SCIENCE AND ARTS..

%

ee CONDUCTED BY

& a

Proressors B. SILLIMAN anv B. SILLIMAN, Jr.,
r ‘ AND

‘ JAMES D. DANA.

*

SECOND SERIES.
VOL. VI.—NOVEMBER, 1848.
«
vive BUT, GARDE
1911
NEW HAVEN:
PRINTED FOR THE EDITORS BY B. L. HAMLEN,

Printer to Yale College.

Sold by I me < Piven des Haven. —Litt ie & Brown, pyitt Wir Boston. —C. 8.
Fraxcts & Co. and Gror ax". Pursam, (late Wiley & Putnam) "York-—Caney
EORGE «

Hans a n, Baltimore, 6 *. FUTNAM, |
rate pene 9 Paris. gee Hamburgh.

Gat yee

NUMBER XVI.
. Page
Arr. I. Notes and Remarks connected with Meteorology on Lake

variations in the season ; by Prof. We W. J

— =“, =~

1 IIL. on, the ‘Orbits of the. kneaded : las B. A. Govtn, To: AAS.
of the List of lL ocalisive of Algee in the Unite

, Sa as Prof. J. he iy br We, Directions for Collect-
ing and Preser rving by Dr H. Harvey

V. Objections to the ies severally of es Dafay and
A

mpére, with an Effort to Explain Electrical i. ae
9 se = or wogeetory Seige bed by Pro Tain

5
* VI. pot a pocttide ina of Tataeobion that poem an fnapairtneh
, ae part in the Mineral Kingdom; by Professor ScuEeRER,~ - 7
VII. On the Construction of Blast-furnaces for the Smelting of
r Iron with Anthracite; by 8. S. Hatpeman,
VIII. Notes on some Ferns of the United Beaten ; by ‘Profer
sor Kunze of — 1846. 2 by Dr. G.
’ ENGELMA
IX. 9 the Beneficent ‘Pinthation of the Bente of Pain by

r. G. R, Row
X. on he Fae oy of Carboni Acid Gas by Liquids : by Prof. q
. B. Rocers, and Prof. R. E. Rocers, 96 :
XI. Outen of the Diawoad in nm aa Way 5 by Prof
R. E. Rogers and Prof. W. B. Rogers, - 110

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE...

Chemistry and Physics. Mer Keg on pote Latent and Specific Heat of Bodies,
by C. C. Person, 111.—Note on the ns of testing ~ comparative value of
one aah Substances “a the purpose of Tann ing, by Ropert Warineton, Esq.,
— On the Manufacture of pure Sulphuric Acid, by Ave: A. Hayes, M -D.,

alogy and Geology.—On the Wave of Translation in connexion with the
* Nero! Drifi, by W. Wuewext, D.D., F.G.S., 115.—On the Slow Ttransmis- 3
sion of Heat through loosely coherent Clay and Sand, by James Nasmytu, Esq., RS
119.—On the Changes of the Vegetable Kingdom in the different Geological *
— by M. eee Bronentarrt, 120.—Geology and ‘Topography of the
S., 123.—Geo a i

133.
a Burra Copper Mine 8 South Au abe: Hse Sel roa e Ta Gé-
itigie ‘a 1834 & 1845, par Le Vicomte D'’ArcHiac

pee ee a Sane Ree
iv =
‘ees Zoo — Gott bas ch ).— Eyes a the — by Dr.
ter

x! Lei arison bet Gm
ida, r with 8. ‘ Caunitee ca, and a descr rip-
, 136.—Notice of a fractured and

37.—Deseription n of a species

y— —Lor d Rosse’s Telescope, 139.—New Pla o% new Star:

n the opinion of Copernicus with ro to the Light of the Planeis, by Prof.
De Monesx 140: Solar Parallax, 1 143.

Fd | Be i a Intelligence.—Memoire sur les Gina oa toste? de la Mer Glaciale &
F la surface, A de grandes profondours et dans le voisinage des s Glacic piers du hat

It, 148.—Geological Map from oe Science at Cam idem
ion in search of Sir John Franklin, 1 ~

—Researches on the Chemistry of Food and)

imal bod Justus Li MD Ca

nial body, H. P. Sartwew., =
: owLInG TAYLO 1G.58.L., is Ge co-
“ZO nordia, etc. conscripsi HERRN en: P siple of Zoology,
touching the Structure, Development, Distribu and Natural arrangement o 7

the races of Animals, living and extinct, with numerous illustrations, by

s A. GouLp, 151 —QObservations on the ‘Tomales of
Raney at o oft ar Naples, H s Bapaace, —Elements of

sical Suede y Gotpine Birp ., F.R.S., P-L.S. ee ia
153.—An In fhoduction to the study of Mitecunds y, by Davio P.Tuomsox,M.D.:
Haturwinedeathafiicic Abhandlungen, von WiLHELM Huiuen R, 154.— Be-
richte asc die Mittheilungen von Freunden der Naturwissenschaften in

List of Works, 155.

- NUMBER XVII.
Page.
: s, Xl. On the Indian Archipelago, : 157
On the Anomalies presented in the Aioaate Fatawhe of Sul-

phur and Nitrogen; with remarks on Chemical Classifi-
cation, and a notice of M. Laurent’s sara of Binar ry
Molecules; by T. S. Hunt, 170
XIV. Upon the eee : Color on Dew 5 by Pot. Joun
BrockLessy

XV. - new Method of extern Pare Gold ‘from Alloys anid
q m Ores; by C. T. Jackson, U.S.GS.,. 187
: XVI. Discovery of Tellurium in Virginies by C. Bs Tacx.
| S.,

G. 188

XVII. Upon a peculia kind Ms ledernephioen that hav an "aapert.
ant part in the Mineral Kingdom; by Professor Scnzzrer, 189

XVII. Engle pe ye from the cago by Professor
J. W. Gress, 206

XIX. On a New eiiickt” Wi tinnit for ebteelaicliy the Ten-
sion of Vapor of Water at any. oe by J.
Avexanper, Esq., 210
XX. Observations on some New Bapiand Plants, with chapels
of several new species; by Epwarp Tuckerman, A.M., 224

i by 3 by Prof. ven.
aay On Gutta Percha ge Epwanxp N. Ken
- On Rigrala’ N ickel from Texas, “pore Couny, Pa. : ;

by Prof. B. Siruman, Jr., -
L new Minerals from Texné: Lesoudee ie Pénn. ; ;
s Upuam SHEPARD,
XXVII. Aa Account of a greedy of Castine. Maine, May *
‘1848 ; by Cuartes Urnam Suzparp, M_.D.,
wane eS SQPENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

onductor of Galvan nism : Grove’s Battery
up, 253.—Oxyd

Ss
=
ie:
®
id
Ba!
|
Ss
=
a
7
~~J
o
i-*]
=
2
‘FS
Re]
i=)
=
oO
*

“

: inp inc,

sie in the iirend by Pig of the Eye, by M.
nt of Gun-cotton in Mining, b

Chilsteform Pt . Hurarer and Laroc

drated Ox Zine

measuring the Intensity of Currents, by M. Ng ENe: On certain properties
of Iodine, Phosphorus, Nitric Acid, &c., by M. Niece pE Saint Victor, 258.

can Journal of =“ 1848, p. 74, by T. S. Hunt, 259.—Purifying Li
aaa Dec 44 Slend of Substances by Steam, and Manufactur
phate and Muriate of Potash, 260.

Mineralogy os pnd 58 Silpsi tet 266.—Ba Mia, ite; a-new mineral fom
the Tek, t y M. pre Kos Pseudom orphism , 267.—O On Dolomisat
y A. von Monior, 268.— Three Witsrals from the Lake Su ara! aa Re-
‘gion, by she poe hideie 269.—Mines of Cinuabar in Pye Califora,
% Argentiferous Galena and Iron Ore in Algeria, ;
— Footprinss, by. Dexter Marsn, 272.—Gold in mer Ca ebnerite
Ae Produce of Gold in the Ural and Eiarts in ¥ the year

1846, 27 j
Zoology.—Pancreatic secretion, 276. ee Se 277. , 4
Astronomy.—Neptune, by Sear n, 277.—The tenth Asteroid, Diana:

Shooting Stare se ed 10, ie, a8. —-Bicsoting Stars of August 10, 1848, 279,

Miscellaneous Intelligence —California, 280.—Verbal Communication from Dr.
lg on the Rationale of the Explosion causing th a Fire of 1845, at New
k, 28 -

aterial, 285.—Types, 287.—Bullets : Anette of the

different Grains produced in the United States in 1847 : Smithsonian Institu-

tion, —Tenacity of Life in Black Ants, by Dexter Mar inet

ad Observatory at A rst College, Mas mine from the Bittern of Salt

orks, by Messrs 1s ILLESPIE, 293. us: American Associa-
tion for the Promotion of Science, 294.—Table of the periods when the Hudson 4

River opened and closed at Albany, so vad as the same can now be ascertained,

95.— “* and Cold of Utica: Atmidoscope: Magnetic Perturbations, 296.-— a |
Gold Medal of the Royal sho Mes abe Soctety of London: Beavers, by D. D. i
Prrares: F. Markoe’s Mineralogical Cab .. Meteorite of Arkansas, aw
a of J. Richa ‘aon. 297.

c of Cvs; and the der of e

stration designed for th f Scho ole and Colle
oM., The British (Pemidiew, by Joun Kauri

with: Mais by Epwarp Jenner, A.L.S., 302.—The P Utiice ‘Gan

for the year 1847, 303.

orks, 303.

i sq., Kt eg |
XK Consideration on cg Divisibilty of Magoitade : 7 ‘Avex:
R MacWuor
XXX Ses earches on Salts; es C. ‘Granaio DT,
Il. Observations on Rammelsberg’s Analysis of the Juveoe
Meteorie Stone, and on the Conclusion of Fischer’s Exam- |
“eg of the Braunau Meteoric Iron; by, Cuar.tes UpHam |
' M.D.

em

_Conbtions to the Mycology of North America : hy

M. A.

iv. likens “or SoigffMAtabama ; by C.S. Hat
XV. On the Oxydation of Uric Acid by means of Pdladdn and

2 ha ce Potassium ; by ApoLpu ScHLigPER,
iF i # California, _
<XVIL. Notice of ihe eeting o f the Atherican Avdcelation for
the Promotion of eee ps at a sald sais orpeniyy
20-25, 1848, 393,

Reee:s —On ere Radiation, &e., . by M. Metront, 418.—
On the Crimpostion of 1 rganic Alkaties, by M. G : Re-
searches on Chemical "Coocatitalion of Asparagine and Aspartic Acid, by
sR, Pina, 1302-08 the presence of Copper in the Bodies of Animals, by
M. Descuaups: On the Frogs 0 rsenic in certain Chalybeate Waters,
by M. Aupovs On lew mesa of analysis of Inorganic matter in
Blood; and on the cama ps nce of several metals in this fluid, by M. E.
LLon: New mode of e sith shin the oe pea in Organic Substances, by
WeEIDENBUSCH, 422.—Pr eparation of pure ytic Water and Salts of Baryta,
ACKENRO DER: i the Poaek of eke, by A. Detesse: Ona 4

Wennawn for covering different oy with Brass or Bronze, 493. —New Property
of Coke, by James “Nas SMYTH,

ality of octane bees te? and
is Lazuli and Paes wriginal
nburg: ©

uc ‘the Bt and Teeth of the Iguanodon, a
otice Engm of ht bit

Dra ah hod Carrion gomery Co

ubes in Fis 431.—Structure of the Foot in Embryo- Birds, 432.—Am : :

j ‘uropean esr cassher r. M. Barry's Physiological Piicavsilen; 433. cS e

’ sibiestel during the Lunar Eclipse, shige 12, 1848
Cen Eighth Satellite of Saturn w Con

Hel re, ements of the pla
Speculations « - beyond Neptune, by M. Bast 4
, rad Stars of / 184

Electricit ~ applied to jo iil sale Purposedll
p, 44 7 remarkable Slide of a Rock in Fair

to the Myco
Brit

logy. of North America,

go re and Remarkable Animals of Scotland, represented from living
subj fh protic observations on their nature, by Sir Joun G
DaLyeL 452 —Recherches s sur Tes 1 Fossiles ; par L. pr Rosina ;

List of Works, 455.

8

Neorrction Vol v, iiser., p. 37, line 12 from bottom, after ‘tim s,"’ insert
“Jess than.” i etl : ae eee

403, line 5 from bottom, for quantijative read qualitative.

and ks omnacte. ith eteoro ihe on
or ‘and a ps riations ie pet
causes, and variatic sa ; by Wu, W Mam
Professor at i. % 19 ‘Se “ence in Ohio Oto hives Fy

summer and sapere

1 operation besides un lobed reine bf ome —
meteorological ae vation ) he samé- eit oie Sine
may not be nhacee able to the scientific pa.

During Jongg part + aliddte thonth of July, the weather i is

generally serene, with a clear sky, and little rain except oc
sional thunder-showers.* ‘The lake is’calm, and this is the rer ,
favorable season of the- year for coasting in boats and canoes, *:
The prevalent winds-durng the summer are from the west i
ands.w. Many parts of the lake aoe in this calm season of

the year, are subject to sudden: lis. The Indians and voy-
_ ageurs are very cautious ; Hysh Mi eae pears tees Ag
the coast and the local lan ‘ther

is seen to indicate their approach. ‘of the voyageurs hing -
that while coasting along with the msn calm;or only a gentle i
breeze, the boat, just-before one of these blasts, seems to be sud-

denly lifted as if struck by some unseen force ; and in such cases

they at once make a |

‘flat country skirts the bay on the south an

ey

_
2 W. W. Mather on the M etgordingy

between Eagle Harbor and Eagle River, four or five miles across

at its capes—puffs and blasts of warm air from the land are com-
mon, especially in the afternoon and evening. The land rises
very gradually from the coast for one half to one mile, and then
rapidly ascends to the height of the mountain eight hundred to
twelve hundred feet, and this range’ of hills extends for many
miles with nearly uniform surface and height, rarely broken by
rae The wind often blows strongly from the land for many
urs. The same facts have been, observed at Porter’s Island and
a3 opber Harbor; both open to the north on the lake, and both

; ‘a ve similar ranges of high land on the south.

At Bete Gris Bay on the. pours side of Kewena Peninsu-
la, a range of mou hundred to thirteen hundred feet
high, bounds the north 2 ot the bay and extends many miles to
the west, gradually curving see to the Mee and s.w.; anda

d west, ar tends thirty

or forty miles to the s.w. be the mot
coast of the peninsula, with a, breadth of ‘to eight miles.
Violent blasts of warm air ofa. blow ae the west out of this
bay in the afternoon. ‘The bay opens to the s

In Yellow Dog Bay at the mouth of Yellow I Dog River, simi-
lar facts have been observed. This bay opens to the y.r. While
it. was calm at the capes of the bay and on | the lake, a strong blast
of warm air, from the land blew from the s.w. -out of the middle
of the bay ; and between this axis and the pes, the air blew in
towards the axis, converging towards a point. outside the bay in
the lake. Such facts are common in calm weather when the
sun shines brightly. Similar observations have been made in
many places, and they are here noti use they seem to be

in opposition to the generally received notions of. the action of
the sun and heated air in ahilly and mountainous region. ‘Thesé
phenomena often extend into. and through the night. The theory
of the land breeze explains it for the night, but not for the day.

Notes in. regard to the weather and. barometric waves on Lake

Superior, 1846.

The iivwies memoranda from my diary, are introduced with
a view not only to shew the sai eatin of the weather on
the lake coast, but also to shew some: of the facts from which the
inference is drawn that the sudden fluctuations of level of the
water on the lake coast, generally precede gusts or storms. The
aurora borealis has long been’considered a precursor of gales. In
the meteorological sa He annexed, some observations of greater
exactness are registered bearing on these points
June 9. On Lake Superior, between White Fish Point and
a pes calm, oceasionally a light s.w. wind; fog banks
cexthié ough the pe weeres like sap land. to

|
|

and Changes of Level in Lake Superior. 3

10 to 15. Pleasant weather ; nothing noted in diary.

15. Rain last ne cloudy morning ; 2 wind east by north ;
cleared off at 1
16 to ve pay weather; pamsing noted in di
25. W 2 and fog till etek ‘aM. at Salmon Trout

July 1. Plossant hot weather ; in Ontonagon ry ware
July 1. Pleasant hah. Wengoats on the west branch of the On-

west branch his Ontonagon. .
3to9. Pleasant weather and yery warm ; explormig as above,
and returning to the mouth of the and coasting to

peer 3 pM. ; then calm

the evening, | direction of. Thunder Cape, north, and Thun-
der Bay, Sa on ovanyofaring after a pleasant calm day
in summer, a epics ain may be ed... :

10. © ‘j.¢oasting, west till” 9 sakjedhon the
heavy west v land ; calm at evening.

11. Surf. a a in. the n.w. last. ni
when there was Pleasant day me
eastward till 3 p.m.; to the west. 4

Sie one sl wind in the morning s ORE

from the east.

13. Strong current’set into the river this morning early. Heavy
wind at sea from the west at 5 a.m. Iimbarked with boat sail
reefed, carried away main sheet and broke rudder. Wind hauled
from the west at 64 a.m. to n.e. blowing a gale, but we were en-
abled with great difficulty, aud danger of swamping on the bar
of the Ontonagon, to enter that harbor. After-10, cleared off hot
and sultry; cold evening and had a fire before my tent door at
Mendewhalls mines ; musquetees in myriads.

14, Pleasant, calm day, except the land blasts which were ob-
served otf the Ontonagon River as hot blasts of air, now from
one point and then from another. Calm, i occasional hot

and blasts from the shore of the lake when off the ste sa
ings of the or gtl went to Misery River.
Calm an d pleasant, except warm ‘puffs of air off ee: as

yest

16. ‘Satis as yesterday, except that on arriving within a few
miles of. Copper Harbor where the woods were extensively on
fire, momentary hot blasts of air were often felt, and the air Was so
thick with smoke that rocks could not be seen at th th
boat’s length. In the evening and day, there was a:

agon 7
Py aoa in morning, ai of. heary —
showers all ; twenty aie sauith nag ey ee .

g from the west and.
y thunder shower and» very vivid lightning i in

4 _ . W. W. Mather on the Meteorology

blast from the land, and large flakes of fire from ~ burning for-

est were carried entirely across Lake Fanny Hooe, so that it was
with great a the buildings at Fort Wilkins, half a mile off,
could be preserved from the fire.

»17-to 28. one Presque Isle, eighty miles south by east of ne
wena Point. A rise and fall of the waters of the lake were ob-
served in the bay, and the captain of the Schooner Swallowiton-
sequently looked for‘a blow, though the weather was pleasant

calm, excepting a slight ‘off shore breeze. The vessel sailed
at 4 p.w., but’in the night a severe blow came from the north and
lasted two days, and the vessel with difficulty was kept off the
shore.

28, 29. Rainy part of the day, ‘but without heavy wind at
Presque Isle; the wind was from the south. A-heavy gale and
severe rain set in in the al from y.z., and continued till next
(30th) morning, when the “waves were from ss to twenty

31 to Aug. 7. ~ Weather pleasant but very warm, ‘except on

the lake shore, where the cold waters temper the heat. ‘There *
was little wind, except warm stsfrom the shore during

the middle and latter parts of the day, off the reéntering of the
coast. During these days I was coasting between Presque Isle
and Huron River, encamped on the shote, or exploring in the
interior from five to ten miles from the.

On the evening of the 6th, at the mouth of Huron River, the
water flowed rapidly into the mouth of the river for fifteen min-
utes, and was raised twelve to sixteen inches above the usual lev-
el, after which it flowed out until it teached*the-usual level.

Aug. 7. Similar variations in the level of the’ lake and river,
were observed in the morning: Severe Pe ay from
n.w. succeeded, with very strong winds, uprooting tre

8. Heavy eo and ‘showers through the “night and
persis of to-day.
asant day; wind east-at six in the afternoon

; another
rise in he. water of the lake of eighteen inches, and a. sudden fall

again in fifteen or twenty minutes, about 1 p.m. Heavy thunder-
gust and some rain at 4p.m. Strong n.w. wind (7 to 9) all night,
with some rain. ‘Trees uprooted by the gale.

10. Pleasant day; wind strong from east in afternoon ; calm
in evening.

1. Pleasant day; calm till 8 a.m; wind ‘south out of Huron
Bay at 83; n.w. 5, at Point Abbaye, 9 to 10 a.m; calm at 10;
south on the side ‘of. Kewena Bay at 10$ a.m., and s.w. 4, near
Traverse Island. Sailed from re middle of Kewensw Bay,
with this wind eonstantly increasing in force till evening, when
I reached Bete Gris Bay, and landed with diffien ulty throug
although the wind there blew off shore, and the waves

and Changes of Level in Lake Superior. 5

came in to the bottom of the bay at an angle of about 110°, dif-
ferent from the direction in which they rolled outside the ba

12. Rained hard in the night, with strong wind from the east,
and this morning from east and s.z. » and thence hauled to n.v.w.,
and finally in the afternoon to s.w. Started this afternoon to
comes from Bete Gris Bay to the west end of Lac la Belle ;
b e wind blew so hard from w.s.w., that this little lake of two
and a half miles in length was a sheet of foam. A strongly man-
ned boat was at times unable to stem’ the wind in the outlet, and
on going into the lake, was half filled with water by the waves
in a few moments, and the excursion was abandoned for that day.
At sunset it was calm.

13. Calm in the morning at Bete Gris Bay. At 11 am. the
wind began to blow out from Lac la Belle as yesterday, and in-
creased in violence till 4 p.m., after which it abated gradually.
To-day at 3 p.m., a well manned boat could: not head the wind
and sea in this little sheet of water, and make any progress. At
_ TP. it wascalm. This w.s.w. wind flowing out to the open

lake from along the base of the mountains, is very common in

strong hear or pros
fore day ‘ked for C opper t Harbor. T
and calle “til 8am. Wind then from s, 2, towards the land; at
9 a.m., s.s.e. 5, near the southeast point of Kewena Peninsula ;
at 10 AM., S. 3, at the east end of that peninsula, with frequent
strong blasts off shore from the west, of warm air; 11 a.m.
2 p.m. on north side of the peninsula, a dead calm, ‘except occa-
sional puffs of warm air from the land; from 2 p.m. the wind
blew very a from the west all night.
15; * ormed-all day, wind and sea heavy from. the west.

7. a but wind and sea heavy from the west.

18. Stormed all

19, —— till noon, with heavy west wind, then clear and
calm. at 4 p.m: for the Portage, but heavy squall and
dense tong from che? foreed us to land at Ad p.m. Stormed and
blew strongly from n.w. all night.

. Very heavy surf on shore : could not pass the breakers.
Calm. Sea calmed down enough to pass the breakers on the
pies the teef at-I'p.m., but lake: still too rough to travel
sty even ina fine whale batt. i

“OL ‘ warm day ; little wind, except occasional warm
blasts from south, off the land. é
d and sea heavy from west till 12 m., when t —
ane to easty Went from Eagle River to eat
23 to 26. Pleasant, fine weather; wind not noted

, =*
6 W. W. Mather on the Meteorology

26. Rain last night and this morning; pleasant afternoon.

27. Pleasant day; wind west and n.w. 3; calm in evening.

28. Pleasant day; wind w. 3; calm i - evening

29. Pleasant day; wind w. 6. Run Pio Harbor in af-
ternoon, about-thirty-five miles

30 to Sept. 3. Pleasant weather ; winds not noted, except
on 2d in afternoon, a strong current of water set out of the bay
at Copper Harbor, and one of our yoyapenre in a light bark ca-
noe came near being driven off the land. A heavy blast of
warm air from the land blew at the same time out of the harbor,
and the water fell in the Bay about one foot.

Sept. 3, 4. Heavy wind and rain storm from the north, both
days

5. icrri88 with. warm land breeze from the south.

6. Stormy, and strong west wind. Blew violently with heavy
rain through last night. Embarked on board steamboat Julia
Palmer ; but-she did not leave harbor in consequence of the vio-
lent storm. In the afternoon, blew very heavily and in gusts from
the south. |

7, Blew a gale with hard rain all night and till noon to-day

from. the west, and then hauled to x.w. and north, and continued
rough most of the night with equal force.
_ 8. Pleasant, calm morning and day. Light breeze from s.£.
— east. Lesa at 10 p.m. at the Ontonagon River. Boat
nearly swamped among the breakers at the mouth of the river,
and with difficulty recovered the chann

9. Cloudy and rainy most of the day; 3 N.B. sgkth. Cleared off
in the afternoon. A moderate land breeze with strong pufls of
warm. air blowing off shore. Water rose suddenly 13 feet, and
in receding carried off some boats. Heavy, squall approaching
from n.w. At 104 p.m. the thunder-gust came on, blowing a per-
fect gale, blowing down the tents, and wnroofing a house, and the
steamer had great-difficulty. in keeping off the lee shore. Rain
fell in torrents, and the lightning was almost Conajant. Heavy
wind and rain from n.w. and north continued all n

10. Wind still heavy from north, but otherwise a. pleasant day,

11. Pleasant day, but very windy, and lake very rough. Calm
evening. Beautiful aurora borealis in the evening ;_ stripes of
light ot varied colors passing with rapid motion. Calm panne?
the night.»

12. Calm, bright, beautiful day. Went to ait ge River.

13. Boisterous day, but sun-shone. . Wind west.

14. Severe thunder-storm last night, and eal through the ar
from the north and n.w.

15. Pleasant day; wind not noted.

16. Pleasant morning, with.strong west wind. Went, to the
Portage. Voyageurs said we must land—“wind too much.”

’ ai
and Changes of Level in Lake Superior. 7

Nearly swamped the whale boat, in ogee in the most sheltered
place that could be found on that coast. Wind continued all day
till night, when it became calm.
17. Pleasant day; wind west “tp new. A, Embarked and
went to the Cross, near Gratiots River.
18, 19. Pleasant days; wind wok, Went to Eagle Harbor.
1 el > thunder-storm evening of 19th. ey wind from north

night.

20. Wind n. 8. Lake a sheet of om, and very heavy sea.

21. Pleasant ; wind not noted.’

22. Pleasant; calm in morning. mbatiesél and went to bm
ate Harbor. Squalls from every naa in afternoon.
looked very threatening, and water oscillated repeatedly a Area
level every half hour, and sometimes more frequently, at 24
Harbor. Blew a gale from the north and n.w. through the n night
23.

vey cross, chopped sea. Squall clouds in various directions.

meds but nearly a several times, from the cross seas.
vy squall came suddenly from n.w. "Run into a little boat
harbor before it struck us. In a moment the lake was a sheet
of foam, and the ~iaees continued blow Eg. heavily fromm the ww.
all day a es night.

24. Pleasant and cal but lake too tongh to pass indies
on the deeper parts of the reef. _ In afternoon, embarked and went
to Copper Barber, Mar blasts of warm air a9 off the lard,
with intervals of

» 25, No note HP ge wea calles

26. Storm; heavy surf on the shore from n.x.

27. Storm : heavy a on — shore ; wind n.w.

28. Storm ; N.E. mist

29. Pleasant day ; Pad 1 ri noted.

30. Pleasant day; wind w.x.w. 6; heavy surf on the shore.

Oct. 1. Stormy day; wind from east, and ae round to
south in the afternoon, =~

2. Pleasant calm
_ 3. Cold stormy day. | tapered 0 on Peeara steamer Julia Palm-
er, for a voyage along the Canadian shore.

4. Sailed from Copper Harbor. Pleasant; wind inodérate
from the west in the forenoon, freshened too much for the steam=
et to head it in the afternoon, and went into Siskowit Bay and
anchored. Galm/in the evening. This was the first voyage of

a steamboat on the north coast of the lake, where there are many
unexplored reefs and islands.

5. Sailed from Siskowit Bay at 7 a.m. Calm, but “= =
sont 7 Ate W.8.W., and freshened seer a tll 3 pan, whentits fore
a Dry te et

*

8 W. W. Mather on the Meteorology

6. Northeast storm; wind very heavy all pies and all day.
Low scudding clouds and some rain, af a little sn

7. Wind n.e. 5; some rain and a little se all ay thick
weather. Sailed from P Prince’s Bay to mouth of river near Fort
William, in Thunder Bay. Clear and calm in the afternoon.
Beautiful aurora borealis in the evening ; waving stripes of light.

8. Sailed from Point William at 3) s.m., where it was calm,
but at the Welcome Islands, heavy n.r. wind, storm struck us,
and continued all day. Steamer. battled against the storm and
pod head sea all day to reach the western inlet to Neepigon Bay.

Wind blew from the north last night with great violence. |

Benatifal aurora in the evening. Several ares visible, one above
the other, and-.an apparent bank of clouds below the two lower
ones, but stars visible. through it. -Arcs variable in height and
progressive undulating movements of these ares, strongly marked
like waves, thus = ~~~. Almost always i in the afternoon
and. beginning of the evening, before the light. of the aurora bo-

was observed in the north as. a segment of a circle with its
highest point in the magnetic meridian.

_ Long lines and stripes of light of various colors sprung up
from the east, and extended entirely over the western horizon and
from all points from east around by north to west, and some ex-
tended even over to the southern thd ou: The crowns of ‘the

successive arches were a few degrees east of north, but in the 4 |

magnetic meridian.

10. Wind blew a gale all day from the east. Water rose. so
much as to carry away the trestle pier, and create a very strong
the south from Neepigon Bay to Lake Superior.’ Wind
south in the evening and blew a gale all night with rain.

Strong current from the Lake into Neepigon Bay.

11. Wind s.z., a gale with rain till 12th when the rain ceased
but wind did not moderate very much. The air over the main .
Lake seemed to be clear,.but when the masses of air from the
Lake reached the mountains of St. Ignace and Fluor peg
donee black threatening clouds were formed and rolled up an

) Panu
little harbor on the v.w. side of Flour Island. Wind hauled to
west at 10 p.m. and blew a heavy gale. '

12. Wind hauled to x.w. at daylight, blowing very violently,
but gradually moderated. Some hail and sleet last night. Sailed
for Sault St. Marie with strong but fair wind from n.w. Pleasant
but windy day.

13. Heavy squalls from ,west and n. w. in night. Arrived at
Sault St. Marie. Weather very foggy from White Fish Point,
which we passed at 9 am. Squalls from north and west:
Steamer had to feel her way frequently with the soundi

J il
é and Changes of Level in Lake Superior. : 9

Propeller Independence arrived at Sault St. Marie, Monday even-
ing the 12th, in twenty-five hours from Copper panei. she
oe

ave had a str ng west or NW. a all that t
14, Pleasant time, but cold and gust
15. Snow fell last night abate. A three inches. “Stormy
. day of rain and some apt, _ Squalls-from m N.w. and n.z. Cold

uncomfortable weather
16. Raw, danhodtse uncomfortable day, cloudy with squalls
from n.w. and N.£. ‘Snow fell m the sigeiwas and through the
ht.

night
17. Raw, cold ‘enfidciineent eds» -Emmbaided for Dettoit.
June 13, 1847. On Lake St. Clair andvin St. Clair River.
Pleasant weather, ‘bit at 1 p.m heavy squall from the west ac-
companied.by some raim This had been indicated by black
squally looking clouds. in the. west gay hour. The weather
nued n

conti squally with dashes of bo ugh the day and
| g e. uron. Hea asing from daylight

er the heavy waves, the stea
“Point au At

ow occasion ly plu
put ere :. = ae 4. PM. t

Bay till 7 een hours going about ei 7
mile pe Te abated about 8 aa Ser

ioke ae between D ru me
ay

j rty miles west Pr Whiel ish Point, re has never been heard of
since. A few fragments. were found on the Canada shoré. *\..

m' $. 8, Opposite 2 Carabou sland. e a
red miles sinc: oen, about. twelve. miles
18. Wind SB. aie avery fipdh ll night, but wins arta
Kewenaw Point at 7 A.M. face 5 tH brea

Sse i
with dense fog came off land, pe “shat rom see to ye into
on led to s.w. ai Ge blew off at 4 p.m.

10 -W. W. Mather on the Meteorology

23, 24. pe weather; wind not noted. |
25. Ple t weather, very fine day; but in the afternoona +
me ee from me mar: ke, it benaiejeidcleny socold

; Pleasant ; * wcinds not sféted:: Getierally. at this season
oft pric’ year calm, or with moderate winds during the warmer
part of the day, and : a — + get in the =) tas irom S.8.E.at ||

Pi ing. a

29. Clear but very sy sity a yi wind ah the south. ~
bore aqui of water on the.

30. ore a. on as Hom very cold, not noted.

“noted. soon a ra as I wed thie arti-

—= apy viding. iu -aniddlo‘of iow hays wind: nét
ite Me oy without maid with sextant. .
2108. 27 eonagint ater (rom revatio, t not lary.

at Copper Harbor, on Porter’s Island. .-
» On the 7th of July, Dr. C. T. Jackson kindly inejlis me with
ig by means of which a register has been kept: mite
6 the barometric pressure, with the ee

beth os sone force of winds, variations in the lake level, &
thermometer detached from the barometer, corresponded writh be!

attached thermometer within less than half a degree, and only
on secietered except where a fire was made in the room, and

tl e detached thermometer »was removed to the outside of
the buil dig with a proper exposures, © ¢ ©

‘During this calm season of the Year the surface of the lke
water becomes warm, while alittle below the surface it is quite
cold. He northerly winds, which: make the air “cold, drive

ture of the water of th notth side of P nas
calmer petodnes the’simmer. “ a a
RR ek ee foam age A
ait Bw Ay # age he

tl

oes i =
. CAC wes 0 Facial - «,
a

4

&S '
ie
a ee RR» eg ee ,
- je aS:
6 . ae

and Changes of Level in Lake

eS Se ee we ? ? 2 Eth

he Th. | f
alt. det. Winds, &c.

pt. | Winds, &c.f Bar.
: + er

fs k. 980, 70|

ie E. ) | NBS ; -1, clear} 460 ae wal
4 hoe 24 eon. We P gt W. | ae " 7... A
’ ; um. ~ ke 7 26! * ie c ‘ | ae ila ea E. * te ‘ ‘ whe a ae y
Ww. x : 1N.W. 3} *°350)72 ‘e Im. 5B) ,.4e.by wsl,clh... . | dn : Mi
¢ 2 j aM G4 See Nie Nw. 5 ~ |” +3301 65 . | w.n.w. 1.
WNW. 5,6 ce | 964 |
Ww. ; “4

]m.

lear.
jw.4,eldy.} “4
Pewee, lp!
ew. > ‘

‘560 66 56iN.w.5,cl.4 “5 . |wan.w. 34
ra 7 :| 8.w.d | 458) € s.w. 4,cldy] |
13% i a i % w Tag -| +400). 60
f a E.o | 4 B.Gack cl
1. “626 63). . + See . IN.E. 280107 + 54
| +485 53. |x. i 2 . | e6 f +424! 53
Out... .| .' . e.g Cumeneee . le. 4 clei «|:

él

hFoqoLoajayy ayz uo LaYIDIT “AA “AA

er. a
Winds, &c.
ealm 9 days
w. + Se
s.w. 3 *#
8.s.w. 5 &
8.
8.E. ] «*
; 8.sE,1
2 rain 1 *
% calm 7“
| ‘10 We G8
7 10 # ewe le
ae a or ‘i a
ye 8 gZ “ oe we 3
Oks : : ay
4-0) BA, pee be
shod ie fog! 1
oe ® x
2 « food 575 ie a8 calm 2% ‘i
1 Bo if c
| a oe ed S
« Mes t . ru < Pe 5 ‘
" h to north,—1itl Pw nd erg ra a F a rm
ea le Bey :
pea nes two fee a ig
Cann raw 4 n east.— ale re from Fond du ‘. aor i
t Ju oaeo ihe _ ed ae ; a ok <a ry Si and a hh a Ay
: wpe ato ye en teatile. . ont: eg rose. n barometr =
nar larie-—231h. 6 p.M., clear, ‘clonds 1 NW.wNy me oP. ae a ere ! : — 26 iB
xe wilheal tating STs, Cold and stormy Ul Vase the. Bay e80ch, Cold-and co bet Propeller derived im twen my:
without steaming —3!1st. Cold ane aOupE which, the sun shone. Ra de st 6 AM is ia ye oud
ciate oe J. Palm: served fom et Pb vad. vid cote, A = i fle : ! rei
gh ; Moron hae ome ed ies tee till Sale —Th. Sy ‘ben few cu ng ina T
; eav ground swell from E . 12M, eunmuli in m., squally.in w., tht meal as i gee
z- cir ssh a Tittle Ab bho ~ rn >i. a fee: Gra. few dime dpa some clodite. —I3ih. 6 A.M, ae: A.M
ondy, yest: os. “raingand ¢ from. A to 8: 6 ra. fog and rain.—IJ5th. 12 M., few cirri—Wind £ NE —
cloudy, = : M.; §q! and cola p.m., cloudy. ‘I - ‘and vivid lightiing at 10 aM.; hea y at. 12h. 30m. ; ‘heary rin tn eu 4 sl a Nay ‘ti
gail in hee at: it day eee wick rt ie few a ‘ 1 ce igs ge and seaall day —25th. 6 p.m b,
and in Naevy peach all day and night.—26 AM., a little rain: 12 m., oatt re y clear. Stormy ; wind blowing a gale part my tie — ih. | ind tied iro
west to . at M., and pare ai 10° in . moment, and 29° in a few on “rid gale on Pag to N.W. and west.—z9th,
ote exo aaa Pag we: m-, 6m 2° hag poten Cold stormy day.—30th. 6 “— ae ~ Sioa —Sist, 12 m., ene § i yar B vy =
some clouds,—2d. 6 A.M., cloudy, ile ur aS A.M. : 12 . rain eg n south: ag rain: 6 P.M., severe storm, sor gm and rain: 9 p.M.,
rain storm. Severe and cold me a achat By h. 6 p.m, “ane Aandi in west.

aly abe
ee Rk eh ae. ae

3
ey
>

s

.

“1ovadn

%
4 W. W. Mather on the Meteorology

Tis? IL.— Register. of er Harter ip Lake
iperior, uperior, from July ob sth at 47° is Ne Se Tata
W of Greenwich.~ :

metric waves of water. Yom ‘4 ies : e)

: i

+
é in
:

+
i
: ¢ F
* -
«12 OME del Wi end wef!
4 heey ther’ ax. and 7
+5
34, eR
| 20 ceca
4 i -
os
4
i :

and Changes of Level in Lake Superior. 15

Tasue II.—( Continued.)

eo

=

SSSOD w@ sOUT RON WOROW

Poor
Sawn!

p [Hour Act |
a h, m.| P.M.
15) 255|P
“/ 3 “ce
«} 390} «
«} 3 30 ““
“6 340 P73
“ 3 50 sc
ss! 410} *
“ . 20 yA
“ee 5 50 ee

%
‘16 ee
iS.

Bar. att.

Th.

Barometric waves of water.

° Remarks.

| Water fallen a foot to its| “ “ s. Bs .
an de 6.
es wt aoe ‘
“ee * 6.
$.s.w. 4.
“ee 4,
t a
‘ “ s. by w. 4.
_ Calm; heavy wind clouds to
ry s. and s.w. *.
mi 8 Monde, 8. P. paws 4; thundercloud]
- BY Ms ; -
| ee Wind n.w. 6; ‘thunder for
ij . hours in the west} heavy
‘ , | driving rain; heaviest rain
.: om 2 A M, 40m
ect Wind now. 9.
i% s s.w. 2.
(2 © at,
Water ntdifiard nm ee
Wa aa ta PR
ater: very high in aes ee
Water paermien k 5 one sre a
the s: BY rapt - }
wd gat! seat ees
, ind we Le
IGilegy ite west a ind N.w.; sun
ining; euige in ast.
3 Wind s.w. es hunder
" te clouds in chs ‘and north,
72 , + (Wind 8.S.w. 2.
BM, hike Smiley . {Calm
)' 69 ‘ ia be dl Wind w.
bal a ; at fog coming ons |
; et a A ‘66 “e
$65, ‘ ” hy a Th on Yi rain.
» jails : ; a mS
64 a " i * bal N, mW 1. of
68), oo b 23 a
a Jake 1 water on the shore, 62°.
Joni i
“
rahi ;
4 oe oe o
ew re
PO ee, ose BA: patina

7 ater still Ups but fallen a

Wind s. by w. 6,

W. W. Mather on the Meteorology

er kogewes. ye

Th. Borometriowaves of water. |

ie +
eee eee a oe
:

00 3 oes | vall cloud

550} ‘ : P 7. | ouds in
oh . y ft? he orth Sif r ‘clouds in
iq of We eater Ne

‘ tae % See woe
. Wind s

“ heavy black
"i in aie ; ralvod hard

-
10. fens] oo

hie Tas, < Midge ge
Tr the peoaling table whe tine i istered,
amount of vee ores i
ene destin the
~ eh time coasting in a i and,
2% . have often observed at oat of ;

at the outward flow of the water would be
ng current flow into the riveror creek*un-

and nee of Level in Lake Superior. 17

bar is attained. Sometimes the water of the lake would also re-
cede below its usual level, so as to leave the bars naked that were
generally co with water, Toward the extremities of long
lakes and ba e wind causes very sensible fluctuations in the
level of the water, which have long been observed at Whitehall
and Buffalo, N. Y. The variations in level in Green Bay, obser-

ved by many persons, and carefully registered by Mr. Cass in
1828, and by Lieut. Ruggles in Sept. and Oct., 1836, are believ-
ed to be due to the eeences, < the wind tz part, but mostly to
variation of atmospheric pre

Copper Harbor is i eal in the centre of Lake Supe-
rior, near the extremity of a peninsula extending about seventy
miles into the lake; and whatever may be the direction or force
of the wind, the water retains its level so far as this cause is con-
cerned in producing variations of level. The place of observa-
tion (on Porter’s Island) is entirely sheltered from any influence
of the waves, which break with great force in storms on the reefs
and shore, on the outside of the island. It is in a little bay on
the south side of the island, and opens into Copper Harbor. Cop-
per Harbor is three miles in length parallel to the lake coast, and
opens with a breadth of a mile. Any fluctuations that are not
momentary, like those of the waves produced by wind, are per-
ceived in a few minutes at the place where the observations were
made, both by the variation of level, and by the rapid flow into
or out of the harbor in the narrow opening that separates the west
end of Porter’s Island from the main land.

The quantity of water flowing through the rapids at the Sault
St. Marie, at the outlet of Lake Superior, is subject to very con-
siderable variation, and is dependent on two causes, viz., the
direction and force of the wind, and, second, upon barometric
waves. Capt. Peck, who resides at the Sault ‘St. Marie, related

rapids were bare for a considerable distance on or near the Canada
shore, where ordinarily there was a strong current. He had
walked far out on these rocks, but observation had taught him
not to tarry long, as the water would return sometimes in half an
hour ; these depressions of the water usually preceded a storm. _
During my visit to the Sault on the 7th of Sept. last, the water
was remarkably low on the rapids all day, being one ‘and halt
feet lower than usual, A daring New England man v
see if the falls could be ascended, made the attempt pig
skiff sail boat, with a strong fair wind, almost a of and st
ceeded—a thing never before attempted, or even deemed '
- Seconp Serizs, Vol. VI, No. 16, July, 1848. 3

18 W. W. Mather on the Meteorology

A heavy rain storm from the n. and n.w. succeeded on the fol-
lowing day

Many observing men on the lakes have noticed that the extra-
ordinary variations in the level of the water precede a storm. I
regret that I did not accurately note down more of them. ‘The
preceding notes may call the attention of those favorably situated
for these investigations, carefully to observe the attending circum-
stances, and especially the barometric fluctuations, wind, weather,
and temperature. A rise of the barometer in the annulus of a
storm precedes the depression, and would account for the fluctua-
tions of level, whether the variations in atmospheric pressure
occur at the place of observation or at some distant point, on a
broad expanse of water.

Periodical Rise and Fall of Lake Superior.—The gradual rise
and fall of the level of the water in the great lakes, through a
series of years, has long been noticed. Its cause is doubtless due
to a greater quantity of rain and snow, or of a lower mean of
temperature and diminished evaporation during the pericd of rise,
and the reverse during the time of fall of the water-level of the
Jakes. During the year 1838 or 1839, the waters were higher
than they had been before for at least two centuries. This is
demonstrated by the large tracts of land that were inundated,
which are covered with forest trees, many of them the growth of
ages. ‘These trees were destroyed by this overflow around Lakes
Erie and Huron and on the St. Mary’s river, between Point De-
tour and the Sault St. Marie.

We have no accounts of Lake Superior at that time, and I have
seen no similar tracts of destroyed timber on the shores of that
lake, although I have coasted along most of the shore. There
are facts however that indicate a marked variation within a few
ey In 1845 a rock in the middle of the entrance of Eagle

Tarbor showed itself only in the trough of the waves; and the
narrow inlet betwen the west end of Porter’s Island and the
main land at Copper Harbor, was of such depth that loaded Mac-
inaw boats could enter Copper Harbor without touching the rocks.
In the summer of 1846 the rock at the mouth of Eagle Harbor
was a foot and a half above water; boats could not get into Cop-
per Harbor through the inlet above mentioned, and skifls and
canoes rarely attempted to enter by that passage. In June, 1847,
the rock above mentioned was still more out of water, and the
western inlet to Copper Harbor could be crossed, by stepping on
the projecting points of the reef, without wetting the feet ; and
during some depressions of the water by barometric waves, it
was laid almost entirely dry. From the 18th of June to the 6th
of September the general level of the water rose fully twelve
inches. Several large rocks in the water Opposite the govern-
ment house, with their points projecting at different heights above

Ny

ae

I]

a

and Changes of Level in Lake Superior. >. @

the water, were daily observed (except from the 3d to the 8th of
August ), when the water was calm, and a steady progressive rise
noticed by means of them, the lowest being first covered and
others in succession. It has been observed on this lake, that the
water is lowest in spring and highest in autumn. This is readily
explained by the fact that in winter most of the ordinary supplies
of water from the drainage of the surrounding country, are cut
off by being converted into ice and snow, while evaporation from
the surface of the lake by the dry northern winds continues to
carry away a very sensible quantity of water. During the spring
and early part of summer* the snow and ice melt, and the accu-
mulated stores of winter, flow into the lake in greater quantity
than to compensate for the evaporation and the drainage at the
outlet. The summer of 1846 was remarkably dry and warm;
that of 1847 more than usually cold and wet. <A small canal
was cut some years since, from the head of the rapids at the Sault
St. Marie, to supply the government saw mill near the foot of the
rapids with water, and boats used to navigate this canal to the
saw mill. In 1845 a little water entered this canal, perhaps eight
inches to twelve inches in depth. In 1846 and 1847 the water
did not ordinarily come within a foot or more of the level of its
bottom.

Ancient Levels of the Lake.—During a century past, the waters
of Lake Superior cannot have been more than four feet above
the level of the summer of 1847, for any considerable length of
time. ‘This is evident from the growth of trees of two feet in
diameter on Porter’s Island, within one hundred yards of the
Government House that would have died had the ground around
been inundated for any length of time.

The evidences of higher levels of this lake in times more re-
mote, but during the modern epoch, are numerous and striking.
They consist in the beaches of shingle, and sand, and gravel, in
successive elevations. The shingle and pebble beaches may be
seen, well characterized, between Copper Harbor and Lake Fan-
ny Hooe at Fort Wilkins, from the lake beach toa height of
about forty feet. The sand beaches and dunes, may be seen at

* On the 20th of June, 1847, snow still remained in the swamp on Porter's Isl-
and, two feet in depth, over a sinal] area where the evergreen trees were 80 thick
that the sun’s rays could scarcely pene

¥

% = W. W. Mather on the Meteorology, &c.

The most remarkable dunes or hills of blown sand, observed,
are those w.s.w. of Eagle Harbor, between there and Sand Bay,
which are fifty feet or sixty feet high on the coast, and much
higher in the interior, near the base of the hills; those near Ea-

_ gle River to the west four to five miles ; and those at the mouth

of Pic River on the Canada shore. Dunes of twenty feet to
forty feet high are common in almost every part of the lake coast
pr sand beaches are formed, and where the strong dry winds
can sweep over a considerable length of beach. The highest and
ont remarkable dunes are so situated as to demonstrate that the
westerly and northwesterly winds are the prevailing ones, that
blow with force enough to drift much sand. Mr. Schooleraft has
described remarkable dunes on the lake coast, three hundred

feet high,* between Grand Island and White Pish Point. All |

who have coasted that shore, have observed them.

- An estuary deposit at the mouth of Pic River, may also be ad-
duced as an evidence of a former higher level of the lake. This
is about twenty feet to forty feet above the lake, nearly level,
and where the river was cutting it away, great numbers of fresh-
water sabre shells were found, such as are now living in great
numbers in the adjacent waters, and occur on the beach. This
deposit is "Hot blown sand, as it is nearly level, while that near
the beach is piled in hills sixty feet to seventy feet high, and
continually encroaching upon the level estuary deposit, burying
the forest on the landward side in its progress.

ke Superior, so far as is known, does not show any indica-
tion of having had any other outlet than that through which its
surplus water now flows, and so far as the facts observed justify
any conclusion, we may infer, that the lowering of level indicated
by the preceding facts, may be ascribed to the gradual wearing
down of its outlet at the Sault St. Marie. The rocks at this
place are gray and red variegated sandstones highly indurated,
which wear away with extreme slowness. ‘They are nearly hor-
rizontal in position, and dip slightly to the west and northwest.
The outlet in former times, when the lake was twenty feet or
thirty feet higher, must have been two miles in width, but shal-
low; the flat lands at the Portage of the Sault St. Marie, con-
sist of gravel and boulder of almost every variety of rock ‘found
on the shores of Lake Superior, intermixed with loam, and these
materials rest on the flat and often smoothed surface of the sub-
jacent sandstone.

The facts considered as demonstrating a water level some
hundred feet above the present level will be adduced in another
article on the geology of that region.

=. —
* Am. Journal of Science, vol. xliv, p. 369.

=>

a * 3 ; *

Contributions to the Geology of Texas. 21
Art. Il.—Contributions to the Geology of Texas; by Dr.
Ferpmanp Roemer.

Ar the time when I wrote the short sketch of the geology o:
Texas, contained in a previous number of this Journal,* I had
seen only a comparatively small portion of the country. I have

- since extended my observations over a much larger surface and,
profiting by some peculiarly favorable circumstances, I have
become acquainted with sections of the country generally con-
sidered inaccessible on account of the dangerous character of the
Indian tribes by which they are inhabited.

I have collected a sufficient number of facts for a geological
map of the whole state, which will be true at least in all its gen-
eral features. My collections of fossils will serve to test the
correctness of the observation and the inferences drawn from
them. They contain a considerable number of new forms,
chiefly from the cretaceous formation, which require to be de-

At present I wish only to present a short account of the gener-
al results which I have derived from my geological survey of the
country.

An ideal line drawn from Presidio de Rio Grande on the Rio
Grande in a n.£. direction, and crossing the San Antonio River at
the town of the same name, the Guadaloupe at New Braunfels,
(the German settlement,) the Colorado at Austin, the Brazos at
the falls of this river, the Trinity below its forks, and reaching
from there to the Red River in the same n.r. direction, divides
the tertiary strata and the diluvial and alluvial deposits (of the
level and “rolling” part of the country) from the cretaceous and
older formations (of the hilly and mountainous sections).

The few remarks to be made about the former region, are first
that the tract of level country which extends like a broad belt
along almost the whole coast of Texas, is diluvial and partly
alluvial in character. Its small elevation of a few feet only above
the level of the sea, and its perfectly level surface, indicate, at
once, the recent origin of the soil. The fossil remains, found in
many places in the deposits of clay and sand, prove their modern
age still more conclusively. At the head of Galveston bay and
even near the town of Houston, I found at a height of twelve to
twenty feet above the general level of the bay, large deposits of
shells of Gnathodon, a bivalve mollusc, which lives abundantly
in the brackish waters along the coast of the Mexican Gulf,
in the bay of Galveston particularly. Some few oyster shells of

the common kind occur in these deposits of half fossil a

* Volume ii, ii Ser., p. 358.

&

é

£

2. Contributions to the Geology of Texas.

thodon shells, but there are no shells different from those now
living in the bay. Every thing tends to the supposition that
the conditions of climate, etc., at the period when these deposits
along the coast of Texas were formed, did not differ materially

from the present, except that a change in the relative level of
~Tand and sea has since taken place.

To the diluvial period must be likewise referred the depos-
its of clay and sand which form the banks of the Brazos and .
probably all the other large rivers of the country. Mr. Hough,
a gentleman residing at San Felipe, has discovered in the muddy
banks of the Brazos near his place of residence, many fossil bones
of extinct species of mammalia, and has made a valuable collec-
tion of them, which I had an opportunity to examine when it
was exhibited about two years ago at Galveston. It contains
bones of mastodon, megalonyx (claw bones), tapir, and of a
gigantic and undescribed species of ox.*

To the diluvial age of the globe must be further referred
the deposits of gravel and sand, which form a broad belt of bar-
ren or poor land covered with pine and post-oak timber, in the
“rolling” or undulating portion of Texas, and extending from
west to east across a considerable part of the country. Follow-
ing up the Colorado from Columbus to Bastrop, or the Guadaloupe
from Gonzales to Seguin, we pass directly across this belt. The
gravel is mostly composed of pebbles of silex evidently derived from
decomposed cretaceous strata. Within the limits of this gravel
formation, fossil wood of dicotyledonous trees in smaller or lar-
ger fragments is found almost every where. In some localities
it is particularly abundant, and whole trunks are occasionally
met with. I have sent to Europe the lower part of a trunk,
about three and a half feet in diameter, weighing about six hun-
dred pounds, and showing distinctly the beginning of the ramifi-
cation of the roots and most beautifully the fibrous internal struc-
ture of the wood. ‘This specimen was discovered together with
many smaller ones, in the banks of a small creek near the town
of Boonville on the Brazos. When I wrote my former paper, I
was not sure about the formation in which this fossil wood was
originally deposited. I am now perfectly convinced that it is
derived from cretaceous strata, having afterwards found pieces
of it among cretaceous fossils at localities where for hundreds of
miles around, there are no other but cretaceous strata, and no
traces of diluvium or drift are met with.

Strata, belonging decidedly to the tertiary period, I did not
see at all during the first part of my stay in the country, and I
was inclined almost to doubt their existence in Texas altogether,
although this would have been against the general analogy of the

* This Journal, volume i, ii Ser., p. 244.

a eines

a a

Contributions to the Geology of Texas. 23

other southern states. While on a tour to the upper Brazos, I
discovered in the neighborhood of the town of Caldwell, strata
of a ferruginous sandstone with numerous and well preserved
tertiary shells. Crossing afterwards the Brazos not far from this
town, I had a still better opportunity to see this formation along
the steep banks of the river. It consists of alternating strata
of brown ferruginous sandstone and of dark colored plastic clay,

both teeming with fossils. Unfortunately, the circumstances

poe not allow me to make a complete collection of them; the
however, which I gathered are sufficient to prove that
‘ees strata belong to one of the older divisions of the tertiary
period. I have good reason to suppose that these same tertiary
deposits have a wide range in the eastern part of Texas, though
I am unable to give their exact limits. Tertiary fossils from Na-
cogdoches seem to indicate that the deposits of the Brazos ex-
tend as far as nee
Cretaceous formation.—We come next to the cretaceous strata,
which of all the settea formations take the most important
part in the geological constitution of Texas and chiefly her upper
hilly part. The immense tract of land which extends from the
above mentioned line, connecting the Rio Grande with Red River,
to the head waters of the Colorado and the other large rivers of

Texas, is occupied entirely by cretaceous deposits, except a belt.

of silurian and carboniferous strata and a mass of granitic rocks,
oth covering comparatively a small are

we examine first the Bas arn FEE, constitution of these
eretaceous rocks, a striking difference from other deposits of the
cretaceous period on the North American continent at once be-
comes apparent; for whereas these latter, on the whole Atlantic
coast, are almost entirely composed of loose and incoherent mate-
rials, the cretaceous strata of Texas constitute mostly compact
and hard rocks, some of them equalling in compactness the hard-
est strata of more ancient secondary formations. A calcareous
character is very commonly observed; in fact, 1 have not seen
any sandstones or strata of clay in the whole series. Generally
speaking, there is an alternation of compact siliceous limestones
and less compact beds of either pure, or marly, limestone. ‘The
former contain the silex as well diffused through their whole
mass, as in separate concretions or nodules. The siliceous char-
acter of these rocks, excluding the decomposing action 0
atmosphere, almost entirely produces the general dry and barren
aspect of the country which they occupy. Every where in the
mountainous region, north from Austin or San Antonio de Bexar,
on both sides of the Piedernales and San Saba Rivers, it is only in
the valleys that a fertile stratum of soil is found; on the heights
of the table land the bare rock appears almost every where at the
surface, hardly supporting the scanty growth of grass and some
scattered specimens of stunted live-oak and post-oak trees.

beg

24 Contributions to the Geology of ‘Texas.

In regard to the organic character of these strata, the opinion
expressed in my first paper has, on the whole, been confirmed by
later researches, and is at present supported by a much greater
number of facts. Most of the fossils belong to known types of
the cretaceous formation. The number of species, however, ex-
actly identical with described species is very lim mited. By com-
paring the fossils with those of the different divisions of the cre-
taceous formation as they are established in Europe, it appears
that the rocks of Texas do not agree in any particular with re-
ceived divisions. It is evident only that they belong to the

rt of the scretacaate formation, for there is a complete
absence of all the characteristic forms of the gault and lower
greensand, and on ie other hand, there is an undoubted analogy
with the organic character of the "chalk and chalk marl,

Notwithstanding the considerable thickness of the whole sys-
tem of strata, (which cannot be less than about eight hundred
feet,) it seems impossible to divide it into different groups. Nei-

her the mineralogical constitution of the rocks, nor the distri-
bution of the organic remains allows of any such division. By
a comparison of these cretaceous deposits with those of New
Jersey, and other localities on the Atlantic coast, the oe
in the zoological character appears hardly less striking than t
difference in the mineralogical constitution which was alluded to
before. Except the Pecten quadricostatus and the Hxogyra cos-
tata, (the latter being rare in Texas, ) I do not know of any other
identical species, and the number of closely allied species is not
very small. A little more analogy seems to exist with the creta-
ceous deposits of Alabama and Western Tennessee. At least a
species of Ammonite, common at Prairie Bluff in Alabama, oc-
curs also in Western Texas, and a species of Hippurite is closely
allied to a species which I found at Austin, Texas, if not identi-
cal with it.

The analogy of the Texian strata with the cretaceous deposits
on the Upper Missouri, is hardly greater than with those on the
Atlantic coast. Not one of those beautiful species of Scaphite,
Baculite and Ammonite, discovered by Nicollet, and described by
Morton,* has been met with in Texas

The entire absence of the Belemnites mucronatus, and eve
other Belemnite, is one of the principal negative characters of
the Texian strata

It is more — to define in a few words, the positive char-
acter of the Fau

All the aa pate a very few, (which form perhaps two
new genera,) belong to genera which are either peculiar to, (as
for instance, Baculites, T'urrilites, etc.,) or are represented in the
cretaceous formation.

*Journal of the Acad. of Nat. Sc. Philad., vol. viii., p. 2.

: iy aeipeactasce re wage one ri es

Contributions to the Geology of Texas. 25

Among the latter, the genus Hzogyra, acts a very important
part in the constitution of .the. fauna, some species of the genus

having a very wide geographical range, and occurring almost eve-
rywhere in a great number of individual Is. One. species which

resembles a Chama in external
h through “ whole extent of

Another still more important, fet nupt Ahr considered? in the

general distribution throughout | end ae oe of the genera
urites and, Caprina.. The. forn

in the cretaceous depos sits of New ..

pearance dey pede rm ofa ie

me. ge
ean na see
7 with, either ind
z $ * =

esetwo ge
miu strata hai
wperaas tammy os

important part in the
id around the “Mediterranean,
: hin the ecretaceous for-
mation of. Boul teresting analogy is
hereby. “establishe ai the. deposits of the» creta~
ceous period, and those of the south,of Europe, ‘the more rs
king,.if, we considervat the same. time, the similarity of mineral-
constitution. » Between, the continents of America and
must therefore have. existed at the time of the cre-
taceous period, such a relation that in. both, the. same modifica-
tions in. the zoological character distinguished the marine Fauna’
a Gale from that. of the .. And thence, we proceed
fart paint interesting conclusion; that» the same Wa ise: in-
flection-of the isothermal lines whie ich is at present’so remarkable
in thei ir course froux they west side: of -the continent of Europe to-

wards, t side «the continent of America, already existed
at a — of the. veg gomow? as tha t of she cretaceous

ALON ee om ox
Strata.older. than Se. At the time ine T wrote my
Apel td of; Texas, I had no. knowledge of the

= : in the,c ut f any strata older than the cretaceous |

a singlexock of granite about fif-

* men of this t Phi ade the Museum of the Acad.
“ "asia Sine nces, whi hs ae [ie tb ss oll county; Alabama, by

“ae & scout Vol. - No. 16-—Jaly, le 4

eaet of Pideickeeen But in the early part
of “agen, a shor ime before my leaving the country, I had a 3

26 Contributions to the Geology of Texas.

very favorable opportunity to visit'that section of country which
lies between the Piedernales, Llano, and San Saba, (all three of
them tributaries of the Colorado,) and which, on account of the
dangerous character of the Indians -by whom it is inhabited, has
remained until now, almost entirely unknown. - In this region, I
found besides’ the cretaceous’ formation, not only an extensive
tract of granite, and other crystalline rocks, but also stratified de-
posits, which from the fossils they contain, ate clearly Silurian
strata, and carboniferous limestone. In order to make the geo-
graphical distribution of these rocks distinctly understood, it will
necessary fir: st; to point out the route which I took in the tno
ploration of ‘this. oy “Starting from Fredericksburg, a Ger
man settlement 1 is situated about n ninety miles ‘north of

the Piedernales, we took a northwestern course, and followed it
not only as far ‘as the Llano river, but also beyond it, until “we
reached the San Saba. We then ascended the valley ‘of this
river about fifty miles, until we reached the San Saba, that is to
say, beyond the ruins of the old Spanish fort, and within about
eight miles of the sources of the river. From ‘ther ere, We went
down the valley again, passed the point where we first struck it,
and continued Tocencithe the valley, until we arrived at a camp
of the Camanche Indians, about twenty-five miles from th
mouth of the river. There we left ‘the valley of the San Gabe,
and went back to ar ee in an almost neong southern
course. On this tour'the following rocks were observ

From the Piedernales to the Dine, the same cxiscionetit strata
extend, which, consisting’ of @ compact white, or yellowish lime-
stone, with occasional nodules of flint, oecupy likewise the wh
tract of land from the Piedernales down to San Antonio and Austin.
On the banks of the Llano; a calcareotis sandstone distinctly stra-
tified, but evidently much altered, begins to show itself; its ex-

tension, etn ash is jos a limited cae for about five miles be-

re

~ San Saba, and’ it is only on the dividing rn of the last menh-

tioned river, that limestone beds pe geese
The granite is on the whole, co a wma

from the color-of the feldspar. It consis ee large

with bold outlivies, or flattened masses, which -peojeet only

little above the surface of the ground, an re ha

in the beds of ‘several ‘small streams, by which ‘the country is in-

terse

cted.
pon ten miles from the place where we first entered. the San
Saba valley, on the right bank of the river, horizontal beds of
limestone, of a decidedly Paleozoic character, were first met with.
This limestone, of a grayish impure color and of a grenhuben age:

Contributions to the Geology of Tevas. 27

contrary, although not of many species, are abundant. Among
them Trilobites are especially numerous. Those which I col-
lected belong to the genera Asaphus and Bronteus. In specific
characters they differ from many found in the valley of the Mis-
sissippi, or in other valehenie strata of America. Besides t

Trilobites,»some indistinct. species of Orthis were found at the
same locality. Some miles further up this river, at a place where
the limestone does not exhibit any marks of plutonie action, some

other genera of fossils are met with, as for instance Euomphalus, —

Spirifer, ete. Of the latter genus one species was found which is
closely allied to the Spirifer lynx, Eichw., a fossil shell so widely
spread in the beds of Trenton limestone of the state of New
York, and the corresponding strata of the western states. In as-
cending still higher the valley of the San Saba, we lost sight of
all Paleozoic strata, cretaceous strata of the same character as
those which we had seen before, taking their place at the surface,
and occupying especially all the neighborhood of the old Spanish
fort. We met Silurian strata again nearer to the mouth of the
San Saba river. Here they consisted of a white siliceous lime-
stone, evidently much altered, although not to such a degree as
to destroy all marks of organic remains. A species of Euompha-
lus with a great number of whorls, analogous to a species from
the Silurian strata of Russia, could be distinctly recognized. Still
further down the river, and about thirty miles from its mouth,
we found in the narrow valley of atributary of the San Saba
river, inclined strata of a dark colored compact limestone, with
layers and nodules of black silex. These beds of limestone
abound with fossils which evidently belong to the carboniferous
period, and some of them are even exactly identical with species
of the carboniferous limestone of the Mississippi valley. Most
of the species which were observed»in the very short examina-
tion of the locality, belong to the genera Productus, Spirifer, and
Terebratula. :

On our return from the San Saba to Fredericksburg, we crossed
again the same belt of granitic rocks which we had-seen pre-
viously after passing the Llano, and did not observe any creta-
ceous strata before reaching the dividing ridge of the Piedernales
and Llano.

The main results of this journey, as well as of former investi-
gations, may be more clearly exhibited in the following state-

The immense tract of hilly or mountainous country extending
from the Rio Grande to Red River, is mostly formed by strata of
the cretaceous formation differing in their fossil fauna from the

a

i
slg
“*

28 —_—B, As@ould, Irjion'the Orbite-of' the Asteroids.

cretaceous deposits.in New Jersey and in other localities on the
tic coast, but exhibiting a striking analogy with some of the

eretaceous deposits in the south of Europe around the Mediter-

ranean, in the same degree as those of the Atlantic coast:are sim-
ilar to the cretaceous deposits of England and northern

Germany.
eae by these cretaceous deposits, there exists between

e Piedernales and San Saba rivers, a belt of granitic rocks and
of paleozoic strata. The latter are characterized by their fossils
as Silurian strata and carboniferous limestone, both are different
in their organic characters from the corresponding formations in

the Mississippi valley, as might be expected consifering the he
distance and difference of latitude. ,

As a fact bearing on the geography -of the western part of
Texas, I will mention before concluding this paper, that» the

mountains, is laid. down on some maps, does not exist. On either
of the

an Saba river no elevation of ay importance ‘is
seen above the general level of the table land..

The detail of my geological researches in Gidcas will. be given
in a more elaborate work. The = of which will take
place with the least odie delay.

Berlin, nies 1847,

Arr. II]l.—On the Orbits of the Ashi ; by
B. A. Goutn, Jr., A.A.S.

Tue recent discoveries of Hencke and of Hint, by which the
number of small planets known to us between the orbits of Mars
and Jupiter has been doubled, have directed the attention and in-
terest of astronomers in a still higher degree to the group “ these
remarkable bodies.

By the common consent of astronomers, they have reietieohe
the name of “asteroids,” a name ‘proposed by the elder Herschel,
in consequence of a theory of his own. The word asteroid, in
its present signification, may be defined as ‘a small planetary bo-
dy, which revolves around, the ice between the orbits of Mars
and of Jupiter. ae

Immediately upon the. asarerraiis Pallas, the caltidations ot
Gauss showed that the orbits of Ceres and Pallas approach very
near to one another in the descending node of Pallas upon the
Ceres-orbit.

Upon this fact Olbers grounded his well known and not un
natural hypothesis, that these two extremely small bodies, ‘rhea
orbits approach one another’so nearly in the node, were merely
the fragments of a larger planet, which by some force wn
to us, had.exploded or been. shattered» by some

B. A. Gould, Jr., on the Orbits of the Asteroids. 29

For if this supposition be true, the oes would almost exactly
have filled the gap between Mars and Jupiter, where, according
to an empirical formula, much in vogue at that time, an unknown

planet had been long suspected. Indeed a society of German as-
tronomers had:been already forined, to search for this ‘sega

* member of our solar system.
g As a corroboration of this hypothesis, he referred to the cir-
* cumstance that both Pallas and Ceres seemed to vary considera-

bly in magnitude, which he explained by the —— that these

| bodies were not round, but of vary irregular figure

“This idea,” he wrote to Zach,* has at least one great advan-
tage over some other hypotheses, that it ean be soon tested. For
f if it is true, we shall be able to find still more fragments of ‘the
; shattered planet, and the easier stil, because a

which describe an, elliptical orbit around the sithiaees pass the

descending node.of Pallas upon the orbit of Ceres.”» +

| he discovery of Juno, soon after; and net far from-the Ape
ia rent place of this node, seemed to afford a strong confirmation
Olbers’s hypothesis, and Zach immediately begant to ponies: it

a tested and confirmed theory. ae.
L A simple calculation gives however the following wesisltsl? ;
‘True anomaly of Ceres,
‘In % of ses on the Ceres-orbit, - “= 2209-9! 56-6»
oe toe - - Pv = aie =
Ls In Q of. Repe on the Pallas-orbit, - - "D4go 32° 32! 36-0).
“ & & Juno % is - Woe oo. i ‘9

* It October, 1804, Olbers wrotet Zach again that the distance
between the two nodes on the Ceres-orbit (the calculations of
Gauss gave 24° at that time) ‘was in no wise discordant with his
hypothesis ; that’as a necessary consequence of the very different
inclinations to the plane of Jupiter’s orbit, the motion of their
lines of nodes produced by Jupiter’s attraction must be very dif+
ferent from the motion of their apsidal lines, which would fase |

from the same attraction ; that still farther, inasmuch as t
bits have nearly “equal major-axes, but very unequal @icetitiiee
ties, they must have cut one aother at some former time in their
node upon the Ceres-orbit. Indeed if we assume according to
the determinations of Oriani, the annual motion of the aphelion
t fot Pallas = 1061, and for Ceres = 1209, and consider the
nodes as sidereally ‘at rest, and the inclinations constant, it results
that a section of the Ceres and Pallas orbits in the above men-
| tioned node, must have taken place 7463 years before, and in 282
| years again occur. In the descending node the same would hap-
. pen in 925 hig s

4
s

wee

* Monto Corepondes, v8 eA 0,588

*

i ‘ my
< Z oy

i.

30 B.A. Gould, Jr., on the Orbits of the Asteroids.

Later, after Gauss had computed the secular variations of Ce-
res and Pallas, Encke, at his suggestion, made farther inyvestiga-
tions for the purpose of determining whether the distance of the

two orbits at the node, were on the increase or decrease. The

result of his computations was, that the orbits are approaching
one another
Encke found* the following radius-vectors.

Year.» | Inthe QQ of Ceres on the Pallas-orbit. | In the @5 of Ceres on the Pallas-orbit.

, Ceres. Pallas. eres. | Pallas. Diff.
898 | 282204 ~ 270322 | —0- r i978 2-6761 : nt: —0-29832
1898 2.92427 | 284945 | —0-07482 2:5956 ? — 0°19223
|. 3475 2:95374 2:95743 | +0: 00369... | 2: 37987 2 49163 +0-08824 |

“ According to this, ” to use the wordst o f Gan uss, “a section in
the node would actually take place about the year 3397, which
may be considered, at any rate, as an approximation to the truth.
To be sure a section must also at some former period have occur-
red; but from the progression of the numbers in the third and
sixth columns, we can at least cies that this can only have
been many thousands of years before. If we therefore adopt the
hypothesis of Dr. Olbers concerning the origin of the new plan-
ets, the occurrence must have taken place at an epoch, for us at

esent immeasurably long before the times to which history
reaches back.”

It is also evident from the foregoing table, that the dmence be-
tween the two orbits in the descending node upon the Pallas-or-
bit, is at present on the decrease.

ny rate we are justified in concluding, without any farther
computation of the secular variations, that at the last time that a
section of the Pallas and Ceres orbits took place, neither of the
nodes of Juno coincided with the node of Pallas. Although the
subsequent discovery of five more asteroids has most certainly
confirmed the conjecture of Olbers, that still more similar bodies
would be found, it has nevertheless almost immeasurably multi-
ied the difficulties in our way ;—if indeed it has not rendered it
absolutely impossible to assign a period, by computation of the
secular variations of the apsidal and nodal lines of these eight or-
bits, when at the same time all the nodal lines upon one of the
orbits coincided, and all the radius vectors were equal.
n this place belongs, perhaps, the remark, that as far as we
yet me to determine the orbit of, Flora, the aphelion of this viegal
falls within the perihelion distance of Ceres.

On the other hand, it must be mentioned a all the. nodes up-
on the Ceres-orbit fall within a single quadran

The following table gives the distances of the several nodes
upon the orbit of Ceres from one another. ‘These distances are

————

* Monatliche Correspondenz, xxvi, 299. 1G. ,auvi, 299.

B.A) Gould, Jr., onthe Orbits of the Asteroids. 31

reckoned in heliocentric ares upon the orbit, and counted from
the Hebe-node, inasmuch as the latter lies nearest to the perihe-
lion of Ceres, corresponding to a true anomaly of only 35° 20’.

Distances from the node of
Hebe on the Ceres-orbit.
4° 49’

Pallas, : ‘ ; ‘
Juno, - - - - 26 42
Vesta, - - - 4 43 31
Astrea, - ~ wees : AT 55
¥, lora, - - - bu = it 50 18
Iris, - = . 77. 46

‘These interesting sciniberestinil scoméd to me to make it worth
while to make still more accurate and extensive investigations
concerning the relative position of the asteroidal orbits. I have,
therefore, for every pair of the eight known to us, i. e., for twen-
ty-eight combinations, calculated the radius vectors in each node.
” The elements of which I have made use are, for the four older
asteroids, the osculating elements for the epoch ag to the Ist
January, 1848, which Dr. Bremiker in Berlin has computed, I
am indebted for them to the kindness of Professor tata

For the four newly discovered, I have selected those elements
which, of all known to me, satisfy wh observations best. These
are for Astrea and for Hebe, the orbits* of Hrn. D’Arrest in Ber-

tin

0 ra |
The longitudes are referred to ee haetox of Jan. 1,
‘is that 16 Theor. Motus.

I &abjpin ‘the following table. of
found boge ether

ie i | Period of
np Te. | in sidereal
685°

subsid iary quantities, because, as
as far as my is ah e extends, they are no where else tobe

32 B. A. Gould, i. 5 the Orbits of the Asteroids.

From these elements I have employed the following table,
where | for the sake. of simplicity and. in order to. have a definite
e, each orbit is. cogs to those other orbits whoseinclination
is Gicrior., pe
"Upon the ogee of Astrea.

: Ascending Nod Descending Node. |
: ; | Rad..vect. | Rad. =% ‘Astrea. Rad. vect. | Kad. vect. Astrea.
Pallas-orbit, 2308615 2180479 © 3005974 2 89U%
Hebe. ; ;

“33630 299 110
003169 ST-989275 | 2: 314213 ° 609881
wy Upon. the. piemniiy Fora. -
tN Ascending N % Descending Node. .
Rad. veet. rae 10 ae Rad. vect. | Kad. .,
|Pallas- orbit, 34070 ie Ci 4 2 953961 1-89
2-743165 241001 . 2015498 .| --1-982454 . j
Juno. .; ..| 3140343 2529811 Petre 1865549
\Ceres : ‘766548 {e721 2:734377 2517845.
\Vesta. i 2564879 ' F-968076 © * op" 2150343 , 2:377464 ©

____ Upon the orbit i Vesta.

Ascending Node.
Rad. vect. Pap. — ven: wey Rad. vect.
llas-orbit, 361500 72920807 —
Hebe « 2-80104 2 -»'1-985355.
Juno... . | 3198536 seins 20507)
Carat is 3 2791893 "| - 2549795 271
3 i
+ Upon the ori at Ceres.
aig ; __Ascer ode.
«| Rad. vect.
Pallas-orbit, 2409084 | 2 97
Hebe... ' aoe *

2 SEs

Juno

Pallas-orbit,
Hebe.

Walleserkt,

B. A. Gould, Jr., on the Orbits of the Asteroids. 33

Of these twenty-eight combinations there are eighteen cases
in which the orbits lock-into one another, like the links of a chain,
and ten where the one orbit is entirely inclosed within the other.

Linked into one another are the following orbits :

Hebe and Astrea. es and Iris. ~ {Ceres and Juno.
Juno « “ "Pallas “ Hebe.
b.wt Flora’ # * fYesta >
Flora “ a Pallas “ Juno. . JICeres “ e
Trig... * ‘i Vesta “ “\Pallas “ Flora.
rae ine tebe” ne,

Bagel inéluded are the following orbits: -
ora in that of He

Tris and Flora in ni “ Juno.
Astreea and Vesta in that of Pallas.

_ tis, ee Rie and Pallas, and consequently, also Astrea and Vesta
~ Ceres.

“Tadd a a second table, similar to the foregoing, which shows
the so-called longitude in the orbit for each of the nedes. The
first two columns give the longitude of the ascending node of
the first named orbit upon the second. ~The — contains the
mutual inclinations of the nell

Longitude in the Len, gita de in the’
fret orbit, #% second orbit. 9 | Inclination
178° 11/184 | 77°20 19-1, | 30° LIT BD
137 13° -6 137 1119 5 9 25 42 -0
188 13 4° | -187 55 12 -9 8 47 54 -0
50 3438-6 | 50 50 31-6 9 15 53-6
55 16:47 -4 | 55 29 4- 4 24 46-0
46 0566 46 958 + 3 312-9
290 15 51-6 | 290 2 24 -2 9 15 33 -4
3.4 58- 1 7 72 34 4319 6
123 29 51 -0 124 6 21-0 18 9515
147 44 30 -0 148 2 22 14 130-7
0. > -0 80 26 32 -2 16 521 9
149 11256 | 149 314 °3 ae a i
31 58 «1 9% 40 33 -9 10 5659-7 |
29 47 -0 | 180 5256-5 32 16 12%
210-2 | 154 40.35 -4 9 57 20.3,
51 41, 2 5 16 466 | 11 21176
57 40 6 3 18 47 3 6 1240-4 |
45 34-7" | 84 48 14 2 I 20 te]
8 59 183° 3:49 -7 16 2115 5
38 40 -9 163. 6 48.°6 9 1
47 11 -9 203. 1 59 -4 12
10 45 8 46 45 59 -0 4
48 13 -2 187 2859-8 36
49.11 9 | © 182 39 37 -6 12 43
34 0 209 21 21 5 16 46 4
48 39 -1 173 41 12-0 21 35
23 27 +3 77 1659 * ry 48
9% 36 3. I 190. 56.32 -0- _% 42
bala 5 Ay tei:
é ae

=, ,

’ -..
34 B. A. Gould, Jr., on the Orbits of the Astercids.

In a paper like this, the influence of the perturbations is of
course, not to be considered ;—still less the mutual action of the
asteroids upon one another. Be it allowed me here, however, to
express my belief that in future calculations this influence can-
not always be neglected.

Should, at any future time, as is by no means impossible, 1 two
of those coupled i in the following table, approach the node at the
same time, their mutual action must,.in spite of their excessively
small mass, be extremely strong.

Such an occurrence is for Ceres and Pallas nud. for similar pairs,
where the periods of revolution are very nearly equal, not so
probable as for such pairs as Flora‘and Astrea, whose periods of
revolution differ by 3174 days and which revolve, ewan ab in
planes inclined to another by a small angle.

The following are those nodes at which the asteroid orbits are
ata less distance from one another than one-fifth of the n
radius-vector of the earth, and where, as before, the first erg
tioned orbit is referred to ‘the other.

sremonee id the orbits.

Asc. Node,

Pallas and Amrea, : E , 0:12
Juno ; Fe
Ceres ‘* .
Flora “ al ‘
Hebe “ Tas; .
Juno Co Me 0-11
a fh
Vesta “ & . 0- ae
fiora sé ; e r ‘ 0-02 ‘ .
illus = Flora, : . . : é 0-13
Behe. 88 02 ee : 0-03
Paltas ‘ Vesta, . : ‘ . 0-10
Pallas “ Ceres, .. F ‘ 3 “19

“4 Juno, - J . A

The shortness of the iio | in which ‘Astreaa and Flora com-
plete each an integral number of revolutions (nineteen revolutions
of Flora are is nearly equal to fifteen of Astrea), renders
such an appro to one another in the vicinity of the above
mentioned 20 by no means improbable. Indeed if the ele-
ments of both planets could at present be considered as suffi-

istant

= = geri it would be — easy to name a not very d

which this must ap

ae similar relation is “that of Iris and Hebe to Flora,
om to Vesta, in the descending nodes. The periods of
revolution are in the case of Iris and Vesta, very nearly eq

on the ates hand the mutual inelinaton ‘of the two orbits is
very sm

gs periods of Iris and Flora are to one another, nearly as
9 to 8, of Hebe and Floray nearly as 15 to 13. Here however

36 B. A. Gould, Jr., on the Orbits of the Asteroids.

the inclination is in both cases quite considerable, so that these
must approach much nearer to their common node in order that
such a ‘eistonl action may take place, than is necessary for the
first mentioned pair.

The table of longitudes i in the orbit shows whether at such an
approach the planets would be visible, or Jost in the solar rays.

Although the planes of ‘the Vesta and Flora orbits are inclined
by so small an angle, yet at the point of nearest approach they
are 0:222 distant from one another

n the other hand we find that the following orbits,
are and Astrea in Q Pallas an be in
Hebe and Astreea in 3% _— and Hebe in Q
Juno and Vesta in Q
are at a distance nearly equal to eat of the earth from the sun,
—but that this is for the different orbits in different nodes.
mena from one another than the astronomical unit are,
Iris and Pallas,
Flora and Pallas,
in stapes: nodes
r to give a still clearer view of the situation of the as-
texbidal orbits, I have stereographically projected the poles of all
these planes of the several planet-orbits and of the sun’s equator
‘upon the accompanying chart, on the preceding page.

The observation of Dr. Olbers that the asteroids varied con-
siderably in the intensity of their light, from day to day, seems
to hold also for the newly discovered ones. In order to dete
mine this definitely, and if eonfirmed.to find the periods, long
series of observations are requisite.

The investigations* of Gauss concerning the Zodiacs of the
planets have rendered it comparatively easy to compute for every
asteroid, the limits of its geocentric places. Gauss has done this
for Ceres and Pallas,t and Prof. Goldschmidt for Iris,{ and caleu-
lators will not be wanting to do the same for the other five. By
this means the search for former observations is facilitated, sinee
it has thus become possible, in the case of every missing star, to

decide at the first glance whether any one of the asteroids can

ever have been in that. place.

* M.C.,x, 173. Ast. Nach., xvi, No. 614(?) + M.C.,ibid. + Ast. Nach., ibid.

: Pe Nie out *

_ Prof. Bailey on Localities of Alg@ in the United States. 37

Arr. IY. me uation of the List of . hgeaaties of Alge in the
United States ; by Prof. J. W

ies (Continued from vol. iii, ii Ser., p. 403.)

Dererrrine for the present, a list of American Desmidiacee
and select Diatomace® or Bacillariea with which I intended to
complete this paper, I proceed to give the following eatalogue of
genuine Alge, = 5° ae which ee — recently discov vered
in the United Stat

SB Grcwonse af ser noble interesting’ species ‘Tam indebted to
Prof. Lewis R. Gibbes of Charleston College, South who,
in addition to some fine Alge, collected by himself im Charleston

, gave me a most valuable — inept Key West,
yor sf Dr. F . Wurdemann:

i rae British Algologist, Ws H» Harvey of Trinity College,
Dublin, who by means of his ‘extensive Herbarium and great
familiarity’ with the Alge of all parts: of the world, could easily
i et the proper eons of the species which to me appear _
ed n fal. this gentleman I am greatly indebted |
for his liberal proce ne nie information, relating to
our Alge Which, for want of standard collections 1 in this
I was unable to determine satisfactorily.

am also indebted to the eminent French Algologist, Dr. Mon-
tage, for-interesting remarks upon some specimens which I sent

* few additional Socalition are even 4 plants already intioded

| — aioe esis pots of thi is list :

Meruanosrznwes. 4

+7 Sargassum vulgare, es Key West, Florida, Dr F, Wurde-
Paiina Pivenia, Lamour., fing specimens. , Key West.

: hate J. Ag. Key West. Fine specimens. i.

a ia linearis? Key West. pre
shoe S viridis, Hat mss. Char eston iN
_ Keg : Set tpccaet, but its color very ren

er pe
Andie itiniann Harv. jSthode Island
| Ectocarpus littoralis, Lyngb. - Brighton, “Staten or
| » Chordaria divarieata, Harv: pk Beit im Fine speci-
| mensiearthellightehOuetinns. 2 galery swe fe Vs

38 Prof. Bailey on Localities of Algein the United States.

RHODOSPERMEE.

Rhodymenia cristata, Grev. Massachusetts Poy Fine speci-
mens of this interesting plant were given me by Miss Saltonstall
of Salem, Mass. It has been found also at Newport and Staten
Island, while in the Eastern Atlantic, according to re it is
not. found south of the Orkney Islands. _

Amansia multifida, Lamour. Key West.

— obtusa, rage Paid engl

pinnatifida, Lam Key W
Thwenc Baiteyanumn M Mout, in litt. I had supposed this to
Se dasyphylla, but Dr. Montagne, to whom I sent
it, pronounces it new, and gives the following
as its specific
ai Mont. Fronde elongata filiformi subsimpliei,
ramentis subternis kineari-lanceolatis utrinque attenuatis e
‘ (Individuum tetrasporophorum).” He adds, that “ not-
wit ing the close affinity of this Alga to Laurencia tenawis-
epic to L. dasyphylia, it cannot be confounded with either
of them. The absence of ramification distinguishes it sufficient-
ly from the first, and the form of the ramenta does not permit it
to. be referred to the second, from which it is in other respects
quite distinct.”

Tt occurs at Newport, R. I. , Stonington, Conn., and For Ham-
ilton, N

Hypnea ‘robusta, ee mss. “A fine racist quite new to
me. ” Harv. Key Wes

ea musciformis, tod Key Wes
inoue. clavulatum, Ag. ” bases at ‘Key West.
Ceramium fastigiatum, Harv. Common at Newpor R.1. ,and
Hamilton, Ny Y;
Callithamnion Baileyi, Harv. mss. “A distinct
> Harv. Abundant at Fort Hamilton and thew ay

ton, N. Y.
Callithamnion arachinoidew, Ey Rhode Island.
Alsidium trian: J. Ag.

Polysiphonia (Alsidium 4) Gibbest, ‘her, MSS. Key ——
“ A very remarkable ”’. Harv

Polysiphonia breviarticulata, Ag. ¢ A Methiterranctn nean spe-
cies, the Florida specimens very bimilet vl the European: ng
smaller.” Harv.

Polysiphonia variegata, Ag.» Very fine specimens near the
light-house at Stonington, Conn.

Polysiphonia nigrescens, Grev. I collected Bobiatifuh mi
mens of a — vatiety of this Lege at New Brighton, N.Y.

Polysiphon A distinet and
species which I T found growing i in

_ Prof. Bailey on Localities of Alg@ in the United States. 39

of Zostera at Stonington, Conn. Its habit ei apt it ata
glance from all other species, yet it is difficult to frame a deserip-
tion of it which will serve to characterize it ; the fiblowing, how-~
ever, are some of its:principal characters. Frond two to four
inches, rising by a single filament from a spreading root and al-
most immediately giving off one or'more robust branches. These
in their turn give off, at irregular intervals, long branches which
are beset with short robust ramuli, the ultimate divisions of which
are acute cones, at the apices of which a few slender fibres are
attached. The plant is articulated throughout. Its color when
fresh is reddish eet, when dry it appears nearly black.

fruit has not yet been observed. I take peculiar pleasure in
making use of this beautiful. plant to associate the name of Har-
vey with those of the other distinguished Algologists to whom
species of Polysiphonia have been dedicated.

Dasya elegans, Ag. Spec. 11, 117=D. pedicellata, Agatith,
Syst., 211. To the localities of this beautiful plant: previously
given, I can now add Charleston, South Carolina, at which place
it has been collected by Prof. Gibbes ; and Fort Hamilton, New
York, where it is very abundant

Unless I am greatly mistaken, Agardh’s Spheroecus Torreyt
was founded ona battered specimen of this plant. I judge so
from the examination of a fragment of the nig specimen still
- preserved in Dr. Torrey’s Herbarium

Dasya Wurdemanni, Bailey. This species from Key West,
which Harvey thinks is new, I would dedicate to Dr. Wurde-
mann to whom we are indebted for so many” fine specimens of
the ae of Florida.

dia filantentosa, Harv. Key West, also abundant at
eringeot Conn. re

Gracilaria dura? Ag. Key West.

_ Gracilaria Helmintochorton, J. As. Key West.

ea simpler, Ag. Ke

“Eiglodictyon sp.? “An imperiooty developed specimen from
Key West, ke only known species is from the Adriatic.” Harv.

Rhodymenia palmata, . Asmall much divided variety
hasebeen sollacted at Charleston by Prof. Gibbes.

Rhabdonia Baileyi, agen, mss. I —_ d this panies several

it to be a species of Chrysimenia, but after studying the in if i
cation which I was recently fortunate enough to detect on speci-
mens at Fort Hamilton, N. ¥., and which I sent to him preserved
in Goadby ’s solution, he was enabled to determine its true char-

acters. He says, “It ismot a Chrysimenia, the fruit it and struc-
ture being that of the Cryptonemee, not C. in ee, Oddly

40 Prof. Bailey on Localities of Alg@ in the United States.

feet Peres in structure with some Alge from Van Diemens
which IL lately founded the genus Rhabdonia. ‘The
only of the Tasmanian species are known, and the
Mosotic specimen has ‘only favellidia. The tetraspores ought
to be ellipsoidal, divided by transverse rings, and to occur dispers-
ed through the smaller branches.”—-Very fine specimens of this
_ plant with abundance of fruit may be found in July, near Fort
Hamilton and Bath, Long Island, N.Y.
Chondrus Brodiai, Grev. Newport, R.1

hondrus Norvegicus, Lamour. Massachusetts Bay. G. B
Emerson.

Ptilota plumosa, Ag: Very fine specimens of variety «, have
been given me by Miss Sa eaibare of Salem, who collected them
in Massachusetts Bay. At Newport I could only find variety @,
which is a much aed elegant plant.

Pegs allina officinalis, Linn. Very abundant on shores of New

“2 cael of species of Corallinee collected at Key West by
Dr. Wurdemann were presented to me by Prof. Gibbes, but as
itis only recently that the vegetable nature of these bodies has
been established, few of them are included in Algological vou
and the determination of the species is attended with reat
culty ; I hope, however, eS ——— at some future time, ist of
our North American speci

caer ceil.

cladus claveformis, Ag. Key West.

Acetabularia Psa Lamour. Key West. Common.

_Conferva melagonium, Web. et Mohr. Near Beverly, Mass.
Dr. Asa Gray !

Cladophora prolifera. Key West?

Cladophora prasina, Harv. mss: “Its recent. affinity i is to C.
rupestris.” Harv. Abundant on rocks below low water mark i in
the Hudson Riverat West Point.

Caulerpa concinna, Harv. uss. Key West. “A most pane
mg new species, allied to°'C. Webbiana, Mont., but very distinct.
Most of the species-are tropical.” Harv *

Anadyomene flabellata, Ag. "Key West, Rather. common.

K

y West
Bryopsis plumosa, Ag. New a eos N. ¥. Miss Salton-
stall! a ber “he So L. the gal
E'ctocarpus ’ Harv harleston, S. ©, Prof.
Gibbes ! Not | in a and therefore a 1 doubtial Species, but its
color very remarkable.” Harv
Enteromorpha compressa, Grev.. | Chaseston, S. tt Prof. a

3 sae

~

a
a

Prof. Bailey on Locdlities of Alga in the United States. Al

Einteromorpha clathrata, Grev. Staten Island, N. Y.
e ig vulgaris, Ag. Charleston, s. ‘C. een ta
Yor

Pichu laciniata. Fort Hamilton, N. Y.

Ginathum leve, Bailey. 1 propose this name for a small miero-
scopic plant which I have found growing in considerable abund-
ance as a parasite on stems of Nitella. The whole Alga consists
of a single irregular branching layer of green cells, which like
those of Coleochete scutata are closely adherent to ‘the plant on
which it grows, but it has no trace of the setiform processes be-
longing to that species. It appears to grow both by the —-
of new cells and the spontaneous division of the-old o In
many of the cells one or more small vesicles, pain tim >) simi
lar to those in the spiral threads of Zygnem, were observed.
No other traces of fruit have been seen. Its place in the systems
must be near Coleochete. Autindint on stems of Nitella, in
ponds near West Point, N.

Sulva , Harv. mss. I found this forming erect tufts
in small pools of water between high and low-water mark, in
cavities of the granite blocks, composing the pier at Stonington,
C Whether its color has been affected by exposure to air
and sunlight, I cannot say. Harvey says, “I do not know any
thing like it.”

Lyngh ya crispa? Ag. A plant which grows in immense quan-
tities in salt water ditches, near Hoboken. It appears to me to
be identical with English specimens aval L. ferruginea, Ag.,
which I received from J. Ralfs, Esq., but Harvey says, “it agrees
better with some specimens of is crispa, Ag., res er which name,
probably more than one species are confoun

scillatoria F'riesii ? Ag. A common plant (et. erect tooth-
like fasciles half an inch in height, among mosses on damp Xda
near West Point. I sent it by the name of O. Friesii to arvey
and he ‘orapeae concerning it, “this looks different from O.
Friesii, but comes near it. It i is, probably, a different species.
But in the fearful confusion that reigns here, I have no fancy
making more names.

Tetraspora lacunosa, Chauy. in Duly. Bot. Gall. I am. in-
formed by Dr. Montagne that this is the. same as the plant which

had named 7’. perforata, under the supposition that it was an
undescribed species.

emania Americana, Harv. mss. This species is founded on

* Alga which grows in rivers in Virginia, and which I had sup-
to be only a variety of L. fluviatilis, Ag. Harvey remarks

that “the European plant is very much more simple with distant
nediiee the American one is much branched ane a

=... Senirs, Vol. VI, No. 16.—July, 1848. 6 sam

42 : ‘Gn Collecting and Preserving Alga.

lt tyon utriculatum, Roth. This plant which is one of
st interesting of the fresh water Algee, grows abundantly
D in ditches near the West Point Foundry.

eh the above list it appears that the number of species of =

Alge now known to occur in the United are is as follows:
elanospermee, . 31

Rhodospermee, . i i : : 59
penned sg eae : 3 ; 82
172 species,

io clusive of raciaie Desmidiacese and Diatomacez. When
it is considered that the study of our Alge has as yet hardly
commenced, it is reasonable to expect that very large additions
will be made by further research.

We append to this article by Professor Bailey, a few observa-
tions on Algee and the modes of pre — them, taken from
*'The Dublin University Museum.”—Eps

Directions for Collecting and Preserving Alge; by Dr. Wm.
H. Harvey.

(From a Report by the Directors of the Dublin University Museum.)

“ General Character of the Alge.—The Alge vn for popu-

lar purposes, be divided into four ‘principal groups, Viz.

od ae tr Olive-colored Sea-weeds, which are " generality
of large size, and leathery texture; sometimes membranaceous
and leafy, and more rarely of a gelatinous or filamentous nature.

“2. FLorivem, or Red-colored Sea-weeds ; cartilaginous and
fleshy, membranous or gelatinous sea-weeds; often peace t
of 8 red, purple, brown-red, or livid greenish-red colo

3. CHLOROSPERMS, Or Green Sea-weeds ; membr: ‘tactic or
filamentous ; ong somewhat horny plants, of a green color and
simple structur

Conners: ; vegetables coated with a crustaceous epider-
mis composed of carbonate of lime, either red or green when
fresh, becoming white and often brittle*on exposure to the air.
( These must not be confounded sie the true zoophytes, which
often assume the appearance of plants. )

“ Places of Growth, and Mode of Collecting.—The Alg@ are
found, in greater or less abundance, from the extreme of high-
water mark to the depth of from thirty to fifty fathoms. Those
within the reach of the tide are to be collected at low water, @S-
pecially of spring tides, the most interesting species growing fre-
quently at the verge of low-water mark, either along the margin
of rocks partially laid bare, or, more frequently, fringing the deep

=.

ase. Cer Se

On Collecting and Preserving Alge. 43

tide-pdols left by the recess of the tide on a flattish rocky shore.
Those which grow at a greater depth than the tide exposes, must
be sought by dredging, or by dragging after a boat an iron cross
furnished with numerous strong hooks, on all shores where such
contrivances can be applied; but where dredging for deep-water
plants is impossible, the collector must trust to finding his desid-
erata among the heaps of weed thrown up on flat shores after a
gale. Even after ordinary tides many delicate species float asho
and may be collected along the beach in a perfect state. 'There-
fore, after visiting the more rocky places at low water, the sandy
or shingly beach should always be inspected at the return of the
In collecting from heaps, care should be taken to select
those specimens which have suffered least in color, &c., from ex-
posure to the air, rejecting those that are bleached white.

‘<A common vasculum, a basket, or a bag, will serve nue
home the larger and less delicate kinds; but even these shou
not be left so long unsorted as to allow of their becoming clotted
together. ar

“In collecting alge from their native places of growth, great
care should be taken to pluck the whole plant from the very base,
and, if it have an obvious root, to gather the specimen with its
root attached. This is of much importance, and apt to be neg-
lected by young collectors, who are satisfied with plucking
branches or scraps, which often afford no just notions of the
mode of growth, or natural habit of the plant from which they
have-been plucked, and which, in many cases, are wholly insufli-
cient for the first purpose of a specimen, that of ascertaining its
position in the system. In many of the leafy fuct (sargassa)
the leaves which grow on the lower and on the upper branches
are quite different; and were a lower and an upper branch to be
plucked from the same individual, they might pass for portions of
different species. It becomes of moment, therefore, to gather,
when it can be done, the whole plant, including the root, It is
true that the larger kinds may be judiciously divided; but the
young collector had better aim at selecting moderate sized speci-
mens of the entire plant, than attempt the division of large spec-
imens, unless he keep in view that every specimen should be an

Ad On Collecting and Preserving Alge.

epitome of the essential characters of a species. Several “dupli-
cates of every species should be collected.

_& Preserving Specimens of Alge—Where it is a collector’s
object to preserve alge in the least troublesome manner, for the

purpose of transinitting them to Europe, it is merely necessary —

to spread the specimens, immediately on being brought fresh
from the sea, without any previous washing, and even without
squeezing their natural moisture from them, in an airy situation,
as hay is spread out to dry, only they must not be exposed to too

werful a sun. In dry weather, if the layer be turned over a
few times, they will very rapidly dry, and no other preparation is
necessary. They will have shrunk considerably, and many will
have darkened in color, and the bundle may have become very
unsightly ; nevertheless, if thoroughly dried (to prevent mouldi-
néss or heating), and packed loosely in paper bags or rough boxes,
such specimens will, generally speaking, reach Europe after many
months, in a perfectly sound state; and, on being re-moistened
and properly pressed, will make excellent cabinet specimens. It
is very much better, when drying alge in this rough manner, not
to wash them in fresh water, because the salt they contain serves
the double purpose of preserving them, and of keeping them in
a pliable state, causing them to imbibe water on re-immersion
more readily. Washed alge, roughly dried, become very hard
and unmanageble. I would recommend that all the larger and
coarser kinds of algee, sent from abroad, be preserved in this man-
ner. With the more delicate and smaller kinds, a different course
may be pursued. ~

“ Preserving delicate Alg@.—Small, filamentous, and gelatin-
ous alge cannot be well preserved in the rough manner just de-
scribed, and, when practicable, should be put up, after gathering,
on the papers on which they are intended to remain. Witha
little care, and after a few trials, the mode of preparing them will
be easily learned.

“lhe collector should have two or three flat dishes, one of
which is to be filled with salt water and two with fresh; in the
first of these the specimens are to be rinsed and pruned, to get
rid of any dirt or parasites, or other extraneous matter; they are
then to be floated in one of the dishes of fresh water for a few
minutes, care being taken not to leave them too long in this me-
dium, and then one by one removed to the third dish, and a piece
of white paper, of the size suited to the size of each specimen,
is to be introduced underneath it. ‘The paper is to be carefully
brought to the surface of the water, the specimen remaining dis-
played upon it, with the help of a pair of forceps or a poreupine’s
quill, or any fine-pointed instrument, and it is then to be gently
drawn out of the water, keeping the specimen displayed. ‘These
‘wet papers, with their specimens, are then placed between

ES ee eerie See mer eI

Dr. Hare on the Theories of Electrical Phenomena. 45

of soft soaking-paper, and put under pressure, and in most cases
the specimen in drying adheres to the paper on which it is laid
out. Care must be taken to prevent the blotting-paper sticking
to the ites poe and destroying them. Frequent changes of
drying-paper (once in six hou urs), and cotton rags laid over the
specimens, are the best preservatives. The collector should have
at hand four or five dozen pieces of unglazed thin calico [white
muslin] (such as costs five or six cents a yard), each piece about
eighteen inches long and twelve wide, one of which, with two or
three sheets of paper, should be laid over every sheet ‘of specimens
as it is put in the press. These cloths are only required in the first
two or three changes of drying-papers, for, once the specimen
has begun to dry; it will adhere to the paper on which it bags en
floated, in preference to the blotting: paper laid over it. 10uld-
it perversely adhere to the calico, it is better not to attempt to ee
tach it till it is nearly dry, when by a little care it may generally
_ got free. Algz do not take so long to dry as other plants,
many, in warm weather, will be found to be sufficiently dried

after f forty-eight hours, if the papers have been changed three or
our t

“ Corallines, and Sponges, require no trouble when once col-
lected ; it is ‘merely necessary to dry them anc a pack
them among the rough-dried sea-wee box much
interest attaches to these productions, and as laa of i a and
sub-tropical countries are still very imperfectly known to
lists, collectors of algee are earnestly requested to secure them
whenever they present themselves.”

+

Arr. V.—Objections to the Theories severally of Franklin,
Dufay and Ampére, with an Effort to Explain Electrical
Phenomena by Statical or Undulatory Polarization ; by Ros-
ERT Hare, M.D., Emeritus Professor of Chemistry in the Uni-
versity of Pennsylvania.

(Continued from ii Ser., vol. v, p. 351.)

= by which the Ethereo-ponderable Atoms within a Gal-
nic Circuit are polarized by the Chemical Reaction.

58. In order that an ethereo-ponderable particle of oxygen in
any aqueous solution shall unite with an ethereo-ponderable par-
ticle of zine in a galvanic pair, there must be a partial revolution
of the whole row of ethereo-ponderable zinc atoms, with which
the atom assailed is catenated by the attractions between dissimi-
lar poles. Moreover, at the same time that the metallic atoms
are thus affected, the atoms of water between the metallic sur-

ee -ie
aii Ure

0

46 Dr. Hare on the Theories of Electrical Phenomena.

faces must undergo a similar movement, by an ——" reac-
tion with poles of an opposite c character, and this movement
must extend through the negative plate to the conductor, by
which it communicates with the zinc or electro-positive plate.
When the circuit is open, the power of combination exercised by
the zinc and oxygen is inadequate to produce this movement in
the whole chain of atoms, liquid and metallic ; but as it is indif-
ferent whether any two atoms are united with each other, or
with any other atoms of the same kind, the chemical force easily
causes them to exchange partners, as it. were, when the whole
are made to form a circuitous row in due contiguity.

59. As we know that during their union with oxygen, metals
give out an enormous quantity of heat and electricity, it is reason-
able to suppose that whenever an atom of oxygen and an atom
of zine jump into union with each other, a wave is induced in
the ethereo-ponderable matter, and that this wave is sustained by
the decompositions and recompositions by means of which an

atom of hydrogen is evolved, at the negative plate and probably
enabled to assume the aériform state. ‘There must, at the same
time, be a communication of wave polarity by contact of the

— plate with the egy wire, by which the positive

the. wire is induced. ough the sebecont plone
of ne ge ey are not, agreeably *- this view, the mo
in galvanism, yet they facilitate, and in some cases Fe the ex-
ercise of that power, by enabling it to act at a distance, when
otherwise it might remain inert.

60. This, I conceive is shown in the effect of platina sponge
upon a mixture of the gaseous elements of water; also in Grove’s
gas battery, by means of which hydrogen and oxygen gas sever-

ally react with water in syphons, so as to cause each other to

eondense, without any communication besides that through the
platina, and an electrolytic decomposition and recomposition ex-
tending from one of the aqueous surfaces in contact with one of
the gases, to the other surface in contact with the other gas.

Difference between edge: and E'thereo-ponderable Po-

There are two species of eae which come un-
pe os head of statical electricity. One of these Faraday illus-
trates by supposing three bodies, A, B and C, in proximity, but
not in contact, when A, Te electrified, eletisiées B, and B =
trifies C by induction. ‘This araday ¢ calls an action of the
ticles of the bodies eon whereas, by his own premises, it
appears to me to be merely a superficial affection of the masses
or of a circumambient ethereal matter. This species of polariza-

zr 5 At

Dr. Hare on the Theories of Electrical Phenomena. 47

globe of glass, as a solid globe of metal. No sensible change
appears to be produced in the ponderable conducting superficies
by this ame a electrification of masses; and of
course no magne
62. en Pathe image, of which the scalp has been abun-
dantly furnished with long hair, is electrified, the hairy filaments
be ee ahr and move apart, as if actuated by a repulsive
so when iron filings are so managed as to obey the in-
hese of | the poles of a powerful magnet (51), they arrange
themselves in a manner resembling that of the electrified hair.
here is, moreover, this additional analogy, that there is an at-
traction between two portions of hair differently electrified, like
that which arises between filings differently magnetized. Yet
the properties of the electrified hair and magnetized filings are,
in some respects, utterly dissimilar. A conducting communica-
tion between differently electrified portions of hair would entirely
neutralize the respective electrical states ; so that all the electri-
cal phenomena displayed by them would cease. Yet 7 a
communication made between the poles, exciting ‘the filings, b
any non-magnetic conductor, does not in the slightest ies
lessen their polar affections and consequent power of reciprocal
influence. Upon the electrified hair, the proximity or the con-
tact of a steel magnet has no more effect than would result under
like circumstances from any other metallic mass similarly em-
ployed; but by the approximation, and still more, the contact, of
such a magnet, the affection of the filings may be enhanced, less-
ened, or nullified, according to the mode of its employment. In
the case of the hair, the affection is superficial, and the requisite
charging power must be in proportion to the extent of surface.
n the case of the magnetized ferruginous particles, it is the mass
which is affected, and, ceteris paribus, the more metal, the
greater the capacity for magnetic power. In the instance of the
electrified hair, as in every other of frictional excitement, the
electrical power resides in imponderable ethereo-electric atmos-
pheres which adhere superficially to the masses, being liable to be
unequally distributed upon them in opposite states of polarity,
consequent to a superficial polarization of the exciting or excited
ponderable masses; but in the instance of bodies permanently

magnetic, or those rendered transiently magnetic by galvanic in- —

fluence, the ethereo-electric matter and the ponderable atoms are
inferred to be in a state of combination, forming ethereo-ponder-
able atoms; so that both may become parties to the movements
and affections of which the positive and negative waves consist.
hus an explanation is afforded of “the hitherto ere
ous diversity of the gee of a gold leaf eloctroaaae and
vanoscopes, although both are to a wonderful degree sensitive ;
the latter to the most feeble po nae discharge, the former to the

ar ar

48 Dr. Hare on the Theories of Electrical Phenomena.

slightest statical excitement; yet neither is in the most minute
degree affected by the polarization which affects the other. —

64. The charge which may exist in a coated pane affords an-
other exemplification of statical or electro-ethereal polarity. In
this case, according to Faraday, the particles of glass are thrown
into a state of electro-polarity, and are, in fact, partially affected
as if they belonged to a conductor; so that insulators and con-
ductors differ only in the possession ‘ina high degree by the one,
of a susceptibility of which the other is possessed to an extent
barely perceptible. The facts seem to me only to show, that
either an insulator or conductor may be both affected by the

same polarizing force, the transmission of which the one facili-
tates, the other prevents. Iam under the impression that it is
only by the diruptive process that mpeg ad passes through glass ;
of course involving a fracture. It gets through a pane or jar, not

y aid of the vitreous particles, but in despite of their opposing

coherence. The glass in such cases is not liable to be fused, de-
flagrated, or dissipated, as‘conductors are. It is forced out of the
way of the electrical waves, being incapable of becoming a party
to them. Discharges will take place through a vacuity, rather
than through the thinnest leaf of mica. But if, as Faraday has
alleged, from within a glass flask hermetically sealed, an electri-
cal charge has been found to escape, after a long time, it pro
only that glass is not a perfect insulator, not that perfect insula-
tion and perfect conduction are different extremes of the same
property. On the contrary, the one is founded upon a constitu-
tion competent to the propagation within it of the electro-polar-
izing waves, with miraculous facility, while the other is founded
either on an absolute incapacity, or comparatively an et
small ability to be the medium of their conveyance. The on

extremely retards, the other Soemerely expedites its resell
through a space otherwise void.*

Competency of a Wire to convey a Galvanic Discharge is as its
sectional area, while statical discharges of frictional electricity
preferring the surface are promoted. by its extension. Yet in
proportion as such discharges are heavy, the ability of a wire
to convey them and its magnetic energy become more depend-
ent on its sectional area and less upon extent of surface.

65. Reference has been made to two modes of electrical con-
duction, in one of which the efficacy is as the surface; in t
other, as the area of a section of the conductor. Although glass
be substantially a non-conductor, the power of the su urface of

ass when moistened, or gilt, to discharge statical electricity,

* By a void, I mean a Torricellian vacuum. The 6 omni resence of the ——
ether must render the existence of a perfect void fs i

Dr. Hare on the Theories of Electrical Phenomena. 49

is enormous. It has been generally considered, that. asa. pro-
tection against lightning. the same weight of metal employed as
a pipe, would be more efficacious than in the usual solid form of
a lightning rod: yet. this law does not hold good with respect to
galvanic discharges, which are not expedited by a mere extension
of conducting surface. Independently of the augmentation of
conducting power, consequent to radiation and contact with the
air, the cooling influence of which, according to Davy, promotes
galvano-electric conduction, a metallic ribbon does not convey a
galvanic discharge better than a wire of similar moth and aia aet ¥
eee Agteeably to the considerations above sta
ea of a conductor remaining the same, in Fane

danoat accumulation which it may discharge i is greater, the p 8 may
are less superficial ; and the ethereo-ponderable atoms are affected
more analogously to those exposed to galvanic discharges. _ It is
ini ee a8 that the eees of a Leyden jar imparts magnetic
pola the one hand, the electro-ethereal mat-

municate polarity to the electro-ether. Hence statical Pica
when produced by galvanism, and magnetism, | when prog uced
by statical electricity, are secondary effects. ai
67. ere a. wire is of such dimensions, in saotien bs fae
charge, as to be heated, ignited, or dispersed by statical come
city, there seems to be a transitory concentration of the electric
power, which transforms the nature of the reaction, and an in-
ems wave of electro-ponderable iene. similar to those of

; rough
sitio of. of proving the
al atest (note 39),. ods ows
ordancy. “At ‘the : ona time it may
‘tte ponte le and —-

: 10.. BOT.C!
pre! ig " 1071.

50 Dr. Hare on the Theories of Electrical. Phenomena.

haying the power of those usually ascribed to a galvano-electri-
cal current :
69. It has been shown that both reason, and the researches
and suggestions of Faraday, warrant the inference that pon-.
\ , ;

ming in an enormous quantity of condensed imponderable mat-
ter, in which all the Berries whether ponderable or impondera-
ble, are, in their natural sta eld in a certain relative position
due to the reciprocal pete, of their dissimilar poles. A gal-
vano-electrified body differs from one in its ordinary state, in
having the relative position of the poles of its ethereo-ponderable
atoms, so changed, that their inherent opposite polarities not
being productive of reciprocal neutralization, a reaction with eXx-
ternal bodies ensues.

70. In statical excitement the affection is superficial as re-
spects the ponderable bodies concerned, while in dynamic excite-
ment the polarities of the whole mass are deranged oppositely at
‘ epposite ends of the electrified mass; so that the oppositely dis-
turbing impulses, proceeding from the poles of the disturbing ap
paratus, neutralize each other intermediately. upposing the

onderable as well as the imponderable matter in a perfect con-
ductor, to be susceptible of the polar derangement, of which an
electrified state is thus represented to consist, non-conductorseto
“be insusceptible of such polar derangement ; imperfect Peed
tors may have a constitution intermediate betw een metals”
electrics. When an electrical discharge is made through. ae
space devoid of air or other matter, it must then find its way
solely by the polarization of the rare ipponderaple matter ex-..
isting therein; and consequently its coruscations should be pro-
portionably more di fiuse, which is actually baad to be true ; but
when gaseous ethereo-ponderable atoms intervene, oo enable
competent waves to exist within a narrower channel , and to, .
attain a greater intensity. I consider all bodies as insulators
‘which cause discharges through them to be more difficult than

through a vacuum, and which, by their interposition within a
circuit, can prevent that propagation of the oppositely. polarizing
undulations which would otherwise ens sue. This furnishes a
good means of discrimination between insulators and conductors,
the criterion gine that a discharge ensues more readily as there
is more of the one and less of the other in the way: that the
one leads the waves where they would not go, the other impedes
their going where they would proceed. Both in the case of di-
ruptive discharge through alr, producing a spark, or of a defla-
grating discharge through Wire, causing its explosion, there is a
dispersion of intervening ponderable particles; and yet there is

this manifest discordancy, that in one ease the undulatory process a

of transfer is assisted, in the other resisted. ee Pageatig a ow

Dr. Hare on the Theories of Electrical Phenomena. 51

they would one pursue. On the one hand the aérial fil-
aments being unsuitable for the conveyance of the electric waves,
these are forced by them out of the normal path, first in one
direction, then in another; while on the other hand, the finest
metallic filament furnishes a channel for the electric Ride! so

favorable that this channel is pursued, although the consequent

eg ag of the conducting particles be so intense as to make

y asunder with explosive violence. Even when a bell

jae has been dissipated by lightning, it has been found to facili-
tate and determine the path of the discharge.

71. The various forms of the electric spark, resulting ase? va-

rying the gas through which it may be made to pass, a

to the cates of Faraday, is explained by the Gaiposten ie

the peculiarity of the spark is partially the consequence of the
polarizability of the gaseous atoms through which the eee
is made, and varies accordingly in its appearance

Difference between Frictional Electricity and eeuee ilies not.
_ depend on the one being superior as to quantity, the other as to
intensity ; but on the different degrees in which the Ethereo-
ponderable Atoms of the bodies ‘affected, are deranged from
their natural state of neutralized Polarity.
72. 1 infer that all magneto-polar charges are attended by =

‘affection of ponderable particles; and that the reason why t

most intense statical charge does not affect a galvanom aes
is, that it is only when oppositely excited bodies are neutraliz-
ed by the interposition of a conductor, as during a discharge,
that ethereo-ponderable particles are sufficiently polarized to

enable them to act upon others in their vicinity, so as to pro-

ce a polar affection the opposite of their own. In this way
mamic induction is consistently explained, by supposing that
oe cart of ail opo in passing along one conductor, Lay

| m 4 .

i Dn erie the Thesries of Electrical Phenomena.
Undoubt-
f an elee-

Th. we a Sle ¢ ‘sa
a their mes to, 0 éiedd

or the other, during either its access or cess
pil ov gi rable particles concerned ensue:

Ras: ‘Simultaneously With the: me he t na rf soul
tet, the Wien t or Sune ) an

untry man.
SI ap as. sche pe eh a 4 il oo
like bonnet wire, is. wound ee s iar co

r wire, sim
dof the Same
other ¢

=

-

Dr. Hare on the Theories of Electrical Phenomena. 53

77. Within the bodies of animals and vegetables, the electro-
ether may be supposed to exist as an atmosphere surrounding the
ethereo-ponderable atoms of which their organs are constituted,

so as to occupy all the space which is not replete with such at-

oms. Hence a discharge of frictional electricity may indirectly
polarize the whole animal frame, by producing tere Sue

ble polarization in the constituent atoms of the fibres‘ of the
“herves aud muscles. ‘Probably this polarization is produced more

piss eed in the ponderable hes by a discharge from a vol-

sie e-dimbnei ions of the Sig as to nas gi sectional area.

; Agama
the Resicd doctrine, the shocks thus produced, are owing to secondary currents
i i have ad-

flied erat fail atoms in Git 9s wires resum
s yelochiah each circuit to be ron through within the
cities of pote respective waves will be inversely as

at “greater, “A ae abba which it affords is narrower

-and longer. Rey cylinde eh eaeaded within the coils as above stated, being re-—

moved; a cylindrical space is v ated. If into the eavit us made, iron rods,

like knitting Neddley be lohodute ek one after the other, * hile the apparatus is in
Z ai

ence of iron. Of course this reasoning will apply to all cases in which the
oe hitherto attributed to Faradian ed are the result of dees in-

‘resulti ing | ded an-
Seat ‘coil, vec scharged on a change of relative position, or breac the.
Sol nizin ae Gal co of spark, shock, ignition, or electrolysis, a8 ex- ~
emplified y Cal oil, Page's electrotome, or the magneto-electric ¥ machine. —
reeably ge ect the cylinder about which the | sede

re is as much of tl
orted to fi

54

79. It is well ‘cw? ‘that -paty teed pa pieces o

ty
&

Dr. Hare on nthe Theories 7 Blectrical Phenomena.

make one
ai cca more > aia while i in.the By

oducible at an infinitely esate distance.
: : (18:

quen nt s
waves 6f Sheer peenue polari Bane Lar
‘the intervening gaseous matter. Ve. Se aoe

Of Beh aes ae oe eae, * ae

£1 bILCI CY

attached, one to the negative, the other to the are pole ot
f flame

a pores and. well excited voltaic series, an arcl

Stich, of contact, cannot be re
ferred, that the carbonaceous vapor is indisp

fore th
~_ besides Gest toale this being the only conductor which is suffi-
“aly infusible, and yet duly volatilizable. ly

produced by moving them apart after contact.

#

feadngn evidently depends upon the volatilization Tok 7.
era ee matter concerned; since it cannot be produced be-.

n has been volatilized by contact, nor by any body. .

Metals, similar

‘man, together with the opposite a pearance on the positive chase 4
coal, may be owing to the lesser affinity for oxyg yen on th > neg-*

ative side.* Se ape os
_ 80. There may be some resemblance’ scatter babse cen
inous discharge between the poles, and that which ha

luminous dischar hich
a ady been designated as diruptive (69); but this flamin
"discharge does not break through the air, it only usurps
, gradually, and then sustains this usurpation. It differs

di

“ee

other as to its. cause, so far as galvanic reaction iffers { from

tion;
ble ponderable conducting substance to enable its appropriate
dulations to meet at a mean dista lid 3 se:
nations, whence they roapesti¢ely. be
81. The most appropriate desigt

moreover, it requires a volatilizable, as well as a polari

der consideration, is that of etl Le » undulatory sae ts |
gration. Under this head, w not zg i the flaming ah ’

but likewise the active ignition and gee of fine “wire or
leaf metal, or ‘when ” at ne span yole an
he other. : by y

Dr. Hare on the Theories. of Electrical Phenomena. 55

82. In one of Faraday’s experiments, a circuit was completed
by subjecting platinum points, severally proceeding from the poles
a voltaic series, while very near to each other, to the flame of
a spirit lamp. ‘This was ascribed by him to the rarefaction of
the air, but ought, as I think, to be sitibited to the polarizable
ethereo-ponderable matter of the flame, performing the same of-
fice as the volatilized carbon in the flaming ah, between we ve
coal points, to which reference has been made.

Summary. SNe the facts and reasoning which have feat
above stated, it is presumed that the following deductions may
be considered as highly probable, if not altogether susceptible of
demonstration.

The theories of Franklin, Dufay and Ampere, are irreconcila-
ble with the premises on which they are founded, and with facts
on . sides admitted.

arge of frictional electricity, or that species of electric ex-
aa which is produced by friction, is not due to any accu-
mulation, nor to any deficiency either of one or of two fluids, but
to the opposite seleriice induced m imponderable ethereal matter
existing throughout space however otherwise void, and likewise
condensed more or less within ponderable bodies, so as to enter
into combination with their particles, forming atoms which may
be designated as ethereo-ponderable.

Frictional charges of electricity seek the surfaces. of bodies to
which they may be imparted, without —— affecting the ethe-
reo-ponderable matter of which they consist.

When surfaces thus oppositely charged, or, in other words,
having about them oppositely polarized ethereal atmospheres, are
made to communicate, no current takes place, nor any transfer of
the polarized matter: yet any conductor touching both atmos-
pheres, furnishes a channel through which the opposite polarities
are reciprocally neutralized by bemg communicated wave-like to
an intermediate point

_Galvano-electric discharges are likewise effected by waves of
opposite eno, without any flow of matter meriting to be
called a current.

Thigh waves are not propagated superficially through Bess
purely ethereal medium; they oecur in masses
the ethereal and ponderable matter. If the generation of fie:
tional electricity, sufficient to influence the gold leaf electrometer,
Gare that there are some purely ethereal waves caused by
alvano-electric reactio on, such waves arise from the inductive in-
fluence of those ereated | in the ethereo-ponderable matter.
_ When the age ted of a frictional discharge is increased reas
re the same, its become
: sta dat ry reu, and ulti Pedi ;

56 Dr. Hare on thé Thevries,of Electrical’ Phenomena.

if the oe of the wire:be inexeased, the surface; proportionally
augm nables more of the ethereal waves to ‘pass superfi-
cally, Dredlicing roe nally less ethereo-ponderable undula-

© Mosasticth, bye stationary, as in magnetic needles sad pe

yermanent magnets, appears to be owing to an enduring polariza-_

tion of the si iaiadh, A atoms, like that transiently produ-
ced by a galvanic discharge. (Note, page 230, vol. v, and para-
graph 68.
The magnetism transiently exhibited by a galvanized wire, is
dtie to oppositely polarizing impulses, severally proceeding wave-

like to an intermediate pat of the. circuit ‘where reciprocal neu-:

cet ensues.

n magnetism is produced by a frictional discharge. opera-.

ting zen a conducting wire, it must be deemed a secondary effect,
arising from the polarizing influence. ss ume ethereal waves upon
the ethereo-ponderable atoms of the w
_ Such waves pass superficially in Bene but when the
wire is comparatively small, the reaction between the waves and
ethereo-ponderable atoms becomes sufficiently powerful to polar-
ize them, and thus render them competent, for an extremely mi-
nute period of time, to produce all the affections of a galvano-

fre current, whether of ignition, of electrolysis or magnetiza-.
Thus

us, as the ethereo-ponderable waves produce such as
are gees ethereal, so ney ethereal waves may peodiee stich
as are ethereo-pondera
The. polarization of hes upon electrified. scalps is suppose to

be due to a superficial association with the surrounding polarized

ethereal atoms, while that of iron filings, by a magnet or galvan-
ized wire, is conceived to atise from the influence of polarized

ethereo-ponderable atoms, ns of ethereal and ponderable

matter in a state of combin:

Faradian discharges are as ats the efieets of ethereo-ponderae

ble polarization, as those from an electrified conductor, or coatet

surfaces of glass, are due to static ethereal Bele ie 40,

; last paragraph, note, p. 346.

It is well known that if a rod of ish be included in a coil of
coated copper wire, on making the coil the medium of a voltaic
discharge, the wire is magnetized. Agreeably toa communica-

tion from Joule, in the L. and E. Phil. Mag. and Jour. for Feb.,

1847, the bar is at the same time lengthened, without any aug-

ihentatiod of bulk; so that its other dimensions must be lessened.

in proportion to the elongation.

_ All these facts tend to prove that a change in the relative ‘posi-

tion of the constituent ethereo-ponderable atoms of iron, aceom-

panies its sie either as an immediate, ease, Jorge a

seliateral effe neyo

|
|

Bp

Scheerer on: Isomorphism. 57

Arr. VI—Upon a peculiar kind of Isomorphism that plays
an important part in oe Mineral Kingdom; by Professor
Scueerer of Christiania

(Continued from vol. v, p. 389.)

THe query might be started, how it is then, since aspasiolite
and cordierite are so closely associated, that ee is not ac-
companied by olivine? ‘This circumstance, which, it must be

confessed, dloes appear paradoxical, [ purpose to enter upon to-
wae the close of this paper.

n the theory based on the above mentioned relations of
cordierite and aspasiolite, being thus borne out by the precisely
similar relations subsisting between olivine and serpentine, 1 the
probability was increased, that the part played by this species of
isomorphism in the mineral kingdom was not one restrained within
very narrow limits. And this opinion has taken a development
more extended than I even imagined it might be susceptible of,
as my investigations have been carried out. In the sequel I pur-
pose touching upon the principal rishérals concerned in this in-
quiry, and to develope their suitable formule, upon the supposi-
tion that their water may be treated as a basic constituent, capa-
ble of replacing in the ratio that has been stated, (viz. three at-
oms to one atom,) the magnesia, and consequently all the other
pes isomorphous therewith, as for instance, protoxyd of iron, /pro-

toxyd of manganese, and so ’ forth.

In order to express as simply as ee that in a member of a
formula R, a portion of the 1: 1 atomic bases is replaced by
more or less water, I have in these cases invariably made use of
the sign (R), as was already the with regard to serpentine,
The formula of aspasiolite ould: thetefore: upon this principle,

be (R): Si? + 3RSi. Prior to proceeding to the results of my
calculations, let me however very briefly further elucidate the
kind of isomorphism forming the subject of our palpi esti. in
a chemical point of view. From the composition of aspasiolite
and of ow i follows that in the former, one equivalent R

(one-third of the re 1: 1 atomic bases contained in cordierite )

is not replaced ay eibec exactly. It is likewise clear that, as in
serpentine the amount of water ranges between 12, 27 a 1 d 21

“Pine Pogasedira abhi ihsh. peewee
MW. G. Lerrion. te a ER
Szconp Srrizs, Vol. VI, No. 16,.—July, 1848. 8

58 Scheerer on Isomorphism.
From the circumstance of three equivalents of water being able

place isomorphically one equivalent of magnesia, it directly
follows that combinations such as Mg: Si, Mg? Si-+ 3H, and
Mg Si + 6H, must, of necessity, possess the same crystalline form.
Such combinations therefore, under this common form, can occur
mixed together in every possible proportion, and thereby explain
the occurrence of non-definite proportions in the respective
amounts of water and of magnesia, not only as met with in as-
pasiolite and in serpentine, but also, as may be deduced from the
sequel, in a very considerable number of other minerals contain-
ing water.

I. Sinicares.

- A. Silicates of magnesia and ae bases east there-
with, (minerals allied to serpentine. )

1. Gymnite. (‘Thomson. )
Pixygen ratio, Si; (R) = 20-86 ; 20°56. Formula deducible
therefrom, (R)? Si.

(R) in this mineral = 36:00 Mg, 21-60 , 0:80Ga. In addi-
tion thereto, Thomson found in gymnite 1-16 ‘ferriferous alumina.
Deducting this as a } silicate, the oxygen ratio given above be-
comes modified to 20:36 ; 20- 56, approximating therefore even
yet closer to 1; 1.

/ 2. Deweylite. (Shepard.)
20°78 : 21-40. (R)? Si.
(R) = 40-0 Mg, 20:08. The siliceous hydrate of alumina
from Baltimore has a similar composition, according to Allan
3. Villarsite. (Dufrenoy.)
20:47 : 21:37. (R)? Si.
(R) from two analyses = 45-33-47-37 Mg, 4:30-3:59Fe, 2 ed
2-42 Mn, 0:54-0-53 Ca, 0-46 K, 5-80 #2.
4, Daihanliis (Ficinus. )
19°74 : 18-79. (R)? Si.
(R) in two analyses = 23-70-19-33 Mg, 11:33-14:00 Fe, 2:25
-1-:17 Mn, 0:83-1:83 Ca, 0:50-1:33 Na, 25-20-22 H, and in addi-

tion thereto, 0:42-0:83 Al; deducting this latter as ! silicate, the
oxygen ratio "a altered to 19: 44 ; 18°79,

5. Chrysotile. (Metavite, Delesse. )
21-90 ; 20°60. (R)? Si.

Scheerer on Isomorphism. 59

(R) =41 ‘9 Mg, 3-0 Fe, 136 HY, and in addition, O04 Al. The
lustrous asbestus from Reichenstein has a similar composition, ac-
cording to von Kobe as has also the Baltimorite, according to
Thomson. The oxygen ratio of the former is 22: 4 : 20: 04, and
that of the latter, 20°57 ; 19-45.

6. Chloropheite. (Forchhammer.)
17-07 : 17-24. (R)? Si.
(R) = 3-44 Mg, 21:56 Fe, 42°15 Bt.
All these minerals, whose amount of water eps from 5-80

to 42°15 per cent., have therefore the same form
and in a chemical point of view, are only distinet therefrom in

consequence of the different but isomorphous composition of the __

member (R). Of these minerals, there is as yet but one that has
been met with distinctly crystallized—this i is villarsite. Its crys-
ine form belongs, like that of serpentine, to the rhombic sys-
tem, but the prism of villarsite has angles of 120°, whereas those
of serpentine are 130°. The macrodiagonals of both prisms are
therefore as tan 65° : tan 60° = 2-144 ; 1-732, or very nearly =
5:4. The fotm of villarsite therefore, may ‘be supposed to be
one derived from that of serpentine
7. Picrophyll. ( on )
Obtained, 25°87 : 16°35 R): &
Required, 25-00 : 16: eet" (R)* Si.

(R) = 30:10 Mg, 6°86 Fe, 0:87 Ca, a trace of Mn, 9:83 H, be- — = :

sides 1:11.Al. Deducting this latter asa } silicate, the oxygen
ratio becomes = 25:52 : 16°35, very nearly therefore as 3:2,
The analysis gave 1°52 per cent. loss.
8. Aphrodite. (Berlin.)
17-11 Sets
26 7 17:86 : (R)? Si.
(R) from two analyses = 33-72-34-07 Mg, 1-62-1-49 Mn, 0°59

Ze, 55 Fe, 12: 32-11 34 H, besides 0:20-0:13 Al.

9. Spadaite. (v. Kobell.)
29-09 ; 15:38
29:09 : 14-55 : (R)? Si*.
(R.) = 30:67 Mg, 0:66 Fe, 11:34 H, 0:66 Al, 0-67 loss.
10. Picrosmine. (Magnus. )

28°39 :.15°16 a
30-00 : 15-00 (R)? Si",
"For the facility of com ha b all "4 follow g minerals give
tne oxygen ratio pape tg octal formal, below i" ac: gets the
ysis

we”

60 Scheerer on Isomorphism.

(R) = 33:35 Mg, 0-42 Mn, 730 Ef (ammoniacal), 0-79 Al, 1-40

Fe, 185 loss. .
11. Monradite. | A. Erdmann. )
29-09 ; 15°39
29-09 + 14:55 : (RY Sit.

(R) = 31:36 Mg, 8: 56Fe, 4-048, 0: A excess.
12. Talc. (Berthier.)
(1) From Little St. Bernhard.
30 2.

A: 14-49 eyed:
$043 16-06 ¢ 9 Sag
gh From St. Foix
28:88 : 13°59 R s Si
28:88 : 14-44 (R)? Si*.

In the former, (}) = 33°2Mg, 4-6 Fe, 3:53; in the latter, (R)

197 Mg, 117 Fe, 81Ca, 26H. The tale from Si Foi aah
tains moreover 1:7 Al. Deducting this as a 2 silicate, we obtain
3 1

the oxygen ratio = 27°69 : 13-59, also very nearly = 2; 1.
13. Meerschaum.. |
(1.) From Cabatias, according to Berthier, —
215-14.

(2.) From Gelloaeniasl according to the same, < (Ry Siz,
28:05 : 15°22.
(3.) From Morocco, <i to Damour,
28:57: 14:2

All the three oxygen na are more or less nearly = 2 : 1.
Lychnell however has analyzed a meerschaum from the Levant,

whose oxygen ratio is 31-62 : 14:11. Supposing this mineral not —

to have been too highly dried, and to have been in a state of pu-

rity, the formula Me Si+H must be adopted for it. Spadaite,
picro

smine, monradite, talc, and perhaps also meerschaum, have,
as is seen above, one and the same chemical formula. The

amount of water in the member (R) ranges between the limits —
26 (talc) and 20 (meerschaum). Picrosmine, monradite and tale
occur crystallized, and all three of them in crystals belonging to

ihe rhombic system.- In picrosmine the obtuse angles of the
rhombic prism are very nearly 127°, in monradite 130°, and in
talc 120°. The rhombie prism. of montadite and of picrosmine
agrees also very nearly with the prism of serpentine, whereas that
of talc is the same as that of villarsite. This accordance may
cause some surprise, inasmuch as the formula for serpentine and

villarsite is (R)* Si, whereas for the other three minerals the. for-
mula is (R)? Si7. From analogous instances however, we are

; Scheerer on Isomorphism. 61

aware that minerals which we may look upon as different grades
of saturation of one and the same radical, (be it simple or com-
pound,) affect, 7 numerous instances, the same, or at any rate a
very similar crystalline form.*

' 4 14, Retinalite. _(Thomson.)
21-07 Si : 13-22(R —
ahr thine eo ae 2(R)* SitNa? Si.

(R) = 18:86 Mg, 20:0 H, eet 0:30 Al, 0-84 loss.
15. Some “ Serpentine-like Minerals.” ( jhe! yt
(1.) From Monte Rosa, 22°65 : 20-5
(2.) From Zermatt, 22-68 : 20°39.
3.) From Col de Breona, 22°97 ; 19-30.
Mean of the three analyses:
99 ae 4 2 7 "1 a R j see
Q277 : 20-24 aed Nia a Mle
| In the first member of this formula, ( R) consists of magnesia,
bis water and protoxyd of iron, whereas in the second it consists
" chiefly only of magnesia. The formula may therefore, and in-
& deed with greater propriety, be thus expressed : 2(R) ot ae Si.
In which case it is quite analogous to that of retin
16. Schillerspar. (Kéhler.)
22°59 : 17°12 i OW. dene pes
22-83 + 17-12 ‘ AR)? Si+(R)? Sit.
The 1 : 1 atomic bases are according to two analyses = 25-86
~26:16 Mz, 2°64 to 2:75 Ca, 10°92 Fe, 0°54 to 0°57 Mn, 12-43 #1.
It appears more natural to assume that in the first member of this

formula, 2(R)* Si, we should have a portion of the magnesia, and
in addition thereto, the whole of the protoxyd of iron and the wa-
| ter as } silicates; and in the second member of the formula,

(R)? Siz, the remainder of the magnesia and the whole of the

* One instance that occurs to me, is in Smaltine and Skutterudite. Aisles
| the formula of the former is Co A s2, and that of the latter Co As3, saat t their _
, talline form is precisely alike. Another example is offered by the feldspars, whose

atomic een rer may be thus expressed.
R AI Si
3:3: 4= Ano
3:3: b= Labrador, Ryacolite.
3:3: S8= Andes
+3: Pata ua ele e, '
3:3:12—Orthoclase, Albite
In accordance herewith, the Mert are cab: grades of saturation of a radi-

See
wo

os Boe eoakoes of equal atoms of R and A
t See Erdmann and Marchand’s J. f. P. ch. vol. xxxii, P. 499 ; cee Poms: Ann.,
vol. xlviii.
i

62 Scheerer on Isomorphism.

lime as 2 silicates. This would give us the formula thus modi-
fied, 2(R)* Si+(R)* Sit. Schillerspar may therefore be looked
upon as consisting of two atoms of serpentine and one atom of
augite, And this is in accordance with the known fact, that the

occurrence of schillerspar appears to be closely limited to forma-
tions in which serpentine is met with. In the above oxygen ra-

tio, the presence of *2°37 Gr, and of 1-28 to 1:73 Al, is not taken
into account. What part these substances probably play in the
composition of the mineral in question, will be broached as a con-
jecture in the sequel.
17. Crocidolite. (Stromeyer.)
26-61 : 11-99 Se
2661 : 11-40 t 3(R) 8i+-2(R)* Sit.

(R) from two analyses =34-38 Fe, 2°48 Mg, 0-09 Mn, 0:03 Ca,
7-07 Na, 4:80 H. The constituents are present in such propor-
tions as would also admit of the formula, 3(R) Si+2 Fe? Si?.

(KR) in this case comprehending the whole soda, water, and
magnesia. Compare this formula with that of hornblende,

R Si+R* Sis, : |

Retinalite, Schweitzer’s “serpentine-like minerals” (to which
forsooth, a general distinctive name should be given) and schiller
spar, form therefore a peculiar group of minerals the formula of
which consists of two other members, one of them being serpen-
tine, and therefore containing water, while the other member
consists of an anhydrous silicate, but which also contains, as in
the former member, 1; 1 atomic bases. Crocidolite approaches
a hydrous hornblende. nares es
_ B. Silicates of magnesia and of other bases isomorphous there-
‘with in combination with aluminates and oxydates of iron

Chliorite and the minerals allied thereto.

- 1. Chlorite. _

16°30 Si : 7-85 Al; 17-72(R ee eae
isis i771 3 ieto” a(R)? Si+(R) Al
The oxygen ratio here given, is calculated from the mean of
five analyses, namely, two analyses by v. Kobell of the chlorite
of Achmatoffsk, his analysis of the Schwarzenstein chlorite, Var-
rentrapp’s analysis of the Achmatoffsk cholite, and v. Briiels of
that from the Zilerthal.
2. Chlorite-slate. .(Varrentrapp. )

16°39 : 5°66 : 18:84 ye ith lea
16°39 ; 5-46 ; 1821 3(R)* Si+(R) Al.

Scheerer on Isomorphism. 63

This chlorite slate was from the Pfitschthal. The composi-
tion of chlorite bears therefore a very simple relation to that of
chlorite slate. 4;

: 3. Ripidolite.
1.) From Rauris, according to v. Kobell :
13-54 : 8°63 : 16-04.

(2.) From St. Gothardt, according to Varrentrapp :

3°18 : : 15°81,

(3.) From the Zillerthal, according to v. Kobell:

1419 : 9-70 : 16°76.
Mean of the three analyses :
13°67 ; 8-99 : 16°20 Sse ee age
13-50 : 9-00 : 16°50 t 3(R)° Si-+2(R) Al.
28 4. Pennine. (Schweitzer.)
«17-38 : 4-44; 18:80 lal pte
1738: 4:35: 1883,¢ &(R)° Si+-(R) Al.

The oxygen ratio is calculated from the mean of two experi- »

ments.
5. Xanthophyllite. (Meitzendorff. )
8°47 ; 20:53 ; 13-20 Tegner
8-80 : 19-80 : 13-20 i A(R)? Si-+3(R)? Al’.
_ From the mean of four analyses.
6. Leuchtenbergite. (Komonen. )
17°78 : 8:38 : 16°74 i ee
17-00 : 8:50 : 15-60 ; A(R)" Si+(R)* ae.

It is here assumed, in accordance indeed with Komonen, that
this mineral contains no protoxyd of iron, but 3°33 per cent. of
the peroxyd. Leuchtenbergite is of a pale yellow, almost, in-
deed, colorless, and can therefore scarcely be supposed to contain
enough of the protoxyd to correspond with 3-33 Fe. It is
possible that: the oxygen ratio may be 17:0 : 8:5: 17, and this
would agree more closely with the ratio obtained from anal-

ysis than what is given above. But in that case the formula

would be, a(R)? Si+(R)? Al, which does not, it is true, appear -

probable, inasmuch as the silica and the alumina are therein

combined with equal quantities of base. It may be further sup-

posed that the base in combination with the silica consists only

of magnesia (with a certain quantity of lime), while that combin-

ed with the alumina is composed of magnesia and water. The

mineral, it is to be observed, contains 35°36 Mg, 1:75 Ca, 8:68.

The formula would then become modified as follows,

. 2 Mg? Si+(R)? Al.

_ Cases analogous thereto have been already adduced, and there
is another similar instance in the composition of the next mineral.

sil

64 Seheerer on Isomorphism.
. Chlorite mineral, from Taberg. (Svanberg.)*

Yess 1 609 : 16-98 Ase
18:50 : 6-16 ; 16- as a(R)? Si+(R)> Al,

which formula may likewise be thus given, 3Mg? Si+(R)? Al.
The mineral contains 29-27 Mg, 2:07 K, 6:34 Fe, 1-64 Mn,
11-76 H, and these bases are present in such ‘proportions as will
admit of the entire magnesia and potash being combined with
the silica, while the whole of the other weaker bases may be sup-
posed to be in combination with the alumina. Hitherto, this
mineral, notwithstanding its great external resemblance to chlo-
rite, was reckoned among the micas, because the quantity of the
1: 1 atomic bases which it contains (not counting the water
therewith), is not sufficient for a member of the chlorite fan :
now however, by including the water among the basic cons
ys the mineral in fact takes its place among the chlorite group.
, 8. Kémmererite. (Hartwall.)
19-20 ; 6:90 : 16°83 2 ee
19:50 ! 650 : 16-25 6(R), Si+(R)? Al
Pyrosclerite (v. Kobell) appears to have the same formula, un-
less indeed the loss of 1°9 per cent. in the analysis should cause
an alteration therein.
9. Chloritoid. (v. Bonsdorf.)
14:28 : 16:61 : 9:95 ok ae pe
15:00 : 15-00 : 10-00§ ns Seri Sih ee pat
The analysis gave an excess of 1:64. (R)=27:05 Fe, 429
Mg, 0°30. Mn, 6-95 H. A. Erdmann has examined another chlo-
ritoid which contains no water, and which (as the mean of two
analyses ) ee the following oxygen ratio.
2°95 : 21-02:

6:8)
13-06 1469. 50 : Gent 2(R)Si+R Als,
this therefore, as has been remarked by Rammelsberg, i is evident-
2 hh another mineral. ;
10. Soapstone. (Svanberg.)
24:32 : 3-87 : 16:39 Se edi spate ane
23-40 : 3-90 ; 16-90% » G(R)? Si+(R)R.
(R)=33:3 Mg, 0-7 Ga, 11- 0 H; R=8-0 Al, 0-4 Fe,
bf Oronstedite
The formula of this mineral, according to v. Kobell, is
phe ss }
Mn* Si+PeH ,
Mg?)
* See Berzelius’s Jahresbericht, Jahrg. 20, Part 23 p- 234, f

. * |
é Scheerer on Isomorphism. 65

which admits of being thus written (R)? Si+(R): Fe. This

formula differs from that of chlorite from the member (R) Si
jab contained therein but singly, whereas in chlorite it is 4
c doubled, and that it contains peroxyd of iron instead of alu-
mina. ‘That cronstedtite finds a place among the minerals of the
chlorite family by the new formula here proposed for it, is with-
out doubt amply borne out by its external characters. Its nagap 9
line form is a hexagonal prism, with a cleavage — el
terminal plane.
Chlorite, npidalies peppune and the other chlorite minerals
treated of here, all receive, as is seen above, formule consisting of
two iii a which, generally speaking, are very simple.
One of these members consists of a silicate, the other of an
inate or an oxydate of iron.

C. silicates of magnesia and alumina, and bases ethno
therewith.
ef _ (a.) Mica and micaceous minerals.

1. Mica from Iviken. (Svanberg. )
36°97 3: 774: oars (R) S32 1B Sis,

36:97 : 7°40 : 2-47.
2. Mica from Bratistad. (The same.) ~
33-08 : 12-66 ; 1:93 ae ens
32-00 : 12-80 : 213 : (R) Si+2R Sit,
-'The analysis gave an excess of 0-89.
3. Mica from Broddbs. (The same.)
24-92 : 16°95 ; 2:39
be 25-00 : 16°66 : 2-77 : (R) Si+2R Si. ‘
Very closely agreeing with the mica from Utén, Kimito, Fahlun <>
Ochotsk, according to the analyses of Henry Rose. If a ,
sail quantity of manganese which is given in Svanberg’s anal-
ysis as oxyd is calculated as protoxyd, the formula agrees evell

closer, inasmuch as in that’ case the oxygen ratio is then = |
2499 16-61 : 2-73. oa

Wee 4. Mica from Rosendal. (The same. )
23°07; 3°%87 ; 10-45 *
93.61: 787 : 1049 3¢ QR) Sil Si.
F 5. Mica from Pargas. (The same. )
| SRA Bim eS a eS
i 23:00 13:20 + 6605 eet ee ;
©The analysis gave 1-19 Joss
re 6. Mica from Monroe, (v. Kobell.)
278 11-06
Wee 10803 : 10-50 : (Ry S148 Si,
Szcoxp Serizs, Vol. VI, No. 16.—July, 1848. 9

Fis
ee . es Mica from Abborforss. (Svanberg.)

20-49 : 15°30 3 3°67 | ee ee

ist 16-00 : wey: oe

. Mica from Sala. (The same.)
enon 6 O01 : 13-65 a ome
21-00 + 7-00 : 14-00 ¢ 2(R)* Si+R Si.
9. Pyrophyllite. (Herrmann. ) F
mn ‘06 : 13-76 33°54 MG Depp ete
~ id Reed Feed a 3(R) Si+2.Al? Sis. 3
The insignificant amount of iron in this mineral has been cal-
culated as protoxyd (=1-16 per cent.), although it is cited as per-
. oxyd. It may be remarked, that the color of the mineral is
green, and the analysis indicated a slight excess.
10. Pinite from Auvergne. (C. Gmelin.)
29:07 : 13-50 : 3-00 a peek tee dae
29-00 : 12:88 : 3-22 , 3 (R) Ri +2R° Rie.

This pinite has therefore the same formula as Herrmann’s pyro-
phyllite, the preceding mineral. The difference between them
consists but in this, Ist, that in -pirophyliiie there is only alumina,
whereas pinite contains peroxyd of iron as well, and 2d, that in the
former (R)=4Mg, 1-6 Fe, 5-62'H, in the latter =3-76 Mg and

© Mn, 789 K, 0°39Na, 1-41. Both minerals appear to erystal-
lize i in the thombic system. -But it does not seem praleblls to
- me that they should affect precisely similar forms, inasmuch. as °
a amount of potash contained in pinite is too considerable
» fort
11. Pinite from Penig. (Scott. ) 4
21-94 : 16°04 : 3-02 wi
25-00 : 16-67 : 96 ¢ | (R)Si¢2 Al Si.
This is the formula of the Broadbo mica, In the latter,
(R)=8-31 K, 1-5 Mn, 3:32; ; in pinite <'11-35 Ky 0-75 Ga and
, 300 H. Assuming about a third of the iton in the mineral to
exist in the state of the protoxyd, for which sup - how-
‘* ever, (excepting, perhaps, t that the analysis indicates an excess of -

66 Séheerer.on Isomorphism.

eit sa ula appears to apply to the mica from Miask and

ek ‘According to v. Kobell’s analysis, their respec-

e etter ratio is; 21°88 : 9°18 : 10-15 and 21-30 : 9-26 : 11:14.

ire formula adduced, which is that of garnet, has been before

applied to these micas, but from not including the water. paone

i basic aaa the analyses indicated a want of 1: 1
atomic base

0-76 per cent.) there is no particular ground ie ‘oem ratio
0

es,

ra

e

Scheerer.on Isomorphism. 67

24:94 : 15-12 ; 3-63
24-00 : 16-00 : : 4005 . (Sis 44K Si,
which would give this pinite the same formula as the following
mineral. The formula first stated sighitadas it, PEE, 8 evi-

wh dently better.

Op te
12. Gigantolite. (Prolte Wachtmeister.
24:04 ; 16-51: 421
| 24-00 : 16-00 : 100 ¢ (> Bie +488
_ The analysis gave an excess of . 56.
| *
13. Choraphytive. (Jackson. ae
7 93-48 : 12-98: 7-75} ah a
HH . 24-00: 1200:8005 — -(R)*Si+-ALSi.
i ei amount of potash (1:64 per cent.) was estimated only
t
14. Ottrelite. (Damour. )
| 22-51 + 11:50 : 731) ie eae OP
i ee ey sn anil
| a This and the foregoing ne Foner have the same formula. In
point of fact, both minerals ‘in the same crystalline form,

—-

3-6 H.

Although the amount of water in ‘the above named varieties of
mica and micaceous minerals, generally speaking, is but moderate,

ranging, as it does, between about one and six per cent., yet it,

In most instances, exercises a corsiderable influence upon the
formula of these minerals. For the greater part of them con-
tain such a limited portion of the 1: 1. atomic bases, that their
quantity of oxygen is materially increased by that of the water,

even when the amount of the latter does not exceed two per

e it. as hate Pa we arrive for the most part at improbable
| formule, neither a of symmetrical relations
ed with the. formule of

A" nor when
»- other minerals ; objections to At § the formula here adduced, as
a ee e majority of them is concerned, are assuredly
finllgMNMEEEE Wheat and fuori of magnesium, whieh -
not her taken Pca aecount. It is a ed 9 a por-
tion of the srresponding ft 1 atomic S.
ws : . #y “Piet id
®
* °

that of a hexagonal prism. -(R) fee Oltrelite =: = 16-72 Fe, 8: 18 Mn,
5-66, Inchlorophyllite (R) =9'6Mg, 826 Fe, 4-1 Mn, 164K,

| F cent. If we neglect this amount of water, or endeavor to vn

&

er

aa oe

e a%
68 ‘dans.crmaneniiens

(6. ) a icaceous minerals.—(a.) Crystalline.
1. Fahlunite. (Trolle ‘Wachtmeister. ie
889% 7°30 ‘
~ 99.90 : ave: 7:30 : (R)° Si+2 agi,
From the mean of two analyses.
2. Esmarkite. (A. Erdmann.)
23:88: 14-98 : 7:40 ‘ie oe.
2 00 : 15:33 : 7°66 . en
The analysis gave a loss of 1:45. According to the above,
9 fahinnite and esmarkite have the formula of epidote, as has
likewise Meionite. In esmarkite (R)=8-99 Mg, 4:10 Na, 1:43 Fe,
0-63 Mn, 0-68°K, 3.20%, in fahlunite 6-04 to 6:75 Me, 0:0 to
7°22 Fe, 1°72 to 224 Mn, ‘00 to 4:45 Na, 0-94 to 1:98 K, trac ce
to 1°35 Ca, 8-65 to 11-66 H, *
3. Pyrargillite. ( Nordensjol )
22°82 : 13°51 : 7-56
22-00 : 1466 : 7:33 (Ry? Si42 A Si,
formula of the two foregoing minerals, and likewise of the
others cited above. (R)=5-30 Fe, 2:90 Mg and Mn, 1:05 K, :
1:85 Na, 15-47. Pyrargillite, as also fallunite, appears to het
a rhombic crystalline form. That of esmarkite is not known.
A. Praseolite. (A. Erdmann.)
21:27 : 13°47 : 9°16 oes
22:00 : 13-90 : 880 ; *e(R) S143 Al Si.
5. Zeusite. (Thomson. )
17-37 : 14-87 : 8-16 <e e
17°50 : 15-00 # tent 3(R)* Sit+2 Als Si’.
7 6. Roselane. (Svanberg.)
Ptah tOol Bee eee ee
, 93-33 : 15-55 : 5-18 : (Ry? Si+2 0 Bi.
; E )
(R) =6-63 K, 3-59 Ca, 2-45 Mg, 6-53. The ielrom ratio
of polyargite (Svanberg) resembles that of roselane say shourine
viz., 22°98":

R) =6:73 K, 5-55Ca, 1-43 Mga trace, Mn, 5:29 Hf, Both

minerals, moreover, have a similar clear age mips specific. BAN,

ity and a similar color. Gi
7. Kirwanite. (Thomson. ) = so ”
21:04 : 5:32: 12:28 a
21-0060: 12005 O(R)* Si+ANSi

x

Scheerer on Isomorphism. 69
8. Stellite. (The same.)

25:00: 4-17: ‘en 9(R)? Si+R? Si’.
It j is here assumed that this mineral contains, not as Thomson
- asserts, 3-524 protoxyd of iron, but a eens quantity of &
peroxyd. The mineral, it must be remarked, is snow-white, and
the alumina which amounts only to 5-301 would not, of itself, be
sufficient. The formula of stellite would also answer for Thom-
son’s vermiculite, whose oxygen ratio = 25:50:3-40: 13-26, if
indeed, as Thomson says, the whole of the iron is contained in
the form of a protoxyd. Calculating a small portion thereof to
exist in the state of peroxyd would afford an oxie ratio still
closer to that of steliite. ‘The two minerals, however, in spite
of similar formula, applicable perhaps to both, are essentially dif-

i ferent from each other. For, whereas, in’stellite (R) =30-96 Ca,
5-58 Mg, 6108 Ef, in vermiculite (R) =16-12 Fe, (or upon the
aforesaid supposition somewhat less,) 16-964 Mg, 10-276 H.

9. Weissite. ('Trolle Wachtmeister.)
31-01 :: 10°17: rai: css see

31-00 : 10:33 : 5-17 _ (R)? Sit +2 Al Si.
Remark.—This is where aspasiolite belongs, whose formula,
as has been already stated, is (R)? Si?-+3R Si.
10. Rhodalite. (Thomson. ) .
29:04: 7:38: paete 3(R) Sith Si. =

$e-%

29:00 : 7:25 : 7:25
(R) consists almost entirely of water, inasmuch as it is =1°1 Ca, A.
0-6 Mg and 22-0 Ht. According to Thomson, this mineral oceurs | ‘e
in aggregated rectangular prisms.
11. Neurolite. (The same.) site
37°92 : 8:23 : 2-77 chee g te ail es
: 38-00 : 7-60 : 2-53 i (R) Si’ All 87", ‘
formula of the Iviken mica. In that, (tk) = = 4661 Mg, 3-528 K,
1292, and 1:197Ca. In neurolite, (R) = =3- 25Ca, 1:50 Mg,
4:30 .
i B. Amorphous.*
ro 1. Pitchstone. (Du Menil. )
» 37°92 3 6-65 : 3-08
i __ 38-00 ; 5-43 ; 3: 62 ‘ ;
. Or at least apprestly 4 so. some of these yey canal Saend of an ag-
cry

gregation of microscopic

aR) Si? +RSi*.

= = ge
70 Scheerer on Isomorphism.
The analysis a a.loss of 2°24. The pitchstone
was from the Trieb: pec hthale near Meissen. The same mineral
y

was examined also by Erdmann; the oxygen ratio —
him was ca $5-79: 4:55, but this analysis gave an ez-

ess of 3948, e stone appears indeed worthy of ‘tern name !*
Ox moreover mined a pitchstone from Newry, whose oxy-
oe nee = : 4-26, and the analysis of which in-

Ty titiog loss only—not above 0-2 per cent. The
above tae therefore cannot well be very far from the truth.

' 2. Crmolite. Sr geet

82.735 IIR PSO F oe ;
33-00 : 11:00 : 3.06 $ —(R) Si+Al Sit.

“This is the formula of soda-spodumene. In cimolite however,
®) consists only of water.
3. Onkosine, (v. Kobell.)

ayn + TOME EEO)
28-00 : 14:00 : 4-66 ; (R) Si+Al si,

the formula of labradorite and ryacolite. (R) = 6:38 K, 3-82 Mg,
080 Fe, + 60. The analysis showed a loss of 1 per cent.
4. Pipestone. (Catlinite, Jackson.)

29-15 : 10-22 : 5-23 oe Uaiee
, 30:00 : 10-00 : 5-00 ; 3) Si R*'Si°.
(R) = 1248's, 2-16 Ca, 0-20 Mg, and 4-58 .
or? 5. Fettbol, (Kersten. )
S411: 86177962 ee
“94-00 : 8-00 : 8:00 § (R)? Sit +R Si.

The analysis gave a loss of 2°59. (R) == 24:50. The for-
hylite

mula-is that of ta
Ne Shvthise (Thomson. )
—_ 2500 $1500 500% (BR)? Si? 43.41 Si.
=, ‘ i
(R) =8-046a, 432 Me, 1-72Mg, 4163, Loss, 2-04,
7. Agalmatolite. — a
2566: RET cay Bir

here is an uitteenalatente play upon the word te pech” here. 1 regret being
ema en to sender | ines E to Eogisty 2 asa joke 45 German, from its extreme arity, al-

a lg

>

\ *
#@
t

ud ¥. 7”

Scheerer on Isomorphism. 71

(R) = = 6:00 Ca, 68K, 55H. Huronite and aca ap-
pear to have the same formula therefore, namely, that of aspasio-
lite. But in the latter, (R) = 6-97 to 8-04 Mg, Ca, a hehe 2°30
to 2:39 Fe (a part thereof perhaps as Fe), Mn a
6S8H,

a , from Plombieres.
22°86 : 10: 08 : TOO pe eee eae
23:00 : 11-50: tex (R)* Si+ Al Si,

1-0 loss. (R) =25-0H, 2:0Mg. ‘The bole from pact

which has been analyzed by Rammelsberg, appears to have the

same formula. Its oxygen ratio is = 23°86 : 10-35 : 8-76, pg
by it it is to be noticed that a loss of 2°17 per cent. was obtained.

' (R) in this bole = 25:86 H, 3-90 Ca,

9. Nontronite, from Villefranche. _ (Dufrénoy.)

O13; 1119:7732 Aes ws
22-00: 11:00 : 733 § (Ry? SitRSi.

Essentially this is the formula of the preceding mineral. — (R)
= 23-0 HB, 2:37 Mg. Chloro Toph ye also (which see); and ottre-

. lite (see likewise), have this form

10. Kaolin. (Forchhammer.) . a
Its formula, Al* Sit +6H, may be also thus expressed :
(R)? Si+3Al Si. i
11. Nontronite; from Andreasberg. (Biewend.) »
2100:1200:6005 , 2¢k)*8i+4FeSi,
formula of the Pargas mica, in which however, (R) = 10 27 Me,

0°75 Uo 4 5 Ca, 8-45 K, 3-35 Ef, whereas (R) in nontronite con

er alone, (21- 56 per cont: ) The nontronite of Autur
shows, Retna to Berthier’s analysis, a ae 3 ie re hs
= from Andreasberg, that is to say, 21: sei, 558,

wr

FT .* sf ‘
72 Scheerer on Isomorphism.
13. Pinguite. (Kersten.)
‘Its formula, Fe Si+Fe: Si?+15H, may be also thus written,

(R)? Si+Fe Si, which is the formula of garnet ‘and likewise of |
the mica from ma Monroe and. Karosulik.
14.
According to Lawigs and Wackenroder’s analyses of the bole es
from Ellinghausen, Cap de Prudelles, and Sasebihl, these mine-
rals have the formula, R? Si?-+9H, which may be also written,

see eee

(R)? Si+2R Si.. This formula agrees essentially with that of
pyrargillite (which see), and with that of the other minerals there
cited. In bole however, (R) consists almost entirely of water,
(24 per cent.,) with minute quantities of magnesia and lime.
15. Iron lithomarge. (Schiiler.)

21°64 : 14-65 : 6°55 BN gets Ae

21:00 : 14-00 : 7-00 : (R)? Si+2R Si,
formula of the preceding mineral, and others referred to above.
R= 14-20 H, 3-04 Ca, 2:55 Mg, 1:51 Mn, 0:93 K. 7

16. Halloylite, from La Vouth and Thiviers. (Dufrénoy.)
(1.) os la Vouth, 21:12 : 15°72.: 7-11
(2.) From Thiviers, 22°39 3 15°16 ¢ 7:27.
_ Mean of the two analyses:

21°76 ; 15-44 ; 7-19 ee ee

22-00 : 14-67 : 7:33 , (R)*S1-F eR Si,
formula of the preceding mineral. In the La Vouth halloylite,
(R) consists entirely of water (24:83), but in that from oo
of 22:30 Hand 1-70 Mg.
17. Mountain Soap, from Thuringia. ( Bucholz. )
“mf 22-86 : 14:63 : 6-212
99:00 : 14-67 : 7:33 (R)°Si+2R Si, :
formula of the. preceding mineral. There are also altogether,
ae ae of aa and eal seven di: erent ee

Thive, Po iene ep from Thuringia ‘The et
isomorphous naturé of (R) and (8), ‘and the different grades of
crystalline development, appear to f orm. the leading ‘ES
isting between’ these minerals. “and meionite can-
not serene: b be» held to be icine ieee with the other minerals of
: a in them (R) consists essentially of lime.

Scheerer on Isomorphism. 73

18. Halloysite.
(1.) Fi ie biegey according to Berthier, a4 ae
~ 23°35: 18-24: 4-74, Ae ge
2 ) From Guatequé, a S| to Boussingault; ~ “
23°90 : 18°78 : 4:94.

4 (3). ~ rom * ectomey according to Bertie, ik is
- 24:26: : 5 Soe

enact 2 Tana me bom j
. 63 1 18-29 ; 4-48 ree ee

93.601 18-40: 4-60 (BR)? Si+4AL Si,

Naver of diploite, (according to Rammelsberg.) In nse
halloylites, (R) consists entirely of mele toaeeite @) alka
b oresoety
| Gr piece ay Gitbertite. “(Lemme

: - he hg ek (Ry Si+0RSi.
‘ ¥ Sa =4#17Ca, 1-90 Mg, 4-25 E.
7 vs -_ a ey 20. Cerolite (Maal) ol * ¢ ™
§ 19°72: 5-69: 1316
19:50 : 6:50 =:1300% — AR)? Sit AS, .
formula of massive gebilenite} and of the Sala “mica. “is a>
nm, 18-02 Mg. ni oe
| RE. Chhondlerite. (v. Kobell.) pint
a 242 : ~~ ae
_ 18-54: RE Ne oy carta i

a , cmeone ea
‘ ype 22. Mountain Soap, Pape 0 95 (Picinus.) “3

ee. Gk ait il ae sy oe
co er 12-00: 12-00: 200 ¢ = (Ry BF RAS: sae

(R) =3-41 Ln, 1-1 6a, 48-038 a i pe
The. above men s minerals,’ _ hitherto
| been looked upon as hydrates, poommartet the introduc

tion of the water as a 3 aor constit

—e

“ i
a Thiele cal i f

& of % i. ae , rroek, |

7A SS. Haldeman on the‘Constructionof Blast-furnaces

*

¥

Arr. VIL—On the Construction of Blast-furnaces for the Smelt-
+ el Iron = Anthracite by 8. ” ap of Co-

hed nn.* -
THe occurrence of imoshaustilile strata of. anthracite coal in f
Pisitiegivacin, has attracted the attention of miners and practical ‘
men generally, to its use in smelting iron. With al, this
process requires a peculiar location, and a large capital, to be in-
vested in extensive woodland tracts, which are generally moun-
tainous, and conseque y oebeka being unfitted for hap icerecie.
This renders the c ae of the necessary roads difficult, and
transportation expensive. The We umber of workmen employed
i wood-cutting; se pt hauling, is mee, | and the expense
of hors amenpie s, forms a considerable Charcoal be-
oft, porous material, much of it is paitage in trans ation
and hentia, and large sheds are required to store and keep it
These various contingencies require the general manager
to have industry, judgment, and good business habits.
anthracite, the exact expense of the fuel is known, the trans-
portation being by railways or canals extending to. ‘most of the
mines, and if the furnace is placed near such public works, there
will be but little waste of coal in‘its final transportation. There
’ is but little waste in the transportation of ore, which is of course >
common to both kinds of fuel.
The earlier attempts at smelting iron with anthracite in the
ordi inary furnace, failed so completely, that it was by some deem-
ed impossible to ‘accomplish it; while others, looking to a differ-
ent construction for a solution of the problem, devised various —
structures, more remarkable for ingenuity than utility ; later ex- #
ity periments having proved that no such modifications are neces-
‘a sary, except per a higher inclination of the bosh and a less
contracted el-

; ad
Incandescent chia ‘has the peculiarity of tang: rapidly
extinguished when struck with a blast of cold air, the loss of
heat from this source exceeding that resulting from combustion ;
and although this phenomenon does not take place when the
temperature exceeds a certain point, the vast accession of cold
air in a blast furnace, may be sufficient under slightly unfavora
e conditions, t to produce it at any time. Henee a hot Bes
which is economical when charcoal is used, becomes an éssential
element:of siccess with anthracite ; and its domperatante should
not be less than is sufficient’ to smelt aslip of lead opposed to a
jet of it near the twiers. Anthracite being a very dense and

figures ;
alungo Ee Parnes at Colucbiee poe aby y Messrs. B
al GP Se ae a | oy

ar

a oe
*
for the Smelting of Iron with Anthracite. 75

concentrated fuel, the aniount of air thrown in must be much
greater than when charcoal is used: Success, therefore, depends
upon the quantity as well as upon the temperature of the blast.
The necessary amount of “oxygen be secured only by
means of the proper machinery, and a certain velocity. of the
ast ; and in consequence of this fact, the false opinion that the
ds ow antl upon the velocity or sharpness of the jet,
-maintal In consequence of this view, the exit
re sd to a small size, and the quantity secured by in-
cremate 2 ocity under a high pressure; which much
of the blast to be lost, as among the multitude of i sees he be
air-tight, it is impossible to secure i
the machinery is liable to injury fom the reat u essal
strain upon it.

_ The stack or main structure of a blast ate: is a ¢
ar , the lower portion of Wain - arch
dd e of each side, leaving

e€ fig. 1

*

Ac | an 4 2, See sn
ee with the dousd square in fig. 1. ig circle in fig. 1,
ind

icates the internal face of the fire- Con lining (1, fig. 2) at its:
widest part, and also the top of the bosh,* (, fig. 1, 2.) ~The li-
ning being circular and the lower portion a square, the former is
supported upon four plates (¢) of such a form as to close the an-
pi of the la iter, and at the head of the furnace it is continued ¥
dinary | ickwork chimney, (2, fig. 3,) leaving one or two ;
Sse ie spaces for the purpose of filling. The chief use of
mney is to protect the workmen from the heat. g KS
Lhe two p ior piers r passage (fig. 1, 2
the admi issic Focal Vg lacs pipe, p, which descends from fe
eur doy Sige ® at the head of the stack. . This passage. is some- ee
times continued through the front piers, which renders the fre f
ch, co oler, and gives more ready, access to the
ig 18 a

two

76 S. S. Haldeman onthe Construction of Blast-furnaces

ved,

_ The cavity of the hearth, (HA, fig. 1, 2) where the metal as
reduced and retained, bears a very small proportion.to the sizeof
the stack. In the figures, which are drawn to a scale of one-eighth

Figs. %

of an inch to a foot, it is two feet wide, and five and a half feet
long, but enlarges upwards in a slight degree. The back at

front of the hearth are separated by a partial partition called the
temp, (m, fig. 1, 2,) made of fire-bricks, and which does not ex-

tend to the bottom of the hearth. The horizontal dotted line,
_ (h, fig. 2) shows the level'to which the smélted materials ean rise

i
for the Smelting of Fron with Anthracite. 17

before running over the dam-stone (d) atc, where the cinder will
escape first, being the lightest, whilst the smelted iron occupies
the bottom. 'T'o prevent the fluid matter from being forced out by
the blast, clay is. ied beneath the temp, around the twiers, and
4 upon the surface, at h, where it is retained by heavy iron plates,
_ which are raised every few hours, to allow the cinder to run off

bottoth of the dam-stone. The -stone is de-

f in front by a large iron dam-plate (de, fig. 1) against which

i, the dust-plate ¢, 7, rests. The lower edge of the latter rests °
upon the ground, which is raised to about the level of the bottom
of the hearth d, Ge a oye ; >
, Fig. 2.

78 SS. S. Haldeman on the Construction of Blast-furnaces
Pe b pata represent a transverse section of the stack, if the
left hal re symmetrical with the right. In this case the temp
ma de open space in front of it, would be filled with stone
es of the hearth, and e would repres sent the place, of
for th

e iron.
~ The bosh BB, fig. 2, (shaded _vertically,) resembles a large
funnel, except that its termination at H, fig. 1, 2, is squ
built of fire bricks, except its inWer portion in front, Cini. ah
consequence of the open temp arch (m), a large stone (7) called
sconsh’n, is laid across the front portion of the hearth. ‘The
a of the bosh is seen to be at a higher angle than when
charcoal is used; but it may vary considerably without affecting
the result. When in blast a few mouths, the bosh increases in
steepness from the abrasion of its surface, and the hearth partakes
of this enlargement; so that instead of ‘being a parallelogram, it
assames an oval form. The enlargement of the hearth continues
until its walls become so thin, that the radiation of the heat will
prevent the inner portion from melting away any further; and in
case the temperature diminishes, the inside will be protected by
a coating of slag. ave known a furnace to be in successful
action, when the hearth had been so much enlarged as to have
the middle portion of the inmost back sow (s, fig. 2) melted
away, permitting the blast to escape until the aperture was closed
with tenacious clay. In this case the under surface of the sow
was in contact with a brick wall usually built beneath, as an ad-
ditional barrier to the escape of the heat.
Towards the head of the furnace, there are diiee, equidistant
apertures ( f, fig. 2) to admit the waste flame, first under the boil-
ers, then through a return flue in them-into the hot oven, which
is ia phd 1 in part upon the top of the stack posteriorly and later-
ally. When a separate ale is Peg be: the oven is placed
pom the front side of ee the flame passes into it by a

aperture
Pie boilers are: in thie lee three in “number, twenty-six feet
long; forty-five inches in diameter, with a return flue eighteen
nches in diameter. They are represented at w 2, in fig. 3, where
pn course of the flame is a
outlet of the flues in the stack, an

pape upon the top, atd the chins vor around ates seiritpl-
-The engine is placed upon the ground on this side, the

. n a ell
* jg t ; .
» for the Smelting of Iron with Anthracite. 79

boilers extending to the bank against which the structure stands.
hen the convenience of a bank or hill cannot be had, it is evi-
dent that both the boilers and oven might i ‘placed on or near
‘the ground, if the chimney-were sufficiently high, yet less than
_ seventy feet,) and: the walls built so as to be free om crevices.

guptgen
jl

ss casa and there are others along the sides for the
pose. The boilers are usually placed in contact with

eC Sasa. Noesdink sda ios These doors open into
same: pur
r the iaieariA x the Pes y da ich omeue to the ie a. is

Opie ee me went vay ihe. — ek

ee -
80 Prof. Kekaaail some > Ferns of the United States. ‘

boilers were ten ‘be: pacme might be passed un-
and ret _under Gk; A ap oven might
upon the bank, which vould ner ae ood foundation for

; chimneys; but the distance a 9 the: heated. blast
vo required to travel before reaching the twiers, would be
an objection

The hot-oven is built and arched over with brick, and strongly
bound externally with iron, the heat being sufficient to destroy

supports passing through it. It is sufficiently large to contain a
small forest of upright flattened pipes about ten feet high, with
an internal cavity of about four by seven or eight inches, the
thickness of the metal being about an inch. These are main-
tained at a red heat, the blast through them preventing their de-
struction. They sti tand upon two large pipes or cylinders about
a foot in diameter, and from twelve to fifteen feet
long, with a single row of ape rtures, reais. 2 fig. 4,)

and one or more (8, c) large enough to a 4 An
double row of apertures. Over ] e neck of — 6 =
aperture, a detached collar is placed, into which a [2 3
pipe is firmly cemented, and the heads of two pipes |= 2
on adjoining eylinders are similarly connected by an | 2
auxiliary pipe. forming a semicircular or gothic arch, © et
as represented in section in the upper part of the fig lo 2
ure. The blast entering the first cylinder at a, meets [2/' 3
a partition near the middle, and has to pass through le > 2
the seven openings and pipes across the arched heads. e 2
g

into 6, and so on to d d, when it passes in the oppo
site direction to its place, of exit at g, whence

descends to the twiers. The partitions are not. i < middle of

the cylinders, because by the time the air has passed | a through
them, it requires more room on account of its expansio
The operations and general results ane ital iron sii an-
thracite, may be eel at a future
«cg eo ' ° x a mf 4

i

. S
tatp, tail cctisdan cht! copne, Puhd ehatioteien States ; m5
Professor Kunzz of Leipzic, 1846-+-(Commu: municated by Dr.
G. Eneeimann.) | inom unsaid

7 tee ‘eee ne

Tue plants of this Sotnily pects the sthemse of ocean-islands,
more particularly within the tropics; the number of species is
very limited on the large: continents, . especially in cold» or tem
perate latitudes. We'observe the same fact in the United States;
the ferns of which are not numerous, though it is supposed» that
in the western and. southern parts of the union, several may yet
be discovered. Several species new to the flora of the Baikal

‘ao
Prof. Kunze on‘some Ferns of the United States. 81

States have been communicated to me; ‘their description, and
—_ further notes on some North American ferns, are here offere

botanists of the Union, who will-oblige me exoaedingty
ri communicating ferns, not known to me, and thereby ce ahaeed
investigations on this fami

most complete enutheration pat known to me is that a
Nuttall’s, (1818,) and the mae supplement has been furnished
by Hooker (Flora Bor. Am., 1840). Many other data may be
gleaned. from numerous journals and other works, to collect and
arrange which will be the task of some American botanist ;
here offer merely some notes on the distinction of nearly related
ferns, on some additional ser ~ a few v Spee remarks, in
which I follow Nuttall’s arrangem

“Eauisetum.—I have nothing to id to A. Saran’ s + and Engel-

mann’s Memoir in this Journal, vol. xlvi.

Lycoropium—L. Selago, oe found m reciiand, on the
mountains of New England (E. "Puckerman, Jr.), and mi rocks
at the falls of Broad River, North Carolina ir gps !).—L. alopecu-
roides, L.., on meadows between Quincy and Aspalaga, Florida
(Rugel !). re elongated form densely covered with small leaves.
was.collected on Lake Tamony, Florida, by Rugel !—A similar
elongated. variety is L. — L. 8. Bigelovii, Tuckerm. !

Carolinianum, Big., L. Bigelovii, Oakes and Tuck. !) from
outh, Mass. (Tuckerman!), and from Covington, Louisian
(Drummond !).—L. annotinum, L. 8. Spach Monogr. (L. pun-
gens, Desv., L. annotinum, %. montanum, Tuckerm.! L. sabi-
lium, Beck, non Mich. fide Tuckerm.) has been found, not
only in Newfoundland and Labrador, but also on the White
Mountains of New Hampshire (A. Gray! and Tuckerman !).
—L. dendroideum, Mich. (L. obscurum, L.) has been found as far
— as the Smoky Mountains of Tennessee (Rugel !).—JL.
arissus, A. Braun,* nearly related to L. complanatum,
pe but probably well distinguished, grows also onthe Chivi
Mountains, Cherokee County, North Carolina (Rugel!).—Z.
lucidulum, Mich, oneand a half feet high, New England, ( ges 3
erman !) of. commén’size on. the- Black Monntains, North ©
=e. rupestre, 1.., is widely distributed in Amerie
and. from California to Mexico and Peru. Beyrich has
sflleged it in the Southern States, and Rugel on the Broad river
wo dpanins paren ears suppenan, that L. ma

* Nore gy A. sae ro Cha cyparintis is a in Wildenow’s. et
rium from Canada, se vi Rie meni tt aa ct ata a patie (tog
lanatum. o — author pgs mostly to L. d gitatum, (Diliens) —

» Braur C wits qiestionable whe reg true Linnean L. complanatum, has been

} @ specimen collected in Kamtschatka by Ermann -can-
eon youre ce Ameria; as it shows ificati abi

no fruc toe
1 ces ot tion, j from a speci
ee Take it to bea i spn rat Fc Sihmietgpars

aoe Ae : , &
a P44

82 Prof. Kunze on some Férhs of the United Statés.
Ea at only : a variety of L, apus or apodum has lately
d.

sLossuM.—American oe of O. vulgatum are ‘not
distinct from European small species with an elliptical
acute leaf as Miiie as the spike, . eae by Beyrich at Ebenezar,
probably belongs to O. nudicaule ( O. elliptiewm, H. and Grev. )—
A specimen of O. bulbosum, Mich., or more properly O. crotalo-
phoroides, Walt., collected by Drum mond in Louisiana and com-
municated by A ’ Gray, agrees exactly with O: tuberosum, Hook.
from Talcahuano.— 0. pusillum, Nutt., is entirely unknown» in
. een and has net been mentioned by Greville and Hooker.
Bot. Mise., iii.

Borrycuium.—T he different ser still 5 Sn to be more
accurately distinguished. B. gracile, Pu has been united
with B. virginicum by Greville and ‘Hooker. (1. ~~ B. dissee-
tum, Muhl., is unknown to me.

Osmunpa. —A. Gray has already proved entity of O. Clay-
toniana, L., with O. interrupta. O. spectabilis, W., and O) re-
ALT. L.; cannot be separated any better. Ruttall has —<v
pronounced them ‘scarcely distinct.”

_ Potyropium.—More correct observations are required rua
ing the species which resemble P. vulg: “
americanum, Hook., (P. virginianum, L.,) differs from ‘te
‘European form by a narrower and more elongated frondy
rower lobes separated by wider sinus, the lowest being longer or
at least not shorter than the following ones, and the sori being
always nearer the margin than in the European plant. I have
not met with any American specimens entirely «pane Pn with the
true P. vulgare of the old world.—P. Scoulert,H. and Grev., Te.
Fil. 56, is ineorrectly united with the very distinct P. Californi-
sagt Kaulf., in Hook. FJ. Bor. Am: P. intermedium is unknown
- : it appears to approac cach P. Cambricum, Desv., ——
~ form ey ot P. Cambricum, L., and of the gardens, a common fern
about the on ee Sea, but may constitute a separate
species.—P. incanum, L., appears to belong exclusively to. thie
southern states, 1 have seen coeclaaai fommshaniniane: (Fligel!
~and Louisiana and Florida (Rugel!).*— connec
(Mich.,) not distinguishable from P. Phegopteris, L., extends as
far north as Newfoundland and -Labrador.—P. Dryopteris, L.,
was sent to me from Labrador.—P. ealcarewm, Sm., widely dif-
fering from the last, is enumerated by Hooker : [have not seen
any American specimens of it.
orHocHLANa dealbata, Kunze, (Cheilanthes dealbata,
ii, 675, Nuttall, ii, 253, N. pulchella, Kze., in Mohl and ‘Sch
. tend., Bot. Zeitg. 1843, No. 37,) must be introduiged here. |

te

eh
a

eg itll i i Tale SS
* Grows as rohan the Wabash in sihaeadene si we c

et “ ie ail ~~

%, eee id
¥

Prof, Kunze on some Ferns of the United States. 83

Species is penis related to N. nivea, though essentially distinet.
I have only seen specimens obtained from the Berlin’ botanical
garden, b ll’s and Pursh’s diagnoses donot permit a owt
about the idangty of the species.” I would not hav looked. for
it-under Cheilanthes.*

W oopsia.—I cannot disting nish W. rufidula, Beck, (Nephro-
dium, Mich.,) from W. eA me Br. The species varies, with
ovate, acutish, elongated, obtuse or rounded fronds. S$ ens
from New York, sent a! Prof. A. ee attain ane ‘pat of heed

st species,
_ Prysematio. —Ph. obtusum, Hook. F'l. B. Am. ii, 259. Ms oc

name of Woodsia obtusa. This fern aol from the noth
eastern states to Nerth Carolina, Missouri and Texas.

"i ahi ing tt so ae seen no specimens of A. cieutariuam,
Spreng., from the d States.—Hooker refers A. Filix mas,

-Pursh, to A. ae H. and Grev., whether correctly or not, I

cannot decide ; but I have seen the true A, Filix mas from New-
foundland.—A. molle, Sw., appears to be unknown as an inhabit-
ant of the United States; I have “ hg Sah from Louisiana,
(Ludwig in Herb. Luce !), Alexan spoisgne a os lime-

- stone rocks near Aspalaga, Florida (Rugel !), ar

near Houston, ‘Texas (Lindheimer in Herb. A. pl =

teris and A. Netieboracense, Sw., are declared by ker,

. Am., to be “quite identical.” I cannot subscribe to this ‘opin-

ion. . The latter species, Schk., t. 46, appears to me to be distin-

guished from the former by a shorter stipe, by the circumference of «
the frond being more narrowed upwards and downwards, by thin-
ner texture, by narrower and ciliate segments of the pinne, and by
— veins (Presl pase arranges both species in different sec-

of his genus Lastrea). I have seen A, Noveboracense from
Nev York (Halsey), Perse (Paxppig he a (Beyrich),
ugel),—I seen no Nor pros an

C of A. cristatum, Sw, Fhe identity of A, spinulo
Sw., .A. dilatatum, Sw., A. dumetorum, W., and A, i nine
dium; W., _ as, different forms of one species, cannot . be ‘dagiitied

bik must be studied more closely in its native localities, as it

may prove to be a distinct species. I have specimens gee
ree (La Pylaie,) Greenland, and abr

ochleana sinuata, Kaulf. Enum. Fil. 135., Kunze, A 65. Pac
wacam hye ee veut nograiemi sintiata, ‘Piel. §
xican a vian s sie bah i
Texas Brawn, by

” 5 8 ees
Cas Pind.
84 Prof. Kunze on some Ferns of the United States.

and Kurr,;) New England mountains, sterile: eo ale
e highest tops of the Black Mountains, North Caroli
Cultivated specimens have been communica cated
from the botanical garden of St. Petersburg, (Dr. Fischer as Ae
spinulosum americanum,) and from that of Berlin. The lowest
of the mostly opposite pinne is ascending and curved up-
poe and has:a different direction from the pois pinne. The
mntile are more deeply pinnatified, with more and sharper teeth
in the common form ; those of the lowest pinne, especially
near the base, are much elongate d downwards, by which these
pinne assume a very irregularly fiero shape. The sori are
nearer the middle caer The stipe is thickly covered with‘
brown or redish pale. If this ‘form: should eventually prove to
be a distinet ae: ty name of A. campylopterum would be
appropriate.—A. (Polystichum) Lonchitis, Sw., also in Green-
eee (Wormskiold) *—A.(P.) aculeatwm, to which Hooker (Ft.
1,) joins even A. vestitum, Sw., though undoubt-
eal ee ai and Nephrodiwm setigerum, Presl, which T do
G know, appears to include different species, which I the
ought to be separated. But Hooker states that the plant of ‘the
Rocky Mountains and the Pacific coast is intermediate between
A. lobatum and A. angulare, and is identical with A. aculeatum
of his British flora. All the American specimens which I have
seen were communicated by Mr. E. Tuckerman, as collected on
the mountains of New England. ‘They evidently belong» to A.
(P.) Braunii, Spenn. Fl. Fribi, which, therefore, is also’ an
American plant. The different species whieh usually have been
confounded under the name of A. aculeatum have been elucida-

_ “ted by me in a memoir, which is not yet published. I have thus

far fing" A. Prd poe only from Baden‘and Saxony, and from New
England. Prof. Braun states that it has also been ph in Nor-
way: it ‘is cultivated in the botanical gardens f Leipzig and
Berlin.—I have to add here a new and well I distinguished species
of the United States.

A. (Polystichum) Ludovicianum, Kun : fronde ner ‘co-
riacea, glabra, oblongo-lanceolata, Sifcapeens pinnis (alternis) re~
motis, oblongo-acuminatis, patenti-erectis a imenaost setioleds ’

nulis basi adnatis decurrentibus, sterilibus ovato-oblongis
acutiusculis serrulatis subsinuatis, fertilibus e basi inequali sub-
auriculata leviter falcatis laneeolato-oblongis: grosse sinuato-den- —
tatis, infimis pinnatifidis, laciniis dentibusque 1-raro- 2-sorophoris,
obtusis ; costulis subtus convexis ; soris Magnis, convexis, centro
ab indusio badio leviter impressis ; rhachibus — ——
pee universali stipiteque stramineis, rufo-paleace

In Louisiana legit Ludwig (Herb. Pocdeninn wx Colitar in
horte botanico Berolinensi (vid. specymen ie

nV Pee

* It likewise occurs on the shores of Lake Hi ~—A. Gr.

‘ie
Prof. Kunze on some Ferns of the United States. 85

A fine species, w ich cannot be confounded with.
known to me; in habit it approaches somewhat to A. (Nepe.)
marginale; it is 1-2 foot high ; the circumference of the entire
fertile pinnule varies from lanceolate to 0 blong ; the veins are re-
aaeras nie and the ‘upper branch rarely : also the ae
sterile branches of the veins om just
ouch te the hniete arid slightly thickened. a
~ Ovnotiea.—O. obtusilobata, Schk., sctording: to Hookess
—— a bina of 0. sensibilis, and

deel be sy

patina ty to me. An examination of specimens in the :

herbarium of Berlin, inclines me to the same opinion. Shae

nus . teris, Presl, is is founded on — —— of Ono-

dept with srttle ones of um: Adpitbums Lah
ASPLENIUM. —A. pinnatifidum, Nutt., appears to: be a rare _

“er detected a variety with sharply atid coreg in-
thed lobes, on rocks of the southern want of the
Shares mountains; North Carolina. It is distinguis
A. rhizophylum by its free, not anastomosing veins, and —

: never |
worth states that Ay he ohailahe,’ 6. pinnatijidum, Barton, i in
‘ ; 4 le sam + > ga

anoides, Michx., fronde- coriacea, glabray: lineari-
toile cae, trevfeclinieta, basi longe attenuata, pinnata; pin
sessilibus (Oppositis), divergentibus, trapezio-oblongis, obtusis, im
ferioribus deflexis subcordatis sensim abbreviatis, omnibus sub-
aveniis, margine cartilagineo repando-crenatis ; soris breviusculis,
margine approximatis ; rhachi stipiteque brevi basi palegea
thizomate Brevi vi, horizontali, radicoso
sipieies,” so well distinguished from its nearest relatives,
has been much raat Micha ee diagnosis and his habitat

ing 12. ae ;
sents tolerably well the plant in qeaninad but the former must
main doubtful, for the. pinne are re represented as being cometited
Me ae ee

«ieee ee Se

E ws pine ut in a notice of Pres’ 8 Psriddgngbie, in this Journal, vol.
xix, p Gr.
Ae Motte, in southern Missouri —

86 Prof. Kunze on some Fite of the United States.

abc below. Swartz, in his Synopsis, p. 79, and 272, re-
rs “cha plant, together with the q 2% ions, to 9 A. polypo-

dioides ; but he seems to have had apt > other j plant in view, in
pat» up his deseript ion, perhaps a of A. pg or to
have mainly Puumdcocd Plukenet’ s Ady as he says, pinne basi
utrinque se aurite, and as he leaves out Michaux’s words,
« fructificatione lineis brevissimis, ” and as he says in the. descrip-
tion, “‘sori lineares, brevissimi, ad latera costa utrinque puncta
Polypodii mentientes, etate confluentes.” Schkuhr ant ‘only

sori confluent -
manoides of the gardens i met s nothing but A. Twidbiahenie i
As Swartz’s pe Ai e is entirely gratuitous,

the latter must be restored to = cae
A. melanocaulon, W. and A. Trichomanes,*are united by
Hooker, nor can I pepe distinguish them. A. monta-
_aum, W., which is considered a rare plant, has been ec
in abundance i in N. Carolina, by Rugel, and in Georgia, by hy Dae
rich.* A, Adiantum nigrum, Michx., belongs he I have
seen any American specimens of the true A. Filia feemina ; j eal
ars to be represented by A. Michausii, Spr. (A. Filix foeniina,
lich., Aspid. angustum, W.), and by A. Athyrium, Spr. ( Aspid.
asplenivides, W. ), the latter extends as far north as Labrador and

¥

Newfoundland, Both these species, which are certainly well
Mexican

distinguished, are thrown together by Hooker. 'The
A, Michaucii, Mart. and Gal., is a distinct species which I have
‘named, A. Martensi. My A. ‘Sibinicum ( ee crenatum,
merfelt) may yet be discovered in arcti
Preris.—P. pedata, of the North Oe soe iia Som I have notas
yet seen, so. ae unable to say to which of the lately distin-
species it may belong, probably to P. geraniifolia; R
P. atropurpurea as well as P. gracilis, must ‘be referred to the
. genus Allosurus.. P. caudata of the United States, is not the true

Linnean plant which is common in South America, and the West

Indies, and is-distinguished by the nodose base of the rhachis, as
has already been stated by J. Agardh, Monogr. Pterid. 49, but
a variety of P. aquilina, L., Schk., t. 96. b., peculiar to North
America, which Desvanx, Prodr,, Fil. p- 303, has distingnished un-
der the name of P. latiuse: males § and which ought to be more
closely studied. It occurs more or less hairy.

Attosurus.—{ Cryptogranuna, Br.) A. gracili s, Kaulfuss , Pte
ris, Mich., is ci ae to A, i, though distinet. I have
Ee ic ta ———

* And ‘even sis far dngh-na/Billehare , North Garclimn/ palin Mr. C1 r

%

ie

ae a.” e
Prof. Kunze on some Ferns of the United States. 87

received numerous fine specimens of it from aoe Cat yore

t. Knieskern. A, acrostichoides, Pr., is

ooker is probably correct in referring it to pe ide ae
‘ Piel —Not having compared any North American speci-
Es? I am unable to say whether they belong to the true: Vz

PB: boreale is a Lomaria-—B. wirvulinihs Mich,
tee only from South America.

u.—A. Capillus, diffused over almost the-whele globe,
hot rare in the southern U. States, where Beyrich collected

‘label does not give the exact localit ty); Dr.

Bm the Hot Springs of Arkansas ; Rugel from rom As

le aa ; and according to E. Tuckerman, it is also iquielh “in
- Curmanrues.—l sihex' to this genus Buckley’s Pteris ‘Alec
mon and namé it Ch. Alabamensis. It is a very distinct spe-
gp aaheatle pede collected by Rugel:on French Broad
ap preserved in Shuttleworth’s —

ta, Georgia; by Leibold on the western frontiers of Aone
by Duerinck in Missouri, in Carolina, (Schweinitz,) and on the
Broad River Mountains, North Carolina, by Rugel. Ch. tomen-
tosa, Link, (Fil. Spec. h. bot. Berol, p. 65, raised from Mexican
> ey now common in Buropean gardens, i is new for the flora of

United States.. Rugel collected a few specimens with the
former in North Carolina, and Prof. A. Gray has sent me speci-
mens from Tennessee under the name of Ch. vesiita. Cultiva-
tion does not alter it in the least. It is quite probable that some
of the numerouis species of Mexico may yet be discovered in the
‘southern states-} Ch. dealbata, Pursh, is a Nothochlena, (see
above.)

iJ a.—Michaux’s name, Nephr. punctilobulum, not as
oe spelled, 7 unctilob (1803); Schkwhr’s
‘ ie. pireican, was published 1809, ‘and Willdenow’s,
or ater sagebaipe Mss. name, Polypod. pilosiusculum, dates
1810. Desvaux has founded his genus Litolo-
ria an entices Sidlobium), Prodr. 262, on this species; but the pe-
culiar characters are not sufficient to warrant a generic plone
and I refer with Hooker this plant again to paieanei

ng eS hi al,
oo th a i . Hot sol of Arkansas, I

0] cted fog he
ag Bo aot identic } with

in, Louisiana a fern, specimens of which I receive

; ha
Prof. Kunze on some Ferns of the United States.

netilobula. I have specimens from the West Indies, (Ry-
Tennessee ap North Carolina, (Rugel!) Lu collect

~ herbarium, and which resembles very much D lobula ;
but it has more acutely dentate segments, rhachis and veins be-
low, sparsely covered with short hairs, very large sori without
any trace of an indusium, which is still ea distinguishable
even in fully mature specimens of D. pun tilobula. Xt is im-
to decide about this plant ry examining younger
ns, which I hope botanists of the. meiner United States
will be induced to do, It may possibly be a. peculiar ? olype
dium? Hp nite od s specimen in Willdenow’ s herbarium, is
plainly D. punetilo
Ororceree —C. Tan lis has ae sent ‘by Dr. Engelmann
from Missouri, (rocks on the Merrimac Springs.). The specimens

sent from from Labrador by Kurr and. Breutel,—from the Broad River ,

untains, North Carolina, by Rugel, —those from Pennsylvania
and New England, seen by me, all belong to C. tenuis, Be 4
which appears to be well distinguished from G. fragilis, and not
a variety of it, as Hooker states; the distinguishing characters te-
main constant in cultivation. C. bulbifera, Bernhardi, grows al-
‘om any Rock, below the Warm Springs in North Bx
uge.
YMENOPHYLLUM.—I have not yet seen any North American
specimens.

_ [sotres.—Prof. A. Braun has published his investigations on
this genus in Flora or Bot. Zeitung, 1846, No. 12.* I have only
to add to this valuable paper, that J. lucustris has — co
nicated to me by Mr. E. Tuckerman from’ New England. the
mention made of an Isoétes from Galifornia, is based ona _Tais-

not seen

oer saeer aero
¥

mmond’ 8 sane pel by | Kur

@
3
pb

ae

agorda Bay in a.
=a (2-5), basi connatis, receptaca

od ne
ie aa hai hen + ih in Nis’ acnieet, i ser., iti, aan

G. R. Rowell on the Beneficent Distribution, §c. 89

pre. —I have not seen this plant from the United States.
Azotta.—A. microphylia, Klfs., from California, is certainly
ditties ‘Hoh A. caroliniana, though Hooker unites them
latter species was collected by Drummond about New Orleans.

Arr. IX.—On the Sea ts Disritation ee > Sense of at ;
G. R. Row
Read before the Ashmolean Society of Oxford, 3d May, 1847, and communicated b
Author, to the Edinb. New Phil. Jour., vol. xiii, p. 385, from which it is here ced,
Havine had, in my youth, an aversion to animal food, from
an idea that it was cruel to destroy life for the purpose of ob-
taining it, I have been led by that feeling, and a few rather ex-
ol ireumstances. which have come under my notice, to

other senses; it is given as wadbete ‘mM as great a 2 sia as it is
necessary and useful to them; that no animals have a greater
sense of pain than is necessary. ort e preservation of the class to
which they belong ; that those which are dieigond for food, suf-
fer little when killed, in comparison to what other animals would
1 from the same infliction ; and that some are totally devoid of
the sense of pain. '

ulo ascendente, oblique pecutiforms versus basin angustato, margine superiori mi-
nore, inferiori magis convexo, lateribus compresso; rhaphide brevi, dente inferiori
a divergente, superiori a ullo ; receptaculo coriaceo indurato, usco-atro, cic-
ribus scabrato, paleis angustis persistentibus tecto ; soris utrum-
ten “fabeliformibus, margine arcuatim excisis, apice integris,
utrumque he -pilo
Ver distinct ‘rom ‘the ead North American Marsilex, it approaches an unde-
d species from New Holland, M. Drummondii, A. Braun, mss., nearer than
ea er. ade I form a called st stomata, (vid e this Journal, l.c.,) I find now
4 be not hing but the sicatriz, or the place o of insertion of the pale: #. In the other
; rican species : these scars have a margin, which is wanting in M.

a a s M. mucronata, A. Braun, collected by Geyer in the North-
est sritry, Chis Journal, |. . )
ae fifth fius bee n collected, 1837, by T. Lindheimer in Western Texas, on the
er aoa the Spesioabs River
4 elm. Mss. ; stipitibud sitigolis e basi petioli oeinre e
ms idio bre revioribus receptaculo as ascendente, oblique obovato, m naneoe 8
roe vin convexo subrecto, lateribus compresso ; rhaphide brevi, dentibus. approx
riore inferiorem paulo oOo gine brevibus, adpresss, parsi
Fees tubro-marginat ning ue 9-10; foliolis a nae °
apice i tor dentais, Tg od sires
ph om

" Sgcowp Srnizs, Vol. VI, = ain Bis

90 _ * GE Ry Rowell on the

aioiging this paper to the consideration of the ees
Ci beg to state distinctly, that I do not pret
nowisies'of anatomy, but have been led to my col
what appears to be the effect of injuries wpon different sl
do not attempt to assign any cause for the difference of the
ount of pain, w ether it be that the nerves are less sensitive,
or Meio numerons in some classes than in others, or whether it
is owing to. the want.of. reflecting. faculties, but only to show that
there is such a differenee
_ I do not know se there i is any thing new in the opinions I
advance ; but as I have Piet 4g than ordinary opportunities of
i feet of of ounds on some classes of animals, 1
ape i sub;

iG
a 4 nee

ject

disc re + atthe use ‘of the icboks of ether has src
1é ser hae — the consideration of this Society, I
er Will be in some ;

importance to man, to guard and warn him from injury.
1 is very sensitive, the body being thus enveloped i

brane susceptible of the slightest injury, while the heart,
brain, and other vital internal parts that are thus g
almost insensible; but although the lungs are, in
?

gree, insensible of during con the are
sensible of the np of rhe dice te against the
nhalation of anything injurious. As the hands, full especially
the ie aes are whe liable to injury, the sense of pain is gre:
and I believe there may be more real pin om 3
ether th Sgt a fm very many th fatal
' nior coating of 1 |

ri fatal eases: would arise from eats, & , if x
warmed by pain and. inconvenience of the Se (
constitution of sudden changes of temperature,
» of the best ways to judge of the 4 of a
consider how ne do wahout it’ ym
so in the present case. ‘Thus, if a
‘in, he might sit’ by aie, sn ih

oot upon it, and soon «find hk Sted hat.
eters € thus
fact, r

he might have lime blown into his
if not ma is by the pain ; in

i adie [ws

Beneficent Distribution of the Sense of Pain. 91

pains and ae the use of which it may be difficult to
ould attribute this to a want o eg Hs hm
e thet the le which holds good in

ni Natt T eage
ne § gu
ma i

t'sand le hill, yeenne dine 4 coac’
ing over it “above the fetlock joint ; the ety east show:
—. Pm pt py ape the bone being dre adfully
eapabod, and protruding in parts through the skin. A number of
ers: neaie granny but no one liked to dispatch it, and on
ng so that it might get out of the way of things
mnoment the horse got to the side of the road it be-
AZING, g no other sign of pain than holding up the
leg.

os ae is that. ofa post-horse, which was going along

d bet en Botley and Ensham, about twelve years cag

it fae _ with such violence that the skin and si

h the fore fetlock joints were so. cut that on its ttin ng
e bones ¢: aw heaton ang De ee
. "the legs, the horse walking. Lies the

awe ie

92 coy o> GR, Rowell on‘the-

A similar accident once happened to a coach-horse the pro-
oily of the late Mr. Costar of Oxford ; it was | ‘when the
coach stopped to change horses, to have. dislocate ne fetlogle

and from 1
‘ave rn)n 9a > oF | h jaf “4
have ru distance along the road in that pes.

sing + that a pitited horse, in Soe with others, shistibd eetialp
er such circumstances; but in the former case, there
was Sohne to excite the horse but its. hunger, and if the pain
had been equal to what such a dreadful injury would seem to in-
dicate, it would probably, if in ever such a famished state, have
gone ‘upon its knees to feed, rather than upon the inj parts.
It is curious to re. the apparent indifference with which
some animals’ will devour parts of their own bodies. I once
kept tame dormice, and, in shutting the cage door, re
eaught the tail « of one of them, when it cope out and left
skin of about two thirds of its tail sticking to the door.

ee
the cry was caused. iy pain or fear, I eannot deeide; but it) went

about the cage for a few minutes

took hold of its tail with i its s PAS and eat all the injured party

— wie gga as well as
s will often eat idie i shite when in conitiundtint? hs kept
= of food ; oa the habit of eating their own tails is not un

to dip the end of his monkey’s tail in tobacco water to k
from being eaten, and some of the monkeys in the’ London Zoo-
| Garden may at times be seen et thpraoelven deel

common amongst the monkey tribe. I know a person who used —

way ; but from whatever cause this propensity may arise, I be-—

ogee rndver indulged in by the monkeys with es
; seem to be too useful to be so ed of,

sense of pat 8 er
. few years since, the @uneeriy Review, ina noticeof the:
: ne. Westminster’ ye war on the canes soupe in the aveat

ne 2 pce ag Beg tage wattle Sianigies very wane
ration, the parts being cut with hot weer + = i saw an
ed bull after undergoing that operation, kaw
concernedly, and then er grazing’ for apo. a Bal " hout, he
lay down and chewed his cud apparently quite pany ins ee
Pigs make a sad -— when Bei being k d,. bui
eaused by fear the uncomf rtable way in w

pass ais Of,
nd I have no doubt are © therefore possessed of a much greater

Beneficent Distribution of the Sense of Pain. 93

oy “similar

sane ‘it - hat as the sense of pain is ne

( sary or useful to tes; have it ina a less degree, * .
proprncint ibe celina cok nities “er oe I shall allude, that is,

salee alte naert will scooter edte® ‘that the use ‘of the

fe poet mee a or almost com |

compared to that of m

} to exert themselves to escape; but a slight examination of
the form of both rabbits and hares, wats iaow that they have oth-
nse: their eyes are not placed in the front of the
wee in A of no at but _ the side of the head, very promi-
ap stint theety wie o see before, ana and all around
the ears also-can Sortiinied dis way way to
slightest ‘seeds added: to ‘which;they ade ‘ degree of timid
h keeps them always on the alert.
With regard to their sense of pain, it is well to know hart
hare never; or very seldom, cries out when if she 1

ot, even i
es her death-wound, if she ean run a few yards and hide a
és ing ane é

Ms

a.

94 er G. R.Rowell onthe
r out when the enemy” Se within two

“of them, and are generally so they hie
engi) therefore the ary in this ease i is evident

_ Tone , day disturbed a qabbit. whid-« ran pod so ate
“manner that I followed it, and saw that the flesh had been eaten
ry from the back of the head to the top of the shoulders ;. the

sight was so sickening, that I turned away, mr the poor
creature could not live many minutes. About two hours after-
wards, I went with a view to pick up and examine the rabbit,
and.when I came to the spot, was surprised to see.it jump up and
run away as before; the person who was with me ran after it,
the rabbit anak: banca gh he caught. it, pet n> scien the
thing was so in eA lem ery when I first distur
a a me on 1en it was disturbed and followed —
ott moment Sitwiaesashs. it began to.cry out, showing
; sites could excite a ery which all thy ar me could not do.
When rabbits are caught in traps, if not taken out-in a short,
ame ne ath thd almost sure to escape, either by breaking away: by

time, and the tw See - on ‘but although the

an legs. very recently, -but he poo
animal had been obliged to go along an could with i m4
ve the bare — of the others, it- was in ata ni

y. :.
Rats will bite off. their legs ina dimiler- wap, and canine
I do not know of any animal which is tity a : inane of

rather a hunting animal,.that .will , I have never fate =
wi polecat, or such animals do it, ugh th ey may
ose a ina

a common trap which shuts close and is apt to-cuby
4 I have lately. known, a fox found in a wood ina dy te,

_ These facts, sil. ‘tole, bear ate gaton egg tel . t th :
of pain is is for ans preservation of animal

a
i
4

Fin ant eat off the — or by bieiaey the -
om tra

Beneficent Distribution of the Sense of Pain. 95

them to take due care of themselves, and that no animal orn
greater share of the sense of pain than is nec the preser-.
vation of the class to so ahigh badeuss The roe often 2 waa
be a great inconvenience tO ‘any quadmuped; but rabbits or rats
may still procure it; eve the case before alluded
to 0 of the yoy does fell guna it, as ban pe does not

its food by | alone, nor isits foot the weapon
of attack as with the reas: but if a fox, wild-eat, polecat, or

‘sea, it is probable that a sense of tem is necessary
them, and many other animals also, to see aaa to those
the world which they are formed to inhabit. It ma‘
beeuseful ‘to a them to those parts and depths im the ea

| e necessa for their young to arrive at erie
n the observation of Sir Humphry Davy, and others nll
Pam a with the habits of fish, it is very alle that the
sense of pain in many of them is very trifling; and when we
consider the ca de cod, and | many other fishes, the

96 Professors W. B. and R. E. Rogers

ry cases meee forward. to. shew the absence of
pein in insects. I have seen’a wasp eat a fly almost. npsiona |
after a portion of its own print ‘had been cut off; I have
seen a cockehafer crawling and eating on a hedge alter its abdo-
men had-been emptied of the viscera, probably by some bird. It
is well known that a dragon-fiy will eat freely for a considerable
while confined bya pin through its body;, and every. one
who has collected entomological specimens, must know the difli-
eulty’in killing some of the larger moths. But as’this paper is
already much longer than I originally intended, I shall mae’ —_

o%

: ass of animals.’
. tuattiber of. ae bya single pai _ swallows and heir

ghoaunee * to > che het pei | pot mrs oee a a variety
-ae tb \Tacwes-Ot thse athe

of r ¢ animals, such as the larve 0
fly, &c., and one day introduced among them a few of the com
J and water beetles, one of which was the Dytis+

cus marginalis. The dragon-flies h had been living wpon the ani-
lw, &¢., the newts attacked and devoured: wed dragon-flies
‘he next morning I found one of the newts | at the bottor

on the Absorption of Carbonic Acid Gas.by Liquids. 9

The pee forming the subject of the present paper, ex-
tend over a part only of the ground. occupied by those of Saus-
sure, but shone confined to the seem of carbonic acid,

the similar but less varied observations of Dr. Henry. We be- ~
<b lieve that they furnish much more accurate results than the sim-
‘i ple but rather rude methods used by these experimenters could
cted to afford. Besides a great number of results obtained
with different liquids and solutions at 60°, they include in the
case of water a series of determinations at various stages of tem-
perature, from 32° to 100°. "
part from the Pian value which in a scientific sense must =>
always attach to the determination of exact numerical constants
in subjects of this kind, there are points of the present enqui
which claim attention from their bearing upon certain other
branches of research. It will be seen, for example, in the sequel,
that the absorption of carbonic acid gas by sulphuric acid at ordi-
nary pea pe ony z far greater than chemists have hitherto sus-
pected, and that the processes in which this gas,. before being
estimated, is made to pass through or over a considerable volume
of sulphuric acid, may lead to errors which although hitherto
unnoticed, are too important to be overlooked.
in a paper, on the analysis of the carbonates, published i in the
American Journal of Science in 1844, we called attention to
fact, that in using sulphuric or hapless acid for decomposing
the carbonates, the resulting solution or mixture always retains
an amount of carbonic acid too great to be neglected i S accurate
research, and that this gas cannot be expelled without the use
of @ continued boiling heat. Some experiments undertaken im
the hope of “eating th precisely the absorbent power of these
acids and solutions, led us into the more extensive field of en-
quiry, of which we propose now to embody the results.

Availing ourselves, at first, of the simple methods employed by —
Dalton, Henry and Saussure, we found that with all care in the
manipulation and in applying the proper corrections, we were
unable to attain consistent and reliable results.

_ In operating with a graduated tube over mercury, as was
d by Dalton, and by Saussure for the more absorbent liquids,
the great slowness of the absorption in many cases, rendered it
impossible to detetmine, even after some days, whether the ae-
tion was still in progress or had ceased, he form

H
:
i

“a

this | ical aid, weeks of eye w
sary to complete the absorption. 2 inued né thor
Srconp Serres, Vol. VI, No. 16.—July, ims 13
' = ‘

a Professors W. B. and R. E'. Rogers

shaking for thirty minutes, this result is attained so perfectly,
that no prolonged exposure afterwards indicates a continuance 0
the absorption. The importance of attending to this point in
constructing an apparatus for experiments in absorption, is evi-
dent from the fact that while by our observation, which occupied
generally less than thirty minutes, sulphuric acid of common
density was found to absorb 98 per cent. of its volume of the gas;
Saussure’s experiments, which continued for one or more days,
make the absorption only 45 per cent.

The difficulty and uncertainty of the method above mentioned,
is moreover increased by the necessity of restoring the instrument
to the standard temperature before measuring the absorption, and
of taking account of the change of barometric pressure in the

method is inadmissible where we are operating with liquids,
which like nitric acid and many saline solutions react with

ercury.

Results as little satisfactory attended our trials with the other
process of Saussure. In this mode of operating, which he adopted
in cases whete the absorption was small, the liquid and gas are
brought together in a well stopped bottle, and after continued
agitation for some time, the absorption is measured by removing
the stopper in an immersed position. But here, besides the diffi-
eulty of making the absorption in a precise manner, we encounter
a more serious objection in the fact, that the rarefaction of the
remaining gas causes the absorption to cease before reaching the
full amount proper to an undiminished pressure. This evil may,
it is true, be rendered insignificant in cases where the absorption
is slight, by using as Saussure did, a volume of gas many times
greater than that of the liquid; but with carbonic acid, such a
procedure would in most cases call for so large a volume of gas
as greatly to increase the errors arising from a slight variation of
temperature during the experiment, while it would augment the
difficulty of securing the coincidence of temperature required.

In the syphon formed apparatus used by Dr. Henry, the flexi-
ble tube beneath, facilitates the experiment by enabling the ope-
ator to apply agitation to the wider limb containing the gas
liquid, but the results are exposed to error from the dilation of
the flexible connection and from the effects of concussive com-
pression caused by shaking a large mass of mereury with the gas
and absorbent liquid. Of course, this method is inapplicable
where the liquid reacts upon the mercury.

From what has now been stated, it will we think be apparent
that the modes of experimenting on this subject, used by the dis-

on the Absorption of Carbonic Acid Gas by Liquids. 99

tinguished chemists referred to, were not adapted to an accurate
determination of the absorbent power of liquids. To be capable
of precise results, the absorbing apparatus must fulfill the follow-
ing conditions :—
irst. It must provide means for maintaining the temperature

uniform throughout the experimen

Second. It must maintain the tension of the gas unaltered.

Third. It must afford means for rapid and continuous agita-
tion of the liquid with the

Fourth. The tube in otek the absorption is measured by the
mercurial column, must be apart from the vessel in which the
absorption occurs, and the mercury must not be introduced into
that vessel.

In view of these requisites we were led, after many unsatisfac-
tory trials with other arrangements, to the form of apparatus rep-

consistent results seldom varying in successive trials, to the
extent of one per cent., and which is equally applicable to all
liqui

Absorption Apparatus.—This consists of a meter A,
plunged in a large wooden reservoir B, containing ox to the
level indicated in the figure, adjoining which is a smaller but
taller reservoir C, of glass, also containing water. In the latter

above, a syphon-shaped measuring tube with a finely graduated

cale between the limbs. A horizontal arm of thick barometer
tube extending from the top of this, is united by a short gum-
elastic joint, with a similar tube which bends down over the edge
of the frame and is inserted below into the actual opening of the
absorption flask D. Cylinder thermometers graduated to tenths
of a degree are placed in the gasometer, large and small reservoir,
and flask. [Figure 2 is a larger view of the flask.

The main reservoir, charged as indicated in the figure, contains
five thousand six hundred cubic inches of water, the smaller one,
of glass, six hundred cubic inches, and the gasometer three hun-
dred cubic inches. ‘The large volume of water in the reservoirs,

against any variation of temperature in the gas, shiett mi ht
arise from the reaction of the materials in the gasometer. Th
gas will thus in all cases have the npr of the main res-

S

Professors W. B. and R. E.. Rogers

100

GK

__

}-——+
=
=
>
: }——
=
=
=—s
=
ey
=
=
—=—
|
=
=

w

igi

ee

S Tees ewe

on the Absorption of Carbonic Acid Gras by Liquids. 101

ervoir, when conveyed into the flask. The end of this tube is
mounted with a close cork and smaller glass tube, to be placed
in the near opening of the flask when the gas is to be passed into
the latter and the measuring tube.
onnected with the flask is a movable vessel x, adapted by
accurate grinding to the mouth of the former, and designed to
contain the liquid whose absorbent power is to be determined.
This unit bottle as we will call it, has its opening below con-
tracted to about one-eighth of an inch, so that when filled with
the liquid and connected in an ‘arene position with the flask,
as in the diagram, the liquid is in no danger of flowing out.
When thus inserted in its proper position, it is caieal in place by
the strong pressure of a steel spring, attached to the central tube
of the flask, and which by a revolving mention is then brought to
press by a leather cushion upon its u en his secures the
rear ay the stopper perfectly sitiglik during the active agita-

The central tube is in like manner ground to an air-tight joint
at its insertion into the flask, and the connection is forcibly secur-
ed by a strong cord wrapped around the neck and then passed
around a screw peg inserted in a wooden block which is firmly
cemented to the tube above. To avoid all chance of leakage at
this and the junction of the unit bottle with the flask, a very del-
icate coating of tenacious cement made of beeswax, rosin an
low, is applied to the upper part of the ground surface. This
from its very minute amount, and its removal from the gas in the
interior, is incapable of exercising any appreciable absorbent effect.
Indeed we have found that even with a large mass of this cement
placed in the flask, the effect is quite insignificant.

The flask suspended by the horizontal part of the tube just de-
scribed, hangs, when in its natural vertical position, at such depth
as to immerse about half the length of the unit bottle. The agi-
tation is given by a hooked rod which embracing the central neck,
is moved to and fro longitudinally, and causes the flask to swing
as rapidly as the operator pleases, the axis of motion being the
part of the horizontal tube Ey is external to the flexible joint,
and lies upon the wooden frame near itsend. The rest of the
horizontal tube is connected with the measuring tube, and firmly
attached, along with the latter, to the horizontal bar of the front,
This slides up and down upon the vertical supports, and can be
adjusted to a proper position sd the mane pins seen in the fig-
ure, immediately beneath it, can lifted off, carrying the
measuring tube and flask, To secure vs axis tube from lateral
motion during the shaking, a wooden block descends by a hinge
over the flexible joint and this tube, and embracing them 1 in a

ngit groove roreing them in place, es

oe

‘
a
s

102 Professors W. B. and R. BE. Rogers

The stop-cock at the bottom of the measuring tube is used for
adjusting the level of the mercury in the two limbs at the be-
ginning of each experiment, and for removing the mercury which

is poured in through the funnel above, to maintain the columns

at the same height during the progress of the absorption.

It will be seen from the figure, that while the flask and meas-
uring tube are both constantly immersed as the experiment is
going on, and are thus kept at an invariable temperature, the
connecting tube, between the two levels of water, is necessarily
out of the liquid, and must be influenced by the temperature o
the ambient air. ‘The capacity of this exposed part of the tube
was found to be very nearly 2,ths of a cubic inch, the expansion
of which for 1° is equal to 5,4,; cubic inch. As the tempera-
ture of the apartment seldom differed from that of the apparatus
by more than some four or five degrees during our experiments,
the entire error would be within -4,th of an inch, while as be-
fore mentioned, the smallest reliable reading of the measuring

scale is ;4,th cubic inch. It has therefore been thought useless

200
to attempt any correction for the temperature of this part of the
enclosed gas.

Mode of Manipulating —From the description just given of
the several parts of the apparatus, the general method of opera-
ting with it will be readily inferred, and but few words need be
added on this head.

Bringing the entire apparatus to the required temperature, (60°
in most of our experiments,) the unit bottle, charged with the
liquid to be used, is hung in the large reservoir, to attain exactly

the same temperature. ‘The back of the gasometer pipe is in-|

serted in the flask air-tight, and a brisk stream of carbonic acid
is suffered to flow through the apparatus for five minutes. Some
mercury is now poured by a long funnel into the measuring tube
to arrest the current. The flask being raised so as to lay bare
the mouth, the cork is withdrawn, and at the same moment,
while the stream of gas is pouring out and overflowing from the
flask, the unit bottle is secured in the opening and fastened by
the spring above. After swinging the flask down to its vertical
position, the level of the mercury in the measuring tube is care-
fully adjusted, and the agitation is now commenced. The liquid
at first descends only by drops, but soon begins to flow more rap-
idly. ‘The vibratory movement of the flask is of that sudden
kind which effectually brings the gas and liquid into intricate
contact—and the absorption rapidly proceeds. Two operators
are necessary in conducting the experiment, one to keep up the
shaking, and the other to supply the outer limb of the measuring
tube with mereury as the column on the other side ascends.
With water, we have found the absorption to be completed in

about five minutes. The oils, dense saline solutions and sul-

on the Absorption of Carbonic Acid Gas by Liquids. 103"

phuric acid, require a longer time, but even with the last named
substance which i is one of the most sluggish in its action, the ab-
sorption reaches its limit in less than thirty minutes.

Purity of the Carbonic Acid.—The gas used in our experi-
ments was supplied by the reaction of dilute ER acid
and fragments of calc spar, contained in the self-regulating ap-
paratus figured in the preceding diagram. For sometime, after
charging the vessel with water and acid, the gas Hyde contains
a marked proportion of atmospheric air, derived
originally present in the water, and which is neal. tina a
as the carbonic acid is absorbed by the liquid. This admixture
with air was found to continue until the solution became we
charged with the gas, and this-result, in the ordinary use of the
apparatus, was very slowly attained. ‘To hasten the saturation,
and thus bring the materials into a condition to furnish unmixed
gas, the action of the acid liquid on the carbonate was renewed
at short intervals, by opening the stop-cock of the reservoir, and
in this way in a few hours the gas evolved was almost absolutely
exempt from atmospheric air.

At the commencement of each set of experiments, a specimen
of the gas, two cubic inches, was passed into a tube over mercury
and tested by a moist fragment of caustic potash. When the
contents of the reservoir were in a proper condition, the residuum
of unabsorbe gas in this experiment was a mere globule, rarely
more than ;',th of - inch in diameter, and therefore indicating
from crinath to to asth of gaseous impurity.

Thus assured of 1 e almost total absence of atmospheric air in
the gas supplied under these conditions, our next precaution was
to determine the degree of purity it retained, when eynny. as
in our experiments, by simple displacement into the and
measuring tube. For this purpose a V shaped tube, Sightocn
inches

vessel and tube eae for five minutes. The stop-cock of ihe
tube was then closed, the open end stopped with the finger, and
the tube detached and inverted over mercury. ‘The contents
Were now examined in the usual way with caustic potassa. Ina
number of such trials, made at different stages of our investiga-
= we found the amount of residual gas to range from about
resath to ;ss,th of the entire volume employed. In the ab-
sorption apparatus, the charge of gas is probably less, and certainly
not more contaminated with atmospheric air than in the trials ae
mentioned, and can therefore involve no sensible error from this
source.

It remains to ascertain how far the CO,, escaping from the
gasometer, might be mingled with hydrochloric acid. The pres-

fr

104 Professors W. B. and R. E. Rogers

gas. It is important, however, to remark, that using-a much ~
larger proportion of hydrochloric acid with the water of the
reservoir, distinct traces of this substance may be detected in the
issuing gas, and to remove all chance of error, therefore, after each
new charge of acid, the gas was carefully tested by transmission
through the solution of nitrate of silver.

the Hygrometric State of the Gas.—Excepting in the ex-

that in repeated trials, with gas previously dried and saline solu-
tions, there occurred an irregular expansion of the gaseous vol-
ume in the first stage of the action, which did not show itself

when the undried gas was used. Such an enlargement, due — 4

evidently to the rise of aqueous vapor into the dry space in the
first moments of the agitation, being of variable amount accord-
ing to the solution used, would form a serious obstacle to the ex-
act measurement of the absorption.

In the case of the sulphuric acid and other bodies referred to
as exceptions, this would not take place. On the contrary, the

esence of aqueous vapor in the gas would here involve other
errors, due to the absorption of the vapor by the liquid, or to the
heat disengaged by their reaction.

The drying of the gas being thus prohibited in a great majority
of the experiments, it became important to ascertain whether the
earbonic acid, coming from the gasometer, was saturated with
vapor, as in this case, from the observed absorption of the moist
gas, it would be easy to compute the amount of dry gas which
had actually disappeared.

For this purpose, the acid solution in the gasometer was allow-
ed to continue its action until it became entirely neutral. A
measured volume of the gas was then passed very slow/y through
along drying tube of chlorid of calcium, previously counter.
poised. By preliminary trials with an additional smaller tube,
similarly charged, it was ascertained that scarcely a trace of mois
ture escaped absorption in the long tube. Before the second weigh-
ing of the latter, it was freed from carbonic acid by aspiration,
the smaller tube being attached to prevent the entrance of atmos-
pheric moisture. In repeated experiments thus performed, the

on the Absorption of Carbonic Acid Gas by Liquids. 105

weight of vapor contained in the gas was found to correspond
closely with that proper to the temperature and a state of satura-
tion. In other words, the. vapor mingled with the gas was at is
um tension. As in its neutral state, the liquid of the gas-
ometer contained most dissolved matter, it was to be inferred that
the effect upon the tension of the vapor rising from it would then
be most perceptible, and that therefore in the working condition
of the apparatus, the saturation of the vapor could nat be less, —
although it might be a small fraction more. Similar experiments
with the gas under these conditions gave us, however, the same
results. We concluded, therefore, that the dissolved matter in
the gasometer, is not in sufficient quantity to produce - sensible
modification of the tension of the aqueous vapor evolved, and
that in all our experiments, we may assume the gas to - ig
ated with vapor proper to the temperature at which we
Of the Correction for Moisture —This being Jedeael ccm
the pressure of the atmosphere and the vaporous tension jointly,
requires a record of the barometer for each experiment. By the
equal adjustment of the columns in the measuring tube, the en-
tire tension of vapor and gas together, is the same at the close as
at the beginning of the experiment, and is measured by the height
of the barometer. 'The tension of the vapor remains unchanged,
because it is vapor of igo eg and is condensed into water in
pee as the gaseous space contraets in the progress of the
absorption. If therefore v represent the @, ent a tion, or
the volume which has disappeared, and v the volume of dry gas
in V, estimated under the full atmospheric pressure ; and if p de-
note ‘that pressure, in other words, the height of the barometer,
and f the tension of the vapor proper to the temperature, we

have v = V jaar §
It is important to remark, that =A tension of the gas under
which this absorption takes plac e, is p—f, and not p, and that in

tabulating the results, the depsceieas: ebvorption should refer to the
actual pressure of the gaseous atmosphere in the flask, and hot
to the entire atmospheric pressure
From experiments upon the absorption of carbonic acid gas at
various pressures by water, Dr. Henry, as is well known, was
led to infer that ong ns volumes are absorbed at all sir or
what is the same thing, that the quantities of gas absorbed are
_ exactly proportioned to the pressures. "This very simple law, if
true, would 1 render the correction for moisture supeminowme ‘Por

equal the volume absorbed at p. Thus V, the
tion, that is, the volume disap at the pressure aaonating
partly of F eee and fi rete of soe ee would be preeisely the sam

¥ as alone which would disappear atthe same

106 _ Professors W. B. and R. E. Rogers

pressure. But further experiments are, we think, needed, to de-
termine with precision the law of absorption as dependent on
pressure, and in the mean time, the law of Henry can only be
looked upon as approximately true. From observations on this
subject in which we have lately been engaged, and which we
nope to continue, we have been led to infer that, in comparing
widely variant pressures, there is a marked departure from this law.

Although therefore, from the small difference of gaseous pres-
sure (that between p and p—/) in our experiments, we believe
that no sensible error could be introduced by applying the law of
Dr. Henry to the results, we have thought it proper in reporting
them, to state the volume of dry gas absorbed and the reduced
pressure, as well as the apparent absorption and entire barometric
pressure.

Having now presented all the details of our mode of operating,
and of the precautions and corrections we have used, we proceed
to give an account of the results, treating of them in the follow-
ing order:

I. Of the absorption by water.

If. Of that by sulphuric and other acids, and by other un-
mixed liquids.

If. Of that by various saline aqueous solutions.

I. Absorption of Carbonic Acid by Water.—The water used in
ese experiments, as well as in making the solutions employe
in others to be described hereafter, was prepared by careful distil-
lation in a copper vessel. Its purity was such, that several cubic
inches evaporated in a platinum capsule, gave no indication of
alkaline matter to the most delicate test paper, and when entirely
volatilized, left scarcely a trace of residuum. Before being used,
it was briskly boiled for half an hour, quickly transferred to a
well stopped bottle, and when sufficiently cooled, exposed to the

&

exhausting action of a good air-pump. ‘The bottle was then sus- —

pended in the large reservoir, to bring it to the proper tempera-
ture, before the charge was introduced into the flask. se
The absorption was seen to begin as soon as the first drop de-
scended from the flask, and with brisk agitation, the process was
completed in about five minutes after the liquid was brought in
contact with the gas. To satisfy ourselves that no further ab-
sorption would occur, we repeatedly prolonged the agitation to
fifteen or twenty minutes, allowed the apparatus to rest, and again
resumed the shaking, but without producing any appreciable
change in the column of the measuring tube.
Although, from the purity of the gas used, the closeness of the
apparatus, and the care with which it was charged with gas, we
had no reason to apprehend any dilution of the CO,, yet as such
a change would cause the absorption to terminate short of the
saturation of the liquid proper to an unmixed atmosphere of the

eal

a —

on the Absorption of Carbonic Acid Gas by Liquids. 107

gas, experiments were made to determine if any further absorp-
tion was caused by a renewal of the charge. This was done b
removing the flask, driving a stream of CO, into the bottle, a
sing the orifice by an air-tight stopper, readjusting the levels, an
submitting the liquid to further agitation. Repeated trials at 60°,
gave no indications of additional absorption. We would there-
fore regard our results as furnishing a nearly accurate measure
the absorption of carbonic acid by pure water.

These results, together with the conditions under which the
observations were made, are comprised in the following table.

Table of the Absorption of Carbonic Acid by Water, from 32° to 212°.

No. ak. External | po om,| APP: 2s. | Mean of Mean abs. | Tension

of COz |thermom-| ~27°™ by app. abs. jof dry CO.) of gas jodie
Ex. © HO. eter. ~ #*. 1100;2..—10. =V. A =p-f. | to 60°..
oe | 545% 48 | 166:

2) 54 yd 166°5 166-25 165-08 29:28 | 175-72

3) 40 55 )*4 1425 ‘

4 40 65.2% 4 142- 142-25 140:8 29-21 | 147-94

5 555 )4 119-5

f “bod . ) 4 120-5 120- 118-44 29:1 | 122-27

64:5 )r4 100-5

f ) 64:5. )-4 100-2

) ) 645 Jee 100-5 100-4

10 | ¢ 65 ). 100-5 .

65 ) 100:8 er any 98-5 28-82 | 100-5

12 | 65 )- 100-5

13 65 ): 100-5 100-6

3 72 y 85:5 °

15 ) 72 y21 |. 85-5 85-5 83-36 | 2848 | 83-86.
16 75 J: m6

i ) 75 » 715 71:25 63°75 28:5. | 68-60
18 | 90 80-5 54 60-5

19}. 90 80-5 54 61:2 60-85 778 28-18 | 57-50
2011 80°5 54 54:5

8 100 80-5 9:54 54 94:25 49-83 27-68 | 50-39

On comparing the second and third columns in the above table,

- it will be seen that, in the observations from 50° to 80° inclusive,

the temperature of the contiguous air in no case differed from
that of the apparatus by more than 5°-5. Hence during the few
minutes occiipied in each experiment, the temperature even of
the smaller reservoir experienced only a very slight and quite un-
important change, amounting in none of the experiments to as
much as one-tenth of adegree. Inthe experiments at 40°, it
was found easy to maintain a uniform temperature by a few frag-
ments of floating ice, and in those at 32°, the use of a large
unchanged. The observations at 90° and 100°, were attended
with a slight cooling in the small reservoir, which however, in
no case exceeded one degree, an amount too small to cowed

y ;
The above table presents we believe the first spinemntic seri
of piaicvicbas on the comparative absorption of CO,, by water “

aie eo eee ie » Pe Sa aor ey aie. Pe. 3p t

Ed

8 Professors W: B. and R. E’. Rogers

different temperatures, yet made known. The experiments of
Dalton, Henry, Manchester and Saussure, were made almost ex-
clusively at 60°. The only results, referring to other tempera-
tures, which we have seen numerically noted, are one by Caven-
dish at 55° and one by Henry at 85°. According to Cavendish
the absorption by one hundred volumes of water at 55° is one hun-
dred and sixteen. In Henry’s experiment the same volume of
water at 85°, is said to have absorbed eighty-four volumes of the
e latter result departs very widely from the mean of our
experiments at 80° and 90°, which is about sixty-six volumes
instead of eighty-four. The experiment seems to have been
made with little care and merely to test the effect of a higher
temperature upon the amount of absorption. The number ob-
tained by Cavendish in his observation at 55°, corresponds more
nearly with our results, which, taking the mean of the experi-
ments at 60° and 50°, would be about one hundred and ten, in-
stead of one hundred and sixteen, the number which he has given.
In the more numerous and important experiments at 60°, the
observed absorption as given by Saussure, is one hundred and six,
by Henry, one hundred and eight, and by Dalton, one hundred.
h

gas than is proper to the normal pressure. 'The concussive move-
ment, violently compresses the gas at each vibration, and the ad-
ditional quantity which in these circumstances is promptly taken
up by the water, is very slow in separating after the quiescent
pressure has been restored.

Referring to the arrangement of the preceding table, it will be
seen that the numbers in the 7th column express the absorption,
reduced to volumes of dry gas and to the density corresponding
to p in the 4th column. | The obvious formula for this has already
been explained. The numbers in the 8th column, represent the
actual tension of the gas under which the absorption took place.
These two columns give the direct experimental relation of the
absorption of dry gas with the tension of the same. But assum-
ing Henry’s law to be correct, and in the present case it can in-
volve no sensible error, this relation would be equally expressed
by the corresponding numbers in columns 4 and 6, Thus while
it is clearly proved, from the observations at 50°, that under the
pressure 29'l=p—Jf, 118-4 volumes of dry gas are absorbed, it
would also be true that under the pressure 29-46 =p, 120 volumes
of dry gas would be absorbed, for p : V=p—/: ».

x
i

be
/
;
;
af

ibis
on the Absorption of Carbonic Acid Gas by Liquids. 109

It is further evident that admitting this law, all the numbers
(p) in the column of barometric heights may be reduced to one
standard number, as for example 30 inches, without at all chang-
ing the volume of V. Thusat 50° while one hundred and twen-
ty volumes are absorbed under a pressure of 29-46 inches, one
hundred and twenty volumes will also be absorbed at a pressure
of 30 inches, the latter volumes being denser than the former in
the proportion of 30 to 29°46.

The last column of the table represents the values of V, con-
tained in column 6, after they have been reduced to the common
temperature 60°. ‘These numbers therefore indicate the relative
vad or ee of carbonic acid absorbed at the tempera-
tures rec

The slasines of the 177 a sis cae
soviet to nie tem- 447.9)
rature is simply pic
tured in the ce al 122-2 = :
nying diagram, where __ i
the temperatures are ed
measured in the hori- 838 Th
zontal, and the corres- 96 et
ponding absorptionsin §59.3——}—___-__—___—__—_ +
the vertical direction.
It will be remarked
that this curve a |
proaches the horizon- Fe DO BO ae

tal axis less rapidly, as the temperature rises, so that, for example,
the absorption is greatly more diminished in passing from 40° to
60°, than in passing from 60° to 80°, and still more than in pass-
ing ‘from 80° to 100°. 'This would lead to the inference that at
temperatures much above 100°, we should find the absorption
still quite considerable.

To satisfy ourselves on this point, we made repeated experi-
ments at 150° and 212°, by passing a stream of gas from the pipe
of the gasometer through a measured quantity of water, main-
tained by a peculiar lamp arrangement, at the proposed tempera-
2k The pipe being bade while the ee was con-

, any floating carbonic acid was removed from the surface

of the liquid by a blast se air, and a solution of baryta was then

ded. In the water at 150°, a very copious eosin was

was separated by filtration under a vessel kept full

of iydmoech gas to prevent the absorption of atmospheric carboni¢e

acid by the precipitant, and the weight of the carbonate deter-
mined by the method of double filters.

Bl ee eerie 14:5 cubic inches of water at 150°, oe

grs. of carbonate of baryta, which corresponds to vo.
mes of carbonic acdaiilidi de hich rT ed.

110 _ Oxydation of the Diamond in the Liquid Way.

In the water at 212°, a precipitate was also formed, but the
amount although sufficient to produce a very obvious cloudiness,
was too small to be readily estimated. We propose however to
determine its quantity accurately hereafter. In this expoune
the liquid was in active ebullition, while the stream of gas
passing, and continued to boil fora few seconds after the arabia
of the gas pipe.

It ts aha clearly proved that water is capable of absorbing
carbonic acid, in sensible quantity, while it is actually boiling
under ordinary pressure.

(To be continued.)

Art. XI. ~ Benue isan of the Diamond in the Liquid Way; ; by
Prof. R. E. Rocrrs and Prof. W. B. Roast University of
Virginia. =
Tue processes for oxydating the diamond, hitherto described,

consist in actually burning this gem either in the open air, in

oxygen gas, or in some substances rich in oxygen, as nitrate of

n all these experiments a very elevated temperature is .

pot

required. We have therefore been much interested by the dis-
covery suggested to us by our experiments on graphite, but not
completely verified until lately, that the diamond may be con-
verted into carbonic acid in the liquid way and at a moderate

heat, by the reaction of a mixture of bichromate of potassa and.

sulphuric acid, in other words, by the orydating power of chro-

"The method of ob aes is much the same as in the oxyda-
tion of graphite, as described by us in the May number of this
Journal; but the progress oF the action is slower.

oO stice in the experiment, it is necessary to reduce the
chips of diamond to a very fine powder, by trituration with re-
peated portions of pure ooaien sand in an agate mortar. A
single grain weight of the gem will suffice for several experi-
ments. In our repeated trials we have generally used less than
half a grain, and we have obtained unequivocal proof of oxyda-
tion, by the evolved carbonic acid, when using less than ,?,ths
of a grain.

The apparatus employed, is in the main, identical with that
used in the analysis of graphite, but the Liebig tube is in this
case replaced by a vessel containing lime water.

Precautions are necessary to correct a slight error arising from
the evolution of a minute amount of carbonic acid. ee
ehromate and sulphuric acid, caused by the presence of a trace

of organic tnetter or of carbonate i in the former. pena gd

Scientific Intelligence. lil

Operating on half a grain of diamond, we have in a first pro-
cess obtained half a grain of carbonate of lime, and using the
residuary matter have continued the oxydation, until at length
the amount of carbonic acid evolved approached nearly to that
due to the entire weight of the diamond. In ‘these experiments,
the carbonic acid evolved by the bichromate and sulphuric acid
is first expelled from the apparatus, by a particular mode of con-
ducting the operation.

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

___L Cuemisrry anp Paysics.

iy the Latent ‘ge Specific Heat of Bodies; by C. C.
ERSON, (Comp i, p- 162; Pogg. Annalen, a p- 300.)
—Person gives the allowing a as his results on latent heat :
Melting point. Fee
Tin, i's 235° Cent. M3 = ?
Bismuth, in At 12-4
= ; eS 515
Zin 8 6 * 27-46
D’Arcet’s alloy», Pb Sm $ Bigs a aad 5
Fusible mos Pb Sn, Bi, 145... -* 7-63
Phosphor 442 « 4-71
ulphur . ‘ > a) ieee 9°175
Nitrate of en . , ‘ ' 3105 * 62:98 ‘
Nitrate of potash, 339 “* 46°18
Phosphate of a PO, 2Na 024HO, 364“ 54°65
Chlorid of calcium, Cl Cao-+6Ho, : ao. 45°79
| Yellow bees’ wax, 62-0 “ 43°51

we examine this and the following table, we see that the latent
heats do not follow the order of the temperature, and that they are not,
also, inversely as the atomic weights, as oe a But they are

rela oe ae? fig poi nts and specific hea
a t)d—I,

rn ee 4 ides &. ey vee

112 _ Scientific Intelligence.

is results on specific heat :—

% 3 Temperatures between ich

_ Substances, the specific heat was ob- | Specific heat. —
qo aaa
2 a) aaa . . 4 340° and 240° Cent. | OO61 ©
eee Te 88 035

a . . . .
D’Arcet’s alloy, PbSn,B,,| 300 “ 136 «
Gy. cries 2 ‘ ‘

jap, (> 10.38
ee ‘ . Sie seae.
do. | SA aes Ee

Fusible alloy, Pb Si, Bis wou. 6
Phosphoru no oe

Sulphur, ‘ :
Nitrate of soda, : ; 430 Se = Sa0

Nitrate of potash, > Boe eo aoe
sare, of soda, ; rt eee ©
oo i a ee

Chlorid of calcium, : 127 « 100 ae
A i : 60 “= 9188

Ooi. ‘ , .. 4° eat
Gia. ; . 2 ¢ 2
Yellow bees’ wax, 6. 102... 6G es
als do. . . . :

the formula in its physica sense, and not as an empirical one
2. Note on the means of testing the comparative value of avian
Substances for the purpose af, Tanning ; by Rosext Warineton, Esq»
Cat Mag., xxxi, 150, from the Proceedings of the Chemical Society-)—
aving been fr equenily valled upon to examine the value of astringent
sa bitnnes imported into this country for the purposes of tanning, such
as valonia, divi-divi, sumac, cutch, &c., 1 am induced to bali

such as varieties of ‘auslioe s glue, patent gelatin, go he finest long
idlole isinglass was found to be the most constant in’ its ee
least liable to aie change.

Chemistry and Physics, 113

With this. therefore the test solution was prepared, of such a strength,
that each division, by measure in es ordinary alkalimeter tube, should
be equivalent to the one-tenth or one-fourth of a grain of pure tannin,

in water, or if necessary the astringent matter extracted by boiling,
and the clear liquid precipitated by. the test solution: until no further
deposit occurred..

was necessary in the course of this bei to test at iiervale a
portion of the solution under examination, to ascertain the progress of
the trial; and this, from the nature of a precipitate, was attended at
first with some little difficulty : paper filters were inadmissible from the
quantity of the solution they would absorb, and thus introduce a source’
of extensive error; subsidence rendered the operation very tedious.
The pea. I have 6 adopted i is as follows :—a piece of glass tubing, about

and this has a small‘piece of wet sponge loosely introduced
ower extremity, and when it is wished to abstract a part of the
ul ler investigation for a separate testing, this is immersed a few

conds in gi partially precipitated solution; the clear liquid then
filters by ascent through the sponge into the tube anes is to be decanted

from its other extremity into a test glass; i if 0 siding a drop of the
gelatin solution to this a fresh gnomes is mula, e whole is re-
turned to the or riginal biti and the process procee sit in, and so on,

until the operation is perfected ; 3 this rethicd ef operating is facilitated
_by'co conducting the examination in a deep glass. After a few trials the
‘manipulation will be found extremely easy, and in this way ie
ble ac aed =e bea arrived a
3. On the ieee ure Sulphuric Acid ; by Ava. A. Haves,

‘of such te neces as were y iiearls ae in the hands of accurate
oP isi .

‘sumption, t the Soe is ae to this ¢

ithout entering into scientific details, I shall describe an economi-
ess which | have carefully studied a by which the pure acid,
ny laboratory, has long been obtai
manu nufactories of sulphuric ea the weaker acid from. the
is concentrated in lead pans, usually to the density of
ferred without cooling to the platinum alembies for fur-

9 commences with the hot acid, and it may be sup-
posed to contain sulphurous acid, hydrochloric acid, hyponitrie acid,
‘arseno us acid, oxyds of iron. and lead, ‘ney tn lime, soda. and epee
matter, although the acid obtained of Sicily sul-
phur, is rarely oye —. Ok additig pe aye t acid sufficient /

© Ritrate of potash, a, to destroy the organic matter, the bro

114 sf Stienific Intelligence:

-eplone disappears and the fluid becomes colorless. - re addition of fsbo
of sulphate of ammonia, removes the remaining hyponitric acid ;
of the hydrochloric acid has been removed by the site and anphele
‘ous and arsenous acids carried to their highest stage of oxydation.
The o oxyds present, aid the further purification ; by continuing the con-
centration to 1°78, a trifling addition of oxyd of lead is made, but it .
essential to the success of the process oe this point of density be
reached. e fluid mustsnow be coole eep vessels of lead, thie
temperature of it being gradually reduced to. 32° and allo eed
become perfectly clear. The clear part must then be run into shallow
lead vessels so placed that they may be refrigerated to 0 Fabr. As the
whole acid has nearly the hydrate composition of S0,-+-2HO, it would
form by repose a solid crystalline mass. In ordinary cases, the regular
crystals form solid masses, which are allowed to increase, till one ~hal

.

as is rapidly removed, the crystals broken up and. ee with

acid desalltie from the crystals of a former operatio ee

rhe erystallized in this way, nearly all the ‘coment which
can be detected, arises from the fine granular sediment of anhydrous —

washed with sarsioniy sui hine acid, afford an kala ele
if required in the concentrated state, may be pines swe to
the platinum alembic, melted and boiled. For the ate
‘searches, the crystals must be melted in glass, or or neler a,
tallized out of contact with metals or dust, leaving oetale fserart | ,
of the acid in a fluid state. If the subsequent use of the acid does not
require the remoyal of the water, which is very rarely the case, the
crystals being a perfectly definite hydrate when fluid, best us Bg
weigh and apportion the wane of real acid with great pre
n the laboratory, when used for cases of difficult decomposition i

may be added to the eystaliaed bisulphate of potash, mix ie
substance to be acted on, and the whole brought to any oe of dty- ,
ness in the platinum utensils employed in such « operations, |

All the acid from which the pure acid has been abstracted, may be ©

sed for generating One or hyponitric acid in the manufacture of
snlphoric acid. The manufacture may best be carried on ie Ld :
winter months, and a aes obtained, stored, or melted.

crystals. ‘They are oblique four sided prisms, and often present faces .°
of twelve by sixteen inches. Their capacity for heat is also sage te
small parcels paperes at the mean temperature of 46° F., pirat ’
extreme slown

Lowell, oui Apiit 28th, 1848.

ape

Mineralogy and Geology. 115

__ I. Mineraroey anp Groxoey.
Per On the Wave of Translation in connexion with the Northern Drie j
y W. WueweEit, D.D., F.G.S., (Lon. Quart. Jour. Geo. Soc., Aug.
i“ 1847. )—The great geological problem of the “ Northern Drift” has been

‘ view is pres n the ‘ Geology of ‘Reis sia” “ah "Sit oderick
r Murchiso e are pee very simple numerical calculations which
1 belong to this waa and which may throw some light on the proba-

bility of such a theory. These calculations must necessarily be hypo-

thetical as to their ane tities, but as to their quantities only ; and even
these ht be capable of correction by a more careful survey of i facts.
ia aity

now to be consi

‘It has been statdd to the Geological Society, that, by ‘Napposihe the
‘sudden elevation of a submarine district, there is no ulty in account-
ing for a . of twenty-five or thirty miles an hour ni the bottom of

the sea, consequence of the “ wave of translation.” In makin
this aserion, I think it has not been sufficiently considered that what
is thus called a * ate Sy * is really a transient motion for each point of
~ the AD of the wa The great wave is solitary ; the fluid before

-and behind it is at eed and the particles move only while the wave is

as it passed over each, moving each but a small distance. A single

~ wave of translation bait explain the situation of a long Jine of masses
each of which is moved through a great distance.

If indeed we suppose a series of waves of translation each produced

by: a sudden elevation, or by some other paroxysmal action, we may ob-

In the operation of such a 9 ttery, each shock

a of the wave, and

by pio such ee

for.

cs

tgs ae

is eit
7

ae Scientific Intelligence.

‘work done and the force speed. will hold, as if the effect had been
produced by any other mechanic al power :—-whether the waves be one

or many, great or small. And as the amount of the work done in trans-
porting the northern drift from its parent rocks (supposing their place
known) to its present position, may be caiculated upon assumed numer-

Si >
but the result pre soaul can easily be Lerncy Ay changing it i ny
proportion ie Soh ee which ought to be made in any of the nu- | %
merical elem ; :

pl view, suppose the area to be circular, Smith a radius of 800 miles ; ;

therefore make the basis of calculation.
Within the circle of 800 m iles 0 200 500 y Hog

each mile, a patch of drift, one-tenth of a mile square and one foot ~
deep ; or a ridge or “trainée” of drift, one-tenth of a mile long, one~
hundredth of a mile broad, and. ten feet eep. It is easy to see that —
the supposition might be put in innumerable other forms; and by come"q:
paring these wi iy many observed facts, some average result might eee
haps be obta i ba
Supposing ‘is result to be, as I have said, that on every mile’ there "
is an average depth of one hundredth of a foot, I pe for the sake of :
re calculation, call this syy'5a5 of a mile (instea saesou) And md
e of ground, at oH mean Retain fromthe ori-
a cubic mile of dri

7 $ are immersed
piv “at of water.

Pausaes 1:2 and Geology. 7

on which it rests, tenets? on the form e body, its saga er that
of the surface, and other ceumsiances = saa I think we uppose
that it would require a force and pressure of at least ad ek the

weight of the mass Mathes to Neal Tooke and loose materials along

the bottom of the :
This being Bi it Swill require a force (pressure) equal to the

weight ba half a cubic foot of water to move a cubic foot of drift ; ; and

so, for ‘other quantities. And f move sygg00 Of a cubic mile o
drift, will” require the weight of z55}00 Of a mi ile of water, acting as”
a pressure.

Now this mass of drift, which is found on an average mile at the mean
distance, has travelled 500 miles from the centre. And the laboring
force whi ch has carried it through this space, in whatever way it has
acted, must be equivalent to the product of the moving pressure and the
space through sepion it has acted ; that is, it must ‘be rs {sda to the
weight of 1900000 of a mile of water, multiplied into 500 miles

is is the water, multiplied into one > mile ; ;
ati mn.

"That ne cubic mile of water rising through 5755 of a mile (or
; ‘sank - feat) would supply the power necessary to carry the ‘dr ift
which Hom axe one average mile at the mean distance from the centre
‘of distribution
1 sages of one cubic mile of wat ter, we may take a square of ten
miles, ;}5 of a mile deep; and this mass rising through 5,4; of a mile,
- will produce the effect now spoken of.
Taking any radius drawn from the centre of the annulus, the part of
this radius which lies on the annulus is 600 miles. On each of these
: 600 miles, we suppose drift to rest. Each portion of drift ‘et travelled

.. diferent distance fromthe centre. But at each different distance from
the centre, there may be a different ay of drift upon the average ;
; ae aetsivs probably decreasing as we recede from the centre. Let us

suppose, for the sake of badesdation: ‘has the quantity diminishes exactly
in roportion as the distance increases; so that at the distance of 200
eo a aan the quantities ona square mile are as four and one re-

PO nid supposition, the laboring the requisite to ey the drift
‘salen. lies on each square mile of “the same: radial lin , would be the
same. It would take the same ‘Saboring force to sash TpvoT0 of a
— through 500 miles (the mean radius), as to carry qZoopes through © |
200 miles to the inner edge of the annular space; or y-5}eg5. through
800 miles to oe outer edge ofthe annulus. In each case e, the amount
A "oF force requ’
wate

raised ‘rough one m

Here the laboring lies tekibtice to carry the drift to the whole ee

1e 600 mil vhich lie along this radius, would be e 38; 0 te 2
water eee one inile (600 Xs2,5=25= =75)-

whole sa siless ae tength of the

ae 8, is about 1500
cal tracts a

would be, as before, the weight of 3355 af a mile of: . ‘es

ie

~

a _ Scientifie Intelligence.

_ mass: of. drift: will be 1500 x 33;, or 450 cubic miles of water raised
through one mile.

‘Now though these radial tracks do not make up the annulus, being too

sion that 450 cubic miles of water raised a mile high would produce
an effect equivalent to the dispersion of the whole body of n rorth-
ern drift.

may put this result in a shape more readily eect It
is Bicivalons to 4500 cubic miles of water raised through a space of 49
of a mile ; or again, to a body of water 45,000 asfiees in surface and 15
of a mile deep, raised through 7/5 of a mile. If then “f aes

And this is true, whether we suppose the elevation to have taken place
at once, or by repeated operations, so long as they are dh abicerde mal. We
shall have the requisite force, for instance, if we ose this ‘area to

elevation in the same proportion, so as to retain the same ultimate 4
duct of water paroxysmally elevated through a certain sepace In
these cases, we shall have a machinery, which, operating '

re in propell-
. ing it ;--the law of its diminution in quantity as we recede from the cen-

tre of distribution ;—the final result will have to be ht int alone § di-
minished or augmente

It may be asked od whether, since the paroxysmal eisvalog may thus
be reduced in e smaller elevations, the same result would not.

follow if it were so reduced as fix ee. not paroxysmal, but gradual,
_and even insensible: for, it m

g
aid, mechanical power retains its...
amount however much it be ths daanbined through time, and ive ‘4
of the character of “gag peed violence. And to this I reply, that no.

action except such as is of a paroxysmal character could produce thé 7
effect. This impossibility depends upon the nature of the effeet to b : |
produced, The friction of the bottom which supports the _ mates |

disappear without peducng) sire such effects: as we a
ns to account for.

|
4
i
{

Mineralogy and Geology. » TY

And thus, the great mass of northern drift. inasmuch as no considera-

w shai or not we suppose the read tik oyed in the tintributon
of this mass from the centre to be waves of reanialy ik For e propo-

equally true, whatever be the machinery employed. As no gradual or
minute action could move the masses in question through a yard of space,
no accumulation of such action, through any amount of time, could dis-
tribute the masses through the great eigen which the northern drift
hanes versed, and spread them over the vast spaces which that forma-
The distribution of the peace drift belongs to a peri
ises operated than those which are now in action.
bof erhaps it may throw some light upon the subject to
remark that a. way e of translation differs little from a “ debacle” accord-
ing to the notions of earlier speculators. A wave of translation is a
debacle conceived according to the more exact notions to whic
science has led, Or rather, since a debacle was generally sna /
vast torrent eee over the land, arising from the emergence 0
oe ee hccatids area, or some such cause, we may say that a wave of trans-
lation, i in such cases as we Lave considered, is a debacle travelling along
_ the sea after it has been shot off the land.
2. On the Slow Transmission of Heat through loosely peters Clay
Spat Sand; by James Nasmyrn, Esq. ; communicated in a letter to Leon-
1RD Horner, Esq., P.G.S., (Lon. Quart. Jour. Geo. Soc., res 1847,)—
“When I lately had the pleasure to see you at the foundry, on drawing

oy

a
arti
o
—
nes
°
=,
5
hoe
o
o
>
rt)
ty
2
oS
o
n
lang
ty
=)
oO
Oo Oy
M
o
it
@
=)
&
oe
3
oO
=
i=]
aq
si
oO
~
ee
—
=
~
w
=|
Sc
Q
=
ge
4
i)
b=3
i

w had an important bearing on several interesting geological ques-
; tions, especially those relating to the ied of the central heat of the
earth,

ao your request | I have much pleasure in sending you a statement of

pein stance in question, under the impression that it may chance to
prove of s some - interest as an illustration of what may yet exist in re-
apoes-an th

yee will imidrober: was that Pr a large pbieaes pot,

coplecdag tons of white-hot melted cast-iron—a tem
re be quite beyeed, all thermometric certainty, but wall k
hest intensi ee furnace dest, ma aus ee al to

- fire-brick sing of such furnaces is only from 44 to 9 inches thick, and

_ its present form, has been covered by the creation which now occupies

: Scientific inuétligence

ee f
§ % *

This half- inch. thickness of mineral substance, however, was quite

7 is ‘ient to roo the conduction of the heat to the exterior so com-
0

3
a,
[=*

bod
f=)
a
jt a
5
2
5
Bh
“3
®
| al

so slowly and imperfectly does this thin li-
ning of half an inch of a and sand permit the heat to pass outwards,
that the entire mass night rest there till it became cool ere the outside.

‘of the pot would have reached a temperature high enough to carbonize

wood in contact with it, the radiation from the ‘outside carrying away
the heat as fast as the slow conducting power of the clay and sand li-
ning spe it.

So strikin ng an instance of the low conducting power of such sub-
stances is not frequently met with, and it appea 3 10 me that it is caleu-
lated to remove some of the doubts yeh expres ee
facts ee indicate a high temperature in the interior of the ear rth. If,
half an inch of mineral matter thus intercepts the ise of so

of high heat, the only ee of which, at the tae are afford ded.

by volcanos, hot springs, and that regular increase of temperature € as WO

Me

yet while the heat within is as high as our eee powers will carry abs
the hand aay be placed natelds without suffering any inconvenience, ~
3. On the Changes of the Vegetable Kingdom in the different Geolog- -
ical Epochs ;. by M. Avo.pn s Bronentarr, (Edin. New Phil. Jouty*
Jan. 1848 ; from L’Institut, ees 714, p. 280. )—The. changes which o. ie.
taken place in the nature of living beings, since their first appear |
on the globe till the period when the surface of the earth, having ae "a |

— =

it, constitutes one of the most interesting sonia of geology : : As has
the history of life and its metamorphos .
e fad ogress of re geology present s to us the surface. fe the ,
globe becoming renewed many times since the period when life
appeared aint it, under Shes influence of Creative Power. At each of
hese modifications—every time that a great bed of mineral matter cov- ’

the living beings which inhabited a earth, oaaya and bu uried in”
these sedimentary deposits, were replaced by 8 new creatio more or
less different from the preceding.

a

iii oe oe lh ee el
gs r =
Payee ieee
eh oes. we ss

baeex 12 ‘

Mineralogy and Geology. 121

It would be a difficult task at this moment to fix precisely the number
of these successive creations of animals and vegetables ; but science is
every day leading us nearer ie ait result, although it requires more
detailed facts to enable us to r

At certain epochs, ho BS aa ‘changes in the physical state of
our planet have fee folloy “— ots modifications equally great in the na-

earth, and its climate, at these different epochs, iiesciitee of the his-
tory of the formation of our globe.

From the most remote historical times, the vegetables Ee our
gobs have undergone no change. This is proved by the comparison

ins and. plants preserved in the tombs of Egypt, with thaws whisk

bes grow in that country.

ntrary, the plants of the latest geological periods,—those

1 rth before the last revolution of ie surface, and

e enclosed in the “pags its named tertiary formations,

—differ very considerably ons such as now grow in these same places.

ground, are greater as y occur in the more ancient beds of these

tertiary formations. “The most. facdee indicate a climate differing ghee

from that of temper. erate Europe; the most ancient announce a warm
ate than now occurs in atta region.

But in all these beds, which are very recent when compared with
the other parts of the crust of the globe, we find vegetation, as a whole,
agreaine in all its principal features with the mass of the vegetable

gdom which still inhabits the surface of the earth; there are the
same classes, the atural families, often the same genera. ‘The
general gharacters of this extinct vegetation are the same as those of
the existing vegetation, and we mig t suppose ourselves merely trans-
ported to another quarter of the globe, Viewed as a whole they are the
same ; the details only are different.

But if, on the contrary, we descend more deeply into the layers com-
posing the earth’s crust, and go back to the more ancient periods of the
creation; if we consider the vegetables preserved in the formations
named secondary, which have preceded those of which we have spoken

by many ages, we shall find the vegetable kingdom reduced to a m

oa number of those natural groups which we name fe
This variety of form and aspect, which mes such a charm 0 the
existing vegetation, did not then exist; and, cha eee oe word
the vegetable ki ingdom of those re cia acioa, we may say that the
plants composing it, _ "tae varied and numerous jo Bow
covering our ground, were all deprived of what ir greatest

Szconp Srnixs, Vol. VI, py 16, July, 1848. aa

122 Scientific Intelligence.

ornament, namely, those flowers with brilliant envelops which belong
to Giicer” all the plants of our period. All the vegetables of the first
geologica al periods were in fact eae se to our firs and ferns, ae
habit and elegant foliage form all their

In these ancient times of geological anew: we may farther sid.
eat periods ; the one nearest our own times, during which

most essential characters to those now existing, that they may be easily
classified in ai natural families. have just named; the other, more
ancient, to w the vegetables belong that have produced great

combustible. The latter recede much more widely from actnally living
‘orms, enter with more difficulty into known families, evidently con-
stitute other families altogether distinct from those of our actual creation,

families whose existence was not prolonged beyond this first geological _

eriod. |
The singular pid totais and great dimensions of these first inhab-

itants of our soil, ong thrown much obscurity over the great classes
of the existing veguiatie kingdom. Every day, however, the study of
em is advancing, and now we can no‘longer doubt that these gigantic

th ng, )

vegetables, so remarkable by their extraordinary forms and by their
structure, constitute special families, allied, saws: to the ferns and
ohtabi (that is to say, belonging tot divisions of vascu

peri of
‘ereation of living beings, the v: was composed only of
plants belonging to the two ¢ lasses of that mi pa ished by
the simplest structure. These eaten Ma sen apesil were of
— dimensions, and thé ‘greater —_ seared families now

exti
At eater period, these two great clases still —— vs exist alone
on the earth, ~ ie forms hier os more to those

which were to anaes chat ue epoch did not en exist, >
ra during this latter sang vegetation assumes characters es
to those it now presents. The more perfect vegetables, known
by ie name of angiospermous phanerogams, appeared in gre eat numbers,
and the vegetable kingdom is not distinguishable from that now existing
but by characters of detail, or by ee ei to those widieh
diversities of climate still produce on the e
we now compare the — es of che “families which, like the
ferns and Conifere, have been perpetuated during all the geological
periods, from the most ancient up to the — we perceive that 8
as belong to the most remote creations, are most allied to the plants’ of
those families which now inhabit regions of Umpouthieiying ¢ebae

ae

Mineralogy and feneay- 123

very different from our own ; and that such, on the contrary, as we meet
with in the most recent beds, become more analogous to the species
which still grow in these same countries, as the geological eae to
which they belong approaches nearer oa age

Every thing, therefore, proves, ont e hand, that the different
vegetable creations which have Heat — other on the globe have
become more and more perfect ; on the other hand, that the climate of

4. Geo logy and Topography. of the Isthmus of Panama; by Eva
Hopaixs, C.E., F.G.S., (Mining Journal, April 8, 1848; tbelaied
from the Bogoté Gazette of the Oth Sept. 1847. )—By reference to a
prepared plan, it will ‘be observed that the Cordillera of mountains, form-
ing the chain of union between the two i agereaik is curved in the shape
of an are on the Isthmus of Panama—the c x side faces the north,
the easterly portion runs in a south-eastern pipes towards Darien,

is broken, and the co ntinuity of the chain interrupted by the oblialle
intersection of the River C! agres. ‘Towards the north-east, between
th f we

Boqueron Principally on L bed of e river, owing to the re ani
ag feet nature of the banks, ae numerous and deep waterfalls ied
s, which exist near its source, render it necessary to leav
the ese and travel along the steep sides of the surrounding mour roke
The heads of this river consist of various branches, one 0 which arises

nt it y tee from the oe ay union of the Pequent to half its extent.

The river and the road being synonymous terms in this route, our road

continued descending as before, but rather in the waters of the Cascajal .
along its”

Portobelo. The great difficulties and obstructions, caused
ions, this route, and the choice made of sucha
direc are a strong g proof that the Spaniards found insuperable ‘ob-
saeriod to the formation of a pa road between Portobe

From the € pass in the mountain above alluded to, ase Ri Se 1e
chain is divided into numerous longitudinal branches ; one pew
Portobelo, and terminates abruptly in the sg af this port Paka a
elevation of 600 feet ; TI 9 ag Me ds

124 Scientific Intelligence.

up to the mouth of the Ronee varying from 400 feet to 900 feet in
height, and having a few peaks of still greater elevation. e space
comprised between these fired principal ridges is full of a multitude of
smaller ones, which form the channels of the rivers Agua Lucia, pn
Aqua Clara, which fall into the Chagres, and of the Grande, Guanche,
and Buenaventura, which discharge ‘themselves into the Atlantic.
The gold washings of Santa Rita are situated on the central branch,
between the rivers Clara and Grande. - From the summit of the central
Cordillera, at Santa Rita, (which was the direction of my third journey
across the Isthmus,) a commanding view is obtained of the chain,
from the elevated point of eeparation to the east, as far as Portobello,
and, on the other side, of the whole length of coast of the Atlantic,
as far as Chagres, and from wence to the | Cordillera, in the vicinity .

g on this elevated and dense mass of mountains, which in-
tervene bérteaeh Portobello and Panama, deeply furrowed by so many

struct any thing resembling a commodious road, diagonally from Porto-
bello, I examined the Cordillera i in the rear of Portobello; and it appears

ing the rivers near their sources, and gradually descending along the
of the south side, towards Cruces, or any other dénvenient point on
it River Chagres. ‘The peones sometimes follow this direction, which
is called the new road, and it is, doubtless, preferable to that of the
Boqueron. ‘The aiemtiee? from Portobello to Panama, in a direct line, is
about 40 miles ; by the Boqueron, including the turnings, 60; by the
top of the Cordilleras, including ace ns ni turns, 58 ; rom Chagres,
along the River Gorgona, 42, and from Gorgona to to Panama, 19=—61;.
from the Bay of Limon, along ihe sa + baek of the Chagres, by Gor-
na, to Panama, 35 miles. The last is the most direct and? shortewe
road, and the one which appears to me to present fewer obstacles
than any other to the formation of a railroad across the Isthmus. ‘The
ped of Limon is equally the only port, besides” Portobello, bg to
; purpose, on the Atlantic coast, within the described limits.
The asthe Hemet part of the prin cipal chain to the south of the
agres, near Gorgona, is divided into a number of conical mountains ;
but, Siren on, einen cle centre of Trinidad, they unite into a cor-
dillera, of au average elevation of 500 fe et. se ie space e between this”

‘dal mourtaqtie An opinion prevailed, ol there existed intl

cn simply revit locks * Cores) at each Stlvmien ‘but thi s alla-

Mineralogy and Geology. 125

ity of this portion of the globe — justify such an undertaking. The
time has, nevertheless, arrived, when public attention should be directed

Isthmus is on the increase, and, consequently, some immediate and im-
portant cs Lier to is Tequired to » facilitate ‘the transit.

The surface betw ‘gona, Cruces, and Panama, gradually, and
with gentle wi diivuthoin, slopes towards the Pacific, and is covered with
various groups of conical hills, decomposed rocks, colored clay, sand, and
loose stones. A section, from the mouth of the River aS

near the base of the Cordillera of Trinidad, then a rapid ascent of 450
feet, followed by a corresponding fall to the Pacific. “A section, from
the center of the mines (Ensenada-de minas) at Panama, shows a suc-
cession of deep oes aaa as far as Gorgona, and from thence a grad-
all to the coast. Another section, from Portobello, begins with a
Hnpid: ascent from the bier ; it then follows the turns of the rocks and
falls of the rivers Grande and Gatun, amounting to an elevation of 1000
feet, and concludes with a rapid descent to the River Chagres. A
diagonal section, from the mouth of the:Chagres, along the river, as far
as Gorgona, and from'thence to Panama, embraces the lowest point of
depression between the two seas ; the highest point in this section is
between the River Grande, and the Obispo, which does not exceed 150
feet ; consequently, with 1 ‘both to level'and distance, this line of-
fers greater attractions and facilities than any in another direction, for
making an easy and comparatively cheap communication across the
isthmus. ‘
- Notwithstanding the want of a port at Chagres, and the excellency
of the port of Portobello, the first place is made use of, and is at present
the only profitable point for the transit. As there is little or no coasting
trade (comercio costonero) worth mentioning, nor any internal trade, the
ports are necessarily rendered dependent on the facilities offered by the
darics a the purposes of internal transit: this is the reason why
eprived Portobello of its shipping, and caused it to be al-
most skidoned: There ought to be some prospect of increase in rot
internal resources—i. e., in the production and consumption, a
merely in the transport, to justify the formation of any thing better chat
a good mule-road from Portobello to the south of the great chain.
‘good aor 5 would answer for passengers, money, and light articles ;
but it would not serve the general purposes of commerce, as it w:
probably increase the expenses and delays, and would be more -
posed to det it i

Tt stipeats to me ste this great question, of improving the sialic.
cation between the two seas, ought to be considered asa Doe agreed
= iattnpaeie and that every arene wannulue ought to be od Aged

126 Scientific Intelligence.

dertaken with the probability of its being completed without delay. It
pers » ~ secon some day, ne" the sooner it is taken in haw

western vate of New Granada, saahpeuann of the isthmus, wou
imm

rocks, which gradually pass from one to the other, and run in large
layers, more or less, in a northerly direction. The schistose rocks are
largely developed in the Boqueron end the Cascajal, te the laminated
structure of the hornblendic rocks i is well defined, their inclination vary-

beecominenh aeenecients are visible in the mass, and
to numerou s black, green, piney white, brown, and bright red.
_ From sa - =i, ha chain to the west, the mass is hornblendic, but
Ghinct to the usual variations in its cat alternating between por
phyry, greenstone, and basalt, conformably to the changes in the relative
proportions of hornblende and feldspar. ‘There is a great soto
lica in these rocks; quartz in spit 2 veins, or masses, is ake a , Hie

Sprypnsitan ap are numerous, pad consis the penal super rior masses
of the isth
This sort t of spherical . exoliating decomposition, Sti scarcely a
vestige of the original rock is percep common enough in.
ene and porphyries ef the. yer and | che ete are 1 frequently
| with a species of efflorescence of black ferruginous sand;
and when this is sucerous the gold is found mixed wit th fr iron the
course of time, the pieces scale, and the masses crumble ; . na being
carried by rey dur to the cavities and Nelloea:. sec condary
deposits are formed of ma eda), sand, Pie papi or gravel,
which, i in ager warm mclimats are soon’consolidated in

ad peso wn of Panama is situated on sec mene agilaceous sapeetes

the original compound, to form a cement for binding together the s
mentary deposits. Lime for building is a marine prgdoction, obtai ned
principally from shells ; and, in consequence xcess of phos:

and the absence of silicate of lime, and owe. i

wee
aes

|

Mineralogy and Geology. 127

is great serge in ohaiaine a good composition for works exposed to
the action of water, or _ ydraulic lime. ven to make lime for ordinary

bind. The foregoing secondary deposits~-those of Barbacoas—
white argillaceous deposits eranenes Cruces and E] Pequeui ts. Caimi-
tello, are all the secondary rocks I have seen. There are a few calcareo-
Siwuinian rocks, ie RNP Te vi mien erie ant St. Juan,
i correctly speaking, they are not deserving of not The. je
the shores of the Atlantic, on ‘ikewies the Saidionaninn is
sian exclusively from the coral rocks, which so nonrne and ex-
uberantly vegetate on the hornblendic shore of Portobello, > town
and fortifications of Portobello are entirely built of cotal, and they appear
very durable. The persons who have hinted at the existence of lime-
stone and freestone quarries, in the Isthmus of Panama, must have been
mistaken, and were evidently unacquainted with the geological position
of these rocks. | ‘The question will now naturally arise—where are we
to procur generals for a road in a paay where there is so absolute

eesti articles ?. because, in case of either im-

of th
proving oe oe mode of transit, by means of an ordinary road, or
making a road for

4

-and atceun. in both cases it will be requisite to
prepare the localities intende 1 for the areepuon of cattle and cons strne-
= bridges. . »

vel, or hard and rongh s tor es, can be obtained from the pa

convey any part, , and w
economy than by the {ap see It I al be necessary to mak e the
bridges high and wide over the Gatun and the Chagres, which how
be effected by means of timber, judiciously Sale with wrought-i
constructing them on the principle of obra de legadura—the pecker <a
which, including the road and quay (mvelle) of Panama, will be forth-
coming in due time, together with an approximative calculation of the
cost. In case the gir gaa line should not be determined on for the or-
dinary road cutting, and tructing dykes and bridges, the “inane
of a carriage-road over a. nes rte would be trifling. In reality a ag

executed, it is. a “toasible re ra construct a “rabiped ¥ joao c
from the ear of Limon along the eastern bank of the Chagos te

128 Scientific Intelligence.

in
ae 5

ments. v are being. g carried on, and. white so much capo to
Ha the traffic | tween different parts of the country.

ecious metals cannot ained until _ rock is decompose

gold partially ps abies in pools, by the acto of the rains.

The inhabitants of these auriferous steph are well acquainted with
the places in which the gold is collected ; they are also expert washers

notwithstanding, i in consequence of the small quantity of gold seated
and the excessive labor required to remove the accumulation of stones,
they seldom gain more than 4 rials a-day—rather less than more ; at
yet, in the face of repeated misfortunes, they are so infatuated fared this
work, that they are unwilling to aque the labor of searching for gold,
in order to direct their energies to a more certain and profitable occupa-
tion. So ic

taken place at Santa Rita and Pequeni ; these fortunate casualties serve
to. wag alive the interest felt, and, when they occur, they gcparally oc-
n the loss of much useful capital and labor, by the excitement
uced, and the consequent search for gold lodes; which mnie
notion is fostered by the supposition that all minerals, or metals, must
ag from lodes; under the same, ey a impression, poor go
s are worked—their only merit ing in vague | traditional na
that some rich deposits had heen Srraettae discovered in-the vicin
gold washings are commonly called ‘* mines,” and the term. mie as
to the supposition of the. existence of ‘metallic veil

eposits, though they may be widely different in their character from
ue lodes; and, consequently, persons entering into these ruinous
speculations, who are unac acquainted with their nature by practical ex-
_ perience, are deceived ; and,, ‘unfortunately, the elementary books on
these subjects, instead of giving information, add to the confusion—and
us it happens, that capital is frequently thrown away on useless specu-
lations. ‘The gold washings of Santa Rita and Pequeni_ are the product
of decomposed auriferous rocks ; and the gold is, as it always happens,
of much purer quality and better standard than. that. obtained. tod
The decomposed deposits of Santa Rita and Pequeni, situa’
on elevated Cordilleras, are very unfavorably placed for water; the pr
corencshings. are limited to the portions washed by the rains during thie

yee

d Ree found a few specimens of hepatic iron in Pequeni,, and great
quantities of the peroxyd and protoxyd of iron ; but as these can be of
no service in this part of the world, it is unnecessary to dilate ;
it is also useless to allude to the re of silver, the description s al-

ready given being sufficient for the pur
Very fine trees are to be seen on the beaks of the sete especially
of the species called cedar. Having crossed the isthmus three times, |
penetrated, on foot, through forests and rivers, and _ ave bi saptineie 7

any and Geology. 129

heavy rains, day and night, without suffering in health. I ate no rea-
son, therefore, to consider it as unhealthy as it is reported to b
e population appears small and inadequate for the dias ‘of pub-
lic works ; but I have been assured laborers can.be procured from some
parts of the interior. am, however, of opinion that, if any important
works are undertaken, an additional and more effective set of hands
would be indispensable.
5. Geology and Mineralogy of the Malay Peninsula, {tining Journal,
April 22, 1848.)—The little that is known of the physical geo

| ys Pm east of the greatest interest. The knowledge of this im-
e tract, extending over 83,000 geographical square miles—the
innate of which is almost untrodden ground, at least to European foot—
| must depend on future exploration ; but any information, even of its
coast line and adjoining islands, is of importance, and ten ds to incite to
further observation. Its western coast is remarkable for the great num-
ber of islets which skirt it ; a broad and almost uninterrupted belt om 3

along a all the western side of the isthmus. Some of these are rem
ably bold and ir

such as the Johore Archipelago, and the Re-
dang Islands. Th Riise southern half embraces the Island of Sin-
gapore ; and an archipelago of 2 are apes ose ae south-
east by south, marks that the peni ninsul e has not yet wholly sunk

by numerous high hill ranges, which have the same general south-
erly direction. Along the sea borders, considerable tracts of flat allu-
vial land occur, the best known of which is the large plain of Tenesarim.
From Junk-Ceylon to the Langkawi group, the coasts of the main land
and Islands exposed to the full ‘force of the Bengal Sea, are broken, and
frequently rocky and precipitous. ‘The high and perpendicular limestone
rocks, with their deep excavations, pillared with colossal nari “s

| with their summits crowned with dense forests, present the most m

cent scenery. The Tela nd of Penang is a bold mountain sare risi
in some of its northerly summits to the height of nearly 3000 ft., and

| ; Matthew) rises to the height of 3000 ft. The isthmus itself is occupied

a site to it, on the main land. Geologically, the peninsula may be con-
sidered, when divested of its alluvial fringes, as one continuous belt of
mountains and hills, separated from the Hindu-Chinese region in lat.
. 13° 30’ north. We find that the broad tract, stretching eastward towards
f Siam, Cambodia, Cochin-China, with which the peninsular zone is amal
= mated, is not a — elevated continental mass in which the peninsula

¢
é

130 Scientific lotetiomage Fe

cum consisting of limestones, sandstones, common clays, and shales,
0 fashons tin: _ (Banca) the eee stratified roeks are clays

ones. In many cases plutonic action has indu rated the

and sandstone t strata, converting sand us
rocks and clays, and conglomerates into schist and other hard erystal-
line forms. In Malacca are several thermal springs. ‘This fact, com-
npg with some — of recent parmeabes leads to the pexynian aa

= xim si to Sumatra countenance

Metals.—The tendency to the pe of metalliferous ores at and
near the junction of —— and sedimentary rocks, which has been
observed in many countries, might have led us to anticipate. a large
share of metallic riches for the pen visa In reality, it probably abounds
in some ores far beyond conceptio

Iron ores are every: where fond, and in the south they exist in vast
profusion. In some places the strata have been completely saturated
with iron ; and here the bare surface of the ground, strewed with black-
ish scoriform gravel and blocks, presents a strange contrast to the exu- es
berant vegetation of surrounding tracts, appearing as if it had been
burned and blasted by it ae fires. glue of the ordinary forms
of ironmasked rocks, which are so common, and so little regarded for
their metallic contents, that in Singapore thee are used to macadamize

e roads, contain often nearly 60 per cent. of

The whole length and breadth of the 2 abana there can be little
doubt, abounds in tin ore. The pri we might almost say unity,
of its plutonic character, warrants the. inference that ores, found plenti-

Junk- k-Geyin and Banca, "m sand is diffused in such quantity that its

the usual Chinese mode of excavating, washing, and smelting, the pro-
duction has increased from 25 _ piculs, in 1812, when it was a Brit-
possession, to 60, 000 picu

s
ete and scatter the little commis of needy Chinese in whose
hands it has remained, the wonder i at so much metal should find its

hous 11,000 gers The present — of the whole ——_ in-

4 |
i. a

L~

Mineralogy and Geology. 131

cluding Sinkep and Linga, the only two islands of the Johore Archipel-
ago where it is now sought for, is probably above 40,000 piculs. e
produce for many years past has ranged between that cae and

(6000 tons), and may be expected to increase steadily.
Seeing that tin is procured in all parts of the peninsula where it is
sought for, and, in proportion to the enterprise and labor which are de-
voted to the search, we may consider the entire zone as a great maga-
zine of tin. It is, in fact, incomparably the greatest on the globe.
hore might have seemed to offer an exception to the apparent universal-

tt
¥

and for many years having been got in considerable quantity in Malacca,
had not afforded the strongest presumption that its want of inhabitants

Bgtich yl om “ ih 1845, } ee an integral part of ha and
having the same geology as the rest of the country, produced about 450

: vig
rations were commenced. — In 1846 above 1400 sealant were pete ed,
the greater part from 39 pits in one valley. In 1847 the produce ap-
pears to have been from 4000 to 5000 piculs. In 1848 it will probably
rise to between 5000 and 7000 piculs, for the government tithe upon it
for the year has been rented for the unprecedented sum of 8190 Sp.
dollars ; the revenue from this source pits been, in the two preceding

the peninsula has escaped — vant fining enterprise of private European

capitalists, than the fact, that in the Island of Singapore, where'we have
a line of junction between plutonic and sedimentary rocks, of above 20
peed in length, where tin was found in former years in at least two lo-

whete the same iron ore, with which it is associated in

sembling sand, varying from fine to coarse, and may anes be consid-

ered stream ore. Large specimens are found with the ore, adhering to,
and partially invested with, quartz. We are not aware that it has ever
been actually seen in the solid rock in the pee but in Banca it is
found associated with iron ore in veins in the granite. A Dutch writer
also describes whole layers as occurring in some spay A, which con-
sist partly of granite, but in the centre principally of layers of sandstone

and quartz, in which iron ore also appears. In the more purely granitic
mountains, it seems to have been observed in quartz at the junction of
the granite, with the iron-veined sandstone strata. In the Isthmus of
Kré, it has also been found at the junction of sandstone and granite. In
Cornwall, it appears to be dependent on granite.

sd

132 Scientific Intelligence.

The finest ores of Banca yield as much as 80 per cent. of metal—
e common sorts from 40 to 60. The quality of the peninsular ores
us not been ascertained so arm ; we are not aware that more than
<a have been ever obta
i e dwelt, at some talaga on tin, because it is the principal na-
Bi ancien of the peninsula, which derives from the fact of its being
the greatest stanniferous tract in the world—an ne ‘economical-
ly, which has never been sufficiently appreciated. ‘The existence of tin
in Banca was unknown until 1709, when it was sssnidinatadi discovered.
Now its produce doubles that of the peninsula, although the. ‘latter has
a surface 18 times larger. The reason is not a mineralogical’ one: ‘it is
because in Banca the Chinese are :-sehadibined furthered, “and: protected,
by a strong government which directly interests itself in their operations.
Gold is found in ths peninsula, but whether from inferiority of enter-
prise, or natural deficiency, not in such aeaiieke as in those par rts of
the adjacent —- of Sumatra and Borneo, where it is Riper

has not been seen in the undisintegrated state. Copper, silver, and ar-
senic, have been detected in Banca, but apparently in small poriessn
‘ an Impression of the Soft

Parts of an Orthoceras.—The ac-
companying figure represents a
specimen from a bed of shale alter+
nating with compact limestone, near
Cincinnati, Ohio, describe by r.
nthony in the Quart. 7

of the Geological Society, 1
. 256. Mr. Anthony ae
that the Orthocerata of the locality
were associated with numerous fos-
sils of the ‘* Hudson river group,”
and they were remarkably well
preserved, the Lingulz being erect, |
as if entombed in the position in

coated with a black substance, like
paint; where this was remove

it appeared rough, almost like sha-
green. My attention was however
particularly drawn towards the

Mineralogy and Geology. 133

smaller specimens, each of which was enveloped in a sac, an appear-
ance which I had never before noticed in connexion with these remains.
his sac was of an oval form, about twice the diameter of the enclosed
Orthoceratite, enveloped its whole length, was like it pe at and had
a longitudinal depression through its entire length. Upo seeing it,
the idea was at once suggested that here was a solution of the question,
never before determined, with regard to the form and texture of the
body of the Orthoceratite. Though very widely distributed thavhigh
various strata, yet the soft parts have been so completely destroyed by
time and eset | that no discovery of them had been hitherto
made, by w even a surmise could be formed of the organization
of the meted. “a 8 a From the present discovery, we may reasonably
suppose that they were furnished with a fleshy body, like the Sepia of

We have received a communication 0 on Mr. Anthony’s paper, from
Mr. James Hall of Alban y, who takes the ground that what is repre-
sented as due to the soft parts of i Orthoceras, is a result of concre-
tion about the fossil. He mentions and figures numerous exaniples of
similar appearances about fossils ve various kinds, Orthocerata and
others, which are nothing but a result of a con ae areed structure ;
and states that such forms are rie common in the soft shales.
The ae surface and bilobate form are common in aa New York
specim Moreover r, it is doubted that the “soft parts” could be-
come petitied, or retain their form sufficiently during the 08 which
immediately follows death to give it to the enclosing material.

7. Effe usion on n the Density of Rocks ——In the last volume,
p- 258, some facts are given relative to the change of density in differ-
ent siliceous minerals, in consequence of fusion and their assuming a
vitreous state. Delesse has experimented upon this subject, and gives
the following table cogtaining the diminution of density for the differ-
ent rocks mentioned: (Jour: de Pharm. et de Chem., xii 68. )

Casaines. quartzose porphyry and eke rocks, 9 to 11 per ct.

Syenitic granite, syen 6 ee:

Red, brown, green ene wih or without
quartz, and havin g a base of albite, oligo- 8.40: 10'>.
clase, andesite
Diorite and diorite RorPhyey Rae ole! ee 18 ee
sy tah . - - 8 ie Ae
Trach - - «pe te 5. ®
fesion Dilcenic ibs col basalt - - : : ‘s 4%
Modern — rocks and la - + EE
8. Talus Slopes.—In the chains ns of the Vebnes and ae Leblane
found no talus exceeding an inclination of 35°. iis slope, he ob-
serves, is most rously, the inclination of the diagonal of a cube.
The density of the material no effect on the slope, as

lanches of snow and fall of rocks take the same slope. Some rough

rocks, as trachyte and sandstone debris, may form a declivity of 37° *
10°89°. ibrium. ,

A talus of 42° to 45°, is not one of stable equil

x ‘
a e. 6 Ae ee wii : i
Paes F i
" ; as

.
ee

Net
Se ee
S255 cs

eee

9 = Burra ‘Copper Mine, South Australia.—The Burra oe
&, 7) co

wt «.. Scientific Intelligence.

Deo dividends, of 2i. 10s. per 57. share (or 50 per cent.), have been

in July, by which the whole of the original has sesh returned ; a
ird dividend, of 5/. per share, or 100 per cent., has just been declared ;

and, probably, every month’or six weeks will see a similar one! The
merchants have lately established a sort of market for the purchase of
the ore from the different mines as.it arrives at the port. Hitherto, the
banks would only advance 6/. or 8d. per ton, even on the best ore.
Now, the merchants, who, from the flourishing sini of trade, have large

thus sell 100 tons; for es ee e A. B. - guaran tbcii that 100 tons at
20 per cent.; A. B. takes an average of the e price of metal, from two
or three MF ‘the last Swansea sales, and says, , for that heap, I will give
you such a standard; another merchant will, perhaps, raise a little on
it—so that virtually, the only price settled here and paid for, is the price
of the copper metal ; the merchant running the risk of profitin gor _—
by a rise or fall of the metal by the time the ore .arrives at Swansea

Should the heap, when sold, be found in Swansea to contain 25 per

cent., instead of 20 per cent., then A. B. makes eae the difference to.

the company. In the other case, of a less produce, the mine makes
good the difference to A. B. The arrangement suits both parties. A. B.

sayes premium on bills of exchange, and makes a commission on sale —

of ore in England. The mine instead of having to wait twelve or —
teen months for the net proceeds, being formerly only allowed to dra
barely enough to pay for the prime cost of ss how is enabled to divide
profits as fast as the ore is delivered at the -

read—* it appears that, in about presi months, these mines have

yielded the extraordinary amount of 9841 tons of rich copper ore—so
rich, that its total value amounted to 150,000/. The original purchase
money of the mines, together with the costs of working, from Septem-
ber, 1845, to March, 1847—the year and a half in question—is some-

in two dividends, of 50 per cent. each; and the directors are about to
declare another dividend of 100 percent. We make no comment
whatever on this extraordinary statement. We suppose it to be without
a parallel in the whole history of mining successes. A large part of
the ore has arrived at Swansea for smelting, another portion is on its

way, and a remnant of some 1600 tons will be forwarded to this coun-

try, or America, with as little delay as possible.
10. Histoire des Progrés de la Géologie de 1834 a 1845 ; par Ls

_ Vicomre D’Arcuiac. Publiée par la Société Géologique de France,
Be oF,

Botany and Zoology. 135

sous les auspices de M. Le Comte pe Satvanpy, Ministre de I’In-
struction Publique. Tome Premier. Cosmogonie et Géogenie, Phys-
ue du Globe, Géographie Physique, Terrain Moderne. 689 pp., 8y

of years, is of great value to science. The laborers in the field are
scattered over the whole civilized world, and wir publications are in

- many langua

Bes:

The difficulty of commanding the works hain is especially felt i in
America, where libraries in science are slowly supplied with European
publications, ene: the ‘eames of the various learned socie-
ties of different countries. Mor , few have the time —, to
study and digest chaveoghly tha publications within rea M. d’Ar-

has done an invaluable service to ge ologists, in ‘bes labors.

The work is divided ito chapters and sections. Each chapter con-
tains a fair and interesting review of the “ig of which it treats, and
is followed by a list of publications. The following are the subjects
eated of in this, the first volume: 1. mogony.—2. Geogeny—

presage cm Surface and Density—2. Interior oo ure of the
globe.—3. Meteorology.—4. Terrestrial magnetis sr electric cur-
rents within the earth.5. ‘Physical Geography 6. 0 ography and | :
Relief of the Coupnéatd —7. Hydrography.—8. Keene poner
sions.— Third Part: On Modern Deposits and Phenomena upon the
Earth’s surface—1, Atmospheric and Tarreeical produets. —2. Aque- "
ous and Glacial products.—8. Lacustrine and Fluviatile Deposits.—

minous and Salin bers Mineral and Thermal Woetirecad Volean

Gaedocts, —4, Rarthquakes. —5. Elevations and, Subsidences.

This volume is to be followed by.a Second on the Diluvial or qua-
ternary and tertiary strata; a Third on the secondary and interme-
diary or Transition strata—and a Fourth on Primary rocks, Paleon-
tolo: Oo of Elevation, Subsidence, Veins, and Metanioi-
phism, Analysis and Structure of rocks, Artesian wells, Meteorites,
Selenology, together with a Bibliographical Supplement, .a review o
the so . statistics of each country, and a list of authors cited

in the four v
The aN should be in the hands of all interested in geological ;
science. é
ae | Ill. Borany anp Zoonoay. nad 4
1. Gutta’ Percha.—The tree affording the gutta percha, of whic a #
imperfect description was given in our last noe BY |
pig to the new genus Isonandra, of Wight. Wight

wo species, to which M. i De Candolle has dea two others Bet
edi to Sideroxylon. W. J. eget calls the species g the
gutta percha, wacormp gutta, gute

. . ee eae

136 Scientific Intelligence, — =

. On the Eyes of the Balanus; by Dr. Leipy, (Proc. Acad. Nat.
£1, 1 . 1, vol. v.)— —Dr: Leidy remarked, that the exist+
es in the ‘perfect condition of the Cirrhopoda, has

all anatomists up to the present time, but its presence in the

erfect stages is very generally acknowledged. ‘Several
received some living specimens of Balanus rugosus
to an oyster, he submitted them to dissection, in the

of which, he noticed upon the dark purple membrane which lines the

shell and muscular columns running to the opercula, on each side of

the anterior middle line, a small, round, black body, surrounded by a

colorless ring or space of the membrane, which, upon fe EO toa

ow power of the microscope, he found to be an eye, composed ofa
vitreous body, having nearly two-thirds of its posterior a covered by
pigmentum nigrum, and attached to a nervous filament, which he after-
wards traced to the supra-cesophageal ganglia. The presence of this
organ in other species or genera, he had not yet had an opportunity of
determining.
3. A comparison between Sterna Cantiaca, Gm., of Europe, and
Sterna acuflavida, Nobis, hitherto considered identical with S. Cantiaca,
and a description of a new species of Wren; by Dr. Canor, (Proc.
Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., Nov. 7 1847, p. 257. Yar the following meas-
urements from adult, full- plumaged si were given:

Millimetres. European.
Bill along ‘tidge, Tee eee 57
gape, ee 75
a rom yt nostri to the point of the bill, + 5 iene aaa 4l
Length of nostril, 6 ou
Length of ron mandible along the centre, (meas:
uring to the feathers, 41 47
Length of do. do. along the side, ‘do. do. wi WA 62
Width of. bill at commencement of feathers i. 74
Depth of do. do. do. / 114 124
Length of wing from flex ‘ . 290 317
- Length of tail to tips of atin feathers, “ «. «dae 149.
’ » . . » ae 28.
Middle toe without the claw, ’ ; i 18 21.
- Middle claw Yh ia ae et 9
Toner toe with claw, sic 3 ¥ . 17 20.
Outer do. ee ee 21 26
humb 64 BS

Besides these differences in the measurement of parts not subject to
change from improper stuffin @, &c., we find that the coloring differs in
some very important particula ars. In the American bird the yellow is
strictly confined to the tip of the bill, and the line of union of the yellow
and black is perpendicular and unbroken, whereas in the European
bird the yellow runs up to the inner edge of the symphysis on the une
der side of the lower mandible, and almost as far on the upper ed
and on the upper mandible also, it extends ee on the ie an ron
the ridge much higher than in the Anterican bird. The p ies are
darker in the American bird than in the European, at the white

* Botany and Zoology. 137

line which runs along the inner edges and forms their tips i - the i
pean bird, disappears in the American balance gets within half an inch.
of he oor besides being an arrow , There are also s
differences in form. The p iestiws teint at the symp
under ‘side of the lower pict ble’ is more marked in the Ameri
in the European bird. . The claws’of the European bird are larger and
much more arehed than those of the beeen 4 iy bill of the oy med
ite is much narrower in poponton than t Gprican, and is

“ae imen of 8 gainer: in his Gailedieneneh progured at Tan-

cah, en aH coast of Yucatan, on the 25th.of April, 1842, and is men-
appendix of Mr. Blephieng “kel - ‘Teerel in peed

under as name of S. Boysii. »

aC ae reat a species ‘of W ren.

reas E ag
wage idth of b A —" oe ‘an eS ae, 4 tal 3h
eho é 7 ee ls dk ee
dil mid le toe with the claw, "gS gol Mage a
ae ip oid FOB a “eo ¥ ae oe § pat. es en
Sec OP ae 0 ky Or aks oy
The bill is t from the base to the of hishacot ws are much curv-
ed-and very : arp. The te ad, back,’and Taine it sides of the wings and
tail, brown} a Hine: of iti, with black wn intermixed,
asses over the Li and meets With a similar line, wate, passes untet
t, and they form a patch on the sides of the neck extending round to
the nape “Chin, throat, oniiag onli beret = ‘abdomen light +
yell i yeah Ghatie ump are some white and
dar! "brown F bij nc 5 sr trind with WE" HIO Wit GP the rest of
2 ba + “ilder termost, and outer webs of next
ae Bfistintiiers, hind 8 sitenedyee of fire ed seéond ae ee
ith Mais .or yellowish white, and dark er or black.
bee Pent upperside gs atid upper idles.
: four middle tail-feathers are Weowtiy ins many black spots.
- mandible is is dark horn color; the under mandible at

hieh the description was taken was the
ul dee oes in Yucatan, Apri
zi ed Argon
Fraalh

-*?

138 Scientific Intelligence. wa

hn before et ed in which the whole of oe last room. Smet has

Stroyed and reproduced. On account of the inary re-
‘subsisting between the animal and the shell in ihe genus
a, a fractured and repaired shell possesses more than usual vale:

th

individual of the Argonauta argo, which appears to furnish an addi-
tional argument in support of the opinions which are* based on i
searches of Madame Power. In this shell a portion has been broken
out near the middle of the left side, and not far from the sinus of the
aperture. The opening was of a semilunar form, about 12 inches long,
with an average breadth of half an inch. A new deposit of testaceo 4
substance, together with a broken fragment, has closed edge
the rude manner common in the shells of Mollus

But the most extraordinary circumstance is this ; that a singe,
which was broken out in the accident which befel the animal, now con-
stitutes two-thirds of the repaired port ion, and: that the originally iner
surface is now the outer surface, as is e stb yn its concavity, ‘style
of undulation, and texture. It is also near! t angles to its origi-
nal position. + facts show that the ace 4 was totally detached from
the shell by the |

We apprelided ‘that a case could scarcely oceur, especially in a shell
moving in water, except in consequence of the furictions’ now hide
to the vela of the Argonaut. These once-reputed sails, prevent
less poetic function of ae and enveloping the shell ven
loss of the large fragn

It is obvious also that a new deposit * testeceous ater, ee se-
creted from the part of the animal. within ‘and from the
vela, since the edges of the original shell ieoatd . etnctae 8p appear
exclusively on the outside. fet ee

nce none but the original inhabitant of the shell ec repair it, the

case described is corroborative of Bais: n, that t — usually

5. Description of a Species eae supposed to
Avams, Prof. &c. in Amhe1 "Gacmueeued

Hatiotis Ponperosa: H. t. magna, ovata, prea
striis increme irregular rugis con

magnis, ;

bus, subnodosis ; 5 spira elevata, subterminali ;, for
magnis; externé -Tubré, intus maculis plurimis rubris vidios
iridescente. “

Shell ovate, convex, ponderous, with coarse unequal i
striee and concentric fides (not folds), and a few broad low
on the ridges; spire elevated, subterminal ir oration
inner one a large ; exterior ee ae S rye a
gantly iri fing with innumerable shades of Scan. — pu
red, and green

Length 84 in. ; breadth v8 in in. ; depth within 34 in.

Comparison with the well known H. rufescens, Swains., - r
a figure unnecessary. A lar ie. Senn of Swainson’s shell
me, has exactly the same pageegeal A ;
deep. H. a is nearly or ie daa

rufescens, is of a darker red w

Astronomy. 139

of “a sieows gored and a eae he clouds of iridescent colors remark-
in H. rufescens they are remarkably
It is more. poner ae any Haliotis which we sir e seen,

vai aeet oz. avoid

ogical M wag as a Hab.
findi pegs species in Reeve’s very: comple and hema

monograph, I have ventured to arene it as new

IV. ye ae

- oo Rosse Telescope, (Lond. Aiheteoin, April + Ecas the
meeting of. su! a in siegelee Academy, March 17, 1848, Dr.
e an account, present condition of ont Bosse’ 's eee
‘that fs a whose figure, as he had formerly sta-
- Was not quite pesfost). as well as a duplicate one, had been polish-
ed by the workmen; and os - meron ded no difficulty in the pro-
cess, it was repeated. pected ntaad however occurred,
ich x much delay, fill Lord Ri Rosse ered the cause. The
the operati Sage age that. it mt performed at the tempera-
. In winter this must be obtained by ‘artificial heat,—which
weer: iner the arynees ot the airyso that the Polishing material
cannot on the Specul t > the urface is untrue,
and gives a ortowe image. »Phis was veri i the hygrometer,
and comp diae, by a jet of steam so regula nf to keep the air satura-
with moisture. The result ag aa hy trial

speculum ep ‘well, that rt ‘
riments. » additions had "beda made yanenesnry ty aay telescope :
‘be movement in right ascensionis given from the ground x pc a
ry intended to be connected with. a clock movement which is in pro-
2. To obviate the difficulty of finding objects, an eye-piece of
Jarge field and peculiar construction is connected with a slide, so that it
can be mpltee’ by the usual one in aninstant. It magnifies 208 times,
s nearly four feet of the speculum, the same as Herschel’s
Pefert ; ws giving the poway of trying what that instrument might
3.

o

Pe aaten- -circle attached. "Tight admitted at its edge cannot escape at
the - paral faces except they be scratched, and a scale of equal
parts engravec one of them with a diamond—luminous in a field ab-

black, The exceedingly unfavorable state of the weather sub-

( qt i eee much from being done ; in fact, there was but one -

. i ean covered with iragnents and satisfied himself that
een often discussed, had no visi-

above the Ms surface. In the belts of Jupiter, streaks
se 0: fess s. cloud were seen ; and the fading of their brown
rds the edge, is podesee that ber SP are seen through a for

| Se a A similar sha ade

micromete’ is peculiar,—a plate of parallel glass, with ,

Dene,

Be.

Dar eae

its greatest extent “ unfathomable by the t
ees copes

mentioned either by Melchoir

140 Scientific Intelligence.

erfect and in bad nights, the part of it which

beforethe mirror was.
( appearance described by Sir ohn Her«

ongst which these are scattered. . Having seen them end [known the

er parts, they were seen with the 3-feet and 500. * *. fn.
other interesting object is the planetary nebula, h. 464, bie the
splendid cluster, Messier 46, and probably a part of it. It is a dise of
small stars uniformly distributed, and surrounded by the larger. Mes-
ster 64 isa singular modifegtion of the annular form seen obliqu ly.
‘The € opening seems black as ink, and at its oS is one of those in-
terior clusters of bright stars’so often noticed be: "But the most re+
markable nebular arrangement which this seectinngey Beret hee a
that where the stars are grouped i in spirals. Lord Rosse
of them (Messier 51) in the year 1845; arid Dr. “Robinson found fo
others on the 11th, of which he ex xhibited drawings, h. 604 (seen by
— as a biscentral nebula), Messier 99, in which: the’centre is’

Stars. Messier 97 looks with the finding eye ea fig:
we *@;"bus the higher powers show star-spirals— ‘iolatat
appearing like ‘stars with dark spaces around them —though "probably
| powers’ in a fine night would prove “then to be clu Another

fact deserves to be noted frorit its bearing on. Struve’s Etudes @ Astro-
nomie Stellaire. In that admirable book, reg other curious ae
he infers that the eighteen-inch telescope'of H erschel |
space only one-third of what was due to its optical al power. Tio
plains this by supposing thé heave hy ee
In computing the’ limit, however, he assumes that the My Way js in

}

.

d'to observe it when it is deepest at d is. certhin' thet its

remotest stars were very far indeed within the limit of the sneeot, and
yes rig larger than those of the nebula of Ori

2. Planet, (Lond. Athenaut, May 6; re co new planet

desea aed by Mr. Graham, at hendccke, rela Sagi 25, 1848:

It appeared like’a star of the tenth Ce Nee ; am, 8: decli-

8. Supposed new Star, (ibid.)—A new star of the fif hua +
the ecieanaithciol? Ophiuchus, ad ~~ at Mr. Bishop’s € ratory,
idon, April 28, 1848. No has been ans recorded in the

" position of ‘this. ° Iris in a lin iting ‘éta and 2 iuchi, rather

0 Oph
nearer to the latter; RvA. Is. 9. decl. 12° 39’. igen
degrees distant | from the ani ne the famous ‘object seen by Kepler

in 1604.

4. On the ice of Copernicus with respect to the Light dee ie
Planets ; by Prof: De Morcan, (Phil. Mag., xxxi, p. 528.)—The
mon story is, that — cB on being opposed by the rayon th
Mercury and Venus did ph om tinewered that the Pe
would be discovered atinie ¢ me "the fi rst place in whieh I
story is in Keill’s Lggtures. © It is also’ given by Dr. Smith, hed ova
known Treatise on Optiés, by Bailli, and by iota “But I cannot fi

Adam or Gassendil intheir bids

Astronomy. 141

Copernicus ; nor by Rheticus, in his celebrated tS

thesystem of Copernicus; nor by Kepler, nor by eeioli, in in. hole
po a of i me for and» against the heliocentric theory ; nor
by Galileo, when announcing and commenting on the discovery of the
pir sain what is most to the purpose, Miiler, in his excellent edi-
tion of the great work of Copernicus, when referring to the discovery
of the phases of Venus, as made since; and unknown to, Gaperniop

Copernicus. If we try to examine what the opinion. of age nia *
this matter really was, a point of some little curiosity arises. It
on one word, whether he did or did not assert his belief in one-or other
.of these two cee 9 apray the planets shine by their own. light, or
that they are'sat rated by the’solar light, which, as it were soaks through:
them. I cuapist the affirmative: that is ota I hold it suffiei
certain that Copernicus did express. himself to —_ that one or
these suppositions was the trut
if we cients: first edition of the work De-Revolutionibus, hich was
the manusc by “— himself, there is
little doubt about the matter. There are but tw 0 passages Ww whieh bear :
thé question. The first is in the ad lectorem, in-which
the writer (Osiandery though even Delambre make him Copernicus) asks
whether any one acquainted with geometry or optics can receive the
Ptolemaic epicycle then used to explain the motion in longitude of Ve-
nus? But the meaning ofthe allusion to-opties is explained i in the next
nee, by a reference (and by no means e-firipmade deve} tot
arent diameter of Venus derived from. the epicycle ; =) pres. 4
yhich, ‘as they made the perigean diameter more than four ti

ed
the dificulty a arising from. the absence of the nate ibe ghianes whioh
We now call the transit over the sun’s disc. He describes the opinion |
just mentioned favorably, referring, not to his own view, but’to that of
those others who had held it. This is not an uncommon idiom: per-
sons advocatipg an unpopular opinion are very apt to describe the main-
tainers of it in the thitd person, though themselves be of the number.
when he comes to describe what he takes to be the necessary ¢on-
sequences of the opinion, he lapses into the first person as follows =
“Non ergo fatemur in stellis opacitatem esse aliquam lunari similem,
sed vel proprie:I lumine, = aoe totis imbutas corpedpe ful et
idcirco solem
These are ie iorde oP first eden (Nuremberg, 1543),
Copernicus could have answered any objection, either by word or write '
impossible, sinee he drew his last breath within a few of

g
aa, Sage Jigs aclby is aM ela oad ae male sa a oe

142 : Scientific Intelligence.

only the. of. this. pfition, which beingotibatiqns into the title.
page. There irk 9 er of his having been the editor ; and
as the work an ae le, where I cannot find - Tibahame

ever sojourned, and as the sy was deeply engaged at the time in his
enormous trigonometrical calculation, some proof of his editorship must
be given before it is admitted. As the point is of importance, I will
e, that unless Rheticus had made some stay at Basle, it is very
unlikely he should have edited a work printed there. He did not edit
™ rst edition, only because it was found convenient to print it e Nu-
sil rg instead of at Wittemberg ; and it was accordingly entrusted
to. Osiander. a if ever there were a connexion between two men,
and one of them and the book of the other, which made it de-
sirable ete even necessary that the first should edit the ‘second, it was,
the case of Rheticus and the first edition of the De Revolutionibus, &c.5
ad yet ne arrangement could be made by which the sheets oemiaians
g-could be revised at Wittemberg. It is very unlikely, then,
that Rheticus should have one Abestocas edition, when, as far as we
know, a similar impedime
. The third édition by Miler (fined, 1617), has. no authority as
: to iio! text above that of the s

ur, we, thue-c en das to throw the opinion in ceton upon
. . . . I at it

een the editor, bean seit stress ought’ to. be laid Eee
of the-first into the third. person as an emendation ; that is,

goa be somewhat staggered by _— havings thought it eet: f

nake such an alte teration....

ut, Rhetieus not being. in the recion as I think, for the reasons :

Mai above, the next best authority on an opinion.of Copernicus i is Gal-
ileo, Now the latter, in speaking of the phases of Venus, expressly:
—, o Copernicus the maintenance of se of the tw, aheranienp
t the planet is either self-luminous or perforated by the solar 2
Migserslicrantives, he says, in his letter to Veleer Supe vol. ii, -:
. —: * Al pets gh ah convien ametiere come possibile,
pur come necessaria una delle dette posizioni.”? And that such
: fos Opinion of Copernicus is also assumed by the writer of the note
Sydereus Nuncius in the volume just mentioned, and by that
even down to our own time ; ; as by Me. Drinkwater Bethune, in wipes sem
of Galileo. In fact, with the exception of the unsupported story
tioned at the beginning of this paper, there is nowhere, that,I can fins
any thing against my conclusion. And. it is to be rem embered, tha’
Copernicus nowhere shows any of that acumen in ators of tee

fone to cali teps. more t thay proportionate to hei. knowlec
the latter. Palouigatn great promotor of the eld theory,.anc

0 EE

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 143 *

nicus, its destroyer, were both mpthensioaes in a peculiar sense; Ptol-
emy being far the more sagacio —— of pure experiment.
= ‘ounds of confidence sreunnitiaintice and Coperniéus, in par-
res to his own for there i is Ho reason to suppose

he was beyond his age in mechanical philosophy) with reasons drawn
entirely from probabilities afforded by mathemat

There is much reason to regret the practice of ipdeicinsiciy with the
names of those who have led the way in great discovery the ' poy
which is due to their followers. The disadvantage ‘is twofold. 3
first place, it introduces into the history of science an. index sient of: a
from.one to two centuries ; secondly, those who. come to ie a
disappointed to find that they must lower their opinion of tm
and .

Our usual popular treatises speak of Copernicus as if, besides himself

he had in him no inconsiderable fraction of Kepler, Galileo, nm

and i? is a-person to think who comes from these histories

to actual a when he finds in Copernicus himself the immo-

vable ¢ di (only reusing sun-for earth) of the Ptolemaists,
a suspicion, at least, of the solid orbs?

Be Siker Peraliedch- po was etiedied to Congress in April last,
witseeierenve to-settingon foot an expedition to the most southern avail-
able position on the daa for the purpose of making obser-
vations on the planet Venus during the perio e motion :
these observations are to be conjoined with similar observations at the
ps ah Washington oly, with a view tod

hitherto

eobperation of American astronomers. The correspondence on the

subject between Dr. Gerling and Lieut. Gilliss, addressed by the latter to

the Chairman of the Committee of Naval Affairs of the House of Rep-

resentatives, was made the basis of the Report. The object is one “
of a national expedition. The Report states that in 1769, Dr.

Ritt = under the patronage of the ae igi of Pennsylvania,

made observations on the transit of Venus that were of great value

Wie subjects therefore already connected with the = Sal of mg

Science, es nee tae sey of government patronage. .

"i . ;

v. MisceLansovs INTELLIGENCE.

“1. Memotre sur es Temperatures de la Mer Glaciale a la
a de grandes prefniar et dans le voisinage oe Glaciers du
mbre de la ( i

js adh F Pheantore) sion Scien

2. From the ees pth of seventy meters (about 76} yards),
temperature is sometil creasing and sometimes decreasing. ~ j
3. Below seventy meters to the bottom, it is always decreasing...
3 ‘The. decrease kien the surface and-the bottom is not a uni:
but on accelerating with the depth.
5. Between the surface and —_ meters in depih, the temperature :
aever below-zero (freezing point

6. Below sev wom de meters, the temperature of the bed ocrering ae
bottom i is below ze.
_ ‘% The mean isuipeinnels GEthie bed ix +4°s0h Cent., and conse-
quently it is above that of the maximum — and freezing point of
salt-water.
_ 8. These facts are cont — if. a consider. that saneapasieelies
density and the point of congelation of sea-water are several degrees |
below zero, and if also-we regard the complex, intermittent and varia-
ble intensity, caused by the solidification of the surface during winter,
Peer betes: floating i ice, ass tides and currents. . otggesbee

results, M. continues, are fertile in applications to the

physics of the-globe.. We | learn from the fact of the temperature im-
creasing in April and May,. that in winter the surface cools more than
the bottom, and that consequently the formation.of etry ice, common
in-fresh-water lakes, is here impossible. Scoresby and Ross ascertain- :
ed by direct trials that wh ground ice exists, peer brought up liv- '

animals in many instances.
As the temperature “of the sania of the se in Jy men :

“near the glaciers, is above zero (Carta is pe Se
constant destruction and the formatio
ing slowly from the land into the aden 4. gc rtm |
hing the water, and are borne on its surface. At low tide, as
ters retreat, the interval between high andlow-water is welleseem in the
glacier; at the same wi it becomes broken, or oyerturned, and thus .
floating ice is produced. The largest glaciers were seventy-six meters

—— ny
tn bat’ a. on the cobeealet the, glactons aivindh into-the- sea
‘melted. John Ross has described and figured a glacier,
to the van of Cape Dudley Digges, whieh advanced mi? meters
(5906 feet) beyond the shore. The ne ice, conseque is
higher than the mast of a ship, and the masses:are well alle icbors,
or mountains of ice. As the part above cane is about one- “eighth
1e hickness, these bergs have been described as 72, 118, an
even 180 meters in depth, ?
. —o the floating ice isa aamereene: therefore of : the thee

rauch dination basse ee
oe eed

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 145

FM
inson’s ‘adngsteid ait , dee. ta we were Be ee to Paint the e, and
among the externa discoveries of the present day, by which ma-
terials af the t humble. piglet in works of art are yey

i =
poses to which this patent can be applied are innumerable. The
porp idea of the patentee was the induration of the sofier and more
common, and almost pi ty stones for the Rss of paving; but
so complete was eenruonnset tb} ir: soa soon took.a loftier view; and has
udered the operation, not only applicable to all common purposes
tones and slates are used in building—such as paving, both
fag ig hm. at cisterns, fittings of. dairies

bu
of Paris casts, of the most elaborate designs, in bust, bi
taaetk ornaments, fonts, and ornament
fur balconies, ornamental inkstands, &c., are pee
by the enondathet the elements, wate a and.
tors w so choose, may work in Bath or Caen
ores chalk, and the preduction will be rendered superior to
all these operations the finest edges of the cuttings are preserv
cuniavaneal mark is lost. -
In inspecting specimens. of Mr. Hutchinson’ s works, w

e shown —
a.slab, of ane fine sandstone, from Tonbridge aes soft, that it

searaed gas pipes, made from Bath stone, balk, or paper, ee as
granite, and polished. atts Tike marble; in fact, the results of the
operations are most extraordinary. ‘The water-pipes, and prepared

§
I
e
¢ for these purposes; the sheets would also be highly appli
i ailmeyss wi my other public engineering uses, Wer :

» SC.
to all the higher works of -art. Pasi

y-
> will be found most economical, bo both in first cost and.
wear and tery in fact, they can be rendered at a cost wilich comes ~
r below any other description Of material which has yet been intro;

ae
Es

146 D -emecaaa Intelligence.

working ‘capital, a the o ginal propriet tors Pecans A four pe
Parties will be t treated ith: for the remaining eight sha
3. Coal in Chil, (Mining Journal, Feb. 12.)—We ae: ony vide
occasions, alluded to the mineral resources of yee which pipe pre-
eminent among the republics of SouthAmerica. Lately, several exten-
- coalfields have been discovered between Valparaiso and Santiago,
one*in particular, belonging to an English firm, a short distance
from the port of Valparaiso, is likely to prove a most valuable specula-
tion, as it is being worked, and the coal equal to that of Newcastle,
‘which can be delivered at the rate of 4s. per ton, whilst but a short time
ago none could be obtained at a less price than 21. 16 21. 10s. Several
miners have arrived eat as - Si syed north of England and from Aus-

ms"
dute, as native tebdrers ‘ened ney be inca at @ very low
ess of steam navigation ‘in the’ Pacific, 'the facility of obtain-
coal in Chili, will be a most important advantage ¢ but fo mil
enturers it will be the means of greatly developing her mi
fesources, by the establishing of steam-engines, furnaces and —
houses, on the spot, instead of sending the ore to Europe to be
_Yoads are being cut in every direction, and water conveyance will
easy of access in the interior.
4. Metallurgical Industry of Bohemia, (Mining Journal, Feb. 12.)>
_ It appears, by a paragraph in the Prussian Gazette, that met
in, has, within the last few years, made considerable le_ progress in
Ithough at present there are not more than fifty
in operation, these have produced 470,000 qvicints of vfhetat tA
course of one year, valued at 2,000,000 thalers (280, “This
u ntity, it is stated, is very little below the entire production of the
rovinces of Silesia, the Rhine and Westphalia, Sa eueniicne ees

7: itive been made to push this branch of

sources of Bohemia are described to be most extensive ; and, according
to the statement quoted, have vet yet been properly developed. :

_5. On the Jordan and ode ; by the late Lieut. Motyneux, of
H.MS. Spartan, (Athen., Apr, 1. )\—On the 20th of August last, Lieut.
Molyneux landed at Acte, taking with him three volunteer seamen and
an interpreter ; and having hired camels, horses, and attendants, he
. , stented ~s the following morning with the ship’s dingey em’ route to
-'Tiberia: or the first two hours the road was exéellent. On a
the villages of Abilin its character altered ; the country became }

pion as awkward cart were encountered. ~The village of Tarad

vee hed the ge , after ten consecutive hours of trav
On the ‘following ond party aneteee at ‘Tiberias, where they €
ed outside the Sate or e town and near the edge of the lake!” _Im

mense he wre ensaane? “were séen feeding in differént di
From the hills overlooking ‘Tiberias the’ prospect was

Djebel Sheikh, smothered in clouds, was distinetly seen the ei ear
ing N poke

.N.E. ; in front*were'the blue waters of Tib
pen ranges of hills; and to the Jeft of Djebel Sheikh 1

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 147

pet eing of greater size than is generally laid wn ;—from ‘Tiberias to
the e eastern shore not.less than eight or. nine miles and from the entrance
of the Jordan on the north to its exit at the south end, A rg miles:
th latitude of the northern extremity of the lake is 32° 4

34 miles to the south of the point usually marked. The Jordan. is

described as shal ' : s, which g
obstructed the passage of the boat. Ia many places it might have been
crossed by stepping from stone to stone without wetting the shoes; its
waters are muddy and full of fish; its course tortuous in the eXtreme,
ane some waterfalls were found, Great t reluctance. was manifested by

orbitant sums for permission to pass through their provinces ;
cations, annoying and incessant, were generally. terminated by a display

to proceed.—On the 3d of Sept pad nige Lieut. Molyneux embarked on
the Dead Sea. The breeze Bi ih ge reshened, till there was quite
easnah.con dor the dingey : steering ms south by west, large patches
of white frothy foam were several times passed ; and as "the sea got:

_ most unusual noise, something like breakers a-h

end of the anand the wind and stood over towards
western mountains at daylight were t five miles from
peninsula. From ao _ "Fesbkah to. the north, nearly down

a to untains on the wes

t to be the deepest water, soundings were obtained at +
oms; the arming of the lead was clear, with some pieces. of roc
meee to ve gi other casts of the lead were taken at diffe

comes in a with it, aecuoeue metals, and produces a very Ue

avery obnoxious smell. At noon on the 5th they returned to the tent
hanes they embarked, thoroughly done up and thankful for havi
Font oe ‘try and body i in the boat was covered with a nasty
é : nd looked

h wal — bos d aes

er. was a white line o far

ero Having d ae. the dingey was secured upon the Tcty
camels, and the party procee ded to Jerusalem, —within the

0 of which town entered the it of a British ship-of-war. he st May

neux returned by and. died. shoily after 1 ’

gee fla. ;
his.sh WP wie vie et Senge kept eth : eam mes

148 Miscellaneous ae
as.— The ©

ick Sea. The Scientific Commission from the Russian government
in 1837, found it 101-2 feet (English). M. H. de:Hell has concluded
from a barometric levéling, that the difference of level between the
ps ate of Azof, is only 18-304 met F he
results of Sabler and Sowitsch, M. Hell deduced 33°7 meters, and af-
terwards 27, as the difference ‘of level. From the same observations,
Humboldt obtained 81:4 feet (English).
Pin Cailler (1839) deduced from the observations “i Bertou (1837 and
839), Moore and Beet (1837), — Schubert (1837), as a mean, that
Dead Sea is depressed 185 meters below the Mediterranean. Beftou
+ it at 4196 meters, David Wilkie (in 1842) found the depression
meters; Li — 42 “meters ; Rusegger ss 434 meters.

and
nd Set" hier ihe bottom.—D’ Archiac Hee Geol. rv ‘ne
. “T. Cremastochilus in Ant Nests ; by 8.8. Hatpeman.—Our ant nests
r to those of Europe, in harboring various insects. Among
are Aphis, Coccus, Batrisus, Hister,’ Heterius, and the singular
of Lamellicornia mentioned above. ‘About the end of April, 1.
und Beneath a flat stone, in a cav ity otcupied by a oh ot flavous spe-
of ant, a living Cremastochilus variolosus, but laid no stress upon
the occurrence, as | supposed it to be accidental. On the : T6th of May,
Ttook three individuals of C. Harrisii together, under similar circum:
‘stances, and kept them alive for twelve days.’ Om the 25th of May, I
found a second individual of C. variolosus, invan ant’s nest. The lo-
cality is a southern hill slope covered with Castanea, Pinus mitis, Aver,
Carya, and aie id the soil siliceous. The genus is extremely rare
although tolerably successful in collecting, and my residence is nese the
pee these are the first li wing — stg seen. = con

liant meteor was seen to start a little west of north, oy more rownraettiee?
east, disappearing with a loud noise like that of a six pounder. “It was
described by those who saw it as appearing several inches in diameter,
with a train several feet long: Persons in every part of this ni
saw it and heard the explosion. It was so bright as to cause
objects to east a shadow even in the moonshine. ic can heat of no ‘pare
of the meteor being found. =~
‘Common Salle’ tyhonnt of comniencath ite vall the oceans, is
mated by Schafhzeutl at 8,051,342 cubic | | miles.
This as be about five times

Bibliography. 149

equals 633,644°36 cubic miles, or is equal to the mass of the Alps
= -chlorid of magnesium, oe Leu ‘80 cubic miles; the lime
,339°44 cubic miles. “The supposes the’ mean depth to be but

‘meters, as estimated by Mom botde RGitiog with Laplace, t
Yee oy te is 1000 meters, which is more probable, the mass
| pees salt will be more than ph the mass - ‘the Home og
a communicat

Geological Map fr
Lavate M. P. oat v. S.N., we Tear that the proposition to constract

ag
8
we
be
S
‘
oe
£
S
:

nea ieut. ‘beyond tl
constructing of the chart by glueing on, in its proper order, the mate-
rial collected.
‘Tl. Science at Cam mbridge. - a Abbott Lawrence has made a
iencuae donation of 50,000 to he Departme ent of Science in Harvard
nive
1 Sar ansonedh rear of Sir John Franklin. —This Ksbodtlions
under Sir James Ross, has le ooh fi . consists of two vessels, the
Enterprise and Investi igator, the fi tons and the latter - 420,
which: are built as strong as ana’ he heh das m
reference to their sailing qualities. A launch is attached to fae ou
fitted with screw propellers, which are to be worked with seers and»
| will make: ‘onan we eA sever miles an hour. Ao ah

* ty » . & ‘
me . . = a Me,
a ; VI. BrerrograrHy, satel ae ad fe

ciel on the Chemistry of Food and Hi! motion of the e juices

in i ite animal body ; by Justus Ligpie, M.D. ited from the manu-

ipt of the futher * Wituram Grecory, WD. D., oe from the Eng?

lition, by n N, Horsrorp, A.M., Rumford Professor in the

niversity at Carobriiige. Lowell, D. Bixby & Co, 1848, 12mo., pp. 219.

iret Bor orsford has conferred an acceptable service in promptly bring-

5 out this edition of the last work of the great chemist whose name ii

ne title fully in ates the topics of discussion—which it is

ss to say are handle with a master’s hand. Some of the new

oWS O1 way esh fluids and upon endosmosis have already been pre-

ented to the —~ of this Journal al. (See vol. v, p. 415.) The two

* epi arate topics named in the title are the subject of aca brag me
— der two heads, and fore | in fact two separate treatises. olume
eagerly, seu tase aloe y chemists and Sale ee it is at .

Sa
as Sartwell is well Fes.
great attention

*

herbaria apart from the.title page;—and also of printing yr: ad
_ with sufficient fulness to indicate clearly the place intended.

of Mineral Combustibles or Fossil Fuel, including also notices and lo-

Bibliography.

ned Eigen, Wishing at length to distribute Ph ade
ied ed specimens 0 ces in a more systematic way, he ha
pared ished a Kaz series of specimens, seventy in nu
ghia tickets and title-page, under the appellation given above. f
“ih nderstand that. the sets are not on sale,—for no sum which they is ’
sou be likely to command would afford any pecuniary mip ariee 4 ¥ 1
for the | time and pains bestowed upon them,—but are intended for dis- .
=. among his botanical correspondents. Having been. favored .
with a copy of this valuable work, the writer wishes to record his se
the value of such well-authenticated: ‘spe cimens to all students of
is tag they are. many—and to state hat the. specim ens. are re-

rvi, C. alopecoi ) ni
eychnocephala of Carey, the ss dnaand merican representa-

gs cyperoides, C., Liddonii, Y torta; of Boott, C. salina, C.
a pete) cee C. Crawei.
Trusting that Dr. Sartwell will continue this publication : so as to fore

nish kat specimens of all our Carices, we sug ggest the propriety
of adding the name of the collector to the ticket,—a point of the
the loose specimens are likely. “ be distributed in |

3. Statistics of Coal; the Geographical and Geological sseision

ities of the various Mineral Bituminous substances empl

ed in the
Arts and Maittettree: inc gti by numerous She bon irda.

embracing four official reports of the gr
‘Fespective amounts of thet Prediction
Faire A in all parts f the Won,

rom el pibbtey ep
Task Fellow of the pasha sy ete., 54 pp.
elphi —The hier rant fie above work as rega ey wah
tains to coal either scientifically or economically, is evident
‘above title : and it is a sufficient guatantee for its completeness
curacy on all grat on which it'touches, that it received before put
: Boy reas: praise at one of the meet

of Geologists and Naturalists, which wa
lowed by a Ae aabcripioy for copies of the work. An e:
tion of the volume, now that it has appeared from the press, give
still higher opinion of the talents and industry of its author, ed the
at value of his labors. It meets the wants of those e ically in-

ested in coal mines, by its ee oli jon and st:
a mines at home and ia | rabies: ts account
of the scientific history of a is met with elsewhere in
any single volume. apne map of the —

Bibliography. 151
e Epitte are well exhibited, and details of those of differe

fills Mining anak ‘Ra vampe Coalfield tron, &e nde god oe %
fields of Great Britain. ‘Then follows a scientific account of

: coal regions, Gs costae with the Culm « or J acite formation

| Devonshire. ‘To these ron
| and Steel ; annual redudtot oh iron in Great Briain, Eom me ar
America, &e. Moreover a map shows to the eye the

the coal regions. The same vane wh is adopted for anions § coun-

¢
| tries, and carried out in a mi which no one vod be — er
prepared than Mr. Tay
icis m Malacoz or
Henanaxsen, Dr. med. Cassel, 1846, vol. rey ne ae ii,
4 § 1847. To be leted in about ten numbers of _—
? peared, five focthing’ the’ first volume. volume. — Thi may be

noe to the Nomenclator geen i gassiz. me vr]
in conchology ; with ety:

itals, | without a point between, « _
sharon fay, Double eday and ae

5 hen Cais,
cig Tbe author y 3 ~ re

162 Bibliography.

an et aa .—A work emanating from so
nciples a ogy, hardly requires comme:

high a source Fs ne.

nin tet

ey. 1 _ have To rine acquainted wit em

‘of, parbl. — his. lectures, and are aware of I -
wide eae of. and popular mode of illustrati
In th tion of this work he has had an abl

. Gould ot contributor to the Transacti
=r, Natural History, and at present engaged uf 2
hology for the publications of the me Es g Ex
e volume is prepared for the gaps in zoological science ; it is sim-
e and elementary in its style, full in it $ illustrations, comprehensive ia
is ranges ns prea sed and bro i into the narrow. compass re-

e annex a brief mention of ip

Sphere: tin eof ology.
: = fu ~ Pp es 0
meee Soret
o aged apes ° -
sad Fon 2g

| ’ : tinct. . Pans , ' " ¥%a
¢ - Of Mslooa taqperiive sad tepdan) aa
3 ns Nutrition. é a!
| the Blood and. omar tin? TE % + Sead ;
— Vitl. Of Respiration a “ . ,
IX. of te Sores e a ‘
» X. Embryology and its Deve oti Be ge ee -
_ XE Peculiar "modes oh i se ma pay : Be
» XI. Metamorphoses of Animals... . | . igre mee
’ -.-XIIL,. Geographical. te: alli Animals. . ,
‘ Pia Geological Succession of Animals, or ii Distt in Time
i. sh (beeration on the Temple of her ad ls ch Vc
F HARLES BaBpaGE, 42 pp., 8vo.—This very valuable memo
a her peogdocreg ope ter he ogo
thheld publication. by the aut > util of t year,
when it appeared in the Journal aes ase Pees i
stract has however been before the pu have

ituent part of most treatises on Ge
\* pcp id his observations eke arr he

large craters of the moon’s»surface are ci

concerning the Physical condition of rH Seber af of us sie 4 “The
when the water of the ocean is comnreb —s er consideration

it is an ineurinouje ae ae to. the 7
dom exc ai fatho . : nein dept
have but 60 fathions a
: . 7
ir

Bibliography. ee

x Elements of Natural Philosophy ; being an Eepegierntel I
duction . 4 Study al the Physical Sciences; by Go Biro, A.M, -
M.D., + F.L.S., &e. &e. With three hundred and seventy-two
} afaereaig: rom the revised and enlarged niet toe London edition, Load
ia Ps d. —The dese

acceptable ce. ve performed.

in cooing te prose edition. We observe in pee on Pola:

zation, the following notice of Dr. sir genes s researches on diamagnet-

ism, which we copy shea benefit of our readers :— oh a
One of most. interesting contributions to science, fons we . 3

are indebted to Dr. Faraday, is the discovery of the excitement rene va ’

molecular change in certain forms of glass, tate. alcohol, es aa other
substances when under the influence of the magnetic and electric forces,
sufficient to cause the rotation of a polarized ray. To show this with
et a piece»of flint-glass,.a, or much better, a heavy slip of
fused. borate of lead 2 inches square and 0-5 inch-thick, is placed be- .-
tween the poles Ns of a powerful electro-magnet, so that the line of ‘
force may pass through its hig A. ray of, light BD is hago in
a vertical plane by reflexion .
a piece of blackened glass p, and_
passing through the 26. ae
amined at p through a Ni coy
prism... So long as dere mont Bty ti. Parnas
e not magnetic, the ray is trans-

mitted or extinguished as usual du-
ring the revolution of the prism
Let this be turned so thatthe ra ray is

d, and connect the wires c z with the aca the ba spears
becomes magnetic and the ray becomes visible. It will be n ary to
the 27 he the right to extinguish the ray which ot ae the
ence developed magnetism, been made to revo olsk. If the
i ole be port the observer, the ray will revolve to the right, but if

this posit reversed, it will, Tprolye!to the left. i
When a pa tube is filled with water and placed in the axis of a .

long b elix of wire traversed by a corak from a battery of ten pairs of
plates, the water assumes | power over a rectiinery

, turning it to the rif it or the left, reepran tae to the direc-

ix.
with water and the helix traversed by t Seameragt im:
Bg in it, the water: in the centre of : helix will alone exert any
action on a transm | ray, that. etween the exterior F
of the coil and th By of the tube ce’ no rotatory power. “piece |
of borate of ea los placed in the helix ix acquires’ wer

pai ly glass araday communicated ~
temporari to the aa ee
ate : rope al and oil of tur-

Bibliography.

- the study of Meteorology s by Davin P.

oF sil 08
re ackwood & Sons, London.—We are in-
ee a letter dated Wrenbury, Nantwich, Ma 48, that Dr.
a on Meteorology is in prune on appear, —

C. M.
r plates. Wien (Vienna), ‘Aug., 184 1847.—This volume
D mibiéntibc ent is published we subscription, the list being headed
by his maje Aart of —— It is prepared | pe 8 the able
Ration of. Hai dinger, -well known by his various minera
~ publi | iv tranlation of Mobs ’s s Treatise on | Mineral-

“es

% FL WeRosst.. New ‘Speier ofArechnide in the K. K. musev
Fi gee
Pe are® v. sire On fossil Cephalopoda tow Bleiberg in Carin

FR. . at aoe. hytanrof the bile’ of i p 3.) ej

Endop
H. Sr. poor ry New species of Leafy M sei from the Car
| seiko ‘p. 47.
bi Hawincer. On gon ee imitative of steal: Pp. 65. -
W. Harpinezr. On. Aspasiolite, as peer of Cordierite,
with remarks on Metamorphism sate 19.
G. Gorn. On a Hailstorm in Steiermark. 93 ; with remarks on
the same, by W. Haidinger: p. 96. my ae
W. Hane *

A. PaTera. © Chemica exa p. 107, 2

. V. HavER oe
EFFLEUR. i } — influence
ef thé Rotation > pyshOxn soe ea a af
xozr. On yim of faces of Crystals p- 148.

an Lewitt of Agnasin:

te the linear: integration of Dien equations

i Re Maen: _New Cephalopoda from the Sea of Marmora:
|

a *
4 hye

p. 257.
"KER Hasncenscsonr. Description of: a Species’ of Oguri
“4. ¥, Partitos Geological sketch of “the T District of Kremnite

p. 289. :
: Aw, Monier. On Dolomite and its-relation in “es fe spar :
' . B05. . os Se age i
, — F. Srvony. Meteorological Observations:
A. Lows. On the Arsenical Neil ¢ Sctidaig and Pack
dorf : Bs 343.
* The author shows that the rm is ia oad, and gives fine tant
many measurments. 5 a eld
*

inekoes p. ped. is sae +

Bibliography. wal 155

Fr. R. v. Haver. On, _the Fossils of Korod in Siebenbiirgen :
p. 349,

J. Barranpe. On the Brashiopaca of the Silurian Rocks of Bohe-
mia: p. 357—475; with nine crowded quarto plates.

10. Berichte uber die Mittheilungen von Freunden der Naturwissen-
schafien in Wien. This Bulletin is from the “Friends of Beience” i in
Vienna, and is published under the direction of M. W. Haidinger. A
second volume was issued in 1847, including proceedings from Nov.,
1846 to June, 1847.

L. C. Becx : Botany of the United Stetes, new ed. 1 vol. 12 mo. Wew York,
1348.
Re & : Researches on the ery! of Food, and the motion of the Juices
in the Anivnal Body, Amer. ed. ork, 1848. 50 cts.
E and ae Bride hilelgne’ Monuments of the Mississippi Val-
ley, eaiapeeh ba Fike ults of extensive original surveys and explorations; 4to,
with numerous slogans ‘ffiaintiona, In the press, New York. Published by the
Smithsonian Institutio
ICKLAND. ne A. G. Muxyx tte: The Natural History and Osteology
e Dodo solitaria, and other extinct birds of the islands Rodriguez, Mauritius, _
one 1 ee course of | he
NKE AND PFEIFFER : ‘cena fi ‘for Malakozoologie, i iv. Jabrg. 1847. (12
-Thir.15 s er

OCKER : Generu m et specierum mineralium secundum ordines natu-
Piles digestoram Synopsis. 8 maj. cart. Halle. 2 Thir .
. Fournet : nes = Gesteine, nachgeweisen i in den westlichen Al-
pen ; 1 taf, a ber ne
F,. RamMet rittes , ‘Supplement 2 zu dem Handwarterbinch der chem.
Th. “der Shccahegs, "Fipibers:

. FReistepes ¢ Von fs ov der Silbererze in Bechechi Frattery. 2 This,
Also dig Sachs: Exzgiinge in Jocaler u. Systemat. Reihe st 3 pe Thr. 15
er. pon vorkommen der Gold und Quecksilbererze in Sachsen.

B. Cotta: “ere Karte von Thuringen. Secs. 2 and 3, imp. fo., 15s. 64. ;
Secs. 1:3. 245. 6
. GMELIN: Handbu ch der Chemie, 4th edit., 8v

3Lon ; Elemens de Chimie organique, comprenant les _ rll de cette

science = la physilogie animale; 2 vols. vO. 15

WwW 8 us von WALTERSHAUSEN : Physich. meet: Skizze von Island,
mit besond. Racksicht ps ae . Erscheinungen.
"A stronomie stellaire ; ye voie lactée sur la distance
des eroies a vO.
gE & E. rises —Cours de chimie générale, with an atlas of 46 plates.
Paris, 1848.

Ovyraces sur te Bre

SPix AND von Mannie; Reise in ge in den Jahren 1817-1820, with ~
atlas of 40 panes of views, and 8 cha besides two sheets of music. 3 vols. hy
-, and an acted volume on A Me aphy, 40 pp.; 1823-1831. ann tion
Velin. mperial in n fol., 285 frs.; in 4to, 216 frs.
' Martius : Die »hysiognoinie des. Planzenreiches in Brasilien: 1624, firs
Die Thiere und Soecren. des tropischen America. 1837.

tg Rotindlinde r den Urein wohnern Brasiliens. Ft,

with an Pilea chart. 7

_ Part rQuE.—J, El aoa d J. B. de Spix: entum brasilensiom
species Soa: bdr: in small my new eifitiog of te, 18 1840.
Avium species nove, &o.; 2 vols. in small follo; i, pp. 90, 104 col. plates; i,
PP. “2 uy gy: bai opel
Species nove Lacertarum ; in smal! folio, 26 pp. “and 98 colored
BP ohag % e.

J. B. de ecies’ nove Testadinum et Ranarum, &e., folio, 53 pp., with
39 colored co 98 frs. . ee Pp-

156 # - = Bibliography.

J, B. de Spiz, L. A, saat iz and: C. » de Martius: Selecta genera et species
Piscium, &c., in-small folio, 138 pp., 56 colored pani 1827. 249 frs.
ix, gner Schrank and von Martius: Testacea, &c., in small folio, 36 i

i th
erty and .von Martius: Delectus Animalium ariiculetorum, &c., in small
1834. 164

: Nova acuul et species plantarum, o

$e. A vols. 2 piel folio, with 300 colored plates. 798 frs.

nes Plantarum ee amicarum, 1 vol. in small folio, 138 pp.
1827-1834

a
a:
©
4
>
yd
S

pet 76 colored pats
men pare Medice Bilslionss. Specimen I, Emetica; in Ato,
with 9 i “7824.

“ne and Mohl : Palmar genera et species, &c. 1823-1845. 220 plates.
1164 frs.

. ad i 35 Martius : Flora Brasiliensis, sive enumeratio plantarum, &c. Fascieuli
ee © j-ix, ry f
8 ———:: Systema Maser. ledic ce” Vexdtatiuis ers ie 1843. 8yvo. 4 frs.
whet Ser. Part LAD.» iv, No.2; Ap. 1 . p- 36, Habits of some
Alrican epi 5 T.S. Savage. Ap. 25. p40. G shinies of the Wirehitt Opos-
‘ my; J. —p:47. A new genus an —_ +3 ossi! Ruminantoi
ermata receipe Culbertsonii), with a ate
Teor Amer. Pui. Soc., Puitan., yol.v, te. 1848, ,p- 51. delet
* on - "Pre . Peirce:—p. 16. the pet, i star a occultation
upon Kk of the moo n; S. 8, Haldeman.—April 21, p. 20. Exe ie

births di dinised by cholera Dr. Emerson. me 20: Ephemeris of* ¢ Nept une ;

ha or Tur Soc. Gebii: DE Li def 2d. Ser., Témé il. —First and second
rts. retaceous formation southw t, north, and a of the congal
ot of ton a (with 3 so baer ore views and sections; D’ar ng ee

ya
of the aor
= of sections); J, Delbos.—On the fossils of “Tourtia Cok 1D pte)

ae pes Scr. Nar. Paris. ” OCTOBER, 1847: Arvicola fivatia; “€
Fibevaansarsiia of Southern France ; P. ” Gervais —F oss i} mamm iia ‘of aralne.
. = . es. % , os :

1 ais and Marcel de Se inization of the Génus Galeodes, a ty,
ong the eT : d.—Connection between - tg ment of the
hair “p Rd A iris and oh i of hearing in certain
3 biopoda + - ie on: the Gutta Pereha ag ‘the plant rad
it; 03-—Figh, ae sof Alia um, niet oe Al 5 J. Gay.— ete
livia; J. Reney—Cellulose, is it the basis of all-v “vegeta rt © cbr

NOVEMBER, 13847. On the Britiopode amtinel); 26 anization
fthe Vermes (continued) ; E. Blanchar lulose Nephineys H: Mohl.—
ba i. ya of adventitious buds; 4. “Tvécal On the pith of il plage
‘ Arcuiv rin Natu bee ate RN ‘Berlin, Tarn Herr , 1847. On the Naiads

pet | F. H. Trosc nsect larves: ; W.P. Erichson.—Review of publications on
malia and birds p che year 1846.—Fimst Herr, 1848. On the process of sub-
division } in’ the egg o soni ; F. Miller —Natural. history of the “ Blasenwarmér”
Cysticercus tenn nd is 8, etc.) ; R. Leuckart-—T wo new species of Helminthes ; R.
Leuckart.—On rf > eculiar air canal in pce ‘et Ai? ine ; A. Krohin.—New An-
nelida ; E. Grube.—Orches Sb Ww Species from the Baltic ; ;
“fs tea the mode Pe increa ae ph Chlerog Grdago ihe euchlorum, Ebr. se se F.
? ecies 0 Satin te 4 —Letter on an original figure
of the ae ia ae of Roland we. ‘re Sa in “the Be wo ate,
at Vienna; L.. J. er.—On the of U nia; b: 5 ode
with remarks by J. Colbais, ws uy —e bf

THE

: AMERICAN 4

€

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS.

[SECOND SERIES.] *

Are. XI. —On the Indian Archipelago.* *

Cok

innumerable islands. That there is a real and not pine a fan-
eiful connexion between the Archipelago and Asia is demonstra-
ble, although, when we endeavor to trace its history, we are soon
lost in the region of speculation. So obvious is this connexion
that it has been a constant source of excitement to the imagina-
bes which, in the traditions of the natives and in the hypotheses

of Europeans, has sought its origin in an earlier graphical

unity. Certainly, if, in the progress of the clevatory and depress-
ing movements which the region is probably undergoing —
now, the land were raised but a little, we should see shallow se
dried up, the mountain ranges of Sumatra, Borneo, and Tava
become continental like those of the Peninsula, and great rivers
flowing not only in the Straits of Malacca, whose current early
navigators mistook for that of an inland stream, but through the
wide valley of the China Sea, and by the deep and narrow Strait
of Sunda into the Indian Ocean. Thus the unity would become
geographical, which is now only geological. That the great

* From the Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia, for Jy, 1847,
Scorn Series, Vol. VI, No, 17.—Sept., 1848. 2 |

‘Gade
158 e On the Indian Archipelago.

duced it, would possess; the mountain ranges which form the
latter sink into it irregularly in the lines of the longitudinal axes ;
—in one zone, that of the Peninsula, the connexion is an actua
geographical one ;—the Peninsula is obviously continued in the

; dense clusters of islands and rocks, stretching on the parallel of
ie

its elevation and of the strike of its sedimentary rocks, from Sin-
gapore to Banka, and almost touches Sumatra, the mountain
ranges of which are, notwithstanding, parallel to it ;—Borneo
and Celebes appear to represent the broader or eastern branch of
the Indo-Chinese Peninsula, from which they are separated by
the area of the China Sea, supposed to be sinking; and finally,
nearly the whole Archipelago is surrounded by a great volcanic

which it is geographically connected are really united, at this day,
into one geological region by a still vigorous power of plutonic
expansiveness, no longer, to appearance, forming hypogene eleva-
tions, but expending itself chiefly in the numerous volcanic vents
along the borders where it sinks into the depths of the ocean.
Whether the present platform ever rose above the level of the
sea and surrounded the now insular eminences with vast undula-
ting plains of vegetation, instead of a level expanse of water, we
shall not here seek to decide, although we think that Raffles and
others who have followed in his steps too hastily connected the

there was, had subsided before they came into existence. No
conclusive reasons have yet been adduced why we would con-
sider the islands of the Archipelago as the summits of a partially
submerged, instead of a partially emerged, continent. But
whether it was the sinking of the continent that deluged all the
southern lowlands of Asia, leaving only the mountain summits
visible, or its elevation that was arrested by the exhaustion of the
plutonic energy, or the conversion of its upheaving into an eject-
ing action, on the opening of fractures along the outskirts of the
region, before the feebler action there had brought the sea bed |
into contact with the atmosphere, the result has been to form an

¥ ee

On the Indian Archipelago. 159

expanse of shallow seas and islands elsewhere unequalled in the
world, but perhaps not greater in proportion to the wide conti-
nental shores, and the vast bulk of dry land in front of which it
is spread out, than other archipelagos are to the particular coun-
tries, or continental sections, with which they are connect

The forms and positions of these islands bear an older ‘date
than that of any limited subsidence or elevation of the region
after its formation. They were determined by the same forces
which originally caused the platform itself to swell up above the
deep floor of the southern ocean: and it was one prolonged act
of the subterranean power to raise the Himalayas into the aérial

level of perpetual snow, to spread out the submarine bed on 2

which the rivers were afterwards to pile the hot plains of —
and to mould the surface of the southern region, so that w

it rose above, or sunk into the sea to certain levels, the ibe
influences of air and sea and land sliould be so balanced, that
while the last drew from the first a perennial ripeness and beauty
of summer, it owed to the second a perennial freshness and fe-
cundity of spring. Hence it is, that in the Archipelago, while
the bank of black mud daily overflowed by the tides is hidden
beneath a dense forest, and the polypifer has scarcely reared its
tower to the sea’s surface before it is converted into a green are
the granitic rocks of the highest plutonic summits and the sm sm

of voleanic oe rise from amidst equally luxuri hed
more varied, vegeta Certainly, the most powerfully: im-
edire of all the clitracieiaes of the Achipelago is its botani-
cal exuberance, which has exercised the greatest influence on the

world. Land and ocean are ensigely eocninal ne!
islands are disjoined by narrow straits, which, in the case of
those of Sunda, lead at once into the smooth waters and green
level shores of the interior from the rugged and turbulent outer
coast, which would otherwise have opposed to us an unbroken
wall more than two thousand miles in length. We pass from one
mediterranean sea to another, now through groups of islets so
small that we encounter many in an hour, and presently along
the coasts of those so large that we might be months in oe
navigating them. Even in crossing the widest of the Haste

seas, when the last green speck has sunk beneath the Sotacns,
the mariner knows that a circle drawn with a radius of two days’
sail would touch more land than water, and even that, if the eye
were raised to a suflicient height, while the eames he lg

160 On the Indian Archipelago.

would reappear on the one side, new shores would be seen on
almost every other. But it is the wonderful freshness and green-
ness in which, go where he will, each new island is enveloped,
that impresses itself on his senses as the great distinctive charac-
ter of the region. The equinoctial warmth of the air, tempered
and moistened by a constant evaporation, and purified by period-
ical winds, seems to be imbued with penetrating life-giving virtue,
under the influence of which even the most barren rock becomes
fertile. Hence those groups of small islands which sometimes
environ the larger ones like clusters of satellites, or mark where
their ranges pursue their course beneath the sea, often appear, in
_ particular states of the atmosphere, when a zone of white quiv-
ering light surrounds them and obliterates their coasts, to be
dark umbrageous gardens floating on a wide lake, whose gleam-
ing surface would be too dazzling were it not traversed by the
shadows of the clouds, and covered by the breeze with an inces-
sant play of light and shade. Far different from the ~placid
beauty of such scenes is the effect of the mountain domes and
peaks which elsewhere rise against the sky. In these the voy-
ager sees the grandeur of European mountains repeated, but
with all that is austere or savage transformed into softness and
beauty. The snow and glaciers are replaced by a mighty forest,
which fills every ravine with dark shade, and arrays every peak
and ridge in glancing light. ven the peculiar beauties which
the summits of the Alps borrow from the atmosphere are some-
times displayed. The Swiss, gazing on the lofty and majestic
form of a volcanic mountain, is astonished to behold, at the rising
of the sun, the peaks inflamed with the same rose-red glow which
the snowy summits of Mount Rosa and Mount Blanc reflect at
its setting, and the smoke wreaths, as they ascend from the cra-
ter into mid-air, shining in golden hues like the clouds of
heaven.*

serene in their beauty and magnificent as these moun-
tains generally appear, they hide in their bosoms elements of the
highest terrestrial sublimity and awe, compared with whose
appalling energy, not only the bursten lakes and the rushing ava-
lanches of the Alps, but the most devastating explosions of Vesu-
vius or Etna, cease to terrify the imagination. When we look
upon the ordinary aspects of these mountains, it is almost im-
possible to believe the geological story of their origin, and if our

senses yield to science, they tacitly revenge themselves by placing

in the remotest past the era of such-convulsions as it relates. But
the nether powers though imprisoned are not subdued. The
same tellurie energy which piled the mountain from the ocean

- Zollinger in describing Mount Semiré in Java, notices this singular resem-
| to the mountains of his native country.

On the Indian Archipelago. 161

to the clouds, even while we gaze in silent worship on its glori-
ous form, is silently gathering in its dark womb, and time speeds
on to the day, whose coming science can neither foretell nor pre-
vent, when the mountain is rent; the solid foundations of the
whole region are shaken ; the earth is opened to vomit forth de-
stroying fires upon the living beings who dwell upon its surface,
or closed to engulf them; the forests are deluged by lava, or
withered by sulphureous vapors ; the sun sets at noonday behind
the black smoke which thickens over the sky, and spreads far
and wide, raining ashes throughout a circuit hundreds of miles
in diameter ; till it seems to the superstitious native that the fiery
abodes of the voleanic dewas are disemboweling themselves, pos-
sessing the earth, and blotting out the heavens. 'The living
remnants of the generation whose doom it was to inhabit Sum-
bawa in 1815 could tell us that this picture is but a faint tran-
seript of the reality, and that our imagination can never conceive
the dreadful spectacle which still appalls their memories. Fortu-
nately these awful explosions of the earth, which to man convert
nature into thé supernatural, occur at.rare intervals; and though
scarcely a year elapse without some volcano bursting into action,

the greater portion of the Archi hipelago being more than once
shaken, and even the ancient granitic floor of the Peninsula trem-
bling beneath us, this terrestrial instability has ordinarily no
worse effect than to dispel the illusion that we tread upon a solid
globe, to convert the physical romance of geological history inte
the familiar associations of our own lives, and to unite the events
of the passing hour with those which first fitted the world for
the habitation of man.

e have spoken of the impression which the exterior beauty
of the Archipelago makes upon the voyager, and the fearful
change which sometimes comes over it, when the sea around
him is hidden beneath floating ashes mingled with the charred
a of the noble forests which had clothed the mountain

; but, hurried though we are from one part of our slight
skbecks to another, we cannot leave the vegetation of this great
region without looking upon it more closely. he full
charms, however, of the forests of the Archipelago,—which is
to speak of the Archipelago itself, for the greater portion of it is
at this moment, as’ the whole of it once was, clothed to the
water’s edge with trees,—we must animate their solitudes
with the tribes which dwell there in freedom, ranging through
their boundless shade as unconscious of the presence of man,
and as unwitting of his dominion, as they were thousands
years ago, when he did not dream that the er held
—— creatures -

en we pass from the open sea of the Arc Sa
- shade of its mountain ja we have val ad. the

162 On the Indian Archipelago.

Europe, our fancies ever pictured of the wildness and beauty of
primeval nature. ‘Trees of gigantic forms and exuberant foliage
rise on every side; each species shooting up its trunk to its
utmost measure of development, and striving, as it seems, to es-
cape from the dense crowd. Others, as if no room were left for 4
them to grow in the ordinary way, emulate the shapes and mo-—
tions of serpents, enwrap their less pliant neighbors in their folds,
twine their branches into one connected canopy, or hang down,
here loose and swaying in the air, or in festoons from tree to tree,
and there stiff and rooted like the yards which support the mast
of aship. No sooner has decay diminished the green array of a
branch, than its place is supplied by epiphytes, chiefly fragrant
Orchidacez, of singular and beautiful forms. While the eye in
vain seeks to familiarize itself with the exuberance and diversity
of the forest vegetation, the ear drinks in the sounds of life
which break the silence and deepen the solitude. Of these,
while the interrupted notes of birds, loud or low, rapid or long-
drawn, cheerful or plaintive, and ranging over a greater or less
musical compass, are the most pleasing, the most constant are

ose of insects, which sometimes rise into a shrill and deafening
clangor; and the most impressive, and those which bring out all |
the wildness and loneliness of the scene, are the prolonged com-
plaining cries of the ankas, which rise, loud and more loud, till
the twilight air is filled with the clear, powerful and melancholy
sounds. As we penetrate deeper into the forest, its animals, few
at any one place, are soon seen to be, in reality, numerous and
varied. Green and harmless snakes hang like tender branches.
Others of deeper and mingled colors, but less innocuous, lie coil-
ed up, or, disturbed by the human intruder, assume an angry and
dangerous look, but glide out of sight. Insects in their shapes

sizes and colors, spring from branch to branch, or, in long trains,
—— steal up the trunks. Deer, and amongst them the grace-
ful palandoh, no bigger than a hare and celebrated in Malayan
poetry, on our approach fly startled from the pools which they
and the wild hog most frequent. Lively squirrels, of: different
Species, are everywhere met with. Amongst a great variety of

endless variety of fragile and richly colored shells not only lie
empty on the sandy beaches, but are tenanted by Pagurian crabs, —
which, in clusters, batten on every morsel of fat seaweed that

has been left by the retiring waves. The coasts are fringed with >

a

F “a pre from oue island to another were
ited and and ;

On the Indian Archipelago. 163

living rocks of beautiful colors, and shaped like stars, flowers,
s and other symmetrical forms. Of multitudes of peculiar

fishes which inhabit the seas, the dugong, or Malayan mermaid,

most attracts our wonder
ore we leave this part of our subject, we would assure any
European reader who may suspect that we have in aught written
too warmly of the physical beauty of the Archipelago, that the
same nature which, in the West, only reveals her highest and
most prodigal terrestrial beauty to the imagination of the poet,
as here ungirdled herself, and given her wild and glowing
charms, in all their fullness, to the eye of day. The ideal has
here passed into _ ary The few botanists who have visited
this region declar t from the multitude of its noble trees,
odorous and Sonuiful smite and wonderful vegetable forms of
all sorts, it 1s inconceivable in its magnificence, luxuriance pi
variety. The zoologists, in their turn, bear testimony to the
rare, curious, varied and important animals which inhabit it, and
the number and character of those already known is such as to
justify one of the most me of the day in expressing
his belief, that ‘no region on the face of the earth would furnish
more novel, splendid, or Sxaicntlinady forms than the unexplored
islands in the eastern range of the Indian Archipelago.’

Hitherto we have faintly traced the permanent influence of
the physical configuration of the Archipelago in tempering the
intertropical heat, regulating the monsoons, determining the dis
tribution of plants and animals, and giving to the whole region
its peculiar character of softness and exuberant beauty. But
when its rock foundations were laid, the shadow of its future
human, as well as natural, history spread over them. Its primal
physical architecture, in diminishing the extent of dry land, has
increased the variety in the races who inhabit it ; while the min-
eralogical constitution of the insulated elevations, the manne
which they are dispersed throughout its seas, and all the shbcaks
and botanical consequences, have affected them in innumera-
ble modes. Again, as we saw that the platform of the Archi-
pelago is but an extension of the great central mass of Asia, and
that the direction of the subterranean forces had determined the
prac of the land, so we find that its population is but an exten-

of foe “Asiatic oS and that the direction of nie
g Ls

al “wandering of small parties or wires fa

164 On the Indian Archipelago.

such as were inhabited, must for a long period have remained
secluded from all others, save when a repetition of similar acci-
dents added a few more units to the human denizens of the
forests. ,

We cannot here attempt to retrace in the most concise manner
the deeply interesting history of the tribes of the Archipelago, so
exciting from the variety of its elements, and its frequent, though
not impenetrable, mystery. We can but distinguish the two
great eras into which it divides itself:—that, at the commence-
ment of which some of the inhabitants of the table-land of Asia
having slowly traversed the southeastern valleys and ranges, a
work perhaps of centuries, appear on the confines of the Archi-
pelago, no longer nomades of the plains but of the jungles, with
all the changes in ideas, habits and language which such trans-
formation implies, and prepared by their habits to give rise, under
the influences of their new position, to the nomades of the sea ;—
and the second era, that, at the commencement of which the
forest and pelagic nomades, scattered over the interior and along
the shores of the island of the Archipelago, in numerous petty
tribes, each with some peculiarities in its habits and language,
but all bearing a family resemblance, were discovered in their sol-
itudes by the earliest navigators from the civilized nations of the
continent.

The ensuing, or what, although extending over a period of
about two: thousand years, we may term the modern history of the
Archipelago, first exhibits the Klings from southern India,—who
- were a civilized mariti ople probably three thousand years ago,
—frequenting the islands for their peculiar productions, awakemng
a taste for their manufactures in the inhabitants, settling amongst
them, introducing their arts and religion, partially communicating
these and a little of their manners and habits to their disciples,
but neither by much intermarriage altering their general physical
character, nor by moral influence obliterating their ancient super-
stitions, their comparative simplicity and robustness of character,
and their freedom from the effeminate vanity which probably then,

y recent
communities

4

On the Indian Archipelago. 165

which Indians and Arabs have exerted on his race, he remains,
physically and morally, in all the broader and deeper traits of na-
ture, what he was when he first entered the Archipelago; and
even on his manners, usages and habits, influenced as they have
been, his distinctive original character is still very obviously im-
presse

We cannot do more than allude to the growth of population
and civilization in those localities which, from their extent of fer-
tile soil or favorable commercial position, rose into eminence, and
became the seats of powerful nations. But it must be borne in
mind, that, although these localities were varied and wide-spread,
they occupied but a small portion of the entire surface of the Ar-
thipelago, and that the remainder continued to be thinly inhab-
ited by uncivilized tribes, communities, or wandering families.

Prevented, until a very recent date, by stubborn prejudices and.

tions have not directly affected them at all ; and the indirect op-
eration of the new power, and mercantile ‘and political policies
which they introduced, has been productive

very little good. While, on the one hand, "the native industry
and trade have been stimulated by increased demand and by the
freedom enjoyed in the English ports, they have, on the other
hand, been subjected by the Portuguese, English and Dutch, to a
series of despotic restraints, extending over a period of three hun-
dred years; and, within the range of the last nation’s influence,
continued, however modified, to this hour: which far more than
eeemacrbolanoe all the advantages that can be placed in the oppo-
site scale.

The effect of the successive immigrations, revolutions and ad-
mixtures which we have indicated or alluded to, has been, that
there are now in the Archipelago an extraordinary number of ra-
ces, differing in color, habits, civilization and language, and liv-
ing under forms of government and laws, or customs, exhibiting
the greatest variety. The same cause which isolated the abori-
gines into numerous distinct tribes and kept them separate,—the
exuberant vegetation of the islands,—has resisted the influence,
so far as it was originally amalgamating, of every successive for-
eign cixiligetion that has dominated ; and the aboriginal nomades
of the jungle and the sea, in their unchanged habits and mode of
life, reveal to their European contemporary the condition of their
race at a time when his own forefathers were as rude and far more
savage. The more bilvilined races, after attaining a certain meas-
ure of advancement, have been separated by their acquired hab-
its from yo unaltered races, and have too often turned their su-
_periority into the ee of oppressing, and thereby more com-
- pletely i Saraiboning in the barbarism of the jungles, such of them

Szcoyp Serigs, Vol. VI, *e 17.—Sept., 1848.

ciel AE

166 On the Indian Archipelago.

as lived in their proximity. So great is the diversity of tribes,
that if a dry catalogue of names suited the purpose of this sketch,
we could not afford space to enumerate them. But, viewing hu-
man life in the Archipelago as a general contemplation, we may
recall a few of the broader peculiarities which would be most
likely to dwell on the memory after leaving the region

In the hearts of the forests we meet man scantily covered with
the bark of a tree, and living on wild fruits, which he seeks with
the agility of the monkey, ‘and wild animals, which he tracks
with the keen eye and scent of a beast of prey, and slays with a

isoned arrow projected froma hollow bambi by his breath.
In lonely creeks and straits we see him in a small boat, which is
his cradle, his house, and his bed of death; which gives him all
the shelter he ever needs, and enables him to seize the food which
always surrounds him. On plains, and on the banks of rivers,
we see the civilized planter converting the moist flats into rice-
fields, overshadowing his neat cottage of bambi, nibong and palm
leaves, with the graceful and bounteous cocoa-nut, and surroun-
ding it with fruits, the variety and flavor of which European lux-
ury might envy, and often with fragrant flowering trees and
shrubs which the greenhouses of the West do not possess.
Where the land is not adapted for wet rice, he pursues a system
of husbandry which the pate of Europe would view with as-
tonishment. ‘Too indolent to collect fertilizing appliances, and

well-aware that the soil will not yield two successive crops 0
rice, he takes but one, after having felled and burnt the forest ;
and he then leaves nature, during a ten years’ fallow, to accumu-
late manure for his second crop in the vegetable matter elabora-
ted by the new forest that springs up. Relieved from the care
of his om he ssepbirice the — for ratans, canes, timber, fra-
grant woods, oils, wax, gums, caoutchouc, gutta-percha, dyes,
eamphor, wild ease the ies of the elephant, the horn and
hide of the rhinoceros, the skin of the tiger, parrots, birds of par-
adise, argus pheasants, and materials for mats, roofs, baskets and
receptacles of various kinds. If he lives near the coast, he col-
lects fish, fish maws, an roes, slugs (trepang), seaweed (avaragar) %
tortoise-shell, rare corals and mother-of-pearl. To the eastward,
great fishing ees are annually made to the shores of ‘Australia
for trepang. In many parts, pepper, coffee, or betel-nut, to a large
extent, and tobacco, ginger, and other articles, to a considerable ex-
tent, are cultivated. Where the Hirundo esculenta i is found, the
rocks are climbed and the caves explored for its costly edible nest.
In different parts of the Archipelago the soil is dug for tin, antimo-
ny, iron, gold, or diamonds. The more civilized nations make
cloths and weapons, not only for their own use but for expay
tion. ‘The traders, including the Rajahs, purchase the co
ties which we have mentioned, dispose of them to the European, _

On the Indian Archipelago. 167

Chinese, Arab, or Kling navigator who visits their shores, or
send them in their own vessels to the markets of Singapore, Ba-
tavia, Samarang, Manilla, and Macassar. In these are gathered
all the products of the Archipelago, whether such as the native
inhabitants procure by their unassisted industry, or such as de-
mand the skill and capital of the European or Chinese for their
cultivation or manufacture; and amongst the latter, nutmegs,
cloves, sugar, indigo, sago, gambier, tea, and the partially cultiva-
ted cinnamon and cotton. ‘To these busy marts, the vessels of
the first maritime people of the Archipelago, the Bugis, and those
of many Malayan communities, bring the produce of their own
countries, and that which they have collected from neighboring
ands, or from the wild tribes, to furnish cargoes for the ships of
Europe, America, Arabia, India, Siam, China, and Australia. ‘To
the bazaar of the Eastern Seas, commerce brings representatives
of every industrious nation of the Archipelago, and of every mar-
itime people in the civilized world.

Although, therefore, cultivation has made comparatively little
impression on the vast natural, vegetation, and the inhabitants are
devoid of that unremitting laboriousness which distinguishes the
Chinese and European, the Archipelago, in its industrial aspect,
presents an animated and varied scene. ‘The industry of man,
when civilization or over-poptiation has not destroyed the natu-
ral balance of life, must ever be the complement of the bounty
of nature. The inhabitant of the Archipelago is as energetic
and laborious as nature requires him to be; and he does not con-
vert the world into a workshop, as the Chinese and the Kling im-
migrants do, because his world is not like theirs, darkened with
the pressure of crowded population and over-competition, nor 1s
his desire to accumulate wealth excited and goaded by the con-
trast of splendour and luxury on the one hand and penury on the
other, by the pride and assumptions of wealth and station, and
the humiliations of poverty and dependence.

While in the volcanic soils of Java, Menangkabat and Celebes,

of Borneo and Johore, from the numerous islands between Sing-
apore and Banka, and from other parts of the Archipelago, pirat-

=

168 On the Indian Archipelago.

ical expeditions, less formidable than those of the Lanuns of Su-
lu, are year after year fitted out. No coast is so thickly peopled,
and no harbor+so well protected, as to be secure from all moles-
tation, for where open force would be useless, recourse is had to
stealth and stratagem. Men have been kidnapped in broad day
in the harbors of Pinang and Singapore. Several inhabitants of
Province Wellesley, who had been carried away from their hou-
ses through the harbor of Pinang and down the Straits of Ma-
lacca to the southward, were recently discovered by the Dutch
authorities living in a state of slavery, and restored to their homes.
But the ordinary abodes of the pirates themselves are not always
at a distance from the European settlements. As the thug of
Bengal: is only known in hisown village as a peaceful peasant,
so the pirate, when not absent on an expedition, appears in the
river, and along the shores and islands of Singapore, as an hon-
est boatman or fisherman. bot

When we turn from this brief review of the industry of the
Archipelago, and its great internal enemy, to the personal and so-
cial condition of the inhabitants, we are struck by the mixture of
simplicity and art, of rudeness and refinement, which character-
izes all the principal nations. No European has ever entered in-
to free and kindly intercourse with them, without being much
more impressed by their virtues than their faults. They contrast
most favorably with the Chinese and the Klings in their moral
characters ; and although they do not, like those pliant races,
readily adapt themselves to the requirements of foreigners, in
their proper sphere they are intelligent, shrewd, active, and, when
need is, laborious. Comparing them even with the general con-
dition of many civilized nations of far higher ‘pretensions, our
estimate must be favorable. eir manners are distinguished
by a mixture of courtesy and freedom which is very attractive.
Even the poorest while frank are well-bred, and, exeluding the
communities that are corrupted by piracy or a mixture with Eu-
ropean seamen and low Chinese and Klings, we never see an im-
pudent air, an insolent look, or any exhibition of immodesty, or
hear coarse, abusive or indecent language. In their mutual in-
tercourse they are respectful, and while good-humored and open,
habitually reflective and considerate. ‘They are much given to
amusements of various kinds, fond of music, poetry and roman-
ces, and in their common conversation addicted to sententious re-
marks, proverbs, and metrical sentiments or allusions. To the
first impression of the European, the inhabitants, like the vege-
tation and animals of the Archipelago, are altogether strange, be-
cause the characteristics in which they differ from those to which
we are habituated, affect the senses more vividly than those im
which they agree. For atime the color, features, dress, manners
and habits which we see and the languages which we hear are those

On the Indian Archipelago. 169

of a new world. But with the fresh charms, the exaggerated
impressions also of novelty wear away; and then, retracing our
steps, we wonder that people so widely separated from the na-
| tions of the West, both geographically and historically, and real-
>> ly differing so much in their outward aspect, should, in their more
latent traits, so much resemble them. 'The nearer we come to
the inner spirit of humanity, the more points of agreement ap-
pear, and this not merely in the possession of the universal attri-
butes of human nature, but in specific habits, usages, and su-
perstitions. ,

What at first seems stranger still is, that when we seek the na-
tive of the Archipelago in the mountains of the interior, where
he has lived for probably more than two thousand years secluded
from all foreign influenee, and where we expect to fr all the
differences at their maximum, wwe are sometimes astonished to

find him approximating most closely of all to the European. In

the Jakan, for instance, girded though his loins are with terap
bark, and armed as he is with his sumpitan and poisoned arrows,
we recognize the plain and clewnish manners and simple ideas of
the uneducated peasant in the more secluded parts of European
countries; and when he describes how, at his merry-makings,
his neighbors assemble, the arrack tampui flows around an

dance, in which both sexes mingle, is prolonged, till each seats
himself on the ground with his partner on his knee and his bam-
bi of arrack by his side, when the dance gives place to song, we

‘are forcibly reminded of the free and jovial, if rude, manners of

the lower rural classes of the West. Freed from the repellant

prejudices and artificial trappings of Hindu and Mahomedan civ-
ilization, we see in the man of the Archipelago moye that is akin
than the reverse to the unpolished man of Europe.

When we turn to the present political condition of the Archi-
pelago, we are struck by the contrast which it presents to that
which characterized it three or four centuries ago. ‘The mass of -
the people, it is true, in all their private relations, remain in near-
ly the same state in which they were found by the earliest Euro-

- pean voyagers, and in which they had existed for many centuries

170 T. S. Hunt on the Anomalies presented

tions of some: Their pride has fallen. Their living literature
is gone, with the power, the wars, and the glory which inspired
it. 'The day has departed when Singapore could be invaded by
Javanese,—when Johore could extend its dominion to Borneo on
the one side and Sumatra on the other,—when the fleets of Acheen
and Malacca could encounter each other in the Straits to dispute
the dominion of the Eastern Seas,—when the warrants of the
Sultan of Menangkabai were as potent over the Malayan nations
as the bulls of Rome ever were over those of Christendom,—

daughters of the emperors of Majapahit in marriage. The Mal-
ayan pice a the present day, retaining all the feudal attach-
me

ble vent for the assertion of their freedom from restraint and the
gratification of their self-will, have almost everywhere sunk into
indolent debauchees and greedy monopolists, and, incited by their
own rapacity and that of the courtiers who surround them, drain
and paralyze the industry of their people.

Art. XIII.—On the Anomalies presented in the Atomic Volume
of Sulphur and Nitrogen; with remarks on Chemical Clas-
sification, and a notice of M. Laurent’s Theory of Binary
Molecules ; by 'T. 8. Hunr, of the Geol. Commission of Can-
ada. (In a letter to one of the Editors.)

Tur similarity of funetions enjoyed by oxygen and sulphur, is
now generally recognized by chemists. It is known that sulphur
may replace oxygen, equivalent for equivalent, and produce com-

generally the same atomic volume, and their vapors consequently
the same combining measure.

mm, the Atomic Volume of Sulphur and Nitrogen. 171

If with the French chemists we divide the ae alents - ~
drogen, chlorine and the metals by 2, and \ @: We. forur

water, H, O or H, O,, their t combining sialaies Wil bi a same
as that of oxygen. But if we look at the volume of sulphur, we
find an exception to this deine the specific gravity of its vapor is
6654, while that of oxygen gas is 1-1057. Talking the combi-
ning volume of -oxygen as unity, that of sulphur is }, and while
the volume of the atom of oxygen (= the atomic weight divided
by the ore is “a shoe by 7-2354, that of — is found
to be 2:4045. s fact with a similar one in the history of ni-
trogen, has ware a an unexplained difficulty-in the way of ad-
mitting that the combining volumes of all the elements should
be identical.

In an attempt towards a system of chemical Rear goa some
suggestions have arisen which will, I think, enable us t explain
satisfactorily this apparent anomaly. Rejecting the Bh ideas
of electro-negative and electro-positive relations, as not only base-
less but erroneous in their tendency, I consider with MM. Ger-
-— and Laurent, that each class of compounds is derived from

mal species or primitive type by successive substitutions.
This poe I have endeavored to extend both by the formation of
new classes, and by enlarging our views of substitutions,

In considering such combinations as SO, and Se O,, which
contain three equivalents of the elements of ‘the oxygen group,
it was necessary to admit a normal species which should be.a pe-
lymere of oxygen, and be represented by O,=(OOO). The re-
placement of one ps ee of oxygen by one of sulphur, would
yield sulphurous acid gas (OOS), and a complete metalepsis would
give rise to (SSS). The first compound is prebably the ozone
of Schénbein, which the late researches of Marignac and de la
Rive have shown to be in reality only oxygen in a peculiarly
modified form, since pure dry oxygen gas, by the action of the
electrical spark, acquires the peculiar odor and chemical properties

' which distinguish ozone. 'The most characteristic of these are,

its peculiar odor and its power of discharging vegetable colors, in
both of which is seen such a close resemblance to sulphurous
acid gas, as at once to suggest a similarity.

If we regard sulphur in the form which is known to us, as
having the oo, ea (SSS), and. consisting of three equiva-
lents combined in one, the density of its vapor is no longer an
anomaly, as the patch vapor is condensed to one-third of its
normal bulk, and its equivalent number being 16 x3=48, its
atomic volume is 72135, or the same as that of oxygen* gas.
The difficulty is completely solved in a manner which is accord-
ant with well-admitted principles.

In connection with the similarity between ozone and sulphur
here advanced, it is vee of notice that the odor of sulphur

-

172 T. S. Hunt on the Anomalies, §c.

when warmed or rubbed, which is similar to, and often confound-
ed with that of sulphurous acid gas, although really distinct, is
strikingly like the odor produced by the electrical gra in-
deed this last, which is now known to be due to the formation

‘their compounds with each other, on the one hand, and those of
phosphorus and arsenic on the other, we are constrained to admit
that the effects produced by these bodies on the nerves of smell,
have an intimate and as yet but imperfectly understood relation
to their chemical properties.

s to selenium, Iam not aware that the density of its vapor
has ever been determined, but from that of the solid it appears

probable that it as well as tellurium has a triple molecule. ‘The ©

compound described as Se O may belong to a type which is seen
in anhydrous sulphuric acid (SO, ), in which case its formula will
be (Se, O,), but from its volatility and pungent odor, it is perhaps
referable to the previous form, and will em = (Sez 02); hybrid
combinations* of this sort are not unfreque
In the other exception referred to, we find ‘that while the den-
sity of the vapors of arsenic and pho sphorus is such that their
volume is identical with that of oxygen, nitrogen gas is repre-
sented by two volumes, taking oxygen as unity; and that conse-
quently while the calculated atomic volumes of gaseous > phospho
rus and arsenic are 7-2, that of nitrogen gas is 14-4—; in other
words, its state of condensation i is only one-half that of the others.
It has already been suggested that elementary nitrogen is prob-
ably unknown to us, and that the gas which is left when the ox-
ygen is removed from the atmosphere, is an amid whose formula
is (NN), corresponding like all similar combinations to four vol-
-umes; the Se af nitrogen being taken at 14, while that
of oxygen s 8. Two equivalents of nitrogen being thus ex-
panded to font volumes, the density is of course just one-half of
that which corresponds to the normal one, and multiplying the
observed density by 2, we find that the real specific gravity of
gaseous elementary nitrogen should be 1-944; its combining vol-
ume identical with that of oxygen, and the volume of its atom,
like that of Meat. apn and arsenic, 7'2. If it existed in the

: ds, M. Lan rent has designated a elass of sompoenas, whe to the
wesne ae heoa pr eres no small difficulties. Such a s these, are ma combi-
ations of the mineral kingdom where three or four ‘ho ila may exist in var ying pr”

i da

in these hybrid combinations, “a divisibility of atoms to which he assigns no
its.”’ (See this Journal, ii ser., iv, 405, v, 405, Gerhardt on the Atomic Volume
of some Minerals of the Regular System, and Laurent on Silicates cates.)

&

-

T. S. Hunt on Chemical Classification. «178

a

same state of condensation As solid phosphorus, its specific gravity
would be 790, water being 1000.

M. Laurent ina late valuable memoir,* has made some very im-
; . portant suggestions as to chemical oe age which if prope ‘
‘ carried out, will enable us ere long to reduce the immense num-

ber of combinations to a few Seobie and well defined ty
Water (H, O) he not only regards as the primitive type of all the
oxyds (M, O) and (M®, O), of the nardhen a. ompounds
like (KZn)O, and oe “corresponding sulphur —
M, 8, (MH)S, but going still farther, reduces the :

same form. Spirit of wine, which is a monobasic saline} com-
pound capable of changing an equivalent of hydrogen for one of
metal, e.g. C,(H, K)O, is made the type of the vinic acids, in

tami of Mareen are replaced by t the same elements. ./ .

G; H, O-HO= = Et, we hav. agt
‘Water, OT ae" gt Me
Alcohol, : 6k % .* (HBO = C4 Bg ¥-

Ether O. :
Ita appears to me that this view is i ees of still farther ex-
tension and that we may include in the same type all those sa-
~ combinations (acids). whigh | eeatals oxygen. For example,
ving the formula C] OMO=
Cl MO,, or in the French notation "el M) O, the acid being then
6, a monobasic acid which comesponds to water in which
Cl replaces H. . The so ted anhydrous hypochlorous acid of
tion of dry chlorine upon oxyd of
manned is t - : a e6P iplete Pi BME a In the same.
nerynitric ac $4 monobasic salt corresponding to
ites, in which ? NO. is jeatotitnted for H ; the capacity of the ele-
ments NO, to r eplace H is abundantly exemplified in the mod-
ern history of organic compounds. We have then,

ACI

oeehe sur les combinaisons azotés, Ann. de Ch. et de Phys. for No-
vember, 184
t As the a nd saline ge: several times used in this article, in an a
sapiaiee a different from the ordinary one, it maybe well to pene
that with M. Gerhardt I designate as a salt any compound which contains hydro-
metallic derivatives of that compound; saline

ed from the science, and that it were restricted
2 qualities, for hydrate of potash, water, sugar and alcohol are as
snits eo Pap op oe * hospberic.s siedainiiie many com-
ote dine

174 T. S. Hunt on Chemical Classification.

ities os A Dae Be ARO.
Hypochlorous acid, . : j (CL H)O.
Hypochlorites, ; ‘ : . (ClM)O.
Nitric acid, ' ( (NO, )H)O
i ((NO,)M

bs Pid 3 is
ment of hydrogen in the original type gives rise to (SHO, ),O=
S, H, O,, which is the Nordhausen acid commonly represented
by 280,, HO. This latter compound as M. Gerhardt has shown
corresponds to the anhydrous bisulphate of potash.

The tribasic acids may equally be reduced to the same type if
we conceive the elements which replace one equivalent of hydro-
en to be bibasic instead of indifferent or monobasic. Phospho-
¢ acid PH, O, is ((PH, O,)H)O.

The primitive saline type is then essentially bibasic, and is pre-
sented in its most elemental form in water, while the simplest
type of the monobasic salt which is a derivative of the last, is
found in hypochlorous acid.

The ideas above announced show that it is possible to develop
some connection between a series of compounds hitherto regard-
ed as widely distinct from each other, and may lead us to hope
that the time is coming when a new day will dawn upon the
science. j

M. Laurent proposes a view of elementary bodies that shall di-
vide them into two classes, Which he designates as ~
P| é

*

the monasides, 7.* = _ ~~ ‘and the diodides.
ot ee
Ok, ee oe eR ite
Ss Masta Clo 6.
Se i. Br . As
Te ae L:.; Me

it Fl
‘The vertical groups represent those bodies which are equivalent
to each other and may be again divided into isomorphous groups.
These elements may exist in any number of equivalents in or-
ganic bodies, but the sum of those of the second group, in ac-
cordance with his well known law,* will always be divisible by

i ee

* As this important law which Was first fully announced in the essay of M.
Laurent, before quoted, may not be familiar to all our readers, we translate entire
that portion of his memoir. ‘ M. Gerhardt has endeavored to show that ina reg-
ular notation, the number of atoms of each element ought to be a pair, and that
moreover in those combinations which do not téntain azote, the number of atoms

af

* i

%
, T. S. Hunt on Chemical Classification. 175

two. ‘The reason of this will appear if we conceive the equiva-
lents of the elements like those of their compounds, to be cape
sented by 2 volumes; we have then,
Oxygen, . 3 Pr; aw

bak H, : ; 12.
Chlo J) Oper, 52 449-0 am
Hycehloric acid, : HCl |

. H, O'« Be.

Carbonic acid, O a ‘

“'The molecules of hau cei of onfortis wai Giscd all the
diodides, are formed of two atoms which constitute a _homogene-
ous combination, (HH), (C1 Cl), (MM), ete. ‘These in the pres-
ence of each other can undergo a double poe i or mu-
tual substitution and form a heterogeneous combinat

“ (HH) +(Cl Cl)=(HCl)+(Cl H)
| madiput Cl)=(MC1)+(Cl M).

of hydrogen should be divisible by 4. In pert to explain ‘the’introduction of
azote into organic bodies, I have been led to complete the rule o erhardt
and to apply to azotized compounds the billowing scoiuligicn” ‘Ina otized
substances, represented by 4 volumes, the sum of the atoms of hydrogen sche azote
7 ee multi; 4.’

From this proposition the following corollaries are deducible
Ist. if the hydrogen becomes 0, the number of the atoms of iia is a multiple

Qd. If the srg becomes 0, the number of the atoms of hydrogen is a multiple
of 4. 4 (Gerhard
he organic substance contains phosphorus or arsenic in place of azote,
he aed yale? is observed.
pa abe halogen bodies (Cl, Br, I,) may bé ere forthe hydrogen,

the sum of the azote, the hydrogen and the halog ee, is still a multiple ‘ras
it results ae this that an organic substance canned combine with two, six or ten
volumes of chlorine, bromine, etc.
6th, ' The metals which form oxyds (R, O) vec age ag oer (H, 0), also
replace hydrogen, and observe in Sheik combinations the
6th. The metals of the oxyde, ‘ 3 in the cutinacy ilatioh), do no

“In a notation which corres cmt to two Sota mes, the preceding be beet
be divided by 2. On atcount of the simplicity of the for s,I give p

with M. eas to this ac notation. Our two. propo itions ‘thes see faite
the follow

In all o orga ic substances, the sum of the dtoms of the hydrogen, eee , phospho-

rus, arsenic, the metals and the halogen bodies, ought to be divisible by 2.”

In regard to the truth of this law, it is to be rem ed that among hundreds
of combinations re our position and equivalent is well determined, the
a single exception, and that the few apparent ir prin rfl among the organic
alkaloids, have rly all been explained by new and care ‘a conducted analy-
ses, which have shown in thei ulas a pe ect confor

i h corollary may be made to pile ae sixth, by a simple hypothesis,
which M. Laurent has proposed in the Rerue — 3 corresponds
to 3H, O, and consequently M, to Hg, it is cbvius spa and regarding

the metals in these oxyds as uniting in two-third oar ry pie dey Se,
they will no longer be exceptions, but will be included in the fifth
this Journal for neg 1847.” (Review of Gerhar

176 T. S. Hunt on Chemical Classification.

“The molecules of the monasides may also divide in two, but
the half of the molecule does not necessarily require a comple-
mentary half to form a combination. This s half can unite itself
with an entire diodide. (HH) +(HH)+(00)=(HH)O+(HH)O
or With an entire monaside, Se Wa Wardaml red 5: Cae )0,
or with the half of a monaside, (CC)+(00)=(CO)+(CO).”

“Tf instead of taking one volume for some bodies, two for oth-
ers and four for others as is ordinarily done ; or if in place of ta-
king with M. Gerhardt one volume for simple bodies and two for
compounds, we represent all bodies whether simple or compound
by one volume, we have a much more regular notation and one
which taken in ‘connection with the preceding ideas, enables us
to represent the formulas of all bodies, without employing frac-
tional numbers.”

“We admit that each molecule of the simple bodies is at least
divisible into two parts which we designate atoms ; the molecules
can only be divided in case of combination, we have then

Oxygen, . " UV 2 vol.
Hydrogen, : H. == 12-5 ; 1 vol.
Water, H,O0=1126: . ¢ voR
Hydrochloric acid, HCl=227-0 1 vol.

2% Bach letter O, H, Cl represents a demi-volume or demi-mole-
cule or one atom. The formula of all these bodies indicates im-
mediately the condensation.” In no case do I change the notation
of M. Gerhardt.

“The atom of M. Gerhardt represents the smallest quantity of
a simple body which can exist in a combination. My molecule
represents the smallest quantity of a simple body which can be
employed to effect w combination, a quantity which is divided in-
to two parts by the very act of combination. Fer example, Cl can
enter into combination, but to pi this it is necessary to employ

ge my propositions a curious consequence is aed

M. Gerhardt has remarked that it is impossible that the nitric and
chloracetie acids can aes water, because the formulas of these
three bodies are NHO, 7 C, HCl, O, andH,O. It will be seen
poh this difficulty is not pas by adopting the ordinary formulas,

0,4+H,0 and ©,Cl, e,, H,O, for it will then be necessary to
robe water by i aaa

elieve that we. may go farther and not only say that the
hydrogen is not combined with oxygen, in the nitric acid, but
that it is combined with azote, the two atoms of these bodies
being complementary to each other.

Taking one volume which for the simple bodies represents one 7

eaelotule : or two atoms:

'
€

T. S. Hunt on Chemical Classification. WT
Oxygen, . ‘ ‘ . ‘ ‘ (OO) =1 vol.
Hydrogen, . < : ‘ d (HH)=1 vol.
Chlorine, ‘ , : , - (Cl Cl)=1 vol.
Hydrochloric acid, basth ah ‘ (HC1l)=1 vol.
Hypochlorous acid, . . 3 (Cl H)O=1 vol.
Chloric acid, . i ade goin (CHR) * 1 vok
Phosph. Hydrogen, . ‘ . (PH) (HH)=1 vol.
Hypophosphites, _. i CPR = T vol.
Phosphites, .. , - .(PH)(MM)O, =1 vol.
Phosphates, ‘ 4 (PM) (MM)O, =1 vol.
Acetic atid, . . * ¢....2) Cal beet) (EO aed vol.
Acid chlorinated, . » GC, (AH) (HCO, = iavot
Acid bichlorinated, ‘ C,(HH)(C1C1)O, =1 vol.
Acid trichlorinated . . ©,(HC1) (Cl C1)O, =1 vol.”

This last hypothesis I present a8 one of the deductions of the

author from his views, but it seems to me hardly warranted. The

pits Sa Sh of the idea of the binary arrangement of at-
oms to the explanation of the affinities exhibited by bodies in the
nascent state, is very beautiful and ingenious.

“If we place together two free molecules of bromine and hy-
drogen (BB’) and (HH’), the affinity of B for B’ and of H for H’
will perhaps be sufficient to oppose the combination of B and B’
with H and H’, but if only B and H were present, these two at-
oms not having to overcome any affinity would readily combine.
This is what takes place, for example, if hydrogen is in the nascent
state, as when we decompose hydrochloric acid by a metal, for
we have HC1+M=CIM+H, which tends to reconstitute itself
into a binary molecule by combining either with bromine or anoth-
er molecule of “hydrogen.” ‘“ With sulphuric acid SH, O, and
a metal, the reaction is the same and the hydrogen is nascent or
atomic, for it first forms an acid salt, eliminating H and not (HH);
when the acid salt is formed, the second atom will be in its turn
disengaged.”

The binary molecule of the metals, hydrogen, chlorine, bromine,
&c., will be seen to be the type of an immense number of com-
binations embracing the various alloys and amalgams, the hydra-
cids like hydrochloric acid and their corresponding salts and such
compounds as Cl Brand Cl I. The compound represented by
ICI, is referable to a triple molecule of these elements represented
by H6 or (HHHHHH); to this same type belong the perchlorids
of antimony, arsenic and phosphorus, while the correspondi
trichlorids form a double molecule. In all of these it will be ob-
served that the molecular composition is preserved inviolate, all of
the inorganie compounds into which the second group of ele-
ments enter, furnish a sum of atoms divisible by 2. In the ox-
ygenized bodies on the contrary, we have a type whieh is compo-
sed of three atoms. M. Laurent’s law is thus seen to be equally
applicable to other compounds, than those denominated organic.

178 Prof. J. Brockleshy on the Influence of Color on Dew.

I have thtown out a few ideas suggested by this memoir of M.
Laurent, and have at the same time pointed out the basis upon
which it appears to me a true natural system of chemical classi-
fication can be founded. Imperfect as they are, I hope they may
not prove unworthy of the consideration of scientific men, and
tend to forward the progress of chemical —— y:

=

*

Art. XIV.—Upon tie roe of Color on Dew; by Prof.
n Brocxuessy.

In those haem Pid ee from which Dr.
Wells derived his theory of dew, the influence of various mate-
rial properties, in aetennguins the amount of moisture deposited
upon bodies, under like exposures, is clearly and satisfactorily un-
folded. We are however left to regret, that this sagacious ob-
server did not illustrate the effect of color, by a full course of ex-
periments.
This subject indeed was not entirely omitted. In four out of
five experiments, made with parcels of black and white wool,
alike in size and weight, he discovéred that the former had gained
a little more dew than the latter ; but as the fibres of the white

wool were somewhat coarser than those of the black, he accounts
for the entire difference in the quantities of moisture from this
circumstance alone.

At another time he exposed a piece of pasteboard covered with
white paper, and close to this a second piece, similar in every re-
spect to the ae covered with paper blackened with ink. In the
morning he b held hoar- frost upon both the cards, but the black
surface saateele to have gained a greater quantity than the white.
A doubt however rose in the mind of the observer upon. this
point, inasmuch as from the contrast of color the amount of hoar-
frost might have been apparently greater‘upon the dark than upon
the light surface even when no real difference existed* in favor of
the black.

Influenced by certain views in regard to the effect of the chem-
ical constitution of bodies in modifying radiation, Dr. Welles pur-
sued this inquiry no farther.

e stibject here rested until the year 1833, when Dr. Stark of '

Pdinbaty instituted a series of experiments to determine the in-
fluence of color upon heat, odors and dew.t Two ie eis

* This appearance I have egret observed, when the Beato of dew upon
the white exceeded that oi on the blac

835, Prof. Bache of the le of a “gin 0 the influ-
ence of color upon the saad of non-lumineus heat. His experiments were
hy,

}

Prof. J. Brocklesby on the Influence of Color on Dew. 179

one were made upon the latter. Four parcels of wool of differ-
ent hues were provided—viz : gc dark © green, scarlet and

January, the first, and the last two were exposed upon the leads
of a house, and a few nights afterwards all the colors were sub-
jected to the same exposure. The results were as follows :

Grains.
The Black gained 32
First Experiment, Scarlet “ 25

White “ 20
The rick one “
Second Experiment, Dark
Siig a
m .* : White os 3 e

These shvesttgarfon’ are considered by the author as. decisive
of the point in queStion ; a and as establishing the fact, that dark
and sombre hues are more favorable to the deposition of moisture,
than those which are light and brilliant.

deductions, however, appear to me iacamnd ais: for
several reasons. First, because in this research the utmost deli-
' cacy of investigation is ’ required, and it is almost, if not absolutely
impossible, even with the nicest care, to guard against the op-
ération of known causes, which, unless entirely excluded, will
produce a perceptible difference in the results.

Now we are not informed by Dr. Stark, either in respect to the
uniformity of fibre in the wool employe , or as to the size of
each parcel. A dissimilarity in either particular would cause a
differen¢e in the amount of dew deposited. Moreover, on a sub-
ae like os it is manifestly unphilosophieal to infer a generat
law from

With aid view of satisfying my own mind upon this point, I
made, during the summer of 1846, a number of ne gg the
details of which are presented in the following pa

The material employed for the collection of mabistere was fine
flannel. Having procured a white strip of an even texture, I cut
it into six portions, and caused five to be dyed, each of a different
ent color; viz., red (redwood), yellow (quercitron), green (fus-
tic and indigo), blue (indigo), black (logwood). These six
ir apparently all equally napped, were next cut to exactly

same size, and weighed in a delicate balance. A want of
dient | in weight was detected to the extent of a few ae
This source of. error I endeavored to remove, by placing upon the

far more numerous than those of Dr. Stark, and the voila he obtained sanmely

PPpe
regret hat I did not enjoy the pleasure of perme lfis highly instructive
paper upon ‘this subject, until my experiments were clos

180 Prof. J. Brocklesby on the Influence of Color on Dew.

different Eeohonss of flannel, shreds of the same material, texture,
and color, until t weights were equalized ; and before every ex-
periment this ile was taken, the same shreds as far as pos-
= being always employed. By so doing uniformity in weight
as attained, without increasing the extent,of exposed surface ;
ee what was due to the thickness of the shreds. And the
effect of this is rendered led aioe since it is obvious that its
slight influence in increasing the amount <3 beat is checked, and
probably annihilated by two oithing cau
For the shred being raised by its Ae ase above the surface
of the larger eee pare shelters the contiguous threads of the
latter, and thus in a very minute degree arrests their radiation,
and diminishes their quantity of deposited moisture. Still fur-
ther, as the thickness of the flannel is doubléd where the shreds
are plac there here exists, comparing stidtt Shots with those not
ver outs the quantity of matter*under ‘very ‘nearly the
same exp urface : a circumstance whichs would eee the
timination erate, and the contractiorof dew. I th
fore judge that these antagonist influences may be regarded i in
their effects as neutralizing each other, and that no ‘sens
crease or diminution, in the amount of dew contractéd). ¢

4 , a
sult from the superposition of the shreds as above detailed: ss

thus obtained a uniformity in material weight, effective su
fibre, and with the exception of a very small variation, in tex :
for I ‘attribute the variations in the weight of the several colored
pieces to the greater density of some of the threads in one flannel,
compared with those of another. The only known difference
then existing was color.

The. place of ae was a plot of closely shorn turf in the
midst of a garden, removed from trees and buildings. In six out
of the eleven expuinen, detailed in table A, the flannels were
placed upon the turf itself, and in the remaining five upon a
smooth board, elevated upon blocks of wood, six or seven inches
above the turf. In every case the pieces were arranged side by
side, without any regard to color in their collocation, and the in-
vestigation was conducted mostly on tranquil nights ; so that the
variations in the deposition of moisture, arising from a body bein

aced to the windward or leeward of another, were thereby
avoided,

Table of Averages.

ee Fain in Do. in ao first)Do. in the se-|Do. in the last)Do. - id last,
LL experiments.| fon [eed Sour, four. i thee:
rs. rs. grs. ‘
White, Sro7 Ei 39- ‘abas | | Obes
Yellow, 38-73 47°25 38:25 29:75 98:
ed, 37:27 46- 37:25 27:50 25°
Green, 37-09 44-37 37 29-12 27-50
Black, 86:14 43-25 36°62 27-75 26°
Blue, 25:17

Prof. J. Brocklesby on the Influence of Color on Dew. 181
ist Exp.
Yellow, White, or Yellow; White. |
Black. hi
ed. Bleek, Red. ree
Green. ia , * Black
_ Green.
5th Bx eee x 8th Exp.
White Yellow ied ellow, White.
ello Green, Black, White. Yellow Green.
Red, Gree ack. Red, Black.
lack. Ghee, Red.
9th Exp. th | 1thExy
White. White, cai Yellow. White.
Black, Red, Yellow. Black. Yellow.
Green. Blue. Red, Green
Blue. Red. Black, Blue
: Taspie A.*
a. a
1st.—July 9th.
Fen Exposed; Dry | osed| D Dew
surface. | weight. Barll urface. weight gained.
|inches. | .grs. i inches.
Se ees es =
“c
“ce
"G
se
4th.—July 14th. t
Ex D Dew ed De
ae Saies. Bat gained. orface weight. be
inches.| grs. grs. finches. | grs.
ed, 17-4 53 AT | 17-4 51
Yellow, “ % AT ss «
Green, “ e 46 és és
Black, “c “ 44 <e” | “
White, . ‘ ig 5 A9 xe sods q
7th.—July 21: 2}st. July 24th. 9th.—July 28th.
Exposed) Dry | | Dew seca Dry | Dew |Exposed| Dry | Dew
surface. |weight.|gained.Jsurface. = pees surface. |weight. gained,
inches.” rs. grs. Jinches. noch gts. | grs.
ed, 14-85 | “44 | 17 | 14-85 | “42 § $3 | iso | 44 | 18
Yellow, “ «6 8 és | 35 é“ “ 18+
34
35
11
gre
on
; -
ite, . “ ““ 34. “sc rT
Blue, : * te “ oe “ “ 30—
* On account of an unavoidable dela fa t procured, until most
of the depatiniouts had been pare i the bias - fo aa

Seconp Series, Vol. VI, No. 17.—Sept., 1848.

24

182 Prof. J. Brocklesby on the Influence of Color on Dew.

With the view of discovering, whether these varying results
were the legitimate effects of color alone, unconnected with other
causes ; I cut a piece of fine, evenly wove, yellow flannel into
four portions, ahd prepared them in the same manner as in table
A. I thus obtained as far as possible, uniformity in every dis-
cernible a apaitt: The place of joo i was the same, and the
ig precautions observed, as in

e following are the results of four trials, the first two being
eds upon the grass, the last two upon the elevated board.

TABLE : ae
| July 5th. | haa 17t July 21st July fuly 24th. |
- < 3 2 | Ba j Seale
£3 e ne FE 2e| 22 | ied
ag GSAS] oa ¢8) as Ab e&
ipches-| grs. -jinches. grs. linches.| grs.| grs.
Ry . Pig's S4'/ 3319-3 | 94’) 33 io" | 123 94- Bb
: 7 tc + 1 33 “c Q if 24-
= vaso, m6 aitt “ £33 “c ¥ i “ e 93
U, : 5 ic | S38 73 ll “ 94 24
rs
Average of four experiments:
. 4
| grs.
R, ] = r 25:25
S ed oo
’ ‘ i a, ADO: 44
U, ’ * 23-50

By recurring to table A, it will be seen, that the amount of
dew gained by the yellow and-white is greater than that acquired
by the black, beth in the general and particular averages, an
when single ‘experiments are compared, the gain of the yellow
exceeds that of the black in every case ; the highest being one-
seventh of the quantity deposited upon the yellow. In like man-
ner the white preponderates over the black in ten out of eleven
instances, and in the eleyenth their gain is alike. The greatest
gain, ue one-eighth of the moisture contracted by the white.
The n possesses likewise an advantage over the black in every
en but the red dees not ; while in the comparison of sin-
gle experiments they, follow no law, 5. da time falling below the
black, and at another ranging as high as the white and yello rs

The average of the blue is the telat of all in the last three ex:
perments, and sinks below the black in every instance in respect
to the quantity of deposited moisture. The results of this in-
vestigation point to conclusions at variance with the commonly
received opinions in regard to the radiation of heat as modified
by color, and are directly opposed to the experiments of Dr.
Stark. But are these variations in the amount of dew contracted,
to their fudl oe the legitimate effects of difference in color *

The details given in table B, throw light upon this question.

e first series of experiments.

Prof. J. Brocklesby on the Influence of Color on Dew. 183

Notwithstanding every precaution to obtain uniformity in all es-
sential particulars, the four exposed surfaces contracted unequa
sonia of dew ; the difference between the extreme averages

ing 1s. —23°5 gts. =2 grains in four experiments. The
oe tb of the extremes in the first, second, and last four ex-
| periments, as given in table A, is as follows :

“9 grs.
First four, ¥ . : ‘ 47-5 —43-25=4-25

=
i>*)
of
=
ERs

f From this it is byicun, that the differences in the amount of
- deposited moisture, developed in the first course of experiments,
(4 were not fully due to the influence of color. Latent causes also
: conspired to produce these discrepancies, and the extent of their
influence is eliminated by the second series of experiments. If
re this is suas by the difference between the extreme averages,
i and this subtracted from the corresponding differences in
| table A, A teen oti are represented by the following weights,

bn grs.; residual phenomena, which iMnar be
bate, eit Se Z the influence of color, or considered as ae
ts of experiment, to which all human investi-

met are subiée

In table B, it. vill be observed, by comparing R,S, T, and U,
with each other i in the several experiments, that ‘the anount of
moisture deposited follows no rule, each surface in its turn ranging
from the highest to the lowest point of the scale. Such fluctua-
ting results must be the effects of predominating inconstant cau-
ses. ‘The same fact is discovered, as before stated, in the first
series of experiments, upon comparing together the red, kame
! and blaek. Here if color has any ‘effect, it is entirely di
by the prevalence of more potent fluctuating influences. “Phe
invariable superiority however, maintained by the yellow and
white over the black, indicates the existence of one or more fix
Operating causes, not visiting one s surface to-night, and another the
next ; but attached totheir own particular surface.

The only assignable, eonstant’ causes, exclusive of eoloriig
matter, are-the differences in the density of the threads composing
the surfaces, (to which allusion has been made,) and color. * But
the first cause existed in the second series of experiments, and
was unable to presefve any regularity in the variations. More-
over, between the black and white even this difference in*the
density of the thread searcely’ existed, inasmuch as the equal
surfaces of the black and white weighed very heatly the same,
before any shreds were swperadded. Under this view of the
subject therefore, color alone would appear to have operated in
producing the constant differences observed in the amount of de-
posited moisture as recorded in the first table, had the investiga-
tion been confined to the first course of experiment. But the

184 Prof. J. Brocklesby on the Influence of Color on Dew.

results of peeanen’ observation, detected this fallacy ; for in
the perusal of the following pages it will be seen, that where dif-
ferent oe matter was employed, the white and yellow main-
tamed no such superiority in the scale of colors. 'The material
of color therefore is not to be disregarded in this enquiry.

In the further prosecution of this investigation, five small pie-
ces‘of plate glass were procured, cut from the same strip of equal
size, their weights being rendered alike by the addition of small
fragments from the same plate. They were next painted on one
side with water-colors, as follows:

| Nos. | Substance. | olor.
a p : 3 . | Gamboge. 7 ellow
Re 52 Tae Bk Blue and Gamboge. Green.
3, j ; . | India Black.
4, stores 7 Flake White. White.
5, ‘ : ; . | Prussian Blue. Blue.

In every color the paint was not spread quite uniformly over
the surface, it cae found impossible to blend the shades into
one unvarying ti int.

e plates were placed side, by side upon a board, and expo-
sed, in the first and second experiments, upon the basi of a house,
and in the third upon an open grass plot. After each experiment,
if any defect of coloring appeared, the plates tes retouched.
The results were as follows:

~|_Ast.—Aug. 12th. | Qa. 8d. — Ag. 3th. Ag Tah
% Toe 3 Bi ge o a
Be | 2 [tlie] .& | et u ~» | =!
Ms | oF | ASlas | at |oelaz | ae |.o&
inches.|pwts. grs.| grs. jinches.'pwts. grs.| grs. inches. ae .grs.| grs.
Yellow, 5-06 | 9 14-5] 13:5 | 5-06 |. 14°5 +5 | 5-06) 9 14: 65
n, ieee * 6 13-5 sew se iD g “6 6:5
oat, és a, « [905] «wp ge %. 4 ee
White, Pek “ te tk ar PT} “ 55 é “es vo
Blue, a: “ fiat | 135 Th «| 65 “ hue, pas

Arranging the colors according to the quantity of dew gained,
the following orders are uiat : ‘

+
2 _——__#___.

S Ast Exp. i« tsp.” | 3d Exp
hite. car m ~ White, Blu r
Yellow, Green, Blue, Yellow, Green.
Black. : Yellow, Blue. Black.
sa a oe hee ‘tials

The average gain of the several Siew, arranged as above, is
seen in the annexed scale.

es z dies

———

— 9-2

Blue, ; F 9-

Yellow, White, : . 8-8,
’ Black, *. 8-3

Prof. J. Brocklesby on the Influence of Color on Dew. 185

It is impossible from these results to detect — controlling in-
fluence in color, but the fact, that the least amount of moisture
was gained by the black, in two cases out of tibie. and that it
holds the lowest rank in the table of averages, is not in accord-
ance with the experiments of Dr. Stark.

Six white pasteboard cards were ier — ig to the
same pack, and presenting the same extent of s
were equalized in weight in the manne Fe iguabeaee and at
first painted on one side as foll ow

| Card. a { Color.
eT ee Vermilion. Red.’
B, Gamboge. Yellow
Rg a LI8 Prussian Blue and Gamboge. Green,
ade India Ink. Black. a
ogc et" hea thant color of the paper. White.
ry I Blue.

_ Thus jc ibaned, they were exposed on the grass plot, during five

ized. At the close of the third trial, they were each painted on

the remaining side, the colors being interchanged in the follow-

ing manner.—B, red; A, yellow; F, green; E, black; C, blue;
D, being turned over afforded a white ground.

In the fourth and fifth trials, these ‘second surfaces weré ex-

posed. The table below presents the results of this investigation.

1st.—Sept. 3d. 2d.—Sept. 10th. 3d.-—Sept. 15th.
gf) 3 se] EE | LS |e! £ 3 sis
aaa &: (28152 | 6 [68] 87] 62 [68
h 7 grs. . inches. pwis. grs.| gr8 Jinches.| pwts. grs.| grs.
A. Red, _ |ies3P 23 | ‘ 12:33 | 2 20 10 {1233/2 91 | °6
B. Yellow,. . «| i 2 i coe) F
C. Green, . . « Sut Tg oe ve wy « “ 6 | G
D. Black, . . e | Pe Me cng st! eB ses 64
E. White, . . « «| 49 “ a4] 4) “ ee els. &
Piles: ee “ Rae. «149 “ « «bh 4Q ee ve ee «138
4th —Sept. 22d. 5th Sept. ept. 24th.
lx ak d Bs a es 4
~» |3i| € ae | Be
PS a5 a8 | ma 6s | 66.
wis. grs. grs. inches. pwts. grs grs.
B. Red, ya 23 | 15 | 1233.) 2 2 31
A. Yellow, i iS ot oe! a Ce
F. Green, ieee || 8 «ce ea 34
E. Black, oe &* 16 “ te . ee 33~
D. White, a Bae 17 “ ea 36
Cc. Blue, és sf 18 te “ “ 36

186 Prof. J. Brocklesby on the Influence of Color on Dew.

Colors arranged according to the amount of dew gained :

lst Ex. - 2d Ex. 3d Ex. 4th Ex. | Sth Ex. ; Average.

grs.
Blue, White. Blue. Blue. Blue, Green.| Blue, ; ‘Blue, 17:2
Yellow, Green, 2 |Green, Yellow, 2 |Yellow, White./Yellow, White. § White, 16-6
Black, Black, White. § |Red, Green, } hite. Yellow. /Yellow, 16:2

Red. Black. Gr .

Black.
Red.

®

2
2o
Oo
5

SSS Eee eran

It is seen in the experiments just detailed, that among the differ-
ent colors the blue and red alone follow an invariable order; the
former always occupying the highest and the latter the lowest
rank ; and that this is true not ithstanding the cards were changed
after the third trial : a fact-which shows that this law follows the
pigment and not the card. But does the law attach to the color
or the coloring matter. The'latter appears to be the case. In Prof.
Bache’s essay on the influence of color upon radiation, a list is
given of twenty-five substanées, arranged in the order of their ra-
diating powers. Prussian blue ranksthe second, indigo the eight-
eenth, and vermilion the fifteenth.» Prussian blue therefore, ra-
diating more than vermilion, should contract more dew as accords
with the fact. But it is evident that this effect is produced by
the material of the pigment and not by the color, inasmuch as
indigo has a less radiating power than vermilion, and consequent-
ly it would give but comparatively little dew. A fact which is
shown in Table A, where the blue ranks very low in the scale of
colors.

The results developed in these investigations afford no support
to the assertions of Dr. Stark, that dark colors are more favorable
than light to the deposition of dew; but, to their full extent,
lead to the inference that color has no coritrolling power in this

icular.

_ It is with much satisfaction that I have perceived the results of
my humble researches, to accord with those, which Prof. Bache
deduced from -his elaborate investigations; wherever a compati-
son could be : s with him I find, that color is not a
determining quality in the radiation of non-luminous heat, that
vermilion possesses a low radiating power, and that while Prus-
sian blue possesses this property in a very high degree, indigo
ranks amid the lowest on the scale. In Prof. Bache’s experi-
ments the rate of cooling was the test of the radiating power, in
those just detailed, the amount ef dew is the criterion, Now,
without asserting that the non-influence of color upon radiation
is fully established, it is certainly a circumstance worthy of con-
sideration, that two independent modes of analysis have led to
the same conclusions. ’

a

Art. XV. a new Method of extracting Pure Gold a Alloys

A new Method of extracting Pure Gold from Alloys, §c. 187
nd from Ores; by C. 'T. Jackson, U.S.G

form of a spongy mass has been practised by me for several years,
and no account of the process has, to my knowledge, hereto-
fore been published. It is very useful to the chemist and to the
manufacturer, and is more economical than any other method

{s that I am acquainted with.

After separating the gold from silver. by means of a mixture of

nitric and chlorohydric acids as is usually done, the solution con-

}: taining gold and copper is to be evaporated to small bulk and
the excess of nitric acid is thus driven off.

A little oxalic acid is then added and then a solution of ecar-
bonate of potash sufficient to take up nearly all the gold in the
state of aurite of potash is gradually added. A large quantity
of crystallized oxalic acid is then added so as to be in great ex-
cess and the whole is to be quickly boiled. All the gold is im-
mediately precipitated in the form of a Peete yellow sponge
which is absolutely pure metallic gold. All the copper.is taken
up by the excess of oxalic acid and may be * in out.

? Boil the sponge in pure water so long as any trace of acidity
remains, and the gold is then to be removed from the capsule
and dried on filtering paper. It may be pressed into rolls, bars or

thin sheets, by pressing it moderately in paper. I have made
several useful applications of the gold sponge thus prepared, and
had a tooth plugged with it in October, ad to which purpose
it is well ed.
By moderate pressure, the spongy geld hone a solid mass
and burnishes quite brilliantly.
he jeweller or goldsmith will find spongy gold to be quite
convenient when he requires it for a solder, and it is a convenient
form of the euigan for making: an amalgam for fine gildi I
have used it for some year soldering platina, and prefer it to
the filings or it foil for a purpose. This method of sep-
% arating fine gold from coarse, is very simple, and cheaper than
the usual processes. It is, applicable in the st ag of gold
from ores that may be treated by acids, and is vastly preferable

t. to the method commonly used by chemists and assayers

When making oxyd of gold for dentist’s use, the chemist will
find that oxalic acid added to his potassic solution, will at once
recover all the gold that is dissolved in an excess of the alkaline
solution.* Many other applications of this very simple method
will occur to elieditate and artisans.

| ‘ Tue following method of obtaining pure metallic gold in the

sence
ae

* Much gold is lost by the usual method of preparing the oxyd.

2 ae
ee he Te RON hee OF Teast Pe ee CE ene Rue men en ee mT

188 Discovery of Tellurium in. Virginia.

Art. XVI.—Discovery of Tellurium in Virginia ; Ax C.1%.
Jackson, U.S.G.S.

‘Earty in May last, Mr. Knowles Taylor of New York gave
me two specimens of native gold, in mica slate rock, from an au-
riferous vein recently discovered in’ Whitehall, near Fredericks-
burg, Va. In one of the specimens I observed a considerable
mass of a splendent foliated and sectile mineral, of the color of
antimony, which I recognized as an ore of te lurium. The gold
was imbedded in a mass of it, and it was also observed to exist
disseminated through the rock in shining metallic leaves. On
submitting this mineral to analysis, 1 discovered that it’ was a
telluret of lead and gold or foliated tellurium ore. In the open
glass tube before the blowpipe, telluric acid sublimes, and con-
denses in the cooler part of the tube in a yellowish white film
which melts into drops. A little greyish sublimate also deposits,
which is metallic tellurium. The residual matter, cupelled on
mica, gave a well characterized glass of litharge, and a minute
globule of pure gold. This interesting mineral has not, I believe,
been heretofore discovered’ in the United States, and it is ex-
tremely rare in Europe. It had been mistaken for gr ie .
molybdenum, and was considered to be of no value. That e
should be corrected, for it is not only valuable as an extol
rare mineral, but since, ‘as I am informed, it occurs in abundance
in the Virginia mine, it should be «saved and wrought for gold, in
the same manner as is practiced in the tellurium and gold mines
of Transylvania. It is very easy to expel the tellurium by heat,
and then the gold nfay be obtained by the usual processes of
amalgamation by mercury, and discharge of the mercury by heat.
Since I detected the tellurium, I have conversed with T'. A. Dex-
ter, Esq. of Boston, who has recently visited the mine, and has
fe a considerable quantity of this tellurium ore in the vein.

ve me two very weéll characterized specimens, which he
diol from the vein in place ; so‘there ean be no doubt of its ex-
istence in a true auriferous vein.

I announced this discovery at the annual meeting of the Amer, we
nth,

ican Academy of Arts and Sciences last mon
Boston, June 18th, 1848.

“shy
‘te

| Scheerer on Isomorphism. 189

Art. XVII.—Upon a peculiar bind of Isomorphism that plays
an important part in the Mineral Kingdom; by Professor
Scueerer of Christiania

(Continued from p. 73.)
i. Borares.
1. Datholite.

None of the prior formule for datholite agree so well with
its composition as that brought forward by Rammelsberg, namely,
2Ca* Si+B* Sit +3H. 4

This formula, however, involves the improbability that the
boracic acid is here viewed in the light of a base combined with
the silica. This improbability may however be got over by
writing the formula as follows: a Si+Ca R]+(R) Si, wherein
therefore, (R)=3H.

: 2. Botryolite.
Rartihiislebeae formula for this mineral is,
2Ca* Si+B* Si+6 H,
which admits of conversion to 3[Ca §i+Ca B]+(R)? Si.

Ill. Prosewares. —
A. Phosphates of Iron.
1. Vivianite.

According to Stromeyer’s analysis, the vivianite of St. Agnes
in Cornwall, eonsists of phosphoric acid 31°8125, protoxyd of iron
41-2266, water 27:4843 =99-8934.

Hitherto all endeavors have been in vain to arrive at a formula
that would represent in a satisfactory manner the results of this

analysis by so celebrated an analyst as Stromeyer, and which was
appatently conducted with such precision. Von Kobell’s for-
mula, which gives the closest ee to the result,

Fe? > 48H, requires a composition of Pactentim acid 28°69,
protoxyd of iron 42-38, water 28-93 = 100-00.

This differs not immatterially from the result of the analysis,
and mnoreoren involves a ratio in the quantity of oxygen contain-
ed in the base, the acid and the water, which in a compound of
so little complicated a nature can hardly be looked upon as prob-
able. On calculating the water in Stromeyer’s a base

isomorphous with protoxyd of iron (3H= ae which, after the
Seconp Series, Vol. VI, No. 17. —Sept., 1848.

190 Scheerer on Isomorphism.

number of proofs we have adduced thereof, we are fully borne out

in doing, we obtain an oxygen ratio of 17-47 P: 17°53 (Fe), cor-
responding with almost mathematical aceuracy to the simple for-

mula (Fe)° P, and in which formula base and acid contain equal
amounts of oxygen

2. Earthy Vivianite, from Hillentrup.

ayer consists, according to an analysis of Brandes, of phospho-
d 30-320, Saget ie of iron 43:775, water 25° 000, alumina

0: 700, silica 0-025 = 99-820.
The oxygen ratio deieiod herefrom is as follows: 18:60: 17°38.
Deducting the alumina as a phosphate, the ratio becomes even
more nearly 1; 1, whence we also obtain for this mineral t6o the

formula (Fe) P.
3. Vivianite, from Bodenmais.

Vogel’s analysis gave, phosphoric acid 26:4, protoxyd of iron
41‘0, water 31:0=98:-
If we may rely on ‘6 sstiee de of this result, it will justify

the nem formula, ( Fe) Pi5H
e oxygen ratio as it may be calculated from the result of

the analysis, is, 14: 79P : 14 00(Fe) : 13-58%
should be 1400 :1400 ; 14-00.

A portion of the water in this mineral is basic, another portion
exists as a hydrate. ‘The formula thus resulting for the Boden-
mais vivianite, is ed similar to that which we obtain upon
converting, on the principle here involved, the formula of the

artificially prepared hydrous phosphate of magnesia, which is

Mg? P+-14H, whereby we obtain (Mg)° P+5H

The corresponding artificial salts of the anasyd of iron and
of the protoxyd of manganese, have not as yet been analyzed,
but without a doubt the same formula is also applicable to them.
It would however be well to submit the enmais vivianite to
a further examination in order to ascertain with certainty whether
in point of fact its composition is different from that from Cornwall,
which as the two minerals agree in their crystalline form is cer-
tainly not probable.

4. Mullicite.

Thompson obtained for the composition of this mineral, fer ee
phoric acid 26:06, protoxyd of iron 46:31, water 27° 1499

The corresponding oxygen ratio is, 14: 60 P : 14-00 (Fe):
13 75H, which gives as the fonpale 2 mullicite (Fe)'P+5H,

Scheerer on Isomorphism. 191

agreeing with Vogel’s analysis of the Bodenmais vivianite. The
chemical difference between both minerals would consist there-
fore merely herein, that in the former a smaller quantity of the
protoxyd of iron is replaced by water than in the latter.

5. Vivianite from the Mauritius.

According to the analysis of Laugier it consists of phosphoric
acid 21, protoxyd of iron 45, water 34= 100.

From these numbers we can, it is true, surmise no great accu-
racy, nevertheless they afford an oxygen ratio of 11-:77P:
10:25 Fe : 30: 115, corresponding approximately to the for-
mula Fe* P+ 15H, according to which the oxygen ratio should
be 10: 10 : 30, In this mineral, therefore, the whole of the
water appears to exist as a hydrate, The formula however ad-

mits of being thus men (Fe) if P, in which case the whole
of the water figures as bas
B. Phosphates of Copper.

As oxyd of copper is not isomorphous with magnesia, protoxyd
of iron, &c., it of course cannot be assumed that three atoms of
water replace one atom of oxyd of copper. From grounds which
I will afterwards explain, there is more than a probability that
two atoms of water can replace one of oxyd of copper. at
less water should be required to replace one atom of oxyd of cop-

r than one atom of magnesia, is sufficiently substantiated by
the different basic qualities of these compounds. In calculating
the oxygen ratio of the following phosphates and arseniates of

copper, it is assumed, as yet hypothetically, that 2H =1Cu.
“1. Libethenite.

The crystallized Libethenite consists, according to Berthier’s
analysis, of phosphoric acid 28:7, oxyd of copper 63:9, water

‘A=100°0, This gives, upon the above supposition, an oxygen
ratio of 16-08P : 16-18(Cu), corresponding exactly to the formula
(Cu) P, which is the formula ef the Comwall vivianite and of
the eathy vivianite from Hillentrup.

2. Phosphorochaleite.

Rammelsberg calculated from Lynn’s dpalysis of the phos-
phorochalcite from Rheinbreitenbach, the formula Cu‘ P+5H,
tie completely with the formula here adduced for the
phosphates. According to the analysis perhaps a portion !
for a certainty but a — ‘one) of the oxyd of copper may

7%

192 . Scheerer on Isomorphism.

be replaced by water, and the formula in consequence becomes

(Cu)* P+ 5a, agreeing with the Bodenmais vivianite and miul-
licite.

3. Phosphate of Copper, from Ehl, near Rheinbreitenbach.

This consists, atcording to Bergmann, of phosphoric acid
24:93, oxyd of copper 65:99, water 9:06 = 99-98, corresponding
to the oxygen ratio 13-99P : 1331 Cu: 8058 ; whence we de-
cup the So 3Cus P+ 10, requiring an oxygen ratio of

4. Phosphate of Copper, ftom Hirschberg.

According to Kiihn, its constituents are, phosphoric acid 20°87,
oxyd of copper 71°73, water 7-40 = 100-00; whence we obtain
the oxygen ratio,

11-69 P : 17-66(R) Tae
1169 : 17-54 ‘ (Cn)! Be.

IV. Arsentares.

_ As the relative quantities of the peroxyd and the protoxyd of
iron have not yet been ascertained with accuracy in scorodite and
in pharmacolite, no calculations can be here entered upon wit
respect to the formula these minerals would receive, by consider-
ing their water as a basic constituent.
A. Arseniates of Earths.
Picropharmacolite.

The analysis of Stromeyer gives arsenic acid 46-971, lime
24646, magnesia 3:223, oxyd of cobalt 0-998, water 23-977 =
99°815, corresponding to—

| 1630 As : 15-47 (R) 6 i
1600 31600 $ se sa

the formula of vivianite, libethenite, and earthy blue iron, Since

pharmacolite contains no earth but lime, it is not to be assumed

.

that any replacement by water is brought into play in that mineral.
B. Arseniates of Cobalt.
Cobalt Bloom.

According to Berzelius, its formula is Co? As+6H, which, as
protoxyd of iron and protoxyd of cobalt are isomorphous, and as
wo make 3H = 1Co, may be expressed likewise thus,
(Co)* As, by which it is rendered analogous to the Cornish vivir
anite ; and the agreement that has been proved by Gustavus Rose

uadzgsete

——

‘ Scheerer on Isomorphism. 193

to exist between the forms of the crystals of these two minerals,
would be thus farther borne out. According to Kersten’s analy-
sis of the cobalt bloom from debitesbens! the “entitle for this min-
eral is however, Co® ‘As +SH.
C. Arseniates of Copper.
1. Olivenite.
Richardson found the erystallized olivenite to consist of—
39°9

rsenic acid, : : 39°80
Oxyd of Souper, ' oe 56:2 = 56-65
Water, ; , 3:9 3°55
100-00

The mean oxygen ratio from these two analyses is—
igs ; mp te (Cu)s ma

This too is the formula of vivianite and of the other minerals
cited. It is assumed that 2H = 1Cu.

2. Euchroite.

The euchroite from Libethen consists, according to Turner, of
arsenic acid 32-02, oxyd of copper 47°85, water 8:80 = 99-67
From this the following oxygen ratio may be deduced, 11-47 As

: 12-00 (Cu) : 12-01 H, approaching very closely the ratio calcu-
lated for phosphorochalcite, and whence may be deduced the for-

mula, (Cu)? As+5H. In euchroite however, a larger portion of
the water (about one-fourth of the whole amount) plays the part
of a base, than is the case in phosphorochalcite.

3. Copper-foam

According to v. Kobell’s analysis, the Seyile of the diverging

foliated copper-foam from Falkenstein, is Cus As+ 10, not ta-
ing into account the quantity of carbonate of lime therein con-
tained, the amount of which approaches 1 atom.
4. Erinite.

From 'Turner’s approximative analysis of this mineral, its con
stituents are arsenic acid 33-78, oxyd of copper 59:44, water 5 01,
alumina 1:77 = 100-00. Neglecting the alumina, this gives the
following oxygen ratio, 11-73.As : 11-99Cu : 4-45, whence
may be deduced the formula, 2Cus As+5H, or perhaps rather,

3Cu* As+5H, The former requires an oxygen. ratioof 11; 11:
5:5,—the latter of 12: 12; 4,

194 Scheerer on Isomorphism.

5. Copper Mica.

The composition of the Cornish copper mica, according to
Chenevix, is arsenic acid 21, oxyd of copper 58, water 21 = 100,

corresponding to the oxygen ratio, 7°29 ‘As : 11-70Cu : 18°67 H, .
which may be likewise thus expressed, 729.As : 15-00Cu:
12-07 H, representing pretty closely the formula, 2(Cu)! ° As+
15H, which requires the oxygen ratio, 7‘50 : 15-00 ; 11:25.
6. Lenticular Copper.
Rammelsberg proposes for this mineral, as analyzed by Chene-

vix, the formula, Cu’ As+30H, which represents very closely
the result of that analysis, and harmonizes well with the formula
proposed for the preceding mineral. ‘This formula can be also

expressed as follows, 4(Cu)! . As +308.
V. SuLpHates. ®

“ 1. Melanterite.
According to Mitscherlich, the formula of sulphate of iron is

7m. The former formula, taking 3£ = 1Fe; may be converted
to (Fe)? S, and the latter to (Fe)*S+H. Since protoxyd of
iron and water appear to exist always in sulphate of iron in de-
terminate proportions, the former formula, properly speaking, may y

Fe S+6H. According to Graham, on the contrary, it is Fe S+ f
i

be expressed more correctly thus, Fe? S+2()5 S, and the latter
also in the same manner, but with + #.

2. Epsomite. (Beudant. )

The formula thereof is Mg$+7x, which is convertible to

»

(Mg)* S+H, the remarks appended to melanterite being likewise
applicable in this case.

3. Gloslarite. (Haidinger. )

Its formula is Zn S-+73, which is equivalent to (Zn)? 8 +H.
4. Bieberite. (Haidinger.)

The sulphate of cobalt from Bieber consists, according to Win-

kelblech, of sulphuric acid 29-05, protoxyd of cobalt 19-91, mag-

Scheerer on Isomorphism. 195

nesia 3°86, water 46°83 = 99°65. This gives an oxygen ratio of
17°39 S : 5:74Co and Mg : 13-88 x, which is convertible to
17-398 : 17-66 (R) : 5°88 x4) in which case it corresponds very

closely to the formula, (Co) S+ 4H, which requires an oxygen
ratio of 17-64: 17-64: 5:88. The formula of the artificial sul-

phate of nickel, NiS+7H, may be converted in like manner to
(Ni)? S+aH.

Kopp has examined a sulphate of cobalt from Bieber, the com-

position of which differed from that analyzed by Winkelblech.
It is composed of sulphuric acid 19-74, protoxyd of cobalt 38-71,
water 41-55 = 100-00, corresponding to the oxygen ratio, 11-828 :
8:25 Co : 12:31 x, which is convertible to—
11:82 : 12-00Co : 25-68 = wef
12-00 : 12-00 — ; 24-00 She
It would be interesting to ascertain whether this bieberite has the
same form of crystal as that examined by Winkelblech, which
without a doubt is to be looked upon as the normal salt.

5. Vitriol. (Haidinger.)
The formula of sulphate of copper is CuS+5H. Assuming
that 1Cu may be replaced by 23, this formula is equivalent to

(Cu)? S+H. Sulphate of copper by this means receives a for-
mula similar to that of the other sulphates here mentioned, (with
the exception perhaps of melanterite,) and this harmony appears
to me to bear out the truth of the assumption I have adopted,
and this opinion is still farther supported by the formula obtained
by calculation for the phosphates and for the arseniates of copper.
6. Basic Sulphate of Copper.
The oxygen ratio of this mineral, resulting from Berthier’s analy-
sis, is 9-93 S : 13°35Cu : 15-29 w, or otherwise by conversion,
9-938 : 19:33 (Cu) : 3:33

975 3 19°50 : 3°25
7. Sulphate of Alumina.
The formula of sulphate of alumina, both that which occurs
native and the artificial, is Al $2418 H, which expression may
be thus written, 2(R)s S+AlS. Inthe artificially prepared pure
salt, (R) consists entirely of water, whereas in the natural salt, it

(Cu) S 4m

2 ae Lr cee
Riad han MMM aE aN Mili re beeen” -/ ST ih" Ta Sahl OO “2 . i ulin as Ciglat

196 Scheerer on Isomorphism.

contains also minute quantities of solid bases isomorphous there-
with, as Fe, Mg, é&e.
8. Alum.
The alum formula, R S+Al S3 +24 H, is convertible to
-8(R)? SAILS.
9. Alum Stone, or Alumite.

a Rammelsberg, from Cordier’s analysis of the crystallized alum-

ite from Tolfa, attributes to this mineral the formula, ( KS+AlS°)

4+3.l x, which involves, as it seems to me, an improbability,

inastnuch as one portion of alumina and sulphuric acid are there d
mbined as a neutral salt, while three times this quantity of

alunite: in the form of a hydrate is noways combined with the

acid at all. Changing the expression of the formula to (R)? S+

Al? S?, we get rid of the above improbable rai
It cannot but be noticed that in the a ign 2 9 forthe
different (neutral) sulphates, 1 atom is always introduced as

water of i omg while six atoms #=2 ( R), acting the part
bined with the sulphuric acid. This coincides
very well with: ‘Graham’ s well known observation, to the effect
that these salts by exposure to heat, yield up six equivalents of t
water with far greater readiness than they do the seventh equiv- .
alent, which is not expelled until the temperature is still farther :
raised. Graham termed this last “ basic water,” and the former is
water of crystallization. meen to my view of the matter,
this nomenclature would be inverted.*
At the close of these pisrticaiter to set about enumerating the a
numerous facts in favor of the notion that water in the mine :
kingdom, acts extensively the part of a base, seems to me a use-

* Whether in fact in all the sulphates in question the quantities of the 1:1 atomi¢
bases (Mg, Fe, Mn, Co, Ni, Zn, Cu) are always in definite atomic proportion

to the amount of basic water [as R : 2(8)], a circums i
tance which, as we have
seen, does not appear to obtain in other minerals (silicates, phosphates. and sili

not aes iscrepancies observable i
ists in their analysis o several of these sul hates, it be
ratio between t :1 atomic base ed the Besi sata ae on le or ;
: ught thong in !
way or another is to be sought for * akg vie Senin bs, per ane-
ries of experiments directed to the formation of f erpatalltoed oot sulphates in chick.
and (H) do not preety the definite proportion indicated above. But that such

sulphates, if indee ey can exist, are fi <8
stances, is of itself evi dest » are formed only under certain peculiar circum

Scheerer on Isomorphism. 197

less labor, and one which unless.entered upon in detail would
very likely be imperfect. From all that has been said, it may
fairly be held established, That 1 atom of magnesia, protoryd of
iron, protoryd of manganese (probably Bie) protoxyd of co-
balt, protoryd of nickel and oxyd of zinc. may be isomorphi-
cally replaced by 3 atoms of water, and that 1 atom of ct of

contrasted with that hitlerto received tt ric), hight be term-

ed polymeric isomorphism. he is hardly a doubt but that 2

with time, its application will be
There occurs to. me an opposite remark of v. Bonsdorff, to the

pri. that in hornblendes 3iAl are apparently isomorphic. with

Si, ani opinion whith is soa tenant the eee examples of a
smalls tae ag replacement fn ed above.*

That polymeric is led'into play also beyond the
region of the mineral ie m, admits scarcely of a doubt. For
the present however, fm fine to follow the subject up be-
ere its actual limits.

d it almost superfluous to remark, that T am far from sup-
tea that the eal 3 Pacer 7 ormule that I have proposed are the

corn = Bunk ins iderable nu mber of the minerals c
cerned, espe wih whee cm sition we are not. suff

ciently erm nan n merely as a sugges-

tion, and further thvaste ust seeds how far I have been

correct in such ca

At the conclusi jdn of ¥ thisnatticle; 1 may be perhaps perntitted to
add a few oa which rks bye bs eS decly to me to be of some im-
portance, and 1 Ae with the
stibject in hand oe 6 pee oe

>
Among all the ced We pape ie hn n n hes been direc-
ted, there is not a single ene’ zeolites. This
group of minerals is distinguish forts ed of water, and is
not the less remarkable ar the total of magnesia and
protoryd of iron by which it is chairs, the very two bases

which so frequently and with such facility are replaced by water.
ues i + tees mokt taal? Securris in zeolites , are lime
and potash, with regard to which, as far at least as minerals are
concerned, in which they play-a leading part, it would appear
that they are not replaceable by water. Upon endeavor to
treat either in the whole or in part thé water contained in zeolites in zeoli

*It is eae that the minute quantities of Al and Ot i in * Schiller- -spar (which

see) may, upon the same principle, admit of a an quantity of Si.
Sxconp Serizs, Vol. VI, No. 17.—Sept., 1848

; md ‘ oo Sang ae ie - 5 eM meer ge
b ae eee esi sae, ee es. gli tae cae pe Nae OOS ERS SOs AC GY RE Mc

—-

198 Scherer om'Isomorphism. '

as basic water, we obtain generally speaking, yr highly im-
probable formule, or at least such ones as offer no reason for pre-
ferring them to those already received. Ina few: instances only,
which will be found below, the — that I have obtained, ap-
pear to be worthy of notice.

“8 Okenite. *
Ca? ie may pie to 3Ca Si+(R) Siam,
__ % Apaphyltite.
K Si? +.8Ca Si-+ 16H may be converted are 4+2(R)9Si?.
> _— — Kand Ca; ty psa on the contrary, the entire amount
ater. ylia shot however, the cae 9 of
La in ses ahttptae. to sobaed 18 per cent, whereas
both Berzelius and Oeicany a, from 16 to 17 per
cent.
~ e 3. nah
Na? Si?, 3A Si?+6H may be converted to
*
_3[Na Sil Sij+-2(R) Sli %
The portion of the formula within the bracket ie th fo fortnuila of
labradorite.” (Ryhere too contains only ¢

" A, Harmotome:
Be si caine 098 may be sttrened a ai

Ba? Si Sie bi) “Sis 28 Si
bra Leah form it of sx am-
<8 Bpisittite

ef Si -saidiny ae may be converted to

*
s

a

* <ante Seri)» Siro Si}.

The bracketed portion la of Weissite, The oxy-
erp Tapio. x. BAThite, tebe on from Gustavus Rose’s analysis

30: 4A Si: é19in - t 4°76 Na and H ; 2:12Ca;
whereas, according t ‘to the forrhula proposed by me, it ought to be
30 ‘44: 8°69 : 4-35 : 2-17,
agreeing therefore very closely with the ratio deduced from the

analysis. (R) in this formula comprises the entire soda and the

whole of the water.

yt onl _— —

i
a MR ii

Scheerer on Isomorphism. i90.

Now though there may be somewhat of a probability that some

the zeolites contain basic water, yet it nevertheless seems char-
detente of the zeolites in general, that the water which they
contain is true water of crystallization.

2. Remarks upon certain Pseudomorphs.

Not an inconsiderable number of minerals of the most various
chemical and crystallo raphic character, such as spinel, garnet,
augite, feldspar, tourmaline, mica, and so forth, are, as is known,

met with converted to all.appeararice into a substance which, ac-
cording to the external characters that it presents, is termed either
steatite or serpentine. e.are not however by any means well
informed with respect to their precise chemical nature.

Had ments tg wee resembles serpentine very
closely, curately examined by me, nothing would have
been more RE than holding those crystals, sonata as they
do partly of vrei and partly of” aspasiolite, for crystals of
cordierite, partia ¢ serpentine, » by which the number
pee those peculiar eae s wotld have been still farther in-

ased. _it is Moreover established that the crystals of
wagon met with ee pets no noeMtiaes che: of

precisely analo
a tion

the instance of some other serpentine and steatitic
etto held to be mm | farther’ investi t i a it
us results. spinel, garnét, augite,
of the 1; 1 atomic s may easily occur reulaca

by water, and without a change in the form TF its respective
crystal beihg sagt = a ge be formed in its nature approach-
ing serpentine or Steatite. Thus, for instance, spadaite and
mieerschaum, two minerals allied to- serpentine and steatite, have
the formnla of augite, With the difference only that a portion of
their bases is replacetl by water, in’ like manner onkosin has the
formula of labradorite, pinguite that 3 garnet, pyrargillite that
of fahlunite,—not to cde ant
ne: is, not any ways = to den iat true pseudomorphs are
et with wherein the magn s an essential part. It isa
tone established fact that Swan Nigaihorthones are of very fre-
quent occurrence where water impregnated with carbonic acid
has exercised a long continued a¢tion upon masses of rock from
which, in consequence of its solvent properties, it has withdrawn
certain constituents. This water, thus charged with carbonic
acid and likewise with other substances, appears however in cer-
tain cases in its progress downwards, to deposit some of these sul
stances again, or rather to exchange them for others more easily
soluble in water containing carbonic , and by this means to
give rise to the formation of a particular kind of pseudomorph.
Carbonic acid water containing carbonate of magnesia in solution,

. puee
Fe

200 achiwerun Ie in.

is capable of this action, being able to withdraw from silicates a
portion of their more easily soluble bases, especially potash, and
to replace them, at least in part, by magnesia and water. Aso-
lution of carbonate of magnesia in water impregnated with car-
bonic acid is, as we are aware, distinguished from similar solutions
of the ee earths by its alkaline reaction, and hence it cannot
but exercise a far more energétic action upon silicate-masses than,
for sinned a solution of carbonate of lime in water impregna-
se with carbonic acid, the action’ of which is acid. In this re-

t the solutions of the alkaline carbonates will naturally dis-
hie the most powérful action, put as one phen sr see, they nev-
er bring about any deposition of substahées.* Hi hly interesting
proofs may be seen BSG asc a the neighborhood of Bie
that such a formation of pseudomorphs as is Heré touched upon,
or one at least resembling it, does in point.of fact occur, and upon
that I purpose entering upon a future occasion.

3. Remarks upon certain Petrographic and Geognostic relations.

When we direct our attention to the formule proposed for the
micas d the ‘micaceous miner. als; it cannot escape our notice
that. in very many of them the eee enone eecur as in the
formule for feldspar, as for instance RSi, R Si, RS

, thus indicating a certain connect
ant ,

a s there *

istic ; distinguished fom 1e micas and the mica-
ceous mile s, : na Re: as the first have never taken up water
into their compositi eir1: 1 Poitic ba-
nt rely of alkalies which do not admit of
rhereas it would find easier access to the
micas, which ¢ bontail. magn >a an . peolenye of iron, The
formula of the, mica from onroe, and Karasulik, and
probably from rharly other rine es, is, as before mentioned, that
of garnet ;—the formula of" Abborforss and Sala micas ap-
proaches the garnet formula, inasmuch as the members thereof are

* Besides, the ‘of catbo nate of lime in water nts et with capo

to som compounds otherwisé constituted may, 80 to §]
the introduction of magnesia, a body, in acertain point of vie
therewith.

Scheerer on Isomorphism. 201

similar though otherwise combined. This would go to explain
the circumstance of garnets occurring imbedded in such numerous
instances in mica-slate

In conclusion, I now come to the question put already at the
commencement of this paper, pets is it then, since aspasiolite and
cordierite occur close together, t ine is not in like man-
ner associated with olivine? It wil be readily conceded that wa-
ter as’ well as all the other bases in question, cannot but have been
present at the formation of aspasiolite and serpentine, (and indeed
of all hydrous minerals, occurring as admixtures in primitive for-
mations. But why was it now that that was taken up by the
serpentine mass so through and through that not even the small-

only partially, and became thereby converted to aspasiolite?
Before replying to this question we must revert to the formula pro-
posed for these minerals,

Olivine, > RSiv om a ' RAM 3R Si.

Serpentine, (R): aN

In olivine, 3 atom: of |

this ground it must i for water tomake it way it
vine than into cordierite. But vars water, at the formation m of
serpentine actually prevented a portion of’ the magne nesia from com
bining in its place with silica, is proved beyond a doubt by foe
namely, that in the Snarum serpentine a mineral occurs imbedded
in great’ abundance ( hydrotalcite), the constituents of which are
hydrate of magnesia and carbonate of “magnesia.

therefore have been no absence of magnesia at the formation of
serpentine,and the water, so to speak, have been thus compelled to
be taken up by the silica, but the water, in consequence of its basic
properties, has in truth SUPPLANTED a ‘portion of the magnesia,
a

OF THE QUESTION. The water could not exert a similar influence _

upon rae copdierite mass from hot penetrating it so readily, but
was S prin taken up thereby where magnesia was wane

=

bo ae

202 Scheerer on Isomorphism.

crystals increased in size the magnesia that was wanting was of
necessity replaced by water. This explains how it is that the

near ne

as weshave seen above, cannot be called into existence where wa-
ter is present, while senpentine for its formation requires the pres-
ence of water, we are naturally led to the*inference that all for-
mations ‘in which olivine eccurs could at» their origin have con-
tained no water, whereas in all those where serpentine is met with,
water necessarily must have. been present. And.in point of fact
the rocks in which oliviné oceurs are not less by their petrograph-
ic character than. by their ‘position im the series of geognostic for-
mations, distinctly and thoroughly separated from those in which
serpentine is met with. . The former belong to the basaltic group,

the latter to the crystalline primary rocks. -

nesia with reference to Polymeric Isomorphism. (From Pog-
gendorff’s Annalen; vol. lxviii, p. 376.)

The Chemical Constitution. of the Hydrous Carbonates of Mag-
} P

The different compounds of magnesia with carbonic acid and
water have-hitherto, as.we know, been pl in the following
six categories: (1.) Triply hydrous two-thirds carbonate of mag-

nesia =Mg: Cc + 3H. (2.), Folurfold-hydrous ihtee-fourths ¢ar-

bonate of magnesia =Mg‘ €* +43. (3.) Fivefold-hydrous four-

ee ne ot oF as * a A)
fifths carbonate of magnesia =Mg* C +5H. (4.) ‘Triply hy-
drous, simple carbonate of magnesia =Mg C+3H,” (5.) Five-

* ? 4.8 2 Be oh .

fold hydrous, simple carbonate of magnesia =Mg C+5H, and
_ (6.) Magnesia alba, thet was. held to'be a mixture of several
of the above named Compounds, mote eSpecially Mg* C3448

; . a cy i] . oy ’
and MgC+3H., : pill rd
Since ascertaining however that, under certain circumstances,
water plays a basic part, and this in such a manner that 1
atom Mg is replaced by 33, the question arises whether the
chemical constitution of the whole of these hydrous carbonates,
when looked upon in this new point of view, may not beco
materially modified. 'The result upon enquiry instituted in this
sense, goes to.show that the above mentioned compounds, instead
of being subdivided under six heads, (the sixth of them consist-
ing itself of compounds incapable of being united under a com-
mon formula) may very readily be comprised in two groups. —

err te GF
yee as
*
i»

»

__ of the water, giving us therefore, *

Scheerer on Isomorphism. 203

First Group.

CG Mg H-
L Triply hydrous two-thirds carbonate 2
~_ of magnesia, according to Fritzsche, 3267 47-23 20-10
cordin ae 45°. 21°

3 Magnesia alba, accontele to Klaproth, 33: 40: 27:
a alba, according to Bucholz, a 6 6SSlCOe
5. 5 Maly h drated, simple carbonate of , - ra
magne according to Soubeiran, . 31:50 29-58 38-29
6. The same a according _ ,

Berzelius 315 296 38-9
7. The sathe compound, seedtding a: ton Se
Bucholz, ejb 30: 30: 40°

The relditve biiatitiot of oxygen im Gay apa tae are,

1. 23-73 : 1828:1787 |° %. 22-90: 11°45 ; 34-60
2. 24-72: 17-42:1867 | 6. 2290: 11°46 : 34-62
3. 23-99 : 15'8 + 24-03 7. 2181; 11-61 ; 35-56
4, 23:26 : 12-77: 3115

Looking upon ‘the whole of the water contained..in these salts

as basic, so that one atom Mg may ‘be anges 3H, oe so
modify the ratios ef oxygen as stated ab at the oxygen of
the magnesia becomes increased by the third: att

1. 2373C: hess: 1 14-87)-<0fadiie
_. B BA72 3 (1742414 18:67) =23: ;
23:99 +: (15-48+1 24-03) = 23-49
23:26. : (12-7711 31-16)=22'82
: (11-45-41 34-60) =22-98
22-90 (11: 46+1 24-623 03-00
21-81 ; (11-6143 35-56)=23-46

The mean of these seven OXY, ‘ratios of C : (Mg) gives us
23°33 38.

The quantity of oxygen in the acid is therefore precisely equal
to that in the base, and consequently these salts, whose composi-
tion is apparently so different, whose quahtity of —— varies
from 47-23 to 30, and whose amount of water es between

a ES
wo
rh)
Te)
S

ang
, 20-1 and 40, may be brought under the. ‘ioatanet formula

(Mig) C, and, be feplengied a by the general title of semi-carbonate
ydro-magnesia. erence to the causes whence it was
ae: about that bio ¢ teh or less portion of. Mg was replaced

a pa ae that is 3H, it is Fone of remark, that thé salt contain-
most water was formed at a low t pos eee be be-
in ay and 10° centigrade), whereas the salt ng the

¥
eee Z

* ee
204 bl _ Scheerer on Isomorphism.

least water a with the observance of certain precau-
tions,* at the boiling point. This throws out a hint with refer-
ence to the possibility of obtaining other salts of magnesia as
well, wherein the quantity of water varies
: $ ‘ eet Crop,
=
1. Fourfold hydrated, siesedetetihs : 2
carbonate of magnesia, ce oe 43:39" 18°95
to Trolle Wachtmeister a-
. The same compound accordin
sihoeelias ° 35-70 Ud 58 19-72
3. Same compo, according to 2. 96.43 AA 412 19 75

on.
. Magnesi iaalba, according to Berzelius, 36°47 43-16 20-37
5. Fivefold ‘hydrated, four-fifths-car-

ig? * ‘Mg . 8
Sui #3"

bonate of magnesia, =e to 36:4 432 20-4
Berzelius, .
6. Same ae ind, according ae 365 42:8 20-7

7. Magnesia alba, according to Rerzoliva, 37-00 42:24 20°76
8. Magnesia alba, according to Butini, 36° 43 21°
9. Fivefold. hydrated, four hfths-car-

bonate of magnesia, according wt 36-22 42-10 21°68

Fritzsche,
10. Magnesia alba, according to Bucholz, 350 42> 23:
The combinations arrived at by the chemists here named, cor-
respond to the quaritities of oxygen stated below : /
1. °27:38 / 16-80: 16-85", *

: 5. 26°46 : 16-72 ; 18-13 ; ee
6. 26:53 ¢ 16-57 :. 18-42 ie:
: . 26°90 : 16-35: 18-48 pana
8. 26:17 :.1664 ; 18-67 coe
9. 26°33 : 16-29 ; 19-30 = oe

10. 25-44 : 16-26 ; 20-47 i

__
Mean 26°39 : 16°67 : a ‘B5

This is an approxiination to the formula Me* C?+ AH, according
to which the oxygen ratio should be 26°39 ; 17-59 : 17-59. Ap
parently, therefore, the water contained in carbonates of magne-
sia constituted as above, either does not act the part of a base at

ie See Gmelin’s Handbuch der Chemie, New Edition, vol. ii, p. 224.

sia
Scheerer on Isomorphism. 205

all, or does so only to a small extent; - the latter may
often obtain with regard to some of the salts quoted towards the
end of the above group. We have for instance, in the case of
salt No. 9, the oxygen ratio 26°33 : 16-29 ; 19°30, whereas it
ought to be 26°33 : 17: 56; 17-56. Possibly, therefore, in this

compound 1-27 Mg (that i is to say 17:56-+16:29), are replacaeby

1:74.34 (namely 19-30-17: 56), which would be exactly in the
ratio required. On enquiring how it is that in fourfold hydrated
three-fourths-carbonate of magnesia, no magnesia, or at least very
little, is replaced by basie water, the twe following circumstances

er themselves in reply. 1. The ten salts that we have men-
cone were one and all, obtained at a boiling heat. 2. It must
evidently be more difficult (from the reasons which I have entered
into in the preceding paper relative to the kindred circumstances
applicable to aspasiolite and serpentine) for water to find its way
into a three-fourths-carbonate than into a semu-carbonate and ex-
pel from thence a portion of the magnesia.

addition to the hydrous magnesian ei. ag mention-
ed, amounting in all to seventeen, which may be ranged in the
two groups above deseribed, there are other five that have been
analyzed, one of which however may be omitted here inasmuch
as prior to its being analyzed (by. Dalton), it was dried at a temper-
ature of 100°C. ‘The remaining four arg oa follows :

ipa

1. Five-fold hydrous simple carbonate "ey
of magnesia, according to Fritsche, o) ot 29 ected 50 91

2. Magnesia alba, according to Berg- pg ag. 30):
mann

3 po. do. according to Berzelius, 30°25 36:40 33°35

A do. according to Fourcroy, 48° AQ: 12°

The corresponding proportions of oxygen are—

1. 18-466; 9-18Mg: 45312

4:89 ; 15:48 : 10°68,

4.3
sal while the formulas resulting therefrom are—
1 Qllg): 6-+2Hr. 3. Mgt C*+8H.

: 2. (Mg)? C-+3, or (Mg)°C. 4. 3(Mg)C+

rie existence of the se s ae: fourth of these salts must,
until established by more sea experiments, remain a matter
of uncertainty. The two compounds alone, the composition of

which is ascertained with sufficient precision, are, (Mg)? C+2H,

Mg‘ C218, the oxygen ratio whereof was, | .
Seconp Seriss, Vol. VI, No. 17.—Sept., 1848. 27

ey

;%

206 English Prefixes derived from the Greek.
As obtained, Should be,
18-46 C : 18-46 Mg : 17-47 & | 18-46C : 18-46 Mg: 18-46H
21-996 ; 14-09 Mg ; 29-64 | 21-996 : 14-66 Mg : 29:32 H.

The compound (Mg)? C+2H was obtained from sulphate of
magnesia by co/d precipitation, by means of carbonate of potash

with an excess of sulphate of magnesia ; the compound Mg+C*
+88, by the evaporation of a concentrated solution of carbon-
ate of magnesia in water impregnated _ carbonic acid at a
temperature approaching reezing poin

The principal inference deduced ae is as follows.
All the hydrated aaalieain aadeteel hitherto arialyzed, when
made amenable to polymeric isomorphism, may be ranged in ew

. Semi-carbonate of hydro-magnesia ; and 2.

fold hydrated three fourths” carbonate of (hydro-?) pa Pte
The salts of the first group; generally speaking, are ‘obtained -
precipitation cold, and those of thé second group by precipitation
at an elevated temperature. ip certain exceptional circumstances,
in connection especially with a depression of temperature, the
compounds of the firs anare: are enabled to take up two atoms
more, and those of the second group four more atoms (eight there-
fore in all) of water of Lamy ization.

Ant. XVILI.—English eek = be oe the Greek; by vanes

—

e pr refixes, it should be observed, 2, ante sometimes employed
as «prepositions with their complemefits, are originally and properly
ve

1, Amphi or amphis, Gr. Po or. eg ol. nb —Sanse. api,
Lat. ambi,‘amb, am, dn, Old Germ. umpi, Germ. um, Anglo-Sax. ymbe,
ym, onto emb 5 (connected with Sansc. ubhau, i tiugw, Lat. ambo,

oth. da,

(1.) on both sides ; as amphipr ack vie on both sides, a poetic foot
consisting of a short, a long, and a shor 4 he cet — moving ited
way foremost, the name of an animal so moving.

-) about, —— as, Gr. dupdéo, a bind about. No oxi
occurs in English = ,

aoe
4

a

English Prefixes derived from the Greek. 207

. An before vowels, or a before consonants, Gr. & = Sansc. an,
a, Tat in, Germ. un, Eng. in and un ; (connected i Gi. dvev, Germ.
ohne, both signifying without ;) denoti ting negation; as, anarchy, want
of government; ambrosia, an imaginary food supposed to confer im-
mortality ; prea an indivisible-particle ; abyss,.a bottomless gulf.

3. Ana before consonants, or an before vowels, Gr. évé, év, = Goth.
ana, Germ. an, Anglo:Sax. and Eng. on; (connected with Gr. ave,
above.

(1.) up, spel as, anadromous, running up} anagoge, a leading
of the mind. upwa

(2.) over, pha as, anatreptic, overturning.

—_ ) back, in a contrary airostios 2 as, anacamplic,. refiened, anges

es ) back, .ta the original oo as, anatomy, the disseeting of an
animal body into its constituent parts; analysis, the separation
compound body into its constituent = rts.

(5.) back, anew, again ; as anadiplosis, the use of the same —
at the-end of one clause and “ope. nscale tie

(6.) away; as, pane a a baat, recluse

4. Anti, Gr vis = Sanse..*al Soakaadl int Goth. ne mn anda, a
glo-Sax. and and on, Germ. mete ant, g. an

(1.) before, over oe as, Sn, “trina ‘s in fi against.
No example oecurs in English.

(2.) against, in porches to; as, i fein the feet directly
opposite ; antipathy, opposite feeling. . Also as a preposition with its

complement; as, antiasthmatic, good against the asthma, —

(3.) denoting waa ya om sahoataa figure corresponding
to its, pattern.

(4.) denoting alternation or reciprocity ; ; .as, antiphony, alternate or
reciprocal singing ; antistrophe, reciprocal conversions

= ) as exchange ; as, antiptoss, the exchange. of one cone for

9, Or. aot ine a pat and ava, ‘Lat. ab, Groth: 3 Germ,
r ‘Avg’. = off of the.last | T
(1) from, off pa cutting at lotro sya
ble of a warts apology, a rank one’s se off, a defense in words.
(2.) away; as, apostrophe, a turning a
i 3) out ; as, apozem,a decoction ; apologue, a saying out, a full nar-

prey down; as, apoplexy, a striking do

“= ) denoting privation or ny ase ; Ps, »apocalypaey an abooveringy
revelation.

6. Catia Gr. xaté,

1.) down, downwards ; as, catarrh,.a flowing do

e} against, as @ preposition with its ps met as, catabaptist,
one who opposes

an upside down; as, catastrophe a turning upside down, over-

7" 4.) denoting distribution, as ; prercesne with its gn a as,
catame thl
(5.) denoting aru ten; as, catachresis, wrong use.

208 English Prefixes derived from the Greek.

ak a Gr, dé,— Lat. dis; (connected with Gr. dio, Lat. duo, —

“e i in 1 £1005 annular apart; as, dieresis, the resoladion: of a diph-

(2 (2) through ; as, diameter, a line drawn through the —
(3.) thoroughly ; as, diagnostic, distinguishing, charac
_. (4.) between, es, reciprocity ; as, dialogue, pang ye
tween two or mor
. Dys, Gr. dé¢, = Sansc. dus, Goth. t
E(k) badly, ‘with difficulty ; as, iene. ‘difficulty, of digestion.
(2.) denoting want or absence ; as, dysorexy, want of appetite.
. Ec before a consonant, or ex before a vowel, Gr. éx, ¢&, == Sansc
wahis, Lat. e, ex, Goth. uf, Germ. aus, t
(1.) outs as, eclogue, a selection ¢ exanthema, an eruption.
.) aways as, eclipse, a failure.
10. En, Gr. év, = Lat. in, Germ. in, Eng. in.
(1.) im, on; as, enclitic, leaning on.
2.) among, as a preposition with its complement; as, endemic,
among the people.
nto; as, enallage, the change of one into another
1. Epi, Gr. ént, = Sansc. abhi,,Goth. bi, Germ. bei, ia by.
1.) on, upon; a ram, an inscription. Also as a preposition
pie its gauplecnant’ as, epitaph, an inscription on a sepulehet .
2.) to, unto ; as, epistle, a writing sent to a person.
» (3.) an addition to; as, epilogue, a conclusion
12. Eu, Gr. ae er a _ seuphans agrecableness. - sound.
13. Hama or a, Gr. ¢ a, sam, Goth. s
(1.) together with, as a ee ger ae ‘its Salegilaotig va hama-
dryad, a a wood*nymph, feigned to live and die with its tree.
PA Ae 2 sameness ; as, weg relating to brethren, or those
omb.

me wom
ane lupo Gr. dxéo, = Sansc. upari, Lat. super, Goth. iar Germ,
uber, Eng. over.
(1.) over; as, hyperaspst, one who holds a shield over another.
»(2.) beyond, as a preposition with its complement ; as, hyperborean,
beyond the:north.
(3. .) denoting excess ; as, hypercritic, _ over rigid critic.
15. Hypo, Gr. ir; = Sansc. upa, Lat. sub, Goth. u

nder ; as, a a placing under, a supposition. Also as
a preposition with it = Senne am hypogeum, the parts of a build
ing under grown

(2.) denoting defences as, hyposulphurous, sulphurous, but having

a less a id of oxy
6. r. 8igs tacnalenll with Gr. 2v ;) signifying into; as, isago-
de intboecte

wie isdaop, Lat. medius, Eng. mid
1.) with ; as, metalepsis, participation, the name of a figure of speech.
(2.) after, of place or time, as @ preposition with its oe ;
as, metacarpus, the part after or Pel the wrist ; metachronism
cing after the time.

tory.
7. Meta, Gr. ueté, — Germ. ae (connected with Sanse. madhya,
le.

>.
a

English Prefixes derived from the Greek. 209

.) over ; as, metaphor, a transfer ; ‘ ogee a transition.
(4) roe oting change ; as, meta a change of form or shape.
noting transpos sc 5 - Se catmciaiarns & transposition of

letters ; nsisterha a i on.

ara before c eu or par before vowels, Gr. 1a94, mag, —
Sansc. pard, Goth. in ng. ‘from.

by, along with; as, parabole, a comparison ; para ragraph, some-

thing written near ; parathesis, apposition. Also as a prepusition with
its complement; as, paranymph, a bri deman ; pees by or near each
other

se ) to, towards; as, Leebepaine one ‘that calls upon or exhorts an-
oth

(3.) beyond ; as, paraphrase, an extended explanation ; paragoge,
an addition to end of a wor so.as a preposition — -
plement; as, parapherna, what is over and above

(4. ) denoting error ; as, paraselene, a false moon 3. pi a a false
)

19. Pers, Gr. zegl, = Sansc. pari, Lat. per, Goth. fair, Germ. ver.

(1.) around, about ; as, Bert iphery, the circumference of a circle;
periphrasis, ae ution Iso as a preposition mh its comple-
ment} as, pericranium, rig them mbrane that invests the

(2.) near, -- r i prepanitiil with its complement ; as, perigee, point
aeons the ea

Pr rao sige) =i Sansc: pra, Lat. “ag prae, Goth. Sow, Germ.
vor, Be ‘

(1.) ion in place ; a8, prostyle, a range of ‘colanms in front.
Also as a preposition with i its complement; as, propolis, something be-
fore the cit

(2. ) befores i in time; as, prodrome, a forerunner ; prolepsis, antici-
pation; prophet ; prologue. Also as a preposition with, its comple
ment; as, prochronism, the antedating of an event,

3.) before, forth, in a metaphorical sense ; as, problem, something
set forth or la ae ag ed. ;
21 mod¢, — Sansc.

i,
1.) re ; est prosthesis, the addition of a letter or syllable to the
beginning of a word} prosélyte, one that comes over fo another sect or

(2:) in addition to; as, prosenusatedral, having hine contr on two
adjacent parts of a crystal,

22. Syn, before a labial sym, before 7 syl, before z ora dou e con-
sonant sy, Gf. oir, uu, ovi, ov,—=Sanse. sam, Lat. con, Goth. ga,
Germ. and An - ge.

fl) with, in company with ; as, symbol, that which compares with

else i i feeling with another; syzygy, conjunction.
se ) together, in a mass or body; as, synagogue, a bring togeth-
composition; sydlable,.a taking together of letters.

210 «J. H. Alexander 3, the Tension of Vapor of Water.

Arr. XIX.—On a New empirical Formula for ascertaining
the Tension of Vapor of Water, at any Temperature; by
J. H. Avexanver, Esq. .

Tue formula which the following memoir is intended to ex-
pose, is called new ; because, fo the best of my knowledge, it has
never been used or suggested hitherto. It is also rightly termed
empirical, in so far as it is not susceptible of geometrical demon-
stration, but thus far only ; since, in point of fact, it was derived
entirely from considerations a priori and independent of any ex-
periment or interpolation. Of course, it was compared as soon as

ible with the temperature corresponding to the ordinary at-
mospheric pressure; and after a satisfactory agreement had been
found at this point, the aceord of the formula with observations

through a range of experiment more extensive than has hitherto
been ‘heluded in one and the same table, it is the principal aim
of the presen to exhibit, after having shown in few words
the reasonableness of the formula and its limits (or rather want of
limits) in applieation ; a comparison, then, of the errors existing
and admitted in several of the experimental series of the highest
authority, with the differences developed at. the same epochs by
the formula, will indicate the. ilitie favor of the latter,
and the nature and amount of its reliability. .

It is obvious'that the pressure of vapor or steam must be always
in proportion to the absolute temperature at which it is produced.
But as this temperattire is only observable relatively and upon an
arbitrary scale; it is hecessaty, in ordér to obtain any thing like a

ature. Or, what amounts to the same thing, the pressure of steam
whose temperature is observed on any scale, is directly as the

scale, calling ¢ the number of degrees at any temperature, the
pressure of steam at that temperature must be’ proportionate to
t . '
iso ‘48ain, the pressure of steam must be always directly as
the absolute heat of conversion, or, as it is otherwise termed, the
latent heat ; expressed, of course, in degrees of the scale assumed.
For, the greater the number of degrees for such latent heat, *the
greater also will be the repulsive force of the heat existing in the

J. H. Alecander on the Tension of Vapor of Water. 211

steam; which repulsive force may be assumed to be at least a
function of the elasticity of the vapor. And as such repulsive
force takes effect in part by expanding the medium vaporized ;
and the greater such expansion, the less will be the remaining
elasticity ; it follows that the pressure of steam in the ordinary
state of an atmosphere, must be also inversely as its increased
volume. ‘This increased volume may be taken, from the experi-
ments of Gay-Lussae, at 1695 times that of water at its greatest
density. And the latent heat of steam is ‘generally admitted as
990° F'.; which number results from the experiments of Clement

and Desormes, is not far from the mean of several other observ- —

ers, and will probably require a very small modification only to
be identical with the deduction from a strict theory of volumes
applied to vapors generally, in the mechanical relation of the ob-
owe effects of heat rin such age and the mcg eae:
t

So far as we have gone, then, the pressure of ciation must wily

( Se eamee It is here that the empiricism comes in, and dic-

tates the numerical power to which this ratio must be involved,
in order to harmonize. the pr 3 ce of. the elasticities with the
series of the temperature. That the simple ratio will not present
_ such harmony, is manifest; for, that wotild be the measurement,
by a lineal scale of equal. parts, of central forces which, acting
upon volumes, $y 22 naa be suppos ed to be in the duplicate ra-
tio of the cube. ratio, equivalent to the sixth power, is
in fact what has rides ; eh; and complete sate becomes
then, calling p the pressure : :

: ( t son) %

-. P=\is0* 1695

This index, however plausible wpon reflection the reason to
justify its adoption might have appeared, was no doubt suggested
too, even unconsciously, from the recollection that it had before
(though with different factors) served’ both Young and 'Tredgold
and perhaps others, in approximating the’ results of experiments.

not be to occur upon the use of any other scale t
that of F. heit; unless, indeéd, one should adopt the fancy
of Mr. Woolf, who supposed that lie had discovered an i

ate numerical relation between the atmospheric pressure and the
pound avoirdupois, in which case the English inch ra alt =.
claim to be among Natural dimensions. It is, of course, qui
possible, by a little artifice among the terms of a formula of this
shape and retaining the same index, to producesa‘series of num-

5 .. oe
i sae eto eGR oo +

oe

5 &
212 J. H: Alexander on the Tension of Vapor of Water.

bers corresponding to any linear scale. Thus, for instance, sub-
stituting Centigrade degrees for those of Fahrenheit, but carrying
the denominator of the first term down to the degree at which
the pressure becomes, by the formula, zero (which may be pre-
sumed to correspond to an absolute negation of heat, and which
in fact has to be used with the present formula when it is in-
tended to give the pressure in atmospheres) ; we obtain pressures
expressed in French metres and, through a range of several
atmospheres, but little discordant with the results of experiment.
In using Centigrade degrees, however, and transforming the equa~
tion so as to express atmospheres, the index (6°) gradually diver-
ges from regular multiples; serving to shew what we might oth-
erwise conjecture, that such index is not based upon any general
relation in nature. . It was, therefore, of less interest for me to
weary myself with comparisons of other thermometric and linear
scales; it is enough that the formula affords a remarkable coinci-
dence in its own terms with the measures recognized among our-
selves,

It is readily seen that the first term is positive as far as 0° of
Fahrenheit ; for temperatures lower than that, it becomes nega-
tive ; and there is a point, of course, Where the negative value of
the first term equals the constant positive value of the second,
and the pressure, therefore, as was said jist now, becomes itself
zero. This point occurs at — 1059-13; of which it is enough to
say, that it is not very far from the lowest degree of heat yet
produced, and that long before it is reached the mercurial ther-
mometer becomes useless. Whether there is in the theory of na-
ture (for it is admitted that there is ndét in fact) such a point as
that of the absolute privation of heat, and if so, how it should
be reckoned and where placed,—are questions which, although
kindred to the matter in hand, are not necessary to the elucida-
tion

(as it was to the method of interpolation of Dr. Dalton) that it

lere it should not stand, it
iy att yes hold good against the factors without prejudice to

formula was not so very discordant from the results of experi-
ment, I had the less motive for modifying or transforming it into
a nearer agreement at this unusual temperature.

The determination of a limit of this sort, whether real or as-
sumed, is necessary in. converting easily a formula like the pres-

ie

J. H. Alexander on the Tension of Vapor of Water. 213

ent, into one which will shew the pressure in atmospheres ;—a
me ethod which, as it extricates the results from any dependence
on a particular system of weights and measures and thus makes
them generally applicable, is of course in any purely scientific in-
vestigation, much to be preferred. It is obvious that such a scale
of atmospheres or volumes, must start from the degree where the
expansions and the tendency to expand (which is elasticity), so
far as they are due to temperature, are null. The limit that we
“vst found, then, of 105°:13 below 0° Fahr., is such a term;
the distance between that and the other extremity of the

ere or 317°°13, (which is the measure on the thermometer of
one atmosphere, ) becomes the new denominator to replace the
180° actually used for the pressure in inches of mercury.

In fact, I had expected, in advance, to find the present mano-
metric formula (as it may be termed) aah a barometric one,
by putting it into this shape ;

(eras (ie95)
P=\3i7-13T \i695/ J -
But this did not hold good. Applying it numerically, it results
in giving,
For 212° 18 pressure of 1:059 atmospheres, e equal to31- 68 inches.

And for 322°°38, 6-263 187:37
In both these instances, to agree with the original formula, the

numbers representing the atmospheres should hayé been without
fractions. ‘The excess, however, (as is visible,) goes on in a con-
verging series, and by and by disappears altogether; the differ-
ence then changing its sign. Even then, it is not much; and at
high temperatures, the equation corresponds very nearly with the
actual observations. For instance, comparing it with the exper-
iments of Dulong and Arago,

Temp. 335°: ae OR m pressure a iis atmose; by foreasia.1. 628 atm.
ee: © ak 1-660 11-958 *
Aeros as the object I we in view was not to find an equa-
tion that merely fits any particular series of observations, or is ex-
act only for the higher ranges of temperature, I abandoned this
‘theoretical expression ; and preferred to deduce a formula for pres-
sure in atmospheres from. the original one, in the ordinary ana-

lytic way. ‘This results in the alternative expressions—
& Anal t 561° coach of t 990 )’; ‘
| P=\3i713+ 1605 | = \317-13 + 2986-38
either of which may be adopted, according as we prefer to re-
tain in view the factor of the latent heat, or that of the expan-
| sion at the unitary atmospheric pressure. In practice, the constant
¥ fraction may be substituted by the number 0-33151. For the
oe ara the similar constant was carried no farther than
four pl decimals ; ; in this, where the unit of pressure is
Seconp ath Vol. VI, No. 17.—Sept., 1848.

214 J. H. Alexander on the Tension of Vapor of Water.

thirty times larger, both the attainment of equal precision requires,
and the facility of calculation allows, another decimal place to
be taken.

These decimal constants might, indeed, have been given in both
formule at once, instead of the fractional expression from whic
they originate ; were it not that I thought it desirable to preserve
those factors which, besides solving the equation, indicate also,
in part accidentally and in part essentially, certain elementary re-
lations between pressure and temperature, (or rather certain epochs
in those relations,) which are important in the future complete
theory of the subject. For example, the denominator (1695)
which expresses the number of volumes of steam under the at-
mospheric pressure and at a temperature of 212°, developed from
an unitary volume of water at its maximum density,—shows also
the number of atmospheres, the equivalent of whose pressure
will, below a certain temperature, prohibit the developement of
steam beyond the sphere of said unitary volume. On the other
hand, the numerator (990°) gives this limiting temperature ; and
shows the degree on Fahrenheit’s scale, where the force of steam
becomes equivalent to 1695 atmospheres. Its density, therefore,
would be equal to that of water; if its behavior in other regards
were like that of water too, this temperature would be the limit
to its useful effect. But as there would most probably still re-
main the elasticity due to its expansidn at that temperature, it
aon not appear that we are Warranted in supposing any such
imit

At this point, 990°, the ratio of the latent and sensible heats,

expansion due to the temperature, is (with Gay Lussac’s factor)
0-975 of the unitary volume; the expansion of water, due to
the same temperature (taking its maximum density as occurring
at 39°-4 F"., its actual expansion as 0-04333 at 212°-F., and its
rational expansion as the cube-root of the fifth power of the

%
J. H. Alexander on the Tension of Vapor of Water. 215

temperature above the maximum) is 0:99944 of the same unita-
ry volume :—an accord which, considering the possible errors
of the experiments, appears to me sufficiently satisfactory.

The equations already given serve to find the pressures in inches
of mercury and in atmospheres respectively, when the tempera-
tures are given: to find the temperatures corresponding to given
pressure, they ae as follows ;

180 /p— 105°-13 ;
where p represents the ye of ata of wre ot and
13 Vp'—
where p’ stands for fe Sita of adobthictte

After these preliminaries, may now 5 Lapeer the compar-
ison of results by the formula and by the experiments of vari-
ous observers; as is done in the following table. 'This table is
quite extensive ; and, for my own sake, rather more so than I de-

ired. But it will be considered that it comprehends the assem-
blage of the sibastitions of many persons through many years ;
and it was, besides, to me of an interest that I think will be par-
taken of by others, to have in one view and without interpola-
tion saat all the Pee ee a that have been made by actual
ment. In lim it to statements of this character, I con-’
fess L thought at fie é restrict its extent, though it appears that
there are in fact more experimental data than is generally sup-
posed ; and I desired besides to increase its utility beyond the
mere comparison with the present formula, by fitting it as a de-
pository for general reference. i this last regard, it may be
considered as authentic and reliab

And yet after all, it does not ite the whole of our experi-

mental data. Those of John Henry Ziegler, of Winterthur in

or only in statements at second or third hand, whose accuracy I
had not the means of verifying.

Nor does it contain quite all the results of those observers to
whose experiments I had access. 'T'o have given every one of
each, would have ash the table, in respect to the eect

of Mr.

cised, therefore, the discretion of using only those instances
which, at reasonable degrees apart, rested upon a number of con-

216. Judi: Aiec dll on the Tension of Vapor of Water.

current observations. In general, such concurrences of the same
mean temperature, give the mean of three observations of pres-
sure; the result for 32° F., is the mean of forty-seven recorded
pressures. For the experiments earlier than Mr. Southern’s, [
have usually taken only those whose recorded temperatures were
already otherwise in the table. I shall have Reece however,
to speak of each one more particularly, presently

The difference of apparatus and manipulations necessary for
experimenting upon the elasticity of vapor above and below the
boiling temperature, has led several of the observers, for con-
venience or other motives, to confine themselves to one or the
other side of this limit; and would render proper, in any dis-
cussion of the value and reliability of such observations, an ar-
rangement of them in two distinct tables. But as I have no
such aim at present, and as the aceon of the formula
belongs equally to the. aah and highest temperatures, there is
no reason for breaking the continuity of the comparison or for
presenting the results in more than one table.

The order of the different columns is chronological, according
to the dates of execution; or, when that was not known
lication of the experiments. As in fact each successive observer
had, or might have had, thé benefit of the experience and pre-
cautions of his predecessor, it may be presumed that this order
represents too, in a measure, the respective reliabilities of the re-
sults. Only the two French series, while they are evidently un-
rivalled in the extent to which, in opposite directions, they have
been carried, are similarly distinguished by the refined elaboration
which characterizes every part of the research.
Table of the Pressure of Sleam at different Temperatures, calculated

and variously observed through a Range of 462 degrees of Fahren-
- heit’s thermometer.

eB heer, Pressure in M ury observed by
eaot Ee 3 J
22 Pa ee lg g ~ Dalton. | | 4s
Pee €2.\ 3. Sale apes B. os ; a oe 5.5 -
= c=) ;
Be EE ed (e828 e8lez|23| 8 |B |EE| a2 | 2E | 28
SW 5 A Oe eS ye ee oS EE re
‘fe 6's ——
27 TE ae Lsthend < me |) ooh eg
2. . (38 ; =
Eg | Ses pi
os tee OS ~~
ro , se a4.
|e 2 2>8
a5 - (886 23
59 . . Hac Bas
n* > |£o8 2s
we 0-170 zs | ges
500). | i he Se ale Ets
a ; (0-200 0200 0-16 he
. |. |*0-2290-29] . ;
ki na ES es ; 01
ss i . re", » * . '
a

J. H. Alexander on the Tension of Vapor of Water. 27
Table of the Pressure of Steam, §-c.—( Continued.)

Pressure in inches of Mercury observed by

a
o

p. in deg. of;

Fahrenheit.
inches by For
mula.

1829.

1822.

1797-1803

Betancourt.

1790.

obison.

1778.

S| 1818
ve . aiBe
&
2. SR
ww

1836.
\French Acad.

1801
S
5
‘ 1820. |
Southern

, |Regnault.
1844,

e

S| Pressure in
_ |Frankl. Inst.

~
S
: ies
x Arzberger.
1819.
ar
~~
—

0:443
0-48)

- | 0-689] | | 05971 0°75, . | 5 |
-976| O°'713 | 0-616 e ; ‘ eet ae

0-82

to WWW WNW
SSESLSaR
—
\

453

516 | 515

13-02 13:18

218 J. H. Alexander on the Tension of Vapor of Water.

Table continued.

| Ss 4 Pressure in inches of Mercury observed by
+ oS -
S3je5 |. |¢ | 3 “ Pe ae
Sofie. |2a.- |= < So Ewe. ia
= sas : =... Pe Ga | See 3 a 5 (8) 95] 5a ot
oa 2 fe meow |4 | bp eo | |e |e
190- 19°435| . ; ‘ ; . |19°0 ; » | | cores
195: 21-491}. : 5 : * 125-100) -*. : :
198-05 | 22-839/22:538 , a > : i :
200- Syal) 23-600, . 22°62)
200°75 087 ie 24-0 :
202: 24-679 edtbes Z
205: 64]. . |25-900 » :
210: 802}. ; . |. 128880) . pee 28°65
211-27 500} 29-621 " % ‘. A F ‘ : : .
2 915 4 ¥*29-922) . A 30°. | 30: , |29°8/29°87)
; . sean ; 30°
34:95 35-54 *34-99/34-20) . 35'8
F : 36-7 ¥ P
35°78 3 i 2
38-0 39-11 ; a pen
3 40°10 :
: 4151 43°10 - . (44°38/445
Z : ‘ ; - | 43:50) ayy
F " P 43-0 44°40) - r
44-75 7 é ; ‘i : . F .
43-05 ¥ A :
: 46° ‘ , rm .
; 45:50 47°22 » . | 44
. . 50°30 . . <
‘ 0 51-70 : ” [549 | 49
; 51-75 3 i .
: 3 -40 56°34 pS
. 52-12 ‘ oe Fi .
. ° . 57°10 és .
P 59-08 ; y ‘ ‘ ‘ 4
P ‘ «1, O40): a ied 56°
Pty . 58205910), : ; ‘ ;
‘ 59-12; . | 61:90) . F i . 1668
58-14 ‘ ° 3 ‘ 7 : :
. ‘ 596]
‘ ‘ 4 » [58
eee ea | kb ee
a ||. |S fo
Soi. | be
° 4
. : Be
= 1
F 94-1 Mere
4 : 'F
. 80°
. . . < b
*79:94|98-90) .
Pe cae pies 82"

ie =

J. H. Alevander on the Tension of Vapor of Water. 219

Table continued.

* aaa
oe x | Pressure in inches of Mercury observed by
see |e zis He
Te cy ie 2 g F Dalton m rs
ee [824] etl sis | go heme Be ls ot ben fu] 3s | Ee
ce (E25 | 2) G8 | oe | ge) 22 | #| 8 |e8| a8 28/28
e |o ee | ore 5 o | |e |
3797 [e690 . -| >. cee "9120 ae
274 8739 ’ 88-50 . .
275° | 88-72 90- | + | 93-48) 10007).
2755 | . 42 . Sug
89-711. : ; Ae ieee: oa i 3 :
90:45] 93:86 . |! ee ee eee é
92:86 ‘ ’ a PRE 9700 331 woe i
: 93:81. : : .
93:60 99-95 . . iat
95°22 ‘ : . 10160 104-91).
: : 97.75, . |101-90 - 105-9
. . 104-40 Se
’ . 107-70 . ‘
‘ 112-20
i 114-80 ;
112-65 18
. [11450 120-15
: 123-10 ;
; 1192
122-20 126-70 ’
. : 124-15 129: .
§ ; “ 130°40 ‘
‘ ; : 133-90
2113079}. :
. {135°8 4 :
+ han 137-40)
14262, : ; ,
136°36, . |133-75) . |189°70 L
of A — t
| ase . [137;55
151-92 ;
. e ‘ 144-05
| cic food . P
15428. ‘
. 150-65

i Peron? ey x en 4 eae — oe

ay

220 J. H. Alerander on the Tension of Vapor of Water.

Table concluded.

5 5 Pr: ure in inches of by
ie. sp & a 3
_ epee & > a $ i
a3 Eee | 3 = 7 zi 50
Bi. a5 £3 ex Zs of S es
pe | f2e | | | Ge | ge)
4 ee e & & =
348° 254-51 278°33 : $ :
350° 261- 290:35 . .
352: 268-35 297°36 fis
357-269 | 287-40 295-28
362°66 8-13 316°35
368°51 331° +342°51 i
371-12 343-12 348: :
372: 346-9 325°
330°66 386-4 :
389°345 | 429-78 433-83
398313 | 48158 483
3°043 | 506-35 511-31
3:88 511-43 514-22
405°041 518-41 2516-84
407-615 34-30 76
408-407 539-28 54085
410°873 557-56 55369
1 611-88 610-23
423-257 39-87 635:95
42503 652-93 644 96
429-08 683-43 ant _ 676-49 i .
706-12 . : ; Fs 620°
435°227 731-92 : : 71613 ; ‘

Of the earlier oat ae in the preceding table, I need not
say much. Those of Mr. Watt, which he suffered to lie by him
for forty years, and, in the caustic phrase of “Tredgol ld, only pro-
duced when they had become unnecessary, he was himself dis-
satisfied with ; but as appears upon comparison, “with more mod-
esty than reason. I have specially calculated but two or three of
his temperatures ; and, of the whole sixty-two experiments, have
inserted but twenty-two ; among which, however, both the limits
= are to be found. Of his friend Robison’s, I have had to calcu-

_ late none specially ; but all happened to find a place in the table.
Ji Mr. Betancourt’s numerous observations which were reported
y in degrees of Reaumur and F'rench inches, I have
only those which have been reduced to English scales
Sir D. Brewster for the Edinburgh Encyclopaedia.

The experiments of Mr. Southern are, in fact, the supplement
of those of Mr. Watt; having been rane and reported at the de-
sire of the latter. The numbers will be found to differ, some '
from those generally found in: professed treatises on the 8 ear “en.
gine ; they are in fact the mean of the actual observations ¥
those usually given, have been selected now from one a
from the other set, yee reduced (by himself) to what pa
we been, had t oC at 212° been thirty inches. -
the present ll it seemed to me proper to state the ha not
the possible, result

ie

x
J. H, Alexander on the Tension of Vapor of Water. 221

Mr. Dalton’s experiments. were distinct; and are therefore
given in distinct columns. The numbers in the earlier column,
marked with an asterisk, were not from actual experiment ; ee
> interpolation, according to the method he has himself

. [have inserted them opposite. to amen mig numbers i
pd adjoining column, for the sake of comparison and the igiee
fit of the inference which may. flow en the variations. The
numbers in the later column were not, in every case, bagi by his
own experiments ; but they were accepted by him as authentic,
and the most reliable he knew. It is more complimentary to
his reputation than to their own research, that compilers of Chem-
ical manuals, even down to the present time, retain among their
tables his ancient results whose inaccuracy he himself -has_ re-
cognized. All of his experiments, of Southern’s, and of Dr. Ure’s,
are in the table. ‘To the originals of Mr. Arzberger, .I have not
had access; but I have found these quoted, in. so many authorities
and so uniformly accordant that I have not hesitated in recording
them. Of the extensive table of Mr. Taylor,.whose remarkable

call attention to, I have taken only those epochs of sateen
ture which were already in my table. -

The experiments of the French, Academy have been already
signalized. It is enovigh to establish their claim to distinetion, to
say that they were executed by Dulong and Arago ;
have been long since inscribed in the very highest. rank of phys-
ical philosophers. The numbers found im the appropriate col-
umn, are, agreeably to what [ have already vaacrron o. as ete
ing me throughout, quantifies actually-observed. ‘The tempera-
tures.and pressures. generally quoted in the text-books on Steam,
as of the French Academy, are not, in fact, what they observed ;
but what they deduced (in part, by a formula of their own, and
in part, by 'Fredgold’s) from the present experimental . series.
The pressure 29-92 inches Smee to the temperature 212°,
is marked with an asterisk, because it is not expressly declared
to have been observed: It is the height which is cons
taken in France for the barometric standard, as thirty inc
in England: in the latter assumption, the temperature is rated at
60° F.,—in the former, at 32° F.; and the difference of heights _
is seta identical with the difference of expansion at had Te
Pective temperatutes.

ressure inthis series corresponding to the tem
368°: “B14 is also noted with a’ dagger; it may be ree m2
erroneous, not only because it differs so much from the result by
my formula, but because it varies so much and so suddenly from
the rate accused by the pressure on eitherside of it. Nor does it
co at all with their own formula ; calculated by that, the
pressure will be 335-87 inches. The error is net, po hl
Seconp Serizs, Vol. VI, No. 17. —Sept., 1848.

4a

222 J. H. Alexander on the Tension of Vapor of Water.

of the press; since it makes its appearance in both ways of reck-
oning, by atmospheres and by metres

‘I do not know how to account for another discrepant pressure,
corre nding to the temperature 405°*04; which has been indi-
cated by a note of interrogation. On both sides, above and be-
low, the observed pressures are higher than the calculated one ;
in this instance, it is suddenly lower. It agrees, to be sure, with

an independent calculation by the formula of Dulong and Arago,

at the temperature ; but very manifestly breaks the uniformity or
any regular progression of the series. What adds to the difliculty,
is that the same observation is given again in another part of the
Memoir of the Academicians; but the ciphers do not agree. I
have neither altered nor omitted either of these instances ; it is
obvious that they” are not to be used in comparison with the
present formula. ~

The temperatures - the Franklin Institute, which were taken
for the composition of the table, come from the second series 0
their reported experiments. Pressures have been also taken from
both the other series, when their temperatures were already in
the table ; and, adopting this method as a uniform system, I did
not allow myself to exclude the anomaly which shews itself be-
tween the different series at the temperature of 300°.

Of the experiments of Mr. Regnault, I have already spoken
sufficiently.

It is apparent; upon a slight examination of the table, that the
calculated pressures do not differ more from the average of the
experimental ‘onés, than these experimental ones do among them-

_ selves; which is ‘about as much as could be desired to shew the
ae _walidity of the formula, and the reasonableness of its application,

‘The mean n of ‘the in diderenotad is +1°-09 Pelee
heit ; which is the maximum error of the formula, compared wi with
‘six series. | ae . wel a 4 eS a ee ~

J. H. Alexander on the Tension of Vapor of Water. 223

It will be observed that I have left out of this comparison, the
last observation of the Academy ; because it was the very utmost
point which the apparatus could carry, and because it might there-
fore be expected to be affected by the untrustworthiness which
forbade the series from being extended farther. I have also neg-
lected the last observation of Arzberger; which, compared with
the Academy’s, is in error more than n 10°,—a deviation sufficient

at all; because, if we admit the series just now tabulated, his re-
sults are altogether too high. He may, however, be compare
with himself, in the two results .he has. recorded for his last ob-
servation. ese two different pressures accuse a corre ing
difference of temperature of 0° 63 F. ; a possible error, not so
materially less than what we have found as the maximum that
can attach to the formula. The Franklin Institute experiments,
which correspond closely with Ure’s, I have omitted for a similar
reason ; they do not profess, even, to read nearer than 0°°25F.
fom may, however, for illustration be. eo: mapared. with those of
Academy, as under : ‘

7 pressure, 145-15 inches ; temp. —* 305°- - — calculated, ‘ai
Institu 154-28. 305 -50 .

Differences,” #8 MESES MED ‘ oe ‘ "40-29

Discounting the observed difference from the eelanlotat one, we
have left 4°-11F., as the error of one or the other series; an
amount nearly four times that of the. * foctonth
It is manifest that the comparative error of the formula is only |
approximate ; because it is based, im each case, upon only one ob-
servation instead of upon the gpenbines mean of all the observa-
Bane or, rather, the mean of the difflerences.at every. epoch ob-
ved. Also, it can only be called an error, upon the assump
ton of the mean of all the experiments resulting in absolute ac-
racy ; am assumption by no means to be made ; for, in general,
he utmost that can be done for any experimental asking is to de-
termine the limits of its neeessary or accidental e Such a 7
research and determination, I have thought the pecncgt formula _
of sufficient interest to warrant, ‘The account, which is it “"
the promised and proper conclusion of the present paper, walla ;
pear in a fetes Fn rag this Journal.

ae

%

Q24 -E. Tuckerman on New Engiand Plants.

Arr. Xx, = oleae aaa some New England Plants, with
characters of several new species ; by Epwarv Tuckerman, A.M.

‘Svsctans aquatica. This plant has been entirely unknown
in this country since its discovery by Mr. Nuttall in the ponds of
aine, and was sought for unsuccessfully, at Nuttall’s sta-
sion by Dr. Robbins. In 1844, I was so fortunate as to meet
with it growingabundantly, in. about a foot of water, in company
with Isoétes lacustris, on the gravelly bottom of Echo Lake,
Franconia Notch, N. H. I have not observed it in any. other of
the numerous ponds of the White plane oe and it is possibly
oe local.

Epivosium alpinum, ? fontanum, (Wahl: ): foliis ovatis dentic-
latin Wahl. Lapp. p. 98

- Has. About rivulets in the alpine region of the White Moun-
tains} and oecasionally descending, along the streams. A taller
(often 6 to 8 in. high) and stouter plant than the true E. alpinum,
with larger ovate leaves, obtuse but tapering above, and always
distinetly,denticulate. .

‘E.. alpinum, 7 nutans; (Hornem. bE ’ foliis lineari-lanceolatis ob-
tusis obsolete denticulatis, caule paucifloro sparsim crispulo-pubes-
centi, siliquis ecano- 2 gi go us. H. nutans, Sommer.
Suppl. Fl. Lapp. p. 17, Fide J. Vahl! E. alpinum, mutans,
Hornem. Fil. : Occ: ci ft. Sommer erf.*

Has. Alpine a of the White Mountains, in rather dry
soil, not rare.’ Always distinguishable by its nodding, common-
ly solitary flower, and the hoary pubescence of the pods. It ap-
pears somewhat nearer than Sommerfelt’s plant to E. palustre, and

differs in some’ respects from the description of the Norwegian

author, but was recogiized as belonging to his species by the ex-
cellent northern botanist above cited.
Poramoc This genus will reward more attention than it

‘seems i to have received hete. Characters of two species, sup-

to be omega were given by me in this Journal in
and subsequent investigation has not: only confirmed my
onthe of see. Be nntene of these two, but has brought to light
several others that seem to be imnioticed by authors. The de-
scriptions which follow, have been made ‘from living plants,
every case. I have similar notes already collected respecting
many of our better known species, and hope on a future occas-
ion, to continue these sketches, and perhaps thus acquire suitable
material for a survey of the whole genus, as represented with us.
P. pulcher, (Tuckerm.): caule simplici verrucoso ; foliis om-
nibus petiolatis ; submersis membranaceis pellucidis, infimis oval-
ibus spatulatisve superioribus lanceolatis basi acutis = atten-
Ualis acuminatis, multi-nervibus undulatis; natanti coria-

E. Tuckerman on New England Plants. 225

cles ovatis, supremis plus minus rotundatis profunde cordatis
tiolis subcanaliculatis seepius longioribus ; stipulis elongatis lineari-
linguiformibus acutis; pedunceulis: longiusculis ; fructibus recenti-
bus late oblique obovatis lunatis, stylo subapicali mucronatis,
dorso tricarinatis, lateribus convexis in faciem acutam declivibus.
P. pulcher, Tuckerm. Obs. in Sill. Journ., xlvi, p.
Has. Ponds; Stoneham, Tewksbury, " apparently not very
— but abundant where it occurs. F#. May, Jtine. — Fr.
e, July. Stem mostly simple, terete, thick and spongy, con-
spicuously black-warted, 2-5 feet long. Floating leaves large,
attaining to the size of 5 in. by 34, the: uppermost more or less
rounded-ovate, deeply cordate, on channelled petioles shorter than
the blade; the lower ones oblong-ovate, slightly-or scarcely cor-
date, on elongated petioles; all marked on the under side with
very numerous, commonly impressed nerves. Submersed leaves
rather distant, membranaceous, inconspicuously many-nerved, the
principal ones pellucid, loosely netted veined, lanceolate with an
and an attenuate and acuminate tip, undulate-serrate,
short-petiolate, 5-8 in. long ; the lowest smallerand thicker, more
oval, or spatulate, on more elongated petioles. . Stipules long,
rather acute. Peduncles a little’thickened, commonly more than
twice as long as the slender spike: Nutlets mah the
back sharply tricarinate, broadly furrowed between: the k
when dry, the middle keel prominent and slightly irregular, the
lateral ones less acute, sides convex, sloping: to the sharply’ cari-
nate front, which is produced at the middle. . Kxocarp thin.
Putamen thick, hard. Seed uncinate-convolute. The floating
leaves of this Potamogeton have probably been passed over
as belonging to P. natans, but the two plants are very dif-
ferent. P. natans is always characterized by its much elonga-
ted petioles, the lower of which are so commonly destitute of
the blade, that the species has been described as possessing lower
leaves without b blades. It is very common with us, and near to
P. fluitans and P. oblongus, but cannot be cohhentadie either with
the present species or the next. The Potamogetons are typically,
submersed plants, and their floating leaves become of importance
in, characterizing the species, only when taken in connexion with —
the submersed ones. ‘The floating leaves are often merely acces- _
sory, and their number is uncertain, the lower ones constantly
varying in texture and'shape with the character and depth of the: ;
-

i ee ‘nov. ): caule simplici stipulis ampleeten-

a ine

reeurvis conspicue eneins undulatis petiolis longiuseulis can-
rt, natantibus coriaceis ovato-s. oblongo-lanceolatis, su-
s petiolis longiusculis pieces longtonbus stipulis

226 E. Tuckerman on New England Plants.

elongatis linguiformibus acuminatis ; pedunculis ey we fruc-
tibus recentibus oblique eoratis breviter recurvo-rostratis dorso
arcuato rotundatis, lateribus convexis in faciem cameos de-
elivibus.

Has.. Ponds; Cambridge and elsewhere, very common in
New England, and I have seen it from*’New York. FJ. June,
July. “Fr. July, Aug. Stem simple, terete, enclosed by the clasp-
ing stipules, 2-5 feet long, Floating leaves oblong-lanceolate,
the base often ovate and subcordate, marked on the under side
with 6-8 prominent nerves, 3~5 in. long, by 14 to 1} in. wide,
on channelled petioles, of whieh the u permost are mostly shor-
ter than the blade.: Submersed leaves delicate, pellucid, broad-
lanceolate, acute at’each end, more or less re curved and sick
shaped, 6-8 nerved, obsenrely but closely netted-veined, 5-8 in.
long, by 14 to 2 and more in width, on conspicuous, channelled,
and in the care elongated petioles. a 1on8 (the up-

rmost n.) acuminate, inclosing the stem. | Pedun-
cles much ~ostinintl often more than twice the size of i stem,
longer than the elongated spike. Nutlets not very obliquely ob-
ovate, slightly beaked, rounded on the back. The rather thin
exocarp being removed, the back appears: rounded-carinate, with
a sunken line on each side. Putamen thick, spongy. Seed con-
volute-uncinate.

P. lonchites, (Sp. nov.): a gracili ramoso ; foliis submer-
sis membranaceis, superioribus breviter petiolatis reliquis sessili-
bus, elongatis lanceolato-linearibus basi attenuatis acuminatis ner-

om vis 6-8 prominulis omnibus undulatis petiolis supra planis, infimis
; longe mucronatis s. in subulas rigidiusculas acuminatas abeunti-
"4 bus ; natantibus»chartaceis membranaceisve ovatis ovalibus lan-

ceolatisve apice plus minus attenuatis undulatisque petiolis supra
Planis ; stipulis gracilibus lineari-linguiformibus obtusis ; pedun-

fructibus recen-
tibus oblique obovatis vix lenatis compressiusculis obsolete tri-
carinatis rostello brevi truncato terminatis, dorso acutiusculo, lat-

eribus 1 in faciem acutam declivibus.

az. Rivers; in the Charles on. Newaen and Natick. Fv. June,
Jaly. Fr. July, Aug. Stemslender, terete, much branched, elon-
gated, (3-6 feet long.) » ‘Submersed leaves lanceolate-linear, ta-
pering at the base, long-acuminate oa often a little faleate above,
undulate, with 6-8 scarcely prominent nerves, loosely netted-
veined, 5-10 inches eee by 3-6 Tess in width. Floating
leaves ‘delicate, papyraceous, or often, and especially the lowest
_membranaceous, always.more or less tapering and waved above,
_ With about 6 prominent .nerves on the under side, either shorter
__ and the base more or — ovate (2-3 in. long by about 14 in. wide),
_ = elongated-lanceolate (4-5 in. long by about 1 in. wide), the
___ petioles rather clongated, flat and one-furrowed above. — Stipules

*

_

B. Tuckerman on New England Plants. 227

“eh a Spikes slender, on elongated, thickened
Nutlets small, obovate, scarcely lunate, obscurely
cert terminated by a short, truncate beak. ‘This handsome
species is extremely abundant in Charles river. Though near to
P. heterophyllus of authors, (P. gramineus, F'r., Koch.) it appears
to be distinct from my numerous European specimens of that
species, as well cs from perfectly corresponding American speci-
mens, from the lakes of Western New he inthe Herbarium
of Dr. Gray.

P. Claytonii, (‘Tuckerm. ): caule socalled foliis sub-
mersis membranaceis gramineis elengatis linearibus acutiusculis
basi vix attenuatis 5-nervibus sessilibus ; natantibus coriaceis
crassiusculis angustatis ellipticis obovatisve — ie ere
compressis; stipulis linguiformibus ‘acutis; pedunculis teretibus
eequalibus breviuseulis ; fructibus recentibus ir a oboe tri-
carinatis, carina media acuta superne gibboso-alata, lateralibus dis-
tinctis obtusis, stigmate subapicali, lateribus convexiusculis, facie —
— P. Claytonii, Tuckerman Obs. in Sill. Journ., xiv,

38. P. fluitans, Pursh! Fil. 1. p. 120. ees Fl. Bost.
S.

ee
edit. 2: p. 63, e deser. Torr. Fl. U. S. -p. 196, e des

Has. Ponds, rivers, and ditches in meadows, common in New
England, and extending southward to Virginia! Stem compress-
ed below ; branched, in wholly submersed, sterile plants from be-
low, in fertile —_ especially from above, and bearing often nu-
merous (8-12) spikes; 2—5 feet long. Submersed leaves grass-
like, linear, a little tapering at base, and very slightly so above to ?
the obtusish tip, about 5-nerved, the space *between the midrib |
and the nearest lateral nerves on either hand remarkably cellulose
reticulate (as observed by Chamaisso, cited below), 5-8 inches long.
Floating leaves rather small, thickish, narrowed, tapering to the
commonly short petiole, marked on the under side with about
141 snaeeemen us; impressed nerves, the petioles compressed, flat-

ish an e-furrowed above. Stipules short. Peduncles of the

f the stem, rather short, often of about the length of the
cylindrical spikes. Nutlets obovate, the sharp keel abruptly alate
above and sloping suddenly toward the style, lateral keels obtuse,
“ sides when dry impressed in the middle. Exocarp thickish

as the rather thin and hard putamen thickened above.
Seed aliliaieeostvalte. I have found this species in its most
perfect state, in which the whole plant is of a bright grass-green, _
only in ponds. Smaller, more or less fuseescent forms are-com- _
mon in ditches, as well.as a wholly submersed, sterile state, with
a little of the habit of P..compressus. ‘To the trae Wet od
of that species, the present one, though its (necessary) ae”
leaves compel it to assume avery different habit, _ probably near
A similar change of habit is seen in the Sin with leave
of the next.species. Poiret (Ene. Si he” 534,) under P. oe

ih *

¢

i *
228 EB. Tuckerman on New England Planis.

Pate we

terophyllus, notices a Potamogeton from North Carolina, as pos
sibly a distinct species, which seems from his description to be the
present. P. Acronis Americani, Nuttallu, provisionally thus
disposed by Chamisso, (Linnea, 2. p. 226, & t, VI, f. 25,) accords

also in every respect with P. Claytonii, except the described and ri
figured orbiculation of the fruit, the base of the nutlets inour ~ gi
plants being always, so far as I tenve observed, acutish, and the ‘

whole outline consequently obovate. The specimen without fruit,
from North Carolina; described on the next page of the same me-
moir, as well as probably that from Pennsylvania, described at
the same place, also belong, neha without doubt, to P. Claytonii. . ,
P. heterophyllus, Pursh, Fl. 2, p. 120, which is included in
that part of Pursh’s Herbarium that j is in my possession, isa plant
resembling Claytonii, but much smaller and more delicate
throughout, explaining thus the citation in the Flora of P. hy-
bridus, Michx., as a synonym of so different a species as the P.
heterophyllus of authors. . It was noticed as variety @ in my for-
mer account of the present species, in this Journal, with the re-
mark that it might turn out to be distinct. The stem is extreme-
ly slender, branched, and apparently. much compressed, about a
foot long ; the submersed leaves: elofigated, very narrow-linear,
acuminate, sessile, 3-nerved, 4-4 a line wide and 3-5 inches Jong ;
the floating ones ( sometimes undistinguishable from the others,
or the blade a little widened below the acuminate tip, and the rest
of the leaf serving as a“petiole) papyraceous, very delicate, —
ceolate, with about 10 impressed nerves: - oo under side, the
largest about an inch and a quarter long, by about five lines in
width, on elongated, compressed petioles ; Sashes slender, very
long, nerved.- ‘Ihe leaves are approximated, with something of
a fasciculate aspect. It is found,saccording to Pursh’s Flora, in
slow flowing waters of Virginia and _—— and his ticket, (up-
on which “ P, hybridus” seems to have been writt and
+“P. heterophylias” afterwards nddedl rena the
ker’s meadows.” The P. hybridus of Barton’s Comper

x

inppeoritl take thename of P. Purshii
P. Spirillus, (Sp. nov.) : caule compresso, ~~ ‘akan con-

cavo-convexo, ramoso ; foliis submersis membranaceis gramineis
cum stipulis connatis basique vaginantibus linearibus obtusis
3-nerviis sessilibus; natantibus subeoriaceis oblongis lanceolatis
linearibusve, subtus nervis 3-7 impressis’sulcatis, petiolis canali- _
culatis cum stipulis infra medium connatis ; ; Stipulis folioruam sub- —
~ mersorum liguliformibus hyalinis laceratis ; spicis partis submerse

alaribus capitatis ‘paucifloris brevissime: pedunculatis Foret

lis erectiusculis compressis’clavatis, natantis cylindricis plur

longius pedunculatis; fructibus recentibus obovato-lenti

7

That

*

sagt

E. Tuckerman on New England Plants. 229

compressis subtricarinatis, dorso deorsum curvato alato-carinato
dentibus elevatiusculis cristato, carinis lateralibus rotundatis, late-
ribus sulco ome impressis, stigmate faciali sessili, facie —
tundata.

Has. Rivers ers; common in the Charles and in the Mystic, oF
also in the Middlesex canal. Stem slender, compressed, and-con-
cave-convex below, much branched, 6 to 12 inches long. Sub-
mersed leaves delicate, pale-green, grass-like, eonnate with the
stipules and sheathing, linear, obtuse, 13 in. long, by 4-% lin.

wide, Floating leaves coriaceous, oblong lanceolate or linear,
the last often a little faleate, furrowed on the under ‘side with
3-7 impressed nerves, half an inch to an inch long and 2-4 lines

wide, on channeled ‘petioles 3-5 lines long, which are connate

with the stipules the lower near the middle of the stipules, the

r below it. Stipules of the submersed leaves reduced to
short, lacerate ligules. Submersed spikes on very short, erect-
ish, clavate peduncles, 2-6 flowered ; spikes of the floating part
ater, cylindrical, on peduncles half an inch or more in length.

Natlets green, lentiform, and in perfect specimens rendered obo-

vate by the broadly alate-carinate: back, which is crested with
about 5 prominent, rather distant teeth; the lateral keels rounded :
the sides conspicuously cochleate.* Exo carp membranaceous,
produced on the back, and forming the wing: Putamen several
times thicker, but semitransparent. Seed cochleate. This curi- |
ous species, which is recognizable by its pale-green color and del-
icate, grass-like leaves, is more common, in this neighborhood at
ow-

tirely resembles in habit P. hybridus, from which it differs in its
grass-like leaves evidently connate with the stipules, in the attach-
ment - the petioles of its floating leaves to the stipules, in its
nt nutlets, &c. The following description of the
from living ‘specimens, will afford a fuller com-
ese nearly allied plants. P. heterophyllus? Ell.

tos

seems to accord in'many respects win the species

erized.

Ms ¢ Michx.): caule comipresso striato, ramoso ; foltis —
BN Aa eis tenuissimis cum stipulis eonnatis oa
nantibusque setaceo-linearibus, apice attenuatis acutis,
bus ; natantibus subcoriaceis ovalibus lanceolatis Tineatibtory sf

— hand rat aed stipulis nervosis ; spicis partis in See :
agenscond

wh * The spiral eae ‘Of ae sides of t
when and reminds one of e outli val
Sel ine 0 Pa smal pf a

a Serizs, Vol. VI, No. 17.—Sept., 1848.
*

Eo

230 E.. Tuckerman on New England Plants.

ris plus minus reversis, natantis cylindricis plurifloris pedunculis
longiusculis; fructibus recentibus oblique lunato-lentiformibus
compressis tricarinatis, stigmate faciali sessili, dorso deorsum eur-
vato anguste alato-carinato dentato, carinis lateralibus acutinscu-

yp AD herb. !
Has. Small ponds and plashes; Cambridge, Plymouth,

er side, one-nerved, 1-3 inches long. Floating leaves
subcoriaceous, a little more oval than in the last, furrowed on the
under side with 3-7 impressed nerves, 6-10 lines long by 3-4
wide, on rather flat petioles which are free from the strongly
nerved stipules. Peduncles longer than in the last, more or less re-

versed in fruit. Nutlets minute, half the size of those of the last, _

very oblique, rounded, compressed, tricarinate, the back narrowly
alate, with 6~8 approximate teeth, the lateral keels acute, and of-
ten sinuate-toothed when dry, the sides obsoletely eochleate-sul-
cate. Exocarp very thin, alittle produced on the back. Putamen
semi-transparent. Seed cochleate. This species, P. Spiritlus, and
P. Claytonii are peculiar to this country, and, at first sight, are not
easily referred to either of the commonly received sections of
the genus. They differ from the Heterophylli or Diversifolii of
authors in ch ters much more important than the solitary one
(the floating leaves) in which they are considered to agree with
them, and shew, as it seems to me, very clearly, that this group
cannot be retained in arranging the North American species. P
Claytonii belongs to the Graminifolii, irrespectively of its coria-

ceous leaves, and the two.others mentioned, if they accord with

the Heterophylli in their floating leaves, accord at the same time
with the Graminifolii in their submersed leaves and inflorescence,
and with the Vaginiferi or ColeophyHi in the attachment of their
leaves to the stipules. This last character is not easily noticeable
in P. hybridus, and seems to have escaped attention, but it is
conspicuous in the nearly allied P. Spirillus. . The arrangement
proposed by Fries (Novitie, edit. 2, p. 27) for the Swedish Po-
tamogetons, admitting two principal sections, I, of these with
submersed leaves broader in the middle (Plantaginifolii; in
which the Natantes or species with simple stems constitute the

i

:

Me Tuckerman on New England Plants. 231

first tribe, and the Lucentes or those with branched stems the
second); and II, of those with linear suabmersed leaves ( Gramini-
Sfolit ; in which the Compressi or species with free stipules are
the first tribe, and the Pectinati or those with stipules and leaves
connate, the second), best includes our American oy and,
as is always the case with a natural disposition, pheds | ight on
their aegis

Agrostis. ‘In the article in a nee volume of this journal to
which reteruiie has already been made, an account was attempt-
ed, from considerable and nethientic materials, of the species of
pene Phe eet considered to constitute the genus Trichodium.
The Agrostis scabra there described, is, according to Dr. Gray,
(Man ‘ “BIT, ) not the A. scabra of Willdenow, and is thus with-
hy name. As it seems to me distinct from the more southern

A. perennans, I shall venture to re-instate it, and subjoin, for
fuller comparison, a revised description of the other species.

Agrostis campyla, (mihi): culmis e basi geniculato ramoso
erectis glabris ; foliis lanceolato- linearibus planis striatis scabris
vaginis glabris ; Pont diffusa ramosa ramis 4—6-verticillatis
breviusculis flexuosis patentibus divaricatisve scabris; floribus
oblongis acutis sons glumis ineequalibus acntis 8. cuspi-

» New England. New York, Torrey. Pennsylvania,
Muhil. A stout, erect grass, with broad, lanceolate-linear leaves,
a diffuse panicle ‘with more of less fletuots branches, and ob/on,
sthoothish florets, the glumes being considerably unequal, and
the : r one mostly smooth.

A. perennans, (Tuckerm.): culmis e basi gracili geniculato
rar erectitisculis procumbentibusque glabris: foliis patulis
longiusculis linearibus planis striatis scabris vaginis levibus ; pan-
icula Pema tn he demum oblonga Jaxiuscula ramis verticillatis
e is scabris ; floribuis lineari-lanceolatis acuminatis, glumis
angustatis acutissimis s. cuspidatis carinis scabris circiter lineam
longis subequalibus; palea lineari-lanceolata glumis breviori
acuta glabra. Sill. Journ., rlv, p. 44. Cornucopia perennans,
Walt. Fl. Carol., p. 74. Trichodium perennans, Ell. Sk. — p-
99, dab. v, f. 2. j ae Cornucopia, Fraser! in Gent. _
59, p. 873, cum Icone. Agrostis anomala, Willd. Sp. 1, p. 3
Trichbdtum decumbens, Miche. Fl. 1. p. 42. Muhl. Gram., p-
60. 7 scabrum, Darlingt. Cest. , p. 54, nec Muhl.

Has. Carolina, F’raser / Pemsylvania, Darlington! South-
ern Ohio, Sudlivant! A delicate grass, sending up many assur-
gent, slender culms from the procumbent base. Leaves rather

~

232 E£. Tuckerman on New England Piants.

long and lax, narrow, linear. Panicle slender, at length some-
what diffuse. Florets linear-lanceolate, acuminate. Glumes
narrowed, nearly equal. Palea lanceolate-linear. A plant first
brought into notice by Walter, who seems to have had rather ex-
travagant notions of its agricultural value, and afterwards collect-
ed and cultivated by Fraser, who published a figure of it in the
Gentleman’s Magazine, October, 1789, together with a specific
character prepared by Dr. Smith. The name proposed by F'raser

hould perhaps take the place of Walter’s, whose account is very
imperfect. 'The principal characters in the above descriptions
have been noticed, more or less, by the different. authors who
have published the species, and seem to. be constant in all my
specimens. —_ ‘

CERATOSCHENUS MACROPHYLLUS, (Sp. nov.): cymis compositis;
spiculis gracilibus patentibus; nuce oblongo-obovata basi acuta
compressa levi, setis filiformibus duplo—stylo persistente subtri-
plo—breviore ; foliis angustatis rigidis glabris culmum_ super-
ee,

Has. Plymouth, Mass. New Jersey, Dr. Knieskern! Found .
by me at Plymouth in 1839, and distributed afterwards under a
provisional name which has not since been taken up by the
friend who proposed it. C. macrostachys, A. Gr. @ ynehospora
macrostachya, Torr. in Gray Rhynch. n. 14,) of which the pres-
ent has been considered a state, hae closely fascicled, and (espe-
cially the axillary ones) somewhat simple cymes; erectish, stout
spikelets ; broad-obovate (exactly spoon-shaped with the ; tip
truncate) nuts which suddenly taper to the produced base, the
bristles more than twice as long, and the style more than four
times as long as the nut; and softish leaves which are scabrous
on the margins and shorter than the culm. In the species now
proposed all the cymes are compound oe loosely flower-
ed; the spikelets slender and spreading ; the nuts oblong-obovate
orrather pyriform, tapering evenly to the acutish base, the bristles

bout twice as long, and the style more than three times as long ;
the leaves narrowed, rigid, smooth, overtopping the culm. These
diag appear to be constant both in the New Jersey and the
lymouth plants, ——/ ae

eK

Descriptions of Shells found in Connecticut. 233 |

Arr. XXL —Descriptions of Shells found in Connecticut, col-
lected and named by the late Rev. J. H. Linsley; by Avueus-
tus A. Goutp, M.D.

Some months since, specimens of the shells indicated and na-
med by the Rev. J. H. Linsley.as new, in his ‘Catalogue of the
Shells of Connecticut,”* and of which he intended subsequently
to give full descriptions, were put into my hands by his daugh-
ter, with the request that I would examine them, and conclude
o the work which he commenced so well. I have therefore done

Some of them, I am well satisfied, had been previously de-
sobibalts others are new. The following ate the results of my
examina atio on.

TaRTE macTracea, (No. 71.) Testa parva, Solida, subtri-
sais tele sed anticé rotundata et ad basim arcnata, concentricé
costato-undulata, inter undas radiatim striolata, fulvo-viridi, fusco-
radiata, apice actito ; areola Po ay apy

: Ul.

Lat. a4

Astarte mactracea.

Shell small and solid, nearly quadrant-shaped, the apex acute,
somewhat behind the centre, with a divergence of nearly a right
angle, the posterior and basal margins regularly curved while the
anterior margin is nearly a right line. The surface is undulated
with about fourteen concentric, rib-like waves, and is marked be-
tween the ribs with xery — i radiating strie. The

e peneilling of dusky ra-

YTHEREA wontetoans. No 6 85.) on seems to. (> quite a
young and small specimen of C. convera, Say.
Unio Pequorrinus. (No. 105. This i is undoubtedly a valve
of U. latus, Raf. (U. rectus, Say) It is said to have been found
in connection with Indian base ond herarticles. _ As this sh shell

* See this Toul, ak xlviii,.p. poet Tat

234 Descriptions of Shells found in Connecticut.

is a denizen of the streams west of the Alleghanies and of Lake
Champlain, its occurrence in this connection may have some bear-
ing upon ethnography.

Cycias truncata. (No. 82.) Testa
parva, tenui, fragili, ventricosa, aubeoat
laterali, transverse rotundato-ovat , pos-
tice dil: tata, et late saberipeari,, ‘lineis

epidermide olivaceo-cornea induta ; um-

bonibus magnis et perelevatis : eGlitiie

cardinalibus minutis, obtusis; dentibus

age nia ee Se slant Fig, 3.
ong. t at. ., 4 Cyclas ‘truncata.

; Shell sinall, hae “fragile, ‘inflated, slightly inequilateral, trans-
Ge. versel’ rounded-oval, ‘broadest and somewhat abrupt so as to ap-
, aah almost truncated posteriorly. Beaks tumid and prominent.

ufface finely and regularly striated by the lines of growth.
Epidermis pale horn-color, approaching to olive. Hinge teeth ob-
tuse, owed minute ; lateral teeth elongated and well developed.

This is a well marked species, more similar in its structure to
C. petieneip Flan. to our other species, but yee Petingaished
by its elevated beaks, narrow and rounded anterior:
ened and partially truncated posterior extremity, and
being placed so much anteriorly as to place it, I doubt not, in the
genus Pisidium

ANODONTA Hovsaronica. (No. 112.) Testa oblonga, retror-
sum dilatata, antrorsum compresso-cuneata ; margine antica ro-
tundata, basali areuata, Negrete obliqua et ad apicem truncata, dor-

ue 4.

sali rectilineari : umbonibus parvis,. undulatis, ad. sect emt. ant

orem Si sitis: valvis postice tumidis, ata nina: tole (
shdittis : intus lactea, salmonaceo sti
crassato. Figs. 4 and 5 ' “i

hs

larger, more ventricese
the middle, with at six well

Descriptions of a. - in Connecticut. 235

Long. 332, lat. 14, alt. 2 poll.

Shell thin, transversely oblong, somewhat widening backwards,
anterior margin rounded, lower margin gently curved, posterior
margin oblique, rather broadly truncated at tip, so as to form two
angles, hinge margin straight. Beaks very small, undulated, sit-
uated at the anterior third. Disc tumid behind the beaks. Epi-
dermis smooth and shining, yellowish green. Viewed from above
the shell appears sharply wedge-shaped, the greatest breadth be-
ing behind the beaks. Interior bluish-white, with-stains of white
towards the cavity. of the beaks. Anterior basal edge much
thickened, as in A. im

This shell is especially a aoe from our other species by
its great anterior narrowiMg a 5 Wig ai its nvinute undula-

tenui, rotundato-ovali, couvexiuscula, su
equilaterali, costiolis radiantibus filiformi-
bus ad 24, et lineis divaricantibus miero-
scopicis sculptis ; auribus subequalibus, pos-
tico vix emarginato; colore rubro-fusco.
Fig. 6. ;
Long. 5, lat. 4, poll.

Shell s all, thin, somewhat elongated,

a

slightly convex, with about 24 thread-like

radiating ribs; the whole surface, viewed

with a magnifier, is found to be we pry Pecten fuscus.
with microscopic lines, which curve from the-centre towards the

sides without reference to the hy The ears are nearly equal,
the anterior one with three ribs, the > posterior one slightly emar-
ginate. Color a dusky re
I have seen only one valve, which difere from apy shell hith-
erto described, but the characters of the entire shell are of course
incomplete.
eLIx Trumpu tt, (No, 170,) is Skenea serpuloides.
Lacuna, (No. 243,) is very imperfect—too much'so to jetta
dceeriesing, It ” aga ts to be a worn specimen of some Cingula.
RUMBULLL (No. 269.) — Sg Ptehes
clongato-conica, solida, levi, albida ;
sutura in pressa, marginata ; pace ae angulato apers
tura angusta, elongata ; columella assem anticé striis
volventibus arata. Fig. 7,
Long. ;';, lat. ;'y poll.
small, rather Pentriaese. aul solid pay moron sie to
be distinguished fromthe following shell. On a
exar nation it will. be found te difler m being ra pen, Truraballi
e , the last. whorl seat angular about
ll marked furrows,revolving about

the rostrum, and in havin a i acttagk furrow accom pan yin:
suture ; and it is destitute also of the white zones. The aha
lar portion is also ae and has a strongly marked projecting
angle at the middle. e figure given of it by Mr. Linsley is
ar too much earch, oe marked with revolving lines not
found on the shell.

Buectnum zonate. (No. 281.) Testa minuta, solida, Fig. 8.
leevi, fasihotensy pallide incarnaté; anfr. ultimo zona lac- =
tea, infra-suturali et alteri mediani cincto: spira conica,
acuta, anfr. 6 convexiuseulis: apertura angusta, sub-
ovali; canali products. 8.

Long. }, lat. ;

A small, fabitermi solid, smooth, pale flesh-colored guceinum
shell, having a white band just below the suture, and = znale.
another around the middle of the last whorl. Its other characters
may be gathered by comparison with those of F'usus Trumbulli
above given. It resembles B. dunatém, Say, and its generic

lace is somewhat equivocal.

[The figures are magnified four diameters, except 4 and 5,
which are reduced one-half. }

Arr. X roe —Results of Analytical Recoischia in the Nep-
nian Theory of Uranus; by Exocu F. Burr.

Tue early elements of Neptune have heen made the basis nef

inet researches in the theory of Uranus. The results were

not satisfactory. ‘They failed to recognize in the new planet

the sole source of those anomalous movements which have so

astronomets, or even to interpret them largely

without Deckbihes conditions entirely at variance with ob-
servation.

isdapiaciiiens to its effect on the meat? longitude of Uranus, as
far as terms of the fourth wtct in eccentricities and inclinations.
On account of the near approach to ecommensurability in the
mean motions, the-coefficients of some of the inequalities were

excessively large, and, consequently, their secular variations very

appreciable: but by a ‘stiitable disposition of the epoch and some
considerations to which we shall have-oecasion to refer, the ne-
cessity of their numerical computation was avoided. ‘The results
obtained were not satisfactory. »T'o éffect a reduction of the
modern residual perturbations two-thirds, a mass was required for
Neptune tot to accord with probability. ea

—

| Theory of Uranus. 237

The time has now come fora revision of the subject. Con-
tinued observation has modified essentially the data rs investiga
tion. From the discussion of ‘six hundred and eighty-nine ob-
servations, Mr. Walker has diminished the period o Neptune by

arly two years, and augmented by 48° the longitude of its peri-
helion. Its miass has also been determined from a satellite with an

accuracy which M. O. Struve regards as definitive and superior

to that of the mass of Uranus: thus simplifying the ot apree
and processes by which our ultimate results‘are derived. That
these changes would not affect the nature of our eben result,
could not be confidently decided anterior to trial. We have, ac-

. cordingly, again attempted te submit to the test’of analysis, the

ability of the new ‘planet to supply the defects of the Epheme-
ris, and now propose to give a concise account of the processes
and results to which we have been conducted. As the latter
happen to differ essentially from some already before the public,
it may be proper to add that the liability to etror is very consid-
erable in inquiries sett such~varied-and extended numerical
omputations as the prese

In developing the dietaphing influence ‘of Neptune, we have
aimed at as high a degree of refinement as seemed to us to ac-
cord with the present state of its elements. ‘The very considera-
ble change made in the mean motion by the last reduction ftom
the observations, seems to indiéate that it is still liable t6 some
modification ; and it is evidently useless to gather up all the mi-
nute points of the theory until the ‘data we eee sufficiently
i to give them significancy and influe

é fundamental elements employed are es following, © ~

a pe a ae Neptune, Jan, 1, 1847,

Mean Radius ven : :
Mean motion, : , {596-66 7871'-'76
Eccentricity, i 0:0466108 0:00857741
Long. of Perihelion, . 167°-30!-24// 489-21! -3N
Long. of epoch, : ; 1739-30! 16!" 328°-31'-56!!
penne i a “+46! 26" 1°-46'-59"

ong. of Ascen. Node, : 72°-59'- 21" 130° 4!-35/!

It is important to observe that these’elements of Uranus, with

a awe apparent exception, ‘are substantially those employed by
Verrier and Adams in construeting and testing its ephe-

meris. Both assume 0:046679 for the,eecentricity : but the differ-
ence between this value and that which we have adopted is alike
unimportant, in the perturbations and the other terms of the
equations of condition. Its effect on the principal inequality

since 1690, and consequently eonfounds itself with the correction

of the longitude of the epoch. The other term in which its ef-

fect is most sensible, is that ; aipouting on the difference of the
Sxconp Serres, Vol. Vj No. 17.—Sept., 1848. a

i oP
4

ey.
of

a

; ' - ee
238 E.F. Burr on the Neptunian Theory of Uranus.

corrections of the longitudes of the epoch and perihelion. ‘There
it always oscillates beneath the tenth of a second. The other
elements were taken from Bouvard’s tables of Uranus, and are
the same with those employed by Mr. Adams. He assumed the
ancient residual perturbations of Bouvard, and obtained those of
modern date by a comparison of his ephemeris, corrected by the
‘equatioys of Bessel and Hansen, with English and German ob-
servations. +

We have taken the time of Uranus’s mean opposition in 1810
as the epoch of the formule. This diminishes the effect of some

By comparing the planetary eccentricities. for 1750 with those
for 1800, it will be seen that,no one changes its value in the half-
century by more than 0:00022; while the variation of most of
them is much less. Assume the eccentricity of Neptune to be
in error to this amount., The general effect of this error on ine-
qualities of the first order in longitude is,
Lie 0-00022M sin. a, | soln

Assigning to the general factors their greatest values in the present
eory, :

M=m/’ 1915-65
sin r= .7946
4

constant term. Similarly it may be found that the change in the
longitudes of the perihelia. of ‘Se planets during the fifty years

the subsequent variation of which is 0-1. The terms of higher
orders depending on these errors, as well as those depending on
corresponding errors in inclination and longitude of the node, are

onsiderable with respeet. to the preceding. Hence each of
them is either less than the error to which we are probably liable

-

E.. F. Burr on the Neptunian Theory of Uranus. 239

from an imperfect determination of the elements of Neptune, or
its period is so great that it may be assumed constant, and merged
in the correction of the longitude of the epoch.

In deducing the results which follow, we have availed our-
selves of some considerations for abridging the labor. ‘The gen-
eral formule for the perturbations of true longitude have been
subjected to the usual condition that the mean an longitude and the
equation of the centre be the same in the elliptic and in the
troubled movement. This enables us»to employ the ae
given by observation for the epoch. The constants which serve
to make the origin of the time the origin in ier the perth:
tions, are not distinctly calculated, but transferred to the equations
of condition and determined with their general corrections. A
similar disposal has been made of the effects on the inequalities —

of the secular: variations of the elements. For several ages
fore and after the époch, these variations may be regarded as
changing eigen with the time and all their —, superior
to the first be neg ected. Hence their effect on the inequalities dur-

ing the unit of time is “correctly represented. by c = = (#)- As it

is only appreciable in connection with inequatigjed of — period,
we may regard it as essentially constant’ during the century and
a half of observation and, ‘consequently, confound it with the
correction of the mean motion.

It may be well also, in passing, vert tob some of the un-
corrected errors and sources of error "hte we have had occasion
to notice. In the 3d volume of the Mecanique Celeste of
La Place, by Bowditch, the following corrections shoul
made? Page 9, for the third term of the formula for the ine-
age of the ‘second order in longitude, read

>. .H. ee’ sin [t (n’t—nt +e <8) t2nt Be — w! —ol]:
page 63, note 2423, for the last term of the ee of the
first term of R, read

M°.¢? . eos Su. cos T’,

page 235, line 8, for.“‘ these values” read « thesé values multiplied
into e?, ee’, e’?, y? respectively.” In the “'Theorie Analytique
du Systeme du Monde” of Pontécoulant, vol..3, p. 30, for the
terms of R of the third order depending on the ieslisiatiotom read

N°. ea? . t (n't —nt +e —£)4+3nt+3e — — 217]

N’. be a (n/t — nt +e = 8) + 3pt-+38 07 — 9).
It is also deserving of patticular attention, that in these treatises
thes 6 3 ae quantities A, B, etc., have different ot

e following are the fundamental quanti sige aon» y Nep-

tune to the theory of Uranus. :

*

e

240 EB. F. Burt on the Neptunian Theory of Uranus.

*

log.

é
=

oh
Ein

Log. «= log. = = 980527

og. 0g, by =0'35604,

me 4 = 957763,

“4 2&9: 058359,

by | 868079,

(o)

se m8, ‘

bats

av a
_ O-17786,

(4)

1 =09 91670,

s 6)

db 0)

vi = 0565429,

aby 2
ue =071899,

“3 pi to
af”

~ss,

(3)

ms

= bud :

log. by =9-88774
($3
by —8-81878

*
1)

log. 2 =0-25835
ughoacleade pe

(3)

“4 0.05686
d«

5)

(1)

da?
(3)
id ot
* age =O 4
ea 7 O87
‘by :
er =0-65251
Pi eid ie

rh)

f
i 6
F i 9°7659

\

log, 2 =0- 62914

'

E. F. Burr on the Neptunian Theory of Uranus. 241

d? " : = A
logy —__¥ =1- log. __* =1-5611
og 5 59356, og pve 1 9
log. b, =0-71354, log. b, =0-44757

2 cf

by =029534, b= 0°13666

2

(4) (5)

db. :
log. _? =1-29207, log. 52 = 119331. «

da da

With these values, and supposing the terms depending on the
mean anomalies included in the elliptic Nae ti the ape
principal inequalities of true longitude are ved. The

expressed in terms of the sail of the. pte

m’'.

3°251 sin (n't—nt-+e’—)
++79°230 sin 2(n/t—nt-+-s’—e)

< — 1351 +-¢/—«
— 0 305 sin re ‘pai .
a": 102 sin 5(n' t— ie

| +-0°321 sin-(n't-e’—)
—248'890 si hs ery ae
1 i

—0°205 sin ( saith} Dnt e4 20
—4-594 sin (—2n’'t+-3nt—2e'4-3e—w
+0-090 sin (—3n’ oe tna
-+-0:024 sin are *
—0-048 sin (n't+-e'—w/

| — 0-063 sin (Sn't—4nt-+-5e —4e—o’)

—12-188 sin (2n't--2¢ 121° .:33' -43”)

—12-061 sin ( alae ve Hi ae s tA
11 t—2nit-+4¢ —2«+2°

T0396 sin (Gx toanid 640-4 2° 00-27)

pri in (6n!'t—Bnt-}-6e' +Be-$5°'-2'-14")

It will readily be seen, that the approximation has been carried
as far as terms of the fourth order in eccentricities and inclina-
tions. ‘The secular variations * the’ eccentricity an

of the perihelion corresponding to two different values of Nep-
tune’s mass, and for three synodic revolutions of Uranus, are the
following :

442 -E. F. Burr on the Neptunian Theory of Uranus.

Mass of Neptune, titer & rasto
. - | -_0"-009525 | —0”006958
: s 3 —1'-586088 —1"-158696

Let us now assume that the hoot of Uranus may be comple-
ted on the basis of certain small corrections of its elements and
the action of Neptune. In forming the equations of condition
between these corrections, the inequalities just given, and the re-
sidual perturbations, it is necessary to take account of the second
term of the equation of the centre. This has been done. Let
de, On, de, dw, denote. respectively the corrections of the epoch,

he e mean motion, | the eccentricity and, the mean anomaly of the.

epoch,
~ _p = Mean Anomaly of rani
A = 2e.cosp+%. pe heres g
“ = 2sinp+$.e.sin 2p.

= distutbing éffect of Neptune:
then the general acne perturbation of true heliocentric longitude

— de+(1-LA). dn. t4-B.de-LA. do-LP.

From this general formula have been derived the following equa-
tions of condition, in which the ae represent their correspond-
ing residual perturbations.

ciaiad man
Or LAB i, ors
(1715- 17) =3e— 34-427 dn-L0- 0998 de+- 09854 5S/'m— 4030” . 8m”
(1753: Fle a 16° 976 5n--0- 3515 de — 08636 0’w — 6145” . 1m”

14-080 dn — 09516 de— -07676 So 6200” . Om’
(1771-95 \—de— — 12-112 On— 1°7375 de— 104178 5’o—59 18” . 9m”
296 apni: 9228 3294 5063” .

5 /m—3957" . Sm”
nr ~ | e- 70 0’a—4278"", Tm"

ie de+ -0 cer Bri-»-4529 1 Bm!
- 2.0028 Sbe— o—A777" . Lm

1QOR.KL s : a 56 Se ers J'w—5028” , 2m"!
(1825 °F - 4°784 On ue ‘718)} de— - 04329 da toh 27 70” . 4m!"
(1828-55 )=de+ 5-646 dn-+-1- 4559 de— -05905 0'w—5495" . Sm!”

8346
(1837-65 )—=0e4. 8-225 dn-L0-3986 de— -08604 d’u-—=6022". Om!
(1840°69)=3e-} 91122 dn—0-0108 de—- 08779 Ym —6140", 6m!

=

It has not been judged necessary to deteraiaun as aoe pes

turbations of these equations by a critical revision of the

E.. F’. Burr on the Neptunian Theory of Uranus. 243

theory of Uranus. This has already been done by Messrs. Le Ver-
rier and Adams. The values which they have obtained differ
widely from each ot and Poca as will be seen, essentially
different final-resv ’

” et G = Ganskaitel longit .

H = Heliocentric mee reduced to the ecliptic.

ry = Radius vector reduced to the ecliptic.

dG = Residual perturbation of true } geocentric longitude,
R = Radius vector of the eaith.

s°= Its op doe

N =Nutation. ©
Then the residual tote of true heliocentric Idhginiaiess

. cos (G
~ r.cos (G—! me “7

which, near ~ time of pa apap practically reduces to.
dG.*

Hence w we Lite 7% *
ae Bf Verrier's. Adams’. . Le Verrier’s.| Adams’.
(1715:17)=| 462"9 | 473"-8'| (181640)— +327 | 422-9
95495) pie oe ‘5 | (1819-44) | 429-2 | 4120-7
tr64038 —21-4 | —34 -9 ] (1822-47 +28 -1 | 421-0
(1771-95). | —11*4 | — 23 1895351) +271: | 418-2
(1783-00) | +17-7 | + 8:4 | (1828-55) | +16 -6 | +10:8
(1789:07) | +28 -7 | +19 6 t1831 38) OT a
(179515) | 427-4 | 121-4 | (183461) “66 | __ 90+)
(1801-22) | +81 -6 | +22 -2 | (1837-65) | —42 -4 | —42-7
(1807-29) | +35 -0 | 422-1] (184069) | +65 -4 | —66-6
© —-« (1818-36) | +35 -7 | 4229 0

From these two systems of values and an application of the
method of least squares, are derived the following values of the
arbitrary constants of our equations of condition. It is to be ob-
served that these are ag strictly. the ess rasige corrections of the
elements of Uranus for the epoch, but these corrections together
with certain other ou -quantities to which —- ion was made
at the commencement of the article.

Mass of Neptutie, ° ris bey + a wae ae soit
to Residual ~~ Due to Residual |

Due id
cs fags Perturbations « of Adams. . Perturbations of 1a Versio
fy. °, i peo 4 ne a f = 6085"-0 | —s274"-2

pans og based on the tesidual perturbations of Le Vei

were pssst from the modern equations of conditi ion alone: the

others were furnished “ the modern and ancient.equations united.
The fi sults are comprised in the following table. . It ¢ ex-
hibits the pagan of, perturbation of true heliocentric longitude,
which, according to our theory, remains unexplained after the

244 Prof. Dewey on Caricography.

application of the effect of Neptune and the best possible modifi-
cations of the orbit of Uranus.

OBSERVATION — THEORY.

Massof Neptune, zosaq | rare |* reexo | rates
. ue to Residua Due to Residual
" Perturbations of Le Verrier. Perturbations of Adam

1840, 7 : — 66 | + Td
1887; OME oe HEY | oe a } 29-7
RE Sg. i see Ml ote OFF | 1-1
a “6 6 Hohe BB] bt 2-0
1828, ' 47 9) — 16 | tol -4'8 (7
1825, + 5:1 | 4+. 3:3) 413-6 | +102
1822, +16 1-9 | 411-7 | +112
1819, LL 0% t e 467 2 ae
1816, 1°3 3°8 ‘4
1813, ; a q 9 | 7s 8-7 Ra “4 sus 2
1807, ee oe oe ee ies |:
1801, ee eee eee
|1795, fi OS tine LT] + 9-9 | —100
1789, +79 | bie Pe ee | Le
1783, — #4 | — 25 | 413-7 138
1771, —'68 2 f = 64-3 | +413 °9 Fo ‘9
1764, —l1I3 2) 106 6 | —271) | 265
1753, —148 ‘8 | eee Bh Oar. ag
1715, —156 +1 1 —-182-2 | 4149 | 415-7

Arr. XXII1.—Caricography ; by Prof. Dewey.
, (Appendix, continued from vol. v, ii ser., p. 176.)
» No. 234. Carex fusiformis, Chapman in literis.

Spicis: diafictias spica staminifera unica pedunculata erecta
ili, squamis ‘oblongo-lanceolats; pistilliferis binis vel ternis
ovatis oblongis brevibus laxifloris, superioribus subapproximatis
sessilibus, inferiore subremota pedunculata, tristigmaticis erectiss
fructibus subinflatis inferne teretibus triquetris conoideo-rostratis
er. brevi-bidentatis, squamam ovatam acutam duplo super-

Cans 6-10 inches pu triquetrous, smooth, slender, erect ;
leaves linear lan ooth, long as the culm ; staminate
spike single, erect, lender; Fpedgcata e, near the upper pistillate ;
pistillate spikes 2-8, ovate-oblong, few and loose-flowered, two
upper nearly sessile and approximate, lowest subremote and pe-
dunculate, with leafy bracts scarcely sheathing ; ng three ;
fruit elliptic-triquetrous, tapering below, conic-rostrate above and
slightly bidentate, smooth and a little inflated ; agin scale
ovate and acute, half as long as the fruit ; plant pal e green.

Floridas, Dr: Chapman ; named in his'letters as above, and is
a distinct species.

ae
‘i a
a iad

Prof. Dewey on Caricography. 245

235. C. Illinoensis, Dew. wi

Spica staminifera solitaria erecta cylindracea longo-pedunculata
ebracteata ; spicis pas ternis remotis folio-bracteatis, supre-
.ma ovata subsessili, in longis laxifloris exserte-pedin-
culatis erectis ; fructiba tri aticis ovato-conicis ore integris
nervosis subobtusis, i in spicam supremam multo majoribus et lon-
gagbus aggregalis, squamam ovatam cuspidatam superne multo
supera

Culm 12-16 inches high, erect, slender, coed scabrous on
the edges, leafy towards the base, with long and leafy bracts ;
staminate spike single, erect, short, ‘abide pedunculate, having
oblong and obtusish scales brown on the edges; pistillate spikes
three, remote, leafy-bracteate, the highest nearly sessile and ovate
close-fruited, the two lower oblong, distant, loose;flowered and
exsertly pedunculate ; stigmas three; fruit ovate, conic, rather
obtuse, epi at orifice, on the upper spike closer, larger, and
much longer than the ovate and cuspidate scale, on the lower
spikes loose sid a little longer than the scale.

Augusta, Ill, Dr. S. B. Mead. Though related to C. conoi-
dea, Schk., it is very different, and appears to be a new species.
It is singular i in the different size of the fruit on the same plant,
‘being much larger and longer on the upper spike.

236. C. Georgiana, Dew.

Spica staminifera unica (plures? ) pedunculata longo-cylindracea
bracteata, squamis denis lanceolatis longo-setaceis ; _Spieis pistil-
liferis ternis vel juater gis Cj

inferioribus | J latis exser S, Superiori-
bus. subsessilibus ; fructibus tristigmaticis ovatis conico-rostratis
nervosis bidentatis, squama lanceolata scabro-aristata brevioribus.

Culm 20 inches or more high, triquetrous; with long leafy bracts
surpassing the culm ; staminate spike slender, long, with long and
slender bristly scales ; pistillate spikes 3-4, erect, cylindric, 14-2
inches long, the two lower long pedunculate and exsert, the up-
per sessile, all long leafy bracteate ; stigmas three; fruit ovate,
conic-lanceolate, scabro-rostrate, round-triquetrous short two tooth:
ed, sometimes teeth a little elongated ; scale lanceolate, awnlike,
scabrous, longer than the fruit.

Georgia, Dr. Cooley. I referred to this locality under C. ms-
rata, but, as my friend John Carey, Esq. suggests, the plant dif
fers too much-from that species. The fruit of C. mirata is |
and wide bifurcate, while this is short two-toothed ; the scale |
the former ren the fruit, while this surpasses the fruits
mirata too the fruit is longer and more slender than on this.
The fertile spikes on both are large, but are far Jessthan on C.
gigantea, Rudge and Muh.

Sxconp Series, Vol. V1, No, 17.—Sept., 1348. 32

oe

=
elf
a

¢

246 E. N. Kent on Gutta Percha.

5 A wr. XXIV.—On Gutta Percha; by Epwanp N. Kenr.
i waa : | > ah :
~ Gurra Percha is soluble in pure chloroform, bi-sulphuret of

carbon, rectified oils of turpentine, resin, gutta percha and tar,
and also i

so in terebene, hydrochlorate of terebene, and slightly in
pure ether. Of these solvents the first two are the best, and dis-
solve the gutta percha at low temperatures. The other solvents

~ act only at a temperature above 70° F., and when the solutions

are cooled much below 60°, the gutta percha is deposited in a vo-
luminous granular mass. The length of time required for the
production of this precipitate, depends upon the degree of cold;
sometimes it requires several days, and at other times the expo-
sure of an hour suffices to produce it. By warming this mixture,
the precipitate is readily redissolved, and by exposure to cold is
again precipitated at will.

Solutions of gutta percha aré naturally of a reddish brown co-
Jor, and do not become colorless by standing at rest for several
months in a warm situation. If the solution is made sufficiently
dilute, which is the case when one part of the gum is used to
sixteen parts of the solvent, it can be filtered slowly through pa-
per or muslin, and is then colorless.

Solutions of gutta percha are precipitated by alechol, and when

chloroform or bi-sulphuret of carbon are used as the solvent, the
gum is recovered in its natural state either by evaporation or pre-
cipitation ; but when any of the hydro-carbons are used for a sol-
vent, a portion is retained with such tenacity that it cannot be
removed withont decomposition of the gum.

A solution in chloroform, filtered, and precipitated with alco-
hol, leaves the gutta percha when dry, of its natural strength,
translucent, colorless, and pure. -

“When two or three parts of washed ether are mixed with a
filtered solution of gutta percha in chloroform, and the mixture
left for a short time at a temperature below 60°F, it precipitates
in a perfectly white powder, which when washed with alcohol,
filtered and dried, leaves the gutta percha in a pure white, opaque,
voluminous mass, very soft and delicate to the touch, not unlike
the pith of a young tree.

_ If a small quantity of the above mixture (before precipitation)
is poured upon a glass plate and allowed to evaporate spontaneous-
ly, a thin opaque film of pure white gutta percha remains, which
has the appearance and delicate feeling of the finest white glove
leather. By a géntle warmth it loses its opacity and beautiful
appearance, and becomes transparent or translucent, according to
the thickness of the film. The state of aggregation which eau-
ses the opacity and delicate feeling of gutta percha prepared in
the above manner, is owing to the precipitation of the gum, caus-

_ed by the cold produced in the rapid evaporation of the ether.

E.. N. Kent on Gutta Percha. 2Q47

TH small portion of gutta ‘itm insoluble in any of
above solvents, consists of a red coloring matter, woody fib
earthy bases. The colorin he is soluble i in water,
cipitates on the addition

all portion of a soft deiow
) ind turpentine. This resin is sep-
arated by precipitating a solution of gutta percha with alcohol
and evaporating the palastort j
destructive distillation, gutta percha yields au oil eer to
that obtained from cagutehoiae, The erude oil is dar
reflected, and red by transmitted light. It is limpid, gowe darker
y exposure to light, has a very disagreeable smell, is not spon-
taneously volatile, is but slowly soluble. in 90 per cent. alcohol,
and has a specific gravity of 856. By.two rectifications a light
yellow oil is obtaitied, volatile below 320° F'., which constitutes
about one-half the measure of the crude. oi, This product is
spontaneously volatile, dissolves Hneadaly in alcohol, and grows
darker by exposure to the light. #
The most remarkable property of gutta percha, that of its be-
pt soft and plastic by heat, and returning to its natural state
cold, has already been taken advantage of in the arts, and
east patents have been granted to Mr. Hancock in Europe for
valuable processes of rope the material into a great variety of
articles, for which it appears to be admirably adapted. In this
country but little has been a with it, except for the
ture of bands for machinery, and soles for boots; but it will
doubtless be soon brought - extensive use, ina great number
of our domestic manufacture
The interesting electrical today of ‘aap percha, first noticed
by Faraday, is truly wonderful. A piece of the manufactured
thin sheet gum, cannot be taken St a paper in which it has
been wrapped, without exhibiting this remarkable property, and
by gentle friction with a silk handkerchief, a spark is readily ob-
tained from it of an inch in leng
From the excellent non-conducting power of gutta percha, it
is likely to come into extensive use in the manufacture of elec-
trical apparatus, and it has already been employed to some-extent
for cseonlating thé wires.of Morse’s electro-magnetic telegraph
ew York, Aug. Ist, 1848:

Prof. B. Silfiman, Jr., on Emerald Nickel.

XXV.—On Emerald Nickel Texas, Lancaster
County, Pa.; by Pet B. Sitimany, Jr.

Saris j is the same mineral which I have before described under
the name of “hydrate of nickel.” vere e now proposed is
in accordance with the custom of giving a trivial name to mine-
ralogical species, and has been suggested by my friend, Prof. C.
U. Shepard, as peculiarly appropriate from the brilliant color and
transparency of the mineral, resembling the emerald. The ex-
istence of carbonic acid in this mineral as an essential constitu-
ent, was overlooked by me from the fact that it is all expelled at
redness, and was therefore in my analysis put down as water.
The water given off in the close tube does not change litmus pa-
per, and the mineral does not effervesce in dilute cold hydrochlo-
ric acid. My attention was first directed to the probable exis-
tence of carbonie acid in this mineral, by a notice from Dr. D. R.
Thomson,} describing as a new mineral a carbonate of nickel
from the United States, coating specimens of chromic iron.
Prof. Bhepard also mentioned to.me that he had found carbonic
acid in a a nickel mineral first described by me. I have
therefore >a new analysis of the mineral in question, selecting
the finest and most transparent colored specimens in my power.

The following mineralogical description is mainly the same
which I have before given, save that having much better speci-
mens on which to determine the specific gravity, that now given
may be regarded as more correct than the former determination.

Emerald Nickel.

Massive, stalactitic, occurring in thin crusts on chromic iron.
Hardness = 3—3 25, being but little above cale Abe
y = 2:570—2 698, two trials on different porti

Pustre vitreous, brilliant. Color emerald-green. Tranepereat
Streak delicate pea-green. Very brittle. Its pyrognostic charac-
ters have already been so fully described in the article first quoted,
that it is useless to repeat them here; they differ in no respect
from those of pure artificial hydrate of nickel.

The water of this mineral is partially expelled mak ordinary
temperature of a water bath (212° F.); this fact led to estima-
ting the total volatile product of the. mineral too low, in the for-
mer description of this species. Carefully dried over sulphuric

acid, the mineral lost on two trials 41:370 and 41-008; mean =
AL 189 per cent.

The carbonic acid was estimated in the apparatus described by
Fresenius and Will for analyzing carbonates.

eee eal

* This Journal, ii ser., vol. iii, p. 407. t Phil. Mag., Dec., 1847, p. 541.

x i = : £ ;

New Minerals from Texas, Lancaster Co., Penn. 249

The mean of three trials gave 11-691 of CO*. A trace
magnesia in the specimen examined was disregarded, as being
asis of carbonate of magne

which is difficult to separal

The constitution resul 1 the analysis is—

Atoms.
5881l 2622=3

Oxyd of nickel, :
Carbonic acid, : : 11-691 423 =1
Water, , ‘ ; ; 29-498 12°52 = 6

This gives the empirical formula, 3Ni+C46H=NiC+2Ni 6EF,

or NiO+ANR, ).

n-we remember the isomorphism of magnesia and oxyd
of nickel, it will be agreed by all who attach any value to this
agency in modifying minerals, that we may have many cases in
which these two oxyds are mutually interchanged. Hence we
find at the Texas locality, dolomitie carbonates with a faint tint
of green derived from a small trace of oxyd of nickel present in
them—others of green color several shades deeper, and others
which closely approach the high color and other pa of the
pure hydrous carbonate of nickel described in th r. In
some specimens, unquestionable emerald nickel te nae | mechan-
ically mingled with and coating whitish dolomite. I cannot
agree with the opinion expressed by Prof. Shepard, at page
of this volume, that these varieties are distinct species. tai
we must demand analyses to show that the Mg O and NiO arein ~
fixed atomic proportions with water, before the “hydrated carbo
hate of magnesia and nickel” can be regarded as a true species.

Analy tical Laboratory, August, 1848.

Ze

Arr. XXVI—On new Minerals from Teras,. YT cmcahiee Con
Penn. ; by Cuarves Urnam SHEPARD, M.D.

Williamsite.

: composition lamellar, individuals of tee size,
renites isizhe, rather difficultly separable. Faces of ¢
sition not very even. Fracture even. Surface nearly dull,
Lustre feebly shining, pearly to resinous. Color apple-green.
Streak white. Translucent.
Hardness = 4-5. Sp. gy. = 2:59... 2°64.
» Before the yi tel it phosphoresces, turns white, an
ns so as to scratch glass, but does not fuse. It dissolves with
ponies difficulty in borax, without imparting any color or opacity
to A ae In powder, it dissolves chet B in hot hydrochlo-
ric aci

>.

250 New Minerals from Tevas, Lancaster Co., Penn.

consists of— x
Atoms, Ratio.
Silica, : : . AAO 22-7 6
Magnesia, . ; 200 sy ira
Alumina, . : 37 1
Water ‘ 11:0 3

100:
with traces of oxyd of n $3
It approaches there the ‘following : three atoms sesquisili-
cate of magnesia, + one of silicate of alumina, + three atoms
of water.
3Mg O, Si0*18+ Al? O2, SiO*+ 3H.
This mineral was sent to me aft L. White ered ay, 1 tae

seams, sometimes above an inch in Parse between chrome
iron ore and serpentine. It belongs to the order Mica, and has
affinities with schiller spar (metalloidal diallage ).*

New Haven, July 12, 1848.

ttempting any fi formal description of them, They are very
2 hi minute granular be i
ta together, thin, dr
and presenting an apple
microse ape however, tine Pl resolve
inet atak —the first conde of pea
m the basis of the coating, next to the an
. This is the hydrated cart

W minutes in a glass tubeo

ith a pecaliar odor, is ovelvad eh a Be if folia

foliates and turns re dis -brown, the green
‘of a

k@,a quantitative analysis of the two which are
aminations have been carried far enough to satisfy me that the foliated, pearly min-
eral is a hydrated carbonate of magnesia and iron, and the green one, rated
carbonate of mia aga esia and niekel, whith fuk the present may be c ised
nickel magnesite.

*

An Account of the Meteorite of Castine, 1 aine.

! Arr. XX VIE—An Account of the Meteorite of Castine, Maing,
May 20, 1848; by ve.teee Upuam Sueparp, M.D.

rs, and description of the lately
fallen meteoric stone in J] the absence of fuller accounts,
will no doubt prove interes eteorologists.

The only stone thus far found, together with the principal facts
in the case, fell into the hands of Prof. P. Cleaveland of Bowdoin
College, from whose letter (of August 5th) it seems proper to
make the following quotation as my apology for not leaving this
communication to be made by himself. “I have written to Cas-
tine, proposing certain qtieries, with a view of ‘obtaining more
facts. When I receive them, I will prepare a notice, if in season
for the next number of the Journal. The notice ought to appear
in the next number, and as you have all the facts which I now
possess, if you hear nothing from me before the printing of the
last pages, you had better put the facts in due form, and insert the
notice yourself.”

On observing a paragraph in a newspaper respecting the fall of
a meteoric stone in Maine, I addressed a letter to my friend, Rev.
Ray Palmer, of Bath, (Me. ,) requesting his aid in procuring a re- |
liable account of the occurrence. * This drew forth ie conten,
excellent description from Rev. Daniel Sewall, of C.
letter dated June 12th, to Mr. Palmer. ‘I receiv d your

_ Friday evening, and on the day following, I rode out to t

“i (which is one mile distant) where the stone fell. I made
inquiries and search | could, but without being able to rocure

eee sa only stone that has been found as yet, Nad now in

the sion of Prof. Cleaveland of Brunswiek. Mr. Lemuel

Tue following abstract

Ia,
&

Ashettju cal ember of College from Bowdoin, took it withthe
thither a few days since. I saw the ston e, the morn ing it ah
picked up. It was not larger than a hen’s egg.

“The appearance of the meteor and the ocuerk circumstan-
ces, so far as I have been able to-gather them, may be described

follows: On Saturday morning, May 20th, sncn half past four
in the morning, Mr, Charles Blaisdell, a mechanic; whe lives about
a mile from the village, being out of the house at the time, no-
ticed dark clouds, apparently gathering from oe quarters of
the heavens. Soon, he*saw what he supposed to be a flash of
lightning. Presently, however, upon ‘looking at that portion of
the cloud which came.from the northwest, he saw what appeared
like the moon in a cloudy net as at the horizon, but when high in
the heavens. Ar sudden, sharp report like a cannost was heard,
followed by a quick succession of repofts not so loud as the first,
but which resembled 4 running fire of musketry ; and after these
a whistling sound if the air, as of a body passing through it with

252 Zz Account of the Meteorite of Castine, Maine.

great rapidity. Something was seen and heard to strike the
ground in the road, but a little distance from the place where he
was standing, w which proved to be the stone in question. Mr.
Giles Gardiner also saw the stone strike the ground, but he did
not notice the meteor. I could not learn from Mr. Blaisdell that
the meteor had any apparent motion, except with the cloud, be-
fore the explosion. He stated that he was looking at it from eight
to ten minutes. ‘The report was heard by great Pet in the
village and elsewhere. Some saw a streak of ligh

rof. Cleaveland’s account of the stone and the ge. phe-
nomena is the following. “It fell at Castine, Maine, May 20,
(4h. 15m. aan,) 1848. The fall was accompanied by a noise
similar to thunder, but quicker and more’ like that of agun. The
yeport was distinctly heard at a distance of thirty or forty miles
from Castine. “a second report, resembling the discharge of mus-
kets, was also

“The stone ame ‘from the southeast, and by its fall penetrated

to the depth.of two inches into a dry, hard road. No flash of
light was observed by the person who witnessed the fall, although
the stone struck the earth within a few feet of him. Others as-
sert that they saw a flash.

ts whole al wen entire was 14 oz. avoir. The finder
ices off a piece to examine the inside, and threw the fragment
away. It was fatther | dimniniabbd by the portion sent to you. _ Its
present weight is loz. 3pwts. 5grs. The whole was invested by
a black crust. Its shape was somewhat wedge-shaped, one sur-
face being nearly plane, and the ether irregular or slightly waved.
This stone is now in the mineralogical cabinet of Bowdoin Col-
lege, to which it was presented by Mr. Lemuel W. Atherton, of
Casti : bs ae s fall.”

1 from ment so bli ngl i
sent od ‘to me for: purpose by Prof. agent _ aan

wp. iar, °>= 3-4

In general ene, it resembles “ Poltawa stone (of March
12, 1811); but is distinguishable from that, by possessing a much
lighter color, a more pearly lustre, a in beirig destitute of specks
of iron-rust. The nickeliferous iron is in smaller points, and pos-
sessed of an unusually brilliant silver-white lustre. Rass mag-

eed e
- % ab

Scientific Intelligence. ¥ 253

Iron, . : ; P é ) 85°3
Nickel, ; ; d é 14:7

100:

The earthy constituent of this stone, like that of the Iowa
meteorite, is decomposed by concentrated hydrochloric acid, and
like it, appears to ee a tersilicate of the protoxyd of iron and mag-
nesia, a mineral which though frequent in meteoric stones, has
never yet been distinctly recognized, and which in a future paper
on American Meteorites, I shall more particularly describe under

the name of Howardite, after the Hon. Mr. Howard, that celebra-

ted chemist, who was the first British writer whose labors con-
tributed to elucidate the eight of these extra-terrestrial bodies.
New Haven, Aug. 16, 184

SCLENEIV IC INTELLIGENCE.
I. Cuemistry anD Puysics.

1. Ice, a Conductor of Galvanism.—In experimenting with a
Grove’s battery of eighteen cups, I left the whole standing over night
the poles not being connected, or the circuit not being closed. There
was no action going on, or at least, no hydrogen was evolved in the
cups. Owing toa sudden change of weather, the liquid in the cups
was found frozen in the cups next morning. In each of the ‘ia 2

had separated the ice from the platinum, when, in each i instance, it ‘te
d.

mediately cease EWEY.
rove’s: Battery with ee Water used with the Zine cup.—

Grove’s battery of eighteen cups in the usual way, only using water
instead of diluted sulphuric aci The whole was quickly put in
operation and the poles connecte d.

1.) In the first minute there was the indication of only the feeblest
action, either in evolving hydrogen, or seman iron filings magnetic.

two or three minutes the action had sensibly gee as

shown in both these results, and in tn to sixty minutes the ac
was quite powerful. With a large helix the large dancing iron was oie
to play finely. The action had now attained its maximum power

( :

used up. As vctiahgiarnaeell ob was eae abe itrate of 1 mercury was
formed, for the crystals vaticg ied oxyd of mercury. C. D.
Vermont Medical College, March, 1848,
Srconp Series, Vol. VI, No. 17.—Sept., 1848. 33

254 Scientific Intelligence.

d of Zinc in the Porous Cup.—t connected four cups of
Grove’ s ~~ <i charged in the common method by strong nitric acid
in the porous cup and sulphuric acid diluted with twelve of water, so that
the zinc of the fourth cup was connected by its platinum with the acid of
the first botnns ae, so that there was a complete circle among the cups
themselve action was strong and rapid; nitrous acid gas was
thrown of ereety. while no hydrogen appeared in the zine cups.
The process was suffered to go on till nearly all of both acids was con-
sumed. After a while the porous cups began to fill with a white powder

the liquid. This appears to show the advantage of using Glauber’s
salt in the zinc cup in preventing the action of the nitric acid on the
mercu O-B:

Pabedan May, 1848.

4. Selenium, (Acad. Berlin, Nov., 1847. )—The specific gravity of
selenium has been determined by Fr. de Schaffgotsch as follows :

For vitreous slenivm obtained .~ a rapid cooling from fusion,—
4276 to 4:286 at 20° C.; the mean is 4°282.

For fine- “Sapre selenium,—obtained from slow cooling after heating
to 250° C.,—4°796 to 4'805 at 20° C.; mean 4801. This selenium had
the aspect of ee and left traces on porcelain less red than the
vitreous seleniu

The red eaetjans precipitated cold, such as is obtained by the re-
duction of selenic acid by sulphhydric ‘acid, and which becomes black

when moderately heated, has the specific gravity 4:259 for the red, and
4-264 for the black colored, which corresponds with that of the vitre-
<7 selenium
. Cause ae ieteate Colors on Minerals, (Soc, Sci. Gottingen ; L’In-
siti, No. 750.)—From M. Hausmann’s valuable memoir on this branch
optical Somion: we ety that the irised colors on minerals, like
pa steel, is due to a thin film covering the s urface ; and that the

etime
iron is one of the most common of the substances that communicate
irised hues. This compound results from the decomposition of pyrites,
either forming first a carbonate which is common in many waters, and
then by the evaporation of ~— water yielding the hydrate, or forming
the hydrate direct. Thec on anthracite and specular iron often
proceed from this source: an ae an exposure of the latter species to wa-
ters ngs the carbonate, afforded Hausmann after a while, irised

Chemistry and Physics. 255

hydrate ; pyrites, from the formationsof a hydrate of iron; copper py-

rites and variegated pyrites, probably from the same, the latter being
very jotiiercabia for the rapidity with which the change takes sarge in
a moist atmosphere ; antimony —— and other antimony o rom
the formation of antimony ochre; fahlerz, and other menial ores,
probably from the oxydation of he arsenic.

These irised colors sometimes proceed from the absorption of oxy-
gen and the elimination of water, or from a disengagement of carbonic
acid with a loss of water, as in spathic iron and carbonate of manganese.

rc is often favored by heating, as in the case of = =

he Radiating Power of Substances; by A. Masson and L.
desncazia, (Comptes Rendus, Dec. 20, 1847.)—In the hen of
Masson and Courtépée, the substances, pulverized with some water hold-

cube of copper. This cube filled with boiling water was placed before
a thermo- a pile, x a the radiating surfaces perpendicular to its
axis. ey conclude
1. The cmniaie have a das _aaiested radiating power when in grains,
than when melted or in mass
2. That the radiating power of a sera depends on the cohesion
of Pe — and not upon their natu
. That if all bodies were bie’ to the same degree of chemical
sabdivision, taty would have at 100° C., the same radiating power.
On Auriferous Glass ; by H. Ross, (Pogg. Annal., Ixxii, 556.) —
Gold is well known to'be used in making a beautiful red glass. After
fusion this glass is colorless; but when heated not above a red heat, it
becomes of a bright red color. Rose suggests that the paid: is contain-
ed in the glass in the state of a protoxyd, which forms a colorless sili-
cate by fusion, but sets free some portion of the protoxyd when ea
ed to a temperature a little below that which forms it. This protoxyd
disseminated in a small mph = in an extreme state of sisbdleieton, is
believed to give the red color. When too much heated the red changes
to a brown, and Rose een this to the oxyd of gold becoming partly
reduced and metallic gold set free. A fact, according to Rose, con-
firming this view, is presente d ‘i copper. Fora glass containing the

of borax, 12 of n yl of minium, and 1 of arsenous acid; these are
moistened with a soletiee of 8 dada of gold in aqua regia, and then

8. Dim orphism of Zinc, (Jour. Pharm. et Chem., xiii, 18.)—Neg-
garath has described (Annales de Pogg., xxxix, 324) crystals of pure
pre “om ed form of hexagonal prisms. J. Nicklés reports that a ~

oc prepared by M. Favre, after Jacquelain’s process, w
crystallized in pentagonal dodecahedrons, like those of pyrites and gray
ine is therefore dimorphous. ‘This is not the only example

in erie prisms (dimetric system), sr Frankenheim has observed it in
cubes osé (Annales de Pogg., xlv, 319) has announced that pal-
tedium and iridium are iesdicnseptanens pone both in the rhombo-
hedral and tesseral systems.

Mii Mia

256 Scientific Intelligence.

9. On the ea of Urea—Presence of Urea in the Vitreous
Humor of the E y M. E. Mitton, (Comptes Rendus, Jan., 1848.)
—WNitrite of canned "hhesolved in nitric acid gives off no nitrous va-
pors, but yet readily transforms urea into nitrogen and carbonic acid.

he carbonic acid is collected and weighed in the usual manner in pot-
ash tubes; its weight multiplied by 1:371, gives the quantity of urea.

This method is easy of execution, consumes but little time, and is
reliable to the ‘001 of the weight of the urine. Substances usually
present in this liquid are said not to affect the accuracy of the process.

ity of urine and the quantity of urea present. The second and third

figures after the decimal place in a specific gravity, cn nearly rep-
resent the quantity of urea in 1000 parts of urine. ‘This empirical law
holds good only for the secretion fen m man in a state of bani From

animals and — men laboring under various diseases no such corres-
pondence is fou

illon ie also shown that the ao left on evaporating the
liquid of the vitreous humor of the eye of the ox, man, or dog, con-
tains 20 to 35 per cent. of urea—the ee oe being chlorid of sodi-
um without any albumen, as stated by Berzelius.

The aqueous humor also contains urea and chlorid of sodium.

G. C, ScHAEFFER.

10. On the Employment of Gun-cotton in Mining ; by M. ComBEs,
(Comptes Rendus, Jan., 1848.)—It is known that this substance does
not contain oxygen enough for the complete combustion of all its car-
bon . Combes proved the presence of a large quantity of carbonic
oxyd, after a blast _ gun-cotton, and even exploded the mixture form-
ed with atmospheric a

To avoid this diffieulty, chlorate of potassa was added in quantity
sufficient to complete the combustion—80 parts to 100 pyroxyline.
The salt finely powdered was mixed with the cotton by hand. In this

case the effect was excellent—no combustible vapors, no odor of any
kind could be noticed ; eg 5 parts of ppt and 4 of chlo-
rate were equal in effec t to 30 parts of mining powde

Mixtures with 80 parts nitrate potassa, or 70 fans of soda, were

equally free from fumes and almost as powerful as that with chlorate.

In the plaster rock in which the trials were made, M. Combes asserts
that these mixtures are nearly as effective as their own weight of gun-
— three — their weight of gunpowder, or four times that of

asting pow

The a of gas is the same with or without the mixture ; the in-
creased effect must be due to the greater heat produced by the carbonic
oxyd burning to oe aci 5.

1] a new Process for prepari ne ar: by MM. Hov-

are to . pei to poet 100° Fahr. Then stir in 11 pounds of quic

the head is to be put on, and the water of the bath caused to boil as
quickly as possible.

Chemistry and Physics. 257

soon as the heat reaches the neck of the still, the fire is to be
slackened, when the distillation proceeds rapidly and continues without
further heat. :
The chloroform is to be separated as usual, but the liquid which floats
over it is immediately employed in the following manner. Without re-
moving any thing from the still, 10 quarts of water are to be added ;
when the whole has cooled to about 100° Fahr., add 6 or 8 pounds

ef quick lime and 22 pounds of chlorid of lime ix well, and pour
in the liquid ryt from the preceding distillation, together with an-
other quart of alco The operation is to be con nducted as before,

and if the still is ings enough, a third or even fourth operation may
be made with a tage.
Thus, 3825 ue: valantial gave the Astsliatitlin , 950 grms. chloroform.
2d "640 3)

3d 6c 700 73
4th * 730 Fe

The authors from an estimate conclude that this substance can be made
for 14 francs the kilogramme, or $1°25 per pound. As advantages of
their process, they point out the previous heating of the water, and the
absence of all swelling up, owing to the use of lime and the water bath.

“ On the Cepsiatianee Sapte’ Oxyd of Zinc; by M. J. Nicxzs,

. de Chim de #@hy Sig oe 1848.)—The mineral known as cu-

peo ree of zinc, contains hydrate of zinc and copper, and
erystallizes in the right te (trimetric) sysiem. Anxious to as-
certain whether the pure artificial hydrate of zine belonged to the same
system, it was prepared by the process of Runge. Iron and zinc are

These proved to belong to the same system with the mineral above
named,
In the course of preparation several curious particulars were noted,
The sheet zinc of commerce was readily ‘attacked, while cast zinc re-
fused to dissolve. The difference is attributed to the crystalline texture
existing in the cast zinc, but entirely destroyed by the process of roll-
in ng—the amorphous condition being always more favorable to solution
than the crystalline. On the other hand, iron in the shape of turnings
was found more favorable to the action than any form of wrought iron
—the crystalline structure here rendering the metal more negative. In
all cases the intensity of the reaction is measured by the disengagement
of hydrogen. Ammonia affords the best crystals.

Lead was ‘substituted for iron with success; also copper, when it was
noticed that though there was free exposure to the air, no coloration
took place, provided both metals were someloiels immersed, Solution
of oxyd of zinc in ammonia is however decomposed by copper—the
liquid becoming blue, while crystals of the hydrated oxyd are formed.
The blue solution in its turn is decomposed by metallic zine with a pre-
cipitation of aren These reactions are cited by the author as de-

serving attentio 4 G. C. S.

258 Scientific Intelligence.

13. ee Balitnce for measuring the Intensity of Cur-
rents ; by M. Cu. Méne, (Comptes Rendus, Jan., 1848.)—A_ horse- some
of soft iron is eins a certain number of times with an insulated wire
the armature is attached to a counterbalanced scale pan. The inte
of the current is directly measured by the magnetic force developed.
If the same sort of wire is used, the apparatus may be made more del-
icate by using a greater number of turns.

The peculiarity of this method is, that the weight supported, divided
by the number of turns, represents the influence of one
wi e, that is, the intensity of the current. The recorded experiments
shew a tolerable degree of accuracy’ in the results. G. C. 5.

14. On ec properties of Iodine, Phosphorus, Nitric acid, $c. ;
by M. Niép E Saint Victor, (Ann. de Chim. et de Phys., Jan.,
1848. \—The ouber has discovered that iodine has the property of attach-
ing itself to the black lines of engraving, printing, writing, &c., and not
at all to the white part. On this is founded a process for copying en-
gravings, &c. The design is exposed for a few minutes to the vapor
of iodine, and after moistening it in water slightly acidulated with sul-
phuric acid, it is applied to paper coated with starch paste, on whic
the copy is most accurately traced. ‘These impressions are of course
rather fugitive, and may be preserved for some time by securing them

Several copies may be made without a second preparation of the
pe ta oe the latter proofs thus taken are the clearest

rs that all kinds of marks and drawitig may be copied, pro-

vided. um nape not enter into the writing or drawing material. For

India ink and lead pencil marks, it is advised to plunge the design into

a very slight solution of ammonia and then another of avid; before ex-

is = |
eI
Q
=
b=)
_
5

opal, glass very &c., when covered with dirot size, gave
poised of far greater beauty and permanence: they should when dry

var

An elliot engraving when pressed upon a silver plate, without
being moistened, leaves a very clean copy, which exposed to mercuria
vapor in all respects resembles the daguerrian proofs. Sbpper plates
require ammooiacal vapor to bring out the image, which may be clean-
ed by a little water and tripoli without being removed.

The black parts of a feather exposed to iodine vapor were a
copied while the white of the same feather was unmarked. Pieces of

whitewood and ebony fastened oyether and the face dressed so as to be
perfectly uniform, in like manner gave a copy of the black alone. j

e vapor of phosphorus enlarging slow combustion, produced

the same effuct, the copies on metal being fixed by mercury or am-
monia.

Ni tric acid vapor gave renewed effects, the Phites on metal being

Solutions of iédin ne were found to answer as pre as iodine i
goulphuret of arsenic (orpiment) in vapor afforded copies on metal w ich

Chemistry and agers. 259

needed no further preparation. We need not follow the detail of ve
es with chlorine, &c., as the effects were similar to om
given abov G.C.8
Biouiyrapiy upon Gilass.—The author a produced photograph
(Calotype) upon glass plates covered with starch, &c., b
: ip pte te '

oO
mine (white of egg) afforded far better proofs. This substance, or
rather the most liquid portion, in which is dissolved the iodid of potassium,
is spread over the plate and dried at a moderate temperature

The usual application of the aceto-nitrate of silver renders the albu-
men insoluble, and not liable, therefore, to be disturbed throughout the
process. The proofs upon paper are far finer if one or two coats of

potassium gives a blue color immediately on its application to this paper,
which is again rendered vie (or rather yellowish) on the contact of
the silver solution. Hence the silver may be applied by the light of
the faintest taper with ae certainty, no spot being left untouched—
we can even measure very nicely the amount of silver solution by the
manner in which the blue iodid is decolored. Such paper we have
found to give the clearest proofs and most free from spots. |

15. Note to a paper on the Chemical Nature of Gelatine, published
in the American Journal of Jan., ,p- 74; by T. 8S. Hunt, (extract
from a letter to one of the editors.)—In the January number of this
Journal, I published a communication, the object of which was to
prove that gelatine is to be regarded as the amidized species of a body
identical, in composition, with dextrine. This was supported by a
comparison of its analysis with a calculated formuia and its metamor-
phosis by the action of dilute sulphuric acid which converts it into sul-
P aie of ammonia and glucose or grape sugar. At the same time

ammonia and dextrine of pa A medical friend has mar
communicated to me a curious case, nc seems directly to confirm
this suggestion and deserves to be reco

person who had for a long time “i the subject i diabetes mel-
litus, consulted him a few months since in regard to his case. He isa
young gentleman of scientific and observant habits, at has made his
disease a subject of special study, marking carefully all its various phases
and the changes pease in the urine by differences in diet. While
confined to an exc lusively animal diet, he was recommended by his
physician, as an agreeable variety, to eat calves-foot jelly. This he
found, to his surprise, at bat increased the specific gravity of his urine,
and the secretion of sugar became abundant. The patient was att is
time using no sugar or Reicrieiie food whatever, and he observed that
the formation of sugar was invariably consequent on the use of the

260 Scientific Intelligence.

assimilation had passed off in the urine. In no other*manner can we
account for this otherwise singular fact; but upon the present view of
the constitution of gelatine, it is just what we should expect. It is in-
deed a direct proof, and furnished as it is, by a cautious and intelligent
observer, who had no theory to sustain, is of peculiar value.
comparison of the quantity of ammonia in the urine when the pa-
tient was subsisting upon a flesh diet, and one of gelatine, would be of
much interest and would, doubtless, show in the latter case, a greatly
increased excretion of ammoniacal salts.
Montreal, April 22, 1848. .
16. Purifying Liquids by Galvanism, (Patent Office Rep. issued in
1848, p. 41.)—A patent has been granted for i
by which a feeble galvanic power is employed to separate salts, acids
or alkalies from water or other liquids. orous vessels containing

line sa ts by the action of steam at a high temperature. The latter ap-
pears highly interesting as a purely scientific discovery, apart from its
practical value, In this exhibition of the solvent power of steam, we

erandi being substantially the same as in obtaining the sulphate.
ith inter-

Chemistry and Physics. . 261

To decompose sulphate of lime, and obtain from it sulphuric and pul
i: a acids, and free lime, I proceed in the following ma poll
have a fire-clay cylinder of close texture, and of any convenient size,
placed vertically in a furnace, and provided with openings at the top
- and bottom, for charging and discharging, which openings are capable
of being closed air-tight. To the top of, this cylinder I adapt an es-
cape tube of fire-clay, for conveying off the acid vapors; and to the
bottom, for the admission of the steam, I adapt another clay pipe, con-
nected witha _— boiler, by a series of fire-clay tubes, which are to
be kept at a red heat. In order to diminish the corrosion of the e cylin-
der by the sulphate of lime or the lime itself, I line it with a coating of
native carbonate of magnesia, applied in a manner similar to the usual
clay linings of chemical furnaces. a4 the mi cin with pieces of
sulphate of lime, about a quarter of an inch in diameter, and having
luted the on air-tight, I heat xe eylibdee and its contents toa
high red heat. I then pass steam from the boiler, through the red hot
clay tubes, into the bottom of the cylinder, and up through the charge.
The heated steam, in its passage through the pieces of sulphate of lime,
carries off the acid in the state of sulphurous acid and oxygen, with
sometimes a little sulphuric acid mixed with it. The acid vapors pass
off by the escape tube at the top of the cylinder, and I convey them by
stone-ware tubes into a leaden chamber, in order to combine them into
priees acid by the usual means. I ee care that the heat is not rais-
ed so high at first as to melt the sulphate of lime in the cylinder, but I

veying off the acid vapors from the top of the cylinder, by means of
which [ examine the vapors from time to time, and from the relative
acidity of these, ascertained by the usual tests, I judge ‘of the progress
of the operation. I regulate by a stop-cock the quantity of steam pass-

takes place at a much lower temperature than that of sulphate of lime,
(a low red heat is sufficient,) and a considerable part of the acid is giv-
en off in the state of sulphuric acid. When the charge has been treat-
ed as _— the residue will be found to consist chiefly of caustic
magnes

When t wish: to decompose - sulphates of baryta and strontia, I
operate upon them in a reverberating furnace. This mode is less ad-
Seconp Serres, Vol. VI, No. 17, ae 1848. 34

*

*

262 Scientific Intelligence.

for the manufacture of sulphuric acid than the use of the
lindr former described, but I prefer it for the two last men-
ioned consider their bases the more important product
of their > neuen nd the hydrates of these alkalies, and partic-
state that of =. being fusible, would have much tendency to cor-
ce interior of the cylin der, at the heat necessary to decompose
the salts. I use a common reverberatory furnace, with its hearth cov-
ered with a compact bed of native carbonate of magnesia, three or four
inches thick. Several clay steam pipes are introduced through the roof
of the furnace, so as to throw a current of heated steam over * the whole
width of the hearth; these pipes are connected with a steam-boiler by
a series of fire-clay tubes kept red hot. The sulphate, broken into pie-

SF

bonate of magnesia on the hearth of the furnace, and brought to a high
red or low.white heat. A current of steam is then admitted from the
aan through the red hot tubes, upon the charge.

acid of the sulphate is carried off by the steam, and when I
Big vomicoee it, the acid vapors are conveyed along with the gases

of the fire, into a leaden chamber, to be combined into sulphuric acid

The fs ea of Le and soda may to some extent be decomposed
by being subjected at a high temperature to the action of a current 0
steam, in the manner directed for the decomposition of the sulphate of
baryta. But owing probably to the volatile nature of the bases of these
salts ata high temperature, no large proportion of them can thus

Of the large class of substances possessing these properties, which
i convenience I will call combining substances, | prefer t o use either

umina or the s subphosphat e of alumina. . The alumina is oan by
enact igniting the sulphate of alumina, or by any other well known

‘ie
x

Chemistry and Physics. 263
pro The subphosphate of alumina is prepared (as directed in
cise! works) by mixing solutions of the phosphate of soda, and the

sulphate of alumina, and adding to the solution a slight excess of am-
monia. I mix the alumina in the state of powder with an equal weight
of the sulphate of potash or of soda also powdered, and spread the mix-
ture upon the hearth of a reverberatory furnace, such as I have before
described for the decomposition of the sulphate of baryta. ‘The mix-
ture is then heated, exposed to steam, stirred, and the o operation con-
ducted in all respects in the manner described for the treatment of the
sulphate of baryta. When it is desired to collect the sulphuric and sul-
phurous acids produced by the decomposition of the sulphates of *pot-
ash and soda, | prefer to moisten the mixture of alumina and the sul-
phate with water, and form it into balls about half an inch in diameter,

charge shows by the usual tests tha nes no notable proportion

of sulphate undecomposed, the —_ iscompleted. I then withdraw —

the charge, lixiviate it with hot water, and when the clear solution of
aluminate of potash or soda thus ge has become cold, I pass

then drawn off and evaporated. The alumina thus recovered is again
used as the combining substanée. When I wish to obtain the aluminate
of potash or of soda, I merely evaporate the solution above described
without se oe lg the carbonic aci

uriate of potash or of soda I merely evaporate the solution
above iatioad without ee the carbonic aci
“The muriate of potash or of soda may also be decomposed when ina
fused state by the action of. steam ; alumina or the subphosphate of alu-
mina being present, the operation is to be conducted in all respects in
the same manner as that just described for the sulphates of potash and
soda. But owing to the great volatility of the muriates of potash and
soda when exposed at a high temperature to a current of air or steam,
a large quantity of the muriate will escape with the steam and gases
of the fire in the state of vapor undecompesed, and will be lost or will
be difficult to condense. I prefer therefore to effect the decomposition
of the muriates of potash and soda by causing their vapors, intimately
mixed with highly heated age to pass slowly through a mass of small
pieces of alumina kept a igh red heat. [use for this purpose a
vertical fire-clay eplecler: lined with a coating of native carbonate of

ing, which openings should be capable of being closed air-tight.
range a cast iron retort so that its tube enters directly the cylinder near
its bottom. The retort should have a charging door at the top capable
of being made air-tight, through which is introduced the muriate of
potash or soda to be decomposed.

The muriates of potash and soda will not vaporize freely when fuse
and highly heated, unless the atmosphere above them is Conta
changed. This may be effected by a current of steam, and | find that
I can sufficiently regulate the quantity of the salt volatilizec ‘from the

264 Stientific Intelligence.

retort, by the amount Pictcam which I blow over its melted surface.
I therefore insert a small steam pipe into the top of the retort, so as to
throw a jet of heated steam upon the surface of the melted salt, and
thus force its vapor to enter the cylinder. The quantity of steam thus
Int u

with a steam-boiler. Both steam pipes are provided with cocks, an es-
cape tube is inserted into the top of the cylinder to convey the acid va-
por and the vapor of any undecomposed muriate into suitable conden-
sers. I have an opening in this tube, by which | can withdraw at times
a portion of the vapors in it, to examine their saline and acid characters.

e cylinder and retort are to be so constructed and arranged, as to
allow their contents te be heated to high redness and upwards by any
of the well known means. The mode of operating is as follows: The
discharging door being closed air-tight, I fill the cylinder with alumina
in pieces 0 ut one quarter of an inch in diameter, and fill the re-
tort with the muriate of potash or soda, and then close both. the charg-
ing door of the cylinder and that of the retort air-tight. I now bring
the cylinder to a high red or white heat, and the retort to a cherry red
heat, so that the salt in it is melted and ready to volatilize freely at the
admission of: steam upon its surface: stéam is now passed from the
boiler through the red hot tubes into the cylinder by the pipe entering
near its bottom, so that it is filled with highly heated steam passing up-
wards in a slow current through the interstices of the pieces of alumina.
I now admit by degrees a jet of heated steam into the salt retort, by

ded. The pro-
gress of the operation ean be ascertained. by examining the nature of

I consider that the decomposition of the salt is no longer effected in the
cylinder, and [ then shut off both currents of steam, withdraw the
eo

Chemistry and Physics. 265

charge by the lower door, and replace it by fresh alumina. The with-
drawn charge is then lixiviated with hot water, and the solution of alu-
minate of potash or soda thus obtained is treated with carbonic acid, as
before described.

The lining of the cylinder should be examined occasionally, and
kept in repair so that the fire- clay may not be corroded by the alkali.
Provided the charge of aren in the __ is readily and equally
permeable to the current of steam and salt vapor, the smaller the pie-
ces of which it consists and mn greater the surface they tot
current, the more rapidly will the decomposition of the muriate pro-

ceed. The steam used need not be of a higher boiler pressure than
will suffice to secure its passage through the charge in the cylinder.
The subphosphate of alumina may be substituted for the alumina, in
the processes for the decomposition of the sulphate and muriates of
potash and soda, and its action is even more powerful, but its first cost
is greater. Although to aid the decomposition of the sulphates and
muriates of potash and soda by steam at a high temperature, the use of
either alumina or its subphosphate is preferred as the combining sub-
stance, yet there are a great number of substances which also possess
the requisite properties, but act with various me ott of energy. Thus
many salts which contain already a certain proportion of base, will yet,
when exposed in contact with the sulphates and muriates of potash and
soda, at a high heat, to the action of steam, form a combination with
the potash or soda, decomposable when cold by water, or water and
carbonic acid. The subphosphates of lime, baryta and strontia, and
the subsilicates of lime, baryta and strontia, will under these cireum-
stances combine with the alkali and yield it to the action of water alone
when cold. The sulphates of baryta and strontia although themselves
decomposable by the action of steam at high temperatures, are still ca-
pable of thus aiding in the decomposition of the sulphates and muriates
of potash and soda, and yield the alkali by the action of water. The
neutral phosphates, and neutral silicates of potash and soda, when thus
treated, form basic salts which are soluble in water and decomposable
by carbonic acid.

The alkalies, lime and magnesia, will also thus combine with a por-
tion of free potash or soda which may be extracted by water. Other
materials are capable of being used as combining substances; but I
have named these which I consider preferable.

The decomposition of the muriate of soda by the action of steam at
a high temperature may be applied to the produetion of sulphate of so-
da, by exposing the muriate mixed with suiphate of lime to a high heat
ahd to the current of steam. For this process I use a afer c lin-
der of close fire-ware, protected on the inside from the action
lime or the sulphate by w lining of carbonate of magnesia, and piv ided
with an opening for charging capable of being made air-tight. Into
the top of the cylinder, — end, a steam pipe is introduced, and
from the other end at the top an esca pipe race with suitable con-
densers for collecting the eked salt and acid. al eee is half
filled with a mixture of equal parts by weight of spat of e and
muriate of soda, the opening made air-tight, and the ¢
contents brought to a red heat. A current of |

ee
266 Scientific Intelligence.

mitted, which passes over the surface of the melted mixture and car-
ries off muriatic acid with more or less volatilized salt into the conden-
sers. When the steam escaping from the cylinder ceases to contain
any notable quantity of muriatic acid, the operation is discontinued and
the charge is withdrawn. Its soluble salts are extracted by water, and
arated from any undecomposed muriate by
evaporation and crystallization.

In this operation the heat should not be raised so high as to cause the
decomposition by the steam of the sulphate of soda produced, or the
sulphate of lime itself.

Though 1 prefer in all the above described processes heating the
steam highly before passing it upon the salt to be decomposed, yet the
same effect will be produced whenever the steam and salt are in con-
tact at the proper temperature for the respective decompositions, wheth-
er they have both been previously heated, or one alone heated so highly
as to be able to raise the other to the required temperature. As has
been before stated, some of the salts are decomposable by steam at a
much lower temperature than others, but with all the decomposition
proceeds more rapidly in proportion as the heat is increased.

I claim as my invention the decomposing the sulphates of baryta,
strontia, lime and magnesia, and the muriates of baryta, strontia and
lime, by exposing them at a high temperature to the action of a current
of steam, for the purpose of obtaming the acids and the alkalies of
these salts respectively.

I also claim the decomposing the sulphates and muriates of potash
and soda, for the purpose of obtaining the acids and the alkalies of
these salts respectively, by exposing them at a high temperature to the
action of @ current of steam, alumina or the other combining substan-
ces being present.

I also claim making aluminates of potash and soda by the action of
a current of steam upon a mixture of alumina and the sulphate or mu-
riate of potash or soda at a high red heat.

I also claim the making sulphate of soda by the action of a current
of steam upon the muriate of soda at a red heat, sulphate of lime be-
ing present as described.

Il. Minzeranocy anp Geoxocy.

1, Samarskite—M. H. Rosz has shown that while minerals that
present luminous phenomena when heated, have generally greater spe-
cific gravity after heating than before, (as gadolinite,"orthite and alla-
nite,) sama ite, on the contrary, has the reverse relation to heat.

jae >

actual weight. This fact accounts for t different specific gravit
obtained by Hermann for the mineral designated jeri
since proved to be samarskite.

Rose has found, after several trials, that the luminous phenomena of
dolinite and oxyd of chrome precipitated by ammonia, were always
companied by a sudden disengagement of heat. This was shown

L

Mineralogy and Geology. 267

by we — of air enclosed with the mineral by means of the
heat g out. ith samarskite, scarcely any dilatation was observed
the a foot m air expelled being ten times greater for gadolinite and
oxyd of chro
ose has ohenteal from Hermann, a of the ilmenic acid this
chemist found in his yttro-ilmenite an rochlore of Miask ;
and he has ascertained that it was mort 1idbic iid mixed with a
little tantalic and pelopie acid and a = ig of titanic —
. Bagrationite, a new m Gini el Sram the Urals ; by M. pe Kos
arov, (Pogg. Ann., Ixxiii; Bib. Univ. de Genéve, Micole 1848, ‘
232.)—Bagrationite occurs with diopside and chlorite in the mines of
Achmatovsk, in opaque black crystals, affording a deep brown on
It has a vitreous luster on the lateral faces and is submetallic on those
of the summit. The fracture is uneven or small conchoidal, sieithout
cleavage. H=6-5. G=4:115. It is not attacked by acids, and whe
heated in a tube yields no water and no odor. Before the ‘blowpipe it
oe and then melis to a black magnetic globule. With borax
and salt of phosphorus it fn ane affording the reactions rer iron and
silica. The crystals are oblique rhombic, much modifie > M=
70° 50’, P ; M=104° 8’-~The author places it near gadolinite Tn the
Bibliotheque Universelle where the description is cited, its close relation
to Epidote and its probable identity with that species are pointed out.
3. Pseudomorphism.—Dr. J. ReinnarD Buivm has just issued a sup-

to this apparent sit vie — plow coninrare of WARD er
are described in this new vo

tevin I.
Pseudomorph. Form imitated.
Quartz. Heulandite, Stilbite.
Steatite (Rensselaerite). Hornblende
Mica Pinite.
Baowe | iron ore. Specular iron..
Fluor spar. C
Gypsum. Cale spar
Dolomite. . Calc spar. acattt
a. Andalusite, feldspar, werne!
: tourmaline. — ,
Mica, aspasiolite, fahlunite, es- ¥ ae
i nsdorffit one — 4
phyllite, weissite eh SS oe ‘pd
— visetaitias ta Iolite. Ree a ee
Prehni Natrolite. ae 5

ed
* Nachtrag zu den Sate des Mineraleichs, yon Dr. J. Reinhard:
Blum, pp. 213, 8vyo. Stuttgart, 1847.

- «

268 Scientific Intelligence.
Pseudomorph. ’ Form imitated.
Wernerite. Epidote.
Talcw: .. Chiastolite, kyanite, couzeranite,
P
Steatite. Dalouline quartz, andalusite, chias-
x tolite, feldspar, mica, wernerite,
. augite. ts
Serpentine. Spinel, mica, garnet, augite, chon-
drodite.
Chlorite. Feldspar, garnet.
Stiblite. . Gray antimon
Minium. White lead ore
Pyromorphite. Galena, white lead ore.
White lead ore. : Lead vitriol.
Magnetic iron ore. pathic iron.
Peroxyd of iron. Brown iron ore, pyrites, peta iron.
Brown iron ore. White iron pyrites, spathic iro
Stil pnosiderite. ivianite,
Kupferpecherz. opper pyrites
Kupferindig. Co yrites,
Malachite. Copper penore gray copper ore.
Azurite. Gray copper o
Division II,
Graphite. Pyrites,
Stone salt. Dolomite.
psum. Stone salt.
Quartz. Heavy spar, — — calc spar,
dolomite, gale
Steinmark. Fluor spar.
Pyrolusite. Dolomite.
Stilpnosiderite. Dolomite, calamine.
Brown iron ore. Cale spar.

The volume sm ose with valuable details and views respecting the
fossilization of shells a
- On Dolo Reser by A. von Mortor, ae Abhandl. v
W. Hatpineer, Band L Vienna, 1847.)—A. von Morlot states that as
metamorphic nature of ‘dolomite was first siggete by Arduino
early as 1827, W. Haidinger in an article seudomorphism m descri-
bed certain dolomitic pseudomorphs, and ate that in their formation,
“‘ part of the os of lime was replaced by carbonate of magne-
sia so as to form in the new species a eeciioutd of one atom of each.”’¢
From this fact ‘ane other observations he inferred that dolomite origina-
ted in asimilar change. Elie de Beaumont in 1837 suggested the same
view, and thus accounted for the occurrence of ae mers in the dolo-
mite, ofien amounting to twelve per cent. of the
The association of gypsum with dolomite had renee noticed by vari-
ous observers. Haidinger in view of this well known fact, concluded
Re

* Osservazioni chimiche sopra aleuni Fossili. Venezia, 1779.
t Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinb., March 19, 1827.
*

. =
Mineralogy and Geology. 269
that it must arise from sulphate of magnesia being the agent by which
the change into dolomite was produced. ‘The magnesia of the sul-
phate of magnesia going to a portion of lime to form dolomite (or
carbonate of lime and magnesia), the sulphuric acid thus set free woald
form with water and another portion of the carbonate of lime, gyp-
sum (sulphate of lime).
ut chemistry had shown ‘that when a solution of gypsum was filter-
ed through pulverized dolomite, sulphaté of magnesia was formed and
carbonate of lime set free. Haidinger had also observed the tlatak:
cence of sulphate of magnesia in yout quarries, and traced it toa

decomposition of this character. As these last are results of ordinary
exposure, Haidinger ios wat inferred that this ion requir ed
no unusual heat or ew for the ee? pera (a
dolomisation), both hea pete might

ment is point were inetd | in 1848, b Markogel and Wahler,
but were not carried out. Von ig) has at Cl Vane this ies and
pote sage the view so far as t o show 8 of lime and

ate of magnesia in the shi ste, zn Lang per ie lige
ander pressure, dolomite is actually form d, together wit

this dolomisation. roe SS usioniaa of our western states con-

D.

In the analysis of recent corals by »Prof. B. Silliman, Jr., published
in the. volume on Zoophytes ‘by the writer, there is less than sone one per
cent. of magnesia, But in a'‘eompact coral rock made up of material
of coral origin, he found 38:07 per cent. of carbonate of magnesia.
The coral rock was a result of consolidation without heat, as we may
judge from the absence of all evidence of its effects. Another speci+
men of a fragmentary eharacter afforded 5-29 per cent. of magnesia.
Both resemble the common reef rocks: They appear to show that
there are circumstances in which the magnesian salt of the ocean, and
the carbonate of Jimé of the coralsymay react and produce a magne-
sian rock at the ordinary —— gS of the water. This ac-
tion may favor the consolidation rock which.is in progress beneath

rial, the more magnesian the product; this principle accounts for the
1D. proportion of magnesiayin the sécond case alluded to above.—
Dana, +

5. Three Minerals from the Lake Sapueier ene Rexion. p by J.
D. Wuirney, (Jour. Bost: Soc. Nat. Hist., v, 486.)—These esi
occur at Kewenaw oo and on Isle Royal, where many zeolites
been found. The first of the three analyzed and desseiiog by Mr.
Whitney, is Tabular spar. ‘The other two are new species

(1.) Jacksonite, (named in honor of Dr. C. T. Jewkedn:)* his near
prehnite in composition, but contains no water. It occurs in finely ra~
diated or a radiated masses, of a white color tinged with er
H.=6. G.= 2681. Translucent; lustre vitreous: Dissolves slowly
but perfectly in muriatic acid, the silica separating as a flocky powder.

Srconpv Senizs, Vol. VI, No. se 1848. 3

==
270 Scientific Intelligence. .

Fuses very readily before _ abiomp ive 3 in the platinum ee with a
brilliant yellow light and a strong intumescence. Affords a colorless
transparent glass with borax. Dissolves readily in a = quantity of
soda; but with more soda, swells to an infusible slag. ‘The analysis
gave silica 46:12, alumina and a little peroxyd of iron 25:91, lime 27:08,

soda 0-85 = 99-91, from which comes the formula Ca? Si- Al Si.

(2. ) Chlorastrolite. This mineral occurs in finely radiated stellated —

masses, having a pearly lustre, and slightly chatoyant on the rounded
sides. H.—55—6. G.=3180. Color light bluish green. Fuses
éasily before the blowpipe to a. grayish blebby | glass, bch tat and
swelling up is a zeolite. In an open tube it gives off w and whi-
tens. Soda ssolves it in small quantity, and gives a bead F eoldtee by
adrace of nang with more of the as may swells to an infusible
slag. ye ae best with” borax, affording a transparent glass col-
ored by ir ves a beautiful blue, with nitrate of cobalt. Dissolves
readily aii "sods a rel precipitate with muriatic acid. The analy-
ac gave silica 36-99 » perox xyd of iron and a little pro-
toxyd 6-48, linie 19°50, soda ‘3-70, petach 0:40, water 7:22 = 100-18.

The following formula i is deduced ro a Na 8} 2( A Fe)Si-+ 3:
it is that of meionite, ergncers the w
rin Upper California, Pseresapeneea ni this

March 24, 1848.)—The mine of New Aipunadion i is situated a few sai
from the coast, about midway between*San Francisco and Monterey,
and in one of the-ridges of Sierra Azuh mountain. The mouth of the
mine is a few yards down: from the summit of the highest hill that has

boring plain, and not much more above the ocean. ‘This hill ex-
tends longitudinally in a northwesterly direction, decreasing in height ;
and in various par pare for several miles, traces of the ore have been
ad, and some, open gs have been made which promise to be valua-

not yet had an opportunity properly to study. The prevailing one is a
talcose rock, which seems to embrace the bed of ore at the
, mine both above and — _Asspecimen from the
rock. immediately contiguous to the ore, is contained in the box. The
gh a yellow | ochreous matrix, which forms @

r fe 3, y at an angle of about 45°.
~The richest ore, is-at present found im the upper abe the bed, the

poorer ores being taken from the lower portion.

This mine, known t the aborigines,from time immemorial as a * cave
of red earth,” from which they obtained paint for their bodies, was first
discovered to contain quicksilver aboutefour years since, during experi-
ments made by some Meéxicans:to smelt the ore for the purpose of ob-
taining gold, which they supposed it to contain, . About two years ago
it fell tie the hands of Barron, Forbes & Co., who sent on hands, tools
and funds to commence working it, it. Unfortunately thevessel fell into
the hands of the United States forces, and was SPalpcatishe 5 ~ opera-
tions of the mine were of course delayed till the arrival of M
himself a few satin since, with miners, tools, and whatever things he

ia

Mineralogy and Geology. 271

was able to procure in’ Mexico, to enable him to make a fair experi-
ment on the capabilities of the mine. The great trouble was to obtain

Suitable apparatus for extracting the ore. At length four potash kettles
pti found, which were ‘set'in’a furnace of adobies, with conde nsers

with 1600 Ibs. spi to each ee the ores of average nc agin bro-
ken in lumps of the size of apples, put on the covers and Zute them
with a layer of sand: The fires were-then kept up till'near night, when
the furnaces were allowed to eool gradually. The next morning the
condensers were opened, and the métal dipped up; which usually
amounted to from 200 to 300 pounds’ for the four pots. This was a
much less per-centage than thé a indicated, and it was obvious that
a large portion of metal was lost: ‘The tipper parts of the pots and
condensers ete to con scoated” a a crust of sulphu-

15 is a ‘small imen. Mr. Forbes

formed th, ‘tringled with this, the aes a larger per-cent-
age of metal. Tn the last three weeks, about 10,000 potnds of metal
have been extracted with the same apparatus, being a yield of over 50

a aire Whether the ores were dichodl or not, [ cannot “herd but pres
were. Between 15,000 and~20,000 pounds have been ex-

quemed: in about two-months, only six miners having been Shtehayett
digging the ore,and the Rands of the establishnient, all told, miners,
furnace men; wood-c , &e. &e. , numbering only ascorey The
inine’i is probably yeling a nett profit of 8 100,000 @ year, with its pre-
ths furnaces atid%ron cylinders of res

nd

sails to “tail shortly for the apparatis necessaty. ‘The bed has as
yet been sop but a few hundred feet, but the: ores grow more and
more rich and a

The other mines opened in the vicinity, have pret So cae —_— Meagan
developed to decide upon their character.’
teen or twenty other places nha a few miles around, on within a
few days in hills that do not ongto t the same rei with that
which contains the mine already haetibae

n ht-

Some ores of silver havé also been rece ay atone in this re-_

gion. But I have had ao opporwmity of ptocuring any genuine speci+
mens as yet, and occ ‘mines worth the working will be found,
is at least problema

There _— traces of coal im the country, but nothing of value: has yet
been disc

Gold haar be been found receritly on the Sacramento, near Sutter’s vor.
It occurs in small masses in. the sands of ‘a new mill race, is said
to promise well.

7. Argentiferous Galena it Iron Ore in Algeria, (L'lostitut, No.
748.)—From a work on the mineral riches of lrg vm by M. Henry
Fournel, we learn that there is a valuable mine of argentiferous galena

==

*

Q72 Scientific Intelligence.

at Kefoum-Thaboul, near the frontiers of Tunis, occurring in argilla-
rates

eous schists connected with sandstones and conglomera
netic iron ore abounds in the mountains Bou Hamra, the small
chain getty and to the north of lake F’zara. To the north of the
place entioned hee. is an entire mountain, the Mokta-el- Hadid,

care that tee were a mined.

. Emery in Asia Minor.—M. Tchihatcheff, in his recent explora-
= in Asia Minor, has brah to light extensive beds of emery in
the western portions of this country, particularly he wees the ruins of
Stratonicea | in Caria and Smyrna.

‘asst ‘prints ; by Tce Marsu, gen a letter to the Senior
Editor, ia ‘Greenfield, Mass.; May 20, 1848.)—I have for a long
time thought of sending, you some acc Saco: A oy cealro'gnn lads
rocks of this valley, and my success in ining fossils, but have hesi-

from reasons unnecessary for me to state, knowing as you do,
that I am an unlearned, laboring man.

You will recollect that the first, specimen of fossil footprints of birds
ever brought into public notice in this country, was the slab I discovered
among the flagging stone, while laying the sidewalk» near my house
which Dr. Deane first described to President Hitcheocks, as the fool:

prints of a (ems that nee I wee felt an. increasing interest in
the subject, he amd ou each year, in, searching for
these met oo you ee “i able to judge of my success,
a hap ede a a collection more than ign hund

with the foot. very thick and heavy in proportion

to the ong ‘The most perfect specimens I haye been able to obtain,

from Tyrner’s.Falls,.or its immediate peighborhood ; they, not only
show the joints. i the toes, btn some there perfectly exhibit the
impremweh, of the skin.

_T have obi ained also Valumple spe at other r places; for instance,
a very i i . t ne slab at Soub fi oe found i in the highway leading
to Amhe mile and, half north of the Seminary. It is in a coarse
gray fads cut and used for

purposes ; the quarry was
rpose, and a few tracksediscovered before my atten:

tion was called to it; the beds containing the tracks lie some three
feet deep, and are, nearly horizontal... I quarried a small section, and
turned up a slab seven or es feet | in = _ one and a half in
breadth, having on its under. su ce fifteen o enty beautiful foot-
prints of'a number d different = in relief. or ee thought by taking
up a large section, I should obtain all the tracks I desired; but to my
great disappointment, afier several days la abor in getting doen to the
me layer, not the slightest appearance of a footprint was to be seem:

Ma It _ examined the location more particularly, and to my mind it was

¢

Mineralogy and. Geology. 273

easily explained ; 3 the material of which this rock is composed, was de-

posited Tu water, which accounts for its being so coarse, all
the finer Ronnpiop being carried away: but after the water had subsided,
there seemed to be a depression, or small. basin, but a few feet in di-

ameter, inti the water was left to evaporate, depositing a thin layer of
fine light colored clay, over whieh the Sods walked, The i impressions
in this layer were very beautiful, but they could not be preserved, as

th
shovel. This is precisely like what we often see by the roadside afier
a heavy rain, where the water is left in small ponds. to settle and evap-
orate, leaving a fine deposit, on, ines we often find the foot
of birds. “.
I have obtained at the south niet of Menugit some hundreds of
footprints of birds, and some spec fata I have not seen at any other
eee but have met with no qaa ds. » This loeation ismore than
half a mile from the river, and nearly, = hundred feet above it; the

Falls, in consequence of sur a over. which the birds walked
being destitute of that smooth»poli ied appearance that is necessary to

receive fine impressions, I have some imens that are
But some of the “a diag 8 ea for large ones) | have ever
seen, I obtai of Mount Tom, near South

ined

Hadley Falls. If the hetght of sg birds was in tes to the
length of their feet, when compa 45% some existing birds, they must
have stood some twenty feet high. But the rocks of this place are too
coarse to have retained fine impressions of small birds or quadrupeds,
for when the matter was oe the water was in continual motion,
so as not to leave smooth surface oe I have one slab con-
taining -two footprints of a large bi face being very rough and
peers: but the great weight of echind probably a thousand pou

more,) ressed the sand so hard rer agers perbely smooth, showing
+ ert the

have many. speci peta tenn Wethe hetsfiold, Cote»: ¥ hich show ve
ben that they are the tracks of ee ; still I consider. them imperfect

sted.

downa umber ne inches, the, mud closing up again when the foot

was withdrawn, leaving no depression on the surface; the tracks are
seen only by splitting the A irene which the foot
I have at some localities traced the traeks of a single bird aaa or

forty feet, when the bird no a nal epaancesst HA s Lknow w from the fact,
that the first —— would be very slight indeed, being pressed on hard
sand or clay, and each successive step would.be deeper and deeper,
until the mud yew the impression-; and when he got into the
water, though he sett i ;
eee tae appearance.of the track on the strata —,
the bird had w - But by removing a thin layer we find the impres-
sion. This has oftentimes enabled me to ascertain how high the —
was at the time, or how the layer was out of the water

the i ineperaniane were made.

ven

t z » sl

a

Q74 Scientific Intelligence.

I have one slab four or five inches thick, containing two footprints of a
bird, which I split into five layers, the impression being distinct in eac

impression, the mud having been'so’
soft as to close up, leaving no des |
pression, while the lower slab.

I have spent many days the past »
season searching for these interest-
ing relics of olden time. I have |
traversed the valley from the north
line ‘of this’ state Socnod assachusetts)” |

ut, and”

on the bank of Connecticut River,
near the mouth of Fall River, and
after seven oreight days labor, I
in obtaining two or three

hindred foot prints of various birds
and quadrupeds, many of them

qua 8, d
one-half,) you will see that this
is a walking, and not a leaping,
} sm the fore feet are’ very smal

ie abese: ser to the hind

L*
‘the
ng,

impression’ of avery long heel, (of
it may be a part of the leg’;) eee
itis notas deep as the toés, it

deepest at the part rare and oe

Pt Gold in Canada.—I hay é: had an lately of seeing
he masses of gold found in the valley of onoraniy Mr. Charles

De Léry, the proprietor of the seigniory on which the precious metal is

Mineralogy and Geology. 275

found, showed me the original mass, first found in 1833, of which men-
tion is made by Lt. Baddeley of the Royal Engineers.* Its weight is
about 1052 grains troy (exactly 68-203 grammes). Other masses of
equal weight have also. been found in the bed of the same stream.
The weight and density of these were taken which were. respectively,

Grains. Grammes. ensit
Weight, 12" Ss 7022 16-00
as : 742-16 . 48-095 yi B54
s » 1058: 68-598 12-86
Numerous smaller masses sh also béen found. The density indi-
cates the presence of silver in the gold—whi hiclt the faint color also con-

firms. The analysis of a fiinaien by Mr. Hunt gave 13°67 pr. ct. silver.
The less densit ‘the larger massewas owi ng, deubtless, to foreign
matter mechanically entangled as well as to interstices filled with air.
The lumps are worn smooth as is usual in alluvial gold, but fragments
of quartzose gangue aah still Pd detected in some of them. Mr.

De at they. were firmly imbedded in what appeared
to him to be aiegte but which probably.a conerete of detritus, cement-
¢ by oxyd of iron. ~Chromic iron, ti rous iron, serpentiney spinel,

gold in Canada ¢ertainly Moe Rvonbip grounds for the hope oe
this may eo a rich auriferous regi
o excavations have been made on any scale of ninguinuibe
sufficient tie dorarrith an opinion of the actual wealth of the deposit. A
few tons of gravel have, however, been washed in a rude way with the
Berks rockers whieh bere ; Same about $4 of gold to an =
rave :
: 11. Dikinbiine’ New Mineral, Adeiaoki de Ph. et en Ch., Mareh,
1848 ; Phil. Mag., xxxii, 544.)--This name has been given tow mineral
of a greenish- gray color, crystallized in hexahedral prisms, and found
inated in a red felspar porphyry at Monte Viesena, near Forno,
in the-valley of Flems*(Vallé de Passa
M. Marignac has submitted this ented to analysis, a has deter-
mined its mineralogical characters. Its density is 2814; its hardness
csc that of carbonate of lime and fluor-spar. Its Cone
taking the mean of three ee was found to be—

Silic: ge 5 : : : ; 44-66 °* ° ®.

> Alivio a ee oe lg
Magia. of i ae ‘ ‘ : a ras tl

> Palais: itl Vane wit cog 990° o
3 Water ras + ss ’ “? : . i . . dt 7.

_ Water and carbonic acid, Site ph ‘ ‘ 449°

12. Produce ¥ Gold in the ied. and Siberia in the year 1846,
(Erman’s Russ: Archiv. sty, Bd. vi, p: 318; Quart. Jour. Geol.
No. 13, Feb., 1848.)—Acoording to a notice in the Kommertscheskaja
salle ne

“a " oS ee Journal, yeti, Yok. xxviii, vipieate

276 Scientific Intelligence.

Gaseta,’ or Russian Commercial Journal, published by the Ministry of
Finance, in February, 1847, there had beet remitted to the mint at St.
Petersburg 1397°378 poods of gold, the produce of the imperial and
private mines in the Ural and Siberia during the year 1846. There
was still — $25:368 poods of gold, the produce of these mines
in that yea

The Gola produce eevee = Russian gold in 1846 was 1722-746

bs.

poods, or. about 62,792 | irdupois, whilst in the previous year
(1845) it was only 1371 ‘800 pods or 49, “eh Ibs. Pde i The
annual increase, which had fallen in the last two years to 7 and 30

poods, has ee risen to 351 poods; or 12,670 Ibe. naceranie
which much surpasses any previous increase’; “the largest fowterlps or
that pees rice and 1843, being only 6 ale poods.

Ill. Zoouoey.
1. Pancreatic secretion, (L’Institut, No. 748, May 3, 1848.) )—M.
t

of fatty substances. . It is a limpid athe viscous and alkaline, having
the physical properties nearly of the saliva. The follo = are the
principal experiments bearing on this subject-which he has made.

1. On mixing the pancreatic juice’ with oil ~ a glass tube, the oil
is immediately and completely emulsionated ; and the same takes place
with hog’s lard, butter.or suet, at a temperature of 35° or 40° C.

2. No other fluid of the animal economy. possesses this property of

al fatty substances. bile , saliva,
serum of the > blood, gastric juice, tiave afforded me no such results.
8. The action of tlie pancreatic juice oh ‘fats is not a saponification
sumed l cotibasien It is-at-first an emulsion and a subdivision
of the fatty matter operating under the influence of an organic sub-
peculiar to the pancreatic juice, Sometimes this substance
which ied is tesiroyed and een by heat, produces other modifige-
he — the eel nee aor rg tai ated by the pashli
juice, an energetic acid reaction is rapidly developed ‘and the odor of
butyric and sebacic acids, which becomes tre ies decided if butter or suet
are used. With MM. Barreswill and Marguerite we have examined th
products of this nature, and nati found that the fatty bodies are chang-
ed to a fatty acid and glyceri
. Bile removes spots of eats long exposed, ‘while the pa nereatic
juice does not; because the former dissolves the fatty. ids.
not, as the latter, the fat itself. ee:

mixture of the bile and ~ eg juice, as in the ioe

f Astrononvy. 277

8. I have tried the two pancreatic ducts of dogs, and in the rabbit,

the single pancreatic duct which opens very low into the intestine
After this operation, the chyliferous system of the dogs and rabbits
which were fed intentionally with fatty matters, contained no fat, whilst
the intestine was filled with fatty matters not emulsionate

ie is function of the pancreas, now for the first time ascertained,

proves that they have no relation to the salivary glands, and ae the
Fim abdominal salivary fae: is altogether inappropriat

; 2. Sponge, (L’Institut, No. 751, May 24, 1848.)—Ac rane ty

recent “pas Hvationa of M. Lau rut the reproductive bodies of two

| species of marine sponge, the Spongia usitatissima and S. bacinulosa
are contained in the cellules of the fleshy parenchyma. These are
regarded by him as oviform bodies and not ciliated gemmules, as de-
scribed by Mr. Grant in his researches on several species of marine
sponges, These oviform bodies or simple ovules, consist of a single
germinative substance enclosed in a more or less dense envelop. The

n

are favorably situated for such investigati The sponges examined
’ are those with a horny texture throughout, “a called Ceratopongia, to
.

distinguish them from those c alcareous spicula (Caleipongia)
nd those with siliceous spicula (Sitcippiigia.) M. Lallem sug-
gested that the term spore applies best to such ovules as M. caused
describes. The latter then cited in support of his opinion the results
and fre

are completely agamous) are still transformed into embryonnary bodies, ,
which become distinct isolated individuals, whose development from
birth to their death he had described and figured.

/
IV. Asrronomy.

1. Neptune ; by Szars C. Waker, (in . letter to the editors dated

“A idge, Mass., Aug. 17, 1848.)—In the Ephemeris of Neptune

computed for early distribution m the Siisthiohian oneness [ omit-

ted to mention that the date there given is for the true place of the

Pie and that for epperae with direct ly ih the aberration

st be added to that date. I subjoin a table of Neptune’s aber-

Ro time, for the term of the Ephemeris, in parts of a day. A small.

term used in computing the planet’s place as a fixed star referred to the

mean equinox, was retained in the Ephemeris. This should have been

. ie ae: hy ee is ae appended. It is to be applied according to

pheme laces. These omissions are of no im

taes in ae the lasek by the Ephemeris; they amount on the av-

erage to only seven seconds of space. They should be applied how-

ever in comparisons of thensy with observations. I subjoin three re-

cent meridian observations of gee made by Mr. Rumker, the Di-

rector of the Hamburg Observat hey were communicated to me

by Prof. Peirce through his Ben ca mes Be Benen Apthorp Gould.
Seconn Srnies, Vol. VI, No. 17.—Sept., 1848.

«
278 Scientific Intelligence.

iOhs Enh! Obs Eph.

- Neptune’s Dee:
Obs, R.A. | in R.A.

1348, July 10d. 15h. Im. 27s.-3/334° 29! 12!'-2) —11° 16'59!-3) —0'-06 | —0"-83

11 14 57 27 -5/334 28 13 -7)-11 17 23 -9} +2 ‘51 | —0 -68

12 14 27 -41334 27 «9 -1i-11 17 46 -6' +0 -78 | +1 -86

By the mean of the three results, (Observation—Ephemeris) +1- -08 | —0 -12 |
R .

Should no greater discrepancies appear in the entire series for this

position, the theory of Neptune furnished by my elements and Prof.

eirce’s Tables of the Perturbations, may be considered as completed
till the Opposition of 1849. I subjoin the tables above referred to.

— Time, Hamburg Observatory.

Date. Coneeetianaay, ee sige es Ma EY an
1848, July 1 “3-58 133 0" 16916
ha: gles 3° _ 1-82 ‘16857
17 3 °D7 1 *32 "16807
25 3°56 1 :28 °16763
Aug. 2 3°56 We yl 16731
10 3 56 1 27 “16708
18 3°57 1 ‘26 -16697
26 3°58 1 26 "16694
Sept. 3 3-59 1-26 ‘16704
11 3 60 1:25 "16724
19 3°60 1 24 *16755
ex 3 ‘60 1 °23 1679.
Oct. 5 360 1 “22 “16
13 3 ‘60 1 ‘22 -16902
21 3 ‘59 1 -22 16
29 3°58. Se 2 17038
Nov. 6 3°56 1 21 17113
14 3°54 1 ‘21 "17191
22 3 *52 1 ‘21 °17270
30 3 50 1 ‘21 °17350
Dec. 8 3°49 1 -20 °17427
16. |... 8 +47 1-20 ‘175
24 3°44 B19 17572
1849, Jan. 1 3°43 je 17

2. The tenth Asteroid, Diana.—A new planet has recently been

discovered by Prof. Kaiser, at Leyden. It belongs to the group be-

tween Mars and Jupiter, performing its revolution in about three years
and eight months. —~ ' 2:

The asteroid discovered by Mr. Graham, has been designated by the
name of Metis. oo

3. Shooting Stars of August 10, 1847, (communicated by E. C.
Herrick. )—The night of August 8th, 1847, was here overcast and rainy.
The two nights following were also overcast. The evening of the 11th
was less unfavorable, the sky béing partly cledr. Messrs. Wm. E.
Moore, Andrew T. Pratt, J. Dorinell Smith, and myself, took a station in
the open air, and began the watch for the expected meteors, at 9 15™.
The sky soon grew cloudy, and from 10 to 11 remained wholly over-
cast. We therefore left the field, and have good reason to suppose
that no opportunity for observation occurred during the night.

*
Astronony. 279

Within inte: quarters of an hour we saw thirty-seven different tow
teors >» aS fo llow Py
in N

‘ . . ‘ 6
S. WwW. ‘ ‘ ’ ‘ : 10 ow

N. W. 8
Throughout me Reng the sky was so much obstructed by clouds 4
we probably lost as many meteors as we observed.

t ~ N. Y., my friend Mr. Wm. Waddle Smith was pa
successful. On the night of Tuesday, August 10th, Mr. S. with
three assistants, began the watch at midnight, up to which time, the

t2a.

_ Sky was nearly overcast. During the two hours ending at

the sas b they observed four hundred and fifteen different meteors as
follow

N.E.
ag Hi gaa. «waned 33 * "Ba : 63 = 204
‘16 2) ee aes FS OF att:
Throughout the first hour the sky was nearly cledy. The second
hour was at ‘favorable, the N. E. quarter being two-thirds cloudy, and
and the s and N. Ww. quarters considerably obstructed by clouds.
A few pe after 2 a.m. the sky became wholly overcast, and thus
continue
4. ‘Shooting ae, of August 10, 1848, (communicated by E. C.
Herricx,)—On W ednesday, August 9th, 1848, from sunset to 10
Pp, M..the sky here was about three-fourths overcast; and the moon, ten
days past the new, was shining through the broken clouds. In such
circumstances, watch would have been useless. A few ee before
1 a.m. of the 10th, Messrs, Samuel Emerson, Andrew T. Pra m.
Manlius Smith, and myself, took a station in the open air. We b be-
gan the count at 1 a. m., each observer having charge of a quarter of

. the heavens, and the meteors being reckoned in the quarter where th

they
commenced. Between 1 an A.M. we observed one hundred and
sixty: four different meteors, as fallovet .
in N.E, 40 = §.E. 48 BO gO reese Vile Sake
During this. hour the sky was at times obstructed by clouds, and w
probably lost about a fourth part of the meteors which would athe
been seen in a clear sky.
Between 2 and 3 A.M. we observed one hundred and seventy differ-
ent sshincie as follows:
in N.E. 38, S.E. 45 8.W. 49 N.W. 39.
During the first part of this hour the sky was partly obscured by haze
and fog so that we lost about as many as in the preceding hour.
ut 3 a.m. the sky became beautifully clear, and thus remained
while we observed. By 33 a. m. the dawn was so bright that, we re-
tired. During this oan hour we saw one hundred and I~ -one differ-
ent meteors as follow:
in NE. 30 “$B. 36° 8.W. 41 NW. 84
Of the meteors seen this morning full three- baie were eiitinted to
conform to the usual radiantin Perseus. Many re very brilliant, ex-
ceeding in brightness stars of the first magne.

280 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

The evening of Thursday e. eo was clear; but we chose to defer
observation until moonset. our posts at 1" 50™ a. m. of the
11th, at which time the sky was pe 8 clear, but within fifteen minutes
clouds eame up and soon obscured every star. We waited in vain till
about 24 a. m., and hen left the field.

During the same night, Messrs. Gurdon Evans, John H. Pumpelly,

Mason C. Weld, being on the top of Mount Carmel, (a peak six
erg feet high in an adjoining town,) kept a look out for meteors,
from about 14 a.m. until about 33 a.m. During this time they observ-
ed trod ollired and sixteen different meteors, after which fog prevent-
ed further observation. During the last half hour many must have
been lost.

V. Miscenitangeous INTELLIGENCE.

1. California.—A valuable Report on California has recently been
addressed to the U. S. Senate, and published by government, prepared
by Mr. J. C. Frémont.* It is stated to be only a brief sketch prelim-
inary toa general work on Oregon and California; it contains, however,
a well digested account, physical and geographical, of the regions of
which it treats. We e gather from it the following faets
e great chain of mountains which stretches north and south
through Oregon and California within one hundred and one hundred
and fifty miles of the coast, is called in Upper California, the Sierra
Nevada. Its summits are crowded with perpetual snows. It divides
the country into a coast and an interior section, the two widely differing
in climate. The former receives the warm ae that blow from the
Pacific, which through a portion of the year are charged with vapor
and yer fertilizing rains. The latter expetionces ¢ the cold airs that
roll down from the heights around. ‘This region, east of the Sierra, is
GeMed! the Great Basin. It is some five finden miles in length and
breadth, and between four and five thousand feet above the level of
the sea ; it is shut in all around by mountains, and contains ie.
lakes and rivers without outlets. By far the greater part of the
gion is nearly a desert, yet there are some arable spots. The Sienszy
is mountainous with intervening plains—the mountains wooded and
watered, with grass about their bases or lower slopes, the planes arid
and sterile. These interior mountains run north and south, conform-
ing to the general trend of the Roc ocky Mountains and Sierra Nevada ;
they are from two to thousand feet in yi and snow continues

selves. ‘This position lies on the route across the mountains to Cali-

* Geographical Memoir sda Upper Pediat PL illustration of his map of
Oregon and California, ae nv Cuarues Frémonr, uddreste d to the Senate of
the United States, 67 pp., 8vo, "Weshogon, 184 8.

Miscellaneous Intelligence. | 281

fornia. South of Utah is another lake, of which little more is known

especially important on account of its lying on the line of travel to Cal-
ifornia, being the best route through the Great Basin. It terminates
opposite the Salmon Trout pass in the Sierra, a pass only seven thou-

sand two hundred feet above the sea, leading into the valley of the

: aston

The settlement of the Mormons near the Great Salt lake is making
good progress. On the first of April they had “three thousand acres
in wheat, seven saw, and grist mills, seven hundred houses i in a fortified

flourishing settlement.” The Great Basin, although arid in most parts,
has many exceptions to this i and deserves a full and thorough
exploration.

West of the Sierra Nevada, between the range and the sea, there.is
an area one hundred and fifty to two hundred miles wide, extending
from lat. 32°, where it touches the peninsula of California, to 42°, and
having an area of above one hundred thousand square miles. It contains

rivers emptying together into the Ba of San Francigco, besides others
of less importance. The soil is fertile and the climate mild. In the
winter s@ason for three to five months there are usually abundant rains,

Kipiosion so the Great Fire of 1845, at New prin a
of the Franklin Institute, for 20th April last, p. 392.)—Dr. Harz com-
municated to the meeting some inferences and facts, Sale to account
for the contradictory impressions which have existed respecting the

extensive district, involving the destruction of about two hundred houses
and property estimated at two millions of dollars. As far as the oaths
of highly competent witnesses could avail, no gunpowder was present ;

282 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
the store was li era ita: In all there were three hun-

30,000 on the first floor, and 80, 000 on the third floor
the eae the aggregate was more than double the weight
of the nitre
It was, $6 wever, the anoaunk opinion of mn best acquainted with
the subject, that when ignited with combustibles, nitre produces only
that species of combustion which is called deflagration by chemists

ployed by the Cerporation of New York) to explode nitre by ignition
with combustibles.

Nevertheless, agreeably to Hayes, of Massachusetts, an explosion
was effected in his laboratory, by bringing water into contact with
about 100 lbs. . incandescent nitre; also the accidental falling of a
ye of melted nitre on some water, in the piel of the University
of ace had been productive of a similar

The explosion of a vessel laden with nitre, which, while lying in
Boston harbor, was burnt to the water’s edge, an others similarly

in a letter, addressed to the distinguished chemist above mentioned,
in July, 1845, Dr. Hare had adverted to the explosion which su ucceeds
ps combustion of atpry um upon water, as arising from the combina-
n of one ~ ion of the water with the resulting incandescent

-and the oxyd, in causing the water and heated globule to coalesce, is
equivalent in efficacy to the momentum of the hammer when a bar of

_ upon an anvil.

Dr. Hare presumes that no explosion can take place unless the re-
agents for producing it are held or brought together, at he moment of
reaction, by a certain foree, either chemical or mechanic

Some chemical compounds, such as are formed with penal acid,
or with ammonia, by metallic oxyds, also the chlorid of nitrogen an
perchloric ether, explode violently without sonboene® so as to frac-
ture a plate or saucer, upon which a small quantity may be det onated ;
but pulverulent mixtures, such as gunpowder, pase Yn ex-

i
]
|
|
|
1

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 283

plosive when employed in gunnery or rock-blasting, in open vessels
flash without fracturing them, or producing any report: In an exhaust-
ed receiver, gunpowder is far less explosive than when subjected to
atmospheric pressure in an open vessel. Nevertheless, when gun-

which, when the temperature of the fire applied is sufficiently high,
the explosive force is directly as the i veils before bursting, and
this, of course, is commensurate with the strength of the confining
boiler.’

The itigiedibats of ig toce sulphur, charcoal, and nitre, to pro-
duce the greatest effect, require extreme comminution and intimate

=

mixture of nitre with combustible matter destitute of sulphur, is con-
ceived to be du t only to the pre-eminent oe. of this
substance, of vaporization and inflammation, but wise to its well
teh ability to decompose a oxyds by attracting both the metal

oxygen. Such an opinion was expressed in 1845, in the letter
pre mentioned to Hien that the formation ‘as sulphid of potas-
sium is the first step in the process of the explosive reaction of gun-
powder, Faraday has alleged the flame of the compound to be, in the
case in point, an important instrument in the propagation of fire through-
out the mass.

The hepatic odor of the fumes consequent to the firing of cannon,

and likewise of the washings of a gun after the customary service,

demonstrate the production of a sulphid. It has been found that a
filtered solution of the residue ye sig when tested by iron, the red
hue which indicates the presence of as nid.

Agreeably, however, to a qeilitenive examination, the solid residue
of exploded gunpowder consists mainly of nearly equal parts of car-
bonate and sulphate of potash, while the gaseous residue is rg
nearly of equal volumes of carbonic acid and nitrogen. Of c
the sulphate may arise from the wr sean of sulphide, formed on wd

outset

by a pices Saclnegs, The grains did not take fire instantly, prob-
ably because the vapor evolved prevented actual contact ; and when
ignition did e ensue it extended only to the production of a feeble flash.
if Sean it was found that a portion of the powder had escaped
inflamm
ra use place, a like weight of gunpowder was consolidated into
a cylinder iy intense pressure. hus red and ignit ag by contact
with an incandescent wire in ———— receiver, more than half of
the cylinder remained unconsu

284 a iscellaneous I: ntelligence.

A
placed at the bottom of an iron pot, four inches in Psisiorer and twelve
“— in depth, on being touched by the end of an iron rod reddened

ears an activity in some degree xplosive, probably in consequence o
the pressure created by the action of the gaseous current generated
by its own deflagration.
he want of to ines which is thus capable of lessening the
explosiveness of gunpowder, of which the constituents are intimately
intermingled, is still more enfeebling, where analogous nate are
n.

i of that vapor or gas, to the evolution of which, under con-
finement, the capability of exploding is due. Thus sundered, they
are chilled by radiation, so that the oven a be to sustain
and communicate ignition is not supported. Moreover, the rapidity of

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tl avin
in Dr Hare’s letter to Hayes, it was urged, a # that his inference as

otassi
a white heat, the base of nitre spontaneously abamdots its acid, while
from water it cannot be separated ine aay temperature. Consequently,
the presentation of substances, consisting of carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen, by yielding water to the base, could not but be productive of
a result analogous to that which results from the presentation of sulphur
and ca
The only obstacle is as follows :—Substances containing hydrogen
and oxygen; whether in pe —— for forming water, like sugar,
tarch, gum, and wood ; ing an excess of hydrogen, like oils
resins; moreover, all oe pee ae of nitre, even the base, are
susceptible of the aériform state at the temperature producible by the
reaction of nitre with them. But when kept together until that point
is attained, the explosive power must be fully equivalent to that of gun-
powder. The re Rea are ina state analogous to that of two gases
extremely co
The explosibility. of incandescent nitre with water was illustrated in
the small way, by heating a portion in a platinum capsule by the flame
of a hydro-oxygen blowpipe, and sudden immersion in the liquid. So
active was the explosion, vite a portion of the resulting hydrate flew
out upon the operator. Yet when thrown in the same state upon mo-
lasses or sugar, no explosion ensued: nevertheless, when a capsule
~~. : nitre heated to the point of volatilization, was struck with
the oe cotlied with sugar melted upon it and made to
din: vrei ture, a detonation ook place. A still more powegful
detonation was oul as follow

Miscellaneous Intelligence. _ | 285

Upon an anvil, a disk of paper, three inches in diameter, was laid
covered with pulverized sugar. Over the sugar was placed another
similar disk covered with pulverized nitre. A bar of iron, rather wider
than the disks at a welding heat, was then held over them, and sub-
‘jected toa — from a sas An explosion, with a report like that

of a cannon, ensued. *

Instructed we the facts and considerations above stated, it is inferred
that the explosions which contributed to extend the conflagration in

ew York, as Gitaipiasgit, arose from the reaction of the nitre

is presumed that as soon as the fire reached any of the gunny bags, it

must have run rapidly through the whole. pile, by means of the inter-
Stices necessarily existing between them, the nitre with which they
were embued causing them to deflagrate. Much of the salt being thus
brought to the temperature of fusion, it must have run about the | floor,
reached the combustibles, and soon found its way to the next story
through the seuttles which were open. All the floors must have been

activity any ordinary’ combustion. Meanwhile, the nitre being all
liquified and collected in the cellar in a state of incandescence, and

aided by the molasses, the weight, the liquidity, and menue ig must
have pied all the conditions requisite to intense detonation

floors having been consumed, the store must have been. squivilaat to
an enormous crucible of twenty feet by ninety,at the bottom of whic
were nearly three hundred thousand pounds of nitre, superficially heat-

a million of pounds. The intense reaction, however, would not per-
mit of durable contact. Ateach impact, the whole mass ani have
been thrown up explosively, and hence the successive detonations.
But the chemical reaction, the heat, and the height of the fall, growing
with their growth, and strengthening with their strength, the last ele-
vation was succeeded by the pea report and stupendous ex-
tesa of reas it has been an object to afford a satisfactory expla-
nation

3. iding Material—The following are the results of examina-
tions byt ths building committee of the Smithsonian Institution, of dif-
ferent kinds of building material in Maryland, as mentioned in the re-
cant Report of the Regen

“Ist. That the marble quarries of Maryland, chiefly in the vicinity of

the village of Clarksville, about thirteen miles from Baltimore, on th
line of the Susquehanna — contain. two qualities of anrhie: one

* In a short time a more circumstantial account of ai Hare’s tacts and
inferences respecting the subjects of the above commuhication will be published.

_Sxconp Senrtzs, Vol. VI, No. 17.—Sept., 1848. 37

286 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

he former was confidently say pera ane building material equal
in durability to any in the world; the latter was pronoun need inferior,
both in beauty and durability, yet pe of furnishing a very lasting
material a the selection was made with care. Being less tough than
the finer-grained variety, it was thought less suitable for ornaments hav-
ing bold projections and ne liable to chip off where there was

much un ing.

“2d. That se granite quarries of Maryland, in the vicinity of Wood-
stock, on the line of the Baltimore and Ohio railroad, and about sixteen
miles beyond the Relay House, furnish a granite equal to that of Quin-

in the United States; splitting, also, with remarkable facility, so that nh
a block twelve or fourteen he in length, the face of cleavage may n
more than a single in om a true level; im short, a building ma-
rial of unsurpassed cathy and uniformity, and to which, as to.the
or a in, the Clarksville quarries, no possible objection,
except on the score of expense, could be found, unless, indeed, it be
Fie 5 one, thas in this material the effect of light and shade from
projecting surfaces is in a measure lost, while in marble and good tint-
ed freestone every shadow is sharply marked

«3d. That the Aquia creek ri aie heretofore used in public build-
ings in Washington, is a material not to be trusted, being pervaded
by dark specks of the protoxyd and peroxyd of iron, which in perox-
ydating acquire a yellowish or reddish color, and having Ape clay
holes, such as disfigure the Treasury and the Patent A portion
of this freestone was, indeed, considered durable and Pid from mate-
rial blemish; but the chance of aetually procuring it free from disfig-
uring spots and stains was considered so uncertain, that it was recom-
mended to refrain from using it in the institution building.

“4th. That the freestone of the arene Potomac, in- the vicinity of
Seneca creek, and found in quarries close to the line of the Chesa-
peake and Ohio canal, is the best and most ican of all the Potomac
freestones.

“ The lilac-gray variety found in the Bull Run quarry, twenty-three
miles from Washington, was especially recommended, and pronounced
to be equal, if not i 8 to that supplied for Trinity church, New
York, from the quarries of ~— Jersey.

ie ace to this latter material, it was stated that it possessed a
quality that should especially recomend it to the attention of builders.
Wh n first wiemaieig it is co ely soft, working freely before the

wear and tear.. Thus, on the tow-path of the aqueduct, near Seneca
creek, over which horses and mules shave been traveling almost daily
for upwards of twenty years, this freestone was found still unimpaired.
Even the corners beget ae which the heavy lock-gates swing, showed no
signs of chipping or decay ; and on the perpendicular wall of the aque-
duct, where the water is continually oozing through the joints and trick-
ling ‘down its face, forming an incrustation of carbonate of lime, this

*

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 287
freestone was observed, where the calcareous crust had scaled off, with

the blocks first came from the hands of the stone-mason, more than
twenty years ago.”

The same report by the Regents of the Smi thsonian Institution, con-
tains the following table giving the results of experiments .G
Page, to ascertain the relative disintegrating mmo of frost upon stones
used for building. The process of Brard was adopted, which substi-
tutes the a of sulphate of soda for the freezing of water.
Inch cubes of the several kinds of stone were dipped into a solution

following a are the ele

Specimens ; [ Specific Loss by
marked. » | gravity. - |frost, in grs.
No. 1 |Not tested; the specimen being too sma
No. 2 |Symington’s close-gr ained marble (similar to 4

Worthington’s) 2-834 0-19
No. 3 iGownsctiont ‘sandstone, coarsest-grained quality not ascer-} 14-36
ine
No. 4 |Dark red Seneca sandstone ew to eee) s) 9-672 0-70
No. 5 |Symington’s large pre rble 857 0-50 |
No. 6 |Symington’s blue limestone 2-613 0°34
No. 7 |Coarse, large crysta tal marble, Mt. Pleasant, N. York} 2-860 0-91
No. 8 |Port Deposite g 609 5-05
No. 9 |Too ll to exa
No. 10 /Trinity sandstone, povided and light-colored |notascer-| 1-58
No. 11 |Connecticut sandstone, finer- a pnality 5 24-93
No. 12 |Nova Scotia sandstone, coarse-graine 2518 2:16
No. 13 |Light Seneca sandstone, dove- — 2-486 1-78
No. 14 |Pennsylvania marble, a —— ‘ : 2-727 0-35
No. 15 |Pennsylvania blue limest 2-699 0-28
4TC (Trinity church light oelared, close- grained sand-
stone, New Jersey ‘ 2-482 0-62
PO eega part pent sandstone . . 2-230 18-60
SB |Softb : . 2-211 16°46
HB Hard b - | 2294 1-07
1D Giasivs ye Potomac Great Falls 0°35
2D |Dark coarse sandstone, of Seneca aqueduct, Peter's z
quarry S 5°60
3D (Sandstone four miles above Ls 2 D, Peter’ s, next! | &
west of Beaver dam 3 1-58
4D |Dark saci from quarry near Wood's resi- z
nce ~ 3°94 4
5D Not tested, specimen being too small. z
6D ‘Lower stratum, aeimitc dam quarry 1-72

its general characteristics is like a nail or spike machine. It rolls the
wire into a flat rod which is received into proper dies, where it is held,
cut off, and punched into the general form of type, and a die of proper
form resembling a header die is brought up against the end of it, form-
ing the required letter—when it is discharged and another blank re-
ceived. Those acquainted with spike machinery will easily unde:

288 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

the modifications necessary for forming type, and that there would be
i vachine

but little novelty in such a m :

and the moulds are filled, and the belt passes along in a horizontal po-
sition until the balls become cool. The belt is then bent around a pul-
ley which at once drives it and opens the sections of the moulds from
which the balls fall. The belt afterwards passes around one or more
additional pulleys, and up again to the reservoir. Thus while one por-
tion of the moulds is receiving the molten lead, the bullets are cooling
in another, and are discharged at a third without any interruption.

6. Quantity of the different Grains produced in the United States
in 1847, (Patent Office Rogaeer 1847, issued in 1848, p. 545.)—The
following is the amount of the different kinds of grain produced in the
United States in 1847, according to the estimate contained in the table
preceding the agricultural report of this office for the present year, viz.

dstuffs. ; Bushels. Total bushels.
Indian corn or maize, , 539,350,000
Wheat, . : ‘ 114,245,500
Rye, ; , ‘ “al 29,222,700
Buckwheat, ’ ‘ , 11,673,500
— 694,491,700
Grain not used for breadstuffs.
Oats, P F é : 167,867,000
Barley, . : , . 5,649,950
—————. [73,516,950
Total, . ; fn 868,008,650

Other articles of food.
Potatoes, ‘ ‘ : 100,950,000 bushels.
Beans and Peas, 4

50,000,00
103,640,590 pounds.

ton, under the name of the Smithsonian Institution, an establishment
for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men.”

Section I. Plan of Organization.
yl

To Increase Knowreper. It is proposed —
__ 1. To stimulate men of talent to make original researches, by offer
ing suitable rewards for memoirs containing new truths; an

. ¥ :
- To appropriate annually a portion of the income for particular
researches, under the direction of suitable persons.

3
Be
—_

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 289

To Dirruse KNow ence. It is proposed—

1. To publish a series of ies reports on the progress of the
different branches of knowledge ; an
: 0 publish occasionally separate treatises on subjects of general
interest.

DETAILS OF THE PLAN TO INCREASE KNOWLEDGE.
I. By stimulating researches.

1, Rewards, consisting of money, medals, &c., offered for original
memoirs on all branches of knowledge.

2. The memoirs thus obtained to be published in a series of volumes,
ina quarto form, and entitled Smithsonian ree tions to Knowled

3. No memoir, on subjects of physical science, to be accepted for
publication, which does not furnish a foie t addition to human knowl-
edge, resting on ariginal research ; and all unverified speculations to
be rejected.

4. Bach memoir biceanied to the institution to be submitted for ex-
amination t of persons of reputation for learning in
the branch to wide a memoir pertains ; and to be accepted for publi-
cation only in case the report of this commission is pe e.

5. The commission to be chosen by the officers of the ep aa
and the name of the author, as far as practicable, fe a unless a
favorable decision be made.

6. The volumes of the memoirs to be exchanged for the Transac-
tions of Seater ry and elena 3 societies, and copies to be given to all
the colleges, and principal libraries, in this ¢ inte ‘One part of the
remaining copies may be offered for sale ; and the other aapehalle pre-
served, to form big sets of the work, to supply the demand from
new institutions.

7. An abstract, or popular account, of the contents of kas me-
moirs to be given to the public through the annual report of the Regents
to Congress.

Il. By Pa alee a portion of the income, annually, “A en
ts of research, under the direction of suitable perso

ag objects and the amount appropriated, to be widlbintea by
counsellor of the institution.
2. App ropriations in different years to different objects; so that in

Contains to Knowledge.
mples of Seecis for which appropriations may be made

( 1.) aye stems of extended meteorological observations for seid

the problem of American storms.

xplorations in descriptive natural history, and gorverctl,
magnetical, and topographical surveys, to collect materials for
formation of a Physic al Atlas of the United States.

(3.) Solution of experimental problems, such as a new determina-
tion of the weight of the earth, of the velocity of electricity, and o
light ; chemical analyses of so ili and plants ; collection and publica-
tion of articles of science, inceinabiaue in the offices of Government.

290 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

(4) Tostitution of statistical inquiries with reference to physical,

moral, and political
5. Historical researches, and accurate surveys of places celebrated
in American history.

(6.) Ethnological sce atag ll et ah hia with reference to the dif-
ferent races of men in North erica; also explorations, and accurate
surveys, of the Sotciie and atta remains of the ancient people of
our country.

DETAILS OF THE PLAN FOR DIFFUSING KNOWLEDGE.

I. By the poiliessian a a eres of reports, giving an account of the
new discoveries 1: and of the changes made from year to
year in. all branches “of J fpreowledge not strictly professional.

. These reports will diffuse a kind of guke ae oo ake ae
ing, ‘but which, at present, is inaccessible to the Some of the
reports may be published annually, others at sce ‘ote: as the
income of the institution of the changes in the branches of knowledge
may indicate.

. The reports are to be prepared by collaborators, eminent in the
different branches of knowledge.

3. Each collaborator to be furnished with the journals and publica-
tions, domestic and foreign, necessary to the compilation of his report ;
to be paid a certain sum for his labors, and to be named on the title
page of the report.

- The reports to be published in separate parts, so that persons in-
terested i in a particular branch, can procure the parts relating to it with-
out purchasing the whole.

5. These de tt may be presented to Congresg for partial distribu-
tion, the remaining copies to be given to literary and scientific institu-
tions, and sold to individuals for a moderate price.

The following are some of the prcshero! which may be embraced in the

L Seat, Crass.
Physi, including astronomy, natural philosophy, chemistry, and
pan

rs Natural hat history, including botany, RRaGY geology, &c.

gricul

4. iRealceton of science to arts.

II. Morat anp Potiricat Crass.
Ethnology, including particular history, eommparative eae

antiquities, &c.

6. Statistics and political economy.

7. Mental and moral philoso

8. yy survey of the political events of the world, penal reform, &c.

Ill. LiTERATURE AND THE FINE Arts.
9. Modern literature
10. The fine arts, and their application to the useful arts.

Er
|

|

h

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 291

» Bibliography.
2. Obituary notices of distinguished individuals.

¥

Il. By the publication of pk hts tend on subjects of pe

1. These treatises may pete consist of valuable memoirs
translated from foreign languages, or of articles prepared under the
direction of the institution, or procured by offering premiums for the
best exposition of a given su

2 e treatises should, in all. cases, se gubmitted to a commission
of competent judges, previous to their a

s examples of these bh i expositions may be obtained of
the present’ state of the several branches ° ‘knowledge mentioned in
the table of reports. Also of the following subjects suggested by the
Committee on Organ nization, viz: The statistics of labor, the productive
arts of life, public instruction, &ec.

Section Il. Plan of organization, in accordance with the terms of
the resolutions of the Board of oi be providing for the two modes
of increasing and diffusing knowledge.

1, The of Congress establishing the institution contemplated the
formation of. a library and a museum; and t ard of Regents, in-
cluding these objects in the plan of organization, resolved to divide the
income into two equal Jt

2. One part to be a riated to increase and diffuse knowledge by
means of esctreteus an researches, agreeably to the scheme before

other part to be appropriated to the formation of a library
anda tee of objects of nature an

4 These two plans are not incompatible with one another,

. To carry out the plan before described, a library will be required,
Eonctse Ist, of a complete collection of the transactions and pro-
ceedings of all the learned societies in the world; 2d, of the more im-
portant current periodical publications, and other works necessary in
ge ayn the periodical reports.

institution should “re ae collections,
objects “ verily its own publicatio tard

6. Al collection of ae of research in all ;
experimental : science.

ith reference toa collection of books, other than those men-
tioned tenes catalogues of all the different libraries in the United
States should be procured, oo order that the valuable books first pur-
chased may be such as are not to be found in the United States

8. Also catalogues of m isi and of books in foreign libraries,

and other materials, should = collected for rendering the institution &
centre of pha alia whence the student may be direct-
ed to any work w ire.

9. It is believed ‘that the T cotaiech in natural history will increase
by donation as rapidly as the income of the institution can make pro-
vision for their reception, and, therefore, it will seldom be necessary to
purchase any articles of this kind.

P should be made to procure for the gallery of arts casts
of the most celebrated articles of ancient and modern sculpture.

“

eM: a arts may be encouraged by providing a room, free of ex-
pense, for the exhibition of the objects of the Art-Union and other
similar societies. i

2. A small appropriation should annually be made for models of

antiquities, such as those of the remains of ancient temples, &c.
#43. For the present, or until the building is fully completed, besides
the Secretary, no permanent assistant will be required, except one, to
act as librarian

give lectures on subjects of general interest.

‘ en the building is completed, and when, in accordance with
the act of Congress, the charge of the National Muséum is given to the
Smithsonian Institution, other assistants will be required.

This programme of organization is followed by remarks by Professor
Henry, the distinguished Secretary of the Institution.

8. Tenacity of Life in Black Ants; by Dexter Marsh, (in a letter
to Prof. Silliman.)—lI was led to the following experiments, by hearing
the discussion on the subject of the hybernation of animals, at the meet-

ing of t ciation of American Geologists and Naturalists, at Bos-
ton, last mber. ay
hile cutting wood in February last, 1 discovered a number of large

black ants, in a partially decayed block, frozen perfectly solid, so they
would not bend without breaking. I cut off the heads of a number of
them, and after keeping them in a cold place half an hour, without
their showing any appearance of life, I placed them, with some whose
heads I did not sever, in a warm sunny exposure, and in about ten min-
utes they came to life, so as to kick about smartly, and throw them-
selves over and over, like a hen with her neck wrung, and in about five
minutes died; while the others ran off. "

A few days after this, I tried the same experiment on some more, by
keeping them an hour and a half after cutting off their heads, and they
too began to show signs of life by moving their legs considerably ; but
just at this time, the sun became clouded, and, the wind blowing cold, I
could not restore them further to life, but it was enough to satisfy me
that they may be kept hours, and perhaps days, or weeks, after their
heads are taken off, and still be restored to life.

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 293

9. Cabinet and Observatory at Amherst College, Mass. 1 « hand-
some building has recently been erected at Amherst, for the purposes
of natural history and astronomy, and on the 28th of i une = there was

a gathering of the friends of the institution to celebrate its completion.
Amherst is indebted for this structure to 6 donations of over forty in-
dividuals, among whom Hon. Abbot Lawrence stands at the head with |
a subscription of $1,000, and Samuel. Sahin, Esq., of Townsend, Mass.,
follows next with nearly. the same amount. The cabinet is an octago-

wing, ending in a tower eighteen feet in pts _ forty- a in
height to the dome, which is well adapted for astronomical. purpos
The cabinet consists of two stories; the lower is eure by sotail
ical specimens, among which the fossil footprints, the collections
Pres, Hitchcock, are of surpassing interest. ‘There are in all 250 spe-
cimens, and die: belong to forty-nine different species of animals, in-
cluding “twenty-three of birds, ten of bipeds and perhaps of the Batra-
= s or frog family ; twelve certainly quadrupeds ;' two creeping ani-
three of doubtful character.» Besides these, there are large
Geasiins of geological specimens. from Europe and England, —_—
Asia; an extensive suite of. Massachusetts specimens obtain

the course of the geological surveys of Pres. Hitchcock; rocks id
minerals from Connecticut, collected by Prof. C. U. Shepard ; from
faa Slleclad by Prof. C. B. Adams, while in the survey of that
ee besides collections from other parts of the Union, and the West
ndi

In the second story, a single beautiful room with a gallery, is mainly
occupied by the mineralogical cabinet, deposited by Prof. C. U. Shep-
ard. The collection is one.of, remarkable completeness and elegance.
Besides minerals, it embraces a very. large number of meteorites, and
numerous geological specimens and fossils: The first suggestion that
led to the erection of the new building, was the offer of Prof. Shepard
to deposit his cabinet with the College, provided a fire-proof building
could. be built for its reception ; this cabinet alone is well worthy of the
fine structure now containing it. ¢

ing 400 speci
10,000 individuals. These collections reqjaire still another building for
their reception’ They are displayed in the old cabinet room and
li —

psi th its wealth, more. is oe fot Sintary ~~ 1 scientific progress

coal, will Wield about a p of bromine to thirty ga gallons
Each of the wells produce on an average about 150 gehons of bittern
Secowp Sznizs, Vol. VI, No. 17.—Sept., 1848. PPceton *

294 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

sry 15 barrels of salt, which is about the average amount manu-

etul went We b

establishment, to manufacture 10 to 15 pounds of bromine per day.

It also contains iodine but not in sufficient quantity to justify its man-
ture, there being only about one ounce in ninety gallons. We at-
mpted the manufacture of iodine, made a ae pounds, but were

obliged to give it up, the cost overrunning the profit.
osphorus.—F rom the late extensive aheorYiaiuhin of M. Hom:
maire de Hell it appears that there is no appreciable difference of
level between the Black Sea and the Sea of Marmora; and conse-
quently, there is no real current flowing out of the Black Sea through
the Bosphorus. He attributes all apparent currents to the winds, which
being moo from the north, produce generally a flow towards the
south. © This is compensated for by the strong currents flowing to the
north during Se southerly win

12. American Association “fot the Promotion of Science-——On the

20th of September, 1848, the first meeting of this Association will be
held, being the ninth — session from the origin of the iation
of American Geologists. The organi¢ change’ in, the name and pur-
poses of the Society at at the last meeting, held at we had been
in contemplation for some years previous. A committee

the Boston meeting have issued a circular with an caliged Pir
reasons.

and plan of organization, together with a-full: statement o
which have led to the change. ‘This committee consists of Professors
H Rogers, Benjamin Peirce, and Louis Agassiz. As this circular
has been sent out very generally to-all followers and friends of sci-
ence in the country, it is needless~to repeat its contents here
ap doubt that with the new plans and enlarged sphere of action,
re it, the next meeting of the American Association, on
20th inst. at Philadelphia, will be one - great interest, and numerously
attended. The officers are—

-* Chairman, W. C. Repriexp.
a Secretary, Prof. W. Wisk: a ;
‘ & _ Treasurer, Dr. J.. Wyman.* :
; > Standing eeae :
W. C. Reprietp, €
Prof. W. R. Eonssos Ex- officio.
Dr. J. Wy

Dr. J. E. Hoxmnoox. ‘apm ett 3 S. G. Mort

Prof. H. D. Roc pe CU +S Jackson

Prof. B. Stata Jn ppt A.

Prest. E. Hiren Joun L. ae Esq.

® Local Committee.

Dr. S. G. Morton. Prof. James B. RocErs.

Dr. Rosert Hatt. Prof. Joun J. MircHett.

Prof. 8. S. Hatpeman, Joun Prick WETHERILL.
_ James Dunpas, Esq. Peter A. — Esq.

R. C. Tayror, Esq.

acest

* Erroneously stated in the circular to be Prof. B. Silliman, Jr.

PRN rerio

13. Taste a of the periods when the Hudson River opened and closed at
Albany, so far as the same can now be ascertained.

River closed a ay by

River open or free of ice. _ | No. days closed.
sii seca ces saa *March 23, 1786

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 295

February 5 ree *March 27, 1790 52 days.
December 8, 1] *March 17, 1791 99 days.
December ee ke.
December 12, 1792 *March 6, 1793 84 days.
December 26, 1793 *March 17, 1794 81 days.
} January 12, 1795 ae
January 23, 1796
| November 28, 1796
November 26, 1797
November 23, 1798
January ; iat
anuar
Petroacy ; —
ecember 16,
ua’ 12, 1804 pall . 6, 1804 84 days.
December 13, 1804
anuar , 1806 “*Rebruary 20, 1806 42 days,
December 11, me ate : Ab. poet - Pog
Janua a4 re ae ays.
December fae: ¢
Januar 19, 1810
December 14, 1810
December 20, 1811 “
engeen ee: 4 : as *March 12, 1813 83 days.
ecember 22, ah
ember 10, 1814 :
December» 2, 1815
December 16, 18] :
December gb hie March 25, 1818 108 days.
December 14, 1818 April 3, 1699 110 anye
cember 13, 1819 March 5,1 102 days.
November 13, 1820. March 15, 1821 123 days
December 13, 1821 March 15, . 1822 92 days
December 24, 1822 March 24, 1823 90 days
December 16, com arch = ries “ ie
uar ph ’ ays
7 eseushen 13, 1825 *February 26, 1826 75 days
ecember 24, 1826 March 20, 1827 86
November 25, 1827 *February 8, 1828 About 50 days
"December 23, *April Lt, 100d
January 11, 1830 | *March 15, ' 1830 63 days
“December 23, *March 15, 1831 82 days
“December 5, 1831 *March 25, 1832 111 days
“December i, *March , 1833 83 days
*December 13, 1833 | *February 24, 1834 73 days.
*December 15, *March 5, 1835 100 days.
*November 30, *April 4nd 125 days.
*December ,, 1836 | *March 28, 1837 111 days.
*December 13, 1837 (| *March 19, 18 94 days.
*November 25, 1838 *March 21, 1839 116 days.
"December 18, February 21, 1
December 5, 1840 arch 24, 1841 109 days.
Pe } “ 1 *February iY ae a ph
ove r ) ‘
“December 9, 1843 | *Mare 14, 1844 95 days.
“December 11, 1844 “February 24, 1845 74 days
“December 4, 1845 *March 15, 1846 1 ys
*December 15, 1846 * April 6, 1847 112 days
*December 24, 1847 *March 92, 1848 89 days

296 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

14, Heat anp coup or Urica.
A table ihieing th n or average temperature of each month of the
- year Sor eight years a ion 1840, to 1847 rE from observations
taken daily at sunrise, 1 P. M., and 9 P. M., by S. Aylsworth,

~ Months. “) 1840. | 1841. | 1842. | 1843.) 1844. ie 5. | 1846, | 1847.
January, . «| 16-26 | 27-31 | 26°25 | 28-86 | 15°56 | 26-82 | 24-67 | 23:10
February, 30-62 | 23-46 | 30-78 | 18:32 | 25-07 | 26-03 | 21-88 | 24-04
March, . 34-58 | 29-82 | 39-41 | 23-63 | 34-75 | 37-35 | 35-13 | 28:27
April 50-00 | 41:63 | 47-31 | 43-92 | 52:71 | 46:37 | 50-44 | 41-00

ay, 60-04 | 56°28 | 51-10 | 55-24 | 59-48 | 54-09 | 60.37 | 58-00
June, 65-41 | 68:39 ©) | 63-23 | 66 66- 84 78
July, 71-78 | 67:13 58 | 69-13 | 70-90 | 70:39 | 70-80 | 72:00
August, 0-33 | 67:50 79 | 70-77 | 67-82 | 71-92 | 71-44 | 67-62
September, 62-00 | 57:76} 62: 62 60-4 “66 | 59-03
October, . . | 47:33 | 41-82 | 47-13 | 45-24 | 49-43 | 50-94 | 48-08 25
November, . . . | 37-44 | 34-42} 33-93 | 34-23) 36 0:23 | 43-03 | 41-03.
December, . . | 22-41 | 28-28 | 25-46 | 30-08 | 28-94 | 22-24 | 26-45 | 31:43
Annua nenba, - + | 46:95 | 45-67 | 46°37 | 45-42 | 47-48 | 47-73 | 48:72 | 4613

Extreme cold during the above years in the following months:

Month. | £840. | 1841. | 1842. | 1843. _ 1844, | 1845. 1846. 1847.
Janvary,. . . . .|—2% |—10 |(—10 |—1 |-14 |=6 [-18 | 2
February, . . . .|~—10 —6 4 |\—5 |+10 |—16 |—12 |—10
Le a a 4 0 12. j~>“ 10 16 |—2 4
December, . . . .|—6 |—14 6 4 ey 4

The preceding Tables are from the Annual Report of the | ee
of the University of the State of New York, made March
The asterisks in the first eget indicates hens numbers which ye et
ved a records or personal obser

. Y., is situated in intitede 43° 7’, “pagal 75° 13’, where

the pa a of heat and cold are as great as in any part of this coun-
try in the same latitude.

15. inidsecane (L’Institut, No. 751, May 24, 1848.)—M. Babinet
presented to the French Academy in May last an Atmidoscope con-
structed by M. Lerebours to indicate, from the dryness of the atmos-

he con-
sumption of which is measured by a fall in the Jevel of the water ina
pao a ube com pr acto, 2 with the reservoir. M. Babinet men-
io various uses of the instrument h r
cae ee s nt in hygiene, meteorology, agri
. Magneti ic Perturbations, (L'Institut, No. 751.)—M. QuETELE
gives th the PF i list of magnetic perturbations at Brien duting
t

, 21, 30. July, a
February, 6, 16, 22, 23, 24, 25. August, 5, 25.
16, 1756 4,5, 8,9, 10, 11, September, 13, 17, 24, 25, 28,
April, 3, 5, 8, 12, 15, 20, 29, 30. October, 8, 12, 23, 25.

May, 8, 15. November, R 23, 25 ,
June, 11. December, 3, 11, 17, 18, 20, Qi.

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 297

17. Gold Medal of the Royal Geographical Society of London.—The
gold medal of this Society has been awarded to Captain CHARLES
Wixes, U.S.N., Commander of the late U. S. Exploring Expedition.

The President of the Societ , Mr. W. J. Hamilton, after remarking upon
the various explorations of the Expedition under Ca aptain Wilkes, thus
addressed Mr. Bancroft on putting the medal in hischarge. ‘In address-
ing you for the purpose of placing in your hands the medal which has
been awarded by the Council of the Royal Geographical Society of
London to your distinguished countryman Captain Wilkes, for the
valuable work which he has published under the title of the Fa
States Exploring Expedition,’ I rejoice in being the organ of ex

ing to you the sentiments entertained on this side of the ‘Atlantic of
the merits of Captain Wilkes. This is the second occasion on which

I feel no small gratification in being thus enabled to give to the —
poi hie? this additional proof, that the pursuit of science operate

of the Royal Geographical Society of London for his future prosper-
ity and success.”

. Beavers ; by D. D. Puanres, (from a letter dated a Miss.,
May 8, 1848. )—Some months ago, I noticed in the Journal of Science
and Ans, an bape nt in relation to the southern limits of “the habitation
of the b T-am in latitude 31° 2’, being just two miles north of
the bouitidnty ‘line between a ae te and Louisiana. I have seen for
the last twenty years a number of Beaver dams in this vicinity ; and
there is one family of fhe now within o one mile of me, and two other
families in two or three miles of my residence. Members of these

emy at West Point, for $2,000. It has been esteemed one of the most
vafeable private collections in the United States, and is a great acqui-
sition to the means of instruction at West Point, where they had before
almost no mineralogical collection.

20. Meteorite of Arkansas.—The account of the meteorite of Ar-
kansas, cited in this Total. vol. v, p. 293, ii tad from a Philade ‘
phia paper, proves to be false. There has since been an account 0
recent Pennsylvania meteorite going the rounds of the ec wavers,
which is found to be a fabricatio

21. Osrrvary.—Death of J: Richardon —This gentleman, who was
the author of a popular work on geolo ogy, and one of the Curators of
the British Museum, died by his oi hand in London in July last.

298 Bibliography.

VI. BrstiogRarny. ">

1. De Bow’s Commercial Review of the South and West ; a Monthly
Journal of Trade, Commerce, Commercial Polity, Agriculture, Manu-
factures, Internal Tmprovements and General Literature, conducted by
J. D. B. pe ond avi Polit. Econ. and Statist. in the Univ. of Louis-
iana, New Orlea

This monthly jobnal is in its fifth volume. It embraces practical
science and literature to some extent, and is especially full in informa-

“*
19
i=)
Dm
is)
S
©
al
oO
te)
ar |
an
S
=
"oS
as
—
a
fe)
°o
o
jo)
S
ie)
os
o>)
oa
oo
_

0
ability, and each number BR in articles, both readable, practical,

and economically important. The number for April contains the fol-
lowing articles :—I, Northern Arkansas and its Natural Advantages ;—
II, Essay Writing and the Press 3—IlI, Texas Sugar Lands ;—IV, Sil
and the Silk Culture ;—V, The Science of History ;—VI, Description
of Soleil’s Saccharometer ;—followin ng these, are various shorter arti-
cles on the Products of Florida—the Cotton Region of the United States
-—the Commerce and Prosperity of several Western Cities—the Lakes
and Western Rivers—Natchez Manufactures—Southern Railroads—
American Copper and Iron Ore—Sugar Culture in Singapore—U.
Imports, Exports, tad, &c.—Agriculture of France, &c.—with Bib-
Hogmpnice| Notice

Annual j sree of the Regents of the University of the State of
Now York, made to the Legislature, March 22, 1848. 310 pp. 8vo.
Albany, 1848.—This valuable report—the sixty- -first annual—contains
the usual eta respecting the schools and colleges of the state of
New York, together with various.tables and observations in Meteorology
in its different departments. This latter ee receives so much at-
tention, that the report has hecome a Journal of Meteorology. for the
State, of nig ni peer ae as well asa mee be of educational mi ptiatioee
‘he number of students in general literature and science in the co

leges for ths year ending, from July to October, 1847, was 957, ach
is 156 more than those of the preceding year. The number ‘of stu-
dents in the academies stands as follows for the last four years.

Whole heme? atenting Neat, attending at the

during th e Reports.
guage cenit “og 23.782 71.802
1846, : 25,173 12,608
oe, BO 22077 12°76
1948, - ) 95888 13,058

The whole siaknber of academies, subj

» subject to the visitation of the Re-
gents, is 184. Of these, 153 academies reported the possession of
63, “one volumes in their libraries, making an average of 414 volumes

3. Letters on Geology; by Davin Curisty. 84 8vo. Oxford,
Ohio, 1848.—The letters here collected into a pres gh and enlarged,
were ‘originally published in the Cincinnati eee The author in his
preface modestly claims for them “no ve ; great merit either as eet

ary or atieniic productions ;” adding that * The reader will bea

|

Bibliography. 299

gy to discern where my descriptions are accurate, and where they
are only designed as approximations to the true geology of any point
‘hamed.”

phen of erratic bl
The pamphlet is cent by five sabeateghie: ade of. fanaa st
a large chart of sec
‘oston satay of Natural History, vol. v, No. 4,—This num-
ber, the pest of vol. v, contains the following papers

Art. xxxiv. JErrrigs Wyman and T. 8. Savace sake f the ex-
ternal = eM habits and seal of Troglodytes eo a new
masee of Orang from the Gaboon River; the osteology by Dr. Wy-

de 9 417, with 4 ness
. M. Hen —Descrip tions and figures of the Araneides
of ty ‘United States ; a 443, laapsiboes from p. 370,) with 4 plates.
xxxvi. §. KnEEevanp, Jr. :—Dissec tion of Secymnus brevipenna, Le-
on so 479.
iD, NEY Description and analysis of three miner-
als fi fae — Superior

Xxxvili, SAMUEL Sites :-—The Dodo, a rasorial and not a rapacious
bird; p. 490.

5. , of Meteorology ; by Prof. BrockLEsBy. mien work is
designed by its author to introduce the study of Meteo h
of common education in schools and academies. To tl hi end the style
is plain and direct, as devoid of technicalities as possible, an theo-
retical views presented in a simple manner. He divides “the subject
into six parts—I. The Atmosphere, embracing a description of the ba-
rometer, thermometer and hygrometer. II. Aerial phenomena—of-
Winds in general, of hurricanes, of tornadoes or whirlwinds, of water-
spouts. II], Aqueous phenomena—of rain, of fogs, of clouds, of dew,
of hoar frost and snow, of hail. IV. Electrical phenomena—of atmo-
spheric reaper of thunder-storms. V. Optical — the

irage

ing stars and motdorie showers, of the aurora borealis. These several
heads are treated of in a lucid and interesting style, well calculated to
arrest the interest and attention of the minds of pupils.

6. Diseases; by Dr. S. L. Dana.t—If people are poisoned by
lead-pipe, the fault will not lie at the door of Dr. Dana. Several years
since he made a report to the City Council of Lowell, on the chemical

* See this volume, page 269.

t Elements of Meteorology, with Questions for ree spree pe designed for the
use of Schools and Academies. By John Brocklesby, A.M., Prof. of Mathemat-
ies and Natural Philosophy in pup py Col alee Hartford, ‘(llustrated.) 12mo,

ew Yor 1848.

i Lead Diseases; a Treatise “fein the Sika h of L. Tanquerel des Planches,
with tag - ations mag the use - Lea eta Bis and its bates 9p. 441. Sam’!

300 Bibliography.

tention to this important hygienic subject in the daily journals. The
late enquiries set on foot by the City Council of Boston, have called out
a large amount of experiments and speculation upon this subject ; and
the aid of both chemical and medical science has been invoked, to en-
able the New England metropolis to make a wise decision, as to the
material in which ‘they — distribute the beautiful water of Lake Co-
chituate, now to be introduced in a few months by their new 7 cates
aqueduct. The sbenclaws on this subject are understood to be still
in progress, and their full results are not yet made public. hast

however has transpired to convince the yer that in all probability the
Boston authorities will authorize the use of lead-pipes. Opposed to

this decision, are the opinions and facts of Dr. Dana and others, who
cannot be convinced that the experience of years of observation has
deceived them in the results to which he and they have arrived, hostile
to the use of lead as the means.of —T water for human con-

as cognate diseases sie ed by the poisonous influences of other met-
als. Dr. Dana has certainly performed a most acceptable service in
presenting ~ the public this able work. We cannot now pause to an-
lew it as we could wish ; ‘this task must be referred to an-
An appendix contains numerous results obtained by
acai others i in this country, and — of the mocnigies effects

of jebhicodidena water in numerous instan

7. Genera

is encu
bered with many difficulties arising from the wide extent of the
subject, the great number of objects embraced, and the unavoidable
minuteness and technicality of descri ription. Illustrated works are often

therefore an indispensable resource. ginner may find the de-
sired aid in part supplied by the well-stored mind of his teacher, t
whom all doubtful points cam be referred. Yet finished illustrations

better than an instructor. Those who have become versed in science
are so fully satisfied of the necessity of such aids that they sitialle have

" The full title is given on page 450, vol. vy, ii ser. of this Journal.

Bibliography. 301

r libraries abundantly furnished with illustrated works. Prof. Gray,
in view of this ne cessity, projected, in connection with Mr. Sprague,
the work above referred to, of which the first volume has just been
issue

The object of the work is to Hicierive each genus of plants growing
in the United States, by giving along with descriptions, figures of a spe-
cies representing in detail the foliage, inflorescence and fructification.
Concerning the plates, the preface remarks as fo Bistones

he figures in all cases are drawn directly from nature, by Mr.
Sprague, and from the living plant whenever that is practicable. In
al most every instance, the whole plant, or a branch or smaller portion,

page will allow, are so chosen as to display the principal floral charac-
ters of the ae from the aN of the flower-bud oe — the
mb.

seed, and the ryo. edful, on account of s of sub-
generic dinate, two saictaaee es Slontell to ner aaemeiies -obe a single
genus. On the other hand, characters which are uniform or ne arly so

thaatgiaiis a whole order are not repeated upon every plate.’
— en oth is _ enerally received at the present
otani e volum rst

ais nese remarks, ief statement of medicinal prop-

erties, eae on geogra Shical’ iearibettoe

The author’s name is a sufficient guaranty for the science of the text.
The illustrations by Mr. Sprague occupying 100 octavo plates, are cor-
rect and chaste in style, and of high scientific excellence, satisfying the
desires both of the eye of taste and of scrutinizing science. Prof. Gray
observes in his preface—

manifest to the ari botanist in the second volum e,—now in an

in justice add, that whatever of original value these illustrations wep be
found to © possess is reveety owing to the scientific insight and the care-
ful el ae of Mr. Sprague, as well as to his skill and accuracy
in deline
the. sini selected for illustration: belong to typical species, they
serve to convey to the mind a general idea of each gro
they accomplish more than the most detailed description.
he ‘‘ Genera Iilustrata,” is American in subject; and the name of
Prof. Gray has long been associated with American botany. The pub-
lication of such a work with so numerous plates, must have been attended
with much labor and expense ; and it remains for the American public
to sustain the authors in their great undertaking. Public libraries, and
all teachers of the science should possess the worl; and the student
Srconp Sertzs, Vol. VI, No. 17, Sept., 1848.

*

eer

302 Bibliography. =
will find his studies greatly promoted by connecting it with the Botan-
ical Manua mm

nual of Beareloey. including Observations on Mines,
Hotks; Reduction of Ores, and the application of the Science to the
Arts, with 260 Babteiions; ; ewe ee the use & Schools and Col-
leges; by James D. Dana, A.M.; &c., 430 pp. New Haven:
Durrie & Peck. 1848.—This Sisto: is intended for caattnanan in sci-
entific and practical Mineralogy, and especially for the American stu-
ent. The usual introduction on structure and physical and chemical
characters, much simplified, occupies the first seventy-five pages, after
which commence the descriptions of —_ The work since all

American minerals and such others as are of importance ; while the
rarer species are only briefly noticed in — type. The ar range-
ment adopted, places the ores of the same metal together. This order

is required by the practical mineralo ist, and considering the conven-
ience of it for conveying economical information, it has many advanta-
es for the ordinary purposes of instruction. The descriptions of the

eral characteristics; after the descriptions, there are remarks on the
distribution of the more important ores and mines,—the modes of assay
and 1 tion,—the uses of the metal—besides tleeié facts of a histor-
ical and statistical nature. In describing other minerals also, and the
various rocks, their applications in the arts are mentioned, and as far
as practicable in a small manual, the modes of use are explaine

ned.
The descriptions of the species of minerals are followed by a chapter

on rocks—a catalogue of American localities of minerals brought down
to the presen — convenient for the mineralogical tourist—a_ brief
notice of ee ining regions—description of mineralogical imple-
ments—values of American and i weights, measures and coins—
and tables for the determination of minerals.

The Manual contains also a of slog and a full Index.

9. The British Desmidiee ; by Joun Raurs, M.R.C.S., &c., with

a work of sect local interest, but owing to the cosmopolite
character of es Desmidiez, it will be as serviceable to the American
It includes figures and descriptions not only of
all the British species, with their localities as far as known in Europe

Amer ke the work as complete as possible,
ing have edtinibeted their recent discoveries with
regard <2 the European forms, while figures and —— of man’

curious American species never before published, have been supplied

by Prof. Bailey. The plates which adorn this volume are far superior
in their execution to any thing of the kind which has yet t appeared ;
and in; n to representations of the different species in Harr
sitions, they contain highly interesting figures of the spo

sted by the author. In the introduction to the. sede

*

Bibliography. 303

a full account of the conjugation of the Desmidiee ; an able argument
in favor of their v aia nature, together with Miroctions fer collect-
ing and preserving specimens. We cordially recommend the volume
as one of rare merit. J. ‘

10. The Patent Ofice Report for the year 1847. Referred to the
Committee of Patents, March 3, 1848. 662 pp. 8vo. Washingto

ture, the growth and treatment of th ar cane, flax, rice, silk, &c. ;
herds of cattle, sheep, making of butiet + ; indeed, a thousand things i im-
portant to the agriculturalist. There is besides an excellent account of
the German Agricultural schools, their modes of farming, wool culture,
best merino sheep, &c., illustrated with figures, besides plans of build-
ings, sheep stables, &c., prepared by C. L. Fleischman, Esq., as the
result of Cheng during a visit to Germany in 1844, 45. The
volume closes with statistics petty to the agriculture and com merce
of different parts of the United States. In the preceding pages we have
made some citations from this volume.

MircHeEtu: Tournal of an Expedition pion a of Tropical Aus-

Ry ; ith illustrations.
port of the Seventeenth Meeting - the British pag for the Advance-
48.

ment of Science, beld at Oxford. in Jun 47. Lon
R. CHamBers: sarge Sea Mar, se ag s me ane, of Chang es in ": relative
evel of Sea and Land; mat ioe eer” Cage Esq., F.R.S.E. pp- 8vo, with
7. and iMastrations Bainbus urgh,
. B, Lexson: rstallogap hy. with : description yin new double refract-
in Goniometer and Crywalion 5 pp. Svo. Lendon,
ins LLE: FP nih coghinhys two vols. foul

n, 1848.
OLOGICAL aca i = . Hopkins on the Ge-
ne he Structure of the hed ealden District— Bain ossil Remains in South
Africa—Professor Owen on the Dic a oe Kayeland ‘Prof. E. Forbes on the
Canes ous Fossils of Gouilidaitern ndia.

N, : ee Kunde von Russland. vol. iv, 8vo.
a Tu.: Lehrbuch der Metallurgie. 8vo.
Comres, M.: Traite i. I Exploitation des Mines. 3 vols. 8vo, with a folio atlas.
Saint-Cat re Devitte: Voyage Geologique aux Antilles. 4to.

5 eee et E. sor: Catalogue Raisonné des Familles, des Genres, et ‘er
Espéces de la Classe des Echinodermes. 168 pp. 8vo, with a large plate. (Extrai
des Annales des Sciences Naturelles, 3e. ser., Tomes vi, vii, et viil.)

oninck: Recherches sa les Animaux Fossiles. = re partie, Monographie
des genres Productus et Chonetes, prepared for publicatio

Pp Monographie de la frmilte des Lycopadiaods

ZANTEDESCH ce isico-chimica Italiana, Venise, 1846, 1 bobs dy

volume of memoirs on various subjécts connected wi hysical and natural sei-
ence; on Astronomical, by Plana, owe Colla; on Electricity an etism,
by Marianini, Botto, Fusinieri, Zamboni, gale eB, — a "Sa
savants on other topics. second volume is announced as in e

=

304 Bibliography.
Davin Low: An Inquiry into the Nature of the simple bodies of Chemistry.
1 nif Bvo, pp. 344.
Cc.

pWARD: A familiar Introduction to the Beit of Polarized light, illus-
erous wood sigan A 40 pp. Lendon,

tions on by ap es pag oy as of sweet substances, also of anid substances ;
* Prof. oe d.—Mar p- 30 neude stunt apparatus yman.—p.

cn some re silent resis erv son Jupiter, Fag on "the nebulae of Herschel,

Now. 135 7 and 1376, and the grat achat of Orion; Mr. Bond.—Ap. 4. p.-
Jupiter, eatin Mr. Bon meteor seen at Nantucket ; Mr Ait

—p. 331. Corrections of he , ae elements ptune ; S.
338. Observations on re aos Prof. Peirce. ‘tthe Bite a oy i. ‘of the
gir >

ie . r. Acap. ART ic : y
se fo. Pecrding th e medal offered by the King of Denmark.—Feb.

Proc. Acap. Nar. Scr. ate amis tae teh igen 8 2, 1848. 7. Qn the
: 30

Dor woe p . bP» es of {

from the west coast of Africa, with a plate; EZ. Hallowell.—p. 62. Notes of the

pose mortem so aeestegg of a “Mecall Ju papion; E. Hallowell_—p. 63. Notes
Mex birds; G. A. McCall.—June 27. . . New birds of the genera

Baplect ‘a, Pyrenestes and A Fates 3 J. Cassi
NNALES DEs Sciences Natu ELLES, Paris. DEC 1847. On the organization
# of Vermes; E ard ScDeacriptioh and anatomy of a larve of Hy dropsichus
i xternal branchie; L ap . om ae ata; Agassiz and
; Note on the Oribasia stagnalis, uchassaing.—Observations on
% ae al of ligneous Boetir A. ‘Guilard epaidted —New plants from Colom-
: bia; L. R. Tulasne—Second memoir on the organogeny of irregular corolla; M.
-- Barnéoud.—On the buds and inflorescence of the linden (Tilia) ; ; Brunner and A
de Candolle.—Methodical distribution of the Uredinee ; J. H. spec-
a tus of the genus R ia; Jaubert and Spach—JANVIER, 1848. Structure and
functions of the vitelline appendages and umbilical vesicle of the ur -
n the developm egg and embryon of the ‘“ Taret”’ tre-
fen, es on Zoophytes (“ Les Polypiers’’); Milne Edwards and Jul
pme.—' e causes limiti nn species of plants f the coast on the Eu-
pe and Candolle. e adventitious buds of the

a egion . de Can no i of
Cardamine latifolia; A. de ‘S. HildireOn: the mpregnation of the Dischidia ;
.—Deve — of the embryo of the ithe morio; H.Mohl.—On the de-
Fe of the vegetable. embryo; C. Muller.—On the Diatomacee ;
—A new ioe ipstics of the genus Sarothamnus; P. B, Webb.

* —

— 2

‘*° . “AMERICAN
JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS.

*
[SECOND SERIES,]

Arr. XXVIII © Hiplanilions o and Illustrations of the plan of
Sec an

the Smithsonian peeps daaeal by Prof. Henry, LL.D.,
Smithsonian Anstitution.*

Autuoueu the leading thy ae of the programme of the ‘

Smithsonian Institution have been fully discussed by the Board,

yet it will be arian to offer some remarks in explanation :

- and illustration of them
: ‘That the institution is not a national establishment, in the
* sense in which institutions dependent on the government for
' cela a are so, must be evident when it is recollected that the
oney was ‘not absolutely given to the United States, but in-
‘aatered to it fora special object, namely: the establishment of
an institution for the benefit of men, to bear the name of the
donor, and, consequently, to reflect upon his memory the honor
of the good which may be accomplished by means of the be-
The operations of the Smithsonian Institution ought,

“

quest.
thekefore, to be mingled as little as possible with those of the , "

go vernment, and its funds should be applied exclusively and

faithfully to ‘the i increase and diffusion of knowledge among men.
That the bequest is intended for the benefit of men in gener- .

al, and that its influence ought not to be restricted toa single

district, or even nation, may be inferred not only from the words

of the will, but also from the character of Smithson wae
and I beg leave to quote, from a scrap of paper in be cea

* The programme of the Smithsonian Institution, fom the rece Sou
published on page 289. The article here presented ou » follows cag pro-
gramme in the Report.

Szconp Srnizs, Vol. VI, No? 18—Nov., 1848,

f

306 ad Hipighiatons and I Pinon h the plan

- ie following sentiment bearing on this point: “The man of
raponice has no co Meee the world is his country—all men, his
nt men.” ‘The origin of the funds, the bequest of a for-
should also preclude the adoption of a plan which does |
, in the words of Mr. Adams, “spread the benefits to be de-
ived from the institution not only over the whole surface of this — &
‘Union, but throughout the civilized world.” “ Mr. Smithson’s — Zo.
-reason for fixing ‘the seat of his institution at Washington obvi- — Le
‘ously was, that there is the seat of government of the United 2
States, and there the Congress by whose legislation, and the Hx- _
ecutive through whose agency, the trust committed to the honor,
intelligence and- good faith of the nation, | ‘is to” be fulfilled.”
_The centre of operations being permanently fixed at Washing- % .
, the character of this city for literature and science will be
> more highly exalted. in eae as the influence of the in- re, -
tit tion is more widely di used. i i
hat the terms increase ad diffusion of knowledge care logi- ‘are
distinct, and should be literally interpreted with reference
_ to the will, must be evident when we reflect that they are used
ina definite sense, and not as mere synonymes, by all who are
engaged in the pursuits to which Smithson devoted his life. In’
England there are two classes of institutions, founded on thetwo
ideas conveyed by these terms. The Roya al Society, the Astro-
-nomical, the Geological, the Statistical, the Antiquarian Societies, —
all have for their object the increase ‘of knowledge; while the
London Institution, the Mechanics’ Institution, the Surry Insti- eo |
tution, the Society for the Diffusion of Religi ious Knowledge, —
“the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge,, are all in- ©
nded to diffuse or disseminate knowledge among men. Inour’ ©
country, also, the same distinction in the use of the terms is
erved by men of science. Our colleges, academies, and com- _
schools, are recognized as institutions partially intended for #3
iffusion of knowledge, while the express object of some of _
‘scientific societies is the promotion of the eeey of new *, ge

ca
%

The will makes no restriction in trae of any particular kind
har knowledge ; though propositions have been frequently mace a
for devoting the funds exclusively to the promotion of certa

_ branches of science having more immediate application to the
practical arts of life, and the adoption of these propositions has
been urged on the ground of the conformity of such objects to
the pursuits of Smithson ; but an examination of his writings
will show that he excluded from his own studies no branch of
general knowledge, and that he was fully impressed with the
important philosophical fact, that all subjects of human thought
relate to one great system of truth. To pestick: therefore, ae |
operon of the institution to a anes.) Science or art would do

of the aie Sse Institution. 307

injustice to the charactér of the donor, as well as to the cause of
general knowledge. _If preference is to be given to any branches
of research, it should be to the higher, and apparently more ab-
stract ; to the discovery of new principles, rather than of isolated
facts. And this is true even in a practic oint of view. Agri-
culture would have for ever remained an empirical art, had it not
been for the light shed upon it by the atomic theory ‘of chemis-
try ; and incomparably more is to be expected ; as to its ee a
vancement from the perfection of the microscope, than fro
provements in the ordinary instruments of hus! andr oT or |
The plan of increasing and diffusing knowledge, present
the first section of the programme, will be found in’ is SecBra.
ance with the several propositions deduced from the will of
Smithson, and given in the introduction. It embraces, as a lead-
ing feature, the design of interesting the greatest number of in-
dividuals in the operations of the institution, and of spreading
its influence as widely as possible. It forms an active organiza-
tion, exciting all to make original researches who are gifted with
the necessary power, and diffusing a kind of knowledge, now
only accessible to the few, among all those who are willing to
receive it. In this country, though many excel in the application _
of science to the practical arts of life, few devote themselves to
the continued labor and patient thought necessary to the discov-
ery and development of new truths. The principal cause oe
want of attention to original research, is the want, not of a
means, but*of’ proper encouragement. The publication of orig: ‘
inal memoirs and. periodical reports, as contemplated by the pro-
gramme, will act as a powerful stimulus on the latent talent of
our country, by placing in bold relief the real laborers in the
field of original research, while it will afford the bev ange
for the use of those engaged i in the diffusion of know
he advantages which will accrue from the plan of poblishingl

the volumes of the Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge,
are various. In the first place, it will serve to render the name
of the founder favorably known wherever literature and science
are cultivated, and to keep it in continual remembrance with
each succeeding aoa tes, as long as knowledge is valued. A
single new truth, first given to the world nis these volumes, —
will forever stamp their character as a work o ae

of knowledge, and whose ruling passion, strong in death, =
ed the noble bequest intended to facilitate the “labors of
the same pursuit.
_ Again, ion pabligedn: of a series of volumes of vigil, me
moirs wil to. the institution the a meet ready means of en-
tering into friendly relations. and corre sence with all the

*

ee

ae

308 Explanations and — of the plan

learned.societies in the world, and of enriching its library with
their current transactions and proceedings. ut perhaps the
‘most important effect of the plan will be that of giving to the
world many valuable memoirs, which; on account of the expense
of the illustrations, could not be otherwise published. Every
one who adds new and important truths to the existing stock of
oy dniameoen be of necessity, to a certain degree, in advance
8) i

of his age. Henee the number of readers and purchasers of a

wor.
consi

generally in the inverse ratio of its intrinsic value; and
enth

iently, authors of the highest rank of merit are frequently
. See Cie oe, 3

‘thing to publish his work: “I have issued,” he says, ‘six vol-
umes, and am engaged on the seventh, but as yet I have not re-
eived a single cent of the proceeds.” In an address on the sub-
of natural history, by one of our most active cultivators of
branch of knowledge, we find the following remarks, whic

works on different branches of zoology, now in the course of

ae

of the Smithsonian Institution. 309

the least depend upon the fact that sae author is able to make a
te sacrifice in giving the AC unt of his discoveries to
the publi :

Besides the advantage to the author of having his memo
lished in the gappreee gas giber ot oe expense, ‘nie
bors will be given to the world with the stamp of approval ¢
commission of learned men ; and his. merits “ewwege 2 e
made known through the reports of | the inst on th u
the premiums offered may be small, yet they v ve
able effect in producing original articles. itty or ra red
dollars awarded to the author of an oraia! at ee. any
instances, suftice to supply the books, or to pay Hadley
or the manual labor required, in prosecuting t the Wenciireds

There is one proposition of the programme which has given
rise to much discussion, ang which, therefore, requires particular
explanation: I allude to that which excludes from the co contribu-
tions all papers mae merely of unverified speculations on
subjects of physical science. The object of this proposi itio’ n is
to obviate the endless difficulties wiih would occur in in reject
papers of an unphilosophical character ; and thongh it may in
some eases exclude an interesting communication, | yett the strict
observance of it will be found of so much practic

-

value abstract speculations : on the contrary, we know that all
the advances in true science—nam ely, a knowledge of the Jaws |
of phenomena—are made by provisionally adopting well-condi-~
tioned hypotheses, si product of the imagination, and subse~—
oe verifying them by an appeal to experiment and observa-~
tion. Every new hypothesis of scientific value must not only —
furnish an exact explanation of known facts, but must also ena~_
ble us to predict, in kind and quantity, the phenomena which’
will be exhibited under any given combination of circumstances,
Thus, in the case of the undulatory hypothesis of light, it was
inferred, as a logical consequence, that if. the supposition were
true that light consisted of waves of an ethereal conn ee
two rays of light, like two waves of water under certain cone di-

sult was obtain
ed. It is this exact agreement of the deduction with the actual

result of experience that constitutes the verification of an hypo~ ss
thesis, and which alone entitles it to the name of a theory, and

co

#

|

J

310 Explanations and Mlustrations of the plan

‘cess of publication by the institution. As it is not our intention
te i terfere with the proceedings of other institutions, but to co-

these societies, while ihesdetails of the memoirs and their expen-

ed

persons can be found, and their labors be directed to
pre j ct . The number, however, of those who are capa-
ble of discovering scientific principles is comparatively small;
like the poet, they are “born, not made,” and, like him, must be
left to choose their own subject, and wait the fitting time of in-
spiration. In case a person of this class has fallen on a vein of
discovery, and is pursuing it with success, the better plan will be
to grant him a small sum of money to carry on his investigations,
provided they are considered worthy of assistance by competent
judges. This will have the double effect of encouraging him in
the pursuit, and of facilitating his progress. The institution,
however, need not depend upon cases of this kind, even if they
sre more numerous than they are, for the application of its
s in the line of original research. There are large fields of
rvation and experiment, the cultivation of which, though it

may afford no prospect of the discovery of a principle, can hardly
fail to produce results of importance both in a practical and a the-

oretical oint 0 view. ‘As an illustration of this remark, I may
mentic * i

cominittees of the Franklin Institute, of Philadelphia. . The

ca

sons in the United States engaged 'in the application of steam,

er. In this way opinions and suggestions in great va-
riety, as to the cause of explosions, were obtained. ‘The most
plausible of these were submitted to the test of experiment: the

of the Smithsonian Institution. 311

results obtained were highly important, and are to be found fay-
orably mentioned. in every system: work on the subject of
steam which has a appeared, in any language, within the last few
years. New and important facts were established ; and, what
was almost of as much consequence, errors which had usu rped.
the place of truth were dethroned.

In the programme, examples were given of a few su spbieits of #
original research to which the attention of the Sige eee
turned. I will mention one in this place, ich in connexic
with the contents of our first memotr, may deserve imr
attention. I allude toa small appropriation ‘ade ann ally for
researches with reference to the remains of 1e anc ent palin
itants of our country. This is a highly inteteanine field, “and

the progress of civilization is obliterating, the ancient mounds,
cities and villages are rising on the spots,they have so long occu- _

pied undisturbed, and the distinctive — of these remains are

eae men in general se operations of the institutic Dn, os
evident that the principal means of diffusing knowledge must

the press. Though lectures should be given in the city in which |
Smithson has seen fit to direct the establishment of his in

tion, yet, asa_.plan of general diffusion of knowledge, beak
tem of lectures would be “cali inate every village pen
extended country w would have a right to demand a share x
benefit, and the income of the antic would be insufficient to.
supply a thousandth part of the demand. _ It is also evident that

_ the knowledge diffused should, if possible, not only embrace all
branches of general interest, so that each reader might find a sub-
ject suited to his taste, but. also that it should differ in kind and
quality from that which can be readily obtained through the
cheap eS eeesion: of the mA These requisites will be fully

, : r an : le :
what the work should be, T would refer to the annual report >,
the Swedish Academy of its perpetual Secretary, Berzelius,
physical science. The re eports can be so prepared as to be highly
interesting to the general reader, and at the same time of great
importance to the _ exclusive _c es of a. particular ular branch of
knowledge. Full references should be given, in foot-notes, to
the page, number, or volume of the work from which the infor-

ie

312 Explanations and Illustrations of the plan

fen obtained, an here a more detailed account can be
tis scarcely nece sary to remark, that ‘the: preporanies

Tada without destroying its scientific character. Occasion-
rts may | be obtained rom abroad—as, for example, ac-
progress of Page branches of knowledge in for-

ounts of the
cic? Pibtriee 2 d these may be translated if necessary, and
incorp' rated - into er neherts; by ame competent person in this
country.
“Besides haste on the progress of knowledge, the pro-
gramme proposes to publish occasionally brief treatises on partic-
J Ee _ There are always sr igen of general interest, of

rief expositions would be of much value. The repara-
= these, however, should be pers to none but persons
of charac icter and reputation, and should be subjected to a revision
By competent and responsible judges before they are given to the
ble They may be presented in the form of reports on the
existing state of knowledge relative to a given subject, and may
‘sometimes consist of memoirs and expositio ons of "particular
eee of literature and science, translated from foreign lan-
ages. The reports and treatises of ‘the institution, sold at a
“price barely sufficient to ay the expense of printing, will find
eir way into every school in our country, and will ‘be used not
as first lessons for the pupil, but as sources of reliable information
for the teacher. -

_ The second section “of the programme gives, so far as they
ave been made out, the details of the part of the plan of organ-
zation \ directed the act of Congress establishing the institu-
toe The two plans, namely, that of publication and origina
, and that. of collections of objects of nature and art, are
ne . Incompatible and may be carried on harmoniously with, each

tn on Rctect which they will have on one another is

‘th ing the operation of each, on account of the funds
“given * "the other. “Still with : judicious application, , and an
economical expenditure of the i inéome, and particularly by rig idly
observing the plan of ‘finance, : suggested by Dr. Bache, in abe
construction of’ the building, much good may be effected in each

e two branches of the institution. T’o carry on the opera-
tions Of the first, a working library will be required, consisting
of the past volumes of the transactions - and proceedings of a
the learned societies in every lang guage. _ These are the original
sources from which the most important principle f the at
knowledge of our day have been drawn. Webel also

of the Smithsonian Institution. 313

ant Secretary, acting as rian.
The collections of the a as far as possib.

‘ ighest interest ;
ut the portion of the income of the a, which can be de-
voted to the increase and maintenance of the museum, will be
too small to warrant any attempt towards an indiscriminate col-
lection. It is hoped that in due time other means may be found
of establishing and supporting a general collection of objects
of nature and art at the seat of the general go vernment, with
funds not derived from the Smithsonian bequest. or the pres-

plication of the funds, first, to such collections as will tend to ) fa-
cilitate the study 0 of the memoirs which may be published we
Contributions, and to establish their correctness; secondly,

and
such as models of buildings, &c. ; and, thirdly, to the formation
of a collection of instruments of physical research, which will
be required both in the illustration of new physical truths, and
in the scientific investigations undertaken by the institution.
uch popular interest may be awakened in favor of the insti-

tatini at Washington, by throwing the rooms of the building
open, on stated evenings during the session of Congress, for liter-
ary and. scientific assemblies, ‘after the manner of the “weekly
meetings of the Royal Institution in London. At these meet-

ings, without the formality of a regular lecture, new truths in
science may be. illustrated, and new objects of art exhibit ;
Hesries these, courses of lectures may be given on particular sub--
jects by the officers. a the institution, or by distinguished indi-
viduals i invited for t |

Commencement of the operations of the Institution —1 was
authorized, in connexion with the Committee on tion,
to commence the publication of. the Smithsonian Contributions
to Knowledge, one eceive any memoir which might be pre-
sented on any subjec t, provided it was found, on examination, to
furnish an interesting addition to the sum oe _ knowledge,

Szconp Senses, Vol. VI, No. 18.—Nov., 1848.

314 Explanations and Illustrations of the plan

resting on original research. he first memoir presented, and
found to be of the character prescribed by the resolution of the
Board, was one on the remains of the ancient inhabitants of the
North American continent. It contains the result of several
years’ labor in the survey and exploration of the mounds and
earthworks of the Mississippi valley, and will se a highly
interesting addition to the antiquities of our country, which
could not have been given to the world, but for the timely aid
extended to it sth this institution. ‘The memoir was referred to

ns. #9 Fnow tote: On the favorable report of
mittee pine responsibility on — ey the me-
moir | a. i Sn cepa for publication. *
‘The oirs of Messrs. Squier and batt will occupy the
greater bértiot if not the whole, of the first volume of the Con-
tributions. The illustrations will consist of fifty-five quarto

eating of the various articles found in the mo
who consider no branch of knowledge of any alti’ but sake as
relates to the immediate gratification of our physical abi have
objected to the acceptance of this memoir as one of the first
publications of the Se et but it must be oo fled that
the will of Smithson makes no restriction in favor of any pat-
‘ticular kind of Enowiedee and that each branch is, therefore,
entitled to a share of his bequest. The Ethnological memoir of
lessrs. Squier and Davis was the first, of the proper character,
proscuted for publication, and hence it was entitled to the first
: n the series of Smithsonian Contributions. Besides this,

of the life of Siiithaon, by the Chancellor. The fa ea -
this have been collected from the several volumes of the Tran
actions of the Royal Society, and the scientific journals of she
beginning of the present, and the latter part of the last century.
The first volume will be published as soon as the wood-cut s and
plates, now in the course of preparation, are finished.

Besides the memoirs before | mentioned, a number of others
have been presented, some of which though’ apparently of on
est, and the product of thought and labor, were not of the c
‘acter required by the resolution of the Board, and these have

of the Smithsonian Institution. 315

ition been returned to the authors, or are in the possession of
the Secretary. A number of others have also been provisionally
adopted, or are in the a9 of preparation. Some

on the most abstruse s of physical science, and all will do
honor to the sdetectual! Snes of our country. Though the
number of original memoirs which will be found worthy of a
place in the Contributions will probably not be a yet it will,

est—as, for

dollars annually—to sietray the expense of chi part of cae ea
of increasing knowledge. A considerable portion, however, of
the sum thus expended will be returned to . the institution i in the
form of additions to its library. I may also suggest, in this place,
the propriety of the adoption, “by the board, of the resolution in-
Viting all engaged in original research, to send the results of their
labors for publication in the Smi thsonian Contributions.

The Board also directed me to commence the collection of ap-
paratus, and I accordingly sent orders to Europe, to the amount
of twelve hundred dollars, for the purchase of such articles as
could not be procured in the United stazes Most of the instru-
ments have been received, and will be found of rm ip not
only in the way of original research, but also in illustrat
of the most pees so recent phenomena of physiéals science,

as well as serving as samples for imitation to the artists of this
coaittey: It was thought that these articles would be admitted
free of duty, and a petition to this eflect was presented to ue
Secretary of the Treasury ; but, though this officer is well kno
to be much interested in the prosperity of the oma eacles is
the nature of the law that the duty could not be rem

here is an article of apparatus which, within a few years past,

has opened almost a new world of research in the phenomena of
life and organization, the use of which is now indispensable in
advancing our knowledge of physiology and its kindred branches
of science. Lallude to the achromatic microscope, to increase
the power. of which, the artists of Germany, France, and Eng-
land have vied with each other. On account of the small r num-
ber of persons who are capable of constructing the proper lenses,
the best specimens of this instrument are very scarce in this coun-
try, ‘and Lcan be procured only at a great expense. rages er
circumstances it was a matter of much interest to lea rom.
a source which could be relied upon, that an individual in ‘the
interior of the state of New York had successfully devoted him-
self to the study of the microscope, and that he was able to pro-
duce instruments of this kind which would compete } with the
best of those constricted ‘in Europe. In order to do justice to
the talents and labors of this f rson, as well as to furnish the in-
stitution with a valuable instrument of research, I “requested him

|
316 Epldnations and Illustrations of the plan, Sc.

to construct a microscope, to be paid for out of the funds for the
purchase of apparatus, provided that a commission, appointed by
myself, should find it capable of producing certain effects. ‘This
proposition was accepted, and the result will probably be given
to the Board at the next meeting.

of | the institution. 'The Secretary of the Treasury readily agreed
to the proposition that there should be added to the mineralogi-

provided that the Smithsonian Institution would furnish one set
of the instruments, and take charge of the direction of the ob-

4 ;
*

J. H. Alevander on the Tension of Vapor of’ Water. 317

for suggestions as to the plan of ob oP Brot. Loe and I beg leave to
refer the Board to the report of Prof. Loomis, of New York

ceived in answer. T rmer contains exposition of the
advantages which may be derived from the study of meteor-
ology, and done in this branch of science in

for commencing an enterprise of the proposed kind. 1€ Citi-
zens of the United States are now scattere “over ae | part of
the southern and western portion of North America 2 eX-
tended lines of telegraph will furnish a ready cats re warning
the more northern and eastern observers to be on the watch for
the first appearance of an advancing storm.

S

Arr, XXIX.—On a New empirical Formula for ascertaining
the Tension of Vapor of Water at any Temperature; by
J. H. Avexanper, Esq. or

ad (Concluded from page 223.) 4 4 as

at w the last number of this Journal, I gave the fortiiuili itself

temperatures. Want of room excluded then what remained to
complete this Memoir, in shewing the probable errors of the for-
mula as compared with the principal experiments, and with the
probable errors affecting too those different series of experiments
themselves. Such a discussion is the object of the present paper.
‘It was already said, in the preceding part, that the most proper
mode of expressing these errors is by the linear scale of temper-
ature; which both in theory is the most important, and in prac-
tice is the most accessible and usual. In this last aspect, it is on —
this scale too where errors of observation are the most easy
made, and likely to occur. With this view, the formula ne
atten here only i in its converse form, (i. e., for ascortaigi
res en given pressures,) as under :
© F’abr. = sage 1059-13;
P being in nce of mercury :
ahr, = fad 136 — 105°: 13;
a being i in stmpephiilllec s at 3 i
As this will have to be ‘aghensly applied fi a sPartarpotbion
throughout the following discussion, it may be as s well to remark

¥

*

”
318 J. H. Alecander on the Tension of Vapor of Water.

here, once for all, in justification of such application, that there
need be no “apprehension of its affecting the results ; for it is easy
to see, by inspecting a few instances taken at random from the
table, that the rational deviation of the formula (i. e., the differ-
ence between calculated and observed pressures ) is, for small dif-
ferences of temperature, either null, or so remote a fraction as to
be inappreciable in the calculation

In applying this formula, I shall take up the principal series of
experiments separately, beginning with the most recent ; and sha
then make assemblage of the mean results.

1. Experiments of Mr. Regnault—To deduce the absolute
mean error of the erous quantities of this observer, it would
be obviously ead to take up each experiment ;—a labor of

which I am me no means ambitious, and which would be dispro-

ionate at once to what is admissible i in the other series pres-
ently to be noticed, and to the present aim. I shall, therefore, in
all, only make use of short general methods which, "without lay-
ing claim to the accuracy of geometrical refinements, will yet be

recognized as having foundation in the theory of mathematical -

probabilities ; and will, by their popular form, recommend them-
selves the more readily to the convictions of those who are chiefly
conversant with steam in practice, and for whose benefit the
whole of the present discussion is mainly intended.

It is obvious, then, in the first place, that the idea of freedom
from error is associated with symmetry in the results. Such sym-
metry will always be observable in quantities that progress (as
natural quantities may be assumed to do) according to some con-
stant law; and as, in our ignorance of what the true law is in
this case, all that we can deal with is relative symmetry, it is of

no importance what law or formula we take as the other term
omparison, provided there be no material difference between the
rig fend termination of the two. I shall therefore compare a
ew of Mr. Regnault’s observations at the lower temperatures
— the Soe ois ape pesent formula ; as under: |

" “Pres hedel Mears?
a “oncner ire in in in ae of Sete — Diffsrehers: "
Dan v1063 ~ Oin-00664 | 4-0-00399t
0 02047 0 -01799 +0-00248
0 .02835 ; 0 -03055 ce —- 0 we
0 -04567 0 -04375 -+4-0-00192
0 -06378 0 '-06643 — 000265
0 09410 0 -O9111 +0-00299
0 +12559 0 13451 0-:00892 |.
0 -15000 0 +16106 —0-01106
0 ‘18111 0 19561 —0-01450

He is apparent then, that so far, these observations do not follow
uniform or symmetrical progression ; and without pretending
to eriticize. the experiments themselves, which doubtless have as

- 3 8 , x
JH. Alexander on the Tension of Vapor of Water. 319

uch accuracy as the nature of the research admitted, it follows
that, in spite of all the extraordinary tact and skill of the obser-
ver, there is yet primd facie evidence against the absolute accu-
racy of the results. It is to be remarked upon the column of
temperatures, both here and hereafter, that the remote decimals

renheit, and are preserved because they added to the accuracy,
while they did not increase the labor of the clei Never-
theless, phe thermometer of Mr. Regnault could be rea d diregily
to the 5, of a degree Centigrade, corresponding very nearly to z
of a degree Fahrenheit ; and by estimation, to the: next decimal
place. |

The temperatures of this table under 32°F, are lowe
pressures have ever been observed at before, and 1 rest upon single
observations. They do not admit, therefore, of a comparison oth-

as b l i y numerous, and allow of being com-
pared among themselves. Of the forty-seven observations, whose
arithmetical mean pressure is given in the table, the diene

"maximum was se: peek corresponding to a temp. by formula of 30°-72 Fahr.
and minimum 29 -77 Fahr.

and the difference 0 -00768 responding diff, of temp. 0-95

J
This difference shews a mean error in temperature, unaccount
for, of 0°-425 Fahr. ; and a limiting error in pressure rather m
than half the difference between the formula and the mean of all
the observations.

In the various series of Mr. Regnault, the temperature is given
sometimes by one thermometer only, and sometimes by two, and
we four. Of these latter classes, I have taken out of each se-

the observation where the difference of reading of the seve~

| the rmometers is the greatest, to serve for another comparison,
as follows:
re
% 3 THERMOMETER. |
4 Series.” Maximum. Minim Differences. |
rT 2 A “33°61 Cent.| 330-49 Gakiigr: 0-12 Cent. |
ied 42 -63 42 -56 0: pes
N. 43-64 | 42 -84 0 -81
‘ 0.) |47-84° | 47-14 * lo -70 li "
P. 47 -87 0 -87
2 91 +25 91 -06 0: Pi ee
7. 122 -72 122 -50 0: ee
8.10 “72 110 -64 ae ene
or. 137 -75 137 -52 0: er
“ on ae |
“ Mean temperat. 7521 ‘154 Cent. ; ; mean difference 0°- 366; : Fe sponding
Re tern Yin a

920 Jiddttilecander.on

This didprapes is that of | the extremes; and as t
mber of observations is as likely to be plu

mean error . ° oF.
t 167 =
pies at 228
ot.
ne av erage of which,
amount of error, plus or mi leat

with
f Mr. ee are still 5 be a

&% wb H. “Aletander on the Piet of Vapor of Water. 324

Ge “Préssiires : Fe Hern persed | F
ee a ine Toches: tx Observed. | : r_Galewared.—~ Differénces.
=27°1 12 F, | = 20°73 F. | L738 Fah.
ee ~10 -98 +2 -02 \
bei =] 24
2°49 -0 -78
+- 8 -65 10 -76
16 -27 13
92-25 41 +45
+26 -08 +1 -55... +1953
BOP R65 ee 1 74
147 + | +3. -32
174 -58 “S41 +84
197 -38 0 67
211 -49 “0-8. oF eae |
eo Ges of 82
‘03 -—0 90
254 -24 1-58
5 -4 2315
978 -59 ee OF
7 297 +464 300 .-42 2 -96 1919
d= a MS cM earr Serene a inate x dis a, t-O°- 600.

* “This mean difference (say 0°:61 Faht.) ip thie error of the ee
mula as compared with the observations above ; which are them-
selves the mean of more than twice as many experiments, and
which may be taken as representing impartially the | whole e range
Mr. Regiault’s results. In arriving at this mean”
‘Have arranged the several instances into groups whose individu
‘mean furnish the definitive general one. ‘This is’proper, in view
“of the different: bi of experiment which the different re
‘tions of temperature in the respeetive groups rendered necessary.
* The a riser atta mean of all, however, (09°657 Fahr.) is not
‘Mnaterially_ variant. It will be seen that up to the point of boil-
“ing water, the formula-temperatures are generally dower than ex-
periment ; ’ above that point, they are in general higher. 1 it
t such a change of sign accords with what might be antici
and in so far does not diminish the reliability of the formal
“The Bidisrerice (+-0°-61 F.) would be the absolute error of
{ the formula, were we to assume the experiments as perfectly ac~
curate. ‘Bat they have been already shown to be themsely
ected by an error of 0°31 F'.; and the absolute error o
mul la, then, may be either. 0° 30 or 09-92 F.;
s made sites Ea sum or the difference.

=

teading of only. the maximum et inctes which ea
the actual temperature of the water in the boiler.» For.the pre
3 ti rp

322 J. H. Alezander on the Tension of Vapor of Water.

gree of Fahrenheit; they are, therefore, not comparable in pre-
cision, whatever they m may be in accuracy, to those that have
just been considered. And as but one reading either of tempe-
rature or pressure is given in each instance, they do not allow of
tpine treated in the method that has just now been applied. — I

an only then compare them as in the following table: si
Temperatur Differences ey e
Pressures Calculated EN “Oval Calculated Frank. Inst.
in by my by formula of jin’formala and
Atmosph’rs. Jormuias ¥’ host: Fran Inst. | Frank. Inst. experiment. — ;
we QPL closed 212 a ae
0 8 250 -52 250 248 +8 os fe
975-73 275-18 275 972 -3 2: Jak a
3 293 -72 291 -5 990) +] BD Be ic 3
309 -57 307 54 304 +5 304 -4 +0 +1 :
320 -36 © 315 -5 16-5 —1-0 :
333 °49 331 -70 326 327 -3 —1 ‘Sena
343 -36 - 341 -78 336 336 °4 —0°45 1
= 30 300 78 345 44 -B° +0825
ie: | aa 360 -36 308 ;88 302 °5 352 °5 —
7 Mean differences, ae 20 —3°-45 40° 36

The temperatures of the Academy in this table, were mots as”
has been said already, from experiments at the precise epochs of
pressure ; but were interpolated from experimental, terms not re=
mote. Under a general principle, I excluded them from the Com-
parative Table in the preceding Memoir, but they satisfied even
the fastidiousness of Mr. Dulong, as representing accurately the”
results of observation ; and are.therefore fit to be compared as s they,
are here. The last line of mean differences. shows the excess. of

‘ the formula-temperatures above those of the Academy, to be not
much more than one-third of the excess of the latter above those

of the Franklin Institute; the probability,.of accuracy of these
last then, at most, cannot be more than in the same ratio. J,

a
—
Hi
4
—s
a” |
Lee
(=)
eae
5
@
-
a
©
*B
3)
yo
=%
~
©
Lar)
Qu
=
=
)
-—
7D
in,
Lax}
©
be
(=)
2)
fa)
Qu
o
y
5
=
8
pe]
teat
4

se, however, as. in the case of Mr. Regnault’s expe
ece ay sto, igh the amigien thesenieetercPaging also”

vd

a

a

323

eed register the variation of the extremes, as under. I have en-

tered the pressures here in English inches, since they have al-

ready been reduced for the Comparative ‘Table ; but to save un-
necessary calculations, I retain the temperatures in Centigrade
degrees,

Pressures em peratures. Diff. in

3 Mepeinecat in inches. - Maximum. Minimum deg. Centi.
ae 64in'14 7, 122°-97C4 “09°73
Se 85. -70 1333 32 -64 “66
a, 136 -85 149 -7 149 -54 0 -16
8 194 -42 163 -4 163 -00 0 -40
9 220 -69 168 -5 168 -40 0 -10
| 15 348 -04 188 -5 188 -30 ) -20
2] 514. -22 206 :8 206 -40 40
Wi 516 -84 207 +4 207 -09 0 -31
ple .25, 553-69 2105 210 -47 03
zi 644 -96 218-4 218 -30 ) 10
a wy 716 13° 224 -15 88 ) 27
id ey Mean difference, . 0%3055 C.=0°-55 Fah.,

gepiiratent to a mean = of + 0°-28 Fah., arising from the un-
Sa of tempera

ntrast this with the formula we have from the same ex-
‘periments as under

i aeep pers ures.

INo. of sonnet lac Observed. By the formula. |Differences.

es PRL 23°-7° CH 123°:9 C.
133 °3 133 «8.
149 -7 150-8
163-4 164-5
168 +5 169-5
188 5 189
206 -8 206 -8
207 4 207 +2
210 5 210 -4
218 -4 = 217 7
224-15 222 °:9

Mean difference,

Bee tios between the formula and the bie but Little
more than the admitted error of the thermometric re 4k

“Mean.error of observation from this last source, was hae just.

324 J. H. Alexander on the Tension of igi of Water 7 (

Error of ae eo |
Pig ‘Maximum. | Minium
From experiments of Academy of Sci aa ‘ —00-64 F. —0°-08
Mr. Regnault, +0 -92 +0:
‘Mean error by both, . . 2. - se «| 0% Hie

The nearness of these limits and the Suialitieee of the nu umber
enclosed by them warrant, I think, a sole and entire reliance
upon the formula, in the present state of experimental knowled ge
on the subject. I do not introduce into combination any of the

other and earlier series of observations; because, from the way in
which they have been reported by their respective authors, they
do not admit the application of the same methods of co comparison ; a
and because it may justly be supposed that the apparatus, intel
lectual and mechanical, resorted to in 1829 and since, is para-
: oe es accuracy to what had been at disposal i in precediie a Te-

i

a shall only, therefore, i in farther illustration of the present orm-

ula
proposed by other mathematicians ; only extending, in, point oe
fact, for this purpose, a similar comparison which MM. Dulong”
- and. Arago have already instituted; and using, except for the
" last c olumn, quantities from the calculation of these philosophers.
ae table is founded upon the same eleven observations of them
wn, just now quoted ; and they have given for each instance
the individial deviations of the ‘several formule from the tes sult
experiment. Not to employ so much room, have thought it.
equally satisfactory to give the general restilts and inferences, as
under. The deviations are given in Centigrade degrees, and be-
long 1 to the same side of the equation with the Oar ee given)
pective formule. - , gee

# Say
a

F 1 ed Dy ae
; | tredgola. Roc or a THA

aximum ee in excess, . .| 0°69 | 0%53)| 0°80 |™0°-405| “9? Tao}

- |Maximom defect, .. | 2:11] 0575} .0 -25| 0 os 1-20
: Nn ge Bea: withont regard to signs, 0 | 0 37 0 “M4
do. 1+

: The three first are given’ by Mr. Dulong, Wher a : copious enue
meration of different ermal as agreeing the best with, om

isa Peete of the temperature ; but Mr. Coriolis ses, instea

of an integral, a mixed fractional index. His exponent, instea
of 7 as Dr. Young took, or 6 as Creighton and Tredgold prefer-

, or 5:13 as Southern chose, or 5 as Dulong adopted, is 5° 335, ie
; coincidence with the natural law is oaly empirical ang can

“9

’ ler on the cere # he of Wat 325

— ye. but accidental. In the formulaof Mr. Roche, (which he

rs, not as a means of interpolation, but as the expression of a
‘gene Ree. physical law,) the temperature is itself an element of the
index by which certain constant quantities are to be involved.
The principles, however, upon which he has founded the expres-
sion, are Gerrionee both by Mr. Dulong and Mr. Regnault.
The formula of Mr. Dulong presents a smaller aggregate devia-
tion ete fi of the others; and it would be singular if it did
not, seeing that it was derived from | a constant furnished by his

own experiments. But as s might also be anticipated, this con-
‘stant, taken (to four places of decimals ) from the. result of the
highest aah temperature, fails to apply in the lower ones,
ad The maximum deviation under his formula, given in the last
; table, occurs at the lowest experimental temperature ; and in fact
“in his final table of, atmosp be pressures and corresponding tem-
peratures, he has preferred, below the limit of four atmospheres,
(1 5°: A Cent. or 2939-72 Fahr.,) to abandon his own formula and
use that of Tredgold. . Below the ordinary as pressure,

“his quantities are utterly Po as will be seen es the’

+4

Bons statemen —_
"Pressures Tua (Centigra “ay t 2 re :
Observed oye culated by tia Ol le: as ee
__ Regnault. ee | Franklin Institute.| Alexander.
78 36°16 = 39° 5oe me
-00 10 +45 <4 4-28
9% “00 —FF D4 is 3]

The last two columns are added here for illustration; an
— among other things, that the formula of the Franklin In
gutnte is, like that of a French Academy, inapplicable to low
n peratures and pressu —
“Later than these, Mr. ‘Biot, in 1839, proposed another formula,
and, in 1841, published a table calculated by it; in which the ~
Oe are given in metres and for every degree Centigrade from —

= 20° to 220° Cent., corresponding to the “limits of — 4° and oi
428° Pehtentici The patient labor requisite for this task, has :

Let om
ola

y vhich todeulgedtoh impresses a more -sy.
E; #
the method ; but yet, in spite of the og

326 J. He Alezander on the Tension of Vapor of Water.

rections for reduction, appears ¥ diminish per the chances — 7
of practical resort to the table itself. se temperatures, Mr i
Biot, in the form first proposed fe Prony, “GHB same which Dr. ~
Youn ng, with more emphasis than reflection, has called “ ridicu-
lously complicated,”) employs as the exponents of a series ; the
peculiarity of the method, however, is in that the direct numeri- = y
cal result of the equation gives, instead of the pressure itself, i
tabular logarithm of the pressure. It is, therefore, essentially a
logarithmic formula.
I present the following comparison between it and the present

formula; applied to the same instancés of experiment, which

have been already signalized by Mr. Dulong himself, and already :
quoted here. ‘T'o save both the tedium and hazard of a reduction 4
to English measures, : eve the quantities under their origin
denominations and, in so far varying from the preceding instan-— .
ces, I give the oviation of the formule in terms of the pressure
‘instead of the temperature. ‘This method enables me, by an easy

and safe interpolation, to extract the proper quantities from Mr.,

Biot’s table ; and thus to avoid the nok ahetls labor of workings

out the numerical transformation of his theorem.

No. of |. Temperatuies, RCenughade} Pressures in Metres;
>| Experi- Mercuria Air By Biot’s Observed by By present ,
, _|_ment. | thermometer. | thermometer. formula. Dulong & Arago. ate
wee bee Bs 123°-7 239-1: 1-65020 1-6291 162022 |
. 133 3 132-47 2:26396 2:1816 687 —
149 -7 148 -41 3°47146 3:4759 3:37449.
163 °4 161 -69 4:94220 4:9383 + 4-80439 —~
168-5 ° 166 -63 560263 5 6054 545121 7 he
188 +5 185-96 8.89046 840 8
206 -8 203 -60 13:05578 13-061 13:04525
207 °4 204 +18 13-21410 13-137 13-21 202
210 -5 207 -16 05179 14.0634
218 -4 214 +75 16°36717 16-3316 1660100 |
224-15 2 1804 18-1894 18:64254 |

ON embarrass this table with so many columns, I omit the
‘individual deviations of the two formule ; and present the aay
gal result as under. ;
4 Mean devi ti fi t e | Alesode

ation from experimen
ew pent regard to signs m ‘ O52066 0-:12191
an
= o pans, from experiment be - 0-0170 4» 0-02114
It is hardly necessary to repeat that the first of these formule is.
founded in part upon the very prperiments with which it accords”
so well; and that the other was

The table of Mr, Biot goes up as far as 220° Cent. ; but he
supposes that his formula is applicable much father ; and i in fact
_he has given results; in a small supplementary table, as high as”
300°C ; at which temperature it makes the pressure
ual to almost exactly 85 atmospheres. ‘The present formula

327

wo uld make, — to ‘this pressure, a temperature of
= 589°. ‘92 F. or 293°°3 Cent.; differing from the other within the
© eorreetion between a mercu aria. al and an air-thermometer.
; “Tt is at the other extremity, where we still have opportunity of
| ‘s ix. ec to experiment, that the difference between the two for-
mule be

: mes more marked; and where that of Mr. Biot,
a neither i in its terms nor its Poperesstt, can be considered applica-
“ble. This may be seen as under:

peratures, S z & = |

Precsifec in inches of

2 “Mercury. Observed by Ramu 7 3 i ais
_0in-024 — 23°-83 iS es. : —22°-46

7 2033 = 20°: - : -17°: —19 -52

ae About the same time with Mr. Biot, other formule claiming
(like that of Mr. Roche) a foundation on abstract theoretical prin-
ciples, were proposed by Mr. Russell ; who has also applied their
somewhat extensive, logarithmic apparatus to the calculation of a
table of»pressures for each degree from 32° to 250° Fahr., and
then for intervals of one or more atmospheres up to fifty. “This”
does not properly come into this discussion ; because the author
has found it necessary to employ different terms above and below —
the point of boiling water, and in point of fact to have two for-
mul ; an inconvenience, the same in kind, though not in degree, _ EB 4
with what the object of the very research is to avoid. DNomgiag eee

they both deviate in their respective directions from the eurve —
given by observation; the pressures calculated by them, are, at
the two extremities, very much above any experimental ones.
Not to trouble ourselves with the part of the scale below the
boiling temperature, where the errors are not of so much practi-

eal importance, I give a few instances in the higher degrees, con-
trasted with the results of the French Academy. me

es Te ratures, (Fahrenheit.)

ein Atmospheres ~ French vette | _ Russell’s Table. Differences.

, 1 age DPD. ha 212° =<

wi 5 307°:5* 306 -8 0°-7

- s & 10. 358 -9 355 -6 3°3

se 20- SAS 410 8 5

il rr ab 457 -2 444 6 12 6

50 510 -6 491 -4 19 -2

‘WT ho feel of Mr, _Regnault, to whose experimental research-
es such resort has been hadyare in one respect in the sam cate-
gory as those of Mr. Russell: they are three, one adapt e

ge 7

* Mr. Russell in his ‘comparison, = well as the Franklin Inst in theirs, giv
Bek pies at 308°-8 ;’ an error which has arisen fro m hastily re
Centigrade temp. of 153° ‘08, as if it were 1 50. ; oa oe

ight

in this upper part of the thermometric scale shall‘have been ee
ciently extended and accumulated, to apply hiinself to the group=
ing of all three divisions in one comprehensive expression ; and,
from his well known character, much may be expected, original
and appropriate. In the mean time, it would be premature to en- ‘
ter here upon any discussion of what is only provisional.

sag resume, then, in conclusion of this rather protracted Me-

ir; it seems to me that in the various combinations and com=~
bariebth that have been given, the claim of the formula I propose
18 teasonably well established—not to be an expression of a law
of nature, fo it makes no pee but to reprée=

‘sent the phenomena of reciprocal p nd temperatures ne

ctly and with a more extensive std "tHe any that has
een Poffered and ‘that, in so far, it is worthy of being ‘ater as
paramount to all that have preceded it. dw far, in view of the
discord yet existing between experimental results ‘of the most Te=!
‘cent and reliable observers, it is fit to come in as a substitute for
‘any and all of those results themselves, is not of course forme”

a determine. I shall only allow myself to notice, then, its re-’

“markable simplicity, and the consequent facility with which it

adapts itself to calculation, either with or without logarithms;

well as the readiness with: which, from its elements and form,

a So ee itself at times to the memory. One important use

a, it is to be observed, is in enabling an enquirer in

“ athgareeh case, twig from books and tables, to extemporize

1 accurate result ; in proportion to its complexity and arbitrari-

ni, it t becomes a question of individual strength of mem-

id its resort more and more limited. In the present instance,
rms are either given in the very case to be solved, or are
cal constants at the foundation of the theory of Heat; whieh,

yen say, it is impossible forrone, ordinarily well informed »

If my labor in so far shall be fortunate enough to meet
with the approval of | the learned, it umm be but an inconsidewsble

—
j=:
s
je
j=)
“Rh
cas)
=
nor:
es
&
pot)
ja
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°
ad
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a &
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-_
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—s
B85

lity of Magnitude. 329

- |\Temperatares in deg. of{Pressures in inches of, Pressures in Ibs. Avdp.
Fahrenheit, +] Mercury at 32°F, | Por Sa aoc: gages

eufie ® *

Sis. Seen! eae 8 < “eee @
0305 ook eo er Bb Im een

EET ee:

by ALEXANDER Macwbenieed, New Haven’ :

: ore is the science of magnitude ; ri agua
defined to be, that which has one or more of the three di
dength, breadth, and thickness. ‘The ee denot
erm. magnitude, to which this science has reference, is
eneral conception, notion, or idea, and like all oth
‘hotions is se enatec first, by making a concrete t

eXi inguish

€ presen an
ought is a bod
teristics disting

ECOND Srnixs, Vol. VI, No. 18.—Nov., 18

—_ either separately or in combination, the name of m
e has been assigned.

o Phus the conception denoted by the term magnitude has. oe —

object, like every other abstract general conception, some only a)

the characteristics of a concrete or existing reality, which object

though a mere object of thought, corresponds with what is real, but

not with all that is real in the concrete reality. That which is ‘real

in every existing body and to which the object of the abstract

general conception corresponds, is the dimensions of that body,
i. dO which of course belongs” an existence distinct and separate
- both oh the conception itself and from the mind which os
th ce

S ed to b y , may be considered. as
in three dpeobae and thus a having three dimen-

s, an a if ‘the term magnitude be used to denote these three
characteris ties of space, taken either separately or in combination,
athe conception.denoted by the term magnitude has also, in this,
~~ instance, for its object only some of the characteristics of a con-.
| crete or existing reality, and the reality to which this object cor-
a. responds, is the dimensions of space, to which of course belongs
_ an existence which is necessary, and which at the same time is

ite ore is of the first importance, and may be = ae
parent by considering the wide difference between those objects
hought, which are constituted what they are by the natureand
e mind, and things, which are what they are im virtue
stitution of their own ; known by our minds, to a certain
still, existing independent of our thinking» PE
is also. obvious that when a general term, such as magnitude,
i to denote an abstract general conception, the object et
term, in these aeesieetes, is subject solely to the laws ~
ntrol and determine the nature and relations of mere
; fag 18, fo the laws of thinking ; while if the same gene- >

relations of real existences, that.i is, to the laws of nature.

pee philosophers have failed to-carry out this distinction con-
el ae and thus have overlooked and denied their own know-
hat so much imposing logic has been at war with ae on

ailure on this very point constitutes the grand ar

el, with whom “ thoughts are the only concrete real

set. apart under distinct names, are the itee dimensions of body, ie
length, breadth, and thickness ; while to these characteristics, _

r a
2

£ ™
ee ie
: %
4

the le Diy 2 Magnitude., 331

evi Biation of ideas in the human mind is, at the same time, the
process of all existence,” in a word, in which “the dialectic pro-
cess is the Method, the dialectic process the Deity, the dialectic
process everything ;? a system no less remarkable - for the un-
soundness of its premises, than for the logical rigor and scientific Fi.
beauty with which it marches forward to its fatal results. *
With the preceding distinction in view, the way is opened Nira
a decision of the much vexed question respecting the divisibi
of magnitude. In every age, from that of the earliest Guontie “Be ain
the present moment, the contradictions on this subject, which the
reasoning of geometry seems fairly to involve, have furnished
weapons by which the certainty of human knowledge has been
assailed ; leaving room for a doubt, which the defenders of truth
have appeared more willing to avoid than directly to meet; very
many of them seeming to think, that the solution of the problem i in-
cluded something beyond the limits of the human understanding.
- The difficulty referred to isthis. It is well known to the |

i sen that according to the principles of mathemati
, every li i itude is divisible
nde oe

the given aetrode For, let any. magnitude whatever, be
“posed, and, for the sake of argument, let it be considered as

least conceivable. This magnitude is some assignable ‘distance
It can therefore become the radius of acircle. But® “if a poin

the straight lines which can be drawn from it to the circumfe

) ence, ‘the greatest is that in which the centre is, and the other
Beg of the diameter is the least.”
‘That is, a point being taken in the radius which is neither at

“the centre nor at the circumference of the circle, a magnitude can

gen and the ceéntre,) less than radius. But, by supp ta
“dius was the least conceivable magnitude, a magnitude t

has heen found dess than the least conceivable. Now he

cess can be repeated as oftén as a new radius is taken, §

on the principles of geometry, magnitude is divisible bg

assignable ‘limit, in other words, magnitude is inde

it is commonly called, infinitely divisible.

| nthe other hand, itis urged by the natural

| well as by common sense, Mee here i is a world 1

| dependent of our gonce prone. governed

> * Ettelid, bib: iii, Prop. 1 Vil.
ie. a

of M _

ioe

are not the laws of logic but the Jaws of nature ; and that in

this world are found a series of facts as certain, and Which’ ea
- om

consequences as sure, as are the conclusions Heciuced by the

ometrician from his definitions, postulates and axioms. ee e,

natural Pagoeepter considers the existence of body and space
distance and motion, to be among such facts; he os wer ob-
servation and experiment, that bodies moving in oppos 7
tions through space sometimes pass by each other, that a body”
», moving in the same direct tion with another body will sometimes
~~ overtake it, and he believes, that ee ae faces of app
* ing solids sometimes come'in cont
*: * He ue reasons, that if a body is in motion through space to-
ward another body at any given distance from it, and if these
two finally come in contact, then antecedent to such contact thee
ale ‘intervening distance not occupied, or filled up, by
1e appre coaching body. In other words, that when the bodies are
ntact no. distance intervenes, and when not in contact some
diaiuhité intervenes ; distance, in the case supposed, being the in-
terval between the opposite faces of each solid unoccupied by the
esence of either body; while, of all the distances which can be
pos

sed to intervene, the least is that next antecedent to contacts
- same consequence follows in respect to bodies moving in op-"
site directions, and also in respect to bodies which overtake each,
ther If Achilles overtake the tortoise, the greyhound the hare,
rT inute-hand the hour-hand of a cloc k, then there must, in,
nature of things, be a least intervening distance next antece-

e term magnitude, then this will be the least magnitude which,

ture ¢ of things, can be conceived to be, that i is, can be con-

having a real as opposed to an ideal existence. Andi Ne
east di

eal existence. ’
t follows from this, first, that every body which has a real ex-
ence, if it be a definite body such as a tree, the globe or a star,
must be made up of indivisible units, or impenetrable and extend-
particles having a form; and next, that the mr ae of these
particles can in: no case be less than. the “least space ; n_ other
words, that the ultimate particles of a body'can in no case ‘be act
reduced so as to become less than the’ magnitude, which, by
ning from the nature of actual extension, has been shown to
onceivable, that is, the least which ‘can be conceived

las opposed to an ‘ideal existence.

a i

‘to each event. Should the distance thus limited be denoted

ed to be, that is, be conceived as having a real as opp

y

ee

A. Mac he D sibi lity of Meenas’
- & _ There is an apparent a to the existence of a least dis-
ce, or least magnitude, turnin upon an ingenious fallacy re-
yecting motion, which may.as well be resolved at this point.
Jt appears from experiment that bodies move with unequal
«g elocity, that is, traverse equal spaces in unequal times ; time
) eing measured by some common standard. Now, ‘let. wo bodies
traverse a given distance, greater than the least
velocity, 1 that is, in unequal times; on the hypoth :
uous motion,’ other things being equal, since their velocities differ, »
they must traverse some one east space or least distat nce

being measured by some standard common to both. But.
Sreck the’ least distance is to make the least motion, or the leas
change of place, which, in the nature of things, can ‘be; conse-—
quently, the bodies supposed make a least motion ora east change:
of place, which in the nature of things, can e in unequal times.
And if the bodies supposed make a least motion in unequal
times, then bodies of unequal velocity in akin some one. least
motion or least change of» * ce while their velocity remaqys

the nce of

particular case, without supposing a contradiction -
out supposing that a body moving with a given velocity

necessary in the nature of things to the existence of them
‘and then to suppose, . the same body, moving with ¢
velocity, can make the same least motion in a time less than th
one necessary in the satiae of things to, the existence of 1
motion, which is absurd. Yet this is the fallacy at the basis is
the yarious and celebrated sophisms used by the ancients agains :
-theipossibility of motion. It generally comes:in the shane of a
interrogation, thus

of place. What has the body moving with the less velo
consequently geduining sy ypore time as necessa vet dr to th
rs , done mre rm

at. ow far has

tions necessary to the “Ben ce seal
requisite time is, sby ssuppos |
ine we it is to ask wif, a.conttadction be tru

, what

*

visibhidfag 2 Magnitude.

will follow, it being the purpose “of the i inquirer to use the con=
clusions drawn from such a premise, in order to overthrow some. .
other conclusion resting on independent evidence. So far then

as this reasoning is concerned, the circumstance that existin
bodies have different velocities, furnishes nothing to disprove <.
existence of a least distance or a least magnitude.

inet

visible, in other words, is so limited by its finite nature as to be
reducible only to a certain extent, is a proposition which would
never have been questioned had philosophers paid more attention
to the nature of the objects of thought which the premises of
ees involve ; since an attentive consideration of these prem-
ses ma ghow, that the conclusions of the nerne ange: respect
“ing th nite divisibility of magnitude do in no way conflict
math e de { Bre a natural philosophy and common sense, but,
on the contrary, are simply the enunciation of what is true in re-
spect ‘to he ap ae in which the objects of certain abstract gen-
eral notions stand to each other, as deduced solely from what be-
longs of necessity to their nature as mere objects of thought.
“The distance just described has been shown to be the least
ignitude which, in the nature of things, can be conceived to be..
things have been very beautifully classified into things
isting as mere thinks, that is, as mere objects of thought ; ;
nd things which are real existences, whether we think of them
Thus, in the phrase “ the least magnitude which in
ature of things can be conceived to be,” the term magnitude
denote either the object of an abstract conception, or a

re

and the phrase “nature of things” is equally ambigu-
y deriote either the nature of mere objects of thought

e of real existences. Now if the term magnitude be

noting a real as opposed to an ideal magnitude, that
s

fe. ig

areal as opposed to an ideal ne i viz. that distance
xt antecedent to.the contact of bodie

_ If, on the other hand, the term magni be taken as s deno-
€ be conc of eee it is Tati true that a

im ney ails

In fact, the proposition that every finite body is definitely di- ©

A. Mac Whorter on the Di | sibility of Magnitude. 385 "

seth this case ioote questions arise ; first, what is the meaning of
1e term divisible when applied to o mere objects of thought? sec-
ondly, what is the nature of the conceptions denoted by the terms
eed line and mathematical point? and thirdly, what is
vat to divide a mathematic al line at a mathematical point :
Respecting the first inquiry, it is evident, that while to divide
:# means primarily to dispart, or disjoin, when materig ewe
are spoken. of, to divide when used in reference to) ings ich
are mere objects of thought, must mean simply to istincill
between them as mere objects of thought ; so that, in this
infinitely divisible means merely sartingsd distinguishabl
distinguishable beyond any assignable lim :
cf _ In the next place a line, by definition, coved the object of th =|
Bare conception of length or distance, considered as a mere ob-
ject of thought, apart from the abstract conceptions of breadth and
depth ; — a point is defined by Legendre to be, ‘a limit ter-
minating a line.’ i?
In this definition of a point the abstract notion of length, rep-
resented by a line, is considered as ceasing or ending, and this
notion of limit to lengt sbeing a notion of the cessation ue con-
sequent negation of length, it is a conception which ;
nature, excludes from itself the conception thus deni
this view that Euclid defines a point to be “ ft
parts or which hath no magnitude ;” a definiti impe
cause not convertible, ri lend “having no pariaer
tude” not being a poin
But as in things a given distance is in actual space,

situation, or position, so in mere objects of thought the coeéxisti
meecpuons of abstract. length, breadth, and thickness, are view

as holding such relations to each other, as to authorize the appl
cation of the term place, or position, borrowed from real exi
ces and applied to these conceptions in order to denote a pa
lar relation between them.’ Now as mere objects of thoughts ai

given conception is just what tt 2s, AND NOT ANOTHER Concep
Thus, in answer to the second inquiry, it appears that a
ematical Be peommecely the object of the abstract co
length or distance ; and in respect te a pe
appears, fire nak it is not a thing “ re” and i
existence, but on rary, i

Pe ey
4 Sins

: " a * St
” 836° A. Mac Whorter on the Divisibility of Magnitude

Now since to divide means to distinguish, when mere objects: of
thought ave spoken of; in answer to the third inquiry it appears,
that to divide a magnitude represented by a line, at a mathemat-~
ical point, means,—to distinguish one magnitu e viewed as a
mere object of thought from another magnitude viewed. as a mere
hought, by the notion of limitation, as the differentia ;—

then, to represent this distinction by thedivision of an actual”
cand vibes line. Thus, let any two magnitudes be conceived,
1d let them be made distinct objects of thought ; each object is
“distinguished from the other by being conceived to be just what
ait i, as an object of thought, and, at the same time, being con-
ived to be NoT THE OTHER ‘object. Now this mode of distin-

as any two conceptions of magnitude can be formed,
ch is not the other, that is, can be repeated indefinitely ;
and this distinction stg objects of thought can be represent

by the division of actual lines ;—this difference between these
oie being simply numerical as mere objects of thought, hav-

n sno real or substantial existence. So that in this sense, mag-
n

enotes ‘merely the object of an abstract general concep-
This object is also a mere object of thought,

Ds ‘
u then extension be divided by that which has ‘no extension,
nd magnitude be diminished by that which has no ‘magnitude ?
l inly, to divide means to distinguish, when mere objects of

ré n nist. be
nitud rhich,

a .
Sie

_ Researches o

in the nature of things, can be conceived to have a real as opp
to an zdeal existence. Here the term magnitude denotes
isting dimensions of body or of space, and the reasoning is con-
ducted wholly in reference to what is true respecting real existen-
y reasoning in another mode it appears, that there cannot
‘De. a least conceivable magnitude, but that magnitude must be
conceived as divisible beyond any assignable limit. — the
term magnitude denotes an abstract conception, whose object is a
mere object of thought, and the reasoning i is conduc 7 wholly in
reference to what the mind can do in forming mer jects of
thought, analytically, and, when they are thus ‘ace in dis-
tinguishing between them %.
_ The solution of this apparent contradiction, which has. rit 1erto-
perplexed every inquiry respecting the divisibility of magnitude
turns upon the difference between things existing as mere thinks,
that is, as mere objects of thought, and things which are real ex-
istences, whether we think of them or not. Itis a distinction, _
which a German would immediately recognize as made. between
thought in itself—(Der Gedanke an sich), and thing in itse
(Das Ding an sich); and claims our assent not merely as th ut
as the starting point of all trath, i in _— to anythi
with propriety be called mental scien

sis may
problems may be left, at least for the present, to the refi
the geometrician. i

Art. XX XI.—Researches on Salts ; by C. Ger

Translated from the Journal de Pharmacie et de Chimie, t. xii: thire

Tue following experiments, form the outlines of a
tended research into the laws which govern the for
the composition of salts. They are intended partict

tion of salts. I hope, through them, to arrive ata
preciation of what is to be understood by a neutral salt,
and a basic ee
e part most neglected in the history of the salts
doubtedly that 2 which relates to the basic or subsalts.
introduction of polybasic acids, it is no longer possib!
precise definition of them; for we do not so readily
difference which can exist. between a salt said to bet
taining two or three equivalents of o and a
containing the same number. In most cas
not indicate, in this respect, any difference. — —
Srconp Sznizs, Vol. VI, No, 18.—Noy., ae

338 Researches on Salts.

It is generally thought that the number of subsalts formed by
the same te wi and the same base, is much greater than that of the
correspond rsalts or acid salts. So that five or six subnitrates

of lead are aeeetiel, five or six subsulphates of copper, three or
four subacetates of copper, etc., and the most irregular relations
are considered as occurring in the composition of these bodies.

My experiments do not give the same results. Whenever I
have been able to obtain a crystallized subsalt, or it has been pos-
sible for me so to control circumstances as to avoid a mixture, the
composition of the product was exceedingly simple. I have thus
been able to satisfy myself that there does not exist but a single
subsalt, or at most but two, for the same acid and the same base.

There is one fact whose importance is not perceived at first
sight, but which must nevertheless be borne in mind to prevent
errors; it is the influence of masses in the double decomposition
of salts. It is not a matter of indifference, when one solution is
to be ue by another, whether we pour the first liquid
into the second or the second into the first. It is stated, for ex-
am Be le , - an the oer that potash if added to a solution of sul-
pha opper precipitates the hydrate from it. The truth of
the ae is this; if potash is added drop by drop to the salt of
opper in such a way as to keep this latter in excess, we obtain
n sub-sulphate of constant composition ; by operating in an
‘inverse manner, we produce the blue hydrate perfectly pure. With-
ms the precaution of always maintaining in excess the liquid into

position, when in reality they are only mixture
nother not less striking example of this a diupavs of masses, %

bc

[ have noticed in the case of phosphate of soda and nitrate of lead.

Bins phosphate of sa, PO: (Nee 2 05, 2Na? O, H? O
a f N? 0* (Pb? H)=N? 05, 2Pb? O,H* O

rs aPb: O, H?0
PL 0+ (Pb: H)= SP 0" 2Pb? 0, H? O

a »tash, O(K
Sulphate of potash, SO‘(K?), potash species of the genus sulphate.

7
Researches on Salts. 339

By calcination, the crystals give off water and nitrous vapors,
and are converted, without changing their a: into quadribasic
subphosphate of lead, PO? (Pb*)= Peo? OQ. Cold water
does not change them, but boiling water converts them into tri-
basic phosphate of lead and _ nitrate of lead.

sides the influence of m there is another element to be

- considered in the double dedbespotition of salts, viz., temperature.

nm mixing a solution of nitrate of copper with neutral sul-
phate of potash, we do not observe any phenomenon at ordinary
temperatures. But let the mixture be heated to boiling, anda _
green powder will be precipitated, which when washed with
boiling water, will give the composition of the quadribasie subsul- ;
phate of copper, i.e. of the same salt which is precipitated by s
potash in the neutral sulphate of copper, used in excess.
This fact is by no means isolated. It is even still more re- ,

phate of copper; sulphate of potash can therefore act on

hold espectit the nature of acids an

which contain hydrogen or a metal, capable of being eeckk a
by double decomposition for another metal or for hydr
Hence potash and sulphate of potash are two salts of t the ‘same
cies, but belonging to different genera.

otash species of the genus oxyd. *

tet

Moreover, although the subsulphate of copper is formed only
at the temperature of boiling water, the quadribasic subchromate
of er, of which the composition is precisely similar, even to
the proportion of water, is produced at the pie bah Nh
by mixing neutral chromate of potash with neutral sulphate,or
nitrate of copper. The fact which I point out thang caul

tions of the chromates and those of the sulphates. The a
holds good even in the following case: if we collect the el
green precipitate, formed by boiling a mixture of sulphate
potash and a gece of copper, or nitrate of copper, and examin
it under a microscope, we Shall see that it is composed of an in-
finite number of I haa ne les, of a green so pale that singly
— — Se

Wels

ee

te
340 ? Researches on Salts. . =
* 2
SO* (Cut K}H;)= § 800M Oy
SO:, O, (KH) O. .
Derived from aifubsulphats SO* (M*) 2 =802,2M270.
It is only when we treat this salt with water, that we ‘obinish
bis phiate of potash and insoluble subsulphate of copper. Now
the brown precipitate formed immediately by neutral chromate of ,
potash in neutral salts of copper, is also a subchromate containing
both potassium and copper, and boiling water extracts from it bi- -
chromate of potash, leaving an insoluble subchromate of copper.
To the action of masses and temperature, then, in double decom-
position, is united also the influence of a third element, water; an in-
fluence which is permanent and not so easy to control as the others.
The water which is present, often enters into the composition
of salts. Chemists have long since established a difference be-
tween water of crystallization and that of constitution so called ;
attempt to demonstrate that basic salts obey in this respect
> same laws as acid salts. I shall use dualistic formulas to
‘ the analogy better.
oxalate of potash. Binoxalate of potash. Quadroxalate of potash.

2 20

?
a 0? 0°, K? 0 O? 0? H* 0
O:,K?0 Ge O°, H?0 C2 0°, H?0
C?0°, H:0

2 he same water of constitution in the salts called basic,
only the relations of acid, base and water are interchanged. My

tained, both of them, ina rigs a state.
unt ve bibasic subnitrate of | lead is

N? O*, Pb? 0

ee Pb? 0 * 0, Pree
H? 0, Pb? 0.

> - Here the same relations will be peed as between the neu-

tral oxalate, the binoxalate an iu

* Ann. de Chimie et de Phys., t. xviii, p.

“ a " re Sd
The 4 aq. are driven off at 262°-4F. The gene sul

Pigg shee
& Researches on Salts. 341 P

I have since obtained the subnitrate of zine in the form “4
ismatic needles, containing, as in th ceding exam
{N: 205, 4Zn? O, “SH? Q]. The formul ’ Schindler and of
Grouvelle are not e exact. These chemists analyzed mixtures ;
and consequently failed to notice that the precipitate produced
by aoe in nitrate of zine contains ammonia in combination
[N? O°, 4Zn? O, H? O,N? H®*], which is not the case in nitrate
of copper. - There are then three subnitrates, having a precisely
similar composition, and the same water of constitu
Subnitrate of iets Pb: NO*(Pb* H*)=N? O*; 4Pb? 0,3H? 0
of Cu: NOs (Cut BBN? 0+; ACu? O, 3H* Oxgr
& “ of Zn: NO*(Zn* H*)=N? Os, AZn? 0, 3H*OF 3
I think I can safely affirm that the subnitrates of cobalt and of
nickel present a similar composition ; however, as I have not op-
erated upon salts of nickel entirely free from cobalt, and vice +
versa, I do not advance this opinion unreservedly. a
Lest the analogy I have pointed out between the water of « ;
aunt of acid salts and that of basic salts, should still seem
ubtful, I will add another proof. When acid salts co
cane of water (water of crystallization) greater thé
which corresponds with the composition previously in
know they are deprived of this excess by desiccation at a ten
ature lower than that at which the water of constitution is.

off. fhe Se for a the cry tle ate of pi

c
C:0!,K?0

H? 0 ie
C:03,H?0 + 4aq. -

phate of copper contains at 212° F.
SO*,Cu?0

H? O, Cu? O

The 2 aq. are also driven off between 248° F’. and 266° F.., 1

the 3H? O resist a temperature of 392° F. The quadribasic.
chromate of copper hi poeeey the gom position of this subsulp

I could cite still 1 - ther subsalts, ey

ses of which confirm :

Their ae i

mmoniacal ohio of zinc, 1 my-
r I had constantly found in the two
” (67 1 per cent.). They do contain in

33

_ és
342 Researches on Nalis.

the same base, so IT have been unable to obtain more than two sub-
salts; and if it isa of sesqui-salts, of bi-salts, of tri-salts, of.
quadri-salts with water of constitution, my experiments also show
that the same relations, only reversed, exist in the basic salts, so
that we have subsalts, sesqui-metallic, bi-metallic, tri-metallic and
quadri-metallic, with the same water of constitution as in the cor-
responding acid salts.
In my view, the subsalts are neutral salts of a particular type,
4 as truly as the metaphosphates and the pyrophosphates. ‘The
: — — are called ’tribasic are nothing but subsalts, and
there is the same relation between an ordinary phosphate and a
ieotecliepbatesn as between a subnitrate and a nitrate. The dif-
ference is * mont in their relative stability. We give the fol-
owing as
On ae senisal chromate of potash to neutral nitrate of
jae ad, we obtain a canary-yellow precipitate of chromate of lead ;
on the contrary, we pour the same neutral chromate into the

- of fi oo acids ; but
will confine myself to stating the following facts, which a are in

er, i. e. 5°2 per cent., so as to con-
*H)=P? 0+,3Na? O, H? 0

te
ze
oe
=
fe)
2,
fe)
—
=)
a
ag
(=)
5
74
na
>
a>)
ie)
7
oO
|
>
°
=
=r
S
ae
a
=
°
-

an ides, the fact I cite is not isola-
tee the tribasic hese of barytes and the tribasic phosphate
f lime retain also the elements of water as high as 392° F. And
iideed, except the phosphase7 of lead and that of a I hee

od aot solutions should be used, for the subnitrate of lead is almost insoluble in in

the

*
Researches on Salts. 343

not found a phosphate which does not retain some water at a
pretty, high temperature. —

The _ pyrophosphates have afforded me similar facts. Thus
e pyrophosphate of barytes was found to consist of ;

PO? (Ba? H*?)=P?* O°, 2Ba? O, 2H? O.

“ee
- Tam well aware that it may be objected that the temperature
‘at which the water of constitution is expelled, is higher or lower
according to the salts; this objection is based on the reactions.
ut have I not shown above that the composition of the precipi-
tated salts can vary according to certain conditions of mass and
temperature? It is not then exact to say that any salt, for exam-
ple a tribasic, will always give, by double decomposition, precip-
itates of an analogous composition, i.e. tribasic. The principle
based by Mr. Graham on two or three facts, is in contradiction to
fifty others. Water, in which all these reactions take place, m
ifies them continually, and determines metamorphoses in mineral »

bibasic pyrophosphates and tribasic chaplains why not est
the same differences in the nitrates, the sulphates, the chlori r

nomena, when subjected to heat, from the nitrates of K, Na, b,
Ba? The first always retain the elements of water, and give on
g, nitric acid, as well asa subnitrate retaining in its turn
the elements of water, and the same is true of the whole Debs,
sian series [NO,(MH,)]|; while the nitrates of K, Na,
are anhydrous, and produce under the same circumstances, n trites
and oxygen gas
I will mention another fact not less conclusive. Alum) which
chemists consider as a combination of two neutral salts, has
acid reaction. At 248° F.. it loses five-sixths of its water, at
then becomes
50:,K* 0,8? O.
SO r ey al) H*)= $380, Al‘ 03, 3H? O,

This product is easily redissolved in water. But let it
at 392° F’. and it loses all its water and becomes insoluble.
have produced this site insoluble alum in the wet way:
necessary is to sprinkle the vl . ase with concen
sulpavitic acid, and app i few minute
crystals will be changed j a ‘ergtaline nah insoluble on
: in it rapidly. However, if this insol-
er eight or ten days, it may be seen
changing by degrees into small octahedrons of soluble alum.

= on
s ’ 344 ~~ Researches on Nalis.

From this it seems to me that alum contains, as truly as
phosphates, water of constitution, which when expelled from, @
salts, leaves it a body altogether different.

I would also call to mind that the tion ee
minium is a body volatile without decomposition, while the crys-
tallized Aydrochlorate of alumina is decomposed by heat int

hydrochlorie acid and pure alum

The conclusions which follow ican ok nee I have instanced, f
may be summed up in the following man

he expressions neutral salt, basic salt, wer salt, are arbitrary
terms, used to designate particular types of salts which differ
from each other by the elements of H? O, or of the metallic
oxyd M? 0.
These types are peereuerabls, with greater or less facility,
according to certain conditions of mass, of temperature, etc.,
it is impossible to daneries with precision in the present
of the science; and there are absolutely the same chemical
between the metaphosphates, the pis sao ao and
na a inge as between the nitrates and the basic

or of a metallic oxyd, and then give rise toa new t
ere is no rule for predicting these modification
fo'make my idea more intelligible, I will sweita out a i

Genus Puospuate, POZ(M?)+M? 0.
A. Sub-genus eererer sate
POi (M?)—3 M? O= =PO* (M)=[P*O*, M* OO} a2
All the so-called metaphoaphates will belong to this typer
B. Sub-genus equiphosphate, | PO(M?)=[P? O+,2M? O].
it includes a few Pyrophospunes, and especially the — of
Ea 212° F.,. POj (Na? ).

sai take this occasion to i that, the cubical alum has exactly the same
composition as the alum in octahedr The formation of cubical alum or Ro-
man alum belongs to the class of bene omena ~ crystallization so eet investiga-
by M. Beudant. I shall give in my wo the proofs respecting it.

M. Jacquelain (Comptes Rendus de ['Acad., -. xxiv, p. 44) affirms that alum
contains 22 atoms of water instead of 24 in the usual formula. This assertion 18
not sige at te: the new formula would require 43- per cent. of water, and we

ee er cent.
pasta nbical al gen percent. Now this is exactly the

¥ ae , ¢

Resedjthis se @éllt *, 345

P03 TM?) aM Onbo (M?)=[P? Os, 3M: O}.
sphate of soda called neutral, at 212° F., PO (Na? H).

Baill, of silver, . : i PO‘ (Ag?).
- pe lead, F é : : : POs (Pb*).
VD.’ subphosph
‘ ‘ ees 3(M‘)=[P? O%, 4M? O}.
ne of soda called asic, at 212° F.; POs (Na? H).
. of baryta at 212° F,, ; PO! (Ba* H).
. ,_ Pyrophosphate of ete“ at 212° F., ‘ PO: (Ba? H?).
Basic phosphate of lead, ‘ PO? (Pb*). — is

| | Genus rin SO: (Me )+M? 0
A. Sub-genus persulphate,
SO* (M*) —3M? O=S80j (M)= ee M? 03

Fuming sulphuric a

Crystallized anhydrous. bisulphate of potash, . 3
B. Sub-genus equisulphate, SO* ot Lae = oO

Concentrated sulphuric acid, ; Q'

* % Neutral sulphate of potash,
T? Bisulphate of potash at 2120 F.,
tae Insoluble alum, _ .

d White sulphate of copper,

C. Sub-genus 8 subsulpha :
“80 M?*)+M? 02805 (M‘)= '802,2M EO}, ..¥
ceviche sulphuric acid, density 1:780, SO°* (H*).
_ Alum desiccated at 262° AF, O* |
A salt obtained by boiling a mi ixture of 7
_ sulphate of copper and neutral sulphate
= _ of potash, at 212° F.,
-genus 0 eae ey
- $os (M?)+2M? 'O=80" (Ms j= ze wat
tp eth mineral, O° (Hg°).

* : Genus aii Cl? (Ml) M2 ©
_ There cannot be any perchlorids.
A. Sub-genus equichlorid, . . Cl? (M?) or @
Hydrochloric gas,_. ‘ ; ‘ Cl? (M?).
Chlorid of potassium, ‘ Cl? (K?).
Double chlorid of zinc and potassium, ot (KZn
Anhydrons ie aS hes inium, seu, 9 lg can

- Chlorate of alumin
x Oxychlorid of lead, : Pixs
me Sxconp Srrizs, Vol. VI, No. 18,—Noy. | 1848.

nu
raat oF (M2) + Ox O=or OOK Bla" ie Ol

" the Juvenas Metcoric Stone.

‘ 846 On #® Analysiso

Fgive the name of equisalts to those which correspond to the
acids produced by the combination of equal volumes of hydi
and a non-metallic body (for example, hydrochloric g:
the direct combination of equal volumes of water an
drid* (for example, concentrated sulphuric acid i The subsaits
contain the elements of an equisalt, plus nOM? , the veal,

osed of the same te hee minus nOM®.
These definitions appear to me much more precise than the
names applied to the same combinations in the dualistic system.
e researches of which I have just given the first results, =
5 | will soon be followed by a volume on mineral chemistry,. in a
which I — discuss more at length the principles of the wnitary
system (systeme weer which along with M. Laurent, I am
k endetedeiad to establish

XXXII.— Observations on Rammelsberg’s Analysis of

Tue two memoirs here voteatld to, are contained in the Anna- a
den er Physik und Chemie, von " C. Poggendorff, Band Ixxiil, 4
Stuck 4, (1848).

ae A Rammelsberg’s Analysis.

ommences his paper by a reference to my report
blished in former numbers of this Journal,+ and

by Rose
Sralvuis' of the meteorite, Alexander von Humboldt having sup-
plied him with a specimen for the purpose. The investiga- ¢

tion confirms my opinion respecting the mineral in question,
while Rammelsberg affirms that it has led to new results. “Das

PSoort 0 on n meteorites having been mainly devoted to such
“iter as had been observed in the United States, it was not
thogake proper to allude to foreign localities, except in a very

ise and general manner. This brevity ‘led Rammelsberg
cot loubt whether my inference respecting the feldspathic 2 ag

oh | have. pee bere shown (Journ. de Pharm. et de Chimie, t. xi, Pp: 370) ead |
mat by | analo logysithe volume of a non-volatile anhydrid i in the me

nown "volun of the corres
+ Vol. ii, ii ser., p.

On the Analysis of the Juvenas Meteoric Stone. 347

Gicgt of the Juvenas stone was made from the descriptions of
others, or had resulted from a new examination of the mineral

f. I may therefore be allowed to state, that it was formed F

mination of a large specimen of the Juvenas stone, :

that had been supplied to me by H. Heuland, Esq., out of the
fine mibteorig cabinet of the late Sir F. Chantrey. Besides, I am
| f the fact, if any writer has noticed the particular crys-
I have figured ‘of the anorthite, or made the ee
respecting the ee of the Juvenas stone which wer
‘included in the same paper.
Rammelsberg fi finds the Juvenas stone to consist of the sollaw-

ing minerals : §
Anorthite, about, : : « soa cs:
Augite, . : ‘ \ . COG
Chrome iron, “ . . 150 “ 4
Magnetic pytites, “oO 3 * ™

With perhaps minute traces of ‘apatite and rutile.
The anorthite is soluble in moderately strong hy¢
acid ; ‘hd consists of :

Silicic acid, . : 44:38
Alumina, . : 1 87S
Oxyd of iron, F 3:29
Bests yet rteen sue od OOF
Magnesia, ; 0:36
~ . : or 1S
Potass j 0:33 »
Pichon aci id, 0:54

Proto-sulphuret of iron, 0-71

102-44 | i nad
The augite was insoluble in hydrochloric acid ; and was de-
composed by carbonate of soda (and by hydrofluoric acid for de-

termining the soda content). It containe

xygen.
pene gee ; , 52-07 27°16 ;
_ 024 0-1 , oie ge

Petry of i iron, ’ 3081 6-91
Lim ii GSS 161
Magn 9-98 3°95

. 3 Orvigt ere weeny 0-10
Guiodie iroit : 2-13 28

Titanic acid, . ., O26

101: .
wy supposing that the phosphoric and tani ic aci
= liber me di iscovered in meteorites by the

: *,
348 On the Examination of the Braunau Meteoric Iron.

first of these in 1829, in the Virginia stone,* the ee OM
1843,+ of its presence in the same stone (in answer to the doub
expressed by Rumler in relation to the subject in Pogg. Ban
Stuck 2, 1841), and repeated allusions to the same poi I
recent peor reports: while, concerning titanic acid, it fe vate
a that I gave in my report the following. reasons vs
supposing ics it existed in the Juvenas stone under m rn
tion of sphenomite. “Thus named from its resemblance to a, pre.
It occurs in eget (with a tinge of yellow) thin, ee "
crystals, H.=5-5. Implanted on crystals of black apes
associated with anorthite in the Juvenas stone. Before the blow-
a pipe, it i readily to a black glass, which is rn It
' dissolves with effervescence, presenting the reaction of
* sphene. _ is luble in nitric acid, with the exception of aheavy
—* white powder, insoluble in ammonia. This solution contained
_ silicic acid and lime.”
‘. _1 was therefore led to regard the presence of titanic acid as
#7 early y certain in the meteorite ; and accordingly twice referred to
| In the course of the report, as a probable ingredient of

‘not, however, certain that the phosphoric acid exists com-
bined mh lime, in the form of apatite. It is possible that mag-
: __ hesia enters into the = and that the mineral constitutes
a; <. a new species. Nor can I yield to the suggestion, that the sup-
2 ‘posed titanic pos exists as rutile. On the other hand, I believe it

nt in clr gong in which I also detected silicic
and p brotoxyd of iron

2. Fischer's Analysis.

part of Fischer’s research Bia rad the Braunau
ared in the Annalen, Band Ixxii, 8. 475, and was trans-
y Mr. Lettsom for this Journal eel V, liser., p. 338).
nThe principal portion of the present article relates to the com-
Fischer of the insoluble ingredient of the iron, concerning which
observes, that it has very properly been called Schreib-
ersite by the Vienna naturalists.
i> Now this is the name by which, in 1846, I designated the sul-
phuret of chromium, found in the Bishopsville (S. C.) meteoric
dig one year before the fall of the Braunau iron occurred. d
I had moreover Seorie i ed in my report on meteorites, the very

We

* See this Journal, vol. xvi, p. 199. t Ibid, vol. xlv, p. 102.

ii er

|

Contributions to the Mycology of North America. 349

ion after Dr. Schreibers, (whom, I am happy to learn from
of. Agassiz still survives, contrary to my impressions when I
named the mineral,) I am nnable to conjecture.

Fischer finds the insoluble matter to consist of:

> SBT68,

He concludes that the Braunau iron consists s of 95 t0 98 p. c.
of nickeliferous iron, with traces of cobalt, calcium, magnesium,
chlorine, &c., (the sulphur and chromium, found by him and Du-
flos, appearing to belong to the pyrites and the insoluble, scaly
mineral. He thinks that the constitution of the ri hin pai ae
not be found constant throughout the mass; and that no two
analyses will give constant results.

The little balls of diffused pyrites are found to be a 1
chemical compound of a simple sulphuret of iron and nicke
since it dissolves in hydrochloric acid at common temperatures
with the evolution of hydrosulphuric acid, unattended by the

separation of sulphur,—there Theta only a little residuum
(about 1 p. ¢.) which contains chrom carbon and silica.

The dyslytite constitutes the remaining ingredient ot best: -—
and is everywhere diffused through it
Fischer, (after the suggestion of Beraelivs,) attribaies the Wid id-
mannstattian figures of meteoric iro 4 be ca

All these ingredients are more or a crystallized. ‘The = 4
also magnetic ; the nickel-iron and the dyslytite with polarity,
latter more so than the former; while the magnetic pyrites is
simply attracted by the magnet.

New Haven, August 29, 1848.

Arr. XXXIII.—Contributions to the Mycology of North ba .
America ; by M. A. Curtis i

Tue history of Mycology in this country is soon told. Pate:
ing by the few species noticed by Plukenet, Clayton, Walter, and
the almost always doubtful matter of Rafinesque, we d M.

Bosc, first giving any nite and uiteligsts — to our

Fungi.
In 1811, he published in the Ber lin Mapes” faivoral new
species found near Charleston, S. C., where, like Delile at Wil-

a

*
350 Contributions to the Mycology of North America.

mington, N. C., he held the office of French Consul. His new
species, which are all interesting, do not exceed half a dozen;
"4 and only. one—the curious Hyperhiza—retains the place he g re

—a beautiful Fungus—belongs to Mitremyces, Nees: L. trans-—
versarium, Bosc, is Cauloglossum transversarium, Fries. And L.
cyathiforme, Bosc, I suspect is a state of L. Bovista, Linn. ~~
Dr. Muhlenberg established the fine genus, Glonium. Beyor
this I am not aware that he added anything new.
ead? The largest additions to the knowledge of Fungi in this coun-
_* try were made by the learned Schweinitz. He had already ac-
_* quired a European reputation by a valuable local work on Fungi,
. prepared by himself and Albertini It is in this department of
botany that he was especially skilled and successful, though he is
» generally better known among us for his investigations in other
orders. In 1820, he published in the Leipsic Transactions, un-
ditorship of Schwegrichen, his F'uner Carotins® SupPe-
eing an enumeration of. species already published which
1e ha ‘detected in North Carolina, with description’ of new ones.
The number of species in that paper is 1373.
In 1831, Mr. Schweinitz published in the Transactions of the
American Philosophical Society of Philadelphia, a “Synopsis
_ Fungorum in America Boreali media degentium.” This in-
» cludes all the species of the former paper, and like that, is com-
posed of enumeration and description. It includes 3098 species,
of which over twelve hundred are given as first discovered by
uimself. From these some deduction must be made for bad spe-
Mycelia, pseudo-Fungi, and a few already described by
Still his additions, confined as his examinations were to
stricts, must be considered very large and interesting.
me half dozen new genera were founded by this author.
The late Mr. Lea of Ohio, had given some attention to this class
ts. His small collection was sent to the Rev. M. J. Ber-
keley of England. It comprised thirty or forty undescribed spe-
cles, part of which have been published by Mr. B. in Hooker’s
London Journal of Botany. This accomplished mycologist has
also published a few other species from different parts of North
America, which have been easily gathered by various collectors.
Among them is a species of Cyclomyces—C. Greenei, Berk.—a
very interesting addition to our Fungi, discovered by B. T.
Greene, Esq., at Tewksbury, Mass.
At present [ do not know that any American botanist is giving
this obscure but interesting order any special attention, except 1H.
W. Ravenel, Esq., of South Carolina, and myself.

upon pine logs and stumps. Lycoperdon heterogeneum, tan

Contributions to the Mycology of North America, 351

In the present paper are enumerated two decades of Fungi not
mere included in any American publication, and one of new
They are taken at random from lists of several fee
lich will be published from time to time hereafter. To ac-
knowledge a heavy debt of obligation, and to insure to the fol-
Owing list an authority which I could not myself give it, I
ust here state that nearly all the species have passed under the
p of my very attentive and generous com Mr.
erkele
‘The species requiring el will be Svurell ae others
in a future number of the Journal.
. AGARICUS RACHODES, ie —Ad radicem arbors mort.
Bilebigeneh, N.C. “<2

2. Marasmius HEMATOCEPHALUS, Fries.—Ad t ; fimum
ramulosque dejectos in graminosis, Hillsborough: item, Santee

Potyporus — Mont. aes ramis emortuis. Hills
bed N. C :

:. EELGERRHENSIS, Mont.—Ad truncos prostratos pr
tim Liriodendri. Hillsborough.

5. P. Sutzivanru, Mont.—In ramis dejectis. Hillborh

6. Hex
Santee Canal, 8. C.! Mr. Raven
7. Boterus Saranas, Lenz. —Ad terram in sylvis. Hills-
borough.

eTus ANANAS, n. sp.—Pileus pulvinatus, crasse ct rigide
éifhidoso-floccotus, luteus, ad basin floccorum venis ie vari-
egatus; margine tenul; hymenio plano, ad stipitem depresso,
sulphureo fulvescente, vulneribus viridescentibu us; tub buli s mediis,
obtuse angulatis ; stipite levi, solido, albo ; sporidiis ferrugineis.
pecies pulcherrima, subter truncos Pineos prostratos. Aug.,
Sept. Society Hill, S.C. ; item, Santee Canal! Ravenel.

Pileus 3-4 inches broad, 1 thick. Tubes 4 line in diameter.
Stipe about 3 inches long, 4—} inches thick, the base somewhat
enlarged. In habit approaches B. strobilaceus, Scop., otk
very different.

9. posocsieet DIFFORME, F'ries—Ad terram in —_ h
ety Hill.

dis. Soci
. TyPHULA TENUIssIMa, n. sp.—Simplex, gregaria,
eo-filiformis, acutissime attenuata, pallida ; ee Faas
gro; tuberculo nullo. In foliis putrescentibus Phase Aug.,

Sept. Society Hill 3-1 inch long, about $ line thie hick.

XAGONA eciormmoenirs, Fries.—Ad truncos cariosos.
el.

%
-.”

anal, S. C.! ex Ravenel. ty

352 Contributions to the Mycology of North America.

11. Sricris Sestertm, Lib.—In vaginis imis emortuis Andro-
pogonis. Santee Canal. Mr. Raven el. #

12. Spermepia T'RIpsact, n. sp. . —Lineari-lanceolata, cate
squamosa, pallida, apice fuliginea. EE seminibus Tripsaci.~ Hills- - ‘i
boroug :

Ebaat 4 inch Re 1 line thick. In texture this is very un= —
like 8. Clavu =

. Spuxria Norarisi1, Mont.—In ramulis emortuis Gledits-
chin et Robiniz. Hillsborough, N. C. a

wat 14. Doruipes Prertp1s, Reb.—In frondibus Pteridis aquilinee. '
‘ Rhode Island. Misit J. Olney.

4 (15. Geaster saccatus, Fries.—Ad terram juxta truncos cari- :
osos prostratos. Santee Canal, S.C. Ravenel. —— is a Bra- =
zilian species, and an interesting addition to our Flor

#. 16. PHYSARUM DECIPIENS, nN. sp.—Adnatum, bibcatr et ovale
Vel confluens, inde lineare et reniforme ) olivaceo-virente aves-
ah m, indefinite diffractum. Floccis aureis. Sporidiis
Ad truncum vivum Quercus. Aug.—Dec. Society {
——

han 4a line poms be simple. Morphosis not seen. ,
Goittisines five to seven rs

17. Sremonrris renerrrma, n. sp.—Sparsa, absque hypothallo ; 4
‘ peridio ovato, acuto; capillitio sporidiisque pallide ferrugineis ; é
stipes 2-3plo longior, subulatus, attenuatus, niger, seri toto
penetrans. Ad caules herbarum putrescentium. Society Hill.
About a line high.

PRP Acuxonoius crisrosus, F'ries.—Ad runcum Quercus pros-

tratum. Hillsborough.
19.) ‘HOSPORIUM MACROCARPON, Grev. en ramis variis ‘

emortuis. N. and S. Carolina. y

at ea SPORIUM Rateemest n. sp.—Longe effusum,

elutinum, fu fusco-olivaceum ; fibris dense aggregatis, oa no-
ioe y ae: pete ta ellipti o-oblongis, 3-4 septatis,—Totam
ee Indici investiens. ae ta 'N. and 8.

4 This: is so common upon Sporobolus Indicus, that it is diffi-
Gilt to obtain specimens not wholly blackened by this Fungus.
It is perhaps from this that it has gotten the name of “black
seed grass.” ‘The seeds are far from black.

21. Hexicoma Berxeveyi, n. sp.—F'ibris aggregatis, _— ra-
mosis, opacis, septatis, flexuosis, fragilibus ; sporis coideis,
reniformibus, opacis, multiseptatis ; sporidiis jecoetis ea sece-

icem et lig num Corni fect & Liquidam-
, Society Hill ; item, Salicis Babylonice, Santee Canal;

Doptiting ‘as black spots of two lines to several inches i
flocci invisible to the naked eye.
22. 'TRIPOSPORIUM ELEGANS, Si Sar caules tein in
u quis uiliis. Society Hill.
RB. AspercILLus maximus, Lk.—Ad Polyporos mucidos. So-
jety Hill.
* 24, Orr PULVINATUM, n. sp.—Cespitulis pulvinatis, com-
pactis, primo ochroleucis dein aureis ; floccis fertilibus in articulos
globosos ovalesque Saat —Ad ligna putrida, Society Hill;
nel.

item, Santee Canal ;
Tufts Sar are 1-2 tiles broad and high, sometimes confluent.

An elegant speci
‘25. Pesva.ozzia PEZIZOIDES, De Notaris.—In ramis morty os
Vitis riparize. Hillsborough. ,
26. Areema mucronatum, D. C.—In foliis Rosrun.
borough.
_ 27, Puccinta AmorPH#, n. sp.— ve mphigena. Soris sparsis et
approximatis in macula flavescente, subrotundis, nigris ; sporidiis
compactis, st ga a raro globosis, in medio constrictis, opacis ;

ihe

Hill; item, A. i sem Santee Canal, Ravenel.—Sporidia re-
markable for a loose transparent vesicular ot6) epidermis often en-
closing and bordering the opake nuc

28. CRONARTIUM ASCLEPIADEUM, Kunze.—In foliis Comptoniz.
Hillsborough.

29. Urepo Piacenns D. C.—In foliis Amygdali Persice.
Society Hill.

30. Urepo Hyprinis, n. sp.—Sparsa et fasciculata, maculis
emarcescentibus ; pseudo-peridia parva, convexa, rotunda vel ob-
longa, lutescen tia. Sporidi a ochroleuca, ovalia obovata et s
globosa, minima, subpellucida, (sporidiolis farcta?) raro subp
cellata.—In utraque pagina foliorum, in caulibus, bracteis,
busque, os radiate.

The nearest affinity of this species seems to be ble a Lab’
tarum, D. C.—Santee Canal, Ravenel.

Sxconp Serizs, Vol. VI, No. 18.—Nov., 1848. _ 46

ofa ana heat a val

pedicello brevi aut nullo. Ad folia Amorphe herbacee, Society ,

’ 3

: Pores) acca d
Arr. XXXIV.—Geology of South Alabama ; by C. 8. i.»
; Mobile. se, otk

Or the three sa included in the tertiary system, the up- —
per, m iddle and lower,—or agreeably to the nomenclature of Mr.
Lyell, rhe pliocene, ‘miocely and eocene—only the last has been
found with certainty to exist in Alabama ; and even this appears
to be limited to the older portion of the series. For certain de-
posits of this formation, which occur in the Carolinas and Flori ma
contain fossils specifically distinct from those of the Ae
beds, and which evince that the former pPomtities embrace a newer |
part of the series |

The geographical limits of the formation, on the north, may |

be defined by an imaginary line passing between the Upper and
Lower Peach-tree landings, on the Alabama river; through Mos-
cow on the Tombecbee, thence by the Suearnochee creek,
through Kemper and Carrol counties, Miss., to Arkansas state,
id to Natchitoches on the Red river. On the south, the last
of the coralline white limestone beds disappear beneath the 4

ng sands and clays near the junction of the Alabama and
Tombecbee rivers. And on the Mississippi the equivalents of
these beds terminate near its junction with the Red river, forming
a zone about sixty miles in width. :

The surface of this region is generally very uneven, consisting
principally of the white limestone beds, which have been furrow-
ed out into detached precipitous masses, laying bare, in many
instances, the subsequent strata, and the whole i is often covered
by more recent deposits of sand and cla

The following is the order of the eocene series of Alabama.

' a ae Clay bed.

a: a an shells. : d
4. Clay bed with oysters. | 4

eh. play arenaceous limestone. Section of the Claiborne
: “ bluff.

The best natural section of foes: beds occurs at Claiborne,
and may be regarded as normal deposits. This cliff which is
nearly two hundred feet in height, includes the entire series of
the formation with the exception of a few strata at the.two eX-

mes.

~ The basal bed of the cliff which may be seen here at extreme |
low water, is a sandy deposit, partially developed at this locality, i
but in other places it exhibits very decided characteristics, as an |
important part of the group. We have identified its existence

fale on the Geology of South Alabama. 3565

through a wide ge Its northern outcrop may be

ge.
7“ “blufls, on the two main water

| <p near ok’s 2
re - rses. Its thickness varies from fifteen to twenty feet. It con-
sists of fine quartzose sand, mixed with silicate of iron, and is

sometimes marly by testaceous remains, with which it greatly
abounds. 'The best development of this deposit occurs in Clark
Zz. ty on Bashui creek and its ‘branches. It is here densely charg-
with fossils, including nearly all the different species of testa-
cea common in the other parts of the series, together with many
eo ones, some of which are unique. the latter may be no-
ed a species of Rostellaria, differing from Lea’s R. Lamarckii in
ving a more attenuated ewe and a very spe tubercle
situated on the back of the body whorl. Also a new species of
Voluta, having a general resemblance to V. Inetator of the Lon- ~
don clay, but differing in a remarkable deposit of enamel behind —
the aperture, forming a large bourelet covering half the spire to
the summit, enveloping also the folds of the columella, and
yea sy flattening and deforming the symmetry of the ———
Also a new species of Tornatella: shell robust, spirally fluted
flattened ribs, spire attenuated, two stout folds on the col
outer 9 denticulated. A new species of Ranella trans
ribbed, cancellated, with small intermediate varices between the
two sioeigad ones, and coarse indentations on the inner margin |

r

“4

y

- the outer lip. Another species answering to Cassidaria cari- by

ta, Lam., figured in Lyell’s Principles of Geology, as a charac-

i tubercles. 6 bed spect consideration which we designate

3, is the source of several mineral springs, as the ‘Talla-
ont Bladon, Minisoenitie, Heme ale, and some others of less
notoriety. These all appear to be identical in their mineral prop-
erties, which are evidently derived by infiltration from the in-
gredients of the subjacent bed of lignite through which they

percolate. But this bed of lignite, (No. 2,) for other Teasons -

may be considered a very important part of the series. It
lies upon the lowest bed of the group, which last, No. 1, con-
sists of bituminous clay, more or less sandy and sometimes con-
taining large masses of sandy concretions. This clay bed is
about twenty-five’feet in thickness and rests dee on,
the subjacent cretaceous beds. It may be traced along #l ie A ai
bama river from Tate’s ferry to near the Upper Peach-tree
ing; where it terminates; also on the ‘Tombecbee river from
Wood’s bluff to its termination, at ‘Black bluff. It appears to be
destitute of fossils; but with its associated bed of lignite, it forms
a very distinct line of demarkation between the tertiary and cre-

s. At Grayson’s landing on Goal bluff, as it is
Sometimes called, the deposit of lignite is well developed i in con-

3

2

356 C.S. Hale on the Geology4

nexion with the overlying sand a cent clay bed. Its
thickess here amounts to four fee he color is dull black, tex-
ture compact with occasional thin fibrous laminations, structure

massive, sometimes fragmentary; it burns without swelling or
caking, mg abounds with sulphate of iron both crystallized “and
amorphou

Want of leisure has prevented a suitable examination of its
organic remains. The vegetable part however furnishes decided
evidence of its intertropical character. Between our two ape
pal water courses this deposit of lignite lines the bottom at
sides of the streams through a zone ten or fifteen miles in width
It occurs in a western direction in Pigeon creek on the border
the state of Mississippi, near the northern limits of Washington

county. It is found also at Natchitoches on Red river, where
.* underlying bed eonsists of a grayish plastic: clay, very adhe-
sive ; on Bedia’s creek near the Trinity river, Texas; at Robin’s
ferry on the Brazos; and at Bastrop on the Co lorado. At all
these places the lignite occupies the same relative position in the
series, and is probably continuous vag the whole of this ex-
arking the former coast
he greensand deposit, No. 3, already noticed as partially de-
veloped at the base of Claiborne bluff, passes insensibly into No.

- A, an argillaceous muddy deposit above, with a thickness varying

gf from

vet

m fifteen to twenty feet. The fossils of this bed are limited
almost exclusively to the Ostrea genus ; the only exceptions ap-
pear to be the Cardita planicosta, two or three species of Turri-
tella and an Arca. The stratum No. 4, also makes its appearance
at Coffeeville landing on the Tombecbee, where it exhibits the
same identical fossiliferous character.
here occur here however a new species of 'Turbinolia, resem-
bling very much the enc eons ochracea of Lamouroux—
two = three new species of Lonsdale’s new genus Endopachys,
a new species of Lunulite. This stratum may also be seen
t Bell’s landing on the Alabama, where its thickness amounts to
feet. At the bottom of this cliff with the Ostrea common
Whe stratum, I found the Cardita planicosta of very large di-
mensions
The riéxt in the ascending series is a limestone deposit with
sandy and argillaceous ingredients variously “intermixed. ‘The
few species it contains are common also in the other beds,’ and
probably were introduced here in some adventitious way. I have
not been able to discover this deposit anywhere else except in
the Claiborne section
To this limestone deposit, another clay bed, No. 6, succeeds,
being about twenty feet in thickness. It is remarkable for noth-
ing else but a band of oysters of the selliform species, all ©
which are of a mature size, and probably lived on the spot. ‘This

re

Mis

=

Hale on the Geology of South Alabama. 357

cu = again five miles below on the river,
ion in the i eg in both of which in-
stances the opines are “fall, grown ; whereas in the lower
both at Claiborne and Coffeeville, they are Faprineipelly of imma-
ture size, a peculiarity which may possibly be owing to the cir-
cumstance of their exposure in the latter case to the influence of
a current, when small and easily drifted.
The next bed, No. 7, is a deposit of fine.yellow quartzose sand

with a small Mdintare of silicate of iron; in some instances it is"

highly ferruginous. It contains nearly all the different species of
fossils found in the series. Its medium height is about fift

species of radiata, mollusca, reptiles, fish, and mammifers,

amounting in all to about three hundred. Those which embrace .-

the greatest number of individuals, belong to the genera, Cythe-
rea, Cardita, _Crassatella, Pectunculus, Crepidula, Oliva, ‘Turni-

them seem to have been promiscuously thrown together, as
they had been exposed to the violent agitation of the w
The testacea of this bed are all marine and nearly all of the )

the littoral kind. Not a single species of _— or freshwater

shells has yet been found in any of these be
small seam of earthy lignite, distainisintelhi in small fi en-

- tary masses, forms a somewhat striking feature about midway in

the yellow. sand : and associated with it were found the only re-
mains yet discovered of terrestrial mammalia. e greater por-
tion of the fossils peculiar to this bed have already been described.
We shall therefore omit the notice of such, and at present sexed
allude to those in our cabinet which are unique. One of the
most remarkable of these is that of a Nautilus, which oa to
be restricted to this deposit. Our specimen is too imperfect to
admit of a very particular description. In its entire state it could
not have been less than one foot in diameter. We have also ob-
tained from this deposit wre new species of Echinoderms, and
Madrepores, and many new species of Molluscs, of the genera
F'usus, Terebra, Ancillaria, Phasianella, Murex, ‘Turretilla, Sola-
rium, Scalaria, Pyrula, Venus, Arca, Tellina

Of fish, there are remains of the Pristis, spines of the Ray, vari-
ous species of palatal teeth, vertebrae of many unknown Prime and
teeth and vertebre of the shark. Of terrestrial mammalia there ar
several maxillary fragments of small quadrupeds. ‘The most inter.
esting relic of this class is omin ofa quadrupedy whose ty

358

called the glyptodon. The occipital | fac of the skull slopes
forward, from the plane of the occipital foramen, at an angle of
45°, In the small existing armadillos it is vertical. In the glyp-
todon this surface is divided by a medium vertical ridge, and
es ogee from the upper surface of the skull by a transverse
ridge. The interorbital part of the upper surface of the cranium
is somewhat broad, and nearly flat, and concave at its posterior
hal he anterior part of the base of the cranium, shows the
large cavities of the olfactory bulbs, and the remains of an exten-
sive cribriform process, evincing that the organ of smell was well
developed. he existing species of this order of animals inhabit
the warm and temperate parts of South America. It is char-
acterized by the sloth, the ant-eater, and the armadillo. In their

habits they are nocturnal and gregarious, burrow in the ground,
~ and fe

bodies, reptiles, the root of the manioc, and
other succulent plants. Were this the only relic of the family
that has been found in this part of the continent, it might seem
presumptuous to deduce any special conclusion from its oc cur-
rence in our tertiary beds. A single individual might, for orite;
have wandered beyond the limits of its habitat, or by some acci-
dental means have been transported into a foreign situation. But
since other kindred remains of this family, the megatherium, for
instance, have been found in this part of the continent, we ma
reasonably conclude that it was once their proper abode, and
zoologically connected with the southern division. What might
have been its condition then, and what are the changes that have
since occurred to have caused the present diversity of the two
faunas, are s Kaien that force themselves upon our consideration.
That this diversity has been produced by external physical
causes, such as change of climate, and modifications of the earth’s

- surface, can scarcely be doubted; for no other reason can be as-

signed w why a living typical representation of these extinet spe-
cies, should not still be found north as well as south of. the
Mexican mp

aphical distribution of faunas has changed since
the a oi lived in the British isles, and the mastodon was in-
digenous to both North and South America, ~ interesting facts
to be accounted for in the adaptation of the nature and habits of
animals to the external circumstances in which they are placed.
Such an adaptation furnishes the reason of the limitation of the
present congeners of our species to their South American locality-
And we have only to suppose an assimilation of conditions be-
tween the two parts of the contin ,and perhaps the substitu-
tion of an unbroken connection by means of the continuation 0
the table lands of Mexico, or the Carribean Islands, in order to
= a similar correspondence between our _——— and extinct

nas.

C28. Sisto on the Geology of South Alabama. 359

But to pursue the details
the bed, No. 7, which for
borne section, is e pie: ibited in many other places, and often be-
comes an important criterion to determine other parts of the
series. ‘Two miles below, near Forward’s landing, it makes its
appearance in a similarly i cliff, and becomes quite as in-
teresting for the abundance of its fossils, with no apparent diver-
sity of species. And again, still farther down the river, at Bare-
field’s plantation, it is developed about ten feet above the water,
in connection with the subjacent oyster

Four miles farther south, at the bend of the eae near
limestone creek, the bed, No. 7, appears at low water in con-
nection with the overlying Claiborne beds. It also occurs in
the interior of Clark county, where it is exposed in a ravine
at the base of the white limestone hill; on Limestone creek, near
the salt works, and at the base of St. Stephen’s bluff one mile
above the landing : thence in a northeasterly cee its out-
ceappings may be traced to the borders of Mississ

all these situations, the stratum under consideration exhibits

a rothatiaable identity both in its mineral and zoological c¢

to the unevenness of the older cretaceous beds which it ‘over-——

laps in a tortuous and irregular manner

e remaining part of the eocene series, exclusive of the su-
perficial sand and clay, may be included under the 8 et gga of
white limestone. The peculiarities of this part of the series,
seem to require such a distinction. It consists of limestone, both
compact and loose, somewhat arenaceous and marly below, but

passing upwards into a very pure carbonate of lime, having often
a white chalky appearance without signs of stratification. But
the distinction regards more especially its fossils. ‘Though the
general type of its fauna identifies it as a part of the eocene
group, yet there is a manifest peculiarity ; the upper portion espe-
cially consists almost entirely of comminuted remains of marine
organisms, such as Orbitolites and other coralline forms. Indeed
the aspect of the species in the subordinate part of the formation
presents obvious differences, such as occurrences of Echinoderms
of various genera, pectens and oysters of a peculiar type, and
above, a very unique species of cetacean mammal. These pecu-
iarities were, until lately, considered a sufficient reason to class
these deposits as a newer part of the cretaceous system. t it
now ascertained both by atigraphical and paleaeeneet ev-
idence, that they form an ‘upper section of the eocene strata
We have fixed the commencement of this subdivision ghee
ately after the bed last considered, No. 7, for here we find an evi-
dent transition from the prevailing forms of the preceding beds

ee en .
360 C.S. Hale on the Geology of South Alabama:

a peculiar zoological type that nak evident change of
goatee condition.

With a few of the smaller less chardctertil species that have

d into these upper beds, we meet with a large proportion of

Radiata, such as Scutella, Spatangus, d&c., and as we as scend in

‘series, various new species of pecten and oysters, to the al-
most entire exclusion of the species that prevailed in the prece~
ding deposits.

The ferruginous sand which we regard as the transition bed, 1s
not very distinguishable from the bed immediately pose ex-
cept for the large number of Scutellee which it contai Six
miles below Ctaiborne at the bend of the Alabama, ta may be
seen with a large amount of its characteristic fossils, where the
superjacent strata are identical with those similarly associated in
the Claiborne section. But the series are continued upwards so

as evidently to connect with the Orbitolite limestone, we a few

miles down the river near Dale’s ferry, a similar connexion may
be seen with a very full development of the Orbitolite peered
Many other instances of this kind might be adduced if it were
necessary to show that such is the true order of the series.

The white limestone formation is exhibited in detached and

n
-of Munroe, Clark and Washington. In the neighboring counties,

and even through the state of Mississippi, the white limestone is
replaced by a blueish argillaceous marl, in some instances loose,
in others hard and compact. After the white limestone was de-
posited, new agencies appear to have been brought into operation,
= furrowed out its beds, and, in many instances, laid bare
the lowest of the subjacent strata. These effects are more
spotisfent: in the northern limits of Clark county, where the de-
nudations have extended to a lowest eocene beds and formed
between the limestone hills in some instances to the
depth of three or four hundred feet. These are the only marked
effects of violent disturbance that occur in any part of the series,
and they very probably belong to a much later date, perhaps to
that change of geological conditions indicated by the overlying
mass of sand and clay. But whether this superficial mass was
formed within or after the eocene period, we have not the means of
knowing, as it is destitute of fossils. The gravel and rolled shin-
gle however seem to indicate a kind of agency more in accord-
ance with events of some subsequent date, than with that of the
tranquil deposition of the preceding eocene strata.

The train of these remarks has caused us to omit noticing the
paleontological features of the white limestone formation. The
orbitolite and other coralline remains which constitute its princl-
pal ingredients have already been alluded to. Their accumula-

tion here furnishes a striking illustration of the remark, “That

Sy

C.S. Hale on the Geology of South Alabama. 361

the most important results are often produced by the simplest

means.” For what can seem more insignificant than one o

these _ discoidal organisms more attenuated than the thinnest
r the still smaller coralline forms scarcely distinguisha-

able a a microscopic fibre? But i ificant as they a

in a separate point of view, they constitute the entire mass |

many of these limestone hills.

In addition to this mass of zoophytes, may also be noticed
various species of Echinoderms, some of which are quite unique ;
they belong to the genera, Spatangus, Scutella, and Echinus.
pe species of Spatangus is very similar to 8. retusa, a cretaceous
Os a

It ‘be presumed, from this similarity of fauna, that the
callie, in which the two formations were produced, could
not have been very different. If the Mississippi equivalent of the
white limestone, which is a bluish marly limestone, were taken
for the type, it must be admitted that a striking similarity also
exists even in their mineral character.

The molluscs peculiar to these beds are Spondylus dumosum,
Pecten Poulsoni, P. perplanata, Ostrea panda, O. cretacea, and
indeterminate casts of Cyprea, Conus, Natica, Mya, and Modiola.

he remains of fish are principally of the Placoid order, as th
ray, shark, and pristis. But the most wonderful of all these asso-
ciated tribes, is the noted cetacean called the Zeuglodon.

The metropolis of this strange inhabitant appears to have been

T

as the state of Arkansas, and per: to South Carolina.
Their geological situation is in the tertiary beds immediately be-
low the orbitolite limestone, near the denuded surface of those
gentle declivities which form a step to the summit of these hills.
‘They are seldom found in their natural position—but in many
aaieee appear to have been torn, by some disturbing cause,
rom their ancient resting place and scattered to remote distances.
We are informed by some of the early settlers that entire skele-
tons were formerly exposed upon the surface of the earth, and
that these remains were in some instances so abundant as to be-

* We omit here some descriptive —_ on the Zeuglodon, as the skeleton
has been \ senteaiot described with more fullness. —Eps.
Szcoxp Srrizs, Vol. VI, No. 18.—Nov., 1648. 47

ra

362 C. S. Hale on the Geology of South Alabama.

These eocene strata were all evidently formed z= circumstan-
ces exempt from the influence of disturbing cause With the
exception of a few local interruptions of level, ivietbtieatble to the
inequalities of the older beds, they appear to retain their parallel-
ism in all their geographical extent. It is very rare that in re-
mote situations, a diversity in the sea-bottom, or some other geo-
logical change, does not produce a marked diversity i in the char-
acter of the deposits; but this series furnishes a remarkable ex-
ception in this respect. A ee uniformity in the lithological
and zoological characters of the same beds, prevails whereve
they have ‘been observed. This gnifonnity evinces not only the
absence of disturbing causes, but a very unusual coincidence of
geological conditions. ‘The denudation of the white limestone

s, being considered as a subsequent event, is of course not in-
cluded in this category.

Another circumstance, worthy of consideration, is the absence
of land and fluviatile testacea, and the exclusive limitation of the
fossils of these beds to a marine fauna, with the exception of the
few remains of terrestrial animals already noticed. Even the
estuary group of Cerithia so numerous in the i equiva-
lents, is very sparingly represented in these de

Restricted as these beds are to a marine fa, * is rather sur-
prising that they contain a fhe considerable abundance of vege-
table remains. Nothin recise however has been ascer-
tained respecting the dieuaithot of the land from whence these re-
mains were derived. It is evident however that this part of the
globe, in the period under consideration, was very different from
what it is at present.

From the general character of the organic remains, as well as
from various other Stalere aoe it is not likely that these de-
posits were formed in very deep water. We may rather con-
clude, from the indications exhibited, that they were at one time.
sedimentary shoals, or a mud-bank, forming a suitable habitation

changed as to become tear ste into a widely extended ocean,

th a corresponding change of fauna, suited to its varying
zones of depth, either such as were e adapted to inhabit a shal-
jl ie sea, or the still greater depths of a more expand-
ed ocea

Taking into view the regular and quiet operation of the agen-
cies which mark the progress of events in the series, it is rather
surprising, at first, to notice the contrast exhibited between this
and the preceding cretaceous group; the peculiarity of its or-
ganic remains, gives to the tertiary fauna more the appearance 0
a new creation than a gradual development of the same general
system. But as the upper portion of the cretaceous equivalents

A. Schlieper on the Oxydation of Urie Acid, §e. 363

is probably wanting in our series, and possibly some pies inter-
vening deposits not yet made out, a sufficient tim

elapsed between the deposition of the two groups, i furnish a
Loner explanation of the pemarkable ghange of conditions they
man

Art. XXXV.—On the Orydation of Uric Acid by means
of Potassa and Ferridcyanid of Potassium; by Avorn —
ScHLIEPER.

ALTHovGH a great many products of the decomposition of uric
acid have been discovered during the last ten years, yet they

and nitric acid on uric acid has been investigated by Liebig and
Wohler in a masterly manner.* I have already demonstrated the
formation of alloxan and urea from uric acid, by the action of
chlorate of potassa and hydrochloric acid. With these excep-
tions, the influence of no other oxydating body on uric acid, has
ever been the subject of an original investigation. For these
reasons it seemed to me interesting, to study the oxydation of uric
acid in an alkaline solution, because its decomposition, effected
altogether by a new mode, might throw light on many points,
still emigmatical, in the constitution of the products of the de-
composition of uric aci

A notice from Mercer, i in regard to the bleaching of cotton cloth
dyed indigo-blue, by means of a solution of caustic potash an
ferridcyanid of potassium, suggested to me the idea of applying
the same mode of oxydation to uric acid; but in doing so, I found
it exceedingly difficult, to separate the resulting salts of potash i in
such a way, that the newly generated and so easily decomposable
products of uric acid should remain unchanged

It is well known that one equivalent of ferridcyanid of potas-
sium with one equivalent of potash are decomposed in presence
of oxydizible substances, in such a manner, that the red prussiate
of potash takes up one equivalent of potassium, forming with it
two equivalents of ferrideyanid of potassium, during which the
oxygen of the potassa set free combines with the oxydizible
body.

Ferridcyanid of potassium 3KCy+Fe, Cy, a CY,
+Cy with potassa (K +0) = two equivalents of prussiate of
potossa = 4KCy+Fe, Cy_, and one oe of oxygen.

* Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie, Band 26, p. 241.

364 A. Schlieper on the Oxydation of Uric Acid

IT communicate the following _ as they presented them-
selves in the course of the investigatio
To observe the action of leiide yard of potassium and potassa

into a nearly cold solution of uric acid in a little more po-
tassa ley than was necessary for the formation of neutral urate of
potassa 2KO,C,,N,H,O,. The salt dissolves easily in the
liquid, and is then “directly changed into prussiate of potassa.
After the first additions of red prussiate of potash, a separation
occurred, of a thick, reddish white precipitate, by which all
the liquid was soon thickened toa pulp; which on closer in-
vestigation, was found to consist a! biurate of potash KO,
So much potash and red prussiate of potassa
were alternatively added, that i uric acid remained in per-
manent solution. As soon as biurate of potassa separated, or as
e red prussiate of potash was undecomposed with fa-
eility, the sedition of a few drops of potash ley were sufficient
to renew the operation. ‘The addition of red prussiate of potassa
was continued till by a few drops of muriatic acid, no uric acid
was precipitated. ‘Towards the end of the operation, the decom-
position of the uric acid proceeds slowly, and therefore the addi-
tion of red prussiate of potassa must be made at greater intervals.
The alkaline liquor which smells weakly of ammonia, an
contains prussiate of potash, an excess of potash and the products
of decomposition of uric acid, was then nearly neutralized wit
sulphuric acid, a considerable quantity of carbonic acid was dis-
engaged, and the solution was evaporated by boiling ; a constant
smell of ammonia seemed to indicate a further decomposition of
the generated organic bodies. The solution must not be pet-
fectly neutralized with sulphuric acid, because then the prussiate
of potassa is decomposed during the evaporation, prussic acid
goes off and a white pulverulent combination KFe, Cy, precipi-
tates itself, which it is nearly impossible to separate, eae. it
goes through every filter
The greater part of the prussiate of potash was separated by
crystallization, the mother liquor was then evaporated to a small
volume and mixed with alcohol, by which sulphate and prussiate
of potash were precipitated ; this precipitate was then boiled sev-
eral times with alcohol to remove all substances soluble in the
sane. The sociale solution, during evaporation, gave crystalline
crusts of an organic body, which having been separated, the
liquor was concentrated to a syrup, and indicated after long
standing, traces only, of indistinct crystals containing potassa.
This syrupy mass was soluble in a great quantity of weak, and
may be again precipitated in thick white flocks by absolute ‘alco-
hol. The residuary salt mass extracted with alcohol consisted

TTL nna 2” einen
-

by means of Potassa and Ferrideyanid of Potassium. 365

mostly of prussiate and sulphate of potash to which no attention
was paid. Other processes were followed to detect the organic
substances insoluble in alcohol, which were possibly present.

A second portion of uric acid was treated as the first, except that
the solution, which contained principally free potash, —elgscon
and prussiate of potassa, and the organic bodies in research,
now neutralized with acetic acid under the precautions before
or ae On evaporating, a quantity of acetate of ammonia

as evolved. After the greater part of the prussiate of potash had
oneimalized, the separated mother liquor was likewise eo
by alcohol, and then boiled out several times with th eae
previous essay to separate the prussiate of potash by means of
acetate of copper, and an excess of the latter by sulphuretted hy-
drogen, did not furnish a favorable result, because complex decom-
positions took place, and sulphur entered into the composition of
the organic bodies. The evaporated alcoholic solution which
naturally contained a great quantity of acetate of potash, fur-
nished not a trace of crystals, but only the above mentioned
viscid syrup, which was separated from the acetate of potash by
treating with absolute alcohol; this seemed to indicate that the
first had sustained a further decomposition, by boilingewith ace-
tate of potassa, which conducts itself in many cases as a feeble
alkali; the unmistakable development of acetate of ammonia fur-
nisbed the proof of such decomposition

The residuary salts, insoluble in alcohol, were then solved in
water, and the prussiate of potassa precipitated from the hot solu-
tion by acetate of copper, only very slightly in excess; the filtra-
ted solution contained, however, neither prussiate ‘potas nor
copper salts, a proof that the small excess of ne of copper
was precipitated by the = matter present. This filtrate
treated with strong alcohol, afforded an abundant crystalline
white precipitate, soluble in pee and crystallizing im well
shaped crystals, which on farther investigation, proved to be
neutral oxalate of potash. "The presence of oxalic acid was fur-
ther determined by the preparation and an analysis of oxalate of
lead which furnished 75:16 oxyd of lead

som purification of the previous mentioned crystalline sub-

nee was effected very easily by crystallization of the watery

All these reactions pointed out allantoin, whose presence was per-
fectly confirmed by analysis

366 A. Schlieper on the Oxydation of Uric Acid

To effect the analysis, air-dried crystals were burnt with chro-
mate of lead:

1. 0°345 grammes substance gave 0°334 grammes carbonic
acid and 0-109 grammes water.

2. 0-248 grammes substance gave 0:274 grammes carbonic
acid and 0-092 grammes water.

3. 0:2321 grammes substance gave by combustion with soda-
lime 1:2998 grammes platino-chlorid of ammonium =0-08163
grammes nitrogen.

Calculated in per cents. :

IL. u. il.
Carbon, 29-91 30°13 na
Nitrogen, ar afk 35:17
Hydrogen, 3:97 A-12 alse
Oxygen, é

These numbers represent exactly the composition of allantoin
,N,H, 0, as results from the comparison of the calculated
and found numbers:

Calculated. Found.

7 40 24 30°37 30-02
oS EN 28 35-18 35°17
3H os “Te 4-04
30 24 30°66 on Ka

—- _—_———— —_—_———_———

9 0

The formation of ammonia and oxalic acid in heating and
evaporating an alkaline allantoic solution, were now explained,
for allantoin is decomposed perfectly into these two products, by
boiling with alkalies; C, N, H, O,+3HO=2 equivalents NH, x
2 equivalents C, O.

I have mentioned before that the alcoholic solution, filtrated
from the allantoin, leaves by further evaporation, a sticky syrup
containing potash, which, though easily soluble in water, can be

sparated by an addition of absolute or strong alcohol to the
watery solution, asa thick, white flocculent precipitate. This
precipitate collected on a filter, absorbs moisture with great avid-
ity and deliquesces; as such it is not fit for analysis: I therefore
tried to combine the organic body with oxyd of lead, and to
analyze it as a lead salt. The watery solution of this substance,
was for this purpose mixed with a solution of neutral acetate of
lead, by which a sparse white precipitate was produced, consisting
for the greatest part of oxalate of lead, which was filtered off.
The liquid was then mixed in two fractions with pure ammonia,
free from carbonic acid, by which a white, thick, curdy precipi
tate was formed ; only the first precipitation was used for the en-
tire analysis. Dried, this lead’salt appeared as a white shining
powder, insoluble in cold water and alcohol, little soluble in hot

by means of Potassa and Ferridcyanid of Potassium. 367

pote easily soluble in acetic acid, and precipitable again by
ing ammonia to this solution.

The amount of oxyd of lead was determined from the =
and second precipitation, and it varied from 67- r cents.,
probably this mode of ——— occasioned the fobthtition of
more basic salts, wherefore, I was obliged to renounce the deter-
mination of the atomic weight of this body.

or the analysis, the lead salt was dried at 100° C.

1, 0:3127 grammes substance gave 0°2855 grammes sulphate
of lead = 0:2100223 grammes oxyd of lead = 67-16 PbO. ;

2. 03455 grammes substance gave 03165 grammes sulphate
of lead = 02328269 grammes oxyd of lead = 67-38 PbO.

3. 1:0433 grammes substance furnished by the combustion
with chromate of lead, 0:3935 grammes carbonic acid and 0:1103
grammes water.

4. 0-949 grammes substance furnished by the combustion
with chromate of lead, 0°3568 grammes carbonic acid and 0-10
grammes water.

5. 0-683 grammes substance furnished by the combustion with
soda-lime 0°8512 grammes platino-chlorid of ammonia = 0: eed
grammes nitrogen

In this case the relation of the atoms of oxyd of lead pa car-
bon is 6 : 17, which proves clearly, that the determination of the
lead in this salt is not decisive for establishing its atomic weight.
If the mean amount of oxyd of lead 67:27 is subtracted, the
following figures will express the composition of the combined
organic body.

L. Il.
Carbon, : ‘ ’ 10-28 10°25
Nitrogen, ‘ F vce: TE 7-82
Hydrogen, 1:18 115
Oxygen, 19-22 19°15

From these values the following formula may be deduced,
showing exactly the composition of the organic substance which
has been combined with oxyd of lead:

2 eS Rs

The results of the comparison of yea found and calculated

values expressed in per cents., is as follow

Citeabesed, Found.
nny r ste ~
a pe 3
C, 36 = 31-03 31:40 31°31
N, 28 24-13 23:39 23"
x A 3:44 3-60 3°51
0, 48 = 41-40 AI-11 41-29

‘116 100 100 100

a Saal

368 A. Schlieper on the Oxydation of Uric Acid

This body is a new acid for which I propose the name of lan-
tanuric acid ; 1 shall have an opportunity in the course of this
paper to return to this subject.

After the presence of allantoin was proved by analysis, it was
cleajthat in the adopted way it was impossible, to study the pro-
cess of oxydation of uric acid here occurring, because the action
of a hot alkaline solution on the generated products so easily oc-
casions secondary decompositions. Hence I adopted a new mode
for the decomposition of uric acid, and carefully avoided he

thing which could — occasion a decomposition of
newly generated allantoi

The solution of uric siti in potassa ley was obtained as before ;
and to this, an alkaline solution of 5 oz. uric acid in one gallon
water at 20° C. was added alternately for some time; also ferrid-
cyanid of potassium and potash ley till all uric acid was comple
decomposed : to effect this, there were necessary 203 o%. red
prussiate of potash and 10$ oz. hydrate of potash, which is ex-
pressed i in equivalents nearly exact

1 equivalent of uric acid GG; Niky O;.
2 of ferrideyanid of potassium.
6 . of hydrate of potassa.

"Thos there are only two equivalents of oxygen combined with
one equivalent of uric acid. The alkaline solution was mix
with pure nitric acid nearly to neutralization, a great quantity of
carbonic acid developed itself, although the hydrate of potassa
originally employed in this essay was freshly made and nearly
ree from carbonic acid, and as far as possible I had prevented
the absorption of carbonic acid from the air. The solution be-
came turbid and colored soon after the neutralization, (the same
takes place when instead of nitric acid, carbonic acid i is used for
the neutralization of the free alkali,) ‘and after a short time, @
small ned of a light flocculent dirty wane at er

tion of the rnaiael ge le Pah the precipitation : a peter excess
of lead oxyd by means of sulphate of potassa, the solution was
then perfectly neutralized with potassa, after which operation it

by means of Potassa and Feerrideyanid of Potassium. 369

could only contain nitrate of potassa and the problematic organic
substances. Oxalic acid was not present. The nitrate of potassa
was separated for the greatest part, including a small portion of
allantoin still present, by evaporation and crystallization. The
mother liquid concentrated to a small volume, was then mixed
with cold absolute alcohol ; by means of which was precipitated

of -potassa). The filtrated alcoholic solution was then eva
rated. to dryness in the water-bath. The pea aoe crystalline
residue, soluble in water and mixed with concentrated nitric
acid, a crystallization 1 of nitrate of urea, cheieieel to in its form,
instantly took place ; the whole amount of it, did not exceed two
to three grammes. The identity of nitrate of urea Cc,
was, rendered unquestionable by means of a combustion analysis
with oxyd of copper

‘This substance thus furnished in Give tubes, a relation of. car-
bonice acid and: nitrogen as 2:3 or together as 42, 2C«C co,

: 66, 1CC_N. '

The quantity of the appeari ng urea is too small to allow the 3
idea, that it procoeenys from the direct iy aa of the urie acid, o
I consider it as a sec ondary product of the decomposition of a
small portion of allantoin; 1 shall‘show hereafter, the latter suf-
fers-an alteration in an alkaline solutions two equivalents of allan-
toin take in their composition, ive eneek of water, and form
with it an easily decomposable new acid C, N, N, H, O, ; this acid
separates most probably into urea and lantanuric acid by a longer
contact, or heating with alkalies

CN, H , O, =lantanuric acid. ’
C,N, H, 0. 36° N, H, O2.=urea '

‘The above mentioned red io at appears likewise in
too inconsiderable a quantity, to eemed other than a second-
ary product of this new method a6 decortipaba urie acid ; the
only products, which appear in notable quantity, are allantoin
and carbonic acid. I have mentioned before that two equivalents
of ferrideyanid of potassa, were necessary to effect the decompo-
sition of one equivalent of. uric acid ; thus one equivalent of uric
acid has taken up two equivalents of oxygen ; it needs now only
two equivalents of water in addition, to allow o al

370 A, Schlieper on the Oxydation of Uric Acid

_ 2eq.allantoin C, N,H,O,

2 “ oxygen = O, ~ 2 “carb. acidC,

D water. is H 4

leq. uricacid=C,,N,H, 0,

2 2

4 0 HO, 10 HyBay

The excess of potassa served on the one part to hold in solu-
tion the resulting allantoin, and on the other part, to accelerate
the decomposition.

I have not submitted the above mentioned red flocculent sub-
stance, to a farther investigation; because the quantity of it was
very small, and I did not sticceed in separating this body
perfectly from prussiate of potash and allantoin; the reactions
made with it show, nevertheless, that it is a new and certainly
an interesting body. It has nearly the same solubility in cold
and hot ‘water and alcohol, as allantoin, and it could be obtained
only in small quantity washing the latter, and filtering off. This
red substance gives to water and alcohol a rich orange color; is
easily soluble in hot water, by which means the color changes
however to light yellow, and in cooling, the watery solution
deposits*a fine sulphur-yellow precipitate ; a great part remaitis
however in solution. In potassa ley and ammonia, this red body
is soluble with an orange color; but after addition of an acid, only

“a’small portion of it separates with a light yellow color. In boil-
ing the alkaline solution, Ammonia is formed, and acids added to
the nearly colorless solution cause.no further precipitate.
~ The quantity of the erystallized allantoin is very great, so
that, if an easy mode of separating the red body adhering so
obstinately to it, should be found out, this process would furnish

transparent, prismatic crystals.” )
By this mode of purifying allantoin, a great part of it remains

behind in the solution of acetate of potassa which cannot be ob-
tained by evaporation ; on the contrary, a great quantity of ace-
tate of ammonia goes off, indicating a new decomposition. The
solution in acetate of potassa, filtrated from allantoin, was con-

by means of Potassa and Ferridcyanid of Potassium. 371

centrated to a syrup, in the water- bath, and then mixed with a
great volume of absolute alcohol; by which a thick floceulent
nearly bie precipitate of an organic potash combination result-
coholic solution was filtered off from it, and evapora-

ted to pees Be the residue consisted chiefly of acetate of potassa
scarcely mixed with other organic substance ; oxalic acid and urea
were not found. The flocculent substance ‘precipitated $25 alco-
hol was solved in a small quantity of water, and only a rops
were sufficient, to convert it into a syrup; after all cutie: it
seemed to be perfectly identical with the above mentioned impure
lantanurate of potassa. The solution had an acid reaction, and
afforded’ with acetate of lead an abundant white ge in
every respect like the lantanurate of lead, already deser his
solution ought to contain neutral, or acid lantanurate of potassa }
hence the following way was chosen to obtain one of these po-
tassa combinations fit for analysis. The syrup-like watery solu-
tion was very cautiously mixed with alcohol, till a slight bin
ness "presented itself, indicating the precipitation of the pota

salts e weak alcoholi i¢ solution was then left to itself; by
and by, after a long time; erystals and crystalline crusts began to
deposit ; from time to time a new quantity of alcohol was ‘added
by which a new impulse was given to the crystallization. Finally,
the crystallization terminated; whereby the liquid became more
and more neutral, and lost its acid reaction.

The separated ‘crystals were bilantanurate of potassa, as will
be seen oF the result of the following analysis. ‘They were pu-
rified by repeated crystallization out of water; and the attached

ellow coloring matter became by and by insoluble, and could
be hag: by filtration.

e pure bilantanurate of potassa crystallizes out of the wa-
tery solution in hard crystalline erusts, which consist of an
gregation of very strong shining white tabular crystals; it is ith
uble in 8—10 parts of cold, and in much less hot water, but it very
slowly erystallizes out of the hot saturated solution when coo ed;
it is insoluble in strong alcohol. [added a smal! quantity of al-
cohol to the ‘watery solution, and it directly became milky; but
after a short time it cleared up again, aud the bilantanurate of
potash deposited itself in small dazzling white voluminous acicu-
lar crystals. ‘The solution of this salt | gives with acetate of lead
no precipitate ; but after addition of alcohol, there results a thick
perfectly white EM alien which disappears 7 after addition
of more water ; 5 peo nt which is af-
ter this easily soluble in water and insoluble in caer there
also results a thic it ulent precipi
lead, if ammonia is added to a mixture of bilantanurate of po-
tassa and acetate of lead, or if the former is precipitated with
basic acetate of lead. With nitrate of silver on the addition of

| with «sate ene Meomiaike nt lution d
iny signs of crystallization to a viscid syr vp, respi
jn floc cks; by the addition of stronger acids, th ms 4
salt could not te e tearyatalized, The thick mother=li
from sn88 pure bilantanurate of potassa, seemed to
Si; ao phy ee tral potassa salt, mixed with a small | od
a Socihhe (one which could be separated by acetate of
ipi eecis « in acetic acid. a

ve OF 1d 1D)

) 02607 grms. of the air salt, 2

ammonium == 0 eae tine
m the found. numbers, t the em ve formula of this*

os i; 3 Q;- y which is. is equal Sa oe

" KO, C,N, By €,NeH, 0, HO, + dan sth

Lennie weight : 14

h » bilantannrate of po h
lgerang, ge : ”

O, or as urea +4 equiv. of carbo yi nie
ent of oven more ean murexan and difluan.

Stet: “@iaie
a. oe

i as ‘ ¥
. ; at
fy W 2
ey irs me = Ht G.
ee in al,

; tt 0. ‘yi eo te iy -

lg whic Ivides. itse ‘on farther con-

_and lantanuric acid. I mentioned

atitivok the solution, which was filtered out

ae hen Mjetected of prussiate of pot-
a were pre de om €

have tried to he marie Mcobs the lead-elk
by means of sulphureremi ydro gen. bi orate an acid solution,
which dries to a gum-like mass, uncrystallizable in water and al-

was just s

s. salt gave |

Fe a 04. zy
ircbiied with silver cons
mula, the composition of.

oy

Calculated in PRE Ss

1 Equiv. ton
ro;

NwHO, &
Thus by “aryin the ffatantirate’ , 100° C., throws equiv-
Fro

alents of water have been remov nuric ‘acid:

— composioy of lantanuric en must be express-

ak a the aie. to permit an analysis of the
silver in an mene state, or to ascertain whether

r lead will still give off water at a ae
e of its other qualities.

a

the eolorles alkaline liquor is neutralized with acetic acid till an
| on, and then alcohol be added, the liquid becomes.

reac
milky and clears again very soon, because ‘the potash combina-
tion of the new formed acid separates itself at the bottom of thé

vessel as a concentrated, clear, oily liquid. All attempts to ,
the potash salt in a crystalline form failed ; mixed with water, !

gives an abundant white precipitate with nitrate of silver,
black on boiling. To estimate the combination of this new
acid, to which may be given the name hydallantoinic acid, I
used a lead salt. Allantoin was solved in cold oi pot-
ash ley; after two days standing neutralized with a tic iC
a an acid reaction, there was then added to it a soll 1 of
ate of lead; the liquid remained at first clear ; ry Soo!
te wa walls “a he bteay wer

owder asily soluble in acetic acid, even on boiling with it.
lead salt dried at 100° C. was analyzed:
= 03745 grm. substance gave 0: 199 grm. sulphate of lead &
0: oe grm. oxyd of lead; atomic weight = 286.
. 0286 grm. substance. ‘gave 0-153 grm. PbO, SO, = 0: 1126
py PbO ; atomic weight = 284.
es 449 grm. substance gave by combustion with soda-lime
5 erm. Plat. chl. ammon. = 0:0855 2 grm. nitrogen
4. 0:52’ 5 grm.- ge a= gave, burnt ey h OMe of copper; #
cid and 0-138 grm. wat |

toittae of lead may

as the comparison of fc

2 a Found. ey sei
Lequiv. PbO 112. 38-79 39:09. 39:37)
be Cn cee AB it SD 16-709 se
OW Bey ee ee
8 «" 0,9), yhageNee: . Oak taal

he
This new acid thus reealten fom allantoin by ben up two
equivalents of watér. :

“ equiv. of — =C, NAS, .

~ © wate = % H, 0,

waite of ee acid =, N, BG.
! z with sulphuretted hydrogen, this acid gould be re-
from the lead salt as a colorless solution of a very acid

Rrcom Ae
taste ; it could also be o

wih a si a
wie on

ity of these ae obtait by decomposition o
i id c obtained by Pelonze from the ae
eas as not pers e but a

i ee. eee Se RE Po $ i Pek

( 2 ox eat

is enabled to ‘compli in

: im a. % BP, m
on a small stream near ‘the Rio del Norte, within o
fifty miles of the head of the ah they f toll ed ee to El Paso ‘
del Norte, (32° 15’ N.) thence s south: to Ciloabus (29° 20’ N. Ry

and Cadena (26° 10’ N., 1042 4 thence south of east

Saltillo, (101° W.) and ‘east to and Matamoras. ‘The

author gives the following account 1e rocks observed in ef
his journeyings. ;

ee

New Mevico and California. 377

The geological sketch uit 1 ave arate iaietion toa m

short time and haste, in which I travelled throu h that bree rae it
may elucidate and concentrate at least what little information I have
acquired in relation to that subject. To make it more intellig I
will add a short summary of the various geological observations pale
over the whole extent of the journal. +
Independence, near the western frontier of the State of Miseburi, is
situated in the great Missouri coal basin, which occupies more than one-
third of that State.
” _ The first rock in situ which I saw in the prairie, oa Inde-
pendence, was on Rock creek, (about 79 miles from Independence.)
It was a ' yellowish- brown compact limestone, with encrinites me
lar fossils of the carboniferous limestone, to those found in Miss
On Pleasant pati creek (125 miles) the bluffs are formed of nnd
different limest : one is white and compact; the other grayish,
soft, and a aire The first contained some indistin
in too imperfect a state to determine what formation they indicate.
In Council grove (143 oe a horizontal, grayish, argillace s lime-
stone ada without foss y-
* ottonwood spe (185 miles,) irregular heaps
are seen in ie prairie, and a ferruginous sandstone of yello wages ny
and blue colors, extends from here to Pawnee fork, (a distance of about
100 m
. The re of the Little Arkansas, consisted of a spotted, yellow, cal-
careous sandstone, and isolated pieces of ferruginous sandstone

Walnut creek, (263 miles,) I met with a very porous and scoriaceous
rock in situ, apparently the < omte of action of subterranean fires upon
the ferruginous sandstone. Most likely a large coal-field lying beni
here, has become ignited, and ntedediie this change of the rock. The
so-called Pawnee rock (between Walnut creek and Ash or) consists
of same ferruginous sandstone, changed by fire. On Pawnee fork
miles) I saw the last of it; the feRrupinous sandstone there was
more pala and deep red.

oe h of Big Coon creek, (332 miles,) I found the bluffs to con-
co sandstone below, and a white, fine-grained marl above

marl resembles very. much some from the cretaceous forma

¥

tion of “abe Upper anes but finding no fossils, I could not as-

ect, but seemed to clone to thé cretaceous formation. “The Sisk

ighe ~ the seca: I saw, spon a sec-
nglo and limestone.

Seconp Serizs, Vol. VI, No. 18. lhe, 1848. 49

; isa. eo
eich ieaaibst cee ree mcrae Un

378 New Mexico and California.

aving crossed the Arkansas, I met with the first rocks again, on the
lle springs of Cimarron,” (468 miles ;) it was a sandy limestone
ab common sandstone.
- Six miles-west of the Crossing of Cimarron, (500 miles from Inde-
pendence,) light bluffs rise in the prairie, of a yellow, reddish, and
too sendatone, combined with lime and argile.
‘A few miles beyond them, a large isolated mountain of boulders stands

sandstone pr vailed.
On Ra eae creek I met for the first time with amygda aloidal
basalt, a bl heavy, basaltic rock, .with a great many irregular, ve-

ae Ete Ra: are generally hollow—but some times, filled with

neces, with olivine. This rock is very common

throughoat the hah mountains of Mexico. It occurs in irregular mass-
l

On _ creek, and Whetstone creek, amygdaloidal basalt with un-
derlying sandstone was fou nd.

In going from there to ‘Point of Rocks,” (600 miles,) extensive
strata of a yellow, compact quarizose sandstone were passed, dipping
gently towards the east. Point of uae itself, a spur of the western
—— is a mass of syenite.

e twelve miles beyond it, rises a hill j in the plains, composed of
sation black basalt, with underlying white sandstone.
he bed and bluffs of the Rio Golarad 0 and Ocaté creek, (627
miles, ) Sime formed by quartzose sandsto

Th mound, an isolated iaeeeesia in ithe high plain, consists
of | va black, and spotted basalt, rising in columnar s

On Wolf creek, (664 miles,) the amygdaloidal basalt and quartzose
sandstone reappeared, both in horizontal — te

Reaching the Gallinas creek, near Las Vegas, (690 mil les) Im aly
after a long interval, with limestone a again. It was a dark blue, with |

casts of Inoceramus of the cretaceous

From here we penetrated into the very heart of the mountains. At
first we pias with sandstone wes, common and quartzose, and of va-
rious color: 4

Near San Sign, (707 miles,) a coarse conglomerate was found of
decomposed granite, sandstone, and lime; and large blocks of decom-
ae — lined the Pecos river, opposite the old Pecos village,
roAn _ canon eatin from =e oe Santa Fe, at. first sandstone was
found, common, quartz reous, of various colors and
Ainion ons, till about fifieen 1 peice from Santa Fe, granite in situ apenas

continues all the way to Santa Fe. Near where I met for the

= B

New Mevico and California. 379

first time with granite in situ, the sandstone, if I may judge fi om
limited examination, was os uplifted and thrown bac!
angle of nearly one hun degrees

West of Santa Fe, granite seems. also to prevail. In m ursion
to the Placers, southwest of Santa Fe, I found sandstone below, and on.
the height of the mountains granite and trap rocks.

In the mountains of that neighborhood common limestone and oa
phate of lime are said to exist; but onthe road over which I travelled
I had no opportunity to see any.

Granitic and trap formations seem to: predonsinato; too, in the valle
of the Rio del Norte below Santa’Fe; ‘but as the road erat ads alwidhs
ae river, and the mountains .on either side are gene rally about

often to depend upon the external form of the mountain chain, which |
apparently indicated unstratified and igneous rocks. Whenever re
mountains approached the river, I gained more information. Thus
instance, I found between a ba Joya, (above 115 miles from Sai
Fe,) ceca sandstone and quartz in a spur of the eastern mountain
chain; and in Joyita itself tiafl near the river, of amygdaloidal
asalt.
Some miles west of Siostte, (140 miles, ) on the right bank of the

Tiver, {examined the western mountains, and found porphyri itie and

trachytic roc

Near the ruins of Valverde, (165 miles;) I met with bluffs of ¢ a dark
brown, nodular sandstone ; and about eight miles beyond, with amyg-
daloidal basalt again

In the Jornada del Mabe; granitic and basaltic formations, to Judge
from their shape, exist in the distant mountain chains; part of them

“in the eastern chats is calledj from the basaltic appearance, Organ

mountains.

Below Dofana I perceived some primitive rocks again, near the
river, ene g a decomposed por

ountains above El Paso belong mainly to the trap formation.

Ritiog, my short stay in El Paso made an excursion to the south-
western mountains of the valley, and’ was rather astonished to find
mountains of limestone. The foot of the mountains was formed by a
ae * hgh sandstone, similar to that underlying the amygda*
loidal basalt. The very compact and gray limestone, intersected with
poses white veins of ane spar, rose upon it to the crest of the moun-
tains; but in several places, granite and greenstone seemed to have
burst ‘through it and nas partial eruptions. After a long search I
discovered some fossils, and though much injured and d in per rfe cotathed :

fossils are a coral Calamopora), and a bivalve shell of the genus
Pterinea. This limestone is reg a Silurian rock. Several mines
have formerly been worked in

a the road from El Paso to ‘Chibuahua [ met in the first day or two
write the same limestone. The pieces lying on the were .gener-
ally surrounded with a white crust of carbonate of lime; pieces, too,
of what appeared to be fresh-water limestone, occurred. It is rather
probable that this is the same material with the white crust of the blue
— and that both are the result of calcareons springs.

or

ie)
‘Chihuahua. It is

a *

380 New Merico and California.

fifty miles south of El Paso the limestone seemed to cease, and
: rocks of the most varied — and combinations continued
ere as far as Chihuahua, interrupted sometimes only by granitic
The base of the porphyry is i feldspar.

Chihuahua and some distance to the south ead west of it, in

7A
the Sierra Madre, porphyritie rocks predominate, and valuable mines
nd in them

are fou

Near Chihuahua, as I understéod, about twelve miles northeast of it,
mountains of limestone appear ; nd through the favor of Mr. Potts,
in. Chihuahua, I received a piece of limestone from there, containing
some casts of the chambers of an Orthoceras, feo. that this limes
stone belongs also to the Silurian system. Mines are also fons in it.

Another fossil I received i in cg said to come from

e near elt mining place about 250 miles neon at
D quinquicostatus, (Sowerby,) of the cretace-
ous series ; but not jenihe travelled eg ugh that part of the state, I om
not able to give any comment upon i

Saucer Chihuahua to Matamoras, sails with the army as a sur-
geon, my time was so occupied that I could not make any’distant excur-
sions from the road ; debe! the geology of the country seemed to
be very uniform and uninteresting. :

¥ ihuahua some distance south, porphyritic rocks continued.
In Saucillo, (70 miles from Chibuahua,) : aessired the first lime-
stone again.” From there to Santa Rosa passed some hills of
amy pdaloidal basalt, but the main chain - the mountains was all
limestone, and éowtinoed to be so throughout the whole eastern rami-
fication-of the Sierra Madre, over which we travelled from here down
to Saltillo and rit Se where the low country begins. ‘This lime-
stone forms steep, often rugged mountains, rising on an average 2,000
feet above the plain; it is metalliferous, and has all the Ap poanall of
the Silurian limestone, found at El Paso and Chihuahua, but I was
never able to discover any fossils on this route. . Silver and lead
mines are of various occurrence in it; in the limestone surrounding
Cadena, coal has been found, as I was informed, but 1 had no time to
verify it

From. Monterey to the seashor I made one interesting discovery
near Mier. Qn the bank of the Alamo rie about four od above
its mouth into the Rio G rande, I found an extensive bed of large
fossil shells of Ostrea, belonging to the cretaceous formation. As the

me formation has lately * ‘found by Dr, Remer, of Berlin, to
extend in og from the San Antonio to the Brazos, this cretace-
dus bed ne scl Pica in all probability a continuation of is In looking

over the rece

Grande below Laredo, tes “entire hills are to be seen, compose
almost wholly of what appears to be a collection of large sea oyster
shells.” I presume, therefore, that the same cretaceous formation eX-
tends in this direction higher up on the Rio Grande.—pp. 135-138.

_In farther illustration of’ the ounty we cite. some i
graphs from other om of the e Report.

? *
New Mexico and California. 381

Council Grove forms, as it were, a doiding point in the ch;
the country east and west of it. The country east of it

covered those plains, and partly moulded their present form. Of those
slight undulations, the barometrical_ measurements will give evident
proof. Big Blue Camp is elevate eet above the sea; Coun-
cil Grove is 1,190; and the highest Sneiihe point is 1,420 feet, on
the divide between the waters of the Osage and the Neosho or G
river. This eastern portion is well watered, ol along the water-c
prese Gmnbsbed to sustain settlements. The soil is generally very
fert to judge from the higher elevation, more exempt fro
plague of the bottom-land.. Letus tak prospective view
w of the country west of Council Grove. A short distance gee e
country rises suddenly to the elevation of 1,500 feet, and ascends grad-
ually towards the Arkansas to 2,000 and more feet above the sea.
The intermediate mi exhibits sometimes the short, — mi
of the eastern portion, but hoeins it already“resembles the
or high plains between the Arkansas and Cimarron, those » amadia tete
of the calm immense high seas, whaeg the horizon extends farther, the
soil becomes dryer a more sandy, the vegetation — a and
water more rare. untry between Council Grove and the Arkan-
sas forms the ecieciiined to os he sandy plains on the other my of the Ar-
kansas; the soil is genera rally less fertile than in the eastern portion, but
all along its water-courses (as Cottonwood a Little Arkansas, Wal-
nut creek, Ash creek, Pawnee fork, an e:: Arka ansas) s éctilenie ots
might succeed, though they would have | c 5 net more upon stock-
raising than agriculture.—p. 7

New Mexico is a very mountainous country, with a large valley in
the middle, running from north to south, and formed by the Rio det
Norte. The valley i is generally about twenty miles wide, and border-
ed on the east and west by mountain chains, continuations of the Rocky
mountains, which have Sara i here different namés, as Sierra blanta,

de los Organos, oscura, on the eastern side, and Sierra de los Grullas,
de Acha, de los iithred! np hi the west. The height of these
poontalog south of Santa Fe be, upon an average, between six

the higher tenn excellent pine timber rows 5 0 the noeatie. ce-

ee ee

is ¥
382 New Mexico and California.

1 direction through the om of Chihuahua, Coahuila and Ta-
é the Gulf of Mexico, in 25° 56’ north latitude. Its tribu-
latter states are the Radon from the north; the Conchos,
I. lamo, and San Juan, from the south. The whole course of
e sine; ina straight line, would be near 1,200 miles; but by the
meandering of its lower half, it runs at least about 2,000 miles from
the region of perpetual snow to the almost tropical climate of the gulf.
The elevation of the river ab e sea near Albuquerque, in New
Mexico, is about 4,800 feet ; in Paso del Norte about 3,800; and at
190 fet. between three and four hundred miles from its mouth, about

feet. The fall of its water appeared to be, between Albuquerque
| El Paso, from two to three feet ina mile, and below Reynosa one

foot in two miles. The fall of the river is seldom used as motive pow-
er, except for some flour mills, which are oftener worked b “mules
=~ by water. The principal advantage which is at present derived

from the river is from agriculture, by their well managed sysiem of
irigation ~ to its po en in New Mexico, I doubt very much it

jie point of navigation and New Mexico shall be desired, nothing will
r but a railroad, crossing from the va gee the Rio Grande
is ey igh table land in the state of Chihua hu

and hea’ ns, onions, red peppers, and some fruits. mos
fertile any of the valley begins below Santa Fe, along the geld ue
is pape * Rio 0 abajo,” or, (the country) down the river. It is

com there to raise two crops: in one year. The gene a Nes i-
ness “of “the ee and the aridity of the soil in New Mexico, will
always confine agriculture to the valleys of the water-courses, whic h

New Mlettied: and California. 383

successful, the progress of agriculture in New Mexico would be
rapi and even man dreaded a eam mi por be changed » 4 mn

water into larger and smaller ditches (acéquias) surrounding and inter-

secting the whole Sikivaned land. The inhabitants of towns and villa-

ges, therefore, locate their lands toge er, an allot to each one a part
ter at certain periods. ‘T" common fields are generally

without fences, which are less heeded, as the granite stock is gua

by herdsmen.—pp. 22, 23.

A third, much neglected branch of industry in New Mexico is the
mince Many mining places now deserted. prove that nn was
pursue ith greater zeal in the old Spanish times than at_pre-
sent. This ma y be accounted for in various ways,—by the present w
of capital, want of knowledge in mining, but papacy the eat mat
state of the country and the avarice of its arbitrary rulers e moun-
tainous parts of New Mexico are very rich in gold, copper and iron,
and afford some silver. Gold seems to be found to a large extent in all
the mountains near Santa Fe, south of it to a distance of a ut ene
hundred miles, as far as Gran Quivira, and north for about one hun-
dred and twenty miles up to the river Sangre de Cristo. Throughout
this whole region gold dust has been abundantly found byt the poorer
classes of Mexicans, who occupy igen elves with the washing of this
metal out of the penne stream t present the old and the new
Placer, near Santa Fe,. have ee re attention, and not only
gold washings, ba somé gold mines too, are worked there. As far as
my knowledge extends, they are the only gold mines worked now
in New Mexico. u as | have made an excursion from Santa Fe
for the special purpose of examining these mines, | must refer the
reader, in relation sg them, to that chapter of my narrative. As to
the annual amount of gold produced i in New Mexico, I am unable to
give even an estimate. Since nearly all the sald of the country is
bought up by the traders, and smuggled out of the country to the
United States, | believe that a closer a ote of the gold produced
in New Mexico could be made in the different mints of the United
States than in Mexico itself, In* Spanish times, several rich silver
mines were worked at Avo, at Cerrillos, and in the Nambe mountains,
but none at progents Copper is found in abundance throu hout the coun-

ard of but one > copper mine nae at present south
of the Bidssrs: Trot though also abundantly found
looked. Coal has been discovered in different localities in the
Raton mountains, near the village of Jemez, southw st of San
ina place south of the Placers, ete. Gypsum, Soth omens and se-
lenite, are found in large apaniitics in Mexions extensive layers of it, I
understood, exist in the’ mountains near A godones, on the Rio del
Norte, and in the neighborhood of <q celebrated * Sali nas.” It is
used as common lime for whitewashing, a rystalline or selenite
instead of window-glass. About four gh ° po (probably one
red miles) south-southeast of Santa Fe, on the high table-land

her the Rio del Norte and Pecos, are some oe —_ lakes,
inas,” from which all the salt (muriate of soda) used in New
ico is procured. Large caravans go there every year aeeiae

lange, generally, one bushel of salt for one of Indian oe
or sell it for one and even two dollars.a bushel.—pp. 24, 2

Of the state of Chihuahua he observes :—

s many and rich silver mines have been celebrated for several cen-
2S.

throughout the length of the Sierra Madre, and in a mean brea of

thirty | leagues. The silver ores occur generally as sulphurets, with iron
or lead, sometimes as native silver and muriate of silver, and are found
either entirely i in porphyritic rocks, or in stratified rocks, (limestone,)

passing at greater depth into igneous rocks. They are worked either
zy ayes ge Be or.by fire in rg furnaces. For the latter pro-

Lidvet mines, rich mines also of co er, and some of gold, lead, iron,
and tin, are found. The most he mines of the state, of older and
more va date, are the following:
es of Santa Eulalia, neur Chihuahua, have during the last

century vealhooed immense masses of silver, as the following Tact may
prove. The cathedral in Chihuahua, a most splendid building, was
within the last century erected from a fund created from the proceeds
of the Santa Eulalia mines, by a grant of ane real (123 cents) on every
mare of silver (worth $8 25) obtained from the mines. ‘This fun
was created in 1717, and in 1789 the cathedral was finished, at an eX-
pense of 800,000. The amount of silver taken in these seventy-two
years frorn the mines would, therefore, be $52,800,000. ‘The abund-
ance of lead found in Santa Eulalia, makes the smelting of the silver
ore very convenient. The mines are not yet exhausted; but from in-
trusion of water, want of capital, and the attraction. of new mines, they
are but little worked.

mines of Parral (Hidalgo) are the oldest of the state, and have
also been extremely productive in silver; but for want of regular min-
pi most a them, though not exhausted, are made inaccessible and

mines of Santa Barbara, dautivared in 1547, ef renowned
for both silver and. gold ores, but are now entirely abandod
_ The mines of Batopilas were celebrated for the large pe ge of na-
pn silver, and the unusual richness of the ore
South of Batopilas lies the rich mine of Moret discovered in 1826,
where one mass of native silver was found weighing two hundred and
thirty mares.
_ The mine of Sierra Rica, west of the old Predilic de San cus,
was begun to be worked by a company in 1829. The prospects at first
were most flattering: the superficial layers of the silver ore produced
_ from one to a hundred mares in the carga, sometimes one hundred and
fifty, and ‘in one instance even three hundred and twenty-seven mares 5 ;

They are found principally in the western part of the state, _

385,

but at the dept ho Aart -varas the mine seemed to give out, weil the

New Mexico and California.

invasions of ndians became at the same time so troublesome,

that the mine. was,ébando oned. od
uch extreme richness of ore is of course not a com cur-

rence ; and the result, found fee comparison of Mexican an ean

mines, that the mines in Mexico are generally poses’ as to

tive amount of silver, but far superior as to abund o aid ge t

of silver in the carga, is genefally considered good enough to

worked with advantage; and many with less per cent. are rende

profitable.

In recent times, the mines of ‘Guazapares and of Jesus Maria have
ed

attracted most of the capital of the state. The latter, southwest from
Chihuahua, on the height of the Sierra Madre, were discovered in 1821 ;
and so many valuable silver mines, beside some gold mines, have since
that time been opened, that it promises to,be for a long time one of the
richest mining districts in the state.
the copper mines in the state of Chihuahua, the most celebrated
is the * Santa Rita de Cobre,” in the western angle of the Sierra de
Mo ogoyon, near the headwaters of the e mine, known for a
long time to the Apaches, passed through the hands of several proprie-
tors, till in 1828 it was effectually worked by Mr. Coursier, a French
resident in Chihuahua, who is reported and generally believed bent have
I he ore

Mr. Coursier soon mon nopolized the whole copper trade in Chihuahua ;
and as the state at that time coined a gréat deal of this’metal, he made
a very profitable business of it; but at last the mine, which seems to be
inexhaustible, had to be abandoned on account - hostile Indians, who
killed some of the workmen, and attacked the trains. These copper
mines are claimed by the state of Chihuahua, as ‘pelodwid to its terri-
tory ; but as not even the latitude of the city of Chihuahua ad been-
well determined by the Mexicans, more exact astronomical observations
may perhaps prove that they falt within the territory of New Mexico.
This question may become of importance, because this whole range of
mountains is intersected with veins of copper and placers of gold. Cin-
nabar also, says rumor, was Daa te there in 1824, but nothing posi-
tive is known in relation to

Coal has been found at meee only in two places in the state, near
the mines of Carmen and near those of Sierra Rica; but it will prob-
ably occur in other localities

After this short review of the mines in the state of Chihuahua, ae
question of course will arise, What is the annual production of thes
mines? The only data to which I can refer, are the following: Tn
the twenty-four years from 1738 to 1761, the amount of silver owed
duced in the state of Chihuahua was 3 428,278 mares, or

and in the seventeen years from 1777 to 1793, 1,394, 161 mares,
or $12,501,828.

Srconp Seriss, Vol. VL No. 18.—Nov. yies. | 50

386 New Mexico and California.
ee

[ ‘he following is the estimated amount for later.

69,816 marc 982 dollars.
138,015 “
129,402 m ”

4 142,785 se ged 177 976

128,747 eT 062,100 <*
1831 138,916 “2146 007
: ; : . 117,484 ° a
1833 . 3 : 116,802 “ 963,616 *“
BBA. ; . 109,419 « 902,707 ‘“

recent dates I was unable to get, though I understood from
lve years

considerably increased. e computator of the above tables
that the annual average amount of the production of silver an ge
the state of Chihuahua is 125,000 mares, or $1,031,251 ; but he sup-

poses that but 100,000 marcs of that sum pass through the mint, and

that 25,000 mares are every year smuggled out of the count
a well managed mint (casa de moneda) in Chihuahua, coin-

ing gold, silver, and copper. - Mr. J. Potts and brother are the present
proprietors, in consequence of @ contract made with the government of
Chihuahua. As-all the silver ore in the state contains more or less gold,
= separate it before coining, in large platina vessels, with sulphurie

cid. For coining. a mare o of silver without separating the gold, they
receive two reals, (25 cents ;) for coining and: separating the gold, five
reals ; but the marc of silver from which the gold + to be separated
must contain at least sixteen grains of gold.—pp. 56, 5

This valuable document ,contains also a Botanical Report of
much interest, . in ‘the preparation of which Dr. Wislizenus was
assisted by Dr. G. punrenene of St. bantis..

the onthe near its head, the R vaton pass at a height of 7500
feet above the sea, to Vegas,. San Migu op d Santa Fe. From
here the Expedition followed down the Rio del Norte to latitude
33°, and thence turned westward, taking the head waters of the
Rio Gila, following it to the Colorado which it meets in longitude
114° 37’; thence still westward, crossing a sandy desert ninety
miles in breadth, to the Cordilleras of California, and surmount-
ing these heights to San Diego (lat. 32° 45’ N.) and other Bacse
on the Pacific co

The company clini to the first dragoons under the com-
mand of Col. Kearney. They started from Fort Leavenworth
on the 27th of June, 1846.

Between ad Leavenworth and Pawnee Fork, the —_
prairies are rsed by many streams, the which lie
deep with eae vertical banks, “ developing where the streams

New Mevzico an 387

sions in the rece , strata of fossiliferous lineata,

filled with reme ns of erinoid %
About thirty miles from Fors Se teri on a brane ie
Wah-karussi, a bed of bituminous coal outcrops, whicl

_ ed by the a al

e F tha
section. ‘Cacti and other spinose plants first made thelr appear-
ance in 98° W., and near the same region the buffalo grass (Ses-
leria? dactyloides, Nuit.) begins.

Bent’s Fort is about 3958 feet above the sea, which gives for
the Arkansas a fall of 7,4; feet per mile between this point and
the meridian of 98° W., 2 distance of 311 miles. The river has

sy flats of half to two miles in width ; but “beyond this the

ground rises by gentle slopes into a wilderness of sand-hills on
the soutie and into prairie on the north.” A conglomerate.of
pebbles was observed along the river in this part, and higher up
an argillaceous limestone containing ammonites, &c. “The soil
of the plains is a granitic sand, intermixed with the exuviee of
animals and vegetable matter, supporting a, scanty oe
The eye wanders in vain over these immense wastes in seare
trees. The principal growth is the buffalo grass, Cacti in am
less variety, Yucca angustifolia (soap plant), etn capac brachy-
loba, Schrankia uncinata, Cucurbita aurantia (prairie gourd), an
very rarely that wonderful plant, the Ipomea lacie gi, called
by the hunter, man-root, from the similarity of the root in size
and shape to the bod of a man. It is esculent, and serves to
sustain human life in some of the many vicissitudes of hunger
and privation to which men who roam the prairies are subjected.”
The only tree of any magnitude along the Arkansas, is the cot-
tonwood (Populus canadensis).

From Bent’s Fort south, they met with beds of limestone,

sandstone, basalt and a porous volcanic rock. On the Moro, in
latitude 35° 54’, “the plains were strewed with fragments of
brick-dust colored lava and scoria, and the hills to the left were
capped with white granular quartz.”

On either side of the narrow valley of the Santa Fe—which
varies from 1000 feet to a mileor two in width—* the country
presents nothing but barren hills, utterly incapable, both from soil
and climate, of producing sparring useful. The valley is en-
tirely cultivated by irrigation.” “Five miles below the town,
the stream disappears in ‘hea granitic sands” (p. 34). The height
of Santa Fé above the sea, according to the barometric observa-
tions taken, is 6846 feet; the neighboring peaks to the north are
many thousand feet higher. The valley of the Del Norte to the
south as far as Angosturas, was narrow with no interval for agri-
culture. Below the last mentioned place, the = bpaee 3 ad
a plain which is cultivated by irrigation. Farther so
valley affords little land for cultivation, and the Gounlly oithne

erties

388

side’ is as dry as before dada. The sandy pipins terminate
in steep hills, in some places capped with basalt (345° N).
ps leaving the Del Norte, for the west, they mounted the table
“some 200 feet above the valley, and found the country
vil evel, except where indented by water-courses. The table
land Bfatched off far to the south.” Pebbles of chalcedony
common in the plains and in the dry valleys. Near the
headwaters of the Mimbres, near 108° , there was a dome-
shaped mountain, and amyg oialoidal rocks and volcanic glass were
observed. ‘There were also some deserted copper mines in the
region, from which specimens _ native copper, sulphuret of cop-
per, and a silver ore, were obtained. 'T'wenty miles beyond they
found a blue limestone, and amelie iron ore. The Gila, a rapid
river, was soon after reached. Granite, sandstone and volcanic
rocks were observed along its course. Near lo ongitude 111° W.,
ores of copper and iron were met with. About the mouth of the
Gila, where it enters the Colorado, the mountains were of gray-
ish granite, traversed by seams of white quartz; they rose ab-
ruptly from the plains.
Reviewing the region passéd over since leaving the Arkansas,
a distance of about 1200, miles, the author observes, that there 1s
a general uniformity of physical character and climate, “In no
part of this vast tract can the rains be relied on, to any extent,
for the cultivation of the soil. The earth is destitute of trees,
and. 1 in great part also, of any vegetation whatever. A few fee-

heed California.

lan

of land within the level of the waters of. the stream; and wher-
ever practiced in a community with any success, or to any eX-
tent, it involves a degree of subordination and absolute obedience
to a chief, repugnant to the habits of our people. The chief
who directs the time and the quantity of the precious irrigating
wate, must pi Acca obeyed by the whole community.
#98): «No who has ever visited this country, and a is
acquainted a Fa ae character and value of slave labor in the Uni-
ted States, would ever think of bringing his own slaves here with
any view to profit, much less would he purchase slaves for such
a purpose. ‘Their labor here, if they could be retained as slaves,
among peons nearly of their own color, would never repay t e
cost of transportation, much less the additional purchase money. é
99.

—(p.

After eae the Colorado, the party entered a dreary desert,
90 miles found no freshwater, except a little hostigeaias

1e | = was loose sand, with only two patches 0! f grass.

salt in "was passed, about half a mile in length. On Ee

a.”

New Mezico ane

e desert region and entering a v
cam

were led to a hot spring near Warner’s ran-
cheria, having a temperature of 137° F., which:
discharged from the fissure of a granite rock,

: meee volume of water; and for a long dis-

e down, it sa the air-with. fumes of
ieintemied hydrog .

e accompanying “cut is a much reduced
copy of a sectional ‘lew of the Rocky moun-
tains, made from the barometrical observations
of the

Many new ; plants were collected in the course
of this expedition, which are partly described’

in an appendix by Prof. Torrey, with an ac-

count of the ferns by Dr. Engelmann. Seve-
ral lithographic plates are inserted in the vol-
ume, illustrating the regions visited, besides
upwards of thirty species of plants.

Lieutenant Apert was attached to the party
under Lieutenant Colonel Emory, and was
principally ep in esploning the region

of New Mexic

This repre “like the preceding, contains

much scientific information, both cages
botanical, and also 0 zoological, illustrated by
plates of fossils, etc. There is besides a vocab-
ulary of the language of-the Cheyenne Indians,
who live near Bent’s Fort. The author men-
tions the loss of many valuable papers, and
among them a grammar of the Cheyenne lan-
guage, while on his winter’s return to St. Louis.

We cite from the report some of the facts
bearing on geology, referring to it for informa-
tion on its many-other t topics.

At Bent’s Fort specimens of selenite bi
brought i in, besides quartz crystals. Near th
Raton Pass, in latitude 37° 15’, longitude 10 4°
35’, a bed of bituminous coal was discovered,
ina Hee bluff bank. The fossil leaves asso-

Es als see Gash $i

“BIpuez “o—ULYyRIy IT “Q—"TINquingy, iy ‘P—oylony oy} UO OFaIqT uty
Jo Ad][va_ “11-01 —"es00]y Wag “§—e10N [op OLY OYI Jo AaT|VA “-Z—91ION
IVA “fF OF G—‘PAOID S,uOsyors ‘g— YO voumug “~—YWOMUIALG'] 110,] *“T

*

y oq
Jo Aa]
JUOZLIOY—199J QOOT YORa sour [o][vied oy) UseMjoq seardg

it

Woy Sjueg ~—sesuvyly a

TWWng uolEy “¢—

AINPOD “gI—9ywT WS “ZI—VLD Jo nowy “TI—

‘oyloug ot) uo ‘odaIqT Uvg 01 SOR] ‘YWOMUGALA’T 110] WOT UONI0g

390 and California.

width. From Santa Feiiligpatenant Abert visited the gold mines
in the vicinity.

Eighty miles north of Santa Fe, in the Puebla de Taos, area
few small settlements, situated in a valley eight or nine miles
long, cultivated as far as practicable by irrigation; the —? of
water is ‘scanty except during the wet season. Snow is seen on
the neighboring heights in every month of the year ; vee wheat
atid corn ripen well in the plains. Southwest of Taos, a ridge
2000 to 2500 feet high, of hard slaty rock, vy, into angular
fragments, was passed. On the west bank of the Del Norte, 40
miles above Santa Fe, the table land reaches to the river, and
terminates in a bluff 300 to 400 feet in height. The section ex-
Lia ~ oe of horizontal sandstone capped by dark vesicular
lav: the east, the country rolls away to the base of the
sittnies, ve little else than a succession of gravelly
hills, covered with dwarf cedars. ‘The lava alluded to forms the
capping of all the table ietande in Upper New Mexico. To the west
of the river in this part, at a place called Ojo Caliente, there are
several ee springs, from which Bulphaeies hydrogen es-
—

Reine bond fromm Santa Fo, vologae rock was often met with
over the country.

On the Rio Puerco, a few miles west a the del Norte, at Po-
blazon, (lat. 35° 13/,) the sandstone rocks were in some places six
hundred feet in height. ‘The beds had an anticlinal dip, with
reference to the axis of the valley.” Besides cale spar crystallized
and unerystallized, fragments of large ammonites, hippurites and
Inocerami were found, and “the little knobs around glittered with
plates of selenite,” an ‘abundant. mineral in that region. ‘The spe-
cies of Inoceramus is identical with one figured in Fremont’s Re-
port, plate iv. fig. 2. These cretaceous fossils occur about 6000
feet above the sea. Farther to the westward, a volcanic country

ena east of the del be near 34° 50/ N., they met with
beds of limestone containing patches of hornstone, and afterward
with a masses of "genag 98 About seventy miles east of the

face. The Sey were continued sou
r latitude 33° 4
rn of the a to Bent’s Fort, and ion.
ded.with extreme hardship. They le:
, Where the thermometer had s

ee

New Mexico-and California. 391

at 7° F., and were aie till the Ist of March. Asa winter on
this route is a own readers, we cite, in closing, a few
paragraphs from this part of the R eport. Such suffering as is
here detailed in a few brief statements of facts, has rarely been
xceeded.

February 2.—All shige a? ‘storm raged with a fury as awful as
that of the ‘* tormentes” f Mt. Blanc. The particles of snow beat

impossible for me to sleep. Such was the force of the wind, that it
drove. the snow through the canvass ‘walls of my ie and I found my
bed and papers covered with it. natomping night I heard one of the

ing some of his A ke toe to let him get into the wegen | with them.

I looked o
hard icy particles, ar flew along with extreme velocity. As the i
sun began to appear the storm ceased, and it was most fortunate
for us that it did cease. ‘I now forced my way out of the tent, which
was banked with snow. When, I looked around, a scene of utter des-

tosleep, but now not pi as of them could be seen. oa aloud; they
heard me not, being covered beneath the deep went to
the wagons; in one I found Pilka and Lain the other, two or

three men, one of whom had been very ill ever since leaving Bent’s
Fort. He came rushing towards me half distracted, his shirt covered
with geal his head haves and crouching at my feet, he implored me to
take him toa house. ‘O, Lieutenant, take me toa house! «I shall
freeze to “death! I'm freezing! I’m freezing!” His arms were
drawn up and stiffened, his body almost paralyzed with cold. I took
the poor fellow and put him in my own bed, and covered him with
blankets and buffalo robes; it was all I could do.

e now searched about and found the men by the aid of the cracks
on the surface of the snow, caused by the movements of the restless
sleepers; covered by the heavy mantle of snow they had kept ex-
tremely’ warm, and now the chill air felt to them more intolernb ima

pp. 115,
Fe bruary 21.—This morning is the first time for thirty-six hours t
any one nt ventured en had their provisions re

and shared them with Mr. Brown’s party; of all the tents
been pes Friday night, mine was the Cohy aan which at
The snow had heaped up around the rest. at the inn
oMaseiae ‘o desert ‘ben and take tefoaiid in the ' wagons.
the wind ng swept in such a way as to keep open
it, although the snow was on a level with the ridge |
oke a some boards that were in the wagons, al
pooan th @ sun rose; but, instead of sun, we

a
392 New Mexico and California.

breadth of the columns was that of the sun’s apparent diameter, and

their height about twelve times the same diameter; they were between

twenty and thirty degrees distant from the sun. Before the sun had
" risen more than ten degrees, this phenomenon entirely disappeared.
__- Some of the men calle dm my attention to this strange appearance, but
so engrossed were they with their own calamities, that they hardly
seemed to be in the least astonished at what they saw.

After some little while we missed Preston and the sick man; we
inquired, but no one knew anything about them. It was now evident
that they had been buried beneath the snow drift, which, for some
ee oy had filled up the nook in which we had encamped to
the I the prairie ; as the drift was of considerable extent, much
tl a be wasted in examining it, unless we could find where they
had pee te tent. At-last I noticed one poor napa digging away
to find 3 he showed me where the sick man I call-
ed the men, an y set to work. he snow ie six te deep,
and we head only a little piece of board to dig with, and the cold was so
great that no one could work very long before his hands became per~
7 rigid. After a good deal of hard digging, we found a pair of

s, which were recognized ‘ the men as aie 's » aoa This

get at “a ie pole ‘of the tent, which we cut in two with ou
Ve drew Preston out of the drift, Shick had like to bees “ated
his eee, His bed-fellow, who had been much weakened by sickness,
was already dead; he was the man whom we had dragged from Jack- |
tn ’s grove to “ Pawnes, fork ;” where he had been picked u Mr.
Brown ; since which time he had been recovering fast. Poor Pe fcc
it was Be tiowss, erst to leave his bones on the desert prairies, where
is requiem. JI caused the mien to dig him also out of the

=
©

ft, and to ee this body into a wagon, in order that we might bury
him at the Cotton Wood fork.

Several mules had already been frozen to death. As we proceeded,
mules, that had d started off in apparently good condition, would drop
down in the harness, and their limbs would become perfectly rigid.

Even one of the oxen fell down -benumbed with cold. In a few hours
e e lost six mules and one ox, so that our road was marked out with

ng animals. As we approached our destined camp ground, we saw @

~ wolf that was so badly frozen as to be unable to move. One of the men
‘put an end tovits sufferings by a bullet from his rifle.—pp. 126, 127.

s in Cali, in

*

Meeting of the American Association, §c. 393

Arr. XX XVII_—WNotice of the Meeting of the American Associ-
ation for the Promotion of Science, held at Philadelphia,
September 20- 25, ‘1848. —

osx who had the pléasure of joining in this scientific reun-
ion, wil long remember the harmony of the occasion, the ardor
e

attendance was much larger than on any former occasion, v
the association met under its old organization, and with its former
more restricted plan. And yet many who before have often met
on these occasions, were unavoidably detained from the present
meeting. The division into two sections—of General Physics,
and of Natural History,—proved highly advantageous to the rapid
progress of business, and was much. approved, although many
were thus unavoidably prevented fom “engy ing the advantages
of hearing all that passed in both se

The plan of organization, the act and_ by-laws, reported
by the committee appointed last year for this purpose, were unani-
mously adopted, and. will be the basis of all future operations.
j abe communications made at the present session were as
ollow

ae force flidispénsabte to whirlwinds. Byt ie Pee
Some notice of the Fossil Cephalopoda, long known by the
of Belemnites, and of the —. of iron, c called ‘gullicite, fond
— at Mullica Hill. By Peter A, Browne,
ort on Meteorites.” By Protest C.U. SuuPAnd, communicated
Professor B. S1numan, Jr.
by Pi on Winds,’ or a6 Laws of Atmospheric circulaiione in be
Northern Hemisphere. By Professor J. H, Corri ;
Forces in nature, which tend to roptur, Sone depress, and D-
heave the superficial strata of the earth. By Professor L.
On the Volatility of Potassa at Soda, and their Carbikatak BF
Professors W. B. and R. E. Roe
On the alleged insolubility of espe in hydrochloric acid, ae
Fuchs’s Mabe of analysis of Iron and Copper r Ores.
. B. an . Roe
Poet Zaabhy tes of Woitern Ohio, with a few additions froik 2 otha
bs ong localities. By Professor J. W. Van Cieve
e Sediment of the’ Mississippi River. By P

Dea,
The = ge pring | of Chemical Philosophy.
The Zo ibe Pag ae ak By Professor J. J.

ee in New

394 Meeting of the American Association

Account of the prmant state of the Smithsonian Institute. By Pro-
fessor JoszepH Hen

- Fundam — principles of Mathematics. By Professor STEPHEN
ALEXAND

On the "identity of the Atops trilineatus and the Drinsthews “5 —
(Green,) ei — upon the malptocaphalss asaphoides. By Pro

Report on the "Foramminifets dredged i in the coast survey. By Pro-
fessor Barn
Theory of the Geological action of the “mee By Lieutenant C..H.
Davis. Communicated by Professor Perm
Observations upon the local nie 8 of marine animals, By Mr.
Desor. Communicated by Professor PE
Discussion of the lexible. ag aS ‘By ‘Professor. J. E. Outver.
Communicated by Professor Perr
On the s panciplee of analytical woo By Professor Prer
On c methods of finding. the real na of equations. By Poe
fessor
Theor ‘of — mutual action of two olistte, the ratio of whee mean
motions is near ionof two to one. By Profes sor PErrc
Bh pate decomposition f rocks; by meteoric agents. By ‘Profoasthe
On the solipeasiod “solubility of carbonate of lime, and ane of
meee By Professors W. B. and R. E. Rogers.
On mo Fishes of Lake Siperion. ‘By Professor Acas
me Improvements in recording “Magnetic Taegnaie By
Fvalinene JOHNSON.
omparison of the Aipine and the Northern Vegetation. By
Professor AGassiz
On the Structure of the Phonetic Apparatus of the Crickets. By
Professor Aca
n the Origin of the Actual Outlines of Lake Superior. By

Terraces Ancient River Hach, the Drift, the Boul
ad th. Pl Polish acer around Lake = and Lake
eo L rofeawor Rae
diag) Classification of the Animal Kingdom. By Professor

A ay of the pee tae By Professor Akeni
aoe rks upon the Black-banded Cyprinids. By Professor

‘Not wie of some new Cyprinodonts. By Professor Acassiz.

On the Fossil Cetacea of South Carolina. By Professor AGAssiz.
; penpariegs of the Structure of Crinoides, with the Embryonic
of the Star Fishes. By Professor Acassiz.

On the Currents of the Ocean. By Lieut. M. F. Mav

epee “Sonne 3 i powers of the radii vectors of an Ellipse.
; FF

°
“

absorption of carbonic acid by Liebig’s dilute solution of

of soda. By Profe essors . and R. E. Rocers. —

composition of the bittern of some of the salines of Western
:

is
a3

j
|
|

Sor the Promotion of Science.» 395

On the opposition of Neptune of 1848. By Professor STEPHEN
ALEXANDER
On the Topograp hye of the states of Pennsylvania and Ohio with
reference to the echo of rail road oO. Seemnunicationg. By Soromon
W. Rozerts, Civil Eng ne;
Definitions of Ni iailley, pes a tter. By Rosert Harz, M.D.
On acid ue and the gypsum deposits of the Onondaga salt group.
By T. S. Hunt, Esq.
Observations. on the physical geography and geology of the North
et y Ricuarp Boiron. Communicated by Prof. Boorx.
nas — mode of alkalimetry: and acidimery, "By Professor R.
E. eg gt
new description i self. ens “apparatus for meteorologi-
cal sabia, By Professor J. H. Cor
On the use of Bitéage acid: in “echt: “oh gga ag of gaseous analy-
sis. By Professors W. B. and R. E. Roc
» On the geological and chemical relations of certain acid and alkaline
springs By Professor W. B. Roce
On calculi found in the whale wath Heute of their chemical analysis.
y Dr. Ketter, of Cambridge,
“On the two forms of Rhamnus lancéolatus. ot i Guzen.
Antiquities of North America. By M. W. D
Comparison of the written and aaleat Lice “of the Chinese.
By L. P. AnpREws, :
Reports on the progress of geographical discovery sy me year
1847 and part of 1848. By Professor ALEXANDER, of Balti
Analyses of * aire poe Behaylkil Water. By MH he Bové
and B. Sinuiman,
n the dsaseatige of the recent coral danbetcibe of the Pacific.
By Professor B. Situiman, Jr.

The aeons list is made up without the aid of the returns
rom the several Secretaries, and may not € quite correct in all
respects, although -it is believed that it contains all the subjects
discussed, relating properly to science. |

We are at present able to present only: a few authentic abstracts
of the several papers, and these are confined to the physical sec~
tion. We shall, in succeeding nuofabent and as we can procure
the matter from the authors or Secretaries, make such further
Selections as may be most interesting to our readers. Many o
the papers will, no doubt, appear in full from time to time in our
pages—as is true of Prof. Shepard’s Teper on meteorites, in our
present number.

Abstracts, §c. bes
On the Alleged Insolubility of Copper in Hydrohtore Acid; 7 w
*s ron

- Prof. R. E. Rogers, in presenting this communication, re
the. -opinion received among chemists, that metallic copper

396 Meeting of the American Association

entirely insoluble in pure hydrochloric acid, when oxygen is absent. _
j This which has been made the foundation of an analytical process,

first recommended by Fuchs, and since by Fresenius, was proved to be

inaccurate. By a particular apparatus, in which carbonic acid gas in

one case, and hydrogen gas in another, was made to flow into the :

he above the liquid and metal, so as effectually to exclude the at- & :

m re, it was found that continued boiling caused the copper to be

dissolved ; in marked quantity. Even when exposed to the acid at or-

dinary temperatures, the atmosphere being entirely excluded, it was

found ho after a prolonged time the metal: underwent partial solution,

bubb! ydrogen were evolved, and the dichlorid of copper’ was

formed. The Professors peers regard these results as — proving

the ineompetency < of Fuchs’s method, to ances accurate results

stoppi
ever either of these is sufficiently simple for difect discussion, the nu
r and nature of. the real roots of the giver snes can ‘be ee es
ascertained. Professor Peirce illustrated this method by geometrical
a and applied it to some very rr cases of algebraic q
equa
ars C. WALKER bores ar pe to the Ph sical ee through
nds of Neptune for the

ambridge, nffand After nt 5 to the ephemeris a correction
published by, Mr, W. in the American Journal of Science, the differences
between the computed and observed: places of Neptune are as follows:

» .Obs.—Eph.
R.A Decl
0-06 —0°-83
eo eOB1 —0:
+0: 78 +1: 86
—0: 39 +1 25
—2! 55. +0: 07
; a1 86. 5
Mean, —O0- 26 +0: 34

This comparison shows that no correction is needed as yet, either to
Mr. Walker’s elements of Neptune’s orbit, or to the perturbations of
the planet as computed by Prof. Peirce. q

“ ee pic qa of as &c., at Meteoric Waters, and on the |
action of the Mineral Acids upon

Rocers and Prof. R. E. Rog eldspar, §c. By Prof. W. B.

n abstract of part of peg A may be found in the last volume
i Journal, page 401.

rime ay. were also cited disproving the opines which appears
received among chemists, that the feldspars, hornblendes, &c.,

for the Promotion of Science. 397

are entirely’ unacted on by-sulphuric or hydrochloric acids. By expo-
sing these materials in fine powder to prolonged digestion in the acid,

vdaedhl acid a
liquid furnished chlorid of se crate wah ch “of aluminium

is communication drew forth some er ase remarks dad con-
firmatory statements from Professors Hare, Henry, Ww. B. Rogers, R.
E. eee Silliman, and Mr. Hunt. ,

some ee agi dependent 1 bi the Progressive Mo-
ites, of Lig By Prof. Srepuen Arexanper of Prine n, N. J.
Afier Se saing to the rechgnizat e fecuot 1 the aun heated 4
light, and that which is ordinarily termed planetary aberration, the
author more particularly explained the dragging of the shadows of the
earth and other pianatte first previously noticed ‘by himself in a. com-
munieation to the American Philosophical Society... Pr of. A. then
proceeded to the consideration of the case in which light passed through
the transparent envelop of a ‘body in motion, and observed that inas-
much as the t theory of undulations réquired that the ether should be
possessed of inertia, and the inertia.of our atmosphere must be in-
comparably greater ~ that of the met it would seem to follow,

of the same through the » siapeabhone a is ‘i produce HE ated
tion, which, in so far as the ear ’s motion “was concerned, would be
the opposite to that which actually exists, aberration bei th in

mode and measure, what it ought to ye the earth had no ead

molecules. When tert the quantity of atmosphere to be travers-
ed was so great that. light must be nearly absorbed, some sensible
juesti A:

others, bprdering that. edge of the earth’s shadow, into which the moon

entered, “at the time of the last lunat eclipse, but which was less dis-

tact on ee side at which the moon emer * and showed that these
1ena were fabs! nt. with the oc ag ag of such an impulse,

ied by the ifg of thes

pe An bs sae that these "Sadaidevalions might have a

n. the. question of'a systematic aberration of the double

398 Meeting of the American Association

in use from Philadelphia to Harrisburg, on the Susquehanna, a dis-

tance of 107 miles, passing over a rolling and highly cultivated coun-

try. ans not crossing any high ridges. — The Romper railroad, now
h

the Ohio river, will be 251 miles in length, making the whole distance
from Philadelphia to Pittsburg 358 miles. — line crosses the Alle-
ghany aap at Sugar Run Gap; and from Harrisburg to the base
of the mountain, a distance of 133 miles, the line follows co 7 of
the Juniata river, and has no grade greater than twenty-o r
mile. he curvatures are.easy and the road neers to high velocities.
The mountain is ascended on the eastern side by 12,3, miles of a gr

of eighty feet per mile, similar to that on the Western railroad of. Mas-
sachusetts. The summit of the mountain, is then passed by a tunnel
700 yards long, and the’ line. = the summit to tela repgl Se is 106 miles

long, with a maximum, grade ty-two. feet
he railroad eae m a burg to Cincirinati will be 330 miles,
x the way of Massi assillon, soit and Columbus. While the distance

Ms
ae of its length will traverse the elevated table lands of that state,
which are very favorable for railroad construction.

The speaker described the permcipert topographical features of the
states of Pennsylvania and Ohio, and exhibited a profile of the crest
line of the Alleghany mountain oul a distance of forty-four miles.

‘In.conclusion, he explained that the best and shortest railroad route

from Cincinnati to New York and Boston passed through Pennsylvania
and Philadelphia ; and that the same was true of a road from St- Louis.
And also that from Cleveland on Lake*Erie to New York, the distance
by the railroad through Pittsburg and Philadelphia, will be “ y miles
shorter than by the way of Dunkirk: and Piermont.

Report on the Winds of the Northern Hemisphere. By Professor
J..H. Corrin.—After some remarks upon the importance in investiga-

countries in which go were taken. T Ww > wridelygugaitot #ed
over both continents, and the Atlantic, Paci - Aretic oceans, and

embraced an aggregate period of over two’ thousand peas “7 i ve | a
dred and fifty fixed stations, beside numerous voyages tours—
more extensive collection, he — than had ever “efore ‘een
brought together for the pur

He next pointed out the witha’ he adopted to determine from these
observations, the mean course of the wind, which was the same as that
by which the traverse of a ship at sea is resolved.

By the aid of extensive diagrams he then proceeded to establish the
fact that between lat. 334° and lat. 60°, there is a general current from

the west, (a rather from a little to the south of nese) extending entirely
- round the |

, but that as we approach those limits (particularly on

for the Promotion of Science. 399

the south) it gradually ae its decided character, and at the limit all
trace of a fixed directi isappears, the current»at any place being
paced entirely by ina influences, This he illustrated by a sepa-
rate diagram of the winds y Augusta,Georgia. After passing this
imit on the south, he showed that a current from the opposite direction
sets in, which, as we sober radually assumed a more decided char-
acter till we come fully within the limits of the trade winds. He allu-
d, in passing, to a peculiarity in the winds west of the Mississippi,
tween ° - t. new and lat. 40°, as explaining the tracks of storms | in
those-re
North of Cisaia pa pe Oe bn there are. ee tions ‘that the
strong ‘current that co s down from the nort Pe arly: ir regions
veers toward the west; oho esjabljahing a third eyes, ‘which breaks
up about at latitude. 60°. . The alent at various pan in

hac wad westerly systems o

He next spoke of the relative Pres of the different winds, showing

how far the general results are modified from ‘this cause.
After remarking that he was-compe elled for want of time to a met
eral matters embraced in the report, he “closed with an
thanks to the numerous friends who had aided him in ee ibe
essary data, and whom he mentioned by name, with the kind of aid
received from each,

_ M.F '. Maury, U.S.N., on the Winds and, Currents of the Ocean.—
y reminded the Association, that in'1844, they appointed a com-

mittee resent to the Secretary of the Navy, the importance of
the s which our armed cruisers might render to the cause of
ie :

ason was a ma
of sco aind and liberal views; he received the representations of
> as a friend of science and a statesman shou
to the impulse thus given, that Lt. Maury had been
cane e. sony out a plan which he had long entertained, of construct-
Prats Series of charts which should give to each navigator the benefit
of the combined experience of all who had gone before him, as to the
winds and currents in every part of the ocean. Charts pi this plan,
of the North Atlantic, were paenios before the epee
hey are so constructed as to shew at a glance the sammie winds,
currents, temperatures, &c. fot every month in all parts of * ocean.
The characters or symbols for the winds are so contrived, th at they
shew at once both the direction and strength of the wind. a
To obtain the results exhibited before the Association, involved im-

mense labor: many Gieew old log-books had been overhauled, and —

the records of each as to winds, temperature of the sea, variation of

400 Meeting of the American Association

the compass, and force and’set of currents, compared with all the rest :
but the results 'werevof high interest and great value. They shew that
the trade winds in the North Atlantic blow with much more regularity

fy the ats are to windward ; while in the former, they are to lee-
vac ‘ew also shewn that the trade winds prevail more from the
on i th American, than uid do on the African side ; s ¥° that

an.

same parallels in other parts of the ‘ocean, piney are regular sonnet
and southwest Pagan

He pointed out the usual route of PeeY bound across the pare
from the United Skater and’ shewed that it. is over towards the coast of
Africa, near the Canary and Cape de Verde islands. It lies through

igators. He had received the returns of#seven who had tried it; and

the average length of their voyage to the ts ge was ELEVEN Ps
than the ererage by the usual 'r ute.

have no real existence. He is p preparing i a list of such as m
sed from.the chafts of the North Atlantic

hores of South America, between’ the parallels: of

ometer.
covered the Gulf Stream, Chaslestpn had more. rt eo trade than Kewl,
Mi and all the New England states together. Charleston then was hed

he get refreshed ~ the oat warmth of its waters, as
now does, she put off for Charleston or the W est Indie
mained ti ‘- return of spring before making

are re-

for the Promotion of Science. 401

New York now has more ee aeado in a week than Charleston has
ina year. Perhaps Dr. i agence and Jers
emiah Thompson & Co. w acket-ships, may be regarded as
the two most powerful ane of the many concerned in this revolution.
The frequent and general use of the water-thermometer by naviga-
tors, is the only means by which we can arrive at a proper knowled
of at pe —— of the _— of the currents and isothermal

The Bircaty of the Navy has authorivied copies of these charts to
be given to-every navigator who would return to the National Observa-
tory, according to form, an abstract of his voyage. Several thousand
sheets of the chart have.alre oe been distributed upon these terms, and
there are now engaged upon all parts of the ocean, hundreds of ves-
sels making and noord: PLE for ihis work. Never before
was such a corps of observers Known. The commercial marine of no
country can boast of more accomplished “— than thove of the
United States.

The iegpoctate of simultanegus observations in all parts of
ocean, was dwelt upon with much ohare ness. The field is as wi
as the ocean, and there is room in ¢ for taultftodes of laborer:
The work is not exclusively for the bené of any one nation or agr
and it was suggested w whether the states of Christendom mig t not be
induced to cooperate “by, their navies in the undertaking. .

The next 1 meeting of this Association, ees adjo al
to Cambridge, M n the 2d Tuesday (14th) of August, 1849.
Presid, es Shand y; Secretary, Dr. Jerrries Wyman.

— character of the Philadelphia meeting—the great
i st it has excited in the minds of those who were present
é piaee offered by Cambridge to draw together men of

the g acscash, to prepare a full report of all the papers
read befor ir several meetings, and to submit them to a Pub-
lishing ee, Who are charged ‘with the i tea of a volume

befote th the Featous, will be published, unless the same have been
furnished or approved by the authors. It is hoped that anothe
year may enable the Association to publish a volume with |
memoirs and reports, as well as abstracts. For this purpose, @
much more general enrollment of members will be

The present session of the Association lasted five days, during
which time, three daily sessions were held, in the halls of the
University “of Pennsylvania on Ninth street.

Become prow Vol. VI, No. 18.—Nov., 1848.

Arr. EP mortage ee —"* by Cartes Urnam
wider MD:
<

[Read before the American Association for the Promotion of ee at
; Philadelphia, Sept. 20, 1848.)

4 Hivinc oo ciel the description of the meteoric iron- ‘masses
of the United States, it now remaihs to describe the American
meteoric stones. Asa result of new observations respecting these
hodies generally, it becomes necessary to propose a nee modi-
fication of the reer 2 previously adopted.

: “Chass Il. Stony. : 4
{gs St lowa..

Section 1. Fine grained. ; Tétineeese’
Section 2. Coupe gained} ching, Vac

: Bishopsvill, 8.0.

Piorabeocs Thal Bokkeweld, South’ “Alri .
‘ ha a Tie Chantonnay,

ie ® ae

~ Prvatice-Tilce, ? : &

a.. Waterville, Me.

b. Concord; N. H.

The localities to be. described ae the above
with the dates of fall, &c., are as follo

a5 e. Cuass IL.

Weight about 75 Ib
‘Fell May 20, 1848, "Described by Suer-

22 4
Weight 1 ree i
3, Nanjemoy, Maryland: Fell Feb. 10, 1825. Described by
Carver and Cuitton. Weight about 16 Ibs.
4, Sumner Co., Tennessee, Fell May 9, 1827. Described
by SEYBERT. Weight 11 lbs.
Forsyth, Georgia. Fell May 8, 1829, Described by Su
Sen., and Sueparp. wale about 36 De: cas. oe
obleboro, Maine. Fell Des ibed
AND and Wes

’ ~ .

‘ Report on Meteorites. 403

7. Little Piney, ~_—

F ‘ Feb. 13, 1839. Described by
Herrick and SHep Veig ht lbs.

‘ht about 50
Section 2d. Cadrse grained.
e 8. Weston, Connecticut, Fell Dec. 14, 1807. Described by
Sinuiman, Sen. ., and Kinesiey. Weight about 300 Ibs.

9. Richmond, Virginia Fell June 4, 1828. Described by
Sueparp. Weight

%e

Order 2d.

10. Bishopsville, South eta Fell March, 1843. Deseri-
bed by Suerarp. Weight 13 lbs. ee ee

APPENDIX.

a. Waterville Maine. ae March, 1843. Described by
Sueparp. Weight gent 4
b. Concord, New mpshire, Fell Oct., 1846. Deserta
Suton, Jr. Weight.3704 gr

Before treating of these he ae it must be ob:

aration from the common voleanic iiitierad (as well as “tim

te st =
hd

The fatine turns blacle, reat fuses. easily before the blowpipe ;
while the latter grows pale and is. infusible. Olivinoid is more
easily attacked bythe acids than olivine :. moreover, it seems most
le, from what is at present known of its composition, that
the olivinoid i is throughout, a bisili¢ate, and not a simple silicate.
I have distinguished another equally abundant earthy mineral
i. in meteoric stones as new, under the name of howardite, whic

. is detected in consequence of its existing in an almost perfectly ‘
,* insulated state in the Iowa stone. This will be described t in a
i the account now to be given of that meteorite. om
a

: Linn Co., Towa.

I have given the principal facts eeeuaine the fall of stones at
this locality, in the Amer. Journ. of Science, ii ser., Vol. iv,
p. 288. It is only peuieied to add, that the small sri seen
to fall, was picked up on the’ land of Mr. Daniel C. Ro:
situated on section 21, township 82 north, range 6 west.
larger” portion of the ‘fallen meteor*was fou nd in sec
from a mile to a mile and a half, west. ‘This consisted |

masses and not as first supposed, of the fragments | yf

eee ae

stone. The larger of the two (whose weight was estimated at
_— 40 lbs.) was cracked through the centre, by its fall upon
e frozen ground. One of these halves (weighing 21 lbs. 7 02.)
is in my possession. ‘The smaller perfect stone is represented, by
the finder of it, to have been pyramidal in its shape ; and to have
gore not far from 10 inches in length, by 8 at its base, and
at the smaller extremity. It was completely coated by a black
crust, like the other two stones. This stone (as well as one-half
of the larger mass) has been broken up, and for the most part en-
tirely lost. The few fragments of it in my possession, s
ciently evince that it differs in no sensible manner from the otfier
two, which are now to be more particularly described.
The smaller stone will be best described, by comparing it to
a short rectangular prism (the longer side measuring 4 inches,
the ta ‘24 inches) surmounted at one extremity by a four-
mid of unequal and much curved faces, and terminated
at the Stic end by an obliqne, waving plane, upon which the
‘stone is most conveniently placed for inspection. When in this
position, the apex of the pyramid. is 34, inches from the. base.
‘The angles and edges of the mass, as is usual in such bodies, are
rounded and blunt. It has but few depressions in its surface.
The crust is perfect in its continuity; and is smooth and black,
though not shining. ‘The stone weighs 2 lbs. 8hoz
The large mass (of 21 lbs:.7,0z.) is an roksiatien slnpeds Some
sided pyramid, the summit of which, in place of being a point,
— is an edge of four’or five inches in length. ‘The base of the
a pyramid is formed by the fractured surface, which is nearly plane,
and strikingly resembles the,.face produ iced by fracturing a simi-
larly sized block of fine oe granite: »'The natural outside of

ed stone strong, "hile its line of junction. with she same,
fe “C tly defined throughout. When narrowly observed, it 18

discovered that the surface of this crust is divided off, by cracks,
into po ygonal se of from 4 to $ an inch in diameter, a con-
sequence no doubt of sudden coolin

The color of the stone within, is an uniform pearl grey. A
closer inspection renders visible specks of iron rust, (though less
abundant than common,) and numerous highly brilliant globules
of. nickeliferous iron. It requires a still nearer search to
magnetic pyrites, which is far less abuindant than the metallic
Blackish veins and. glazed joints are nearly obsolete in
wa stones. T’he same may be said of the little ovoid mass-
vhich are also se frequent in most other stones.

‘The most remarkable feature of the Iowa stone, however, con-
sists in the homogeneousness | of its earthy composition. It ap-
rs to contain but a single mineral species of this description,
and this is one which, though perhaps the most common in other
oor stones, has until now escaped a separate recognition.

I have therefore ventured to bestow upon it a distinct name, th

of howardite, in honor of an individual whose - early scienti
labors in this seiack of meteorology, rank next in ee to

those of Chladni himself.

“he proportions of the igen: in of a appa the

following :
. Howardite, » é Peg ‘ » 83:00
Niekel-iron, ‘ siete See 10:44
prs 5:

Magnetic pyri
Olivinoid and Anortvit, : traces.

A portion of the stone was ‘seepihiy cleared of the nickel-iron
by means of the magnet, which however was inadequate to the
separation of the pyrites.

“The stone (well cleared of foreign substances) fused easily be-
fore the blowpipe into a black, scoriaceous glass, which was af:
tractable by the magnet.

-'The powdered stone (cleared-of the nickel-iron as above) real
ily yielded to the action of warm dilute hydrochloric acid ; and
was quickly brought into solution,,with the separation of floceus
lent silica. Its analysis gave the following result:

Silicie acid, eras ? . + OG
rotoxyd 1 sep ah Pit ‘ » 23°50
Magnesia, : oe coaster hip 1120
Magnetic. virion ‘ ae goss OO
Soda and potassa ‘ , et 0:30
99-82

Lime and nickel, KP in traces.

les. sod the pyrites, the composition of a mineral may be
stated thus

sgl Oxygen. Ratio of,oxygen.
Silicic acid, . ie 4 @3°06 31-53 3
Protoxyd iron, : iit 3 5-46 1
lagnesia, . ici ¥ 1 “ a}
Soda and potassa, : _ dl
— Itis therefore a tersilicate of protokyl of iron and magnesia
‘Bedi + Mg Si x io
The composition of the emt “approaches very closely a
that of iron 86, nickel 14,—a iar alloy, which I have re
tofegard as very common in Laie

* w 2. Castine, Maine. - ‘ we
For description of this stone, see this Journal, u ser., vol. vi, P.
251, 1848.

3. iNilafeey, Maryland. ;' -
For a ge Sie of this stone, see this Journal, Vol. ix, p. 351,
aid Vol. x, p. 131. Meteoriten von P. Partsch, s. 63, Wien, 1843.
Its crust resembles that of the Iowa stone, without however
possessing its uniformity of thickness, or its deep black color.
. e proportion and mode of dissemination of the nickel-iron and
the pyrites, is ho, similar in both; but the color of the earthy
miter in the uryland, is several shades darker, and more incli-
ning to blue. ‘The iron-rust points are less frequent than in the
Iowa meteorite. Like the latter, it is principally composed of
howardite ; although rounded grains of olivinoid, to the amount
perhaps of 15 per cent,, are distinguishable with the aid of the
microscope. . :
4. Sumner Co., Tennessee.

For accounts of this meteorite, see this Journal, vol. xvii, p.
sca and sey xviii, p. 200. Die Meteoriten, von P. Partsch,.s. 47,

ien, 1843,

«The it much resembles som the Maryland stone, though
it is somewhat remarkable n possessing an uniform brownish
black color. Within, the dtctie is of a light grey, more inclining
to white than any meteoric stone of the United States, excepting
that of Bishopsville. It abounds in pale yellow grains, which are
robably olivinoid. In addition also to the howardite, it contains
northite in small quantity. The nickél-iron and magnetic py-
es are very minutely diffused ; while here and there, little specks
f chrome iron may be detected.

_5. For orsyth, Georgia.

Fora brief notice of this stone, see this Journal, Vol. XViil, p-
388; and Die Meteoriten von P. sch, s.

been able to subject it to an iis as well “a to determine its
specific gravity more accurately than I had been able to do be-
fore. It is 3°52; |

‘It contains the following a: aay

Nickel-iron, : oe per cent,
Howardite, ; ‘ :

Olivinoid,

Anorthite; 10 to 15 ‘iis cent.

Magnetic pyrites, .- é 2to 6+ ©
Sr rey at in traces.

*
Report on Meteorites. 407

The ang “— of uae 2
Tro : 89:00
Niel : ? a 9-60
. Chromium wid Ne Sa Save a 1-40
100-00
F flow mixture of the ey, sitseenie: in the stone, are é
oll
Silicic Oy... + co 3.6 Oe ‘
Prk sawen;.. A os...» oe
Magnésia, .. . . : ba 930 .. oa
ime,. ; , 5:30
Alumina, we 1:80
99°73

ay Nobleboro, Maine.

Notices of this stone are contained in Vols. vii, p. 170, and
1Sp-p. 400, also in Boston Journal of Philosophy and the Arts,
and Die Meteoriten von P. Partsch, s. 29, Wien, 1843. The
crust is a perfectly fused and shining glass, similar to the Juve-
nas and Stannern stones. The color of the interior is a light ash-
grey. When examined by the aid ofa lens, it is found to be
highly composite in character, pate the small fragment i in my
possession shows neither nickel-iron nor magnetic pyrites. The
most — ingredient is howardite, through which are dis-

| ns of greenish transparent olivinoid, white par-
ticles of ssiasbiee. black grains of chantonnite, and a red color-
ed, vitreous, hard mineral, which ayeedie to be either garnet o1
idocra ase.

7. Little Ferg Missduri. ai

Brief — of this _— ‘are contained i in Vols. xxxvii, p.

I have so ti avored with stot additional particulars respect-
ing its fall, from p wl ide in the vicinity of the locality.
Bluff, on Gasconade river,

Do te came jts size and
to those of a blacksmith’s bellows, moving with the large
most. A bright light or blaze: was nol om to hover sou
ipebesetieemity: of thesinaah, ap hich

* P

°
down through the space of a few inches. A streak of bright
light, 100 yards in length, followed the blaze. Before there was a ’
time to utter a word, the meteor had passed behind a neighboring “;
hill, when a loud explosion ensued. Ata place about one mile

distant, t, inthe direction of the meteor’s passage; two men were
at “work in a field. They heard the explosion, and saw the stone
strike the-earth, at a distan¢ée of two hundred yards from where
h they were standing, It hit the trunk of a tree, eighteen inches
above the ground; and when first discovered, seemed enveloped
in‘ssmoke. (The foregoing statement was supplied by Mr. T.

MacDonald.
» The following letter, dated Sept 12, 1846, describing the
enomenon, is from Mr. B. B. Harrison, a merchant residing in

Lie Piney, distant about ten miles from: Pine Bluff, where the
fell. - “I recollect the state of the weather on the afternoon |
of the occurrence. It was perfectly clear and calm oo going |

niles east of this pace), the report proceed from the

“6 After the ere of some weeks sented with a frag-
ment of the stone, which le the place of bs fall. It
was at the’ foot of a ill of 3 gradual slope, about half a mile
from the Gasconade river, two miles from Pine Bluff post-office,
ten miles from: Little “Pines post-office, and the same distance
from Waynesville. i. where the stone had struck an :

= eighteen inches in
ugh not broken. T saw

_ the Iowa meteorite, “o> its line of junction with the m

9 g "
Report on Meteorites. _ 409

tree. ‘That which I supposed to have been the outside of»the
stone, had a dark brown color, and formed.a crust of the thick-
ness.of coarsé’ wrapping. paper... It had evidently been exposed
to intense heat. The injured side of the see was to the south-
west, from which side I was informed that fragments of the
stone were prance toa very great othe (three fourths of
a mile

6 Those who first visited the place differ greatly as to the weight
of the stone, the estimates varying from fifty.to one hundred and
fifty pounds : my own opinion is, that it must have weighed at
least fifty pounds. The place not being far from the public road,
the fragments were soon gaghered up by travellers, and have been
dispersed very widely thro h the country. . It may be proper to
add, that I am a native of this place, and that I never saw any
other stone resembling the one Isend you, here or elsewhere ; and
that. it is quite impossible* to account for the 4 injury to the tree,
except on the supposition of its being produced bya stone falling
from the atmosphere.’

The following communication. is from M. Frissell, Esq., of Po-
tosi, Mo., dated March 12, 1842:—“'The meteor, of which the
stone in my possession formed a Part, , passed i in a westerly direc-
tion: It, must have been large, and [ presume that the main
body passed on, the piece that fell hase formed but a small] me
of the whole. ‘I did not witness the meteor. Some persons who
did, compared it to a trumpet in shape, moving with the expand-
ed end foremost. "The time of i its passage was between two and
three o’clock, ». m. . Shortly after it had passed the meridian
this place, it exploded with the noise of a heavy piece of ordna
at two or three miles distance. I was in my office at the time.
My first impression wag, that it was an earthquake. I was soon
apprised however of what had passed: through the air, when I

came convinced that the: report had proceeded from a meteor.
The report was double ; like two cannons fired at nearly the same
instant, the second: being louder than the first. The meteor must

place. I expected that fragments

this immediate vicinity, but the o

Bluff, about eighty miles distant.”
The crust to this stone has about

one discovered was at Pine

me thickness as

: pea less perfectly defined. Its color is rather less black, and
its surface less smooth and duller. Judging from. one specimen

+ Mr. Frissell was so obliging as to _ me e the sper
- Secon Sznies, Vol. VE, No: 18.— ne Ms

imen here referred to.
53

ea “ rere oe varies

os)
410 Report on Meteorites.

in my possession, which exhibits nearly two square inches of nat-
ural re it would appear that its surface must have been
marked by very distinct depressions. 'The color within also, re-
sembles that of the Iowa stone.. The stone consist o

- Olivinoid, . ‘ . : AO per cent.
Howardite, af an. =
Meteoric Iron,

: Magnetic Pyrites, ; oe
‘Anorthite, ‘ ‘ . fevak °f
Apatite in traces.

8. Weston, ConMecticut.

For an account of this stone, see Memoirs of the Connecticut

Vol. ‘iii, p. 213% Amer. Journ. Seicnoe; Vol. xxxvii, p. 130 ; Jour-
nal de Physique, Vol. xx, p. 429; Die Meteoriten von P. Partsch ,
s. 41, Wien, 1843.

Its crust is thicker than in the majority of our meteoric stones,
though less perfectly continuous and well formed,—being rough,
dull, and filled with crevices. « Its color is brownish black. When
broken, the interior shows occasional joints, with baence 9

ngs. e prevailing color within is a dark pearl gray.
tered through the mass, at frequent intervals, are patches of
ter color, imparting to it a sub-porphyritic aspect. These
t portions do not consist of a perfectly homogeneous mine-
but rather of a semii-pulverulent substance, which is probably
sing howardite. The main ingredient of the meteorite
gray (sometimes greenish evay ) mineral, in rounded
‘grains, appear to be olivinoid. These again are ’ mixed with
adie imperfectly formed grains of a lighter colored yellowish
ineral Soe stained by oxyd of iror Z his latter substance

is is take en for howardite also. Mag an es (less abundant
than in to stones) is irregularly dissemm in highly tar-

nished gra
"Pike nic nic aetna is mo ndant than in any meteoric stone
yet described, preséntin not only in little points, in

‘ geet ie and
; of

5
bd ~

a

* The striking analogy external. mag yestenigg meteoric ir
ly, and bedded masses of. native copper an Id. jlindependeniy of er of te the i
minutive cases ere re ofe cd to,) suggests ae tee sathat coe them-
selves have, at some period, been embraced in an mae —_

.

Report on Meteorites. All

. 9. Richmond, ——— ¥

For an account of this stone see. Vols. xv, p. 196, xvi, 191,
and Die Meteoriten von P. Partsch, s. 40, Wien, 1843.

This small and highly eng stone appears to have been
but imperfectly peers by the customary black crust. The
natural outside of the fragments which I have examined, pos-
sessed the usual preet hness of surface, but were but partially
melted. Nor yee that myo perfect coating had
ever been attached to the surface. ithin, the general — is
a dark ash gray. -Intersperse sed through the mass, howeve
freckles of a ‘whiti sh mineral, which are probably nawandise
The gray portion consists of olivinoid, and ‘forms at least nine-
tenths of the antag portion of the stone.

10. Bishopsvill South Carolina.

For my first naval of this, the most remarkable of all
the hitherto described “meteorites of the United States, I am in-
debted to Dr. J. ©. Haynswo' rth, of | Sumterville, South Caro-
lina. His letter to, me; (dated April 7, 1846,) which is ce
given, contains all the information respecting its fall ich
I have thus far been able to obtain. “I have in possession
a meteoric stone which fell in March, 1843, near Bishopsville,
in the northern part of Stitnter District. The passage of the
meteor and its explosion were witnessed by many spectators, over
a region of country of thirty or forty miles in diameter. The
descent of the stone itself also, was observed by a number
negroes. Their terror ‘was so great on seeing the excavation
produced, the scattering of the soil, and more than all, by the in
supportable sulphurous odors with ‘which the air was ‘filled, that
they fled in a panic from ‘the field, On the following morning,
however, headed by a white man they returned to the spot; and
after digging three feet or more, in a sandy soil, they came upon
the stone which [ now possess. That it is meteoric is as well
known as possible perhaps, in the absence of a scientific analysis.
It has more the appearance of limestone than of any other rock
with which I am acquainted, though it is much heavier than:

ulk of limerock. It has, moreover, numerous part
ibSlitig oxyd of iron, diffused through it. It is coat
dark shining surface, resembling glass that has been :

‘some metallic oxyd. When first dug u th ay

to the interior, as portions of the vitreous ¢ ess of
moved for specimens, by persons who hav e examined

A12 Report on Meteorites.

The stone was P Pusat for me by Dr. Haynsworth, and is
now in my possession. Its weight. was peo fay ee |
shape may be eres of from the “annexed figure

$ . i

It measures 9 inches in its longest diameter, by 5% and 5, in its
transverse dimensions. Ati is*rounded at its thicker extremity,

smaller end, which is cbriaaty yramidal, with four sides.
This is exhibited in fig, 2, where the stone rests on its side.
Being an uncommonly fragile stone, the glazed coating had dis-
appeared from the afgles and the ends of the mass, leaving not
more than two-thirdg of the surface protected by the original
crust, which is generally smooth, of a mottled aspect, the colors
being black, white,‘and bluish gray, not unlike certain clouded
marbles. The black portions are glossy and obsidian-like, the
gray and white for the most part, dull, though the white 1s ga
times shining and transparent like enamel on porcelain.
traversed by frequent cracks or fissures, which penetrate for
some distance into the stone; the walls of these fissures being
themselves partially fused for a little way inward from the ex-
terior

Report on. Meteorites. 413

An interior view of the stone is no less peculiar. The pearly
white color of its basis and its feldspathie crystallization, at first
view, make it difficult to regard it as any thing else than a de-

mposing mass of albitic granite. A nearer inspection, however,
outistice the observer, that the. white. substance: (chladnite, which
is nearly as tender as Jaumonite ) is ay ils from any terrestrial
mineral. It is seen, moreover, to be traversed with little black
veins, and here and ‘there to include Matte grains of deeply rusted
nickeliferous iron, some of, which are as large asa pea. Black
grains and even c rystals of sulphuret | of chromium (schreibersite
resembling allanite in form and color) are occasionally visible.
Brown colored pyrites, in very mihute quantity, is diffused through
the stone ; and especially is it visible in contact with the sulphu-
ret of chromium. A peculiar blue mineral (iodolite ), and a honey-
yellow one (apatoid), as be as traces of sulphur, are likewise
present-in traces in the ston
4

ae 2.
a

7
TN - YY WO x , E>,
= Ss

' \
\ NS NW

Za:

Wo :

Ss

Whenever the stone is broken or rubbed, it emits the odor of
sulphurons acid. Water dissolves from it decided traces of hypo-
sulphite of soda, hyposulphite of magnesia, sulphate of magne-
Sia, chlorid of magnesium, chlorid of sodium, and silicic a

The proportions in which the different. visible | mi iii
present may be thus ee. eet
Chladnite, ‘ ‘ ‘ F 90 per: cent.
Anorthite,* isch 6
bt ie species I refer the globular grains of a gra calor. The
gible and much harder than ie chladn as In a st pts ml heat, before

it turns white upon the edges, slightly vitrifying, bu pes Not eee? "With fbveehs
it slowly disappears, without more than tinging the solar of the bead.

414 Report on Meteorites.
Nickel-iron, » ee ‘ 2 per cent.
Magnetic pac
Schreibersite \ " | gat
Sulphur, | : ‘ ;
Iodolite and apatoid, .

The above minerals have been described issenacosamnee’ in
my previous report. It only remains to state the results obtained
in the analysis of the chladnite. They are the following :
?

Oxygen. Ratio of oxygen. .
3.

Silicic acid, _ TOAL 35:205 .
Magnesia, ~ 28°25 - 14:300° " 1
Soda, - | Be) ws 380

Fp Sitka 100-00

‘It omens, therefore, of 114 aporne tespiliinti ‘of thagnesia +4
of an atom of tersilicate of s

n operating upon the mixed Se tedet of the stone, lime, alum-
ina, and phosphoric acid were detected, ingredients which are
supposed to have reference to anorthite aid apatite.

APPENDIX.

I place the two stones now to be mentioned in an appendix,
because the evidence of their extra-terrestrial origin is not, in all
respects, perfect. While there is much in the circumstances un-
der which they were found to countenance their genuineness,
there still remain several obvious defects in the testimony upon
which this depends; nor is this coe fully” counterbalanced
by the nature of the stones themselves

Watervilte, Maine

‘my first knowledge of this stone, I am indebted to Prof.
is, of Waterville college, Me., who incidentally mentioned
to me,/ the meeting. of the Association of American Geolo-
‘gists sin May, 1845, at — Hae Prof. Keely, of Water-
ville, had in his possession a portion of a stone that had fallen in
that place. The latter psiyclenat has favored me with a speci-
men of the stone, and several communications relative to its dis-
covery. He observes that its finder was Capt. Josiah Crosby, of
Waterville, that he is a good observer of natural phenomena, has
paid edinsiderable attention to mineralogy, and that his character
is beyond question. His statement is as follows
“On a clear, star-light night in Sept., 1826, abo midnight, a
luminous age or meteor came from. a southeasterly direction,
pparently one-third or half as large as the moon, an proceede
pal silanite, (with akind of rushing noise like the ap-

|
|

Report on Meteorites. A15

proach of a high wind,) in a curved line and with a regular mo-
tion towards the earth. The light was intense and the tail or
train was of a conical form, like the blaze of a lighted candle.
It, disappeared from my view, a moment before 1 heard a report,
like that of a small cannon. A few days after, about one-third
of a mile distant from the place where I witnessed the appear-
ance described, I found, as I suppose, a fragment of this meteor.”
Several inquiries were, at my request, proposed to Capt. C., to
which he replied in the following note, addressed to Prof. K. :
“There has never been a glass-house in this section of the state:
The nearest ifon works are sixteen miles distant. Common
brown earthen ware was manufactured formerly at a place one-
third of a mile distant from the spot ina straight line. I have

sandy loam. There wasno stone wall, or accumulation of stones
within two miles. The specimén, when picked up, appeared to
be anewly detached mass. The grass upon which it lay was
short and. close to the ground, and was entirely unchanged in ap-
pearance.” / ; an

Capt. Crosby presented the mass (whose weight appears not to»
have exceeded three ounces) to Virgil D. Parris, Esq., formerly

a member of Conigress, and now United States.Marshal at Port-

land. Mr. Parris gave Prof. Keely the fragment which was pre-
sented to me for examination, and subsequently has presented to
him the remainder of the: mass. Such is the history of this
stone. ‘

Its appearance is that of an imperfectly stratified or laminated
pumice stone, with double the ordinary compactness of this sub-
stance,—the layers being one-sixth of an inch in thickness. It
has very little tendency however to separate at these joints; and
their existence even is chiefly denoted by a difference of color:
The body of the stone is a light ash-grey, while at and near the
joints it is iron-black. Indeed the powder ofthe black matter is
attracted by the magnet. ‘The outside. of the stone has evidently?
undergone fusion, subsequently to the interior; and is coated by
a thin red-brown crust. It is too vesicular in its texture to allow

of a satisfactory determination of its specific gravity. =
The stone is composed of the following ingredients:
Silicic acid, ‘ ‘ : : ; 70:00 ~
otoxyd iron : : ine .
aaa. CC
Magnesia, a Gar - . 259

Lime, , . . . £. nl .

+
A16 ' Report on Meteorites.
' : a Concord, New Hampshire.

For a description of this stone see Vol. iv, ii ser., p. 353.

In his account, of this’ body, Prof. Silliman has made an ‘fits
ence in favor of its meteoric character, founded upon the suppo-
sed identity of its composition with the Bishopsville stone, or
rather with the chladnite, which forms 90 per cent. of this stone.

o far as the elements are concerned in the two “bodies, the anal-
ogy is striking; but the analysis of chladnite, (not then publish- .
ed ») on which [ asserted that it was a tersilicate, was based on

[homson’s view of the constitution of silicic acid, whereas
Prof. Silliman has adopted the atomic weight of Berzelius. ‘The
results of analysis, however, placed side by side, stand thus: —

Concord ‘Stone. _Chiadnite.

Silicic acid, 84-973 70°
gee ¥ 12-076 98-25
2-218 1:34

99-767 100-00
In addition to the analogy of elements found in the composi-
tion’of these substances, it remains to’be stated that there is a
manifest resemblance between the melted surface of the Concord
‘stone and certain ‘parts of. that of the Bishopsville meteorite, in
color, lustre, translucency, and hardness, as well as in bik
before the blowpipe.

The extra-terrestrial origin of meteoric stones and aa ae
seems likely to be more-and more called in question, with the ad-
vance of knowledge respecting such ee and as additions
continue to be made to the connected sciences; I may therefore
take an early. occasion to present the Atsbciasion with some |
views, founded in part upon Biot’s theory of the aurora borealis,

ospheric accumulations of meteoric dust, (a single case being
recorded where the area must have been thousands of square
miles in extent, and where the pero of earthy matter precip-
itated must have been from 50 to 100,000 tons in mater a

Great electrical excitation is known to accom
eruptions, which may reasonably be su posed to occasion some
che eet nges in the volcanic ashes ejected ; these being —
by the ascensional force of the eruption into the regions —
magneto-polar influence, may there undergo: @ species of

Report on Meteorites. AIT

magnetic analysis. The most highly magnetic Sguents, (iron,

nickel, cobalt, chromium, &c.,) or compounds in’ whic se

| predominate, would thereby be separated, and become suspended

in the form of metallic dust, forming those coltimnar clouds so

a often illuminated in auroral displays, and whose position con-

forms to the direction of the dipping needle. While certain of

the diamagnetic elements, (or combinations of them,) on the

| other hand, may under the control of the same force be collected

| into different masses, taking up a position at ae angles to the

former, (which Faraday has shown to be the fact in respect to

such bodies,) and thus produce those more or less regular arches,

transverse to the magnetic meridian, that are often recognized
in the phenomena of ‘the aurora borealis:

Any great disturbance of the forces maintaining these clouds
of meteor-dust, like that produced by a magnetic storm, mig
lead to the precipitation of portions of the matter thus suspended.
If the disturbance was confined to the magnetic dust, iron-masses
would fall ; if to the diamagnetic dust, a non-ferruginous stone ;
if it should extend to both classes simultaneously, a blending of
the two characters would ensue in the precipitate, and a rain of
ordinary meteoric stones would take place.

As favoring this view, We, are struck with the rounded, hail-
stone-like form of many of the See of comporeed (even

paar >positor'
Szcoxp Pin VI, No. 18, Nov., 1848. 54

= «ll

418

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

=.

I. CuemistTry AND Puysics.

- ee ige camer on, &c.; by M. es (Ann. de Chim.
et de Phys., Feb., 48.)—Previous as perlaidiipe™ ave Meleraitedthe
amount of setae by thermometers at different distances from the
ground, the lower thermometer being surrounded by the radiating
substance. The lower strata of air being cooler than those above,
reduce the temperature of the lowet thermometer—while the naked
instrument having itself'a high radiating power, does not Corey indi-
cate the temperature of the air in which it is place

os avoid these sources of error, the instruments shoyld be placed at

level, and that intended to. measure the loner of t
air should his its radiation reduced toa minimum. As metal foil can-
not be applied ne ni the bulbs, the author devised hee following
mode of experimentin

A sound bottle’cork is pierced with a hole to admit the stem ‘of a
reba which is fe through until the bulb is within } of an
inch of the cork. It must then be fastened.with @ little wax and with
wedges of rok The oon which should be marked upon the tube is
taken off oma piece of paper and transferred to a thin slip of ivory.
This is then fastened in a slit in the cork so that it shall coincide
with the scale on the tube, and secured ‘in its ccs allt end of the

The instrument thus prepared 5 Nee priv by experiment to be
almost free from the influence of radiation, and pad ot ree a true
measure of the temperature of the air—on the other hand a coating
of lampblack raised the ‘radiation to a maximum. In the use of
these thermometers, eos were placed » horizontally i in tin vessels, hav-
ing the form of a truncated cone two inches in diameter below, and
seven inches above, shou four inches deep, and supported on three
feet formed by thin"tubés of-sheet tin two feetlong. A hole at the side
with a short tube to embrace the cork, allowed the introduction of the
ag its bulb being in the centre of the dish, and at little dis-
tance from the bottom ; plates of tin served as covers.

We ‘se been thus particular in describing these instruments, as they
are decidedly the most suitable for this kind of i investigation, which have
ever been described.

Two thermometers furnished with polished caps, “Whed a third with
one coated with lampblack, were exposed in the tin vessels, — While
covered, Sr stood atthe same height, but when the covers were re-
ee m one of the two with polished caps and from the third, the
at

‘tent with lampblack) immediately fell, and in ten minutes:
4

| alee re Dhcdalale. i a. he a Se

ee
Chemistry and Physics. A19

was 3°°4 Cent. ey tbeniae two, which remained stationary. This

that the tin vessels completely cut off the radiation,
k,) and that the polished caps had the same effect.
radiation of silver was determined by two ther-
mometers cana with that metal—onena coyered, a oat in an

d the: ird that of caeee ack. ‘The results of a series of. care-
ful stecrvaMenie the radiating power of silver 3:026, that of lamp-
black being 100.—being not far from the recent determination of MM.
de la Provostaye and Dessains, by a quite different method.

One eee precaution to be observed ‘in all tuna experiments
is suggested by M. Melloni, we believe for the first time hou
sahasteinont except at some distance from the ground and in dry
weather—otherwise. the instruments soon become bedewed, and the
high radiating power r of water soon brings them all:to the same degree,
whatever be the nature of the c If the stems are left uncovered,
the pecmometsrs are cooled down the bulb, and the same effect will
be noticed.

The radiating . power of the ialening substances was 9 obiginal by
Pi, 2 them to the ¢aps of the thermometers.

Lampblack, . . 10: Isinglass, : Repeat
Carbonate of ee. ft, a tlass, 4 : eB
Varnish, — ..9F “Platnbago,. "sO

The followi mparisoys were ma de by placing the substances i
alittle heap one bottom of ‘the tin dish, and high enough just ic
cover the cap of the thermometer.

Lampblack, .° . ~~ . 100. Gaerdiat of poplar, . 99
Smooth leaves from vari- “© “pahogany, 95

ous plants, —_«. : Silicious ~ .: on
Leaves of elm and poplar, 101. Mould, : . oe

The portion of the sky concerned in the radiation is included within
30° or 35° of the zenith. Even ints pape this a but little in-
terfering effect.

That radiation takes place not ult, from the sivkace but from the

parts beneath, was proved me the greater radiation,of several coats of

varnish than of a single on

This explains a phaijementn which has been brought as an argument
against Wells’ theory. It is objected that very thin bodies, such as spi-
der webs, should recover their temperature from the air as fast as they
lose it by radiation. Hence such substances should not be covered by
the dew. But spider webs are notoriously productive of dew. M. Mel-
loni contends that the piers) radiate from all portions of their ‘substance,

and therefore lose much more than they can receive, in Peer ton to.

br ‘bodies.
A long continued course of experiment has satisfied M. Melloni, that
the amount of sage is —_—? —— far teo high—that while under
certain circumstance an be. cogled, to o 8° Cent. below the
temperature of char air rane or five «iti general the effect of

Re ae ee

i dl

#

420 Scientific Intelligence.

radiation is tovreduce the temperature of vegetation, &c., not more than
2° Cent. below that of the surrounding air. The dampne ss of the air is
such as readily to allow of the deposition ‘of dew with even this small
change
ther i important conclusion of our author, is a confirmation of the
law a announced by Wilson, that the loss of heat —_ “oeneeey in a
calm, clear night, is uniform at all temperatures of the a
The sree le of this investigation, while it corrects pa ‘inaccuracies
and improves the methods of experiment, in every respect confirms the
theory of dew, laid down by Wells. G. C. ScHaEFFER.
2. On the pat sn oma the Organic Alkalies; by M. Aue. Lav-
rent, (Ann. de Chim. et de Phys., May, 1847.)—This distinguished
shemist has sliced the vegetable: alkalies, since much uncertainty

; prevailed as to their true formule, and as or many o of them, formule
have

been oie sat heeeadian to the views of M. Laurent, can-
not represent any pound. The error in most cases arises
= fact, i a aiflerence of -002 to ‘003 of hydrogen is sufficient
nge their constitutio
kan sarees of a mrodiication of the usual process for organic analy-
has found that he can determine the hydrogen to 001. By this
process, the following formule were establishe
We give the ogee adopted by the author, as a translation to our
system would in some cases involve: the use of fractions. It is only
oe to seienaaiae that Hy and N, of the French authors, are H and
with
Quina C,,H,,N,0, Narcogenina C NO
Cinconia C,,H,,N, oO Opiant acid cher :
Morphia C,,H,,NO, Opianate of amm. €, oH we 0,

Quinoleina C, H, N Hemipinie acid epee Oe
phi Canetti Ns Hemipinate ofam.C,, ae N, Og
icryle H, ;O, tarch ee ¢ Pe a
Narcoting C,,H,,NO, ~-Pyroxyline. , C,,H,,N, O27
Cotarnina G3. HN 0, oni sar:

-C.5.

3. eeeeciee on the Chemical Sane of Asparagine and As-
partic Acid; by:M: R. Pairta,((Ann. de Chim. et de Phys., Feb., 1848,
trans. aoe te sled: )—The shat ptestee of M. Piria’s remarkable
discoveries in relation to these ~— —_ already from time to
time appeared in various journals ;. but w w for the first time find

| ™ complete memoir, of which we shall jane a brief abstra

were allowed termini ina snigeniionte When the plants

hese were purified by two or three re-crystallizations from

of uncommon beauty, not unlike those of sugar ¢ cnn . Copper vessels

impart a blue tint, and sulphuretted hydrogen causes me to disappear.
The product of asparagine i is er. per cent. for the ve The

same quantity was obtained from the plants germinated | in the light ;

ae
ae

Chemistry and Physics. ' AQT

but none from the seeds themselves, nor from the plants when the flow-
ers had formed.

composition is C,(H, Cu 6—ihat of asparagine free from water
of crystallization, C, H, N,O,. ‘The asparagine may be obtained un-
altered from this substance, by the use o ‘ similar compound

with potassium has been noticed in this Journal for March, 1847, p. 258

Action of Ferments.—Under the influence ef an azotised prin
in the plants, the impure asparagine in solution, or the juice its
dergoes fermentation, emitting a putrid odor; and there is found re-
maining a quantity of succinate of ammonia, formed by the fixation of

Asparagine C, Hy Nz 0,-+2HO-+H, = C, H,,.N, Og succ. amm.

Action of Acids and Alkalies.—It is well known that these agents
decompose asparagine into aspartic acid C,H, NO, and ammonia—
2HO being added. ; ‘

It.is incorrectly stated that concentrated hydrochloric acid produces

_M. Piria proved the analogy of this reaction of hyponitric acid upon
oxamid, succinamid and butyramid. In all cases nitrogen was giv-
en off, and the oxalic or other acid remained in solution. Urea too is
transformed, as is well known, into nitrogen and carbonic acid.

The remarkable facility of this decomposition, which t lace
even in the cold solutions, is strikingly contrasted with the tedious and

to make allowance for the oxy
some instances take place ; but

Ce ee

422 ° Scientific Intelligence.
e oxydation i nitric-acid has been well investigated for most of the

he presence of Copper in the Bodies of Anima abe M
Descuanrs, (Comptes Rendus, Jan., 1848.)—This metal is sige
esent in most of the formations in the vicinity of Paris, and seems to
be derived from the decomposition of cupriferous sulphuret of iron.
It is taken from the soil by plants, and from them by men and animals
Copper and also lead are received in part from cooking utensils, &c.
Soils free from copper soon obtain a portion by manures, &c.
Carbonate of ammonia is the means of carrying copper from the soil
intto plants, and in the azotised compounds of this metal, seems to-en-
ter by a replacement similar to that which takes place in certain am-

salts.
ese area few ye = duaioniods drawn by M. Deschamps from
his curious investizati . CO.
; 5. On the Ba oe "of siroandet in certain Chalybeate Waters; by
M. Aupovarp, (Comptes Rendus, Jan., 1848: and by M. Fitnot,
ourn. de Pharm. et de Chim., Jan., 1848. )—Both of these authors
ve proved the: existence of arsenic in very minute quantities in cha-
lybeates. The latter found the deposits, from springs of the Pyrenees.
to contain from 0°03 to 0-058 per cent. of arsenic, and sometimes a
trace of copper. Both remark tha this: minute quantity can never give
rise:to mistakes in case of poiso
Can it have any effect pen the eee properties of the waters
in which we is found?] } .C.8
. Ona ew method of analysis of Inorganic matter in Bloo
on the etait dk presence of several metals in this fluid ; a
(Comptes Rendus, Jan., 1848. )—The blood is received in a
taining about three volunies of water.to one of blood, and ‘te ce
into a flask containing chlorine. The organic matter immediately co-
agulates, changes color and loses all traces of organization. By ex-
er the clot and washing, the whole inorganic m ate is i
is found in the clear and limpid solution. Not m one per

\

cent. of organic matter is carried off in solution. The me lek nee chlo-
rine is complete in two or three minutes ; the separation of the iron —_

way is therefore a neat class experiment. The saline e ingre be
ignition. are examined as usual. Of this residue, 100 496 a
Silica, from 1 ‘to 3 Copper, from 25. 4
Lead, e Pi BEB Magnesia, +f os ‘e erat ae
Experiment shows that these metals, like iron, are found only in
globules. .'This method of a: is suggested as suitable for all 2
fluids, &c. of the animal economy. € most repulsive matters furnish
Fagartpiny Se a sy saline prc a G. C. 5.
de of estimating the Sulphur in Organic Substances ;
by H. Wripenevios, (Chem. Gaz., June, 1847, from Lieb. Ann.)—
The substance is heated with the strongest nitric acta, and an excess of
nitrate of baryta, until all organic matter is destro oyed. The mass is
dried ina oe dish at 212°,and then fused, avoiding a deflagra-
tion. used: mass is tovbe treated with dilute acetic acid, and heat-
ed to aaieith carbonate“of baryta: After filtering and washing, a se-
cond treatment with —_ acid furnishes the miphete of baryta ig a
fectly pure

ate Y a

Chemistry and Physics. . 423

8. Preparation of pure Barytic oe and Salts of Baryta; by H.
WAackeNnroper, (Chem. Gaz., July, 1847.)—Mix intimately 240 grms.
of finely ground sulphate of ‘baryta, with 60 grms. rosin and 20 grmns.
powdered charcoal. Heat to redness from half. to three quarters ’of an
hour. Salts of baryta are prepared by precipitating the solution of

nate of soda.

id pure, crude muriatic acid is added to the solu-
tion of sulphuret to slight excess ; the precipitated sulphur, sulphate of
baryta, &c., is filtered off, and the solution eyaporated nearly to dry-
ness. The impurities remain in the mother-liquid ; adhering chlorid of
iron is removed by a faint red heat.

Barytic water is prepared as usual by‘oxyd of copper. If this metal
is found in the liquid after boiling, a small quantity of recently pr
itated hydrated oxyd. of silver, or its carbonate, will on digestion 1 Te-
move the copper and hypo- sulpburous acid. *

The originality of this process, is in the use of rosin and pow odie
charcoal instead of meal, and also in’a less degree of heat than is
usually recommended. About — the «sulphate is go are
The remainder can be used over again

9. On the Fusion >of Rocks; by A. " DEnEsss, (Jour. dé” Pharm. et
de Chem., Jan., 1848.)—The author has observed that the i igneous rocks
on fusion undergo a diminution in ser 25 when they cool-into a vitri-

ed mags, which is the greater in amount as thé rocks contain more
silica and alkali, and less when more rods rats or alumina are pi rt.
a a rule, the older rocks, as granite, &c., decrease most in
e order is néarly that of their age down to the most modern
shes which undergo but little change. This is of course a
the order of their fusibility.
uthor suggests _ the- crystallization of these rocks has des
Crakaba, the radius of the earth, as a diminution of volume is the inevi-
: table ~~ of Sialliaaticn, whether. — fusion or ee pr oe

10. On anew Process for one diferent ‘Metals sae Bra
ay,

e used, employ a solution in water, composed of 500 parts of carbo-
of potash, 20 parts of chlorid | gi bolaars 40 seated ag of
¢, and 250 parts of nitrate of amm

: order to obtain bronze, a salt of ere is substituted. for the sulphate

neans of these solutions, wrought or cast iron, nec), Jend,
‘ing ‘and the alloys of those metals, either with each other or with

metal. The operation is performed at the ordisilian temperature

article to be coated is put in communication with the negative on Fi of

i, battery, the positive decomposing pole —— ate of — or®
ronz

found to penetrate pretty deep into the body of the glass, and Loe

ea ere identify the diamond with carbon ; but, as‘ always like

424 Scientific Intelligence.

Rough cast iron may, by these means, be made to assume a very beau-
tiful ‘appearance ; and articles thus coated will be preserved from oxyda-
tion in the. interior of habitations. With regard to those intended for
the open at they must be covered with a suitable varnish, in order to
ese m. This process is recommended by M. Becquerel.

. New Property of Coke; by Jamzs Nasmytu, (Mining Journal,
lubp. 29, 1848.)—Having just read in your Journal of the 22d, some
observations on the important. experiments of M. Jacquelain, in refer-
ence to the conversion of diamond into coke, it occurs to me, that
it may be interesting to some of your readers to be made aware 0 of a
discovery in close connection with this subject, which | made —
years ago, and which. Professor Faraday has done me the honor to
communicate to the Royal Institution. The g rand distinction sepa
ge of M. Jacquelain and mine is ae this, that while he
discovers that diamond | can be men into coke, I had long since dis-

glass; but it will be found that coke.does not scratch, but rea
truly ewts the glass, which any of our readers may prove, by ,
small fragment of coke, and switching i it at random, across and a
a pane of glass while the sun is shining through it, which will
the beautifully clear, diamond-like cuts more distinct ; they will be

forth most beautiful prismatic colors, as the light of the sun fall:
m. So far this m may be all very pretty and interesting, as tendi

y ma
some application ; for, although I do not expect to see bt
ar Ps a inde ‘to cut the glass for the repair of broken

Mineralogy and Geology. 425

IL. Mineratoey anv Geoxosy.

New te of Idocrase, Anorthite? and Motybdenite ; by

Pa J. Hw , (communicated for this Journat.)—During the
) a th covered a new Se very interesting locality of
Pitas ‘It is in the n of Sanford, about

ells railroad jut and about one mile east

setae of hc and a few see of what wil ere prove to

Since, this discovery, further exploration has Sesame to light more
perfect and ape crystals in white quartz, in the same field, ata
Beaakes of of a few
By the action cy an 7 hele: ‘the exrbonat of lithe has been removed
from several masses, and the er tals of idocrase uncovered Lae

| one crystal that was- dud hr broken, is now tw
Tf tnt dene in diametér, and four and a half in oe :
and there I found molybdenum and epidote.in the

have revaned the well known loéality of ‘beryls at Rovalet on, and

is spot I think may now be said to abe
_ During these operations, I found four erfatl of feldspar Aon
1ZE auti

is was unfortunately broken in the attempt to disengage it; the ter-
Bene n of ten inches in length, was however remoyed ie

“s
en

for windows in place of a ee

ica ori nace os Ho rand (in a letter to Prof. Sinuiman
from T. H. Fercus, dated Westchester, Pa.)— —In an examination of the:
55

Sxconp Senses, Vol. VI, No. a Nor *

‘*

greenstone rocks near Boston, two or three years since, I observed the |
surface, where long” exposed to the weather, to 86 Boversé with scales —
of mica, while the interior did not contain that mineral, but hornblende
instead, papreionnr aged that the change had been wrough L by s some
action of the atmos

selected apeciinaldy from the ‘diferent portions of the rock and from
several others, and on my return home one. upon them with
the blowpipe: I found that every specimen of lende, whether
from the outside or the interior of syenite or any ak which contained
that mineral, when presented to the inner flame, gave the result usually
described in the books; but weathered particles of the hornblende, in
the outer flame, took a lighter color, and when cold, the slightest blow
caused them to ses into gold colored scales whieh presented every
sore Netiad of m

4.

vince in the Wivieess of ee It had remaine
lately unobserved beneath a heap’ of stones before the Fie
farmer It-has an irregular roundish figure, with many deep én
depressions, measures about a foot in diameter, and weighs (appa
near two hundred pounds. It is’black on the outside, though coated in
Many spots with hydrated oxyd of iron, perfecily egies within, h 0-
neous, and of a steel-gray color; and resembles so much in these
points, as well as in its malleability, the meteoric iro? of Brau
(Bohemia), that, in all probability, it possesses the same che ical
position. Pro t. D uflos’ has already detected, in addition to the i
presence of ier us, nickel and cobalt. It is soon to receive
and complete analysis, Us Bae
* 5. Carbonate of Copper i Zinc ; by Prot. A. Connett, (Jameson’s
Jour., vol. xlv, p. 36, July 848, }— This carbonate from Matlock has —
a_pale green he with | Watioled structure and pearly lustre; it is
disseminated i in small portions through the matrix. Analysis afforded

esia a
om of oy hepa ‘copper and zinc combined with'an atom

ana
be ah or.2(Ca, Zn) O CO2--HO; but the sma!lness of the quant
Pp

vented the” seria of the relative quantities of carbonic acid —
and water. This aye ag seems to be either identical with aurichalcite
or nearly allied to
6. On the Couierenes of Ores of Mercury in the Coal 1 Formation
‘of Saarbrisck ; by Herr Von Decuen, my (Gontoeteal Journal, No. 14,
-p. 33.)—In a lecture before the Bidinty of the Lower Rhine, Herr Von
‘Declien notices this singular fact. “These ore S are, in sind: ‘very
rare, and, in this place, occur in the upper division of the carboniferous
group in beds belonging to the productive coal formation, or even to a
er part of the series, in which previously they were’not known to

be found in any part of the earth. In this. district they are confined to
Its east district of St. W.

portion ; Baumholder, in the

at endel, being
» most western point where they have been | ound, = Kellerberg,

*

Mineralogy and Geology.

anvil Meneheiny 7 <a ‘nae » Nack, near ¢ Erbesliidesheign the
The ey occur in ve india the normal beds of the coal
ate in ‘the Be bap the. Reecdaaids, a the feldspar por-
phyries ; these massive rocks lying within the range of the carbonifer-
ous strata. They are also found. disseminated er in fissures in beds
of sandstone of this formation, as at Miinster- and W: Reerchwsilet,
= unconnected with true veins. The ation w ie “ihe 0

ry =e
sna different oetiion some of which range in straight lines. The
longest of these lines reaches from Katzenback, over the Stahlberg,
Landsberg, near Obermoschel, to ie Kellerberg, and-is about fourteen
(three German) miles in extent.
/ 7. Notes on. the Mines Gr portion of the State ve Mexico ; by
Lieut. G. W. Raines, U Dp sie from the American Star, city of Mex-

the | mines of Mexico; som e point is seledied i in the vicinity of one or
mot ns, which indicate sufficient richness of ore, and contiguous-to
d eer necessaries, and sabig pieyalion allows the water to be.

pr cipal ij items 0
From this shaft, peer binet peri are excavated in the direction of

the v ain of a size la urge enough forthe passage of the.miners with ore ;

d to the vertical rope, |
horizontal gallery, or level, has ‘illowed the vein’so far as to make the
air impure, either a new gallery must be made, or a vertical aperture
pierced for a proper circulation of the air; in large mines these ventil-
ating = are numerous and expensive

The ore having arrived at the surface, is carried to the pounding
mills, bore by the action of vertical beams of wood ‘shod with iron; ;
which are raised and let fall by machinery, it is reduced to pow
the coarser particles being separated by a sieve over hie the p
falls, are.returned to the mills for further action, he finely divided

duce a lo
fi —s ivision: at the works at Sam
nest possible state = omen 3 at the’ works a ae d od buble
: trough, of two solid. gylinders of s tie
mill.
P| 4

Scientific Fntelligence. ©

At Regla the powdered ore is also placed in a circular stone trough,
in the centre of which a vertical shaft turns, with two horizontal arms,
whose extremities have each a block of basalt attached by chains,
which, in the ronstyemotion, is dragged round, grinding against the bot-
tom and sides of the trough, and by which action, the wet ore is re-

duced to its finest ste At this stage of the process there are different
methods for extracting the silver, depending on the richness of the ore,
its constiturion, and the fact that modern improvements are as yet

but partially adopted,

First method.- The wet powdered ore (orschlich)-is mixed rapper
with a certain proportion ‘of Cominon salt; (c hlorid of sodium,) the
amount depending upon the kind of ore, and the quantity of rey ere
&c. with which the’silver is mineralized ; the mass is then sprea
on the floor of a reverberatory furnace, and there kept in a red hot state
for about six’hours. By this means, a portion of the sulphur is driven
off in the form of sulphurous acid gas, whilst the remainder unites with

is then mixed with salt and water, placed. in revolving: barrels,
with .pieces f iron and a quantity of merotirysaboitt two hundred
— in fifteen hundred pounds of 't mass ; at the end of about

has waite with the iron, and the’silver this refund is with the me reury
This amalgam of silver is then washed free from the other eye

pressed in close canvas bags, which thus remove the supera it
mercury ; the semi-solid ‘mass: is then moulded in iron ‘rat eel
and distilled in an sien vessel, which separates the mercury and the
silver remains pur

In this’ srdeesa, White is employed for the poorer ores,—about four
ounces of ‘tmereury a re lost® in obtaining eight ounces of silver ; this loss
arises principally fromthe oxydation of the sulphur, &c., which being.
converted thus into acids combifie with the mercury, And the resulting
stilts are carried off in the washings.

method. “Phe wet powdered ore is intimately mixed with

common salt and piéces of copper, or the protochlorid or sulphate of

. a quantity of mercury ; the wet mass is spread out on a

floor o boatde } in the open air, about six or eight inches in thickness,

and mules are occasionally driven over it, for the purpose of thoroughly
mixing the ingredients as the chemical action proceeds.

In riot less than twenty days, the process is completed, when it is
found, that by the action of the air and moisture, the sulphur has been
wih the at the expense of both, and the hydrogen of the water uniting

he chlorine of the copper or sodium, has formed hydrochloric

and any portions of chlorid of silver, formed in the process, are
reduced to the metallic state by the copper. The whole is then well
d, when nothing remains but an amalgam of silver with the ae
eT. :
‘The ee the oes oad bbe
of the m ~ hi

he loss of 1

ction of the silver
Ache ee

: =e. eee ele eee

Zoology.

by the preceding process, is an objection, though it has the advantage
of being applicable on a lar rger r scale, and requires no fuel but for the
distillation of the amalgam; it is the old method.

Third method. The finely divided ore is roasted with common salt
as in the first method, then placed in a vat with salt and water; the
silver is thus converted. into a chlorid, which is) stirred up and then
passed into a smaller vessel, to collect: the heavy ae ged particles, and

thence into a'third, where pieces of copper cause a decomposition of
the chlorid of silver, the pure metal being pehieigietad and a’chlorid of
copper formed ; this is passed into a fourth vessel where fragments of

iron cause a precipitation of the c copper. By this process, which is
mingles the copper—of which there is generally a considerable quantity
Iso.saved 5 it is as yet employed but on a small scale at Sanche,

f
2

Fourth method. ‘The fine powder from the pounding | mills is mixed
with lime, scoria, iron-and oxyd of lead (litharge), and then thrown into
a smelting furnace with alternate layers of coal; a portion of the sul-
~phur combines with the oxygen of the lime aad litharge, and with the
iron, passing off in thegfirst two cases as sulphurous , acid gas, and in
the third — sulpheret of iron; whilst the remainder, uniting with
‘the base of the lime, forms sulphuret of calcium; this with the scoria
forms a melted mass, which falls to the bottom of et furnace, and
flows off at a lateral orifice. By this process the silver is reduced to
the metallic state, but as the amount is small and patie > throw
the mass, it would, to a considerable swat op be carried off by the sco-
ria and lost; hence the lead is employed, to collect the particles of
silver and thus’ lon an —_ which flows oy at the lower pegs of
‘the smelting furna

This alloy is now ncetnned in 1 sballow basin: fatiencnte and whilte in a
melted state, strong currents of air are forced over its surface, which
po rn the lead and with it all the baser metals, and the silver remains

ure ; the, dross being blown away by the draughts Of air. This i is the

St procéss ss for the rich ores, and in the works of the English mining
company, is, I believe, always employed for their reduction

The silver is frequently alloyed with gold, whichy when of sufficient
value, is ‘separated at the mint, and after deducting ee the re-
mainder is returned in coin to the owners.

itt. Zoo.oey.

of re Iguanodon, pening enabled the author to”

evidence us to the structure of the maxillary organs that gi

herbivorous reptile, the see of his investigations are gir ge

he mn The first memoir on the teeth of th

ee ay Eyeing neg te for 1
ee af 8

”

dition in which
ate uy fd

‘*
430 Scientific Intelligence.

lands by powerful streams oc currents, nearly a quarter of a century
elapsed before any portion of mm retaining teeth was discovered.
The most important relic of this kind is described in oo po ea it
consists of the anterior part of the right side of ‘the lower jaw, ¢
prising about two-thirds of the dentary bone, and was Jincmveet by
Captain Lambart Briekenden, who, in the true spirit of a man of sci-
ence, liberally placed it at the disposal of Dr. Mantell, as the original
discoverer of the fluviatile origin of the wealden formation of the south-
east of England.
is bone is eighteen inches long; and if the proportions of the
maxillary elements. in the Iguanodon were the same as in the recent
Iguana, the entire jaw must have been four feet in length. It contains
several of the new or successional ‘teeth in-their natural: ‘position, and
there are Pontos in the alveolar plate for nineteen or twenty mature mo-
lars; but all these teeth are Wanting, having evidently been dislodged
before the bone was imbedded in acstotie: The mature teeth, which
in their abraded state resemble those of the’ used molars of SS ae
mammalia, appear to have been arranged i in a closely set se
teeth in the lower jaw were placed with theirpflat stitch ‘striated
face towards the inside of the mouth, while those in the upper were
disposed i in the opposite position—namely, with the enamelled ridged’
face of the crown externally ; and the teeth of the upper and lower
series were su alga or intermediate‘ in their relation to each other,
as in the rumina
The anterior i of the lower jaw, which forms the symphysis, pre-
sents a most remarkable deviation from all known reptilian types; the
alveolar parapet, instead of ‘being moe round the front of the
uth, and bearing teeth, as is the case in all saurians, is edentulous;
and at the distance of fourvor five iabhes ye the front of the chin,
suddenly contracts ina vertical direction, becomes procumbent, and
expands horizo ontally to meet the correspo nding portion of the o pposite
ramus 0 they jaw: the two symphysial portions when united, forming
a déep scoop, bear considerable analogy. to the mics es part
the Edentata, especially in the extinct colossal Mylo
external surface‘of the jaw there is a row of very large
amin and the a eer is also perforated by
_blood-vessels and nerves

ASIde | e furhor, is now in
, Cor Hin th Satoephonl didwet from the examina-
er ja and teeth. The author, with the able assistance
ed a comparison between the fossil teeth in his
own, and in the British Mu with those of FY lizards, and the
result of their labors is fully detailed} in this memo
The light shed on the stracture and functions of the dental organs
Ig: -tanodon by these recent discoveries, confirms in every esse
“ater eatae the inferences deduced, oe i Mantell from eh duinchil
teeth alone, and detailed in his memoir nd it veals the
remarkable fact, that this saurian epitita ual j in in balk domo
gigantic ic Megat herium and Mylodon, and , like them,

=
3

obtain support by the comminution of vegetable substances, was also
furnished ‘witha large prehensile tongue and fleshy lips, 10 seize and
retain the pry and young branches ‘which constituted its ood.
Among the many extraordinary deviations from known ao i
ed by paleontology, there is not one more remarkable than th mot
fication of the type of organization peculiar to the class of rept 8 “fl
meet the exigencies'required by the economy of a lizard, placed under
similar conditions with the colossal Edentata. of the tertiary periods
and the herbivorous mammalia of more modern tim mes, ay: esigned to
hold the same relative position in the economy ‘of natur
‘From the recently. discovered*specimens, the author ata he has been
able to determine that the portion of a lower jaw of a Saurian, with
numerous fangs of teeth, described in his memoir in 1845, as probably
that of a young lguanodon, belongs toa distinct genus ok the same
family ; and he proposes to distinguish it by the name of Regnosaurus
aethinintonts ; the specific designation being a tribute of respect to the
noble President of the. Royal. Societ
2. Notice of a gennbe: A nie of gigantic we Sm in the Cabi-
‘aylo gomery '

hh we Hea éver se een. a noti ANE ae we pypemedans : failed to
give at the time of the donation.
Dr. Taylor said, ‘that the specimen fromy which ise ‘cast was made
was found in the blue fimestone ‘resting upon a stratum of cage
*marlite’ clay,” about fifiy feet from the upper te ey

limestone,.which limestone is said to be * equivalent of the T somshs rar
New York and Silurian of England.

he cast presents five or more portions of the’shield, the post-abdomen
and other portions of the Isotelus which bedr the mostindubitable evidence
of having belonged a trilobites of the most gigantic size on record,

tofessor Locke, M. erneuil and other scientific gentlemen having
visited my se concur this opinion. —(E am» indebted to ot imped
Locke for the ¢

At the time of re finding the specimens, I also found portions of

at least one ne different individuals of the same species, varying
in size from one half an inch to six inches in length, proving, that the
trilobites like She limulus were gregarious. In connection with this
Specimien, | also found a most delicate and. beautiful ‘* Retepora,” -en-
tirely new, which has been described and figured by my friend, John

. Van Cleve, Esq., of Dayton, and called “ Retepora nitida.” ~~
: We have also received from - Dr. bed years ‘ago, _—- ite of

432 Scientifie Intelligence.
fishes are extremely numerous, existing over the whole external sur-

face. In freshwater fishes, and in those living in shallow waters, they
are 2 copes few. hey are most numerous in fishes which swim

sply to'a question of Dr. Wyman, he ats that he had not as yet
hem in the sharks and rays. These openings are sometimes vis-
‘ible to the ikea eye, and sometimes require a magnifying power for
t their detection. They are very large and numerous, and easily seen,
in the head of the common shad; These minute tubes unite into larger
ones, in a manner which seems to be the same in each cla He
thought this circumstance might be of. some value in the classification
of fishes. The tubes grow larger and larger as they approach the

Piven. se near the head or the tail, or in
other parts of the body. He believes these tubes an apparatus for
the safety of fishes living at great depths, to enable them ¥ _ the
pressure to which they must there be subjected. He did not deny the
existence of mucous tubes in fishes, for there are such, ee be heads
of sharks for i instance, from which m mucus may be obtained by pressure;
but: he i is sure, that what have been hitherto considered as mucous june,
= in reality water tubes.

Structure of the Foot in pele Birds, ( vid June 1 p. 42.)—

Prof. Acassiz had recently made some observations on the structure of -

the foot in the embryo of birds, whieh. Ne thought smeld: throw new light
on, the sige sg ge of birds, and. sonnet 2 call for radical changes in
the system now in use. He had’ examined the feet of the embryo of
dus pit nictiee us, Hirundo riparia, Sylvia @stiva, and ——
melodia, and found, the following appearances in all.
four toes, which in»the, mature bird are separate, three bei ing di
rected forwards: and o one backwards, are in this state - directed: faith
wards, and webbed. . There is as yet no trace of bone in them; the
are only rows of cartilaginous cells in the position to ws occupied by
bone, which are more closely a together at the points where the
joints are destined to appear. The ower extremity is, in fact, at ~

me, a fin.

however, only three rows of cartilaginous cells, united by a mem nhiegne-
As this-condition of the extremitiés exists in different families, Prof. A-
thinks that the presént grouping of all’web-footed birds together, may
be incorrect; particularly since they differ as much among themselves

in other respectsvas they do from land birds. He fourid that the bill of

the immature robin resembled that of a vulturine bird, being strai

near the base, and curved at the’ extremity, the upper ‘mandible being a
longer than the lower. This would seem to indicate that the vulturine

form isa lower type than it ni usually been considered. This ap-
peared to derive confirmation from the great resemblance of the pill of
some of the water birds to that of some of the vulturine family, that of
the genus ota rx for example. Some of the birds of prey also h

is
71

ely a asinele cell ; = an earliest phases of its development

*

ed forwards, must be regarded as of a lowefigype than those whieh
have one directed beck wnedés as, for oo pelicans and cor-
morants among water birds, and the gen /yp. among swallows.

From the result of his examinations of a embryos of birds, Pr rof
had recently, before a scientific society, ventured to predict tha
afier, among the higher mammalia, the foot of the embryo
the same way be found to-be webbed, like thatof the seals and |

en figured as existing in the human embryo, but its
is ‘had not been nen noticed. =
can an yster-catcher, (ibid, p.43.)—
tatement of the comparative measuremen
and European. oysier-catcher. is ob er
opinion of the distinctness of = two speci
— confounded with each o

a
3
S
Qe
3
oO
ed a,
=
3
—
=
oO

hich have sometimes

amasoy us palliatus, | Hematopus ostralegus.
nale. Bae Fema inches.

Length from tip of bil to tip ‘of tail a
36

fie ek of tongue. : get dag eee. ra
ophagus lo proventriculus . os weer: i 7
Proved rteulgeag length” ; ; : ‘ 1}
Intesti nes to vent* a, ae : 40. : : ‘ 59
ca ent Hs ged, agg ap cM et 24 from vent. . "3
' Length ca 5 ; ee: 9: aie “44
Trachea to bronchi |. ae. ‘ Se 4Y6

Keel of sternum in depth not quite 1 :
‘ 9 ‘ a 24 ae - rs
st logical | aay (Jameson’s Jour.,

t number of the British and Foreign

p. 194.)—In he lai
Medical Review, edited by Dr Bi rbes, a distinguished physiologist has

| to por. Martin. Barry’s important physi-

“The writer of the remarks in. question, after shewing the impor-
tance of the combination of anatomical and era investigations
with zoological pie states that M. Milne Edwards,.in several of
his later Memoirs, ven adopted the principle, that embryology

‘condition the e ies ts of all animals is the same ;

differ accord according to the sub- ‘kingdom to which ismlongy w

ode. — minute remnant of vitelline duct eiail at 134 ag from an
key i Ser., Zool., tome i, p-
"heey Szrizs, Vol. VI, No. 18. —Nov., 1848.

*
434 Scientific Intelligence.

ated, molluscous, a i ated, or vertebrated, and that the distinctive
characters of the ese
hat,

progress of development, the characters of the
selves, then those of the orders, then those of

ar species consecutively, and lastly those of the
We are quite sure,’ continues the writer, ‘ that pees ol

e typ e of the vertebrata ean- 1

ral type, of which they are, but ‘partial n iia

more special forms are thus reached in su ere until the one most
special is at length attained.’ © In hi $s second er, he expresses this
view still more clearly, in the following table of the history of —
ment of any ovate organism :— =

: at 4 No mrerciste difference’i in the germs of all animals (fundamen-
2. The aoe matifest, but the order not distinguishable. 2
wanifest, but not the ‘fam ily. é

é he species manifest, but the hori unpronoune
The variety obvious, but the secual difference.

9, The individual character in its most special for

“In both papers, Dr. Barry rp a puts forth this “nan
e sure basis

the groundwork of disci fication. Thu yao * y sure |
for classification is—not structure, as bon with<4e in the | rfect state, j
when function tends to embarrass, but—the history of the development,

at that period when structure presents itself alone.’ the
fact is, that naturalists have begun just where they have

= 2 ee
e on
§

436

principles. In-
is. Their at-

ne: their ‘circumstance’ allowed no
; led eke. «hi

shes and twigs. -This, if ever ac
History of Development or Embryolog ;

“ We have thought it right to bring forward Dr. Barry’s claim as the
first distinct enunciator of this doctrine, because we perceive that, its
truth is being more and more generally recognized, and that it must
ultimately become the’ foundation of all philosophical zdology.”

f

» IV. Astronomy.

pews brilliancy, without any

the moon; and if it had been projected upon a plane surface of uni-
form color, sufficiently large to present the whole at. one view, it would

parable to-the solar spectrum as shown by an ordinary prism, in clear-

ness and brilliancy of color, were yet too apparentsto have been over-

looked by the most casual observer, the first two being easily seen by

the naked eye, and the last detected by the slightest optical assistance,

and all-evincing a remarkable increase of depth and individuality as a
Tger aperture was applied.

phere which surrounds the ais in this case

) refracted the sun’s rays a focus at some
n, and in this process Piheest them into_

Parvin... ial thee having crossed at the focal point, "
er in cee been expected, the red or least refrangible ray ¢
of the disk, surrounded in the, 0a order of refeege
v and green; but in no part either of the
lors

‘ion; i

not one of ithe observers has mention
blue’ tints, while “ ay:

althou 2a

— ree comie o my recolle
never heeded. It is this, that in looking at one of the plan-
ot nal i siar within a few degrees of the horizon,with a reflector
or well corrected achromatic, the object is tinged with prismatic a
red, orange, yellow and green being very bright, while the others
are ot as in the case of the lunar weli ipse. [am unable to suggest
any mode of accounting for these sbeneaiaila which is exempt from
strong ‘alijectieahdlam the most obvious are the following. -The violet, in-
digo and blue rays being much the most refrangible, may be lost by
hrown so far from the umbra of the earth, as to be unseen i
the brilliancy of that part-of the moon, which réceives the full splendor
’ the sun; this would be the. case with the ae ~ ray, which
y ec interval be-
wuld be we isnot the circle
he penumbra ; this would not be the ease however, with the indigo.
and si ‘i with the’ blue, whieh | » would (if it occupied its proper

_— it = the red, and arpa: woul 2.

range, yellow and green; in conse-
quence of which sh@imecions are apt ea while the others are ab-
sorbed: the same Cause may operate to impart to the heavenly bodies,

-
tion, if it existed. The >tdediieds to this theory, is the blue vast above

‘

and the smaller stars gradually
the cluster in Hercules be-
as within a few degrees of

i sof with

‘ihe

torially mounted, of six inches aperture and eight feet focus. The o
ject-glass is the workmanship o +. Mbory itz of this city, an opti*
cian of great skill and rising reputation; the flint glass, which is quite
pure, he obtained from Guinand’s establishment in Paris. I believe
this. object-glass to be free from aberrations, both spherical and chro-
matic, saving the secondary spectrum which is present in all achromat-
ics IN proportion to their apertures; its light is sufficient to shew plain
under favorable circumstances, the stars called by Capt. Sniythe, in the
Bedford catalogue, the 16th magnitude, and which he says are only
caught by occasional glimpses under the most favorable circumstances
by his instrument. It renders the companion of & Lyrz, and the fifth
Star in the trapezium of Orion, visible. under sufficient illumination for
micrometric measurement; its defying power enables me to see the
eae

_ Tagged cliffs and voleanic chasms of the moon most-beautifully ; it hy

Sshewn me at one ‘time last winter, the disk of Jupiter covered w

small belts, in addition to the two usually soc, while two of his satel-
i planet’s disk, followed by
their shadows, which were as distinct as black wafers upon white pa-

tone from the planet ;

3. New Comet.—Dr. Petersen, of Altona, discovered a new telescopic
comet on the 7th of August, 1848. fi

4. Elements of the orbit of the Planet Hebe, (Comptes Rendus Acad.
Sci., July 10, 1848.) —M. Yvon Villarceau, from a discussion of all the
ac rgemael he could procure, has deduced the following elements of

lobe.

Mean ano
Longitude o
Inclination, | :: eM
Angle of excentricity, , : Ml 31-52 7 s
Mean daily -heliocentric mo , so» 9894-309F
Frc n which are ——
ny: ‘ . 0-1999033
ays: major, . ,
Time of Soma be - & 3 yrs. 777447

5. Elements of the Planet Metis, (Institut, July 12, 1848.)—Mr.
Graham, of Markree, Ireland, has furnished the following elements of
the planet Metis, discovered “a him, April 25, 1848. It is his second
approximation, and is based the ee aan made at Markree,
April 26, May 5 and 19.

_. Epoch, 1848, May 0:0, ad tiv: A Sen

Mest nomaly, : 141° 54’ 183

angie of. perihelion, ‘ : 72.50 8 -16)M. eqx.
scending node, ; 5 . 68 29 40 -44 } May 0
qe on, a 5 35 23 -98
-. . fexcentricity, eperne -....t- 18. 36. 92 ‘
Log. i axis major, . : . 03777174
: eas ails motion we ad

are! of sidereal revolution, 1346 days.

6. Speculations ~ Pen next Planet Jeoteed Neptune ; by M. Basinet,
(Institut, Aug. 23, 1848.)—The fact that the planet Neptune differs so
eae & in - bi and mass from the theoretical planet of Le Ver-

and Adam M. Babinet to undertake ait i prengee hav-
ng a its sien * ascertain if the st cure the motions f
rar

to obtain ine sane a resuliant effect ; and consequently sins must be the
mass, the distance, the longitude, and thé apparent size of a new planet
which Pi ‘with Neptune, will represent the theoretical planet 0
Le Verrie
“Babinet gives Ne — results of his investigations, as as proba-
ie. within certain lin
ne planet coaplaaeee to Neptune is in mass, size, and brill-
ancy, at an equal distance, little — from Uranus. Hyperion is
as its name.
"2. Its distance from the sun is forty-seven or forty-eight times that
F the earth’ s distance. dk
Its period of revaotion is double that ‘ meen as that of Nep-
tune Sect that of Ura pee

ie

439

4, At any-given époch | to the lon-

tude of Neptune Jan. 1 ¥ by the quan-

ity 1° 53’, and also by halt he qu n— 14’, which is half

ae: arc of longitude traversed by Neptune from Jan. 4, 1847, to the
en

epoch. >>
5. The brilliancy of the planet may be presumed to be equal to that
of a star of the 10th or 11th magnit:

6. If the planet is found in the Heenan indicated, we may empirically
substitute for the law of Bodg, the law of. double revolutions for the
planets exterior to Saturn

planet yet more distant, pee a period of 672 years, and a dis-
tance of 77 from the sun, would probably not appear larger than a star
of the 18th: magnitude, and could with difficulty be found by direct
observation.

In remarking upon this communic , M. Le Verrier states that he
had been engaged in simila ‘but he had abandoned. them
when he —_ that the pl Fapuie completely satisfied the theory
of Uranus. He-Saw no reason*to bélieve in the existence of such a

planet as M. Babinet supposes {o warrant astronomers n seare
ing for it. -
Shooting Stars of August 10, 1848.—In our last number, (

279 ) we gave the observations” made, at New Haven upon the shooting
Stars of. August 10, 1848, which showed that the meteors appeared at
that season in their ‘usual abundance. Observations made in France
give the same result. M. Coulvier Gravier, ‘with an assistant, counted
on the night of August 9410, 1848, from 11) 30" to 12h 30, eighty-six
shooting stars: the whole ‘number courted from 11h 30™-to Qh 45™, was
four hundred and fourteen. For the sake of comparison, M. Grav vier
_ the ‘llowigtvervatons made at the same hour of night, ‘viz.

11h 30m ;

July 26, . . 22 meteors. Aug. 6 ; . 27 meteors.
ties 15 , s 7; * . 30 Me
: ae ee ae
Re iil dla « tect oe
Ey page or 16 1 : “ 7 A AG. : Mande

hese observations confirm the statements At published in

this eaivost that shooting stars increase in uency during several

ys, becoming most abundant about the 10th of August, and after that
decrease at a similar rate.

VY. MiscELLANEoUS INTELLIGENCE. “4
. Electricity, as applied to Telegraphic Purposes, (Mining Jou

hte “Jane 3, 1848.)—On Wednesday evening last, at the Royal College
of Cheniistry, Dr. Ryan delivered a lecture on the above subject, to a
full and attentive audience. He introduced his lecture, by observing—
that electricity could no longer be considered an abstract, or separate

dis nc | had proved
that the whole phenomena were_the results of cal action, and
it must be considered therefore, ‘a branch of the IRictes of chemistry.

In treating 0:

bject, researches in which, had presented t Ps
ilages to civilized life, iularly as to rapid means
ommunication and its resus e should have to'consider it me~
different heads:—1. Those telegraphs which were worke
or frictional electricity——2. Those employing a current of saad
from a volt attery.—3. se which are worked by electro- -mag-
netism, induced by a voltaic batter ry. “4. ha operated on by mag-
neto-electricity.—Dr. Ryan then rh to the process of obtaining
a current of frictional electricity, by rubbi —— shellac, sealing-wax,
, so well known as to require no repe ito e then went into some
étatistical data, as to ot progress of electric aqhoggen pb In 1744, the
arin mployed this electricity in striking bells ; in 1746, Granarth
mtibok to twenty persons-at a great dist tance; Winkler and Mo-
nin oe te a current through 4000 feet of wire, the water in the basin
of the Sulla forming ves circuit; in 1746, the celebrated
Dr. Watso n passed a current ugh. miles of wire, water form-
ing half the circuit, and he observed ho time appeared to elapse
during th the passage of the shock. In 1787, Lomonde, in France,
constructed a élegraph, by the aid of,an electroscope at the end of the
conductor, to be communicated with ita which two pith-balls covered
h-of the letters of the alphabet. * On,completing the circuit at one
end with any particular letter, the pith-balls were repelled, and open-
ing, asunder, showed a similar letter at the other end, and thus gave a
means of communication; and, in 1793, the higstraity: or ae x
on tin-foil letters, was proposed for tele raphie purposes. In 1 r ll
Salva, in Spain, construeted ah electric: telegraph, between Madrid. and
Aranjuez, twenty-six miles, which must, at that time, have been a great
and bold undertaking. The lecturer‘came now to age ar 1800, which |

he described as a most important périod, as it d the investiga
tions and correspondence between Galvani and Vol which developed
the properties of electricity from a metallic battery, and has immortal-
ized their names. ‘The difference between frictional and galvanic or

voltaic electricity, was one of the most int@resting considerations in nat-
te phi ilosophy. In 1803, Bassi passed a current of voltai¢ electricity
through 4000 feet of water; in 1809, Scemmering constructed a tele-
graph on Ay jaaveioieg of the powers of voltaic currents in decomposing

water; he tic

d represei the several letters of the alphabet, or conven
tional 3 and on-completing the circu it, the water immedia'
sinking in any tube, showed the letter, or sign, communicated, which
was easily and quickly read off. In 1803, Ronalds, of Hammersmith,
pence a telegraph by galvanism, through coils of eight miles of
, a description of which he published at the time.t In 1817, the )
iatatieared Wedgewood also formed a voltaic telegraph; but no descrip-
Ph EOE Ie

a ‘Here should also have been seitaea the attempts of Lesage i in 1774, who made
a telegraphic instrument, consisting of twenty-four insulated — RE at
ne end in p phepall electroscope. (See Enc cyc. Amer. Sup.)—
[ r. Coxe passed signals along a wire a mile long, saad, around
‘his lecture room at the University of Pennsylvania, and perpved to use it as a
telegraph, by icing chemical changes on prepared ‘pa is
pulled in 1816, in Thomson’s Annals of Philosophy. id—Eps

| - ——_— we

Miscellaneous In elligence, 2 A4At

at *. tion of it appears to be extant. Soon after this, is
en, and Ampére, discovered the Eepoues of 7 ricity, in de-
ting the magnetic needle from the netic a position

=. east and west, or at right ae with it. This ‘laid the foundation
for the several sytems of telegraphic communication which he should
then proceed to describe. In 1837, Professor Wheatstone had greatly
improved his telegraph by fae - number of needles to five,
which have since been r i tot The: lecturer then proceeded
to eecaees ‘the various. modes. of mimpaedinaieiaeas adopted by Bain,
Wheatstone, Brett and Little, tod Gamble and ms the latter of which
worked entirely by electro-magnetism.
[Prof. Morse’s method, brought forward in 1 1837, should have been
| added; it is far better than any-here mentioned, and:is beginning to be
adopted in England
; 2. The Dead: Sea eens (Sgughern Literary Messenger, for
September, 1848.)—Th
countering many difficult
reac

. With the two ‘ Fanniés’”* they _— their. course down the Jordan.
* There were many. dangerous rapids in their Aria bo ; but they ar safely
- reached at last the Dead. Seat We continue this n

ns.from an — article i in the Southey Titerary Messenger f
Fs 1848.

The water of the 1 river [Jordan] was sweet to withina fow hundred
yards of its mouth. , ‘The waters of the sea were devoid of smell, but
shay were einen. and nauseous

“As we rounded to the westward, ” i Eeits Lifiiehs “ the agita-
ted sea. pinapt tadtensbeht.of6 foaming, brine. ‘The spray, separatingvas

™ Ce ae —

it fell, left-incru ns of salt upon our faces and clothes, and while
} it caused a pri i earn wherever it touched. the mae — above
% all exceedingly painful to the eyes
“The boats heavily laden, struge gled sluggishly at ae bat Pa

wind freshened to a gale, jbeémed 2 s if the bows, so
| water, were encountering the sledge negiere 1 “the Thane tend of
the Opposing waves of an agitated sea

‘“ At the expiration of an hour and a Y half, we were driven: 7 a -_
ward, and 1 was compelled to bear away for the shore
Were near to it, and while I was weighing the practicability of isn
the boats through the surf, the wind suddenly ceased and with t the
sea a td fell—the ponderous quality of the water Stine it to ale

n as the agitating power had ceased to act. Within five —

there was a perfect calm, and the sea. was unmoved even by
tions. At 8 p.m, weary and’ AE wewteclied a = of ial
dezvous upon the northwestern shor

nny Mason,” and Fanny Skinner,”’ the names of ‘Der two boats. ‘The
former of copper, and the latter of iron.
t The descent of the Jordan i ef Leg anne Sy" Lieut. Lynch, at six oa per mile,

“The great secret of the 46 ression betw cms — meses: re ead Sea, is
solved on the opin mg? of L hn ch, by a pe ae In
a distance of sixt nates Lynch, river ade f oickg gto a course of about
two hiupdred aig ithin that distance he . his party ged sda! no ‘less
than twenty-seven threatening rapids, besides a f less descen

Seconp Sgnizs, Vol. VI, No. 18.—Nov., 7648,

E18

* = haye were devoted to sounding.

€
day, making topographical sketches as they went, + touching at a
copious stream Peg 3 from hot speeeey and the mouth the river

seen awaited theft

“In passing the mountain of Uzdom, | Sodom,) we unexpectedly and
much to our astonishment,” continues our adventurous explorer, ‘‘ saw
a large, rounded, turret-shaped column facing towards southeast which
proved to be of solid rock salt,.capped with carbonate of- ‘i one
mass of crystallization. Mr. Dale took.a sketch of it, and Dr. An-
derson and I with great difficulty landed and procured specimens

m it.”

The a soon proved so shallow that they could proceed no further.
Half a nile from the southern shore: ound: but six inches water,
and beyond, an extensive ant | for a foot-

_ Near the eastern shore they enco ered a sirocco, whi ch came

sweeping from the southeast across the desert of Arabia with a stifling _
heat. At 8 pv. m. their thermometer, which before had ranged from ‘

“Ag

p.to. 97°, ewe at 106°. “ We could. not take our tents with’ us
says the antieaiia, bs from which we are quoting, “nor did we
need them, as we found it more — sleeping in the open air
past the Sake as

- Having cireumnavigated the lake and returning to their place of
departure, they found the sad intelligence of Mr. Adams’s death awaiting
a arrival, Their colors,were lowered at half mast, _ there out

Sacred Americans paid a tribute to the me oe the or and
statesman, with twenty-one minute guns fired ‘from

The echoes from the cavernous recesses of the lofty and barren moun-
tains, sc surrounded them, startled the Arabs, and’ reverberated

ia: letters of Lieut. Lynch giving an account, currente calamo, of
Gotatstions are of great value and exceeding interest. We ho

oon to have the pleasure of announcing his return to the United “States
an awe om and_his companions baek to country, home a

“ Wet have,” ee hey ** elicited several facts of interest to the man
of ‘science and the C

“The bottom of on northern half of this sea is-almost an entire
plain. Its meridional lines ata short distance from the shore scarce
bottom is generally an incrustation
of salt, but the intermediate one is soft mud with man rectangular
crystals—mostly cubes—of — salt. At one time Stellwagen’ s lead

n we landed at Uzdom, in the space of an hour, our footprints were
coated with crystallizations.

ae

ster Sunday, the party resumed operations the nest

ap

ee

*¢
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 443

“The opposite shores of the peninsula and the western coast pre-
sent evident marks of disruption. — oy

“I'here are unquestionably birds and insects upon the shores, and
ducks are sometimes upon the sea, for we have seen them—but can-
not detect any living thing within it; although the salt streams flowing
into it, contain small fish. My hopes have been strengthened into con-
Viction, and I feel sure that the results of this survey will fully sustain

the scriptural account of the cities of the plain.”
The greatest depth obtained was two hundred and eighteen fathoms,
(1308 feet.) Having completed the survey of the’sea, the party pro-
ceeded to determine the height of mountains on its shores, and to run
a level thence via Jerusalem to the Mediteranean. They found the
summit of the precipitous ridge-which forms the west bank of the
Sea, to be more than a thousand: feet above its surface, and very nearly
on a level with the Mediterranean. nih
It is a curious fact, that the distance from the top to the bottom of
the Dead Sea, should measure the height of its banks, the elevation of
the Mediterranean, and the difference of level between the bottom of
the two séas, and»that the depth of the Dead Sea should be also an ex-
act multiple of ‘the height of Jerusalem above its __
other not less singular fact, in the opinion of Lieut. Lynch, “is

that the bottom of. the Dead Sea forms two submerged plains, an ele-

the river Jordan at one: extremity arid the Wady ‘el Jeib,’ or wady
within a wady at the other.” ‘:

The slimy. ooze upon that plain’ at the bottom of the Dead Sea will
not fail to remind the sacred historian of the “slime pits” in the vale,
where were joined in battle “‘ four kings with five.” :

June the 9th, the whole party afteran absence of a little over two
months, had returned to St. Jean d’Acre on the Mediterranean. They
brought back their boats in as complete order as-they received them on
board at New York. The party were in fine health» Save a flesh

- On a remarkable ‘Slide of a Rock in Fairfield District, S. Cy
(commanicated ina Jetter to Prof. C. U. Sserarp by Dr. Wm. D.

, at Jerusa-
' ‘and his final

*We fii eibcet Weard of thie, deatil*or Lieut. Dale, one of th
Jem. We look with much interest for the retarn of Lieuty |
Report. - «Spices

; *
444 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

its weight by calculation between thirty-eight and thirty-nine tons. An
overhanging ledge of the same kind of rock is situated up the hill, thirty
feet above the spot whence the mass under consideration commenced

its slide
There could be nothing very remarkable in the movement whi ch
oceurred on the night of the 12th, but for the nearly level surface
across which it moved. It is agreed on all hands that the angle of de-
clivity peso the entire distance which was eighty feet, was only
from 13° to 15°40’. The entire descent for the distance, or the differ-
ence ation, the — and the present level of the:mass, is but eigh-
teen feet. es ne did not turn over in.its course. The surface over
which the mass: eth: isa gradually inclined plane, unmarked by any
natural furrow or depression. . The soil.is'a common Idam, five or six
inches in depth, while the subsoil isa cohesive red clay. The field
had been under cultivation for several. years. A'crop of wheat was
raised upon it the year previous; and of course the ground was net

by*green sward. A few coarse stones and pebbles.are
akc

There was much vegetable matter accumulated® about om rock (in its
urfa

Gein ee in a state of decomposition. ‘The ce of the
ot blackened as if it had been acted upon yi, but is cov-
ered wie and there with the customary growth of |i A mag-

chen mag
netic needle brought near it is esa turned aside from the ——
meridian.

In. its deseent, it ut abeongh; or tore mania nurierous mete (of
living trees); some of whicli were two or three inches in diameter. It
cuta trench from ten to thirteen feet wide and about ~— feet in
= » Spreading the soil to a distance on-either side as it m

re is no very considerable accumulation of soil in He ws of the
stone as it now lies, although portions of the red subsoil appeared scatter-
ed down the hill from thirty to eighty feet in front of its present location.
There was rain attended by thunder and lightning on the, night of the
slide, Bit unaccompanied by wind ; and nothing presented ‘itself in the
ippearances near the spot to indicate a water-spout or any ops fall

of water hi

suggestion to account for the removal of the stone pe
made, is that of J. W. Hudson, Esq., the Principal
; s the following: at the lower side of

ess, weighing eight or nine tons. Mr. H. os 1
end of the sliding rock was s supported 1 ‘upon ‘this, which, giving —
produced the motion,,which on the ordinary laws of -gravita
the mass down the inclined plane. From this opinion Dr. Kersh strongly

issents, as he thinks that the shape of the moving mass compare
with that of ~ ata bed it occupied, proves such a position | to have
been i _o

s to the Mycology of. North America. ae eer

e following additional remark to his article, page 34) Un-
Helic eyi:—add “I suspect that this fine species - dial

form the type of amew genus, for which I propose the name Systrephium.

|
|

a #

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 445

Vail a fuller examination, however, it may remain under Helicoma.’
observes also, that the nu 0 of Bosc’s species (p. 350), should
Sa been stated at “ eight or or ten.”

5. Yield of Lead in Great Prion, (Mem. Geol. Surv. Great Brit-
ain, li, p. 730).—The following table gives the amount of lead ore and
lead —. _ the mines of the United Kingdom, for the years 1845,
1846, 1

ead ore.
~ ate = 6. 1847. 1845. «1846. 1847.
ni Tons. ‘Tons. ons. | ‘Tons. 8.

England,. . . | 86479 | 54468 | 59,6148]| 38401 | 36,718 073
Wales, _ ~. «| 16,412 | 14,978 | 18,1474) 11,0143" 10,0274 12,204
Scotland, + 1 ''193 1 "161 | 9951 901, 942} 7.380.
Treland,, . ov ae pene 1,641 1,189 8555 811
IsleofMan, . . | 2959) 2316] 2575 |. 1,523°| 1.663) 1,
ce 3 . . |} 78,267 | 74,564 | 83,747 | of) 695 | 50,1615 = 4 ai

ty Rp tiedengtioory the enquiries that the produce of encrahaniatial lead
from the ore throughout the e kingdom averages about 68 per cent. ; and
that 7 to 8 ounces of silver i is the mvetnge spront7 at present. procured
from the ton of lead.

6. British ——— (Atheneum J-this Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science, met at Swansea.on Wednesday, the 9th of Au-
gust. At8 P, M. an eet was delivered ‘by. the _ of the
meeting, the Marquis of ‘Northampton. The summary of
ings is as follows: On Wednesday, the General Commit :

—On Thursday, business began in all the ‘Sections, the Ethnological
sub-section forming the only exception ; and ‘in the ii oa Dr. Percy
delivered a discourse on smelting iron, in the Baptist chapel.—On Fri-
day, all the sections again’ met except the Ethnological ; during the
afternoon ‘there were sailing matches and boat races 3 and after the
ordinary, Mr. Vivian threw open his grounds, but the wet nee inter-
fered with the general enjoyment ofi the Sections. On Saturday there
was no meeting of the Sections ; and a very large party ne t of aveight
in the morning to visit the iron-works of es 4 see = other points of
interest in the Swansea valley. Another. party made an excursion to
the bone caves and cliffs of Gower; while a third, consisting of Lord
feaesicas Sit Philip Egerton, Sir H. De la Beo se Prof: Owen,

orbes, Dr. Carpenter, Mr. Bowerbank, Liew
went with Mr. M’ Andrew in his ya

ington at their head, made
h to Pennard Casts
less energetic visited the :
mainder of the day in Mr. cBlewellya’ s grounds of
a boat impelled by the ‘electrical current was at’
lakes. In the evening there was a promenade a at tthe
pr attended, i
n Monday, there was business in
lectured on microscopic structures in
Tuesday, the Sections met; and the av
cipal strangers. In the evening there was g t

446 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

day some of the Sections met; and in the afternoon the concluding
general meeting was held for the customary ceremonial procee dings.
he

e meeting was a good one, though the wet weather interfered
somewhat with the comfort and pleasures of the occasion. The amount
of scientific business accomplished was less than at many of the pre-

ceding meetings.
ithoceramic.—MM. CuruvrevussE and .Bovvert of Paris, have
pte to replace the timber used for supporting the rails of a rail-
road, by a mineral compound, to which they have given the name
Lithocerami ie.
8. Kumptolite, (Athenzeum.)—The courtyard of the Admirality,
Whitehall, ‘has been covered with a paving of India rubber. oe laid
own in pieces about twelve inches square and one thic uad-
rangle at Buckingham palace, formed by the erection of the new wing,
IL also be covered by this material, which its projectors have named
‘ olite.” Its chief recommendation i is that it deadens all sot

agnetic needle Brussels, on the morning of April 14, 1848,
was" 0-4 ept observations of twenty-two years, and
states that in — it-was 68° 56-5. The diminution amounts to” —
minutes a ye

10. pnctte. Expédition in search of Sir joe Franklin, (Atheneans :
N , Sept. 9, 1848.)—A fishing cutter arrived at Stromness,
brings the: news that an» American whaler visiting Lievely, in Disco
ee had learnt that on thé 2d of July, Her Majesty’s ships Investiga-
gator and Enterprize, under Sir John Ross, had — the harbor,
and landed dispatches to the care of the Danish governor, ,to be for-
warded by the first vessel to Europe. The expedition “immediately

ed-in search of Sir John Franklin. The crews were all well.

~ PL. Fears arte epg (Athen.)—Indian papers notice the dis-
covery in the Deccan, of a bed of lithographic smmeatons; of great ex-
tent and-excellent _ lity, ee

(12. Ray Society, (Athen., Aug. 26.)—The ey Society-held its fifth
Sitar’ at Swansea—the Marquis of Northampton filling the

‘The Report stated that although no great increase of n umbers
curred Seeing 1 the ae year, the funds were larger, in consequence
bseri

of. the new

Alder &
of John ie ”
an for I

m of Econauil c Geology, England. —The building for this
tly co mpletedion n excellent site in Piccadilly ; £30,000
Ce ee ee ee

countr ry w — after receive their copies, through Mr. G.
aad bahar, in New York and London, who has been

a ae

Miscellaneous Intelligence. AAT

of the public money were voted for its construction some years ago.
It'is suggested that the Geological Society should be furnished with
rooms in the buildin

14. Interesting Collections for sale —The attention of colle eges
academies, public schools, and private collectors of aon of natural
history, literature, &c., is invited to the following notice

A private gentleman who in the course of a long ee as opportuni-
ties have offered in Europe, and America, and, at considerable expense,
has indulged his taste_in collecting various oweats of art, science and
literature, and’ being now too infirm, as well as advanced in life, to
prosecute these pursuits, and indeed feeling unable to take the neees-

| private institutions of his country, as an opportunity of obtaining
and valuable objects, not often torbe met with and not to be n neg-
lected. The first is a
A collection of minerals made in this country as well as in Euro
containing most of the species and many of the’varieties mentioned by
Professor Cleaveland in his treatise, and many, perhaps: more crystal-
line forms than are to be found in other.American cabinets, with few
exceptions ; among them there is.a fine crystal of gold, w gn
tracted: the notice of Professors. Vanuxem and epard, a
terminated euclase, double terminated _topazes, and
quartz crystals, and a, perfect crystal of the ‘gieseckite brought from
Greenland by | a Sea Giesecke of Rapaneegens, probably ‘the. best
in the country. Most of the apeeney are of moderate cabinet size,
aepaisied to be contained case convenient.to occupy near
one side of a room, and akon ost all. are ticketed; many with the
original lends of the Abbé Haiiy, Brongniart, Brochant, Klaproth,
Gillet Laumont, Lucas, and Patrin, as well as of other distinguished

pe ap and fossil « specimen
Together with the minerals will be sold a set of crystalline aan In
wood Cah. the angles all anaied) oa

stria, but learning hey were wa
o the present owner and ort

Further information. ean oe given by Professor Silliman, Profes
B. Silliman, Jr., and C. ae Professor in the Medical College 6}

reek, Roman, and Colonial coins in golé
and lead, with Asiatic and African colonial

448 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

of Italy. The modern coins are of gold, silver, and bronze or brass,
and some of them scarce and valuable. Among the gold coins of
England there are —_ fine guinea pieces, of Charles II, Queen Anne
and Geor ite Likewise :

A soflectlon of European and American autographs in forty quarto
cases bound as books. They have been chiefly collected by purchase
at considerable cost. The American includes a complete collection of
the signers of the Declaration of Independance.

_ It is unecessary to go.into further details.—Those desirous of avail-
ing themselves of so good an opportunity of purchasing, either for pri-
vate use or for endowing public institutions, will probably desire to ex-
amine for uitindehiaed when the fullest information will be a

OBITUARY.

* 4
1b. Berzelius, padaoanes Aug. 26, 1848.)—On the 7th m4

, died the eminent Swedish chemisty Berzelius. In ace

s of any other class of men of science, Berzelius stood out as a
marvor the first magnitude. ‘To him more than to’ any others an, be-
longs the. honor of applying the great principles which had been estab-
lished by Dalton, Davy, Wollaston, Gay-Lussac, and himself, in inor-
ganic chemistry, to unfolding the on which regulate the combinations
forming the structures of the animal and vegetable kingdoms.
Berzelius was born in’ the village of Vafvérsunda, it

ialiggnith 3 in Ostgothland, on the*29th of August, 1779,—not at Lin-
kagring on the 20th of August, as is often erroneously stated in the
many notices of him. His father kept the parish school in the village

medica ‘ shoenio on.
olenesen 1798, ‘Berzelius passed his philosophical examination as
rat final'one for M.D. At this time he left the. Univer-

in conjunction wilh ‘Eke eber: pat linera
1 nt the examination for a license to
e 1 May,

atone
ag Ope Be
‘einine aoe ra Andrew §
his voyages round the world, and age
ae

. ‘ p ‘4
and chemical pharmacy. Spaurnau died in 1806,—and Ber

ius by his inaugural dissertation on galvanism, and other papers,
Sipotity obtained for himself a sufficient degree of confidence to be ap-
pointed his successor. Although this chair embraced a very wide ta
c ects, os was “are the case with Swedish chairs at that time,

hee: Sem

ne,

a ES

*

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 449

peapiese should be illustrated. by experiments, he adopted this plan, and
ise abandoned the old practice of reading lectures

aon himself very. strongly on the inutility of. merely reading ae
tures. Although he first adopted Dr. Marcet’s experiments in his clas
room, he soon so far improved-upon wre that his own became a one
for the chemical class-rooms o

During the: early period of his rdsigoe at Stockholm, he practised
the profession of medicine; and in 1807 was mainly instrumental in
forming the Medical Society of that capital. In 1810 he was made
President of the Royal Acade emy of Sciences at Stockholm and in the
same year received the appointment of Assessor of the Medical Col-
lege ; and was made a member of the Royal Yoar den Board. At this
time, though scarcely more than thirty years of age, he had obtained
great reputation as a chemist. He had published a work on animal
chemistry, containing many original investigations on the fluids of the
animal body, and which was subsequently translated—as, indeed, have
been most of his aptonae almost every language of Europe.
conjunction with Hisinger, he commenced, in 1806, the publication od
a periodical work entitled, * Af handlingar i.Fysik, Kemi, och Mine
ogi,” —which. contained a series of papers by himself, constituting some
of the most valuable contributions that had yet been made to analytical
chemistry. His labors Were regarded of so much importance by the

200 dollars yearly for his chemical researches. 812, Berzelius
visited England, where he was most cordially fe a 8 In that year
he cémmunicated, through Dr. Marcet, a valuable paper to the Medico-
Chiru urgical Spore i of London, “* On the Composition of the Animal
Fluids.” In 8 he visited F rance and Germa ny—countries in which
he was better pre than in Great Britain, as most.of his papers and

in that of Sweden. I same year he was appointed Secretary to
the Academy of Sciences—a post which he held till his — In
1831 he ‘was allowed to retire from the active duties of his p .

ship at the pape Institute, but he still held the title of hotoelie pro-
essor. Up to this time he had resided in apartments provided for him

at the building occupied by the Academy of Sciences,—where,

his study and laboratory, so that he could with little

nizing the most “ing ulead of his adopted soutien. In 1815 Ber-

zelius was made a Knight, and in 1821 a

Order of Vasa. In 1829 he received the

was made a Baron. The intelligence of this ose was aitered to

Berzelius by the hand of the King; who wrote himself a letter inti
Secoxp Senizs, Vol. VI, No. 18~Nov., 1848. 58

450 Miscellaneous -Intelligeence.

ting his deep sense of the merits of the Ww puter and expressing a
hope that in this nomination the world would recognize an homage aa

to the man who = consecrated his life to Phew useful researches
which had been already reco ognized by Europe, and which it was the

w few men of science have married with a patent of nobility on the
piekiegen table! Sweden had, however, yet one'‘more ovation for her
beloved son. In 1843 he had beer a quarter of a century Secretary to
the Academy, and on this occasion a festival was given in his honor
The Crown-Prince was in the chair,—and a portrait of 8 chemist
painted by Lieut. Col. Loder was presented to the Academy.

In addition to the works already mentioned, he. sotiicdle a ** Manual
of Chemistry,” which went through several Sditiowe; that o 41 con-
sisting of ten volumes,—and, we believe, another larger oditiun has
since been published. In 1822 he commenced the publication of an
Annual Report on the Progress of the Physical Sciences, which has
been publiched every year to the present time.

fhe name of Berzelius has been too intimately connected with the
of chemistry for the last forty years, for us in this slight sketch

to give an adequate idea of the influence which his discoveries and
generalizations have exerted upon the science. To him it is indebted

This Seine tly | ole re-arrangement of minera r
and contributed greatly to the advance of mineralogy. His discovery
of selenium led him to investigate its various compounds, and re

tion of the various salts. Subsequently, he psa. the compounds

yo, ad and arrived at some of the most important — valuable re-

ave yet been obtained by the analytical chem

ilst 8 was writing the first edition of his “ Manual of

” Dalton had promulgated his idea of the atomic constitution

d so vy had made his great discov soos of the maple ba-
‘he aws of

oo a. the various olapests, giving to
ed to obtain results perfectly

h theoretica kek made on lalton’s laws. He
was enabled to Sceill Dalton’s law that one atom of one body unites
F one, two, or three, &c., atoms of another body, sae sheead that

two atoms would unite with three and five. He also pointed out the
great fact, that two compounds which contain the same clec ae —

ment of one is a multiple by a whole number of the same elem ne of
the other. He not ee ite to the elementary bodies their ee
numbers, but introduce system of symbols, by which ¢ |

e ~ has been so on: facilitated. Till the time of Recealiionl organie

&

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 451

chemistry was a waste, with here and there an attempt to explain the
phenomena of living beings upon chemical eee -andey ich from
the entire want of experimental foundation, was even worse than use-
less. The compounds found in plants and animals were no t. supposed
'o come within the category to which the laws of combination applied.
Berzelius was the first to show that these 9 could be applied to ani-
mal and vegetable products;-and in so_ » he opened the hl, fas
the discoveries of Mulder, Liebig, Dumas, Bovsingtal, and o
few.

ness dre rew from a fellow-traveller “66 mine, nn wa fy ed me to in-
troduce to him, the observation, ‘I would never have thought him the
great man he is said to be.’ His attention to strangers was very
great,—especially to those who took an, interest in chemistry. Wit
these he would frequently spend hours in his laboratory, explaining his
methods of working,—and on their departure, hé left the impression
that he was the bonored party. He was an eatly riser,*and gave

first part of the day to his most important work, whatever that might
be. He seldom either wrote or experimented in omer leaving
that part of the day for reading and social relaxatio had no
ticular times for writing or experimenting ; when he had a work to fin-

Writing, requiring further investigation, he would at —_ aye up th
pen, and work perhaps s for weeks in his laboratory. men were
more beloved in the city of Stockholm than Berzelius.

ere the merits of this great chemist less, we might not be ae to
afford to hint at any defects. But regarding him ata distance, bh

entific research. His feelings were conservative, and thoug
going ee “ to the new, he still clung ae tenacity to the
was ‘the last chemist of pected Da
of ihe clediaity nature of chlorin Evi en
had given up their opposition, the ere n of Bei
In the rece nt advances of organic chemistry, also, al
) “ the physiology of plants and anin
vi eye ofa critic, and withheld to the

sion to some of the idtetved positions of this department of

A letter from Rerzivs, (L’Institut, No. 764,) speaking ot
States that on examination, it was found that there was a so! ng of
the posterior half of the spinal marrow corresponding to the t th yo
sal vertebra.

% i Pm”
452 Bibliography.

: VL. Brstiocrapny.

L ‘Rare and ‘Remarkable Animals of Scotland, peereenned from liv-
ing Subjects, with practical observations on their ; by Sir Joun

anAM Danyeut, Bart. Volume first, canals fifty- -three colored
plates. London: John Van Voorst, Paternoster ir 1847. Ato,
pP- 270, (Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ii Ser., i, 311, 1848. )—The. most
interesting chapter in this interesting volume is that which narrates the
history of the Hydra tuba. This marine animal is called a Hydra by

(p- 87), their proliferous evolution of young, their endurance of priva-
tions, their power to recover from apparently immedicable wounds,
and their strange germinations and monstrosities under the influence
and direction of the experimentalist (p. 93). This hydra is found at-
tached to submarine bodies; the body is fleshy, inversely conic cal, en-
circled about the oral disc with a series of long slender thread-like, ten-

tacles, L

cising all the: functions of, a perfect and adult animal eve

peated production of young in all respects alike the parent. ie it lives
until, from some unknown causes, a change- comes over it, and it be-
gins to unveil itself, and to exhibit one of the most osetia revela-
tions in animal transmutations. A pendulous column or roll is observ-

til re thy are obliterated is aor then each roll of the soliiers is succes
sively separated and liberated from the others until the whole embry-
onie column is dissolved, the individual rolls floating at freedom in the

of the waters, obviously the young of one of those large Medusee
which swarm our seas in the months.of the latter, summer and autumn !

ng ts

der. r, ase ce cast off severa iikieows exis a basis re-
mains out of which another pies tuba shall arise, to go through the
same hn life and the same medusean metamo orphoses as its prede-
cessor. e su that these facts—for facts they are—will not sup-
“port thasopinions of Steenstrup on alternating generations, nor can
even be reconciled with them

aero in — Sir Jon: discovered that the Hydra tuba was the
. yoofa usa was this: he took a large Medusa, of ager

mined species rs beautifully figured on a 15, and placing it

uae

va

Bibliography. 453

*

Hydra tuba (p. 114); and subsequently; and as it were*by. accident,
h ydra_ was i )

| with the Strodila of Sars! The discov

ee, Ik any ‘passages we have mar
previously observing that the Hydra tuba in its strobila form is some
thing like a fir-cone or a cylinder cut into several whorls, each whorl,

i i me a bifid

ten to twenty, when the basis, as already stated, r
habits of the hydra. es
“First, a smooth fleshy bulb sustained a cylinder of
“oh mae

waving curvatures. row of twenty or twenty-four | rown-
ed the summit of the cylinder, which row disappeared 01 blitera
ted as the waving in its vicinity deepened, and the diat of the cyl

hak ob.

inder there expanded, that is towards the summit. Concomitar

literation of the terminal row, a new circle of tentacula, at fi \

but gradually augmenting, was emerging from aroun ulb, while

struggles of Medusz, into which the waving strata were evolving,

ished their liberation to swim unconstrained in the surrounding
element.” (p. 121.) ‘~ :

Be
asl

S .

454 _ Bibliography.

“Certain facts admit of no dispute; such as the existence of a vig-
orous hydra attached to. a solid substance, with long flowing silky ten-
tacula ; an alteration in the figure of the body, or the formation of an
embryonic roll of Medusze on the disc ; the gradual maturity of each
Medusa and its liberation from the roll; the disappearance of the orig-
inal tentacula of the hydra; the emerging of a new circle of tentacula
from a smooth fleshy bulb, sustaining the embryonic roll, as the former
are obliterated, and as the Medusce “approach maturity ; the evolution
of this fleshy bulb as a pp _— along with their departure,
which becomes the parent of eny by eg ee and its perma-
mence-as.an independent animal. cS ie 122-3

* All the eer, in the embryonic roll are separate and distinct
euivenie. Each is in close application to that which is next below, if
itself be appetdacet or lies between two if intermediate. The probos-
cis is outermost if the indiyidial be uppermost in the roll ; thussall lie
in the same direction, the proboscis outermost, as the Medusa escapes,
from the next left behind. When the last remains in adhesion to the

y bulb, its proboscis projects outwards also. Thus the under sur-
rae the oeabrysi is always outwards, while a portion of the roll.”

24.)
q “ bien by repeated long, and painful observation, I have: en-
deavored to. — the history of the Hydra tuba and the Meduse ori-
- ginating from it, my purpose has been but Pp tc gb I hav

selected many individuals, and [ have chosen colonies of both, to dis
cover whatever changes they should undergo. The hh ded grew, it fed,
red, its existence was long.’ The Medusa lived, it neither fed nor
bred, its cet was infinitely shorter; nor did it undergo the small-
est change from the first moment of aes for: fifty-five days. Its
life could not be peverncsed: on any occasion, beyond sixty days. Be-
tween the form and “habits of these two adele there is not the small-

™ pis sur les Animaux Fossi pe Konincx. Liége,
1847. hie des genres. Productus et
(Ann. and ae Nat. Hist.,
of a series of 5

through many periodicals, memoirs and trans-
he first ret? rt contains a list of 107 works and

ve, 3
=a
@
a.
5:
Comal
>
®
na
S
Sa
eo
r=)
=
©
5
~
ag
2
ve)

, witha classiicetcat « the species. . detailed description

ch

of rng species is given, to which is appended a very complete . .

my. From the geological and geographical distribalion sit Tou

wee st a few notes. he number of species of Produc ibed

am 62, of which 4 are Devonian, 47 Carboniferouljaa Permian,
and 1 ssic. Of the 47 Carboniferous species, 35 ae found in

ps lower divisions.

:
|
j
;

Ey

a , & »*
Bibliography. 455

_ Not P species belongs exclusively to the middle grnicn: although

7 are common to the lower and middle portions, viz., P. margaritaceus,
derus, F lemingii, pustulosus, Keyserlingianus, aculeatus, mesolobus.

The P. carbonarius_is found only in the upper division. T cora

semireticulatus, aig pr and kanes appear to have lived from the
om em

aication ei a to find that the g dees species have a mech
greater affinity with the Devonian than with the carboniferous, notwith-
standing the ene. period which must haye elapsed betwe
their’ Sh. pres

er the Ssolb isa distribution of the genus Chonetes, we find there
are 23 species knownvat present, which number may probably be: in-

creased when the fontififero deposits of America, New Holland and
Asia are more ex evertheless the geological results to which
the known species lead us are deserving of notice. rom the observa-

tions of M. de Koninck it appears (contrary to the opinion generally
oe that with the exception of one, not any uf the 23:species»pass

om one system to another, or even ‘from the lower to the upper =
of the same system. *

E, Ra ae H. Davis, M.D. Ancient Monuments of the Missi issippi
Valley ; compri bide th results of extensive original Surveys aud Explorations.
vol. imperial 4to. he abe tion price,

se Races of Men and thei Pra pace power

. ICKERING,

‘ ee pdt a “as Memorials of Changes in the
Relative Level of Sew and Land. 8vo, PP: with maps and illustrations. — E

C. Camppent Cooper. " Identities of Lig! and At —_— and Elecivi-
city. 96 pp. 8vo. 1848. Enaageiphn :* “8 Ellio
M MOIRS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SuR REAT - lng ‘and of the Muse-

Sto 720; with nu-
. Contains

E
um of Practical lag Lo ie city ie ii, Svo. oi BP:

Or ‘the Vegetation of the Carboniferous Period 2 as ared w

n experiment on the
ces of the history of the lead mines of Cardiganshire ; by
On the mining district of Cardiganshire and ili fare “
. Smyth

On ‘oh cella tio osition of some of the Limestones used for Buildin Par Ss, eS-
u ally on those aston’ i in the erection of the New Houses of Parlia ; by
- Ransome and B.
Produce of lead ore ma ead in the United Kingdom for the years 1845 and
_ ead ore and lead for 1847.

ers

al | : ‘a.
¢ . ® “¢

456 _ Biblhography. cr
2
W. F. Vas Amrince. An ipveptigation of the Weaoriane “sk ag Nae History
of Man, by noe” ce, Pricha rd, and others. 8vo. key.

HA Mollusques de I’ ‘Algerie, ato? i in iivrdisous a0 4 5 > s, ves et
and i colored plates. 16 fr. each livr. 12 livrs. are on sale; 10 mary éach

*t: ABBE D; tere Histoire Naturelle des Mollusques terrestres et d’eau douce
coq et Lanois. ee Raisonné des Plantes Vasculaires du ll
, v0. 6 fr.

I
central de la France. te 1847. 1 vol.
.Renov. Geologie al , With descriptions of fossils by Demet

fase - fr.’ The second wil soon appear, and will contain the descriptions of os

mE ARLARD and 0. sey, Analyse chimique des dhiis hs alimentent les
fontaines publiques de Paris. 3 fr.

Lav Precis de Gilstetingreshie. suivie d'une injthie simple d’ angie
au chalomes u. Paris, 1847. 1 vol. in large 18mo, with 175 figures in the tex
2

Ef, Generu um et specierum mineralium secundum. ordines natura-
les digestorum Synopsis, etc. 348, . Bvo. Hale Saxonum, 1847.

Memorrs of THE AMERICA popanet Boston, new ser., Vol. iii a Anas unt of
the” nel ulain Andromeda; G. P. Bond.—Account of the nebula about Orionis ;
et thod oftcomputing t the ratio of a comet’s distances from the earth ;

G. P. Hond.” '

Proc. . Soc. Nar. Egstony --Jan. 5, 18458. Motella, a’genus of fish —
in the waters of North.A erica ; Storer.+Jacksonite, a new mineral ; J. D. Whit-
ney.—JAN Vegetation of Anthracipe ; J. E. Teschemacher.—F nz I
opment of an Ate al De es on animals with chloroform ; De-

velopment | of : embryo starfis esor.—Infusorial deposits

found at the mouths of vers in the Southern States, caused by the influx of infu-

pare the tide, which the freshwaters destroy ; H. ogers.—Eggs of Eolis;
arkcH 1d, On water in igneous minerals and melamorshie a action.—

Aprin 19. Water tubes in fishes; Agassiz.—June New species of American

liclls (of Succinea, 2 species, Helix 5, Pupa 2, Cylindrella as A. A. Gould.—

The American oyster-catche er a different — from

= sete Tart; I'D berecant tura ee ifi Antti

luses; M. Edwa “On the liver of t 1 of fe-
cundation in the (Enot M. W. Hofm oO 14 onalas wed grain 0 of the
Acanthee ; J. E Planilen: iN the J. lanchon. Patter < of

: = Dro: 1.
the Rhizocarpee; C. Negeli.—On 1 » Azolla ; "G. Mettenius. —Mycological frag-
ments; J. H. Léveillé.

-Férnanpiinear, 1847. —Includes the fol-
. Ne rdh.—p-

ee

Artificial buildi

iggy

- INDEX TO VOLUME VI.

A.
Abert, J. W., Tour to New Mexico, 376,
Absorption of o of carbonic acid by liquids, W. B.
Academy of Solsness, Philadelphia, Proceed-
ings of, 156,
Acid, carbonic, absorption of, by liquids,
sist. saiphatte, manufacture of, A. A. Hayes,||, _,.

sulphuric, &c., manufactured by action
of steam on sulphates, &c., 260.
—, aspartic,

Adams, C. Re hg a fractured and repaired Ar-|
pees
cies of Haliotis, 138.
Aerolites, Pa Meteorites
Agassi me a Principles of Geology by, no-
ticed, 1
—, Pe tubes of fis hes, 431
ee structure of the foot in Embryo-birds,

Alabaim ee is ogy of, C, S. Hale, 354.
wee | , tension of vapor of water,

ander , S., on the physical phenomena
dependent sok the progressive motion of,

— paving material, of India rubber,
a ifinor, eme

Sisal
famarareee and aspartic a
as American, time np meeting and
f, 294.

office
—, —, notice of meeting in 1848, 393.
—, raed je of the meetin in 1849, 401,
, British, at P Sasattieg 18t8, 445
Asteroids, ee che of, B. 4G ald 28,
bei , tenth, Dian a, 278.
, Metis, 140, 278; 437,
elements of, 437,

/Astrin ngent cprig for tanning, mode of
testing value of,

Atlantic, facts bib iN M. F. Maury, 400,

Atmidoseo 6.

Atomic volaue of Stat and nitrogen, on
anomalies in, 7’. S. Hunt, 170.
toms, divisibility of, 329,

|Au rd, arsenic in chalybeate waters, 422,

|Auriferous glass, 255.

Australia, copper mines, 134,

Autographs, collection of, for sale, 448.

B.
coy C., on the Temple of Serapis, no-
tice:

li
Alge, U +: localities o

f, J. W. Bailey, 37.
—, on collecting and preserving, W. H.
fa 4

rey,
Algeria, galena and iron ore in, 2
* ave organic, composition of, ve Pisin

lmmsrleste mut Soc., Philadelphia, Proceed-

ings of,.
— for the Promotion of: Sci-
ence, Rinay roe 294, 393.
Academy of Arts and Sciences, Pro-
304,

Sorc , Memoirs of, 456.

inorganic
mie in Maine,
Ant nests, Cremas Sohthas in, S. S. Halde-

Ants, black, Spree of life in, 292.

Anthon iv, J. en ssion of the soft parts
orthoc

Anthracite, | blast furnace ae smelting iron

Archiac, 0 a of a werk Kad on the Progress)

0}

Arctic Ex 2S in search of Sir John
Franklin, 149, 446.

A Sai ractured and repaired, C. ‘B. Ad-

ams,
Arsenic in chalybeate waters, 422,

—_ —, cat Lithooeramic, 446.

152.
anet p07 ame en ep: 438,

ailey, J. W., localities of Age, ‘37.
Balanus, eyes of, J. Leidy, 136.
veld M. na phy rp ag discoveries, 433.
frand salts of baryta, preparation

a
Beaches, lake Superior,
Beavers, in Mississippi, D D. Phar es, 297,
Bent’s be notes on the region, 387, ga:
Bernard, C., pancreatic secretion, 276
Balt, ‘tan of, 448,
riewnit f Philosophy by, noticed,

Bis, structure of foot in e mbryos 0:
ring of the facts on their classification,

SIZ,
Blast eee for ir n, S, ldeman, 74.
w mode of analyzing inorganic mat-
ter 7 =~ on meta
um, J. R.
Bohemia, re ind
“rr discove

urn,
Bos ephort, le level of, 294.

Bosto “ Sars of f Natural History, 299, 455,

aig ——, Americe, of H. P. Sartweil,
149,
a, trata, 300
——, Gray's Gen British F Duende 302.
Botany of New England, E.

British Sioniatiens notice of meeting, 1848,

Brockiaily, J., influence of color on dew, 178,
59

Seven’ Serres, Vol. VI, No. 18.—Noyv., 1848.

Brockle.
notice

Bromine esi the bittern of salt work s, 293

Brongniart, A., plants of different geological|
epochs, 120.

Bron metals, new mode of, 423.

sivigrne material, action of frosts on, 285.

— — , artificial,

essay new — of m

Burr, E.. F.,
Uranus 236."

ae Elements of Meteorology by,|

C.
“98 on Sterna cantiaca, and a new wren,

» American and ra ea oyster-catch-|
er, different species, 43

California, Upper, Fremont’s report on, 280,
—, ——, notices 0
—, —,, quicksilver mines in, 270.
oric, see Heat.
Calotype on glass
teed Mee "ae , by H. P. Sartwell, no-
Caricogr hy, C. D 244
jan evel of, 14 48

peer classification, TS Hunt, 1
os uahua, silver and copper mines ot 384,

Chili, coal in, 146,
Chlorastrolite, anew age 270.
loroform, new process

ot,
— of birds tiene on, L. Agassiz,432.
Climate, as indicated ore opening ua closin
oft _ panes son river, 295.
oe

Coal i in Chili
ss se is R. C. Taylor, noticed,

New Mexico, 383, 385, 389
Capi H., winds of the sitions hemis-

Sie case roperty of, J. Ni , 424.
Cold of Utie P a, 396. A —
Coie ion of minerals, coins, &c., for salein)
Color, petal of, on dew, J. Brocklesby,

Come, new, discovered by Dr. Petersen,

Com mercial Review, de Bow’

Conchaleny ae new Haliotis, —

—— of Connecticut, J. H. Linsley, 23

i >i a opinion of, on light of aoe \

Copper mi = of 1 Australia, 134.
n California, 388.
Cevsain Chiesa: 335.
~—— ore, ps a insolubility of, in hydro-
chloric acid
ae er and zine, © eacbort
Copying engravings, new phat ae N.deS

Cremastochilus i in ant nests, S. S. Haldeman,|

the Neptwaian, ‘theory of
D

INDEX.

Cretaceous formation in New = and
Western Missouri, 377,
we and winds of the ocean, M. F. Mau-

Curtis 2, M. '. ae to American
Mycology, 349, 444

Dalyell, J. G., work on rare and remarkable
animals, noticed, 452,
n lead diseases, 299.
Dana Mancal of Mine ralogy, 302.
Dead Sea, tot neux on, 146.
—, level of, 148.
—, expedition to, under Lieut. Lynch,
| Declivity of slopes, 133.

effects of fusion on density of rocks,

133, 423.

Density of rocks, effects of fusion on, 133, 423.
Deschamps, copper in the bodies of animais,

Desmidew, Briti sh, J. Ralfs on, noticed, 302.
Deg influence of color on, J. Brocklesby,

——, observations on, ogy 418.
Dewey, C., Caricography, 244.
—, ice a condu ctor of galv anism,
, Grove’s et with water ohn ‘with
the zine cup.
xyd of zine in the porous cup, 254,
lamin i aaa of, in the liquid way,
Rogers, 11
pimernbnet of zine, palladium, iridium, tin,

of needle, variations in, arr
Disisiility of magnitude, A. Mac Whorter,

Dcleadation observations on, 268.
rift, wave of translation as connected with,
WwW. Whewell, 115.

East Indies, observations on, 157.

Economic geology, museum gd =
Ele ctrical outed Ps R. Har
El on of saa * "tight, 153.

balan
Blectrovelegraphy ee of, 4
basis of Clansiticadiie M.

ye 433.
Emerald Nickel, B. oe Jr., 248.

Emery inor, 272
Emory, W. H., tour to California, 386 s
Enge ae) note s by Prof.

mmunicated be 86.
En, lish sh prefixes from the Greek, J. W. Gibbs,

vings, new mode of copying, 258.
Expedition in search of Sir John Franklin,

aang t io Dead Sea, under Lieut. io 441.
ibid, under Lieut. lyneux,

Sos a the barnacle, J. Leidy, 136.

electro-magnetism, |
Fi — os j

Cretaceous formation in Texas, F. Ramer,

F,
Faraday, on the rotation of a ray of light by
3 decomposed by team, tobi he i

En pe

: em sm, ice a "ld: of, C. Dewey,

INDEX.

Fergus, T. H., mica from a: 425,
ems of the United States, on some

Fishes, water tubes of, L. Agassiz, 431.
Fitz, ms telescopes of, 437.
Footprints, D. Marsh on fossil, 272.

F Gistis: oe South Alabama, 355.

F ele Sir John

Frenent tc. C., Report by, on California, no-

Fuchs’ s method of analyzing iron ores, obser-
vations on, Profs. Rogers,
usion, effects of, on density of rocks, 133.
oa
Galena in Algeria,

— Scere battery, mode of using, C.!-—
Dewey, 253.
Pah ——, oxyd of zine in the porous
cup, fy
——, purifying liquids by, 260.
Gelatine, Roekical nature of, T. S. Hunt,

Geslopical e ss re pons ane = dae plants of
TO

differe
map 5 fiona scones, 49.

Ee Hale,C. 8

n, expedition in search of,

459

Haldeman, S. S., blast-furnace for smelting
iron — anthr: acit

mastochilus i in ant nests, 146.
ee of South 1 Alabama, =

on the explosion, causing the fire at
New fs of 1845, 281.
‘arvey, sem on fealinetion and preserving
Algee, 42
lausmann, on the cause of the irised colors
vl Lewes 254.
: hs manufacture of sulphuric acid,
13,
Heat, se = eee heat of bodies, C.
C. " Perso
— slowly" ‘ranma through clay, J.
Hime
es ey on nsity 0 8, 133.
| pow er of a ot different sub-
stances, 255.
turnal radiation — a 418.
He ebe, aicabete of orbit of, 4
a J., on the Sameqaian Institution,

lermannsen, A. N., work by, on Malacozoa,
noticed, 251;
wef C., shooting stars of August,

Geology of a as, F. “serial v1:

a, E. He s, 123,
Malay x Pane a 129,

"aie work on the progress of, by d@’ Archiac,
——,, Christy’s letters on, noticed, 298.
— of South Alabama, C. S. Hale, 354.
— of Shay Mexico,
——, Mus of Economic, England, 446.
Gerhardt, C. nt atoms, 176.
——, on salts,
Gibbs, J. W. » English prefixes derived from

the’ Greek. =i
, expe: n of, to South America, to
observe Venus with reference to the solar

on, 259.
Gold, Wieataon He e T.. Jackson, 187.
i “ei
— in Russia, 27:
Gould, A. A., Principles of Zoology by, no-
ticed 151.
——, on some shells of ae collect-
ed by J. H. Lins
B. a orbits of te ‘asteroi ids, 28,
Grains produced in the United States in

—,, 1848, 279.
Hopkins, Ei, isthmus of Panama, 123,
Howardite, a new mineral, 25
~—— river, time of opening el ‘closing,

Hunt, JT. a, on chemical classification, and
on the atomic volume of sul-
Ber’ and nitrogen 170.
chemical nature of gelatine, 259.

re,
rte oy temperature of sea near, 143,

Idocrase in Sanford, Maine
SS jaws and teeth "of, G. A, Man-

‘elan Archipela ago, 1
Jodine, new —— at St. Victor, 258.
Trised colors of m
Iron, blast r tacts ree iosking: with anthra-
cite.
Tron ores, on Fuchs’s method of ahiysiné,
ers,
Isomorphism, ‘Scherer on, 57, 189.

J.

vinnie ckson, C. T., ooo of ‘he 187.

Jord gp Mol eur on, 146.
t. Lynch on, 441.
K.

1847, %

Gra ay, mm Genera oa of, Sew 300.

Grove’ s battery, w used with
the zine

— xyd of zine in the porous cup,
254,

= see aterm of, in mining, 256.
Gutta

N. Kent
Sm in el Mexico. 33a, 339, 390.
‘cm

Haidinger’s Vienna Transactions, noticed,

—, on dolomisation, 268.

rcha, 246.

Ket, 2. oe on Fossils, noticed,

Koninck, L. de, work b;
454,
Kompeoliee: #8. forns, 80.

le

Lake Superior, meteorol

of, and causes
of change of level, W. y 1.

. Mather

ie, Great Salt, or Utah, Rocky Mountains,

She, SES rior, levels of, 19...
Lapis lavali i in Siberia, 4

INDEX.

a the panty, 140, 278, 437.

0, New, notice of the soil, mines, &e.,

—, ‘mines. of, and modes of reducing ores,

s—< “ie A., theory of binary molecules,|| S. W. Rai —: = “
B rie: in Siberia,
tion of organic alkalies, 420. || -—— inating —, pareblendty 425,
5 Feb y on eae 4 Millon, on urea, 256, 4
ce, A., donation to Harvard Univer-|——, on anal f inorganic matter in
sity, 149. ood, and on metals in this fluid, 422.
Lead diseases, S, L. Da , 299. ages cabinet, Markoe’s,
— , yield of, in Great Britain, 445. t Balti timore, for sale, 447.
ly, on the eyes of Balanus, 136 Minera a ‘Sane ’s Manual of, noticed, 302.
Levels, ancient, of Lake Superior, 19 Mi nerl waters, Redky and California Moun-
—— of Dead Sea, and Caspian, 1 tain j
»-—of Black Se 4. ——, arse n chalybeate, 422. |
Liebig, work on chemistry of food, noticed, Minerals, ios in, Scheerer, 57, i :
Lake Superior, J. D. ba ;
Liebnerite, a new mineral, 275. ge 3 1

, irised colors, cause of, 254.

J

igh. ray of, rotated by

—, physical phenomena dependent upon|——
dhe progressive motion of, S. Alexander,

Binsley, J) J; = shells of Connecticut, 233,
Lithographic limestone, 446.
nar, see Moon.
Lynch, expedition to Dead Sea, 441,
M.

——, new, from Texas, C. U. Shepard, 249, Mee ge
= ade of, Blum’s work on,
noticed, 2

Galena and iron ore in Algeria, 271; ’ Gold
in Russia, 2
389,

MacWhorter, A., on the divisibility of mag-
nitude, 329.
Magnetic perturbations, 296.
‘ririetiocs in dip of, Quetelet,

46.
Malay peninsula, geology of, 129.
a i A., jaws and teeth of the TIguan- Mol

odon,
Markoo’s 8 's mineralogical cabinet, 297.
Marsh, D., on fossil footprints, 372,
‘ enneiey of life in Siork ants, 292.
Martins, oe temperature of sea near ice-
bergs, 14
— W. oY, meteorology of Lake Supe-

Mawr, M. F., winds and currents of the

Meloni, on nocturnal radiation, 418,

N.
C., el ctro-magnetic balance, 258, Nasm J., new pro
Mercury , 208, perty of coke, 424.
ercury, tie of, in Upper California, at ransmission of heat through clay
and san

s, 426,
oor = induny of Behera, 146.
"es

aa
Metcorie i iron of
Meteorite of Castine, Me,, C. U. Shepard,

— A Arkansas, 297,
tig, Tesincgng = “Rammelsberg’s sinieall
: of, C.U.S. rd,
~—~, Braunau, on Fischer’s examination, C,
ae Shepard, 348.
— senitan, rt on, with accounts of sey-

. U. Shepard, ;
Metocleny of Lake Superior, W. W. Math-|

sre, in Brandenburg, ||
Nic

se in M ine, 425; J ite, 269; La- 5.
is lazuli in Si ; Liebenerite, é
D5 Molybdenite ir i Maine ; Sa
, 266; Willi , 249.

Mining, employ pent bg n-cotton in, 256.
as of New M
Molybdenite in Sanford, Maine, 425.
Se

Moon, observations Senne | eclipee of, Sept.,

1848, L. M. Rutherford
Morlot, A. von, on hed Teg 268.
Mosses, on American, M. A. Curtis, 349.
eS v Rocky, notices of, and section,

Museum of economic geology, England,

My cology, contributions to American, M. A.
Curtis, 349, 444.

Neptune, S. C. Walker , 277, 396.
Negension. th theory of Uranus, researches on,

New a, 28 Report of Regents of University

ickles, J., dimorphism of zine,
—, erystalliz ed hydrated aegitot

Ppt ano nome ly in atomic volume ra f.

eer notice of J, ye 297.
—~ of Berzelius,
Ocean, Atlantic and ‘others, facts co *
in "
Oregon, remarks o

hoceras, im preaiion. aa soft parts of, 132.
uropean,

er 1. ' |
ae Brocklesby’s Elements of, noticed,

Oyster-catcher,, American and E
433.

5 ea

gS ee

ae +
Planet eee “alées ts of,
hy

port, 2
‘ Richardson, J a death of, 2'

2 or
ae of copper in hydrochloric acid,,
and on

INDEX.

“ft
Pain in = ee G.R
Panama, of, Te “Hoping, 123.
Peacrenisx section 276.
Patent Office Repo
Paving materia a India rubber, called
Kumptolite, 446.
Pennsylvania and aa be hy of, =
nee to railroad Wy. Rob

Pers 30n, C. C., latent and ific h
bodies, 111. dia julien
Petersen, Sag of ane

w come
Phares, 5

437.
avers in anaes, 297,
259.

Copernicus Sn light of 140
a discovery of, 140, 278.
, eleme
hon Peidarchet on, E. F. Burr,
pre C. Walker, 277.
— Fil “erie sighth capetiioe of, 437.
—— supposed, ee Neptune, specula-
tions on, Babine

"TeV,
Plan ts of diferent pein non epochs, A,
:. rong art,
" New "En gland, on some, E. Tucker-

Potassium, preparation of ferridcyanid of,

a of minerals, Blum on, no-
ticed, :

Q.

Quicksilver mines in meg 4 ieee, 270.
in coal formation,

R.
Radiation of heat, nocturnal, Melloni, 418.
Railroads in Pennsylvania and ae 397.
ines, G. W., mines of Mexico,
Ralfs, J., = British Desmidee, "302.
Ray Socie , 446,
‘the University of New York,

gentle he W., To wl of Penn sylvania

ey Side ‘of one, in South Carolina, 443,
Rocks, effects of fusion on density of, 133,

a eeciianais of, Profs. Rogers,

396.
Rocky Mountains, section of, and notices,|)——;

Remer, F. F., geology of Texas,
Rogers, W. B. an ng chicos of car-
bonie acid by li
—_ ~~ te the diamond i in the liquid
ae

ition of rocks,
and J, B., on Nae alleged in-

gales

uchs’s method of analyzing iron|
ores,

owell, G. R., beneficent distribution of the
bs none of pain, 89.

ssia, Mirae of ae in 1846, 275,
Reuter ord rvations rune the
unar ites of We reannae, 1848, 435

8.

Wen amount of, in seas, 148
Salt Jpen oat of Upper California, 280.
n California, 388.

‘cheerer on Isomorphism, 57, 189,
\chlieper, A., oxydation of uric acid, 363,
Hes Dead, see Dead Sea
eects 254.

era ze on, noticed, }

bell of an Argonatta, ream ‘and re

OC. BA » 19%.

Shells of Connecticut, on some, coll
Psd argon Is from La’
hepard, C. » new minera s from Lan
er Co. ., Penn., 249. “s
——, meteorite vot Castine, Main
—, on Ramm bainia? 8 Alormien ar the Ju-

ine:
—, on Fischer's examination of the Brau-
nau meteorite, 348.

——, Report on eorites, 402.
Shooting stars of August, 1847, E. C. Her-
ick, 278.
— a sh

lerrick, 279.

France, 439.

(Silliman, JSr4 i B, on cxtanle oy 248.

power — stem, in Mexico, 37¢ ,

Silve s of Chihuahua

— ores, caer ot a aes ah W.
Rain

Slide of a pat in South Carolina, 443.

|Slopes, angle of, 133.

Smithso pened Institution , 288, 305.

Solar parallax, x, expedition to South America

re Venus with reference to, 143.

Spitaberg, temperature of sea near icebergs,

Sa observations on, ay Laurent, 277.
Spring, hot, i in California, 389.
vew paar co, —s 389, 390.

Star, sabposdd ie
Steam, Tecoompnaition 7 mineral substances

and salts
a rma canta, Cabo, 136.
Stone, artifici
eal be lithoceramie, 446.
Sulphur, anomaly i in atomic volume of, ge
n organic su
estimatin 2
~~ a ond, manufacture of, A. A. Hayes,

T.

7p lopes, 133.

wa gon tet of astringent substances
for,
i k by, on coal, noticed, 150,
Con eject, history of, 439,

lescope, Rosse’s, 139.

Rosse’s Gaieesabne 139,

Ielescopen, Ritz’ s, 437.

ny States, grain produced in, in 1847,

462 INDEX.

hbase “a of Utica, 296.
, as indicated by opening and closing o:
~ th e Hudson,
— of vapor of water, J, H. Alexander,

WwW.

7 396.
arrin iy OEE testing astringent sub-
stances ‘for tanning, 1

Water, om Lena of vapor a JE Alevaniler,

cen geology of F. Remer, 2
Th tae "work of, on ae
Tin mi aa f Malacca, 130, 210,
pe of Malace:
— sprys O65. |Wave of translation, W. Whewell, 115.
gr aphy of P. erg ge and Ohio, 397,|| Webster, J. H., idocrase in Sanford, Me. 425,
fo large, = Ohio Weidenbusch, mode of estimating inorganic
ny Ey 0 substances
Whewell, Ww. wave of translation, 115.
Whitney, 2 ys D, minerals from near Jake Su-

r, 269
wiikes’C , medal of da a
Rony: awarded to,
Williamsite, a new mi None
cats resentches on Neptunian theory of,||Winds of = northern motalaphione J. He

bee ne ei England
pla fae
Types, new le of making, 287.

UL

E. F. Burr, 2 Coffin, 39:
, estimation re and its presence in the}/-—— and sole of the ocean, M. F. Maury,
itreous liumor,

ric i id, oxydation of, ae gost and a ones A,, tour in pe me pea 376.
assiu chlieper, 3 ren, new ies of, Cabot, 1
nee heat aga a) of, "296. er
v. Z.
Vi, 3 of water, tension of, J. H. Asana, Zengloon, Cc. = Kile 361.
oa

Venus, Teakte ed by expedition sent to Sout nlgont. nei los of by icin dela dloala
America, to determine solar parallax, 143. son de ge te “6