 1847, Athen., No. 1027:)—Amongst some
416 Scientific Intelligence.
minerals which were lately put into my hands by Mr. Brooke for chem-
ical examination, there was one which I found to consist of sulphuric
of nearly 1,200 feet above the sea. Over the rest of the island raised
of coral rock, some of them nearly 200 feet high, into six terraces; —
indicating as many different periods of upheaval. In the lowest of
fe
v
: ing force : from this point ravines, some of them 250 feet
in depth, radiate in all directions towards the sea. The tertiary rocks
of the Scotland district are more or less inclined, ,and sometimes ver-
en set on fire accidentally, and to have continued burning for five
years. Slags are found on the surface bearing distinct marks of fires
and sandstone, containing bitumen and mineral oil, abi und 10
neighborhood. The summit of Bissey Hill, 986 feet above the Seis
consists of silicious limestone, containing teeth of two species of sham
(Lamna and Odontaspis), spines of Echini, and shells, one of which
(Scalaria Ehrenbergii) is considered by Prof. Forbes to belong to the
miocene period. In the white marls of the Scotland district, M. Ehren”
berg has discovered the silicious skeletons of nearly
Se Segre These belong to a group called
: e« ¢ 2
| od and in Bermuda; some of them are forms now ining i a
Mineralogy and Geology. ANT
element of the bones of the vertebrate animals, and carbonate of lime
chief material is the skeletons of the molluscous animals and zoo-
phytes, silica is almost peculiar to these minute races of infusoria.
Some of the s in which these silicious animalcules are found
contain a large admixture of pumice, giving it the character of vol-
canic tufa.
_ 4. Exploration of the Volcano Rucu-Pichincha, (Quito ;) by MM.
Ses. Wisse et Garcia Moreno, during August, 1845, (abridged from
; 10.)—
feet, are furrowed by deep ravines. All the part above, called the
‘Arenal,’ is covered with sand and pumice, and is inclined at an angle
of 25° to 35°.
- The authors having ascended the Arenal to the height of, 1542 feet,
teached the edge of the crater, which is broken down on the south and
on the west, and found the cavity of the volcano to consist of two fun-
nel-shaped craters, apparently resulting from two sets of eruptions.
They descended into the eastern crater, a depth of 1050 feet, and found
it to consist simply of a vast ravine, at the bottom of which was the bed
of a torrent, always dry except during rains.
_ The western crater is nearly circular, and regularly funnel-shaped :
at the bottom is a small plain, through which flow two torrents, which
unite near.the western opening of the crater. On the western side of
this plain rises a hill or cone of eruption, whose height is about 260
: above the’ mean level of the bottom of the crater, and its diameter
_ about 1476 feet. This hill is embraced by the two torrents, so as to
orextinct, are all situated in this cone of eruption; not the slightest
hey are arranged in nearly cir-
cular groups of different dimensions, some of them attaining a diameter
of 82 feet.. There are in all nine of these groups, six in activity and
uriantly within a yard of the-ori .
cone two more gr of active vents are reached ;
and finally at the summit, the most considerable and imposing group o
tions of force. Cubical masses of rock, upwards of 12 feet in the side,
-Szconp Sears, Vol. IV, No. 12.—Nov., 1847. 53°
418 Scientific Intelligence.
are thrown about in the utmost confusion; while between their intersti-
ces the most suffocating vapors arise.
Lastly, at the foot of the cone are found two more groups of extinct
vents. ‘The total number of active vents is about seventy.
Vapors also find their way through the loose soil, which consists of
ashes, sand, and sulphur: their odor was that of burnt sulphur and of
rotten eggs; from which it is to be presumed that they consist of a
mixture of the sulphurous and hydrosulphuric acids. The authors next
mounted with incredible labor to the summit of the volcano, whose crest
is serrated with sharp pyramidal rocks, resembling the teeth of a saw.
The inner walls near the top consist of detached blocks and rocks of all
sizes; and lower down, of sand and soil with occasional patches of veg-
etation. The rocks blackened by time, the profound obscurity, and the
vast columns of smoke issuing from an abyss 2460 feet in depth, are
described as forming a majestic and terrible scene.
The authors give the following reasons for believing the eastern cra-
ter to be the more ancient. It contains no traces of volcanic fumeroles,
and its cone of eruption has entirely disappeared ; its interior walls are
the matter thrown from the interior must have reach
canic; the traditions of the Indians being absolutely silent on the 0
* . . 4 a 4
the
Cordilleras. The fumeroles of the present cone must @
obstructed during a great lapse of time; otherwise the Indians must a
rom it.
known eruptions in 1539, 1577, 1587 and:1660, have: all issued from
the existing cone; and to this epoch must be referred the blowing away
of the matter which choked the old vent, and the formation of the pr
ent cavities. _ a
_ But in spite of history and tradition, it is impossible to believe 1
-vast blocks, more 2 feet in diameter, which cover part ©
plain of Iiia Quito, distant 3} leagues, can have been thrown out
the eruption of 1539. There are no traces of such ‘recent eruptions °°
Mineralogy and Geology. 419
the sides of Pichincha, and the present cone is far from being considera-
ble enough to have furnished such a vast quantity of projectiles. ‘Those
which were thrown at angles less than 45° would strike against the
inner walls of the crater, and roll back again into it; those only whic
Were thrown at greater angles, and with force enough to rise 16,000
feet above the plain of Quito, could reach their present positions ; and
although this is not physically impossible, yet it is contradicted by the
appearances of the later eruptions, which have clearly been of a very
~ tranquil description.
authors consider as equally fabulous, a tradition that the erup-
tion of 1660 was accompanied by showers of incandescent rocks, which
are said to have fallen on all sides, but of which not a vestige is now to
J.C. M.
seen.
5. Count Keyserling’s Geology of the Northeastern Extremity of
Russia in, Europe; by Sir R. I. Murcuison, (Proc. Brit. Assoc., 1847,
Athen., No. 1028.)—Sir R. I. Murchison exhibited the new work, en-
tusenstern, of the Imperial Navy. The geological outline of the
Present work (executed in 1848) was communicated to Sir R. I. Mur-
systems, occurring in a hitherto unexplored region which extends over
hear 11 degrees of latitude ; viz. from 60° to 71° N. lat., and 25° long.,
Including the northernmost range of the Ural Mountains. Sir R. I.
Murchison stated that although the eastern flank of that chain had been
touched upon at one or two points by the authors, and notably in N.
to the points alluded to,) is the
Ridge, which, branching off from near the Ural Mountains in lat. N,
62°, trends in a N.N.W. direction to the left bank of the Petschora to
the bay of Techeskaya, and is prolonged into the promontory of Kanin-
“* This work consists of a 4to volume of text, published in German at St Peters.
burg in 1846, ‘two maps.—J. D. D.
420 - Scientific Intelligence.
Scandinavia. Sets
leaves—the seeds, &c. ‘ ba
Since the meeting, Mr. Teschemacher has continued his mvestiga-
tions, and has communicated in a letter to one of the editors the follow-
ing results. ' ;
Ist. What I considered-as vessels were said to be mere marks of
sliding of the coal. Prof. Bailey prepared a specimen of this, by his
method, and told me that if I found*vessels there, my proposition was
correct. Examined by Agassiz and myself, with his large Oberhauser,
it turns out to be nothing but a mass of perforated vessels, as cleat and
distinct as if they were recent. Mr. Agassiz observed, “one m:
suffices to remove every doubt on the subject.”
2nd. What I considered as fossil seeds, were said to be mere pea
cock-eye coal ; the dark carbonaceous centres of these seeds which I
held to be carbonized cellular matter, was thought to be a mere M
and the seeds imaginary. I have since discovered them with distinct —
clear apparently spinous appendages, Mr. Agassiz thinks t° seed @
Samara, and I have found sufficient quantity to pick out the carbonaceous
matter from the interior with a fine needle—decarbonize it in a clean
with the Oberhauser, 700 diameters, Mr. Agassiz shewed to Dr. va
and myself the cells as clear and plain as possible ; it is a mass rs per
ulty of
managing the
seeds. ‘The pot
more easily than in the other cases, by specimens passing 8"
- from the smoother through different degrees of anceps (all still
smooth and polished,) until we arrive at the full form of the ? hi hare
dron. Nay more, I have found the parallel lines (channels)
+ Bike
Botany and Zoology. A21
on the slickenslides, also on the perfectly formed Lepidodendra. The
Seerecinces of my views here I could prove to the most skeptical.
The discoveries still to be made on this subject are numerous and
iedent, and I doubt not that the investigation of the coal itself will
solve the doubts hitherto existing in the comparison of the coal
fossils with recent plants.
_ I will merely add, that I have found — distinctly the impression of
the cellular cuticle of some of these plants, which of course cannot be
Seen in an impression on shale, the sre of the sedimentary matter
being as large as the surface of the cells; but on the pasty mass of
coal the impression is perfect.
Ill. Borany anp Zootoey.
‘1. Description Rs a sg ae new species of Columba, inhabiting
Mexico; by Gzorcs A. M’Catt, (Proceed. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad.,
July, 1847, \— Columba euihic ioe gr ngth 13 ioches 9 lines. Alar
extent 23 inches. Wing, from the flexure, 7 inches, 5 lines. Tarsus
linch; middle toe 1 inch, 2 ‘he first toe 9 lines, and longer than
the third; nails light flesh color; feet and legs deep red. iris da
orange. "Bill above; 1 inch, 1 line, but feathered to within 5 lines of
tip; reddish near the base, whitish near the tip. Head chocolate-
blue. Throat chocolate-white. eck and breast blueish-chocolate
with brilliant yeihBetisite. Back, belly, flanks, underwing-coverts and
greater exterior wing-coverts light red color, the last faintly bordered
With white. Lesser wing-coverts chocolate red, forming a bright shoul-
der Spot of elliptical shape. yl feathers dusky, tinged ‘with lead
color on the outer vanes. 3rd mary longest. Upper and under tail-
coverts blueish-lead color. Tail 5 inches ; slightly rounded ; of twelve
athers; dus sky.
Individuals of this fine ie ein in general contour, go s
“Sent nas, were found o o Grande, from Matamoras Bi
argo; these were shy, ace bly ini with at intervals. ‘Th vai
tein observed on one or two of the smaller Me courses =
the f ormer place and Victoria, Bit never in flocks ; nor were more than
If-a-dozen seen anywhere in a single day while “Naditing over large
extents. Their haunts were in the neighborhood of running streams or
Very large ponds of clear water: here “four or five might be found scat-
tered over some 20 or 50 acres; thus showing little sociability even on
ear feeding grounds. But most oak he is found alone, perche
‘Hear the water, or with rapid wing s haping his solitary course across
the extensive waste. His flight is extremely bold, as he pitches in wide
irregular 71g zags through the air, with a velocity scarcely to be surpass-
ed. meat for delicacy of flavor is ras rane by any of the family.
saurus, (communicated by P Sat aon from a letter re-
drarchus, Koch, found in the tertiary formation in Alabama,
is is identical with Harlan’ s Basilosatrus and Owen’s | Zeuglodon cetoides. *
ood
7 2 ie. L za 3 PD. o.' Ful ehiciat,
Biocon: fea -_ ‘ 2
422 Scientific Intelligence.
The crowns of the teeth, with which Owen was not acquainted, have a
sive and a canine, at least this is the case with the under jaw.
* As such teeth as those which are found in the Hydrarchus, occur
in the tertiary formation in Malta, we may conclude that this animal be-
longs likewise to the tertiary formation of that island.
“I think I can positively show that the Hydrarchus is not a reptile,
but a mammal belonging to a peculiar extinct family. It has the ear
formed as in the mammals, viz. a helix, and a tympanic bone as in the
whales. It has moreover two occipital condyles, and in the whole for-
mation of the cranium no trace of reptile structure occurs, but on the.
contrary every thing isas in mammals. ;
“‘ The vertebral column is very peculiar in its structure. The cervi-
cal vertebrae, probably more numerous than in any other mammal, are
without perforations in their transverse processes ; the ribs are only at-
tached to the transverse processes of the vertebra ; at the central and
posterior part of the column, the bodies of the vertebra are unusually
long, and must both at the anterior and posterior part of the extremities
ve been cartilaginous, inasmuch as we find here beneath the bony
shell a mass of pure stone, while the central part of these vertebra
ne ”
e in Ul
and an-
n,—
‘ought to Hol-
tol in the
British Museum, the head and foot at Oxford, and a head lately discov"
imen exhibit
detained by the vexatious formalities of the London Cust
The Oxford head and foot have been recently dissected ; :
characters thus exposed it is certain that the Dodo was not related
bd the gallinaceous birds, the ostriches, or the vultures, a
onjectured—but is closely allied to the pigeons. With the exert
of its short wings, it approaches greatly to the Trerons, oF fruit-pigeons 4
and still more to the Didunculus, a kind of pigeon from the »#
Botany and Zoology. 423
Islands, of which the only specimen in Europe was exhibited at the
meeting. The author supposes that the Dodo fed upon the cocoa-nuts,
ear.
of Rodriguez, visited in 1691 by Leguat; who has given a descriptio
and figure of a brevipennate bird which he calls the Solitaire. Seve-
tal bones of this bird from the Museums of Paris and of Glasgow, were
on the table ; and a comparison of them with those of the Dodo clearly
proved that the ‘ Solitaire” was an allied, but distinct species,—longer
legged than the Dodo, and related, like it, to the pigeons. It was next
bon :—but they might doubtless be procured from the caves and alluvial
deposits of that island; and by similar researches in Mauritius and Rod-
tiguez, the entire skeletons of this remarkable family of extinct birds
might be reconstructed.
tom Africa, on the Cape Verd islands, even in Malta and Genoa,
Which the author has had an opportunity of examining, all agreed in
the following particulars :—Ist, they are all ochre yellow, never grey,
like the dust of the Khamseen in the north of Africa; 2nd, the color is
5. A Fact respecting the Habits of 1
Forrest Psscthien et lociimenicanel for this Journal.)—In the evening
ight of a pleasant day in September, 1846, Sir George Simpson en-
A24 Scientific Intelligence.
camped for the night, on his route from Red River to the head waters
of the Mississippi, in the vicinity of latitude 48 degrees North and lon-
shower, the weather changed suddenly from warm to cold. It is there-
fore probable that the whole of this immense swarm of insects encoun-
tered the cold currént, and were paralyzed and precipitated thereby.
They all died soon after falling. Specimens of these insects were col-
lected by the attendants of Sir George, from whom | received them.
In no instance, however, were they seen to revive after coming into a-
warmer atmosphere. Not being able to recognize this species, | took
the specimens to Professor Bachhofner, of the Royal Polytechnic Insti-
tution of London, who at once declared them to be the ‘ Notonecta
glauca,” a species of aquatic diptera, well known in Europe. ey
Other specimens were given to Dr. Le Conte, of New York, from
whom the scientific community will probably hereafter receive a more
particular description through the columns of the American Journal. —
1 Sh
>
6. On the Diatomaceous Vegetation of the Antarctic Ocean ; by Dr.
J. Hooxer, (Proc. Brit. Assoc., 1847, Athen., No. 1028.)—The author
found the Diatomacez in countless numbers between the parallels 60°
and 80° south, where they gave a color to the sea, and also to the ice-
bergs floating on it. The death of these bodies in the south Areti¢
Ocean is producing a sub-marine deposit, consisting entirely of the sili-
ceous particles of which the skeletons of these vegetables are compos”
This deposit exists on the shores of the Victoria Land, and at the base
of the voleanic mountain Erebus. Dr. Hooker accounted for the fact
that the skeletons of Diatomacee had been found in the lava of voleanle
mountains, by referring to the position of the Diatomacee deposits 1»
relation to Mount Erebus,—which lie in such a position as to renee
quite possible that the skeletons of these vegetables should pass —_
lower fissures of the mountain, and then passing into the arene 4
lava, be thrown out unacted upon by the heat to which they have esis
exposed. here sail
7. Analogy between the Fossil Flora of the European Miocene -
the living Flora of America; by Prof. Acassiz, ina letter cage ae
Murchison, (Athenzeum, No. 1023.)—* I think I made a lucky and ¢ *
an unexpected hit, by tracing the close analogy between the fossil of
of the European miocene deposits (molasse) and the living Flom 2
the temperate parts of the United States of North America. 4P°%
Tespondence extends to all the types of organized beings:
Astronomy. — 425
we have the Megalobatrachus, the se skeet living type of the An-
drias, or great fossil salamander of Oeninge As I am unable to
_write a paper now, I would thank you to seas these remarks known
pein I can publish them in extenso.
IV. Astronomy.
1. The New Planet In1s.—The discovery by Mr. J. R. Hind of Lon-
fon; of another planet between Mars and Erne is thus announced in
‘his letter to The Times, published Aug. 18,
** Sir—In addition to the Berlin Maps, i ch we have revised, and
in some instances corrected, Ecliptical charts of stars down to the tenth
Magnitude, have been formed for some of the hours of Right Ascen-
‘Sion, which it is Mr. Bishop’s intention to publish as soon as they are
completed. On the 13th of August, I compared Wolfers’s Map {Hora
xix] with the heavens, and was surprised to find an unmarked star of
“ iat to satisfy me as to its nature; because during an eight shiaehe
- search I have met with very many variable stars,—a class which I be-
lieve to be far more numerous than is generally supposed. But on em-
out the wire micrometer we were enabled in less than half an hour
establish its motion, and yn! to convince qureelves that I had —
m=
ae
li
S
i
Se
i
as
Ed
Be
ie
a
o
fracting telescope, and the perfectio
we have to thank Mr. Dollond,) that a far smaller change would have
been sufficient to convince us as to the nature of the object in question.
Mr. Bishop has fixed upon Iris as an appropriate name or the new
planet; and we that astronomers generally will join with us in its
Adoption, The following are all ee oheesinnont we have yet made.
Gr. m. t 3 A. of In Ss. deci.
C2 af. Me: Me = ms 8.
‘1s47, Aug. 18, 93946 = 19 57 30°38 13 27 215
13,103724 1957 28°41 13 27 27-6
14, 9 23 58 56 38°30 13 29 14:0
15, 9 039 49554764 1331 43
a Mr. Bishop’s Observatory ory, Regent's Park, Aug. 17.”
Mr. Hind subsequently 7 anetaneatal to the Times his first ater
“mation : to the elements of this planet, from an observation of Au:
: vee Prof. Challis, re “a taken by hi hi mself, Aug. 13 and 26, tan avs:
Parallax and a
2 "Bacon Shans, Ve WW, No. 12-—Nov.,, 1647,‘
426 Scientific Intelligence.
Mean long. 1847, Sept. 0, Gr. m. ot 2 856% 9 EBB
Long. of specie 3 : 26 9 48 °5 m. eqx.
= ae ees ‘ ; : 251 41 14 5 § 18470
Inclinat 3 ; ‘ 4 37 23> ert
An ee of eaeentieaey ‘ é : 25°35 22 pees
yes : : ; 0°43192 te
Log. semi-axis major, , : ; _ 04598916 ice
Period in sidereal years, . é : . 4896 208d
This orbit, as Mr. Hind observes, is remarkable for its great excen-
tricity ; wer? - A PaaS of revolution is longer than that of any of i
a 1, 1847. (See p. 286 of this volum
Comet of May 7, 1847, (Astr. Nach., No. 603.)—Prof. cen at
Parnas in Italy, discovered, May 7, 1847, a faint telescopic comet inthe |
constellation Leo Minor. DArrest of Berlin has given the flowing
elements
Perihelion passage, 1847, June 1247-41336 m. t. Berl.
Long. ed Perihelion, ; 137° 41’ cote . qx.
* Asc. Nod
173 25 50 -3 § 18470 ae
tnclinssiod: Pera 80 16 56 °5 ae
Log. Perih. dist., ¢ 0°3257617 wes
otion, « ¥ : Retrograde. ewe
“3. Comet of July 4, 1847.—In the Comptes Rendus, July 26, 1847
Mauvais gave the following elements (second approximation) of the
bit “ the comet discovered by him July 4, 1847, ue p. 287, this
ume,) viz.
Perihelion passage, 1847, oe: 84-451318
f Perihel 247°
elion, 9! 46/7 - eqx
6 38 aie eg ; 338 8 45 -4 Mi July 0, ‘t ;
Inclination y : 83. 27-25 9.
Perihelion ak, ‘ . 1°767552
Motion, Oh ae
pace. aS
. New Cina (Boston Evening Transcript, Oct. 9.)—A leone
sabi was discovered by a lady of Nantucket, on the morning of Oct
1, 1847, in the constellation Cepheus. It is now visible to the naked
eye. Its position determined = _ Cambridge Operas: pases
— ey zeta Draconis.
7, 7° 56™ 31s, R.A. 17 10 56-2, =
N. 70° 1’ 18”; po to M. Eqs. Jan Ie :
6. The New Telescope epee —The following letter om
Mr. Bond, the Director of the Observatory at Com ge Mass)
performance of the Grand Refractor
there, Will be read with much interest.
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 427
samnnees i heey Sept. 22d, 10482.
was resolved into rete points of a The number of stars was too
great to attempt counting them; many were however readily located
and mapped. The double character of he? brightest star of the Tra-
pezium was readily recognized with a power Struve’s
_ 6th star ;” and certain of — stars composing the nebula were seen as
. double Stars under this
It should be borne in pie that this nebula and that of Andromeda
as have been the last strong-hold of the nebular theory ; that is, the idea,
first thrown out by the elder Herschel, of masses of nebulous matter
in process of condensation into systems. he nebula in Orion yielded
a hee the st Sg skill of both the Herschels, armed with their excel-
nt Refi
= Tt even n defied the power of Lord Rosse’s three-foot mirrors, giving
“not the slightest trace af resolvability,”” or separation into a number
of single pperkbng point
___ And even when, for ie first time, Lord Rosse’s grand Reflector of
six-feet speculum was directed to this object, “* not the veriest trace of
a star was to be seen.” Subsequently his eels communicated the
tesult of his farther examination of Orion, as follows :—
a think I may safely say, that there can be little if any doubt as to
be. oy. of the nebula——We could plainly see that all about
_ the T; ra m is a mass of stars; the rest of the nebula also abound-
ns ay stars ‘and exhibiting the characteristics of resolvability strongly
This has bidet been considered as the greatest | effort of the —
Reflecting telescope in the world ;—and this our own telescope has
% comp! ished.
=! feel deeply sensible of the odiousness of comparisons ;—but innu-
merable applications have been made to me for evidence of the excel-
nce of the instrument, and I can see no other way in which the pub-
_ lic are to be made acquainted with its merits.
With sincere respect and esteem, I remain, Sir, your obedient ser-
(Signed) W. C. Bono.
“Pr res’t EvEereErt.
VY. Miscettaneous INTELLIGENCE.
1. Eighth Annual Meeting ae the Association of American Geolo-
ists and Naturalists. —This was guano according to ad-
t
428 Miscellancous Intelligence.
tolerably complete list of the papers read during the meeting. The
ost important step taken at this meeting was the enlargement of the
sphere of operations in this association and a corresponding c change of
name—Tue AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ProMOTION OF SCIENCE
is hereafter to be its designation, and it is designed to embrace all labor-
ers in Physical Science and Natural History. Hitherto but few papers:
have been read on chemistry, natural philosophy, and general zoology, »
the title of the Association appearing to many to exclude these topics.
responding increase of valuable papers and collaborators it is an-
ticipated will follow this desirable change.
The vacancy in the office of chairman, occasioned by the lamented
death of Dr. ee was filled by the appointment of Prof. Wm. :
Rogers of Virginia
Papers read September $ Qlst. :
n the Mississippi Bluff formation, near Natchez; by Col. B. L. Cc.
Wailes, of Washington, Miss.
On animal torpidity ; ; by Peter A. Browne, Esq. of Phi ladelphia.
On the fossil 2: Seas of Anthracite coal; by Joseph E. Tesche oma
cher, of Boston
On the srnabire of the Echinodermata; by Prof. Agassi
On certain new me of Fossil Mammalia from Tikinois ; by John
L. LeConte, of New Y
September 22d.
mains of existing Marine Shells gone ~ the hills of Drift
and tec in Brooklyn, N. Y. Redfi Le
7%. DY ne
On the Structure of Anthracite Coal ; Prof. J. a Bailey. ie ie
On the Animals which formed the Hoh Footmarks in New tee
4
land; by President Hitchcock.
On certain relations of the Alkaline ae ie Je! E. N.
On the Antiquity of the Indian Mounds: G. Squier. | z ae
On the structure of Polyps; by Prof. eee el
ry Sosa: 23d.
On the Mastodon ; by Dr. J. C |
On certain Laws of Lohesive 1 Hite by J. D. Dana. 0 964.
r. Dana’s paper will be found in full, commencing on page 3
of tia number.
Letter frst’ W.C. Bond, on the wrap wd of the pg Orion. |
ae the Nebular Hy pothesis ; 3 Prof. B. Pei
n a new species of Orang; by Dr. J. 3. Wym
On the Geographical Distribution of Adinals. along thy cotst tof
New England ; by Prof. Agassiz. De
Bylo the Cypress Swamps of Mississippi and Louisiana ; by
ickerso
essa’: on the Currents of the North Atlantic ; ke Lieut. Maury.
the Fishes of Lake Winipissiogee ; by Dr. Wm rescott. a gee
On Claystone concretions; by Prof. C. B. Ad
September 24th.
_ On the Natchez Bluff formation ; by Dr, L. D. Gale. 2.
On the saa ion of Carbonic: acid ; a! Profs. w. B. and RE 4
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 429
goectbe the Languages of the Aborigines of the Southwest; by S. S.
On fax: Mounds of the Southwest; by Dr. M. W. Dickers
On the general results of Investigations in the Palienatology of the
: lower strata of New York; by James Hall.
On the Depth and Saliness of the Ocean; by Com. C. Wilkes, U.S.N.
On Heat; by Prof. Henry.
: On the Taconic aeiaanes by Prof. Adams.
_ Report on the Taconic System; by Prof. L. Vanuxem
Rid ~ ig the Phenomena of Drift and Glacial action in New ‘England ; by
Desor.
ee On the Drift of New England and the River St. Lawrence ; by Epo!
EN Rogers.
ee September 25th, Saturday morning.—Final Session.
* On the Incrustations of Steam Boilers; by Prof. W sabe Hae
~ On the Structure of the Holothuride ; by Count Pourta
_ On the Distribution of organic matter in forest and shop trees; by
: Zmmons.
Report on Trilobites, Crinoidea, &c., of New York; by J. Hall.
: ne ~ On the Organization and objects of the Beiitheontais Institution ; by
Prof. Jos. Henry.
_ The Association adjourned to meet in esarnors age in ey tome 1848.
_ Abstracts of the papers read and remarks made at the Association
will be on given in this Journal as sar as they hey be sent in by
their « autho
é Co iowa. The os was cover vik: snow tet the time it fell.
Mr. Rogers heard a loud explosion in the air, and immediately ran to
his door. He heard the stone, of which this is : piece, and several
others, whiz through the air, and strike the ground, and saw the snow
and d dirt fly where this stone struck. The weight of the stone before it
“Tris said that three are or tae stones have been found, all of which
are precisely similar in appearance, and nearly of the same weight of
: this—as it appeared before broken.
The explosion wa etened distinctly by one of the surveyors who was
meee on the survey of the public lands, forty miles distant from Mr.
aSigeeas
piece —— to was sent to Col. Abert, Washington.
—T
Ty weigh “7th fen eleven
ary Rainbows ; by Jonn Brocstessy, (in a letter to
| the ‘editors, dated Hartford, Cu, Aug. 20, 1847.)—On the evening of
the fifth of — of the present year, I beheld just at sun-down, a
. iful rainbow attended by the usual secondary, and two supplemen-
lary ares. The primary bow w formed, of course, a le se
_ and its tints were remarkably vivid. Within this appeared two super-
numerary arcs, the three spectra being i contact with each other,
whole extent of the
throught the
430 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
Only two of the prismatic colors were visible. The red of the pri-
mary was succeeded by the green; then came the faint red of the first
supernumerary bow; a dark interval next occurred, which was ro
ed by the still fainter red of the = supplementary are.
green and violet; or green and red ares, alternating with each other
of g
4. ent and Re aide Bumigies of the eine .
forded + “Metallic ( Conductors against Heavy Strokes of Lightning; —
by Sir W. S. Harris, (Proc. Brit. Assoc., 1847, Atheneum, No. 1027,
July 3.)—The possibility of guarding buildings and other structures —
against the destructive — of lightning, has been made a great —
question in practical science, from the time of Franklin to the present
ay; and it is of sonciderchie public importance, seeing the fr se
damage w which occurs to our beautiful | churches and other edifices by ss
fon of induction, observation and experiment. The eral princ
which Sir W. arris Reicier! as deducible fom: the ‘oquites wish,
which he alluded are the part
sith all the great metallic masses crpnlonend in a
‘bull, and united by. large bolts
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 431
‘without, not under the form of lightning, but under the form of a current
<< . - . Ww .
: “rays | y the use of a tinted glass, which should not be objectionable in
its appearance, and the question was at the recommendation Sir Wm.
diation. Tissue paper stretched on a frame was smoked on one side
: by holding it over a smoky flame, and then while the spectrum was
thrown upon it, the other surface was washed with strong sulphuric
_ ether, By the evaporation of the ether, the points of calorific action
_ Were most easily obtained, as these dried off in well defined circles long
_ before the other parts presented any appearance of dryness. By these
‘means it was not difficult, with care, to ascertain exactly the conditions
_ of the glass, as to its transparency to light, heat, and chemical agency,
{actinism.) The glass thus chosen is of a very pale yellow-green color,
e is so transparent that
432 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
searcely any light is intercept ted. In examining the spectral rays
through it, it is found that the yellow is slightly diminished in intensity,
and that the extent of the red ray is affected in a small degree, the
lower edge of the — red ray being cut off by it. It does notap-
pear to act in an n the chemical principle, as spectral impres-
sions obtained upon chtorid of silver are the same in extent and char+
acter as those by the action of the rays which have
ordinary white glass. This glass has, however, a very remarkable ac-
tion upon the non-luminous heat-rays, the least refrangible calorific
It prevents the permeation of all that class of heat-rays which
exists below and inthe point fixed by Sir William Herschel, Sir H.
Englefield, and Sir J. Herschel, as the point of maximum calo rific action.
As it is to this class of rays that the scorching influence is due, there is
every reason to conclude that the use of this glass will be effective ee
protecting the plants, and, at the same time, as it is unobjectiouiaam ‘
de sa Sa
Melloni, in his ines on vodinat heat, yee that a pec oat
green glass, manufactured in Italy, obstructed nearly all the calorific.
.
rays; we may, therefore, conclude that the glass chosen is of a simular
character to that employed by the Italian philosopher. tint
pias is not very different from that of the old crown glass ; and many :
cal men state that they find their plants flouri h better —
Gas “this kind of glass than under the white sheet glass, which is now
so commonly employed.
6. On the Application of Gutta Percha for Moers’ by Mr.
Busk, (Proc. Brit. Assoc., Athen., No. 1027.)—After alluding to” his
experiments, he described the tnoide he followed in obtaining 4S
moulds :—* It is to be rolled out on a smooth surface in sheets any
convenient size suitable to the object to be taken, and ee in pe
ness according to the size. Forsmall objects, from the zy t0 0 ys of .
inch i is thick pan 2c The sheet is dipped for a moment gael of -
aeons or Ae amg as is t ag case with living or recen y
ove bodies. The gutta percha does not seem to be appli
eee ails from very fragile bodies,—such as many ithe co %
not bear the requisite pressure nor admit of the
eat when rigid without risk. The most delicate pearing per ‘
and slender projections, if firm ensugh: in the originally she f
Plaster cast be removed from the matrix without an ne
er is softened by momentary immersion in hot et
Miscellaneous I sntetieipeitee. 433
white, the other black he former was the best for modelling. H
had written to Mr. Brooke, of Borneo, on the subject, who informed
that an unlimited supply might be obtained from that country.—Mr
7. Report on Atmospheric Waves; b W.R. Birt, (Proc. Brit.
Assoc. for 1847, Athen., No. 1028.) —The author in introducing his
hile
ve were well seen, although the inflexions were not strong, owing
to the small altitude of the wave on its last return, scarcely exceeding
half an inch—its whole development occurrin
Prevented the boldness of the inflexions particularly noticed on the oc-
casion of its return in 1842.. The author then proceeded to notice the
essential features of the curves as obtained from observations at Rams-
gate, St. Vigean’s, near Arbroath, east coast of Scotland, the Orkneys
and Western Isles, Applegarth Manse, Dumfries-shire, Largs, Limer-
ick, Galway, Helstone in Cornwall, and St. Helier’s Jersey.
r
may, ho r, here notice that attention was called to the principle
Which the author laid down in his report of last year, “that t 0-
tems of waves or currents moving in different directions and crossing
each other at various angles. He also pointed out the great extent of
oscillation (nearly double) observed in the northwest as compared with
the southeasterly observations. The great wave commenced on the
2nd of November; at the northern stations it culminated on the 12th;
at the southeastern on the 9th; and it terminated. on the 17th, 4n ex-
lainine the differences of epoch as indicating the transit of the crest
Secoxp Serigs, Vol. 1V, No. 12.—Nov., 1847. 55
A34 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
being much earlier in the southeast than in the north, Mr. Birt remark.
ed that the observations clearly showed that the barometer passed two
maxima, one on the 9th, the other on the 12th; and that the whole ex-
tent of the British isles might be divided into two barometric areas, dis-
tinguished in one case by the superiority of the maximum of the 9th,
an
gentle barometric disturbance, * * * * and may be regarded as in
cerlain sense a nodal point, where irregularities are smoothed down
and oscillatory movement in general is more or less checked, and such
movements increase as we recede from Brussels as a centre, especially
cu
from Ramsgate, the nearest station to Brussels. As we proceed t0-
wards the northwest, the symmetry is considerably departed from,
sity of aspects, should, in a certain locality and on particu fined
country, manifest, by means of the barometer, constant a we define
phenomena, that may be recognized year after year, and which give
the curves of barometric rise and fall during the period of their occur:
of
uliar symmetrical appearance. 2nd. Two systems
y PP from the
Points of resemblance. The northwesterly system in each case exhid-
ited the largest wave, both as regards amplitude and altitude. 4°
tervals between similar phases of northwesterly waves were
Miscellaneous Intelligence. A35
equal in 1842 and 1846. During the interval that elapsed between
transits of these similar phases in 1842 and 1846, the same number of
southwesterly waves passed overthe area—and from the whole it ap-
nfirmed: in
ec
towards the southeast is also strikingly developed, as on former oc-
casions.,
Westerly systems of waves. In reporting the general progress of the
Inquiry, Mr. Birt stated that we are now in possession of the materials
for examining the great symmetrical wave, not only in particular years,
as 1842, 1845, and 1846, but also over the central parts of Europe and
the dominion of the Russian empire, as far as Sitka, on the northwest
coast of America. He has combined observations extending from the
West coasts of Ireland and the Orkneys on the one hand, to 5t- Peters-
first eight days of November, 1842, are fully explained by the transits
barometric movements over this area, which
g . .
of two large waves on two sets of parallel beds of oppositely directed
436 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
winds—one from the southwest, the other from the northwest. The
continuation of the investigation will be submitted at future meetings of
the Association.
e
the nearest station to the northwest centre of oscillation, and
the greatest decrease of oscillation occurs. This line of the greatest
diminution of oscillation appears to be well determined. oe
author closed his report with an allusion to the American system
843.
8. On the height of Auroral Arches; by Prof. T. CHEVALLIER,
(Proc. Brit. Assoc., 1847, Athen., No. 1029.)—Of all the phenomena of
the Aurora Borealis, the arches which are occasionally seen pearly at
right angles to the magnetic meridian are the most definite and perma-
nent; and seem to offer the most promising means of ascertaining the
height of the region in which that modification of the aurora is formed.
In the 118th No. of the ‘Philosophical Transactions,” Dr. Dalton has
collected several facts on the subject; and arrives at the conclusion nat
these arches are about 100 miles high. Having computed the height of
three such arches, I am desirous of laying the results briefly before the
Association. The first was the aurora. of March 22, 1841, observed at
unse, near Berwick, by Mr. Wm. Stevenson; at Durham, by myself ;
at Belfast, by Prof. Stevelly ; and at York, by Mr. Phillips. The ob-
servations over more than an hour, from 8! 56™ Greenwich mean tim®
o 10); the position of the arch was definitely fixed by us pay
he observa-
tions at York and Durham, York and Belfast, and Belfast and Beene
; ; ie
the resulting altitudes being 156, 157, and 165 miles. The sec? me
ar Durham, 9
only for
js determ!-
nation depends upon two observations only. T third
was seen on the 19th of March, 1847. It ee observed at Darling
at Spalding in Lincolnshire, at Cambridge, at Norwich, in London,
ford and Amsterdam. The observations of Darlington and ine ‘of
from a base of 172 miles, give an altitude of 175°9 miles; we
Spalding and Cambridge, from a base of 114 miles, give a0 iy
Miscellaneous Intelligence. A37
discovered by Prof. Faraday ; the ordinary auroral beams being paral-
lel to the direction of the magnetical meridian, and the arches being at
~— oa to that direction.
food by the Irish people, he stated that so far back as the ninth and
tenth centuries the Danes had fisheries on the western coast of Ireland,
dts class, | Second class. | Men.
2,760 4,589 worked by 36,loy
0 SEER ae eee vanes
In 1829 (the year before the abolition
| of the bounty) the numbers were 3,599 9,552 # 64,771
Tn 1836, “ “ 2.397 7,864 4 54,119
fin 1843, “ 2,371 iii 93,073*
Thus the abolition of the bounty, though it threw back the fisheries
i in} aj ; the increase be-
All the
fishery. The Irish herrings are
prices than ‘those of Scotland, but they are for the most part fished on
the coast, the fishermen being prevented from going in search of the
"The numbers for 1846 are, boats of the first class 2,424, second class 11,793,
438 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
better in quality than those taken near the shore. The Swedes and
tch pursue the deep-sea fishery with great advantage. The salmon-
fisheries of Ireland were then examined. The chief statistics on the
subject were obtained from the extensive and well known firm of
Messrs. Keays & Co.; but, as the trade is subject to the most capri-
cious fluctuations, we do not think that any safe deductions could be
made from the returns of a single house. There is no doubt that the
import of Irish salmon into England has increased and is increasing.
Irish turbot, soles, and lobsters might profitably be brought to the same
market: esultory discussion took place, in which several explana-
tions of the neglect of the Irish fisheries were suggested. Ignorance,
10. Smithsonian Institution, (from the Literary World, Sept. 18,
1847.)—We are glad to have it in our power to announce the first pub-
lication of the Smithsonian Institution. : .
t will be remembered that Mr. Smithson directed, in his will, that his
edge. Itis therefore incumbent on the Regents of the Institution, endow-
ed by the liberality of Mr. Smithson, to publish and disseminate useful
knowledge, and particularly such as may be an addition to our present
stock, or the result of original research. The first work to be issued is one
strictly in accordance with the wishes of the testator : inasmuch as it a
which
es of the
y will em-
brace the details and results of extended surveys carried on dur
. zB H is, a
Ohio. The la
ple, of W ;
istence they are the only memorials. They consist of implement * od
ornaments in silver, copper, lead, stone, ivory an “ ue
into a variety of forms, and exhibiting a skill which, in some ‘and TeP™
Miscellaneous Inielligence. 439
tiles, constitute a large class of these ancient relics. .They are cut from
various kinds of stone, and in many instances from porphyry. Several
highly finished sculptures of the human head are deserving of notice,
and probably convey an idea of the physical character of the people.
Asingle skull, the only one out of many hundreds discovered in frag-
ments, which has been preserved entire, and which our explorers are
satisfied belongs to the primitive people, is all we have, aside from these,
to enable us to form an opinion of the race. PP
n examining the remains, we discover articles which show the ex-
tent of their intercourse with other parts of the country. Thus, there
are instruments of obsidian, a volcanic substance found only in Mexico
—native copper and lead from Lake Superior and the Upper Missis-
sippi—marine shells and cetacean teeth from the sea, and numbers of
pearls of great beauty.
ut the mounds and their contents are but a small portion of inter-
esting facts made known by these gentlemen, for we consider the vast
e
more than one hundred works of this description, some of them miles
in extent. Others are vast enclosures covering a space equal to that
occupied by the city of New York. Again, we see fortified places, in
Bages. we . *
. Such is a very brief account of the discoveries which this work will
make known. The facts deduced from them open a new era in our
aboriginal history. The question will naturally arise, at what period,
and by whom, were these works erected? What has become of the
people? Had they any connexion with the nations of the other hemi-
Sphere? &c. &c. eek oes
_ The relics and the works themselves aid but little in determining the
period when. they were made, When the country was settled, they
were covered with large trees, exhibiting as great an age as the forest
around them, But there are other facts connected with their position,
which show that great physical changes have taken place since their
creation. These aid us in determining their antiquity, which must be
. Many analogies are presented to our explorers, in investigating the
nelly been found in ios es w oo vdeo bl
ormed of earth, in the act of swallowing an egg. Some stinkin -
ogies with the Druidical rites, are pia a 2 The Phallic wor-
440 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
ship, too, so universal throughout the ancient world, may be traced in
the remains of the Mississippi valley, as well as many coincidences, as
interesting as they are remarkable. Dissertations on these will accom-
pany the work. We cannot close our remarks without speaking of the
gentlemen who are engaged in the work. Dr. Davis has, for fifteen
years, been a resident of Chillicothe, one which time he has
close observer, and has collected many valuable relics ‘om the mounds. -
Mr. Squier removed to the same place sat ears since, when a more
thorough system of survey and examination of the earth-works was
commenced. A number of laborers were employed, and — t
the subject, he is an accomplished. draughtsman and surveyor; an evi-
dence of which may be seen in the splendid and numerous surveys and
drawings with which his portfolios are filled.
11. Prospectus of the Publication of a New Series of the J Journal
of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, (issued by the
cad.)—The publication of this Journal having cas i sus;
ponies for anne years, itis now proposed to resume it a New
Series, to commence about the middle of the emai year
The first part a about eighty pages in quarto form, will be
issued in September, and the work will be continued thereafter semi-
annually, so that two parts will appear each year, or four in two yes
which will form a volume.
The work will be printed on fine paper, with ample ihographi an
other illustrations, at $5 per volume, or $1 25 for eac
The printed Proceedings of the Society will be aatnheied: to sub
scribers to the Journal free of charge, during the period of assy ri
scription.
12. On the Discovery of Gun-Cotton; by Professor ScuanBers
(Archives = Sciences a ha et Haonssaoia L., E. and D. Phil
Mag., vol. xxxi, p. 7.)—The su*stance to which I have tics in Ger
man the name of schiesswolle, and in English that of ear
having excited a lively curiosity, it may be interesting to t scientific
world to become cere ted with some details of ee way in "ybih
was first led to its disc ; ;
The results of my Pa a on ozone led me in “the course of the
last two years to turn my attention particularly to the oxyds of i
gen, and principally to nitric acid. The numerous experiments I have
made on this subject have led me, as I have stated in detail 1n Poggen
dorff’s Annalen, to adopt a peculiar hypothesis on the so-cal nes
of nitric acid, sulphuric acid, &c., as well as on the normal nitral™
mdipbaton: &e. ages
Fora long time I had entertained doubts as to the: existence of com
ies of this nature, which cannot be isolated, viet
stated to oe capable of existing only in combination with: ser
substances ; for a long time also I had come to the notion
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 441
troduction of these imaginary combinations had only been an apparent
progress in theoretical chemistry, and that it had even impeded its de-
velopment.
_ It is well known that what has most contributed to the admission,
of the existence of these compounds, has been the opinion generally
received among chemists respecting the nature of nitric acid. Starting
nate by the formula NO,+HO must be considered as being really
NO,+HO,; I am even inclined to regard the normal nitrates
-NO,+-RO, as compounds which must be expressed by NO
the formula 280,-++-NO, has been assigned, should have, in my opin-
ion, 280,-NO,. Admitting this, I considered it probable that
the mixture of 2(SO,+-HO,) (=2(SO;+HO)) with NO,+HO,
(=NO,+-HO) yields 280,+-NO,, and that at the same time 3HO, is
bisulphate of deutoxyd of nitrogen. In other ‘words, I conjectured
_ thata mixture formed with the hydrates of nitric acid and. sulpburic
acid would possess a very great power of oxydation, and would form a
kind of aqua regia, in which the combination HO, would act the part
of the chlorine. On this hypothesis, and abstracting HO, from the
acid mixture by means of a proper oxydable body, there ought to re-
und
Guided by a ecenantietls which, I admit, may be as little found-
ed as they are contrary to the ideas received among chemists, 1. com-
menced in December, 1845, a series of experiments with a view to put
in the sequel whether the
i in quantity of the acid
mixture of which I have spoken: immediately, even ata temperature
of . 4 Ye ce
isengaged a considerable
quantity of deutoxyd of nitrogen, and acted generally as 4 solution of
Rose’s compound in hydrated sulphurie acid would have done.
~ Ishould add here, that a mixture of four ounces of hydrated sulphu-
ric acid with a single drop of nitric acid, ‘on the addition of flowers of
Seconp Series, Vol. 1V, No. 12.—Nov., 1847, 56
442 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
rine. The liberated sulphurous acid will soon dissipate this blue color.
Selenium and phosphorus. are oxydized in the same manner at low
acid mixture, or with 4: It was this conjecture, doubtless very sin
gular in the eyes of chemists, which principally led me to commence
r nee.
is semi-fluid at the temperature of boiling water ; at a higher tempera
ture, it gives off red vapors; heated still more, it suddenly P 206; ° Agr n’s Jou, xiii, 382. )—In
which the true vanilla of commerce is procur ured, » In Mexico > itis Sxten-
sively cultivated for the sake of its fruit, which it yields abundantly :
hile
amen perfected their fruit. Dr. Morren of Lié
experimentally that the fruit of the vanilla may be as freely
from | S|
cial fecundation is required. Inthe year 1836, a plant in one of the
ses in the: botanic garden at Liege spevinetee fifty-four flowers,
wine ie ae a mported from Mexico; and, in 1837, a
fresh. crop of about a hundred pods was obtained upon another plant
by the same method. He attributes the fecundation o of the plant in
446 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
Mexico to the action of some insect which frequents the flower; and
hence accounts for the non-production of fruit in those’ plants which
have been removed to other countries, There can be no doubt that
this plant is as perfectly iadiyonens to "Brazil as it isto Mexico: but it
is no less certain that its fruit is there seldom matured. Is this also to
Morren justly observes, well deserves attention in a commercial point
of view, since his experiments go to prove that in all intertropical
aeetrca vanilla might be cultivated, and a great abundance of fruit
a m4
5. Phosphorescent ot (Gardner's Travels in the interior of
Dent p- 346 ; Jameson’s Jour., xlii, p. 3882. )—One dark night, about the
beginning of Desviation while: passing along the streets of ‘the Villa de
Natividade, I observed some boys amusing themselves with some lu-
ecg eg! vee . From this circumstance, ena feed grow-
on a palm, it is called by the inhabitants ‘¢ Flor de Coco.” “4
light given out by a few of these fungi, in a dark room, pee sufficient
16. Effects of os tsa mel R. ae (‘Travels in Perw, by Dr.
J. J. Von Tschudi, p. 269; Jameson’s Jour., xlii, 384.)— o this plant
the natives give the names Huacacachu, Yerba de Huaca, or * Bobic :
oe they prepare from its fruit a ve werful narcotic drink, called
tonga. The In dians believe that inl drin king the << they are —
a
an hour his eyes copnis to roll, fouisis issued from his haleapeed uo
and his whole body was he by a. as ulsions.
of sev
He appeared very weak and exhausted.
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 447
In former times the Indian sorcerers, when they pretended to trans-
tho
the establishment of Christianity has weaned the Indians from their idol-
Huacacachu, or grave-plant.
17. The Condor of the Cordillera, (Travels in Peru, by J. J. Von
Tschudi, p. 300 ;. Jameson’s Jour., xlii, 387.)—In these sterile heights
nature withholds her fostering influence alike from vegetable and ani-
mal life. The scantiest vegetation can scarcely draw nutriment from
the ungenial soil, and animals shun the dreary and shelterless wilds.
The condor alone finds itself in its native element amidst these moun-
tainous deserts. On the inaccessible summits of the Cordillera that
bird builds its. nest, and hatches its young in the months of April and
Few animals have attained so universal a celebrity as the con-
the huacas, or graves; hence the Indian name of the thorn-apple—
on carrion; it is only when impelled by hunger that he seizes
mals, and even then only the small and defenseless, such as
of an hour, in a spot near which not one had been previously visible.
These birds possess the senses of sight and smell in a singularly pow-
erful degree. goo
- Some old travellers, Ulloa among others, have affirmed that the plu-
mage of the condor is invulnerable to a musket — This absurdity is
dicti it is nevi
bird has @ singular tenacity of life, and that it is seldom killed by fire-
ital part. Its plumage, particularly
on the wings, is very strong and thick. The natives, therefore, seldom
/
AAS Miscellaneous Intelligence.
attempt to shoot the condor; they usually catch him re traps or by the
lasso, or kill him by stones flung from slings, or by the Bolas cu-
rious method of capturing the condor alive is practiced in the province
banc A fresh cow-hide, with some fragments o dher-
ing to it, is spread out on one of the level heights, and an Indian pro-
vided with ropes creeps beneath it, whilst some a i themselves
in ambush near the spot ready to assist him. Presently a condor, at-
tracted by the smell of the flesh, darts down upon t nit cow-hide, a
then the Indian, who is concealed under it, seizes the bird by the legs,
and binds them fast in the skin, as if ina bag. The captured condor
flaps his wings, and makes ineffectual attempts to fly ; ; — he is aphet
ily secured,-and carried in triumph to the nearest villa
The Indians quote numerous instances of young children having been
attacked by condors. That these birds are sometimes extremely fierce
is very certain. The following occurrence came within my own know-
ledge whilst | was in Lima. 1 had a condor, which, when he first came _
into my possession, was very young. To prevent his escape, as soon
as he was able to fly, he was fastened by the leg toa chain, to > whi
was attached a sitcn ‘of i iron, of about six pounds weight. He ad a
large court to range in, and he dragged the piece of iron about after
him all day. When he-was a year and a half old he flew away, with
io chain and iron attached to his leg, and perched on the spire of San-
o Tomas, whence he was scared away by the carrion hawks.
‘heal in the street, a negro somanet: to catch him for the purpose
of bringing him home ; upon which he seized the poor creature by the
ear, and tore it completely off. He hen. aieaked a child: in the street
(a negro boy of three years old), threw him on the ground, and k knock-
ed him on the he ad so severely with his beak, that the child died in
consequence of the i injuries. I hoped to have brought this bird alive to
urope; but after being at sea two months on our homeward voyages
he died on board the ship in the latitude of Monte Video
18. Fossil Footprints ; by James Deane, (from a letter to _
Silliman. )—I beg your permission to correct an error which occ
in the March number of your Journal, _Telative toa communication of
mine in a preceding number.
It is there stated, page 276, that “ you are in informed by P rd
Hitchcock, that the quadruped tracks figured by me, p. 79 of this vol-
ume, and supposed to be new, are the Sauroidichnites palmatus us of his
ei de Report, or the Palamopus-anomalus of his new no
e, &e. He lately examined the original specimen in the collection
of Mr. Marsh, and immediately recognized it as belonging t0 wa
species just mentioned.”
I saw this statement with surprise and masngarigusid referred to the
descriptions of Prest. H., which are as follows i
c
tibed; the middle one being somewhat, but not very mucb, the
longest ; and those on each side nearly equal. The inner or fourth toe
is very short, Length of foot 24 to 3 inches. Shown of the natural
bs oa ek ate es be tos et po
sec lecael
*
ae
/
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 449
“Jt-will be seen from the drawing that the animal which made the
tracks was a biped. For the short or fourth toe is found upon opposite
it were made by the hind and forefoot of a quadruped; and the fact
no analogy, however faint.
» Greenfield, July 15, 1847. ;
19. The Geological Society of France held its extraordinary ses-
sion this year at Epinal (Vosges), on the 10th of September. The
east, granitic rocks, gneiss, leptynite, serpentine and porphyry ; and to
the northwest, the plains of Lorraine, the gres bigarré, muschelkalk,
blocks, and the terraces of the valley of the Moselle.
20. American Science in’ Turkey.—We ought long since to have
La
rkish possessions, some account of which. we bi
Dr, S.. He has also exhibited the electric telegraph in the Royal
ple
0.
naturalist has consented to accept an invitation to remain in this c
in connection with the scientific corps of Harvard College.
entific man in America will be rejoiced to hear so unexpected a piece
of news.
22. Large Crystal of Columbite.-—The large crystal of columbite
described in vol. xxx, at p. f this Journal, has been recently pur-
chased for the Wesleyan University in Middletown, Conn. ; Its W
is6 pounds 12 oz., and the mass of which it is a portion, weighed 14
pounds. |
coxp Sznixs, Vol. IV, No: 12.—Nov., 1847.57
SE4y
A5O Bibliography.
VI. Bretiograpry.
a: The London Geological Journal and Record of Discoveries in
British and Foreign Palaontology.—
inality, including criticisms upon the works of other naturalists. The
work is got up in a beautiful style of paper and print, and the plates an
of unrivalled finish and elegance. ‘There are 23 plates in these three
Nos., and several of them of large size. Hitherto the articles are
chiefly paleontological and possess a high degree of interest. They
are as follows—
0. 1.—1. An Alligator and seyeral new mammalia in Hordwell
Cliff. Searles. Wood, F.G.S. eo ed
2. Ichthyosaurus—a new species in Chalk. James Carter, M.R.C.S.
m. King.
_ 4. Prices of some Fossils.. G. A. Mantell, LL.D., F.R.S.
~ 5. Coprolites? in the Crag and London Clay. John Brown, F.GS.
Ear bones of Whales in thé Re rag. Fossil reindeer, DB
Fauna. New genus of Mammals, South Carolina. Fossil foraminifera,
——soft parts in Chalk and Flint. . Fossil mammalia and aves in Museum
of Royal College of Surgeons. au
Obituary—Miss Ethelred Bennett, Literary Intelligence. Sion
No. Il—1. Large species of Unio in the Wealden of Isle of Wight.
G. A. Mantell. af aor oe f
2. Tellina, Monograph of, in the Eocene, &c: Fr. Edwards. ¥,
F 3. Brachiopoda of Wenlock Limestone: . Th. Davidson, M.G.S.;.
rance fing
5. Fossil Cephalopoda, genus Belemnoteuthis. J. C. Pearce, PGS.
Miscellanies—Criticism by the Editor. Bibliographical ——
Extinct Irish Deer. Labors of Agassiz on the Ganoidei. Astacus}
lipsii. Azoic sedimentary strata. Fossil Xanthidea. . Pentaorinus,
new species. Freshwater strata of Hordwell. | Cun-
‘No. IIL—1. Fossil Cephalopoda of the Oxford clay. Wm. Cum
nington. ee ae
2. Hypanthocrinites of the Wenlock Shale. W. A. Lewis, B.A.
: s. See tio
4. Brachiopoda. Th. Davidson, me
5. Hordwell, fossil and geological phenomena. 8. V- Weed,
-G.S., &c. : : Notiee-
_ Miscellanies—Criticisms by the Editor. Bibliographical, Nott
: iophyllii, in the Kentish Rag. Lepidodendron with Stigmarian
Bibliography. 451
roots. Birds versus reptiles. Mammalia, new genera, Hordwell
Cliff. Bones of Loch Gur. Pentacrinus gracilis, &c. Literary In-
pursues fearlessly the course which truth and candor and fidelity ought
of the author’s native state, as a certain work from over the water was
distributed through an-adjoining state, for the benefit of agriculture.*
It should be made a class book in our schools, and children throughout
this Union should be taught to rival their neighbors, in having their own
regarded as the garden state, rather than to pride themselves on dis-
tinctions which are marks of political strife and love of power. ;
~The work is dedicated to the young farmers of the United States, for
reasons which the: Preface satisfactorily explains; and we nd in the
same place an important suggestion, that a work expressly devoted to
the Botany of the Arts, is yet to be supplied. The writer’s favorite
authorities are Torrey, Gray, and De Candolle, A glossary is fur-
i e
lso an explanation of the abbreviations and references. We have
Pes in the text 236 pages, and the second, that of flowerless plants, but
10 pages. Following a scientific description of each plant, its origin,
istory, &c., are the author’s own observations, showing its relation to
agriculture. ae :
“The plants treated of are classified in tables under the following
heads ; which give ata glance, an idea of the particular subjects and
their importance : gi:
‘1. Plants yielding esculent Roots, Herbage, or Fruits, for Man.
2. Plants yielding Food sits 3 chiefly for Domestic Animals,
3. Plants yielding Condiments or Drinks.
4. Medicinal plants.
Ces
: =. - . Johnson's Agricultural Chemistry, in New York.
A52 Bibliography.
5. Plants employed in the Arts, in Commerce, in Domestic or Rural
Econom
6. Pernicious plants. ‘
7. Plants which are mere weeds.
No one has devoted himself more sedulously than our author, to pro-
mote the true interests of agriculture, to inculcate a sense of the dignity
and elevated character of the pursuit, and the importance of science to
se engaged in it. This is proved by numerous addresses, lectures,
and publications, a list of which we here annex. ie
. Address, at the Third Annual Meeting of the Pennsylvania Agri-
cultural Society, held at Prospect Hill, Philadelphia Co., Oct. 21, 1825.
2. Address to the Chester County Cabinet of Natural Science, at the
organization of the Society, March 18, 1826.
3. Florula Cestrica: An Essay towards a Catalogue of the: Pheno-
gamous plants, native and naturalized, growing in the vicinity of the
Borough of West Chester, Pa. April 28, 1826. ‘
4. Flora Cestrica: An attempt to enumerate and describe the Flow-
ering and Filicoid Plants of Chester County, Pa. pril,
An Essay on the Development and Modifications of the External
Organs of Plants. Compiled chiefly from the writings of Goethe.
March 1, 1839, iste es
6. A Discourse on the Character, Properties, and importance to Man,
of the Natural Family of Plants, called Graminee, or True Grasses.
February 19, 1841. Heli! ent
7. Address to the New Castle County Agricultural Society and Insti-
ie po tg Eighth Annual Meeting, held at Wilmington, Del., Sept
8. A Lecture on the Study of Botany ; read before the Ladies’ Bo-
tanical Society, at Wilmington, Del. March 2, 1844. vee
ddress delivered before the Philadelphia Society for promoting
Agriculture, at the Annual Axhibition, October 17, 1844. ‘a
10. Address before the Chester County Horticultural Society, at
their First Annual Exhibition, in Westchester, Pa. Sept. 1 :
1. Agricultural Botany: An Enumeration and Description of
Useful Plants-‘and Weeds, which merit the notice, or require the atten
] 3
it was asserted, many years since, by Lamarck, that more had been
called Foraminifera by @Orbigny, and Polythalamia by Ehrenberg-
Thanks to the labors of the eminent naturalists just named, the mr
mense importance of these minute creatures as architects of the os
crust is now generally known, D’Orbigny in particular has devote
almost a lifetime to their Study, and until Ehrenberg investigated t
Il more minute forms of this class, the former naturalist was almo
the only worker in this field, ;
Bibliography. 453
. To d’Orbigny we are indebted for the first scientific classification of
these bodies ;* for a beautiful series of plaster models of them? which
have made their curious forms familiar to naturalists; and for several
important memoirs, not only upon the living species,} but upon the
peculiar forms belonging to the chalk and other strata.
he work whose title stands at the head of this notice, is the last
contribution made by this indefatigable author to his favorite depart-
ment of science. It is a beautiful quarto volume, with more than 30
pages of text, and 21 elegant and well filled plates. The text is given
in both the German and French languages, and the execution of the
ent time. It appears from the data hitherto obtained, that the number
of genera and species in the different periods was as follows :
Carboniferous, enus, ] species,
Jurassi , 5 genera, 0 ‘
Cretaceous, at 280
ertiary, BGo,;"* 450
68
* 7 * *. .
_ It-appears too, that certain genera are peculiar to certain formations,
although some of those which accompanied them may also occur in
MLNS IL DES ER EES NOES
§ Foraminiféres de la Craie blanche, Mem. ne la Soc. Geol. de France, 1839.
ifal mi ic forms in a perfect state of preservat
r soeonnodilet ley 00 A. H. Bowman, of the t. §. Engineers.
1 For a notice of American Fusulina limestones, see this Journal, vo). ii, ii Ser.,
. 293.
454 Bibliography.
more recent deposits. The value, therefore, of these minute medals of
creation in the determination of the age of strata is fully established.
pon this point D’Orbigny remarks, “that afier having devoted
wenty years to the study of the Foraminifers he has become fully con-
conn that they can in all cases be used to determine with certainty
a geological formation, if in their comparison there is used
that precision of observation which is indispensable to every conscien-
tious labor in zoology or oe oar anatomy.” Even where it may
be the easiest method to determine the age of a stratum by means of
the mollusks and other ierea foils which it may contain, the accom-
panying microscopic forms, which in general are far more pra
should not be neglected. The business of the geologist is n
to identify strata, but to give a comprehensive and phibéeophiehl view
of all the phenomena of the epoch under examination, and surely none
can be more wonderful than those connected with the labors of those
Lilliputian chemists, who little by little have separated from the ocean
waters, organized masses of carbonate of lime or silica, — play no
pdimetie part in the oe of our present continent
our American strata e Foraminifera are very abauiaietye the
ulf Stream,* it appears that the Foraminifers form along the
of this ocean current a perfect milky-way of organic life, whose nebale
however are easily resolved by the microscope.
ile we close this article by recommending the various works by
M. d’Orbigny as indispensable to all who would pursue e this branch of
wr a we would also invite attention to an interest
ing memoir by Dr. Mantell, on the Fossil Remains of the soft parts of
eteehiaivesn in English Challe a Flint,# and cence by | C.
* For these nie we tg bats a to A. D. Bache, Esq., Superintendant o of
the U. S. Coast s vey. The soundings abound in many new oe sneiae resting OF
ganic forms, a memoir upon ms eng is now in the course of preparatl
' t Phil. Trans., P. tiv. J 846.
; On some of rie ‘ierosopi Obj eure in the Mud of the Levant, and ot other ss
sits, with remarks on gal Sen tion of Calea ial
Rocks, by Wm. C. Williatacon arg Raa en ‘87.
| Bibliography. - M55
Natural History in the Central High School of Philadelphia. E. C. &
I, Biddle, 1847: Philadelphia.
_ The author was induced to compile this work on account of the dif-
ficulties which he experienced as a teacher.
is plan is intended to include “the terms usually employed in all
the sciences, to the utter exclusion of ordinary words.” ‘Thus he has
been able to. construct a small portable and cheap book, and to avoid
the reproach of his own motto—weya PuBhioy weya xaxor.
The etymology of the words is given, and essentially aids the mem-
ory. ‘The book is handsomely printed, with a good paper and type—
the principal words in capitals, and the explantions in a clear readable
character—forming a pocket volume of about 250 pages.
As far as we have looked into it, the definitions appear to be correct,
concise and perspicuous, and we believe the work will prove a very
useful auxiliary to the student of the natural sciences.
5. Outlines of the Course of Qualitative Analysis followed in the
He bh i
been my assistant during a great part of this period.” This work has
been adopted in the analytical laboratories both in Cambridge and
New Haven.
a D. Bapuam: A Treatise on the Esculent Funguses of England, London, 8vo,
T. & J. Avsrix: Monograph on Recent and F ossil Crinoidea, No, 6, 4to, Lon-
don. * About 20 numbers (3s. 6d. 2) will complete the work.”
Boutiany: Nouvelle Branche de Physique, ou études sur les corps a l’etat
éroidal, 8vyo, 2d edit., Paris, 1847. . ‘
5 Hopce: Report of a Tour of Ft Le ay through the Mineral Loca-
' 1 .
?
Ja
tions of Montreal River, Lake Superior. 184 pp- 8vo, with a map.
J.J. ies Chemisches Mineralsystem ; herausgegeben von &.F,
Rammelsberg. 264 pp. 8vo. Varnberg, ;
Amer. Acap. or Arts anp Sciences, Boston.—p.
Bond.—Feb., p. 51. On the
Cambridge Observatory ; W. C. Bond.—p. 104. Series of moon culminations observ-
. Bond J
st Pp bec , Harpacticus,
and the two new genera Clytemnestra and Setella.)—p. loo. Meteorological regis-
8 Zealand; J. B. William
s oF PHILADELPHIA.
E
’ p Observations on certain coa is from Cape Breton, Nova Sco-
tia; R. Brown, Esq.—p. 233. Description of a mew Columba (
Mexico,* and remarks on the Geococcyx viaticus; G. A. M’ Call.—August, p. 248.
* See this volume, page 421.
456 Bibliography.
Description ane Anny of a new subgenus Gf Planaria; J. Leidy.—p. 251. De-
scriptions of two new species of Planaria; J. L
te AND bight or Naturat Hi isToRy, Vol. No. 131. August
On the Ventriculide of the Chalk; J. T. Smith.—Geo ereiphieal Distribution and
Clacsification of Zoophytes; J. D. Dana lanecabiidbnatetion in Insects
—Microscopic silicious Polycistina of Barbadoes ; . Se a wnia ba
Phil. Soc. of St. Andrews: Dr. Reid on the development of me Medusa. Bat
ty: J. E. Gra i i
W. Rdnijiaon 230 the Ventculde a! the Cha SFT; Smith.— Zoolo ical So-
y: . Dav 7 TER:
n
of Iron; Karsten.—Microscopic pede of the Sirocco dust; Ehren wt
= the decomposition of vide by Galvanism, and some allied pete Poggen
o heat; H. Knoblau
‘ose.
by polarized light, when 6: ane of polation 3 is is suddenly tu
Bu vetin DE LA Société ImpéR1aLe pes NATURALISTES DE Moscov.
1846. 3 pl.—No. Obs ervigiods on Scandinavian Geology ;
Coleoptera Myrmecophila fennica; F. G. Meklin.—Hyleus quadricinctus, Fab ;
E. Eversmann—No. HW. A systematic arrangement and econ omical r
f grape vines; Dr. F. A. Kolenati.—Remarks on the collection of Rus cian
rodt. ;
Samra section of the environs of Moscow; M. Rouillier —No
assages of the work of Murchison, Verneuil — Ke eyserling, © on the Geology.
ussia and the Urals; J. 4uerbach and H. Frears.—On the beetles of the Aleutia
Islands and Sitka; C G: Ma “ae PRN Cay le ment toa memoi r on the
Musci of the Russian empire orological o
at the astronomical ouaebenior of the Tiaperiar: University of Mose
idee INDEX TO VOLUME IV.
A.
Academy f Nat. eee Maan i:
_ Proceedings of, 149, 303, 4
—-, hew series 0 Journa o, 440.
Acetate of lime, formed in coal ak 275.
= oo the North Americ umbite, H.
re Saruanié, new test for, J. Lidig, 101,
—, tartari ic, m of,
Acid cids, fat, ihe e oil of Ben, P. Walter, 271.
Acid eapaction of F eeenic juice,
Say experiments with gun-cotton
in oe 199.
Adhlteraton of olive oil, mode of detecting,
a
KB xm § between the fossil
rope and recent of America,
ae acce cepts a professorship in Harvard, 449.
Agrcutera Botany, notice of Darlington’ 8,
Alsbaina pumealite limestone, age of, C. Pe gg
Lyell, 186.
shee er in, 285
_ Albuminous substan miexgone
yy, in the stomach rebieny ys ao rof.
A ene, relations of ocoll with, T.
Alege, 108, 266. glye
ecoaney detection +a) traces, 102.
anhyd waasedess 07.
tion of, from oxyd of i iron,|
Aseatigtion of oma Pesleents and Nat-
Brenan, = of, 9
st of memoirs read at
Fhe in September, 427.
Pabeevt progress of, 240,
— ~ spheric waves, report on, W. R. Bvt,
‘Atomic number of jeooe. 103.
Atoms, see coum: pe
Atomic volum isomorphous oxyds
of the regu lat yatent C. Gerhardt, 405.
Aurora oct notice of a report on, by a
.. commission to Scandinavia, 142.
Anrorst eal of April 7, 1847, E. C. Her-
s, height of, T. C hesaiiion, eg
Apel, foasila Dat D. Dana,
copper of, 255
B.
Bacon, Dr., microscopic examination of gun-
448.
way rf of d’ Orbigny’ s work
on orn
ee on aR “Whirlpool and Rapids,
Barbadoes, geological structure of, R. %
Schom
asalt ont Lake ® Superion 1 ae
J. Miiller, 42
W Reoe.
. American Aeneas of 2 Arts and Sciences,
Ammonia, nitrate
; 269
= of, exhaled from the Tungs,|
caer ated anid, new method for.
Pr q
— nes of Qeai ative, prigétag
Giessen Laboratory, aid fd K 455.
_
selene
—— of the vertdtvae: skeleton, R. Owen,
rcite, s, Karsten, 41
Sherce Society of Net, Hist., Sanat
laseaut $a es on Madeira, Teneriffe ai
the _ s > Vents, from an Vogats Taree
119.
Garden at Kew, 24
—, on ph snd’ glass for oe
~ Palin he — at, 431.
ao
&
ee “stalin meere Sextrs, Vol, IV, No. 12.—Noy. 1847.
oe
a
, area ime e formed in coal pits, 275.
th meeting,
ad-
oe Breit, 2
458
Brocklesby, J., supernumerary rainbows, 429.
Brontozoum, 0.
ren R. T., beaver in Alabam:
a, 285.
B. W.., chemic: -al examina _— of several
Ct,
ic
arr, 2. F., th heory oe transit corrections,
258.
Cc.
Cactus at Kew, weighing a to
Caontchoue peneuies effect of oes heat, C.
G. P.
Cape ay de Verds, notes o
ecent volea bits eruption t, 146.
Carbon, ¢ cciiipowide of iron with, Eonca
104,
Carey, J.,on three new Carices anda new
Rhynchospora, 22.
Carex Bg aeg and C. gracilis, A. Gray, 19.
paste enew species J. Carey, 22.
Constavaphe, C. Dewey, 343.
Casein, 403.
assin, J.,on the Cymindis Wilsonii, 235.
par oath i Profs new theory of the polarization
of ligh
ha sates A new genus of birds, W. Gambel,
‘Chambers, » ancient sea margins, 323.
ope Organic, not Gerhardi, reviewed,
——, physi raraliaty eas in, J. Liebig, 135,
-—— field, near Richmond, Va, C. Lyell, ie
r Richmond, Va,€
e of lime formed in, 275,
a Ph from manga ese i Shs
—, oxy pe mi h br rown he ganas Chester /-
: 2
Cohesive attraction, on certain laws of, J. D. ts
a
Coke, diamonds bas hacn into, 4
peered a glazing Polen hota at
fro Mexico, G. A.
Columba, — species of,
oueaie i e erystal, ubchaatd woe Bx ti
ine y, Middletown, Ct,
—, a acid in the North Aerie, i.
erie new, nig 8 1847, 287, 426.
eon
INDEX,
a Prof. "yon +i Togas of cop-
a new minera
denies nts, origin iy ‘out ures of, 92.
Cobiraetion of earth pace cooling, geologi-
al effects of, J. D. Dana,
we a ol Mr ep of native, Lake "Superior, F.
ee ARBs reduced by can 276,
melting, 29
—, sulphato-chiorid oe a new mineral,
15t
Corals, ity on = species of, in reply
to Mr. Dana, W. Lonsdale, 357.
——, in ni . Mr. iar
). Dan na, 359,
Cotton, detection of, in lin
,||Crawe, Ithamar B., obituar ree one of, 300.
’| | Crystallogenic attraction identical. with | co-
herve attraction, 364,
Crystals, forms and polarity of molecules of,
J. D. Dana, 367.
,
—, origin of secondary planes, J. D. Dana,
37.
—, origin of Cleavage of, J. D. Dana, 378.
at eae of tension in, on polarization, J.
el
Da: Mquerséotyne plate, different poperise®
rays on
udet, 409. vila ie
— for eo; ae microscopic 0 jec a
Dana, J. D., general review of the goologi-
- eal effects of the earth lings oy
state of igneous fasi
grin alia, 151.
——-, fossil shells from A Austr ia,
_—, observations on some rary corals de
_setibed by Mr. gee 359.
n certain laws st aohnate attraction,
“y
—} forms and polarity of moons 98
/
—., in of secondary plan ee
~—, origin of cleavage, A
——., observations on molecules, ee {
Darlington’s Pe ation ete Botany, 451. _
tura s nea, effects o i
wis it; publications by, on Indian
mounds under the Smithsonian Institution, —
Desenar, y rependaetien:. of _— ‘in
th North ‘America, 161. fossil
Deed.
448, )
rvation on @
formed with, ni
esting docigbiilte Me A, Saroo,
a sugar, dextrine,
Pheide C., on Caricography, 343.
Diamonds ¢o onverted into gray taretie
—— of May 7, 1847, 426. :
— of August iL 1847, M. Schweizer, 426.||Diatomaceous vegeta
“—— of Oct, 1, 1847, 426 Ocean, ker, 4, ee ac, A
Compound radieals, objections to theory of, Digtidoany ff Modern Gardening, Aisa
‘ohnson, 148. St a
Compression an distortion of fossils, 111. ||Diphanite, a new mine 1, 27. ; wef
Goacmains sirreenner ects of, 379. Dodo, and allied birds, on the history of H.
or adlgog a horse’s stomach, analysis|_ E. Strickland, 422. tg ye es
of, i fees D Orbign , A., on th
Con
. WwW,
Cymindis Wilsonii, anew bird, BS Comer ;
D.
t
459
INDEX.
LE. | Gilesnic, W , Manual of Road M aking 148,
Sorat dinaaupananéle: — colored, for glazing Palm house at
Earth’s premeative during cooling, geologi- ctyeocott, E. N. Horsford, 58, 326.
cal effects ¢ - Dana, argene, relations of, T. S. Hunt,
— crust, pe i of, Hops, 88. , ~ 108, 2
Earth, on the figure of, Bessel. Gray, A.; “note on Carex loliacea and C
Ehrenberg, 0 on the giroecco et ee fell at gracilis, 19.
ec May 16, 1846, 423. Grove, ~R., on the quantity of rte a
ctric Telegraph, as iy slected by the extent , the lon-
3
Electrical attraction, on the nature and laws
ol,
Electrolysis, quantity of, as affected by the
extent of the sectional
__ lyte, 411.
Bitiecient number of ye 103.
a grvolation of, i
r power rot t
te tetany from the hungs ve bicarbonate of
~ ammoni
F.
‘Farada aday, M., congelation of mercury, by
virtue of the coins state, 101.
Perrideyani d of potassium, a Rigs of,
al area of the electrolyte, 4
Gun-cotton, Schdnbein’s patent "38
5 fing chon with, in blasting, EM +
—, ;, formula of, and some allied compounds,
se. “on ht discovery of, C.F. Schinbein,440.
roscepic examination of, 448.
Gutta percha, he
— -— ‘for seetaliing Bu sk, 4
—, pronunciation and eee of
the terin, 289, 433.
H.
Fertilization a nitrification of soils, F.
Fisheries, resources of Irish, 437.
Footmarks, two new species in Massachu-
_ Setts and se pt ac at po Hite cock, 46.
—, J. Deane reclamation relative to a
‘Capecios of, 448,
oe D’Orbigny s work on, noticed, Pon
—, distribution of, 453.
—'of Char ona s. Carolina, 453.
-of, British N
111.
i lchmond, dsp
+ by LIB,
from Aus’ ri J Dana,
; Hare, ey
- A, Ji
W., on Hauerite, 108.
on the be Eueden’
rrangements for fusing Rhodiu
idiom, &c,, 37:
ee 3, WES, protection against lightning,
n the nature and laws of electrical
gitimeriony
ard, department of oe and Arts,
fou nded by on. A. Lawrence, 146, 294.
erite, a ne ineral,
Heat and “Magnetism, relations of, W. A.
Norton nl afer
oC te Pease and ne-
sativus re
foduetion of light by, nat W.
ebmmneneog g incandescence, uniform
differe , 389.
Hebe, new pee discover
encke, d ne ten abe, 6.
—, late
_cessity of toe
(i
Eo? i
) f planet
ry, P.
_tecent of bee rica, 424. i
Fungus, nee 446.
Gambel, aly on apt anew genus 0
birds, 286.
ober ation on the interfer-
-ence Bs rye of
arte belt of April 7, 1847,
PP ie
rachel, J. a al life of Bessel,
305.
Hind yery of planet Tris, 425,
Hints i Ying P Aeebitactny by G. Nightwick,
Sergenings Bistionary of Sehr Hit Rook: E., two species of fossil foot-
Gant jie, acid resetion of 27 —, sah, of Elementary Geology by, by 206 ats,
t Beciaty A, peas. ‘extraordinary ry AE Bou? or volcanic grit o
ndon, notice of, 450. Homologies of the vertebrate skeleton, R.
SRT ooker, Dr. I, 0 n the jatomaceous vegeta-
ap a 146. Beeaid of ge aoa ee ed
= at tid hearin sme sen oa a ws ° a wile me Berson for the
caning 3.
re —— pm 267.
glazing green
Gy Orie Choirs vvewety to eobe in
460
Hunt, - S., review of Gerhardt’s Précis,|
93;
—, on the relation of aleargene and gly-|
cocoll, 1
——, action of sulphuretted hydrogen on ni-|
tric pre
Hydrocyan sha, ‘new test for, 101.
H1yadro-orygen blowpipe, R. Hare, 37.
us
India, iron and coal
“e-rR — Sevtaly yhieal mica from,
arks on
address
— ——, rema
re the seventeenth
Iridium, ap sischen er po ry R Sars; 44,
s, new pparan
Wish sea- fe neaney or ‘Ci.
INDEX,
Ligh ial 3h. of, on growth of plants, R.
0, 431
——, new theory of polarization of, Prof.
Challis, 412.
Lightning, protection against, W. S. Harris,
Limneus s stagnalis, ear of, 131.
Linen, detection of cotton in, 106.
Lonsdale, W., rema “i * oh som ¢ tertiary. cor-
als in reply to Mr. D
oomis, E., magnetism ors the U. States and
vicinity, 192.
—, account of a water-spout, a
se r theory, progress in, 242, 243.
Lyell, C., on she 6 oal field near Richmond,
¥
a le
—, new edition of Principles of Geology,
147, ;
——, age of nummulite limestone of Alaba-
ma, 186. pie
M.
n, compounds of, with carbon, 104.
197.
Isomorphous oxyds of the a a system,|
atomic volume of, C. Gerhardt, 405, ’
J.
Johnson, & at Dictionary of Modern Gar-||——
dening, 148.
Karson compounds of re irre 104.
cite,
_ Kew, Bot Te grvdon
Pata lored nee for glazing
‘alm
tr bet ine, 431.
Keyserling, Count, ‘Geology of the Petschora
nd, noticed, 419,
’ so
Superior, mass of native copper from,
penta columnar basalt on, 118,
lalandi;. ‘star observed by, identical with
Madeira, notes on a Prot of, 119. keh
Magnetism, terrestrial W. A. Norton,
jp relations of heat and, W. A. Norton, 1,
gratud of the U. States and vicinity, B.
caters, hele rvations by Major @
ham, Pro pe Capt. Lefroy, 12
—., influ nce of ‘sraptock on, =
Mammoth, food, distribution, Mas
Ma’ anese, separation. of co oa
antl G. re ology of Isle of Wight,
leeds wT Road Making, W. Gillespie, 148,
Matter, ion rernarks on met pein con-
stitution of, . Dana,
M Ca a new species of Columba,
Me penis, H., Lexicon Seientiaram ihe
ticed, 45 the
Mercury, pets eee of, by virtue of
spheroidal sta
Meteor iron of of ‘Walker Co, Alabama, m4. si
Neptune, 133.
Latent heat. effect in percha, and
tie ig ll sings Ny . Page, 341.
wrence, Hon 146, 39 ange "Sodutben:
ne-|
8,
Lexicon Scientiarum, by H. McMurtrie, no-
< dae 33 new test for Ghnes acid, 101.
Susie a
abe ia, N. H., 87.
6. U. Shep
nium, 10
2" hecelicccal chemistry, 135,
se a so of ens 271.
on - Sapp age he by heat, a WW;
——, from incandescence. to ap-
grin Sed same temperature stare fa? depron
color of rays from incandescent bodies,|| Mill
of brilliancy of, to tempera-
Meteorites, Report on, C. U. SI
gy cobatames from the
rage
monis
Minerals :
es D. Dana,
Mulder, Prof., on the changes in reiaens
Mi
*
4
+ saiesmaaial
461
INDEX.
Rematite, Chester Ridge, Pa.,:281; ios Ornithology, a new species of Columba, G.
jum, native, in N. Caro ina 280; Sul A. M' Cail, 421
chlorid of copper, 415; Tauto th ,on the o and allied birds, H. £.
shore o oe Superior, 278, Strickland, 4
Minhocao, stra Condor of f the Cordillera, 447.
Molecules, forms and sews 4 of, 366.
——, polarization dependent on form, J. D.
—, attractio on of, pelmgics of various soho
cations, J. D. Dana 371,
——, attraction of, intermittent in action, og
—, general remarks on, J. D. Dana
substances during digestion,
Miiller, J., on the Zeugiodon, 421,
N.
Naat oy for Schools, by H.L.
Nebula in he ae "resolved by the Cambridge,
Neptune, F Prof. B, Peirce on, 132
——, identity with a star seen by pense,
S.C. Wa er, 133.
So. shapes ring and satellite, 287.
Niggora whirlpool and rapids, R. Bakewell,
e, mode of determining the SOREN
in Nibaben: 272.
rhtwick, G.,
noticed,
Nitrates, mode of estimating, J. Pelouze, 270.
—s ee ty ro onating compound, with
eTO,
Nitric cesta aaion ‘of coca hydro-
nt,
m of soils, F. Kuhlna nn
Nitrogen, Varrentrapp and Will's at for
the dedermina tion of, E, N. Horsford, 267.
— qu or determining, ‘in or-
peilg sabnencee E. Pel ot, 269.
North Carolin:
Norton, J. P., ow
Norton; WA
Nicotin
of, i
«on Terrestrial Hognetism, 1
ummulite — of Alabama, age of,
-Nommuli
“C. Lyell, 186
pened te animals, influence of ammonia
0.
Obituary notice of cia B. , Craw 300.
ae arorne Diatomaceo us vegetation
424,
Oil of Ben, fat. ‘acids of, 271.
et pee pg of weet ob its lithe
Orbigny,. Ad’, on the Orbitolina, 282.
-——, work by, on the Foraminifera,
rs
noticed,
- Orbitolina, mete . gc Ones a
Ses 2 Chomistry, He view of 188
S. Hunt, 93, 171
—~ ——, homology and analogy in, 96.
oe, nebula eo" resolved by the Cambridge
Gees, formation of eylindrical masses of
Hints to ‘Young Kiehiitale
"302,
tozoum
Mec ‘i qualitative maalyeis, aT 455.
I
ntal ty ah and homolo-
ies of the vertebrate skeleto ons “
sarc remarks on, J. Berzelius.
roperties of, C.F. Schon dong 445.
P;
Page, C. G., singular property of caoutchouc,
Palwontographical Societ v of London, 299.
Pe eon fe — = ey oe eptune, 132.
o> ee for determining nitrogen,
Pelouze, J., mode of estimating co 270.
Pe
nd m experiments by Bessel, 314.
Petschora-Land, geo] 419.
Philoso; ey I a ‘American, Saas
tiods of
—, Proceedings of, 148, 303.
Phosphorescent ‘fungus, 446.
Phos i ric acid, compounds of, with aniline,
hotography on paper, process for, 141.
——, application to copying microscopic ob-
jects,
, Daguerreotype, different properties of
arious so i. rays in,
| Physiological Chemistry, facts i in, J. Liehig,
135.
Planet t Neptune, P: on, 132.
, identit rg "with Talndes s star seen
in jn 1795, ae av
—— on “supposed ving = satellite,
—<— — new, discovered by Hencke, 286.
a aa discovered by J. R. Hind,
Platinum, apparatus for r fusing, R. Hare, 44.
— peo in North Corclion, C. U. Shep-
Polarization of of light, new theory of, Prof.
Polycistina of the Barbadoes, 416.
Polythalamia, d’Orbigny’s s work on, noticed,
of South Caro risurbut ce an
eographical distribution
por preparatio tion of tocodeyania of,
6
Potato disease, Prof. Har das od
Prussic acid, new test for, J Liebie, 101.
Pyroxyline, and analogous compounds, ws
—.,, formula of, see note, 141.
th. Q. ; :
Quinoidine, composition of, J. Liebig, 271.
R.
Rainbows, supernumerary, J. Brocklesby,
+ 429...
Retzius, A., letter from, on the Eegiodem,
a
Rodi, spate fig R, Hare, 44.
A62
Rhynchospora Kneiskernii, J. Carey, 25,
Hoad Making, W. Gi Fie to of, ‘148,
., on the acid in the 7 North A
Columbite
ai Society; historical remark relating to,
INDEX.
EE Sp rea 1 of native. copper from,
Shepherd,
—, ite basalt on, 118.
——, ——, Tautolite on north shore, 278.
3
+d in the North American.
Rucu-Pichineha, exploration of the vol
Hl. Ros
intl Geology of the Petschora Land, by||Tartaric
Count Keyserling, 419.
8.
er’ Hilaire, A. de, on the Minhogao, 130.
_— Poca, ibs Bristol, Ct., containing fossil
16.
“eos day R.#,, on the Barbadoes, 41
Se — C. F., patent of, for gun- cotton,
a
——, on the dis scovery of ode 440,
Schréter, Bessel peniatant tx, 307. °
t, R. Chamies 323.
Sharpe, D., on slaty os ast 110,
Shepard, Cc. U., Report on Tieréorites, 74.
+ min eralogical notices, (Tautolite, Ar-
nate. ane platinum’ in North Caroli-
n a,) 278.
—, fall of meteoric stones in Iowa, 288.
epi er native copper, Lake
pis oad 115,
on drift furrows, scratches, &c., Lake
ee of Notonecta glauca, 423.
01 . a * 1 f
n, B., Jr., fossil trees of Bristol, Ct.,
f Concord, N. H.,
Sirocco dust, microscopic pa in, Bus.
berg, 423.
Smith Hel TLE Ne D.S
of Sch
Smith, J. om 7, 449,
Smithsonian latina, first ‘publication of,
116.
—,
*
metann t
e, 408.
aaa: fermentation of, 27
‘|jta gi on north shore of bet Superior,
Telescope, new, of Mertens 4: eee in
Orion resolved by,
Teneriffe, notes on ut, = of, 121.
Teschemacher, J. E., fossil vegetation of an-
thracite coal, 420.
Titanium, equiva
‘obacco, mode of
nicotine in n,
Transit corrections, theory of, E.
25 A
alent number of, 103.
determining the amount of
F. Burr,
of Connecticut wales 199, :S
ee: rm sil, Bristol, Ct., 116. 9
. Re aS teens of ‘dea slit a
V
‘| Volcanic bb are at the a 8
mere 7
Turk
ogiat'! in, 449.
Lg
Eo peotertiog of, in Euro
Varrentrapp and Will's m
improved, £ RS = refer
s, Cape,
Vertebrate eae om e and ai
Vin
ne fr nitrogen,
—— be ty Niger, Dien from, 19.
e
cnneétcut valley, 2: Hitch-
Voleano, "Raeu-Pichincha oxplortion of, 17.
w.
S. C., identity of Ne tune with a
Walker: T, if
star observed by Lalande, 133. Jae
Snow, cylindrical masses, in Orkne , 292, ||\Waters, chemical examinatio! 385. i.
action of caustic, on a e jar, 105. || from Hartford, Ct., B. W. Bul z
phi dome Seay and fenilieation of, F.Kuhl-|| Water-spout, an account of one, cussed
: ca, exploration of the volcano of||Water power of Europe, 145. | a sited.
_, Rueu- josie cote Weigh hts ie ol 318. Prussian
by. db
9 4 ot y besse wails p a concretion
Sues ee a G. te eee mica from th
bitcatioa under the Smith
anne 3 —
Stone jar, seick % caustic soda on, 105.
erro ra H. E
: gan Pe ehlorsd of ones a new mineral, Zooph tes, remarks on
ack her 415 DD
nt, 350.
on the Dodo: and allied!
, action of, on nitric||——, BER rahe
from a ra 8 stomach, ieee ;
455 i ,
Will, H., Out
Qualitati ve Analysis
Tuomey, 49, 283.
421.
on formation of of coral,
jana, 360.
Madrepora an and Oculina, fe °
uglodon, eosisiaa of, M.
gs if. J. Miller on,
ah Th oe
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wo
in u vol. 12m
RL E
nager *
on the Minit Brain, ‘its plata Physiology and Diseases.
wood-c'
Mt aaa yitlastrations
us wood-c
post oo. D., vol.
AL lary vet Phar ; in J ‘
AN Anatyricar Compend of the Various B of Capaction! icine, ; Mid-
wifery, Diseases of Women ant Children, Materia Medica and Therapeutics, Physiology, Chemistry
and Pharmacy, by John Neill, M.D., . Gurney Smith, M. D., w erous ill
TAyior’s Manual of Toxic ;in 1 vol zcAtF on Caloric, in one large 8vo- volume.
Tue H y, Diagnosis reatment of Typhoid, Typhus, Bilious Remittent, Con ve
Yellow Fever, by Elisha Bartlett, M. D., &c., bei d extended ed. of his former work.
A Cycropzpra of Anatomy and Physiology, based on the large work of hse , in 2 vols. large 8vo.
ENSA’ ith man:
wood-euts, in 1 larg
A New | ORK spon ; and other i ot of Minor Surgery, in
te = of Gene Hoe pag Di Figaro AP orecanr-ep p in 1 oli Ihiege 1iee
ATES’ n editi revi an ught up, }
races ey dat jd Females ; thei r Diseases and their Remedies, in « Boies ree
ters to his Class, in oreo att - ie 3 iw 2
ott wes Fa Yq99 re arkw's ift07 } Together with various other Work tise 9 dai
ese san Wi ersidicl bi bas ¢ wa, feotbeh
6 LEA. & eae binibidaibai
W COMPLE’ TE.
‘THE GREAT "SURGICAL LIBRARY.
A. SYSTEM OF SURGERY,
Doctorin Medicine ond etetiy Spans She si an ih Feu 8 Surgery, ete, ete! in the Uni-
; ' — ve a si er donee rg.
€ “TRANSLATED. FROM. THE,GERMAN,,
_AND ACCOMPANIED: WIPrH ADDI TIONAL NOTES AND OBSERVATIONS,
py ' Fy pint
oe t. Thomas’ Hospital
“pire, wird SEUNG TO AMBRIGAN AUTHORITIES,
ws ,.eatala vs 'Y GEORGE, W. NORRI Pie
No w lete in th 1g pages each, oF in 17 numbers, at fifty cents,
‘Phi , by the very extensive
‘additions at ihe translate at answer to numerous Inquiries, ‘the paises Hom "he ave the Dg ate to pre-
sent si a ge‘volumes, bound in the best manner,
‘and so ‘ ata gaa low pri
This xcellem ork was origina nde unpretending ies of “Handbook to
eer ioweven, strove six. paceoulee editions, it has ually increased
in complete:view of European Sar, e v periotals but more
especially ~§ English practice, and it 1owle be well fitted to supply the admitted want of a com>
plete and ext tended s system of ateety is ‘all its branches, comprehending both the princines. and the prac-
hd ow of this amos lt phy rte the gh and ex art. eat Eepiamin Pell 8 A ge work: apt published in 1783, -
eet k has
the reste a and ‘opinions of allt the distin uished surgeons of the day Continual
he |, paling imions of John;Hunter, on eoahia fodern h
resulls of the recent a Aenicaba i aA ‘especially in reference re ‘inflammation, will be found he
together with many other practical observations, placing the work on a level with the present state of Sur-
rendéring'it oe jarly usefs both an the student and prhosioees
RA
The sto bes of uppi inaeane eet in een.so age and im Soant t, that there is but little which
Ly eA sas Ring itor. Dr.G orri as consented however, to super!
the pass ithe préss, and supply MARRS ite! may have been omitted in rela Ron tothe
ey an profession, Site England and in this country, have join oined if
oom of Sep great ing m eile than any are and’as affording a complete
Jibrary. of wives’ eit pe x! ae practitio oner and ito e staden 4d
. “We — igly r : a all ‘Surgical pra ech a students, wis hey otyetlooked into this work,
royide;themselves yu it without delay, ‘an ately.”—The
Tigh tee and ‘Surgical Journal. ii pa. digenly and ap aiaral
ging trom a sift 4 bie only of this work, we hav s ing that, if the remaining
‘portions correspond at all with the first, it will be by far th at canna Ss sie Syatem of Surgery
in the English language. "We have, inde ed. seen no works which'so nearly comes : ig 0
both 1 as a work of hoary comes as this; and the fact that
it has passed through six editions in Germany, and Been, be atin into seven languages, is sufficiently con-
vineing proof ofi its value. Itis 8 me ethodical and ponripeia — and accurate, omitung all sone tomiaaele
n the shortest and simplest form.”— The New
York. Jouraeiat 8 Medicine
in degree, fall poor of their predecessors, in the ‘eopiousness and value La ‘i
chante forms an almost unique curiosity in Ni eat ‘in the faet tha
notes oceupy a tb iaingei Decite of the volume dis the original matter, pee ere dope ee is ‘constantly
-appearing-to render the text subsidiary to its Ghastration’/, Still this, singular vo cats r does notat
‘detract from the value ofthe matter thus disposed.”— The. Lond FAS Median’ @ nf the
* This work has gitoure og chief eae n Surgery, rine Ag? es male s of Germany, an
lee thas Pet tat Rosigs Cupar
* E, stemat
Tris shatesdieeh ‘aad concise—and on the whole el — — secure, Thome
conveyed in the shortest and. simplest formy » Min and: frai as apeenletinte, 809 wma a, ie ha
fact, essentially a + peeation albook. This work pat yo "published measly twenty y; yeers ago, an and its sold ae
permanent = tion has no sone led Mr. dsc to undertake the present translation of the dsctayie4 e floss
of it, whie still passing through the press Ry ii many. We sho oe tn fe ene
to select a any one better ualified for the“ tas hee thetranslator of Otto's ndium pave
Snabied Pathological omy—a sirgeon to a large hospital: whose eee ined and oppor reanities
im: to keep pae ace vr ith the im improvements of his time.” —The Mi hirer, al Reviews sent
a past andher presé
ry has been
a
¥ n.boast of some of the most skillful surgeons, both amo:
ra oma that OAS oft oaicat science. no work professing to ea i aged rate of Sur
eo tod feta aauraiene nce that of Benjamin Rell, now more than ntury old. of Profes-
ish iterature is ful yaa andvatioterbrily supp Med in “hetransiation greeted
rr ee rgery by. lagentlemah 2A preg orden fitted: “y> the “task, bo ap at: largest
2 W.
D is
'rofessor Cbelin us oe set ack aay ibys trans ated into seven ae
a facto
1 he’ yo if eon nal brethee nd she serve ahs
Ww of publication, totais octher al froma the
retalatob. © The notes and ac ions Protease
ably main ence: come Spee t ono) lo 78 eat
is ey ree gs a ae ases eee indeed the auaae oop ep
Persons
s wishing = work sent to chew by mail, in partsy efi temit Ten
be sent by , free of postage, together
Dollars, for
with a copy of “The
LEA & BLANCHARD'S PUBLICATIONS.
se Sra CONTINUED.
ic of Be tes in rin which the w who e sabct is a
uflan
SUR
The publishers annex a ve
4
s of Chelius’s ar iiiin
see $n tre ted. ™ .
the complete and systemati
) DL Dryisie Of Tif rmation : : : f
1. Qf inflammation in general. | | | igh shi 1 bodies i Tt
2. Of some peculiar kinds of inflammation. organism oe
a. —— “Tork 9 Of oe 8; ¢. frost- a. Into the nose ; b. Into the mouth ; . Int
ite ; oils; e. Of carbunc le. the ullet nd inte tinal, ca ia
3. Y igeams tion in’some special organ te ag e. pat
eye 28s of _ ona . . Of the the ‘g. Feee® | a ormed in our organism by “<
parotid. gia ¢ ton of natural pro
the urethra ; e. oF fhe tewice 7 of th ihe A. Revauepe in their proper cavities oad
muscles the $38. i Mad receptacles.
joints ; h he joints, viz ~ fr Papel etention of urine;
a. Of the synovial’membrane ; the car- | » * “ Retention of the fetus in the wom
tilages;c. eel anes of the bones, _ or in the cavity ° elly, (Cesa-
viz., da. e hipgoint;’ bb. in ‘the _rean.opératidn, section of the pubi
; shoulder fin ce. “in the knee-joint ; symphysis, postions the belly,), »
‘and’s B. Extravasation ext ig the e proper cavi-
Il. Soi —Din tps orael in a dis-
turbance of “piysiedl ¢
1. Fresh Givctions of continui wae
- Wounds; ‘B. Fractures.
1. Old solutions
A. Which do not t sippurte viz
on@. Fal tx -Hare-lip jc Chefhia
> e fof gree d. Old repturs of
male petenees
eS Which do ‘supparate,¥
L. se
Pa te
ties ae aa eptac
a. Siegel on the heads of new-
bork a a ant ; 6. Hema epee ci
Collections‘of blood in joi
3. Here e bodigs See ten ing from ‘ riceumalation
natal deg fluid:
$5.0, Dropsyof joints ;
urse mucose ; d, Wa-
fe gu Dr eee whe
belly ; h. Drops sy of ‘ae ovary
dro
ae pete:
eos . In particular Se f le 4 Foreign ae oe ig
a. Atonie; ‘b. Seorbuitie $ ‘¢, Serofulous ; | + f
Gouty } ie, od f. Vene- Secreted uid
“ Fistut real ;'g. Bony tcers lor Cartes, VY. Diviston.— Diseases which consist imsthe sles
a Salivary fstla b. sth fistiila ; tact pind pence 3 bal aes or inthe nae
ave tific lanus; d. Anal fistula
pp - Enlargement on tongue; 2. Pine at ocele ; ;
itt. + Sahin contenhetgty changed position of 3. Enlarged ‘clitoris ;' 4. Warts; 5. Bunions ;
6. Horn growths; 7 Bony growths 8: Bi
ef Dislocations 2. Ruptures ; 3. Prolapses ; ga er stated "Bir aig i. oY ba ated a
"10. Eneysted ‘swellings; 11. Cartilaginous
tv. Station yr erk ntinui nuity by timnaturat distention: “ bodies’ in’ joints ;'1 reoma 13, shi
the arteries, aneuri welsh oe Siary fungus 14, Pol; ypus'; 15. "Cane eae
: ci is varices ; 3. In the esaast — Pee wis
tem, tele ngiec VI. Diviston: mp Ath parts.” ;
, i foc? replacement eady lost parts
in. Drvasrom—Diseases tepentent ag the eretrg alls of the ueses aqcorsing to the, Taghss
1 ee ihe joint-ends id op 2. Grow- | 9. Mec hel oe cement Application of, arti
fe - and narrowin ote he apetre cial limbs, and so, 0;
6 t Unnat sion 0
: © ott; 3. strives mere adhe ae Sake P WIE Diinatbw uppity of organi te parts. 4
che ‘ 6. vierow tig oft hagus ; 6. VI. Reva: ox. Display, of the dlementary m
Closing ‘and narrowing ‘of the rectum ; 7 ement of poker
Growing eroee gh - : toe. the pre-
__puce; 8. Narr f the ur Gerla surgical 1 operat - meaiy cupping,
Sa ee 9: Chésiapandl: para ie Vagina pplication 6 ied, sibttoduetion | obs etons,
ak, and of the moutlr of the amipatations, resections, an ‘and s :
@) 9:
; hii bat |
_DRUITT’S SURGERY. New E
‘ dhanieatoa with —
wie Wg NOTES a
. “BY JI
peal ze suena!
ia contnantono 7. aa eee with whi oh as been re
admirable
PLES BNF PRACTICE OF. MODERN SURGERY.
ICAN FR rHoat sin aad 0 Bit be , rea
el i
D. M.
sd edn aceon agreae
epuciaeneny a te Pervangpancaa/slieobli
oS ee eae
of the principles and practice of modern Surgery
Editior ---Mow ‘Ready, 1847.
fi?
oa gaan
8 LEA & BLANCHARD’S PUBLICATIONS. ae
NoW READY.
ROYLE’S MATERIA MEDICA.
MATERIA MEDICA AND THERAPEUTICS ;
INCLUDING THE PREPARATIONS OF THE PHARMACOPQIAS OF LONDON,
EDINBURGH, DUBLIN, AND OF THE UNITED STATES.
WITH MANY NEW MEDICINES.
BY J. FORBES ROYLE, M.D., F.R.S.,
Late of the Medical Staff in the Bengal Army, Sse sang of —e bedi and Therapeutics, King’s Col-
lege,
EDITED BY J OSEPH CARSON, M.D.,
Professor.of Materia Medica in the Phil ge of Pharmacy, &e. &c.
WITH NINETY-EIGHT ei usbbition 8.
I> See Specimen of the Cuts, but not of the Paper or Working, on next Page.
In one large octavo volume of about 700 pages.
Being one of the most beautiful Medical works published in this Country-
The want has been felt and expressed for some time, of a text-book on Materia Medica, which
should oceupy a place between the encyclopedic works, such as Pereira, sa the smaller treatises
which present but a meagre outline of the science. It has been the aim of the author of the
present work to fill this vacancy, and by the use of method and condensation, he has been enabled
to p: volume to the student, which will. be ve = contain what is necessary In @
and tho , bere w. unnecessary details, The editor,
ever was Wanted to adapt ii t to & the Pharmacopq@ia of the United sage
and itis sonndendy, recommended t o the student and se ng of pe rntee as one of the bes'
text-books on the subject, now ay he the profession.—Great care has been taken in its pet
execution
Dr, Ro oyle’s mene while it has the convenience of being in a portable form, contains as mu uch
matter as would fill two octavo volumes in large type. Our readers will inde 25 * from the remarks
which we have Fipeay aly made, that we think highly of this work. The s eke ct is well treated, a4
matter practical and well arranged, and we do not hesitate to recommend itas a m
volume to the student and practitioner. It is a good specimen of aad hla and the engravings
are well executed.”?—-Medical .Gazeite. :
In regard to the yet more essential constituent, the literary portion o of the work, no one who is
¥
acquainted with the former productio ‘er doubt that the author ‘Ses discharged h
duties with the same’skill as the iors The work is, indeed, a most valua nd will fill up
an important gap t that existed betwée Pereira’s moat 1 ivi and complete sys a
ica, and ‘the class o actions at the other extreme, which are necessarily imperfect tha
their small extent. Such a not admit of analysis and scarcely of detailed eritic
examination... It would, however, be injustice to the learned author not to state that, in pagines
to what former e ject beth contained, the reader will find here not a little
° a d
is either original, or introduced for the-first time, more especially in the details of botany and
rales ih and in what may be termed the archeology of drugs,—The Bri itish and Foreign
Of the various works that have from time to time appeared on materia medica on the plan. of the
one before us, there is none 8 deserving of commendation. From the examination W egatthoh
have pad. sel accuracy and perspicuity seem to characterize it throughout, as a text book of refer-
oun: re he student of medicine, and ‘especially of pharmacy in its application to medicine, no
ioe in ht eer one every i who can afford it should possess this omelee work, eee value of which
pe fii hanced by the additions of ‘Dr. Carson, than
toi correctly, and to make such aa. mpeten
Examiner. —The
y adapt it fo Ameri ica
We have sufficiently extended our notic a and therapeutics, to
Pang ently. notice d — sn of materia medic’ Ae neues to
the fession. The gchar of materia medica is now so extended, t e treatises recently
A Bt ke of cyclopedias. To the student, whether of pharmacy
este te as the Piya, cannot but be ihc with favor.—The
hers: as 8
5 gibe ta ye
(-yooyuaq7)
‘WALVIQOVW WAINOO
(any)
‘VLVYNGYO VWSOId
= (-Sauuny).
“SFIVNIOIUMO VOLLSIUAW
SPECIMEN OF CUTS IN
Bh Oa Se res 2
MATERIA MEDICA AND THERAPEUTICS
"8 Fig
10 Eek & BLANCHARD’S PUBLICATIONS.
CHURCHILL?S MIDWIF ERY.
ON THE THEORY Y. AND PRACTICE OF MIDWIFERY.
¥i Di. CHURC MLD...
Licentiate of the Aatape of Pays in oe a Physician en = Vestern Lyngip-toepial Lecturer on
Midw feryy k&e., in the Richmond Hospital Medical School, &c.
NOTES AND oe
Proce of Materia Mediewand Gene rapeutics, and form Ob stetries and the Disease of Wo-
and Children in ue Jeferson. me College ot Puiadetptis President of the Philadelphia
prtron
WITH ONE sinker aan Tepes: EIGHT ILLUSTRATIONS,
Engraved by Gilbert from Drawings by Bagg an
In one ‘be seautifil octavo voheall
n this age of books, when much is written in every department of the science of medicine, it iga mater of
no small moment t the student, which of the many he shall choose for Rie a, in_pupilage, and guide in
practice. In no department i is the choice more di ficul a in that of m i many excellent and traly
f lici ave, wit n a few years pact, b been aracter
are those of Dewees, Velpeau, eg and Rigby, with d eds we are
lled atto Mr rehill has been néser vedrthie honorof present: ng ‘oe et noth, oné more
teal y aapred 1s the aan — use a students, a wor’ oy ca a free in
style The New York Journal of Braaseinas
WILLIAMS? PATHOLOGY.
PRINCIPLES _OF MEDICINE,
GENERAL PATHOLOGY “AND THERAPEUTICS,
VIEW
ETIOLOGY, NOSOLOGY, ‘SEMEIOLOGY, DIAGNOSIS AND ae
BY CHARLES: na B. WILLIAMS, M.D., F. . ss
7 ie Royal Sata of Physicians, &e:
i , NOTES
_ BY MEREDITH CLYMER, M. D. &e.
PEREIRA’S MATERIA MEDICA.
With nearly Three Hundred Engravings on Wood:
A NEW EDITION, LATELY J dum od | ;
THE ELEMENTS OF
MATERIA MEDICA AND. THERAPEUTICS
THE gig HISTORY, PREPARATION, PROPERTIES, COMPO-
eee EFFECTS AND USES: OF MEDICINES.
= ( ATHAN’ PEREIRA, M.-D., F.R.S. anv L. s.
Member of the soa cies of Paris; Examiner in eery Medica and Pharmacy of the University
rer on Mater seg ee t the Lon don Hospital &e. me
dition
:
Writ ‘NOTES SAND ADDITIONS oF JOSEPH CARSON, M pS
In two.yolumes, octavo, ba ake wery large Feo SSRN sby Two Hundred ia
eee: of materi ica, for such itm ay insta mined, gives t ‘the fullest the Bgish eo
X-
ica ~~ rascoviate e bran
. arch and e iw aaieinente
oes explanations are = iowa eee and in accordance w
ce for
ite peaen op res he Phe er
LEA & BLANCHARD'S PUBLICATIONS, — a ee
-(WILSON'S ANATOMY, New Edition-.-Now Ready, 1847._;
AL SYSTEM — ‘OF HUMAN ANATOMY,
o.. GENERAL AND SPECIAL, | |
BY a WILSON,! M.D., ¥ ©
turer on Anatomy,
HIRD pe ese FROM pa Pete LONDON EDITION.
BDITED BY,» :Pa« Be GODDABD, A. MiwxMu D.
sor of Anatomy inthe Franklin,Medical College of Philadelphia
WITH ce ‘x0 JRED AND THIRTY-FIVE ILL STRATIONS BY GILBERT.
Hn one beautiful octavo volume of over L rge Pages,
“Str nee Bound and sold at a low’ a.
Since the publication s off ithe, ond American edition of.this work, the author has,issued a
edition in London, in which he 13 carefully Goa t up his work to alev rel with the most ‘advanced
: apters have been re-written, made
through the body silky work, by the introduction of all rte facts of in appro
‘priate acs eal , as much increase its value t edition isa aarti ry exact reprint
i iti necessary to a
of the English i hank with t
more eatin elucidation of the t; and the insertion ch e notes appended to the last
American edition as had not been adopted’ by the au hor and embodied in ‘his text; togethe i
ch additional information as appeared calculated to enhance the value of work t may also
be stated that the utmost care has b eyision of the letter-press, and in ohaining
clear and distinct impressions of the accompanying cuts.
Mb s be eee hat every effort has been used to render ad text-book wor thy a con-
rece rofessors Bech s of
tinuance of the great favor with which it has been everywhere re
adopting it for their classes may rely on being always able to pein editions brought up to thé
his — is well known for the deo ty and accuracy. of its mechanical execution.. The present
ition is provem e last, both in the number and clearness of its embe ilishen ents;
it is Bound in “the best manner in strong sheep, and is sold at a price which renders it sccensible
CONDIE ON CHILDREN, —New Edition, 1847.
A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON’ 2 °°
THE DISHASEHS OF) CHILDREN.
of ‘}» (BY/D. FRANOIS CONDIE, MD, / | PO
Rane of the College of Eavsiciants meet r of the davni one Ppjlospphicsl Society, &c.
ca. mination of this book.
is rag would parti
t treatise every Peres of th work has page tedioa
i canenae facts
tient of the diseases of infancy — childhood, that have wad devel Spall since the appearanee of the firs
edition. It is ¥ith some confider tc Peay" anithor en s this edition as embracing a full and eto
Mpg of the actual state of the d therapeutics of those affections which most papatby urbe-
fween birth and puberty. _
This work is being introduced, fis a text-book, very conserve throughout thé Union.
- CHURCHILL ON. F EMALES... Ne New Edition, 1847.-Now Ready.
THE DISEASES. OF FEMALES,
PREGNANCY. AND “CHILDBED.
hg Inne CHURCHILL, M oe ne
of “Theory an and Practice of Midwifery,” &
FOURTH aleonacatty FROM THE SECOND LONDON EDITION, inn ILLUSTRATIONS. »
EDITED,. WLTH NOTES,
BY ROBERT M. Back: ROR, M.D., &¢. hee
In one volume,
_'The rapid sal editions of ins wate mht stamp epneias sahmmpatiae the ajppretiation oe
ame ee ena ares See eaaiee
i sions, and Wo bring bring the work fl y up'to the aecceeal agecer By en “ sidin hs
gh
ss
4
12 > LEA & BLANCHARD’S PUBLICATIONS.
LIBRARY OF OPHTHALMIC MEDICINE AND SURGERY.
Bia! to 18471.
A TREATISE, ON THE DISEASES OF THE EYE,
Surgeon Buecciaait to the ot one to sone cpa i s Hospital, &c. &e.
NEW EDITIO
Modificati d Additions, i tion of nearly two hundred Illustrations.
| BY ISAAC HAYS
: rgeon to Wills’ Hospital, Physician to the Philadelphia Orphan Asylum, &c. &e.
In one very large octavo vot of near 900 pages, wi beivit twelve plates and numerous wood-cuts through
With many
This i dmong the largest and most complete works on this interesting and difficult branch of certo
Science
: The early call for a new edition of this work, ee the opinion euperaend byt the editor of its great
aliue PA lne y inco or rat-’
as he has Be ely done, of.
nig init the recent improvements | in Ophthalmic. ‘Practice sae availing Rimeelf
I in e field. the editor has endeavored to do so
aPjanty “Delonge to them. Among the additions which
re been ney may be noticed, ane seserptions of several affections not treated of i ie the original,—an
em ploym ent as a means of diagnosis.—one han -
very full index, There hay:
dred and gob six iJlustrations.
ned been introduced in the several chapters on Re more Allis aia, the tues of the editor's tle
perience in eats to their treatm subject,
during § all of which period I hit ‘ : aon OF
“ We think there are few bl b the
n ise
as a enlist nie been long since Set established; is gi Tit consists in he leita
and thé! very practical teno rot his Th ue of the present beautiful edition is greatly
y the importan itio t ays has, for nearly a quarier of eo been, con-
of ade 4
Seater with riban he institutions for a. treatment of Diseases of the Eye, and few men have
_ ment t ‘has, of such extensive opportunities of arse a thorough knowl
JONES ON THE EYE, Now Ready.
THE PRINCIPLES | AND PRACTICE.
OF OPHTHALMIC MEDICINE AND SURGERY.
By T. betas i: JONES, F.R.S., &.&e.
WITH ONE HUNDRED AND TEN ILLUSTRATIONS.
EDITED BY ISAAC HAYS, M.D., &.
In vig very neat Rhine large royal 12mo., with Four du plain or valbten. and Ninety-
erght well executed Wood-cu
¥ ~ od lecience
The aim of the author has been to produce a a work whigh should, ina moderate compass, be suffi
refer: =" oe br praitionet
u
c
sitiahte 1 for those who do not d t ] ic t' ane
Lawrence’s.. ‘Thus, by brent its toot a tsaeieen i pire ye and encyclopadie erbbice to arrange-
cine: “of dp aio of numerous pictorial ilustrationsh he has been enabled to embody in it the prin
t
ac Pp mic medicine, and to point ou t thei r practical . appli cation mor vill be found
en done jn an on of the same size, e execution of w rand the
ne om pene with its merit. The illustrations have been ceacaved and printed with oi”) ani
nent 18 CoO! im every wa. y the falfils the
© are confident that the reader will find, on perusal, that the execution earth ork amply fl hthal-
_ promise of the Holey _ sustains, in e . bo’
i every point, the alteady high reputation. e au rand
siologist and athol the result of much ti
dod oe and pathologist. The book is evidently + pert se quality which
ee Ss
mi; it possesse ais: when
oh se nabs w, viz:—the quality of having all now with the freshness
he book at
gret that we have received t
ae tomy a mere vagina of haw al “¢ ally and pesserily a compilation,
oe should be glad produce in our pages, whether in omnes early laid
ou
corrected. or of coun rinciples of evlncteatd in doubtful I
ur reacters will short! ‘have aay opportunity of seeing hein Nee 4
bt that this book will become what its author hoped it becomes !
consultation by the student and the. qe ee rata al rectitionss, sorthe.
Saree
Ee FALA AE Ty? if Wry be
LBA & BLANCHARD'S PUBLICATIONS. ron ag 13
NEW AND COMPLETE MEDICAL BOTANY.
NOW READY.
MEDICAL BOTANY,
UR, A DESCRIPTION OF ALL THE MORE ciel ig PLAN USED IN
MEDICINE, =| a OF THEIR PROPERTI AND
ODES OF ge ae
BY R. notte GRIFFITH, M.D. &c. &c.
In one large octavo volume.
With about three hundred and me Illustrations on Wood.
Specimens of the Cas are annexed, but not so. well p k. i d pap
$s work is intended to supply a want long felt in this country, of some treatise present-
ing sone systematic descriptions of medicinal plants fo ot. taped y reyresentations of
the most important of them, and furnished at a price so moderate as to Pfeiier it generally
accessible and useful. In the arrangement, the author has peteel more fully of those
ot proficie n the science, an fearaioninn has been, prepared, containing a concise view
of Vegetable ghee and the Anatomy and Chemistry of Plants. Besides this, a very
copious Grossary of botanical terms has been apesoeee. together he a most complete
Test satisfied with such imperfect know ailcs as n be ihiateed saaee he different treatises
on the Materia Medica, the present work a be. ot wien tb utility as a ook ak guide in
his researches, as it presents.in a con form, all tl hat is at prese' own respecting
Present the only ones accessible on this important
Great care has been taken to render the mechanical execution satisfactory.
ae
a
NOW PREPARING,
AND TO BE READY BY AUGUST NEXT,
AN ANALYTICAL COMPEND OF THE VARIOUS BRANCHES OF
PRACTICAL MEDICINE, SURGERY, ANATOMY,
MIDWIFERY, DISEASES OF WOMEN AND CHILDREN,
Materia Medica and ihe Moctitins pAyietone:
‘ /OHEMISTRY AND PRARMAGY
BY JOHN NEILL, M.D,
Demonstrator of Anatomy in the University of Pennsylvania, and
_F. GURNEY SET E.. M. D., ef
‘To make one large feel erg roan - numerous Illustrations on Wood.
of the ublishers in such @ pre tet it can be done up in
and in rT to ria no sae ewiiviice will cost over 50 cents, thus pre-
[ TALS on the various roby ranches ofmedoie, and avery low pie
ae j bly leat sete
—_
SPEOIMEN OF THE ILLUSTRATIONS IN |
GRIFFITHS MEDICAL BOT ANY,
(‘poomZoq))
‘VaINO'ld SANYOO
~ yrommqsyfom).
> ‘SATIGdUVN WOLINOOV-
pT ee sg Tilton ae
THE, GREAT MEDICAL: LIBRARY,
THE CYCLOPAEDIA’OF PRACTICAL ‘MEDICINE ;
COMPRISING TREATISES ON THE
NATURE, AND TREATMENT: OF DISEASES,
MATERIA MEDICA AND THERAPEUTICS,
DISEASES OF WOMEN AND. CHILDREN,
MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE, &c. &c.
: = ) EDITED BY. es wee
JOHN FORBES, M. D., F.R. Sai
ALEXANDER LWP LE M Dis WFLR.S.,
JOHN CONOLLY, M. D.
REVISED, WITH ADDITIONS,
By ROBLEY DUNGLISON, M. D.
——
18 WORK IS NOW COMPLETE, AND FO
FOUR LARGE SUPER-ROYAL, OCTAVO VOLUMES. :
CONTAINING THIRTY-TWO HUNDRED AND. FIF TY-FOUR |
UNUSUALLY LARGE PAGES IN DOUBLE COLUMNS,
PRINTED ON GOOD PAPER, WITH A NEW AND CLEAR TYPE.
THE WHOLE WELL AND STRONGLY BOUND, .
WITH RAISED BANDS AND DOUBLE TITLES.
Or, to he had in twenty-four parts, at Fifty Cents sick
For a list fist Articles and Authors, together with tn geod of the press, see Supplement to the No-
vember ntimber of the Medical News tie Bibra ary for 1
This work having been completed and placed before the profession, has
been steadily advancing in favor with all classes of physicians. The nu-
merous. advantages which it combines; beyond those of any other work ; the
Weight which each article carries with it, as being the production of some
conpendiousnes with which i everthing of eaoetene is Speed be a
ch it has been brought up
Stant and reliable reference, it presents
other work of the kind. To ‘country Peocnaiiers, 6 ssoedells it is abans
lutely invaluable, comprising in a moderate space,
matter for which they would ake accumulate libraries, when removed
ftom public élections. The steady and increasing demand with which
it has been favored since, its completcn, shows that its merits have been
mepteseat tty and that it is now unive considered as the
~ LIBRARY FOR CONSULTATION AND REFERENCE. - i
A MAGNIFICENT AND CHEAP
SMITH & HORNER'S ANATOMICAL ATLAS,
Just Published, Price Five Dollars in Parts.
AN
ANATOMICAL ATLAS
| ILLUSTRATIVE OF THE STRUCTURE OF THE HUMAN BODY.
, _BY HENRY H. SMITH, M.D.,
i Fellow of the College of Physicians, &¢.
UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF
LLIAM E. HORNER, M.D.,
Professor of Anatomy in the University of Pennsylvania.
In One large Volume, Imperial Octavo.
This work is ‘but just completed, Feats a delayed over the time intended by the bbe ape in n giving
to on = eae the desired finish a ection. It consists of five par rts, whose ¢
I. The Bones and Lipa wi one.hundred an nara
Pant Il. The Pe seinge and Dermoid § Systems, wi ith’ alaabe eng’ vings.
Paar IIL. Ti » With one Saeed and ninety-one engravings
Part IV, © Or za “ or R pirati 1 Ci ion, with nine’ sight © ey
Part V. r €] sya t d the & with one hundred and -six engravings.
Fo: orming altoge j 8 Anatemica 1. Plates. rg
SIX ONDRRD AND Diety. FIGURES, , _ i
executed i is Sea jac style of art, and ge imperial octavo volume. Those who do not want it in
parts can have the
This work p — velty both in the design end the execution. Iti is the first attempt to apply engrav ing
on w «ny scale, to a illustration of —— auatomy; and the peasy of the!parts issued induces gow
publishers to fl atter themselves with the of the perfect suecess-of undertaking: ‘The plan :
work is at once novel and Seiconiont _ Each page is perfect in itself, the resereioes being immediately per
the figures, so that the takes in the whole at a glance, and obviates the aigcessity of continual reference
as poe _ deve The are selected from the rien and most a sources; and, where neces-
sary, orig wings have wee ep pec pore the admirable Acsomiast Colleevon at he University of Penn
sylvaniay tt einbraives all the late beauti ng
tion issues
Frid the the getting up of th complete work: the publishers have spared neither pains nor expense, and t pert
now present it to the prceni with the full confidence ae it will be dee all that is bb mee in a scientific
and a rtistical point of view, while, at the same ume, its very low price places it within the reach of f all. a ee
hy
of plates
Ll
CZ Cz C4 , ie ) s*_¢ ba
“These fi Tes are owen selected, and present a canis te and accurate representation of that wonderful fabri
= gn body plan of thts ep: which renders it so euliariy convenes: & for the student, and i
bang 1 already. pointed) out, the student np be
rte inabdtsds of Hate atlas, as it ee Moet co! nivenient work of the kind that lus yet tipsaren; and, W to our
add, the ve ry beautiful, Shandes in which it is ‘ got up’ is so-creditable openery as to be flattering
national ow e—. seen Medical Journal. tomical Atlases,
an exquisite volume Pap beautiful specimen of art. We have is Ve
bet we will venture io say that none equal it in cheapness, and none purrase it ing faithfulness emi Pew hich
®trongly recomme: ommend to our fri aide, bow urbad and euburban. the purchase of this ex xcellent work,
both editor and publisher deserve the thanks of the profess’ sori —Medi ing se 1, who,
“¥*e would strongly recommend it, not only to the t, but also to the working practitioner y
rusty’ in the toils of his harne: ess Silt has. the Stine and often the pie yof rd eshing, sg
sap Oh in this fundamental part of the iy i, ava of medicine.”. —New York Journal of Medicine @ ublished
- Lee Plan of this ‘Atlas is s edraien bie, a its e ing of the rind ser rap be
perior to any thi
this co ate a is aoe 2 ay. Am air, aed oe we regard its seo pg as th sy ati boon:
the suuden anatomy. t ~_ bé equally —- to the eager
seone ar ans of reealing cog tes issecting room, a1 wis h are soon
ra? crane aswell. ‘ae parte eularly uséful design, which should b i - ined by physieinnh
bert and son ira oT scents.” eae Med. and is Swe, Journal, ohieakes
« author of tle Atlas to comprise in it te valuable points of all previous ab
‘embrace the In ate Ppcmacegie cal observations on the anato: omy A the tissues, ane ee ange it at t a moders ii
8 pect op ait ts acquire it who may need its assistanée) leah dissecting or
Aer ™m Journal of Med. and Surgery.
= ier we cobiplice the ‘series of this beautiful work, which fully merits the praise alled by bestowed upon he
We rd of Oe fugratiugs ‘aS possessing an a wa Mt only €
ity recommend te wo “til engoged in the study of anato: sain ee
the. one ie beers us conld not easily be miei, by a physician upon the table of
Serena Part I, but tthe & ill more, both as regards the attract:
ond cond Part gra sane es age er fizal * eeation = =
sir ebnete e the poh rate microscop: of eof the Uses, ‘and
Cilpote wastes the- ot accurate croscopy and cutis vera, the s¢ ails, Then
e etin, the perepi and hairs of ihe s skin, and the hair and mi ommend
y of th maces stly. their bac te fe Yorke al of Racine and SP
a + a os ez nf nie ne tie bee a i pee ; * | ba & * oes em i seal
LEA & BLANCHARD’S PUBLICATIONS. 17
HORNER’S ANATOMY,
NEW EDITION.
SPECIAL ANATOMY AND HISTOLOGY.
BY WILLIAM E, HORNER, M.D., .
PROFESSOR OF ANATOMY IN THE recipi OF PENNSYLVANIA, &C., &c.
Seventh ion,
With many improvements iid event In re octavo volumes, with illustrations on
ood.
This standard a has been so long hei the profession, and has been so extensively
used, that, in announcing the new edition, it is only necessary to state, that_it has under-
ne a most careful Periion ; the author aoe introduced pas illustrations relating to Mi-
Si sla thet are rapidly advancing a
anged to refer en i to a parebibie in Smith and Horner’s Anato-
much extended, so as to place it, ee a level with the existing advanced state of anatomy.—
ase histological portidl has beth modelled and rewritten ‘since the last edition; numerous
ood cuts have been introduced, He specific references are made ogni work to
the beautiful figures in the Ana tomical Atlas, by Dr. H. H. Smith.”—The American Medical
Sor January, 1847.
HORNER’'S DISSECTOR.
THE UNITED STATES DISSECTOR,
7 BEING A NEW EDITION, WITH EXTENSIVE MODIFICATIONS,
AND ALMOST (REWRITTEN, OF
“HORNER S PRACTICAL ANATOMY”
IN ON E VERY NEAT VOLUME, ROYAL 12m0.
With many Illustrations on W '
The numerous pea and additions which this work has undergone, the improve-
Fide Ay have been posi n it, and the numerous wood-cuts which have been intro-
uc
Itis the standard work for the Beidénts in the University of Pennsylva
Some such guide-book as the above is indispensable to the student in me Tiicausie room,
ay claim to combine as
Since, gives proo
bs cgg students ae F Goad a valiable A te, —The Western Jour
¥
HOPE ON THE HEART. NEW EDITION, JUST PUBLISHED,
A TREATISE ON THE DISEAS
OF THE HEAT AND GREAT VESSELS,
AND ON THE AFFECTIONS WHICH MAY BE MISTAKEN pte THEM. peee
isi i y Sounds as demonstrated ex-
Coming ner logan he Aci, Sa sme
BY J. HOPE, M.D. D., F. R.S., &c. &c
Benoni Amerionn from the third London edison, Notes and a. Detail of Recent Experiments,
BY C. W agin M. pe
yi + 4 with thographic plates. eee eB
S82 URS UULEYY FUL
we
LEA & BL. D'S PUBLICATIONS.
WORKS BY PROFESSOR: W. ss “DEWEES.
NEW EDITIONS.
DEWEES'S. MIDWIFERY, .
‘A COMPREHENSIVE SYSTEM, OF, MIDWIF ERY.
CHIEFLY DESIGNED TO FACILITATE. THE INQUIRIES OF THOSE WHO. MAY. BE PUR-
HIS BRANCH OF STUDY.
NY ENGRAVINGS, i
SUING
ILLUSTRATED BY, OCCASIONAL CASES AND MA
— Edition, with the Author’s last Improvements and Corrections.
I T. Dy,
re ade ate pitibee gh
LATE PROFESSOR OF MIDWIFERY IN
ne volume, ota
profession, and the
~ That this work, aide rs the length tt time it has been before the ume rons treat-
ises that have appeared s was written, should have still Saeed its ground, and ahh to edition after
edition lon, is su ficient proo: soe that, in it the . practical talents of the author were fully Noni before the Arse
with American Obstetrical Science.
t
——-
+
- DEWEES ON FEMALES.
A TREATISE ON THE ‘DISEASES a FEMALES,
BY WILLIAM bt MEE, og OUR
LATE PROFESSOR OF MIDWIFER’ NIVERSITY i mac chaste ETC.
: EIGHTH. EDITION,
With the acd s last Improvements and: Cortecwsi:
ates. ;
; a
es
:
PHYSICAL, AND. MBDICAL, TREATMENT. OF CHILDREN
BY
a’
WILLIAM P.: DEWEES, M.D., sie
gr ccaabiacione, NINTH SyreTOt ee
one volume ottdvo. : :
Heapticee ee embodies the notes and ae prepared by Dr. Déwees before his d
The object of this work are, 1st, to teach those who have the charge of children, either: as parent or gustan,
methods of securing and improving their physieal powers. ‘This is atte eg tar by pte ox
out the sees whic the parent or the guardian owes for this purpose; PA this interesting but Pas © rope
belie: and the manner ay whic their duties shall be. fulfilled, render available @ Jong experienc
to cate objects of our affection when they become anata I { ; disease 0
h as jicality,” and has’ given, if he does not flatter himself too ‘much. to each bel
which he } pean its appropriate and designating characters: she a fid that will L prevent an Pop has
stents ed together, with the best mode of treating them, either his own experie 7 that
3 41 RS ee Fee ee W he et
‘-
“ASHWELL ¢ ON T THE DISEASES OF FEMALES
A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE
DISEASES: PECULIAR’ TO WOMEN.
DERIVED. FROM Prmetnrlagts AND’ PHU ATE PHAGTIGE:
Maicrertaniysteoes te SCginkerye ASHWELL, M. ida sid 8”
os = _ Enrep oe BECK GODDARD, M. dD. ages
Complete in large octav i
mens ard and Waued ney on female diseases
th , and will be found
that we
LEA & BLANCHARD’S. PUBLICATIONS. 19
~ WATSON’S PRACTICE OF PHYSIC.
~ NEW EDITION BY 'CONDIE. = 97
LECTURES, ON, THE
PRINCIPLES! AND PRACTICE OF PHYSIC.
DELIVERED AT KING’S COLLEGE, LONDON,
By THOMAS WATSON, M.D., &c. &c.
Second American, from the Second London Edition.
REVISED, WITH ADDITIONS,
BY D. FRANCIS CONDIE, .
Author ofa work on the ‘Diseases of Children, &e.
In One Octavo Yolen
The rapid sale of the first edition of this work isan evidence of its merits, and of its general favor a
American practioner To mend. it still more strongly to the profession, the i ers. hay e ag ope
reat expeuse in preparing ne edition, Ai larger type, finer wan des and. stronger. binding wit Pin “db: a
Lis edited with reference. particul arly to einen practice; by Dr. Condie;,.and with, these numerous im-
Provemenis, the price is still kept so ner, as 10 be within the reach of all, and to render it-among the cheapest
works. apg e the profession. It has been aranied with the utmost favor by the medical, press, both of this
coun ety of England, .a few of the notices hich, together with a, letter from Professo t Chapm
Philadelphia, September 23h in
Watson’s Practice of Physie, in my opinion, is amo the most compre
who may be saluhg pe bY may y judgment , N, AN, M.
; 2
APM
aes of the Practice and Theory of wat in Hh University ew Panneylonnia,
me ow of no work better calculated for being placed i in the hands of the student, and for a text-book, and
ass Fo a sureit\will be veryexténsively Ug ted.! B i a impoftant point thé alithor seems to have
Posted vy Pi Popwrege to the day.”— icat Je —
€ most practi ically ae books that ever w ‘student—indeed-a more admirable
hology, aad ‘of the ‘application of acai to diseases, we are free to
say apes. not pw sehen for very Ba 8 years, The lecturer proceeds through the whole classification of human
ills, a capite ad calcem ; aLevery step an extensive know ledge.of his subject, with the ability of commu-
nicating his precise ideas in a style remarkable for its ‘elearness and simplicity."—N. Y. Journal of Medi-
Cine: a rj
“We are free to state that a careful examination of this 1
Wouers, com bestow: ed on it in this country and at Itis a work mS to es re want “ young Pencti-
i e Sa
om)
i etice.
ht and pele by th pe ‘cantiient physicians of the
pieeent a ane as su embarki tice of physic to orevite him-
‘Belf with & copy of it. im Wes stern. a Jorn al of Medicine and Sur
maa Ret iosns eaten ols
VOGEL'S parderesiee. ANATOMY.
PATHOLOGICAL ayatouly OF THE HUMAN BODY,
OGEL, M.D., &c.
“emanate ihn er iinet WITH ADDITIONS,
By GEORGE E. DAY, M.D., &.
¥llustrated by upwards of One Bunveed Plain and Eo
In One neat Octavo Volume. re alalae
Tn our ve etty full analysis of the original of this very Telpe: e work, to whi
saree er Apts bar 1 OE a a Tha eek ant Fi ins ak ‘eal
and Dr. Day,.whose
e of whieh i t the English language :
translation is swell execul on the subiee value b : Hee wou Fete pit om of the, most important side tea o
oul harensnes pv ae
lores Bngrabvings.
20 LEA & BLANCHARD’S PUBLICATIONS.
ie _.. ANEW EDITION OF THE GREAT
MEDICAL LEZICON.
— A Dictionary of
MEDICAL SCIENCE,
CONTAINING A CONCISE ACCOUNT OF THE VARIOUS SUBJECTS AND TERMS; WITH THE
ed aD MIN one a ty ote NOVICES OF CLIMATES AND OF C CELE-
ER FORMULA FOR RARUS OFFICINAL
AL PREPARATIONS, &
ote cee , DUNGLISON, M: D,
PHILADELPHIA
PROFESSOR 0
Sixth edition, revised and greatly 5 oo to one royal octavo volume of over 800 very large pages,
uble columns. Strongly bound in the best og aaa oon bands,
“The most complete medical dictionar im the English language.’
“ or thi nk that MA 2 the ate a saistetory, ios icebebleit not indispe
—Le x ich the student may 8 search without" disappointment for meh 4 term that has ‘been
pore a ated ir ag Me niinnatiliges of the science,’ has been * tally accomplished. Such a work is much needed
by all Riedicn! students and young physicians, and will dou +t eontinue ‘in preirhe sive demand. It is a
lasting monument of the industry and literary attainments of the author, who has long oceupied the highest
rank k amoug the medical teachers of America.”— The Ne Me land Surgical Jo
e New dean dical a : Journal.
r. Dunglison’s Dictionary bas reached as sixth edition, is almost
as Bien? praise as could be bestowed upon it by an elaborate notice. It is one of those standard works that have
been ‘ weighed in the balance bow (sony been ove wanting? It has stood the test of roo} see and the fre-
estimation. The 6th ody a en ie mere reprint of form 1e8; the author has for ont bee
laboriously en uae in Teviving and making such lalioeations ane uired by ny the ra Aurel
gress ,and the introduction of new ries into our vocabulary. In proof of this itis state i
the present edition comprises s nearly two thousand five hundred su eitesis and terms not contained in the last.
Many, of these had been imroduced into medical: terminology in consequence as the progress a bs ak
a ed, and that he! has succeeded ‘i rendering the work ‘a satisfactory ete desirable—if not apo
Paral eisable~Le¥icon in which os satan ey search, without disappointment, for every term that ha: ‘aa.
ed in the nomenclature oft the science?’ This desideratam he has been enabled to attempt in
cessive shee essa ons, by reason of the work not being stereotyped; and the present edition. certainly offers serouger
a tothe attention of the practitioner, and student, than any of its predecessors. The work i got x ie
the usual taste of the publishers, and we recommend it in full confidence to all who have apa boy
themselves oa hon 3 so indispensable an addition to their libraries.”— The New York Journal of as LCtThes
A NEW EDITION OF DUNGLISON’S HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY.
HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY,
WITH THREE HUNDRED AND SEVENTY ILLUSTRATIONS.
BY ROBLEY DUNGLISON, M.D.
DELPHIA, ETC., ETC.
Sixth eae eared improved.—In two ht octavo volumes, containing nearly 1350 pages.
“Tris but ne he Au aes ». sa all the cares that were bestowed on the Labs tg
ioe edition have been € ended to red ae oe Peale to a greater amount. Nothin; #, import an eighty-fi
» but also from i its superior execution, and the abun ndance € of its ‘illustrations. PbS a! ict cis psc
ance to the student. 4
“Weh tist:
| d laring ou inion that thi k i I y atise on phy-
siology i In our war language, d - ~ Nae r ey mg a A OE, y languag atic edico- Chirurgi-
cal —~ of Lo hich exhibits a
e work as in now stands | is the ven dag on Physiology i in the hia language w pee Edin
clear an of the € present condition of that : science. n— London
burgh only Journal,
-
SUPPLEMENT 10 THE ENCYCLOPADIA. AMERICANA, UP TO THE YEAR 1847.
ENCYCLOPEDIA AMERICANA---Supplementary Vol.
OPULAR
A P R DICTIONARY vs
OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATUR, HISTORY, POLITICS AN
BIOGRAPHY.
V OAs, ATV:
Epitep sy HENR HAKE, LL. D.,
Vice-Provost and Professor of Mathematics in the ir Neen of Pendeyivania, Author 0
tica -
In One large Octavo Volume of over Siz Hundred and Fi “afty Ppt columned pages. aa
ume vad now Avhole
who want a Register of the Events of the last Fifteen years, f sag this
y eaten interesting scientific heer Evo De and wag ape can in leather,
which the publishers have been selling s bookstores i
the large cities can be supplied on on application at any of the principal boo 1 charge ~
country can have their tched by sending a volume in
f A Treatise on Poli-
at very low — in —— een
n L-pmiten (Encyclopedia : pook. in-all the ciel
Saveccran nin serene rhe tae meet
iseriminating readers uire in
pooraal a atse wcvepiabic ui wes ere i mans Journal
LEA & BLANCHARD’S PUBLICATIONS. 25
FOWNES’ CHEMISTRY FOR STUDENTS.
THE ORE ee AND ERATE
EORGE FOWNES, ahh
Chemical al in the eet Hospital 2, Sthook; &e. &
With Num us Illustrations. ace with Additions,
“BY Y ROBERT. BRIDGES, | M.D.,
Professor of General and paps ll f PI &c. &e.
Wes sero op in one large duodecimo volume, sheep or extra oe
is work has Pau taanusiect ublished, it has tread be d d
- oyalaak yen Pip an rbee ut the county asa work i for the Tira clase ico eso pbc fig
aaa ge “ = eg agnliney ening yh such as Graham’s, there has been but one opinion expressed concerning it,
THE TEXT-BOOK FOR THE CHEMICAL STUDENT.
able expose of the present state of chemical science, simply and clearly written, and display-
The
ie a Pimoncs practica
a s, and. the aon sng 8 of she bok, merit our highest praise.” British and Foreign Medical
jew,
6Ramarkahle fre +
i k of
tably calculated to prepare the ie treati dee Pharmaceutical Jo we have seen, admi-
oe bgt lag Fownes, while not ening on the patent wd
Saat sav eee introductory w' Persons using it may ee pt its mp ae —. up-to the prey by ring
GRAHAM’S CHEMISTRY.
THE ELEMENTS . OF CHEMISTRY.
INCLUDING THE OP 1A0 SEO OF THE SCIENCE TO THE ARTS.
ith Numerous ae eg a a .
MAS GRAHAM, F.R. S. L. and E. D.,
Professor of Chemistry in University eo Loudon &ec. &c.
0 ND ADDITIONS,
WITH N
By ROBERT BRIDGES, M D., &e. &e.
In one
i eee
SIMON’S CHEMISTRY OF MAN.
CHEMISTRY
AN AL :
WITH REFERENCE TO THE PHYSIOLOGY AND PATHOLOGY OF MAN.
eit thoi if tee o
FRANZ
D AND EDIT.
GEORGE EE. DAY, aM. A.& L. M. Citi
With plates. In one octavo volume, of over seven hundred pag es, sheep, ‘or in two parts,
This i is iumporvant ume. Those who oe a the
“Nes n procure the second separ
oe 0 cea & n physiological chemistry sogudatoe in fulness on seeurscy of de detail, the work which
. nde at the head or this article. It is the production of a man of trae German As ity, who has added to his
The researches the ae of the labors of nearly every other inquirer in this interest branch of science—
e c? of gach 8 rer, which is ment eye in the preface to the wo k as having occurred prematurely in
Ms Chiari ity toscience. He ad iP samen the — term of life, and yet nee pong va himself
nown allo over Baeyie) ‘and in our country, where me has at a am — al LP hve : arn 4 =~
acts 6
most successfi l rot, ine cease on is
u of the cultivators ¢ of the hemistry an Tor hdr. ai of ie si is fears
further commendation
- Th sa the « aa ede universally known ai I ec iedaed,aa
our hands." Y. Journal of Medicine and Surgery.
Medicine and Surgery 9)
THE CHEMISTRY OF THE FOUR SEASONS---A NEW WORK.
THE: CHEMISTRY OF THE FOUR SEASONS,
N AND WINTER.
AN ESSAY Poetiay Orth ea PHENOMENA ADMITTING OF
ILLUSTRATION BY rien sc SCIENCE, oe ILLUSTRATING PASSAGES
BY THOMAS ‘GRIFFITHS,
3 Hospital, &c
the Medical College of de Bartholomew
ellis sdejtee Palenie, poph ine of Four Hunirad a Bie FS ah te
at
with numerous We
“We both as an incentive
‘ would especially recommend it ouths commencing the study of medicine,
their natural curios josity ay po an in ie ction rtd bo vera) of those eee? go which will aaepmeasily =
then? their attention. We would notice further, and with commends sound and rational natural
cology is spread: the whole work.”—The British’and Foreign M me
This ese becabuve Volume is designed 10 illustrate by peta odd familiar r experiments,
the phenomena going on in the real ving the play of he ever raring ent and
Tf ions in ¢
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CONTENTS OF TH
~ AMERICAN JOURNAL pov se all bet, THE MEDICAL SCIENCES,
tam AND CasEs,—Art. I. Histo ae sev do- sibanous Laty baits or True!
wal Fi Mei M. Be: “Ht. Poisonous Pro ‘Pr ue sachets By Wm? 0. Baldwin, M. = i
py mour of the antr teu 9 n
M.D. [Witha wood-ent} LV, Laceration ofthe Perineum. Her it
treated: in Cincinnati Commercial Hospital. By Joho f Beet
C. Blackman, Witha wood VE Caste ot: of Fatal
y Earle, M.D, VUE. Contributions to P: being oe tM. D.
Nayal Hospital, New York. By W. 5. W. Ruschenberget yo).
sages with cae By 8. Fa ckson, M. D. s. .D.
we carnes. a, lungs, vee ie ee with Meningitis, |B th,
Ting Pwou-twes tye Gogulas’in ine Thuuneeh ok nee
fF the
I. Lectures on Subjects connected with’ Clinical Medicine ; cnr Diseases.
Latham, M. a the Diseases of
Benen iseases.of the Aur Passages. XIV) I's
V tovive ae Hiemy pat: a Medien an d Therapeutics. Edited bycamon. Sue
ated, with additions, by OF Nibvenives }
si adelphia. pose Sep’ ptember to vesilber,
‘Bebr’s ‘Handbook. of Human An
ee
LEA & BLANCHARD’S, RUBLICATIONS. 31
\ @ontents of the IMEedical Journal Continued. © 9 —
QUARTERLY RETROSPECT,
A SUMMARY OF THE IMPROVEMENTS AND DISCOVERIES IN THE MEDICAL SCIENCES.
as
ee
on oc from the setiont being fer din the supine positi Rbnan G on the Nat
contents of the € Feetal St ; A Fk: of. Bischoff on ‘he Rlarpube of Narcotic Poisons by the reeohes es
A Mepica anv PHARM 7. Batil a : 9. Vaile of Iodide nat penance e Iron. 8. cine sg on
= BATIVNDGE AND oe cs apr Shia cre Mepicine.—12. Bennett on Anormal Nutrition
and Diseases of the Blood. 13. Rostan on Acu al Myelitis. 14. Rostan on "Curability of Hypertrophy
of the — 15. Crisp on Rupture of the sien we ores of ie Heart Francis on Aneurism of the Basi-
lar A onband’s aonb te on Sudden Aeaihe Sabatly dependent on Divers of the Heart
net} vant ‘Blood-vessels. on Obliteration of the Vena Cava Descen Thompson on
'Preatment of Chronic Broneline, aie Bronchial Asthma. ‘20: “Miih scare Microseopid Motes tehes ‘on the
Absorpti 6h Pus 21. Briquet on Mercurial wi a in be ge 22. Bell o: cher eoteh - —_ et ad
Dura ™ 23. Watts on gai td = Peg me 24. Gendrin on Tipaesical Affect.
Remedy for Toothache. 26. Pro, Tro ‘Whifiesh yo P Pusciarnia in Infants, 7. ie a toonee
Cough an Exanthemata. Onis on ‘Tafantie "Pleurisy. "2. Youl on Abscess of the Brain i in Py = 30.
En f mic en pu of St. cher 14
C : Gens mie Pe ERY.—3L Prof Syme 0 of Ampatation, e
ary . 32. Whipplevon atallou at the “Hip ok ne on :
non Successful Extirp nofaP lypous Tumour of the Lary nx. 34. Bellingha n Com: presi bboy fa
Aneurism, Or?’s Case Ot Prache otomy.’ 36. Holmes iy on Cancer of the Bresat Hh the Mla les. 37.
Moore on » Ganshot be cree of the Lung, where the ball lodged fifty years... 33, On th si om eg a lodide
of Lier nthe Treatment of Syphilis. 39. Application ofice in the treatment orinjut 40. L
nunited Fracture: snenseemleg treated. by Acupuncturation. 41. Ade Syme on tation of th e Th ight
Curling’s Wass of Fatal interest Strangulation caused. by a cord pro oes froma oD verieulon of the
lleum. 43. ding Bird and Joh ilton on Case of Internal Shen pact any bye cg ihe by =
don. M4. Fe Fergusson on Strangulated Congenital Hernia in an‘infan old, era-
tion
47. Report of a Committee of the’ Surgical Society of I reland, relative to the use and ects of Sulphuric
lp ft £f Tni
Ether
Ory amon inte i of. Jacob on Foreign Bodies in the’ Eye. “49. Dizon’s Remarkable C injury
of the: Bye. 50. Szokalski on Obscurations bal the gene — — Sreiraony fie fb relation
Practice of Ophthalmic rte ee 51. Berncastle on A: datid Cyst in "the Bre
ii WIFERY —52. (Robi i Remarkable: case of spontaneous rapture o - the Uterus during labour—Re-
53, Le Chaptois’ Case of Vaginal Ent re by oxy re | maintained in place
by the introduction bee at Kiliné on on Ayptude of ie U teras—abdominal section—
very. 55. ee } é Gravid ret Tak e delivery- oF aap ge et etl oa
Bin nett on I matory Ulceration of the Cervix Uter: ing Pregnancy, and on its Influence a Cause
“67. ep ererih has Operation performed by Mr. > at a Bartlolomew's Hospital, the patient
ben rendered i sible by ‘ether. al protr of 9 ‘Liver Preven tie the
umbilical Ting. 59. Cesarian Section, oa diez on int Cogent rinéum. 61. “Depau m Asphyxia
A “ta - > 1 rae
Apr eeab en v.63. ari ie havnt Tre ned by the teeth.
ee ; an. lafar qr ‘ph te) bh eg Bo fepstin ctl
of Phospho : = in :
Jee ht of Aléohiol. “69 ce. 70. ‘of nes
7, lanegss C Case of Poisoning by aw ont hgh the use aot ania ‘72: Sale of Paleeens Bet
arr ces. a
8 MexpicamEgrca tion 73% The! Edinburgh Statités’ régarding ‘the Degree.” 74) Medical Organization in
pain,
Forzton CorkesponDENcE,—Letters to the Editor from London. Sulphuric Ether in Surgical’ ‘Operations
at Vienna.
Au RrELLIGENcE—Onicinat Communtcations.—Parkman’s Ana nceanigrt Aneel, Tyler's Ante-
Venpnaf ale Vypnits with adhesi panos Os Uteri to Baas, ied mu" ew 7 Vertebra,
MEST ry — Beck on hi ects, of Mercury on t~| gblecr Basing on, Amputatio: at
Scrofulous incanee ot the Joints. Baker on Case of Vicarious 1 e jon from an Uleér on the right
on Singular case of laceration of the ee annente Py va ay" on, Blindness caused aS
ini ison’ i ause ello er, reign
Sain ead Pine: “the B Bo “ait on ‘Case of Empsem in which the operation for Para-
cau epg) ae yaa ag BS Lean hy
ur.
eit eres" Bear one Gna ofhe Ce a Ota fexlany ay Bont or Oukotdtvonin. Onin on
Imperforat e Prepuce. | Couper: on Medics <3 0 peircbna a bee Warren on Ronse of pachonger
urwell rain on Dislocation 0 Elbows Gilman o = span
the wal on-aenes of Girt tore cord not’ emai yet — ue alive. Natioual Medical 6 dees 7
legates to National Medical Convention. Meeting: of Con-
vention. * Resi ignation of Pr rofessor Warren. rane as;
~ if
4 ’
"Sg ad a poe Case
Eales seen a i le
j amas canine
peo Teta with nine numbers of the New
hiladelphicy May, 1947
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PHICAL NOTICES of all new works of interest; and lastly, it presents a very full and extended QUA
TERLY SUMMA sting of a
TROSPECT AND ABSTRACT
OF THE PROGRESS OF THE MEDICAL stENets
CAREFULLY COLLECTED FROM ALL THE
FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC JOURNA
This department is considered so practically useful, that no exertion is spared to render ‘ cae
possible, so that both in preing Baar yp : may compare with _ ee cations of a slit ar Se
shorter periods at which thi rnal a enables us to antici several month HW
sources, a large portion of the intelligence epattnea t i ane ain ae TN ublications of net IEW, DUB-
and RANKI G, and the Annual Repo n the e BRITI AND FOREIGN MEDICAL REVIEW! ©
LIN MEDICA bey AL, & had ‘Whee rof vehi e is found in them, of nich ee wee INTELLI-
have not reac tonce pole and laid Waters our poadere; besides mu CA Tishers for the
GENC SA is Sites t hkely to find its way bekies s the Atlan The scrahpenents of the pub Pe Pero oa cals
byt ofthis prt ee RNG G and exchange, are very. recéeliites: embracing the ROLES. ipa
REAT B ,F ERMANY® DENMARK, ITALY, the EA
“ALL THE "AMERICAN JOURNALS:
And i of all the
_ IMPROVEMENTS cae DISCOVERIES | IN MEDICAL SCIENCE.
THE ‘Mon TH iz NEWS,
Whieh « sy a + hooks for
The Library Department.
: The work now passing through its columns is
TODDA BOWMAN’S
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF MAN,
. eee LARGE AND BEAUTIFUL WOOD-CUTS.
n ee ee ooh separately.
Re ie oak
dacing abd reventing the Fixation — nthe ance Be 5 i A: Coase, 409.—
Leport on the Influence of Light on the. Growth of Plants, by R. Hunt, 410.—
On the Aiea of Photogra . - eee besten e Observations, by
‘Dr. Carpenter: On the Quantity of Electrolysis as affected. 4 the Extent of
he sectional area’ e Electrolyte, as . GROVE, a On a new
heory of the Ayer gae of Light rof. CHaLwts, 120be plage on
he general Natureand Laws of Electrical aaenba, re Sir W.S. Hank 3, 413.
srs: On
Miner, neralogy a and Geolegy.—On an Amor hous f
2 tra pe Ei 0 a new vy Miner
Geol peg
ve
Nn, 419.—
= Sruce.
ad eee
aurus, by Prof. J.
species of Birds, b
yo.
fell at Genoa on the 16th May,
15846 >A fict reoeins the Hatt mecta glauca, by Prof. Forrest:
sS eae miggeee = satianoont ene tion of the Antarctic Ocean, by
Dr. J. Hoo “Anal y between tbe ‘Fossil lomo of Lae foc ged Me iecene
and the Tiving Flora oF 3 inierica, byF f. AGassiz, 424. -—
As -onomy.— —The New Planet I ts, 25-— Cont of May: 7, rear _fomet fee te
Ma torre New Comet, ae ae ee New ae Oct. 1, 1847: The New ;
SaOpe:
iscellanecous: ual Meeting ¢ f AG Ressciation of eee
can Geolo Mg Sees oe Meteorite: Supernamerary Rain-
= e Recent and Remarkable epee
Esky, 429.—On so
“Protection afforded ae Metallic Conductor against Heavy —
a PLlehiiog, ore Sir TW. S. Harris, 430.—On the Colored ap oo >
Glaz ng the new ber Paes “a he Ro = Botanic Garden
ess 4 433.—On - the onof Gutia. orale: toesmeasoness |
Jiscorerts
2g rienitural Botany S
cpa
ms used } a tlie 2
The next No. of this Journal will be published on the first of Jan. —
ly
ise
CONTENTS.
Arr. XXII. A brief Notice of the Life, Researches, an¢é Discoy- A
eries of Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel; by Sir J. F. W. B =scuer, 305
XXIIL On the Properties of Ozone; by C. F. Scuonzein, - 820
XXIV. Ancient Sea Margins; by Ronert Cuamsers, - - 3823
XXV. Glycocoll (Gelatine Sugar) and some of its Products of De-
composition ; by Prof. E. N. Horsrorp,—(concluded,) — - 326
XXVL. Singular Property of Caoutchoue, illustrating the value of =
Latent Heat in giving Elasticity to solid bodies, and the dis-
tinct functions in this respect of latent and free or sensible
heat; by Prof. Cuantes G. Pace, M.D., - ee
XXVII. Caricography ; by Prof. C. Dewey, M.D. - <= 343°
- XXVIH. On the Action of epee. ee ce Nie
Acetene; by T.S. Hunt, - 350
> XKIX, Description of a Meteoric Siond which ail ine Cd
New Ha Bie, in —— 1846; by Prof. B. ‘Sunray; . 853
Cha s of sever pecies ;
i W. Lonspar Esq.-.
| XXXL ‘Dlieriticas i in ely to Mr. Lon ale’s * Remarks ;” We
James D. Dana, - - - oe ee
XXXII. Notice of a Water-Spout ; ne Eras ine *
XXXIIL On Certain. Laws of Cohesive fone = = .
|