| CONDUCTED BY PROFESSORS B. SILLIMAN anv B. SILLIMAN, Jr., AND e JAMES D. DANA. SECOND SERIES. VOL. VIII.—NOVEMBER, 1849. NEW HAVEN: PRINTED FOR THE EDITORS BY B. L. HAMLEN, Printer to Yale College. Sold by L. W. am New Haven.— zg & Brown, and T. Wixky, Jr., Boston C. 8. Francis & Co, Georce P. Pornam, and Jonn Winey, New York—Canry & Han, —T. Dezr, Putnam’s American Agency, 49 Bow Lane, Chem ide, London.— eoron Bec --NesTLeR & MEuue, Ha mburgh Bi ere ae CONTENTS OF VOLUME V NUMBER XXII. Art. I. A the of the Ancient Monuments of the State of cians by E. G. Squizr, Il. Notice of, and citations from a Viva of Duets and ie: search in the Southern and Antarctic Regions, during the 1839-43, by Captain Sir James Crank met R.N., .C.L. Oxon., F.R.S., etc., = - 14 Ii. On: Sh neient Sea Margins; by R. Cuamsers, Esq., 33 IV. On the Diurnal Variations in’ the Declination of the Matrietie Needle, and in the Intensities of the Horizontal ag ‘easy Magnetic Forces; by Prof. Wittiam A. Norro : 35 V. On the Theory of Numbers ; by J - 55 VI. Review of M. Tuomey’s Final Report on the Geological Sur- vey of South Carolina, piscenied je bs oston So. Nat. His- tory, May 2d, by Tuomas S. Bou 61 VIL. Som on aaa ome Emulsine and i its Composition ; by m7 VIIL. hasivadions on Tertces 3 ; by James D. ‘Dix 86 IX. On some principles to be considered i in Chemica Bien tions ; by T. S. Hunt, 89 X. Thoughts on Ancient Metallurgy acid ining in Brigantia Natural History ; by Joun Puituips, Esq., F.R.S.,F.G.S., 96 XI. Chemical Examination of Algerite, a new mineral ere | : y T. S. Hunt, of the Geological Commission of a a: including a. description of the Mineral, by F. Aue eit Read before the Boston Soci ey of Natural History ey Joun Bacon, Jr., M.D.) - - - - 103 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics.—On the Fatty Acids of acon Oil, by M. Ssatmiurer, sei Taurine and a substance isomeric with it, thd ReEDTENBACHER:? Carbothialdine, a new ha base, fe rof. J. R Bayi Prof. J. 1E) .8 peice to Hlumination, by C. B. Masorten, 00 On a new acid ‘of Sulphar, yM Rpdos and Gexts: —Solubility of Chiorid of Silver i in ipydtochio hlor © Acid: Ana alysis of Phosphate of anese, by M. W. Heintz, Iii. abhaaphs and Pyropho sphate by W. Barr: of extracting Nickel and Cobalt followed in a Man ‘ ain i - iv CONTENTS. M. Dum a hts > Fe Birey per . —On the Action oroform on the Sensitive Plant Gisome oe ae Professor M ceca of dices 115.—Analysis of the i Water of the M editerranean on the Coast of France: Impurity of Commercial Bromine 6.—Meth« d of Soldering cast-iron with wrought-iron ca of Sil- vering Glass ss by the senplayeaeen of Gun-Cotton, 117.—On a Mode endering Substances incombustible, by Roperr Aauoe iietet, Ph. D., Tac icons, 118. tory at Bireinghe, name Pred , 112.—On Liquid Protoxyd of Nitrogen, b w Mineralogy nd Geology.—Randanite a native hydrated cag? from Algiers, by M. Sau rv, '120.—On Pistomesite and eerong Oe y M. BrerryavrT: Analysis of | tae ‘dite from near Voigtsberg, in Saxony, by M. Karsten: Chem- ical Analysis of Glinkite, by W. von _. eolite, a new mineral, by ScuHeEERER, ae Volknerite, a Surat from the mines of Schis- schimsk, by M. Hermann: Anal ysis of I gets piepas , by M. Ramme s- BERG: Analysis of Tale of Rhode Isla A. On a new Hydrosilicate of Aluminay by : — and Satve- tT: Philippsite and Gismondine, by M. avenkes On the composition of Heulandite, by M. Damour, 122.—On the itenuey of Osmelite Mer Pectolite: On es gage from the athe of Fassa in Tyrol, b y M. von Kosei: On Glan- cophane, by M. Hausmann: On Chloritoid: On Humite: On Epidote, 123.— On Bygadite by M. Bre eainwc Bodenite, 124.—Muramontite, a pew min- eral, hon ae RNDT: Monazitoid, a new mineral from near Lake IIlmen, by M. : Crystallization of Uralorthite, bY von Koxscuarov, 125.— Niobite : ies the Yttrotantalite of Ytter vi: n Eukolite, a new Pc by M. Scueerer: On Crystallized Pitenbloade. by M. Tu. ScHEERER SS eee a ee Euxenite from Tvedenstrand, by M Ta. Scueerer, 126 —New Minerals, oY ketrHauPT: Telluric Bismuth from Brazil, by M. of Copper Blende. by ATTNER: from Nischne Tagilsk, b ERMANN: On Mendipite, by M.S On a Native Antimonite of Mercury, by Domeyko, 127.—Arsenical Nickel from Oelsnitz, by realy ass = mx gs Vise nroper and Lup On Poly : Analysis of California Gold, 123. —On sea pte the African Guano Depo: by THor TH, >a —QOn the probable extent of the Flora caale Coal: Poraratio’ in Britain, by Dr. Hooker, 131.—The Himalayan Alpine Land, by B. H. Hoveson, Esq., 1 Zoology.—Synopsis of the Genera of png by James D. Dan 135.— On the Pancreatic Juice, by M. Bernarv, 140.—A deiehipsiok of he ‘chiarac- ters and habits of Trogiodyies gota: by Tuomas 8S. Savace, M.D., 14l meellennee er pring Micha ig he ac es of the beams Survey— —Ve- ye of the Galvanic , 142.—New Planet: The American Association r the Piccactiok of Scientia 145.—C. G. Page on Galvanic Light, 4 46.— Obit- sel —Julius T. Ducatel, 146. Bibliography. —Report in relation to Sugar and et Soot Mohr, Redwood and Proctor’s hilo rmacy, 150.—Chemical Analysis, Qualitative dnd Quantita- , by Henry M. Noap, with numerous additions, by C MPBELL MorriT: The Fossil “es of the Uni ari sar 2 ‘a ad i bse o : mbs, S., 152.—F t on the Ge ological Surve a pests. for the year 1847-48, 154.—The Book of the World, by Ricuar agi : Chemical Technolo y, or Chemistry applied to the Arts a Be pes ctures, by Dr NAPP: “['welve Lectures on ‘aaa r and January, 1848-9, by Prof. Louis AGassiz, 156: Twe' ve Dinars on Comparative Faysiatay delivered before the Lowell Institute in Boston, Jan- uary and February, 1849, by dak aad WrMan Mie V Pioneer gre ya CONTENT v -_ Geography in its _—— to the History 0 * Mankind, by Prof. Arvotp Guyor, translated * the pricey: h, by C Bi Systeme os du Centre de la Bohém iy Joa Annual logs of the vard of — em of the Smichseihban ‘nathation, 158.—Manual o nacaaay, by J. Nic List of Gite 159. Aprenpix.—Fossil Footmarks, I. Lea, 160. NUMBER XXIII. Art. ae ng of Dr. Hooker’s Flora Antarctica ; by Prof. _ Xi. On om uatiitative Separation aad Eétithstion of Phos- horic Acid; by H. Ross, 181 XIV. Abstract of an Article on the Bonivcusa i f the als te different go gochey: &c., by M. — A ECQUEREL, - 185 XV. " Mutidir of Chities Alster Reese. Read lot fa E eopuest sities the 6th of xis 1849 ; ig Georce Orp, 189 XVI. On ihe: ‘Didvhad Variations in the Ratibadon of the Ma netic Needle, and i e Intensities of the Horizontal ‘isl Vertical Magnetic ee b Wiruiam A T 216 XVII. On the Method of determining the Geographical ot by Altitudes of the Moon; by Prof. W. CHauvenet 226 XVII. oe the Electro- CEN; by the inventor, Youn pe XIX. On. the Curve desciiied by a Movable Pulley by Prof. os XX. Thoighie. on “Aapions Metallurgy and Sioioe 4 in Brigantia “and other parts of Britain, suggested by a page of Pliny’s Natural History; by Jonn Puixuirs, Esq., F. R S., F.G.8., .. 258 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics —On ee Acid, by Lov Be sd ang 263 — _ On some New | henomena of Light and Actinism, by Mr. T, 2Gn. On the irect production of Heat b Magastiees , by W.R. Gucva E, "Es £q-5 266 —Glo- noine, 267.—On fs Action ol Alkalies and Acids upon Alde Hers ‘by H. Wer- DENBUSCH, 263.—On an nic Compound containing Arsenic, by Prof. Wéx- ety Gada Protosea at Nitrogen, by M. Dumas, 269.—On Anhydrous itric Acid, by M. Devitte: On the Composition of Stearic and Pare Aedacho wens: Laurent and Gernarprt, 270—On Capry 1a by G. G&cx- d@’Hevrevs ee 2f7i.~ rated Meet “pared ss Zine: On the Bene gas through solid bodies, by M. Lovyer: On Emulsine, by B. y and Geology.—On Chloritoid and wg lk nt J.D. Wuirney, aig Bla Oxyd of of Lake pati , 273.—On Arkansite: Baierin ices of doen ain ce of Mercury i in the — Mud of the Nile, 275, assage of Ww. erals, by WIT Patria. 274.—On the sai H. eit - ae: vi CONTENTS. oology.—Conspectus a que in Orbis Terrarum Circumnavigatione, pests Wilkes e Claemy Reipublice Foederate Duce, lexit et descripsit Jaconus dou intaligfenco. —On — Frozen Leaves, by J. Goreas, 286.—On the Mechanism and Functions of a Or rea ns of Voice in Man; with the intro- duction of a case of double’ seer e, by SPaerienicer 7.—The Aneroid Barometer, 288.—Go Id at Port t Phillip, South ‘shore x! soe 290 —The Mines of Banca, 291.—Navigation of the Arctic Re e FS RSS 5 ew M of copying ee ne M. “ep erbaria of New England Plans * 993.— ritish Muse Platinum ‘od Diamonds in reg nia: Medal to W. Lassell, a4. —Obit SAR for sce e W. Whistler, 294.—St phen Endlicher, 299. Biblio ography —De Candolle’s Prodromus Regni Vegetabilis: Pars XIII, Sectio Posterior, 300.—Catalogue of Plants, vicinity of Gincinnati, Ohio, during the years 1834 1344, by Tuomas G. Lea, 302.— ements ‘of Botany, by M. Aprien DE 2 il translated by James Hewerson Witson, F.L.S., &c.: A Manual of ee el being an Thuoduetia to the Study of the Srbeard Physiology, and Classification of Pla me’ oun Hor a Baxurovur, M.D., F.LS., , 303.—Circular pre- pared by direction of the Hon. Wa. Ba ALLARD Posen Cleats of the Navy, in relation to t 4s Rechinpenion’ Expedition to Chile, by Lieut. Ma ., 303. _-Lutepduetion 10 Meteorology, by Davin Purpie Tomson, M.D.: Ocean, by Cuarves Henry Davis, A.M., i re 5.—Sixty-second Annual Report of the Regents of the Unive of the State of New York: Reports, etc., of the Smithsonian Lnvtitasion 4 exhibiting its Plans, dines n 49: Piven cial Conder “ to January 1, A ites of Tables and | Formule useful in Ge odesy and Practical Astronomy, including fancies for the Projection of Maps; ae ape by Capt. T. J. Lex, 306.—Description a the United States Army, by Capt. George W. Cuu.om, U. 8. Corps of Engi- neers: Transactions of the New York State Agricultural Society, with an abstract of the proceedings of of the County Agricultural Societies: bane and seats Investigation of Maize, or Indian Corn J. H. Sauissury, 307.—Notes on i i i L.D.: 47, and ’48, by Brevet Major ALrrep Morpecat: raig’s Universal Diction- By of of = ee Feagpih Language, embracing all the terms used in Art, Science and it List of Works, 310. Appenpix.—American Association for the Advancement of Science, 311. NUMBER XXIV. Art. XXI. Notice of Hl Narrative of the U.S. Expedition to to the River Jordan and the Dead Sea, by W. F. Lyncu, U. S. ates XXII. Ko Doii Dzu Roku, or, A Meimbie on Smelting Copper, XXIV, Carcogephy ; by Prof. C. Dewry, - XXV. On the Diurnal Variations in the Declination of die Mag- netic Needle, and in the Intensities of the Horizontal and ertical Magnetic Forces; by Prof. Wittiam A. Norton, and Loo renee tollected in the. Pr Se ee eae ee ee ee 5: éoweniceie < XXVI! Chetical Examination of the Water OF the Tuse Sour apie and of some other Mineral Waters of =e S. Huy Canada ; by T. 364 XXVIL. oo the ‘Decomposition of Aniline by Nitrous Acid by T. S. Hun te XXVIIL Description of a Coal Plant supposed to be new; by ES WHITTLESEY, Es 375 Cua Sq-5 . gece Piast viption and Analyses Ay several American Minerals Prof. B. Situiman, Jr., “OTT XXX. On the Prime Meridian ; ; by Licat. Davis: U. $. N., ss XXXI. Pe to the Mycology of North haneere by the me vy. M. J. Berxetey, and the Rev. M. A. Cur 401 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. bar and Physics. Bottom of the Magnetic Needle by the act of Volition, the Development of Electricity in the Act of Muscular Contr raction, by M. Becquere., 4 5 Note relative to the Electricity developed by Mus- O . a = & OQ} i=] o - be] i] QO a4 Sc En os —) ms ~ is) & 4 5S ® peg oe of Quinic Acid, by Dr. G. Srarp.ieEr, 412.—Volatilization of Car- n, by C. Desprerz, 413.—On the Atomic Weight of Silica, by H. Kopp, 414. Mineralogy and Geology.—Notes on the ga Gold Region, by Rev Lyman, 415,—Geological Survey of Tennessee, 419.—On the tered Ds Dole- a) JAMES waruk: cen Ochre ico, 420.—On the Formation of Minerals, by t Sie A of Rocks, BELMEN, 421. Pests of Lime in Green- sand and Marl, 422.—Arkose, 424. tus Crustaceorum, &c., Conspectus of the Crustacea of the Ex- bape dl erie ition, by J. D. Dawa , 424, —Gammaracea, 428, Astronomy. Pepys ties of the planet Hygeia: Second Comet of 1849, 428.—Gou- jon’s Comet: Shooting Stars of April 20, 1849: Shooting Stars of August 10, 1849, 129. Miscellaneous Intelligence.—On the Magnetic pesca = the pipes and Nega- tive © Optic tic Axes of Crystals, by Professor PLiicx a letter to Dr. Farapay, — _ relative to the 2) legge Sia of Bodica, Fire Ordeal, I bustible Mania ci, ouTieny, 431.—Practical an lication of the L inted out by Dr. R. D. Thomson, ofthe proper Balance of ret i Metrition, | by .C. RemiGivs FRESENIUS, eteorite of Arva, 439 he Preparation of Glaze for Po reelain resembling Aventurine, by Al Tacurii, —On History, Manufacture, “Aduiterstions and means of detecting them dy he eersire Rr, 441.—On an unnoticed kind of abnormal vision, by .—Analysis of the Waters of the Dead Sea, by R. P. F. Roce. Re ricen os sd the Advancement of Science: British ssociation, 444.—Tot > ape ead Ore raised and Lead smelted in the United eae in 1848, 44 arene Gold: Coal in Egypt: Astronomical wael, ).— Geological Sarees of the Un i States, 450.—Obitua ary.—Lud- wh Frederick Wilhelm August Eats Johann Wolfgang Déobereiner : Wilhelm Ferdinand Erichson, Biblio, iography.—tconogra hic ir ores of caceanet Literature and Art pers Seri a by 6 , 451.—Genera Flore Americe Boreali-crt entalis strata, figures, eg oH daiio anaes, descriptions, &c. by Prof. Vili . CONTENTS. Asa Gray, M.D., 452.—The Sea “tins Book: being an ge ieeeion tothe Natural History of the B ish _Coast, by Dr h ia Britanniea : or, History of the ish Sea Weeds, including ‘Colore d Figures of eac Epesieey ereis wit rowth, Fruiifiention, &e., by oH I N Australis: or, Illustration of the Sea Weeds. of the Southern Ocean, including figures of Growth and Fructification, &c., by Dr. : , M.R.LA,, &e. A Manual of the British Marine Algae, by Dr. W. iH. HARVEY, M. R.LA 15 6. : Geroreio AGAarDH, 453.— Sire Algarum, auctore Tespaiks co Trave. Kut- zinc, Prof. Norpuusano: la Phycologice, oder Abbildungen der Tan nge, herausgegeben; von F. T. Ki cannes ape fe wh 74 United States Exploring Expe dition under C. Wiixes. U. S. N by Jam i ace eT on Zoophyes, of the Exploring Expediti ion under C. W Es, U.S. rinciples of the Mechanics ichinery. aid Engineer ing, by Prof. Jouses bide yt edited by Watrer R. Jounson, A.M.: The Progress of th Applicaton e ihe subject to "evigattols by Lieut. Col. . F.RS —Outlines or 1818". Mons ir Jonn F. W. Herscue., Bart. K.H. Patent Office Reports fo ee with notices of the Bee heb rae a ,b mM. DARLING- List of Works, 457. Index, 459. ERRATA. 2 Page 254, line 10th from top, for i read Page 419, line 6th from pie for aaa read Col. (a? oa a* Vou. VILL. _JULY, 1849. Published the first day of every second month, price 85 per year. THE TO CORRESPONDENTS. Twelve copies of every original communication, published in this Journal, are if request- ~ ed at the disposal of ‘the author. Any larger number of copies will be ae at cost. - Authors should always specify at the head of their MSS. the number of they may ar to have printed ; it is too Inte after the forms are broken aaah The titles of communications and of their authors must be fully given. pee Notice le to be given when commanications sent to this Journal, have been, of ae to sr ———— os cae Journals. Qall and par reels to . Bes Gioia ie PuTNAM, Bookseller, 142 Strand, London, who will Aaa all works of which notice may be desired in this Journal. It is also desired that all persons who may — send a notice of them, that they may be inserted among the M1 ae Jovanat or Science, Second Series, which was commenced in - January, 1846, is on the Ist of January, March, May, July, September, and _ November, of . each year, in estand oF Ste os makeing Fv oo folly illustrated by Engravings, entific Intelli- gence. $5 per year, in advance, Remittances: — be forwarded to B. Srnuoman,, ‘Now Haven, Conn. Computers S ETS Ts of . 2 oo ae f coe Y. ys are peel Came 8 [oe ry, Ton Ae ee Only : a ‘tery email number F remain. For terms, address B, SiLuimas. "This Journa Fa may Hewry Warrrus, Salem ; Tocker & Rosenrs, Worcester Avaustws TABER, New Bedford, M ——Grorer HL HITNEY, I—Brown & P. Hartford, ‘Conn.—W. yo rerk ; Utica, and v ieinity ; ree Penn.—N, Hicks aes Balti & Morr RIS, Richmond, Va.~ u. T. Ala.—R. W. Lay, rs eet Fontan, oron aa eben nc zr & Co., Black Hawk , Mis: sippi and Alabama. a = c. WwW. — is our A THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE PROMOTION OF SCIENCE. AGREEABLE to an invitation from the Corporation of Harvard University, the next meeting of this Association will be holden at Cambridge, commencing on Lier J oe the 14th. For other particulars see page 145 of this volu July 1, 1849. ~ Instruction in Practical Chemistry, Mineralogy and Geology. Tue subscriber has opened a New Laboratory for giving in- struction in Practical Chemistry, Mineralogy and Geolog gy, ac- cording to the method which 4 has pursued successfully “during the past thirteen years in this ¢ he various applications of Chemistry to Manufactures, Agri- culture, Medicisie and Pharmacy, will receive special attention. Analyses of Ores, Minerals, Soils, Waters, Vegetable substances, and the productions of Art, will be carefully executed. Where it is practicable, acre will be instituted and opinions given on all chemical questio A commodious and aia furnished Laboratory, a large and se- lect Library of scientific and practical works in the E: iglish, Ger- man and French languages, together with mineral, geological and technical collections, ‘offer every facility to the stu Refer to Dr. Ropert Hare, Prof. J. F. Fraser, Hiaternic of oo —Dr. R. M. Parrerson, Prof. R. 8. McCutoca, U. S. Mint.—Dr. F'ranxuts Bacue, Jefferson Medical College ; and to seneiciis students in Philadelphia and various parts of the United States. Apply to Wu. Hamirron, Actuary of the Franklin Institute, or to the subscriber, JAS. B At the Laboratory, 217 Arch st., above Sixth, ia ‘the Arch st. Hall. Philadelphia, May 1, 1848. FUNGI AMERICANI EXSICCATI. Boranists wishing specimens of American Funer, can obtain . packages (of not less than ten Decades each) on applicationto the subscriber, at Society Hill, South Carolina. | M. A. ler, [t March, 1848. JOHNSON & ROBINS’ | OFFICE . t OF CONSULTING ENGINEERS, AND COUNSELLORS FOR PATENTEES: For imparting ager on the subject of Inventions, and on the application of F Chemical and Mechanical Science to the Arts, Agriculture, mene par and Mines, and for procuring and defending Patents, either in the United States or in for ew countries. Pror. Water R. Jounabe, late of Philadelphia, and Z. C. Rossins, of Washington City, (to be aided by Hazarp Know tes, Esq., late Machinist of the United States Patent Of- fice,) have associated themselves together for the prosecution of the above branches of professional business, either in their office, at the Patent Office, or before the courts ; ‘and will devote their undivided attention to forwarding the interests of Inventors or others who may consult them, or place business in their hands. The office of Messrs. J. & R. is on F street, opposite the Patent Office, Washington, D. C., where communications, post-paid, will be promptly attended to; examinations made, drawings, spe- cifications, and all requisite papers prepared, and models procured when desired, on reasonable terms. Letters of inquiry, expected to be answered after examinations made, must be accompanied by a fee of five dollars. Washington, D. C., June 1, 1848. [Nov. 1848.—ly] a AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. [SECOND SERIES.] Art. 1L—A Monograph of the Ancient oftnmeced of the State of Kentucky; by E. G. Seur Kentucky abounds in ancient earthworks, oe partake very much of the character of those bordering on ‘the G ulf of Mexico. Many of the enclosures are manifestly defensive, but the larger proportion, like those of Ohio, were probably dedicated to sacred purposes. The latter, however, are seldom of large dimensions ; and none, so far as we are informed, assumed the remarkable combinations which are to be observed in the Scioto and Miami valleys. They are, for the most part, small circles and squares —the former greatly predominating in point of numbers. The mounds, on the other hand, are usually more regular and perhaps of larger average dimensions than those to the northward of the Ohio. The rectangular and terraced mounds, in particular, are comparatively numerous, and are often of great size. Those which are low, and cover large areas, are known as “ platforms.” Few of the Kentucky works have ever been surveyed, although many have been noticed and described with greater or less full- hess, at various times. Prof. Rafinesque, in his notes, has indi- cated the localities of a great number, but has failed to give us any very clear conception of their character. In his fanciful in- troduction to Imlay’s History of Kentucky, he estimates the num- ber of groups of works within the state at six hundred.* * For “Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley,” I have in the following aga eee: the ee “A.M. of MV.” or the name of Rafines ue, the facts were obtained, _ the initial “ iin share Vol. VIII, No. oe —dJuly, 1849, 2 E. G. Squier on the Ancient Monuments of Kentucky. Fayette County.—1. An irregular enclosure or fortification oc- oe a peninsula formed by the Elkhorn river, at its junction wit e Town fork, seven miles from Lexington. The river ued tHroogh one portion of the enclosure,—a feature unknown in any other work with which we are acquainted. Near this work are several small enclosures and a number of large mounds. A plan from a survey found among the Rafinesque papers, pur- wots to have been made in the year 1790, is engraved in A. M. M. V., Plate 1x, No. 3. Another plan, corresponding with this 3 in every essential particular, is published in Collins’ History of Kentucky. It is possible that in the subdivisions which een made, this work now falls in Woodford count 2. An irregular enclosure of eighteen acres area, on the South Elkhorn river, six miles distant from Lexington. The Cally Ford road passes through it. The walls are low ; ditch exterior. A plan, from what appears to be a ma survey by Rafinesque, is published in A. M. of M. V., Plate x o. 4. 3. Another irregular work, of sinrttay. crarantet but larger size, is situated not far from that last described, on the South Elkhorn river. It has an area of twenty-five acres. A plan, from a sur- Me - Rafinesque, is published in A. M. of M. V., Plate xxv, 5. Rafinesque mentions a polygon, of seven unequal sides, and 4800 feet in circumference, in the vicinity of Lexington, but does not indicate its exact locality. According to this authority the embankment, at the time of his writing, was from eight to six- teen feet in height. . Rafinesque also notices an enclosure near the mouth of the Elkhorn river, six hundred feet in circumference ; parapet two feet high ; ditch interior to the embankment, Within this enclos- ure is a “ platform,” seventy feet square; also a mound four feet high and one hundred and seventy-five in circumference. Vatl- ous other works, “ causeways, platforms, and mounds,” are men- tioned as occurring in this vicinity. Woodford County.—1. At Cynthiana, on the south bank of Licking river, a small circular work, 570 feet in circumference. A similar work is found on the lands of Mr. H. Miller, on the Licking river.—( 2. «) : On the farm of Mr. W. Anderson, also on the banks of Licking river, is a group of six mounds ; two of which have em- bankments around their bases. The circumference of the largest is six hundred feet, height thirty feet.—(R. 3. An octagon terrace or “ ee ooanes near Lovedale.— (Figured and described, A. M. of M. V., essamine County. a large mound one mile southeast of Nicholasville. It is elliptical. Several graves lined with stones have been found in mounds, in this vicinity —(R.) —— re ane sities! i ab Mi 5, E. G. Squier on the Ancient Monuments of Kentucky. 3 2. A large collection of Indian graves, four miles from Buck’s Tavern, and also on a bluff, to the right of the road, near Grimes’ Mills.—(R Clay County.—1. A square stone work, about ten miles north- east of Manchester, on the road to “ Red Bird river” salt works Sides each measure about one hundred feet in length.—(R.) 2. At the salt works on Goose creek, in this county, are abun- dant evidences that the salines were once worked by the Indians, —broken pottery, pestles, etc., being found here in abundance. Larue County.—An interesting work occurs in this county. ‘It is situated upon a level bottom of twenty Fig. 1. is here about fifteen yards wide, with abrupt banks, six feet high. The walls have fallen or may have been thrown down, and are now about three feet high, covering a space twenty feet wide. They may originally have een seven feet wide by six feet high. Th distance from gateway to gateway is a little upwards of one hundred feet, and the area en- closed is not far from twenty square rods. The ground is some- what lower within than exterior to the walls. These walls seem to have been faced inside and out with dry masonry, filled in with smaller stones. There are still two pieces of the inside wall stand- ing, one at the southwest angle of the work, the other at the north side of the eastern gateway. The stones have evidently been frac- tured by percussion, and now lie edges up,—clearly the fallen faces of the original walls. It may be well to remark that the bottom land here presents no stones of any sort, and is an alluvial black loam. In respect to its antiquity, it can only be said that it is covered with a primitive forest, and that a pine = — seven feet in cir- cumference is growing on the wall.” — s’s Kent Trigg County.—1. At Canton near Bayi s landing on the Cumberland river, an enclosure meaty square, 7500 feet. or about a mile and a half in circumference e wall is from three to about ten feet high. An oblong square “ teocalli,’’? or truncated mound, also occurs upon the bank of the Cumberland, not far from the above named mounds. ‘T'here are two conical tumuli, one at each end of this structure. Several broad flat mounds or “platforms,” are found near the junction of Little river with the 4 #. G. Squier on the Ancient Monuments of Kentucky. Cumberland. They contain bones, covered with stones. ‘There is a conical mound here, twelve feet high. Near the line of Christian county, are many others.—(R.) Logan County.—1. On Muddy Creek, ten miles northwest fecim Russleville, a quadrangular enclosure, with an exterior ditch, and a gateway opening towards the creek, on the north. It en- closes two mounds, each about twelve feet high and truncated. :) 2. On Muddy Creek, six miles from Russleville, a circumvalla- tion on the east side of a bluff of freestone, one hundred feet in height. It encloses one acre and a half; ditch exterior; parapet three feet high; with gateway opening toward the river. Below this work is along row of mounds, on the bank of the creek.—(R.) Near “Clay’s Lick,” on the west bank of Whippoorwill creek, is a raised “ platform,” 400 feet in circumference and four feet high. There are several broad excavations near by. 4. Ten miles northeast of Russleville, on Gasper river, is a square enclosure with a mound in the center.— -) 5. A few miles southeast of Russleville, in what is called the “barrens,” are a great numberof small mounds, covering several hundred acres. Many have been excavated and numerous relics recovered, Some very interesting ones formerly occupied the present site of Russleville. The Masonic Hall was built upon one of them.—(R. Harrison County. —1. Near nore on the Licking river, an enclosure 800 feet in circumfere embankment ten feet high; ditch interior. In the center is : aad 342 feet in circuit. A gateway opens to the southwest. In this direction, seven hun- dred feet distant, is a mound, now the site of a dwelling house. Bath County.—Near Bloomfield, on the road from Mount Sterling to Upper Blue Lick, is a large square enclosure of many acres.— Clarke County. —Near Boonsborough, several enclosures and a number of mounds. At Indian town, an irregular work supposed to be defensive.—(R. Adair County.—On the “Long Bottom” of Cumberland river, several flat square mounds or platforms.—(R. Hart County.—Near Williams’ Mill, an enclosure of consider- able size, circular in shape. Ina spring near by, have been found a number of large conch shells—{ Pyrula perversa ? Mason County.—Three miles from Washington, a singular platform, figured and described, A. M. of M. V., p. 176. nion County.—Several caves containing human bones are found in this county. Eight miles from Morgansfield is a flat rock covered with carvings of human feet of all sizes, wolf trac etc.—Collins’s Kentucky, p. 540. Paes aes t i e bE i : E.. G. Squier on the Ancient Monuments of Kentucky. 5 kins County.—Within four or five miles of Madisonville, a hill work, — ten acres.—Collins’s Ky., p. arroll County. —An ancient enclosure ten miles from the mouth of the Kentucky river, square, containing one acre, with heavy walls.—Collins’s Kentucky. Garrard County.—There are a number of enclosures in this county, mostly circular, and an abundance of mounds large ones occur near Lancaster, and there are others on Paint creek.—(R. Davies County.—An enclosure at the mouth of Green river, on the Ohio. Another on an island in the Ohio, somewhat lower down.—(R.) Greenup County.—T wo groups of works on the Ohio, oppo- site the mouth of the Scioto river. One consists of a series of concentric circles, with a truncated terraced mound in the center, and with an avenue leading to a point on the bank of the river, opposite which it is resumed, connecting with the Portsmouth works five miles distant. he other group is eight miles lower down the river, and consists of a large square of fifteen acres, with avenues leading off from the sides, each 2,100 feet long.— See account, plans, Sc., in A. M. of M. V., p. 77, Plates xxvut, XXVIII. Lewis County.—An ancient enclosure on the banks of the Ohio river.—(R. ) Rock Castle County.—About three miles northwest of Mount Vernon, a row of Indian graves, forming a straight wall or ridge of limestone piled up. It is two hundred feet long, and between r high. Abundance of human bones are mixed with the shes —(R. Knor County.—An enclosure on the Cumberland river, three miles above Barbersville, containing three acres. Numerous mounds in the vicinity.—(R., and also Collins’s Ky., p. 250.) Whitley County.—An enclosure on a bottom of ~ aman land river between Meadow and Flat creeks. Here r ous remains, and among them a square mound or “ teoealli,” three hundred and fifty feet long, one hundred and fifty broad, and twelve feet high. Similar remains are found on Blake’s fork of Watts’s creek, on Lime Camp creek, and at other points within the county. Shelby County. —0On the road from Frankfort to Bardstown about twenty-five miles from each place, a square enclosure of one acre, sce occupied by an orchard. At Shelbyville is a large ia: wis were Mercer County.—1. An ancient work, four miles above Har- alah on Salt river; another a mile and ahalf above: each quadrangular.—Collins’s Ky., 6 E. G. Squier on the Ancient Monuments of Kentucky. 2. An ancient enclosure in the “horse shoe” bend of Dick’s river, with two square bastions and a gateway on the narrow ridge of the isthmus. The wall twenty feet high from the bot- tom of the ditch. Several large mounds near the Shawnee Spring.—(R. ) Lincoln County.—On Dick river, three miles from Wilming- ton, a square mound, six hundred feet in circumference, five feet high and truncated. Many relics found in the vicinity. Caldwell County.—On Donaldson fork of Treadenwater river, is a work constructed by building a strong stone wall across the isthmus of a peninsula formed by a bend in the stream. The bluff is about one hundred feet high. The wall is about one hundred and fifty feet long, four high and very broad. ‘The en- closed area is something less than an acre.—(R.) Scott County.—1. A square enclosure on Mr. Wither’s land, near the mouth of Dry run, a tributary of the Elkhorn.—(R.) 2. A ditch across the neck of a peninsula formed by a bend in the Elkhorn river, north bank, between Thompson’s and Payne’s mills. 3. Some works on the banks of Frankfort river, four miles from Georgetown, near Craig’s Mills Bracken County.—1. Large ancient cemetery on a “ bottom” of the Ohio river near Augusta. Said to be two miles long.— (R., also Collins’s Ky., p. 180.) 2. A quarry of flint, anciently worked by the Indians.—(R. ) Gallatin County——On a hill, at the mouth of the Kentucky i river, a large enclosure.—(R. Boone County.—1. A large square work, on the bank of the Ohio, near Bellevue, below the mouth of the Great Miami river. Also some large mounds between Burlington and North Bend. 2. An enclosure a little above the town of Petersburgh. The wall extends from the abrupt bank of the Ohio, to the precipitous , bank of Taylor’s creek. It is four feet high. The area of the enclosed ground is twenty-five acres. —Collins’s Kentucky, p. 180: Campbell County.—Near Covington, between Licking river and Willis creek, an elliptical platform, eight feet high and seven hundred and fifty feet long, commencing in a large conical mound, twenty-five feet high. A large mound is situated on the top of — “ Big hill,” north of Big-bone Lick. It is elliptical in shape, one hundred and fifty feet long, depressed in the center.—(R. Livingston County.—1. A large enclosure and other monu- ments at the mouth of the Cumberland river. 2. Near the mouth of Hurricane creek, three-fourths of a mile from the Ohio river, an octagon enclosure, 2852 feet in cireum- Sa aia ference, containing four mounds. ‘There are several other mon- uments of small size, in the vicinity. E. G. Squier on the Ancient Monuments of Kentucky. 7 3. A circumvallation on the farm of Mr. Jones, two miles from Lancaster. Just outside the gateway is a spring, in which were found eighteen large and twelve small shells, est the eonch. Another enclosure occurs on the farm of Mr. Kenneday near by, where fifteen similar shells were found. Jefferson County.—A polygon enclosure at Locust Grove —( R.) Harlan County, (formerly Knox.)—A large mound at Mount Pleasant, upon which the Court house is built. It gave name to the place. It is circular, truncated, and was originally twenty feet high. A large mound occurs at a place called Cumberland Gap, with many smaller ones around. Christian County.—There are numerous traces of an ancient population in this county. At Licking creek, six miles southeast of Hopkinsville, are many embankments, mounds, etc. A great number of round holes, with raised edges occur here. A number of large mounds formerly existed in Hopkinsville, upon the largest of which the Court house was erected. There are yet many mounds in the vicinity.—(R McCracken County.—Mounds are especially abundant in this county. ‘There is a large square one, truncated, fourteen feet high and twelve hundred feet in circumference, a few miles below the mouth of Clark’s river, a little distance from the banks of the Ohio. Below Hunting creek, on the elevated lands, one-fourth of a mile back from the Ohio, are five parallel rows of mounds, of unequal sizes, placed close together. Just above fort Jefferson, on the Mississippi, are many little mounds, and other monuments. endleton County.—Near Falmouth, an ancient enclosure, on elevated and commanding ground, between two rivers. It is cir- cular, with four openings at right angles to each other and cor- responding very nearly with the cardinal points. ‘There are nu- merous mounds in the vicinity.—Collins’s Kentucky, p. 494. Warren County.—1. An ancient work on the east bank of Barren river, one mile east of Bowling Green. It is an irregular octagon, 1,385 feet in circumference, with an exterior ditch, and a small mound at each angle. There are two rectangular, trun- cated mounds within the walls, the largest of which is one hun- dred feet long and fifty wide.—(R. 2. There is also a large hill work near by that just mentioned. It occupies a bluff inaccessible except at a single point. It is Square, and has a line of mounds extending from it for more than a mile, gradually becoming smaller as they recede.—Collins’s Kentuek cky, p. 542. Hickman County.—On the bank of the Mississippi, a few miles below ‘“ fesslnihi; ” is a large and beautiful mound. It is four hundred and fifty feet long, thirty broad at top, and ten igh. Bones are found within it.—(R. Montgomery County.—Great numbers of ancient monuments occur in this county, some of which possess peculiar interest. 8 EE. G. Squier on the Ancient Monuments of Kentucky. Mounds are particularly numerous, and are remarkable for their size and regularity of construction. 'The seat of justice of this county, Mt. Sterling, derives its name from a large mound which formerly existed within its corporate limits. ‘This mound was cut down in 1846, and was found to — human bones, copper plates, beads, bracelets and other orn nesque, in a published letter re to Hon. Thomas Jefferson, dated “'Transylvania University, August 7, 1820, t gives an account of six groups of ancient works found in this county. They all occur in the vicinity of Mount Sterling. The account is herewith presented. The plan of the first group de- scribed is published in A. M. of M. V., Plate xxxu1, No. 1. “Group I.—A compact group of monuments on the west side of Brush creek, a branch of Slate creek, six miles S.E. from Mount Sterling, between Montgomery’s farm, and a Methodist meeting house, which has taken from them the name of ‘ Fort Meeting-house.’ The are on a fine level high ground, not far from the creek, and which has never — cultivated as yet: they are five in number. . The nearest to the meeting-house towards the south is @ square sion nao 400 feet in circumference ; the sides are equal, cor- responding to the cardinal points. The parapet is 15 feet broad, four feet high from the bottom of the inside ditch, and two feet above the level of the ground. There isa gateway due east, in the middle of the eastern side. The central area is a small oblong square, greater ba sige to west, 35 feet; breadth 25. about 200 yards east from No. 1, and at nearly an equal distance ae Nos. 3 and 4, forming with them the center af a figure shaped like the letter Y. It is a singular elliptical mound ; circumfer- ence 270 feet, height nine feet, top elliptical, 100 feet round with raised ends, an a small central rounded mound about one foot high, over hort feet round and td feet high. 3. Is E. from No.2. It is a circular enclosure, 510 feet in — : ia. “Parapet 20 feet broad, five feet high over the ditch which lies inside. Gateway due east, 15 feet broad. Area perfectly square, 300 feet in circumference, or 75 feet on each side. The sides correspond with the cardinal points. There is a small circular mound, 42 feet in diameter, and one foot high, on the western side of the are@ opposite the gateway. “Nore n hexagonal enclosure, south of No. 3, and S.E. from 4 No. 2. Sides b eaves 6 ach 50 feet. Whole circumference 300 feet: Parapet 25 feet broad, veel feet above the inside ditch. Gateway at the eastern corner 15 feet broad. Area square, sides equal and 40 feet long, corresponding with the cardinal points. “No. 5. An oblong mound, lying south of No. 1, on the opposite side of Brush Creek. I have not measured it. “Group II. A scattered group immediately in the vicinity of thé 4 consists of town of Mood a eeerling. on each side of Hinkston creek. It six monuments. oe Ties Seepetera Seer Pace teal) E.. G. Squier on the Ancient Monuments of Kentucky. 9 *No. 6. A simple onelnes one mile east of Mount Sterling, on Smart’s farm, in a fine level high ground, on the east side of Hinkston creek, between the Mud Lick road and the Salt-works road. It con- sists of a simple ditch without visible parapet. The form is a deca- gon nearly regular; but two sides appear to be somewhat shorter, or of 75 feet, while the eight pte are all 125 feet. Total circumfer- ence 1150 feet. Ditch about two feet deep and six to eight broad; but often obliterated. No gateways could be perceived; they may hav ve been where the ditch is not easily seen. There are two small eccen- tric circular mounds in the inside towards the west. Largest 105 feet in diameter and two feet high. Smallest 50 feet in diameter and one foot high, and near to the ditch. This has all the appearance of a very remote origin. Soe is in the woods and has never been ploughed. No. 7. A circular mound, about 350 feet in circumference, and 20 feet high, siuined half a mile N.W. of No. 1, on the east or right side of Hinkston creek “No. 8. 7 circular mound_400 feet in circumference and 24 feet high, lying in the town of Mount Sterling, to which it has given its name. It has been partially excavated on os side and the summit, and found to saee bones mixed with the ea . 9. A simple enclosure about one ‘mile N.N.E. from Mount Sinrling? round De hill on the — or left side of Hinkston creek and the Flemmingsburg road. It isa polygon, but whether a regular or irregular ores is rather difficult to ascertain; I could not even trace the number of sides. It is in an iron wee bra ke in the woods ; but the ground venga on a slope, the rains have filled up the ditch in many parts; towards the west the ditch is yet four feet deep. 1 was told that it was much plainer about 20 years ago; a few years make, therefore, great alterations, even without the help of the plough. I have traced, however, the outlines, and reckoned the circumference at about 1,500 eet. * No. 10. A circumvallation in Read’s cornfields, about one mile N.N.W. of the town, near a small branch of Hinkston Creek. It has been ploughed up for many years, and has nearly disappeared ; I could sh trace its Nipeir ah rai but it was very plain a few years ago. “No. ingular mound, about one mile north from Mount Ster- ling, near the Blue Lick road. It is of an oval shape; smallest end to the south, where it is lower and only 14 feet o while it is 24 feet high to the north. Circumference 575 feet. Summit somewhat in- clined, 135 feet long, and 40 broad, with a a concavity to the northern extremity. “Group Ill. Compact, on level ground, about two miles north from Mount Sterling, on Jameson’s farm, and on the left of the Paris road. mmerset creek is half a mile to the west, and there are no springs in 7 immediate neighborh at present. It consists of five mounds. oc oO 12 : Seconp Series, Vol. VIII, No. 22.—July, 1849. 10 E#. G. Squier on the Ancient Monuments of Kentucky. cumference 800 feet, ditch four feet deep. Central mound about 500 weet round. Summit 120 feet round and somewhat concave * No. 13. Similar mound, smaller, only 15 feet high, and 130 feet distant from No. 12, tow ards S.E. It has also four gateways, but they are N.—E.—W. and 8S. W., and the northern one is much the largest and inclined in the shape of an ascent; breadth 40 feet, the others 30 feet. Circumference of the parapet 430 feet; ditch three feet deep. Summit small, somewhat concave. No. 14. Simple mound, without ditch or parapet; 250 feet in cir- cumference, and 10 feet high. It lies 80 feet S.W. of No. 13. * No. 15. A similar mound, lying —o feet east of No. 13. It is six feet high, and 165 feet in circumfere “No. 16. Another mound, 80 feet tom No. 14, due east. It is eight feet high and 200 feet in circumference. “ Group IV. Compact and remarkable for its size, high parapet, ete., oe it is situated in fields which have often been ploughed. It is on Johnson’s farm, three miles north of Mount Sterling, on the east bank of pBoeaniordst creek, and on a high hill with a level summit. It contains an enclosure and four outward mounds. above the ground, and eight to twelve feet above the ditch, inside slope 25 feet. Gateway 50 feet broad. Area three feet high above the ditch. Central mound 75 feet from the ditch, 206 feet in creo ** Nos. 19, 20 and 2]. Three eoratia ‘cod unconnected mounds, lying No. irregularly to the S.E. of 17. The largest, No. 19, is eastward of — 0. 20; it is 220 feet around, and five feet high. ‘No. 20 is in the middle and only 50 feet from No. 17. It is only 175 feet in circumference and three high, No. 21. The smallest and western, is near No. 20, and nearly south — from No. 17. It is only 150 feet round and two hi ‘**Grovup V. Is quite scattered, and contains three enclosures with two = lying near Sommerset creek, about four miles to the north ee ft See PRS CoN iy Bes Tp oy ard of tar Sterling. : ** No. 22. Square enclosure on John Higgins’s farm, on the south and — : left side 7: Minmerset creek. Each side equal, eet long, a : corresponding with the cardinal points; gateway single, “due eer feet broad ; area square, each side 90 feet long. The parapet is now only one foot high, the ground having been repeatedly ploughed. It was originally three feet hi No. 28. ‘A circular enclosure, lying on James Higgins’s farm, 300 — from No. 22, towards the N.W.; but on the opposite side of + mmerset creek, in a corn field, and i in the flat bottom of the valley: E. G. Squier on the Ancient Monuments of Kentucky. 11 This is a singular aaah since nearly all the ancient monuments are on high ground. ‘The place is sometimes overflowed, which, however, is owing to the bed of 9 Fee having been raised of late by allu- vium; circumference 800 feet; gateway S.E. directed towards No. 22 Parapet only one foot high, and often obsolete ; ; it was three feet high before being ploughed; but it may easily be traced by the growth of corn on it, being much lower and poorer than inside and outside. This happens in all instances, the ground of the parapets having been made up by throwing on them different and often gravelly earth, taken from the ditch or some deep place “No, 24. A large sereniar ae een on Colonel Williams’s farm, early a mile S.W. from No. 22, and near a branch of Sommerset cot called Higgins’s aan I did not visit it, because it was rep- resented to me as lying in several fields which have been under culti- vation for 20 or 30 years, and to be therefore very difficult to trace ; but it is said to consist of 10 acres of ground, and to have been for- merly ees distinct. No. 25.. A mound on Moses Higgins’s farm, S.E. of No. 22, “ee between ro lei creek (left oo and Higgins’ s branch, Circum ference about 150 feet, and five * No. 26. Another mound 160 ae in circumference and six high, what of No. 22, about half a mile distant, and near Grass Lick creek. ‘““Group VI. A small one, consisting of an enclosure and a mound, situated on a high hill in John Wilson’s farm, about five miles N.W from Mount Sterling, above the junction of Aaron’s run and Grass Lick creek, os on their left side near Duncan’s mill, in a corn field. “No, 27. A circular enclosure, 1100 feet in circumference. Para- pet 40 pee wide, four feet high above the ditch, two above the any Ditch 20 feet broad, and inside as usual. Gateway towards the S. The ditch was six or eight feet deep former “No, 28. A circular mound, joining No. 27, and lying to the N.E. Circumference 225 feet, eight five feet at present; but it was much higher before being ploughed Prof. Rafinesque pauaicice ea notice of the above monuments with the following observatio **From the above sae aad 4 it may safely be surmised that each group of monuments belonged to a particular town, and that there were therefore six towns, within the same space of ground, where only one exists at present, whence it might be conceived that the ancient popula- tion was there six-fold the actual one. ‘From the rapid decay, or rather diminution of height in these mon- uments, even without the help of the plough, it is evident that they must all have been formerly much higher, with deeper ditches, &c.; there- fore much more remarkable and difficult to raise. “* Allow me, besides, to venture a few peculiar suggestions, respect- ing i ultimate use, which may be considered as a probable e hypothesis, conceive that each group was surrounded by a town, particu- larly the compact and complicated groups. “2. The circular enclosures with outward parapets, were a temples dedicated to the sun, like those of the Natchez nati 12 E. G. Squier on the Ancient Monuments of Kentucky. “*3. The square enclosures might have been the ine of their kings or chiefs, who were called children of the sun, as in Peru, and among the Floridans, Natchez, &c.; or perhaps the council houses, places of meeting for public purposes . All the mounds are evidently barrows or sepulchral monuments, and natural appendages to temples, as our church-yards are to our places of worship: but sta voely 13, by their peculiar enclosures and avenues, must have been ie mbs of reat kings, heroes, priests or queens, who may have been sristehiped after death. Similar apothe- oses were common among many ancient nations. “5. The use of Nos. 4and 6, is more problematical ; but must have been iain owing to the connection with mo ounds. Else No. 4 may have been used for civil purposes, and No. 6 for military ones, as likewise No. ourbon iad At the junction of Flat Run and Stoner’s creek, an ae aaa containing an area of twenty-one acres. A number of m and excavations occur within the walls, one. with othe soa os consisting of raised outlines, two or three feet broad and one foot high. The latter are called ‘‘remains of dwellings” by Rafinesque. Twenty of these are found within, and fourteen without, the walls. A Plan is pub- lished in A. M. of M. V., Plate x1, No. 1 . A large enclosure near “ Ruddle’s Station,” on Licking creek, 7450 feet in circumference. Several considerable circular and semi-circular works also occur in this vicinity. One of these is situated three miles from Paris, on the Millersburg road. - On the road from Paris to Mt. Sterling, near Gen. Fletchers’, an enclosure fe large size.— ig. 2 is lan of an an- cient work, 2 situated on Stoner’s creek, one and a fourth mile below the town of Paris, Bourbon county. At this point the creek makes a large bend ; across the isthmus of the peninsula thus formed is carried a ditch and wall, completely cutting off ap- proach in that direction. The SCALE 850 FT TO WOH. way was perceptible at the period of the settlement of E. G. Squier on the Ancient Monuments of Kentucky. 13 the country, extending from this work to a large mound one and a half miles to the westward. This mound is one of a chain which extends quite across the county in a northwest direction ; for telegraphic purposes their position could not have been better chosen by the most skillful engineer.” here are a number of highly interesting works of similar character in the neighborhood of those above described. At the junction of Stoner’s and Hinkston’s creeks is a small circle with gateways opening toward the cardinal points. ‘Three miles dis- tant, on Hinkston’s fork, isa similar work, and a number of mounds. Besides these remains, there are here many other vesti- ges of an ancient population. Numerous graves are to be seen upon all the water courses; sometimes they occur singly, but usually in groups. Single graves are generally indicated by broad flat stones, set in the ground edgewise around the skeleton. When a number of skeletons are deposited together, a rude wall seems to have been raised around them, and then covered with other stones. A large cemetery and numerous traces of an ancient town are to be found hear the junction of Pretty-run and Strode’s creek. Thousands of human bones are here found scattered indiscriminately over a large area, just beneath the surface of the soil. Five miles below Paris, on Stoner’s creek, a cave has recently been discovered, con- taining a number of skeletons.—Collins’s Kentucky, p. , Allen County.—1. One of the most remarkable defensive works in the state of Kentucky, occurs on the confines of Ten- nessee, in the western part of Allen county, thirteen miles from Scottsville and eighteen from Bowling Green. “The fortifica- tion is at once romantic and impregnable, presenting one of the Strongest military positions in the world. At this place, Drake creek makes a wide bend, running one mile and then returning to within thirty feet of the spot where the bend may be said to commence. The partition which divides the channels of the ward-of this narrow pass, and contains about two hundred acres of land, which rises from the creek in a gradual ascent of one hundred feet, when it forms a level promontory. ‘The summit of this which is leveled, is covered by a rectangular enclosure consisting of a wall and ditch, and having an area of about four acres. In the rear of this are many small mounds. The only approach to this work is over the main causeway above described, tall cliffs intercepting all access from the opposite banks of the stream.”’—Collins’s Kentuc. , p. 167. 2. A cave in which were found a large number of marine Shells. One was eighteen inches long, cut longitudinally in the middle, with a small hole near the smaller extremity.—Jb., p. 167. 14 Voyage of Capt. Sir James C. Ross to the Antarctic. 3. Mounds with stone graves in them Barren County.—Twelve miles southwest of Glasgow are many small oval mounds, placed fifty yards apart so as to form acircle, 1200 or 1500 feet in circumference. They appear to have sustained structures of some kind. In the center of the group is a large truncated mound, between twenty and thirty feet in height. Another of like size occurs without the circle.-—Col- lins’s Kentucky, p. 176. ‘Edmonston County.—An enclosure on Indian Hill near Mam- moth Cave. Arr. I1.—WNotice of, and citations from a Voyage of Discovery and Research in the Southern and Aritarctic Regions, during the years wher by Captain Sir James Crark Ross, R. N., Knt., D.C.L. Oxon., F.R.S., etc. ; with plates, maps and wood- cuts. In two Potten 8vo, pp. 366 and 447. Lond. 1847, (Continued from ii ser. vol. vii, p. 329.) In our last number we followed Captain Ross to his farthest Southern Point in January, 1841,—midsummer of the southern hemisphere. In the oyemane pages we continue our abstracts for the remainder of his cruis In latitude 78° 15’ 3” S., oe barrier was 180 feet high, 1000 feet thick and stretched along for 450 miles; a beautiful sketch of a scene in this part of the Antarctic is given at page 232 of the first volume of Captain Ross’s Journal. While cruising in these regions, they frequently threw overboard a bottle containing a notice of their proceedings from day to day and the position of the vessels. Feb. 5.—Three large penguins were brought on board, one of which weighed sixty-six and the smallest fifty-seven pounds; their flesh is very dark and of a ran a? fishy flavor. Two seals were also captured to furnish oil. ice was taken on board to replenish the water—the ice of salt water being fresh. Feb. 8.—An iceberg shewed a large rock upon it. Soundings were obtained seven miles from the barrier in lat. 77° 39’ in 275 fathoms; in one instance, within a quarter of a mile of the ice Psa the soundings were 330 fathoms with a green muddy Otto A view of the upper surface of the barrier was obtained on a narrow isthmus where the cliffs were about fifty feet high. The surface was quite smooth like an immense plain of frosted silver. Gigantic icicles hung from every point proving that it sometimes thaws, although in the month corresponding to the mages of Voyage of Capt. Sir James C. Ross to the Antarctic. 15 England, the thermometer was at 12° and at noon only 149. This cold was strongly contrasted with that of the northern seas, where in the corresponding season streams of water were con- stantly pouring from every iceberg. Feb. 11.—Their escape from the ice barrier was critical. New ice rapidly formed; the pack closed in upon them and they were extricated only by a favorable conjuncture of the wind and great exertions in breaking the ice. They were hardly liberated before a violent gale came on with numerous icebergs all around; one of them was four miles Jong although not more than 150 feet out of the water, and doubtless a quarter of a mile beneath it. During the gale the decks and rigging of the ships and the clothes of the people were coated with ice. Feb. 14.—T he dip increased to 87°, showing that they were again approaching the magnetic pole now distant about 360 miles : the variation was 91°. The nearest approach to the magnetic pole had been about eighty leagues. Feb. 16.—Being becalmed in the afternoon, they saw some magnificent eruptions of Mount Erebus. 'The lighted cinders were projected to a great height, but no flowing lava was seen as before, although the exhibitions were upon a much grander scale. Feb. 17.—In latitude 76° 12’ S., long. 164° E., the variation was 109° 24’ E. and the dip 88° 40’.. They were within 160 miles of the magnetic pole ; but an impenetrable barrier of ice prevented anearer approach. They deeply regretted the impossibility of Wintering in those regions: could they have found a nook where the ships would have been safe, land parties could easily have reached the volcano and the magnetic pole. The position of the latter is however accurately known from calculation. eb. 19.—Mount Erebus was still in view—distant fifty leagues. The young ice formed rapidly around them presenting a continuous sheet, as far as vision extended; the ships could make little or no headway; but by rolling the boats before the ships’ bow they succeeded in breaking it up. Along the barrier every bay was filled with packed ice so that the ships had no place in which to be secure ; the cliffs were from 200 to 500 feet high and a chain of bergs ranged for miles in front of them as One outwork of frost. | Feb, 23.—Soundings in 180 fathoms brought up coral; the icebergs appeared to be all aground as none of them were less than 160 feet out of water. Feb, 24.—An enormous glacier was distinctly traced descend- ing as a continuous mass from near the tops of the mountains several miles into the sea, ending in stupendous cliffs in which a eep bay was formed having no passage except that by which the ships entered. | , he variation diminished from 114° W. to 40° W., 74° in about 360 miles; the dip was now 86°. 16 Voyage of Capt. Sir James C. Ross to the Antarctic. Feb. 25.—A fine view of the coast was enjoyed in the after- noon. ‘ The lofty range of mountains appeared projected with well defined outline upon a perfectly clear sky: although of a spotless white with but a patch of bare rock, yet the protuber- ances, cones and smaller eminences and deep valleys produced so much variety of light and shade as to relieve the monotonous glare of the surface. The season was now so far advanced that great danger attended their lingering longer in these regions. he barrier of packed ice through which they had penetrated threatened to become a for- midable obstacle to their escape, and moreover there was a heavy swell,which is characteristic of the south polar seas, rendering the navigation of the Antarctic at all times more hazardous than that of the Arctic ocean. March 1 and 2.—T he aurora australis appeared in bright col- orless corruscations rising to 30° of altitude. This aurora differed from that seen in the arctic regions. The vertical beams were longer and the light came more in flashes; it was perfectly color- less and with a lateral flitting motion. The center of an irregu- lar arch of light bore to the magnetic W., thus implying that as in the arctic regions, the principal seat of the aurora is not in the higher latitudes; in the southern hemisphere it is probably. ir in lat. 68° March 7.—The perils of these Antarctic seas were numerous and appalling ; but such dangers are of course encountered, more or less, by all navigators in polar regions. When in lat. 65° 31 Ss, long. 162° 9’ E., a heavy easterly swell was driving them down upon the pack. From the mast: head, they counted at one time eighty-four large bergs and some hundreds of smaller dimensions. “We found,” says the narrator, “we were fast closing this chain of bergs so closely packed together that we could distin- guish no opening through which the ships could pass, the waves breaking violently against them, dashing large masses of pack ice against the faces of the bergs ; now lifting them nearly to their : summit, then forcing them again far beneath their water line, and sometimes rending them into a multitude of brilliant fragments against their projecting points. “Sublime and magnificent as such a scene must have appeared under different circumstances, to us it was awful if not appalling. For eight hours we had been drifting towards what to the human eye appeared inevitable destruction; the high waves and deep rolling of our ships rendered towing with the boats impossible, and our situation the more painful and embarrassing from our ina- bility to make any effort to avoid the dreadful calamity that seem- ed to await us.”——“In moments like these, comfort and peace of mind could be obtained only by casting our cares upon that almighty power which had already so often interposed to save us Voyage of Capt. Sir James C. Ross to the Antarctic. 17 when human skili was wholly unavailing. Convinced that he is under the protection and guidance of a merciful God, the Chris- tian awaits the issue of events firm and undismayed, and with calm resignation prepares for whatever he may order. His seren- ity of mind surprises and strengthens but never forsakes him ; and thus possessing his soul in peace, he can with the greater advantage watch every change of circumstance that may favor his escape.” ‘We were now within half a mile of the range of bergs. The roar of the surf, which extended each way as far as we could see, and the crashing of the ice, fell upon the ear with fear- ful distinctness, whilst the frequently averted eye as immediately returned to contemplate the awful destruction that threatened in one short hour to close the world and all its hopes and joys and Sorrows upon us forever. In this our deep distress we called upon the Lord, and he heard our voices out of his temple, and our cry came before him.” ‘A gentle air of wind filled our sails; hope again revived and the greatest activity prevailed to make the best use of the feeble breeze ; as it gradually freshened our heavy ships began to feel its influence, slowly at first but more rapidly after- wards ; and before dark we found ourselves far removed from every danger.” Position of the South Magnetic Pole—Captain Ross con- cludes from all the observations that had been made, including those of the French and American navigators, that the South Magnetic Pole is in about 76° S. The theoretical views of Gauss had placed it in 66°. The return to Van Diemens Land was not marked by any very extraordinary events. The line of no variation was crossed in lat. 62° 0’ and long. 135° 50’ E. The aurora grew more frequent and more remarkable. March 23.—A bright arch of the aurora australis of a yellow color and a purple hue extended across the zenith ; a succession of lower arches was formed in the S.S.W., and the center of each arch gradually rose to the zenith before they disappeared.- At the altitude of 45° they generally broke up into smaller stream- ers; this splendid display was as usual followed by a shower of snow. March 25.—The aurora gave considerable light in the absence of the moon; it rose in arches of a yellow color with vivid flashes of a bright pink. The aurora appeared in concentric arches of diffused light, with an apparently rapid internal motion like a current passing through and lighting up a mist. At 10 o'clock a bright light appeared behind a dark cloud with pink and green colors : brilliant streamers darted to the zenith forming @ corona with bright flashes of all the prismatic colors, green and Econp Sertes, Vol. VIII, No. 22.—July, 1849. 3 18 Voyage of Capt. Sir James C. Ross to the Antarctic. red being the most conspicuous. This aurora darted and quiv- ered about the sky in every direction. March 28.—F locks of small dark colored petrel were seen on wing, which, judging by the time they occupied in passing; were from st to six miles in length and two or three broa Mar .—An equal temperature prevails in the ocean all around ‘the earth between 50° and 60° S. lat., and they were now very near that mean as the soundings showed at various depths, even to 600 fathoms, the extremes being 38°°5 and 399-8’. he auroras appeared frequently and sometimes with great brillianey. pril 2.—In a calm forenoon they sounded and found bottom in 1440 fathoms, 8640 feet, (almost 12 miles.) The latitude was 52° 10’S., long. 136° 56’ E. The weight employed on this oc- casion was 336 lbs. The sun’s heat was here felt in the ocean to the depth of 450 fathoms or more than halfa mile. The specific gravity of the sea was the same below as at the surface, that is 1-0274. April 6.—They arrived safely at Van Diemens Land and an- chored off Rossback Observatory. "The crews had enjoyed per- fect health and they had not lost aman. Well might they re- spond with joy and gratitude to the warm congratulations of their friends, and especially of their distinguished patron, Sir John Franklin, the governor of the colony, who was the last to bid them adieu when they departed, and the first to meet them with a warm welcome on their happy return. Here closes the first volume, we continue on with the second. Van Diemens Land or Tasmania, 1841.—April to July.— Magnetic Observations.—The portable observatories of the ships were set up on shore and their instruments were carefully com- pared with those of the fixed observatory. The plan of observ- ations was changed after the term day of February, in conse- quence of new instructions. Fossil Trees are among the most interesting objects in this island. They are found in the Derwent valley, and are thus de- scribed by Count Strzelecki :*— ‘No where to my knowledge is the aspect of fossil wood more magnificent than in the Derwent valley, and no where is the original structure of the tree better preserved ; while the outside presents a homogeneous and a hard glossy surface, variegated with colored stripes, like a barked pine, the interior, composed of distinct concentric layers, apparently compact and homogeneous, may be nevertheless separated into longitudinal fibres, | which are susceptible of division into almost hair-like filaments. wenn Description of New South Wales and Van ] leases Land. London, Ta / reais: Voyage of Capt. Sir James C. Ross to the Antarctic. 19 Dr. Hooker, of the expedition, speaks of the vast quantities of silicified wood, either loose on the plains, or imbedded in rocks, both igneous and aqueous ;—the former being most remarkable from their singular beauty and the very perfect manner in which the structure of the woody tissue is retained. Many of the spe- cimens perfectly resemble to the eye splintered white deal. The stump of the tree from which they came is a pine, about six feet high, 24 in diameter at the base, and 15 inches at the top; it is silicified throughout; it stands erect, in a cliff of vesicular basalt, by which it was once enclosed. The exterior,—probably the bark, is beautifully agatized with a brown color and glossy lustre. The concentric annual rings, more than one hundred in number, are perfectly distinct, as well as the medullary rays, and the fibrous structure. The surface (the bark) is marked by those large circular disks which are characteristic of all the pine tribe. oulders of Basalt are numerous in the valley of the Derwent ~—they are cylindrical and flattened columns heaped together, with pebbles and spheroidal boulders of greenstone, piled up against an escarpment of the carboniferous series. The basalt of Rose Garland contains fossilized trees, probably silicified previous to the irruption of the melted rock—while other trees not fossilized were consumed and have left moulds and impressions—as happened in Hawaii in 1840. In some instances these moulds have been filled by a second irruption, forming casts. > eat Coal mines and Sandstone quarries have been opened in this country. Copious citations are made in the narrative from Count Strzelecki’s work which now lies before us, and to this we must refer for many interesting facts regarding the minerals of this country. : asmania abounds with good harbors; it has rivers of consid- erable magnitude ; in many parts there isa rich soil and luxuriant vegetation, with splendid scenery and grand forests, some of the trees in which are 180 to 200 feet in height. It is capable of sus- taining a large European population. ot to iat es ini level compared with that of the land, were cut ina rocky cliff in the small island of Point Puer. Captain Ross well observes, that if similar marks had been made during the early voyages of Bougainville and Cook, we should Ssess means of judging more perfectly than now, whether secu- lar changes of level are general or local. July 7.—T he expedition again set sail for the Antarctic seas, after a warm adieu to the governor and other numerous friends. hey passed port Arthur in Tasmania, one of the best harbors in Van Diemens Land, and steered for Port Jackson, New South Wales, where, without any remarkable event, they arrived, J uly 14. On their way up, (July 11,) they obtained soundings in 20 Voyage of Capt. Sir James C. Ross to the Antarctic. twenty-nine fathoms. They remained in the colony till August 5, and were much impressed by its pte hd and by the opu- lence and extent of Sydney, the principal city. Magnetic observations for comparison were instituted here by ae Ross with satisfactory results. company with the governor (Sir George ps he _— the ‘Dithinetse Observatory, fifteen miles up the It wa: established by the private munificence of Sir Thomas Boisbad late governor of the colony. Signals by means of rockets were now arranged between this Observatory and Garden Island as a means of gga 4 is longitude of these places, which was thus correctly ascertai Although this esuitty is, not merit wed visited by severe drought, i ow sat gent occasionally, excessive falls of rain. Dur- ing the twenty-one days that the expedient remained here it rained in all the days except four. On two or three occasions it ame down in perfect sheets. On the afternoon of the 16t during 24 hours, more than three inches of rain fell; on the 17th, between 7 a.m. and noon, nearly five inches. ‘The governor stated that, on one occasion, twenty-three inches fell in twenty- four hours, a quantity equivalent to what falls in a whole year in some parts of Great Britain. It created a temporary deluge with great destruction of property; indeed the soft sandstone which forms the foundation of the anal is every Where worn into deep channels by these occasional torr In New South Wales the country sometimies suffers very se- verely from want of rain, creating danger of a famine of both bread and water. The soil is extremely sandy and there are no springs and very few rivers. During the drought of 1838, a gen- tleman rode his horse forty miles without water, and eventually paid half a crown for less than a quart. Governor Gipps, by damming up the water courses of winter, has obtained a sufficient supply. August 5.—As they left the harbor, they found the temperature of the air 55° to 60° F., and that of the sea at 55°-63°, The ships were laden for three years even below their bearings, by raat stores and fuel, so that with a heavy press of sail they could not make over eight knots an hour. ‘The Terro or, being a see y" iailer, detained the Erebus in waiting for her to come up, and they had the mortification to see a merchant ship pass them under easy sail. Aug. 8.—Falling stars were occasionally sought for, during the night, and as there was a deficiency of observers to watc * At he the department of Ardéche France, there fell on the 9th of rare, 1807, 9°87 inches of rain—then thought to be enormously great, of. on the a 9th of October, 1827, in twenty-four hours 31- 7 gator at the same place.— rago. Voyage of Capt. Sir James C. Ross to the Antarctic. 21 all parts of the heavens, some of the more intelligent and careful of the seamen were instructed for the duty, report being made every half hour to the officer of the watch. ‘One of the more zealous of these observers, who had not been so fortunate as to see any ‘falling stars’ during his first half hour, did not wish to leave his post when relieved, ‘as he was sure two or three stars would fall in a few minutes; he had been watching them and could see they were shaking !’ ” At noon, lat. 33° 40’ S., long. 64° 18’ E., temperature of the sea at 300 fathoms, 49°-7—at 150 fathoms 55°°’8—at the sur- face 59°. The specific gravity was 1:0274 at 60°. Aug. 9.—“A bright meteor burst in the S.W., at the altitude of 20°, exhibiting a shower of beautifully variegated stars.” On board the Terror it was observed to emerge from a dark cloud, near the Southern Cross, and in its descent it shewed fine bright lights. Fifteen falling stars were seen between 10 and 11 p.™. Aug. 10.—There were no soundings at 820 fathoms; some new self-registering thermometers were tried, constructed to bear @ greater pressure than any that had hitherto been encountered. It was ascertained that the mean temperature of the sea is here attained only below 800 fathoms. ug. 11.— There were soundings in 400 fathoms ; the bottom was sand and small stones, and the dredge brought up beautiful corals, corallines, flustre and crustacea. They were at this time about 300 miles N. of New Zealand. The temperature of the sea-water at various depths was care- fully observed in numerous instances. “In low latitudes, the sur- face water is hotter than that below; generally, the temperature sinks as the water shoals, or even in passing over banks whose depth was very considerable; the approach to land or shoal water 1s indicated by the thermometer, in many places with a high de- gree of sensibility.” aes aanees New Zealand.—The first land that appeared in sight in New Zealand was “the high bold cape Maria Van Diemen, of roman- tic association.” “It was so designated by Tasman nearly two hundred years ago, after a young lady of that name to whom he Was attached and whom he afterwards married: she was the daughter or near relative of Anthony Van Diemen, the governor of the Dutch possessions in India, a great friend of Tasman, an by whom the expedition he commanded was sent forth.” 'Tas- man was therefore the discoverer of the north island of New Zea- land, as well as of Van Diemens Land. The name of ‘Tasmania now imposed on the latter island, is only a just tribute to the memory of the great navigator, and it has much the advantage in point of euphony. August 17th, they arrived at the Bay of Islands. A place for observations was established at Paihia, the station of the Eng- 22 Voyage of Capt. Sir James C. Ross to the Antarctic. lish mission under Rev. Mr. Williams. The location was on a low beach very near a place called by the natives ‘“ Haumi,” marked by a small cluster of trees, ‘‘ where the bodies of the French navigator Marion and his companions were devoured by the savages.”” The French provoked this aggression by forcibly persisting to fish on ground which they were not aware was ta- booed by the natives. New Zealand having become an English colony, the natives are now only sojourners in their own country. We may refer to the narratives of Captains Fitzroy and Wilkes, and other published works, for a full description of the country and for a history of the English aggressions there. he missionaries have, in the mean time, persevered in their work of benevolence, and ‘through all vicissitudes have maintained their sway over the native mind. T’o these topics we cannot do justice in so brief a summary, and shall therefore confine ourselves to a few notices on other subjects. The mean temperature from August 19, to Sept. 17, was 53°°9, and the average 66° to 39°. In England, the mean temperature of March, the corresponding month, is 43°9, and the average range from 66° to 24°, The first month of spring in New Zea- land has a temperature ten degrees higher than the corresponding month in England. The mean temperature of the dew point was found to be A49°°6. ‘The quantity of rain was ay: “ inches, and the greatest fall 5-5, which took place on September 9. The mean height of the aan is 30-034, and its range 1:14 inch. Diurnal variations of the barometer from 9 a. M. to 10 rp. m., when it is greatest; also from 4 a.m. to3 p.m., when it is least: difference -041 inch. Mean temperature of the surface of the sea 56°. For the next month, September 18 to October 18, the mean temperature was 57°°9, an increase of four degrees, while that of England increases 6°. Mean temperature of the dew point 53°. Greatest fall of rain October 17, was 2°84 in. Mean height ad the barometer 30:118; range -7 38 in. Greatest pressure, 9 a. and 10 p.m.; the least at 4 a.m. and 4p. m.; difference Ou. From October 19 to November 17, the mean temperature ad- vanced 24°, to 60°°5; range 74° to 47°. In England the mean temperature for May, the corresponding month, is 54°—range 70° to 33°. Mean temperature of the dew point 520, Quantity of rain in New Zealand 9-5 in.; greatest fall, November 8, 2-1 in. In Eng- — rain in May, 1°85 in. Barometer at the mean, 29:904, and ind N.; range of the barometer 1°80. Mean temperature for the year in England 49°-2, differing little from that of the three months of spring. Mean temperature in New Zealand very nearly 59°. According to Dieffenbach, the rain in the North Island is 34:49 in. Mean temperature of the whole year at Wellington ~ Voyage of Capt. Sir James C. Ross to the Antarctic. 23 58°-2—that of the three spring months 579-7. The coldest month is July, the hottest January. At the Auckland Islands, about 100 miles south of New Zea- land, Bay of Islands, the mean temperature is 59°, that of the three summer months 67°-2, that of the three winter months 52°, They visited the missionary stations and the schools, and found every thing prosperous, and as they travelled the natives whom they met treated them with kindness. A large portion of this part of the island was covered with fern. On their way to the station of the Rev. Mr. Kemp, they met with a beautiful cataract ; a broad sheet of water fell over basaltic columns sev- enty feet high into a deep circular basin. Forests of the Kauri pine were passed, and the Kauri resin was abundant in some places, buried in the soil, where it is supposed to have been de- tived from the former burning of the trees. This resin is largely exported. They ascended Puki Nui, a voleanic mountain 1240 feet above the sea, and in the vicinity of some small lakes they visited the hot sulphurous springs that rise here, with a tempera- ture of 80° to 150°; they are elevated 648 feet above the sea. The latitude of the Observatory was found to be 35° 17’ 46-6 S., long. 174° 8’ 22-7 E., and the mean magnetic dip from Au- gust 23 to October 25, 59° 33’ S. Highest tides 5 feet 10 inches to 6 feet 10 inches. Departure from New Zealand.—On the 23d of November, 1841, they left New Zealand for Chatham Island, with a view to magnetic observations there, and also to judge of the capabilities for colonization and asa rendezvous for the whale fis ery. or this latter purpose, the Auckland Islands are considered preferable, and are much frequented by the American whalers, being at a convenient distance from New Zealand and Australia, and pos- Sessing excellent harbors. November 24th they descried the ; St Cape, and during the 25th saw many sooty albatross, an elegant blue petrel, and the cape pigeon. On sue the 180th Sepesot longitude, they added a day to their week, making it eight days instead of the usual number seven. Having, by sailing to the eastward, gained twelve hours, it was necessary on entering west longitude to make their reck- ning correspond with other places in west longitude ; hence it Was necessary to have two days following of the same date, so as by this means to lose the time they had gained and still were gaining in their eastward course. ‘ We had therefore,” Capt. OSS Says, “two Thursdays and two twenty-fifth days of No- vember in succession; so that after crossing the meridian and having made the alteration of a day, instead of being twelve hours in advance, we became this much in arrear of the time in “ngland ; this would gradually diminish as we pursued our east- erly course, until on our return we should find them in exact accordance,” 24 Voyage of Capt. Sir James C. Ross to the Antarctic. Nov. 27.—No bottom with 600 fathoms of line. At this depth the temperature of the sea was 44°-9; at 450 fathoms 46°°8; at 300 fathoms 49°-2; at 150 fathoms 539-5; and at the surface 58°. Specific gravity of the surface water was 1-0274; at 150 fathoms 1:0272, and at 450 fathoms 1:0268. All these specific gravities were taken at the surface of the sea at the temperature of 60°. It was proved that the water beneath was specifically lighter than that at the surface when brought to the same pi en as was confirmed by almost daily experiments. Nov. 29.—A long-snouted porpoise was harpooned, and in its foumidetle jaws they found the teeth which the New Zealand- ers value so highly as ornaments, and whose source had been unknown. Thick fogs prevented their landing on Chatham ee and pow 8 “ot in company with the Terror only by firing gun —Barometer at the unusual height of 30: 15. The cry of “~ penguins was heard, and the luminous patches in the sea were very brilliant. Dec. 4.—Soundings were attempted with 1100 fathoms, but no bottom was found, and two new thermometers were lost ; they had been attached to the line at intervals of 150 fathoms and the line broke. Another line being prepared, thermometers were sent down to 1050 fathoms and came up safe, having borne this mae pressure, and recording the temperature at that deep region of the ocean to be exactly 40°, or thirteen degrees below that of the surface. The mean temperature of the ocean is at least 900 fathoms, or se than a mile below the surface, in lat. 49° 17’ S., and long. 172° 28’ W. The penguins were now going to the eastward, proceeding to their breeding quarters—perhaps in the Nimrod Islands. “It is a wonderful instinct far beyond the powers of untutored reason, that enables these creatures to find their way, chiefly under water, several hundred miles, to their places of usual resort, as each succeeding spring season of the year arrives.” . 9.—Lat. 52° 32’ S., long 161° 20’ W., the dip had in- creased to 70° S.; the variation was 15° 10’ BE. A breeze be- came a gale, with rain and snow, and the thermometer sunk from 42° to 34° ; the barometer falling to 29°1 at midnight. It was a severe night, but not expecting ice in so low a lati- tude they pushed on before the gale in a thick snow storm. They had been drifted by a current fifteen miles daily to the east, and it was concluded that a current circulates round the globe i in a belt of about fifty degrees on each side of the fiftieth — of latitude. ec. 13.—The circle of uniform temperature of the ocean jaboneacd in lat. 55° 18’ S., long. 149° 20’ W. At 600 fath- Voyage of Capt. Sir James C. Ross to the Antarctic. 25 oms the temperature was 39°°7, and at the surface 39°. At profound depths of several thousand fathoms the temperature would doubtless be uniform or nearly so. In a very dark and foggy night the ships kept company by firing muskets, but the bell and gong were still more audible, and a Conversation was carried on with the other ship by a speaking trumpet with almost perfect distinctness. ec. 15.—The barometer rose, and although the fog was so thick that the vessels were invisible to each other, still the orders were distinctly given and understood. : e —The fog having cleared a little, several icebergs were seen—temperature of the sea below 33°. The largest berg was 130 feet high and three quarters of a mile in circuit ; it was table topped, deep caverns had been worn in its sides, and a long line of loose pieces extended several miles to leeward of it, and other masses were ready to fall. eR The latitude was 58° 36’ S., long. 146° 43’ W., magnetic dip 73° 23’ S., variation 14° 40’ E. On this meridian it was determined to penetrate due south in the hope of discovering land, (which was indicated by the ap- pearance of the ice,) and by a wish to deviate as far as possible rom the route of last year. Dec. 17.—Icebergs and their floating fragments were frequent. The proximity of a large body of ice was indicated by the ice blink and by a sudden fall in temperature to 29° at midnight, and at 3 a.m. the main pack was seen stretching across the course from E. to W. They ran into it at once, and it being light and open, they made thirty miles south without much difficulty, but as it then ame heavy and more closely packed they could not continue to sail exactly on a meridian. Temperature 28°, lat. 60° 50’ S., long. 147° 25’ W. Dip 76 S., variation nearly 19 E. Myriads of animalcules stained the ice as had been seen in the former cruise off Mount Erebus ; they were ascertained at Berlin by Ehrenberg to be creatures with siliceous shells. Whales were seen among the ice, and so tame that the ship ran upon one and received a shock. A Dec. 19.—The ice was very close, and the vessels forced their way from hole to hole ; they had penetrated nearly 100 miles in aS.W. course, and the ice giving way a little the ships were pushed twenty miles further ; but on the 20th, the ice again clo- sed and stopped their progress. Soundings were obtained in 1700 fathoms, almost two miles: the mean temperature in this latitude is about 600 fathoms below the surface. ome seals were killed on the ice; they seemed unconscious of danger and made no resistance. In the stomach of one were nine pounds of granite stones, doubtless from the icebergs, as Stoop Series, Vol. VIII, No. 22.—July, 1849. 4 26 Voyage of Capt. Sir James C. Ross to the Antarctic. there was no land above water within 100 miles. In others were found fish and shrimps, their proper food. Dec. 25.—Christmas day was passed in close packed ice, near a chain of eleven bergs and in a thick fog ; but the people were still cheered by Christmas fare reserved for the occasion. Dec. 26-30.—Becalmed in a sea-lake surrounded by ice ; there appeared no chance of escape, and therefore mooring the ships to the ice the crews were employed in filling the water tanks with ice. pe oO 31.—The year closed gloomily in this icy prison; the ice was much broken and heaped and n 0 piece was on a level, thus proving the enormous pressure to which it was subjected. © piece was seen over a quarter of a mile across, whereas in the Arctic regions, floes and fields of several miles in diameter are common, and sometimes from the mast-head the boundary cannot be discovered. The difference is occasioned by the comparative quiet of the northern, and the turbulence of the southern Aner seas. Jan. 1, 1842.—No outlet was visible from the mast head ; they had advanced 250 miles into the pack, and were in lat. 66° 32’ S., long. 156° 28’ W. They had crossed the Antarctic circle this season on the same day as the last, and were now 14 miles east of the meridian on which they passed it at that time. ‘Warm clothing was distributed, and new year’s day was spent in customary hilarity and festivity. Temperature of the sea at the surface 28°, at 1050 fathoms 39°'6, Gales succeeded, and drifted the pack with the ships to the north, but they found occasionally some clear water and managed to regain a part of the space they had lost, but it was a severe service in the midst of thick snow storms, ‘and with vessels and rigging encumbered with ice. Jan. 11.—The great penguins were numerous, and several were brought on board alive, but it was a difficult and cruel ope- ration to kill them, until they resorted to hydrocyanic (prussic) acid, a teaspoonful of which destroyed life in less than one min- ute. The largest weighed seventy-eight pounds. They are stu- pid birds and allow themselves to be knocked on the head with a bludgeon. Their food consists of crabs and other crustacea, and in the stomach was frequently found ten pounds weight of pebbles, granite, quartz and trap. When alarmed they skated — along over the snow faster than the people could follow them; lying down on the belly they impel themselves by their power- ful feet, using their short wings to steady them laterally. he largest seals that were captured measured twelve feet long by six in cireumference—weighed 850 pounds and yielded more than sixteen gallons of oil. In the stomach of one they found twenty-eight pounds of fish. The largest seals have teeth as Voyage of Capt. Sir James C. Ross to the Antarctic. 27 formidable as those of the polar bear and capable of inflicting dangerous wounds. The males of the middle sized species wound each other severely in their combats. A small ferocious looking fish inhabits these high latitudes— only 63 inches long and weighing 24 ounces; they are preyed upon by the seals and petrels and they in turn devour the smaller crabs and Limacine. In a region where there is no vegetation sufficient to appall the stoutest heart, but during the twenty-eight hours of this fearful struggle all did their duty with composure and firmness. The storm was at its height at 2 p.m. when the barometer stood at 28-40 inches; after that time it began to rise. But the swell had not subsided ; the ships still rolled and groaned amidst the ruins of crashing icebergs, over which the ocean pour- ed its mountainous waves, throwing large masses upon one an- other, and then submerging them again, dashing and grinding them together with fearful violence. ‘The awful grandeur of the Scene can neither be imagined nor described ; the people watched with breathless anxiety the effect of each collision and the vibra- ion of the tottering masts whose fall it would have been impos- sible to prevent. The ships were so near to each other that they Mounted the ridges of two contiguous waves, while the deep chasm between was filled with rolling masses of ice ; and as the ships descended into the hollow between the billows, the main topsail yard of each could be seen from the deck of the other Just level with the crest of the intervening wave. ie eit atte ye « dori pied? dis _* These, however, i ive their support from vegetable infused matter brought, it may be, from othey dlimes-—Ed. 28 Voyage of Capt. Sir James C. Ross to the Antarctic. Jan. 21.—The storm abated in violence. They found they had made progress. The sea was more open but they judged it best to force the ships into the thickest of the pack, where they moored them to a large cake of ice which lay between the ships and the pack which was now comparatively quiet. By great exertions the damages were repaired in the course of three or four days; new rudders were shipped,—the hulls of the vessels were found to be nearly tight and had sustained no vital injury, and thus after five weeks of the most precious part of the season were lost by their detention in the ice, they were now in a condition to prosecute their enterprise in the brief period of summer that remained. The next month, January 26 to February 28, was passed in arduous efforts, and severe conflicts were experienced of the same general character as those of which an abstract has been given. F. t. 67° 18’ S., long. 158° 12’ W., the clear sea came into view ; died the margin of the pack, seen "through the dee ening shades of night, presented a fearful line of breakers, but they felt compelled to pass through at all risks. b. &-—They were in lat. 68° 50’ S. ig ome 160° 20’; the dip was 81° 37’ and the variation 29° 41’ E. The Terror was on fire for two hours near the kelson, but a deluge of water poured from a powerful engine, making it two feet deep in the hold, ex- tinguished the fire without giving the alarm to the other ship. Feb. 8.—They passed a berg of four miles in diameter, be- lieved to be the same they saw last year, February 13, in lat. 76° 11’ S., long. 172° 7’ W.; that seen to-day was in 70° 30’ S., long. 173° ‘0’ Wi Feb. 21.—A small fish was found in the ice, frozen upon the bow of the Terror supposed to have been suddenly caught by the freezing of the water. Feb. 22.—In lat. 76° 42/ S., a piece of ice was seen bearing a black rock apparently six feet i in diameter, and the next day numerous stones and patches of soil were observed upon the bergs indicating the proximity of lan arrier of ice was seen rising 107 feet above the sea; it was sabia attached to the continent in lat. 78° 11’ 8, , long. 161° 7’ W. This, the extreme southern latitude attained, was six miles south of that which had been reached last year. Mountains of great height with an undulating neh Ses covered with snow were seen from the mast head ; ; such at leas was the appearance, but the conclusion was adopted with vail caution. Feb. 24.—The young ice formed so fast as to present an un- broken sheet from the mast head, and a very short delay might fix the ships and detain them through a south polar winter; with a favoring breeze they therefore pushed on with all sail set, and breaking through thirty miles of ice they were once more in clear water. Voyage of Capt. Sir James C. Ross to the Antarctic. 29 Feb, 28.—The ships were in lat. 70° 54’ S. and long 175° 36’, and the crew were in perfect health notwithstanding the severity of the service which they had performed. March 1, 1842.—The attempt to reach a higher southern lati- tude being relinquished, the vessels sailed for the Falkland Islands. In lat. 69° 52’ S., long. 180°, they passed a chain of the most magnificent bergs they had yet seen; they were of a blue color and much worn by the action of the sea. Some hundreds of seals were plunging and splashing about, and two or three ona point of ice maintained their position with much difficulty as the waves broke over them. The sea had assumed its oceanic blue color, free from the ferru- ginous tinge of the animalcules which give a dirty brown tint to the waters of the southern ocean, whose frigid temperature they appear to prefer. March 5.—They passed the Antarctic circle after being sixty- four days to the south of it, and two days later, several pieces of sea weed gave them the first returning notice of the vegetable kingdom in lat. 64° S. On the 16th of April the ships dropped anchor in St. Louis, the principal port of the Falkland Islands. The three succeeding chapters of this work, covering eighty pages, are engrossed by the Falklands and by Cape Horn, Fuegia and its inhabitants, and by other topics which have been so fully reported in the narratives of the Adventure and Beagle, and of the American Exploring Expedition, that we pass them by with only afew notices. The wild cattle of the Falklands and their im- portant relation to the supply of ships, give a principal interest to this group of cold and stormy islands. The hunting of these powerful, courageous and savage animals, is a highly exciting and dangerous employment carried on principally by the Gauchoes or original natives of the islands. he provision of nature for the support of the cattle is remark- able, especially in the tussock grass of which Dr. Hooker the bot- anist of the expedition has given a very interesting account. The tussock grass contains a sweet edible core which will sus- tain human life. _ These islands are rich in certain families of plants. The lichens are very abundant and conspicuous. Sea weeds abou \ on the rocky coast. An enormous mass of marine vegetation is cast upon the shores, chiefly the Macrocystis pyrifera, Lessonic, and D’ Urvillea utilis. Wrenched from the rocks and twisted together by the rolling surf, they form enormous vegetable cables much thicker than the human body and several hundred feet in length. The Lessonia is like a small tree eight or ten feet high ; the stem is as large as a man’s thigh, the leaves are two or three feet long and three inches broad, and when in the water they 30 =©Voyage of Capt. Sir James C. Ross to the Antarctic. hang down like the boughs of a willow. In many places the plant is so abundant as to form a submersed forest, presenting, when seen from a boat, through the clear water, a mass of green foliage. It is the residence of a vast exuberance of animal life,—worms, sponges, corals, crabs and other crustacea, flustrae, eggs of fishes and mollusca, serpule, &c. Some of the large sea weeds of the Fuegian shores are rich in manna and iodine, as ascertained by Dr. R. D. Thomson. Cape Horn always disappoints the voyager, in his first sight of it. It is only part of a small island and being only 500 to 600 feet high it has no grandeur; yet it becomes invested with terror when it is lashed by the stormy billows of an Antarctic winter. Third Voyage to the Antarctic regions.—This voyage was less remarkable than either of the two former, and without follow- ing it in much detail, we present only a few of the more interest- ing results. Dec. 17, 1842.—The expedition left Port Louis intending to penetrate by the meridian of 55° W., or in case of insuperable obstructions by that in which Weddell reached the latitude of 74° 15’ S., three degrees farther south than any preceding navi- gator. On December 24th, they saw the first iceberg in lat. 61°S. Dec. 25.—Although surrounded by a multitude of icebergs, they kept a merry Christmas with roast beef from the oxen of the Falklands, presented by Governor Moody for the occasion. Dec. 27—F requent loud reports were heard from the crashing icebergs as they broke upand rolled over, making it dangerous to approach them. On the 28th, land was seen, “supposed to be the “ Point des Frangais” of Admiral D’Urville. An enormous glacier several miles in breadth descended from an elevation of 1200 feet into the ocean, presenting a vertical cliff 100 feet hi hey bore away to the south, along a coast line of icy cliffs in a sea thickly studded with grounded bergs. The 29th, they saw a great number of the largest sized black whales, so tame that they would hardly move to get out of the way of the ships ; any quantity of oil might have been obtained ina short time. few days after they saw them lying upon the surface of the water in all directions, and were astonished by their enormous a: Dee. 30.—Lat. 63° 36’ S., long. 54° 33’ W. Land. to the S. and 8.W. entirely covered with snow, except in a few places where vertical cliffs broke through the mountain elasiets eleva- tion of the highest peak 3700 feet. Jan. 1, 1843,—In lat. 649 14’ S., long. 55°54’ W. A new moun- tain 7050 feet high was named Haddington. At evening being be- _ ee Voyage of Capt. Sir James C. Ross to the Antarctic. 31 leaguered with icebergs they made fast to a floe two or three miles in diameter, and had a berg of four or five miles diameter and 150 feet high for a dangerous companion through the whole day. Magnetic observations were made upon the ice; the results were entirely satisfactory ; the magnetic dip was 63° 17’ S., and the variation 20° 53’ K. Soundings in 152 fathoms, bottom blue mud. Jan. 6.—The two commanders went on shore on an island and took formal possession of it and of the neighboring land; it was of volcanic formation and here the last vestiges of vegeta- tion are found, not rising on the mountains above 1400 feet of elevation. Penguins and cormorants are found in these stormy islands lying immediately south of Cape Horn, and in their precipitous cliffs the petrels build their nests. Jan. 24.—Unavailing struggles with packs of ice prevented the ships from penetrating farther south at this time than 64° 24’ S., in long. 55° 11’ W.; magnetic dip 63° 4’. Feb. 4.—They got clear of the pack in lat. 64°, long. 54°. On February 6, seals were numerous and they killed one that measured twelve feet four inches long and weighed 1145 lbs. On the 22d, they crossed the line of no variation in lat. 61° 30’ 8., long. 22° 30’ W., magnetic dip 57° 40’; they concluded that the position of the magnetic pole was on a meridian half way be- tween this and New Zealand and that there is only one pole in the southern hemisphere. Feb. 27.—In a snow storm so thick that the ships could not be 32 Voyage of Capt. Sir James C. Ross to the Antarctic. mediate latitudes, giving a mean latitude of 56°14’. “It is evident therefore that about this parallel of latitude there isa belt or circle round the earth, where the mean temperature of the sea obtains throughout its entire depth, forming a boundary or —_ - — ground between the two great thermic basins of the To the north of this circle, the sea has become warmer chap: its mean caaieaaae ure, by reason of the sun’s heat which it has absorbed, elevating its temperature at various depths in eat wry So that the line of mean temperature of 39°°5, in lat. 45° S., has descended to the depth of 600 fathoms ; and at “er wintir and tropical regions, this mark of the limit of the sun’s influence is found at the depth of about 1200 fathoms ; beneath which the ocean maintains its anvarying temperature of 39°:-5, whilst that of the surface is 78°.” ‘So likewise to the south of the circle of mean temperature, we find that in the ab- sence of an equal solar supply, the radiation of the heat of the ocean into space occasions the sea to be of a colder temperature as we advance to the south; and near the 70th degree of latitude, we find the line of mean temperature has descended to the depth of 750 fathoms, beneath which again, to the greatest depths, the temperature of 39°'5 obtains whilst that of the surface is 30°.” “This circle of mean temperature of the southern ocean is a standard point in nature, which, if determined with very great accuracy, would afford to philosophers of future ages the means of ascertaining if the globe we inhabit, shall have undergone any change of temperature, and to what amount during the interval.” “These observations force upon us the conclusion that the internal heat of the earth exercises no influence upon the temper- ature of the ocean, or we should not find any part in which it was equable from the surface to the great depth we have reached ; a new and important fact in the physics of our globe.” April 4.—T hey arrived at the Cape of Good Hope, returning for the third time from the Antarctic circle “ Meg a single in- dividual of either of the ships upon the sick li April 50.— They left the Cape, touching at St Helena and the Island of Ascension, and at all these places as well as at Rio Janeiro, the magnetic experiments were repeated to their satis- 15 23° faction. On the 3d of June, in lat. 3’ S., long. Wy they failed to seni soundings at the depth of 4600 fathoms, or 54 miles, the greatest depth of water in the ocean that had been actually ascertained ; but it is not ee that there are depths still more profoun July 3.— They crossed the line of no dip, in lat. 13° 20’ S., long. 28° 11’ W., and of course were on the magnetic equator. "Their “barometrical experiments had proved that the atmospheric pres- sure is sonieenabty less at the equator than near the tropics, and the tropic of Capricorn, where it is the greatest, a gradual a R. Chambers on Ancient Sea Margins. 33 diminution occurs as the latitude is increased.” The mean eleva- tion of the barometer in the Antarctic latitudes is about an inch greater than in other parts of the world. “It had been considered that the mean pressure of the atmosphere at the sea level was nearly the same in all parts of the world, as no material difference exists between the equator and the highest parts of the world.” Sept. 2.—They descried the shores of Old England; the ships anchored off Folkstone, and in the morning the commander of the expedition hastened to London to make his report to the Ad- miralty.—B. S., Sr Arr. II].—On Ancient Sea Margins ; by R. Cuamsrrs, Esq., (from a letter to one of the Editors, dated Edinburgh, April 1849.) ? I wave read with much interest, Mr. Dana’s remarks on m ‘Ancient Sea Margins,’ inserted in your Journal for January, and reprinted in this month’s number of Jameson’s Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal. These remarks do not the less please me, that they are mainly an expression of the doubts and diffi- culties which the announcement of the subject is apt to raise in an ingenious and enlightened mind. I should be most happy if by a few observations in reply I could in any degree remove, Or even soften those doubts: for their complete removal I believe I must be content to wait till one or two candid enquirers shall take the trouble to go over the ground which I have traversed. Mr. Dana is perfectly right in his descriptions of river-side ter- taces, and in all his speculations as to their cause. ‘They are un- doubtedly the relics of sheets of alluvial matter which originally filled the bottoms of the valleys where they occur. They mark a former height at which the river had run, and the reason of the river having cut down the original alluvial sheet so as to leave only these terraces high above its present waters 1s un- doubtedly the withdrawal of a body of water, which formerly received the river, to a lower level. The matter is very much overlooked in my volume, because few examples of such ter- taces had come under my attention in Scotland; but it is amply treated in a paper which I read in December last before the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and which has been since printed in ameson’s Journal. ‘ It is unfortunate that the ‘Ancient Sea Margins’ should have Contained so little on this subject, since, had the case been other- wise, Mr. Dana’s doubts might have been much extenuated, and he might have left the American geologists in a more hopeful of mind as to the line of investigation which I have hum- Stconp Series, Vol. VIII, No. 22,—July, 1849. 5 34 ' R. Chambers on Ancient Sea Margins. bly ventured to point out. He may be assured that there is im my book no such extensive mistake as he is apprehensive of. The terraces and other markings there described are (overlooking a few peculiar cases eae an explanation has been supplied) all of them, as far as the fidelity of my observations may be de- pended upon, saben po They are distinguished from ancient — river alluvia, not merely by this powerful feature, but still more decidedly by local situation, their whole form and character, be- so express eons ) left in greater or less extent oe the side of wide valleys, altogether out of the range of any fluviatile opera- a (except in the special case of the deltas of side rivulets, ch I am here leaving out of view.) In Scotland, the sea fits ‘of which is so irregular, a terrace is seen ona line of coast towards the ocean—it turns round and passes also along the country fronting towards a frith :—pass beyond the head of the frith, and you still find the terrace, always level, and always at the same level, where found at all. Let this kind of observation be repeated many times, and what can be concluded but that the part of the valley now far removed from salt water, was once the bed of an estuary prolonged much beyond its present limits? We may ascend - se oy it becomes narrow enough to have river terraces also t these are of a strikingly different char- acter, much more albablé, of declining surface, always near to the river both in horizontal and vertical space—in short, not to be mistaken for the other class of objects by any but a very un- prepared observer. Standing, therefore, on the facts which have amassed, I deny Mr. Dana’s conclusion, that ‘ the terraces in the higher portions of a country are not satisfactory evidences of as many distinct elevations, nor of the actual height of any elevations the country may have experienced’—and that ‘ the ter- races towards the sea are more trustworthy.’ 'There is positively no distinction between them, beyond the simple fact that the sea may still be visible from one position and not from the other. Mr. Dana’s doubts lead him to call for observations of a more searching and exact nature than he supposes to have yet been made, and he lays down certain tests which he deems essential in the investigation. Being conscious of having done only what may reasonably be expected of one individual to open up the enquiry, I desire nothing so much as to see others, both in this country and elsewhere, engage in the same pursuit ; but I demur to some of the tests, and a few of the particulars for ee instituted by Mr. Dana, I deem unnecessary. I confine myself, however, to a denial of Mr. Dana’s proposition, that ‘ the marine origin of a bed [understanding this term to include terraces] is Wm. A. Norton on the Variations, §&c. 35 to be proved [that is, I presume, only] by its resemblance to ma- rine formations and its containing marine relics,’—as far as the latter term is concerned. The terraces which I have spoken of as ancient sea margins do, in many instances, present such an arrangement of water-worn materials as might be expected on a coast. In many cases, there is no decisive feature of this kind, or I have not been able to ascertain particulars. On this point I am hopeful of seeing much new light as the investigation pro- ceeds, particularly if I may believe that M. Morlot, of Vienna, is not deceived in thinking, as he informs me, that he can distin- guish sea from river pebbles. With regard, however, to marine relics, I think the importance which Mr. Dana attaches to them is unduly exclusive. It might even be that they would prove a fallacious guide in the present enquiry, as indicating only the general fact of a former presence of the sea (for which indication they are in a manner superfluous), and not the special fact that the spot where they were found was a margin of the sea. In the climate of Scotland, it is quite hopeless that shells should be _ preserved in a porous bed for a great length of time, and I am not therefore surprised that no such relics are found in any but com- 0. et me conclude with the expression of a hope that some of the American geologists will ere long go into the enquiry with more or less regard to the rules laid down by Mr. Dana. Arr. IV.—On the Diurnal Variations in the Declination of the Magnetic Needle, and in the Intensities of the Horizontal and Vertical Magnetic Forces ; by Witu1am A. Norton, Fro- fessor of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy in Delaware College. In, a memoir published in vol. iv of this Journal,* I gave an €Xposition of a new theory of Terrestrial Magnetism, of which he following are the fundamental principles: 1. Every particle BE eg ee EE ee Gn een ee Rew ee * Pages 1 to 12 and 207 to 230. 36 Wm. A. Norton on the Variations the circumference of every vertical circle that may be conceived to be traced around it. 2. The direction of this force is different, according as it solicits the north or south end of the needle; and it is always such, that to the north of the acting particle the ten- dency is to urge the north end of the needle downward and the south end upward, and that to the south of the same particle it is to urge the north end upward and the south end downward. 3. The intensity of the magnetic force of a particle of the earth, at a given distance, is approximately proportional to its tempera- ture, or amount of sensible heat; and at increasing distances, diminishes according to some unknown law. I was conducted to these principles by the theory which I had been led to adopt concerning the physical nature of the Imponderables: which is, that all the phenomena of the imponderables are but different ects of different vibratory motions of the particles of matter, and of the ethereal undulations produced by these vibrations. I accordingly conceived each particle of the earth’s mass to be the centre of a system of undulatory movements propagated through the surrounding ether, and of every variety of time and intensity of vibration within certain limits—waves of light, heat, and magnetism. ‘The vibrations of the ethereal particles, in a wave of magnetism, I supposed to be in the surface of the wave, or transversal to the line of propagation of the wave, as is known to be the case with a wave of light, and I regard the magnetic forces as probably due to these transversal vibrations. I was thus led to consider the sun as the probable source, at the same time, of waves of heat, light, and magnetism, and that the molecular forces of vibration due to the different kinds of waves would probably vary according to the same law, or approximately so, in passing from one point to another on the earth’s surface, and accordingly that the temperature of a particle might be taken as a measure of its magnetic force. Although I was thus conduct- ed, by these physical speculations, to the fundamental principles of what may be characterized as the Thermal Theory of Ter- restrial Magnetism, these principles may nevertheless have no real connection with the physical theory in which they originated. The tangential magnetic forces which I suppose, may be due to electric currents or may be fundamental properties of matter. The investigations of this and the previous memoir, conclusively establish the fact of the existence of these forces, and of their supposed connection with the thermal state of the earth, but are in no way essentially dependent upon any physical speculations concerning their origin. These form a debatable ground beyon the thermal theory which I have undertaken to develop and fol- low out into some of its consequences, about which I do not at present concern myself. in the Magnetic Forces of the Earth. 37 These formule were afterwards tested by numerous comparisons with the results of observations made in every variety of locality in the northern hemisphere of the earth. The agreement was found to be very close—the differences amounting only to a few hundredths for the horizontal and vertical forces, and Jess than 2° 40’, and in most cases less than 1° for the declination. The 1. All the magnetic elements of any place on the earth may be deduced from the thermal elements of the same; and all the great features of the distribution of the earth’s magnetism may be theoretically derived from certain prominent features in the distribution of its heat. . Of the magnetic elements, the horizontal intensity is nearly proportional to the mean temperature, as measured by a Fahren- heit’s thermometer ; the vertical intensity is nearly proportional to the difference between the mean temperatures at two points situated at equal distances north and south of the place, in a di- rection perpendicular to the isogeothermal line (that is, a line conceived to. be traced through all points at which the mean tem- perature of the matter of the earth, near its surface, is the same as at the station of the needle): and, in general, the direction of the needle is nearly at right angles to the isogeothermal line, while the precise course of the inflected line to which it is per- pendicular may be deduced from Brewster’s formula for the temperature, by differentiating and putting the differential equal 0 zero. 3. As a consequence, the laws of the terrestrial distribution of the physical principles of magnetism and heat must be the same, nearly the 38 Wm. A. Norton on the Variations from a very small number of magnetic data — by obser- vation, and the mean annual temperature of the From the theoretical investigation of the rae state of the terrestrial magnetic elements, I propose, in the present article, to proceed to the discussion in the light of the same theory, of their Diurnal Variations. This theory furnishes us the following gen- eral principles as a basis for this discussion. 1. ‘The horizontal magnetic intensity of a place is proportional to its temperature. to it. 3. The direction of the needle is arts tes hr to the om st a al line. Irom these general principles we ma raw the general conclusions, that the variations of the horizon- tal and vertical magnetic intensities must be linked to the varia- tions of the temperature of the station of the needle and of the differences of temperature of places north and south of this, and that the variations of declination must be connected with the places which have the same actual temperature as the given place ; which line may be called the true isogeothermal line. If the latter conclusion be true, it may be added that the variations of declination must also be connected with the variations in the dif- ferences of temperature of places situated to the East and West of the station of the needle. The data for the detailed discussion have been chiefly taken from the Report of the “ Observations at the Magnetic and Me- teorological Observatory at the Girard College, Philadelphia, made under the direction of A. D. Bache, LL.D., 1840 to 1845,” and the Report of the “ Magnetical and Meteorological Observations, made at Washington by Lieutenant J. M. Gilliss , U.S.N., dated August 13th, 1838.” The first Report contains a complete series of Magnetic and Meteorological Observations, generally either bi- hourly or from hour to hour, extending from June, 1840, to June, 1845, besides Term Day Magnetic Observations, and E:xxtraor- dinary Observations. Tables of the daily, monthly, quarterly, semi-annual, and annual means, and of the hourly or bi-hourly means for months, are given; and curves traced exhibiting these . results to the eye, ‘and showing the Extraordinary and Term Day Observations. The second Report comprises a Journal of Mete- orological ee — 7 four different hours during the day, (3a.m., 9a.m, 3pP.m.,9pP.m.,) kept from July, 1838, to June, 1842; a set of be houiie: meteorological observations and observations of declination extending from 1840, to July, erm Day and Extraordinary Obeniedaets and occa- sional observations of the dip of the needle. Tables of abstracts are also given, and curves showing the variations of declination pe temperature on the term days. in the Magnetic Forces of the Earth. 39 Diurnal Variations of the Horizontal Magnetic Intensity. The formula which the Thermal Theory of Magnetism has furnished for the horizontal magnetic intensity of a place is =CT in which C’ is a constant, and T the mean annual temperature of the place. This formula is equivalent to the statement that the mean horizontal magnetic force is proportional to the mean tem- perature. We have therefore to compare the diurnal variations of the horizontal force with the diurnal variations of the tem- perature of the place. The theory strictly requires that the com- parison should be with the daily variations in the absolute amount of sensible heat near the earth’s surface, but we know, from the laws of the heating and cooling of bodies, that when the tem- perature is rising at its surface the earth is, in general, receiving more heat than it loses, and that when the temperature at the surface is falling, it is losing more heat than it receives—so that arise or fall of surface temperature will in general indicate an increase or decrease of the total amount of heat. This consider- ation suffices for the enquiry which first arises, viz.: whether the horizontal force increases and decreases with the total amount of eat. A good set of observations of the daily variations of the temperature below the surface would be required for a thorough and minute discussion of the subject before us, but the facts already known and the established theory of the heating and cooling of bodies appear to supersede the necessity of such obser- vations, except when the attempt is to be made to obtain precise quantitative determinations. : e will begin by comparing the curve showing the mean daily Variation of the horizontal intensity at Philadelphia for the year 844 (fig. 3), with the curve showing the mean daily variation of temperature for the same year (fig. 8). desing _ It will be observed that the horizontal intensity attains its max- imum at from 15% to 164, or from 3 to 4p. m., and that the max- imum temperature occurs at the same hour ;—also that the hori- zontal intensity increases with the temperature in the forenoon (after 105), and decreases with it in the afternoon and evening. € same correspondences are observable in the curves for the other years and for the quarters of years, with the single qualifi- cation, that the maximum of horizontal intensity sometimes occurs an hour or two later than the maximum of temperature. They are an indication that the daily variation of temperature 1s, in all Probability, at least one cause of the variation of horizontal inten- sity. When we compare the curves still farther we notice the following points of difference between them. 1. The horizon- orce increases during the latter half of the night until 5 to 6 «.m., and then decreases until 10 a. m., Whereas the temperature 40 ° Wm. A. Norton on the Variations falls steadily until from 5 to 6 a.m., (the hour of the second max- imum of horizontal anseneihy;) and after that begins to rise. ‘Thus the one curve has o maxima and two minima, and the other one maximum ome one minimum. 2. While the temperature falls in the afternoon and evening as rapidly as it rises in the fore- noon, the horizontal force decreases less rapidly during the for- mer period than it increases during the latter; and at the same time, as already intimated, the maximum of horizontal Nena frequently occurs an hour or two later than the maximum of tem- perature Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. Curves of the Mean Diurnal oe of eet we vase) Force for 1844 and the differ- uarters of th 0:12 3 4 5 6 7 8:9 1011 121314 15 16 17 18 19 20 21222300 O64 a — Pye | » SEO hs #0 “a 88 94 ¥ 2 — ogee LT PA did 11 12 NN Pree SN LV18. oe re No VR TIT — 1036) 42 4 s 48 oe ~ IV. TOA \ 1M0% 60 "a 66 LL 1072 78 84 1090 96-41] — 1102 a 1 1108! ‘a 0.1234 5 6 7 8 9 10 111213 14 151617 18 19 2021 22 23 0” 1. Jan, Feb. and March.—II. April, May and June.—IIl. 1844.—IV. July, Aug. and Sept.—V. Oct., Nov. and Dec Increase of numbers silly to decrease of force. One division of Magnetometer scale =-000036 of horizontal force. How are we to account for these discrepancies between the- ory and fact—these deviations of the actual daily variations. a the horizontal force from the theoretical variations? 'T'o distl guish them from those which have just been CODE IRIR which accord with our theory, let us call them the tons of the horizontal force, without meaning thereby. to intimate that they are of minor importance. The inevitable in- in the Magnetic Forces of the Earth. Al ference from the first mentioned fact, is that if the daily variation of temperature is one cause of the daily variation of the hori- tirely unconnected with the variation of temperature, or is it some indirect effect of this variation? The Newtonian principle of not multiplying causes would prompt us to try the latter supposition. Besides a connection exists between the time of the secondary maximum of horizontal intensity and the time of maximum tem- from their approximate coincidence in the different curves for the quarters of the year (see figs. 1, 2, 3, &c., to 10);—in other year, with the time of sunrise. It should be observed, however, that this fact is less distinctly shown by the curves for some years than for others. It has been recognized by Professor Loyd, in his observations at Dublin. He says, “The epoch of the morn- ing Maximum moves forward as the time approaches the winter Solstice, appearing to depend upon the hour of sunrise which it precedes by a short interval.” The manifest inference from this connection is that the increase of the horizontal force during the latter part of the night, when the temperature is on the decrease, and the decrease of this force for several hours after sunrise, When the temperature is on the increase, are in all probability in- direct effects of the change of temperature. While making a sty comparison of the daily variations of the horizontal force with the theory that its intensity varies with the temperature, about a year since, it occurred to me that the secondary changes of this force, just noticed, were probably due to the deposition of condensed vapor from the atmosphere during the night, and the evaporation which immediately succeeds in the morning. ese are well established effects of the daily fall and rise of tempera- ure. The tendency of the deposition of vapor that goes on while the temperature is falling, must be to augment the horizon- tal force, and the tendency of the evaporation of the dew that falls at night, produced by the heat of the sun in the morning, must be to diminish this force. ‘The deposition of vapor must tend to increase this force in two ways; viz., by the heat given out in the act of condensation, and by adding to the amount of Matter at the earth’s surface which acts upon the needle. The evaporation must also tend to diminish the force in two ways ; viz., by the loss of sensible heat accompanying the vaporization, and by the loss of a certain amount of matter, from the earth’s surface, whose horizontal magnetic action had formed a part of Secoyp Seriss, Vol. VIII, No, 22.—July, 1849. 6 42 Wm. A. Norton on the Variations Figs. 6, 7, 8, 9, 10. Curves of the Mean Diurnal fee of the Temperature, for 1844, and the different Quarters of the same year. 0*}123 45 6 7 8 9 1011121314 15 16 17 18 19 2021 22 23 On 760 - 57 : f. tt : , \- ~— Vil VYAie 48 ae EE BS es se aa SE AVL a ‘KK bs x. | : Tt “Ss #123 45 6 7 8 9 1011121314 15 16 1718 19 20 212223 On yy te age we it April, May and June. —VIII. 1844,—1X. Oct., Nov. and arch. Ea SSSRSERsassseegr as * ‘al EE Z in the Magnetic Forces of the Earth. 43 the horizontal force. It would seem that the increase of the ing, the temperature continues to fall until morning, and after that rises steadily during the forenoon :—unless it should chance that a considerable portion of the heat evolved by the condensa- tion penetrates below the surface, so as to augment the average temperature of the stratum which is subject to daily variations of temperature, and that, in like manner, the cooling due to evapo- ration lowers the average temperature of this stratum, at the same time that the surface temperature rises. I am disposed, therefore, to attribute the secondary variations of the horizontal intensity, under consideration, chiefly to the variations in the quantity of condensed vapor at the earth’s surface, attending the fall and rise of temperature. But, whether the morning maxi- mum and minimum are principally effects of variations in the quantity of magnetic matter in action, or of variations in the ab- solute amount of sensible heat due to the fall and rise of vapor, the effect in a given time, will on either supposition, be propor- tional to the amount of vapor deposited or of water evaporated. When we consider the entire secondary variations during the night, it isto be observed that, upon the view which I have adopted, the fall of vapor has two effects; it diminishes the rate of cooling of the earth, by the heat evolved, which makes the decrease of horizontal force less, and it augments the quantity Magnetic matter in action, which makes the diminution of this force still less, or converts the decrease into an increase, according to the amount of vapor deposited. In like manner the evapora- tion after sunrise has two effects. If any heat be evolved or ab- ted, in addition to that connected with the variations of tem- perature at the surface produced by the rise and fall of vapor, it 44 Wm. A. Norton on the Variations In answer to this objection, I have to offer the following consid- erations. 1. It is to be observed that the entire horizontal mag- netic force of the vapor is added or abstracted with it, while the horizontal force is otherwise affected only by the variations of temperature. 2. The force of the vapor, which, from a situa- tion above the needle falls below it, is changed from a diminish- ing to an increasing action. This will be readily seen on refer- ring to fig. 11; in which N represents the position of the needle, Fig. 11. OTT r s and H N Ra horizontal line at the height of the needle and sit- uated in the plane of the magnetic meridian. A particle mm, in this plane will exert its force in the direction Ns, and therefore tend to diminish the horizontal force (R being supposed to be south of N), but when it falls to the position m/ it acts in the di- rection Nr, and therefore now tends to increase the horizontal: force. It is here taken for granted that a particle continues to act magnetically after it has left the earth’s surface. It is only by a detailed discussion that we can determine whether this sup- position be true or not. It is enough, for our present purpose, that it is not at variance with the theory. 3. The depth to which any considerable daily variations—or at least variations which in- dicate a change in the absolute amount of heat—extend, does not probably exceed nine inches. For, according to the observa- tions of Quetelet, Director of the Observatory at Brussels, made from 1834 to 1839, the velocity of propagation of the diurnal variations of temperature is less than 14 inches per hour, or less than 18 inches in twelve hours; and, the variations of tempera ture will be very much less below the depth of nine inches than above it. We may form some estimate of the difference from the following statement of the annual variations of temperature at various depths, given by Quetelet. The depths are in metres, and the degrees Centigrade. in the Magnetic Forces of the Earth. 45 Depth —Metres, Annual Variations. 0-19 : , ‘ ' : , 13° 28 O45 ‘ ; , ’ ‘ . 12 -44 0-75 . ‘ , ; ‘ , 11 35 106+, 4 7 ‘ , ‘ . 10 58 1:95 ‘ , ; ‘ ‘ ‘ 769 3°90. ‘ , ‘ ‘ ; i» #249 7°80 ‘ i 1 13 They become entirely imperceptible at the depth of about 24m. If we suppose the daily variations of temperature to decrease from the surface downwards at the same proportionate rate, it will become less than 1° F. at the depth of 9 in., (taking the varia- tion at the surface at 12° F., which is about the average for the year. 4, Although the amount of vapor deposited during the night, may perhaps not exceed the ,?, of an inch, on the average, the loss of its entire amount of sensible heat may still be more than an equivalent for the daily variations of temperature of a depth of six or nine inches of soil. In view of these statements it will not be deemed idle to en- quire whether the alternate deposition and rise of vapor may not . afford an adequate explanation of the secondary variations of the horizontal force. But before entering upon this enquiry, let us go back, and following the indications of the observations en- deavor to ascertain whether there is any known phenomenon that satisfies the prominent conditions which they furnish. As preparatory to this it is important to state the laws according to which heat is radiated from the earth’s surface into space, and propagated from particle to particle below the surface. These are as follows, _1. The loss of heat, from nocturnal radiation, in a calm clear night, is uniform at all temperatures. This law, we are told (see the No. of this Journal for November, 1848, p. 420), has recently been announced by Wilson, and has since been confirmed by the Observations of Melloni. It is, moreover, in approximate accord- ance with the general theory of radiation. ‘The formula which this theory, in conjunction with experiment, has furnished, for the velocity or rate of cooling of a body by radiation 1s RRO 4. wits nan io cntieiak ienert OY) in which 4 denotes the absolute temperature of the enclosure, or external medium, toward which the body radiates, and ¢ the excess of the temperature of the body over that of the enclosure. If @and ¢ are expressed in Centigrade degrees, then a=1-0077.m, Or a vitreous surface, is 2-037; and it is about the same for the soil, which has about the same radiating power as glass. Ac- cording to Pouillet the temperature of space is about — 142° C. 46 Wim. A. Norton on the Variations If we denote the temperature of the earth, in Centigrade degrees, by 'T, we shall have for the velocity of cooling of the earth, by radiation into space, T 1 T V=2-087 ((1:0077) = ae) =2.037 ((1-0077) — 339) According to this formula the velocity of cooling of the earth’s surface at 0° C., (32° F.,) is to the velocity of cooling at 15° C., (59° EF.) as 67 to 78—that is, the rate of cooling diminishes, from 59° FE’. to 32° F., 4 of its amount at 59°. Formula (1) was obtained by a comparison of theory with the experiments of Petit and Dulong. It may well happen that when we come to apply it to a case in which the temperature of the medium exterior to the cooling body is far below the range of the experiments, it will not give exact results. In the application of this formula, I have supposed the radiation of the earth to be directly into free space. As a matter of fact, it is through the atmosphere, and therefore the rate of cooling of the earth must depend upon the mean temperature and also the absorptive action of the atmosphere. 'T'o apply formula (1) to the case of the earth, 4 should therefore be taken equal to the tem- perature of the sky, instead of the temperature of space: or, we may introduce into the formula another subtractive term, repre- senting the emissive power or absolute radiation of the atmos- phere. We must also allow for the absorption of heat by the atmosphere. Pouillet estimates this at a little less than 3" Sup- s. 1 1 posing it to be 9 and also that s of the heat radiated downward from the air reaches the surface of the earth, and denoting by ¢ the mean temperature of the air, we have 7] t if ma ma : (3.) nr It appears from the observations made by Pouillet with the ac- tinometer, that the mean temperature of the atmosphere is about 35° C. below the temperature of the air, and falls, during the night, at about the same rate as the temperature at the earth’s surface. Taking this result, and making the calculations for n=1, we find the velocities of cooling at 32° F. and 59° F. to be to each other as 77 to 86, or that the diminution is a little more than ,', of the velocity of cooling at 59° F. According to Pouillet, the absorptive power of the entire atmosphere for terres- trial heat is greater than 0-8, but as the heat radiated downwards from the atmosphere passes only through a portion of it, the value of ~ is doubtless less than 0-8. It is to be taken into account V=ma ow in the Magnetic Forces of the Earth. AT also, that the difference between the mean temperature of the air and the temperature at the earth’s surface appears to be, in general, from 3° to 5° C. lower at the end than at the beginning of a Lage; night. This being done, and er being taken equal to 0°5, the rates of cooling at the beginning and end of a night, upon which the thermometer falls from 59° to 32°, are found to be nearly as 47 to 46, or very nearly equal. he experiments of Melloni and others have established, “ that the portion of the sky concerned in the radiation is included within 30° to 35° of the zenith ;—that clouds beyond this have but little interfering effect.” e air cools, by radiation into space and the upper regions of the atmosphere, like the surface of the earth, by radiation to the earth’s surface which cools more rapidly than the air from its superior radiating power, by contact with the earth and objects connected with the earth, and by condensation. The difference between the temperature of the earth’s surface and of the air at the height of four or five feet may amount to several degrees. The most recent experiments upon nocturnal radiation, viz., those of Melloni, have established, “that while under certain cireum- stances some bodies can be cooled to 8° C. below the tempera- ture of the air four or five feet above, in general, the effect of ra- diation is to reduce the temperature of vegetation, &c., not more than 2° below that of the surrounding air.” Ordinarily the agitations of the air will be sufficient to establish very nearly an equilibrium of temperature between it and the earth’s surface. eat is propagated from one particle to another of the earth’s mass by ordinary radiation. Hence when two contiguous parti- cles have the same temperature they exchange, by reciprocal ra- diation, equal quantities of heat, and when their temperature 1s different, the one will gain and the other lose, in a given time, an amount of heat proportionate to their difference of temperature. The rate at which this gain or loss takes place in any body, con- stitutes its conductibility. If we conceive the matter near the earth’s surface to be divided into layers of particles, of indefin- itely small thickness, in the cooling of the earth at night the heat lost by any one layer is gained by that next above it. The flow of heat from below upward will diminish the fall of temperature this change would go on until the first differences attained to a maximum value, and the second differences became zero, when 48 Wm. A. Norton on the Variations the earth would have attained to a “movable equilibrium” of temperature. Pouillet has calculated that this would be the case at the temperature of — 89°C. Taking the fundamental princi- — ple that one layer gains what the next below it loses, we can de- rive a very simple formula, connecting the loss of ‘heat at the surface of the earth in a given time with the losses of tempera- ture of the different layers during the same interval of time. et L = absolute loss of heat at the earth’s surface, in a given a, by nocturnal radiation; J, l’, /’, &c., denote the losses of temperature of the first, second, third, &. layers in the same time; a, a’, a”, &c. , the quantity of heat received by the suc- cessive io from the layer next below. Then L=/+a, =l/+a’ =l’+a”, &c., and hence sei ar; we. ‘ . ‘ (4.) The losses of temperature, J, /’, 1’, &c., of the different layers decrease with the depth, and for a night of twelve hours become zero at the depth of about eighteen inches. After sunrise, when the temperature at the surface is rising, the losses of temperature will ey continue with the layers below the surface until the heat pro ted downward reaches them in succession, and the cool- ing will gradually extend below 18 in., but these variations of temperature are not attended with any absolute loss of heat. ars from observation that the law of decrease of the annual variations of temperature at different depths is that of a geometrical progression for depths which increase in an arithmetical progres- s he same law probably holds good for the entire diurnal variations. The losses during the night simply probably decrease more rapidly, for, while the entire fall of temperature at and near the surface is about the same as for the night, lower down it is greater, and for a number of inches below 18 in. takes place dur- ing the day It is to be observed that formula (A) is ey applicable if we suppose L to represent the absolute loss of heat from the com- bined action of all the causes which affect the hail of the surface. The same relation also obtains between the gain of heat during the day and the increments of temperature at differ- ent depths Since the loss of heat, L, by nocturnal radiation from the earth’s surface is the same at all temperatures, for any given in- terval of time, it follows that whatever may be the variations of i, ’, l’, &c. during the night, the actual loss of heat from the whole stratum which undergoes a daily variation of temperature, occasioned by nocturnal radiation, is uniform at all temperatures. Accordingly any variations of / that may arise from the flow of heat towards the surface cannot be the cause of the observed variations of the horizontal magnetic intensity during the night. tite teil in the Magnetic Forces of the Earth. 49 Notwithstanding such variations of J, the horizontal force, as it depends only on the absolute quantity of heat, would decrease uniformly during the night. Having laid down these general principles, let us enter upon the general enquiry to which the statement of these principles is preliminary. If we compare the nocturnal variations of the hori- zontal force with those of the temperature, as shown by the curves, (see figs. 1, 2, &c. to 10,) we find that the deviations from uniformity in the diminution of the horizontal force are attend- ed with like deviations in the fall of the thermometer :—thus, while the thermometer falls less and less rapidly as the night ad- vances, the diminution of the horizontal force becomes less and less; also, while during the fall and winter months the fall of temperature during the night is materially less than in the spring and summer months, the nocturnal diminutions of the horizontal force are less. It is true that the diminution of the horizontal force gradually passes into an increase, but this is only the result of a certain increase in the amount of the deviation from uni- formity of diminution. The deviations therefore are of the same character—lie continually in the same direction—for the tempera- ture and horizontal force. 'They are also cotemporaneous ; they perature must be found in some phenomenon or fact connected either with the relations of the surface of the earth to the atmos- phere, or with its relations to the matter below the surface. If it a meteorological phenomenon, we may suppose it to consist in Variations in the clearness of the sky, in the quantity of rain, in the quantity of dew, or, speaking more generally, of vapor de- Posited in other forms than that of rain, in the direction and force of the wind, and in the amount of heat absorbed by the atmos- eS ts) =] - ® 3 5 S gg oO 2 3 - > _ Sal - 5 $e) t<{ pox J a & i} co - a ia] ne] S ia) = i=) 5 ® = 2) =] absorptive action of the atmosphere. If it be surmised that it y Nae : 7 it Were, then the uniformity must be independent of the density Snoop Series, Vol. VIII, No. 22—July, 1849. 1 50 Wm. A. Norton on the Variations of the air and of the quantity of vapor suspended in it; and if it be independent of the density of the air it must be independent of the density of the vapor, so long as this retains the aeriform ~ state. It is also independent of any differences that may subsist between the temperatures and densities of the different strata of the atmosphere, for it is a well established fact that the tempera- ture falls more rapidly, as we ascend in the atmosphere, in a sum- mer than in a winter night. In other words, it holds good what- ever may be the state of all the various particulars upon which the absorptive action of the atmosphere when transparent, can be supposed to depend. As for the relative clearness of the sky, I find, on referring to the Report of the Meteorological Observations made at Philadel- phia, that during a period of two years and three months, viz., from March, 1843, to July, 1845, the average clearness of the sky was somewhat greater after midnight than before it. The following numbers show the averages of the Mean Sky Covered by Clouds. From 6 P. M. to midnight. From midnight to 6 A. M. 1843 (from March), 63 : : » “69 1844, j j i eo 3 : ‘ ‘62 1845 (to July), : é ‘64 , i ; (62 The numbers for the different quarters of years are as follows: Mean Sky Covered by Clouds. From 6 P.M. to midnight. | From midnight to 6 A. M. ene. ; ‘ i ee April, May, June, 19.4 Sly Aug,, Sept, .. 66... 2 ‘ ‘66 Oct., Nov., Dec., . ee 59 Jan., Feb., March, _.. 2 ee ‘ é 62 1844 April, May, June, . s - 90 ; P «Se ") July, Aug., Sept., ; 65. . : ‘56 ov., Dec., ‘61 56 1845 ver Feb., March, . "Gh... é ; ‘60 ‘2 April, May, June, . xa ‘ ‘ Ge For the entire night, from 6 p. m. to 6 a. m., we have— 1843. 1844. 1845. Average Jan., Feb., March, 7 ‘66 60 ‘63 April, May, June, 52 ‘86 ‘65 ‘67 July, Aug., Sept., 66 ‘60 63 Dec., 65 ‘58 61 These numbers show that during these years the clearness of the sky was no greater from March to October than during the first and last quarters of the year, and therefore that the more rapid fall of the temperature at night toward the middle of the year, than toward the beginning and end of it, during the inter- in the Magnetic Forces of the Earth. 51 val of time embraced in the above table, cannot be ascribed to a greater average amount of nocturnal radiation resulting from a greater clearness of sky. For the years 1841-2, the observations only furnish the aver- ages for the entire day, of twenty-four hours. These, with the averages for 1843 and 1844, and from January to June, 1845, are as follows: 191. =: 1842. 18K. 1844. 1845. Jan., Feb., March, . ‘63 ‘55 a) ‘80 ‘65 April, May, June, . 56 “49 59 "92 ‘72 July, Aug., Sept., ; AS 52 ‘75 ‘70 ins Oct., Nov., Dec., <. 69 “44 ‘79 ‘67 These ditienbers serve only to confirm and extend the aenietale drawn from the previous table. The following table, giving for each quarter of the year the mean number of days, during the years 1839, 1840-1, and parts of 1838 and 1842, on which the wind prevailed, at 9 p.m. and A.M, from each direction, at Washington, will furnish the wa of judging of the influence of particular directions of the Bee a N. | N.E.] BE. j SE.) 8. [S.W.) W. [NW] Calm. tin 9p.mj 61|100| 75] 60) 123|111| 86| 166| 165 rp, ae 3a.mi 61/1071 60{| 30/ 113/115] 60| 168| 178 at x 9p.ul 46] 97] 33| 801110] 87] 93/| 116] 228 © la anu} 48/137! 46] 83| 60] 120} 96] 11-0] 192 Faly, dc 9p.u| 56] 501 40] 78| 97] 90] 105| 111) 216 sell wu) 62/109] 57| 36] 54| 14 3 11:0 | 20:0 Oeoud a 9p.u{ 68] 193] 78] 27] 68{110| 88| 190] 168 1 ---) 34 ul 96/120! 69| 42] 88] 97] 77 224 1 Entir 9 p.u| 231 | 37-0] 22:6 | 23-0| 398| 398] 871 | 572/ 76 © year, +++) 34 wl 266! 47-3 | 232| 191] 265) 475| 326 | 61:2 | 74-4 From this table we derive the ct a showing the relative frequency of the cold and warm winds. NOB We N.W. E., 5.E., 8., SW. saa ees ee 1 gn eS a TOE N., N.W., N.E., E. 8.,8.W., SE, E. sg ee ace 35.9 alba “9 N., N.W., N.E. $.,8.W., SE ee. 2341 On exa xamining these tables, it will be seen that calms are about Pigs frequent before and after midnight, and that cold winds are rather more frequent and warm ones less so, throughout the 52 Wm. A. Norton on the Variations year, after than before midnight. It appears also that cold winds are more prevalent, and warm winds less so, in the first and last than in the middle quarters of the year. Both of these facts are opposed to the idea that difference of direction of wind may be the general cause of the diminution in the hourly decrement of temperature as the night advances, and in the nocturnal decrease of temperature from the warm to the cold months. If we reject the n.e. and w. winds from the list of cold winds, that is, regard them as not affecting the mean temperature, in the colder months, cold winds will still be as prevalent after midnight as before: and if we reject the w. wind, in the warm months, from the list of warm winds, it will still be true that warm winds ba prevail no more in these months after midnight than before. t upon these suppositions the cold winds will become more faints in summer than in winter in the proportion of 31 to 22, and the warm winds less frequent in the proportion of 27 to 33: and both cold and warm will occur with about the same degree of frequency in summer as in autumn. It is to be observed, however, that the relative ee effect of northerly winds in different seasons is not in exact proportion to their relative fre- quency, for the relative force of ree wind is to be taken into ac- count. Now it appears on examining the curves showing the force of the wind in the different quarters of the years 1843-4-5 at Philadelphia, that the force of the wind at night is from two to three times greater from September to April than from March to October. we connect with this the facts, that the strong winds in winter are most frequently from the n.w., and that, as shown by the first of the above tables, n.w. winds are much more frequent during the former than the latter of the above mentioned period, it will be seen that there is little room to doubt that the greater nocturnal decrease of temperature in the summer than in the winter, must be due to some other cause than the dif- ferences, generally subsisting, between the directions of the wind in these seasons. If there be any lingering doubt upon this point, it will be removed, if we reflect that the law of variation of the nocturnal decrease of temperature from one season to another, which we have been considering, is as true for one place as for another. It is found to hold good, with occasional partial excep- tions, at all places, both in this country and Europe, where mete- orological observations have been made. In fact, this law is essentially connected with the general fact that the loss of tem- perature, by nocturnal radiation, is equal to the daily rise of tem- iis bel oth in January and July. So universal a law cannot, next in A eailer: Fig. 12 exhibits the mean variations of the force the year 1844. of th wind during t in the Magnetic Forces of the Earth. 53 Fig. 12. Curve of the Mean Diurnal Variations of Force of Wind for 1844, in Lbs. Lbs.0h 1 23 4 567 8 91011121314 15 16171819202 23 Or 052 i Xi. 0-48 | On inspecting this curve it will be seen that the force of the wind is nearly the same before and after midnight, and that its principal variations occur during the day. The same law is shown by the curves for other years, and for quarters of years, so far as given. The nocturnal loss of temperature cannot therefore be materially modified by variations in the force of the wind, in the average of months and years. 'The curve showing the varia- ions in the average force of the wind from month to month, which cannot conveniently be given here, indicates that the wind 18 highest in February or March, and is much higher during the first and last quarters of the year than toward the middle of the year. Since these strong winds are more apt to be from the n.w. than from any other quarter, their tendency will be to cause the temperature to fall more during the night, in the fall and winter, than in the spring and summer, instead of less as it does in fact _ Let us next consider whether it may chance that the variations in the nocturnal loss of temperature which I have specified, ar due to the cooling or heating effect of rain. The observations in my possession do not furnish me with the means of making but a very partial examination of the relative quantities of rain that fall during the first and last halves of the night. But the fol- lowing facts will serve to show that the influence of rain, what- €ver it may be, can have no part in determining the law of the ®crease of temperature for a single night. 1. Of twenty-one term days, observed at Washington, for which the curves of the daily Variation of temperature are given, there are only five exceptions to the general fact that the temperature falls most slowly during the latter half of the night. 2. Of twenty-three days observed in Philadelphia, in October, 1843, there are but six exceptions to the same general fact. We may conclude from these facts, that ‘54 Wm. A. Norton on the Variations, &§c. the slower rate of cooling after midnight is too common a phe- nomenon to depend upon rain, or prevailing direction or force of wind. Moreover, of the seventeen days observed at Washington, on which the law held good, as a matter of fact only two were rainy. ‘The exceptional days were, with one exception, either rainy or fogg The following table shows the total quantity of rain that fell at Philadelphia during each quarter of the years 1842-3-4, and the first two quarters of 1845. 1842.-—Inch. 1843.—Inch. 1844.—Inch. 1845.—In. Jan., Feb., March, . . 6°29 A710 7305 6°503 April, May, June, 10°59 10:330 5.244 6604 July, Aug., Sept, . . 11°39 15-704 10-787 Oct., No 7°85 8672 8-017 Now, if we compare the numbers for 1844 with the mean noc- turnal losses of temperature, in the different quarters of this year, which are 11°, 16°, 16°, 10°, we see that while the fall of tem- perature is the same for the two middle quarters of the year, the quantity of rain fallen is about twice as great for one of them as for the other. The cloudiness of sky for these periods is -92 for the first, and -70 for the second. Again for the middle quarters of the year 1843 the quantities of rain are 10-3 and 15i™-7, while the decrements of temperature are 15° and 12°—the re- verse of what should be the fact, since if rain is the determining cause of the greater loss of temperature in a summer night, it can only have this effect by cooling the earth in summer and warm- ing it in winter. ‘These statements are sufficient to make it evi- dent that the cause we are seeking does not consist in variations in the quantity of rain that falls at different seasons. The truth of this conclusion may be confirmed by the consideration already urged, in considering the influence of the wind, that the laws of the variation of the nocturnal loss of temperature are too general to depend upon a cause which must differ so much in its effects in different places. It will have been observed that in considering a ihe 8 ~ the influence of variations in the cloudiness of the sky, i tacitly implied that the numbers representing the propottio oF sky covered by clouds represented also the proportion of that part of the sky which is concerned in the nocturnal radiation, that was covered by clouds. ‘his it will be recollected, is the which lies within 30° or 35° of the zenith. Now it is not difficult to see that this portion of the sky will be, in the average of months, less cloudy than other parts, and especially than the parts near the horizon: For, the clouds in the horizon are ose more distant than those of the zenith, and consequently are very obliquely, and as they are generally of ser ges thick- J. B. Luce on the Theory of Numbers. 55 ness, and there are often several layers at different elevations, they will be frequently projected upon each other. may be stated thus; if we suppose isolated clouds to be scattered uniformly throughout the cloudy stratum, the line of sight which makes a small angle with the plane of the horizon will cross this stratum very obliquely, and be proportionally more likely to meet with a cloud than a line traversing this stratum perpendicularly at the zenith. Besides from the obliquity of this line a haziness which would scarcely be observed in the zenith might amount to a positive cloud at a distance from the zenith. This is well illustrated when a fog or mist is gradually being dissipated, and the sky is first seen in the zenith. - In this way it may very well happen that, although there may be considerable differences among the numbers representing the cloudiness of the sky in general, for the quarters of years, there may be no material variations in the nocturnal decrements of tem- perature, corresponding to these differences. (To be continued.) Arr. V.—On the Theory of Numbers ; by J. B. Luce. Havine read with much satisfaction, in the American Journal of Science and Arts, the very ingenious method of interpolations, as explained in a plain, elegant and very satisfactory manner by J. H. Alexander ; it induces me to send you my new theorem in the theory of numbers. I call it new, because it is probably So, having never read it in any treatise on the theory of numbers, and particularly in that of Peter Barlow, who, as it is well known, published a useful and elegant book on these matters. he equation p? —nq?=1 is well known to be a fundamental One in the resolution of indeterminate problems of the second degree, since, in frequent cases, this solution depends on the find- ing of integral values for p and q. I use here the same symbols as Peter Barlow. But not having now with me his book, I do Not recollect precisely the method he uses to find integral values or p and q ; all I remember is that it is performed by a long and tedious process of continued extractions of the square root of n, coefficient of g?, a method which I laid aside since the finding of the theorem which I am going to expose, and may, in all circumstances, supply the old method. _ I propose to myself the resolution of the more general equa- ion z* —ny? =z! where i may be 0, 1, 2, 3, &c. It is evident that we can always assume n=a°+b. Hence /n=V a? +b. Assume Va +b=a+ ; which gives f? +2af= +b; which ex- panded in a continued fraction, and, for abbreviation’s sake, putting 56 J. B. Luce on the Theory of Numbers. 2a 5 =m, Is vn=at7, +1 2a 1 m+ 1 2a+ 1 &c., ad infinitum, where the square root of any number n, either integral or fractional, is trans- rmed into a continued fraction, and pe be converted into a series of converging fractions as follow 7! 3 aam+l 2a? m-+3a 2a? ee ae “Ce Sener Yom’ 2am+1’ 2am?+2m ° 4a?m?+tbam+l1 ’ &e. If instead of m we supply its value 5 we shall have the fol- lowing converging fractions: ee 3. 4. 5. a 2a*+b 4a*+3ab 8a'+8a2b+b? 16a5°+20a2b+5ab? VY 2a’ 4a?*+b’ 8a*1+4ab ” partie ati , Now, if in the equation c*—ny?=z', we assume z= the numerator, and y=the denominator of ‘successively the first, second, third, &c. fraction, actonling as 7= 0, 1, 2, 3, we shall have a? —n= +b; (2a? +b)! - * x da* 25" (Aas + 3ab 7 n (4a? +6)? = + b?, &c. Thus when? is an odd number, every odd power of z shall be positive if n=a? - 6; and negative if n=a?+6. Let us apply this theorem to some examples; and in the first place let it be proposed to find the i li of a right angled triangle, or solve the equation z* +-y? = a2 g@2482 Here n=--1. We may assume 19% 3 which B a2 $2 gives a=5, and b= 32 By placing these values instead of &c. : ; ., 20° —b: : aand 6 in our second converging fraction ae ath obtain a2 92 , and the numerator «? — 2=z, and the denominator 2«8=y, ae « and ? may be any number assumed at pleasure. If we me §=«—1, we find r=2«— 1, y=2«(«—1), and taking suc- 2 a=1, 2, 3, A, ae we obtain the following series, ma & 32 3, &c. y= 1 12, 24, 40, 60, 84, &e. J. B. Luce on the Theory of Numbers. 57 and assuming 6 = 4-3, it is T= 3(2e—3), y = 2a(a—3), which gives z= 15, 21, 27, 33, 39, &c. and y = 8, 20, 36, 56, 80, &c. By assuming §==« —5, we find 2% = 35, 45, 55, 65, &c. y = 12, 28, 48, 72, &c., and so of others. This problem, of course, has been most satisfactorily answer- ed by all who have written on the theory of numbers; and T have proposed it only as an illustration of our theorem. But as a further illustration, let us come to some new problems. et it be required to find three numbers such, that the square of the first shall bear the same arithmetical proportion to the square of the second, as this does to the cube of the third. ere we have to solve the equation z?-+ 2° =2y?, or v? — 2y? = ? a2 (62n—a2) —z*%. [assume ns gat 32 I put these values of a, and m, in our third converging , which gives a=> and m= B2n—a2° fraction, and find r=a?+3a8?n, and y=3a28+8%n, where a, 8, m, may be any number ad libitum. But in the present example n=, and in order to have the least integral numbers that satisfy the conditions of the problem, we must take «=1,@=2; and the result is r=25, y=22, and z=7. Itis required to find two arithmetical proportions, each com- posed of the four least possible numbers, such that the sum of the terms of the one shall be equal to the sum of the terms of the other; and such at the same time, that the sum of the cubes of the two middle terms subtracted from the sum of the cubes : which is of greater importance. I only mention them to show the nature of problems that this method Would not solve; in so much that this theorem may perhaps become, in better hands, the fundamental one of the theory of numbers, especially if it solves the equation p? —”g* = i. oe 2G Since n=a? +b, and m=-;, it follows evidently that if “> is a whole number, by placing its value in the second converging t hey fraction + . , we shall obtain p?-q?=1. For instance, let m 2x3 "=11=9+2, from which we infer a=3, m=—5-=3. Hence Srconp Series, Vol. VIII, No. 22,—July, 1849. 8 58 J. B. Luce on the Theory of Numbers. p=am+1=10, and g=m=3; and it is 10? - 11 x3?=1, with- out the necessity of continued extractions. 2a When 7 is such that we can obtain a whole number for ae 2a call n a simple number ; and when such that F isa fraction, it is called a complex number. Thus the problem is already solved in a simple and easy manner for at least half all numbers that are likely to be needed, since the simple numbers exceed the complex in the table of complex numbers hereafter presented. When n is complex, we must find a square factor by which n being multiplied, the product shall be a simple number. For if «? be that factor, we shall have p? —na«?y?=1; but «?y?=q?, therefore it will be p? —nq?=1. For instance, 13=9+4, isa complex. But if I multiply 13 by 5?, or 25, the product 325 = 18? + 1, which is a simple number. Hence a=18, m=36, and p= a eebasiat 18 x36 +1==649; and =m=36; wher ‘efore, p? —13 x 5° xy? =649° —13 x 180? =1, The finding of these square factors is a very nice problem, and in some particular cases, rather intricate. The least number that will make 109 a simple number is (851325)?. I shall not pre- sume to lay down any certain and satisfactory rules for the find- ing of them; I shall only content myself with a few hints on that subject. When we have obtained the least values of x and y, in the equation 7? ~ ny? =1, we can readily obtain the least values of pand q, in the equation p?-—4nq*=1. For if y be an even number, y? =4q?, or g=4y, and p=z. Butif y be an odd num- ber, then will p=2zx? — 1, and g=zy. For by hypothesis, we have x? —ny?=1. Multiply all the terms by 4z*, and transpose, it will be 4r4—4zr? —Anz*y?=0. Add one to each side, and it is (22? — 1)? —A4nz*y?=1; this compared with p? — Ang? =l, shows evidently that p=2e —1, and g=zy. gain, if 2 be divisible by any square, we can obtain the values of z, and y, without the aid of any square factor, if we have p, n and q, in the equation p* ——4q*=1. For instance, let it be required to find ?—234y?=1. As 4 % “g =26=57+1, we say a=5, m=10; and placing these val- ues of a, and m, in the fourth converging fraction, we find p =2a?m? +4am+1l= eet and g = 1020 = 3 x340, and it is 5201? — 234 x 340? = If the quotient of x an any square be of the form 6? — 1, we place the values of a, and m, in the third ie BA pag fraction, since under such form we always have (202m — 3a)? —n(2am —1)? =1 fais J. B. Luce on the Theory of Numbers. 59 For instance, let n=216=24:37. We have 24=25-1, where a=5,m=10. 'These values placed in the third converging frac- tion, afford 2 =2a?m —3a=485, and y=2am—1=3 x33, and it is 485? - 216 x33? =1. When » does not fall under any of these cases, we are obliged to find its square factor ; to do which, we must consider that sim- ple numbers are necessarily of some of the following forms, P21, 6?+-2, 62+8, 62+25, &c. Thus if we wish to find that Series of complex numbers which require 2? for their factor, I assume (6¢+:3)? +3=4n, (10«+5)? ~5=4An, (14¢+7)?+7=4n, (22u+-11)?+11=4n, &c., and making « successively 1, 2, 3, 4, &c., I find the series of complex numbers 3, 21, 57, 111, 183, &e., 5, 55, 155, &c., 14, 112, &c., 33, 275, &c., all of which re- quire the factor 2? to become simple numbers. n like manner, for the square factor 32, I shall assume (9+4)?4+2=9n, which brings 2, 3, 19, 22, 54, 59, 107, 114, 178, &e. Also, 25 (9¢-+4)?+5=9n, which brings 45, 70, 470, &c. all complex which are not found in the other formula. The formula (25a + 7)? +1=25n, gives 2, 13, 41, 74, 130, &c., each of which complex requires the factor 5°. The formula (49«¢-+ 10)? -2=49n, shows that the complex 2, 31, 71, 158, &c., must be multiplied each by 72. From (Sla+22)12=81n, we derive 6, 43, 131, 242, &c. From (12le+19)?4+2=12In, we find 3, 86, 162, &c. And other similar formule may be found for all square factors. Ifa complex be of the form «?+4, or may be brought to that form by the multiplication of any square factor, we can readily obtain its square factor as follows : 5 Let it be 29=25+4; which gives G26, m= 2° I place these in the third converging fraction, and find values of a, and m d 2am+1=26 an m = my Square factors by which every complex number must be multi- » to obtain a simple number, up to 158. 60 J. B. Luce on the Theory of Numbers. If in the equation «? — ny?=1, n be of the double form @?-+1, and 4a+1, then will always the least value of x be of the form Ae+1, and y of the form 4¢. For y=m=2¢; and ( is necessa- rily an even number when n is of the form 4e+1. If we sub- tract 1 from x =-am-+1, the remainder am shall have 2d divisors, and we shall have d different ways of obtaining the product am; that is, we shall have so many different ngrte factors of n, each of which will give the least values of x and For instance, in how many different ways can we obtain the least values of x, and y, in the equation * — 13y?=1? Table containing the least gist gecior by which each i Oe must be multiplied to n a simple number. C. N, | Sq. fact. C.N.;. Sq. fact. C.N. Sq. fact. C.N, | Sq. fact. ek On 59 3? 94 151? 127 | 419775? te OR 61 | 3805? 97 5692 128 51? 3 i Oil 67 277 | 103 47? 129 14? _e | 69 13? | 106 389? 130 28 P 70 a Tt ae 3 131 ¥é 29 | 13? 71 a=) 108 133 261? 31 ie 73 | 1252 | 109 | 851325? 134 41 5? 74 111 135 i 43 | 9? 75 L? Pak 27 1492 3? 76 39? | 113 73? 139 7472 45; 3? 77 42 | 114 3? 149 93052 46 | 23? 85 412 | 115 a 151 3383? 52 | 5? 86 11? |. 116 132 . 53 | 252 88 3? | 117 5? 154 | 222 54| 32 | 89| 538? | 118 B12 | 155 | Q2 55 - 91 112 | 124 273? 157 | 315645? a | 8 92 5? | 125 612 158 obo 58 | 13? 93 142 | 126 40? ” iw ing already found 13x25=18?+1, we inferred a=18, m=36, am=648, whose divisors are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 12, 18, 24, 27, 36, 54, 72, 81, 108, 162, 216, 324, 648. Consequentigs we ought to obtain 10 different factors of 13 which will, each of them, give the least values of x, and y. These factors are, 10°, 2 2 15°, 202, 30, 452, 602, 902, 1802, (F \" ana (=) I shall say no more upon this new theory, fecund as it is in the resolution of indeterminate problems of all degrees, except the first ; leaving it for others to bring it to its highest degree of per fection, if they think it worthy of their attention. Troy Ladies Seminary, March 20th, 1849. aia column marked C. V., contains the complex numbers, and the column ked Sq. fact., their eee factors. Every number not found in this table, up te 158, is a simple num ~“— “— Review of M. Tuomey’s Final Report, &c. 61 Art. VI.—Review of M. Tuomey’s Final Report on the Gleo- logical Survey of South Carolina, presented to the Boston. So. Nat. History, May 2d, by Tomas S. Beuvs. Tue State of North Carolina has the distinguished merit of being the first among the governments of the world, to authorize at its own expense, a full survey of its territory for the purpose of developing its resources, and enlarging the boundaries of hu- man knowledge. Since this most worthy act on the part of her government, her sister confederacies have one after another followed her ex- ample; and the result is that we as a people have a degree of information in relation to our resources, which could have been reached in no other way, and which is of the utmost importance to our progress, while the scientific world at large has been led to rejoice in the acquisition of a vast amount of knowledge of which it would otherwise have long remained ignorant. . The State of South Carolina was the second to move in this great work. By order of her legislature, a report upon a geo- logical and mineralogical survey was made by Mr. Lardner Va- nuxem as long ago as 1826, and a collection of the minerals of the state deposited in the cabinet of South Carolina College. n 1842 this state authorized an agricultural survey. The work was entrusted to Mr. Edmund Ruffin of Virginia, who conducted it with great ability, but who resigned his office at the close of the first year, making a valuable report of his labors. M. Tuo- mey, the author of the work now under consideration, succeeded him in the survey, and upon the renewal of his commission in 1844, it being found difficult to separate an agricultural from a 8eological survey, he was directed by the government to make a report both upon the geology and agriculture of the state, and this he has done in the volume before us. Inrropuction.— igri formation was aaehy' deposited in it. was not a little surprised to find here a Trigonia, at least related to T. thoracica, Mort., if not identical with it, together with several well characterized casts of Ammonites placenta, Dekay, a fossil found in the gg beds of Delaware, and in those of the Peedee, South Caro - “ee that this bed is a conglomerate, I set myself to examine the probability of these fossils being washed from the cretaceous beds, higher up the river, upon w which it rests. The conglomerate is com- posed for the most part of rolled calcareous pebbles, agreeing with the mass in which they are embedded, and it is well known that lithologically, the cretaceous beds of North and South Carolina are entirely different, and hence I could not fail to detect any thing brought from that forma- tion. The casts are composed of the white Mite and the casts of eocene Sass with which they are ee are so perfect, that I was forced to the conclusion, that the molluscs belonging to these shells, lived aa died where they are ‘aocatn ad The fact that ammonites were found only in a bed of con- glomerate, and that Mr. Tuomey himself questioned as to the probability of their having been washed from the cretaceous beds, notwithstanding his conclusion to the contrary, will leave some doubt on the minds of many on this point. Considering however, that there are other fossil species, as the Ostrea panda Gryphaa mutabilis, which were certainly contemporane- ous with the Ammonites placenta in the cretaceous period, and i a ee ee a ee ee on the Geological Survey of South Carolina. 71 which are now unquestionably found in the eocene tertiary of South Carolina, we see no reason to doubt the conclusion that Mr. Tuomey came to in regard to the Ammonites placenta, found by him at Wilmington, notwithstanding the fact that no Ammo- nite had previously been found either in the tertiary of this coun- try or in that of Europe. If one species survived the change, many might, and probably did. Pxiiocene.—Scattered over the state, at various Iccalities, par- the miocene beds of Virginia and Maryland. In the districts hamed, the pliocene rests immediately on the cretaceous marls. Fossils of these beds. Mammat1a.—Mastodon, Cervus. Pisces.—Carcharodon. Galeocerdo. Saurocephalus. am Hemipristis. Celorhynchus. Mottusca.—Brachiopoda, 1 species. Gasteropoda, 78 =“ of which 39 are recent. Lamellibranchiata, 109 “ “ fs 65S Also of Crrrieepta, 2 species, of which 1 is recent. Post-pLiocene.—T he post-pliocene deposits of South Carolina occupy the line of the coast for about ten miles inland, rest- ing upon the pliocene in Horby and Georgetown districts, and south of this upon the eocene rocks. They are composed 0 beds 1s sand, clay and mud, their whole thickness being about Sixty feet. _ Mammacra.-Mr. Tuomey found some fragments of bones in os post-pliocene, which he concluded to belong to the Mega- therium. Pisces.—Carcharias, Lamna. ~“Myliobates, Diodon. Trichiurus. Moutvsca.—Pteropoda, 1 species. asteropoda ABs 4 poda, Lamellibranchiata, 66 .ci¥ Also of Cirripedia, 1 species, Echinodermata 4 species, and Polyparia 2 species. AuLuvium.—This in turn is noticed, and the question consider- ed here whether the southern coast is subsiding as has been al- | - Our author concludes that it is not, and shows the evi- dence brought in favor of such a view to be due to other causes. 72 Review of M. Tuomey’s Final Report Recapitulation.—Mr. Tuomey presents the following as the results of his investigations in the tertiary deposits. “Ist. That they are situated in a vast depression in the creta- ceous rocks, which however are only visible on the east and northeast. “*2d. That the eocene consists of three well defined groups: 1. The burr-stone formation, composed of thick beds of sand, gravel, grit, clay, and burr-stone, amounting to at least 400 feet in thickness—and underlying the calcareous beds. Its upper por- to ih characterized by beds abounding in silicified shells, for rt identical with the Claiborne fossils. As these are littoral shells, they probably ie np the coast while the Santee beds were forming in deep water. The materials of which this formation is composed, are ths ruins of the granitic and meta- morphic rocks of the upper districts, which may often be traced to their origin. 2. The Santee beds, oa ep of thick beds of white limestone, marl and green s se are best seen on the Santee where, interstratified with ‘the eee sand, they dip gently towards the south. The coralline marl of Eutaw is found near the upper edge of these beds. 3. The Ashley and Cooper beds, marl o these is characterized by its dark grey color and granular texture, while the remains of fishes and mammalia give its fossil remains a peculiar character, and leave no doubt of the position assigned it, at the top of the eocene series. ‘These together with the Santee beds, must amount, at least to a thickness of six or seven hundred feet. “3d. That although these strata contain, throughout, charac- terratie eocene fossils, yet they also enclose some cretaceous forms. ‘‘Ath. That the middle tertiary of the state, composed of beds of sand and en highly fossiliferous, is scattered, like similar beds in other places, over the eocene and cretaceous formations, in isolated patches. That the proportion of recent species in- creases towards the south; and that the extinction of species s to proceed in that direction, as is proved by the fact that the recent forms, which are also fossil, belong to a more southern fauna—there being but one or two exceptions. “ 5th. That in South Carolina, the proportion of recent spe- cies in this formation amounts to forty percent. I have therefore referred it to the older pliocene. “6th. That the post-pliocene is confined to a — along the coast of about eight or nine miles in breadth. ossils are tion of these beds, which it is probable has given the rivers of the Atlantic slope a western tendency. a ee eee ee on the Geological Survey of South Carolina. 73 ment of the sea upon the land, and to the peculiar character of the deposits in which they grew. “That the almost entire absence of fluviatile shells in the recent and tertiary deposits, is mainly due to two facts: 1. That there is a considerable space between the line of brackish and salt water, where neither fluviatile nor marine forms can exist. 2. That the streams have not transporting power sufficient to bring down fresh water shells. So long as these circumstances exist there can be no mixture of fluviatile and marine shells.” Practical Geology.—With the tertiary, of course, the portion of the work devoted to descriptive geology ends main- der of the volume, excepting the appendix, is devoted to practical or economical geology. Under this head we have presented by the author an interesting and valuable treatise upon soils in gen- eral, their classification, physical properties and chemical compo- sition :—Upon the composition of cultivated plants :—manures, greater portion of this we pass over without particular comment ; hot that it is of less interest than other portions of the work, but because it relates to matters not exclusively concerning the geology of South Carolina. We will touch, however, upon one or two points. : Of the extraction of gold from its ores, Mr. Tuomey gives a detailed account, hoping thereby to call the attention of inventors of machinery to the very rude processes by which it is effected, m order that some improvement may be made in the machinery used. He therefore particularly describes all the means adopted at the mines for the separation of the metal, and gives figures of all the various machines used in the state for the purpose. We mention this fact, because our article may meet the eye of some reader, who will learn by it what is required, only to supply the Want. Of the metallic substances found in the state, besides gold and the oxyds of iron, of which notices have been taken, the fol- . Phite, oxyd of titanium, sulphuret of iron. College. Scop Szrms, Vol, VIII, No, 22.—July, 1849. 10 74 B. W. Bull on E'mulsine and its Composition. In concluding a notice of this work, we will remark, that we think a good geographical map should have accompanied it. It is indeed absolutely necessary in order that the text be fully un- derstood, that the reader have one before him. This want would not be felt as it is, if the localities cited were given on the geo- logical map, which is not the case, excepting so far as relates to the districts. We cannot refrain too from expressing our strong regret, that the te of the fossils of the state were not published, as was intended by Mr. Tuomey. It seems from a postscript to the Le that while the report was passing through the press, he informed, “that the committee on publication had decided that the plates containing the figures were not essential,” and they were therefore omitte We will not however complain of this as showing any want of liberality on the part of the state. She has done well in pre- senting to the world what she has, and in behalf of that world, we would thank her, and rejoice in what is received from hands. To Mr. Tuomey we extend our congratulations, that his labors are now brought to a successful close. We believe he will have constantly increasing evidence that he has not labored in vain. Art. VII.—Some Observations upon Emulsine and its Composi- tion; by B. W. Butt, Hartford, Conn. Tue following investigations were made in the summer of 1848, at the suggestion of Prof. von Liebig, in the hope of elicit- ing some farther information in relation to the constitution and properties of this substance. The method at first employed in apy emulsine was that of Ortloff, as recommended by him n the Archiv. der Pharmacie, vol. 48, page 12,* which is the fol- Eaving' “The sweet almond powder already freed from oil by pressure, is to be stirred with about three times its weight of wa- ter, and the mixture, placed in a wide mouthed loosely covered glass vessel, is to be exposed to a temperature of 15° to 20° R., during five or six days, till all the albumen? is destroyed by the consequent fermentation. The fluid is then to be filtered off, and the emulsine precipitated by adding strong alcohol in sufficient quantity, and subsequently dried at a temperature not exceeding 30° R.” It escribed asa “reddish gray or reddish yellow mass, gum-like and brittle; in small pieces, pore transparent, with a glossy lustre externally and internally dull. en * For an abstract of this paper, see Berzelius Jahres-Bericht, 27th volume, page , German edition. B. W. Bull on Emulsine and its Composition. 75 Ortloff further mentions that a precipitate in a solution. of emulsine is a proof that all the alumina was not decomposed, in consequence of the period allowed for fermentation having been too short; that freshly precipitated emulsine redissolves entirely in water, and after being dried, redissolves, leaving a residue con- sisting of phosphates of lime and magnesia, while the solution contains only traces of inorganic matter. Among other charac- teristics of emulsine according to the above chemist, is that of its being free from sulphur, a conclusion based upon the fact that treated with caustic potassa it does not form sulphuret of potas- sium and continues to precipitate lead salts white; a result quite at variance with those which I have obtained by a similar treatment. A couple of trials in which the above method was followed, did not afford me favorable results. "The mixture became quite sour, but even after the lapse of nine days at the given tempera- ture, a filtered portion continued to give a strong precipitate with acid, and on the addition of alcohol, the substance thrown dow did not redissolve by the addition of water. After numerous at- tempts, I have found it preferable to prepare emulsine as follows. The finely powdered sweet almonds, already freed from oil by cold pressure, are made into an emulsion with as small a quantity of water as possible. Three times their weight of water is suf- ficient, and with this amount they can be treated twice, using two-thirds of the water at the first, and the remainder at the sec- ond treatment. It should be strained through a linen cloth and the residue both times strongly expressed. The resulting fluid is afterwards to be placed in a suitable vessel and exposed to a tem- perature of 20° to 25° ©. Within twelve hours, if untouched, it separates in two parts. A creamy coagulum, forming perhaps one-fifth of the whole, rises to the top. It is generally of a yel- lowish white color, though sometimes tinged with pink on the surface. The transparent watery fluid undeneath is light yellow, quite limpid, and after standing two to three days, gives no pre- Cipitate with acetic acid. By adding alcohol, a precipitate 1s ob- tamed which entirely redissolves upon the addition of water. If the vessel has not been moved during the process of separation, the coagulum assumes so firm a consistence that the watery por- tion can be almost entirely removed by means of a small syphon, Without admixture with the former, in which case it filters very readily. As soon as the separation has taken place, the liquid is ready to be filtered off and precipitated by alcohol. For reasons which will be given below, I do not think it at all necessary for the preparation of pure emuisine that the flu id shall have ceased to be affected by acetic acid, or that the substance thrown down by this reagent should be removed by the addition of it in excess. As I wished however to examine the acetic acid precipitate, the 76 B. W. Bull on E'mulsine and its Composition. liquid was generally filtered from the coagulum as soon as the separation had ensued, and to the filtrate acetic acid was added till no farther precipitate was produced. From the liquid filtered from the precipitate, the emulsine was then thrown down by alco- hol of 85 per cent., a double volume of which I have found ne- cessary. In the alcoholic fluid a small quantity still remains in solution, and a farther addition of alcohol is necessary if the whole amount is desired. For this reason as small a quantity of water as possible has been recommended in preparing the emulsion. Obtained in this way, and washed with alcohol of 85 per cent. upon a filter with subsequent drying in the air, I have found emulsine very similar in appearance to that described by Mr. Ort- loff, being a transparent gum-like brittle substance of a dark red- dish brown color, without odor, and not possessing any positive taste. It dissolves with difficulty after maceration in water or by rubbing in a mortar, leaving behind a residue totally insoluble in water, and containing besides phosphates of magnesia and traces of lime, a large amount of organic matter. This insoluble resi- due, after being thoroughly washed with distilled water, still gives distinctly the characteristic reaction of emulsine with amygdaline. The proportion of organic matter which it contains is very vari- able. Four experiments gave me as follows: No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. No. 4. Organic matter, 56 69°45 59:48 80:27 4A 30°55 40-52 19:73 100 100-00 100-00 100-00 The solution is opalescent, and possesses in the highest degree the property of decomposing amygdaline into bitter almond oil and hydrochloric acid. Dried in vacuo over sulphuric acid, it presents very nearly the same appearance. Its color however is not generally as dark, sometimes inclining to a brownish yellow, and at others to a brownish red. When dried with free access of air, it absorbs moisture with avidity while the alcohol is escaping ; if the atmo- sphere is at all damp, and if left upon the filter, it penetrates the pores of the paper in this state, to which it adheres with great the analysis of a less colored product more satisfactory- B. W. Bull on E'mulsine and its Composition. 17 The use of a few precautions has enabled me to obtain emulsine perfectly white and consequently differing in appearance entirely from that described by Robiquet and Ortloff, who both agree in ascribing to it the color mentioned above. If the freshly precipitated substance is at first washed out with strong alcohol till all soluble matter is removed, afterwards with absolute alcohol till deprived of every trace of water, and at last dried upon glass in vacuo over sulphuric acid, it is obtained in obtained, did not suffer any farther diminution in weight by ex- posure to a temperature of 100° C. If dark colored emulsine is redissolved in water, separated by filtration from the insoluble portion and re-precipitated by alcohol With subsequent drying in vacuo, it becomes snow-white even if ’ Mains undissolved. Both the white and colored emulsine possess its characteristic property of decomposing amygdaline in the high- 78 B. W. Bull on E'mulsine and its Composition. est degree, and apparently to an equal extent. The presence of foreign substances injures this reaction, and even the presence of a small amount of alcohol or acetic acid prevents it altogether. The property of being precipitated by alcohol does not belong to emulsine in itself, and this method of its preparation and pre- cipitation from the other substances rests upon the phosphates which are held in solution by it, and they have so much affinity for each other, that I have not succeeded in separating emulsine from these inorganic substances without destroying its property of decomposing amygdaline. Emulsine has a decidedly acid reac- tion. When washed out with alcohol till the latter comes away entirely neutral, the moist emulsine reddens litmus strongly ; dried ulsine is also acid when redissolved. T'o this acid property is owing the presence of the earthy phosphates in the almond emul- sion, and to their insolubility in diluted alcohol and simultaneous affinity for emulsine, must be ascribed the cause of the precipitation of the latter by the addition of alcohol. In proof of the preced- ing remarks, the following may be mentioned. I neutralized an emulsion of almonds by means of a careful addition of lime water, which precipitated the phosphates entirely. The filtrate did not contain a trace of phosphoric acid, reacted in a marked man- ner with amygdaline, but was not precipitated by alcohol, Am- monia acts in the same way. The liquid becomes cloudy indeed, on the addition of alcohol, but it is not cleared by filtration, and only after several days does a scarcely appreciable precipitate ap- pear. A solution of emulsine neutralized in this way, if left by itself, exposed to the ordinary temperature of summer, commences to decompose in a few days, and assumes a disagreeable odor; the liquid becomes turbid, deposits, but does not again acquire an acid reaction. mulsine is not coagulable by heat. A solution of it becomes cloudy at a temperature of 35° to 36° C., at 45° it is quite opaque and milky, and at 85°-90° deposits a snow-white granular sub- stance. When exposed to the heat of a water bath even a num- ber of hours, the filtrate on additional heating still continues to deposit, but if the liquid is carefully heated over a flame to the boiling point and maintained at that temperature a few moments, the filtrate possesses the singular property, upon again being heat- ed to ebullition, of becoming quite opaque, with separation 0 bulky flocculent masses, which perfectly redissolve upon cooling; and the liquid becomes as clear and limpid as before. ‘The re peated action of heat is followed by the same result; the floceu- lent matter redissolving perfectly, after being produced severa times. The granular precipitate which is formed amounts to about ten per cent. of the emulsine employed. It is perfectly white, easily reduced to a fine light powder, and leaves a neutral ash, amounting in one instance to 48-74 per cent., and in another B. W. Bull on Emulsine and its Composition. 79 to 59°11 do., consisting of phosphate of magnesia with a small amount of lime. e accompanying organic matter contains nitrogen, but no sulphur could be detected by treatment with caustic potassa and lead salts. It is quite apparent that this is not a coagulation but rather a decomposition, and that emulsine does not possess the property of being coagulated heretofore ascribed to it. The filtrate contains a product of this decomposition which is precipitated by strong alcohol in the form of a white granular substance, amounting to nearly thirty per cent. of the original quantity, and which, when dried, after washing with alcohol and ether, remains in white opaque masses, somewhat tenacious and quite difficult to pulver- ize. It contains a large amount of earthy phosphates varying in different samples from eighteen to thirty-five percent. From the following analyses it appears to differ materially from emulsine in its amount of nitrogen, which is in proportion to the carbon as to 12, ; {. -4875 grm. substance containing 81-15 per cent. organic mat- ter, corresponding to 3956 grm., gave with chromate of lead, car- bonic acid -6265 grm., water -244 grm. . ‘4045 grm., as above, corresponding to 3282 grm., gave with chromate of lead -519 grm. carbonic acid, and 199 grm. ater. IIL -423 grm. containing 64-93 per cent. organic substance, Corresponding to 2747 grm., gave with chromate of lead -4285 grm. carbonic acid, and *1737 grm. water. IV. -4183 grm. as above, corresponding to ‘2718 grm., gave With soda lime 3735 grm. chlorid of platinum and ammonium. eeideas rm. as above, equal to *2675 organic matter, gave with soda lime -3555 chlorid of platinum and ammonium, from which the following are calculated, 4 s 3. Bhar iis me: ABA 43-11 42-48 Ra biciniss Ge 6-73 7-02 Neo - §62 8:34 8-48 mean O+S - 4136 A182 42-02 100-00 100-00 100-00 Neither of the above bodies possesses any power of decomposing amygdaline. This latter is decomposed by acetate of lead into a ody containing sulphur and one free from it. The moist pre- cipitate by alcohol was redissolved in water, leaving a small insol- uble residue behind. 'To the solution was added neutral acetate of lead as long as a precipitate was produced. This precipitate was washed out with distilled water and decomposed by passing 4 stream of sulphureted hydrogen through it while suspended m water. The excess of sulphureted hydrogren was removed 80 B. W. Bull on E'mulsine and its Composition. by exposure to gentle heat. The filtrate possessed a strong acid reaction arising in part from phosphoric acid and partly from an organic substance, a product of the decomposition. On con- centration it formed a syrupy mass, which was uncrystallizable and decomposed by the action of caustic potassa with evolution of ammonia. The solution gave a reaction of sulphur with lead salts. The filtrate from the precipitate by acetate of lead, contained a large amount of unprecipitated organic matter. The lead was removed from it by sulphureted hydrogen, and the excess of this latter and the acetic acid, as before by gentle heat. The residue was a neutral gum-like mass, very soluble in water, and forming a jelly with a solution of caustic potassa. This substance contain- ed nitrogen but no sulphur. Another substance ensues by the decomposition of emulsine by boiling, which is not precipitable by alcohol and is about one-quarter of the amount originally employed. Emulsine is entirely precipitated from its solutions by neutral acetate of lead. The filtrate does not give the slightest reaction with amygdaline, while the lead compound, after being washed and brought in contact with that substance, indicates very percep- tibly the formation of bitter almond oil. In this respect my ob- servations agree with those of Ortloff, and give a very simple ex- planation of the failure which has always attended those who have endeavored to prepare this substance after the method recom- mended by Robiquet, viz., “by first precipitating all the other or- ganic matter from an almond emulsion by acetate of lead in excess, and then throwing down the emulsine, from the filtrate by means of alcohol.” The statement of Robiquet, that emulsine is colored red by tincture of iodine, is not confirmed by my experience. the contrary, a precipitate of a yellowish brown color is produced. tion of gas. It becomes turbid, precipitates strongly with ace- tate of lead but not with acetic acid, and for some time does not lose the property of reacting with amygdaline. The sulphur in emulsine is indicated by treatment with caustic potassa and subsequent addition of lead salts, as also by fusion with saltpetre an a. ; If to a solution of emulsine, neutralized with lime water 12 order to remove the earthy phosphates and prevent the subse- quent presence of phosphoric acid, and afterwards filtered, is add- ed neutral acetate of lead, a bulky precipitate is produced. e€ precipitate obtained in this way was washed with distilled water and afterwards decomposed by suspending in water and passing through it a stream of sulphureted hydrogen. The resulting liquid, after the acetic acid and sulphureted hydrogen are remov- i a tl tae ld enamel ee a ee ee as | eee — B. W. Bull on Emulsine and its Composition. 81 ed by evaporation, possesses an acid reaction, and on evaporation leaves a gum-like acid uncrystallizable mass. This substance contains nitrogen and is insoluble in alcohol and ether. It forms insoluble salts with baryta and silver, and a soluble one with magnesia, but could not be obtained in sufficient quantity for analysis. The filtrate from the precipitate by acetate of lea contains a large amount of organic matter, which, when the lead is removed by sulphureted hydrogen, reacts quite neutral and eaves upon evaporation a gum-like mass, which also contains nitrogen. On one occasion, in the hope of obtaining a larger amount of the above mentioned acid substance, I took a number of grammes of freshly precipitated undried emulsine, thinking in this way to avoid the formation of the insoluble compound left behind when dried emulsine is redissolved, and the consequent loss of material, but quite unexpectedly the resulting solution was not precipitated on the addition of the lead salt. On the contrary, redissolved dried emulsine gave invariably a precipitate with that substance. The behavior of emulsine towards acetate of lead can only explained by attributing it to the relation in which it stands to the phosphate, a relation so delicate as to be disturbed or mate- lally altered by merely undergoing a drying process over sulphu- mie acid. In favor of this opinion is the fact of the increase of morganic matter in the insoluble portion remaining when dried emulsine has been treated with water, and the corresponding de- crease of the same in the solutions showing that redissolved emul- sine is unable to retain so Jarge an amount of phosphates in solu- tion as when first precipitated and undried, or in the state in Which it exists in an almond emulsion. The per-centage of the phosphates present is very irregular and does not seem to be in- fluenced by chemical proportions at all, but the average results Obtained confirm the above statement. The large amount of these salts in the substance at present treated of, is but another instance of their almost universal presence in all organized struc- tures, as well as of the important, though it must be confessed, slightly understood réle which they play in the animal and veg- etable economy. pon distilling the alcohol from the liquid from which the emulsine had been precipitated, the residue became gradually col- ored, and at the end of the operation was quite dark. Evaporat Upon a water bath, it became a thick syrupy acid mass. Agitated With ether, the latter became quite acid, and upon distilling the ether, a yellow acid liquid remained in the retort, which by a 5 @ Ss it = -_ N = ° ~ < = ~ ie) be) i] oC j=) S =] > o g, N tell 3 er] Qa oO =) S ie) @ | eo 3 = =) hs a. a ang Ss © oo trangular prismatic crystals were obtained, resembling lactate of zinc, but not in sufficient quantity for analysis. In the syrupy Stconn Szrres, Vol, VIII, No. 22—July, 1849. u 82 B. W. Bull on Emulsine and its Composition. liquid, crystals were observed which were separated from the fluid, washed out with cold water and redissolved with the inten- tion of recrystallizing. A number of attempts, while operating on the amount obtained from smal] quantities of almonds, did not succeed, but on evaporating the residue from a large amount, sev- eral crops of quadrangular prismatic crystals were observed, which were treated with cold water in which they were not easily solu- ble, afterwards with alcohol which removed a large amount of the coloring matter, and then recrystallized. This was a magnesia salt, and by treatment with animal charcoal and recrystallization did not become sufficiently pure for analysis. It was transformed into a lime salt, by treatment with milk of lime which threw down all the coloring matter with the magnesia. The excess of ime was neutralized by sulphuric acid and the sulphate of lime removed by concentrating the solution and redissolving in alcohol. From the alcoholic solution white acicular crystals, radiating in star shaped groups, were obtained in abundance. The following analysis shows that the original crystals were lactate of magnesia, and that the substance analyzed was the corresponding lime salt. I. 6252 grammes gave with oxyd of copper ‘7415 grm. carbonic acid and -269 grm. water. ) grm. ignited with sulphuric acid, gave 345 grm. sul- phate of lime giving the following composition. Found. Calculated. C ac clint Arle aR 33-03 BP ieee ie permedes 4-78 4-59 O avy 4 Taw age 36-69 CaO + o> wh bite Om, bordeOs 25°69 100-00 100-00 Corresponding to the formula C, H, O, CaO. he precipitate produced by acetic acid was examined and pre- pared for analysis, by washing with water and subsequent boiling with alcohol and ether to free it from the accompanying oil. this state it isa fine light powder of a reddish tint, soluble in alkalies, and in warm concentrated solutions decomposed with ev- olution of ammonia, insoluble in dilute and partly soluble in con- centrated acetic acid and not precipitated from its alkaline solu- tions by alcohol. It contains nitrogen and sulphur, burns with 4 smoking flame, and leaves a trifling amount of ash with a neut reaction. Strong hydrochloric acid dissolves it, forming a fine red liquid, which after a day or two turns toa dark purple. In sulphuric acid, it gelatinizes and turns through red to black with evolution of sulphurous acid. ‘274 grm. substance containing 1-59 per cent. ash, equal to 97 grm. organic matter, gave with chromate of lead -5045 grm. carbonic acid and -167 grm. water. | B. W. Bull on Emulsine and its Composition. 83 Il. 5115 grm. as above, corresponding to -5034 grm., gave with soda-lime 1-266 grm. chlorid of platinum and ammonium. Ill. -4125 grm. ditto, corresponding to -406 grm., gave 1-083 grm. chlorid of platinum and ammonium. IV. 1-4428 grm. ditto, corresponding to 1:4199 grm. fused with potassa and saltpetre, gave with chlorid of barium ‘058 grm. sulphate of baryta. The precipitate treated with hydrochloric acid, again ignited and weighed, gave the above result at the second weighing. rm. as above, equal to 2°1216 grm., gave with a similar treatment, sulphate of baryta -086 grm. at the second weighing. From the above the following results are calculated : oO 25 Oo ! 1 load ° * as eB) & jou) i ' hs =r) = or [=] 100-000 The proportion of nitrogen to carbon is as one to seven and a half. The per centage of carbon and hydrogen is very nearly that of the legumin from almonds of M. Dumas, but the per centage of nitrogen is smaller, and its reaction with acetic acid is quite different from that ascribed to this latter substance. portion of fresh almond powder was macerated with ordin- ary alcohol at a moderate temperature, the filtrate evaporated to dryness in a water bath and treated with distilled water. A part consisting principally of oily matter remained behind, while the filtrate possessed a sweet taste, and with Trommer’s copper test gave indications of the presence of sugar. From the reduc- tion of the copper, which took place at the ordinary temperature Within twenty-four hours, the inference was drawn that this sub- Stance was present in the form of grape sugar. With a view of examining the free acid formed during the fermentation, an emulsion prepared as above mentioned, was ex- posed to a temperature of about 30° a number of days. The sepa- Fation of the coagulum ensued, which was separated from the liquid by decantation, and the remainder exposed to the continued action of the air and heat. The watery fluid became more aci each day till after standing five or six days, when it began to ac- aromatic liquor came over resembling very much in odor that of rose water, and containing a small amount of alcohol, but not 84 B. W. Bull on E'mulsine and its Composition. the slightest trace of acetic acid could be detected even by the delicate test recommended by Bunsen, which consists in evapora- ting to dryness in contact with caustic potash and arsenious acid. The least trace of acetic acid is revealed by the formation of al- carsin. The distillate was treated with carbonate of baryta in excess, a part of which was dissolved and again distilled. The with a lens, appeared to be quadrangular prisms. Upon decom- posing their solution by the addition of ee acid and gently warming, the aromatic smell was again perce The residue from the first distillation was sour, but the actual amount of acid present was so small that an attempt at analysis would have been useless. It is certain however that during the fermentation, no free acetic acid was formed, and attempts to find it in combination were also fruitless. The coagulum formed contains a large amount of oil; it is en- tirely insoluble in dilute acetic acid, is dissolved by caustic alkalies with evolution of ammonia. It is insoluble in carbonated alkalies, and is ee Api by treatment at a very gentle heat (30° to 40° C a moderately strong solution, with escapement of ammonia. “ the alkaline solutions of this and of the precipi- tate by acetic acid are not thrown down by alcohol, it is not necessary that they should be absent from the fluid before pro- ceeding to precipitate the emulsine. The fermentation takes place without any visible evolution of gas, unless allowed to remain till the liquid begins to putrefy. The ashes from the syrupy liquid from which the alcohol had been distilled have a strong alkaline reaction, and contain a large proportion of potash. he above facts lead to the conclusion, that the souring of an emulsion of sweet almonds has a very close resemblance to that of ordinary milk. ‘The presence of lactic acid in a state of com- bination has been proved in the sour liquid, and there can be no - doubt that the free fixed acid formed is also the same. The con- version of the sugar into lactic acid and the union of this acid with the bases which had held the caseous substance in solution, accounts for the appearance of the coagulum, and _ subsequent non-appearance of a precipitate of acetic acid, as soon as sufficient acid has been generated by the fermentation, to precipitate all this caseous matter from its union with the alka lie I come now to the elementary voapintiae of emulsine, the analysis of which was rendered very difficult by the large amount of inorganic matter with which it is encumbered, and which wi account for the otherwise too great variation in the results. Not this disadvantage they are sufficiently constant to sameptiemiaiaiagitlios B. W. Bull on E'mulsine and its Composition. 85 show that the substance precipitated by alcohol has a fixed com- position. 'The analyses were made from emulsine of four differ- ent preparations, dried at 100° C., a process which required sev- eral days, from the tenacity with which it retained moisture. No. 6, was dried at 130°C. The analysis No. 5, was made from emulsine prepared in the following manner. The fresh almond emulsion thoroughly agitated with ether, to dissolve the oil which was present, was allowed to stand in a closely stopped vessel till the liquid had evaporated in two parts, which occurred in the course of a few days. The upper portion, a solution of the oil in ether, was a thick opaque somewhat gelatinous mass. The under watery liquid was filtered off and immediately precipitated with alcohol. Its composition will be seen not to vary materially from that of the others. . 354 grm. substance containing 23-78 pr. ct. of ash, equal to ‘2698 grm. ash free, gave with chromate of lead -435 grm. car- bonic acid and -170 water. IL -565 grm. substance containing 35:79 pr. ct. of ash, equal to ‘3607 grm. ash free, gave with chromate of lead -5825 grm. car- bonie acid and +233 III. -499 grm. substance containing 35°79 pr. ct. ash, equal to 320 grm. organic matter, gave with chromate of lead -5015 grm. carbonic acid and ‘2125 : ‘ - ‘5475 grm. substance containing 35-79 pr. ct. ash, equal 3515 grm. ash free, gave with chromate of lead ‘5415 grm. car- bonic acid and :2335 grm. water. Y. -4575 grm. substance containing 21-95 pr. ct. ash, equal to 357 grm. ash free, gave with chromate of lead °5735 grm. car- bonic acid and -2235 grm. water. VI. -6455 grm. substance containing 34-83 pr. ct. of ash and equal to -4206 grm. ash free, gave ‘6655 grm. carbonic acid and ‘280 grm. water. i VIL. -356 grm. substance containing 23-78 pr. ct. ash, equal to ‘269 orm, organic matter, gave with soda lime ‘492 grm. chlorid of platinum and ammonium. VIIL. -5203 grm. containing 21-95 pr. ct. ash, equal to ‘406 grm., gave with soda lime and subsequent ignition of the precipitate of chlorid of platinum and ammonium °3265 metallic platinum. IX. 1:2197 grm. containing 25 pr. et. ash, equal to -9147 grm. after mixture with nitrate of baryta and subsequent oxydation by fuming nitric acid, according to Weidenbusch’s method of es- umating sulphur,* gave a precipitate of ‘0935 grm., which after ignition, treatment with dilute hydrochloric acid, and a second Weighing, amounted to -086 grm. sulphate baryta, corresponding to 0118 grm. sulphur. * Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie, vol. lxi, page 371. & Observations on Terraces. 1. va 3. 4, 5. 6. 43°59 43:74 42°75 42:09 43-08 43-15 6:96 i'ao rhe ¥ 7:34 681 7:39 11-64 11:40 11-52 11-52 11°52 11°52 1°25 ; BQ, : ’ wh Be ; 37°53 3836 39:05 3859 37-94 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 The above analyses lead to the formula C,,H,,N,O2,. AOA“!Ma Average found. Calculated. oe 43-06 43-29 H,, 7-20 7-01 11:52 11°22 O+S,, 38-22 38:48 100:00 100-00 Emulsine loses its capacity of reacting upon pi Assi with formation of bitter almond oil and hydrocyanic acid a ure to a boiling temperature in solution, but retains "Rg oneal pos distinctly after exposure in a dry state to a heat of 100° C. ours in succession. See Prussia, Dee. 1848. Arr. VIII.— Observations on Terraces ; by James D. Dana. (Continued from vol. vii, p. 14.) THERE is one point in the history of terraces which was not dwelt upon perhaps with sufficient fullness in my former commu- nication, and an additional paragraph is therefore here presented. But before entering upon it, I may make a few brief remarks on the observations by Mr. Chambers, in a preceding part of this volume.* In my former article, no particular kind of terraces was de- scribed; those in view were such as Mr. Chambers mentions in his work, if I may judge from his descriptions, and his com- parisons to the terraces of this country. The remarks offe were intended simply as a statement of the effects of an elevation in producing terraces of different kinds simultaneously,—a de- tailed enumeration of those tests, which might prove whether @ sit were marine or not, —and a notice of the mode of fixing the exact value of these different tests in the cases in view ; an it was added that if no one of the tests of marine action could be detected in the course of one or two hundred miles along the length of a valley, we should hesitate before asserting that the posits were marine. 'The evidence used for other strata is no * Page 33. | | | Observations on Terraces. 87 less needed here, especially if we consider the wide theory based n the facts. And I see not, by what authority, a private “protest” can be entered against such a course of investigation. Marine relics are too common a proof of elevations of coasts in all climates to be pronounced necessarily absent upon an uncertain general principle. n examination of American terraces, has led me to believe that in general, the terraced plain corresponds in its seaward slope with the descent of the river, although apparently horizontal. The most skillful use of the best instruments is often necessary to test the horizontality: for the descent of most of our rivers, for a considerable part of their course is less than one foot in a mile. The Connecticut, from Springfield to the sea, falls sixty- four feet, which is one foot a mile (not reckoning the irregulari- ties of its line); deducting for Enfield Falls, thirty feet, it leaves ouly $a foot a mile. The same river at Hanover, 175 miles in a direct line from its mouth, is 365 feet above the sea; and de- ducting 30 feet for Enfield Falls, 50 feet for Hadley Falls, 7 for Miller’s and Montague’s, 50 for Bellows, and 36 for White average descent of only 34 inches to the mile, and the Ohio in 950 miles, averages but 5 inches. Again, if horizontality is proved, as apparently in Glen Roy, the question of a lake origin comes up for investigation. bottom-lands many miles in width, with a terrace slope as their undary ; and the terrace slope of the river would be neces- sarily continuous with the “benches” of land bordering the Sea and estuary. Will this continuity prove the whole to have 88 Observations on Terraces. been a sea-beach? And at the mouth of the Ohio, will the height of the terrace plane above the sea be a measure of the ele- vation that took place? ‘Terraces of the same epoch would ex- tend up the Mississippi more or less interrupted, another 1000 miles and beyond ; and the height above the sea, if the measure of the elevation, would prove an increase northward, while the actual fact might be a uniformity throughout, or even a some- what less elevation to the north. The formation of wide bottom lands from such a cause cannot be doubted, for their actual exist- ence about nearly all rivers proves it ; other considerations m ay hereafter be brought forward by the writer to illustrate this subject.* The point to which I would now direct attention is one of fundamental importance in these investigations. It is this :— The deposition of the stratified material which is terraced, and the formation of the terrace plane and slope, are not necessarily of like origin. Whatever be the nature of the material that constitutes the Mississippi region, whether river coeae accumulations by gla- cier action, or a filling in from the sea while the land was at a lower level, the river would aber on as now; and if an ele- vation were to take place, the material existing ‘there would be terraced, whether of one or the other origin. As above explained, there might be terraces of river origin, although the material were rom a marine or glacial source: and the evidence from the ter- races with regard to amount of elevation would be the same in either case. Hence the question of the origin of the material and that of elevation are in part distinct. There may be river terraces, therefore, with the deposits either fresh or marine ; but it still holds that those of sea-beach origin must admit of proof to this effect from some character, manifest in one place or an- other in the course of a distance of one or two hundred miles. ere then is another point, complicating still farther the inves- tigations respecting terraces. n the discussions u rift,— which have referred in part to the very material that constitutes the upland terraces—geologists are divided among the following theories. 1. That of marine transport during submergence ;—2- that of marine transport over the emerged land, in consequence of violent earthquake action ;—3. that of lacustrine or river ori- gin ;—4. that of glacier origin ;—5. (as we recently learn) that of sea-beach origin :—and the arguments for each hypothesis are strongly urged. It is hence obvious that there is the highest ne- cessity, before deciding upon these subjects, that every possible aid in search of truth be employed. _* See Report by the writer on Geol. Expl. Exped., pp, 659, 671. i QH2t>»»V—EE Es iS Foe TS. Hunt on Chemical Classifications. 89 It should hence be remembered that— If the material is not marine in origin, in any part, it may be glacial, or lacustrine, or else a result of running fresh waters in one or another mode: and the terraces may be either river, lacus- trine, or glacial terraces, and cannot be “ sea margins.” if the material is of marine origin, it may be either of sea- beach or deep water formation, and the terraces may be either a result of action along sea margins, or estuaries, or rivers, or bor- dering lakes, or bounding glacial valleys. These are points for investigation which no protests can set aside. Art. IX.—On some principles to be considered in Chemical Classifications ; by T. S. Hunt, Chemist to the Geological Survey of Canada. (Continued from vol. vii, ii ser., p. 405.) Iv illustration of this proposition, let us consider the basic re- lations of the different classes of coupled compounds—Ist. Acids with alcohols; if in some cases it were difficult to determine which is the body losing the hydrogen replaceable by a metal, an examination of the ethers would readily remove the difficulty, for as already observed, those of the hydracids show that the acid is the species to which the ether is to be referred, and by analogy, all the ethers and vinic acids are to be regarded as species of the saline genus to which the forming acid belongs. In accordance with this deduction and with the law of basicity already cited, the ethers of monobasic acids are neutral, those of bibasic acids, with one equivalent of aleohol monobasic, and with two neutral, while a tribasic acid produces, with three atoms of an alcohol a neutral ether, and with one a bibasic vinie acid. In these the alcohol acts as a neutral body, and hence for phosphovinic acid —1=2, but the alcohols are really in a feeble degree saline and monobasic, as is shown in such compounds as C,(H, K)O and the mercaptids ; if they were to preserve this character in combination, the ether of a monobasic acid would be itself mono- basic. Cahours has found that the ethylic and methylic ethers of salicylic acid, which is monobasic, are capable of exchang- Ing an equivalent of hydrogen for potassium or barium, so that the salts thus formed are in fact the ethers of potassic alcohol and methol. ‘These ethers do not possess the power of combin- ng with ammonia, and are thus distinguished from ordinary monobasic acids; we cannot substitute NH, for H in alcohol, Which seems to be the reason of this apparently anomalous be- havior of these ether-acids with ammonia. ; Acids with Ammonia and other alkaloids.—The relations of the amids to the ethers have been before noticed, as showing a FoonD Serres, Vol. VIII, No. 22.—July, 1849. 12 ~ 90 T. S. Hunt on Chemical Classifications. close correspondence between the two classes of compounds ; the law of their basicity is known to be the same as that of the ethers. The monobasic amid acids correspond to bibasic non-azotized oues, the bi-amids of which are neutral. The suggestion which M. Gerhardt with his usual profound sagacity advanced several years since, that all the azotized acids (the nitric ones excepey? were acid amids, is strongly supported by late researches Ammonia like the alcohols, has the power of exchanging the whole or a part of its hydrogen for a metal, as in Kane’s atnidids of mercury, and such compounds as NK, and NHg,, and we might therefore expect to find the amids seckenedli exhibiting saline properties due to this; accordingly, Laurent has found that asparagine is capable of exchanging one equivalent of hydrogen for potassium, and Piria has described crystalline compounds with silver and copper of analogous constitution. Asparagine is the binamid of the bibasic malic acid, and should therefore in accord- ance with the general rule be neutral, while it is in truth mono- basic ; at the same time its acid characters are but feebly devel- oped, ‘when compared with proper acid-amids as the aspartic and oxamic acids, for the reason that they are only those belonging to ammonia. Certain anhydrid amids exhibit the same tendency to exchange their hydrogen for a metal, e. g., paramide, and prussi¢ acid, which is the formic anhydrid amid. The anilids and naphthalamids, as far as examined, appear to be subject to the same laws as the amids, Acids with Carbohydrogens.—The stronger mineral acids only, form combinations with these bodies ; the sulphuric generally yields with one equivalent, a monobasic acid, in which an equiv- alent of its 5 ea is replaced by the elements of the hydro- carbon — HO, and a neutral body _ two equivalents, e. g-, benzene and naphthalene. These compounds, as M. Gerhardt has observed, are analogous to suiphisensiinaie acid. and sulpho- methol. Sulphomethylate, S(H(CH,))O, Sulphomethol, S(CH,), O, Sulphobenzite, mee H, ~ 0))0, Sulphobenzid, S(C,H —0),0 The products which nitric acid forms with 3 an equivalent of these bodies throw much light upon the constitution of these and allied compounds; the first result of the action is generally the formation of a neutral compound analogous in composition to the sulpho-acids just mentioned. Benzene (C, H,) yields nitro- benzid (C,H, NO,), which corresponds to nitric acid in which ay replaces H, thus N(C, H, -O)O,. These analogues of the ethers sometimes regenerate the acid and organic substance * See Piria on Asparagine, Am. Journal for Noy., 1848. T. S. Hunt on Chemical Classifications. 91 by the action of alkalies (as nitronaphthalene), but more frequently the decomposition is less simple. By the prolonged action of nitric acid aided by heat or the presence of concentrated sulphuric acid, the compound first formed reacts with another equivalent of the acid, eliminating a second time an equivalent of water; the nitric species indeed comports itself with the acid, in all respects like the normal one, and the product is still neutral. In like man- her some monobasic acids, as the benzoic, yield with nitric acid, two or three acids, containing respectively one, two and three equivalents of the nitric elements. These are strictly monobasic, notwithstanding the apparent contravention of the law S=>—1, and if we consider their constitution in accordance with the prin- ciple before laid down, we shall find that the second nitrie body 1s to be regarded as a coupled compound of the first, and so on. Thus nitrobenzid being nitric acid where C, H, —O replaces H or benzenic nitrate, binitrobenzid is nitrobenzenic nitrate, where C,H, NO, -HO=C, H, NO replaces the hydrogen of a sec- ond equivalent of nitric acid; this being derived from a monoba- sic acid and a neutral body, is necessarily neutral. The same m ©, H, Cl, (acetene chloré, Gerhardt,) the ether of hydrochlo- He acid, which is at the same time a chlorinized species of ace- tene, C, H,. 1 ae The relation between phenol and benzene, is precisely similar to that which exists between alcohol and acetene, and the hydro- ican ee ee eee eae * Precis, tom. lier., p. 97. 92 T. S. Hunt on Chemical Classifications. carbons are allied to certain oxygenized compounds, as H, is to H,O. Alcohol with H Cleliminates H, O, and produces C, H, Cl, but if it were to eliminate chlorinized water (Cl H)O, it would afford normal acetene (C,H,). Phenol under certain circum- stances may probably react with H Cl, and yield chlorinized ben- zene, C,H, Cl.* The monochlorinized compounds correspond to copulates of hydrochloric acid, and the products of the farther action of chlorine with the elimination of H Cl, are species related to the parent acid, as binitrobenzene is to nitric acid ; chlorinized acetene is HCl, in which C,H,-H=C,H, replaces H, and bichlorinized acetene is equally H Cl where C, H, Cl— ‘ H, Cl is substituted for the same atom. The principles which we have attempted to develop in the preceding pages are dependent upon a more fundamental one which I have briefly announced in a late paper, and which as- sumes that the various saline forms are reducible to two, the types of which are seen in water H, O, and the protoxyds M, O and in hydrogen H, or the metals M, ; the first includes all oxygenized acids and the second the hydracids. But as many neutral oxygenized compounds which do not possess the saline character are still derivations of acids which are referable to the type of H, O, we may regard all oxygenized substances as be- longing to this type. As nitric acid and alcohol are water, an equivalent of whose hydrogen has been replaced by non-saline elements, (NO, in the one case an , H, in the other, ) and are necessarily monobasic, so is hydric ether, the result of the com- plete replacement of the ydrogen, a neutral substance. In the same way M, is the type of the hydracids in which one atom has been replaced by chlorine; of the metallic chlorids; of the molecule of chlorine Cl|Cl; of the metals and their various alloys; and moreover it follows from the relations of H Cl to the chlorinized hydrocarbons, of all that numerous class of combina- tions which are composed of those two elements, as well as the alkaloids which may be regarded as amidized species of them and which are equally susceptible of substitutions by chlorine. _ In considering the relations of the various ethers and the chlo- rinized species of the oxygen acids, the two formed seem s0 closely assimilated that it is difficult to discriminate between them, Phys., Noy., 1846. While nitric acid N HO, is H(NO,)O, the result of the complete dry nitric acid, homologue of the so-called anhydrous phosphoric and arsenic acids, which are equally (PO,)2% &. The formation of the arsenic anhydrid by heat is evidentl reaction be- tween 2 eq. of the acid eliminating an equivalent of water, As HO 3==(H(As 0,)0 +(H(As 0, )0=(As 0). O+H, O. T’.. 8. Hunt on Chemical Classifications. 93 anda farther inquiry shows that they are indeed the same, or rather that one is a simple derivative of the other. The relation is that which exists between alcohol and acetene, or water and hy- drochloric acid. If a molecule of chlorine (Cl Cl) reacts with one of a metallic oxyd M, O, it generates a chlorid in which one of the atoms of Cl is replaced by M, and a hypochlorite which is (CLM)O. The origin of the form M, O is then the replacement of Min M, by the elements of an oxygenized body —M; the reaction therefore eliminates two new bodies of the same forms as the originals. 1 composition by which HH’ and ClCl’ become H Cl HCl’. __ I think that the application of a similar view will explain many if not all of the so-called cases of allotropism, which do not ap- polymerism the metal chromium have been distinguished ; the one soluble in hydrochloric acid and the other resisting the action of aqua-regia. ERS Gaerne pint ae a See his Memoir Recherches sur les combinaisons azotés, already quoted, Ann. Chem. et de Phys, Nov., 1846. 94 T. S. Hunt on Chemical Classifications. The first corresponds to iron and the allied metals in their ordi- nary condition, while the second appears to be connected with M, which in permanganic and perchromic acids, 1 s found equiv- alent to Cl. he passive state of iron induced by eleoteiice and many other agencies, suggests itself as analogous to that of insol- uble chromium The constitution of gaseous nitrogen as I have shown in the previously quoted paper is probably NN, (N=7—O=8,) corres- ponding to the two volumes of vapor, and differs in the conden- sation of its molecule from its Sona phosphoric and arsenic in their ordinary condition. ay not the allotropic condition of phosphorus alluded to by ‘Sacra ag be an analogous molecular condition of this substance? 'T'he — would be solved by a determination of its density in that stat The difference in the specific ee Ra ‘of the two i forms of carbon, seems to indicate that the diamond has dou the atomic weight of graphite, and there are reasons for su er sing that charcoal is a still higher polymeric modification of the elementary carbon.t If these suggestions lead to an explanation * Thos eapudonert — are sentir elementary may change their contains oxygen 21-11 Water, . ‘ , 7:57 Lime, 2°20 3.04 Carbonic acid, 1:74 99:45 The composition of the mineral, deducting the carbonate of lime, is evidently a hydrated silicate of alumina and potash, in which small quantities of magnesia and iron, replace in part the alumina and water. Representing Al? (aluminicum) as Alf, and Fe: (ferricum) as Fe?,* we have, taking silica as SiO, and con- sidering the Mg as replacing in part H and Fe@, the following for- mula as very closely expressing its constitution, 58i0,+4HO, KO, 6°; AléO, ,4, FeéO or 5SiO, + 12MO, which if we take silica as SiO is evidently at once brought to Si, M, O,, or in M. Ger- hardt’s notation Si, M,0O,, which is one of the typical forms Which M. Laurent has deduced from his researches on the natural silicates. This requires a ratio between the oxygen of the silica and that of the other oxyds of 5: 4, and that of the silica being 26°60, theory demands for the bases 21-28 while experiment gives 21-11. Although it will be difficult to arrange the elements found, in a satisfactory manner, according to the ideas of the dualistic school, this close correspondence establishes beyond a doubt the type of the compound. I have deducted the carbonate of lime and determined the com- Position of the mineral for 100 rts, and then in accordance with the above formula calculated its composition according to theory. he two results are subjoined. oun Calculated. . ig’: eee . §2-08 Alumina, 7 : 2608 . ‘ 26°11 Potash, 5 10-69 en. 91088 Peroxyd of iron é 1°93 ) : 2:45 Mognesis, pi we, 2 120 1105 {rors Water, . ‘ : 7-92 j 8°33 100-10 99°85 oy The attempts to represent the composition of the natural sili- rates in accordance with the dualistic system, have tended per- haps more than anything else, to show its inadequacy to the BS 5, Seg ee * Am. Jour. of Science, vol. iv, p. 407. Stoown Sentes, Vol, VIU, No, 22—July, 1849. 106 Scientific Intelligence. the bases present, and keeping in view two simple principles; first, that in their peroxyds, the metals replace hydrogen 1n two- thirds their ordinary equivalent, and second, that the molecules of a compound are divisible to an unlimited extent, we may re- duce all the mineral silicates to a few simple forms.*— n the calculation of a formula like the above, it is necessary to keep in view this divisibility of molecules and also the fact that H, Mg, Al’, Fe, Fe?, K, and other metals, may replace each other to any extent. The Fe?O and MgO, which in the caleu- lation are for convenience represented together, supply in the mineral the deficiency which appears in the quantity of water, as well as the fractional equivalent assigned to the alumina. The mineral above described, from its hardness and specific gravity is evidently to be referred to the order zeolite. In its me of one who is among its most successful cultivators, I propose for it the designation of Algerite. Montreal, C. E., May 5th, 1849. SCIENTIFEC: INTELLIGENCE. I. Cuemistry anp Puysics. 1. On the Fatty Acids of Castor Oil; by M. Saatmituer, (Chem. Gazette for Feb., 1848 ; from Liebig’s Ann., Ixiv, p. 108.) —The author * Compt. Rendus de l’Acad., t. xxiii, p. 1050, et t. xxiv, p. 94. See also Am. Jour. of Science, vol. v, p. 405. : Chemistry and Physics. 107 resembled palmitic acid, but differed in its melting point which was constant between 140°-144° F, The fluid portion could not be separated into different acids as MM. Bussy and Lecanu had found; its lead salt was almost entirely soluble in ether. This solution decomposed by hydrochloric acid, furnished which by decomposition yields an acid to which the name of ricinoleic is applied. [t forms a syrupy liquid, inodorous, but having a disagree- able acrid taste. Its sp. gr. at 59° F., is ‘940; between 14° and 21° 36 Vs: . 8. Hunt. 2. On Taurine and a substance isomeric with it ; by J. ReEDTEN- BACHER, (Liebig’s Ann., Jan., 1848.)—When taurine is dissolved in Caustic potash and the solution cautiously evaporated to dryness, all the nitrogen is evolved as ammonia without any carbonization of the mix- ture. M tenbacher hence led to expect the artificial formation of e, by passing sulphurous acid gas in a carefully coo solu- tion of aldehyde-ammonia in alcohol the solution becomes C,H, O,,NH,+2S0,—C, H, NO,S,. It is consequently isomeric " 4h, 6 ‘ : with taurine, and as the author observes, may differ from na ee of ammonia does from urea. : [above described]. In addition to these the present memoir has made 4S acquainted with a new sulphureted alkaloid, to which the authors 108 Scientific Intelligence. have given the name of carbothialdine. When pure aldehyde-ammonia is dissolved in alcohol and sulphuret of wee added, the mixture loses its alkaline reaction, becomes warm, an a few minutes deposits shining white crystals, which when washed ith alcohol are pure carbo- thialdine. It is nearly insoluble in water, and cold ether and alcohol, ut tomy in boiling alcohol, and is deposited on cooling without chan When oxalic acid and ether are added to the solution, an dilate: of carbothialdine is deposited in slender whit needles. The new base dissolves in muriatic acid and forms a hydrochlorate, which is slowly decomposed at the ordinary temperature, and by boiling, is resolved into sulphuret of carbon, chlorid of ammonium and al- dehyde. The formula deduced from analysis is C, H, NS,, and it is derived from the elements of one equivalent of aldehyde: -ammonia, and one of bisulphuret of carbon, by the abstraction of the elements of two equiva- ents of water. [This new alkaloid is isomeric with pyrotartaramid, which is a ho- mologue of oxamid, but the results of decomposition by acids show that in Constitution it is not allied to the pyrotartrates. 18. &. On the action of Chlorine upon Benzoate of Potash; by E. St. Evre, ety: Gazette, April 15th, 1848; from Compt. Rendus, vol. xxv, p. 912.)—When chlorine gas is passed into a strong alkaline solution of benzoate of potash, an abundant disengagement of carbonic acid gas takes place after some time, with the formation of chlorid of potassium, indicating a partial oxydation of the benzoate. The result of this is a new acid which is separated from the potash salt by sul- phuric acid; it is volatile and crystallizable, and fuses between 176° and 182°. [ts analysis, with that of its silver salt, lead to the formula C,.H, ClO, or C, (H, Cl) O, in M. Gerhar t's notation, evidently corresponding toa normal species C, H, O., which differs from sant acid, and the present compound is mon o-chlorophenic acid. Like hi analogous monobasic crystallizable acids containing O,, it should yield by the action of caustic alkalies a hydrocarbon pheny len . St. Evre has obtained the mono-chlorinized species, C, (H, Cl). This by the action of nitric acid affords a nitric species C tte Cl NO,); which by the action of hydrosulphuret of ammonia is converted into a chlorinized alkaloid C, (HCl) N which corresponds to nicotine. if then we could by the action of an amalgam of potassium upon chloro- phen nic acid obtain the normal compounds, it would enable us to form nicotine artificial n the identity of Amer af dae and Chrysolepic ‘Acids, (Jour. de Pharmacie, Oct. 1, 1848, 8.)—This long disputed ques- tion has at last been hein by Prof. Murdbead, by the careful exam- ination of their salts as well as a crystallographic examination of the crystals of chrysolepic and picric acids, which Mitscherlich has shown to be identical in form. These results are further confirmed by the nena of M. E. Robiquet, deduced from the study of their lead- salts. T. 8. H. Se a ee eee ee a Chemistry and Physics. 109 tion 1:14 of chlorine—the liquid containing this quantity may occupy 50 divisions of the volumeter. bout 14 gr. of the salt to be analyzed should be dissolved in 1000 times its weight of water—when the decomposition is complete, the smell of the hypochlorite is considered a sufficiently accurate test of excess. The divisions then are to be read off and give at once the quantity of chlorine used. Indigo may be used as in ordinary chloro- metric analysis-——but in this case the liquid should be acidulated or the Indigo may be attacked in preference to the sulphuric acid. Solutions are neutral, some of the hypochlorite should be added be- fore the acid. This mode of analysis is suggested as suitable for the lower acids of Phosphorus, arsenic and antimony, &c. Hyposulphite of soda is also Proposed as a substitute for arsenious acid in erie chlorimetry. To the solution one thousandth of its weight of yellow chromate o: Potash is to be gradually added—the liquid turns brown and at last blue 110 — Intelligence. wholly or in part used. The light eee equal to that from an equal number of gas jets, and was remarkabl e. G. C. 8. 9. On a new Acid of Sulphur ; by MM. Forpos and Ge is, (ibid.) —M. Plessy has recently announced the discovery of several new sul- bur acids, but the uncertainty of the analysis left a doubt upon their existence. These acids were supposed to be formed by the reaction of sulphurous acid in solution upon proto- and perchlorid of sulphur. In the present memoir it is —— shown that the product is the same in both cases, and if time for s decomposition is not allowed, the salts of the new asi (and “there is but one) may be ee oie in a state of — perfect pur ven quantity of iii of sulphurous acid, one- tan its bear of perchlorid of — is to be added—the solution, evaporated ne half, is to be saturated with carbonate of lead, to remove sul- sheet and hydro etki acids. e chlorid of lead in solution is thrown down by alcohol. The lead is next precipitated by sulphuric acid and the liquid filtered and saturated by the carbonate of barytes. 9 oni barytic solution ae — by absolute alcohol — new salt. The salts of this acid a ; MO. e e for- a was viaahonkd se = age oe toa ow phur acid formed in ie ac- tion of sulphureted hydrogen upon solution of sulphurous acid,—al- G. propose retaining the names wea o Berzelius. We hav then— » 3,0, hydrosulphuric acid of Gay Lussac and Walter. Trithionic S$, 0, sulpho-hyposulphuric of Sanglois ioni S$, 0, first acid of Ford os and Gelis Pentathionic S,O,; new acid of The pentathionate of baryta is white, and can hardly be distinguish- ed from the tetrathionate, but by analysis—it is however more so ubl and more easily decomposed ; ; a solution of it is precipitated yellow by nitrate of suboxyd of mercury. Chlorine and hypochlorites transform it at once into sulphate ; permanganate however retains its color and only decomposes in presence of much acid. Iodine is not taken up by it. Heat evolves sulphur and sulphurous acid and sulphate of baryta re- mains. The dilute free acid is very alterable, acid and bitter, and red- dens litmus. The baryta ne ee 2 equiv. water, which may be wholly or in part replaced by ol. e new acid, ri is st be remarked, is isomeric with the hyposulphu- rous (S, O,), but its capacity of saturation, &c., is very differe In conclusion the authors remark that while studying the chloobie of sulphur, they have ascertained that they correspond in composition with the acids of the thionic series—taking Cl for O. .Cc.8. 10. On a new Borate of Soda; by Dr. P. Boutey, (Liebig’s Ann. Oct., 1848, in Chem. Gaz.)—The evolution of ammonia from the mixed Chemistry and Physics. 111 contains. ] The reaction of chlorid of ammonium with borax furnishes the au- thor with a very plausible theory for the formation of native boracic acid. He has found that boracite and datholite have the same reaction as borax. Tourmaline, axinite and other minerals however contain boracic acid. In a volcanic region, sal-ammoniac is abundant, and in contact with any of these minerals, free boracic acid will be produced. An excess of sal-ammoniac will set free all the acid, as it does with borax. The evaporation of the acid with the steam, &c., is well known ; — we have all the conditions for the formation of the lagoons of uscany. € M (Jour de Ph. et de Ch., Nov., 1848, in Phil. Mag.)—Phosphate of man- ganese, a salt of manganese precipitated by phosphate of soda and = S ar a @ 4 i) Le | % an ° ae] ma & = a o o 3 wa) OC) be re) =] a ) 2 wy Diphosphate of manganese—final permanent precipitate from acid Solution of sulphate—a reddish crystalline mass, but little soluble 112 Scientific Intelligence. 13. Phosphate and a of Lime; by W. Barr, (Poggen- dorff’s Ann. in Chem. Gaz.)—The ordinary phosphate is obtained crys- tallized by solution os situate of soda made strong by acid with acetic acid; precipitated with chlorid of calcium, it is PO, 2CaO, H 4 0 of the water is expelled at 302°, but the remainder only at a red hea Ppropbeeshate of soda with acetic acid precipitated with excess of chlorid of calcium, gives a crystalline pyrophosphate of lime P 2CaO+4HO. The preceding salt prepared with excess of py rophos- hate of soda always contains soda, and by prolonged digestion, a well defined double salt is obtained which is PO, CaO, NaO+-4H@. 14. Process of eatracting Nickel and Cobalt followed in a Manu- factory at Birmingham; by M. Louver, em. Gazette, April 16, 1849, p. 165; from Bullet. de Acad. Royale de Belgique.)—The ore employed i in this manufactory is obtained from Hungary. It consists principally of metallic sulphoarseniurets, and contains generally 6 per cent. of nickel and 3 per cent. of cobalt. These peaperiide how- ever vary. The ore is mixed with a small quantity of carbonate of lime and fluor spar, and the whole heated to a white-red in a reverberatory fur- nace ; the mass fuses at this high temperature, and a slag is obtained floating on the surface, which is removed, and a fluid mass of metallic appearance ; the latter is let out of the furnace by a particular aper- ture, and watered in order that it may be broken into fragments with greater facility. It has been ascertained from experience that when the slag is of a dull color, it contains iron; but if its surface is black and brilliant, it is free from it. The metallic mass is reduced to a very ne powder, which is then calcined at a bright red in a furnace, grad- uating the temperature so as to avoid fusion, and constantly raking itt a a a quantity of arsenious acid is driven off. The air has free access to the mass, w becomes oxydized and diminishd in weight. The calcination, which lasts for about twelve hours, is con- tinued until no more white fumes are given off, and the residue is treated with hydrochloric acid, which. dissolves nearly the whole of it; the liquid is diluted with water, and milk of lime and hypochlorite of ‘lime (chlorid of lime) added,* when a precipitate falls, which after being passed into the liquid until it is saturated ; it is discontinued when ammonia, added to a sample of filtered liquid, gives a black pele 5 if there was not an excess of sulphureted hydrogen, the precipitate produced by ammonia would be green. The sulphureted hydrogea causes a precipitate in the liquid; it is washed, and as ” is slightly soluble, a current of sulphureted hydrogen is passed into the wash- waters. The precipitate is thrown away. The cobalt is aun thrown down with a solution of hypochlorite of lime. The precipitate, washed, * The lime and hypochlorite of lime are added to hear the iron and ar poy the hypechionts, by peroxydizing the iron, admits of its being precipitated by Chemistry and Physics. j 113 in density ; it is sold as protoxyd of cobalt, The liquid from which the cobalt has been precipitated is treated with milk of lime, which pre- cipitates the nickel in the state of hydrate; this precipitate is washed, dried and heated to redness; it is then mixed with charcoal, and by means of a strong heat reduced to the state of a spongy nickel, which is employed in the manufacture of German silver. With respect to the oxyd of cobalt, nearly the whole of it is consumed in the Stafford- Shire potteries. The oxyd of cobalt thus prepared is remarkably pure. 15. On Liquid Protoryd of Nitrogen; by M. Dumas, (Compt. Rend., Noy. 6, 1848; Phil. Mag., xxxiv, 153, Feb., 1849.)—M. Nat- terer of Vienna has constructed a forcing-pump for the liquefaction of gases, by means of avhich carbonic acid and protoxyd of nitrogen can readily be obtained in the liquid state. Having procured one of these instruments, and employed it more especially for the liquefaction of the protoxyd of nitrogen, I soon perceived the necessity of using a series of indispensable precautions, but which, once adopted, have enabled Possible. I prepare it from the nitrate of ammonia as usual, and alee having dried it, pass it into Macintosh bags; a couple of pounds o Altrate of ammonia suffices. bles a mass of snow ; it melts upon the hand, and rapidly evaporates, leaving a severe burn. The liquid portion, which is by far the most abundant, and of which it is easy to obtain in one operation 40 to 50 og being received in a glass, keeps for half an hour, or even more, In the air. Srconp Srrtes, Vol. VIII, No. 22.—July, 1849. ” 114 Scientific Intelligence. In order to observe more readily its properties, I collected it in open tubes, contained in vessels at the bottom of which was placed some pumice-stone hiaieveciea? ie a acid. It then retains its trans- parency for a very long time The protoxyd of nitrogen i is liquid, colorless, very mobile and per- fectly transparent; each drop that falls upon the skin produces a very painful burn. The gas, which is incessantly liberated by slow ebul- lition, possesses all the properties of the protoxyd of nitrogen. When metals are dropped into this liquid, they produce a noise pee that of red-hot iron immersed in water. Quicksilver causes the same noise, instantly freezes, and affords a hard brittle mass, white like silver, which it perfectly resembles in appearance. Potassium floats upon the liquid, and experiences no change; the same is the case with charcoal, sul- until the whole is consumed. anieh setpinte acid and concentra- liquid without freezing. Water is instantly converted into ice; but it produces such a sudden evaporation of a portion of the liquid, that it causes suddenly a kind of explosion, which would be dangerous if merely a few grammes of water were poured at once — ~ soe 16. to obtain the gee possible amount of succinic acid from amber one of these experiments 32 oz. of amber were mixed with 2 oz. of crude concentrated muriatic acid, which had been previously diluted with an equal amount of water, and tte to distillation in a retort. By accident a very brisk fire was made, en the operation was finished, a yellow wax-like substance was i foatad 4 in the neck of the retort mixed with the sublimed succinic acid. A so mewhat loose cin- was The ionnidins substance was well washed and este by being melt- d in water and solution in absolute alcohol. In thin layers it is yel- lowish, in large masses brownish-green, lighter than water, soft, trans- a d readily soluble in alcohol and ether, fats. and liquid oils, and burns with a strong luminous flame. The analysis of the substance dried over chlorid of vitolias furnished— Carbon, - - - - - 86123 1=>6 £&857 Hydrogen, - - - - 13691 1 1 143 From the properties and composition of this substance, it agrees with a body found near Merthyr r Tydvil, in England, in narrow veins, with quartz, calcareous spar and iron ores, at Loch Fyne, in Scotland, Chemistry and Physics. 115 authors however are of opinion that the muriatic acid used for these experiments has no influence on the production of this wax-like substance, which the authors have provisionally called artificial ozocerite. 1 n the Action of Chloroform on the Sensitive Plant (Mimosa pudica) ; by Professor Marcet of Geneva, (read before the Société de Physique et d’Histoire Naturelle, Oct. 19, 1848, and communicated by their primitive sensitiveness till after some hours. f, however, when they are in this state of apparent torpidity, they are subjected again to action of the chloroform, they close as they did the first time. It ‘ y : ind of sensitiveness, at least until the next ay; som tim they even fade completely at the end of too frequent repetitions of the experiment. In all cases the effects observed are the more marke ately begin to close pair by pair, the common petiole droops, lastly the folioles of the other branches close in turn, At the end of two or nd if the plant is vigorous, n the same stalk follow their then from one leaf to another, even when the liquid disappears by €vaporation almost as soon as it is deposited. This action, as we have Just seen, appears to be communicated from the leaf to the stalk, fol- lowing in the latter a descending direction ; generally the leaves situa- * T previ : ; drop of water, placed deli- Previously convinced myself by experiment that a drop ,P cately on a leaf of the sdalhive pide jocied no movement. 116 Scientific Intelligence. ted above the chloroformed leaf are not at all affected. DeCandolle, in making an analogous experiment on a sensitive plant with a drop of nitric or sulphuric acid, remarked on the contrary, that it was the leaves above the leaf touched which closed, without those situated beneath participating in this motion.* The observation of our learned country- man is quite naturally explained by attributing to the ascending sap the transport of the corrosive poison, a transport which, in this case, would take place in the direction from below upwards. But how to account for the apparent transmission of the effects of the chloroform in the contrary direction, from above downwards? Might the descending sap more peculiarly have the property of transmitting the narcotic effects of this singular compound from one part of the sensitive plant to the other ; or might there exist in this plant some special! organ susceptible of being affected by certain vegetable poisons in a manner analogous nervous system of animals? Notwithstanding the interesting persons accustomed to engage in questions of this nature. Experiments of the same kind, made on the contractility of the sensitive plant with rectified ether, have furnished me results nearly similar to the preceding ; with this difference, however, that whilst one drop of chloreform placed on the common petiole of a leaf situated at the extremity of a branch of a sensitive plant suffices to cause most of the other leaves situated beneath on the same branch to close, ether in France, (Phil. Mag., May, 1849, xxxiv, 398; from Comptes Rendus, Oct., 1848.)—M. J. Usiciio analyzed the water from the foot of Mount St. Clair, about 400 metres from the port of Cette. - parts gave— Chlorid of sodium, . 2 2... 0. 29424 Bromid of sodium, . . . . . . . . 00556 Chlorid of potassium, . . . . 2. . . 00505 Chlorid of magnesium, . . . . . . 08219 Sulphate of magnesia, . . . . . . 02477 Sulphate of lime, eo Pee Soe So ET Carbonate'of ‘lime, 60s oF egy oy wpOiae Peroxyd of ifeny 2). eS ely op OGRE as ik J a ek ee a a 100-000 19. Impurity of Commercial Bromine, (Phil. Mag., May, 1849, vol. xxxiv, p. 399; from Journ. de Ph. et de Ch., Février, 1849.) —M. Po- enact * DeCandolle, Physiologie Végétale, vol. ii, p. 866, Chemistry and Physics. 117 and wrought-iron and weld them together on an anvil, using only gentle blows. This method is peculiarly applicable for the manufac- ture of iron articles which are intended to be made red hot, and are re- quired to be impervious to fluids or liquids; as such a result cannot be what thick: on pouring an acid into this, a brisk effervescence is pro- duced, carbonic acid and nitrous acid being disengaged. @ action of gun-cotton, in this instance, shews that it is not sim- ply dissolved, but undergoes decomposition, by which the atoms of Oxygen, in the nitric acid, enter into combination with the atoms of car- in the cotton, thus producing carbonic acid, which as well as the in period, assume a deep brown color and effervesce, the whole of the silver being precipitated on the sides of the vessel. mir- Tor thus produced is muc superior in brilliancy to those c This property is not exclusively possessed by gun-cotton ; it is found 2 in cane sugar, sugar of milk, manna, gums, and other substances Which may be rendered explosive by treating them with nitric acid. Picro-azotic acid produces, under the same circumstances, a reflective 118 Scientific Intelligence. metallic surface ; and it appears that this reaction takes place with all bodies which, when treated with nitric acid, do not furnish products of oxydation, but another series of bodies that admit of carbonic acid forming one of their constituent parts, since they at the same time give . On a Mode of rendering Substances incombustible ; by RoBert Aneus Smirs, Ph. D., Manchester, (Phil. Mag., xxxiv, 116, Feb., 49 should be compelled to build houses so liable without constant watchful- ness to instantaneous destruction ; that we should go also to sea in ves- sels made of a most combustible substance filled with enormous fires, rendering substances incombustible, or the theory of the mode to be sought after, even if the addition which I make be but a very small one Silicate of potash has been considered good. It isa soluble glass which was expected to cover the fibre of cloth or wood, and so protect it from heat. This does act to some extent, probably in the same man- ner as stones do when put into a fire of wood or coal; they take heat but give none, and are also bad conductors. If silicate of potash re- mained asa glass, it would act also by keeping out the air; but this oes not seem to be the case, as it falls after a time to a powder. pable of evaporation left on the cloth, assists in a very small degree. Sulphuric acid, however, seemed to present the most promising chat acteristics of a substance incapable of burning, and of acting so strongly on vegetable substances as to make them incapable of burning. Sul- phuric acid itself is a body perfectly burnt, or we may say overburot, aving an atom of oxygen given to it by artificial means, so to speak, which atom is difficult to separate, and therefore not resembling the oxygen of many highly oxydized bodies. It requires a high degree of heat to raise it to vapor; and the vapor formed is sluggish and heavy> remaining long where formed, and quenching flame wherever it is. ¢ destroys the texture of wood also and other vegetable substances, caus- Chemistry and Physics. 119 ing them to give out after a time gases which do not burn, mixed with some which do burn; but if there be enough of acid, forming a mix- ture which does not burn. The wood also cannot be again induced to come combustible until it be heated to redness, so as to remove all the sulphuric acid, leaving only charcoal. sulphuric acid then could be introduced into wood just at the time that the fire was going to take place, the fire would cease to take place ; and this we can do easily by saturating the wood with sulphate of am- monia. When there is no fire present there is no sulphuric acid pres- ent, as such ; but as soon as the heat rises, ammonia goes off, and sul- Sorry, however, that this is not perfect; its solubility in water is a great disadvantage, as it cannot be applied to clothes to be frequently shed. True, it is so cheap that it might be applied every washing where there are peculiar dangers; but if erson was standing very e t remaining would be enough to injure the fabric. There are however cases, such as curtains, to which this could not apply, and where it would be valuable. _ Sir William Burnet’s liquid is chlorid of zinc : he uses it for preserv- '0g wood and canvas, and also for preventing fire. I am certainly sur- prised that more use has not been made of it, being as far as I have Seen it, so efficient. I believe the manner in which the chlorid of zinc acts is very similar to that of sulphuric acid, destroying the organic matter on the approach of heat, and rendering it incombustible. It can be introduced into wood at a specific gravity of 2000, I believe; sul- “ : 120 Scientific Intelligence. the centre of a beam of wood, even if immersed in water, as the water enters with great difficulty into wood; and the solution itself cannot be introduced without forming a vacuum in the saturated vessel, and so removing all the air from the woo The first time I used this solution I found a large quantity of mould formed, and indeed it contains all the elements to increase its growth. The second time the solution was boiled in an iron vessel, and no mould formed on it; on the contrary mould was destroyed by it. The sul- phate of ammonia dissolves iron rapidly, and forms a double salt which is ee to such growths. I imagined any other metallic salt ould do, and used ordinary chlorid of manganese prepared in the lab: per aan killed all such fungi rapidly, and no more have grown My wish was 2 find a substance suited for building fire-proof ships, and I believe this would do; at any rate the ships would be fire-proof, experience pest vies tell if any other objection followed. It does not render the ood hard, heavy or brittle. I bellows it would be of the greatest advantage in mills, which now suffer so much from fire, diminishing or rather —s —— the expense of insurance. It does not hurt colors; so that even colored goods might be dipped when kept long in one in ; or ahen sent in vessels abroad. Possibly some delicate colors may be attacked, but this _ be a rare case. Iam more desirous of seeing ships built of an incombustible mate- rial, she means of escape at sea being few, and confined to few; and whilst there is any hope of doing it easily, I scarcely think it proper for any one to neglect what information may exist on the subject. IJ. Mineratocy anp Gerotoey. 1. Randanite, a native hydrated Silica ‘Aste aan by M. Sat- veraT, (Ann. de Ch. et de Phys., Nov., 1848, t. xxiv, p. 348,)—This hydrated silica exists abundantly near Algiers, pote was taken for Kao- lin. It is pulverulent and friable, forming an excessively light powder. It is infusible, but loses color and becomes grayish, contracting ¢ little. It gives up water at 16° C., but still retains a portion . 100° osing the whole only at an intense heat. It was found to consist of a parts of gelatinous silica, 9 of water, 6°48 of insoluble ie with 1°41 alu- mina, 0°55 oxyd of i iron, 0°56 lime, 2°00 of potash, soda and — and a trace of magnesia. Of the water 4°04 per cent. escaped at 16° C., and 3°96 at t 100° C., and 1 per cent. is combined with the hues Neglecting what is obviously foreign to the mineral, it has the formula Si? H when simply dried at 16° C., and Sit H when dried at 100° C. The composition resembles that of a similar een) from Ceyssat, and near Randan, in the Puy de Dome, analyzed by M. Fournet. This chemist obtained in his analysis, gelatinous ae 87-20, water, car bonic acid and organic matters 10-00, alumina and oxyd of iron n 2 sand by decantation 0-80, with traces of lime, magnesia, &c. Mineralogy and Geology. 121 Salvetat suggests the name Randanite for the mineral, in allusion to * the locality, considering its composition as Si? H. Doveri has lately announced the formation of a substance having the composition Si H, by the artificial drying of gelatinous silica. But the attempts of Salvetat to form Randanite artificially were not successful. A microscopic ex- dD o bly due from the same source. The constancy in the composition of this infusorial silica is an interesting physiological fact. - On Pistomesite and Mesitine ; by M. Breirsavrr, (Pogg. Anna- len, Ixx, 146.)—Pistomesite resembles spathic iron. Crystallization thombohedral; R:R=107° 18’, Density 3-412-8-417. According to M. Fritzsche, it consists of protoxyd of iron 33°92, magnesia 21°72, carbonic acid 43°62—99-26, giving the formula Fe C+-Mg C. reithaupt on a new examination of the Mesitine, obtained for its Composition, protoxyd of iron 24°18, magnesia 28:12, lime 1:30, car- sisting according to Karsten’s analysis, of silica 66-02, magnesia 31°94, 847 from the District of Perm. It forms small veins in tale which is some- ‘mes intersected by chlorite, and occurs only amorphous. The color 's olive-green passing into a darker or lighter shade, and paler green ¥ transmitted light. Luster nearly vitreous. H.=6. G.= 3-479 at 143° Fracture fine and flat conchoidal. Streak powder white. In nitric or muriatic acid it partly gelatinizes. Before the blowpipe Fe a not fuse, except on the edges of the thinnest splinters at a 1 heat, high a II. Composition.—Silica, 38°817 39°6 39-208 Magnesia, 43°78 44:35 44-064 Protoxyd of iron, 17°141=—99°786 17-°75=101'70 = 17-445 This gives the formula R3 Si, in which R= Mg, Fe. It is the form- ula of Olivine. 5. Neolite, a new mineral ; by M. Scugrrer, (Cifvers. af. K. Vet. Ak. Ferh., iv, 70.)—Neolite is a talc-like mineral from some old mines near Arendal, Norway, where it occurs as modern incrustations in fissures Series, Vo]. VII, No. 22.—July, 1849. 122 Scientific Intelligence. and on detached stones. It is often ae either in folia, or in concentric fibrous aggregations like Wavellite. It is greenish with a greasy luster, and a specific gravity 277 ‘after long desiccation. Hard- tained silica 52°28, alumina 7°33, magnesia 31:24, protoxyd of iron 3:79, protoxyd of manganese 0°89, lime 0:28, water 4:04—99°85. In another, silica 47°35, alumina 10°27, magnesia 24°73, protoxyd of iron 7:92, prolonys of manganese 2°64, water 6°28—99°19. 6. On Volknerite, a new mineral from the mines of maps te by M. Weta (Jour. f. Prakt. Ch., xl, 11; Annuaire de Ch., 1848, p- 154.)—Voiknerite occurs in white early lamin on tale schist, and sometimes in hexagonal tables, with a perfect basal cleavage. Feel greasy. Density 2-04. Composition Al 3H-+6(Mg, 2 7. Analysis ue Pyrophylilite of Sa: by M. paras Hara (Pogg. Annalen, Ixviii, 505.)—The analysis afforded: silica 66°14, alumina 25°87, magnesia 1:49, lime 0- a9! ead 5:59=—99 x leading to the formula (neglecting the lime and magnesia) 5Si03 2Al? OF ae 8. a lysis of Talc of Rhode Tilané ‘Sed Steatite of Hungary ; by M. A. Devessz, (Rev. Sci. et Indust., xxv, 107.)—The Talc of Rhode Island occurs in large clear foliated masses. It has two optical a imermosting at a small angle. Density —2°5657; after calcinatial rdness =1; after calcination =6, so that it scratches glass, although with some difficulty. It exfoliates when heated. og sma cs it afforded silica 61°75, magnesia 31-68, pode of n 1°70, water 4-83-9996 ; and Delosse thence deduvesi the formula 2(48i0°-+3Mg O)+-3(Mg O, HO). is author also examined a steatite from Nyntsch i in Hungary, an obtained for its composition, silica 64°85, magnesia 28-53, protoxyd of iron 1:40, water 5°22—100-00, this result leading to the formula 5(SiO2 coe ae 2HO 9. anew Hy ydrosilicate of Alumina ; Be MM. Damour and Sat- VETAT, (Ano. de Ch. et de Ph., 3e ser., xxi, —This mineral occurs assive in nests ina brownish clay near ed (Vienna). It has a soapy feel, and a clear rose color, and becomes plastic in water. Composition, according to Damour, silica 50°04, alumina 20°16, sesqui- oxyd of iron 0-68, lime 1: 46, potash 1:27, magnesia 0°23, water 26°00. It is hence allied to Halloysite. hilippsite and Gismondine ; by M. Martenac, (Ann. de Ch. et de Phys., 8e ser., xiv, 41.)—Marignac ee these species, which Kobell and Brooke ‘had united. Under Gismondine he includes speci- mens having an octahedral form, and firey mammillated, and faces not striated; and under Philippsite, those whose crystals have a rectan- ular prismatic form terminated by a 4-sided pyramid, with the faces striated in two directions oblique to one another. Density of Gismon- dine 2:265, of Philippsite 2:213. ll. On the Composition of Heulandite ; by M. Damour, (Comptes Rendus, x xxii, 926; Annuaire de Chim., 1847.)—Damour has detected in Heulandite a portion of soda and potash which simplifies the formula. His analysis gives: silica 59°64, alumina 16°33, lime 7-44, soda 1°16, Mineralogy and Geology. 123 tash 0°74, water 14-°33—99-64. Hence this mineral differs from stilbite only in the proportion of water, and it falls into the group of zeolites having the proportions 1 TAP CO? ROC T erie The following table exhibits their relations, rO siO3 HO Stilbite, 1 12 6 in which rO=CaO Harmotome, 1 : 8 iz 6 * rO=BaO Heulandite, 1 : 3 12 5 “ rO=(CaO, NaO, KO) Epistilbie, 1 : 3 12 5 * 10=(Ca0, NaO) Brewsterite? 1 : 8 12 5 ** rO=(SrO, BaO) Edelforsite, 1 : 2 ss OC. Sof 48 4 rs 12. On the identity of Osmelite and Pectolite, (Annuaire de Chem., 1848, p. 166.)—An analysis by M. Apam indicates that osmelite of Brei- thaupt is identical with Kobell’s pectolite. He obtained for it, silica 52:91, lime 32-96, protoxyd of manganese 1-44, soda 6°10, potash 2°79, alumina and oxyd of iron 0-54, water 4-01. 13. On Disterrite, from the valley of Fassa in Tyrol; by M. von Kose, (Jour. f. Prakt. Ch., xli, 154; Annuaire de Ch., 1848, 173.) — Disterrite crystallizes in hexagonal prisms, cleaving parallel to the base, and has a pearly luster on the terminal faces, with a vitreous luster on 14, On laucophane ; by M. Hausmann, (Jour, f. Prakt. Ch., xxxiv, 238; Annuaire de Chimie, 1846, p. 271.)—Glaucophane comes from the island of the Cyclades, and resembles indicolite. It has a prismatic foliated structure, a clear blue color seen by refraction. Density 3°103 Powder feebly attracted by the needle. The mean result of two analyses is as follows:—silica 56°49, alumina 12-23, protoxyd of tron 10-91, protoxyd of manganese 0°50, magnesia 7-97, lime 2°25, Soda with traces of potash 9°28=99-63. It is near Wichtyne from Finland in composition. 15. On Chloritoid,* (Jour. fur Prakt. Ch., xxiv, 454.)—MM. Erp- MAND and GeraTHEWwouL have obtained for Chloritoid or Chloritic spar the formula Fe? Al+2Al Si after the following analyses. milion, 24-40 24-931 rotoxyd of iron, 30:29 047 Al mine, ” 45-17—=99-86, Ger. 45°016=99-994, Erd. : 16. Humite.—Humite, according to Marignac’s investigations, is identical with Chondrodite. 17. On Epidote, (Jour. de Pharm. et de Chim., xiv, 3d ser., Sept., 1848, p. 214. )—M. Gernarot here cites the analyses of M. Hermann (Journ. f. Prakt. Chem., xliii, 35 and 81,) of the different varieties of Epidote, including Zoisite and Pistacite of different localities, Bucklan- dite, and Orthite or ceriferous Epidote. Hermann deduces from his * Mr. J.D. Whitney has found Masonite to agree with Bonsdorff’s analysis of 124 Scientific Intelligence. results and those of previous oo that they exemplify a new prin- ciple in chemistry, which he es heteromerism, which is the reverse of isomorphism, it saiityiage a Y ahusttuciey of crystallization with a dif- ferent proportion in the ingredients. Hermann obtains for the for- mulas of— Zoi 3[(2RO), (Si O?)]+-2[2(R2 0%), 3(Si O7)] Picante, piel (Si O2)]+-[2(R2 03), 3(Si O7)] Orthite 3[(2RO), (Si 02))L12(R? O03), 3(5i O7)] He cullen Pistacite as consisting of the Zoisite type and Buck- landite type united, the green Arendal variety containing, according to him, 2 atoms of Zoisite and 1 of Bucklandite ; and so on Gerhardt observes that M. Hermann “ doubtless preoccupied with the idea that the oxyds represented by R2 O% cannot replace the oxyds RO in isomorphous substances, has entirely misunderstood the simplic- ity of relation actually existing between the varieties of epidote. If he summed up the oxygen contained in all the oxyds and that of the silica, he would have found in all cases the simple relation of + In fact, in the several cases mentioned the actual relations are as follows, 2-94: 3:03, 3°03: 2:93, 3-01: 3-04, 3-97: 2-98, 2:91: 2°87, 2°74 : 2-70, 2°74 : 2°69, 2°62 : 2:59, 2:56 : 2-55, 2°63 : 2°45, 2°05 : 2°12. All the epidotes have therefore the general formula* O* (M*) equal to [Si? Aaa = which comprises garnet, anorthite, olivine and a great number of other minerals.” In epidote M* is represent and lime, magnesia, protoxyd of iron, or of cerium on the other. Rep- resenting the former by M? and the latter by M, the formulas of the prominent varieties are as follows: Zoisite, . ; ‘ , . Si? O4 (M8268 M132) Pistacite, . ' ; > Si? Ot (M8260 M140) Bucklandite, . ‘ . Si2 O4 (M8256 M1-44) itey-. . Si2 O04 (M82. M2) These formulas sustain wth: view of the isomorphism of these min- — n Zygadite; by M. Bretrnavpr, (Pogg. Ann., Ixix, 429. Siti vitreous. Color red and yellowish white. Feebly transparent. Density =2°511. Form of crystal a rhombic prism, and in all instan- ces observed, ig M. Plattner has detected in it nothing but silica, alumina and lith 19. Dacstn, “Foo f. Prakt. Chem., xliii, 207.)—This mina [alluded to in this Journal, vol. ii, p. 415,] has been analyzed by M. T protoxyd of lanthanum 7°56, water 3019927: from which he de- duces the formula Al* O02, Si* 0°, 9R2 O, 2Si* 08. * In this formula, Gerhardt adopts his own notation, considering the oxyds OM*) and silica Siz Oz. ik tk cctatton io sdopted in in the preceding formulas. a Mineralogy and Geology. 125 20. Muramontite, - new mineral; by M. Kernort, (Jour. f. Prakt. Chem., xliii, 207.)—Under this name the author designates a ~~ amorphous grains, with a greenish reflection. Density 4-263 to 4: 265. It consists of silica 31-09, alumina 2:23, dene 551, yttria 37-14, pro- toxyd of iron 11°23, magnesia 0°42, protoxyd of manganese 0°90, lime 0-71, soda 0°65, potassa 0°17, protoxyd of lanthanum 3°53, protoxyd of cerium 5°54, water 0°82—99-94. 21. Monazitoid, a new mineral from near Lake Ilmen; by M. Her- MANN, (Jour. fiir Prakt. Ch., xl, 21; Annuaire de Ch., 1848, p- 146.) —Monazitoid is a variety of monazite, hardly distinguishable i in exter- nal characters, consisting of oxyd of cerium 49°35, oxyd of lanthanum 21°30, lime 1-50, phosphoric acid 17-94, substance resembling tantalic acid 6: Oe B weie? 1:36, ont roa and protoxyd of iron, a trace. It has thence the formula, accord ing to Hermann, 5(CeO, LnO) PhOS, and differs from monazite in tomiitien a tantalic substance in place of tin. Its density is 5-281. Cryst ee of ees itd by N. von Koxscnarov, (Ver- handl. had hing -Kais. Min. Gesellsch. zu St. Petersburg, Jahr 1847.) —The hor, in an hits le iehibie? points out close relations be- tween ihe crystallization of Uralorthite, Allanite and Epidote, and shows them to be isomorphous. The following are two of his figures— tom Plate iv The dimensions (placing a for the vec , b for the clinodiago- nal, and ¢ for the orthodiagonal) are as Uralorthite a:b:c 1:14918:1: ‘e basis 7=65" _ Epidote, © a:b:c :1; 063653 — ~=65° 344’ The description " figure 1, according to Naumann’s system of Notation, is as follow OP ‘oP Px Po +P —P oP cP2 M T c 14 n d % u tl 126 Scientific Intelligence. The following are some of the angles obtained for uralorthite ; and in parallel columns nar corresponding angles of epidote and allanite are given. e three of uralorthite and the three measurements by the reflective ecsinie: wt from which the dimensions were calculated. Uralorthite. Epidote. pyauite fr. Orthite, Heiding Scheerer M:d = 12740’ 126°56%’ M:T= 4 114°55! 114 254 116° —-113°—116° { 65°05! { 65 344 6 M:r = 116°20' 116 124 115° 116° Ma = 108° 104 484 Tp t 128°45' 129 22 129° 130°48’ T's: Se 125°254' 124 574 {et ° 534’ 144 25 d:z = 156°28/ 156 454 1563° Bagrationite (Fogg. Ixxiii, 182), also appears to be another variety. ‘The measurements gave M: T=114° 55:2’; M:r=116° 35°6’; M:n =106° 10-5 ; T: ra) 26" 29:7. Ts 22 ISS". 25. The resemblance between the above minerals in composition is striking, as shown by M. Kokscharov, from a comparison of various analyses. 23. Niobite.—This name has been applied to the Columbite in which — ccd is ae predominant acid. Specimens from the east of Lake Ilm ve been found to agree in crystalline form with the American, as ag by M. G. Rose. The be itis ak on is 5°57. 4. On the Yttrotantalite of Yiterby. H. Rose announces (Jour. f. Prakt. Ch., xlii, 148,) that ge on vtvothinialae has the same composition, the same metallic acids, and the same density, as the tantalite of Finlan . On Eukolite, a new mineral; by M. grr, (Ann. der Ph. und Ch., Ixii, 561; Annuaire de Chem., 1848, p 50.)—Euk olite pen to ea Wahlerite, in which the greater part of fa zirconium is replaced by iacciexs of iron. Scheerer obtained for its composition, silica 47° 85, metallic acids énd zirconia 14:05, sesquioxyd of iron 8:24, lime 12°06, protoxyd of cerium be soda 12: 31, protoxyd of manganese 1°94, magnesia a trace, 0-94, 26. On Crystallized Pitchblende ; by M. Tu. Scuzrrer, (ibid.)— The crystals of pitchblende are regular octahedrons with truncated an- i y 4°1, loss and gangue 2°7. eerer does not state vaneee the metallic acids are essential constituents or derived from Maes gan 27. On Euxenite from Tvedenstrand ; by M. Tx. Sirens (ibid.) —Composition, titanic and metallic acids 53° 64, yttria 28-97, protoxyd of uranium 7:58, ib. of cerium 2°91, ib. of iron, 2°60, wate 14-04. Density 4°73, 4-76, 4°60. Approaches polyerase in crystalline fates erystalliz- ns in rhomboidal prisms of about 140°, surmounted with a Ptr whose obtuse culminant edge is yen 136°. The pike of sam ca Bk 135 to 136°; and the obtuse culminant edge of sctnaalill Mineralogy and Geology. 127 28. New Minerals; by M. Breituaurt, (Pogg. Ann., Ixix, 429.)— Pliniane.—This mineral has the composition and appearance of mis- pickel. Density =6-282. It differs from that species in being oblique in its crystallization, pertaining to the monoclinate system. Stannine of Cornwall. This species resembles somewhat a white opaque garnet. It has little luster, a pale yellowish color, and is trans- Bismuth, . : P os te 6 é . 78:40 Tellurium, . ‘ ; 15°93 ‘ : 15°68 Sulphur, . ; : aie le..s . . os Selenium, . : ‘ 1-48—99-71 } . 58 _98.66 Adopting 1330-376 for the atomic number of Bismuth, as determined by Regnault and Rose, and 802121 for the atomic weight of Tellurium, we have the formula Bi2S*+-3Bi?Te he Schemnitz ore has the for- mula Bi?S*+42Bi2Te? ; the Deutsch-Pilzen ore, BiS+2Bi Te. 30. Analysis of Copper blende; b TrNER, (Pogg. Ann., Ixvii, 422.)—Copper blende of Haidinger is distinguished from Ten- hantite, by a red streak and less specific gravi he Tennantite of tained for Copper Blende from F reiberg, copper 41-070, zine 8°894, . Tennantite, Ar S3+-4(Fe, Cu?)S Copper blende, Ar S*+4(Fe, Zn, Cu2)S. 31. Analysis of Phosphates of Copper from Nischne Tagilsk; by M.R. Hermann, (Jour, f, Prakt. Chem., xxxvii, 175.) i, Oxyd ; bh. acid, Water. Libethenite, 65:00” -28°605°50—=PhOS-+-4Cu0-+414HO beta 8-21 25°304 6:485==PhO®+-5Cu0-+2HO phoroealeite, 67°15 24:55 8 Ehlite, 66-86 23:14 10:00—PhO*+5Cu0+3HO Tagilite, 61:29 26-44. ——«10°77=PhO®+-4Cu0+43HO . Phosphorocalcite is stated to be equivalent to equal proportions of dihydrite and eblite. ; ‘ Ixxi, 516.) : endipite; by M. ScunaBet, (Pogg. Ann., !xx!, 910.)— Composition, lead § 85-69, Peat 9-87, oxygen 4°44=PbCI+-2Pb0. : a Native Antimonite of Mercury; by M. Domeyxo, (Ber- Zelius’s Report on the Progress of Chemistry, 6th year; Annuaire de 128 Scientific Intelligence. Chimie, 1848, 145.)—This mineral is a red powder from the mercury mines of Chili. . consists of antimonious acid 21:2 to 23°8 oxyd of pers with peroxyd of iron, silica and water. enical Nickel from Oelsnitz ; by M. H. COHEN Sree f. ha ees 288; Annuaire de Chem.; 1847, 211.)—This mineral was found in the green sand, in a gangue looking like sputhic iron. The ent and exists as a sulphuret. Omitting these, ‘the author considers the species as having the formula Ni S2-2Ni Ar, _™ would give for its composition nickel 32°700, arsenic 54-440, sulphur 11°860, the analysis affording (after separating the impurities) nickel 32° 185, ar- senic 54°198, sulphur 13°617. 35. On an Arsenio-sulphuret f J seme by MM. Wacxenroper and Lupwie, (Jour. f. Prakt. Ch., xl, 3 18.)—This ore of nickel occurs mas sive with spathic iron in gray wacke. Analysis afforded the formula Ni S?+-2(Ni, As.) 36. On Polymerous isomorphism; by M. Naumann, (Jour. f. Prakt. Ch., xxx ix, 196, and xl, 1; Annuaire de Ch., 1848, 142.)—M. Nav- results, Naumann also shows that the minerals fablunite, wend chloro- phyllite, esate and bonsdorffite do not sustain Scheerer’s theory ; and to account for their forms, we must admit that seal are derived from i olite, magnet, which appeared to be titanifer A rather lar, which was only 14-60, was fused on a sma nail ep‘ muffle, gave a button of alloy, the density of which was 17-48. The analysis of the grains of gold, performed on one gramme, gave the following results Gold, ‘i Ir Mr Ns eg oe a ek SORE Ce ahi NS ere a eT yee oS ll Mineralogy and Geology. 129 specific gravity of these crystals, as determined by means of attempt was made to ascer- sults were obtained os, I. P Il. 1s) sts = NH 3 {sr0s0 52320 Vi Vi. VE. VEL. ean. 84291 34:360 as ee 34325 .. oy 16-010 15-494 15°752 7540 7-820 bs 680 wei ay .. “es ee vk es “s 42-243 a very closely corresponds with that of the ammonia-phosphate of 8, or microcosmic salt, the formula for which is Na, NH,, Ph-+-10H °F according to Graham, oNBeerer Na O, NH, O, PO,, HO+8HO. s * Mem. Chem. Soc., vol. iii, part 16, p. 13. “RCoND Serres, Vol. VIII, No. 22.—July, 1849. 17 . 130 Scientific Intelligence. The original crystals contained the following constituents in 100 ris as: Crystallized ammonia-phosphate of soda, y . 91660 rganic matters, (urates, humates, a ; é 1:956 Phosphate of potas ee é ‘ traces. Chlorid of sodium, d ‘ 0°520 Carbonate of lime, 0-280 Carbonate of magnesia, traces Phosphate of lime 100 Silica, sand, &c. F ery 2°151 Water and toss; i 3 ‘ ; ; é . 13382 100-000 With a, to the manner of the formation of this salt, it is ex- tremely difficult to comprehend how such a compound as the ammonia- phosphate of he could be produced by the mS ka of a sub- stance so remarkably deficient in the alkalies as guano. For unless we conceive that there was in this case a peculiar and apeiinl source of the soda, we must of necessity admit that it was obtained from the decom- position of ie chlorid of sodium of the sea-water by the phosphate of ammonia of the guano—the resulting chlorid of ammonium being either volatilized at the high temperature of those climates, or, from its extreme solubility, dissolved out by the rain-water and carried into the sea or the lower strata of the guano deposits. We well know that - : fore, also take place when the salts are in solution? I think it very probable. This being the first instance in which the ammonia-phosphate of soda has been met with as a natural production, 1 propose to class it amongst our minerals under the name of ‘ Stercorite.”* 1 shou have preferred to have given it that of Goines as being more indica- tive of its origin, but this has been already applied by Mr. Teschemacher to the ammonio-magnesian phosphate, another product of the decom- position of guano. I have also examined another salt which was met with in the same cargo of guano as the preceding, to which it bore a very close resem- blance, both in physical and chemical properties. Like it, it was fran- gible, crystalline, oe readily soluble in water, and gave off ammoni- ca when heated to redness or when treated with caustic potash 5 it also gave a valle precipitate with nitrate of silver; but it differed from it in efflorescing upon per aoe to the air, and in not giving a pre- cipitate with antimoniate of pota e primary form of the oryataly as nearly as could be determined from the few imperfect specimens in my possession, was an oblique rhombvidal prism, with a dihedral summit. ‘ie redissolving these in water and recrystallizing by spontaneous evaporation, long acicular crystals were obtained, which, when dried between pieces of bibulous paper and subjected to analysis, afforded the following results: * From the Latin “ Stercoro,” to dung or manure land. id Mineralogy and Geology. 131 ]. 2-131 grains of the crystals, when heated to redness, lost 1-034 grs. in weight of water and ammonia. If. 1-940 grains gave 6-039 grs. of ammonio-chlorid of platinum =0°465 grs. of ammonia. II. 3-500 grains gave 10-539 grs. of phosphate of lead, which gave 11-786 grs. of sulphate of lead =1-854 grs. of phosphoric acid. Or, in 100 parts: t II Water, t Ammonia } 48:52] { , Ill. 23980 .... 23-980 Phosphoric acid, ‘ n conclusion, | should perhaps observe that the guano from which the above substances were obtained was exceedingly moist, and pos- Sessed a strong ammoniacal smell. ee 39. On the probable extent of the Flora of the Coal-Formation in tain; by Dr. Hooxer, (from a Memoir on the Vegetation of the Carboniferous Period, in Jameson’s Jour., vol. xlvi, 1848-49. 132 Scientific Intelligence. under growth of a limited number of kinds of fern,* for a very limited number of them (comparatively speaking), if as protean as some 0 their allies are in our day, would embrace all the known species of the ossil Flora. In the temperate latitudes particularly, a recent Flora marked by a preponderance of ferns, is almost universally deficient in species or other orders; as is thus shewn. 1. Where one species prevails over a considerable area, as the bracken ee a does in parts of Britain, and the P. esculenta in Van Diemens Land and New Zealand, it generally monopolizes the soil, qhokting ‘ante of a ‘ne growth on the one hand, and adnmitting no undergrowth of smaller species on the other. 2. A luxuriant vegetation of many species of ferns, continued ing pla arison of the vegetation of Tasmania and New Gnd ean ie The former of these islands, barely 200 miles i contains four times as many species of flowering plants as New Zealand, whose total length is 900 miles. On the other hand, this ‘seas “conte possesses more than four times as many kinds o and Sandwich Islands. Take, on the other hand, the campos of Brazil, the sandy flats of Southern Africa, and the somewhat similar plains of Australia, and sterile though they appear at first sight, they will be found she abound in many kinds of flowering plants; but unaccompanied with erns. This prevalence of ferns has been long adduced in proof of the cli- mate of the carboniferous period being temperate, atin and humid ; doubt, it was; but I am not aware that it has been hitherto general poverty of the whole flora which characterized that formation. If, however, the laws of existing vegetation are to be considered as hav- ing had equal force at that time when the fossil one flourished, we must conclude that the predominance of ferns in general, and of certain species of Pecopteris (a fern apparently allied to our Pteris), over @ ea sils with those of North America, are all indications that the flora 0 not excee a ve ei ac dl n, whih inthe neigh searcely a dozen flowering plants and trees in abou Mineralogy and Geology. 133 ey to the north of India, has been “sei in all ages by names de- rived entirely from Sanscrit, the Greeks and Romans neither coining _ appellations nor even translating re sense of the Indian ones into ir own languages, but adopting almost unaltered the Sanscrit names Had “9 nd. These are Hemachal, Hema-achal, snowy mountain ; seg ri, Hema-adri, the same; a malaya, Hema- alaya, place of Hemoédaya, Hema-iidaya, source of snow; (as Suryddaya, ae latter with the physical croerhy of northern India, may prove “ resting, since no one - self I believe is in a position to note . Sepa of the s ra gsnrsh te with the distribution of waters chon. dian > eastern half of this magnificent theatre of nature’s Andean Peaks. Feet. Himalayan Peaks. Mines wa 5 . » 25,400 | Nanda Devi, . . . . 25,749 Des anl,. . . 24,850 | Dhavala girl, . . . . 27,060 De ya cassada, 19,570 Gosainthan, . . . . 24,700 oo ‘ . 21,100 | Kanchan sd . . 24,000 imborazo, . 21,441 | Choloy . . . . 26,000 Himanayan Peaks. Nok ames, Relations. o Known cone : . Basin of the Indus, Alpine Paunjab. Na ne Gangetic basin, East end. nda Devi (above Rohilkhand), Alpin Ratan basin, West end, pine Karnalic basin, East end. Alpine basin of Gandac, West end. Dhavalagiri (above Gorakpoor), the valley of Nepal), Alpine basin of Cosi, West pat San Cosi. Alpine Basin of Cosi, East end, _ ance Alpine my of Tish- ta, West end, Bom Alpine basin of Twa, "ant end, Painomchu. Alpine basin of Mo- nas, West end, Baréli. Khanchan Jhinga (above Sikim), Gosainthan vel Dayabhang gt "r Alpine basin of Gandac, East end. Cholo (above Bhutan), . ak 134 Scientific Intelligence. The latter of the above tables shews with distinctness the connec- tion that exists between the greatest elevations of the snowy range and the aquatic system of the Sub-Himalayas, so that the great snow peaks are really entitled to be considered divortie aquarum on the Indian side of the snows, whatever may be the case on the Tibetan side: and, it is observable that at those points where the transnivean origin of our however, are detached and stand on the plain of Tibet. Cholo is near to Chumalari and not detached. Of the innumerable rivers of these regions the only ones with ascertained transnivean sources are the their rise at Gangri, the great water-shed of the plain of ‘Tibet, close to Lake Mepang vel Manasrovar, and the fifth or Arun from the northern slope of Hemachal in the district of Tingri. These five rivers are, as might be expected, the largest of the whole, both the Karnali and Arun exceeding the Ganges or Jumna within the mountains, and being nearly equal the one to the other. Gangri is probably the Kailas of the Hin- dus, whence diverge to the four quarters of the rs om the four great — of Bharat des. I have said above that only of our rivers ave trans-Himalayan sources. It is however cit though unas- sna i that the Painomché and Monas arise beyond the snows, and regs is Sho vel Bhutan, and his Mon vel Moun the Cis-Himalayans gen- erally, he mean have been more accessible to recent evidence against his theory.* and general elevation of the snowy region spreading over some Sg saad relatifs 4 P Asie 3,37 nite mie Ss Map. + Tanglo and Singchal in in Sikim, 10 Zoology. 135 to 2000 miles, with a breadth or depth of 20 miles, peaks above 5 miles high, distributed throughout ts whole extent, and passes similarly ex- tended, yet seldom or never falling below 15,000 feet ; and all this though we admit Humboldt’s somewhat theoretic negation of the gene- ral opinion, that Hemachal, and not, as he contends, Kuenlun, is the chain which divides Asia from end to end Ill. Zoouoey. 1, Synopsis of the Genera of Gammaracea; by James D. Dana.— The tribe of Amphipoda among Crustacea includes the subtribes Gam maracea and Hyperiacea. The former of these subtribes consists of six pie or families Fam. 1. Grete. Saltatorie. Palpus mandibularis obsoletus. Corpus oa baat epimeris latis. Styli caudales duo postici breviores. Fa MARID&. Saltatorie vel natatorie. Mandibule palpi- An gere, orpus @epius compressum. tenn fagelo confectz, non pediformes. Styli yes duo postici sive ge ae Fa OROPHID#. Gressorie. Corpus plus minusve depressum, m. lineare, abdomine o ech normali, epimeris asietjenis vel obsoletis. Mandibula palpigera. Antenne pediform Fam. 4. Ictuinz. Corpus dépressum, intum, abdomine normali, in- flexo, | pedibus late expansis instar ojgrenes ®. agg non pediformes. Fam. 5. Cueturips. Corpus vix compre Abdomen male, segmentis duobus tribusve cialis et Freaulasiba stylis “scials bus sex, dissimilibus. Antenne breves pediformes. Fam ULICHIDE. Isopodis affines. Corpus depressum, lineare. Antenne pediforme 8. bdomen abnormale, 5-articulatum, stylis werd ediformes. Pedes tertii quartique breves, sex seque tes elongati, Beisreliosien In the foll 8 is included so far as it is not con- ma in the srg en a by Miln me Rivas pints se 0); — da pian on a single point in the distinctions of genera. payee e of the bans an among th: mmaridz has often been eee ed to some extent = co eanaiasabanacs = my pe it is now well known that the patatinas | in the same gro up are shosenasar and farther, females may "em minute har rehenaile feet, while in males of the same ies the co ni e quite Oret ground, Fr, Miiller has lately denied the propriety of separating t sti, and Talitri (Archiv fiir Naturg., 1848, p. however a wide difference betw he species styliform joint terminating the second ac of legs and those wit a — however minute _ op oie ag Aviad appears e@ writer to ist in drawing the line wie: sche or claw however ica ie im: aicaing upon the ath esa those specie having mn extended finger or claw not closing up. Kréyer's Anonya, accor rding to his descrip- ee * The oP genie of ~ Explori ition under Ca) ig in Wilkes will form a ith figures snd including upwards of 150 s ies, has new species of Amphipoda in the collections exceeds eig 136 Scientific Intelligence. The larger from species cain ved i in high northern latitudes. Tie kable that the form in this tthe should be so greatly selors in the colder seas, = F confined to so few gen- era in tropical latitudes Fam. 1], ORCHESTID. . Pedes secundi non subcheliformes. Antenne su- ' periores basi inferiorum breviores. Talitrus (Latreille). Pedes primi secundique subcheliformes. os superiores basi inferiorum breviores. Maxillipedes ad ese obtusi. Orchestia (Leach). . Pedes primi secun dique si Se ee exporores cece basi inferiorum longiores. Maxil- lipedes icem unguiculati. Allorchestes (Dana.*) Fam. Il. GAMMARIDA. Sus-ram. I. LystaNassinz. Antenne co ath ad basin crass. Epimera grandia. Pedes sex postici non prehensi I. Pedes wobibellforiee nulli, schenndia interdum exceptis. a. Pedes quinti sexti septimique directione similes. 1. Antenne superiores appendiculate, Lysianassa (M. Edw.). 2. Antennz superiores non appendiculatee. Phiias (Guérin). b. Pedes quinti tertii quartique directione similes. 1, Antennz sup. appendiculate. Palpus mandibula- ris 1-articulatus. Stegocephalus} (Kroyer). II. Pedes ‘so subcheliformes, secundi non subcheliformes; reliqui non prehensiles 1, nines su 82. ypmaden ate. ist (Kréyer). 2. Ante op non appendiculate. Pedes secundi maa d ck sigbeaes "tertai quartique brevissimi. Uristes (Dana). III. Pedes primi secundique subcheliformes, am non prehensiles. 1. Antenne sup. appendiculate. nonyx§ (Kroyer). 2. Antenne sup. non appendiculatee. Btonie (Dana). * The species of this genus have the aspect Amphitoe, and have proba- bly been hitherto referred to that genus. withey have 2 : very short posterior stylets of the Orchestiz, and resemble them in habi absence ra pus to the mandible ; es warn differ in having the sero pea longest in the stout spine or claw mulbsting§ the nit writer has dissected the mouth of nearly a Pi ig sof Allore + Kray er’s N; atrhistorc Tides (Copenhagen,) iv, 150, 1842.“ coe oculis, ut aoe destit: * Antennze “ Pedes quint i rtii quartique paris s structura et directione similes.” m : a iv. 149. “Pedes primi, paris chelis armati portentose magnitudine. Re- sagt Zoology. 137 IV. Pedes tertii quartique subcheliformes. _ 1. Antenne sup. appendiculate. Pedes tertii quar- tique validi, articulo ene dilatato instar palme, ungue conico, aculeato Pontoporeia* (Kroyer). Suspram. II. GamMarinz. 4 : ee Antenne superiores ad basin tenues. Epimera sive grandia sive an- gusta. Pedes 6 postici non prehensiles. I. Pedes subcheliformes pulli, secundis eel interdum exceptis. 1. pp sg appendiculate. Alibrotus (M. Edw.). 2. Antenne sup. non appendiculate. Acanthonotus (Owen). II. Pedes en subcheliformes, secundi non subcheliformes, reliqui so prehens tang sup. salute tilde Leptochirus+ (Zaddach). III. Pedes primi secundique subcheliformes, reliqui non prehensiles. Antenne secund@ sublus primas insite. i toti uni-articulati. a. Pedes sex postici similes, 1. Afftennz: s sup. appendiculate. Gammarust (Fabr.). 2 Antenne sup, non appendiculate. Amphithée§ (Leach). _ * Tids. iv, 152. “Pedes a et secundi paris perbreves, robusti; illi manu lata instructi ungue vero brevi m faceted ungueque pre wediti rudimentari. recurvi, oad rin permagno, clypeifo pimer + oo Crust. Prase. Pt Picardie 1844. This genus is stated to be allied to Am- + From the Be yeete Gammarus, Leach separates :-— Mara (Edin moon re vii, shine Trans. Linn. Soc., xi, 359.) Manus secunde valde wale ', Majore cbens:c =e (Edinb, Boere, vii ii, 403.) Digitus pedum secundi paris in latus mands the f Rathke (Fauna der Krym, Mem. Acad. Imp. St. Peters 1837, p. 291, sand Beit. zur seme — Act. Leop., xx Bd.) includes Gammari w ch have the superior an ‘shortest—apparently an unimpo: § Anphite ee the — and Pherusa 0 ach. Husirus of Kroyer (Tids., N. Ri, 01,) is somewhat peculiar in the form of ie coaaiede but the tions . spi are such that the character is not sufficient even ~_ subgenus. ; oe ° ands to which the name alludes is common to man ee, females Leop., ~ e Iphimedia of Rathke (Beit. zor Fauna Norwegens, p- 85; er ken = ed a to differ title et Amphithée _ — ve hig iher latitudes. yn the same “ Ante ‘ unculus e tribus, me quatuor ar wanalanoas inferior = eat = multiarticulatum. Pedes Secundi ~ manibus simplicibus, primi paris, illis res, chelis ct einen uno tantum constat. Reli “i : ‘Spurii in duos ramos plus minusve aioe divisi. Secoyp Sxrres, Vol VIII, No. 22.—July, 1849. ” 138 Scientific Intelligence. | b. Pedes sex postici.s non similes, . Pedes quinti recurvati, inversi, ungue rudimentari. Pdi sup. non appendiculate. Photis* (Kroyer). 2. Pedes septimi longissimi, tenues, fere pees i Antenne sup. non appendiculate. Frons in cta. Cdicerus} (Kroyer). + Duo quatuorve digiti bi-articulati. Pedes digitum bi-articulati. Antennz sup. a a rea aa Leucothée (Leach). i Dede paar be bi-articulati. Erichthonius (M. Edw.), 3 Pedes primi se pe 8 — bi-articulati. tenn tenues, sup. pom: Pardaliscat (Kroyer). B. Antenne secunda@ post primas insite, fronte in rostrum productd. 1. a uni-articulati. Pedes 6 postici similes. An- tenne antice appendiculate Ischyroceras (Kroyer). IV. Pedes tertii quartique prehensiles ; sequentes non prehensiles. A. Antenne secunde@ subtus primas insite. 1. Manus tertiz quartaque aun ae pollice instructe. Digiti uni-articulati. Ante appen- Lepidactylis§ (Say). 2. Manus tertie quarteque articulis tertio bsg e instructe, et — articulis eeqneetbue coalitis. Cor- pus ibid gw See Anten ae appendiculate. Protomedeial (Kroyer). tertio instructz, et digiti tf articuli ee Legions “artito ultimo longissimo, gracillimo. ze graciles. Epimera magna. Ampelisca4 (Kroyer). 4. Manus tertize said articulo quarto instructz, et i otees ts articulis quin eg ee Corpus cbieper Antenne su yrs diculate ; inf. subpediformes. Pedes primi secundique subcheliformes. Aora** (Kroyer), Tids,, iv, 155. “Corpus sat ay compressum. —— ee pewecd tinenitt diculari destitute.” “ Epimera permagna ; quinq —— — ‘nferiorem Setis sat longis ions quintum ao est a eer iaadies, at Tide, iv, 155. “Frons in rostrum producta, plus minus acutum obtusumye, semper vero nodo pellucente, ovali, flavo. rubescente, turgidum. Oculi nulli?” ; quart pt secundi pt u armati subehelforni pennies. Pedes tertii, RS a a ey eee ee ate Tide, iv, 153. “Caput : crassiusculum, subtumidum. Epimera exigue magnitu- | | | ] “ Pedes tertii q ne paris ung , posticé subtiliter serrulato. ers reliqui clongati, sat debiles, femoribus subangustis.” § Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. of Philadelphia, i, 380. Superior antenne appendiculate, shorter than the inferior pair, | Tids., iv, 154. « posh aus inferiores wena pedunculo jcneeeen flagellum r ter ad minus longitudine superante. Pedes di paris paryi, manu non instruct i subcheliformi.” “Epi sat bre via.” | Tids., iv, 154. “Pedes primi secundique paris nulla instructi manu subcheli- formi.” Spe quinti sextique paris articulis — compositi quinque, quorum ultimus ad finem marginis p est rudimentari, recurvo, immo- bili (vel para mobili). Septimum i a par posse laminari, lato, natatorio (2)” “Oculi simplices (#)” “Epimera magna.” “Sextum pedum abdominalium um par nata- Reliqua ut in genere Amphithde.” ** Tids, N. R., i, 328, 1845. “Quintum po par brevissimum, robustum ; um par septimumque quinto multo longiora sed graciliora.” = Pelee, abdouniaptee is saltatorii.” - Zoology. 139 | B. Antenne secunda te primas insite, fronte in rostrum productd. anus tertie quarteque articulis tertio quartoque , et we ar sents peg An- Phoxus* (Kroyer). Susram. III. Isainz. Pedes sex quatuorve postici subprehensiles. . Antenne secunde subtus primas insite. Gamm similis, Pedes decem postici similes. Pestata su “ng mppeit diculatee. Iscea (M. Edw.). : th Pedes tertii may septimique crassé cheliformes; : undi minores; primi quarti quinti minimi, Digiti toti uni-articulati. Anisopus (Templeton), B, Antenne secunde post primas insite, fronte in rostrum productd. 1. Pedes decem postici subcheliformes, similes. Laphystiust (Kroyer). Fam. III. Coropnipz. a. Digiti duo 2-articulati. 1. Antenne tote mse confecte. Caput et seg- mentum proximum coalita. Pedes quart qninti eae obsoleti? Cerapodina (M. Edw.). 2. Antenne flagellis carentes. Cerapus (Say). b. Digiti nulli 2-articulati. * Antenne inferiores flagellis carentes. 1. Pedes secundi non subcheliform hed mic (rat) 2. Pedes primi secundique s alchalitoAinee Podocerust (Leach). a ntenne quatuor flagellis gracilibus confecte. secundique subcheliformes, Antenne es prim disiens A en ulate Uneiola§ (Say). 2. Pedes prir ni seoundign a 2 ee Antenne Superiores non ‘pppoe Atylus (Leach). . * Tids, iv, 150. “Sextum pedum par ceteris multo longius.” “ Epimera | Tids, iy, 156, « = sat nt ees — valide.” “Pes eadem ferme longitudine. ones ediocris magni 8; quartum productum.” t The Siphonaecetes of Kréyer (Voy. Scand. ete. 1838-1840, pl 20, yee 1; Tids., N. R,, i, 481, 1845) ‘aiffe ers ae Tak only in having the posterior legs longer than the four preceding. In _ be he says, p. 491 — “Pedes thoracici primi et 2di paris validiss ssimi, manu instructi subcheliformi. Pedes aii et 4ti paris arti iculo prime latissimo, laminari ; 0 quarto obeordato, laminari manum ] feel. Sexto aciculari, Pedes Sti 6tique F paris minutissimi, sed mite recurvati, articulo no clavato, ungue fur Pedes 7mi paris , recurva articulo primo on ungue minutissimo, furcato. Pedes abdominales Imi, 2di et 3tii paris nata- torii_breves validissimi rhomboidali; pedes 4ti, 5tique paris saltatorii, pes abdomin instructus lami is the description, wer — * Antenne superiores fo orate appendiculari rparvo. Ocul Mainuti, parum distineti btog duos feu ramos ae dentin 1440 ~——Ss« Scientific Intelligence. ° oe longe, gaene crasso rigidoque, obsoleté articulato. rmes, coe es filiformes, non pissin pac pein przlon Clydonia (Dana). Fam. IV. Ictipz. 1. Pedes postici sublamellat Pterygocera (Lat.). 2. Pedes toti vergiformes, null prehensiles. Ieilius (Dana). Fam. V. CHELURIDE. Abdomen ad extremitatem | erased ylifeteon, (seg: mentis q yli forme oye * ic coalitis). Chelura* (Philippi). Fam. VI. DuvuticnHipz. is pecan Abdomen 5-articulatum. Segmenta thoracis sextum septimumque coalita. Dulichia} (Kroyer). 2. On the Kongee Juice; by M. Bernarp,t (L’Institut, No. 791, Feb. 28, 1849.)—Alimentary substances have been arranged by some recent chemists in four groups :—substances soluble by themselves and consequently absorbed directly by the veins and the digestive tube ; amy- laceous substances converted into sugar ; fibrinous matters requiring a special fermentation in order to become soluble; and fatty substances, liquids which mixed with the aliment. They have shown that the oa tric juice has for its primary object the digestion of azotized substances. It remained still to discover the agent operating in the formation of chyle properly so called. M. Bernard argues on the following grounds, suggested by Serna that this remarkable function belongs to the pancreatic juice sunt armati conicis; tuberculus molaris dentibus confertissimis eine Lain superius breve, depressum latissimum, a e ante aati ; labium infe- rius quatuor compositum laminis setosis. Lamine mazillar real rnacrillarfem dentibus armate vals — pes vers ston Pes nets i paris tea one manu subcheliformi ; — secu , Manu carens subcheliformi, pedes 3tii, — paris pergraciles ; porto sti, 6 : nicyue paris graciles femoribus dilatatis. Pedes abdominales Imi 2di et 3tii paris natatorii, breves sed ro preg 5 46, ee | nae — validi; eA paris fere rudimentares, natatorii. Epim- “ "Philip pl, gree for seating 1839. Also on Chelura terebrans, G. J. Allman, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., rer Beg oe 1847. + Kroyer, Tids, N. R., i, 512, 1845, and Voy. Scand., ete. pl. 22, fig. 1 “Corpus valde elongatum gracili. Aatola longissim (imprimis “perio “a iformes ; superiores fl per instructee —— i — uli prominentissimi, acu- minati. Pedes 1mi paris compressi, manu (art 4to) magna, wt ig a i i (qui nie articulo Bto 6toque jet ft) Pedes 2di | | | Be ML ae PT PE cep ee ee ee St eee» Zoology. | (1.) The pancreatic juice, when pure and recently formed, emulsion- ates fats or oils with the greatest facility; the emulsion remains for a long time and the fatty bodies soon undergo a fermentation which sep- arates the acids they contain. (2.) The chyle begins to be collected in the chyliferous ducts about that part of the intestinal tube where the pancreatic juice is mixed with the alimentary matters. (3.) When the pancreas are affected, the fatty substances contained in the aliment pass without change into the dejections. The memoir of M. Bernard has been reported upon favorably by MM. Magendie, Milne Edwards and Dumas, a commission of the Acad- emy of Sciences of Paris. 3. A description of the characters and habits of Troglodytes gorilla ; by Tuomas S. Savace, M.D., corresponding member of the Boston Society of Natural History ; and of the Osteology of the same, by Jer- FRIES WyMAN, M.D., Hersey Professor of Anatomy in Harvard Uni- versity, Boston, 1847, (extracted from the Boston Journal of Natural History. )— e have here another species added to the list of anthro- poid animals from the banks of the Gaboon river in Africa, an animal chimpanzée. Such a belief with regard to their habits exists among a natives, who regard the chimpanzees as possessed of the spirit of a 142 Miscellaneous Intelligence. and vert are of gigantic size and are indicative of the immense strength of the arms, which are in relation not only to the arboreal life, but, if the vantaines of the natives be correct, to the immense bulk of its body. The ot. are the more important of the specific characters enu- merated by yman, ” which the Engé-ena is distinguished from the Encheé-eco or fra 1. By its great 2. By the existent of large occipital and interparietal crests in the males. 3. By the great strength and arched form of the ggconnse arches. 5. By the form of the anterior and posterior nasal orifice 6. he the existence of an emargination on the posterior athe of the hard palate. 7. The incisive alveoli do not v8 beyond the line of the rest of the face as in the chimpanzée and ora . The ulna is much shorter than the hu 9. The distance between the nasal orifice ond the incisive alveoli is less than in the chimpanzée This valuable memoir is illustrated by four quarto plates. IV. MiscELLANEOUS INTELLIGENCE. 1, Telegraphic Operations of the Coast Survey.— Velocity of re Galvanic wave, (from the Us Am. Philos. Soc. Philad., vol. v, p. —Dr. PartTerson, in the name of Prof, A. D. Bacueg, tata hetars re Society, an abstract of a rd. made by Mr. Sears C. Walker, of “a results of the telegraphic operations of the U. S. Coast Survey, made by him on the 23d January last, between Washington and Philadelphia New York and Cambridge, Mass. A letter from Prof. Bache t Patterson, accompanying the report, was read by Prof. Rennie Washington, March 1, 1849 Dear Sir,—Will you please communicate to the American Philo- sophical Society a brief abstract of a Report made to me on the 2Ist ultimo, of the results of the telegraph operations of the U.S. Coast Survey, made on the 23d of January last, between Washington, Phila- delphia, New York and Cambridge, Mass., by Mr. Sears C, Walker, cain having charge of the telegraph operations e object in view was to test the practical working of the method of imprinting the dates of star transits on a graduated clock register. The three astronomical stations, selected for the occasion, were the Philadelphia Observatory, under the direction of Prof. Kendall; the New York City station, in the private residence of Dr. L. M. Ruther- ford, under Prof. E. Loomis; and the Harvard Observatory, Cam- bridge, under Prof. Wm. Cranch Bond. In conformity with the plan of his Report of December 15, 1849, duplicate records were kept at the Washington Northern Telegraph office, by Mr. Walker and myse The astronomical clock was located at Philadelphia, and rated for several days by Prof. Kendall. It contained two tilt-hammer electro- tomes, one invented by Mr. J. J. Speed, Jr., of Ithaca, N. Y., in 1847 ; | 1 E : : Miscellaneous Intelligence. 143 occupying an inch of paper of the Morse’s registering fillet. Mr, Walker reports, that a comparison of sixty records, made by the two registers at Washington, shows that the probable error of the me- chanical operation of printing and reading off, is only about fifteen- thousandths of a secon This confirms the estimate of accuracy of the work made by him in his report of Dec. 15th last, viz., of a hundredth of a second for the case of an automatic register of single seconds, with an inch of paper to each. It further appears, from the Report, that when the star-signals were given at Philadelphia, so that the clock and signal-waves had the same local origin, all the registers at all the stations, marked alike, within such limits as were indicated by the probable error just mentioned. / When, however, the star-signals were given at New York, small, but appreciable, differences were noticed in the respective readings of the apparent date of the same event as recorded at the different stations. This discrepancy was still greater for the case of the Cambridge star- are reported as follows. The times A, B, C and D, respectively de- note the time of passage of the galvanic wave between W and P, P and N, N and C, C and W. For reasons connected with the analytical theory of longitudes, by telegraph operations, as published in Mr. Walker’s report of Nov. 10 1847, and in the recent report of the 21st ultimo, the mean of the two Series is the most plausible value that can be derived from the printed record, given by Mr. Walker, Dec. 28, 1847, in his report on the telegraph Sperations of 1847, ae se several sources of error are nearly all eliminated by the man- her of forming the residuals of these tables, and being in their nature Periodical, disappear in the average of all the results. It may also be 144 Miscellaneous Intelligence. remarked, that the outward and inward armature times of the magnets of the local registers, are relatively annulled by their having the same value for the clock and signal electrotomes. According to Mr. Walker's report, these residual quantities, from change of relative oo of origin of the clock and signal waves, may all be explained by the hypothesis that the time of propagation of the galvanic wave from the ster of the clock or star signal stations, to that of the receiving register, though small, is not quite insensible. A solution of the eighteen equations of condition formed on this hy- pothesis, by Mr. Walker, give, for the velocity of the propagation of eight hundred miles per second, with a probable accidental r, as t by him, of about one thousand miles. The statistics are too incomplete to warrant any discrimination between the time ropa- gation of the wave through the different kinds of media, viz., the wires, the batteries, (three in number,) and the ground. Afier applying th the m greater than the probable errors, from = comparison of the two ashington registers. All the readings now harmonize as well as if all “the clock and star signals, and all the ortho records, had been made in the same place. The result is one of much interest to the progress of science, and of special importance in the longitude operations of the coast survey. pparently attributable to wave time, is too great to be neglected in telegrap ier onys for Heap tios intended to be used as data in connection with ge cal measurements. more extensive series of operations, with more complete mechanical arrangements, will be undertaken in the course of the ati seaso ery truly your ‘A. D. Bacue. Dr. R, M. Patterson, Pres. Am. Philos. Society. Table of Relative Distances. | Receiving Kelative miles trav- mt Saas Station Wave Time. _lersed by Clock and : Compared. Signal Wav 1 | Philadelphi P-W 0 . 2 — P—C 0 9 3 P—N 0 0 4 w-c 0 0 7 W-N 0 0 6 N-C 0 0 7 | Cambridge eg! A+B+0 —D a 3 ve 2B+20 900 9 > — N 2B 400 0 w-C —A+B+C+D 750 1 W-N ~A+B-C+D ei 9 N-¢ 20 500 13 New York P—W 0 o 14 pt 2B 400 5 Pp_N 2B 400 6 w-o 2B a } oWsN 2B “ te N—( 0 2 580 nee yt ae cams le Miscellaneous Intelligence. 145 Conditional Equations. Conditional equations, Weight. "Bee \® ional] equations, Weight. rror, bl Be, 0=ax-+n, : axn-a= iivet. . Ww Wa Wa £ We: s & 1} 0=0 -0-:0029 | 17 0 | -0-:0493 | -0:008 | +0006 | 000015 2; = - 0015 | 10 0 | — 0150 | ~ 0002 7 4 3} = + +0038 8 0 | + 0304 | +0-004 si 18 4; = + 0075 | 12 0 | + 0900 | +0007 6 59 5| =0 - 004 10 0 - 0470 | —0-005 4 25 6, = + 0070; 5 0 | + 0350 | +0007 10 2 7] =15xXa- 0117} 21 815 | -— -2457 | -— 0-003 4 19 8; =90Xe- 0453 | 17 | 158 {| - 7701 | +0: 5 42 9| =40Xa- 0115} 10 4 - 1150 | 40011 " 121 10 | =T5Xx- 0386 | 24 | 180 | - -9264 | +0003 4 22 1} =25xX2- 0144! 16 40 | — -2304 | 40-000 5 0 2; =50X2x- -0442/ 12 60 | — $304 _0016 6 307 ee re 087 14g 0 0063 | +0001 8 1 4; =40x2- 0192/ 6 | 24 1152 | 4.0003 7 5 5} =40xe- -0314| 7 28 | — 2198 | —0-:008 8 45 16; =40Xx- -0295 8 82 | — +1800 | +0000 4 0 17 | =40X2- 0300! 10 40 | — -3000 | -0-008 q 64 18 + 0158} 6 0 | + 0948 | -0014 | 0-008 118 208 =| 6285 | +35374 | -—0018 | 0 00862 | +0100 | +0-119 Remarxs, 2==Wave Time for 100 miles, <=0-005629+0°000302, H=+0:00435, =18690 miles +1000 =miles of wave per second. 2 Wan=0"12547, z Sen = rate , (N. Y. Jour. of Com., June 11, 1849.)—A new Pane w ives Bec by ahot Gasparis, at Naples, April 12, 1849. t resembles a star of the 9th or 10t mage. ph its place was near a slar on Steinheil’ s Celestial Chart, . A. 12h 9m 495 and S. Decl. ? 0' 9”, and numbered 23,098 in Laayde’ s Catalogue Reduced. The Motion of the planet was retrograde, and towards the equator. The American ery bait for the Promotion Agreeable to an invitation from the Corporation of Harvard Gureiaty, © next meeting of this Reachin will be holden at Cambridge, com- neing on an August the 14th. The officers for the ensuing Year are as follow Pricidiens- Poss. Joseru Henry, of Washington. Treasurer.—Dr. Euwyn, of Philadelphia. Local Commitiee for Boston. Mr. Joun A. Lowe t, Dr. Gzeorce B. Emerson, Dr. ae BicELow, Prof. H. D. Rogers, ~ Hon. ne Arruzron, Dr. A. A. Gounp. Ho on. THAN Hate ; Local Committe for Cambridge. Prof. L. ati Prof. E. N. Morsrorp, Prof. B. Pex Prof. Asa Gray. Lieut, C. HL. ‘Da S.N. avis ees Jerrries Wyman, Secretary. Stoonp Senies, Vol. VII, No. 22—July, 1849. 19 146 Miscellaneous Intelligence. Arrangements will be made for the accommodation of the members of the Association, both as regards board and lodging, i in Cam mbridge. A meeting of unusual interest is expec ted. This is the second since the change 1 in the character of the pea Oy by which all branches of science are included. The wide range of its subjects, calls together all who would promote the progress of science in any of its depart- ments ; and no place more abounds in attractions, a a Pei, lit erary or social nea than the one chosen for the s 4. C. eon Galvanic Light, in a letter to a ieee: dated Washington, 1. C., June 13, 1849.—I regret that my letter requesting the suppression of the notice of experiments upon galvanic light, did not reach you in season. The experiment has no other value than a rep- elition of those made by Prof. Grove, to prove the cadee aes ve galvanic with common light in respect fe polarization. Dr. Lardner in the course of his lectures in Washington some years since, mates upon the authority of Arago, that datvante light could not be polarized, and a otice in the Comptes Rendus, | find that the error was committed in translating the French polarize, polarizable instead of polarized, which materially alters the case. OBITUARY. 5. Jutivs T. DucarEet.—It is with pain that we have to record, since the issue of our last number, the demise of our old friend and contribu- tor to this Journal, Prof. Ducatret of Baltimore, who expired at his res- idence, April 28d. We pay a sadly willing tribute to the memory of this man of science, in inscribing here some particulars of his life and character whe have been communicated to us by one of his daily acquaintance ULIUS Paseo DucaTeEt was born at Baltimore, June 6th, 1796; and was therefore at the time of his death nearly 53 years old. ea. was for a long time the principal pharmaceutist of Baltimore. cated at Saint Mary’s College, a seminary of learning under the olic Church, young Ducatel gave evidences of extraordinary facility for acquisition and rete Satie ; a faculty a through life. After his school-diseipline was completed, attached himself for a while to the business of his father’s poet shires: ; and subsequently, at the close of the war in 1815, he visited Havana with a view to a mercantile semi? there. But such pursuits were not congenial either to his physical tempera- ment or his imetiecta! activity. His propensity was always to be making advances in knowledge; and if he was precluded at any time from acquiring new facts, to aoe himself to systematizing and gen- eralizing those already in possession. ith these traits, West Indian commerce was hardly likely at thrive in his hands: so he returned a in 1816, after a little more than twelve months’ absence, and took part in the Phateryseieablichnieit: Miscellaneous Intelligence. 147 tion in the prospect of the old house being perpetuated, opposed no and he was sent to Paris, then as now the fucus of the arts and sciences, to com- plete his education. There, with the appliances which the wealth of his father, chiefly acquired in the exercise of a meritorious profession and honorable skill, freely allowed, he had full opportunity for increas- ing his stores of learning ; and however he may have mixed in the ga Societies of the capital, those who knew him best in after life found cause to admire the extent of his graver acquisitions treasured up since then. There, he made acquaintances whose correspondence was maintained for more than thirty years, and until death rendered it longer impossi- ble; and the names of Brongniart, Brochant, and Gay-Lussac among them, attest the favorable impressions which the young man of five and twenty made upon those whose scientific fame already shook the world. His stay in the capital of France and his travels through that king- dom, through Switzerland and Italy, covered a period of nearly four years, and having left America in 1818, he returned in 1822. At that time, geology was far from being the systematic science that it is now; but it may be safely said that he brought back with him a knowledge of second to that of none of his American cotemporaries. ot long after his return, in 1824, he assumed new relations by his Marriage with a lady, the least of whose commendations was, that she Was a beauty and an heiress. But the fortunes of his family, which had already stood the shock of some unfortunate commercial specula- tions, were still more seriously impaired by the reverses of 1825-6 ; and the epoch of his domestic happiness may also be taken to mark a W period, when it became necessary that his talents and learning shonld be applied in some degree for his own benefit. — is first engagement was as Professor of Natural Philosophy in the e % oS oO . Mechanics’ Institute of Baltimore; his next as Professor of Chemistry and, adding to the reputation of a savant that of an agreea- e and successful lecturer, he was at length, upon the decease of the lamented Professor De Butts, in 1830, elected with great unanimity to fill the chair of Chemistry in the Medical Department of the University. Here he had a wider scope for his taleats; and he is still gratefully remembered by many who enjoyed the benefit of his public teach- ings, and still more for that abundant accessibility and cheerful interest which he allowed and manifested in the apparatus room to his students. i i he also edited awhile alone and = Baltimore Times, whose subsequent cessation appears to have bee Caused by the calling away of the editors to other engagements. 148 Miscellaneous Intelligence. In 1832, upon a resolution of the legislature of Maryland in behalf of a new map of the state, he was appointed in conjunctio : Alexander, Esq rake the necessary preliminary reconnoissance of the subject and the territory. The report of these gentl re- was made in this survey; though it was unfortunately hampered by a spirit of well meant but injudicious econor Prof. Ducatel pursued a his researches as geologist (without assistants however) until 1, when the embarrassments of the state treasury were held to be sufhi- cient reason for suspending any farther appropriation. This step, however justified by policy in other regards, was in so far unhappy that it deprived the state of results which were upon the point of attainment and the individual of the opportunity of generalizing bling poke gies into a shape ticulars of interest especially to the denizens of the respective localities ; and regard seems to have been paid in their very style to the exclu- sion of | rechhisatiins whose introduction among the multitude of topics, though it would have thrown over them a scientific garb, would ha defeated the proper industrial aim of the report. Yet as they are, they inferences n necessary t give hout any of that eater Sn grate which is sometimes met with a which is so much calculated to mislead the reader and ultimately dis- credit the writer. Iti is ib be hoped that ere long some one will un- dertake the subject afresh and, bringing up Maryland abreast with Virginia and New Jersey, again enable that state to be among the foremost in the practical applications of geology for which the chemi- eal discoveries and advances in the last seven years have given so much wider scope than was possible in 3. During these engagements, Ducatel was also appointed to the Chair of Chemistry, eee a and Geology in St. John’s College, Annapolis; a post which in 1838 or 1839 he resigned, as well a s his Chair in the University, in ae to devo himself more caslaaiae to his geolog- ical examinations. Such devotion although for the best interest of that n work, was perhaps not so well for the sibppeat of the individual 3 si i he resignation of an €/at in behalf of a temporary employ- ment, and in fact so it w few years afterwards the ge- . a but against any ss Sa aah and possibly inconvenient re- liance u the measures and consideration of governments which are Paes ungrateful. POP eR I ae ues I | RN ee aint sae = age es Atte Miscellaneous Intelligence. 149 These journies were in so far disastrous in that an accident (he nar- Towly escaped death on the spot) occurring to him during the first, and a severe illness brought upon an enfeebled frame by exposure during the last, laid the foundation of the physical disorders from whic never afierwards recovered. For some years, his maladies appear to tion and exertion; and to have superinduced an unnatural apathy an premature old age. He died of congestion on the lungs ; and wos terred, as he had always desired, privately in the presence of his family and of a few intimate friends. Copies onhand. He laughingly said it was an il he fe da Worse disaster with another edition. His editorial connection with the Baltimore ‘Times has been already mentioned ater period, he where learning and savoir faire were requ : ical American Philosophical Society of Philadelphia, the Royal rarer Would use them well. Those who have themselves a ag pursuits of science under difficulties will best appreciate and honor & trait. 150 Bibliography. V. BrIsLtioGRAPHY. 1. Report in relation to Sugar and Hydrometers: on researches made under the superintendence of Professor A. D. Bacue, by Prof. R. S. McCottocn. Revised sie nec by order of the Senate of the U.S. (Ex. Doc., No. 50, tae one Ist Session.) Washington, 1848, p. 653.—This palgyiiasien an orate report is divided into two parts, as its title indicates, the eliiuers being entirely distinct and My quite germane. The first part of the sugar report was issued in the limits of a book-n The labors eneovntered by Prof. McC. and his assistants in these researches, at e and abroad, are evidently very great, and it appears tion thoroughly. The method of analysis for saccharine fluids adopted by McCulloch, is that of circular polarization originally indicated by M. iot. ‘The reasons for this preference are given and comparative re- sults by the ordinary chemical en In an extended series of re- searches like these, embracing near! o hundred analyses of molasses and sugars, the method of polarization rauidoubredy possesses great ad- vantages in every respect, but it may oubted whether it can i the chemical methods in ordinary cases, with perhaps imperfect appa- ratus and an insufficient experience in the use of the instrament and the application of the formulas. We receive Mr. McCulloch’s reports with great pein as sub- stantial and important additions to our previous knowledge, and an ad- ditional proof of the wisdom of Congress in consigning pas: “eu jects of this sort, involving profound scientific principles, to competent hands for ent and report, as the only just and enlightened basis of their legislatio In hydrometers for atetenilbin the value of distilled spirits, the re- sults adopted by Prof. McCulloch are entirely in accordance with the opinions and practice of scientific men and of as more intelligent man- ufacturers, viz., that the centesimal system of notation is the only proper trials will undoubtedly be the adoption, by the revenue laws, of an unl- form standard instrument which is much called for by the notorious dif ferences now acknowledged to exist in the methods followed in various 2. Mohr, Redwood and Proctor’s Pharmacy.*—We. had scarcely finished a piss at the beautiful London edition of Mohr and Red- Practical Pharmacy: the Arrangements, Apparatus and pre rme t of the Pharmac oe oes Laborat tory, by Francis Mohr, Ph. D., and Theophilus Red- nsive additions, by William Proctor, Jr., "Prof of saci the Philad. allse ot Pharmacy. Tiustrat ted by 500 engravings on wood. Philad.: Lea & Blanchard. pp. 576. Bibliography. 151 apparatus perfectly plain, and its reconstruction eas b ro. rof. or has long been known to pharmaceutical readers in this Noap, tions by CampsELL Morrir, with illustrations. Philadelphia: Lindsay & Blackiston. 1840. 12mo, pp. 567.—This well “got up” book is undoubtedly an important addition to the re- Sources of the chemical student, and we believ hazard little in 9 not feel bound to except the late English translation of Rose, by Dr. treatise on analysis. Those who are familiar with Rose and Berzelius, ble portion ; From this remark we do not except the treatise above named, and it 8 certainly in itself no poor recommendation of a work, that its My Noad’a of Chemisiry, published some years ago. ‘ r Morfit, 1° American etice, Peed our thanks, not only for this edition of Noad, judiciously annotative, but also for his late work on * Chemical and Pharmaceutical Manipulations” by the same publishers and in the same size and style as the edition of Noad. he “Manipulations” is adorned with over four hundred beautiful Wood-cuts illustrative of its descriptive portions, and isa really valuable addition to our chemical literature, and should be in the library of all chemical students and manipulators. ; - The Fossil Footmarks of the United States and the Animals that made them; by Epwarp Hircucock, D.D., LL.D., President of Am- 152 Bibliography. herst College, and Professor of Natural Theology - Geology, (from the Transactions of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 2d ser., vol. iii, Boston, 1848.)—This Vabobats memoir extends to 128 pages quarto, and is illustrated by 24 plates, together with a large table, giving a general view of the distinctive characters of the species. The learned author has pursued the course usual in paleontology, of distin- guishing the genera and species of the animals indicated by the fossil remains and naming them accordingly. Although the remains are but 12 hich lonian, 6 batrachian, 2 annelids or Le uscs, 34 bipeds, 3 doubtful ; and of the bipeds 8 were t ick toed tridactylous birds, 16 were narrow toed tridactylous or tetradactylous birds, 2 were batrachian, and the remain- ing 8 either birds or phe tire and probably the latter. We a to defer to our next number a farther account of the genera and spec “ ittonal phecbiiatiae on a new living or of Hippopitents of We ern Africa; by S. G. Morton, M.D., Penn. and Edinb., Vice Ag President A Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, (from the Sonal of the ‘Acad. Nat. Sci. of Philadelphia, vol. i, 2d series,) 12 pp. 4to, with 3 plates. Philadelphia, 1849.—This new species of Hippopotamus was first described by Dr. Morton in the Proceedings of the Academy for Feb- ruary, read) and there named H. minor.* As this name was previ- ously used by Cuvier for a fossil species, it is now changed to Hippopo- tamus (Teteaprotodon) Liberiensis. The animal is slow and heavy in its motions and weighs 400 to 700 pounds. It lives on the river St. Paul’s, a stream hist rises in the mountains of Guinea and passing through the Dey country and Liberia, empties into the Atlantic to the north of Cape Messurado. The description of the animal by Dr. Mor- ton, is drawn from the two skulls in his nese mel the only specimens which — hitherto been ee from the African coast. 6. nature of Limbs. A discourse esti on Friday, Feb 9th, aoe an rer ekiGiig of the Royal Institution of Great Britain. By Ricuarp Owen, F.R.S. London, 1849.—This discourse consists of two portions; in the first of which is demonstrated the ‘ unity of composition” of the limbs of vertebrated animals, their various forms Th being in accordance with their diversified uses. e paddle of the whale, the short but powerful arm of the tego the wing of the bat, the fore-leg of the horse and the arm of man, being but modifications of the same typical limb. In all, there stim a shoulder, an arm, a fore- arm and hand; the latter may - provided with its five fingers, as in man and many animals, or it may have a single finger, as in the horse and the apteryx. If the limb fateh simply an organ of support and of locomotion, then che hand exists in the simple condition of the ‘ fore- foot” of the horse; but if it be prehensory or ae it approaches more or less in its ie omain: the hand of man. These are views * See this Journal, xlvii, p. 406, where wood-cuts are given. cre ene ae Bibliography. 153 however, about which most anatomisis have been for a long time Yr. In the second portion of the discourse the author grapples with a far more abstruse and difficult subject. Since the publication of the specs ulations of Gaethe, Oken, Carus in Germany, and of St. Hilaire in many attempts have been made to perfect the idea of the philosophical “ signification” of the parts of the skeleton. In evidence of the difficulties which beset such investigations, and of the undigested state in which many points still remain, it is only necessary to bear in mind that the two ablest living naturalists have arrived at conelusions widely different. Of their comparative merits however, it is not now proposed to speak. Mr. Owen’s views of the “ signification of limbs,” recognize even the germs in the latter. r. Owen, with other trans- Spectively pleuropophyses, hamapophyses and hema } fishes and reptiles, and in all birds, each inferior arch corresponding With the thorax is provided with a small appendage of bone, which i birds is attached to the middle of the rib, and in reptiles to the point union of the rib with its cartilage; this Mr. O. calls the diverging appendage. Two of these diverging endages in the Lepidosiren mu tion of 9 occipital being the only one which is destitute of it; if therefore the * See Carus, von den Ur-theilan, des Knochen- und Scbalengeriistes, Tab. rv, fig. 1. Srconp Serius, Vol. VIII, No, 22.—July, 1849. 20 154 Bibliography. scapula be a rib, it belongs to the occiput, and this view he finds sup- aanee by the fact that in most fishes and some reptiles the scapula is ~nae apes with the occiput, and this he regards its normal posi- ion, and in accordance with this view, avows his conviction, “that in their cation vs the vertebrate archetype, the human hands and arms are parts of the head; diverging appendages of the costal or hemal arch of the occipital segment of the sku \|."—( Discourse, p. 70. views entertained by Mr. Owen with regard to the ation of knowledge, “ observation on the order of nature.” It must be remembered that other naturalists have given an uae different in- terpretation to the parts in question, and it will, we think, be readily ad- mitted, that a public teacher will not be entitled to consider himself ond the reach of question, when before a learned audience he in- dulges in poetical applications of a science, when he avows that he does not regard the “ conceivable modifications of the vertebrate arche- type as being exhausted by any of the forms that now inhabit the — or that are known to have existed here at any former period,” and not think “the inference as to the possibility of the vertebrate jo being the basis of the One os some of the inhabitants of other — oe a rdo —Discourse, p. 83. n the Gievlagion: te of ( Canada, for the year 1847-48 ; W.E. aes 165 pp. 8vo. Montreal, 1849.-—This report pre- cine an account by Mr. Logan, of the rocks and minerals i the count ry south of the St. Lawrence, from Montreal and Lake Cham. plain to the river Chaudiére, and the results of analyses by Mr. T. 8. Set of several rocks and mineral waters. The general review of benefit of geological science that the survey has fallen into the hands of Mr. Logan. After many minute and valuable details, describing the rocks, sandstones, limestones, calcareo-chloritic beds, serpentine with intruded trap, he observes as follows :— “ The facts detailed respecting the structure of the Green Mountains these rocks, with their chromiferous calcareo-chloritic heetaal to the dolomites and chloritic quartzose rocks of Kingsey, Shipton and Sutton ; these again to the serpentine and quartz —_ of Potton, from which it would follow that the whole of the Green Mountain runlind including those containing the auriferous quartz nai belong to the Hudson river group, with the possible addition of part of the Shawangunk conglom- rates, The fossils of the succeeding micaceo-calcareous formation of Munhaes Lake and the St. Francis and Famine Rivers would seem to indicate that it is probably of an age not anterior to the Niagara ac a “SRC cc yt ese ee ae eae nea Bibliography. 1565 limestone, or at most the Clinton group beneath, or to use more definite terms, that it is of the upper Silurian series, of which the Clinton group appears at present to be considered the American base; and this se- quence would accord with that displayed in the great Appalachian trough, in ils nearest approach to the Green Mountain range in the valley of the Hudson. A calcareous formation very fully supplied with upper Gaspé, and display a conspicuous figure, a metamorphic or unaltered condition, between it and the carboniferous areas of Eastern merica, to one of which New Brunswick while another is calcareous rocks on the line of section, be part of the Gaspé san _— in an altered state, can until further investigation, be only conjectural. On the following pages, the author remarks upon the beds 8 nn hetic and specular oxyds of iron—bog iron and iron ocher—chro manganese or wad—copper ore—gold and the various rocks of econom- ical > sat reer of neh Chaudiére valley was obtained on the banks of a small stream called the Touffe des Pins, a — emptying into the right bank of the Chaudiére about a ere from Quebec. It occurs in the seigniory of Rigaud sab soon an Property of the heirs of the late C. E. Chaussegros er as largest pieces collected by Mr. C. de Lery, one o - “. Proprietors, weig 1056 and 744 grains. — scmgaat ¥ravel, washed in the presence of Mr. Logan, produced a = ie of gold toa bushel. A notice a gold is given in the volume of this Journal, 1848, p. 274, 275. The results of the analyses of mineral waters by Mr. Hunt, may ap- Pear in another number of this Journal: 156 Bibliography. 8. The Book of the World, being an account of All Republics, Em- pires, Kingdoms and Nations, in reference to their Geography, Statistics, mmerce, &c., together with a brief Historical Outline of their Ri Progress and Present Condition, &c., by Ricaarv 8. Fisuer, M.D., 2 vols. 8vo, 614 and 706 pp. New York, 1849.—This work, as the preface states, os ee to supply a standard of general reference and a source to which the merchant and scholar may look for the most recent and best pithbctionted account of the worid in its several parts.” The first vol- ume, after six pages devoted to general remarks upon the world, is oc- cupied with an eae of America, 332 pages of which wart to the meat States. n d with refer- ce to Oregon, California and other parts of Western aie Exten- sive eecnieneas tables of population, commerce, navigation, navy, army, churches, canals and railroads, &c., are appended to this part of the S national flags of all nations; a chart of the United States, and a chart of the world. hemical Technology, or Soon Pie competent for the task, though so arduous and difficult ia its natu 16. Manual of Mineralogy or the "Natural History of ys Frye ba Kingdom ; by James Nicot, F.R.S.E., F.G.S., Assist. Sec. London.—576 pp. 12mo. Edinburgh. 1849. —This manual of niente ogy is a thoro ough, accurate work, well worked up to the period of its publication. It is very full in analyses and sufficiently so in notices of notation are adopted throughout, and under each species, the system of crystallization with the se of the common forms are mentioned ; but few angles are given and figures are but s sparingly introduced. The classification is a mixed iystons approaching in its general features that of Mohs. It is as follows— 1 Order. Oxypizep Stones. Fam > Quartz, Feldspar, Scap- olite, Haloid stones, Zeolite, Mica, Forablende, Clays, Garnet, Gems, Metallic sto rder. ecie Srones. Families: Cale spar, Fluor spar, Heavy spar, Gypsum, Rock salt. Ill Order. Satins Ores. Families: Sparry Iron ores, Copper salts, Lead salts. IV Order. Oxyptzep Ores. Families: Iron ores, Tinstone, Man- ganese ores, Red Copper os White Antimony ores. V Order, Nati ETA VI Order. oboe ates Families : Iron pyrites, Galena, Grey eerie ore, Grey Copper ore, Blende, Ruby-blende. VII Order, InrLammaztes. Families : Sulphur, Diamond, Coal, Min- eral Resing, Combustible salts. Isaac Lea: Observations on the genus Unio, together with carom jee —— ia in the families N; aindes, Colimae —e. L Melaniana, eristo numerous plates, Vol. iv. Philadelphia. Sears (, Witkin | Ephemeris of the Planet Neptune, from the data o Boeke lande Observations of May 8 and 10, 1795, ‘id for the yg eee vs Font ae a and 1849, computed for the enw In a we antes, oh. Tis € Smithsonian Contributions to Knowl 82 pp we Fourreenra Rerorr of the Chester Co. Cabinet of Natural oe March 1%, andl quantitativer chemis- Mit vielen in den Text V. Smeri vietatog ae Recht “aon, oe i ibons Winton - STREFFLEUR: Die Entstehung der Kontinen : der Notazion ‘ate rar soa der Geschi schichte des os Brot ant a in geog: ALBER etations-Verhaltnisse der Jura Keu rmation in dem ebiete “4 ae Womitz uud eye miihl; mit einer shah geen 0 hischen Rains des Bezirkes. NVdrdlingen, H. G. ore 5 i 20 yy tae Dritte Auflage. Erste bis dritte Lieferung, d, : ny wag sp ee pe Act tiber die gavial-artigen ao . Ka r. H. G ae dlungen ti der Lias formati it 4 li hirten Tafeln in 9 Blittern und 1 Vignette Preis fi. 5, oR 8.8 gr» Nacrag er oa Dr. H. G. Bronn, nit liththog, Taf. = sgr. 160 Bibliography. Procerpinés Bosron Soc. Nat. History. NOVEMBER, 1848. p. 8! mals; Dr. Cabot: 0 ( kc Sota of itor 1 of Stilifer, 1 of i A. A. Gould—DECE] egg; Desor _87. On the muscular arran gement in Catosto- eat oo pry ieee: 89. Shells o of the U.S. Exploting Expedition ee of Turbo, 8 sh Tenkin A.A Ge uld. On fresh water in Dune Sands a Spits; #.C. Cabot.—p. 96. On eee mae tele: rp ite and Ozarkite of Sead : D. Whitney eur ARY, 1849. . p. 9 rtain dendritic delineations ; Bl Tese p.l ris J.D. Whitney. tae 102. On the black Oxyd of bas of ‘Copper Harbor, Lake Superior; J. D. Whitney—p. 08 On fresh water in dune sands; #. C. Cabot and Mr. Ay yres —p. 108. Shells of the U. S. Exploring Expediti on (8 species of Trochus); 4. A. Gould—p. 1 On the distribution sf animal life about the shoals “ Nantucket Desor FEBRU ARY. p. 1 N Par HILAD. ove Me No. 4 an., March, ss a 51. Markings he: yisomahies Clock ; John —p. oa. On the U.S. urvey—p. 74. Telegraphic Astronomical Clock pe velocity of galvanic wave Gee geal sy ne page 1 ANN ces Natureties, Paris, JULY, 1848—On se te Bn “Hermelliens”) ; 4. 2 Qanbe tebheeay —Ne ew Paguri; Milne Edwards.— of the genus | Cinehona ; H. A. Weddell—On Anatomic Phyllotaxy or Hecieehenl on the i istributi leaves estiboudois—AUGU me? On Corals ; ‘ some birds during the months of May and June, 1846; D. de la Malle— Anatomie Phyllotaxy, continwed, Th. Lestiboudois. New aietin cellular plants; C. Montagne. pi PTEMBER. On th : tr tee hiathioed Th. Lestiboudois.—On he Family Salvadora J. E. chon-—OCTOBER. Embryogeny of the Annelida, continued ; A. ee Quatrefages— Vertebrata of Algiers, viewed in relation to porch conergt and domestica tion; P. Gervais—On Corals; M. Edwards and Jules Haime, (4th mem. Mono- graphie des “Aperasides eh ae in the flora of i 2 Europe during the tertiary . Raulin—On the Embryos which have been described as Polvo ee ‘M. Duchartre—On the Ovula of the ieee officinalis; &. Dickie—On the Cnacn as a tribe of the Urticeer ; J. EL P. Aprenptx.—At a late hour we have received the following letter from Mr. er Lea, (dated Philadelphia, June 17,) on footprints in Pennsylvania in rocks below the coal; a farther notice is necessarily deferred to our next number. ‘“‘[ am sure it will greatly interest you to learn that it has been my good fortune to have discovered ‘fossil footmarks” of a reptilian quadruped in the series below any heretofore observed. In a late visit to the southern coal field of Pennsylvania, while making some geolog- ical investigations, I found six distinct double impressions in regular progression, in the OLD RED SANDSTONE. ‘These were accompanied by numerous “ ripple marks” and “ pits of ‘rain drops” over the whole eX- posed surface of the rock. The lowest heretofore observed I believe are of the Chirotherium, described by Dr. King in the coal formation, near Greensburg, Pa., and those mentioned by Dr. Logan, in the same formation of Nova Scotia. - ‘The name I have proposed for this reptile is Sawropus prim@vus. Yering Glass by the aE ment of Goa Cini. 117.—On a Mode of fondest - Subsiances incombustible, by Roserr Anus: Sur itn, Ph. D., Mane . or, MIS. Mineralogy and Oars: —Rapianit a native hydrated Silica fidee M. Sauverar, 1: istomesite and Mesit: M. Bre SPhilippaite « mi, Gisoiondine, eulandite,b by M. Dam beh a The next No. of this Journal will be published on the first of Sept. CONTENTS. B} Az. 1 A ing. of aa bide Monuments of the State of 3 Kentucky ; by E.G. 8 a | Il. Notice ot and citationg Mars a ’ Voyage of Dacet sod Re- search in the Southern and Antarctic Regions, during the years 1839-43, by Captain Sir James oes —— RON, Kot., D.C.L. Oxon Paget * - Ill. On Ancient Sea Margins ; by R CHAMBERS, Ea. Aves n the Diurnal Variations in the Diselination: of the Magwesic Needle, and in the Intensities ne = eee and —— ON, : ae VL. Review of M. Tuomey’s Final Report on the Gaological Sor: vey of South eae presented to hes Boston So. Nat. His- tory, May 2d, by Tnomas 8. Bouv VIL Some Observations aes Emulsine and its Composition 5 ; by eB W, Bask; VIL Observations on Terraces by James D. ‘Phe IX. On some a as nici onsidered in Chemical Classifica. including a description of the Mineral, by ER, Esq. (Read before the Boston Sosy ~ Natural “History, vi _Jonn Bacon, Jr., M.D.) SCLENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE, Se s.—On the Fatty Acids of Castor Oil, by M. Saaz rine and a substance isomeric with it, th = Reprensac bt by “bons pet Morimaion, 46 c. Be ie MM. Forpos and Ger ELD, 109.—O ae vere oF w Borate oF Soda aby me . Bou hie rid of Silver i fa gad Horie A M. vx, 111.—Phox CONDUCTED BY “Prorzssous B. SILLIMAN ann B. SILLIMAN, Jn., | AND JAMES D. DANA. SECOND SERIES. No. 23.—SEPTEMBER, 1849. ows, and T. Witzy, Jr, Boston — d Joun Witty, New York—Carry —Hecrtor BossanGe & Co., Paris. TO CORRESPONDENTS, welve copies of every original communication, published in this Journal, are if request- . at ~ disposal of the author. Any larger number of copies will be ago at cost. uthors should always specify at the head of their M33. the number of extra copies ie may wish to have printed ; it is too late after the forms are broken es The titles of communications and of their authors must be fully giv ce always to be given when communications sent to this haps, have been, or nen to as = ral in other d to forward all i and parcels to : ue. T. a Putnam's Loser” “Agent, 142 Strand, London, who will forward all — is Journal. It is also ota that all persons : tes may have nt ill dg Li of them, that they may be iu : among sc casio ot se panna a — AMERICAN Jounsat or Scrence, Second Series, which was commenced in — is January, 1 Ist of January, Mareh, May, July, November, of each year, in Nos. of 152 pages each, making Two Volumes a year, fully : illustra’ oar totem te ieee! Sei fic Intelli- : strated by Engravings, ti gence. Subscriptions . ba! year, in advance. - Remittances should : Eee R. Pate NMart & Co., Black Eee Miss., are our special agents for Missi: sippi and Alaba . Mr. C. W. acaees is our Agent for the Western States, assisted by James R. Suita, J. T. Dent, T. G. Surru, Freperick J. Hawse, Joun w. ~hiaeincte Jasen TayLor, E. M. Stevenson, W. Ramsey and Perain Locke. — ae Southern a1 x fen basing id seme de to welt, will — cond usa Ht of sme an - at once designate what we wan pay for! . Current numbers of Second nial will i in some dis be given in exc for old bers of either Series, . ne B. 0 aaa Jr: Professor of Chemist ki lied to the Arts. J. P. NORTON, ; Professor of Agricultural Chemistry. - Tue course of instruction in this Laboratory for the winter Seocil commences October 29th, and continues (with a of two weeks in January ) until ‘April 24, ~The annual course of Elementary Chemistry, by Prof. Sinui- _ oat Sen.,; commences October 28, and continues until January , 1850. The Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry, by Prof. Norton, will « commence toward the close of January, and continue through e€ te St udents in Analytical pgs and Metallurgy work in the Lab- Gmntory.d uring the whole da he co re provided with ireey thing celai re ye Sin orae They receive the constant care ~ ee of one der this department. : | The ES are always accessible to those who wish to consult them _ On matters relating to their several departments ; and will undertake such _ analyses and investigations as may be e entrusted to them. Letters of gene will be prompil attended to. tical Laborat, ale College, New Haven, September, 1849. JAMES GREEN, al and Chemical Apparatus, Optical and Mathematical Instruments, 175 Bnoapway, New Yorx; anv 43 Sournw street, BALTIMORE. a Gs pestis to inform the public that he has lately opened in New York, an establishment for the manufacture and sale of PHILOSOPHICAL AND CHEMICAL APPARATUS, AND OPTICAL AND MATHEMATICAL INSTRUMENTS. The business in Baltimore will | be continued under the care of his brother, who will be kept sup- plied with a stock of instruments, receive orders and deliver goods in Baltimore, lang may be a convenience to Southern and Western custom He hopes that tha: eschan facilities afforded in New York for the manufacture of Apparatus, will enable him to meet the orders of his friends, with increased once ci and greater promptness In addition to articles of his own make, his personal acquaintaste with the prihatble makers of Basse: he every facility for the importation of instruments; and at the same time, secures an early knowledge of all improvements made sion this assistance, joined to a constant attention to the progress of experimental sci- ence, puts it in his power, he trusts, to supply every description of apparatus, for demonstration or research, on very favorable terms. Special attention will be, still, given to the manufacture of the more accurate class of instruments required for refined observa- tions—particnlarly in Meteorology—both for Stationary Stand- ards and portable instruments. Appaiatll proper for experimental lectures on Natural Sey phy and Chemistry, may be found on hand—also a cheaper ki for the use of schools. A Catalogue of Apparatus sent to any address when requested. Sept. 1849. ly FUNGI AMERICANI EXSICC Boranists wishing specimens of American Fv: packages (of not less than ten Decades each) on a the subscriber, at Society Hill, South Carolina. = M. A. CURTIS. March, 1848. (tf] JOHNSON & ROBINS’ OFFICE OF CONSULTING ENGINEERS, AND COUNSELLORS FOR PATENTEES: For imparting information on the subject of Inventions, and on the application of Chemical and Mechanical Science to the Arts, Agriculture, Manufac- tures, and Mines, and for procuring and defending Patents, either in the United States or in foreign countries. <. in Practical Chemistry, Mineralogy and | Geology. Tue riber has opened a New seco, for giving in- struction ractical Chemistry, Mineralogy and Geology, ac- cording to the method which ues has siateried successfully during the past thirteen years in this c The various applications of Chom mistry to Manufactures, Agri- culture, cine and Pharmacy, will receive special attention. — Ores, Minerals, Soils, Waters, Vegetable substances, and the productions of Art, will be carefully executed. Where it is practicable, researches will be instituted and opinions given on all chemical SS A ious and val furnished Laboratory, a large and se- lect Library of seheisidi and practical works in the English, Ger- man and French languages, together with mineral, geological and technical collections, offer every facility to the student. Refer to Dr. Roperr Hane, Prof. J. F. Fraser, University of mig aint R. - Parrerson, eS S. R. McCuttocs, U. 8. Mint—Dr. Franxutn Bacue, Jefferson Medical College ; umerous vendo in Philadelphia pat various parts of the United States. Apply to Wa. Hammuroy, Actuary of the Franklin Institute, of to the subscriber, JAS. C. BOOTH, At the eee: 217 Arch st., above Sixth, in ‘the Arch st. Hall. Philadelphia, May 1, 184 AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. [SECOND SERIES.} Arr. XII.—Notice of Dr. oly a s tty Antarctica ;* by Prof. a Gra . Tue Botany of Capt. Ross’s Antarctic voyage of ie Was announced to be published in two departments, viz., the Aus- tralian and New Zealand portion, rane is still aaliied, and the which has aber in our time,—was issued a little more thana _ year ago; since which the indefatigable author has been gather- ing new laurels (literally new Rhododendrons by the dozen) upon the imalayas, and is probably at this time exploring, with undi- - minished ardor, the luxuriant and entirely novel vegetation of teo. ‘The patronage of the British government to t the publi- cation was bestowed in the form of a handsome grant from the Treasury , which has enabled the publishers to bring out the nu- merous Gate's in the highest style of the art, and to afford even the colored copies at a very moderate price indee The materials elaborated in the Flora Antarctica consist not only of the full collections made during this voyage, by Dr. Hooker himself, and by the officers of the expedition, from the * The M. Discovery ships Erebus and Ter- ror in the eats 90. Soya ag 4 Paice of C: apt Sir James Clark Ross, de. By Josern Daurox Hooxrr, MD., R.N., F.BS., &c., Botanist to Expedition. fed under the peor, of the Lords Commissioners of the Lae Lon- Reeves, Brothers, 1845-7, Two vols. 4to, with 198 plates. Secoxp ~ BCOND Serixs, var VIII, No. 23.—Sept., 1849. Rigs ; 162 = Dr. Hooker’s Flora Antarctica. Commander downward,* but of nearly all previous Antarctic col- lections ; among which were “the still unpublished herbaria form- ed by Sir Joseph Banks, Forster, and Solander in Cook’s voyage, and Menzies in that of Vancouver.” We may add that the coi- lections made in the recent French Antarctic voyages, even the yet unpublished portions, were liberally shared with Dr. Hooker, for the purpose of giving greater completeness to the present work. The first part of the Flora Antarctica is devoted to the botany of the few small islands which lie to the south of New Zealand, of which Lord Auckland’s group and Campbell’s island are the most important. No account of the botany of these islands had as yet been published. Their flora, as might be expected, ee to be closely related to that of New Zealand, “and does not par- take of any of those features which characterize Australian veg- etation.” The second part of the work treats of the botany of the other antarctic regions, exclusive of the Islands above mentioned ; prin- cipally “ Tierra del Fuego, the Falkland Islands, and Kerguelen’s Land ; the latter, from the characteristics of its vegetation, being aasbeibad: with Pesta, from which it is separated by 140 degrees of longitude, rather than with Lord Auckland’s group, which is about 50 degrees nearer in geographical position. The intro- duction to this portion, like the whole work, abounds with inter- esting and very acute observations upon the laws which govern the geographical distribution of plants, especially as connected with physical geography and geology. We gather some extracts of this kind, as possessing more general interest to the readers of the Journal, than those disquisitions which relate to strictly bo- tanical questions. “A certain affinity in botanical productions has often been traced in widely severed countries, and Professor Forbes} has lately brought geological causes to bear immediately upon this riv pedition was afloat, took a pleasure in ahagice. he — of ithe collections at _ all times, and himself gathered many of the plants here described. + “Professor E. For bes has connected the similarity, long known to exist between the floras of the west of wags nd and Portugal, with certain geological e ties belongi ow remote, but perhaps once united countries. * * Uniformity of ce! is generally accompanied by a similarity of vegetation through- Whe ; out a ended regi such a surface becomes divided, w clade that ‘the i Salation, of the r portion preceded the migration of plants from ger; in short, that the canlly of the Norfolk and Su with of of Holland m ust be due former having been peopled with plants by the lat- ter subsequently to the German an having wh its present not that the together formed an equally well clothed and e B two er fo 5 ing, as Humboldt believes, from North Brabant to the ste eppes of Asia; its western portion having afterwards been insulated by the influx of the North Sea.” Dr. Hooker’s Flora Antarctica. — subject. In reference to this curious topic I al adduce, as cor- -— roborative perhaps of his speculations, the general ‘geographical arrangement of these islands, whose botany I am a to describe as that of one country. They stretch from Focgid on the west to Kerguelen’s Land on the east, between the parallels of 45 and 46° of south latitude. Throughout this portion of the world the . land exhibits a manifest tendency eastward, from the extreme south of the American continent ; for there are no fewer than +i five detached groups of islands between Fuegia and Kerguelen’s . , but none between the latter island and the longitude of ey Lord Auckland’s group, nor Saha ae last again and the a western shores of Fuegia and Patagon ee. “Tierra del Fuego and the ae een wish extremity of the American continent appear to be the region of whose botan- ical peculiarities all the other Antarctic islands, except those in the vicinity of New Zealand, more or less evidently partake. It presents a Flora characterizing isolated groupe of islands, extend- ing for 5000 miles to the eastward of its own semi : oer rf) these detached spots are much closer to the African and A lian continents, whose vegetation they do not dante, thar a the American ; and they are all situated in latitudes and under circumstances ‘eminently unfavorable to the migration of species, save that their position relatively to Fuegia is in the same direc- tion as that of the violent and prevailing westerly winds.” While Fuegia is to a considerable extent forest-clad, especially the western portions, the characteristic trees being the Deciduous Antarctic Beech with the Ev vergreen Beech, the Falkland Islands, ough mainly iying more paige oes: produce no tree whatever. “The botanical and other characters of the Falklands are allied to the Atlantic es of Patagonia, opposite to the strait 2 a en Oe cE a ES OTE ELE nor 5S ee The laid b e writers oi erected though too much stress has "been tl oe geome : the cco . widel t currents of air na Pai i ba ages howerer higher partie is ei by the ab- European ts ; though, when once in- troduce other me LT seridtes We further see ~ the tide “ Se (like the 3 he pai has, in the intereeniee Pacific islands set in a di- , namely fr age A “reste mit and A old ee hat th e botany of the North Atlantic islands, the The violence of the peren- an of 45°, | is proverbial among ve sg i men: e Cape H the Cape o tod Hope, tance of 4000 miles, in twenty-seven days, an and ive cated an pon ; ° . * . iti distance ; but still I am Set eh to atta bute the prevalence “of the Fuegian eee ver so vast an area to their influence, wanes exerted against many other opposin agents,” 164 Dr. Hooker’s Flora Antarctica. of Magalhaens, from whence they are only three hundred miles distant. The most evident causes of the absence of trees in the Falkland Islands are the dislocation or removal of that group from the main land; their comparatively plane surface, every where exposed to the violence of westerly gales; and more especially to the rapid evaporation and sudden changes in temperature, and in other meteorological phenomena. The southerly and westerly winds are violent, cold, and often accompanied by heavy snow- storms; the easterly and northerly arrive saturated with warmer sea vapors, which, quickly condensing over the already chilled sur- face of the soil, form fogs and mists that intercept the sun’s rays; while the northwesterly winds are singularly dry and parching, from the influence of the Patagonian plains over which they blow. Such sudden alternations from heat to cold, and from damp to dry, are particularly inimical to luxuriant vegetation, and no foliage but perhaps the coriaceous growth of Australia could endure them. * * “In January, 1843, I landed upon a small islet, close to the main portion of Palmer’s Land, in latitude 64° 12’ 8. and longi- tude 57° W. It appeared to be the ‘Ultima Thule’ of southern vegetation; the soil hard frozen, except on the very surface, where it was thawed by a sun-heat which raised the temperature to 46°, while the sea was encumbered with pack-ice and bergs. No flowering plants were to be seen, and only eighteen belonging to the orders Lichens, Musci and Alge. Beyond this latitude, I believe there is no terrestrial vegetation.” We add a portion of the remarks upon Kerguelen’s Land, which, though lying within the 50th degree of latitude, appears well to deserve its synonyme of the “Isle of Desolation.” ‘The island presents a black and rugged mass of sterile moun- tains, rising by parallel steps one above another in alternate slopes and precipices, terminating in frightful, naked and frowning cliffs — which dip perpendicularly into the sea. The snows lying upon these slopes between the black cliffs gave a most singularly striped _ appearance to the whole country, each band indicating a flow — of volcanic matter; for the island is covered with craters whose — vents have given issue to stream upon stream of molten rock. These are all worn along the coasts into abrupt escarpements, ren- dering a landing impracticable except at the heads of the sinuous bays. One bluff headland to the north of the island is a preci- — pice seven hundred feet high, and exposes such numerous sections — of horizontal deposits of red, black, and gray volcanic matter that it is difficult to count them, though overlaying one another with perfect regularity and uniformity. Sterile as Kerguelen’s nd now is, it was not always so. Vast beds of coal are cover- ed by hundreds of consecutive layers of igneous and other rocks, piled to a height of 1000 feet and upwards upon what was once a luxuriant forest. Throughout many of the lava-streams are Se so lta Beate es Wh cea) Dr. Hooker’s Flora Antarctica. 3 165 found prostrate trunks of fossil trees of no mean girth, and the incinerated remains of recent ones, which had been swallowed up simultaneously with the fossil; and these oceur in strata of various ages, so that it seems impossible to reckon the period of time that must have elapsed between the origin, growth, and de- struction of the successive forests now buried in one hill. A see- tion of such a hill would display coal beds and shale resting upon a blue basalt, at the level of the sea, covered again with whin- stone, whereon are deposited successive layers of voleanic sand, baked clay-stones, porphyries, and long lines of basaltic cliffs, formed of perpendicular prisms, regularly sloped like those of Staffa or the Giants Causeway, and along which the traveller may walk even for a mile without ascending or descending fifty feet. To calculate the time required for the original formation fol- lowing silicification of one such forest, and to multiply that by the number of different superincumbent strata, containing remains Similar to those displayed at the north end of Kerguelen’s Land, would give a startling number of years, during which periods the island must have deserved a better name than that of ‘ Desola- tion.’ And if to this be added the time necessary for the deposit of the arenaceous beds containing the impressions of F'uei, of the clays afterwards hardened by fire, and of the prismatic cliffs, which, with the arenaceous, indicate that the land was alternately submerged and exposed as often as those successive formations occur, such a sum would bespeak an antiquity for the flora of this isolated speck on the surface of our globe far beyond our powers of calculation.” _ ‘This island, the remotest of any from a continent, in the most inhospitable climate, now yields only eighteen flowering plants ; but one of these is a very important one, namely the Kerguelen’s — Land Cabbage, which the readers of Capt. Cook’s voyage will hot fail toremember. Jt appears that Mr. Anderson, the surgeon and naturalist of Cook’s first voyage, and who successfully used _ this plant to check the scurvy which was making such ravages among the crew, on his return, drew up an account of the remark- able plants he collected, which is still preserved in the Banksian Library ; and that to this he applied the name of Pringlea, n honor of Sir John Pringle who wrote a work on the scurvy. In now completing and giving to the world the botanical account of this plant, Dr. Hooker has most properly adopted this name, adding, at Mr. Brown's suggestion, the specific appellation of an- hiscorbutica. He thus discourses upon the plant.— “The contemplation of a vegetable very unlike any other in j arance, so eminently fitted 166 Dr. Hooker’s Flora Antarctica. wonder. The very fact of Kerguelen’s Land being possessed of such a singularly luxuriant botanical feature, confers on that small island an importance far beyond what its volcanic origin or its dimensions would seem to claim; whilst the certainty that so conspicuous a plant can never have been overlooked in any larger continent, but that it was created in all probability near where it now grows, leads the mind back to the epoch far ante- rior to the present, when the vegetation of the Island of Desola- tion may have presented a fertility of which this is perhaps the only remaining trace. Many tons of coal and vast stores of now silicified wood, (which I have mentioned in the introduction to this Part,) are locked up in or buried. under those successive geo- _ logical formations which have many times destroyed the forests of this island, and as often themselves supported a luxuriant veg- etation. The fires that desolated Kerguelen’s Land are long ago extinct, nor does the island show any signs of the recent exertion of those powers, that have at one time raised parts of it from the beds of the ocean with those submarine Algae which once cat- peted its shores but which now are some hundred feet above the present level of the sea. The Pringlea, in short, seems to have led an uninterrupted and tranquil life for many ages ; but however loth we may be to concede to any one vegetable production an ~ antiquity greater than another, or to this island a position to other lands wholly different from what it now presents, the most casual inspection of the ground where the plant now grows, will force one of the two following conclusions upon the mind; either that it was created after the extinction of the now buried and forever lost vegetation, over whose remains it abounds, or that it spread over the island from another and a neighboring region where it was undisturbed during the devastation of this, but of whose ex- istence no indication remains. sé ser. whole abounds with essential oil of a pale yellow color, highly pungent, and confined in vessels that run parallel with the veins Dr. Hooker’s Flora Antarctica. 167 of the leaf, and which are very conspicuous on making a trans- verse section of the head. During the whole stay of the Erebus and ‘Terror in Christmas Harbor, daily use was made of this veg- etable, either cooked by itself or broiled with the ships’ beef, pork, or pea-soup. ‘The essential oil gives a peculiar flavor which the majority of the officers and the crew did not dislike, and which rendered the herb even more wholesome than the common cab- bage; for it never caused heart-burn, or any of the unpleasant symptoms which that plant sometimes produces. Invaluable as it is in its native place, it is very doubtful whether it will ever surrounding desolation, its singular form and appearance striking : even the casual observer, and the feelings of loneliness and utter isolation from the rest of the world that must more or less oppress every voyager at first landing on its dreary and inhospitable local- 168 . Dr. Hooker’s Flora Antarctica, Tussock, in consequence of accounts forwarded to the colonial office by Governor Moody, and to the Admiralty by the Antare- tic Expedition. - The manlies mode of growth of Dactylis cas- pitosa enables it to thrive in pure sand, and near the sea, where it has the benefit of an atmosphere loaded with moisture, of soil enriched by decaying sea-weeds, of manure, which is composed in the Falkland Islands of an abundant supply of animal matter in the form of guano, and of the excrements of various birds, who deposit their eggs, rear their young, and find a habitation amid the groves of tussock. Its general locality is on the edges of those peat bogs which approach the Bares where it contri- butes considerably to the formation of Though not uni- versal along the coast of these islands, the ee is still prodi- gious, for it is always a gregarious grass, extending in patches sometimes for nearly a mile, but seldom seen except within the influence of the sea air. This predilection for the ocean does not arise from an incapacity to grow and thrive except close to the salt water, but because other plants, not suited to the sea- shore, already cover the ground in more inland localities, and prevail over it: I have seen the tussock on inaccessible cliffs in the interior, having been brought there by the birds and after- wards manured by them; and, when cultivated, it thrives both in the Falklands and in aie ip far from the sea. I know o! no grass likely to yield nearl reat an amount of nourishment as the 'T'ussock when rabies established; in proof of which, I quote my friend Governor gai s printed report, for the truth of which I can vouch, both from my own experience and from his having kindly given me site means for judging of the cor- rectness of his interesting and useful observations, when draw- ing up the report from which the following extract was made. ‘During several long rides into the country 1 have always found ~ the Tussock flourishing most vigorously in spots exposed to the sea, and on soil unfit for any other plant, viz.: the rankest pea bog, black or red. It is wonderful to observe the beaten foot paths of the wild cattle and horses, marked like a foot track across the fields of England, extending for miles over barren moor-l but always terminating in some point or peninsula covered with — this favorite fodder; amid which one is almost certain to meet — with solitary old bulls, or perhaps a herd of cattle; very likely, 2 troop of wild horses, just trotting off as they scent the coming ae stranger from afar. ‘I'o cultivate the Tussock grass, I should re- ~ commend that its seeds be sown in patches, just below the sul- face of the earth and at distances of about two feet apart ; itmust afterwards be weeded out, for it grows very luxuriantly, frequent ly attaining a height of six or seven feet. It should not be graz but cut or reaped in bundles. If cut, it quickly shoots again : but is injured much by grazing; for all animals, ‘especialy Pigs Dr. Hooker’s Flora Antarctica. 169 tear it up to get at the sweet nutty-flavored roots. I have not tried how it would be relished if made into hay, but cattle will eat the thatch off the roof of a house in winter; their preference iscause. Each Tussock consists of many hundreds of culms, springing up together from a mass of roots, which have required a long series of years to attain their great and productive size. Our cultivated specimens in the royal gardens of Kew, now nearl three years old, are in a fair way of becoming good Tussocks, for the quantity of stems from each root, the produce of one seed, is incalenlably more than any other grass throws up; but this s. Though, however, the stoles (if I may so call the mat- ted roots of this grass) in the most vigorous and native specimens t which from perfect obscurity have become objects of such inter- est as this grass. The Tussock in its native state seems o no service in the animal economy. A little insect, and the only one that I observed, depends on it for sustenance ; a bird, no bigger than the sparrow, robs it of its seeds ; a few sea- fowl build among the shelter of its leaves ; penguins and petrel seek hiding places among its roots, because they are soft and easily penetrated, and the sea-lions cower beneath its luxuriant foliage ; still, except the insect, I know no animal or plant whose : Series, Vol. VIII, No. 23.—Sept., 1849. 2 170 Dr. Hooker's Flora Antarctica, extinction could follow the absence of this, the largest vegetable production in the Falklands, which does not even support a pat- asitical fungus. These same sea-birds breed or burrow, where this for the twelfth. Gertain it is that the 1 gon might yet be unknown and unprized amongst plants, if cattle had not been introduced to its locality by man: who thus became, first the in- jurer, and then the protector and propagator of the existence of this noble grass ; for the herbivorous quadrupeds which he car- ried to the Falklands and left there, were surely extirpating the ussock, when man returned, and b by protecting, perpetuating, and transporting it to other countries, he has wisely dispersed it. Tt appears singular that so striking a grass should abound where there is no native herbivorous animal to rofit by its luxumance ; Tussock might have waved its green leaves undisturbed over We adapt its organs to the digestion and enjoyment of this long: neglected gift of a bounteous Providence ut we must not pass by the interesting account of the two gigantic races of sea-weed in the southern ocean, Lessonia and Macrosystis. It is to the description of Lessonia fucescens, of the Falklands, &c., that the subjoined remarks are appended. — “This and the following are truly wonderful Alga, whether seen In the water or on the “beach ; for they are arborescent, di- ig ety branched trees, with the branches pendulous and n divided into sprays, from which hang linear leaves 1-3 feet une, The trunks are usually about 5-10 feet long, as thick as groups or solitary, but gregarious, like the pine or oak, exten over a considerable surface, so as to form a. miniature forest; which is entirely submerged during high-water or even half-tide, but whose topmost branches project above the surface at the ebb. To sail in a boat over these groves on a fine day, affords the nat- uralist a delightful recreation ; for he may there witness, in the Antarctic regions, and below the surface of the ocean, as. a scene as is presented by the coral reefs of the tropics. The leaves of the Lessonia are crowded with Sertularie and Mollus- ea, or encrusted with F lustre ; on the trunks parasitic Alg@ abound, together with Chitons, Patella, and other shells; at the beet? and among the ene roots, swarm thousands of ‘Crusta~’ cea and Radiata, whilst fish of several species dart. emnanete the Dr. Hooker's Flora Antarctica. 171 leaves and branches. But it is on the sunken rocks of the outer coasts that this genus chiefly prevails, and from thence thousands 80 strong as to be almost insufferable. The ignorant observer at once takes the trunks of Lessonia thus washed up for pieces of drift-wood, and on one occasion, no persuasion could prevent the captain of a brig from employing his boat and boat’s crew, du- ring two bitterly cold days, in collecting this incombustible weed for fuel.” ; ~ “The ramification of all the species of Lessonda is dichoto- mous; each plant in a young state consists of a few rooting and clasping fibres, giving off a single stem (or petiole) and frond. This frond splits at the base, and as the growth proceeds, the fis- Stire extends vertically upwards, till the original frond is bisected ; each of the two parts is now a complete frond, altogether similar to the primary one, and provided with a petiole of its own: these again divide, and the process is repeated. Hence the rapid growth of this genus, and hence the origin of the flattened form of ra- muli and elliptic core which is placed in the long axis of these ramuli and across the axis of the terete stem. It was not observ- ed whether any relation existed between the number of branches on the whole frond and of concentric rings in the trunk. The latter are probably the indices of the number of times that a sub- nec - the petioles of the four lamine ; 2d, the two ramuli from which _ the four are given off : 3d, the one branch which gives off the two latter: these were successively examined. “1. The base of the laminz or petiole is exceedingly compress- ed, and composed of a mass of cellular tissue of different textures, all, however, very gelatinous, and modifications of the three lay- ers forming the leaf : there are 1st, the superficial tissue (or cortex) consisting of small cells, closely packed, and full of chromule, stadually opening out into, 2d, an intermediate tissue of much er cells more loosely placed, with little or no contained chro- 172 Dr. Hooker’s Flora Antarctica. mule, separated by much gelatine ; and 3d, an elliptical core placed in the long axis of the petiole, composed of still smaller cells, sep- arated by broader masses of gelatine, which latter 1 is permeate by. canale, pie as are the small cells, of chromule. mulus, from which proceed the two Beni whose structure we pate just described, presents no very important dif- ference from them; the core no longer stretches across it, how- termediate tissue. At this period the cortex is somewhat = oO = = = =, n mh = a b>) Ss QQ. QO ° Ss jm — °o bq = = J mn ~~ — a oO S S 5 ® bv] 3 ted to the Amarantacee. " The order Basellacea, familiar to us only by the Boussingaultia ba- Selloides, which is cultivated as an ornamental climbing plant, contains genera, entirely of tropical plants. _ The order Amarantacee includes forty-five genera, arranged under h anthera, one species (Achyranthus repens, Othrix, Nutt.,) cacao chil Lindheimer and Wright find abund- antly in Texas, and which will certainly stand as a separate genus, if a Striking peculiarity in respect to its fruit, observed by Dr. orrey, Proves to be a normal condition. Telanthera ficoidea and polygonoides 302 Bibliography. eR ee ne appear to be only introduced plants along our southern coast. Freli- chia (Oplotheca, Nutt.) has three North American species. Phyliepi- dium of Rafinesque is not identified, and probably never will be. he remaining family , Nyclaginacea, includes eighteen genera, in three tribes. Of ( Mirabilis, though no species are credited to us, we the Peruvian Alliona incarnata comes also from California. ae: cies of Abonia are described, besides A.? (Tripterocalyx) micran' Torr., which Dr. Torrey has since raised to the rank of a ge Pisonia aculeata is found on Key West. Boerhaavia furnishes us three or four species; and there still remain some undescribed Texan — of the fam A. Gr. 2. Catalogue of Plants, Native and Naturalized, collected in the vi- cinity of Cincinnati, Ohio, during the years 1834-1844; by Tuomas G. Lea. Philadelphia. pp. 77, 8vo. 1849.—The circumstances un- der which this posthumous publication has been he from rr: which, had Mr. Lea’s life been spared, would have assumed a more eX- tended and important form, are thus briefly stated by Mr. Sullivan, in the preface “ Few botanists have more thoroughly investigated the ee of their immediate vicinities than did the late Thomas G. Lea that of Cin- w which years of assiduous study of the plants of Southwestern Ohio had well fitted him devoted to the study of Fungi: and his eslioaaua in that department will be found a highly valuable contribution to the mycology of the United States. Mr. Lea died of an autumnal fever, on the 30th of September 1844, at Waynesville in this State, where he had been pam 5 sing a few weeks, making, as these pages will attest, man rare collections in the adjacent valley of the Little Miami river. In ee accordance with his mete all “re specimens of Fungi were submit- - Le) Qn Comal ° oe a fe) =) = — oO H a ° 5 Qa, @ =} = -_ a o 2 = @ = > = oO Ma S bc] is) S e. Sp “s Q. ~~ o TS ate i The. Ph anerogamous plants, Ferns, Mosses, and Hepatice, appear in the form of a naked Catalogu e. The account of the Lichens, prepat- ed by Mr. ‘Tuckerman, is enriched by some critical remarks by this skill- ful Secetiedteed and by the characters of three new species of Lich- ens proper, aman Verrucaria subelliptica, Parmelia Leana, and P. -and of a Collemacea, viz., Leptogonium corticula, to which Elements of Botany ; by M. Avrisn pe Jusstev : Translate EWETSON Witson, F.L.S., &c. London : Van Voorst, 1849, 18mo..— We are glad to have an English translation of this inval- en r. Wilson; and the excellent cuts are accurately copied. _ Itisto be hoped that many copies will find their way to this country. sy ‘ A.G : .D., F.L.S., &c., Professor of Botany in the University of Edinburgh, Illustrated by numerous wood-cuts. London : 40. 1549. pp. 641, 12mo.—We have here an original English introduc- hon to Botany, but modeled evidently upon the plan of Jussieu’s, all of whose wood-cuts (from the English edition) have been borrowed, as well as several others from different sources. In extent, it is about the 2. e of collecting, examining, and preserving plants. The index is so _mad serve as a glossary, in the manner with which we are here familiar, The work is well executed, and oa =— judicious- _'y selected, so as to give a good summary view of almost every topic Which pertains to Ricdiiienbe: A. Gr. 5. Circular prepared by direction of the Hon. Wm. Batagp Preston, Secretary of the Navy, in relation to the Astronomical Expedition to vhile ; by Lieut. M. F, Maury, U.S. N., Superintendent of the Na- onal Observatory. 34 pp. 4to, with Charts and Tables. Washington, . besides Charts and Tables to facilitate observations. e cite the fol! of other observers is more especially invited, will consist of differential measurements, during certain portions of the years 1849, °50, °51 and ee 304 Bibliography. °62, upon Venus and Mars, with certain stars along their paths. The observations upon Venus which will most command the attention of the Expedition, will be differential measurements upon that pee | the — and evening, while it is near the woe conju 1850 and 1852. In like manner, Mars will be c ae pees ne mere stars near the times of opposition of ie nates in 1849 and 1852. The object of these observations upon this, planers l s, always use the same pr repared the accompanying charts and tables. Charts No. 1 to 5, in- clusive, refer to Venus; 6 and 7 to Mars. ey show the approxi mate places of the planets from day to day co to the stars, jaa to the tenth magnitude, near their path. In some parts of the paths of the planets, along which published catalogues ee not afford proper stars of comparison, special observations have been made with the large racy sufficient merely to leave no doubt as to the stoliee of the par- ticular star, which all observers are requested to use during the obser- vations for the day none ae provided for. It is requested that those passage The order of observations, proposed by Lieut. Gilliss, is this: :—Du- ring the term of the Ephemeris of Mars, differential measurements — upon that planet, and the star of comparison for the day, will be com- — menced at two hours after the passage of the planet across the merid- ian of Greenwich, and be continued for one hour and a half after the — star and planet shall have passed the meridian of Washington; observ- — ing and comparing with the star, the North and Seat Limb of the — planet alternately. Both the planet and star of comparison will also be observed, with the Meridian Circle, at their transit across the meridian of the Observa- tory in Chile. The same course is proposed to be pursued, at meridian — transit, with regard to Venus and her star of comparison. Fe e her star of comparison, as given in the Ephemeris. as early in the oreo morning, and to continue them as rae as the light of the Bibliography. 305 ithin that distance of the Sun. It is proposed, during such inter- , to rely exclusively on meridian observations, both at the Observa- y in Chile and elsewhere. he precise place in Chile, at which the Observatory is to be erected, not be decided upon until the arrival there of the Expedition. Astronomers, who are disposed to forward the objects of the on so far as to codperate with it in conducting an auxiliary servations, will perceive that the results of their labors will m. _ §. Introduction to Meteorology ; by Davin Purvis Tuomson, M.D., Grad, Univ. Edinb., Licent. Roy. College of Surgeons, Edinb. 486 pp. Li ion of material thus produced : and science owes much to ‘leut. Davis for the exposition of this subject which he has made. coast affords facts of a most extended and varied character, and Secon Serres, Vol. VIII, No. 23.—Sept., 1849. 306 ; bei whole outline. The inv Gis here detailed were made about the Nantucket shoals and Long Island. The author exhibits in a strong light the action of the tides in the accumulation of the loose material —- shoals, and in determining their phi and outline. 8. Sixty-second Annual Report of the Regents of the University e the State of New York; made to the Logistaiires March I, 1849. 2 pp. 8vo. Albany. 1849.—This Report, besides its fund of informa- ri relating to education in New York, contains, as heretofore, mete- orological tables for the year, made throughout the state and vario ie ee , Ao portions of the state and even to other states, a part of which are val- uable, and action part add nothing to the reputation of the Report. eports, etc., of the Smithsonian Institution, savers its Plans, Operations and Financial. Condition up to January 1, 1849. From the third Annual Report of the Board of Regents: ” Presented to 49.—The ob- length in a former number of this Journal. It is — to learn that these plans, so noble and comprehensive, are in process of accom- plishment under the oe of its learned Se ecretary, Prof. Henry. 10. A collection of Tables and Formule useful in Geodesy and Prac- tical Astronomy, including Dlondncs for the Projection of Maps ; pre- red by order of the Topographical Bureau for the use of the Corps of Topographical Engineers; by Capt. T. J. Lez, Topographical En- gineer. 96 pp. 8vo. Washington. 1849. No.3 0 — relating to the duties of the Corps of Topographical Engineers. raph- ical Bureau of our Government, under the general ¢ direction of Co J. J. Abert, is conferring a great benefit on the science of the country, by its recent publications. ‘The work before us has more interest than pertains to a manual for grin its utility will be appreciated a a wide range of readers. It presents in a perspicuous manner 1 rious trigonometrical expresaisns): formulas and series used in pore eights—Formula for projection of Maps, with a number of valuable tables—Table of the lengths, in Nautical and Statute miles, of degrees Bibliography. 3 307 Pontons, prepared for the use of the United States Army; by Capt. iorce W. CuLtum agricultural education and research. This is a subject of commar Importance, and it behooves the state of New York to set a liberal and enlightened example in this respect. : istory and Chemical Investigation of Maize, or Indian Corn ; by J. A. Sauissury. Albany. 1849.—This research is a ‘Prize Es- _ Say,” to which the New York State Agricultural Society have awarded their premium of $200, offered two years ago. This “ Essay” forms part of the valuable volume of Transactions of the Society for this year, Just published as above noticed. tr. Salisbury’s research is very elaborate and extended. It is em- odied in 206 octavo pages, a large part of which Is taken up with Closely printed tables of analytical results, and of calculations deduced from them. We have received this essay at the moment of going to Press, and have had no opportunity to make a critical examination of Mr. Salisbury’s methods or results. We have however, seen enough 308 Bibliography. pace to take detail. We must now confine cure to a following table (Table 60 of the memoir) ons the composition of the ash of the hemneig of three varieties of maiz |. No. No. 15. Ash of kernels Ash of erat Ash of kernels} — jof the Chinese of the ‘l'usca- patratcs Island) _ | tree variety. | rora variety. variety. | \Carbonie acid, | trace, trace Silicie nei : | 1700 0775 | Sa ESipe eae |. 1-075 1-275 Phosphor Paci and peroxyd of iron,, 49185 44135 0°62) Maproat a 16-200 12875 ARCOM 5 ciese¥e oaswasy-vieow eked ae 2930 14-2. oda, . 15°365 207545 Chlorine, 0-440 0-450 rganic acids,........... eer, 2125 3520 ; 99640 98-210 14. Notes on the Medical Application of mneety hits ; bY WILLIAM F. Cuannine, M.D. Boston: D. Davis, Jr. and J. M. Wightman. 1849. es Pp. 199.—This u unpretending little volume ees from a d s ich entitles it to great confidence as a faithful record of the Oran a of our k pe of the application of electricity in the treatment of human disease. The subject is treated under the follow- ing heads. 1. Physiological relations of Electricity. 2. Forms of Med- ical ii at 3. Means of Application. 4. General application to disease. 5. Special application to Patent, Dr. Channing trees eac of these topics in a perspicuous manner, and the last two w h special fullness. He gives a decided preference in a majority of cases, 0 electro- rmagnetisin and magneto-electricity as a means of excitement in agen eis ce l of Magnetism ; by Danie. Davis, Jr. 1848. i av pox haggle now acknowledged to be the best which are in use for ex- paper a a Many minds have united to produce this result, s has been ni favored in having the advice and as- ing his apparatus, of such men as Prof. Henry and Drs. Page, Channing and Bacon. Under the charge of the two latter geallenibn, the present fas well as the former) edition of this Manua as been principally prepar ft 16. Knapp’s Chemical Technology vol, ii, illustrated with 246 engra- vings. Philadelphia Lea & Blanchard. dheas ls Ms second volume this work under the editorship of Prof, W. R. Joh mare been some time in our hands from the iil publishaast "Phe mechanical Bibliography. 309 execution of these works leaves little to be desired, and the wood-cuts are equalled only by the other volumes of the series of illustrated sci- ‘a . res, the manufactory of Pottery and Porcelain, including Bricks. Ivy. is devoted to Lime, Mortar, Gypsum, Magnesia, Barytes, rontia. Jr. Knapp’s happy union of scientific accuracy with a minute knowl- of practical details, renders his works of the greatest value to all or of an instrument for the use of navigators, which he calls a Nauti- _ eal Slide Rule, and another which is called the Mechanical Sliding m (see this Jour., i ser., vol. xlix, 180) as having added very greatly to the extent and accuracy of our constants in this difficult department of physical investigation. The following are the principal objects which .. proposed in continuing the experiments with the ballistic pen- uium :— é . - To ascertain the smallest calibre of gun which may be relied on 0 give satisfactory results, in using the ballistic pendulum as an instru ment for proving gunpowder. i Se ** Report of Experiments on Gunpowder, at Washington Arse- nal, in 1843 and 1844,” p. 320. - To ascertain the initial velocities of balls fired from field guns _ and howitzers, with various charges. 8. To ascertain the charge of maximum effect, and also the relative | force main features the peculiarities of Walker. Its definitions are full and Webster. The orthography and y of the work are of course deeply tinctured by the Old Eng- 310 : Bibliography. lish (Irish ?) standard, which is chiefly its basis on ‘these points. It is beyond our province to discourse upon lexicography, but our attention was called to this work by the arrival at a late hour of a copy from the author. It is certainly singular that Englishmen should again be indebted to a stranger for another dictionary of the English language. Thus in succession has an Irishman, an American, and a Sc otchman, presented England with lexicons of their own lang age, com with which their own works have been imperfect and unpopular. ROCEEDINGS of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. . Svo. ment of hn Sa ain at Swansea in August, 1848. xl, 98 and 138 pp. 8vo. oa din, 458 7 J.M. G sede the Longi tude of Washington. From the Proceedings of the American Philos sophical Bae oy Philadelphia 1849, J. Curtis, F.L.S. British Entomology, being Illustrations and pen of the Genera of Miissets found in Great Britain and Ireland. 16 vols. Roy. 8vo. 770 cop- per plates.--This wor . — to be re-issued tl ae Benham & Reeve, at rs. Proceepines Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist. FEBRUARY, 1 849. Epoch of the Masto- dons; H. D. Rogers, Mr. Persie Desor. p. 118. New ‘shells of the 2a Expe- dition under Capt. Wilkes, (Genera Trochus, Planaxis, Cerithium,) _A Gould. 2 peed: Telluret of lead and gold fro m Virginia ‘ C. 7. jena 129, Structure of Glaciers, illustrati % laminated iiaiele of rocks; H. D. Rogers. ms P. relopmen o Aurelia aurita ; Desor —p. 140. New shells of the Ex ori ‘Expe- a Capt. Wilkes, "(Genera Pleurotoma, Mangelia, Fus a smd n, Phos, Buttetin pe 1a Soc. Ip. pes Naturauistes pe Moscow, 1848 ; No. Tt i of Southwest Liberia; F Gebler. a eer for a history of Russian Malacozoology ; 4 v. renin “ie —On Spermatophora; @. Gros—Fossil Ovastiba a of the Jura of s Co nsky.—European cpecies s of the genus Oorisa; Fieber. Gly cia heme oad: the genus Blechrus ; Motschoul y— * marks on Erichson’s Naturgeschichte der Insekten Deutschla d, ce; Motschoulsky.—Decades quarta ntar bones of the government of Orel; Borissjak. No. IIL ete of itor Li- beria; F. Gebler—Flora of Dahura; Turezaninow. .—Fossil cephalo of Kalouga and Moscow; Fischer de Waldheim—On the Saurians = the Techstein ot rps ; E. Eichwald—New Russian Lepidoptera; 2. Ever. mposition of spa- thic iron by heat ; E. ee ——On Saussuren Karelinii; 8. Sieh "Pelopors destillatorius; E. Eversmann.—Botan notices ; Steven Anatomical in- vestigation of the Galocties' aronoides ind G. in trepida ; Me itary Geological re- lations of the Governments of Orenburg and West Ural; Wan m v. Qualen, New Cecindelz and other insects of Russia; Chaudoir. mendin of gs ear Fischer: de Waldhei Flora of Dahuria rezaninow.—Mines of Bie sk; ie 3 i nalysi ite: Gi No, 1. Geology of neue C. Rouiller—*Staphylinen Fauna” of the Cauca- sus and the region Lae ne J. H. Hochhuth—On ne Crioceras Voronzovii; Fis- cher de cim— * Seigecnan Coleoptera ; nerheim—Comet of A 1847; G.I. Schweizer. si Seg nomous s ys of Southern Russia ; Motschoulsy. Pte a Russian Daphne; J. ‘Kaleni iczenko—Examination of several minerals; 2 ermann Aes ate APPENDIX. ad 5 pict can Association for the Advancement of Science.—The annual in of the wey Association was held at Cambridge in Massa- setts on the 14th of August, and the session continued until Tues- , August Set, being the longest session yet held by this body. number were in attendance from all parts of the country, and ea misces of the local committee were ample both for the sale | accommodation of the members, and for the sessions of the sec- la of the meeting, a yi subdivision was made into four sec- The i elias both in the quantity and quality of the matter offered ov previous year was very observable to those who have followed 1 es ri of this body from its origin in the Convention of Geologists at Philadelphia in 1840, to its present enlarged and compre- hensive form of usefulness. It was obvious that the Association had now he truly national in character, and had taken deep hold o the feelings of men of science and investigators in all departments of knowledge. This manifestation is the best earnest of the futt €nergy and prosperity of a Tastincida, and gives agi ho for farther progress and greater usefulness. Dinner rovied i rd n these cocaseni’ whi ch was extended als es ¥ the University at Canibieides ext annual iy of the ree is to be held at New Haven in Rca iiedtiont, on an invitation from the officers of Yale College. Phe President for 1850 is Dr. Alexander Dallas Bache, the ery iward C. Herrick, Esq., and a Ellwyn, Treasurer. The session lace on Monday, Aug. 19th, 1850. ere is also to be a semi- session, t to be held at Tie bse South Carolina, in March, 1850. We can give at this late moment only the list of memoirs rend at this Session, and in timenias ot — — announcements. 312 American Association for the Advancement of Science. Be Tuesday, Aug. 14. 1. On the Aurora Borealis, by Prof. Szccu1 of Georgetown, D. C. 2. On the Polar Plant, by Maj. B. gt 8. A: 3. On the Plants of Wisconsin, by J. A. LapHam, Esgq., of Mil- waukie. a 4. The Fossil Crinoideze of Tennessee, by Prof. G.gP Roost of Drsded ee Ke : A plan for the Diffusion of Human Knowledge. oe, Eres aience " relation to the Altona Observatory. : Structure cf Coral Animals, by Prof. Louis AGass1z. og 6. On the ei genus Mosasaurus and new allied genera in ‘ United States, by R. W. Gisses, M.D. ’ Wednesday, Aug. 15. General Session, 10 A. M. 1. On an American Prime Vertical, by Lieut. Cuartes H. Davi Afier the reading of this paper, the ae met in two seotionil when the following papers were presen is * SECTION OF GENERAL PHYsICcs. 2. On the Natural Classification of Curves, by Rev. caet Hitt. 3. On Planetary Perturbations, by Prof. Bensamin Pet 4. On a Comparison of the Results derived in hecdaey from the method of least squares, by Prof. A. D. Bacne n Boltonite, by Wittiam Seamann, Esq., M.D. 6. On Boltonite, and on Tho ompson’s Bi- silicate of Magnesia, by Prof. Bensamin Situiman, Jr. 7. On the Moisture, ei and Organic Matter of the Atmos- phere, by Prof. E. N. Hor SECTION OF NATURAL HISTORY. i 1. On the Zoological Character of Young Mammalia, by Prof. Louis GASSIZ 2. On the Vegetable Character of Xanthidium of Ehrenberg, by Prof. Louts Agassiz 3. On Valerianate of i ee a new medicine, by Dr. MorRiLL Wrmax and Prof. E. N. Horsro . On Pacrealar in the Red Sandstone, » I. Lea . On Volcanos not Safety Valves, by James D. es a, Es sq- 6. On the ener of a Fossil Elephant, found in . Neeweiale by — ag AGas On Redes of ea of Mastodon angustidens in the United bows by Dr. J. C. War Thursday, Aug. 16. SECTION OF GENERAL PHYSICS, CHEMISTY, ETC. e Relation between the Elastic Curve and the Motion of the Resdabu ns by Pro EIRCE, 2. On the Second Recorded oe of 1784, commonly called Comet of Aneas, by Dr. B. D, Jr. i eager on Terrestrial "T hermoties, by Lieut. E. B. Hoyt, tributed under the same name, by Pro preg so-called Picrolite and Slaty ha of Texas, poms by Prof. B. Situman, Jr. nl fiol ey, by Prof. A. D. E Ribbon a of Glaciers, and its —— to Slaty , by H. D. Roe SECTION OF NATURAL HISTORY, GEOGRAPHY, &c. n the Circulation of Fluids in Insects, by Prof. Lours Acasstz. On the Embryology of Ascidia and the pan he of “hogl from the shores ~ Massachusetts, by Prof. AGass! . Note on the Mirage on Lake Superior, by Dr. C T. Jnexsow. 5, Remarks on the distribution of Testacean Mollusca in Jamaica and . the ged — India Islands, by Pro 6. On the Erosions’ of the Earth’s Surface, by President Epwarp “Hrrexcocx, _, 7 On the River Terraces of the Connecticut Valley, by President Epwarp Hircucocx. 8. Description of Certain Mineral Localities, chiefly in the Northern ~ part of tent and Franklin ees in Massachusetts, by CHARLES ur yisean DWaARD Hirtcucock, q sae ihe "Sinetand Features of. ie Appalachians compared with “those o f the — and other disturbed districts of Europe, by Pro’ Hexey D. Roe . _ There was a + wikein monne at Lyceum Hall in the evening, whe: an address was presente — On the eo of the Survey of the Coast of the United States, Prof. A, D.B ee SES Friday, Aug. 17. SECTION OF PHYSICS, CHEMISTRY, &c, frag of ee rsC. Wat 6. On the color of fused sept by Prof. Horsr : sal new form of Demonstration of the -tpartonebtry of Forces, by ‘ a EIR CTION OF NATURAL HISTORY, GEOLOGY, &e. f kk Bees Fin, of New York, and their probable Onn s also upon some Trails — f. Han 314 American Association for the Advancement of Science. . On new species of Myliobates, and on new fossils of the Cretace- ous and Tertiary of the U.S., by Dr. R. W. Gispes. 3. Fiords, evidence of a change of Level, by James D. Dan 4, On the origin of the Drift of the Lake and River Teentee of ne U. S., with an examination of the — ~ Aqueous Action | Lee with the yes 8 by Prof. H. D. Roe gore . On some Fossil Remains of Behonis County, N.Y., by J. S. Rep- en ha f “ eek! “a peat ae a FIELD, : 6. On the Larva of Physoccelus inflatus, by S. S. HanpEMan 7. On the Habits of Amphiuma in a state of captivity, by J. L. ConTe. 8. On some Curious Habits of a Species of Asilus, by J. L. LeC 9. New ‘species of Meduse, Echinoderms and Crustacea, by ee Acassiz. ae a AFTERNOON GENERAL MEETING.—[44 o’clock.] nie 1. On the Electricity of a Plate of Zinc buried in the Earth, by Prof. - OMIS. 2. On an Electrical Phenomenon, by Prof. Hen 3. On the Supposed Association of Electricity with Cholera, by Prof. ARE. 4. A Letter on Medical Geology, by J. A. Larxam. ‘ Saturday, Aug. 18, 10 o'clock, A. M. ! 3 SECTION OF PHYSICS, CHEMISTRY, &c. < 1. On a newly discovered Analogy in the time of the Rotation of the = Planets, discoversd by Mr. Kirkwood, of Penn., by S. C. WaLxer. i 2. Phenomena attending Saturn’s Ring, by Groncr P. Bonn. 3. On the Electro-dynamic Forces, by Prof. Loveri ; 4. rf et American Climate and the Theories of its Storms, by rof. H 5. pa ont he drift of wrecked material on the South coast of Long Island ; and on recent changes in Cape Hatteras, by Lieut. Davis. SECTION OF NATURAL HISTORY, GEOLOGY, &c. . Observations on some Tracks in the Sandstones of the Clinton a8 my a in the surface of these Sandstones, by Pro in 2. On the Copper Mines of Lake Superior, by C. T. Jac : 3. Exhibition of some of ihe Bones of the Dinornis Nove. Zealan- ce die, with remarks, by Prof. SE. 4. On some new points in i Morphology of Cells, by Dr. W- J- Burnett. 5. Some remarks upon Erratic Phenomena in the White Moun- — tains, by Prof. Guyor. Monday, Aug. 20, 10 o’clock, A. M. SECTION OF PHYSICS, CHEMISTRY, &c, 1. General —_ om the ogame of ‘the apparent places of Stars, by Prof. J. S. Hus watt Pe or es ies ; ser ihe Water contained in Crystall hod for testing the purity of the con V ne of Observing Right Ascension af Declination, the Fe Fat OF a large Sea Turtle, by Dr. C. Lincx. bs SCCTION OF NATURAL HISTORY, GEOLOGY, &c. 6. Letter on a New Cave in Kentucky, by L. Fevcurwa ae “hans On the Right Whale of the Southern Hemisphere, by t. <8. On the plan of Structure and Homologies of Radiated Anifipls, with a to the systematic position of the so-called eee oid : Polypi, by Prof. L. Acassiz. ; 9. : e Homologies of Acephala and Gasteropoda, with referen to the systematic position of Brachiopoda, &c., by Prof. L. Acassiz. 10. On the Differences between Birebidea and true Cetacea, and the Embryonic Characters of the former, by Prof, L. Acassiz. 11. On the Difference between Embryonic and Prophetic Types in the suecession of organized se through the whole range of geolog- ieal times, by Prof. L. Agassiz GENERAL MEETING : EVENING SESSION, (in Lyceum Hall, 74 o’clock, P. M.) _2 oy Animal Morphology, by Prof. Aca On ee Recwits with Wicecra iis chiefly from the Abo- 4 inal Lang of America, by 8. S. Harpem Tuesday, dis. 21, 10 o'clock, A. M. [The last ni of the Session. ] SECTION OF PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY, &c. hg Instruments, by Prof. Guy on a proposed Prime Meridian for American Longitude, ete: ce Be Pi 316 American Association for the Advancement of Science. 3. On Ammonio-chlorid of Magnesium, by Dr. — Geometrical Interpretation of Analytical Hanetoae by i RSON. a ee ‘. s as Ono a Sel. cite Anemometer, byes HH, er 6. Ona Curio rious Phenomenon relating to n bysro 2 On some , Characteristic coe ie by A. Gra 2. On a Process for selecting the Remains of ‘To fosdrid tary V . BAILEY. = sptena and Spirifer, by Prof. Hat % ee cir elegy of Cephalopoda, Aphides, Birds and oe SIZ. he Histology of Invertebrate Animals, by Prof. re veral points of Embryology in connection —_ Cl — tion, ty of. Acassiz. GENERAL MEETING.—(Four o’clock, P. m.) the Application of the Principles of Acoustics to the Con of Lecture- ae , by Prof. osition . Plant Phytons, and some Applications: Ges PUletices of American Minerals by P Sie c. U. eas O74 pas the exist- ence of Mercury in the Tyrol, by M. H, Rose: Mud of the Nile, : Zoology.—Conspectus Crastaccorsimn, que in Orbis Terrarum or, Carolo Wilkes e Classe Reip aD. Dawa, 27 : Miscellancou B Baitticencs —On Certain Krieol Lena by a. Genie 286.—On oe the Mechanism and Functions of the Organs of Voice in Man; with the intro- ee ion of a case of double utterance, by Dr. Petrierew, 287.—The Asioeatik pe Raromcter, 288.—Gold at Port Phillip, South shore of Australia, 290 —The Tin lines of Banca, 291.—Navigation of the Arctic Regions: facture, —New Mode of copying Engravings, by M. Nierce: Herbaria of New Eng gland Plants, 293.—British Museum: Platinum and Diamonds in Califor- nia: Medal to Ww. Lassell, 294.— Obit tuary.—George W. Whistler, 294.—Ste- hen Endlicher, 7 iy —De Candolle’s Prodromus ma Bot Pars XIU, Sectio a#i0 .—Catalogue of Plants, Native , | | in the inity of Cincinnati, Ohio, during the years ears 1534-1844, by Tnomas Pe Lea, —The Elements of Botany, by M. Aprien ve Jussieu; ti by MES ., &e.: A Manual of Botan ny; being an ¢ uction to the Study of the Stracture, srt A and Classification of Joun Hutton Baxrovr, M.D., F.L , 303.—Circular pre- y direction of the Hon. Wa. BALuarp he as Secretary of the Navy, tion to the Astronomical Expedition to Chile, by Lieut. M. F, Maury, S.N. ,303.—I ntroduction to Meteorology, by Davin Panis "Taio Me p:: doef on the Geological Action of the Tidal and ~~ Currents of the » by arden Hevyry Davis, AM, Lieut. U.S. N., 305.—Sixty-second Report of the et sae of the: aan of le State of New York: ete, Fey OF. the = n Institutio ; Operation Cor will be published on the first of Nov. — = CONTENTS. a 2 a aero iam Arr. xIL a of Dr. Hooker’s Flora. Antarctica ; bad Prof. XIU. On ie iGinsdwiive Sissies and Bastaucabi of. Phos- ZA phoric Acid; by H. Rost, °- 181° | XIV. Abstract of an Article on the Peuductac Pcie of ie on at Porsctisn seasngsie sen &c., by M. Epmonp Bec ‘ i ‘ ‘ : XV. A Recneks at Ohare Aiccanaié Laie Read before the American chee sie wees the 6th of ak sad, by Georce Orp, - ete On the Diurnal Vaisafions in the Declination of he Mag- netic Needle, and in the Intensities of the Horizontal and Vertical Magnetic Forces; by Prof. Witiram A. Norvron, XVII. On the Method of Reiirmining the Geographical Longin »y Altitudes of the Moon; by Prof. W. Cuauvener, ete the | ; 3 the ese ame cae xix. On tl dis Cuive diecritied by a Movable Palle by Prof. A. Seccut, - - XX. Thoughts on Anciank Molatiuigy sd Mining } in Brigentios and eee parts of Britain, suggested by a page of Pliny’s Natural History; by Joun Puruxips, Esq., F.R.S., F.G.S., SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics —On Margaritinic Acid, by Louis Usstecuaiceks 263 — On some New Phenomena of Light and Actinism, by Mr. Hor, ee On the direct: production of Heat by Magnetism, by W. RovE, Esq., alo- noine, 267.—On the Action a oes and Acids wien Aldehyde, by ar Ww _ BENBUSCH, 268.—On an ic Compound containing Arsenic, by Prof. W6x- _ LER: On Liquid Protoxyd of ‘Nirogen, by M. Dumas, 269.—On A A Nitric Acid, by M. Devitte: On th © Composition of Stearic and Acids, ‘Messrs. Lavnest ond Gunkanee: Cc. NOVEMBER, 1849. | ‘TO CORRESPONDENTS. * ivinal communication, published i in this Journal, a re if ve at the a of the author. Any larger r number of copies will be irate at cost. Authors should always specify at the head of their MSS. the number of extra h to have eal po saacmneoiere parsers are om la in other Journals. pare r requested to forward all communications and parece r 1 49 Bow eRe Cheapsid e, London, who will - 1 ired that To the Banking Institutions of the United States. THE attention of bank vehi» - other holders of negotiable paper and notaries, is desired to the late and important cases report _ published in the Banxers’ Macaiunes cases which affect the busi sition of all monied institutions, ‘The cases reported are upon the following \jec ts :— ra Notices oF Protes . TRANSFER OF STOCK BY Bxicurghi: ‘tr Gasods on Sicut Bris. : a Or Nor TARIAL ee, recent decisions in = highest _. _ of England, confirmed by cases in the Supreme Court of New Yor af te a Judicial Court of pee ont it will be found” a rous s ban king institutions throughout the so far as their endorsers are concerned) ‘ission of i important words in notices of pro- ¢ pouable paper to great and unnecessary e s.—An equally important topic to all view taken by Judge Taney ( hief —— mitted the superintendence of the na ct or omission of its teagehy is equally chargeable with implied notice of the Will. ik was bound to take notice of the Will of the testator ransfer was proposed to be made by one of the executors. bag negligence in the bank not to examine it: and if it was igno- ra ate contents, and of the specific bequest of this stock, it was its t t may not have actual notice of the contents of the Will, ye “ te we alin with an executor in his character as such, ha W implies noti UL @ Grace cot Suu Bitts.—The late decisions contained in this deni; have induced many banks to be extre mely cautious in their ngs with their correspondents, in reference to grace on Sight Bills. 1 2 A cashier of one of the Boston banks writes us as follows :— ‘lam aware that a different usage has prevailed with the banks of New York and other cities, but I have always considered that they as- sumed a great responsibility, as it is well known that our courts never allow usage to take the place of an established principle of law, or to be pleaded as an excuse for its infraction.” The following articles in this Magazine are published in no other periodical in this country, and claim the attention of all bank officers : 1. Chief Justice: Taney, Supreme ves United States, on Transfers of Stock by Execut Vol. Ill. 2. Chancellor Johnson * Mary] sade gi. Transfers of Bank Stock, . ‘ male} 3. The Law of Grace on ) Sight t Bill 0 As 4. Late cases in the highest Courts of Eugicel and in the upreme Court of New York ™ Massachusetts, as to Notice of Shame ‘ “TV. 5. Baron Humboldt’s last Essay on, the Production and , Supply of aire ink. Wasa 8h Sor this work,) Ile 6. Opinions of Joshua Bates. on, Palmer, and py Tooke, “Pes — > Turne and Pease, upon the Commercial Cr of England, . si ‘« cant. 7. Tables of Foreign Eecheue for Ps 1822, «Hil. 8. Historical Sketches of the Merchants’ Bank in New = York, Manhattan Bank, Bank of North yeh, e: Oe 9. Treatise on Banking; by ‘A. B. Johnson, Esq., of Utica, “ UL | 10. List.of. all the Banke in England, Ireland and Scotland, = © and the Circulation of each, . +e 11. Improvements in Bank Note Paper, for the prevention of forgery, Ob 12, Weights and Measures of all Nasione, a as compared with those of the United States . « TL Complete sre on hand of Volume III, price $3, compris twelve Nos., from July, 1848, to June, 1849, inclusive, 772 pages. The vole © ume can be transmitted ae mail to any distance within the United States—postage fifty ce rders to be A to the Editor, at Bahimore, Md, Cop delivered monthly without expense of postage to subscribers, in en New York, Philadelphia, Uacge aaah ty 4, Providence, Washington D. C., Hartford, Conn., New Hav nn. HOMANS, Editor Bautee ss ao Baltimore, Ma. 3 GEOLOGICAL . : AND a MINERALOGICAL SPECIMENS. _ Mr. KR j tions and private collectors in this country, that he eeps paleo on on n hand d the largest stock of minerals, fossils and rock- -specimens, enabling him to up collections of every extent and complete existing ones, This pore atest 4 private cultivators of the mineralogical and geological sciences among its custom- ers onstantly, during twenty yeurs, kept pace with the rapid progress of these branches of human knowledge; its travelers are een, ‘en route” in all countries of Europe (one of them i is now in the United States,) and all efforts ooh to secure the acquisition of every thing new or FSivieresting to collectors. | The fi minerals contains now about 800 _ collected at more than 3000 “3 localities, and forming a cabinet of 10,000 first rate specimens, unrivalled by = private collection, and representing the 4 vei the science ‘ the very e oini on ue shows. instructive collections for the demonstration of the physical Is, color ed winer composition, etc., etc., are particularly aig le of eer “agen kha Beiiiy dee with drawers, containing, in a ego about one foot i in depth — breadth, 300 small price $25; smaller ones to i cases, at from ¢2- . ration of rare chemical substances and the ~ students in pl at a, such as Uranium, Tellurium, it; itanium, Mellite, etc., at the lowest — All specimens ae: ‘providid with Printed labels, in English, German and French. | Sethe for tb | rals and rock- bs em Prhawia’s always mention the size desired. umber a : ssil organic remains, amounts to about a collected in all the | _ Allthe © speci Fas fa larger than pis: very characteristic suet BS ations, can urnishe thes pec! Prise is furnished with a printed label serrate | ? _ the i ’ s geological formation, and name; anged for penta purposes nidhigtail he ording t aa +e ee of - _formations ; do ted if rices of casts of rare and interesting he original and forming a valuable ag tod Sanaa part of the sand: co Giind ssils of larger size, eee in the colors of t favs for public cabine cad kets ‘of scien fic. ii e dere called to Mr. K.’ ‘8 collection of of W., su some p 2g ar the fi Ne Moseums ‘of dra __Achthyosauri at from 830-200. oligo, fishes and Crinoides of the same and ormations at equally moderate prices. i s.—A thousand varieties of t eci ce are on hand, forming Complete series of all the primary an tary rocks which form the known solid pers of our globe All the specimens af aah i gat are of the same size r elegant manner, without un- w te w ing to geologists, such as : phical watts of coun ntries interest g to geologi : ony, the | flares , Mt. Vesuvius, the oe Italy, Hungary, Norway and Sw eden, exico, and some others are still on ha * 4 CATALOGUE OF FOSSILS, CASTS OF FOSSILS, ROCK-SPECIMENS AND MINERALS, FOR SALE BY AUGUSTUS KRANTZ, Beruin, Prussia, 39 Briderstrasse. | AMERICAN EDITION. | I. FOSSILS. | 1. asts of Norway and 8 n upwards of 150 fe: $ 3 50 2. 100 species ome the teria basin of Vienna, 12 00 3. 100 species from the tertiary formation be Rhinelan dand Abe halia, = 4 4. i 5. 12 00 6. c, 24 00 ¥. "18 00 8. 26 00 : “Ee 10. ; 11. 300 65.00 12. 150 species fr F 26 00 Of both ae last collections, spare cries rool catenbaing only single groups (chalk, gre ) or zoological fam- ilies (Rudista, halopoda, Pe a. \ yn species from the parce sy email Hiteae and Quadersand- _ ein of Saxony and Bohem ‘ 100 species from the shea a (Unterer Kreidemergel of Roemer) o of Westphalia, 12 . 60 species from the greensand of Blackdown in Devons 6. 100s s from the upper and lower greensan pale Flanovor and Westphalia, (Hilsthon and Uilesonglonea of Roe - 100 species from the Alpine limestone of Gosan, Vils,’ ‘Trion, Hall- Pm fh — et ~~ or os (se) pot rt Lapel nen] ie 3) — or So m s a o nm => ° 5 -_- a o © =) =~ a o i) = a Q ) @ ° —s =] 3 a's & = BRR BashSon en 30 different mies bones from the Mushelkalk of Bavaria 40 apeciogs from the Permian "entoun of Thuringia (Zeehetete and. Kupferschiefer), s 100's species of fossil plants (large size) from the coal-slates of Silesia, Bohemia, and Saxo 75 spories. sara the lee Symem and carboniferous limestone of e Ural Mountains. : nig untae limestone of Ireland, F ° 80 species from on same formation in Belgium 100 species from the Devonian rocks of the Rhine and Eifel, . S8 ENER EBRPP ES = = 2M a S888 S$ S SB S288 SSSSESs & S83 s Ae j=} + Bros i © or 5 36. 100 species from the same formation in the Hartz Mountains, Ri4 37. 300 species from the Paleozoic a of the United States of America, as 38. 100 species fron’ the Silurian group 2 weden an : 39. 80 species from the Pre ce: group of Dudley in England, 40. 200 species from the upper Silurian group of 2 5. ee 41, 100 haart of Trilobites, ‘ 30 : 42, ecies of rig se ‘including the genera Atr trypa, C rania, C e ingula, Orbicula, a Pentameras Productus, Spirifer, Strigoce sphaleds Te Hikbaas 44 4 0 species of Cephalopoda including the gen ie Ascoieatians aobaeines loceras, Baculites, ss , Clymenia, Conularia, Crioceras, Endo- eras Gonioceras, iatites, Hamites, Lituites, Nautilus, Onycho- teuthis, Onthoceraies ogame se a itesy a as and Tarrilites 75 00 Il, CASTS. Persons pishlog to p porches casts, can be furnished with two plates of engrav- ings, representin ie astodon giganteum, PI. 6. Tew : ser 23 ey A from the diluvium of the Mis- ae iver, : S6 00 e original i is in the bei ting Museum at Berlin. 2. Mega onyx Jeffersoni, bor didiersit Solieeurs p halanges, etc., from the ordeal 4 2 00 3. Zeuglodon cetoides, Owen ; Gas cineca "Harlan ; ee chos, Kocl wo teeth, from the a ae sroup Jabama 75 4. Iguanodon, Hy veosaurus an : 14 different bones from the We ald clay of Sussex, England, ae ‘he originals are in the British Mus 5. Pterodactylus crassirostris Goldf., PI. II, Two pieces fr ’ hie slate of Bavari, 3 00 he original is in the Museum of riosaurus species Teleosaur rus, PI. I, Cast in 4 parts, 12 feet , of the best eecinen ever peer hate pe nd in the Lias-slates o! Boll, Wartemberg, . 26 00 The original belongs to Mr. Krantz. 7. Mystriosaurus longi eh. Il, fig. 5. Ft ou ree foct ekeletom from the sume ioe ality, The po in the rs Museum at Vienna. 8. Mystriosau II, fig. 8. Lig Head of rane 76 ser. ee from the same ie ‘ : af The original i 7 - the Royal Museum at Ber 9. Mystriosaurus s 6 00 _Y ‘al spi ah extremities @)s same locality, 10. Ichthyosaurus platyodon , fig. a ect head of a skeleton 60 feet Lidl E Gp Ll. Perfect fin of the same specimen. PI. HH, fig. 3, « 12. Ieht ‘thy osaurus intermedius 1. II, fig. 4. +e fone Lance — sad f ns perfect, : . : 8. Iehthyosaurus eodiouea. Pi. II, fig. 9. 1% Ree t he ad, ‘ ‘ inals of Nos. 10-13 in Re Krai s cabinet : M4. Teluhyosaurus communis. Pl. 075 4 in ‘ 15. PI The crigieal | is in the leo ian at Vienna. | esi ; Klean prc, as li from the ‘Lins slates of — es in Somerse . 0 The origin! i is in the British Museum. & Feipgbeacres, new sp. PI. II, fig. 14. — el i Boll, Wartemberg, The original in A. Krantz’ s cabin 4 00 00 8 00 ~ Re 00 00 17. oo subangularis. zi. Il, fi " e best known specimen; stem 7 feet long; same locality, - $5 00 oe A. Krantz’s pebiwete are 18. Labyrinthodon. . fig. a a ead perfect, from the icles r coal beds at Gaildorf in Wartemberg, 7 00 " The original in the Museum at Stuttgardt. -4 19. Pistosaurus Jongevus, H. von Meyer. PI. Il, ‘fig. 1 EP Ae Head; from the Muschelkalk at Bayreuth, Bavaria, : 1 00 The original in the oral seum | 20. Proterosaurus Speneri. 1. _ Vertebral spine and extremities ; from the ssijeneeiaah slate of Rothenburg, b 1 2% The original in the , Royal ‘Museum at Berlin. 21. ag ee nobilissimus e Old Red Sandstone of Scotland, : F i ae ign is in the British Museum. ' 22. Several species of bea fpr senor for rareness or penne o pees 0 2% | Ill. SYSTEMATIC COLLECTIONS. ‘_: Fossils. eas ges 100 different species, . PO. 200 ‘cc eee eae 22 00 — 300 bes ‘4 Ad . Be ssa 36 00 500 “ “ ' 70 00 1000 ce és e 150 00 2000 iG “cc : Le 350 00 3000 ‘“ ‘“c : Ma 560 00 B. Rock- specimens. ae Size 3 by 3 inches. “Size 3 by 4 inches. 100 different specimens - $5 00; 100 different imens, 1 aM WNT 200 + ae 15 00; 200 $f “ i 300 “ s 5 00} 300 re ly 500 he “e 54 00; 500 oe st 1000 66 “ 135 001 1000 “ ie Se C. Minerals ce Size 2by 2 inches. Size 3 by 3 inches. 100 different specimens, .% 5 50| 100 different specimens, 200 é #6 is 13 00} 200 300 “ se « 21-06; 300 #8 “ 500 “ ‘ec 42 00 500 « fa 1000 te + 105 00 1000 6c “ 2000 “ “ . ie 260 00) 2000 “ “ JAMES GREEN, : | MANUFACTURER AND IMPORTER OF fe Philosophical and Chemical Apparatus, Optical and Mathematical Instruments, 175 Broapway, New Yorx; anv 43 Sovrn street, BALTIMORE. J. G. pestres to inform the public that he has lately opened in New York, an establishment for the manufacture and sale of PHILOSOPHICAL AND CHEMICAL APPARATUS, AND OPTICAL AND MATHEMATICAL INSTRUMENTS. The busitiess in Baltimore will be continued under the care of his brother, who will be kept sup- ied with a stock of instruments, receive orders and deliver goods in Baltimore, which may be a convenience to Southern and Western customers. — ae He hopes that the greater facilities afforded in New York for the manufacture of Apparatus, will enable him to meet the orders of his friends, with increased satisfaction and greater promptness. In addition to articles of his own make, his personal acquaintance With the principle makers of Europe, gives every facility for the tion of instruments; and at the same time, secures an early knowledge of all improvements made there: this assistance, Joined to a constant attention to the progress of experimental sci- nce, puts it in his power, he trusts, to supply every description of apparatus, for demonstration or research, on very favorable Special attention will be, still, given to the manufacture of the more accurate class of instruments required for refined observa- _ fons—particularly in Meteorology—both for Stationary Stand- _ ards and portable instruments. ; Apparatus proper for experimental lectures on Natural Philoso- phy and Chemistry, may be found on hand—also a cheaper kind pes table UE A dd h ted i Se address when requested. ety atalogae of Apparatus sent to any q “ FUNGI AMERICA NTE ENSIOCA Tt. Borantsts wishing specimens of American Fuye1, can obtain packages (of not less than ten Decades each) on application to the subscriber, at Society Hill, South Carolina. M. A. CURTIS. March, 1848. [tf] JOHNSON & ROBBINS’ OFFICE OF CONSULTING ENGINEERS, AND COUNSELLORS FOR PATENTEES : For — information on the subject of Insonsitle, and on the application of Chemical and Mechanical Science to the Arts, Agriculture » Manufac- ie goat and Mines, and for procuring and defending Patents, either in the United States or in foreign countries. Pror. Watrer R. Jounson, late of geist and Z. c. Rossins, of Washington City, ai b ; Knowes, Esq., late Machinist of the United bes Pains OF fice, ) have associated themselves together for the prosecution of the. ‘above branches of professional business, either in their office, at the Patent Office, or before the courts ; ‘and will devote their andi iced attention to forwarding the interests’ of Inventors or others who may consult them or place business in their hands. The ms of Messrs. J. & R. is on F' street, opposite the Patent Office, Washington, D. C., where communications, puis when desired, on resmeaate terms. Letters of i inquiry, expects to be answered after examinations made, must be accompanied by a fee of five dollars Washington, D. C., June 1, 1848. [Nov. 1848.—ly] = + AMERICAN | - JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. [SECOND SERIES.] Arr. XXI.—WNotice of the Narrative of the U.S. Expedition to the River Jordan and the Dead Sea, by W.F. Lyncu, U.S.N., ‘. Nis nea ad of the ge with Maps and numerous illus- : trations. ' Lynch, to whom the Expedition was intrusted by Biternmnesit jn 1847 took command of the store ship Supply ; was provided for his explorations with two metallic boats— one of copper and the other of galvanized iron. Ten vigorous liste ng American seamen “ pledged to total abstinence” were en- ed as a crew for the boats; and to thei r temperance was at- tributed their recovery from the extreme prostration consequent on this hazardous service. Lieutenant Dale, an officer of high attainments and abilities, was associated with the commander: and it was with deep grief that we heard the announcement of his death soon after Hig explorations were completed: he was like yneux and Cortigan before him, a victim to the ea influ- ences that still hover over the old “cities of the , rhey sailed from New York, Nov. 26, 1847, ind landed at peat on the 25th of March following. On the 28th they left for St. Jean d’Acre, and took their departure for the lake of Gen- hesareth, from the river Belus. Their boats, which were made in sections for transportation, were placed on Si brought for —, Vol. VIII, No. 24.—Nov., 1849, __ 318 Lieut. Lynch’s Expedition to the Jordan and Dead Sea. the purpose, and drawn by camels. The party numbered six- teen besides fifteen Bedawins, all well mounted. On the 6th of April they obtained the first view of the Sea of Galilee and the majestic mountains of Bashan beyond; “like a mirror it lay em- amid its rounded and beautiful, but treeless hills.” It measures seventeen miles long by six broad, and is situated twen- ty-eight miles east of Acre, and forty-five north of Jerusalem. gi was found to be 165 feet where greatest, and the hills around were 600 to 700 feet high. Its waters are sweet and transparent, and as of old, fishermen here throw their nets with success, The Jordan flowing from Lake Merom far to the north, passes through this sea and continues on south. The party reached Tiberias, “‘a walled town of some magnitude, but now in ruins from the earthquake of 1837 which destroyed many of its inhabitants.” Near by they visited two baths, in one of which—about eighteen feet across and four feet deep—the water stood at 143° F.: it was saline and bitter, and gave off an odor of sulphuretted hydrogen. They rowed along the shores of the lake to the exit of the Jordan. The divisions of service now introduced, were as follows :— First, a party by land, keeping as near to the river as possible ; next, a party in the boats—the former with the camels, Arabs, &c., led by Lieut. Dale—the latter by Lieut. Lynch. Dr. Ander- son was charged with the geology ; Mr. Bedlow with the topog- raphy, scenery and events; Mr. Francis Lynch with the herba- — rium; Lieut. Lynch with the river ‘and its productions; Mr. — Aulick with its topography and a sketch of the river and its — shores. A signal of two guns in quick succession from the boats was agreed upon to summon assistance from the land party in case of an attack on the boats, which was the danger most to be feared. On the 10th of April they entered the river. The Bedawins, —thirty horsemen with their abas flying in the wind,—were armed with guns in European style. Eleven camels led the way; then followed the cavalry and all in single file, while Lieut. Dale and his officers in the Frank costume, brought up the rear, the whole making an imposing cavaleade. ‘The scenery on leaving the lake was not particularly grand ; there were abundance of flowers but no trees. ‘The average breadth of the Jordan at this place was about seventy-five feet; the water was ten feet deep aud clear, and where the current was strong they used the oars, only to keep them in the channel. Many wild fowl were frightened from their feeding grounds in the marshes as they descended. They passed the ruins of the bridge of Semakh which were extremely picturesque, the abutments standing in various stages © decay, and the falling fragmeuts obstructing the course of the river, Save where the water runs in a sluice among the masses of stone. ma Nec ae w Lieut. Lynch’s Expedition to the Jordan and Dead Sea. 319 The Jordan is full of rapids, some of which are extremely dan- gerous, and the boats shot down one after another with no small peril. The river during the day was twenty-five to thirty yar Is wide, current two and a half knots, water clear and sweet, No rocks cropped out on the banks, but large boulders of sandstone 7 and trap were scattered over the surface. The land on which the party encamped is held upon condition that the Sheikh shall entertain all travellers with a supper, and barley for their horses, on they partook on this occasion of an entire sheep and buckets of rice. The second day (April 11), the current at first was about two and a half knots, but soon became a foaming rapid, and below were five successive falls of about eighteen feet in all, with inter- vening rapids. With much labor and no small difficulty the boats were passed safely down, having been previously unloaded ; the [ men plunged into the water to guide them, and ropes with grap- j nels ‘were also used to let them down stern first in some places. ‘ Fishes were often seen in the transparent water, and white storks, ucks, and a multitude of other birds rose from the reeds and osiers or plunged into the thickets of oleander and tamarisks which line the banks. On April 12, they were about three hours from the ruins of Gadara. They visited the place and found them to consist of columns, tombs, remains of walls, theatres, &c., indicating an- tient magnificence ; and tradition reports that from one of these tombs the maniac of the time of our Savior issued. A descrip- tion of the ruins, by Dr. Anderson, is appended to Lieut. Lynch’s Narrative. __ In their conflicts with the rapids of the Jordan, a wooden boat which they had secured at the sea of Galilee for the trans- portation of their tents had perished, and the party were obliged i consequence to abandon their tents; this much needed protec- tion against the expected heat of the Dead Sea, they appear to eon Belting with in some other way. No boats but those of metal could have survived the severe shocks to which they Were so often exposed ; it was with the utmost difficulty in one case, that they were saved and two of the Arabs rescued from drowning. Rapids continued to occur, proving that the Jordan, €xcept for short and isolated distances, is entirely unfitted for Useful navigation. _ The Jordan, like most other rivers, has successive terraces Upon its banks, and two are very distinct. From a hill 300 feet high, they had a view of the terraces ; they were shaped on both sides by the winter rains into conical hills, pyramidal, cu- heiform and tent-like—resembling a giant encampment—extend- Ing as far south as the eye could reach; the river sometimes glit- tering through the openings, or “elasping some little island witht its Silvery arms,” or dashing in white foam by some projecting point. = 320 Lieut. Lynch’s Expedition to the Jordan and Dead Sea. - They continued on with safety through the 13th, but not without difficulty. The rapids were most formidable obstacles, _ proving fully that the representations of the Arab sheikhs were not exaggerated. In the course of the day, they passed patches of wheat and barley. A beautiful alluvial country succeeded, but without cul- tivation, and overgrown by thistles and wild grass; large flocks of storks gazed unheedingly upon the caravan. The heat be- came intense, without a tree or a shelter in the vast plain—the sun’s rays beating on their heads and reflected from the gun barrels which were painful to touch or behold, and the whole atmosphere quivering as it ascended in heated currents. With a current of four to six knots an hour, on April 14th, the boats shot along rapidly, and so great were the windings of the river, that in the course of a quarter of an hour they ran towards almost every point of the compass—as if the holy Jordan were lingering in the calm and silent valley, reluctant to plunge into the salt and bitter sea. he scenery of the river through the day had little variety ; sometimes the current washed the bases of sandy hills or passed along low banks fringed with trees and flowers, and occasional views were highly picturesque ; then the river became a raging tangled masses of shrubs and creeping plants, was almost a jungle. A fresh track of a tiger was seen in the mud where he had come to drink, and at another time a wild boar dashed through the Birds in many places sung in the trees, the real nightingale ceased not her song, and the bulbul—the Syrian nightingale— when disturbed, flitted to another bower and renewed her mel- odies. Rapids and cataracts continued to occur, and it required all the address, courage and strength of the crews, not unfre- quently jumping overboard and clinging to the sides of the boats, to prevent their being swamped; they always steered for the most rapid part of the torrent, as this was the deepest. As twi- light came on, the rapids were numerous, and from the decay of the light, more dangerous. ! The river was now falling rapidly,—at the rate of about two feet in a day,—and frequently the sedge and drift-wood were seen lodged on the branches of overhanging trees, higher than the banks, “which conclusively proves that the Jordan in its swellings, still overflows the lower plain and drives the lion from his lair as it did in ancient times.” oa Lieut. Lynch’s Expedition to the Jordan and Dead Sea. 321 The eroded hills on the upper terrace had a conical form; lime- stone and conglomerate were the prevailing rock, and it was ev- ident that the whole had been*under water. Boulders of. quartz and conglomerate were numerous. wide ai. l, linden, beach or aspen; no laurel, pine, or birch ; still the lily a tamarisk, the weiniae the anemone and the asphodel adorn the Jordan, and the bulbul and nightingale haunt the copses. On April 16, at the Pilgrims ford, conglomerate was rarely Seen, but in its place banks of semi-indurated clay. The vege- tation became more luxuriant, the oleander more abundant, the asphodel and acacia less so. 322 Lieut. Lynch’s Expedition to the Jordan and Dead Sea. Higher up the river there was drift wood in the stream, and bushes and branches were lodged high up in the trees which lined the banks. The bounding hills Were immense masses of silice- ous conglomerate with occasional limestone, this being the geo- logical formation of the Ghor from Lake Tiberias to the Dead Sea apids were still of frequent recurrence. was baptized by John; and near it, is supposed to have been Beth- abara, the Savior’s place of refuge. Here also is said to have been the scene of the Savior’s temptation, and the fountain healed by Elijah. Near by was Jericho, and fourteen miles on the other side was Heshbon where Sihon, the king of the Amorites, dwelt. The water and land parties united in pitching their tents just at the spot where the pilgrims passed. | April 18.—T he pilgrims arrived at 3 a.m. Thousands of torch- lights with a dark mass of human beings, were seen moving rap- idly over the hills, and they were on the ground almost before the tents could be struck and the place cleared. Men, women, an children, mounted on camels, horses, mules and donkeys, rushed impetuously down the bank as if they had been fugitives from a routed army. The Bedawin guard formed a cordon of defense, sticking their spears in the ground and mounting their horses, — to prevent the American party from being run down—Mos- lems shielding one Christian band against another! The party which had arrived was only the van guard ; at 5 o’clock a.m. the main body came over the crest of a high ridge in one tumultuous eager throng: ‘Copts, Russians, Poles, Armenians, Greeks, and Syrians from all parts of Asia, Europe, Africa and America.” Many of the women and children were suspended in baskets oF confined in cages: they dismounted, hurried forward, disrobed in haste, and threw themselves into the stream, regardless of ob- servers. They took that plunge in honor of the Trinity and then filled a bottle from the river. They cut branches of the away as memorials of their visit. The pag ed rapidly as it had approached and left the small party to their pa traversed at least 200 miles; and as they had descended twenty- seven threatening rapids besides many smaller ones, and at all times found a rapid current, it is not surprising that the De is"1300 feet below the level of the Mediterranean. * As they @p- = Lieut. Lynch’s Expedition to the Jordan and Dead Sea. 323 proached the Dead Sea, the river was forty yards wide and twelve feet deep, the bottom blue mud. A little further on, it was fifty yards wide and eleven feet deep, with muddy bottom, low Z | y banks. The high mountains of the Dead Sea were in— f sight to the S. and W. A heron, a bulbul, a snipe, and many * wild ducks were seen. The river now became seventy to eighty yards wide; and the water was still sweet: it was seven feet deep with a current of three knots. The Dead Sea was in | view to the southward, with mountains beyond. A snipe, a heron, and a white gull were the only visible inhabitants of the region. whe mouth of the river is 180 yards wide and three feet deep ; as they entered the sea a gale of wind compelled them to stand for the north shore, which they reached incrusted over with a greasy salt, and their eyes, lips, and nostrils smarting excessively. — The sea subsided as quickly as it rose—its heavy waves in twenty min- utes were stilled, and they went on, gliding over a placid sheet of water hardly disturbed by a.ripple. A rain cloud which had en- veloped the sterile Arabian mountains, now opened and disclosed their rugged outlines gilded by the setting sun ; but above the still more sterile mountains of Moab, all was gloomy and obscure. The northern shore is an extensive mud flat with a sandy plain __ beyond, and is the very type of desolation, The line of high _ Water was designated by trees, having their branches blackened or Whitened by salt. The northwestern shore is a bed of gravel ‘Sloping from the mountains to the sea; the eastern is a rugged ne of mountains bare of all vegetation. of damp ravines and slippery to the feet of the camels, succeeded Ne vegetation being saline and acrid, the camels could not be Sustained, and they and the Arabs who had attended the party 324 Lieut. Lynch’s Expedition to the Jordan and Dead Sea. were dismissed. Upon the beach there were no round stones, but only those that were angular, and they were of flint. Two partridges of a stone color, like the rocks, were started before them, and the note of a solitary bird was heard among the cane icket: birds therefore can live upon the shores of the Dead Sea. “But the scene was one of unmixed desolation; and the air tainted with ssi hydrogen, gave a yellow hue to the foliage of the cane which is elsewhere of a light green.” There was no vohetstion except of the canebrakes; “barren mountains, fragments of blackened rocks,” and a saline sea with dead trees on its margin, bore a sad and sombre aspect. Near their camp, on the 20th of April, they saw a large brown stone-colored hare and a partridge. The temperature was 89° F m., ‘the surface of the sea was one wide sheet of phos- phorescent foam, and the waves, as they broke upon the shore, threw a sepulchral light upon the oo bushes and foe ie of rocks.” ‘This is an interesting observation, an ar as W know it is original. We have never shaaiaiaul that ‘a such ap- pearance has been observed in the per or any other internal saline water. ‘The luminous appeara a, arises from ani- malcules, such as are phodhonensui in the ocean; mere salt- water, however strong the solution, has no oti oh power. We = have then another proof that life is not etstivd excluded from this region. oundings were taken in a course directed towards the eastotti or Arabian shore, a distance of nearly eight statute miles; the greatest depth was 696 feet and 540 feet within a fourth of a mile of the Arabian shore. Mr. Aulick reported a voleanic for- mation, and brought specimens of lava. ‘ Another line of sou ings running diagonally across to the S.E., disclosed a level plain at the bottom of the sea with an average depth of over 1000 feet all across ; the bottom blue mud and sand with regular eubes of crystallized salt.” The greatest depth on this line was 10665 fe and the greatest observed anywhere was 1278 feet. These operations were performed under a blazing sun, and the water, greasy to the touch, made the men’s hands smart burn severely. “ By dusk, the sea rolled fg tr the crests of the waves dashed into the boats, the men had a severe pull, and their clothes were stiff with salt. " In a chasm in the mountains, on the eastern = ip found a sweet and thermal spring which flowed into the The brook Kidron which in rainy seasons runs in sree valley of Jehoshaphat at the foot of the mount of Olives, sp into the Dead Sea in the Wady en Nar (Ravine of Fire); the bed is feet | Lieut. Lynch's Expedition to the Jordan and D ead Se of vegetation, presenting a scene of “utter and dreary desola- tion.” At the foot of the eliff of Hathiral they observed narrow strips of cane and tamarisks—a luxuriant line of green—and almost the only verdant spot that had been seen for a long dis- Ps tance; a beach of coarse dark gravel below and barren brown mountains above bounding the prospect. Soda plants were found upen the shore. Sulphur picked up on the Jordan near the Dead Sea, was brought by an Arab. | _ The mountain at Ain Jidy (Engaddi) is 1500 feet high, and in its sides are many caverns excavated in former times, the mouths of some of which are now entirely inaccessible. It is a curious fact regarding the birds, insects and other animals of this region, that they are all of a stone color; this was the case with acat-bird brought in by an Arab. Along the beach they saw a hawk and some doves, “all of the same color as the mountains and the shore.” _‘« Four young boars were brought in by an Arab ; escaped from him and ran to the sea and were caught, and _ because the Americans would not buy them they were killed.” % Sulphurous smells were not unfrequent, and sometimes the odor : of sulphuretted hydrogen was perceived, probably from the Springs and marshes along the shore. _ On the 2ist they made an encampment as a point of rendez- Vous for their surveys, and called it “Camp Washington.” There _ 38a peninsula on the southern side of the sea, for which they now ; , leaving a party at the camp for the purpose of triangula- : | tion. The peninsula is a broad bold promontory forty to sixty feet high, with a central ridge elevated some twenty feet more, and a foot of sand, salt, and bitumen; the vertical face extending around had a coarse and chalky appearance. Dr. Anderson thought the peninsula to be one-third higher, and to consist of a ce us marl; a part of it he found chalky, with flints. “There were a few bushes, their stems partly buried in the wa- ter, and their leafless branches encrusted with salt,” which with is mysterious sea.’ Seconp Szrims, Vol. VIII, No. 24.—Nov., 1849. 2 commanding but dreary prospect, overlooking the deep chasm of ? Near th 326 Lieut. Lynch’s Expedition to the Jordan and Dead Sea. served other ruined walls and remains of architectural structures. Bitumen was seen upon the beach; ite had a bright smooth sur- face like a consolidated fluid. The weather was intensely hot; the awnings of the boats erected for tents on land afforded no adequate protection, and at midnight the sirocco, although from the N.W., raised the ther- mometer to 86° and 8 he people lay in the open air upon the pebbly beach of this desolate sea. In the morning a young quail was found nested by the side of the commander, as a refuge m the hot wind. The salt mountain of Usdum or Sodom was near at hand. It is perfectly isolated but has no appearance, externally, of being a mountain of salt. Seetzen saw this salt mountain in 1806, and says that he never before beheld one so torn and riven. On the eastern side of Usdum is a lofty, round, detached pillar,“ which on examination, was found to be composed of solid salt, capped with carbonate of lime. The upper or rounded part is about forty feet high, resting on an oval pedestal from forty to sixty feet above the level of the sea. It is slightly conical, crumbles at top and is crystallized throughout in spicule. A kind of but- tress connects it with the mountain behind, and it is covered with debris of a light stone color. Josephus and his cotemporary Cle- ment state that they had seen a pillar of salt which they be- heved to be identical with Lot’s wife, and this may be the one to which they had reference. Large specimens of the salt were brought away in the boat. The water was so shallow that they could not approach within 200 yards of the beach; throughout the southern part of the lake the depth was rarely over two feet, and frequently less than one foot. The foot prints made by the party on landing were on their return encrusted with salt. Mr. Dale landed, and his feet sank twelve inches in slimy mud, then through a erust of salt, and then another foot of mud before reaching a firm bottom. The beach was so hot as to blister the feet, and when one of the men attempted to carry Mr. Dale, both sunk down, and they were obliged to run as they could—it was like running over burn- ing ashes, and when they plunged their feet into the slimy brine at 88°, the sensation of comparative coolness was delightful. . scene around them was one of unmitigated desolation. On the south stood the rugged and water worn salt mountain and pillar; on the east the lofty and barren mountains of Moa in a cave in which Lot is supposed to have taken refuge; on the south the high hills of Edom half surrounding the salt plain, the scene of Israelitish victories; and to the north the calm and mo- tionless sea curtained with night. ‘I'he atmosphere was difficult of respiration; the air oppressively hot, the temperature being 97°, and that of the water 90° twelve inches below the surface. Lieut. Lynch’s Expedition to the Jordan and Dead Sea. 327 Lieut. Lynch named the northern extremity of the peninsula Point Cortigan, and the southern, Point Molyneux, in honor of “the two gallant Englishmen who lost their lives in attempting to explore this sea.” Near the base of the peninsula there is a range of hills 2000 feet high; the cliff called Little Tiger con- sists of horizontal strata of brown and rose colored limestone. At 3°50 p.m, a hot hurricane struck them, temperature 1029, and with severe exertion they gained the shore, exhausted by hard pulling of the oars, and the commander’s eyelids blis- tered by the hot wind. The men had great difficulty to protect themselves, some in the ravine, some under the awnings of the boat ; the metal of their spectacles burned the face, and their but- seen hands; and the folds of garments next to the body were coolest. _ They found an old millstone upon the beach and huge boul- ders of sandstone in the ravine, strata of sandstone above in hor- izontal layers and limestone upon it. Bathing in a pool of fresh water aflorded a momentary relief, but in an instant the moisture Was evaporated, and the surface was dry and parched. ~ The wind rose to a tempest; the heat increased after sunset, and at 8 p.m. was 106°; it was more like the blast of a furnace _ than the living air. Drinking did little good, for without any sensible perspiration the fluid was evaporated as fast as received. _ Musquitos tormented them almost to madness, and they passed a “Miserable night. When the water was exhausted and all were too Weary to go for more, they threw themselves upon the ground, eyes smarting, skin burning, lips and tongue and throat parched id dry, and some garment wrapped around the head to avert the stifling heat. At midnight thermometer 98°. -Flocks of birds were seen and storks in the early dawn of pril 27. A miserable tribe of Arabs gathered on the shore to See them depart. A glassy undulation indicated the coming of a hot gust of wind, and with some difficulty they reached the shore before the sea was all ina foam. The night was passed where there was no fresh water, but they had the luxury of a beach of pebbles far preferable to the mud and dust of their late sleeping places. They picked up pieces of sulphur and saw the track of 4 panther in acave. ‘They found the Arabs of this region indis- pensable auxiliaries; they brought them food and drink; they acted as guides and messengers, and in the absence of the adven- turers, carefully guarded their camp. A decided but courteous manner wins their respect and good will. € tendency to drowsiness upon the sea was now extreme ; all slept except the men at the oars who pulled with half closed lids, and the steersman who was the commander, was little more awake. On the 28th they received news from home announc- ing the death of John Quincy Adams, and it was hard in their 328 Lieut. Lynch’s Expedition to the Jordan and Dead Sea. dreary solitude to divest themselves of the idea that there was nothing but death in the world and they alone alive. They picked up large pieces of bitumen on the sea shore. A breeze from the west passing over the marshes brought with it a nause- ous smell. Till the 30th, with a single exception, all had been well; but now dropsical appearances began—“ the lean had become stout and the stout almost corpulent ; the pale faces had become florid, and the florid ruddy ; the slightest scratch festered, and pustules fol- owed—the sea water irritated the sores excessively ; yet all had a good appetite.” Except the smell from the marshes, and from thermal springs, there were no indications of malaria, the sea itself being perfectly inodorous. The appearance of the men was dis- tressing. Some with their bodies bent and arms dangling slept profoundly, but with a flushed and feverish sleep; others with eads thrown back and lips cracked and sore, seemed, even in sleep, to be worn down by heat and fatigue; others from reflect- ed light looked ghastly, their limbs twitched, and they would start suddenly from sleep. Prudence therefore demanded a return, although they were re- luctant to leave any part of the work unfinished. Partly for recreation, they accepted an invitation from the Christian sheikh Abd Allah, to visit Kerak, on the mountains of Moab, seventeen miles east of the ‘ While the party were waiting for horses, they “dined swmptu- ously with the Arab Christians, on wild boar’s meat, onions, and the last of their rice.” Their horses arrived, and with them, Mu- hammed, the son of the Muslim sheikh, and also Abd Allah the Christian sheikh himself, the latter residing in Kerak, and the former chiefly in black tents about half a mile from Kerak. Mu- hammed being about to mount his horse, ordered one of the Fel- lahin (a common Arab) to stoop, and “ placing his foot upon the abject creature’s back, he sprang upon his horse ;” his counten- ance and manuer were insolent and overbearing, while Abd ’Al- lah, the Christian sheikh, his senior by twenty years, was mild and even meek, ; The boats excited great surprise, and both the Muhammed and Christian Arabs were indulged in an excursion by rowing upon the sea. ‘“'They stuck plugs of onions in their nostrils to coum- teract the malaria they had imbibed from the water.” They call it “ the sea accursed of God,” and thought it madness for men to remain so long upon it. ‘The party consisted of fourteen besides the interpreter and cook, and the escort of twelve mounted Arabs and eight footmen, besides a number who had gone ahead, They crossed a plain of tertiary formation, ferruginous and fria- ble limestone, marls, &c. ; Lieut. Lynch’s Expedition to the Jordan and ; eid They passed up the Wady Kerak, the path extremely steep and difficult, and the scenery very wild and grand; on one side a deep chasm, on the other high overhanging cliffs, and a fierce thunder-storm which soon came on poured a powerful torrent along the gorge, bearing rocks before it that made the region resound With their collision. Excepting a single palm bending in the tem- pest, they had not seen a tree or shrub since they turned up the ravine, but only mountain ruins of naked rocks piled up in wild grandeur along a zigzag path. They saw much of the scarlet anemone, also a blue flower resembling the convolvulus, and par- tridges, hawks and doves, were their attendants. he cavalcade wound up along a circuitous ascent, and limestone, some of it fossiliferous, accompanied them quite to Kerak. A little after noon they came upon the brow of a hill 3000 feet above the Dead Sea, at the N.E. angle of the town. They pass- ed along a wall and by a tower, and entered the town under an arch cut in the solid rock thirty feet high by twelve wide ; a part- ly effaced Arabic inscription was over the gateway; they pro- ceeded through a passage eighty feet long, and found the town to be a coliection of stone huts built without mortar. ‘They were om seven to eight feet high (from the ground floor ?), the ground floor is about six feet below, and the flat terrace roof about two feet above the streets, and the people were assembled on the dirt- heaps and roofs to see the strangers pass. The council-house is the Christian school-room, and there is a work-room below. A ‘istian church was building ; it was seventy-four feet by forty, and twelve feet high. - The room for the travellers had a naked stone floor and a mud Toof supported by rafters, two windows without glass or shut- ters, and a door without fastenings. ‘Their food was eggs and milk, three eggs for each for a dinner. There was only one shop, and that contained thin cakes of dried and pressed apricots, and English muslin. The huts had neither windows nor chimneys, the inside was smoked, and the women and children were squalid and filthy. The population of Kerak is about 300, three-fourths Christian, and the entire Christian population here 900 to 1 The castle was originally a vast. and magnificent structure, Partly excavated from and partly built upon the mountain top; the architecture is a mixture of Saracenic, Gothic and Roman, but its history appears to be obscure. _ On the 3d of May the party, not without danger from the Mus- lim Arabs, made their way back to their boats. ‘They now com- menced their return along the eastern or Arabian shore. Moun- tains of red sandstone variegated with yellow were passed, with White cliffs in the background. The next day the shores present- ed boulders of trap, and the mountain appeared to be composed i lava. The scenery was grand and wild. A stream, 330 Lieut. Lynch’s Expedition to the Jordan and Dead Sea. called Zerka, the outlet of some hot springs, had formed a deep ra- vine; the walls were 80 to 150 feet high, of red and yellow sand- stone in vertical cliffs. The party slept on the gravelly beach; the thermometer from 70° to 68°, and they suffered from the cold. On May 5th, in crossing the sea to Ain Turabeh, at two fur- longs from land, the water was 138 feet deep; five minutes after it was 1044 feet, gradually deepening to 1308 feet, the bottom brown mud with crystals of salt. They continued on their course, and on the 9th made arrangements to leave the Dead Sea. A large float was moored in eighty fathoms water, with the Ameri- can ensign flying. Sickness was already appearing among them, and two seamen were sent to the convent of Mar Saba. + his sea, according to Dr. Robinson, is about fifty miles long and ten broad. The specific gravity of the water is 1°13, while that of the Atlantic in lat. 25° N., 52° W. long., was 1:02. ‘The boats, when afloat on the sea, drew one inch less of water than when on the Jordan. No animalcules or animal matter were de- tected in the water by a powerful microscope. The party had now passed twenty-two nights upon the Dead Sea. They had carefully sounded its depths, ascertained its ge- ographical position, the topography of its shores, and the depth, width and velocity of its tributaries, as well as the winds, currents, weather, &c.; and numerous specimens had been obtained. — Remarking upon the character of the region, Lieut. Lynch ob- serves, that the extraordinary nature of the soundings appears to sustain the inference from the Bible, that this entire chasm was a plain sunk and overwhelmed ; for the bottom of the sea consists of two submerged plains, one averaging thirteen feet, and the other thirteen hundred feet below the surface. Through the latter or northern one, runs a ravine corresponding with the bed of the Jordan and with another ravine, Wady el Jeib, at the south en of the sea. Many other considerations are mentioned, tending to shew that the basin of the Dead Sea is a sunken plain. 1 host of the party who were skeptical when they entered on the ex- amination, appeared to be convinced that the Mosaic account was true. Rib! On the 10th of May, they took leave of the Dead Sea, casting a farewell look at its waters as they wound up the ravine and en- camped at an elevation of 1000 feet. Their boats were sent in sections to Jerusalem. They were now in a most dreary country of barren hills and valleys, without tree or shrub, and as still as the Lethean sea which they had just left. This was the wilderness of Judea, where God conversed with Abraham, where John the Baptist preached, and at the head of the next ravine is Bethlehem, which stands in full sight of the Holy city. ape Passing the brook Kidron on the 15th, they found a large cis- tern hewn in the rock, twenty feet long, twelve wide, and eigh- ’ Lieut. Lynch’s Expedition to the Jordan and Dead Sea. 331 teen deep; the water was only four feet deep and was covered with a green scum, and two Arabs were bathing in it; yet the whole party, men and animals were, nevertheless, constrained to drink of it. ; : The whole region is one of entire desolation from the Medi- terranean to the Dead Sea, except where water redeems here and there a patch in a ravine or valley for crops or verdure ; asmall patch of tobacco in a narrow ravine was guarded by an Arab with along gun, and there was wheat and also barley in a valley skirt- ing the base of the hill. Lieut. Lynch finally came in sight of the Holy City, elevated, as was ascertained by his levelings, 4000 feet above the Dead Sea. On the 29th they planted their spirit level on the bank of the Mediterranean, one mile and a half south of Jaffa, having carried a line from the Dead Sea through the desert of Judea over moun- tain ridges, ravines and precipices, and most of the time under a Scorching sun. It was conducted by Lieut. Dale, and correspond- ed with the triangulation of Lieut. Symonds, R. “found the depression of the surface of the Dead Sea, below that of the Mediterranean, about 1300 feet: the height of Jerusalem _ above the Dead Sea is about three times this amount ; and that height is almost the same multiple of the depth of the sea.” Their work being accomplished, they were hospitably received at the country house of Mr. Murad, the American Consul, which was placed at their disposal; and here they remained till June 6, busily employed in posting up and digesting their observations. On June 7, they left Jaffa for St. Jean d’Acre, a land party un- der Lieut. Dale, and the remainder of the party with Lieut. Lynch, ma chartered boat. At Acre they re-embarked their effects brought over from Tiberias, and prepared for an.excursion to Naz- areth and the source of the Jordan. June 10.—They left Acre and arrived at Nazareth by the way of the valley of the Winds, a place secluded among mountains, and _ Containing about 5000 inhabitants. They ascended Mount 'Ta- MOE, reputed scene of the transfiguration. From the summit ern bank of the Dead Sea to. Bethsaida on the north, and as- cending the high hills they enjoyed a good view of the rapid and turbulent Jordan rushing down in one line of foam, and thus they Went on to L. Merom, and beyond it to Caesarea Philippi, and Sul farther on they came to the real source of the Jordan, a foun- 4 tain or several streams bursting from the side of a hill. Th : river gushes out copiously from a rock about forty feet high, forming the principal feature of a very picturesque landscape. 332 Lieut. Lynch’s Expedition to the Jordan and Dead Sea. On the 17th, Lieut. Lynch and Lieut. Dale visited the valley of the Leontes or Litany, running near the Lebanon range. They saw in this region pits of bitumen; there are five in all, but only two were in operation, one sixteen and the other twenty- five feet deep. . their way to the plain of Damascus, Jan. 19, they passed over Anti-Libanus. The lower parts were terraced and covered with vineyards and olive and mulberry orchards, above were oaks, then heath and fern, lichens and moss, and at the summit limestone and boulders of quartz. They crossed in a gorge be- tween Mount Hermon and the next peak to the south. The two crests and many clefts on both sides were covered with . The summit of Mount Hermon is estimated to be about 9000 feet above the sea level. cold to summer heat. Damascus is situated at the foot of Anti- Libanus. We shall not attempt to recount the description of Damascus—its bazaars, its cafés, its lazy smoking population, —its baths—its narrow streets and innumerable dogs over which the stranger stumbles. The population is estimated at 115,000. It was very gratifying to the travellers to meet their country- men, the Rev. Dr. Paulding and Rev. Mr. Barnet, of the Ameri- can mission, to whose hospitality and kindness they were much indebted. As many of the party were threatened with illness, they hastened on to Beirut; they seemed to have imbibed the disease which had heretofore prostrated all who had ventured upon the Dead Sea. On the night of the 29th, after they had encamped, (it was in the cold mountain air 4000 feet above the sea,) Mr. Dale was attacked with the same symptoms as the other sick persons. At eleven o’clock the next day, Beirut and the sea were 10 sight, but the sick were ready to fall frem their saddles; hap- pily they met Dr. DeForest of the mission, who prescribed promptly. July 1.—Lient. Lynch, Mr. Dale and two seamen, required im- mediate medical attendance, and all hands were nearly sick. This interesting narrative closes with the death of Mr. Dale, who, despite of all the care and kindness of the American ms- sionaries and physicians and their families, sunk beneath the fever, and was buried at Beirut with military honors. In leaving this work which has afforded us much instruction, we add a word to express our estimation of its value. It does honor to the zeal, intelligence, and moral feeling of the author ; and his brave companions are entitled to the thanks of their fel- ene i Conducting Power of Solid and Liquid Biden, 233 low men. We think, however, that it is susceptible of improve- ment, and that in another edition it will receive some condensa- tion and pruning, that will render it still more graceful and im- pressive. Its moral tendency is excellent, and no believer in the truths of the Bible can peruse the volume without feeling his mind much enlightened and his faith invigorated, — ; Et SEN. EDITOR. Pe; ee ty) Arr. XXIL.—Second Memoir on the Conducting Power of Solid mae and Liquid Bodies ; by Ev. Becqueret.* _ M. Petter, as is well known, showed that the elevation of temperature at the point of junction of two conductors of differ- ent metals conducting a current, differs according to the direction of the current, that of other parts of the circuit remaining un- ¢ d, and that when the current passes from antimony to bis- muth,+ an elevation of temperature takes place at the point of Janetion and a depression when it passes in the opposite direction. _ The author concludes from his researches that generally the thermo-electric current generated by heating the point of junc- tion of two different metals in a circuit, tends to produce a depres- Sion of temperature at that point of junction. In other words, the state. of inequality of temperature produced by an electric current in a heterogeneous circuit is the inverse of that by which the current itself would be produced. Hence a certain portion of the heat employed to generate a thermo-electric current is con- sumed by the latter, and must be replenished by the heating Source in order to maintain the current. This view it may be important to remember in the arrangement of thermoscopes for certain purposes. eel _ He concludes farther, that resistance to conduction, in a hetero- geheous circuit, as might be anticipated, does not seem to change with the direction of the current except so far as it may be a con- Sequence of the change of the temperature induced by reversal of the current. Resistance to the passage of the electric current between solid and ; liquid conductors. _ This, technically termed by the author “resistance to transit,” 38 universally attributed to the chemical affinities that must be issolved by the passing current, nor are we inclined to believe any part of it is to be attributed to a distinct force classed by the aie: Thin articic ; ’s second memoir, prepared for this Jour- tly Mr Jossaw ET Tae atthe Patent Office, Washington "+ The reverse order is stated in Beequerel's article, but this we presume must be an oversight. Stconp Serres, Vol. VIII, No. 24—Nov., 1849. 43 334 Conducting Power of Solid and Liquid Bodies. author and referred to heterogeneity of the circuit. He does not appear to decide on the actual existence of such a force. In con- sidering the chemical force the term polarization of the electrodes is used throughout in a manner seeming to imply that the polari- zation is an absolute obstacle to the decomposition and the passage of the current, so that the latter meets with greater resistance to transit than it would with electrodes that were perfectly neutral in their relations to the elements set free and evolved them at once as gas without attracting a particle of them to their surface, the electrolyte itself being supposed also to have no attraction or solvent power for the gaseous elements. Whether this be the author’s view does not seem certain, but to us it appears that in proportion as the electrodes become perfectly coated with the films of oxygen and hydrogen evolved by a passing current, water being the electrolyte, the more nearly will the forces encountered by the current approach identity with those which with the neutral electrodes just mentioned, it would have to en- counter from the first instant of its passage. In this latter case will be set free in the absence of any body for which they have any sort of attraction, and it is only in such case that their sepa- ration by the current is opposed by the whole force of their affinity for each other. But if the electrodes or the fluid or both have an attraction for the oxygen and hydrogen to be separated, such attraction facilitates the separation and diminishes the elec- tro-motive force required to effect it, and it is not till after the electrodes have become completely coated and the adjacent films of fluid saturated with the oxygen and hydrogen respectively, that we approach that state of the forces that is presented by neutral electrodes and in which each element is set free. If it be objected that the attractions for the oxygen and hydro- gen are equal at each electrode and ought to balance each other, it may be replied, that they act with reference to the alternative whether they shall be satisfied not at all or shall. be satisfied in the only way in which they can be, that is, by giving the oxygen to the positive electrode and the hydrogen to the negative. ‘This alternative, it will be seen, has reference to the case in which the electromotive force is just insufficient of itself to produce the decomposition and is supposed to do so by aid of the attractive forces in question. ; If this view be correct, it seems probable that the amount of electromotive force necessary to carry on the decomposition after the polarization is established and the elements are all evolved as gases, is precisely that which is competent to the separation 0 these elements with electrodes having no action on them, unless it bea merely catalytic action, so that the elements assume the gaseous form in contact with them with the same readiness as 10 Conducting Power of Solid and Liquid Bodies. 335 contact respectively with the polarized platinum plates. It is true that on the cessation of the polarizing current the polarized electrodes are capable of generating a reverse current, but that only results from the continued action of the same affinities which have to be dissolved by the primary current, either in the case of the polarized electrodes or the hypothetical »eutral ones. The principle we would venture to suggest for estimating the resistance to transit in any case may be stated thus. Each of the affinities concerned, viz., those dissolved or those satisfied, may be considered equivalent to a definite electro-motive force; let sum of such forces belonging to the affinities dissolved be represented by F’, and of those belonging to the affinities satisfied by F’; all affinities that do not take effect, either in the separation or the combination of elements being neglected, and including under the term affinity all attractions that are capable of modify- ing the form or chemical action of a body, attributing also a defi- hite force to the catalytic action of the electrode in facilitating the evolution of the element when that takes place,—then repre- senting the resistance to transit by E, we have E=F —F’. We are not aware indeed that any systematic experiments have been made to demonstrate this principle; but we think it suffi- ciently probable in the preseut state of our knowledge on the sub- ave seen something like this hinted at by some authors, but do not recollect to have seen it definitely laid down, re Within the probable errors of experiment. Here the affinities dissolved on one side are satisfied on the other, reproducing, so as we know, precisely the same state of things, so that a E=0. Mr. Smee mentions a curious circumstance respecting the action of compound batteries that very beautifully illustrates the same thing. If the exciting acid of one pair of the series be saturated With the zine before that of the other pairs, the solution of the salt of zine in that pair is electrolyzed and the zinc deposited on negative plate, and this process extends from pair to pair of a twelve or more until the zinc is deposited on the neg- ative plate of every pair except one, the action remaining 1n the last pair being sufficient to decompose the salt of zinc with zine electrodes in all the other pairs. cases where gases were evolved from one or both electrodes, the general result obtained by the author is, that the apparent resistance to transit, i, e., all resistance over and above the simple Tesistance to conduction due to the liquid and other parts of the 336 On Smelting Copper in Japan. increased mechanical obstruction from the gas than to any increase in the energy of the chemical forces. It may however be in part due to the solution of part of the evolved gases in the liquid, this solution being proportionally less with the stronger currents. When in the electrolysis of water acidulated with ;', of its volume of sulphuric acid the positive electrode was of copper, the resistance to transit was only from ' to } of what took place when platinum formed the positive electrode. With the positive electrode of platinum the apparent resistance to transit was nearly the same whether the negative electrode were of platinum some other circumstance. Arr. XXIIL—Ko Doii Dzu Roku, or, A Memoir on Smelting Copper, illustrated with plates. Small folio, pp. 20. ‘Trans- lated from the original Japanese.* os translation, the original is indicated by marks of quotations. ; will, however, just add a record of onr hesitancy in pera this performance to our readers. The natives who haye acted as * From the Chinese Repository, 1840. On Smelting Copper in Japan. Me 337 our teachers, are sailors or tradesmen, persons in ordinary life and of commou education, and who in their own country would prob- ably have never attempted to read a book on metallurgy. They know but little more than how to read simple works, or write mercantile letters. ~Prare I. Of digging the ore.—This plate is in two compart- ments; the first represents a miner entering the mouth of the pit, earrying a lamp in one hand, and a pick in the other, with an empty basket swung on his back. At the entrance, he meets a second miner just coming out with a basket of ore. The second shows the same person reaching the extremity of the mine, where isa third workman engaged in cleaving the ore from its - This, and all the succeeding plates are painted; the colors are everywhere laid on in an artist-like manner, though the cheap- hess of the work apparently forbade muc or. wi Phe copper, as it comes from the hills, is undoubtedly in the of ore; the ore is the effluence of the copper, and in a ser- Pentine vein it rises and appears upon the top of the hill. There are many sorts of ore; that which is of a reddish black color, soft and not very heavy, and taken from veius ranning from east to west (or horizontally), is the best. The overseer of the mine examines and assorts the ore. Rafters, planks, joists, pillars, &c., are used to uphold and prevent the mouth of the mine from caving in. When cofmmencing, the rock is worked with ham- mers and chisels ; the [barren] stones are thrown away as they are dug, and the ore is brought out; by degrees the hill is pene- trated, and the hole thus formed is called a mine. A lamp made of a shell is used as a light, and the quarried stone, put into bas- kets, is carried out on the back. Wherever the quarry ing has been done, rafters, planks, and pillars are set up to restrain the overhanging rocks lest they fall. There are many kinds of both good and bad ore. When the mine has been dug deep, the air oes not permeate it, and the lamp goes out; therefore, in places above the mouth of the pit, holes are cut down reaching to the washi or wind-ventilator.” ; ne Puate IL. Assorting the ore-—This plate exhibits a company * women, with hammers in hand, pounding the ore, and separa- ting the barren stone ; one of them has her child strapped to her back, A copper tea-pot stands hard by, and one old dame is enjoying her pipe while plying her hammer. “Among the ore there are both rich and poor kinds, combined With the plain rock; the poor is separated from the stone, which then thrown aside, and called refuse stone. This is the em- ployment of old men and women.” 338 On Smelting Copper in Japan. Puate Ill. Draining the mine.—In this plate, we have a section of one of the “ flute-holes,’”’ and three lifting-pumps repre- sented, emptying into each other by means of water-boxes placed on shelves cut in the rock, where also the laborer stands to work the pumps. The lifting-pump is not known to the Chinese, and we were not previously aware that the Japanese were acquainted with it. How invaluable would be the gifts of a steam-engine to the Japanese miners, toiling day and night to raise water from the deep mine, and of a safety-lamp to him who now works by the light of a shell-lamp! The darkness or the depth of the mine is intimated by lamps placed near the pumps; and the painter very cleverly represented the light proceeding from them by leaving a circle of white around the flame, the surrounding rock being a light umber color. “In obtaining the ore, as the mine descends deeper and deeper, and the digging is low down, the water bubbles up, making the labor difficult. Therefore wood and bamboo, prepared in pieces about thirteen feet long, are placed one above the other, and these tubes (or pumps) are inserted into water boxes; several tens or but without the covering of straw mentioned in the text. “To roast the ore, a kiln must first be built, having vent-holes in it, through which the draft will pass to the fire. Faggots are spread upon the bottom of the kiln, and the ore laid npon them in rows, and thus alternately, faggots and ore, until the kiln 1s full. A covering of matting, straw, thatch, and other similar things, is then placed over it, and sprinkled with water, and t fire lighted at the mouth. Generally it burns thoroughly in about thirty days, and when cooled is taken out.” On Smelting Copper in Japan. 339 age the fire. The bellows, which is separated from the furnace by a wall, is made like the Chinese fung seiing or wind box, of j which a description is given in the Repository, vol. iv, page 37. . “The ore being roasted, is put into a furnace, where coal is employed to melt it; the scoria having *flowed off, the coarse metal is taken out; it is copper imperfectly purified.” Puare VJ. Taking out the copper when the coarse metal is. Jused.—T his plate is intended, as supplementary to the last, to exhibit the mode of taking out the copper, after a second melting the coarse metal. The fire having gone down, a workman Stands over the furnace with a broom, with which he sprinkles metal asa second workman takes it out on the en hooked pole ; a third is represented as having just thrown a mass of metal into a pool of water. ~ “When the coarse metal is melted in the furnace, and the scoria has flowed off, the copper is taken out.” Puare VIL Of fusing silver and copper together—This Plate resembles the preceding, but is intended to represent the taking out of metal after a second melting, when the silver is still alloyed with it. In this plate, a bellows is drawn on each side of the furnace, in lieu of the double-handled single one in the preceding plate. While one workman is engaged in sprinkling and taking out the copper from the furnace, a second is plunging a large mass into a tub of water. The title of the plate literally means “together blown,” and is rather a second purification of the copper ore than alloying it with silver. “The silver which is mixed up with the copper is melted, and the scoria taken out; it is therefore called mabuki doii, or atloyed co tr? Peare VIEL Casting the bars —Here we have a large sinewy man represented pouring the melted metal out of a large crucible Into a wooden pool full of water, while another opposite to him holds a pair of pinchers to take out the bars. The exhibition of muscular tension in the drawing of the gigantic man who holds the crucible is creditable to the artist. “The alloyed copper is put into an earthen crucible and fused, nd then poured into molds to form the bars of copper. ‘These bats are sold to foreigners, and are as excellent as if for imperial use. That which natives buy is smelted in the same manner, but the mode of casting and the molds are different; therefore these are in all sorts of shapes; one is made by pouring the Copper into a bamboo stuck in the ground.” : Puare IX. Fusing lead with the copper.—ln this plate, one Workman, his face mufiled and his legs guarded from the fire of the furnace by a mat, has just taken out a mass of copper, and 340 | On Smelting Copper in Japan. placed it ina trough, while a second, with a spade-like tool, is assisting him in working it. “When silver is combined with the copper, lead is added to it and they are melted togethers it is then called atbuki doii, or ee. copper. e X. Separating the lead from the copper.—In the pre- eine vito: the form of the furnace has been the same, that of acaldron imbedded in the ground even with the surface of the earth, having the bellows placed on the other side of the inter- vening wall, and the blast carried into it below its level. No - covering is represented, and the flame ascends into a cowl chim- ney. In this plate, the form of the furnace is oblong, with a curved facing in front; a fender kept in its place by : a rod. at- tached to a post, guards the liquid metal from running out, ex- cept at a small orifice, which the workman manages with his spoonlike rod. “The ‘combined-melted copper’ is put into the furnace and heated almost to liquifying, when the workman holding an iron tool upon the surface of the copper, restrains it from flowing, but allows the se — to run off. The copper is called shibort doi, or wrung out copper, i. e., pure copper. By this process the silver and lead meee AR in the copper are extra cted, whence it is termed ‘the wrung-out (or purifying) fusing ;’ the rules for the ocess were derived from foreign countries, and it is on this account also called ‘the fusing of the southern foreigners.’ © Puate XI. Separating the silver from the lead.—The fu race in which the cupellation is performed resembles a cupola furnace, rising about three feet, and having the fire somewhat below the surface. The assayer is stooping over the fire, intently watching “Phe iead previously extracted is pnt into an ash furnace, and slowly melted by a coal fire; the lead sinks to the bottom among the ashes, and the pure silver appears coming out of the centre. It is called hai-buki gin, or ‘ash-melted silver.” Puate XIL Of rinsing and sifting —Here we have two tubs of water, at which are women rinsing the pounded scoria; troughs stand wi them for receiving es metallic portions and a mortar, pated fhe e, and ‘afterwards ehetind An the water 10 the bowl flows off, the earthy particles being light also run off as useless. The Cupreous portion, being heavy, remains in rhe bowl, whence it is taken.” Prare XII Fusiug lead.—This plate is supplomnnteres to those on copper, introduced probably on account of the freq mention of lead when speaking of copper. The furnace per resented as distinct from the crucible or caldron in which the lead Ria Sens SOM a ee es ee ‘ On Smelting Copper in Japan. 341 is melted ; the fire is underneath it, and communicates with the bellows below the surface. The fire is pictured as havi gone down, one workman is lading lead into small oblong molds, while a second is cooling them in a tub‘of water, and a third cording the bars of lead into small faggots. na “The ore of lead comes from the hills; itis fused in a eru- cible; and afterwards poured out into copper molds to form bars of lead.” Ais -. Succeeding these thirteen plates are as many more, representing the implements used in smelting copper and lead and specifying their names and uses. \ T’o the professed metallurgist, this would a very interesting part of the work; but it will be neither drawings, representing the iron ladles, rods, forks, skimmers, pincers, &c., with the sieves, brooms, tubs, crucibles, molds, mor- tars, weights, écc., employed in the various stages of the smelting, The last page is occupied with diagrams of the bellows. The remainder of the volume is filled with an account of the Process connected with extracting copper from the ore, written Chinese, and corresponding in the main to the Japanese. It is explanatory of the former, and renders the whole account much More complete than it otherwise would be. It is drawn up in excellent Chinese style, and is a good specimen of the capabilities of that language to describe even the most technical operations. The Japanese writer has added the terminations of the cases, the Prepositions and other grammatical marks by which.a native of that country is enabled to read Chinese with much more facility and accuracy than he otherwise could do. In the translation, we have introduced the Chinese characters along with the names of places, in order that the means may be afforded for ascertaining their native names by those who have access to educated Japan- ese. These, in many instances, are so different from the sound of the characters themselves, as to afford no clue whatever to the names of the places designated, if the reader does not happen to Know the very characters employed to write that name. Thus, the three great cities in the empire, Yedo, Ohosaka, and Kioto (or Miyako), are severally written Keiinghoo, T'aepan, and King- too; the last is a descriptive term, meaning the imperial city ; iis where the dairi or kubo resides. This being their mode of Using the Chinese character in writing proper names, we have _ thonght: it would be best to introduce them; the same remark to names of individuals, officers, and indeed every use of the Chinese. A few sentences occurring in the preceding para- 8taphs will be met with in these, but being embodied in the Original, they could not very well be omitted, and the whole is “ansiated as it stands, - Seconp Serres, Vol. VIII, No. 24—Nov., 1849. 44 342 On Smelting Copper in Japan. ron Smelting Copper—“ The places in this country ‘neie is most copper is obtained are Besh-shi in Yo, Nanbu in Aii, and Akita in U; next to these places are Sonsau in U, and Shidya in Tan; and the poorest are Ginsan and Sheiikoku in Sheki, Kitsukaii in Bi, Beiwa in Ki, Kinsan in Sa, Taiya in Yetsu, Taten in So, and some others. From some of these places, there is at times much, and at others little, produced; the mines are some- times open and sometimes shut. Besides these there is so large a number which produce but little, that they can hardly be enumer- ated. Now the productive veins have limits, and the branching off- sets cease midway ; some of them will not repay the outlay ; others, the owners are unwilling to dig ; and again there are others which are not worked on account of the labor attending them: of all these there are | many.—The copper ore sometimes contains both silver and lead, and at others it is pure without any admixture ; it is also alloyed with zine. he rules for smelting are also dis- similar. There issome copper which is wrought by hammering, and some which is cast by fusing ; generally speaking, that which contains silver and lead is potter. “andi is hammered into sheets, or - drawn out into wire. Tat which is alloyed with zinc is very solid and hard, easily fractured if hammered, and unsuited either for sheets or wire; but if the soft and hard be fused together, there is no danger of its fracturing. If lead or tin be intimately blended with it, the alloy is very sonorous, well adapted for mirrors and bells owever, each has its own rules; and if [the reader wishes to read] the rules for quarrying; smelting, &ec., they are briefly explained in the followin Sec. I. Of the ore.—* All copper lscabities produce ore ac- companied with earth and barren rock. When the mine contains copper ore, its evidence will always be found on the top of the hill, of a reddish black hue, coloring both the earth and stones. t forms a connected vein, either long or short, broad or narrow ; either deep or shallow, rich or poor, according as the ore is m or little; for it is the effluence of the copper which steams Up and forms it, and the miners diligently examine its aspect in oT- der o a judge whether the copper will be much or little, good IL Of digging the ore—“ When the appearances the tp of the hill betoken good ore, [the meets dig seven perches into it in a circuitous manner; as they penetrate, setting up posts and joists, and laying boards and rafters upon them, stop- ping the empty interstices with stones and dirt, in order to prevent the pit caving in. The miners carry a lamp | made from a shell, as they work the ore and fill their buckets. The number of days or months required to penetrate ten or twenty perches cannot be determined. Sometimes ore will be, and sometimes it will not be, met with ; and when it does occur, the lode will - stop, and again be resumed ; at times it will continue on without roe ope are ‘ig Japan. — 343 faults; there are lodes which grow smaller and narrower, the fur- ther they are followed ; others suddenly contract, and as sudden- ly enlarge ; some diverge, and others are without ggg: sara e “he bar- The rock which envelopes the ore varies in its aspect. e bar. ren rock is thrown aside as of no further use. The ore is of many sorts, yellow, black, reddish and gray, brilliant and dull, some of it contains much, and some of it little. Indeed, the na- ture of the mine is not uniform, nor is it possible to obtain the ore alike in order to average the good and bad. When dug out, the ore is broken to fragments, and the process of selection and throwing away the barren stone is called kaname (or examining the ore). Generally, the best ore produces one tenth of copper, and the poorest, one twentieth. Sec. UL. Of roasting the ore.—“ Whenever ore is roasted, a kiln is built under a shed. Faggots are spread upon the bottom and ore laid upon them ; a layer of faggots and one of ore alter- nately are piled up to the brim. A vent-hole is cut in the bottom of the kiln for the draft to be free. 'The smoke is so sulphureous as to suffocate one, and the fire cannot be approached. When the fire has burned ten days, and gone out, the whole is cooled and taken out, but the ore has undergone but little change. fh be none da mtr ae pap yc rules for calcining ‘coarse metal, and extracting the copper, are for the most part like those for melting the ore and extracting the coarse metal. it when the furnace is full of liquid metal, the top is luted with ; leaving a small hole in it in which to put the coal and blast the charge. If there is any scum take it out immediately, and 344 On Smeliing Copper in Japan. wait till the whole mass is thoroughly fused ; then open the fur- nace, and entirely remove the ignited coal and earthy slag, after which, wait till the heat has abated a little, and then, sprinkling the surface, take it out in the same manner as when taking out the coarse metal. : 2 ‘All the operations described above, from quarrying the ore out of its bed to the first making it into pure copper, are done at the mine. The officers’ orders are that no copper shall be pri- vately sold, but that it must all be carried to the Riau-kwa foundry ; where the superintendents direct the founders to smelt and cast it, then assort the various qualities and affix their corres- ponding prices. That which is delivered at Nagasaki and Kwashi is from Besh-shi, Akita, and Nambu. That which is brought to market for ordinary purposes of manufacture is all produced from other places besides these three. The number of founders is likewise fixed ; they cannot be lightly increased or diminished, lest malpractices should arise. That copper which contains sil- ver, and that which contains zinc, and the pure metal, must not be mixed. There are these two operations carried on in the foundry. mait Sec. VI. The second smelting.—“ Every district which pro- duces copper has it smelted a second time im a foundry furnace. When fused, take off the slag and the coals, and then work the bellows a second time until it is liquified ; wait till the heat abated a little, sprinkle water upon it to concrete it, and then take it out with an iron rod. This is re-smelted copper or fine metals [The mass] is about a enbit broad, and half a cubit thick, being a little smaller than the bottom of the furnace. The process 1s for the most part like that of extracting the coarse metal. Gen erally speaking, about 250 catties can be melted in the furnace at once, and there are three fusings in a day. Sec. VIL The third smelting. —“ The twice smelted coppet is put into an earthern crucible, placed in the furnace and melteds A tub of hot water is set near at hand and a square wooden po made, into which the molds are placed ; and over them a thick hempen cloth spread. When the copper is melted, the scor@ taken off, and the fire reduced, hot water is poured into the pool (not very hot), until it is almost level with the molds; then, the smelter, firmly grasping the crucible witha pair of large iron pincers, pours {the metal] into the molds, which are previously sprinkled with warm water lest the mold should crack.* After wards, water is sprinkled upon the bars to cool them, and they are taken out witha pair of iron nippers.. Each casting pro- duces ten or more bars; they are seven or eight inches long, an¢ rie On Smelting Copper im Japan. — 345 weigh about ten taels (i. e. nearly a pound av.) each. The c per is all poured off in about ten times, and the crucible is fused ten times inaday. In this manner are made the copper bars which are brought to Nagasaki and Kwashi.* = “The above are all the rules for smelting pure copper; there ; are others for taking the re-smelted copper, fusing and casting it ; into square, or round, or other shaped molds, as will be presently explained, and these are, in the main, similar to those for making copper bars. “Copper was first brought to this country by eastern people. According to the Memoir on Copper, the year was between the reigns of Genki and Tenshei. For about a thousand years, the metal from every district was chiefly of the third quality, as they had not learned how to extract the silver; so that they could be called deficient in manipulation. For this is known from the fact, that if broken copper utensils, made in the reign of 'Ten- shei and before him, be smelted, silver can always be extracted from them. ‘The silver used in those days was all obtained from mines. At the end of Tenshei’s reign, certain foreign merchants came to Sakai in the country of Shen, and taught the mode of extracting silver to Sumitomo. Zhiyusai ; this was in the year See. Vill. Of alloying copper and lead —* When silver and ined wsaierytes copper, lead is added and placed on top of the furnace, and the whole mass fused. When the earthy tee Lilie oily oirsic, otis itl we push to ae says the “copper, after being roasted and smelted at the smelting d d at Miyako, where also all the coin is struck.” 5 pte oan of ra mentioned in this account, may be at ave no means of ascertaining. 346 On Smelting Copper in Japan. slag and hot coals are removed, an iron pole is used to take it out by adhesion ; its appearance is that of broken tiles, and it is cal- led awashe kane, or alloyed copper. Generally there are 8 parts of copper and two of lead; but the lead is according to the quantity of silver, if there is much then more is added, if little the lead is reduced. Sec. 1X. Of separating the lead and copper.—‘ The alloy- ed copper is put into a Namman furnace (so called because the southern foreigners introduced it; it is built of earth), and coal added by degrees as the bellows is worked. A crooked iron rod is used to stir the metal about in the clay, but it must not be al- lowed to become melted so as torun. When the lead is fused, it will flow off, carrying the silver in combination with it. If the zinc is also ready to run off, the workman with his iron rod stops and turns it off so that it may not mix with the lead; it usually remains just between the lead and copper. When the lead has. all run off (i. e. that combined with the zinc), then scoop the zine up and take it out; and when both the lead and zine are separated, sprinkle water and take out the copper; it is called shibori doit, pure (lit. wrung out) copper. The lead in the hollow place cools and forms a round mass (called shiyuts shiyo, or eX- tracted lead); it still combines silver with it, which does not show itself. Truly this process of separation must be regar as very elegant! Sec. X. Sinking the lead to extract the silver—“< The first like a wall or dyke is built around, leaving a hole in front to work the bellows (as well as to see the state of the fire), on the top of which a cover of a broad. tile is closely luted with wet ashes. ‘The bellows is then gradually blown until the fire attains its strength, causing the lead to drop into the ashes, where ! forms a mass upon the bottom. The lead is called ruikasu, and is afterwards purified from the ashes. The silver floats in the middle as a small round cake, and is called haibuki gin or ash- melted silver. Such are the rules for extracting the silver. Sec. XI. Supplement of rinsing the scoria of the and zinc.—‘‘ The separated copper is of the same quality as the re- smelted; it is melted and made into copper rods, and into ingots for hammers and nippers. That cast into square sheets is used to tile houses, the round is made into cups, the oblong pieces are employed in constructing eave-troughs, and the long rods are for making wire. If the lead and zinc are not completely separated es © the copper will split and crack when hammered ; it is conseq On Smelting Copper in Japan. 347 ly very important that at the time of smelting it be perfectly pu- tified. Zine is only used as an alloy in making mirrors and warming stoves and bells ; if it is combined in the copper, that metal will not stick to the molds, but when taken out, the en- gravings and ornaments will be distinct and clean. = Sec. XII. Of the washing and rinsing.—“ 'The fragments of copper taken from the refining furnace which adhere to the scoria, and that from the crucible, are beaten in a mortar, sifted and then rinsed in water in order to obtain the copper. . “Written by Mas’tadzuna (or Soii ten-boii) a pupil of Sumi- tomo Zhiyusai in Raiik was’ When Thunberg accompanied the Dutch embassy to Yédo in 1776, the party after much intreaty were allowed’ to see the ope- ration of casting the copper bars at Ohosaka, which he thus de- scribes. We introduce it as the testimony of an eye-witness to -Corroborate the native account. “The operation of smelting of copper was one day performed Particularly for us, and merely on purpose that we might see it, mM consequence of the importunate intreaties both of our chief and our conductors. This was done with much greater simpli- city than I had imagined. The smelting hut was from twenty to twenty-four feet wide, and a wall like a niche was built up, with achimney on one side of it. At the bottom of this, and level with the floor, was a hearth, in which the ore, by the assistance of a hand-bellows, had been smelted before our arrival. Direct- ly opposite, on the ground, which was not floored, was dug a hole of an oblong form, and about twelve inches deep. Across this Were laid ten: square iron bars, barely the breadth of a finger asunder, and all of them with one of their edges upwards. Over was expanded a piece of sail-cloth, which was pressed down between the bars. Upon this was afterwards poured cold water, which stood about two inches above the cloth. ‘The smelted ore Was then taken up out of the hearth, with iron ladles, and pour- ed into the above described mold, so that ten or eleven bars, six i ( long, were cast each time. As soon as these were taken out, the fusion was continued, and the water now and then " the copper was thus cast in water, was not known before in Europe, nor that the Japanese copper hence acquires its high color and splendor. At the same time I had the good tune to receive, through the influence of my friends the inter- Preters, a present of a box, in which was packed up, not only pure copper cast in the abovementioned manner, but also speci- Mens taken from every process that it had gone through, such as crude pyrites with its matrix, the produce of the roasting, ptt a myrvboengars rg t inate not only in the , «Alter this we saw a quantity of cast c , abovementic sre of haat the it is sold to the Dutch and Chi- 348 Prof. Dewey on Caricography. > nese, but also cast in larger and smaller, round and square, thick- er and thinner, pieces, for other purposes, according as they be wanted for the fabrication of kettles, pans, and other utensils.” The copper exported by the Dutch is, according to Thun packed in long wooden boxes each containing one pecul. A car- go consists of six or seven thousand chests. The bars, he says, ‘Care six inches long, and a finger thick, flat on one side, and con- vex on the other, and of a fine bright color. Each bar weighs about one third of a pound.” One of the bars now lies before us. It is nine inches long, flat on one side and convex on the other, the upper side much blistered, of a dark carmine color, and weighs 11 taels, 3 mace, and 8 ‘candareens, or 15°12 oz. avoir- dupois. Art, XXIV.—Caricography ; by Prof. C. Dewey. (Appendix, continued from vol. vi, 2nd ser., p. 245.) v No. 237. Carer ignota, Dew. ples distinctis; spica staminifera unica gracilis jorigoopeduit culata squamo-bracte eata cum squamis oblongis obovatis subob- tusis ; pistilliferis ternis oblongis Jaxifloris erectis exserto-pedun- culatis foliaceo-bracteatis, inferiore longo-pedunculata ; fructibus tristigmaticis elliptico-triquetris utrinque teretibus alternis sub- conico-rostratis ore integris subrecurvis, squama ovata acuta cus- pidata membranacea paulo longioribus : culmis foliisque subpu- bescentibus. Culm 18-24 inches high, erect, rather slender, triquetrous, leafy towards the root ; leaves short and lanceolate, striate ; bracts sheathing, leafy, shorter than culm and enclosing the peduncle of the upper pistillate spike ; staminate spike single, erect, exsert- ed from the upper sheath, with oblong or obovate obtusish gee pistillate spikes three oblong, filiform, erect, loose-flowered, t two lower long pedunculate, and all sheathed ; stigmas three ; fruit ated acne tapering to both ends, conic-rostrate, slightly at apex, with orifice entire, aiternate and smooth ; pistil- late sci ovate, acute and cuspidate, shorter oe the fruit; culm, leaves, and sheaths, slightly pubescent, pale gr rom Louisiana through Dr. Sartwell, iis a Vier oan since it came to me from Dr. Hale of the same state. It rese slightly C. anceps, but the fruit is much longer and more conic, and appears a distinet species No. 238. C. vulpina, L., Schk., No. 23, Tab. C, fig. 10. Spica decomposita, s#pe ramosa; spicis distigmaticis ovatis obtusis coarctatis densis superne staminiferis, interdum —— interruptisque ; fructibus ovatis apice teret ibus subrostratis div Se ee ae Prof. Dewey on Caricography. 349 gentibus bidentatis margine subscabris, squamam ovatam acutam subpaulo superantibus. _ Culm 1-3 feet high, erect, wide-triquetrous and acute on edges, sometimes small and slender and with a few scattered spikelets ; leaves lanceolate and rough on the edges, subradical ; spike often long and large and more than decompound with densely aggrega- ted spikelets, staminate above; fruit ovate, broadish, tapering into a beak, two-toothed, subscabrous on the margin; stigmas two; pis- tillate scale ovate acute, narrower and a little shorter than the fruit. A well known species over Europe, and very different, though resembling our C. stipata, Muh.; but it was not detected in our country till a few years since by Mr. Sullivant in Ohio, and later by Dr. Mead and Dr. Vasey in distant localities in Illinois. No. 239. C. scabrior, Sartwell in literis. Spica composita vel decomposita arcte ramosa, interdum non ramosa; spiculis ovatis parvis dense aggregatis raro bracteatis Superne staminiferis ; fructibus distigmaticis latis convexis rostra- tis bidentatis margine perscabris serrulatis, squama ovata acuta vix duplo longioribus; foliis culmisque margine perscabris. Culm two feet high, erect, stiff, rather slender for its height, triquetrous, very scabrous on the edges, leafy on the culm towards the root; leaves linear, flat, striate, sometimes long as the culm, Scabrous on the edges, long acute; spike compound, sometimes interrupted, two inches or more long, and oftener decompound With many dense spikelets on the branches below and dense also owards the apex of the spikelets ; stigmas two; fruit broad ovate, convex, rostrate, bidentate, on the margin serrulate;_pistillate le ovate, acute, less than the fruit and about half as long; the bract scale under the spikelets ovate, cuspidate, surpassing the fruit ; plant rather dark green. Foun Dr. Sartwell near Penn Yan some years ago, but not determined till lately ; it may possibly be the true C. vulpinoiden, Mx,, to which has been credited C. multiflora, Muh. It differs much from the latter, but is nearer C. setacea, Dew., which is clearly distinct from both. It has not been confounded with C. multiflora, and the absence of the setaceous bracts, as well as other characters, separates it from C. setacea. It is far different ¥ trom C. vulpina. L No. 240. C. platyphylla, Carey. culmis, demum subprostratis, et foliis radicalibus patulis nervosis. EConD Serres, Vol. VIII, No. 24.—Nov., 1849. 45 350 Wm. A. Norton on the Variations Culm 3-8 inches high, erect, triquetrous, at length nearly prostrate with sheathing leafy bracts shorter than the culm, a with broad radical leaves distinctly three-nerved : staminate spike clubform, short, short-pedunculate, with oblong acute scales; pis- tillate spikes two, or three often, few and loose-flowered, exsertly pedunculate a little, and a little shorter than the leaf of the bract ; stigmas three; fruit ovate triquetrous, smooth and nerved, acute at apex and turned slightly one side; pistillate scale ovate, acute or cuspidate, white on edge, shorter than the fruit; leaves pale green. Open woods over the country, but has been placed under C. plantaginea and C. anceps. By Muh. both these were blended together, though far diflerent. By Schk. they were only half distinguished, as he placed the wide leafed C. anceps under U. plantaginea, while he gives‘a correct figure of the latter on Tab. U, fig. 70, and of the former (C. anceps) on Tab. Kkkk, fig. 195, and of the narrow leafed C. anceps on Tab. Fff, fig. 128, as they have been for years understood. These two need to be separated ; and I propose to call the wide leafed C. anceps, C. patulifolia, leaving to the narrow leafed its proper name as descri- bed by Schk., and not confounding it with C. conoidea, Muh., the C. blanda, Dewey. C. platyphylla was properly separated by Mr. Carey and pub- lished in Prof. Gray’s Botany of the Northern States, and placed in the section with C. plantaginea, Lam., and C. Careyana, Dew. Norr.—C. alopecoidea, Tuckerman, var. sparsi-spicata, Dew; has scattered spikelets, forming a compound spike three inches long, and not an aggregated head of spikelets. In Washington, Mich.—Dr. Cooley. his C. intermedia, Good., is found by Dr. Geo. Vasey in Ring- wood, Ill. C. fenea, Muh., has been found abundantly by Mr. Olney Cumberland, R. L. x a) Art. XXV.—On the Diurnal Variations in the Declination of the Magnetic Needle, and in the Intensities of the Horizontal and Vertical Magnetic Forces ; by Wiuu1am A. Nortos, Pro- fessor of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy in Delaware College. ig (Continued from p. 226.) We have seen in a former part of the present paper, that the secondary nocturnal variations of the horizontal magnetic inten- sity of a place, correspond, in respect to time and direction, with the deviations in the nocturnal loss of temperature from uniform- ity, and that the cause of these deviations is therefore, in all prob- ability, either identical with or closely related to the cause of the sigh in the Magnetic Forces of the Earth. 351 variations in question. It follows therefore from the conclusions which have just been obtained, that the probable cause of the Secondary variations of the horizontal force is to be found in the varying quantities of dew deposited at night; from one hour to another, and from one season to another. It is to be observed, however, that it is not essential that the unequal losses of temper- ature at night should be attributable entirely to the thermal influ- ence of dew, to enable us to draw this inference. We have seen that the results of observation and experiment conduct us to the conclusion that the tendency of this influence is to produce the inequalities which have been under consideration. This fur- nishes sufficient ground for the inference ; but if the entire amount of the inequalities of the decrease of temperature be not due to this influence, there is room to doubt whether the secondary vari- ations of the horizontal force might not be attributable to the ion of the other unknown cause or causes tending to produce thus that the horizontal force may begin to increase. (See the uly antagonistic causes: the tendency of the uniform loss of heat, from radiation, is to make the horizontal force decrease uniformly during the night; the tendency of the dew is to augment this ce, but it acts unequally, producing the greatest effect towards Morning, when it ordinarily prevails over the other cause. he dew tends to augment the horizontal force in two ways; by fur- nishing a certain amount of heat to the earth, and thus diminish- ing the loss of heat, and by adding to the amount of magnetic matter at the earth’s surface. The joint effect of these two 352 Wm. A. Norton on the Variations opposing causes should be different in different seasons. From the vernal to the autumnal equinox, the dew is less in amount and the nocturnal fall of temperature is greater, and therefore the height of the morning maximum of horizontal force ought to be | less, than from the autumnal to the vernal equinox—a conclusion which accords with fact. (See as above. To obtain a theoretical estimate of the relative height of this maximum in these two periods, we have only to seek for the amount of the diminution of the horizontal force ish the night, that would result from radiation alone, and then allow for the proportionate ps of the dew, both thermal “as directly magnetic. Now it ars, on an examination of the curves of the daily variation ‘of horizontal force, that the diminution of the horizontal force at sundown, which must be chiefly due to radia- tion, is about one-half of one of the division-spaces in the dia- gram: according to this, the tendency of the radiation is to dimin- po the horizontal force, during a night of twelve hours, (from 5 m. to 5 a.m.,) the amount of six of these spaces. We have obtained for the proportionate amounts of dew on a single sige during the two periods above mentioned 0i=-024, and Oim: These numbers bear to each other the ratio of 6 to 10, or 3 to 5. Now, the curves of the daily variations of the horizontal foree for the middle quarters of the year show that during these periods the morning maximum is about one division and a half below the evening maximum. According to this the tendency of the entire effect of the dew must then be to increase the horizontal force 44 divisions. Increasing this number in the proportion of 10 to 6, we have for the effect of dew during the first and last quarters of the civil year, (or from the autumnal to the vernal equinox, ) 72 divisions: which makes the morning 14 divisions higher than the evening maximum. This is a close approxima- tion to the actual state of the case, as shown by the curves. The effect of the dew is partly attributable to the heat evolved, dimin- ishing the loss of heat and of surface temperature, and part y to the direct magnetic action of the dew. — If the continual diminu- tion in the loss of temperature at night, from hour to hour, co be partially attributed to any other external cause, the effect of the dew in augmenting the horizontal force would only have to be diminished in the same proportion. It remains for us now to consider the secondary variations of the horizontal force which occur during the forenoon. We have already seen that the horizontal force decreases from 4 or 5 A. ™. i aa tabs “ ciate ae Pcie eee ee EE gE an) ee oa in the Magnetic Forces of the Earth. 353 inferred from the following considerations. In the first place the dew deposited at night is evaporated during the morning hours. In the next place the greater part of the evaporation of the rain that falls during the night and the latter part of the day, will have uring the forenoon of the following day ; except when the rain is a heavy one, or the ground was previously quite wet, in which case, in the same state of the sky, the evaporation will be most abundant during the warmest part of the day. The average amount of rain that falls during a single night is considerably greater than the average amount of dew. The average quantities of rain that fell during the different quarters of the year, at Phil- adelphia, according to the observations for the years 1842~3—4, vary from five inches to sixteen inches, which is equivalent to from 0-03 to 0-09 (nearly) in a single night. It is to be expected, therefore, that, if the morning decrease of the horizontal force be really attributable to evaporation, there will be variations in the amount of the decrease connected with the variations in the quantity of rain. ‘That such a connection really exists will be Manifest on consulting the following table, showing the quan- tities of rain, and the average decrease of the horizontal force for the different quarters of the years 1842-3—4. 1842, 1843. EES Rain. Force. Rain. Force. Rain. 6 + 3°25 2 114 575 15-7 4°75 10°8 78 37 87 2 8 The following table of averages will make the connection in question still more evident. Se a : Rain. Ratios. Force. __Ratigg. © RRS ogres ne a —_—— and Coomeneeenenemmemed (eeumeemermenteeean Ist Quarter, ......... 68 2: : smut ie Meyers re 87 13 3-2 1:28 ST Ae Sami eat 126 1-45 4°66 143 ko tee ‘65 2:92 63 i a a ey The correspondence between the ratios is remarkably close, and would seem to indicate that, in the average of years, the diminution of the horizontal force in the morning is mainly due ) the evaporation of the water that has fallen in rain and is but slightly effected by the variations in the rise of temperature, and in the amount of dew. Diurnal Variations of the Vertical Magnetic Intensity. : According to our general theory the vertical intensity is propor- tional to the difference of temperature of two places situated at €qual distances to the north and south of the station of the needle, and on a line perpendicular to the isogeothermal line. e have to enquire whether the diurnal variations of the vertical in- tensity are proportional to the diurnal variations of the difference 354 Wm. A. Norton on the Variations of temperature of two places thus situated. The theory strictly requires that the difference between the average temperatures, at any time, of the ground near the surface should be taken, but there is little reason to doubt that the laws of the variations of this difference, at any one season, will be very nearly the same as of the variations of the difference of surface temperatures. Whatever errors may result from taking the latter difference in- stead of the former will probably be simply errors of quantity. Although I am not in possession of the precise data demanded for a minute prosecution of the present inquiry, still the meteor- ological observations made at Philadelphia and Washington will furnish differences of temperature, which will doubtless, in the average for weeks and months, differ little from the differences demanded. Let us then compare the curves showing the mean ington and Philadelphia for the same periods of time. (See figs. 13 to 20.) On examining these curves it will be seen that the maximum of vertical intensity, at all. seasons of the year, is not vertical intensity, for the other years, conform to the same genera , and the calculations of difference of temperature, so far as Curves showing the Mean Diurnal Variations of the Vertical Force, for quarters of years. Fig. 13. Jan., Feb. and March, 1842. 200! il / { x * | A by r. \ cial \ Es 137 P 21 m4 £ 227'. Qa § 4 Bie: O° 92 oe aos 20 ye Fig 14, April, May and June, 1841. 71 “| _< | WA / Z x Pel Pf \ on 2 \ 98 | P 101 “|. 104 Be Mm 2 oft 6 Bi eeOcds ae 10 7 2 0 ee ae in the Magnetic Forces of the 355 Curves showing the Mean Diurnal Variations of the Vertical Force, for quarters f year Fig. 15. July, pi th Sept., 1841. a i 167 > 3 . Ns y Ne ae L. x Ag Nee F f ee Fak a PM er 200 “ = . ; Or § 4 6 10. 12 14: 16. 18 20 22 Oh Fig. 16. Oct., Nov. and Dec., 1841. aii | dol Re | pecs ad 3) L 4 > a 49 | 52 ceeee Dyas | 155 i | | ce ecole te 16 1 ea ee Oh Oe division of magnetometer scale = “000083 vertical force——Increase of num- bers corresponds to decrease of force Carve witisiend the Mean Diurnal Variations of the ocean po ehpar the Tem- peratures of Philadelphia and Washington, for quarters o f years a atl woes ae 4 A Ps ee Fig. 18.) / hd a Po Oe Lf ef / 904: ; ih ae et ref ‘ iO Ras ed “. 19... ; i) JO 6 16 20 On U4, J —Fig. 18, April, May and June, ee aia 19, fe eh a Ma, 0 “He, Y Nov ‘ .and Dec., 184 they have been carried, serve ouly to confirm the conclusion ru itis a general law that the difference of temperature, like t Vertical pepe: is greatest between the Lours of noon and 4r.m™., | least midnight. I conclude, therefore, that the diurnal of che vertical intensity must be at least approximately Proportional to the diurnal variations of difference of temperature. 356 Wm. A. Norton on the Variations If now we compare the curves of vertical intensity for the dif- ferent quarters of the year 1841, and other years, we find that the variations are generally less for the first and last than for the other two quarters of the year. But, so far as the calculations of differ- ence of temperature have been made, there does not appear to be an equal proportionate difference in the curves of difference of temperature. It is barely possible that this apparent discrepancy may be attributable to the fact that the data are not precisely those which the theory calls for, and that the variations of the vertical force are really the joint effect of the variations of the difference of temperature of all places situated on lines drawn through the station of the needle and at equal distances from this station; but, in all probability the principal cause is to be sought elsewhere. The first inquiry that naturally arises is whether it may not be found in the fact that, instead of taking the difference between the temperatures at the earth’s surface, we should take the difference between the average temperatures of the stratum just below the surface, which #s subject to a daily variation of temperature. In fact it is easy to see that if we make this cor- rection, the vertical force ought to be less for the same difference of temperature, during the cold than during the warm months ; perature, and these effects are not confined to the surface of the earth, but extend to a certain depth below it. The rising and falling of vapor during the twenty-four hours will have little or no sensible effect upon the intensity of the vertical force, (unless we suppose that the vapor acts magnetically only when it is in con- tact with the earth’s surface,) since it is chiefly the matter at 4 distance that is concerned in the vertical action upon the needle, and the tangential force of any particle of matter thus situated will be sensibly vertical for considerable distances both above below the needle. The evaporation which has place during the day, and the deposition of dew during the night can have then (except upon the above supposition) little or no sensible effect upon the intensity of the vertical foree, in any other way than by the heat evolved and absorbed; and this has already been tacitly allowed for, for the actual difference of temperature de pends upon the deposition of dew and the evaporation, as well as upon the heating power of the sun and the radiation into space and the atmosphere. , oer ngeaseatial . ees = taal These are exhibited to the eye in Hy 21 to eh — of Mean Pnrpsl Variations of Vertical Force and ste ed of Tenn Jan., Feb. and March, 1 6h 12a 164 20, On Fig. 23. July, Aug. and Sept., 1841. “Pick ots aye On 6h 124 On Fig. 24. _— Nov. on Dec., 1841. 358 Wm. A. Norton on the Variations in which the dotted lines represent the actual variations of the vertical force, and the full lines the variations as deduced from the theory that they are proportional to the variations of the dif- ference of temperature. On examining these figures it will be seen that there is some cause in operation, making the vertical force to decrease more rapidly in the afternoon until 8 P. m, than the difference of temperature, and to decrease less rapidly or to increase from 8 Pp. m. to midnight. It will be seen also that in the Spring the vertical force increases less rapidly than the difference of temperature during the latter part of the night, and more rapidly during the forenoon; and that during the latter half of the year the reverse is true. It is observable also that these discrepancies are greatest in amount during the first half of the year; that they lie continually in the same direction during the first half of the year, and also continually in the same direction during the other half of the year. As to their origin, they may be purely accidental, for the locality, or for the time; or they may arise from the fact that the variations of the difference of temperature between Washington and Philadelphia do not repre- sent with exactness the variations of the vertical force, since these depend upon the variations of the differences of tempera- ture of all points of the earth’s surface, situated within a certain distance of the station of the needle. It would, at all events, be premature to enquire after some secondary physical cause tending s produce these effects, after so partial an examination of the act 8. The curves shown by the full lines in figs. 21 to 24, were constructed npon different scales, obtained by assuming that, for each quarter of the year, the variation of the differences of tem- perature from 0» to 12 be represented by the line which repre- sents in figs. 13 to 16, the variation of the vertical foree during the same interval. The coincidence of the full and dotted lines at 02 and 12 is a necessary consequence of this assumption. Diurnal Variations of the Declination. The general theory is, that the needle is nearly perpendicular to the isogeothermal line—that is, that the mean position of the needle is at right angles to the ideal line passing through those places which have the same mean annual temperature. But, 10 general, the true and mean temperature are different to a certain depth in the ground. ‘There is a stratum of about 60 feet 0 depth which slowly varies in temperature from one season to another, and a portion of this stratum, of the depth of some three feet, which varies in temperature during the day. If we consider the action of this latter stratum by itself, agreeably to our gene- ral theory, its tendency at any moment will be to place the needle at right angles to the line connecting the points where the aver- in the Magnetic Forces of the Earth. 359 Curve showing the Mean Diurnal Variations of the Declination, for the year 1844.* oF Fig. 25. 541 \ on — | ff [ y 55 N\ 556 SY O 1234567 8 9 101112131415 16 17 18 1920212223 Increase of numbers corresponds to decrease of declination. diurnal variations of the declination, for the year 1844. The curves for the different quarters of the year are of the same form, and agree also with the curve for the year, or very nearly so, in . * The observations of declination, (and the same is true of the observations of hor- a force and vertical force,) were made about 20m. after the Observatory hours, Pm our inquiries mainly relate to the laws of the variations, this fact may be “stegarded without material error. 360 Wm. A. Norton on the Variations the positions of the maxima and minima. If fig. 25 be compared with the curve of the mean daily variation of the horizontal force, (see fig. 3, p. 40, in the July number of this Journal,) it will be observed that the maxima and minima of the former fall nearly midway between the maxima and minima of the latter. Thus, the ‘Morning maximum of the horizontal force is at 5 m of horizontal force is at about 3 p. m., and the princi- pal iit of declination is at 1 Pp. m., neatly m midway be- tween this and the morning minimum of horizontal force (at 10 A. M). he morning maximum of declination (at 2 a. M.) 1s also nearly midway between the evening minimum of es force (about opus he and the morning maximum of t sasmall deviation from this inthe lave in the case of the e anit minimum of declination, which occurs some two hours lator than the middle point of time between the evening maximum and minimum of horizontal force. Be- sides these “patton between the maxima and minima of the two curves, it may be seen that there are points of inflexion in the curves of the poxiacenel force near the epochs of the maxima and minima of the declination; and accordingly that when the curve of the horizontal force is ‘concave upwards the declination (westerly) is increasing, and when it is convex upwards the dec- lination is decreasing. ‘These facts render it highly probable that the diurnal variations of the horizontal force and declination are linked together by some physical connection, as theory has al- ready led us to suppose Let us see whether this theory, besides suggesting the fact of such a connection, can also explain the precise connection which we have now found to subsist. If we recur to the e prin- ciples already laid down (p. 359), we shall see that the inquiry before us leads us, in the first place, to seek for the daily changes of position in the line of equal molecular magnetic force. we were to neglect the effect of dew and evaporation, the line in question would be very nearly the true pipe Jine passing through the station of the needle. To simplify the matter we will for the present, consider the two as the same. iow take some point (B), to the east of the station (A) of the needle, situated on the isothermal line traced through A at 5 a. My about the time of minimum temperature: an hour later these two points would not be on the same isothermal line, for the increase of temperature at B would be ee than at A. (See curve of this motion of the isothermal line toward the north, me ie east the station A, will continue until the increment ’ of tem in the Magnetic Forces of the Llarth. 361 ture at B, in any short interval of time, becomes the same as at A. This will happen at the hour of the most rapid ri m- perature, or about 9 a.m. After this the hourly increment of tare (3 p.m. at Philadelphia), and until the fall of ten B becomes less rapid than at A. This will hap om tion of temperature, during the night, that after this the decrease of temperature at B will be continually less than at A, and there- fore that the isothermal line will move northward, to the east of © station A, and southward to the west of it. This motion will continue until 5 a. m.; and beyond this, as we have already seen, until towards 9 a.m. In obtaining these results, we have taken it for granted that the law and rate of the mean daily variation of temperature is the same at Bas at A. This doubtless is not Strictly true, and therefore the epochs of maximum and mini- Mum of declination shonld be somewhat different from the times above specified. If we neglect this difference, it appears, that on the supposition which has been made, the needle woul e toward the east from 9 a.m. to 7 p.m, and toward the west from 7PM. to 9 a.m. The actual state of things differs from this in two or three points; during the last half of this period of west- erly movement, or nearly so, there is actually an easterly move- ment, and during the first half of this period of easterly move- ment there is actually a westerly movement; and the evening minimum oceurs generally some two or three hours later, (about 10 p.m.) These discrepancies, (with the exception of the last, which is comparatively trifling,) disappear if we compare the curve of declination (fig. 25) with that of horizontal force (fig. 3), instead of that of temperattre, as we should do. If this be done, it is found, as we have already seen, that the points of maximum Variation of the horizontal force, or of inflexion in the curve, fall at the epochs of the maximum and minimum of declination. To understand the movements, in detail, of the line of equal surface Magnetic action, upon which the daily horizontal*move- Ments of the needle depend, we have only to compare the change of the horizontal force during the hour following the time con- Sidered, with the change that occurs an hour later during the same Interval of one hour ; for the latter is the change that occurs at a Place an hour to the east of the station of the needle, cotempo- Taneously with the change at the station itself. When these two changes are equal the line in question is stationary. When they ate both decrements, if the first is greater than the second, as ftom 8 a.m. to 10 4. m., the line rises, to the east of the station, and the needle moves westwardly ; but if it is less, as from 6 4. m. ig Wile ae 362 Wm. A. Norton on the Variations to 8 a. m., the line moves towards the south and the needle east- wardly. When the changes are both increments, if the first is less than the second, as from LO a.m. to 1 p. m., the line rises and the needle moves toward the west; but if it is greater than the second, as from 1 p.m. to 4 P.M., the line falls back, or tow the south, and the needle moves towards the east. When the change isa decrement and the second an increment, as at about 10 a. m. and toward midnight, the i rises and the motion of the needle is toward the west; and when the first is an incre- ment and the second a decrement, as near 13 p.m. and 5 a.M., it falls and the needle moves eastward. It appears therefore that the needle should move toward the west when tHé curve of the horizontal force is concave upward, and toward the east when the same curve is convex upward. The westerly movement should then be from 8 a.m. to 1 p.m., and from 7 or 8 p.m. to 2 or 3 a.m.; and the easterly movement from 1 pv. m. to 7 or 8 P.M, and from 2 or 3 a.m. to8 a.m. These results accord with obser- vation, with the single sah pe that the time of aac de- clination is generally about two hours later than 8 P If we compare the curves ra horizontal force for po different quarters of the year, we find that, while the points of maxima and minima, as well as the points of inflexion, are pretty nearly the same for all, the curvatures are in general greater for the two mid- dle than for the first and last quarters of the year, and therefore the daily changes of declination should be greater toward the middle than toward the beginning or end of the year—a result which accords with fact. There appears, however, to be generally amore rapid variation of the horizontal force toward midnight, during the cold than during the warm months; which must be attended with corresponding differences in the small nocturnal increase of declination. This result seems also to be in accord- ance with fact; but it would be premature to attempt the detail- ed explanation of such minute differences among the variations, from a limited series of observations made only at the station of the needle. A similar remark may be made with respect to certain small discrepancies which may be observed, between theory-and fact, in relation to the relative amounts of the varia- tions at the same hour in the different quarters of any one indi- vidual year.. A theory which furnishes a sufficient explanation of all the laws deducible from the observations, cannot reasona- bly be rejected on the score of small discrepancies in quantity, when the observations are much less extended than the de calls for. The precise movements of the line of equal mag action of the surface stratum upon which the motion of i needle depends, can only be ascertained with certainty by institu- ting special observations at a variety of places in every direction and at various patents from the station of the needle. The ee ne a ey ey an St in the Magnetic Forces of the Earth. —S»- 368 foregoing results have been obtained by taking it for granted that the changes of the molecular magnetic intensity are the same at the same hour of local time all around the station of the needle . . . . igh. > daily angular movement of the line of equal magnetic action, and into the intensity of the disturbing force necessary to the production of the amount of movement of the needle which actually occurs. Let us, in the first place, regard this line as identical with the true isothermal line, and suppose B to a place situated on this line at 5 a. m.* (or thereabouts), and one_ 9 : hour, say, to the east of the station A. By 9 a.™. the rise of temperature at B will be as much as 2°, on the average, greater nat A, and therefore the isothermal line through A will now pass through a point (C), to the north of B, where the tempera- ture is 2° less than at B. In the present discussion the station A is Philadelphia, and it appears from an examination of the dif- ferences of temperature at various hours during the day, between Washington and Philadelphia, used in the discussion of the verti- eal force, that the difference of latitude of B and C is about equal to the difference of latitude of Washington and Philadelphia, or about 1°. Taking this result and conceiving the isothermal line to be an are of a great circle, we find, by an easy calculation, the displacement of this line from 5 a.m. to 9 a.m. to be about - The actual isothermal line, at 9 a. m., will really lie a little to the north (as far as C) of the great circle taken for it, since the Variation of temperature about 9 a.m. is nearly uniform. This angle (32°) is, however, only a part of the daily angular movement of the isothermal line toward the north, to the east of A, since, as we have already seen (p. 361), this movement begins about 7 p. m. and continues until 8 or 9 4.m. The whole movement cannot beless than 5°. This calculation proceeds upon the supposition that the daily variation of temperature at B is the same as at A, but as a matter of fact the change is somewhat greater for A than ; since, as we have seen, the difference of temperature of Washington and Philadelphia increases during the forenoon, and A is south and west of B. This will have the effect to diminish the rise of the line of equal magnetic force, from 5 a.m. to A.M, (possibly to 2°); but, as the fall of temperature will be More rapid after 4 p. m., at A than at B, the westerly movement will begin earlier in the evening and attain to a greater amount by 5 a.m. than upon the supposition made above. We may lay it down then as highly probable that the displacement of the line M question cannot be less than 3°. PCa __* The time considered. in this connection is the local time at the station A of the Ne Me 364 i Mineral Waters of Canada. If now we take the line of equal magnetic action, as it has been accurately defined, by its relations to the horizontal, force in« stead of the temperature, we have to consider the amount of the. variation of the horizontal force from the minimum at 10 a.m. to the time of greatest hourly ig i at 1 p.m., and enquire how far to the north o 0 to obtain a ~ haces force as much less than that at Bas na at B is greater than that at A. But we here meet with a difficulty, inasmuch as the horizontal forces, so called, at B and C (to the north of B), to be compared, are really only the portions of the entire horizontal force, which are due to the action of the variable stratum. ‘The difference be- - tween these forces is very much less than that which subsists. be- ween the actual horizontal directive forces acting upon the needle, but how much less we have no means as yet of ascertain- ing with any certainty. For this purpose we must know the proportion which the force of the variable stratum bears to that of the whole magnetic stratum. Conjectures might be made as to the probable value of the ing that no proportion which, in the light of the investigations of this and the previous paper, seems probable, gives movemen of the line of equal surface magnetic sie materially less than those of the isothermal line, above determined. As to the question of the intensity of. the disturbing. force which produces the diurnal variations of declination, it is, in t first place to be observed, that that portion of the horizontal force which is due to the action of the variable stratum, is entirely effective in displacing the needle in a direction toward the per- pendicular to the line of equal magnetic action of this stratum. Now it appears, upon calculation, that this foree must be as mu as thirty times its daily variation, in the summer, to produce upon the supposition of a displacement of this line to the amount ta 6°, a change of declination amounting to 12’, ——— to ie Geological Cceninitinn of Canada. In the autumn of 1847, I visited in the discharge of my duties a portion of the province ‘which lies to the west of Lake Onta- rio, and while there, collected several mineral waters, some which have proved of unusual interest. The results of my eX- aminations appear in our repor nted to his excellency the Earl of Elgin, Governor-general of the Province, on the Ist of ae > Se Oe ee ee ey ny ee Mineral Waters of Canada. 365 May, 1849; from this report the subjoined analyses are taken. Among the waters is the Tuscarora Sour Spring, to which I have already alluded, ina paper read before the Meeting of the Ameri- can Association for the Promotion of Science, at its session in Philadelphia, in Sept., 1848, and since published in this Journal. It ts situated in the Indian Reserve, in the County of Wentworth, about nine miles south of Brantford, and three miles south of the bank of the Grand River. The limestone rock of the region be- longs to that formation which is designated by the geologists of ‘ew York, as the Onondaga Salt Group. The country for some distance around is thickly wooded ; but in the immediate vicinity of the. spring is a small clearing, upon arising ground, on one — side of which is the spring, in an enclosure some eight or ten rods square. In the centre of this, is a hillock six or eight feet high, made up of the gnarled roots of a pine now partially decayed. The whole enclosure is covered with crumbling rotten wood, and resembles a tan-heap; upon digging down eighteen inches, the same material was found, apparently derived from the crumbling away of the trunk of the once huge pine, whose roots now oc- cupy the centre of the enclosure. The whole soil, if it may be thus designated, is saturated with acid water, and the mold at the top of the hillock, aswell as without the enclosure, is strongly acid. Near the confines of this region, but in soil still quite sour to the taste, several plants were observed growing. They were the sheep’s sorrel (Rumezx acetosella), the wild strawberry (F'ra- garia virginiana), two species of Rubus, the red raspberry (FR. strigosus) and R. canadensis, besides several mosses, and a fern. ‘he more acid parts were devoid of all vegetation. The principal spring is at the east side of the stump, and has around basin about eight feet in diameter and four to five feet p; the bottom is soft mud. At the time of my visit (Oct. 18th) it was filled to within a foot of the brim; and as the guide assured me, unusually full, much fuller indeed than it had been five days previous, although no rain had fallen in the interval. lhere is no visible outlet to the basin; at the centre a constant ebullition is going on from the evolution of small bubbles of gas, which is found on examination to be carburetted hydrogen. The water is slightly turbid and brownish-colored, apparently from the evolving gas more copiously than the other, and was somewhat More sulphurous to the taste, although not more acid. In other Seconp Series, Vol. VIII, No. 24.—Nov., 1849. 47 + 366 Mineral Waters of Canada. parts of the enclosure were three or four smaller cavities partly filled with a water more or less acid, and evolving a small quantity of gas. The temperature of the larger spring was 56° F., that of the smaller one 56° near the surface, but on burying the ther- monieter in the soft mud at the bottom it rose to 60°5°. A large glass jar was filled with water, and to three bottles into which a solution of arsenic had been previously introduced, were added thirty cubic inches of water; these were then carefully sealed and transported to the laboratory at Montreal. _ Examination of the Water.—The specific gravity was found to be 1:005583. A solution of nitrate of silver did not sensibly affect it, shewing the absence of chlorine, but salts of baryta produ- ced at once a copious precipitate insoluble in any acid, indicating that the acid present in the water was the sulphuric; the usual tests applied to the recent water shewed the iron to be in a state of proto-salt, a condition indeed necessarily connected with the presence of sulphuretted hydrogen. When concentrated by evap- The precipitate thus obtained after being thoroughly washed, was dissolved in hydrochloric acid, then boiled with ni- tric acid, filtered and precipitated by ammonia, with the previous addition of sal-ammoniac, and again filtered. The transparency of the filtrate thus obtained, was not disturbed by hydro-sulphu- ret of ammonia, indicating the absence of manganese and other metals of this class, including zinc, nickel and cobalt. The pre- cipitate was in part soluble in a solution of potash ; the soluble portion was alumina, and the residue peroxyd of iron with a lit- tle magnesia. The alumina obtained from the alkaline solution was found to contain traces of phosphoric acid; by dissolving 1t in hydrochloric acid, adding tartaric acid, ammonia in excess an sulphate of magnesia, a slight granular precipitate of ammomio- magnesian phosphate was obtained. The filtrate from the original precipitate by hydrosulphuret of ammonia, gave an abundant precipitate of lime, by oxalate of ammonia, and the filtrate from this precipitate yielded, when con- centrated and mixed with ammonia and a solution of phosphate of soda, a granular precipitate of phosphate of magnesia and am- monia. j _ Another portion of this filtrate was evaporated to dryness, and ignited to expel the ammoniacal salts ; the soluble salts in the res- idue were dissolved in water and mixed with a solution of ehlorid of barinm and excess of caustic baryta, and the mixture heated ; to the filtrate from the precipitate thus obtained, were added car- bonate of ammonia and excess of caustic ammonia, and the wh = he be Mineral Waters of Canada. 367 boiled and filtered ; the solution was then evaporated to dryness and ignited, when a residue of alkaline chlorids was obtained. The presence of soda was shewn by the peculiar color imparted to the flame of alcohol when it was burned over the salt, and with chlorid of platinum, a bright yellow precipitate of platino- chlorid of potassium was obtained. - In a water so novel in character, we might be led to expect some metal not usually present in mineral springs, and I have accordingly given the details of the qualitative analysis, to shew the measures taken to detect their presence. hanging i tin, lead and copper have all been recently detected in different = i ted hydrogen, which is found in the recent water of the present spring, is incompatible with their existence in solution, at least after the. small quantity of this gas which it contains, had been decomposed by exposure to the air. ~ 1000 parts of the water yielded— | Sulphuric acid, (SO, ) : pens 4-6350 Potash, . ; , : ; ‘ 0329 Soda, ; : : : : : ae: e of a pink color, sometimes gray or blackish, very tough and he ‘d. Hardness 7-7:25. Gravity 2668. It gelatinized complete cold chlorohydrie acid. Before ok Sg alone infuasibled The analysis gave on 1-594 gram Oxygen. Silica, -6710=perct. 42:09 = 21:869=4 Alumina and ; a trace of iron, : 6200“ 38:89 17-160 3 Lime, 2516 * 1578 4449) , on | Soda, 0651. “ 4-08 1-043 1:6077 100:84 . Sit RR? R°=R?Si+3RSi which is the formula for anorthite. VI. On rue Botroytre or Suerarp, AND THomson’s BisiicaTE or Maenesta. The Mineral named Boltonite by Prof. Shepardt is found at sch in Mass., in a lime quarry, disseminated in irregular seldom showing any traces of crystalline form. The dieription of Prof. S. is quoted below. The changes of color are peculiar, and often the same mass which is dark greenish gray on one end, will have turned light yellow on the other. Hardness 5-50; specific gravity 3-008— € same on two specimens, one dark and one light. * Dr. Martin H. Boyé of ihr ape ay ~ Sv bet informed me in en that he also made an analysis of this granular bite some time since, and with results to e here given. ~ate ra wes hi Soe. d's aes on Mineralogy, New Haven, 1835, vol. i, p. 78. re Prof. Shepard’s description is as follows—* Massive, ————- n granular: indi- large, ¢ rv one direction pretty distinct, in two others oblique to the fist indistinct, but affording indications of a a ip —. Ane Maire uneven or small conchoidal. Lustre vitreous. Color bl wish gray, wax ard low to yellowish white, The darker colors change to ow on exposure to weather 0-60, Gravity 28-29.” rr, 5 : § Mr. Siehtatn ot Berlin, Prussia, in a paper r read before the Am. Assoc. for the ee of ~— at Cambridge, attri > ~— ~ ost * agen “ te grains of magnetic ‘ound disseminated in the substance stals, which, arse change S by apoais leave the mineral of a lighter color than it 392 Prof. B. Silliman, Jr., on some American Minerals. This mineral when first found, was called Pyrallolite, and is now so labelled in some old collections. Baron Lederer’s Cabinet of American Minerals, now in the Yale College collections, con- tains eight or ten specimens of this mineral from Bolton, under the name Pyrallolite, which were received, as the catalogue indicates, from Robinson, Shepard, Nuttall, Boyd, and other of the early cul- tivators of American mineralogy. In his remarks on this mineral, Prof. Shepard says, it is believed to be identical with the substance described by Dr. Thomson* under the name of “bisilicate of magnesia ;”’ and accordingly the analysis of Dr. Thomson is quoted under “ Boltonite,” as giving __ the supposed chemical constitution of this substance. a é a, rw It will presently be shown that there is every probability that snsil Dr. Thomson applied the name bisilicate of magnesia to another substance. and that the Boltonite of Prof. Shepard is not the sub- stance which he analyzed. 2: Having received specimens of Boltonite from Mr. Saemann, a very intelligent and discriminating mineralogist from Berlin, I was induced to undertake an analysis of it which gave me the following results. The specimen analyzed was the yellow varie- ty. ‘5753 gramme of substance gave: » Oxygen. Silica, 46062 = 23938= 8; Alumina, 5667 2:64 1 Magnesia, 38:149 14:76 Protox. Iron, 8632 Ao >= IEG 6 Lime, 1516 ‘43 100-026 Formula 8Si 141 18Mg= R? (Si, Al) or (Mg, Ca, Fe)? (Si, Al) 8 atoms silica = 370°08 =pr. ct. 46°556 1 atomalumina = 51°47 se 6°372 18 atoms magnesia = 372-66 tf 47-072 794-91 100-000 If we consider the alumina as not an essential constituent of the mineral instead of replacing a part of the silica, (a vieWs which I am not disposed to take,) then we shall have a silicate of magnesia and the other bases, whose formula will be R° Sit. es Referring to Thomson’s analysis and description of his bisili- cate of magnesia, we read (loc. cit. p. 50) that the mineral receiv by him from Mr. Nuttall, (from Bolton, Mass.,) bears so mu * Am. Lye. Nat. Hist., New York, vol. iii, p. 50. Prof. B. Silliman, Jr., on ‘American Minerals. 393 7 resemblance to the picrosmine of Haidinger, both in character and composition, ‘‘that he strongly suspects the two things to be mere varieties.- The mineral is white, with a shade of green, powder white. Jt consists of a congeries of prismatic en very ir- regularly disposed, and involved in each other. Lustre glassy ; transparent on the edges.” The analysis gave: ee es Silica, lagnesia, : : ; , Alumina, ; ; ; sue Perox. iron, 101-69 This analysis must certainly refer to another mineral than Bol- tonite. The description certainly does not compare at all with that of Boltonite, which cannot be said to “consist of a series of pomete crystals,” with a glassy lustre and faint green color. Nor is it white. In searching among the minerals from Bolton, in the cabinet of Baron Lederer, for something corresponding with Thomson’s description, I found one from that locality marked “Picrosmine ?” “ Actynolite?”’ This mineral answers the de- Scription of Thomson, quoted above, as nearly as anything could, and is undoubtedly the same thing which he received from Mr. Nuttall, and examined with the above results. Nothing else oc- curs at the locality at all resembling the mineral which is deseri- db . Thomson. A qualitative analysis of this specimen gave silica, magnesia, alumina, peroxyd of iron, manganese, but no lime or water. These are the constituents of a hornblende, and this specimen is undoubtedly such—variety actinolite.* If the foregoing conclusions are correct, it would appear that Boltonite and “ bisilicate of magnesia” are not the same mineral as described by Prof. Shepard. The fiuls for Salinas is that of a salt not before described, while that deducible from Thomson’s analysis, corresponds as accurately as we could expect with common hornblende. Iam happy therefore to be able to reéstablish Boltonite as a Species on good grounds. * T am altogether at a loss to understand what Dr. Thomson intends, when he says in hi madeving ved rqaeitod, that the analysis here given corresponds to the consti- tution of a “ Bisilicate of magnesia.” For 2 atoms Si = 9252 = perct. 8172 1 atom Mg = 2070 18-2 — * 11322 This result is entirely different from his analysis. 394 Lieut. Davis on the Prime Meridian. VIL. On Norrauite. Nuttallite was established as a species by Mr. Brooke,* on gen- eral physical grounds, principally of hardness and color, and a slight departure from the usual angles of scapolite. It was ana- lyzed by Thomson,t who found for it a constitution so different from scapolite, that it has been regarded as a distinct species by many mineralogists, and is so placed by Nicol in his Manual just published. I was induced to make a new analysis to decide the doubt regarding its trué constitution. The mineral is partially de- composed by strong chlorohydric acid with heat, but it is not thus __ possible to obtain a complete analysis. The mineral is found at Y al Bolton, Mass., in a white cleavable limestone with black augite. Having a good specimen, I requested Mr: Ludwig Stadtmuller, one of our pupils, to undertake the analysis. The following are e results confirmed by several trials. The alkaline constituents being determined by fusion with carbonate of baryta. ee hee ae Alumina, . ; : : - ; 30:107 Perox. iron, ; ; : ; 1-861 ime, ; 17-406 Potash, 3-486 oda, ; Manganese, , Fanon ter 1-630 100-281 It is obvious from simple inspection, that this analysis corres- ponds exactly with scapolite, and we have no hesitation in refer- ring nuttallite to scapolite. nalytical Laboratory, Yale College, September 15, 1849, Arr. XXX.—On the Prime Meridian ; by Lieut. Davis, U.S.N. [Read before the American Association for the Promotion of Science, Aug. 15, 1849.] being about to publish an American Nautical Almanac, we § continent. I will endeavor to treat this question fully, and to present all the practical and scientific views in relation to it of which L am possessed. pe ae a * Ann. of Philos., xli, p. 366. +N. York Lyceum Nat. Hist., vol. iii, p. 82. 395 But it also was fully aware how little probable such an event was then, and there are obstacles in the way of its occurrence now, which render it distant and doubtful. It is not to be denied that our own situation is, in some respects, unfavorable for origin- ating successfully such a project. If, nevertheless, you should ree with me, in thinking that the opinions which have been entertained for a long time by scientific and practical men here and elsewhere, should be again consulted, I shall be most happy, under your instructions, to communicate on this subject with Eu- topean astronomers. n the mean time we are called to decide upon a meridian for present use. This decision is the basis in my work. Hitherto we have used the English meridian of Greenwich; all our geo- graphical positions and territorial limits are fixed according to it, Our astronomical calculations are upon it, our nauti charts and books of navigation are adapted to it, and our chro- nometers are set to its time. It has been so much our general practice to count from this meridian that it constitutes a part of our familiar thought and knowledge. _ On this account, and especially with reference to the conven- lence of our wide spread and growing commerce, a change of the old meridian, if necessary, should be reconciled, as far as practica- ble, to the wants and habits of the country. The scientific importance of assuming, at present, an American Meridian is undoubted. So long as we depend upon that from ich we are separated by an ocean, our absolute longitudes re- main indeterminate. Such are the difficulties attending the as- tronomical determination of this element, that the greatest accu- Tacy attainable is only an approximation to the truth; varying, as Observations or computations are sg am or as new and better uced. * Report of the committee on Lambert's memorial, Jan 25, 1810. » 396 Lieut. Davis on the Prime Meridian. this purpose by the late Dr. Bowditch, and communicated to the American Academy, bear the marks of his genius and labor. The means of determination have since been greatly multiplied —solar eclipses, occultations, and moon culminations, have been collected in great numbers. The transportation of numerous chronometers between England and Boston has afforded the ma- terials of further improvement. Commodore (now Admiral. Owen, whilst engaged in the survey of the Bay of Fundy, car- ried his chronometers to Boston, adopting that as his American rst meridian, because it was the best determined. Mr. Bond, the Director of the Observatory at Cambridge, has been for sev- a . j _ eral years, employed in the service of the government, In accu- mulating all the means of perfecting the longitude of Boston. Yet I am informed, that there still exists an uncertainty in this longitude, notwithstanding all the labor and care bestowed upon it, to the amount of, perhaps, two seconds of time. It is, also, a pregnant fact, worth mentioning, that the relative longitudes, even of the Greenwich and Paris observatories, have been recently chang But the uncertainties arising from the intrinsic difficulty of making absolute determinations of longitude increase as the place is more remote, and therefore less known or cared for. he as- a means of determining differences of meridians, which belongs to the highest order of accuracy. It can be applied at once wherever the wires now run. An American prime meridian be- ing adopted, this should be done as soon as possible. of the telegraph is extended, the interior, throughout its whole space, would be connected in this manner with the stations of the coast survey and the national observatory, and would have the geographical positions of its chief cities and county towns permanently and unalterably fixed, and thus the foundation would be laid of a correct geographical map of the whole country. In making a change, however, that is so radical with regard to this change. Speaking a common language with the greate’ commercial nation of the world, our own vessels are constantly meeting those of Great Britain on the highway of nations, and are in the habit of comparing with them their longitudes. this facility and frequency of intercourse they receive an EO re. Seater eae ae Saas great benefit, upon which sometimes the safety of a vessel at sea may depend. They are also accustomed to employ Briti aploy British charts secure the arts of Ww communication with British ships, ports, and ro ae or these and similar reasons, it will be better if our own me- ridian is so situated as to admit of an easy interchange with that of Great Britain, particularly at sea, where intercourse is al vay necessarily brief, and frequently, owing to circumstances of weat er, distance, or haste, very difficult. his f the meridian of Washington, which, as the capital of the country, it will first occur to us to select, be adopted, it will prove unsuited to these emergencies. The longitude of Washington is in time about 5h. 8m. and 16s., or in space 77° 04 from Green- wich. These are inconvenient sums to add or subtract; their application is not ready and easy. ‘This meridian will also cause that kind of difference in the division of our charts, the face of our chronometers, the reading of our text-books of navigation, &e., which would seriously interfere with the habits of our pres- ent, and the wants of our future nautical men. ‘These as I have said, are considerations worthy of great regard. The life of commerce subsists by the mutual interchange of relations, not material only, but also personal and intellectual. hese relations are, in our case, much more numerous and com- plex with Great Britain than with any other nation, on account of her large fleets, her distant colonies, and our community o speech. We may omit to provide for the wants and habits grow- ing out of them, but we cannot alter, indeed as a great commer- cial people we do not desire to alter, the fact of their existence. To avoid in some measure the difficulties and inconveniences already stated, and to satisfy as far as possible, the demands of nat the and nin i the meridian of Greenwich. hese thety degrees in space from the pur: tDhet on the readings of 398 Lieut. Davis on the Prime Meridian. be found having this suitable difference of meridian of six hours, or one quarter of the circumference, from our present standard meridian of Greenwich. This choice has other recommendations, which give it the preference over Washington. The meridian of the latter cuts the coast between Cape Fear and Cape Lookout. Our coasting vessels, and domestic packets, therefore, in going and returning between our northern and southern ports would be subject, if it were taken, to the inconvenience of achange of name in the lon- itude, which, as is well known to navigators, always involves a ility to error. The meridian of New Orleans on the other hand, is so far west, that all the longitudes on the Atlantic coast remain on the same side. It is only on the coast of Louisiana, west of New Orleans and of Texas, that they change. This change takes place where the river Mississippi empties its turbid waters into the Gulf, where nature has marked the line by an altered condition of the water, such as may be observed by the careful seaman at some distance from the land. Another practical recommendation of this choice is this: If - New Orleans be adopted, then between the American and Eng- lish meridians, the degrees and minutes on the chart will be the complements of each other. T'o the westward of the American meridian, up to 180°, the minutes will be the same, the degrees being less by 90°. To the eastward of the English meridian there is the same advantage ; the number of degrees on our part being greater by ninety, up to 180° of the English longitude. Between the inferior meridians of the two nations for the space of 90°, the sum of the American and English longitudes will be equal to 270°, but they will be of different names. These normal differences are easily remembered, and compare favorably with the confusion that will follow, if the modes of reckoning longitudes by the two nations differed by so unmanage- able a quantity as 77° 04’.. The time is not distant when we shall have published, under the authority of the government, pet- fect charts of our harbors and external sea-coast. I trust also that the day is not far distant when foreign-charts (improved by sur- veys made by our own officers) will be issued from the bureau of Hydrography of the Navy Department, for the benefit of the commercial marine of our own and other nations. These charts should be rendered as serviceable and available as possible to the whole maritiine world; and this end will be attained in the man- ner pointed out above. What is for our own advantage will prove beneficial to others. It may be proper to observe here, that althongh I speak only of the meridian of New Orleans as arbitrary, yet all prime meridians are essentially arbitrary. They have been selected always with a sole reference to the national convenience. Some nations, as Lieut. Davis on the Prim bs, 399 the French, Portuguese, and Dutch, have pla ridians out of their own country; but I es a some for ourselves. By a royal ordinance of Louis X [I, the island the origin of longitudes, and that there was a prevailing igno- rance as to the topography and shape of the island. ‘The deter- minations by different persons of course varied, and this caused those uncertainties and fluctuations in the French longitudes which led to the final abandonment of the assumed meridian. We may profit by this example. fea Having decided to take for our prime meridian that great circle of the earth which is ninety degrees or six hours from Green- Wich, we are to keep it wherever it may fall. By means of the and permanent. If it should be found necessary to make any change hereafter, that change will be applied to the imaginary meridian, and not to the meridional differences of other places from Washington, which are to remain always the same. The Washington Observatory is thus made the virtual standard according to which all values are assigned, and to which all me- ridional differences are referred; and from which, also, all abso- lute longitudes are computed. Its own distance from the six hour circle being once ascertained by magnetic communication, it will be, in effect, for this country, the true origin of longitude. a It will not be practically indispensable to distinguish by any Visible, real mark, the meridian of New Orleans, so far as the National Observatory is concerned ; for the latter, its distance in time from the arbitrary meridian being once assumed, becomes the effectual, established zero; but this mark will be useful for reference in the adjacent country, saving labor and time in fixing longitudes in its vicinity, and its foundation appears to be onl Y proper as a national monument. ‘The cost of such a mar will be but trifling. ce aga Thus the new meridian will be, what its name implies, strictly arbitrary. It may be thought that there are reasons of a scien- _* See Ency rt is. and Britannica, art. Geog.—Good’s Pantologia, and Lon- don Encyc., ot. Sats Goatees Hist. of Astronomy, Mackay on Long,, cc. A400 Lieut. Davis on the Prime Meridian. tific character why the National Observatory at Washington should be selected as the nominal origin of longitude, on this continent. Such is not the case. Our National Observatory at Washington must have existed half a century before it will be able to furnish independent observations sufficient for the determination of acor- ‘calculated from the observations (begun long since and nninterzuy edly continued) at the old established observatories of ye. In preparing new tables, I shall avail myself of the Was Bragton observations to the utmost extent of their utility. _T propose, also, to give, in the Astronomical Ephemeris, the times of transit, and the corresponding places of the planets, and principal fixed stars, over the meridian of Washington. Hitherto I have treated this question without an express refer- ence to merely national views and feelings. So far as the sub- ject is merely scientific, they do ne enter; so far as it is practical, they are of paramount importan But Tam very far from Seine. po into a forgetfulness of national sentiments, by the silly pretense that there are or can be duties to science or to humanity, which are at variance with those ” country ; a notion, wherever it is held, that implies not only a ant of patriotism, but of true humanity also. ‘‘ Science knows no saemaanactions of country”—in its claims to support and in its eX- emption from hostilities—in its spirit and in its communions—in its highest aim, which is to stndy the laws of nature, and endeavor to make the knowledge of those laws useful to mankind. But science, like all objects of human interest and pursuit, 18 compelled to recognize the distinctions of country in the duties it imposes, in the means of its progress, and in some measure 10 lies and nations, at the same time that they preserve our relation to the whole race Being designed to act within a limited sphere of usefulness, we are happily supplied with a motive to every duty in a correspond ing affection, which, if rightly elevated and directed, renders the performance ‘of that ‘duty easy and agreeable. Feeling assured that it is by laboring i in the sphere assigned us that we are most likely to accomplish something that may be beneficial to mankind, and that by making ourselves good citi- zens of that state to which our efforts are unavoidably confined, we may best hope to prove ourselves useful citizens of the great republic of letters and science constituted by the union of all cultivated people, [ indulge a sentiment of American pride gratification, that another step has been taken by the government e pro cca of science, by the foundation of an Ameri- can Nautical Alm et . . , : } Contributions to the Mycolog orth America. A401 Nore —The preceding paper is the suh dressed to the Hon. Wm. Ballard Preston, Sec by Lieut. Davis, upon the latter being called. the preparation of the Nautical Almanac provided for of Congress, approved Mare 9. me! Lieut. Davis stated that he had been officially dir rected iby, Mr. Preston to lay this paper before the Association with the req re that it should be submitted, for a report thereon, to a com of members of the association, consisting of athena astronomers from various parts of the country. On Prof. A. D. Bache, the paper was thus referred, and the “follow a gentlemen were nominated by the President and confirmed bj the Association as the committee. Prof. A. D. Bacne, Supt. U. S.; Wm. Mircue xt, of Nantucket. Coast Survey. Pp rof. Loverine, of University at Liew. M. - Maury, Supt. Nat. | “Carbrid ge. Pr Observatory. Prof. Suytx, Bowdoin College. Prof. Baines: of Alaba Prof. Trintocke, of pent ucky. Prof. Lewis Gisees, of S. Paribas Pout Cocx.ey, St. James, Md. Prof. Courrnay, of University of Ss of. Curvey, of euokphides Coll. Virginia. Prof. Fow er, of Tennessee. Prof. S. ALexanper, of Princeton. Prof Puituies, of N. Carolina. Prof. Frazer, of University of Pa. Prof. BaRTLerr, of ihe Point. Prof. Anerson, of New York. Prof Snetu, of Amhe . M. Mircuet, of Cincinnati. | Prof. CasweELt, of Provi dence. Prof. Sranzey, of Yale College. Lieut. C. H. Davis, Supt. Naut. Alm. Art. XX X1.—Contributions to the Mycology of North America ; by the Rev. M. J. Berxevey, of England, and the Rev. M. A. Curtis, of South Carolina. Mr. Berxerey having generously proposed that the new species of oF ungi which I communicate to him shall be published under our joint names, though the greater part of them would justly have fallen to his own share, they will henceforth be published accordingly. 'They will be first described in the London Journal of Botany by Mr. Berkeley, and transferred from thence to this urnal, with such alterations, additions or omissions, as later ob- servation may demand, and as me best subserve the purpose of these contributions.—M. A. C 81. Agaricus (Amanita) ace.utinatus, Berk. and Curt.—pileo ex hemispherico plano viscido e volva areolato, margine eg Stipite curto solido ; lamellis latis liberis rotundatis. Ad t = _ arenosis. ’ Aug. Society Hill, e, pileus 1-2 in. broad, scaly from the remains of the volva, margin thin. Stem 41d i in. high, 2 lines thick, enlarged 402 Contributions to the Mycology of North America. at the apex, bulbous at base, furnished with a volva whose mar- gin is free. Ring wanting. Gills broad, ventricose, rounded and free behind. Spores white, elliptic. —Resem ing small forms of A. vaginatus, but distinguished by its solid stipe, more distant and thicker gills, and decidedly viscid areolato-squamose pileus. 32. A. BER ts, Berk.!—In sylvis paludosis, Society Hill. This id species was previously known only as an inhabit- ant of f Ceylon 3: FA. FoLiatnosus, F'ries.—In umbrosis. June. Society Hill. ‘ 4. A. vetierevs, F'r.—lIn sylvis aridis. June, July. Society Item, Santee Canal. Mr. Ravenel 35. A. ancustissimus, Lasch.—Ad terram. Aug. Santee Canal. Ravenel. A. scaLpruratus, F'r.—Ad truncos pineos. Aug. Society a Item, Santee Canal. Ravenel. A. © hig ee Pers.—Ad conos pineos dejectos in humidis. Wilsiagiot 38. A. cans Bull.—Inter muscos ad terram argillaceam. Sept. Hillsborough, N. C 39. A. crrruarus, Pers.—Ad terram subter asses. Aug. So- ciety Hill. 40. A. campanviatus, Linn.—May. Society Hill. Item, San- tee Canal, ad fimum vaccinum. June. Raven Al. A. muratis, Sow.—In sylvis humidis. May. Society Hill. 42. A. scypHorpes, F'r.—Ad terram in hortis. June; July. So- ciety Hill. 43. A. pyxipatus, Bull.—Ad terram in Cae June. San- tee eg! Ravenel. Item, Hillsborough, N. C A. prumatis, Fy.—Ad truncos putridos. Sept. Santee Ghat Ravenel. 45. A. umpeciirervs, Linn.—In sylvis humidis; Rhode Island. Mr. Olney. 46. A. arroce:rutevs, F'r.—Ad Caryam dejectam. June, July. Society Hill. 47, A. Pomert, Fr.—Ad truncos dejectos. July. Hillsborough. N. Car. Hasa pleasant anisate odor when fresh. 48, A. septicus, Fr.—Ad Polyporum corruptum. July. Hills- borough. 49. A. (Puurevs) Curtist, Berk. ! —pileo erugi viscido hepa- tico ; stipite quali solido glabro albo ; lamellis liberis ex albo innamomeo-roseis. Ad lignum corruptum in paludosis. March- Oct. Society Hill. Contributions to the Mycology of North America. 408 Cap 2-3 in. broad, shining, from ee livid or liver | colored, smooth, margin thin. Flesh white, 2-3 lines thick in ) the centre. Lamelle white (becoming discolored by the pale | cinnamon ‘colored spores), unequal, numerous bu ventricose, 3 lines wide, free and rounded at ba , leaving a deep ; Impression around the stipe. Stipe rather brittle, 2-3 in. long, about 3 lines thick, smooth and shining, somewhat thic > base. Spores oval. Taste and smell disagreeable, but weak. 50. A. stnvatus, Fr.—Rhode Island. Olney. . 1. A. campHoratvs, F'r.—Ad terram in umbrosis. June, July. Society Hill. Item, Santee Canal. Mr. Ravenel. ~*~ 52. A. sancuinevs, Wulf.—In sylvis humidis inter folia. July— — Sept. Society Hill. 53. A. peneTrans, Fr.—Ad truncos dejectos corrumpentes. June. Society Hill. Item, Santee Canal. Ravenel. 54. A. panueinosus, Bull.—Ad humum lignosam in sylvis hu- midis. May. Society Hill. 55. A. semiorsicutaris, Bull.—Ad terram fimosam. Aestate. Society Hill and Hillsborough. 56. A. vervacti, Fr.—Rhode Island. Mr. Olney. 7. A. rapaceus, Berk. !—Ad terram pinguem. July—Nov. Santee Canal; Mr. Ravenel; and Society Hill. First discovered in Ohio by Mr. Lea. This is among the most delicious species for the table. The fresh specimen has a distinct taste and odor of peach kernels or bitter almonds, which are nearly lost in being cooked. 88. A. (Psalliota) Acuimenes, Berk. and Curt. ;—pileo plano glabro nitido verrucis exasperato ; stipite floccoso-fareto ; lamellis liberis ex albido cinereis.—Ad terram. June. Santee Canal. Mr. Ravenel. Item, Society Hill. Solitary. Cap 4-6 in. broad, pallid or ochroleucous, smooth like kid leather, but studded with warty excrescences especially towards the centre. Stipe 4-6 in. high, 3-4 lines thick, white, Stuffed with floccose fibres, furnished towards the apex with a large deflexed ring. Gills broad, crowded at first, whitish, then cinereous and fuscous, free. Spores brownish, oval or ovate. —A splendid species allied to the preceding, but differing im its paler Spores, warty cap, ample ring, &c. waGQ,.A. LACRYMABUNDUS, Bull.—Ad latera fossarum. Sept. San- tee Canal. Mr. Ravenel. 60. A. veLuTinus, Pers.—Ad terram humidam, &c. Apr., Sept. Santee Canal. Mr. Ravenel. 404 Scientific Intelligence. ae 7 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. - i I. CuEMIstTRY AND Puysics. a ie of the Magnetic Needle by the act of Volition, coh rom Phil. sad * xxxiv, 543.)—This curious and interesting experi Berli n, and his sited of performing it is as follows:—He takes a __-very sensilive galvanometer, and attaches to the terminal wires thereof two perfectly homogeneous strips of platina. These strips are dipped deflection not bein nable to any known law, and being in the opin- faired finger behaves like ese ate. of an arc of zinc per copper, the zero point of its scale, or at least until it has assumed a cometaih deflection sliviountte’ to the residue of a current which it is beyond us to elimin soon as this state is attained, the whole of the m articulations of the limb, pretty much as in a gymnastic school is usu- ally done when it is desired to exhibit the development of one’s muscles. As soon as this is done ge needle is thrown into movement, its de- flection being uniformly in such a sense as to indicate in the bra arm ‘an inverse current,” “ateling to Nobili’s nomenclature ; that is to say, a current passing from the hand to the shoulder. The braced arm then acts the part of the copper in the compound are of zinc and copper , Hi paras above. With his own ipusnoments and when M. Dubois Reymond himself performs 5 experiment, the deflection amounts to 30°. He obtains owever movements in the needle of far greater extent by contracting alternately the muscles, first of one arm and then of the other, in time with the oscillations of vs needle. On bracing simultaneously the muscles of both ar Anse i emeasecy deviations are observable, some- limes in one dire etimes in another; and these minute deflec- tions are eran ‘urtbutalle to the difference between the contractile force of the two limbs. Hence it arises that when the experiment is ent is due to the investigations of M. Du Bois Reymond of 405 cult to restrain the act of slackening or letting do one of the two arms. apot of the development and the exercise of the muscles. it ls readily ascertained that in these instances there is a want 0 cient muscular tension. ' There is one remark, to conclude, which the author has been fre- quently led to make, namely, that the habitual superiority of the right hand over the left in this experiment is to be interpreted by the pre- ponderance of the amount of deflection produced by the tension of the rightarm. This peculiarity was likewise observed when the experi- ment was performed by M. von Humboldt. The impulsion impressed on the needle by the contraction of the muscles of his right arm was appreciably more considerable than that produced by his left arm. his own part, M. von Humboldt has addressed to M. Arago a ? . affecting a magnetic needle by the alternate tension of the muscles of tion or doubt. Notwithstanding my advanced years little Stre; that I have in my arms, the deflections of the needle were very considerable; but they were naturally more so whe eri- the exp nt was performed by M. J. Miller or by M. Helmkoltz, who are the 17th of May, excluding however, all those secondary causes which excepting that one, the action of which were made of platinum or copper gilt (Zraité de [’ Electricité et du Magnétisme t. v. 2® partie, page 10) :— ‘ “The oamochélnica! effects produced on the contact of acid solu- tions with the liquids which moisten the fingers, must be taken into ac- count. In these various reactions the acids acquire positive electri- Stconp Serres, Vol. VIII, No. 24—Nov., 1849 52 406 Scientific Intelligence. city, which is transmitted | to the plate, and the liquids which moisten the fingers negative electricity. With the alkalies the effects are inve It follows from the, that if one of the plates is covered externally the the pl s, after feces been ee moistened with water ; in this e water acquires positive ie Ares and the contrary. elec- we flows into the body of the experimenter. If we add to these ts eet which take place when foreign bodies are adherent to the a must conceive that a large number of complex electric — Rroutd i produced in plunging two fingers, as is done by M. ois ymond, into two capsules filled with water in which are cameded » two plates of platinum in communication with a multiplier. This is not all: when, i in virtue of these various causes, a current bas circulated of the contracted hand bec om me more or less mersed in water, coe inverse current may be less or superior to the ciehee current. I gua ed not only against the effects of the inverse current, but also against the effects resulting from the greater or less immersion of the fingers, smearing with fat those parts of the aneere: — might temporarily come into contact with the liquid. By proceeding in this manner, found it impossible to observe the effects sdeacthne by M. Du Bois Reymond 3. Note relative to the Electricity developed by Muscular Contrac- tion ; by M. C. Desprerz, (lbid.)—The note which | have the honor of communicating, is a simple enumeration of the e supetiaiinial which I made with the view of vepreduging the phenomena announced by M. Du Bois Reymond of Berlin.* I shall not dings these Paes my only object being to reproduce them . The ee which I used was made ‘a M. Sune skill is well know The Aces of the wire was ;,th of a mile A copper wire ths of a mittee in diameter, when im mersed to a depth of two centimetres, afforded a deflection of 3° in distilled water, 25° i in the water of the river Seine, and 68° in a solution of chlo- metre, afforded Sond the same circumstances A tt of: LES 24° and 85°. The gold, which was perfectly pure, had been recently pre- * Comptes Rendus, May 21; and Phil. Mag., vol. xxiv, p, 453. A07 | Chemistry and Physi | pared at the Mint of Paris, in the laboratory of M. Pelouze and M. Peligot. The needle, when set free, took about half a minute in mov- | ing from 50° to zero. es: | _ I was not at first acquainted with M. Reymond’s meth . Ss = ® ~ 3 2 5 Qo. Bs & S a = a ® 5 & 2 5 ® ® = ® = [wy S = 5 is] is ~~ ° 4 bl i= 3 ger more, or less, is sufficient to change the position of the needle sev- eral degrees. In these experiments the needle was deflected 50°, 75° and even 90°. When one of the conductors was squeezed powerfully, the needle Cause, on the one hand, we were unacquainted with M. Reymond’s method of proceeding; and on the other, we thought that silver, and especially gold and platinum, when simply held in the hand without any | ion, would only afford a very weak current. but experience unfortunately proves that gold and platinum are under these circum- yet used, was sensible or not to changes of temperature. For this pur- pose, I heated one of the places at which it was soldered to the melting- Point of wax, the communication being established by the hands be- tween the two plates; I also augmented the temperature of one of the two solutions of common salt, by immersing in it glass tubes filled with iling water, the communication being always kept up by the hands ; 408 Scientific Intelligence. in neither case did I observe the slightest deflection, which might be anticipated from the known properties of thermo-electric phenomena ; stance. To avoid the effect of a more or less deep immersion of the metallic plates, in consequence of the introduction of the fingers, I partly covered these plates with black wax, so that the uncovered sur- face was always in contact with the solution. s the fingers, | attempted to immerse them to the same ex- tent in all the experiments, having found that in plunging successively one, two or three, or more fingers, or a single finger to a greater or s depth, the intensity of the deflections varied. This result indeed had been anticipated. [ had even had some long kinds of copper thim- _ bles gilt, so as to regulate the immersion better. But I abandoned this by M. Du Bois Reymond. o In experiments made according to M. Du Bois Reymond’s process, the alternate contraction of each arm has sometimes afforded deflec- tions in the same, sometimes in the opposite direction. In other experiments, each arm was successively contracted out of on each contraction the vessels were connected by means of the fingers. In others, large capsules were used, so as to le, sometimes contrary to the assertion of M. Reymon sity of multiplying the experiments is very distinctly shown in this case. h ; ; conductors ; they lose part of their efficacy by repeated immersions. _i was desirous of reducing the experiment to a greater amount simplicity. I replaced the galvanometer by a frog which was properly prepare ts s of the animal. Nevertheless with a very fine copper wire and @ plate of zinc, without the use of any liquid, very marked contractions were produced both before and after the experiment. also endeavored in vain to deflect a very delicate astatic magnetic needle, by the union of the two hands, whilst one hand was strongly contracted. Finally, I attached a cylindrical gilt conductor to the back of each hand by silk cord: the contraction of one or the other arm did not perceptibly change the deflection of the needle, which amounted 10° from the simple contact. The effects of the contact were 1D- creased in a marked degree by moistening the back of the hand witha few. drops of salt water; but the contraction of one or the other arm did not produce deflections alternately in one or the other directions. hese three experiments appear to me to be under more favorable conditions than those of M. Reymond. The results aa amael moved from the intervention of the immersion of metallic lamine 19 | Chemistry and Physics 409 saline solutions, which is always somewha re. Unfortunately In conclusion, if we are only to admit as true that which is clearly that if the contraction of one arm gives rise to an e ; current is not appreciable to our present means, at lee we have employed WwW be exposed to numerous errors in researches upon the currents of ani- , the +. 410 wentific Intelligence. a very delicate astatic needle was suspended. I did not observe any distinctly appreciable effect at the moment at which [ united or separa- ted the extremities of the chain. Had an effect been obtained, the ob- jection from vase action of the heterogeneous moist parts would suill remain. It does not. appear to me that the existence of electric currents in frogs and plants i is a perfectly proved fact. 1 speak openly, submitting my doubts to those philosophers who have made most a an in some cases ve ery ingenious —— upon this subjec 4. On the Polarization of Heat.—The polarization of ea first an- Ponce, by Bérard, has been sstiblished by various experiments by orbes and Melloni. Provostaye and Desains have lately announced to the Acade “sin of Sciences at Paris, (Session of July 30,) new inves- tigations showing— That eas traversing Iceland spar is divided into two pencils, completely polarized in the plane of the principal section or a perpen- dicular plan (2. ). That the law ascertained by Malus, —— to which, the in- tensity of a ray completely polarized is divided between the ordinary and extraordinary images to which it gives nian in traversing the spar, is applicable to heat as well as light. That the variations of intensity which polarized heat experiences in its reflexion from glass at different incidences, are exactly repre- sented by Fresnel’s formulas determined ‘for light, only allowing that the solar heat traversing the prism has a little different index— (4.) That there is a most perfect correspondence between the phe- nomena presented in the reflection from polished metals of polarized coe and polarized light. 5. Composition of Bones, (Acad. Sci. Berlin, Feb., 1849. )—M. w. Herz, finds for the phosphate of lime in bones, ‘the composition R® P, instead of the perahevea) formula Ca® PB? of Berzelius. He obtained in his analyses Bones of the ox, Sheep. Human bones. Bn ce ns a 40-00 37:89 3751 Magnesia, . . . 30-97 0-74 0:57 0:56 Phosphoric acid, . . 27:89 29°64 28:27 28:00 Earbantc acid, 3-08 2:30 281 Water, fluorine and : : . -12 organic matter, ase — veins” 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 Supposing the acids and bases united, adopting the formula given— Carbonate of lime, he: | 7:00 636 6:39 — Phosphate of magnesia, 2-09 1-59 1:23 (121 ms lime, . 58:30 62:70 60°13 59°67 Lime, . : ; Bedi o , DAT 1:81 162 Water, fluorine, organic | an; ‘ : a ee substances, : } 30:58 26°54 30:47. 31 A ou Cos 100-00 100-00 100-00 100:00 411 ) not combined with istence of fluorine He thus finds some lime (1:62 to 2:17 per cen the acids detected. This is accounted for by He in bones, with which this lime is probably united. analyses of Berzelius, the bone of a human thigh co of fluorid of calcium, and a bone of an ox 4:25 per c portions which resisted the action of heat. Marchand 6. On the Specific heat of Potassium, with remarks on the equiva- lents of Silica and the Alkalies; by V. Recnautr, (Ann. Chem. Phys. [3], xxvi, 261.)—The author considers the bearing of the law brought out by Dulong and Petit—that the specific heats are in an inverse ratio not yet been sufficiently investigated. As to silver, the law alluded to gives an equivalent half of that usually adopted, and would make the oxyd Ag? O, instead of Ag O, and the sulphuret Ag? S, instead of Ag S. The isomorphism of Cu? 8 with the sulphuret of silver, the analogy of chlorid of copper and chlorid of silver, besides other reasons, are urged as favoring a change in the equivalent. Carbon exists in three conditions, each with distinct specific heats ; and it is important to ascertain which of these is its condition in its Combinations. It is natural to assume that to be the modification in which carbon is most disaggregated. But the capacity for heat of carbon, as found by Regnault, from the decomposition of organic substances, cor- Tesponds to the equivalent 150, instead of 75 the number usually pted. As an important proof on this point, the author mentions that among a great number of organic compounds whose composition is well determined, the number of the equivalents of carbon is an even number. There are two exceptions to this, viz. in the oxyd of carbon (CO), and carbonic acid (CO?).. But there is no special reason for Writing CO rather than C2 02; and chemists write the formula of car- ic acid CO, because they regard as neutral salts, those of most mon occurrence,—the carbonates of lime, of baryta, &c., and as bicarbonates, the alkaline carbonates which contain double the quantity carbonic acid. The anomaly disappears if we adopt the above view and regard the latter as neutral carbonates (as some chemists have ac- tually done), in which case the others are basic carbonates. The same law as regards the inverse relation of specific heat and _&tomic weight holds also for compounds, Regnault suggests farther that the alkaline oxyds should have the form R2 O, and the equivalent halved. Soda and oxyd of silver, or sulphate of soda and sulphate of oxyd of silver, have been known to be isomorphous ; and this change * eshte the composition analogous. With reference to this point, 412 Sigihific-Inteliigenct: the author experimented on the specific heat of potassium, and he found it to be 5-40 in his best trial, a result which sustains his conclusion. He hence infers that the equivalent of —— should be halved, and that the formula of the alkaline oxyds i : 7. On Chlo ee Acid; by M. E. Sa aint Evre, (Ann. de Chim. et de Phys., April, 1849.)— —This -acid is obtained by the action of chlo- rine upon benzoic acid in the presence of an excess of aikali. Two hundred parts hydrate potash and 60 benzoic acid are dissolved in 300 water—chlorine is passed until the liquid changes yellow and finally green, with a pulpy deposit. By saturating the excess of potas and boiling, this iendaied is dissolved and an oily liquid appears, which floats or sinks, accordin ng to the density of the solution, and on cooling, __ concretes and becomes hard and brittle. Repeated oe first from water and finally from alcohol afford the pure cid. Chloroniceic acid forms microscopic crystals, which are four-sided prisms; it is volatile without decomposition, the odor is penetrating and resembles that. of most chlorinated compounds, being quite different from that of benzoic acid. Distillation with lime or baryta produces a liquid and a solid hydro-carbon; other powerful reagents seem to have no effect. The formula of the author is C,,H,ClO,. Salts of baryta, silver, -, were formed. [The fortis above given is that of i chlorinated species of white hydro-quinone, (Pyroquinol, Ger.) C H, O,, one equiv. of hydrogen being replaced by one of chlorine. ‘That this is the true relasiog the so-called chloro- niceic acid, is not surprising, when we remem colorless and might well rete been ocak But we have more pag 2 evidence of the cor rrectness s of our ‘aie he does not seem to have formed ; his process, however, was a totally different one. As it is, the description of the others will answer almost word for word for this, which should be called mono- chloro-hydro-quinone, a name somewhat longer than that given by discoverer, but which has the advantage of expressing at once the re- lation to twelve different allied bodies. G. C. Sc one — 8. On the Chlorinated Products of the Decomposition of Qu by Dr. G. Srazpeter, (Liebig’s Ann., March, 1849.)—It is a known to chemists that by distilling quinic acid with wie acid and per oxyd of manganese, a substance called quinone, C,, Hy Og, is formed; which is very singular in its properties and reactions. Unde r the influ- ence of an excess of reducing agents, e. g., sulphurous acid—two equi¥- eS een ee ee ee a a Chenustry and A413 of hydrogen are taken up, forming hydro-quinone C,,H, O By the union of the two substances, the first yellow, the second colorless, an intermediate body, green hydro-quinone (C,» Hz O,) is found ; this substance has been represented as the most beautiful known to chem- ists, excelling murexide in its rich metallic golden green cry ; they are formed of great size even in a small quantity of so Dr. Staedeler has formed chlorinized species both of uinone and o} hydro-quinone, in all cases the former being yellow and the latter color- ] . . . . 1 te e- replaced by Cl; four equiv. replaced in the well known chloranile. — the hydro-quinones, one equiv. is replaced in the chloro-nicei¢ _ acid [see above], the others were formed by the action of sulphurous acid on the corresponding quinone ; the most remarkable is that formed from chloranile, as by means of it the true relation of that substance to quinone is demonstrated. Some other compounds are described by the author, although of no particular interest. Wohler has also recently reviewed his investiga- tion of the sulphur compounds of the series. He finds that in some instances there is direct union with S H. Rae 3 9. Volatilization of Carbon; by C. Desprerz, (Compt. Rend., 1849, 48.)—M. Despretz has commenced a series of experiments on the fu- sion and volatilization of various refractory substances. As one of his first results, he announces the fusion and volatilization of carbon. He Which iodine presents when a fragment is cast ona heated body. The glass was lustrous with the crystalline sublimate. This result failed with less than 496 elements. Experiment has farther shown that carbon is best fused into globules in nitrogen under a pressure above the ordinary atmospheric pressure. lass vessels break too easily, and therefore it is necessary to Metallic. : ee Alumina, rutile, anatase, nigrine, oxyd of iron, kyanite and other Species were fused immediately into globules and then gave off vapors. Despretz has this ‘subject still under investigation. [Nore.—The fusion and volatilization of carbon by Prof. ores was long since announced in this Journal, (see vols. v, 108, athe 341, 378, x, 109, 119, 1822-1826.) The condensation of carbon nea the inner surface of a globe has been a frequent class experiment wit Prof. S., and it has been customarily mentioned in his lectures as a case of vaporization. The battery used in the Yale College Laboratory con- Seconp Serres, Vol. VIII, No. 24.—Nov., 1849. 53 Al4 Scientific Intelligence. Silliman, Jr., has often observed. The experiments of Professors Silli- man and Hare extended to the melting of various refractory substances, which had never before been fused. nalen, Ixvii, p. 356, in Chem. Gazette, July, 1849.)— doubts en- ined respecting the atomic weight of silicon and the composition of silica according to one of the three formule SiO, SiO? i038, to the other formula. A peculiar mode of conceiving this subject shows that, admitting the correctness of the analytical results of Pe- louze, the atomic weight of silicon with H=1 is 21°83, and the formula of silicic acid SiO3. y Kopp has deduced this result from the difference between the boiling- ints of the chiorid and bromid of silicon. The possibility of de- ciding the question by this means is sufficiently evident from a number of determinations of the differences between the boiling-points of sev- eral chlorids and bromids, in which the chlorine, on the one hand, may be regarded as a substitute for the bromine in the otherwise corres- ponding bromid, thereby establishing how many degrees the boiling- point rises or falls when in any compound chlorine is replace mine, or vice versd bromine by chlorine? After establishing the num- ber of degrees which express this difference for the substitution of each atom of chlorine or bromine, it is possible, on the other hand, to con- clude, from the difference between the boiling-points of a chlorid and the corresponding bromid, as to the number of atoms replaced. Now it results, from the comparison of the boiling-points of several bro- mids and chlorids, that the substitution of 1Cl by 1 Br taises the boiling point 82° Cent. of 2 Cl by 2 Br 2X32—64° of 3Cl by 3Br3x32—96°, while the boiling-point falls in the same proportion when, on the con- trary, bromine is replaced by chlorine. Compare, for example, the boiling point of the following substances :— Boiling-point. C+ H® Cl Chlorethyle : s . -+11°, Pierre. C+ H? Cl Chloracetyle . ; . —18° to — 15°, Regnault. PCI? Chlorid of phosphorus =. 78°, Dumas, Pierre Boiling-point found. Calculated, ‘ °* Pier 3° C4 H5 Br Bromethyle . - 41 . ) C+H*Br Bromacetyle. . ~~. Ord. temp. 14° to 17°. PBr3 Bromid of phosphorus . 175°, Pierre. 174°. Several other comparisons enumerated by Kopp lead to the law above announced respecting the change in the boiling-point in substitutions of bromine and chlorine. It consequently follows, as above stated, that ing as the boiling-point of a bromid, on comparison with that its corresponding chlorid, is situated at 32, 64 or 96 degrees higher than in the chlorine compound, this latter must be regarded as contaln- Le wae a eg es gy. AIS ing 1, 2, 3 atoms of chlorine replaced by bromine. The boiling-points ; of the chlorid of silicon and of the bromid of silicon have been deter- mined by Pierre, a most accurate observer, the first to be 59°, the latter i to be 153° ; the difference is 94°; whence it follows that in the bro- mid of silicon 3 atoms of bromine are substituted f t 3 atoms of chlo- j _ Tine in the chlorid of silicon; that the first is SiBr3, the latter SiCI3, 7 and that silica is therefore SiO? ; and consequently we must admit the atomic weight of silicon to be 21°3, H being assumed = 1. 43, lg II. MinrraLocy anp GzoLoey. a 1, Notes on the California Gold Region; by Rev. C. S. Lyman (in a letter to one of the editors, dated Puebla de San José, March a7; 1849.)—From the western base to the summit of the range of the — Sierra Nevada, is a distance generally of a hundred miles, or more. The western slope is broken and precipitous, and through the deep ra- vines that abound, flow the numerous mountain streams that form the tributaries of the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers. The gold re- gion is a longitudinal strip or tract from ten to forty miles in width lying about midway, or a little lower, between the base and summit of the range, and extending in length a distance of many hundred miles— active operations being already carried on through an extent of four or five hundred miles at least. The gold mines near San Fernando in a spur of the same range and which have been known and worked to some extent for many years, are doubtless a part of the same great deposit. _ On approaching the gold region from the valley of the Sacramento or San Joaquin, soon after leaving the plain, the attention is arrested by im- ee aes Rut the to, at. = year, in company wi gle | Dry iggings” near the Rio de los Americanos, to within a few miles t miles beyond the “ dry diggings,” and afier leaving the quartz twelve or fifteen miles up, scarcely a particle of gold was discovered. li id * See observations by J. D. Dana, [2], vii, 257, 261. A16 Seiitfic Intelligence. - I have mentioned, the prevailing rock of the gold region near the Rio de los Americanos is slate. ‘There are many varieties of it sal abe friable, others hard and massive, somewhat ~enediliog green- Th ine of the slate beds are nearly perpendicular, and ie ireetion about N.N.W. and 8.8.E., or nearly the same as the direction of the range. ‘These slate beds often include dykes or beds of a rtz rock several feet in thickness. At the dry diggings above tion, slate beds occur several miles farther on, but I had fea the mea rs. po they were a part of the same great de In some of the richest explorations yet made, this nets formation a Suimiddiately underlies the stratum of drift or diluvium which contains the gold, and much of the gold is found in the crevices of the slate, the rough edges of the upturned strata forming innumerable recepta- cles or ‘* pockets,” as they are called, into which the meta al has origin- ally found its way, from its own gravity assisted by aqueous agency. It is this accidental sociation of the gold with the slate rocks which bottoms of sharp ravines which seem to have been notched into the body of the slate, and generally in situations ahaa the bottom of the ravine, after descending at a considerable inclination for some distance, comes more nearly horizontal. Just below a sudden descent or preci- pice, in the bottom of a dry ravine, gold is often found in the cavities in great abundance. From such a spot Mr. Douglass extracted a pound of gold in a few hours, even after a a had been previously “ dug out,”’ as was su posed, and aban 1 have noticed in published wiclediusl many erroneous statements Fre- Specting the geological position of the gold. Some have said there is no particular formatio n in which the gold pee rae that in different places it is found in different kinds of earth or You need to be informed that this is without fannstiniea So far as I have been able to examine, or can learn from competent witnesses, there is but one geological formation with which the gold of the Sierra Nevada is associated and in which it uniformly occurs. This is the stratum of drift or diluvium, composed of a heterogeneous mixture of clay, sand, gravel, and pebbles, and varying in eyerr from a few inches to sev- eral feet. Here, as elsewhere, this stratum is neither horizontal nor of uniform slope, but conformed to shi eile inclination of the earth’s surface, covering the declivities, and even the summits of the hills, 88 well as the bottoms of the ravines and valleys. Out of this stratum I have no where found gold, except where a stream has cut it ne, and made its contents.a part of some alluvial formation of comparatively modern date. The sandbars of some of the mountain torrents, and the grav- ie aa ae ae Sea PER ology. 417 ie streams, are often ex- tremely rich in metal. A bar in the Rio de los Americanos, (at high water an is/and,) about twenty-three miles above New Helvetia (now called Sacramento) and on which some of the earlie: t explorati made, is of this character. But where the diluviam has elly projections formed at the bendings of th trem inal matrix or vein-stone of the metal was a dyke or quart 7 tock. And we have only to suppose, that when the quartz, with its accompanying rocky strata, was broken up by natural agencies at some former geological epoch, the interspersed or included veins of gold Were at the same time reduced to fragments, and these rough and an- gular fragments subsequently broken and further comminuted and rounded by mutual attrition, to account for the present form and ap- Mostly of larger size, and occurs both in small particles and also in small lumps and irregular water-worn masses, from the size of wheat ernels to pieces of several ounces or even pounds in weight. he fine gold‘of these ravines is commonly less worn and flattened than 418 Scientific Intelligence. that in the alluvion of the rivers. And the flattened scale-like form of the gold in these latter deposits would seem to be owing to the great malleability of the metal—the stones and pebbles among which the minuter particles and fragments of the original vein of native metal chanced to lie, and by which they were rudely hammered, having per- formed very effectually the gold beater’s office, and gradually reduced the rough angular particles, on their granite anvils, to the flattened spangles which we now observe. Some of these flakes are often an inch or more in diameter and scarcely thicker than paper. Many speci- varies in fineness with the size of the accompanying gold.. That ob- tained in connection with the fine river gold being of the fineness of writing sand, while that associated with the coarse gold of the ravines is often as large as wheat kernels, or peas, and sometimes of the size of hazelnuts or walnuts. These coarser pieces are fragments of crys- tals very hard and heavy. I found no specimens with the faces com- plete, and have not the means of knowing to what species they belong, but suppose them to be magnetic iron. " he fine sand is composed of fragments of the same crystals greatly comminuted, I infer from the re pre gradation of the one into the othe tions of the presence of the metal, but could detect no traces of it. Individuals have asserted that they have found veins of it in the rock ut they have refused to divulge the place where, inasmuch as they 0 tended to work the veins themselves as soon as the season would per- mit. Though these statements are of course not impossible nor indeed improbable, I do not consider the fact as established by testimony, since the witnesses are men in whom [ place but little confidence. 3 The amount of gold taken from these mines it is impossible to estl- mate, but it has been immense, and the coming season it will doubtless be greater. New and rich deposits are developing every day. counts from various points in the mining district, represent the gold as very abundant, more so if possible than last year—individuals even that early in the season obtaining often from three to ten or even twenty ounces a day. The diggings on the several forks of the Rio de los Americanos, the Stanislaus, the Tuwalumnes, the Merced, the Mariposa, King’s river (Lake Fork on Fremont’s new map), and in many other places, are represented as peculiarly rich. 6 There was one specimen of gold mingled with quartz, found near Stanislaus last autumn, which I had resolved to procure if possible, for the cabinet of Yale. It was irregular in form, about four inches ' diameter, and weighed 5} pounds avoirdupois. The metal was inter elias Rie lg OS Se HO ital ae oc ile eine aia a “i, Mineralogy and ¢ spersed in irregular masses through the stone, and as near as I could judge without special eae te was equivaliin bout two pounds 2. Geographical Survey of Tennessee.—The Tennessee, under Dr. Troost, is still in ordgrelet and i light many valuable rage to science, besides developing ous resources of the sta Prof. Troost is well known for hi ing, his skill, and his aMthtdae in his investigations, and it is g to the honor ‘of Tennessee, that such a savant is appreciated anc talents called into action. In a recent communication from Dr. T rope. The list which he dictaiedcaat is as follows :— 1. Cidaris Tennessee, T. 37. Eucalyptocrinites splendidus, T Asterias antiqua, Tt 38. —— ovalis, T. *3. Astrios Tennessex, T’ 39 extensus, T’ 4. Melonites multipora, Norwood and | 40, —— levis, T Owen, 41, —— Phillipsii, T *5. Campanulites tesselatus, T. 42, —— Goldfussi, T. —*6. Cati ocrinites Tennessee, T. 43, —— Nashville, T. ‘l. Cari econi 6a | 44, —— conicus, T. ee hexagonus, T. 45 Tennessee, T. 9. —— granulat gib 10, —~— ps tk i? 41, Gilbertsocrinites Americans * 1, —— glo 48, Cyathocrinit P, 2. Pentremitesp = pi Say. 49, ——s 14, Pe hes wy vrsida 51, —— corrugatus, pa elongatus, varietas. 52. Tennesse, T. 16, —— Cherokeus Ml 53. planus! Miller, 17. —~— Reinwardti ti, 4 i 54, robustus, T. “t | Olivanites Verneuli, T. 55. —— crateriformis, T. us, T 56. globosus, *20. Cacabocrinites sculptus, T. 57 depressus, *21. © inites 58. —— tiariformis, T. 22. Echinocrinites fenestratus, T. 9 sculptus, 23, Actinoer moniliformis, Miller. } 60. —— conglobatus, T. 24. —— Humbolti, T. 1 inites liiformis, T. ibbosus, T. 62. Poteriocrinites iy izi, T. 63. Syn Tennessee, T. eo U 4, 7 ——_ Wy, fot “y *65 Capeecrntes Verneuli, a —— cornutus, T. , —— levis, T. . —— fibula, T. 67. —— striatus, -; ol, Verneuli, T. 68. Tes, *32. Balanocrinites ptus, 69, —— magnificus, T. . Heterocrinites simplex, Hall 70. corrugatus, T *84. Agaricronites tui T 71. —— stellatus, *35. Conocrinites J 42. —— roseformis, T. ; 36. —— Lee, T, 73, Cupellecrinites pentagonalis, T a 420 — Intelligence. 74. Halon inflatus. *83. Donacicrinites simplex, T. 75. Ha ts hemes, qT: *84, Demonocrinites cornutus, T. kg erat TT Astylocrinites. 78. aximius, T’. *85, Crumenzcrinites ovalis, :T. 79. Platyrinites A Ann Dixoni, T. *86. Agassizocrinites dactyliformis, T. 0, —— 87. —-— gracilis, T. 81. —— aan *88, Granatocrinites cidariformis, T. 82. —— pte. : ; Those marked with * are new gene We may al apg believe: that iy state will bring out the results of the survey in the most liberal manner, with full illestrations, 8. On the "9 ltered Dolomites of the Island of Bute; by James Bryce, Phil Mag., 1849, [3], xxxv, 81.)—Mr. Bryce describes examples magnesian limestone beds, intersected by dykes of greenstone. The limestone is rendered saccharine in texture, having a crumbling char- acter adjoining the dyke, but hard a short distance off. By analysis, of magnesia, while the part altered by the dyke contained only | to 3 per cent. The following are analyses made under the'direction of Dr. — Robert D. Thomson. Siand Al Fe Cac Mg CG 1. Altered, .... 6-91 168 90°65 ” 00==100° f ~The ae Oe 11i== 99-2 ee hard 1:94 0°52 96°48 1:23=100- 7 4, se oes O28 0°56 96°58 224 99°66 5. unaltered,...970 112 6742 1731, 3, C, and coaly matter pein 4 6. 4 sence OOS 112 67:00 18°06 . foo flee The en tir for the first two analyses was that nearest the dyke oa most alte he author enquires, “* To what cause are we to assign the moe that have taken place? Has the magnesia been sublimed by heat; or has it been withdrawn by the solvent er of free car- far as | am aware, been put on recor Associated with the trap of the land of Bute, there are beds of lig- nite, in some cases three feet thick, and consisting of hard, stony coal. The lignite rests upon ~ tufa and is overlaid by an ochreous layer and mg by trap or greenstone. . Plumbic Ochre oa Mewico.—We have received from Prof. Bat- ene ‘of West ae specimens of plumbic ochre, or native pape from New Mexico, writes concerning it :— It was given to Maj. we Thomas, of U.S. Army, who got it in New Mexico, art he ee . ice Mineralogy and Geology. 421 river in the province of Cohabuila, This leads me to suppose this ore occurs in the range of mountains running nearly north and south through Cohabuila and terminating about twenty-five miles north of the city of Monterey.’ ” ots We have examined the specimens sent us by Prof. Bailey, and find them to be the yellow oxyd of lead. The color is between orpiment and sulphur yellow, and it glistens like a granular mica of a nearly golden color. The natural surface is slightly crystalline and shining, and when broken it has a scaly texture. a 5. On the Formation of Minerals; by M. H. pe Senarmonr, i ) heat is sustained by putting the tube in a small chamber or oven. For igh temperatures the tubes were strengthened and the pressure equal- ized by placing them within a gun barrel, which was half filled with water and sealed up. In this way he formed— Carbonate of ‘Magnesia from sulphate of magnesia and carbonate of soda ; temperature about 160° C. It was in the state of white crystal- line grains, hardly attacked by the acids. Carbonate of [ron from sulphate of protoxyd of iron and carbonate of soda; temperature 150° C. and above. Also, from protochlorid of iron and carbonate of lime; temperature between 130° and 200° for twelve, twenty-four, and thirty-six hours. Carbonate of Manganese from chlorid of manganese and carbonate of soda; temperature about 1 Also, from chlorid of manganese and carbonate of lime; temperature between 140° and 170°C. for twelve to forty-eight hours. /arbonate of Zinc from a process like that for carbonate of iron. 6. On the § haahio ase of Rocks; by M. M. Exemen, (Ann. des Mines, [4], xii, 627.)—The following are M. Ebelmen’s results with a trap from near St. Austle, (Cornwall.) This trap consists essentially of abradorite and pyroxene. Trap unchanged. Altered Trap. rade altered. A. B. ; Wiranini bi 22g) 260 100 100 100 filing, * : : e326 212 201 Ratiotcitete. <5 36 5 ia, . ; 17 14 12 Oxyd of iron, ‘ 106 107 } 79 of manganese, 3 2 ‘ : ee 14 13 oo" . . . . * “Water, . . j ‘ 11 43 thu 631 497 449 Hence the trap by decomposition has lost more than a third of its 4 n j . silica, of the lime, and half of the alkalies; this last shows that the faldapas was the last to change and had not been wholly decomposed. 54 “Szoonp Szrms, Vol. VII, No, 24—Nov., 1849. 422 Scientific Intelligence. A basalt from the Rhine consisting of labradorite about 54 p.e¢ bre se chr zeus 10, with titanic iron 10, and water, 2p. Sei afforded Unchanged Basalt. pat altered. A. Alumina, . ‘ apr . pre iS 100 Silica, | ’ . , f 283 228 Limes... ‘ 63 43 Magnesi ‘ on. oe 29 Oxyd of | iron and d manganese, Te 78 _. Titanic acid, i . 6 6 eS ae ‘ ‘ ‘ 2 ‘ 74 26 Soda, OR BREA ATR I - 74 Water,)...,- ‘ ‘ ‘ : a 35:0 615°6 529-0 Here two-thirds of the alkalies have nem showing that the pean Wits of the feldspar was far advanc The result of the changes in both cases is to produce as the seston a odeatal silicate of he oraclay. The caaonal of the silica is shown by M. Ebel- en to be independent of the alkalies present. The decomposition is pane by him to carbonic acid and oxygen present in waters, to organic matters iis or in course of deadalisdistice, and the phenomena of nifiiicesion: 7. Phosphate of Lime in a and Marl, (from DE La Brcus’s Address to Geol. Soc., London, Proc. Geol. Soc., May, 1849, p. lxxxii-) —The agricultural importance of gree hate of lime has of late years caused more search to be made for this substance than formerly, shen and abundance to render them of much agricultural value, our perp r. Austen, was induced to investigate the mode of occurrence of phosphate of lime in his own neighborhood, that of Guildford. He found that the phosphate of lime nodules are abundant in the upper greensand. They also occur in the gault, in two distinct beds, remark- ably penne) in the district. In describing the position vd me beds, Mr. n takes occasion to point out the inaccuracy of th ublished ieleticek. maps and sections of the district, he phen to the beds of very different parts of the cretaceous series which a re brou it up along the escarpment of the North Down vin Having ascer- tained the facts connected with the layers of phosphate of ies s nodules in the vicinity of Guildford, Mr. Austen examined the neighborhood of Farnham, and found the component, parts of the cretaceous series the same as near Guildford, with the exception that sandstones, occas: cherty, represent near Farnham the firestone on the eastward and the malm rock on the = Pi de however from them in containing scarcely any carbonate of lime. This Mr. Austen infers to have hap- from a stream 3 i haying a course somewhat north and seneee sepa rather coarse pauarinle with hile onlenrenys emia in Ree se Mr. Austen regards the phosphoric acid of the nodules as of animal origin. When the nodules are rubbed down th present a concentric phosphate of lime, these forms must have been first ‘inclosed in | sand, that then the proper shelly matter was removed, and finally that diffused amid the sand and ooze. He also draws attention to the con- ditions to which the beds containing these substances have been ex-— posed since their formation, having been covered by thick deposits and having descended to depths beneath the level of the sea, where they were exposed to an elevated temperature corresponding with the depth and the amount of bad heat-conducting bodies above them, so that many chemical changes were effected, and among them a more general diffusion of phosphoric acid in the mass. Mr, Nesbit has also communicated to us some remarks on the pre ence of phosphoric acid in the subordinate members of the cretaceous series. Ele states that he mentioned to Mr. Paine, in November, 1847, acid from portions of this marl, the general mass containing about N s cent. of phosphoric acid. Other localities are noticed, and as much ; Saki’ as 69 per cent. of phosphoric acid is mentioned as contained in a dark Ted sandstone rock occurring in masses in the upper portion of the lower greensand at Hind Hill. Z Mr. Wiggins has sent us a notice of the fossil bones and coprolitic substances discovered in the crag of Suffolk, remarking on the value of the latter for agricultural purposes, 200 tons of them having been ob- tained from about a rood of ground,—an additional instance of the re- mains of animals and their feces entombed in rocks of different geolog- al ages becoming available for the growth of existing plants. As regards phosphate of lime and its dissemination, which mode researches have shown is much greater, when sufficient quantities of Water containing free carbonic acid is present ai it, the phosphate of lime would be in a condition to be removed and isseminated. Mr. Austen has alluded to the mixture of such bodies with vegetable matter, to the decomposition of which, with animal Matter also, we might look for some, at least, of the carbonic acid that would aid the solution of the phosphate of lime. As in the case of 424 Scientific Intelligence. the carbonate of lime previously noticed, when the solution of this phosphate met with the silicates of potash or soda, whilst percolating amid the rocks, the silicates woul decomposed by the carbonic acid, and the phosphate of lime thrown down. We should expect,—in the same manner as carbonate of lime often replaces the origimal mat ter of a shell which has been decomposed and removed from the body of a rock, leaving those cavities commonly termed casts,—that phos- phate of lime, in ‘localities where from accidental circumstances it was somewhat abundantly filtering through rocks, would also enter these and other cavities, filling them under the needful ‘conttivieti of deposit. In like manner as we find carbonate of lime separating itself from mud and silt in which it was disseminated, forming the nodules so common in calcareo-argillaceous deposits, should we also expect winery spread of these phosphates amid layers of car itd silt. We find such phosphates surrounding some fossils, such as crustaceans from the Lon- don clay, at us to infer a connexion between the animal matter 7a a cree ee ose, (Bib. her March, 1848.)—The arkose of the ¥ oie to Delesse, is a metamorphic quartzite, consisting osetia of hyaline quartz and piste of orthose (feldspar.) Ill. Zoouoey. Conspectus Crustaceorum, §§c., Conspectus +e the Crustacea of the Exploring Expedition; by J. D. Dana,—continu CRUSTACEA ISOPODA, 2 ra abdominales, duobus posticis exceptis, plerumque branchii ormes, stylis caudalibus duobus aut nullis. Pedes thorabie. 6 antici ad eandem seriem pertinent, 8 postici ad seriem alteram,* vento tionibus raris (in Isopodis brachiatis.) L ISOPODA BRACHIATA. edes seriei posticee sex.t—Species Amphipodis affines (ree Dulichiis) ; habitum Caprelloidee ; seepius algas, corallinas, etc. 9 pedibus sex posticis affixee cum corpore arrecto. : Familia 1. Arcrorms. (Idoteoidex.) Pedes sex postici inter sese unguiculati similes—Abdomen pauei- articulatum, laminis ag infra opertum (sicut ’ Tdotatia), stylis caudalibus care series antica oct. et sex ae Isopodis rarissimis) 0 pedes, hae Wasco, rege Siics era alts appendices al s natatorii. Hee optima et non negligenda. t+ Hac charactere species ille aliis Isopodis remote et Amphipoda osculant. a ee ae ee ee Genus 1. LEACHIA,* Joheston.--Podtl 8 antici ellie non un- guiculati. Antenne ne ete perbreves, 4 articulate ; inferiores long, pediformes, ungue 1-3 articulato confecte. Segme atom thoracis ongum. Leacu1a Noposa.—Corpus tuberculosum. Segmen monittian | thoracis quar- tum valde elongatum anticé latius et utrinque cuspidatum. Abdomen 2-articulatum, segmento primo transverso, secundo oblongo, prope api- cem latiore, posticé rotundato, prope basin utrinque emarginato, An- tenne superiores tenues, articulis duobus inferiorum a parce lon- giores; inferiores pediformes, 6-articulate, fere corpor gitudine, articulo quinto breviore quam quartus, sexto (ultimo) “ vnguiformi, ; , 6”. . prope insulas Mangsee in freto Balabac. Familia 2. Tanarpz. Pedes 2 antici, manu valida instructi, aria unguiculati, mediocres, sex posticis inter sese similibus omen 5-6-articulatum, appen- dicibus decem subnatatoriis, stylis sagdatibus articulatis. am 1. TANAIS, Edwards.—Corpus lineare. Caput perbreve. entum thoracis primum oblongum. Antennz quatuor, breviuscule, superiors flagello non artes Abdomen 5-6-articulatum. Pedes tici breves, crassé cheliformes. . TANAIS BRASILIENSIS. Peden antici crassi, manu ad basin paulo i pollice non crassiore quam digitus. Antenne prime paulo Jo orpore quadruplo breviores, 5-articulate ; sence 6-articu- late, articulls duobus basalibus paulo crassioribus. A en 6-articu- atum, posticé rotundatum et medio apiculatum, samen subsequis, + alee majore, ad apicem apiculato. Styli caudales pacity entum thoracis septimum sexto brevius. 2. Tanals ELONGATUS.—Gracilior. Pedes antici crassi, manu basin non. angustiore, pollice crassiore quam digitus intus angulato a setam gerente. tenn prime 4-articulate ; secunde 4-articulate, paulo breviores. Abdomen pubescens, G-articulatum, ee rotunda- tum, segmento ultimo m majore, semicirculari. Styli caudales biramei ramo longiore 2-articulato, altero 1-articulato. en thoracis quatuor postica subequa, fere quadrata. Hab. in mari Sulu. Genus 2, LEPTOCHELIA, Dana.— Tanai ee aes ated longissimi, tenuissimi, manu valde elon ngata. Ante superio flagello confecte. Abdomen 6-articulatum, ail fo a articulatis s. caegein mINuTA.—Corpus lineare. Pedes antici corpore valde longio u fere corporis longitudine, digito polliceque tenuissimis, . Ant ongiores, ma incurvatis, nas pollice pees apicem _— entigero. Antenne su- periores corpore paulo longio basi to, 4-articulato, articulo secundo nea flagello 6-7. apes Prk vix longiore quam articulus basalis secundus Hab. prope insulas ‘ Viti” in mari Pacifico. * Arcturo, antennis inferioribus flagello non confectis et segmento thoracis quarto 426 Scientific Intelligence. I. -ISOPODA AMBULATORIA* Pedes seriei posticae octo in his et totis Isopodis normalibus. _ Membra buccalia nullo modo suctoria. Abdominis appendices sexti sive oper- culi onneay sive styliformes, nunquam ad natandum a Familia 1. Iporm#ipz. hiomale pauci- -articulatum, articulo ultimo maximo, laminis duobus elas infra opertum, stylis caudalibus carens. Mandibulte alpigerae Subfamilia 1. Iporzinaz. o - Pedes toti subsimiles, ce ambulatorii. oi neces pad hic Fabricius.—Segmenta thoracis subeequa tennz externe (vel blero) valde longiores, non geniculate, flagello Siiaeccilass confecte. Abdominis opercula simplicissima, prope apicem articulati. Pedes quarti tertiique non valde inequi 1. Ipor#a arGeNntea.—Angusto-subelliptica antice truncata vel obsoleté excavata, superficie «qua et levis. Epimere latiuscule. i Abdomen 3-articulatum, segmentis duobus transversis, tertio oblongo, P ad apicem paulo angustiore et truncato-rotundato, prope basin utrinque : pel oor Ri A ere dimidio basis externarum vix lon- | Agente in whats Pacifiéo, lat. aust. ar, long. occid. 109°, super Porpitam. 2. Ipor#A aNNULATA.—Angusto- -subelliptica, fronte truncata, 0 leté prope basin sutura utrinque notato. Antenne interne dimidio basis ex: ternarum non longiores. Antenne extern fermé dimidii corporis | on- gitudine, flagello “breviore quam basis, 7-articulato, articulis 2 ska non breviores.—Long. 9’”. Brunnescens. 3. Ipor#A BREVIcauDA.—Angusté bab rae anticé posit truncata et medio minuté ag tee Ca nsversum, mento proximo amplexum. en S.articulatuAy segmentis *duobis breviter transversis, tertio oblongo; posticé paulo angustiore, angulis 4 rotundatis, prope basin suturd notato. Antenne interne dimidio basis : xter 1 imidi : gitudine vix superantes, articulo secundo brevi et ad apicem producto, — 9- -I0.anieslto, ee longiore quam jasin—Lang F 6/4 Ul se rupo vnBiabs in portu “ ‘ Rio de Janeiro.” re Genus EPELYS, Dana.—Antenne eye subeequee, externe geniculate, flagello non confectee. Pedes subsequi, quarti tertiique non valde inequi. Oculi minuti, remoti. Sa oes ly * “Tsopodes Marcheurs,” Edwardsii, Arcturo, Leachit, Tanai et affinibus exclusis. 427 i ELYS ANNULATUS.—Angusto-subelliptica. Caput transversum, E media fronte apiculata, angulis rotundatis. Segmenta a trans- versa, subsequa, prominentia. Ab domen 2-articulatum ; ento pri- mo brevissimo, fere obsoleto, valde angustiore quam sec esadua': secun- do scutellato, posticé triangulato, ohtuso, lateribus mediis fere parallelis. ntennz breves, latitudine capitis non longiores ; interne parce | brevi- ba 4-articulate ; externe 5-articulate.—Long. 24’ lab. ad oras prope Valparaiso, super corpus speciei Austen he CLEANTIS, Dana.—Antenne externe valde ii non geniculate, 5-6-articulate, flagello non confecte. Pedes quarti paris tertiis vile breviores, et parium quartuor ultimorum sensim ‘ongitadii increscentes. Abdominis opercula prope kh articulata et ad articu- lationem laminam parvulam internam gerentia. _CLEANTIS LINEARIS.—Angusto- -linearis, fronts truncata et parce ex- cavata. Caput paulo transversum, posticé profundé arcuatum, segmento proximo amplexum. Oculi i aa reniformes, remoti, Segment thoracis paulo transversa. Abdomen 3-articulatum, segmentis duobus transversis, tertio lineari, angulis stiches truncatis, apice truncato aut solete excavato, prope basin sutura notato. Antenne interna ee par- vule, dimidio externarum valde breviores ; externz crassiuscule, artic- ulo ultimo ovato, pubescente. Pedes tertii pee duplo longiores. Hab. ad oras prope Rio Negro Patagoniz Genus ERICHSONIA, Dana. 2 halides externe valde longiores, je sae Garculato flagello nullo. Pedes subsequi, similes. Enicu anguLaTa.—Elongato-elliptica. Caput et segmenta thotieie ad: shacks angulata, transversa. Frons excavata, duobis tuber- culis supra ar . Segme sd acca ntica tuberculum ei tum, obtusum. Antenne interne fere iaeker cect 7 i externee clavate, dimidio corporis lon ngio res, 5-6-articulate, articulis tribus ultimis subsequis, penultimo breviore, ultimo pene elavato brevi- ter hirs rsuto. Pedis articulus basalis crassus et tuberculat Hab. in portu Rio de Janeiro. Subfamilia 2. _Caxtining. Pedes sexti cpuicival setiformes et multiarticulati, non unguiculati ; septimi fere sim Genus CHATILIA, Dana.—Antenn prime super secundas o* ; Superiores longiores ; inferiores flagello multiarticulato confecte septimi sextis valde breviores, non unguiculati, parce seelia ciealnss waterpioie opercula prope apie? articulata et ad articulationem lamel- gulato, is apicem s et ciliato. Antenne lateralit re dimidii corporis longitudine, 5-articulate, articulis daa. bus petbrevi us et crassis, tribus reliquis tenuibus, longis, ultimo extus Se basi duobus ultimis anticé setulosis, posticé 428 Scientific Intelligence. connie. hots sexti corpore fere duplo longiores, minute mul- tiarticulati. s septimi perbreves.—Long. 9”. Hab. in mari i prope oi Negro Patagoniz. New Haven, October, 1 —... —The ses nos recent genus is not included i in the antenna with the basal joint somewhat elongated and furnished with hairs. _ “Body much compressed, the lateral appendages on the first eight é joints a large, and nearly ‘concealing the legs; the appendage of the fourth joint much dilated behind at the end ; eighth to eleventh joints slightly keeled on the back ; appendages of the three last joints of the omen longish, with short spines on the edge behin * A genus allied to Orchestia and Tolitrus. «Sp. Ephipphora Kréyeri.” he description is hardly full eu to “dedie whether és genus Is related most closely to the Orchestidee or Gammaride. The large ! size of the basal joint of the upper antenne, together with the large epime- rals appear to show that it belongs with the Callianassine ; and it may be identical with one of the genera in which the superior antenne are appendiculate J. D, Dan IV. Astronomy. 1. Elements of the planet Hygeia, (Comptes Rendus, July 2, 1849. ) —M. Gasparts, of Naples, who discovered this planet April 12, 1849, has furnished the following elements of its orbit, derived from the ean’ vations of April 29, May 7 and 16, 1849. Mean Anomaly, ‘ . 826° 34’ 22/44 Longitude of votielines ‘ ‘ 242 47 3 44. node, . ¢: - 285 82:29:T2 cae : ; ‘ 8. 46 5) 2 Lega. xs - 05192506 g. ¢ : 92478343 Mean daily motion, . 5903784 2. Second Comet of 1849, (Comptes Readies, May 14, 1849. )—The telescopic comet discovered April 11, 1849, by Geo. P. Bond nd of the Cambridge (Mass.) Observatory, (vii, '449) was detected the same night by M. Schweizer of Moscow. ‘observations of April 14, cd and 24, M. Sonntag has computed the following parabolic elements : Perihelion passage, 1849, June ; 8:20514 Berl. m. t Longitude of bertenee ; ‘ x a, gee node, ‘ - 30 32 36 tctibaing? : ; . 66 545 Perihelion Poneny ; . : eionigs Motion, . : ¢ : ‘These elements agree quite well with those st tliaseat omaha COE mace es : F Astron ona et 429 3. Goujon’s Comet, (Comptes Rendus, Ma y] 4, 1849.)—A telescopic comet was discovered in the constellation Crater, by M. Goujon of Paris, April 15, 1849, who has published the following parabolic ele- ments of its orbit: we! Perihelion passage, 1849, May F Longitude of perihelion, * ** asc. node, Inclination : Perihelion distance, . Motion, . : , j we saw a few meteors before this time. Within the hour ending at 2 a. M., we observed fifty-four different shooting stars, as follows; viz., in N.W. 23; in S. 21; in N.E. 10. There was nothing remarkable in these as to brilliancy, nor was there any decided point of radiation. As usual there was a general motion towards the west. Some left trains, but on the whole the meteors were very much like those of common times. No aurora borealis was visi- ble during the hour. Alt 2 a. M. we left the field, having come to the conclusion that the number of meteors was not greatly beyond the average. ty On the subsequent morning (21st), Mr. Smith watched from his win- dow, for one hour ending at 2 4. m., and saw only four mia Southwest, the remaining ;!, traversed the heavens in all directions. Sconp Serres, Vol. VIII, No, 24—Nov., 1849. 55 430 Miscellancous Intelligence. There was no “ central | point” of emanation, though a majority perhaps, of the whole, appeared to originate in the directions of ‘* Cassiopeia” and ‘* Ursa Minor.” None were seen of startling ris dk though many were exceed- ingly beautiful. We should have continued our observations until day- , had not the light of the moon interfered. On the night of the Lith also, the meteors were more than usually abundant, but by no means so erous as on the evening preceding. (2.) Mineral Point, Wisc.—A notice in the Tribune, signed “ Sper- SF , af dnight, seventy- -three of which appeared to hat from a point near the Swan, a little S.E. of the zenith, and passed off in a southwesterly direction. The number of observers is not mentioned. V. Misce,taneous INTELLIGENCE. 1. On the Magnetic Relations of the Positive and Negative Optic Axes of Cry ree hod Professor PLicker of Bonn, in a — to Dr. Sisksen (Phil. M g., [3], xxxiv, 450.)—Allow me, sir, to communi- cate to you OE né w facts which, I hope, will ea some light the optic axes by the poles of a magnet, according to the crystalline structure of the crystal. If the erysial is a negative one, there will be repulsion ; if it is a positive one, there will be attraction.” The crystals most fitted to give the evidence of this law are diopside (a positive crystal), cyanite, topaz (both negative), and other ones, crystallizing in a similar way. In these crystals the line (A) bisecting 3 r experiments, will point neither aed tal by any kind of horizontal suspension should point to the ern of a magnet, it is a positive one ; if it should point equatorially, it is a nega- tive one. This last reasoning conducted me at first to the law men- tioned above. The magnecrystallic axis, I think is optically speaking the line bisect- ing the (acute) angles made by the two optic axes; or in the case of single axis, t this axis itself. ‘The crystals of bismuth and arsenic Miscellaneous Intel 431 are positive crystals; antimony, according to my experiments, is a negative one: all are uniaxal. ae Il. Cyanite is by far the most interesting crystal I have examined. If suspended horizontally, it points very well to the no ‘ ism, the earth, &c. The crystal does not point according to the magneti of its substance, but only in obedience to the magnetic action upon magnetism of the earth, the axis B of the prism will make with the axis of the bar (this bar having any direction whatever in the horizon- tal plane) an angle exactly the same it made before with the meridian plane, the crystal being directed either more towards the east or more towards the west. The crystal showed, resembling in that also a magnetic needle, strong polarity ; the same end being always directed to the north. [| think this may be a polarity of the opto-magnetic power. ‘Two questions too may easily be answered .—Ist. Is the north pole indicated by the forms of crystallization? 2nd. Did the crystal obtain, when formed, its po- larity by the magnetism of the earth? Between the poles of the strong electro-magnet the permanent polarity disappeared as long as the mag- hetism was excited. £ I am obliged, by the new facts mentioned above, to take up my rmer memoir; I must reproduce it under quite a new shape. I will examine again the rock-crystal, which, being acted upon weakly by a magnet, induced me to deny in that memorr, what I ascertain now and what I thought most probable, as soon as [ received the first notice of your recent researches. [That you will find in the memoir given to M. Poggendorff two or three months a o.] Perhaps the exceptional molecular condition of rock-crystal, as indicated by the passage o light through it, will produce a peculiar magnetic action. — ' I should be very much obliged to you, if you would give notice of the contents of my present letter to M. De la Rive, when he calls on you, as he intended to do. I showed him several of my experiments when he passed through Bonn the 12th of May. The following day I obtained the different results mentioned above. May, : 2. Some facts relative to the Spheroidal State of Bodies, Fire- Ordeal, ib _: by P. H. Boutieny (d’Evreux), (Comptes 432 Miscellaneous Intelligence. poured on his naked body, on condition that if he was not injured by it, the unbelievers should yield to so great a chtinitle. The trial was said to be attended with such success, that they were all converted.” The historian » With an air of doubt, certainly allowable in such a F matter, ‘ We see that the religion of Zoroaster had also its miracles and its legends.’ ow this fier ieeaenl undergone with such success by Adurabad- i pra vand, is in plain truth an experiment of primitive facility and ty, and which is anything but miraculous. ; fees an instant, for I fancy that | see the smile of incredulity who Se all in his power not to deceive himse if uch persons then I would offer this encouragement ; the little that 1 he still to relate appears ee but it is true, and that is enough. Waving said this, [ contin Rey Men pen eee ee tween these phenomena and roe hddaetel by men who run covelidied over liquid metal (?) still incandescent, or who plunge their hand into molten lead, &c.?+ To all I have answered, Yes, | believe that there P is an intimate relation between all these facts and the spheroidal state. And then, in my turn, I put this question: Have you witnessed the fact which you tell me? And the answer has invariably been in the negative. | avow that all these on-dits and the marvelous legends which | had read in various works} on the fiery ordeal and incombustible men, ad- mitted without reserve by some, obstinately denied by others, excited my curiosity greatly, and gave me a strong desire to verify all these phenomena, and to recall them to the recollection of contemporary ob- servers; for, alas! all this is as old as the world; nil sub sole novum. wrote first to my friend Dr. Roché, who passes his life in the midst of the blast furnaces of the Eure, and who is the physician of a por- tion of the Cyclopean ae estar who feed them. I requested of him precise particulars. All that he could ascertain was, et a man named La Forge, of from thirty- five to thirty-six years of age, very corpulent, walked step by step barefooted on the pigs after the casting: ya he had not seen this. This was not enough to dispel my pounds of melted copper, ‘issuing from the furnace, 7: hot, should be * Dietionaire historique, — et bibliographique, t. xxvii, p. 4 ut I eve : sihoded to these facts in the work py ed, Nouvelle nash de, Phpelait r les Oe aU Etat spheroidal, p. 3 . ary ae Errours ot des Préjugés + répandus ‘pai les diverses classes de la Société, . Xi, p. 18 ‘ ‘ie ait a Se aes he eee See sui Te ee promised me, with the greatest kindness, to inquire into these facts, and to report upon them if desired. * The following is an extract from the letter which he did te the honor to write to me, dated the 26th of last March oe my return home, I did not fail to ohn ion from the ipiekoren of the facts of the case (the immersion of the fi er in the into the incandescent jet. A person employed in the caubinhmeni peated the experiment with impunity: and I myself, emboldened what I saw, did the same. . . . I may observe, that, in making this trial, none of us moistened his finger. “T hasten, sir, to acquaint you with this fact, which seems to support your ideas on the globular-state of liquids; for the ee being natu- rally more or less humid, it is, I think, to this moistu spheroidal state, that we must ascribe their va roar incombustibility. ollowing are the experiments which | bav I divided or cut with my hand a jet of theless metal of five to six centimetres, which escaped by the tap, then | ape apa the other hand ina pot filled with incandescent metal, which was truly frightful to look at. I involuntarily asi But both ers came out of the ordeal victorious. And now, wha any thing astonishes me, it is that such experiments are not eee mmon. I shall of course be asked, what precnutions are necessary to pre- serve oneself from the disorganizing action of the incandescent mat- ter? [ answer, None ;—only to have no fear, to make the experiment with sgl dpa to pass the hand rapidly, but not too. rapidly, in the metal in full fus Otherwise, if ‘the experiment were performed with fear, or with too nee rapidity, the repulsive force which exists in a. bodies ight overcome, and thus the contact with t kin “ee effected, 0 form a ms ae of the danger there would be in passing the Popor so com ne. ae a fluid as hora iron, this ne rea increases pero in a higher ra ner les The tee is what has ceeded iia with me: Tra my hands with soap, so as to give hal a = pastel surface ; then, | att Moment of making the experiment, I dip my ie ge a cold pt ution of sal-ammoniac saturated with sulphurous acid, imply into water containing some sal-ammoniac, and, in default of sat: wi fresh water. Regnault, who has occupied himself with this subject, says, ‘“ Those who make a trade of fire handling, and holding it in the mouth, some- 434 Miscellaneous Intelligence. times employ an equal mixture of spirit of sulphur, of sal-ammoniac, of essence of ——. and onion-juice.” All volatile substances, we ent. re no w seek the arta explanation of these fac We have the formula mct, which gives the ae of heat con- tained in any body. Let m be the mass expressed in kilogrammes, ey the specific heat of the body, t its temperature. But here the factor m must be abstracted, Lape there is no con- i t between the hand and the metal in fusion, and the experiment pre- its no difference, being made either with ‘Yo kilogrammes of metal, or with 1000 kilogrammes. The sensation which is felt is the same in either case, and this is readily conceived, knowing the repulsive force of incandescent surfaces which is opposed to the contact of any body. The finger or the hand is then isolated in the midst of the mass in fusion, and thus preserved from the disorganizing action of the incan- descent matter. I repeat, that the mass must be abstracted. _ The ere remain the two factors c, ¢. | will eos and itis a sulle 22 only be exposed to 225 degrees of heat. Undoubiedly shit is a re- spectable quantity of caloric, but it is too high, as we shall see. ‘here is no contact between the hand and the metal ; this, in my es- timation, is a fact positively established. If there is no contact, the heating can only take place by radiation, and it is enormous, it must be acknowledged ; but if the radiation is annulled by reflexion, and it is so, it is as if it did not exist, and, definitively, the operator is, so to say, placed in Posten) conditions. lows that the finger or the hand being umid, cannot rise to the tem- perature of 100° Centig., the arene not continuing long enough to permit the humidity to evaporate entirely. To peneieatts what I hav iin on this point, I say,—in passing the hand into any metal in as it becomes isolated ; the i which covers it passes into the spheroidal state, reflects she. i peel pe stink and does not become heated enough to boil. This i right then in saying at the outset, * this experiment, pron in Ae sacichoate is almost insignificant in reality. I have often repeated it with lead, with bronze, &c., and always with the same success. * Nouvell — de a or Etudes sur les Corps a Etat sphéroidal, pp- 24 et seq. poe 132 et seq. our two letters to the Académie des Sei dated the 14th pt 1a of duly ei In the places indicated will be found the ange of this phenomen experiments on the cask iron were made in the foundry of M. Davidson, at La Villeties and, on the bronze, in that of M. Nérat, Rue Pierre-Levé e. Tam happy f publicly Cnanaith Bud ig Va considers this the most important circumstance in nutrition, first to call attention to it. This relation is sbsictely different in various classes of anima besides it must be different even in the same class of animals, a e understood that these limits cannot be overstepped on either ede withous injury. nitrogenous (calcrifent) constituents in its foo ut if we give it food in which the proportion of one to ten prevails, ions will be, in the pro- cess ars nutrition, for every one part nitrogenous only five parts non- nitrogenous assimilated; the other half of “the non- nitrogenous (calo- tifiant) aliment will be wasted.7 ut it is not the pecuniary loss alone which arises through this, that deserves consideration ; for it is clear that the animal wait e ce strength i is required, which might otherwise have bee n spared. of the cheaper non- nitrogenous alim nt but in unfavora oe it will become diseased, by belt compelled to act in opposition Dature. ° Takin ng it for granted that the requisite proportions for different cir- cumstances were Erle the choice of aliment could be regulated on the most rational b ‘ ' [We speak here paimarily only of the absolute strength o nourish- ment, without noticing the greater or less degree of digestibility pos- sessed by equally nutritious substances, and the proportion of unassimi- lable constituents which they contain. a * Transl hrbuch der Chemie fiir Landwirthe, Forstminner - Caniratiaen © one ce Ree ae Fresenius (1847), page 480, by William Augus is “So wird es beim Erniihrungsprocesse auf je 1 Rog chen doe doch ob iitle vackstoffreie Besthandtheile verwenden, die ere Halfte der pcan thy Nahrungsmi mittel wird vergeudet. e true Madan ie siptebeided ought to be atic kstoffreie Nakrungsmittel, and it has been thus rendered in iglish version—TRans. Perston, 436 Miscellaneous Intelligence. We observe, for instance, that cows on a meadow, feeding only upon = enjoy good health. Now let us endeavor to ascertain how we roduce the same proportion of non-nitrogenous and nitrogenous pie ie with other descriptions of food. The proportion which exists in grass or hay is 1 to 8:3, as in the lowing” ~ aa — gq 1 part Relation of Re lation of of nitrogenous matter, I part nit s or | enous to genous” to on- | Driedat | Driedin Fresh sub- non-nitro- salts. nite ne 212°. air. stances. genous. and salts. I, iH. Il. IV. Ve VI. 181 0715 2°96 3°45 4:00 1:87 0:09 2°96 3°45 4-00 2-08 015 3°23 366 4:29 214 O11 3:25 3°66 4:28 2:42 O11 3°53 4°21 4:85 4:08 0-24 5:32 641 4-35 4:95 027 5°52 6°53 467 4°42 013 5°55 6°29 94. 5-08 0-42 650 6-45 353 6-08 0°60 768 768 9:72 320 6°39 055 7-94 7-91 ‘ 651 6°55 0:10 7-65 813 9°34 7-26 0-44 8-70 86 ; 48°8 84 0-55 9°3 9°39 676 8-30 0-73 10-03 10°73 12°47 32°8 9 10-40 re 412 125 04 15-54 40-00 55:55 14-2 2°48 7-68 40°00 54:05 14:8 010 15°9 16°61 18°41 24-4 1:93 27°33 53°48 65°79 29°3 3:08 33°38 52°35 58°82 41: 018 42°18 meee: een 175-4 | 1216 040 | 123-00 fate . | 1250 This Table, as given by Fresenius, is derived from Soe gape inelud- ing wer “results obtained and published by Dr. Thomso is Researches on Food, p ee also Phil. Mag., vol. xxxii, p. 459. There i is ieee some | dis- cre vii jon’ cei! Bao English the German grain being richer in nitro- et e Dr. Thom son Oniapedaen 6 of German a Engli tis sh Bread, Phil. vol. xxiii, p. 321. Were we then to give _ carrots, in which 1 part nitrogenous is con- tained for every 7°84 s of non-nitrogenous constituents, the propor- tion bors not be tiie fatty disturbed ; but were we to give them pota- toes (1:9), we disturb the proportion somewhat more. It is therefore sapetint to feed them with a substance which is richer in nitrogen; this proper proportion may be obtained with exactness by mixing | nutritious equivalent of red clover with 3 nutritious equivalents of potatoes :— 1x1:6 =1: 6 1x1: 9°00=—3 : 27 4: 4:33 or 1: 8°25. To produce this mixture, we feed them by giving them 9°7 Ibs. ok dried clover for every 123-6 lbs. of potatoes. pee Miscellaneous Intell 437 If we wished to give them the same proportion in white turnips and Oal-straw, we must supply for every 2 nutritious equivalents of the for- proportion of 1 to 8:4; that is, they must be fed w fresh white turnips for every 55:55 Ibs. of dried oat-stra horse that works hard requires the proportion of For this we give him oats which represent that proportion. we wished use for every 2 lbs. of boiled beef (reckoned without water) 41 Ibs. o potatoes (reckoned in the fresh state.) :; If he wished to produce the proportion of 1 to 4 with carrots and raw bacon, he will attain it by mixing 5 alimentary equivalents of the former with 6 alimentary equivalents of the latter, which represent the Proportion of 1 to 3-99. For this purpose he must eat 338 parts of resh carrots for every 11 parts of raw bacon (reckoned free from water. ) ' Concerning the question, as to what is the proper quantity of aliment (possessing the due proportions) which is to be given under fferent circumstances, experience alone can determine it. For the computa- r 38°88 kilogrammes (85°72 Ibs.) of the joint nutritious matters are equal to 133-3 kilogrammes (293°93 lbs.) of the mixture. How man are 8-04 equal to? 2==27'5 (60°63 Ibs.) — 27°5 kilogrammes (60-63 Ibs.) of the mixture In question are equiva- lent to 10 kilogrammes (22°05 Ibs.) of hay in the proportion and quan- * tity of nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous alimentary substances. In a precisely similar manner the kind and quantity of the salts must be at- tended to in practice. Srcoyp Series, Vol. VIII, No. 24.—Nov., 1849. 56 438 Miscellaneous Intelligence. Conclusions from the foregoing.—We have approximated much more closely to the object we had in view, viz., a completely rational degree of digestibility (der leichteren oder schwereren, schnelleren oder langsameren Verdaulichkeit) of each species of aliment, in order to do books on husbandry, respecting the relative nutritive value of different kinds of forage, cannot, inasmuch as it was not arrived at by experi- ence but deduced from theoretical views, possibly be correct, because these views do not accord with facts. 3. The discovery of the true relative value of aliment, and of the proportion in which it may be replaced, may be ascertained without much difficulty, so long as chemists and farmers work hand in hand for the exact solution of the above questions. 4. A completely rational system of nutrition, that is such an one as combines the greatest amount of strength with the least consumption of nourishment, will then be possible. B 5. A loss of nutritious matter and of strength often takes place where it would be least expected, namely, by the consumption of all kinds of food (or forage) where the due proportion between nitrogenous @ non-nitrogenous constituents does not exist, say by eating only fruit or potatoes, . It can with safety be decided by the above, under what circum- Stances substitutes for bread may be employed, and what is their re- spective value for each desired proportion. Raw and cooked Articles of Food.—Many kinds of food cannot be eaten raw by man; others, although they may be eaten raw, agree much better with us when cooked. cook their food. he advantage accrues in this way: that potatoes, turnips, &c. are more quickly and more easily digested when boiled than raw; and thus there is much less chance for any portion to be c ra ‘ thrown off in an undigested state (unassimilated). _ Its warmth gives also a slight advantage to cooked food ; it deprives the body of no heat; and the non-nitrogenous substances, which in the cold food would have a ee ee ee ge ee | Miscellaneous Intelligence. 439 % been required to afford heat, can be used for the production of fat. But Whether cold or warm food is to be preferred in a practical point of | view, cannot from all this be conclusively deduce |. It is a question only to be answered by experience, for the result is entirely dependent on the nature and requirements of the animal. a | 4. Meteorite of Arva, (from the Oesterreische Blatt. fiir Lit. Kunst, a 6 * in 1847, A. Patera presented the results of the chemical analysis the meteoric iron of Arva, made by him in the laboratory of A. Lowe. The description of the place where it had been found and of the iron itself, had already been published in the Vienna Zeitung of the 17th of April, 1844, and of March, 1845. The fragments of the pure sy. employed in the analysis had a specific gravity of 7-814. The iron contained according to the qualitative examination, iron, nickel, a tice ge of cobalt, and an extremely small quantity of copper. The oxydized lis surface contained in addition, sulphur, carbon, silica, phosphorus and potassium, probably as unessential ingredients. The results of these ere; &c., No. 169.)—At a meeting of the “ Friends of Science,” at Vienna, analysis of analyses w Oy) , 89:42 93°13 94°12 Nickel, : : 8°61 59. 5:43 Residuum containing } 1-41 ant sae silica and carbon, 99-07 99-55 * A. Léwe has had the kindness to furnish also his own results of ‘two quantitative analyses. He found Iron, : ‘ . , 90:471 91-361 Nickel, ‘ : . ; . 7:321 7323 _ Cobalt residuum,* carbon, silicia, 1-404 0°938 part of the results obtained was at that time reserved, and a M. Patera had since enjoyed the opportunity of visiting several interesting geological localities of Lower Hungary, he was now prepared to bring forward the portion omitted. Berzelius, it is known, had found in the meteoric iron of Bohumilitz, a peculiar metallic combination in clear steel-gray folia and grains, composed of iron, nickel and sulphur. analyses, which agreed tolerably well with each other. he flexible and strongly magnetic. Their hardness was 6-5 ; specific 7-01-7-22. gravity 7: Phosphorus, : : : . Grass ron, . . : . ‘ 4 : 4-24 Nickel, ; : : . . : 98°70 440 Miscellaneous Intelligence. Some carbon was also obtained, but the amount could not be definitely ascertained. As Berzelius had given no name to this substance, Haidinger, in con- currence with M. Patera, proposed for it the specific name of Schrei- bersite. At nb subsptuent session (loc. cit. No. 231) Haidinger, referring 2 the name of Schreibersite, says he has since learned that the America mineralogist and chemist, Prof. Shepard, at the session of the Alias ciation of Science at New York, on the 2d of September, 1847, had given, in a very interesting paper on Meteorites, this same name to a mineral, also of meteoric origin, which occurs in small brown striated prisms in the meteoric stone of Bishopville, S. C., which fell in March, _ 1843, and was described by Prof. Shepard. Undoubtedly this Me name has the oboe te dee fo is only ted from nd would new species, the name of Sh-pardite, wha very properly will connect the discovery of the American species with the American naturalist, while in a native species it will wipibing! our high regard for the worthy cate of our own land. ry neers z sand, 14 gy psu Pesiiate of porcelain, are stirred up with 300 parts of water, and by repeated straining through a linen sieve uniformly suspended in it, and intimately m To this paste I add, under constant agitation and one after the othe, aqueous solutions of 19 parts bichromate of potash, 100 parts protosulphate of iron, 47 parts of acetate of lead, and then add so much solution of ammonia that the iron is completely separated. The salts of Ee and ammonia are removed by frequent decantation with spring w he baked porcelain ves are pnt into the pasty mixture ob- tained as above described in the same manner as with other glazes, and then fired in the poroelain furnace. "Afier this they appear cover- ed with a brown glaze, which in reflected het appears to be filled with a countless number of little gold spangles A thin fragment of the glaze appears, under the microscope, by transmitted light, as a clear brownish glass, in which numerous trans- parent green six-sided prisms of oxyd of _— and some brownish > ee ee Ona ly % crystals, probably of oxyd of chromium and p peroxyd of iron, are sus- nded. The oxyd of chromium therefore separates on the slow cooling of the glaze in the porcelain furnace, from the substance of the glaze—a silicate of potash, lime and alumina—saturated with the CF m peroxyd of iron, and shines through the brownish mass with a golden h amount of color, en the aventurine glaze is mixed with an il colorless porcelain glaze, the glassy mass no longer has a brown color afier the burning, but a light greenish gray, an ninated crystalline spangles likewise exhibit in reflected light their natural chicory appears to have originated in Holland, where it has been prac- tised fur more than a century. It remained secret until 1801, when it was introduced into France by M. Orban of Liege and M. Giraud of Horning a short distance from Valenciennes. 5 n a memoir upon coffee by M. Payssé, some details are given on the preparation of chicory-coffee in Holland. These were printed by Parmentier in the ‘* Annales de Chimie” for 1806, and are as follows: “The chicory for this purpose is collected in spring; the roots are conveyed to the manufactory, stripped of their leaves and washed to remove the soil.* They are cut into six parts, and then divided and dried. When dry, they are roasted in great cylinders like coffee. After the roasting, the chicory is reduced to a coarse powder. ‘In Holland this chicory is then mixed in variable proportions with coffee ; the resulting product is very bitter, which is considered by the common people to be a very salutary refreshment, which modifies the stimulant action of the coffee. Such a favorable idea has been formed of it, that of late this preparation has been employed alone, without any addition of coffee; and nevertheless it possesses no other virtue tha that of coloring more or Jess readily the water in which it is boiled or in- fused, of communicating to the liquid the bitter taste of the extractive sub- Stances contained in chicory, and of being far less expensive than coffee. - M. Payssé adds, that * peas, lupins, beans, beet-root, carrot, &e., have been employed as substitutes for coffee.” The manufacture of chicory-coffee however remained for a long time stationary and of little importance ; but for the last twenty years It has extended considerably, and has become an object of commerce great importance. ‘Till within the last few years it was carried on prin- Cipally near Valenciennes; but since then manufactories = opr’ up in several localities, — - pallee aypatiea ie, Faris, Senlis in Normandy, Brittany and in England. The cultivation Of seen to obtain the root for the nested converting it into coffee, has become a” source of great — y “i these districts. The plant requires a deep soil of good quality, a . jon i id to injure their value. * The roots are now no longer washed, as this Sat de ices sais been exported + For the last two years very large quantities frota France into England. . aaa : 442 Miscellaneous Intelligence. well-prepared ; the seed is sown in May, and the harvest takes place in October. Some time the een the roots, the leaves are mowed, and cows fed with 1 he roots are dug up with a spade, placed in heaps, and iisted. wit straw a soda them from fro e roots, thus collected, are cut at first’ jon givudionlly} and then transversely, in pieces from 5 to 10 centimetres in size; they are then carried into the drying chambers, which are heated with a kind of anthracite which produces no smoke. The roots are placed in layers of about 40 centimetres ; they are rey seat ~eei to prevent them from burning and to facilitate the dryin ur such operations are made in about twenty- sn hours. ‘The roots dried by the above pro- _cess are known by the name of Cossétes. They are kept in granaries ; as but in general sold alin immediately to the manufacturers, who roast them according to the demand. When the roasting is nearly complete, two per cent. of butter isadded, and a erie of turns given to the roast- ing machine. This addition is made in order to impart lustre el +H chicory, and to give it the enn, "of roasted coffee. The stance is then emptied into iron vessels, and after cooling is sromod th in vertical stone mills or between iron ‘’ linders ; it is then sifted, and during this — a small quantity of reddish coloring substance (rouge brun de Prusse) is added to give it the color of coffee The product is rhe weighed off and sold in packets so a variety of names, but me se nder its own; for instan mo others, in fact, 12,000,000 lbs. are consumed in France, and a large son is exported. On consulting the tables of the commerce in France, will be seen that from 1827 to 1836 there was exported from rane 458,971 kilogrammes of chicory coffee of the value of 321,282 francs ; and since this period the amount has vastly increased. Adulteration.—This substance is very frequently mixed with other ingredients, the means for detecting which consequently vary. We shall briefly notice them I. Brick-dust, ochre and earth may be detected by incineration and neat the amount of ash; 100 grms. of pure chicory coffee fur- h from four io five per cent. of residue; an excess would indicate fraud. on the surface III. Adulteration with roasted bread, dirt and remains from vermi- celli, &c. This adulteration is generally made with crusts of bread noe in the streets, crusts which are not always very clean. 1hey roasted or rather burnt in the oven, Rte and mixed with the shseoeis -powder. This adulteration can be detected by iodine-water: i ee ee * Tt forms an excellent fodder; but when given alone, communicates a very dis agreeable flavor to the milk of animals. : TNT ens lig een : 3 7 j F i j ‘ 4 | 4 4 Miscellaneous Inte ii Ce. 443 as the product resulting from the decoction of pure chicory does not strike a blue color. Net IV. Adulteration with roasted acorns, which may be detected by iodine-water and by persulphate of iron, which in such a case strikes a black color. a ee V. Adulteration with roasted corn, haricots and peas may be detected by means of iodine-water. + There is no method as yet known of detecting the adulteration by roasted beet-root and carrot. os nan unnoticed kind of abnormal vision; by Prof. C. DewEy.— There are two well known kinds of abnormal vision in eyes t diseased, the far-sighted, and the near-sighted. The former occurs in good eyes, as persons advance in life, beginning about the age OF Se. forty, and ‘s remedied by plane, or better, by convex spectacles. The latter is found in youth or young persons, and finds its remedy in con- cave glasses, ‘I'he far-sighted are unable to see near and small objects, and remove them at an inconvenient distance, while they see remoter objects perfectly well without glasses. The near-sighted are unable to see small objects unless they are brought inconveniently near, and have no distinct vision of remote objects. There is a kind of abnormal vision, different from either of these, which is not far-sighted nor near-sighted, but in which near small objects, or larger distant objects, are not seen with distinctness. This imper- fection occurs in children and young persons, and is remedied by con- vex spectacles which are suited to the eyes of persons from sixty-five to seventy years of age. The younger eyes require the older glasses, and with advancing years less convex glasses are required. At the age of forty-five or more, this kind of abnormal vision becomes much di- minished. 444 Miscellaneous Intelligence. objects distinctly, though the defect is not suspected by them and is = unknown to parents and teachers. The knowledge of this sub- make spectacles a siill gies benefit to our race. 8. don of the Waters of the Dead Sea; by R. P. FP. Mar: CHAND,* (Poggen dorff’s Ann, der Phys. u. Chimie, ake 462, 1849.) —A quantity of water from the Dead Sea was brought by Kunowski to Berlin, which he obtained at the north end not far from the mouth of the Jordan. Its specific gravity at 19° C., was 1:184]5; at 13°, 11859. The a affurded— ~ Chlorid of calcium, .. : : ; t 2:894 ; ig magnesium, d Po hae FO Fas * potassium, 1:398 ” sodium, é 6:578 . aluminium, : ; 0-018 Bromid of magnesium, $ j : : 0-251 Sulphate of oad : é F JAS 0-088" i ae ; : é j : 0003 21-729 . American uaaenriel ier for the Advancement of Science.—We had intended to have given extracts of the a of the recent Session Traveller, f from’ whose office the popenpeint will soon be issued, sid whence copies may be procured. We may adda word in behalf of this daily paper, published at Boston, as we have long appreciated i - excellence. The various scientific and literary addresses and lecture of Boston and its vicinity are reported by it in full, and by senor ers that rarely miss a word that falls from the speaker’s mouth. re indebted to the editors in this way for the juldiauion of Agnes leetre on Embryology, which we have been assu y those who are given with remarkable accuracy. ‘The Lowell Lectures of Dinas, by men of the hightest standing in their paar yee through this paper, be enjoyed in distant portions of our country. may hope therefore that the Boston Evening Traveller will widely nigh for it is one of the most important means in our country of dissemi- nating scientific and literary information.—Ebs. 10. British Association.—The British Association has just beld its annual meeting at Birmingham, commencing with Sept. 12. We copy ‘here the Report of the General Committee, as it will interest those who would promote the progress of the kindred associations in this country. Report of the Council to the General Committee.—I. With refer- ence to the subjects referred to the Council by the General Committee = 7 Qeber analyses are cited inthis Jour xlviii, at eae ae s of Northampton. They have the pleasure of stating that the Observatory has been continued. nd. Pursuant to the request of the General Committee, the Council serting in the Rules aie ia subsequently be ew officio members of the Council; and the Council now recommend that a paragraph to that effect should be inserted in the Rules of the Association. tel cs 3rd. The sum of 100/. placed by the General Committee at the dis- posal of the Council for the disbursements connected with the Kew Ob- for the preparation of the self-registering magnetical instruments, on Mr. Ronalds’s plan, for the Toronto Colonial Observatory. Mr. Birt lication either of Professor Edward Forbes’s Researches on the Egean Szcoxp Serres, Vol. VIII, No. 24—Nov., 1849. 57 446 Miscellaneous Intelligence. bs = | S z fe) 3 =) S ® “ ah on be composition of epidote, 123. HNunhdasichs liquid h and margaric acids, 270. oe - ible, mode Gismondine : ion Phillippsive 122. ces, G ane, a ne yA n, 431, i Glinkite, analysis of, 121. Indian ‘monument in Kentuek Glonoine, 267. Squier, 1. Gold of South Carolina, 65. ites Com. chemical examination oy by —~ of California, me sis of, 128, 449. J. H. Salisbury, noticed, 307. in _ tralia, 290. ndianite, wher 2 Loa = —— regio ‘of California, C. S. Lyman, Ink f or steel pe ens, 10k mly pi. ron oresof South Carolina, 65, ae Gorgas, J., on certain frozen leaves, 286. _||Iron, soldering cast and wrought, 117. . Genta, Bu, editor of new Astronomical |—— reaction with anhydrous sulphuric acid, os ournal, 450. hi fil, Genera of plants, by, noticed, Ieomorphism, polymerous, observation on, Crs W. R., heat produced by magnetism, inapedioan Crustacea, new, J. D. Dana, 424, Guano, new sabeteuces in, Herapath, i b Lata et port on force of, by mn "Mor, Japan, smelting copper in, 396. i, no ne Jordan, Lynch’s Observations on the, 317. a cotton yee ti ilar Jussieu's Elements of Botany, 303. ey A., he Earth and aioe by, ‘siicioeds K | Kentucky, mounds of, E. G. ar at : A Kerguelen’s Land, remarks on, 1 Knapp, F., Chontieal Peoksislony of noticed, omposition of, 123. Hares Ww. H, works by, me Alge, noticed,)) Ko," H., atomic weight 6 silica, 414, P eee Seoduced by maguetiem, Grau 260: Kréyer, on Popmmcengy: 3° et seq. —, ogress of, 410. Fi Heck, G., Iconographic Encyclopedia of, _noticed, 451. | Lardite, analysis of, 121. Heights in the ETicenlyas, 133. Laurent, composition of stearic and marga- Heintz, bong phosphates ese, 111. ric aci —, clannpsalon of tos earth, 271. Lea's Catelogne of Plants of Ohio, 302. ——, analyses of bones, 410, Lead, word dog? bate = of, in ee ake 420. Herrick, E. C., shooting stars of April and||—, August, 1849, 429 tex work fone of Geode tables, for- at F. W., ‘Outlines of Astronomy, alas, éc., no ticed, 306. Weclahdie analysis of, 122 \| Lesueur, memoir of, 189, Hildreth, S° Histo noticed, || —, writin, 3 en ear en Lime, pho a _pyrophos ee 112. mat de Soc bam in, 133. Liquid iprotoryd of nitrogen, 1 new, 152. k n the Siecacbacumnik, 30 Fossil Footmarks, noticed,| Logan, Report on the Geology of faete, 15], J. D., extent of flora of coal era in’ Longitude, determination of, by altitudes of Britain, 131. , W. Chauven Lovage: Antarctica of, noticed, 1 Proding coapaieiets of arith and cobalt, 112. pg identical with chon paeeaiin a ng uce, J. ~ Nees of numbers, dog —, on Pinel ela : oe Ww. FE, ’ Expedition to the Dood Sea, ——, mineral springs of Canada, 364. Bes Pa of aniline oe nitrous a “a Ma stis, remarks wh 170, 173. a . . “ye hl} id Mi ‘he Re 150. mai mane: of . omgow ved ron aide Mo a the Antaretic, Hydrogen, passage of, through solid ee eed deiecion by the act of volition, rene hace of the planet, Seconp Serizs, Vol. Vill, vat ee eee, = 59 i : of crystals, 430 ". A. Norton, 35, R Grove, 266. avis, noticed, 308, 307 es 0 of, I on, Maree, action of chloroform on. sensitive Merde ay os picric acid, 108. analysis of waters of _ Sea, 444. ents acid, L: Saalm viller 263. ington noticed, 272. Masonite, _M. F., circular relating to the Astro- 303. ‘ ‘Ex to Chile, noticed, Mendipite, analysis of, 127. reury, € antimonite of, 127. —-in ad Mesitine Metals, gh ee ng powers of, 185. Metallurgy, np hts ge! Britain, 96, 258. Meteorite of aes Meteors, see Meteorology, Inroiucuion ‘to, by D. P. Nuepcevt mode - ~ Thomxon, 305. 2 "Marine hig by W. H. Mone Pharmacy, noticed, 150. INDEX. 130; Tale of ee lelead eg Tellunie Bismuth, 127; opaz in N. C. 275: Unite: 334. Uralorthite, J. Ni ning, ancient, in Britain, Monazite in N. Carolin a, 275. , liquid hydrocarbons for) Monazitoid, a new ieral, ae. smn a new mineral, , A., Experiments - Gunpowder, ced , 309. Mort 1, 8. G EG. Ser, I 152. ands of Kentne “ky, E.G.S Tountain, peaks of Himala aca he Ni Neolite, a new since 123. Neo-macropia, 443. Name is Australis, by W. H. Harvey, noticed, Nickel, extraction of, . ere 112. — arsenical, of Oe —— arsenio-sulp hure #3 "08, IN oe ite, 126. J., Min anes of, noticed, 159. ing engravings, 293. Nile, ai Ww. Reid's t ae work on storms, noticed, Nir roi 205 id “dr 0b 1 ‘ — iid ae — of wind, mean amount of Nitros decomposition of siti " t oh gy &c., 42 et s mount of dew, 220. 4g man, Jr., 37 , Albite of ~ 389 saison ite, 103 : romani nite of Mer 27; Arkansite 4; Ba has grt in Massoct vusetts, 275 ; Bagrationite, 126; Baierine, 274 _ Fg 3 2 ze mat Brook Bue hh 337 ; Chloritoid, 12 C., 275; 23, 272 ; Cingeanies 383; Copper, black |Oakes’s en of ia . . 3 Co »p- uien, 381; Fibrolite, 388 mondine 12): Gala : Cali fornia, 128, 449; of tralia, ‘ ; Harmotome, 123 ; ees ; Bis smuth, Nu ite, | Nuttallite, analysis of, te,|| Ph lips, gf on n, 96, 25 Tinea of the magn ot v umbhers, theory of, J. B. Luce 55, ‘Obit poy notice o Ducatel, 146. VE, n, 450, Gis! |—~ of L. F.W. A. Seebeck, 450. Glaucophane, = nape Or moir of Lesueur, 189. , me Cucite and pectolite identical, 123. on the nature of Limbs, 152. z A, padage nae 391; ite, 121; P. 48 lasonite, endipite, 127 ; a Page, C. G., on galvanic light, 146. _the 275; Mesitine, 121; v|[Pancreatic hiner! on 140. ‘a8, Monaizite in N. C., 275; ‘Mo. en or 1848, * noticed, 456: nazitvid, 125; rolite, 385 ; mon- Ayko ois and osmelite identi 123. , 125; Ne , 121; Nickel ores, 128; pegs denims F Niobite, 127; Nuttallite, 394; Pectolite, || Ph ient Metallorgy in Brit ; Phillippsite, 122; Pistomesite, 121; i er a ee 122, ial 4; ‘Schreibersite and ‘ite, 440 st » 386; nine, 127; Steatite, 122; Stercorite, 129, i Phillippsive, identity of with h siemon ater :||Phos nganese, | ;||Phos ha te and pyro phosphate of bee Bi Pf li n boi Stan- isso pe eensand and marl, 422, — 127. of copper, native, Oe ae en aT EOS INDEX. — Phosphoric acid, separation ~ A. gabe Phycologia, Britan nica, by W. if diese, tice — acid, mee of, with nitrophenisic ra me Sh Pisto Paci wanetieds 126, Planet, new, discovered by, a 145. eia, elements — Plants of Antarctic re . bh ——, geographical distribution of, 162. ee Gah 2 npiened England, Oukes's herbarium of, Phun — in Mexico, 100. Pliic: gnetic relation of crystals, 430. Polarization’ of hea and Des- Sains, 410. , Provostaye f,1 Pulley, curve described bya phe Pyrophy lite of igen 122. — in U. State Q. Quinic acid, chlorinated products of decom- position of, 412, R. Rafinesque, mounds of Kentucky, 1. Railroad and Canal routes to Pacific, report | . Rockwell, noticed, 456. Sega at annual amount, 54. Randanite, a new mineral, 120. Redtenbacher, J., on taurine, 107. ——, on carbothialdine, 107. ault, V., specific heat of potassiu um, 411. ——, atomic we ight of sivas. carbon, potas- sium, 4 Wm., new work on Storms, noticed, 454, Report on Railroad and Canal _— be- tween the Aulanti and Pacific, by J. A. Rockwell, 45 the deflecti tion of the ——, observ: s by, _— ae Rocks of South h Caro lina, ition of, ber elmen Rockwell, J. A., report by, on Ibsilrond and Canal routes a the ‘Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, 456. separa on of phosphoric acid, 181, Ross’ 's Voyage to the Antarctic, reviewe ed, 14,) —_— Sece A, «a pley, 358 <* bed by a moveable rmont, A. Kieste formation of min- of minerals in N. Georg Bab- Slims, identity of, with fibrolite, yar ite, buc es ||Silver, eli af lorid of, 11. ae as ——, atomic w t of, Re gnault, “i” able ape glass bp cae. CO ote on, 117. ae South Carolina, T'uomey’s Geological Re- port, reviewed, 61. Spheroidal state of bodies, incombustible n, &e., 431. | Sprout L, Genera of Plants by, noticed, Squier, £., G., ancient monuments of Ken- tucky, St. Evre action of chlorine on a benzoate, Stier, saa of decomposition of quinic nec a Gant : new mineral, 127. Btansie. ea, 6 composition of, 270, Steatite, analysis of, 122, Stercorite in guano, Paste composition of, ‘123. Reid’ w work on, noticed Macculloch 150. Schr ape analy of sme, 109, 110. ~~ and zine with yar r. bes of Rhode a a of, 122, Telegraph relocty oof ‘pulvenie wave, S.C. . Tellu uric 5 oan Brazil, Te emperature of New esland and Auckland ids., 22, 23. —— of Antarctic ocean, 24 et s "Ke ——, diurn: al variations of, 42, 218 350. —- loss ot from nocturnal variation, 45, Baa at — son hs 33, re) 8. acids of castor at 107. ——, on margaratinic acid, 26 Sava; nt ee uadadsen eat Ne on‘ odytes gorilla, * Schreibersite, 440 ner enee oe UR R. Chambers on, 33. the Sea-Side ak ta Be. W, HL Heron, no- ticed, 453. Sea-weed of the a, 170. . Seebeck, L. F. W. A., obituary of, 450. a, 86. Tertiary 0 of South Carolina, 67. —_ of ener 274, os§e D. aw of balance of food in panirition tants of, 163, Pp Ps of, a mines of og pl ne aro “; to M Seagal Pied ogg aay Drs oe survey of eo, by, 419. mithsonian Institute Report, noticed, 158, % ul ly 464 INDEX, — Report on S. Carolina, reviewed,|| Weisbach, J., Principles of Machinery and oc grass, 137. ? Type manufactory, 292, U. crystallization of, 125. ral, B. Silliman, Jr. 384, Vv. Van Diemel’s Land, fossil tree, &c., of, 18. =, _—— kind of abnormal, Cc. Uralorthite, Unioni te, anew mine Sie ‘of, in man, 287. yaa anew mineral, 122. Ww. Walker, S.C , velocity of galvanic wave, 142 Water of the Me diterranean, aie pes of, 116. —— of the Dead Sea, analys Wavellite i in Georgia, 275. uscarora r Spring a other mineral waters of Cane, T. S, nt, 364. Weidenbusch, H.,on aldehyde, 268. Engineering, 455. J. D., on chloritoid and masonite, in. apo black oxyd of copper, Lake Superior, Whit tlesey, C., on a coal plan Winds, seed dumeesineied by, ar ——., variations in force of, Yor 1844 53. Wahler, an organic compound containing arsenic, 2 es mode of rendering incombustible, Wyman, J., on the Troglodytes gorilla, 141. on Comparative Anatomy, noticed, 157. ¥. /Yttrotantalite of Ytterby, 126. Z. Zinc, action of anhydrous sulphuric acid ith, 271. wi nd||—_, hydra ted valerianated, 272. yara Zoo oophy tes, Atlas of Report on, by J. D. Dana, notice |Zygadite, a new mineral, 124, ILLUSTRATED SCIENTIFIC BOOKS. LEA & BLANCHARD, ADELP ee nae pub eee el A ao OF ILLUSTRATED SCIENTIFIC WORKS PRISING TREATISES ON VARIOUS BRANCHES OF SCIENCE, Y THE MOST DISTINGUISHED AUTHORS. Printed in the handsomest style, and embellished in the most efficient manner. LATELY we ee PHYSICS, PRINCIPLES PHYSICS AND METEOROLOGY. PROFESSOR e psy > ee De DITED, ee! ADDITIONS, BY LESFELD GRIFFITH, M. D. In one large and handsome octavo volume, ea i wood-cuts, and two colored plates. SPECIMEN OF THE W WOOD ENGRAVINGS. ; ESS a st YY Yj Y GY Yi oo oe Ze From Wm. H. Bartlett, Esq., Professor of Natural és and ie ig a Philosophy, U. 8. Miuitary Academy, Wesi I deem this work a most valuable ne i to the seitations) facilities of the country, and a ges source of information to the general reader, as it is truly an elegant specimen of typography. inpason as March nat I take any interest in the progress of | science i @ great mass of the pe iy The author is one of nd id these works have been eps = the ——, are, and 3 Dut fi a in a form admirably — pied to secure that wide circulation niversal favo waekan . ¥. Courter and Inqu A eurk a which. all parties may be pro a “Colo lonization Hera An excellent work, fully and elegantly illustrated.—Silliman’s Sot KNAPP’S CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY. y 7 & 3 reCHuN OL.0 6-7; OR, CHEMISTRY APPLIED TO THE ARTS AND TO MANUFACTURES, BY DR. F. KNAPP, Professor at the University of Giessen. EprIrep, WITH NuMEROUS NoTES AND ADDITIONS, BY DR. EDMUND RONALDS, anp DR. THOMAS RICHARDSON. First AMERICAN SSietie wito Notes AND ADDITIONS, BY PROFESSOR WALTER R. JOHNSON. In two handsome octavo volumes, printed and illustrated in the highest style of art. Volume One, lately published, with two hundred and fourteen large w ood engravings Volume Two, nov _ ready, with two hundred and ‘fifty wood engravings aes Y Ar SPECIMEN OF THE WOOD ENGRAVINGS. One of the best works none times.— New aged Commer cial. I We think it will prove ede most popular, as it is idediy the best of the series. Written by one who has for many years ~~, both tears tically and p racticaily the processes which he desert scriptions are precise, and conveyed in a — unpretending style, so that they sna while they are suificic sntly full in detail, nelude within them everything necessary to the entire prehension "at the operations. The wor germ pkey y broug! 7 ; 2 5 the most recent proveme anh intre rdue se dl upon the continent he? Europe, and thus gives us full descriptions 0! processes 4 which “@ y made >» orks, whil i re believe, now ior r the firs bina aveannied ina complete state to the English reader —Franklin ged _ nal an i 0 : i ginal work, very extensive nore he additions wine been prnert to it wy the editor, which are exceedingly valuable: and of much interest to t The aaa have spared no pains in cree: ane out a work of superior ee execu ation ¢ and ot excellence, with numerous skillfully pte hr designed Me illustrate the various subjects high this work. We oe that, as a —_ wher public ation, it will be eagerly sought after and high appreciated —N. Y. Farmer and Mecha We had the pleasur or noticing, ina ieraaee number, the first volume of this excellent wo rk, ando hat ‘it pressing ou ralue. We need say little more, therefore, of its continuation, than i oa fully sustains the character of its pre sar agnert both in regard to the value of the orig onde itish number and importance of the ee which have been made to it by the English editors.— The Br na —e" Medico Chirurgical Review. ad = es =] “4 = = ae wn ® ion] R o® Bes - w ad @ Ee: WEISBACH’S MECHANICS. PRINCIPLES OF THE MECHANICS OF MACHINERY AND ENGINEERING. By Proressor JULIUS WEISBACH. TRANSLATED AND EDITED BY PROFESSOR GORDON, OF GLASGOW. First American Edition, with Additions, By Pror. WALTER R. JOHNSON. In two Octavo Volumes, beautifully printed, Volume One, with five hundred and fifty illustrations, just issued. Volume Two, with three beadsan: vi thirty illustrations, now ready. SPECIMEN OF THE WOOD ENGRAVINGS. ma AANA The second volume of this work embraces the application of the Principles of Mechanics to iy Badges, Platform Scales, Water Powers, Dams, Water Wheels, Turbines, Water En- — is work is f th ing een laid before us for some time and we may safely t i ientifi The Bude arles A. Hasu pell, Bn Engineer in Degli be a successful manner. i een pe in the fullness of their constraction, and in typographical e tion, are without a paceltel It will afford me much pleasure to recommend its use by the members of the profession with which I am connected. IN PREPARATION, Works on Chemistry, Metallurgy, Machines, The Steam Engine, Astronomy, Rural Economy, &c. &e. 3 ¢ MOHR, REDWOOD, AND PROCTER’S PHARMACY. NOW READY. PRACTICAL PHARMACY . COMPRISING THE Se cenTian APPARATUS, AND MANIPULATIONS OF THE H ARMACEUTICAL SHOP AND LABORATORY. BY FRANCIS MOHR, Ph. D a Assessor Pharmacie of the Royal Prussian College of Medicine, Coblentz. ND. THEOPHILUS REDWOOD, Professor of Pharmacy in the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain. EDITED, WITH EXTENSIVE ADDITIONS, BY PROFESSOR WILLIAM PROCTER, Of the Philadelphia Coll { Pharmac In one handsomely printed octavo volume, of 570 pages, with over 500 engravings on wood. SPECIMEN OF THE WOOD ENGRAVINGS | \ ee: _ Sach a manoal as the work before u i has been & . sats a s, has long been a desideratum n There has great want of a proper text-book of Pharmacy ; hee to this want may be attributed much of the ignorance ihe the ubject, in places remote from the res admirably nes : ) plies ot want, and, by the minute practical instruction which it ¢ bd __ } Shop of the ' ‘the United States. We recom