16 ( AMERICAN JOURNAL . SCIENCE AND ARTS. i CONDUCTED BY Proressors B. SILLIMAN, B.-SILLIMAN, Jr., AND , JAMES D. DANA. AIDED * IN THE DEPARTMENTS OF CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS BY Dr. WOLCOTT GIBBS. SECOND SERIES. VOL; Xkhe_MAY, 186 WITH TWO PLATES. —— oe. oe CONTENTS OF VOLUME XI. NUMBER XXXI. Arr. I. Comparison of Experiments on American and Foreign Building Stones to pepe their vale eit and du- rability ; by Prof. W - IL On the Law of the loduciltt of an Elsaiae Carvent cipon ital / iin apie in a straight prismatic conductor, and of dis- charges if Machine sctittatn ‘pean straight wines; by ae J. H. Lan 17 Ill. On Mamocae by Cus ARLES Urage Su HEPAR : 36 1V. An Essay on the Classification of Reatertes’ sid Plandtie: : visions of the Animal Kingdom; by Cuartes Girarp, - 4i V. Memoir on Emery ; . Lawrence Suiru, M.D.—Second part.—On the Minerals associated with Em . ery VI. On the Velocity of the Galvanic Current in Telegraph Wires; by B. A. Goutp, Jr., in a Report to Prof. A. D. : p- 23; with a notice of two new tesrealipaias ai J. W. AILEY. 82 Vill. Sisedltnncaus Notices : by - W, Rie. LEY, 85 ~ - On the time required to raise the Galvanic Curtéak: to its a ~ Maximum in Caled Conductors, and its importance in Elee- tro-Mechanics ; 3 by Prof. Cuas. G. Pace, } X. A new figure in Mica and other Phenotbens ‘of Plated Light; by Prof. Cuas. G. Pace, XI. . Descriptions of new species of Fung collected by the U. S. me 4 xploring Expedition under C. W -8.N.,¢ site eb a der; by Rev. M. J. Berxetey and iy M. A. Cur XII. On the markings of the Carapax of Crabs; by ton D. Bam,” 93. ' th ‘Chemical examination of a Phos phate of Iron, sii eae and Lithia, from Norwich, Mass. ; e W. J. Cr . On the Physical and Crypt £ Pace of the | oe Phosphate ¥ Iron, Manganese an ithia 9 sorvic ip bpd eee achusetts ; oF Adee aed = eo | ce. oft th c : lv CONTENTS. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics.—On the penetration of Magnetism into soft iron, by Dr. von Ferxitzcu in Greifswald, 105.—On the law for the intensity of Magnetism ced in soft iron by alvante currents n the action ‘of heat and alk ine bases npon the homologues of Acetl Acid, 107. products of the action of Chlorine rpo op e: O sombinations of Io d Ph i phorus, reparation of Chlorate of ash : e: Absorption of car- bonic ox y an ammoniacal mae ie hlorid as copper: On the color- ing principles of Madder, 109.—Act of Sulphite of Ammonia, 111.—On |. ot a -hippurie acid : Action of ey heron acid ods aldehyde ammonia, 112. the Nitroprussids, a new class of Salts, by Dr. Lyon Piayrair, 3.— ropert i es a new erly of Carbonic Oxyd, EBLANC: On the Aéro ic Balan P _—Preservation of the to-Sulphate of Tron from Oxydation, by M spint: Freezing point of Water | xP e, by Prof. Cuomsoy: ‘Test for the Pr —— in saad body, by Dr. Snow, 115.—On the behavior of Cum acl he ie System, by Dr. Hormann: Action of bret ul | Qi of ‘Bitter Minin 6 Animal System, by C. G. MirscHer. uerehes = Pony ogy.—Report of Progress, of the Soglogicn! bg of Can D. E. Logan, Exq., 116.—On the Gold Mines of Dar n, Emigration to gaat (YS ae aber and Shas Bi of the Isthmus of Sener DN : : ols On the sagen Phenomena of the Mager se of pe pea ae re e Rem n the General Subject, by Mr. R. Cua peeel 9.— ee fou ae Gland of Mau , Hawaiian Group, by ANA: " Gibbsiten 131. - Zoology.—On the order of isis sion of Parts in a F. Pounraces, 121.—On the Principles of Classification, by L. AGASSIZ, 192 Observations on the Blind Fish of the Mammoth Cave, b Acassiz, 127.— On the Car aoe Collections of the United States, by Pro ewis R. Grapes, 123.—Observations on the Fishes of Nova Scotia and Labrador, by i we ep ri e new Planet Parthenope: The new Planet Clio: Anot ther new Plane —Petersen’s Comet: Bond's Comet: Shooting Stars of August 10, ey arr teoric Observations in November and December, 1850: “Meteor es Il Daylight: Meteor ns September 3), "1359, 131.—Periodical Meteors of. Augie, 1843 and 1849, by C. B. Forsuey, 133. st Sst Ha ape Arent —Translation of part of a letter from Mr. E. F. de Furubjelm, o of the officers of a Scientific Expedition sent out by | ee Empe- ror og Russia % the pecan part of Finnland and Lapland, to Ose - Lies ber, 136.—Notice of a remarkable Spring or wig in n Hollis, now Phipsborg, Maine, about seven atte rom Saco and from Ken nk, by Rev te Nee ae 4 tz) = (4 “ - w ae 9 —< z: 3 .@ o oz oO o a wn is) - < 2 =. =) > oe pe ga ) — 5 o Me 2B —) 33 >: g¢ = = © ~~ ns N. ¥., to the summit of Mount Washington in New Hampshire, by Joet aenge ws, 138.—Makerstoun Observations on the Aurora Borealis,+ by J- _ Bro E, Fisq , 139.—Relative level of the Red Sea and Mediterranean, 142.— ~ ; Fall ‘of Dust 4 Olsterholz, near Detmold: Tenacity of Metals, 143.—Odituary. liam Gambel, 143. Bisiograpy —A Biindtse . the Studies of the Lary ees of Ca Tosophea He AM aged — M.A., F.R.S., 144.—Elements of Natural Philoso tT, LL D. The Recent Pee Astronomy, in ihe United Siates, "by Prof. Exras Loomis, 146.—Ne try, b TH: Practical Hand-book of Medical Bo: Fea Geolog ON ae e Daguerrian Jou at 1 thy cle ee Ai wéitte a Pa Gfeen-bquses, Gra ‘ ractiral diréctions. CONTENTS. var NUMBER XXXII. Art. XVI. On the Velocity of the poe Current in Telegraph Wires; by B. A. Goutp, Jr., in a Report to Prof. A. D. Bacue, LL.D., Superintendent an U.S. Coast Survey, 153 XVII. Observations on the Gnathodon beds around the head Mobile Bay ; by Rev. C. 8S. Hate, - - 164 XVIII. On the Mineral Springs of Canada ; by’ cs S. Hunt, - 174 XIX. Whirlwinds produced by the Burning of a Cane- — by Avexanper FisHer Otmstep, A.M.—With a Pla 181 XX. Description of a new Graptolite found in the cede Silu- rian Rocks near the Falls of St. Croix pines by HA Provt, M.D., 187 XXI. On the direction of ‘hes Spark fiom Benantlary Correnta under the influence of Helices or Magnets ; by Professor Has. G. Pace, M.D., 191 : as tis the Conduction and Discibuiien of the Galeanne Can ae cs nt in Liquids; by Prof. Cuas. G. Pace, M.D. 192 pF XXIII. Two Problems by Bapu Deva Shastri, Native Priféalot of Mathematics in the Benares College, 194 “a XXIV. On the Vents of Hot Vapor in Tuscany, acid heie Dale ‘ _ tions to Ancient Lines a, Fone and Erupiion by Sir f Roperick Impey Murcu 199 : pal On Kirk wood’s Law of che rotation of the Primary Planeies ee y Prof. Exriss Loomis, 2 XxVC. On a new Genus oe ee in the Collections of the ae S. Exploring geen pe Capt. oe Wilk iN. vy James D. Dan - : - ‘ . XXVIL Mineralogical Nefics - - - - - Bs MA VIL Notices of Coal in Chia by D. J. Maccowan, M.D., { XXIX. Abstract of a Meteorological Journal kept at Mare Ohio, for the year 1850; by ;S. P. Hivprern, M.D., n the different Chamnica’ Conditions of the Water wk the Acer of i ines and at the oe on Souneiyeys : y Gc. A. Hay XXXL “Oh the Limit of Perpetual ibew in the Himalaya by Lieut. StracHe : * * . XXXIL acs of “the Ashes of one Commercial Teas ' communicated by Prof. E. N. Horsr SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. . é it s Re "of Gases: van ‘ee 22 ons f e ni ‘ it “a 3 aé © i CONTENTS. "Mineralogy and Geology. a “ab A Lawrence SmitH: On the Gongs of Spain, by nage ela AQquin EzqQue DEL Bayo, 259. = Aste nt of Popocat - e etl, 26 266.—O S Prdrcpiiee as the Corundum of es a tI F. Sear: On ‘Rhode Island Coal, by A. A. Hayes Zoology. —Cons eee. Drpetocesrum “que in Orbis Terrarum CiroUm DA RRUONSS Carolo Wilkes e ve psit J. D. Dan Pars VI, 268.— jogic cal Bethe by Josern Lewy, oe D. 5274 aaVaine. oF the word Spiciod i in Zoology, by 8. G. Morron, M. Astronomy.—The new planet Egeria, 276. Miscellaneous Intelligence.—Magnetism , 276.—A comparative hare of the objective glasse s of Microscopes from Mr. Ross of England, Mr. Spencer of cl g r es etable Physiology, 286.—Anasthetic Action: On Teleg opm and on pe Percha as a means of insulation and a material for pahcie ry B rof. pei a the Purification of Coal Gas, by Mr. Lamina 20) ibe the Aspl halti Coal of New Property by C. T. Jackson, 292. —Shooting Stars of August, 1950: Lalande Medal : ” Academy of Natural Sciences of ae a 293.— Obituary.—John James Audubon: Prof. H. C. Schumacher, spss Op .—Patent hae Report for ee 295. wig Atlas of Fossil Re- by G. A. ManTe tu, Esq., LL.D., F.R.S , 298.—On the Pelorosau- fae Wacenis: and Eslsinncienthis, and Hylacrarus, ‘by G. A. Mant ELL, Esq., S., &c.: A Treatise on Trigonometry, lane and Spherical, by Rev. List of Works, 303. > NUMBER XXXIII. : oe aes Agr. XXXII. On the Aboriginal Monuments and Relics of New York; by E.G. Squirr, A XXALV. On as corrosion Sf 2 Alloy, composed of Copper cad _ Silver, in Sea-water; b Aue. A. Hay XXXv. On the Calculus of ony : by Joun Parsnson, A.M - XXIXVIL-On’ the Ma prot Ca or : =i» Myb. CONTENTS. Bik Page. - +" XXXIX. Miscellaneous Notices; by J. W. Bat 349 . XL. On the Chemical Constitution of the ace! Warwickite s ; y T. 8. Hunt, s- 352 ‘ XLI. On Coral Reefs and fetiards by James D. Dan - 357 % XLII. On = Infusoria and other Microscopic rotted in : Duiake F showers and Blood-rain; by Dr. C. G. EarenBere 372 XLII. Notice of the Geology of the Florida Keys and of the Southern Coast of Florida; by Prof. M. Tuo 390 XLIV. On the Law = — Rowen of the Primary Planes by Daniet Kirkw 394 XLV. New Some “of Fossil Corie frre the Report by Jamas Hatt, on the Paleontology of New York, 398 XLVI. Analyses of Pitchstone Porphyry from Isle Royale, and 7 a ays of pho of Lime from ees New ; by C. T. Ja MeDe 401 XLVI. ‘On ‘the Volatility of Phosphoric Acid in Acid Solutions when heated; and on Schmidt’s Process oF ea Determina- tion of Ni eee; by J. B. ‘aah a romine as a Toxicological agent “by Henny ee XLIX. ( an Im mpraved- Remontoie re Bscapemen fo an Astro: sha Clock; by J. Fut ) pac: SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE: Chemistry and ms aoe ee nee one in Electricity, by Mic Farapay, Esq., F.R.S., &c., 410.—Daguerrotypes by Galvanic Light ‘by B. lean 8 ri We oh enta’ i Electro- magnest, 418.—On the mid compounds o Cyanogen, 419.—On Cinchonine: Al ide hyde of Caprinic Ad —Theory of the formation of Eben? 42Y.—On the theory of anisol and its homologues, Sewer and Geology.—Notices of Minerals Ka new localities, by Prof, on. _ Huszarp, 423.—Boulders carried by Ice, 425 : - Zoology.—On the Classification of the Maioid Crustacea or Oxyrhyncha ; - James D. Dana, 425.—The Apteryx of New Zealand, 434.—Ibis guarauna in New England, by Dr. Cazor, 435. 23 _ Miscellaneous ~~ o ence. gem of Meteorological Observations made ___ lington, Vt. 0, by Z. THompson, 436.—Magnetic Observatory at Toronto: s verbascum, by H tona; Cabinet ef min ae CONTENTS. Treatise on Statics, by Gasparp MoncE 448.—Rainey’s Improved Abacus Lichenes Americe Septentrionalis Ciclecsti, curante Epvarpo TUcKE RMAN, .M.: The Old Red Sandstone or New Walks in an Old Field, Sg Ho Miter, 449 List of Bathe 449. Index, 451. Plate I, Magnetic Telegraph—to illustrate Articles VI. and XVI. Plate II, to illustrate Art. XIX, On Whirlwinds, p. 181. ERRATA. 18, 1. 16 from bottom, for “ space,” read “sphere,” P. 22,1. 5 from top, sub- stitute Sf for f. P. 23, 1.13 from Bee 2 ‘any portion of egrs,’ read “ any uae oars” P. 24,1. 15 from ‘oP. for P a ap read inde? Page 33, line 8 - a “9 a2Q’ os from bottom, for nKR? read 2rKR?. P. 34, 1.4 from top, for e. 3 97, 9th |. from bottom, for Lagostoma nodosa, read tae perlatus ae -P. 108. 1. 12 oe ~— ono.” anilene,”’ Bere “ eet * P. 110, lin a m, for Ose +4H d = HO.” —¥; en i 0x2 0! O4 read * uk il 19 from, bottom, for * mete read ‘ urethan es Vou. XL JANUARY, 1851. 7 te a EA RD Nh ERE t= ARIE SR ENERO OK AEN. SCIENCE AND ARTS. eats CONDUCTED BY AN JAMES b. DANA. Bee : : : : AIDED “is ee - e - . IN THE DEPARTMENTS OF CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS : : BY See ss 5 De. WOLCOTT GIBBS. SECOND SERIES. No, 31. :JANUARY, 1861. “NEW HAVEN: | PUBLISHED BY THE ‘EDITORS. Tar Amertcan Journat or Scr IENCE, Second Series, which was commence ed in January, 1846, is published on the Ist of January, March, ney July, September, and ~ » November, of each year, in Nos. of 152 pages each, making Two Volumes a year, fully illustrated by Engravings, and Gactabaing a comprehensive bulletin of ee —_ gence. Screg asian - per —_ in advance. Remittances should be forwarded to B. Sturman, New n, Con 7 : ‘Compuare Sets 7 as Sua Series of this Journal, Fifty Vodamen eo the Index, _ Only a very small number remain. For terms, address B. Srtu a cad eee, ; iis Journal may be purchased of the Publishers, and of the following Bcksslinned! as Aton i. Y, Lirret & Co. + (C.S. oe ary a -C. Lreece and | New York City, Geo. P. P Jawes _— JouN } Fer gz & Co. | Paris, France Hector ‘Bossance. LGeon oat “= 3 NicHoLs. Philadelphia, Pa., \. Hart. N. HickMAN. Pittsburg, Pa., Witson & Co. Brown & Parsons. Providence, R.T., Gro. H. W “4 Garrieue, N. York.| Rochestér, N. Y., Isaac DoguitTLe: + 49 Bow Lane, Cheap- Salem, Muss., Henry Wuierte. * # S side, ‘I. Deir, Put-- Savannah, Ga Wa. S. Win.iaMs. | nam’s Am. Agency g Harr & Jon ; e, Ky., gis Netson & Co.) Torunto, C ad Hue Re Mi : Woouwasné Sons. Utica LANSING THURBER. _ Mobile, Ala. S. W. ALLE a Weskingins D.C., Tayvtor & Maury. Noo Bedford, Mase, C. & A. Tanen: Worcester, fea Tucker & RUGGLES. a Mr. Henry M. Lewis, of MontZomery, oes is our General Te Agent for A labama and Tennessee, assisted b: y B. B. Bret _ Mr, Isnare E. James, No. 182 Soak Tenth street, Piety . our i General Trav- \gent for the S S for . T. Dent acon TaYLor, a w. ARMSTRONG, — Locke, W. Ramsay and ei ‘ee INMAN - Receipts from ei either of the above will be good. a susan published i in this Journal, are if quest- the disposal of the author. “By ne number of copies will be fi furnished at cost. atthe head of their MSS. the number of e opies ee es ee ee * AMERICAN [SECOND SERIES.] a —Comparison of Experiments on America and Foreign Building Stones to determine their relative strength and du- « — = rability ; by Prof. Watrer R. Jounson, of Washington, D. Cue ¥4; ioe Nave in the United Siiites but few ancient banda of which can furnish conclusive proofs of the dure ; sir materials, and as but few of the materials which 4 ? American rocks as have been made, but also between fake: Pas such foreign materials as have been tested by the most careful ~ enters, and have besides ‘undergone the more decisive ; proofs. of many centuries of use in public edifices and’ monu- As nature has in many situations exposed t x us ials to the direct action of all the causes which can wor xtends, but during the Boplogiea| ages which run urably beyond all human history. Tho denuding, disintegrating and decomposing | erived from sweeping currents of water, from me Siieres: of | temperature, or from vegeta s, Vol. XI, No. 31.—Jan,, 1851. a 2 Experiments on American and Foreign Building Stones. and decay, have been able to sustain themselves in high, bold, naked, angular cliffs, unprotected by soil, and yet unfurrowed by irregular disintegration, are manifestly those to which the engi- — _iheer and architect are to direct their attention, when they seek = . materials for durable works of art. On the other hand, they will - shun those rocks which the causes above enumerated have kept constantly down to a level with the ground, or which barely rise in some few patches to the surface, and are there seen disintegra- ting, scaling away, and covering themselves with a soil derived _ from their own debris. _ * he chemistry of geology furnishes to the architect and en- gineer most important hints for guiding their selection of materi- als; hints which when taken with other tests and proofs, leave them without excuse for choosing those of an inferior character. The influence of such a substance as iron pyrites on the durabili- , ‘ty of rocks in which it occurs, is so well known to every one ac- - quainted with even the rudiments of geology and mineralogical chemistry, as scarcely to need a formal statement.* ff of carbonic acid with water in dissolving carbonate of lime, and the readiness with which it acts on loosely aggregated crystalline masses of that carbonate, to effect their disintegration, may be understood from any elementary work on chemistry. e great- — er solubility of sulphate than of carbonate of lime may be ascer- tained from the same source. The weakness of coarsely crystal- lized stones as compared with those of finer texture, is so well — known as to be properly classed among the canons of architecture.t Of all the purposes for which building materials are employed, | that which requires the utmost attention to durability is the erec- tion of national monuments. It is a mockery to the dead, an an opprobrium to the living to put perishable materials into struc- tures professing to perpetuate the virtue of great and good men The Spanish nation is represented to have recently determined on the erection of a magnificent statue of bronze to rest on a — base of rose granite, the most enduring of that species of rock, to commemorate the glory of Columbus. ices The question of the strength of a material to resist a crushing ad ae ee oe Maat ~~ oks to the relation between the cohesion of a material and its 3 pacity to resist the action of other than mechanical causes of "| *«Pyrites when present (in granite) renders the rock unfit for use, as it decom- _ poses and stains or rusts the surface, besides loosening the grains and causing _ Fock to fall to pieces.”—Dana’s Mineralogy, p. 579. Borgni’s “ Constructions Diverses,” p, 23, and Rondelet’s “ Art de Batir.” i x Experiments on American and Foreign Building Stones. 3 disintegration. It is certainly a most egregious mistake to con- struct any tall public edifice in such a manner as not to sustain ~~ its own dead weight, but there are operations scarcely less dis- © bine and which apply with equal force to structures profess- * ing to be enduring whatever be their height, their form, propor- tions or weight. es The usual trial of materials in small cubes is intended to fur- nish the relative strength or durability of the several species of materials to which it is applied. The stone used in the Washington National Monument, and re-— ferred to in the following comparisons of experiments, is the same as that mentioned under the name of “alum limestone,” in the report of the building committee to the Regents of the Smithso- pian Institution, Dec. 7, 1847 ~The marble quarries of Maryland, chiefly in the vicinity of the village of Clarksville, about thirteen miles from Baltimore, on & the line of the Susquehanna Railroad, contain two qualities of = marble; one fine grained and of beautiful uniform color, ap- - sotthing the character of statuary marble ; the other of inferior Py: quality, similar to the Sing Sing marble employed i in New York q in Grace Church and other public structures, of a somewhat coarse he and highly crystalline structure, and known to the quarrymen _ here under the name of ‘alum limestone.’ ”’* Trials of these two kinds of stone by the the process of Brardt — ‘Were made by Dr. Page in 1847, and shewed that “an inch cube of the fine-grained marble lost in four weeks about one-fifth of a grain; and acube of the best or of the ‘alum stone,’ or coarse- grained marble from half a grain to a grain and a half?’t This indicated with dotitont press the inferior durability of the coarse-grained stone; since it underwent from two and a half to seven and a half times as much disintegration as the fine-grained variety. The fine-grained stone is understood to be - derived from the Taylor quarries, half a mile westward of Cock- eysville, and about a mile distant from the Griscom lime quarries + loose granules of the same rock. In some parts it is drotied to slo oping channels, lined. with skeletons of crystals and their alighly cohering nuclei removing the soil, the rock is found with alternating peak and cavities; its surfaces are more or less deeply tinged with the * Hints on Public Architecture, by R. D. Owen, p. 114. ae Chim. et de Phys, tom. 38. t Owen, p. 116. rs wee 4 Experiments on American and Foreign Building Stones. oxyd of iron derived from decomposed iron pyrites, many veins of which traverse it in various directions, and the skeleton crys- tals with loosely cohering nuclei are even more conspicuous than at the points where the rock crops out as above described. That even the fine-grained stone above mentioned is not in all respects suitable to be employed as the casing stone of large alr is proved by the present condition of the shaft of the Washington Monument in Baltimore, where a similar stone from the sane neighborhood was used. "This monument was com- — menced on the 4th of July, 1815, and the statue was elevated on the 19th of October, 1829. On the 23d of October, 1850, or twenty-one years from the date of its completion, I examined from 5 the platform at the base of the shaft the condition of its lower part. There was seen on the side of the shaft opposite to the north- east corner of the base, a crack commencing near the bottom and following partly the joints of the masonry, and partly certain pat ha or vertical cracks crossing the blocks of marble. The , 5th, Sth, 10th, 11th, 13th, 14th, and 15th courses of stone, an from the bottom, were seen to be broken either partly or wholly across, and in one instance a block is broken into pris ieces. On the southeasterly side of the shaft is a secon “of fracture crossing ten or twelve blocks, mostly alternating with the courses of masonry which have joints corresponding with the general course of the fissure. At the southwesterly side are — fifteen blocks cracked either partly or wholly across, and form- ing a third fissure more or less ina zigzag pase controlled apparently in some degree by the joints of the masonry. On the west side a fourth line of fracture appears to ascend some forty or fifty feet, and on the northwest side still a fifth line perhaps some- what more irregular in direction than the preceding, but still easily traceable by the eye. In some cases where the cracks on two alternate blocks meet the joint of masonry in the course between eee ee them, the opening of that joint is apparent; in other words the = crack is here in the cement, as might reasonably be expected. How long these cracks have existed, I have no means of ascer- taining. But one thing seems certain, that alternate cold and- — which bound them. Time will reveal the effects, and pers expose the causes of these incipient dilapidations. A chemical analysis of the “alum limestone” has been pu ; lished by te Dr, L. D. Gale, which makes the composition of that e sampl Carbonate of lime, ; . 2e6 Silica or other insoluble matter, ? y is Experiments on American and Foreign Building Stones. 5 I have also found one very white specimen in which the insoluble | matter was only 0-4 per cent., but even from the solution of this, ammonia threw down aslight brownish precipitate of oxydof iron, A specimen of the blue vein variety showed the following “i characters :—Its specific gravity was 2°708. 1218-4 grains pulver- ized and carefully washed, afforded a residue of 5:5 grains of iron pyrites (and an inappreciable quantity of adhering silica,) equal to 0:45 per cent. 100 grains treated with strong acetic acid, lost 73°7 percent. Strong boiling nitric acid applied to the insoluble residue dissolved the pyrites, and the sulphuric acid thence pro- duced was precipitated with chlorid of barium, giving 1:62 grains, equivalent to 0:42 grains of iron pyrites, agreeing very nearly with the mechanical analysis. a, The acetate was dried up, converted into carbonate and then — redissolved and precipitated with oxalate of ammonia, to separate the lime, after which ammonio-phosphate of soda threw down of _ phosphate of magnesia 1:3 grains, equivalent to 0-47 grain of. magnesia, or to 0-97 grains of carbonate of magnesia. From this it should seem that the sample was composed of ae Carbonate of lime, : ; ‘ : 72:73 - Carbonate of magnesia, : ; : 0:97 2 oil Sulphuret of iron, 4 ; ‘ : 0:42 7 : Insoluble silicates, : ; : ; 25:88 100- _ Asthe pyrites is one of the chief coloring matters of the dark Veins, it is evidently very variably distributed through the stone. The crystals of sulphuret are mostly small, but easily detected, by the naked eye. - On breaking a weathered portion of the pyritous vein it is often found penetrated from one to two or three inches by the apes Ol- matter (peroxyd of iron). On the interior parts of the disc ‘ a 6 Experiments on American and Foreign Building Stones. _ perior hardness left slightly elevated above the surface of the _ bonate of lime which is worn away in ng. «The surface of polished stone thus variously marked with ele-— es vations and cavities, may be used like an engraver’s plate, and will give an impression of its own markings, of much interest. 1. Trials of two-inch cubes of the coarse-grained “ alum ” limestone,” used at the National Washington Monument, to as- | certain its resistance to crushing. By Dr. Charles G. Page— The specimens were stated to have been furnished by the owner of he: quarries, and the testing to have been performed by the aid of a “powerful hydraulic press,” so arranged as to “ indicate accurately the amount of pressure.” Not having witnessed any of the experiments or the arrangements of the machine, the — writer feels bound to say that these allegations respecting the i machine have been published by the architect, by the superin- _~ tendent, and by others concerned in building the monument at Washington. ‘a experiments were communicated to the writer by Dr. P a = No. of the trial. Crushing weight in pounds per square inch. ewe : : : ‘ : soe. SAU | ae 2. : : : ‘ ; : 1372 ee we , 7 -. ee ee oe 4 ‘ : 2312 5 2437 6 ; 2531 7 diseaedt . z : ; 2625 8. ; : ‘ ; : . 2650 : 9 . Sal 2750 10 ‘ . 2843 il ‘ : : 2968 Average Say ‘ ; ; 2334 ‘Note.—From the above it appears that the greatest strength per square inch, when tested in two inch cubes is 2968 pounds, | and the least 910 pounds, the latter being about 30 per cent. of the far number. . Lrials by Dr. Page, of other building materials to obtain results, o n two-inch cubes, comparable with those afforded b 2 the idan limestone.” ‘ : No. of trial. ape 1. Fine- rained tare of Sineineti ‘ . 4562 2. Moot ple do. 3. White sora seachle: East ——. N. Y, used at the General Post Office . do. ers Regen : ; : ~ Ttalian marb cc: ? i ee a ee ee eae Se ee ee ee ee a ee ae E'xperiments on American and Foreign Building Stones. 7 ee hig sient in ind of stone. Ibs. per. square inch. 6.. Patapsco granite, 941 (z ) nother spec ime 2593 8. Seneca sandstone, ( Smithsonian Dealings ) 2691 9: db. another ApeOeT 2691 $6 Stakbridee imarbls, Mas - 2410 i any oo (casing of monument ) average 2334] 12. Bieckbridec marble, 2d specimen ; 13. York road freestone, (a friable brown sandstone, pee: 14. oh oe Creek sandstone, (Patent Office, ) 093 do. do, 15. specimen, 187 16. a0 do. do. d do. 1441 _:. do. - do: do. Ath = do. 1234 18. Common building brick, 1000 Arranging in order of the average strength, we have the follow- ing succession, a column of relative values being added in which the alum limestone is represented by 1 Aoeran rei ay : per square inch. Relative value. J. Maryland fine-grained marble, 48 192 2. East Chester (N. Y. as marble, 3993 171 3. Italian marble, . 3156 135 A. Patapsco granite, 2767 118 5. Seneca ( Smithsonian) stone, 2691 115 _ [6. Alum limestone { ae 2334 100] 7. Stockbridge ma wit, Bool 96 8. York-road heelon: . 2126 91 9. Aquia See (Patent Otlice) sandstone, 1660 71 10. Common b : 1000 42 Note.—The . sandstones, hectare 5 and 8, have a mean aaa of 2408, which is three per cent. higher than that oe ‘alum limestone,” which has its place between them in the above series, an average strength of 1660 pounds, and th ments of Dr. Page on the alum limestone wae. an average of 1521 pounds, showing the inferiority of at least some portions of this limestone to that “ material which. now disfigures ihe archi- tecture ad the Treasury building and the Patent Office Mr k Se ciments on different building materials, ubliched by t. Specimens of the same size as the gpa No. of trial, of stone. : ve inch, Ls : 2, Balmer gr Regina es arble, 4 More granite (‘Sanewak and Grayson’ s), 6250 * Hints on Public Architecture, p. 114. The four trials of the Aquia wie Lgcwithes give three experi- t Mills, architect of the Washington National Monu- Strength per — * in aes ot i ie < - - wy % — _ No of trial. Kind of stone. squareinch. value. No. 1. gave per sq. inch 5445 Ibs. | No. 4. gave per sq. inch 4981 Ibs. ‘ HE “ec a4 5185 cc 73 5. “ ts A338 oc ‘af alter the position of the “alum limestone,’ which stands, as "tested by Mr. Rennie, whether the latter were in 1, 13 or 2-inch — _ seuhes. ° : 8 Experiments on American and Foreign Building Stones. Strength per Relative : 3. Blue rock from Potomac, used as the back- ing stone of the National Monument, 3750 160 A. Granite of the east (Port Deposit) : 3250 139 5. Granite of Normandy,* 7 ‘ ‘ 2628 112 [6. Alum limestone (monument), ; : 2334 100] 4. Marbles and limestones tested and Reported on by Mr. Rennie in England.t+ Lbs. per Relative i value. No. ot trial. Kind of stone. sq. inch. 1. White Italian veined marble (tried in 14 inch cubes), . ‘ ‘ 2 : 81 A414 2. Black Brabant marble (tried in 13 in.cubes,) 9281 395 3. Purbeck stone, do., 9160 392 4. Black compact limestone, Limerick, Ireland, (tried in 13 inch cubes,) . ; : 55 379 5. Compact limestone, do. . ‘ 7713 330 6. Devonshire red marble, do., : : 7187 308 7. White statuary marble, not veined, do., 6058 259 8. White Italian veined marble, tried in one- = inch cubes, .. Habe , ; 216 137.44 [9. Alusn limestone, (as above, ) . «9334 100Re _ Note.—From his own reading of the original memoir of Mr. — Rennie, the writer was led to suppose that all the above samples of stone, numbered from 1 to 6 inclusive, had been tested in two- — inch cubes, and that the Numbers in the Philosophical Transac- — four-inch base they would stand as follows :-— ae & tt “ 5152 * “ 6, ce “« A178 “ a These numbers change the relative values but they do not : proved by Dr. Page, far below all the limestones and marbles, — * See below some account of other granites of Normandy, tried in two-inch cubes — Royal Society, 1818. 2 : t Experiments on American and Foreign Building Stones. 9. = 5. Experiments by Mr. Rennie on mien tested in 14 inch cubes. ste Lbs. ae Hobstive sq. inc 1. Aberdeen blue granite, m3 0,913 167 2. Peterhead hard close grained granite, Eettints : F- 354 3. Cornish granite, : ‘ ; 6,356 272 [4. Alum limestone, as above, . : ‘ 2,334 100] 6. Mr. Rennie’s experiments on sandstones. ua cy tae? ae 1. Very hard freestone (13-inch cubes), . 9446 404 2. Dundee sandstone, breccia, do. ; 6630 284 3. Bramley falls sandstone near Leeds, do.. . 6063 259 4, Craigleith white freestone, do. ; 5487 234 5. Portland stone, do. 2 : : 4570 195 6. Killaly white freestone, do. . ‘ ‘ A561 195 7. Derby grit red friable sandstone, average of two varieties, do. : 3743 160 8. Portland stone in a 2-inch cube, ‘ : 3729 159 [9. Alum limestone, as before, . : ; 2334 oh Note.—The weakest of the above sandstones is 27 per ¢ cer than he strongest specimen of the “alum Ab passe tried by Dr. Pa ‘er Raperinients by Messrs. Daniel and Wheatstone, on the magnesian limestone of Yorkshire, Derbyshire and Nottingham- shire in England, employed in building the new Houses of Par- liament.* Tested in two-inch cubes, in duplicate. Lbs. per Relative 1 Stone of Kiveton, . ; : ‘ 10,695 2 tone-ends, ' 4 9,209 394 3. ‘“« Bolsover Moor, . : ‘ 8,288 355 A. “ Kiveton, 2d variety, . . 6,163 284 5. “ Norfall, ‘ ‘ 5,879 252 6 “ — Steetley, yellow variety, : BAZ. -* Wan 7 “ Steetley, white do. 3,192 136 [8. Alum limestone of Maryland, as before, 2.334 100] Note.—The average strength of the seven varieties of stone above sealing is exactly three times as great as that of the = “alum limesto The stone set for the houses of Parliament is described as standing, in its natural site, high above the ground, in large masses Or perpendicular walls, with its smooth, bleached, time-worn Surface, discolored only by a few lichens with a little moss or ivy,—facts clearly indicating its strength and durability. Be * See « Lithology, or observations on _ for building,” ov C. H. Smith, p, 22. _ Btoonn Sentss, Vol. XI, No. 31.—Jan., 1 a. i ee Me 10 Experiments on American and Foreign Building Stones. 8. Experiments on Marbles, made in France by Rondelet, Gau- they, Suffiot and Perronet,* on two inch cubes, the weights an measures being reduced to English to conform to the other Series. Lbs. per. sq. inch. ' Relative val- 480 1. Black marble of Flanders, ; 2. Cervelas marble of Flanders, : 5,738 245 3. White Statuary marble, ‘ ; 4,652 199 4. Blue Turquin marble, . ‘ , 4,328 185 5. Veined white marble, A241 181 6. Veined white marble called Pauf, . 3,701 158 [7. Alum limestone of Md., as above, 2,334 100] Note.—With the exception ‘of the first of the above trials the French experiments conform pretty nearly with those of Mr. Rennie on similar materials supposing the numbers given by the - latter were obtained from two inch cubes; but they fall far below his results, admitting, with Tredgold, that his blocks were 1 inch cubes. Gregory appears to have understood that all Ren- nie’s experiments were made on 14 inch cubes unless otherwise expressly state Experiments of Rondelet and other French experimenters on two-inch cubes of granite. Lbs, per. sq. inch. Relative value. 536 1. Oriental rose granite . 12, 2. Granite of Normandy called Champ du Bout, . 11,628 498 3. Granite of Normandy called Gallicien ; ; 9,987 428 4. Granite of Bretagne, ‘ : 9,303 398 5. Green granite of Vosges, ‘ 8,798 376 6. Beola granite used in Milan, . 6,603 282 7. Grey granite of Vosges, . 6,020 257 [8. Alum limestone of Maryland, 2,334 100] The average relative value of the seven ire above cited is 396, or almost four times that of the “alum eriments on stones used in the eaiite sion of various ancient edifices, reported by Rondelet,—size two inch cubes. Lbs. per. sq. inch, Relative value. . 1. Caserté stone of Italy, 8,584 2. Stone of Istria used by Palladio, San- covino and Scamozze in the edi- > 7,395 316 » fices of Venice and Vicenze, _ 3. Fourneaux stone, pillars of All Saints + Church at Angers, ‘ » BLT 270 vera theorique sag pratique de Tart de batir. "Par Jean Rondelet, tom. i. P . Experiments on American and Foreign Building Stones. 11 Lbs. persq. inch. Relative value. 4. Grey stone of Florence, .. ; ,0S 5. Stone of the bridge of St. Maxence, 5,404 231 6. Travertin, Mentone of ancient Roman buildin 4,301 183 7. Bagneaux neh columns of the “Pan- heon, Paris, 3,484 149 8. Stone of the temple of Paestum, 3 258 130 [9. Alum limestone, Maryland, ne 334 100:] The average relative value of these ancient building stones is 238, 11. Experiments on two-inch cubes of Basalt and Porphyry, by Gauthey and Rondelet, reported by the latter in the work above cited. Lbs. per sq. inch, (Eng.) Relative value. 29,5 1266 1. Basalt of Auvergne, ; 3 ,D49 2. Porphyry, ; ; . 28,455 1219 3. Swedish basalt, . 27,196 1165 A. Basalt of Auvergne, 2d variety, 25,172 1078 do. 0. 3d ee 16,416 703 [6. Alum limestone, 2,334 100} The average relative value of the taal and porphyries is 1086. 12. Experiments on the alum limestone of Maryland i in blocks of other dimensions than two inch cubes, published by Mr. Dougherty, the Superintendent of the Washington De a, ument, as having been made at the Navy Yard, Washing : Per square inch of base. Average. 1. A l-inch cube (1 sq. inch base), 2000 2. Another block of the same size, ‘2000 ~=—- Expt. 1 and 2,—2000 3. A cube of 34 reso on a Pb os ask base) 3265 i 4 er cube of sa e, 3765 Expt. 3 and 4,—3515 that 0 22°56 ba :) 5629 es 0. 43 square, 48 pee high do. 2659 7 A 4inch cube, (16 inch base,) 5687 Expt.5 and 7,—5658 he 6th experiment is alledged to have been made on a block of unequal thickness and therefore not to give a fair result. he first two of the above experiments give results considera- bly below the average of Dr. Page’s trials on two-inch cubes. The only standard with which we can at present compare them, 3 is the one inch cube of Italian veined marble tried by Mr. Ren- nie, which gave 3216-lbs. per square inch. 'Their relative values, — y this comparison, are 100 and 160. Comparing the three aver- ages above given, there is an evident increase of ee per Square inch of base, dependent apparently in some measure 0 ‘eased size of the specimens. e are furnished by the paper of Mr. W. Wyatt of Eng with a considerable series of experiments on marbles, gra ti 12 Experiments on American and Foreign Building Stones. and sandstones, tested in cubes of about the same size as the largest of those above given. His investigations were made with the aid of the hydraulic ape of Messrs. Bramah & Sons, and in this respect also appear to be comparable with those, made on the alum limestone in a blocks. Each of his results is the mean st two trials* 13. r. Wyatt's s experiments on marbles, in blocks of larger size a 2-inch cubes. Lbs. pr. sq. inch. Rel: value. 1. Ravaccioni marble, (blocks 44% 4 inches base), - . 9632 172 2. Veined marble ( 44x4 . 9251 163 [3. Alum limestone in 4, and in 43 inch cubes (average), - 5658 100] From the above and the preceding series of trials, it appears that the “alum limestone” falls very far below Italian marble, whether tested in l-inch, 2-inch, or 4-inch cubes, and whether crushed under a hydraulic press, or any of the other carefully constructed machines which have been employed for the purpose ee in France and England. Compared with every other good mar- ble and limestone, its inferiority of strength, when the size of cubes was the same, @ppears still more remarkable 14. Mr. Wyatt's experiments on granites tested in cubes of 4 inches on a side, or in blocks of which the base measured 4'5 by A inches. Lbs. pr. sq. inch. Rel. value. 1. Herm granite, (4-inch cubes), . ‘ . 14, 26S? 2. Heytor do. do. ‘ : . 13,865 245 3. Destentie granite, do. . 12,275 217 A. Peterhead red do. (45 x4 inch base), . 10,931 193 5. Aberdeen blue do. (425x4 do.) . . 10,393 183 6. Peterhead blue gray do. ne 5x4 do. ) ~ 9,766 172 7. Penryn granite, (4:5 x4 do. ) «ft 136 pe Alum limestone, (in 4 and in 43 cubes), ... 5,658 100] . Mr. Wyatt’s experiments on sandstones, tested in cubes of 3h and 6 inches on a side. Ss. pr.sq. inch. Rel, val. E Yorkshire Cromwell stone (5:5 inch cubes), 8,825 156 2. Craigleith stone (6 inch cubes), 6,652 117 3. Humbie ed do. ; ; “ 4,614 Sk 4. Whitby sand do. © 2378 a 5. DGaelione “A and 4:75 cubes), ; 5,658 100] | e average strength of the above four sandstones is almost ‘identical with that of the alumstone, as given*by these experi- ments. Had the cubes been 4 instead of 6 inches, the compari- son might probably have been more favorable to the alumstone. - Its true position in the seale of strength, among building stones, Experiments on American and Foreign Building Stones. 13 as proved both by Dr. Page and Mr. Wyatt, is among the sand- stones, er among granites, marbles or compact limestones. 6. In addition to the foregoing comparisons, the writer is en- abled to vadd two experiments of his own on the Quincy syenite, the stone of which the Bunker Hill Monument is built. These experiments were made July 28, 1843. Lbs. pr. sq. inch. Rel. value. * 1. A 15 inch eube (2°25. 54. wre bp bor , 2. A block having a base 2°5X 1°15==2°87 sq. os hiohes anda length of 5:2 25 5 inches, proved endwise, bore . 12,890 530 [3. Alwm limestone—Dr. Page’s trials on 2 inch cubes, ‘ 2,834 100] Note.-—The block proved by compressing it endwise was not crushed, but only splintered or slightly ‘“spalled” along the cor- ners. ‘This was one at two successive applications of the same compressing force. The 1:5 inch cube was crushed with the force above given. From these experiments it appears that the Bunker Hill Monu- That a coarse, loosely aggregated rock like the alumstone, is far inferior in strength to rocks of the same chemical constitution and specific gravity but of fine texture, was long since prove by Rondelet. We may cite one or two of his proofs and add by ‘Way of comparison, two others derived from the preceding sec- tions of this paper. ie Experiments on coarse, and on fine-grained stones of the same class. Specimens tried in two-inch cubes. 1. ite ssard stone, coarse grained, ie whe A aS en a Choin de Villeburg, Jine grained, Deep ise ‘ meee : 8300 2. j Saillan court stone, coarse grain, i gee Stones of Passy and Va ugirard, fine grain, - 4484 3. i3 Symington’s — a pein eg (11 _— a Dr. Page) : 2334 Symington’s fine gra arble, (2 do. hie 5 ee «| Alum en ae f Dr. Page’s pe a Fine gr arble, highest result by Mr. Mills, . oy eee The a 2830, ses of the ‘oteee nee grained ones, 5982. The ratio of these numbers is 100 to 911 Arranging the several iciads of stone in the order of their rela- ting values as determined by their power to resist crushing, ve ; against each the number of square inches on the = the Specimens tried, with the name of the experimenter, we vis 2 the ‘ing rank, as indicated by a comparison.with the alum | a used in casing the Washington National monument, : ee oa of which is taken as 100. 14 Experiments on American and Foreign Building Stones. Area of : : el Name oF atone: pees 2708 Name of experimenter. i sq. inches.’ eipasalt of Auvergne, ... .. 0s - omnenimg 22 do. eee ee bes Pe ee 16 Wyatt, yningons Mayland n-gael tove, 4 Page, <. ¢:ecceteewat eles ol... a Se Se eed Rondelet, ae ee | of Ancient Rome, ..........| 4 do. 83 a Geant, 175 Vath: cps cavae ite marble, ........ PP Sane oe Rondelet. Sanead Wises wouslio ‘5 18 Wyatt,... 2.54. ; marble, . 18 GO. Scns Be 8 Bast Chester marble, NY, ....-...0.. 4 POG, «cs coke eined marble, 18 Wyatt, Experiments on American and Foreign Building Stones. 15 TABLE CONTINUED. Area of l Rel, val No, Name of stone. ee ee Name of experimenter. aoe “a inches 100. \60,|Metamorphic blue Potomac stone, ....... BOB MAB aww chee 160 61,|Derby grit, friable sandstone, ........... 955. [Renhie, ..1-.5.. 0 160 62,| Portland Divs aus eRe EL bawSiEs 4 ae ee 159 63,|Veined white marble, (Pauf,) .......... Rondelétz . ..... «+ 158 64, Yorkshire Cromwell stone, ............. S26 | Wyatt. oo ccna: 156 65, Bagneaux stone, (Pantheon at Paris,)....| 4 Rondelet; 4. Hae e2 149 66. Granite of Port Deposite, ............. 4 UNG, . dices 139 67, White veined Italian marble, ........... 1 Rormie, ois ce cee 187 68. Steetley white dolomite, .............. 4 |Daniel & Wheatst’ne| 136 Sir entyn granite, ... 2.2... os sac 2. 18 = Wyatt) 200+. & 136 70. Italian Ns Re dicied 34 e 4 Oy caer 135 71 ‘Temple OF Paestum stone, 4... as oaee os 4 Rondelet,....<.... 130 12 ‘Patapsco hy Ap Ry Poem nie are + PONS. a es tay ee 118 mgleith- sandstone, .6 2% 0.080 ie ces 36 Wyatt, 6.7. a 117 4. Seneca sandstone, Smithsonian Institute, . 4 BOOS 5s alk aiers Me 115 75. Granite of Normandy, .............00. 4 WHS. ie 112 16. Alum limestone, (Wash’gton Nat’nal.Mon't.)) 4 PASC 2 os kee 100 ine Stockbridge marble, ........0cceeccee 4 Oe ia eee es 96 78.|York road brown sandstone, ..........- 4 a. whine wea Sos 91 79. Humbie sandstone, .............sss00- 86 METAL, sta e es ces 81 80.Aquia Creek (Patent Office) sandstone, ..| 4 PAGS, 0565603 4S 71 81|Whitby sandstone, ...........cscccces 36 Lg 7 SE ECAR 41 __The wide discrepancy already noted between the results ob- tained in experimenting on the alum limestone, in which the, Pressure required for crushing varied from 910 pounds to 5687 pounds per square inch of the area of the base, must be explained either on one or the other of three suppositions; Ist, that the Strength of different specimens of the rock is thus variable, nd that consequently no certain reliance could be placed on its t th metease of area of base and the power of resistance of cubes of gtanular rocks and other materials, the writer has proposed a se-’ €s of trials on several stones, in cubes of different sizes from one he all those of the same kind of stone to be tom the same block and accurately reduced to the ree i a - At present the following comparisons seem ,t0-a lrect relation between the power of resistance o x = at if * and the product of the area of the base multiplied of that area. ee » : & ___ eubes to have a strength per square inch of 6356, and MeV ona four ingh cube of Dartmoor granite, obtained 12,275 j 16 Experiments on American and Foreign Building Stones. 1. The one-inch cubes of alum limestone gave Mr. Dougherty — two thousand pounds, and the 4°75 inch cube, having 22°56 square — inches on the base, gave 5629 pounds per square inch. In com- — paring these with ‘the cube roots of the areas of base we have 1: 4/22°56::2000 : 5652 or the calculated exceeds the experi- — mental result by only twenty three pounds, or 0:4 per cent. 2. A two-inch cube of the alumstone in Dr. Page’s third — experiment gave per square inch of base 2281 pounds, and a 33 inch cube in Mr. Dougherty’s third experiment, pores 3265 pounds per square inch. Comparing these we have 1/4 : 4/1225 — 72281 : 3312 showing that the calculated exceeds the experi- — mental result by 47 pounds or about one and a half per cent. 3. The seventh Srreemment of Dr. Page gave 2625, and the — fourth of Mr. Dougherty gave 3765, consequently 4/ A: 9/1225 2625 : 3812, in which the calculated exceeds the experimental — by | forty-two pounds, or 1,'; per cent. ; 4. Mr. Dougherty’s first and second experiments on one inch ~ cubes gave 2000 pounds, and Dr. Page’s eleventh experiment on — two-inch cubes gave 2968. Hence 4/1: 4/4: 2000: 3156 where calculation _—— experiment by two hundred and seven pounds, or 6-9 per c 5. Comparing Dr. aa s eleventh experiment with Mr. Dougall . erty’s fifth, in which a block 43 inches on a side bore 5629 pounds — per square inch, we have 1/4 ; (/22°56: :2968 : 5283, in which — calculation falls short of experiment by 346 pounds or about 6 per cent. , 6. Mr. Rennie’s eighth trial on marbles, showed that a one — inch cube of white Italian marble bore 3216, and M. Rondelet on — a two inch cube of the same, obtained per square inch, 4651 — pounds. Hence V1: W4::3216 : 5106, the calculated axicde ing the experimental result by 455 pounds, or nearly 9 per cent. 7. By our reading of Mr. Rennie’s memoir, he obtained froma — two inch cube of Italian veined marble, 5445 pounds per square : ‘inch, and Mr. Wyatt obtained from a 43 b y 4 inch block, ss pounds. Here, 74: */18::5445 : 8990 differing in defect from the experimental result by 261 pounds, or less than 3 per cent. 8. If Mr. Rennie’s experiment on Aberdeen granite was, ne we suppose, also on a two inch cube, its strength per square inch — was 6139 pounds, and as Mr. Wyatt obtained from Aberdeen — granite, when tried in blocks 44 x 4 inches on the base, a strength © of 10,393 pounds, we have 4: */18::6139 ; 10-130 where the calculated falls short of the experimental result by 263 ee per cent. “9. Mr. Rennie proved Cornish granite in one anda Law of the Induction of an E lectric Current upon itself. 17 | Arr. Il.—On the Law of the Induction of an Electric Current upon itself when developed in a straight prismatic conductor, and of discharges of Machine Electricity through straight - _ wires ;* by J. H. Lane, of the U. S. Patent Office. ¢ ~ Tue original discovery of the induction of electric currents _ Was made by Prof. Faraday, about twenty years since. Prof. Henry followed up the subject in the very elegant and elaborate Series of experiments, detailed in his “Contributions to Electricity and Magnetism,” published in the Journal of Science for 1840 and 1841, and the full and able discussion of those experiments In the same papers presents the most complete elucidation of the an eléctric current upon itself, and showed that this too could be referred to the single principle of the inductive action of the '% 8 tity ina conductor, it induces or tends to induce, a current in au ts ~s aling parallel conductor, in an opposite direction to itself. , Met During the continuance of the primary current in full toy) NO inductive action is exerted. wae _, “3. Bat when the current begins to decline in quantity, and during the whole time of its diminishing, an induced curren arto ts contained in this paper were read before the National n- m, and subsequently communicated through a scientific fr Association at their meeting in New Haven, in Aygust, 1850, 18 Law of the Induction of an Electric Current upon tiself. is produced in an opposite direction to the induced current at the beginning of the primary current.” My purpose in this paper is to present certain deductions from these laws in reference to the induction upon itself of an initial elec- tric current moving in a straight conductor. In arriving at these laws of electricity to admit of very serious doubt. Still they he very simple and sufficiently elegant analytical result arrived Prof. Henry’s laws, with the hypotheses assumed as the basis of the present investigation, may be summed up in the fol- lowing enunciation. . The inductive force exerted at a given point by the development — of an electric current in an infinitely short element of an infix nitely attenuated conducting wire, is directly proportional to the — rapidity with which the current increases in quantity (or the rate — > Let ab, fig. 1, be an infinitely short ele- | ment of an electric current flowing with in- creasing rapidity in the direction of the arrow, and let ¢ be any point within the space of its sensible action: join bc and draw the perpen- dicular af. We have the analogy of thedy- + | namical action of galvanic currents for believing that the induc- tive effect of the elementary current will be the saine whether it move through the straight line ab or through the route afb. * The most serious + sige it appears to me, that can be raised in regard to these r g the nature of the induction of a current upon itself, is whether he action designated by that name is really due, as Prof. Henry believes, to inductive “action at a distance only, or may not be partly due to a different species of _ more strictly analogous to inertia in atter. P ‘more in accordance with the icity of nature’s operations, and at pres s not, so far as I am aware, any special reason to doubt its correctness. I hope to be able to settle the question hereafter by experiment. Law of the Induction of an Electric Current upon ttself. 19 being no reason why there should be more of such action in one direction than another (i.e., on one side of cb rather than an- other) except on the extreme supposition of the inductive action being dependent on or connected with the influence of surround- ing bodies which there is not the slightest reason to suspect ; if, therefore, fb exerted any influence at all we should from the na- ture of the case expect to find it in the direction of cb only, and there is not the first fact yet known that indicates any action in that direction. In reference to the dynamic action of the current after it is established we know with all reasonable assurance that Jo is not felt at c. There remains then the influence of the part af=ab sin abc, and we may assume, also, from the analogy of the known law of the dynamic action, that its action is directly proportional to its length and inversely proportional to cb? and also directly proportional to the rate of development of the current in afborin ab. All experiments moreover indicate that the direction of the inductive force is at right angles to cb and in the plane abe. . It may be well to state before going farther that in the use of the term inductive force, I have no reference whatever to the secondary current that may result from the exertion of that force. henever an electric current is generated in a conductor an in- ductive force is exerted at any point in the neighborhood, and if _ the medium in which it is exerted be a conductor of electricity very electro-motive force without reference to the transverse €xtent of the elementary space in which it is exerted, but solely with reference to its longitudinal extent in the direction of the force, im the same manner as we estimate the intensity of the pressure of, column of water according to its perpendicular height alone. _%. Returning now to the fundamental law just premised let g -Tepresent the quantity of current flowing in ab at the end of the time ¢ from a given instant: - will then represent the rate of development of the current. Also let the distance cbh=D and l= the length of the electric conductor of which ab is an element so that ab=dJand let the angle abe=0. Then the aisuctive force exerted by ab at ¢ in the direction as above ; Stated of ed will be proportional to dq sin 6dl di. D* ‘This formula will embrace the 2d and 3d of the above quoted a tons of Prof. Henry, if dg=0 for a constant current and ered negative when the current is diminishing in qi . * We wish to estimate the inductive force in t : 20 Law of the Induction ss an Electric Current upon itself. of a line ed’ which makes with cd- he angle 1 either i in the plane abe or -out of it,” We must resolvé the force in-the direction of ed in the same manner as:any. other-electro-motive force or as a mechanical _— so that if MM represent the whole force in the direction of cd: and M’ the ie ee ae in the direction of cd’ we shallhave °°. W= - Thus we shall finally have thie inductive force exerted at c in the direction of ed’ proportional to _ - ; 3 dq costsin 0d2. dé Bee Fg : ; 4, This regards the inductive force as exerted ata ae point, but all experiments show that it accumulates along the secondary conductor in proportion to its length. Let Ab, ie 2, be the primary conductor and cC the secondary, 2 ‘ and let I represent the whole. inductive ee ce ae force exerted by Aa on the shale second- ary cC of which the length =s. Then — ¢ the whole inductive force erated on the element cd’=ds (and which may be solely assumed to be pro- penal to cd’) will he expressed by ds ds, and that exerted on d2f ed! by “i will have for its expression 24 qpasdl. renee we shall have ~ ee x d* Fe Od cos t sin 0 (A) dedin ates ae 'Phis equation then in which C represents a constant cle value has never yet been determined by experiment, is the gen-_ “eral differential equation for the induction of electric currents so far as concerns the relation of primary and secondary linear con- ductors to each other The lines 7, D, and s aie circular functions cos t a sin 6 may readily be referred to rectangular coordi- : nates in space, but ay my present purpose this is not necessar _ §.*From (A) it Polly follows that, ay an electric current be developed in a straight wire of unlimited length so small. that it may be regarded asa line, the force of induction in a direction parallel with the wire at any given point. will be in- pre as the Penendicular. distance of at point from the wire. et PN, fig. 3, be fa ‘accaight Spe. let cd’ be the gi * av ‘wire and let Law of the Induction of an Electric Current upon itself. 21 element of space parallel to PN. in which the inductive force is to be exerted, and let ab be an element of PN. Draw the per-" pendicular cp and let cp=r, and let represent’ the angle pea, the complement of pac‘or 4 It being ‘understood that ep is the origin of the angle and -p the origin of 1, we have in ap- plying the formula (AS) citi hi tiie sr t=ded! =6 sore: is ‘L=pa=r tan a OO | D=ca=rsec e : d ger) The substitution of these values in (A) gives us; - d?J Cdq ak Aad el ae and the integration of this with reference to & gives us for the whole inductive force exerted in the elementary space cd’ or ds in the direction of the latter by the current in ‘pa Lan s= vk ie cos 30'd 6! & dt 7 ae 4 or still dividing by ds we shall retain in what follows only th eae aT : f : . ; coéfficient we calling it the inductive force at the point c parallel =, Spa : : i with PN, and in the present instance therefore we have eR) dtieOdlg fs ei ae meee reas | 26 d 6! + ) ds rdt¥ 7 fae ' inwhich if the limits of integration be constant the value of the _ second member is inversely as r. Hence if ‘any two radial lines | as cf, cf’ be drawn, the induction in the direction cd’ due to that part of the conductor PN cut off by those radial lines is inversely Proportional to the distance cp. : oo 6. Carrying out the integration indicated in the preceding for- we have mula rf! a ‘ “% sf cos 76d 0 =4(1/ —7)+4(sin 27/ — sin 27) e : : é and if, by including a great length of conductor on both sides of Paes b ~2 : hand h’ are very small ares, we have . cos 26d 0= 4a —4(2h/ — sin 2h’) ~4(2h —sin 2h) + 22 Law of the Induction of an Electric Current upon itself. which expression differs from $7 only by a small quantity of the third order, so that if the conductor be extended till it subtends an angle wer closely approaching 180°, the inductive force due to all beyond that limit will be insensible* in practice, the value of fcoos?#d remaining nearly constant. Hence, what was stated of that part’of the conductor included jn a fixed angle fcf’, may be affirmed also of a determinate length wa of the conductor so long as the distance cp is very small compared with either pv or ~ pw, that its: inductive action parallel to itself is inversely as the distance, and this action is expressed thus : (C) ot c dg e 7. The expression for the induction at right angles to cd’ or in the direction of pe will be identical with that for the induction in the direction of cd’, except that instead of the circular function 7! cf cos ?6/d © in equation (B) we shall have : 7! A sin & cos & d# =4(sin 27’ — sin 77) 7] a which is necessarily zero or insensible when the limits 7 and 7! — are equal and of contrary signs or when each differs very little from 47, whence it follows that for any portion of the conductor — bisected in the point p, or for any portion extending to a very great distance on both sides of p, the induction in the direction “of pe is nothing or insensible. The phenomenon known in ae chine electricity as the lateral discharge, cannot be considered at variance with this statement, as that is readily explained without reference to the existence of an inductive force in that direction of the kind now under consideration. foe Induction of an electric current upon itself, when developed in — a, straight prismatic conductor of great length. i 8 [have already stated that Prof. Henry was the discoverer of the induction of a current upon itself, and that he was the first to refer it to the primary law of induction at a distance. A con- — 4 —e * Similarly it may readily be shown that if the current be returned into i through a return circuit passing everywhere at a great distance the inductive fore Aue to the return circuit will be insignificant. . ° + = Law of the Induction of an Electric Current upon itself. 23 the figure e, the portion of current conducted by the bundle may be distinguished as the current through the figure or area e. We shall first suppose the development of current to be equally rapid through all parts of the cross section of the conductor (i. e., through any two spaces e, e’, of equal area), and compare the magnitudes of the inductive forces at different points of the cross section abd. 9. Let ¢ be the point at which the inductive force is to be estimated. Through c draw the straight lines men and ocp, ; part of cp and draw the perpendiculars Sh and gk, The inductive force exerted at ¢ by the current through the area fk is given by form- ula (C). If Q represent the quantity of current passing at a _8iven instant through a unit of sectional area, the quantity ¢ _ Passing through /& will be 1 9q=Qx area fk and “i= area fk X ape a” f=r, fe=dr, fh=r dg, area fk=r dr dq, and if We denote the whole inductive force exerted at ce, in a fibre of the length s, by the current through any portion of cgrs of the Cross section, by P, we shall have J = drdg?” dg. Substituting these values in (C), we have for the inductive force exerted at c by the current through /* I d?P dQ (D = = = = =, drdg. (D) ds didrien ** aa; dase: As dQ. ae 4s Q and consequently az is at present supposed to be the a Bogs for all parts of the section abd, it follows from (D) that ‘Me inductive force due to the current through fk is simply pro- lene to the magnitude of the elementary angle nep and to the length of fg, independently of its distance from c, and that the na. vorce due to the current through the triangular spaces and meco is d4P dQ dsd@ Senne 7, H9%, 24 Law of the Induction si an Electric Susie _ itself. aS which E represents the length of the chord: mn. Now if a straight line revolve about the point ¢ from the position 0-180, through a half revolution it will describe all the elementary trie angles mco and pen that make up the section abd. he | fore integrating (E) between the limits of p=o and g=z2, a have finally for the inductive force exerted at ¢ by the ital current: : dP aap eon! a (F), ap = ie ——~_.” Bao, | 10. If the rate of development ~ be not constant through a all parts of the section abd, then EF in equations (E) and (F") must be replaced by A ay aro" in which 2 and 7’ denote the eines of me and en, and the equa- a tions (E) and (F) becom 6 ae a7% r] dg, and ~h (E’), . : a? a Beer: Q Comparison of the inductive forces at the centre and vale : ni- of along cylindrical conductor, when the development is formly rapid throughout its mass 11. Let fig. 5, represent the cross sec- tion of a cylindrical conductor or wire of a great length in comparison with the di- ameter, which we will call 2, and let us suppose a current to be developed with equal rapidity through all parts of the sec- tion. Then in finding the whole induc- tive force at the centre ¢ by formula (F) we have the chord # always a diameter or =2R, and consequently fr Edo=2R, while for the point ¢’, the chord c’ n/= OR sin Te nor Baa @ sin g, an TE ‘ V4 Edg=2R ingd AR. Jf: Rf pdg= Law of the Induction of an Electric Current upon itself. 25 __ The inductive forces at the centre and circumference are there- | fore as 7:2, or as the semi-cireumference of a circle to its diam- | eter.. ‘This would lead us to expect the initial development of | + an electric current in a wire at the first instant of the application _* of an electro-motive force, acting as is usually the case with | equal intensity through all parts of the cross section, to be more rapid at the surface than at the centre, for the inductive force 7 must be exactly sufficient at every point to balance the force ’ applied. Z Equilibrium of the initial inductive forces within the mass 0 a straight cylindrical conductor, or law of initial development of the current through different parts of its cross section. * 12. Let abd, fig. 6, be the cross section of a cylindrical conductor of great length, and - let a current be developed in it by the appli- cation of an electro-motive force acting uni- formly through all parts of the cross section. _. ‘Take any point ¢ in the diameter ad (whose Be distance fe from the centre we will call z), _ and draw the chord kel, making with ad any | angle acl=90°+ 9. Draw the perpendicular’ fg, and in kl take any point h and draw the Straight line fh producing it to mand n and de- hote gh by x and the angle gfl by g’. Following the motion of the lines fg and fl as kel makes its motion of 180°, this angle si ERS: d ie, : is to be taken greater or less than 90° according as ¢ is greater or é 2 = _less than 90°. Putting R for the radius of the circle, we shall ~* a have kg or gl=R sing’. The rate of development an the point h may be safely assumed to depend on the distarice fh from the centre, which distance determines the value of the rectangle : dQ mh. hn and consequently that of kh. hi or R? sin? ¢’—2?; ~> must therefore be some function of this latter quantity, or dQ : a? = FY R? sin?q/— zx? ). Substituting this value in formula (F’) and also that of dr=dz nd then replacing the limits of r by those of z, we have i, 7 +R sin g’ my alee aaice es F(R? sin?9' - 2) de \dp, “g ~ Rsin gq’ hie Our problem requires that such a form be given to the function i F + $in* 9’ —2?), which we may call simply F, that the second _ Segms, Vol. XI, No. 31—Jan, 1851. 26 Law of the Induction of an Electric Current upon itself. member of the last equation shall be ee of z or of 9”. We shall first show that this requires that sane 7 Fdr -R sin 9’ be also independent of z. It is obvious that the value of this integral is determined by that of sin 9’,* so that +R sin gq’ es Fd z=f sin 9’ -R sin 9’ which being substituted in (F’) we have “is J feng de for the integral part whose variation consequent upon a change in the value of z must always be zero. Now we have, dp being =, ar R cos 9’ =z cos g, Ph ele See d¢ t Smee! ene ‘gi i£ . = ft In df sin g/ dsing’’ "dg, where /’ sing’ is put for whence we must have = cos? gq’ er fies d — 0 for all values of = from Oto R. But it is obvious that < is necessarily positive throughout the integration, and hoetore complete integral may be zero, f’ sin g’ must either be always zero or else must change its sign between the — limits of integration, and that for all the values of z. Now this | last is impossible, for whatever be the nature of the function, J’ sin g’, its value and sign must be the same above the limit of g’ =4 7 as below it,} and limits $7—v and 47+» can be assumed for the values of ¢’, within which the value of f’ sin ¢’ being, if | possible, greater than zero, does not change its sign. But the value of z can be taken so small as to bring the values of 9 within those limits throughout the whole sd Sis The : * ae that this is necessarily true, but that it is so in the prostet case where the ; of F is the same whet ’ be greate r or less than a necessarily but because this ia: the case with the fenetions Sf sing Law of the Induction of an Electric Current upon itself. 27 value of the integral therefore cannot be zero for all values of z unless : es sin ¢’=0 and consequently ; +R sin ¢ f sing’= =f F'dx= constant. -R sin 9 Let now the function F' be expressed as a series of powers of its root R? sin? g’ — z?, so that F=L (R? sin? g’ —2?)"+L/ (R? sin?y’ -7?)"+ &e. =2}L(R? sin’g’—ax?)"? Then putting z=u Rsin ¢’, we shall have +R sin p Ha : vz Pas=z| 1 (Rsingyes [(-n2ye| R sin g! The second member of this sare expresses a series of powers of Asin’, and this series cannot be constant or inde- pendent of ¢’, except for the single nai in which the exponent of the power is =0 or n=—3. The coéfficients of all the _ other powers Paes =0, and this requires that Z=0 in those terms since = | _ for all values of m. This reduces the above value of F' to a —u*)"du is necessarily greater than zero : = (G) F=L(R?sin?¢ -—2*)$ and Se a R oe a ar =f du 9h sin) 1=L. q -R sing’ (1-u?)3 ; Substituting this value in (F”) and putting L=KR we have (F”) Fp =CKR*. 18. If we now draw “6 chord pho perpendicular to mn we have (R? sin? 9’ - x? P=(kh. hl)? = hp or ho, and consequently the value of a or F'as given in G becomes 7 ’ therefore, an ‘ae current is generated in a 1 long rical wire, by an electro-motive force that acts unt- throughout its mass, the rate of initial development Ss the | 28 Law of the Induction of an Electric Current upon itself. current through any fibre will be inversely as the length of the shortest chord that can be drawn in the cross section through that * - The equation (F’”) gives us the inductive force for any sii within the wire. For a point exterior to it, the quan- tity ¢ or z does ap ‘in the process of integration, elimin- ate itself from ‘ge '? dz inthe same manner as before, but 2 now becomes an pie of the limits of the second integra- tion with reference to y, or in other words, the interval between the lower and upper limits of ¢ is confined to the angle subtended by the cross section of the wire, and if this angle be denoted by 8, the integration a us for an exterior point (FD pened “ =4CKRx°8, which shows that ion a henna following the law of development just deduced, the exterior inductive force at different distances is directly as the angle subtended by the cross section of the wire. The inverse ratio of the distance from the centre would require it to be as the sine of half the subtended angle, so that inthe very near vicinity of the wire the induction could not be estima- ted as if the current were all generated through the axis of the wire 15. Ina conducting wire having its cross section an ellipse, a law of development would obtain perfectly analogous to that of the cylindrical wire. Let ADG, fig. 7, rep- rae the cross section and E any point in Draw the chord GEF making any an- oy with a given line, and let HEK be the chord which 36 bisected in E, and _ parallel to GEF and HEK draw the diameters ACM and BCN, and draw DCL bisecting GEF in O. Let CA=r, OF =cr and OE=z. The Pain of the ellipse give us HE? GH. EP 1,cta =o? BC? AC? re If then i rate of development through E be always equal to. ans = 1(° 28 =e ae this be substituted in (F’), we shall have for the induetive bc force’ at any point within the section Geach f? ce ‘one ylas)aenicney Law of the Induction of an Electric Current upon itself. 29 If a current be generated in a conducting wire whose cross sec- tion is an ellipse, in such manner that the rate of development through any fibre, shall be in the inverse ratio of the chord bi- sected by that fibre, and in the direct ratio of the diameter to which that chord is parallel, the inductive force will be the same in all parts of the cross section. 16. These results, if the fundamental law of induction as laid down be really true, leave no doubt that the initial development of acurrent in an extended wire, is more rapid at and near the surface of the wire than at the centre, and that in round wire it follows the law indicated in 13. In the case of a galvanic cur- rent, the resistance to conduction would come in as an element and interfere with this law as the quantity of current increases, until finally the electro-motive force comes into equilibrium with the resistance to conduction, when the current becomes uniform in quantity throughout the mass of the wire. But in discharges -0l common electricity, and in the slight currents that take place in electric waves of moderate length, there is strong reason to believe that the resistance to conduction is in most cases trifling of this question of the time required for the current maximum, or of the rate at which it will approach it eS ‘sections h and h’, h’ being in fact the projec- 30 Law of the Induction of an Electric Current upon ttself. through metallic wires, on the presumption that the resistance to conduction is slight compared with the electro-motive and indue- tive forces concerned, it being understood however, that they are offered only as conclusions to be hereafter submitted to the test of experiment. © 17. In discharging a Leyden jar through a wire, the current once generated by which the discharge is effected, is not to be checked except by the exertion of a similar amount of electro-motive force in the contrary direction to counterbalance or neutralize the in- duction at the cessation or falling of the current. Hence the cur- rent rushes on as if it had momentum, until it charges the coat- ings of the jar oppositely to their original charge, when a second discharge in the opposite direction to the first commences, and thus a series of vibrations ensues, as first suggested by Prof. Henry, fore receive strong support from numerous unpublished experi- — ments of Prof. Henry, in which he informs us he has shown the — existence of these vibrations in the discharge of a jar. ; 18. It may not be uninteresting to trace some geometrical relations. In fig. 8, let abcd ea portion of a conducting wire, of which oe def is a cross section, and on def imagine a cc hemisphere dmc to be erected, and let an pher e erected, y longitudinal prismatic element or fibre no of n the wire be cut by the hemispherical surface and by the cross section so as to form the ad a a tion of the small spherical surface h upon ps te ae the plane def. Now if h’ be constant, the area of h it will readily be seen is inversely proportional to the shortest chord that can be drawn in the circle def through h’. Hence the rate of development of the current con- ducted by the elementary prism no is propor- tional to the area of the section of the latter by th >" Law of the Induction of an Electric Current upon itself. 31 19. In fig. 9, let the conductor abcd be cut longitudinally by two parallel planes whose intersections with the spherical surface . . form the zone fehklm. he area of this zone is simply pro- portional to the distance between the two planes, and therefore by what we have just seen, the same is true of the rate of develop- ment of current in the plate of metal included between the cut- ting planes, and the same relations will obviously exist with the : quantity of current, at any given instant of time as with the rate i of development. 20. From this it would appear that if an electric jar or battery 4 were discharged through a cylindrical conductor composed of flat metallic plates of equal thickness, in the manner represented in fig. 10, each plate, whether the wide certtral ones or the narrower aca near the sides, would conduct the same part of the whole | charge. ‘ . amin saennasen, ans nenn seen eton a. Pra oor "J Oa bias Peete ae i Su vel Bs p meee, ignuses®? a tl path og _It is manifest however, from an inspection of the figure, that ex- | treme = ‘ 1 : \ * 32 Law of the Induction of an Electric Current upon itself. ness with which resistance to conduction is felt at the surface, the quantity actually developed in proportion to the mass very near the surface, would be extremely great in comparison with the quantities developed at greater depths, and this tendency of the initial current to the surface does certainly offer some analogy to the accumulation of statical electricity at the surface, though with the difference that the great proportion of the current does, not- withstanding, take the interior of the conductor. One tenth only f the whole initial development belongs to the external shell equal in thickness to the two hundredth part of the radius, which would include a hundredth of the mass nearly. 22. But this thin shell would, nevertheless, conduct ten times its share of the current fninus the allowance to be made for re- away by the metal within, it can hardly be considered a very se- ' pe rious objection to our conclusions if no instance has yet been ad- duced of a lightning rod or conducting wire, having its mere sur face melted away, especially in the absence, so far as I am in formed, of any experiments specially directed to that point. 23. Asa test of the conclusions I have ventured to put forth, it might be proposed to coat a conducting wire with a thin sheet of the same, or a more refractory metal, separated from the main wire, except at the ends, by a bad conductor of heat, and to dis- — charge through the whole a heavy electric battery. Ihave essay- ed such an experiment but find my small electrical machine and battery altogether insufficient to furnish the necessary quantity. Law of conduction of a discharge of common electricity through a straight conducting wire. ; 24. If it be true, as we have supposed above, that the prin- cipal part of the resistance encountered by a discharge of com- mon electricity through a wire, is due to the induction of the cur- rent pon itself, it is obvious that the law of conductibility of — wires of different lengths for such discharges, is quite independ- ent of their conductibilities for galyanic currents. In proceeding — : to deduce the law of conductibility or conducting power for elec- tric discharges, so far as it has reference only to the induction of the current upon itself, it will be necessary to begin with a pre- cise definition of conducting power. In galvanic electricity the Law of the Induction of an Electric Current upon itself. 33 rent has reached its maximum and become constant. This is the obvious definition, and we shall adopt a like one for the con- ducting power for a discharge of common electricity except that, in the time, we are confined to the minute space of time occupied by the discharge, and in which the current is supposed to make but a slight approach toward the maximum or constant state. » Let Q’ represent the whole quantity of statical electricity, that passes through the wire during the time ¢ elapsed after the \ ft d instant when the electro-motive force begins to act. Then q7- will represent the whole quantity of the current at the end of the 2 t aE. dz: Will represent the rate of development of the current in the whole wire. Let K represent as before the value time t, and dQ . of 7, at the centre of the cross section abd fig. 6, of the wire. d : Then by the law above laid down, the value of so at any point in the circumference of any circle concentric with abd, and whose radius is r, will be KR VR a7? and this multiplied into the area of the elementary ring included between the limits of r and r+dr will give piciayh sac el for the rate at which the current is developed through the ele- \ mentary ring ; and the integral of this taken between the limits of r=Qand r=R will give the rate of development of the whole current thus : dz? whence we have d?Q’ ends aire — =nKR? =2 KR Terk d?2Q’ 5 a Ka-ip %aR* x : of the current to the section of the wire and to the indue- ‘Seems, Vol. XI, No, 81—Jan, 1851. 5 34 Law of the Induction of an Electric Current upon uself. tion force may be neglected, equation (F’”’) will obviously give us for the induction throughout the whole length S of the wire d?Q’ 8 n P=43CKRSn*=4C72? de FR : : Pee ee ae “* (a) whence di ~cGn xP: ¥ Here the whole inductive force P is, agreeably to the hypoth- . time 7, equation (@) gives us AQ’? 24 -2R (2) dit =Gu gPF | and this gives ; 2° 5 : (c) Q’= Ga gy Pl charge, is proportional to its diameter, and inversely proportional to its length.* This differs essentially from the law of conduc- tion for galvanic currents in that the conducting power is directly as the diameter, while in constant galvanic currents it is as the — cross section or square of the diameter. a | __Again, equation (¢) shows that the conducting power (measur- ca _ ed by Q’) and the resistance to discharge, (measured by P), may os be considered as the reciprocals of each other, since any change . i trict : chine electricity through the two simultaneously, either by divid- } reen them, or joining them end to end and passing the whole charge through both. Be) Seatac een eee eer * Tt would be easy to show in a general way, that this law of electric ‘gisthares should ry to straight cond: tors having similar cross sections of any form, but I «do not « plate testing it with any other ihan round wire. Law of the Induction of an Electric Current upon itself. 35 And first, if we divide the charge between the two wires, we : must now integrate (a) considering P as a function of the time, and two successive integrations give us aQ’. AzR dt ~ Cx? w fia we and ; Aydt . : V=Ga y Pat. ‘ Now as the discharge is divided between the wires, the electro- motive force P at any given instant, is the same obviously in both Wires and consequently /fPd@? is the same in both, and the quantity of statical electricity Q’ discharged by each is conse- 3 d2 Q’ _ the value of oe Hence equation (a) shows that R — P S _ must have the same value in both wires, so that P the resistance ___ to discharge, is inversely as the diameter of the wire and directly as its length. have proceeded on the tacit supposition, that its surface isnot = extensive surface capable of itself receiving or absorbing the urface of Fyaes - _ 2. Charwallas, 30 miles from Hissar, India, June 12th, 1834. ¢. of Prof. Jameson, to whom it had been presented by a relative 36 4) C. U. Shepard on Meteorites. Art. III].—On Meteorites ; by Cuarntes Uruam SHeparp. Read before the American Association for the Advancement of Science, at New Haven, August, 1850. 1. Tuttehpore, Hindostan, Nov. 30, 1822. Tis stone, so far as I am informed, has not been described. It is barely mentioned by Prof. Partsch, in the appendix, p. 142, of his Catalogue of Meteorites in the Imperial collection at Vienna, (1843) as not yet brought into Europe. While in Edin- burgh last year, I was informed by Alexander Rose, Esq., that a ne specimen of this locality existed in the cabinet of Thomas McPherson Grant, Esq., by whom I was very obligingly pre- sented with a fragment, and the means of making the present communication. The fall took place inthe evening at Tuttehpore, which is situated seventy-two miles from Allahabad on the Cawnpore road, in lat. 25° 57’ N., and long. 80° 50’ E.. The meteor from which _ the stone was ejected, was of large size, surpassing the full moon in apparent magnitude as well as splendor. It passed from south- — east to northwest. A number of stones fell, the largest of which weighed 22 lbs., but that in the possession of Mr. Grant was the only one in an entire state, which was found. It was brought — from India by Dr. Tytler, by whom it was presented to its pres- _ ent owner. he stone is oval, slightly compressed, indented, and possesses a brownish black crust. Its weight is about two pounds. It is fine grained, trachytic and resembles most closely the stones of a. (March 12, 1811), and of Castine (May 20, 1848.) Sp. » =3°352. * This is another stone of which the only notice I have met - ‘with is found in the Appendix of the above mentioned work, (p. 143),—Prof. Partsch remarking that no portion of the mass had made its way into Europe. The entire stone is in the possession resident in India at the time of its fall. Its exact weight Iam not able to give; but I have the impression that it cannot fall. short of 7 or 8 lbs. I owe a fine slice of several ounces weight — to the kindness of Prof. Jameson, from an examination of which, {am able to give the following description. eS ae ote WS Lamon eet ie - t so il . C. U. Shepard on Meteorites. * 37 n exposure to the air, it deliquesces, yielding chlorid of iron ; but this does not prove chlorine to have been an original ingredi- ent of the stone, since the mass, as in the case of one of the lowa (Feb. 25, 1847) stones, may have been since its fall in some situation where chlorine has been imparted to it. Its specific gravity is 3°38. It contains 15-07 per cent. of nickeliferous iron, with traces of sulphur. The stoney part con- sists of silica, magnesia, protoxyd of iron, alumina and lime. 3. Meteoric Iron, County Down, Ireland. Fell August 10, 5 daloidal. ~ Specific gravity variable: vesicular portions ae. Crust thick, sometimes one-third of an inch and consists of mixed oxyds of iron, somewhat coated by blue phosphate of iron, (vivi- auite.) In moist air, the chlorid of iron deliquesces in little drops, | It does not afford the Widmanstittian figures. It does 0 nickel, cobalt, or sulphur. rs & Land 2 constitute the less regular 4th and 5th faces of the fig- 38 C. U. Shepard on Meteorites. A. Description of a large stone of the Linn Co., Iowa, fail of _ Feb. 25, 1847 : This stone, weighing twenty pounds, has lately come into my hands through the agency of Rev. R. Gaylord, of Hartford, lowa, the same gentleman who procured for me the specimens which were picked up at the time of the explosion of the meteor, and of which an account was given at a former meeting of the Asso- ciation, (see vol. iv, 288, 289, of this Journal. ) The following statement respecting it is from the Rev. Mr. Gaylord’s letter of July 3d, 1850. “It was found (in the sum- mer of 1847) in Hooshier grove by Abner Cox. He was in company with John Hollis, of whom I obtained two fragments three years ago. ‘They have had the stone two years or more, and by lying in the loft of a smoky cabin, it is somewhat dingy in appearance. This John Hollis is the man who ground up so much of the stones that were seen to fall, in order to get silver. He was the means, however, of the careful preservation of the present mass. Dr. Knight found they had the stone, and wrote me respecting it. : “'The three pieces into which it broke on striking the ground fit together exactly, so as to reproduce the original stone, with a complete coating over the whole, except on one side where sev- eral small fragments were broken out by the fall. ‘These were gathered up carefully and preserved by the finder.” : is stone is perhaps the most remarkable one thus far. de-— can the geologist look upon it without feeling almost cer- tain, that it once formed part of some extensive formation in the world from whence it came. Its dimensions will be best understood from an examina- tion of the annexed figure. P and P’ are the bases, A B and C the vertical sides of the prism: -a ure. ¢ denotes a portion of the stone which is wanting. @ and b are sloping sides, a inclining to P under an angle of about 130°, - and the diagonal of 6 to the line gf, under 100°. The surfaces. and P’ are nearly flat, and agree in presenting a peculiar wavy, undulating surface and a deeper black color than belong to the other faces of the stone, a difference which appears to ¢ C. U. Shepard on Meteorites. 39 in the nature of the horizontal cleavage of the mass as contrasted with that which is vertical or oblique. The greatest diameter of the base P’ is 104 inches. From e tof measures 63 inches. (a3 “cc ‘4 te a toe ter «“ 5 « . tc to 6c 33 66 “ce & to f 73 28 tc | ston 4 eee LO. & 24 & 3 ‘cs b to g €6 Ai «e The fragments which came from the chink ¢ are rich in chlo- | rine, deliquescing freely with chlorid of iron when exposed to a | moist state of the air; while the rest of the stone is quite free from this constituent, and precisely resembles the other stones of the locality already described. This difference of composition in one and the same stone is probably owing to the fact, that the fragments in question must have remained for a considerable time partially buried in the soil and have imbibed the chlorine rom thence; while the main mass being above ground and more protected by its coating was preserved from such an impregnation. 5. Meteoric Stone of Waterloo, Seneca Co., N. Y.; fell in the summer of 1826 or 1827. Productions my opinion concerning its genuineness is of no value. Jud Watkins, however, is a gentleman of high respectability, Stone. My attention was directed to the subject in the following nner. A year or two ago, while showing Y Over a bin of wheat,—that the opening was made shingles where the roof-boards were about five inches a piece was split from the roof-board on one side), org od Hethent UL = 4 2 40. C. U. Shepard on Meteorites. and that under the hole there appeared a depression in the grain, which led to an examination that resulted in the discovery of the stones. The Judge inferred that the stone had fallen through the roof, as its size was too great to have allowed its admission into the bin along with the grain, which was raised by means of elevators. He also supposed it to have been of atmospheric origin, as the mill was four stories high, and as the nature of the stone was unlike any of the mineral productions of the region, The stone was divided for Dr. Hale, President of Geneva College.’ The specimen presented me by Prof. Root, had been left for upon its surface. Indeed, in color and texture, it nearly resem- bles common rhubarb. Its color is light buff or yellow. It is slightly coherent, and may easily be crushed between the fingers. Its sp. gr. =2°30. But a small portion of the original crust re- mains, which is reddish brown. The stone contains in sma quantity, blackish particles attracted by the magnet. A surface a produced by being cut with a saw, shows waved parallel lines of — greater hardness than the rest of the stone. It consists of Silic , i i . 78:80 Purcivd of i iron, é : ; 8 ‘72 Alumina, ; ; ; ; Rey Moisture, ‘ ‘ ‘ ; < ae . 98°55 Lime and magnesia (in equal quantities) and loss, 1°45 100-00 6. Specific gravities of two meteoric irons. Meteoric iron of Pittsburg, Pa., : ~ “T3a0 Meteoric iron of Salt River, Ky., . . 6835 #*]T sideened a letter of inquiry to Dr. H., who informs me that the specimen has for some time been lost sight of in the college collection, ate she aaa ee a ee ee: eee Fat ae a a b ¢ On the Classification of Nemertes and Planarie. 41 | Art. 1V.—An Essay on the Classification of Nemertes and Planarie: Preceded by some general considerations on the primary Divisions of the Animal Kingdom; by CHARLES ~ GiRarD. Read before the American Association for the Advancement of Science, at New Haven, August, 1850. . I am gathering materials for a monograph of the Nemertes of foundations of our classification are the results of his labors. Nor shall I at present enter upon the secondary divisions to be established among the Nemertes and Planariz ; this aspect of the question cannot be settled until we are better acquainted with the organization of the group of Rhabdoccela or freshwater Planarie. II. _ Before however I treat of the Nemertes and of the Planarie ina more particular manner, I have a few words to say on the subordination of characters in the primary groups of the animal kingdom. * Ann. Sc. Nat., 3d Série, iv, 1845, p. 129. ) Sznies, Vol. XI, No. 31.—Jan., 1851. 6 “aa ; 3 “ WB On So of Nemertes and Planarie. ranks oe highest. fext to the entire animal kingdom we have the four great pri- mary Efions, the division of Vertebrata, the division of Articu- lata, the division of Mollusca and the division of Radiata, and these four divisions are characterized by the nervous system chiefly. ‘The plan of structure of the nervous or sensitive system giving these divisions and these divisions exclusively, its impor- tance is of a secondary degree. For the nervous system has not yet been materially demonstrated in all the Radiata, whilst the nutritive system is to be seen everywhere. Not that I deny the sensitive system to any animal even where it has not been shown. There exists among the lower Radiata a homogeneity of substance which is perhaps “the only obstacle to its discernment ; nevertheless the digestive system being everywhere distinct, this latter must have the preéminence. It has the preéminence because it gives us the unity of the kingdom as we have also this unity in the perfect eer cece of all eggs at an early period of their history. In the animal the first substance which is formed is the vitellus or tole it is the i is of the future being, it is, as Prof. Agassiz has observed, e being itself. Out of the Yolk the nervous system originates as well as all other parts of the organism, so that in an embryo- classification of animals. It plays the highest part by its imma- terial essence in the human species But here we leave the boundary of the animal kingdom and therefore the classification, which i igi our object, to enter another kingdom, the kingdom of hought The nutritive system being the index of animality we see all animals equally compelled to take food; this is the essential con- dition of their existence. The nervous system being the fundamental basis of the pri- mary divisions, it gives to each division a special immaterial ten- dency so long ‘taught by Prof. Agassiz. Now as there are four divisions there are also four of these tendencies. And as soon amongst them. ‘This is a natural consequence since the nervous system overrules the division and its dominion is of a spiritual character. The nervous system stamps upon the cam their zoological form as the symbol of their diverse tendency. We shall see er On the Classification of Nemertes and Planaria. 43 — further an apparent anomaly of this kind in the beings placed at the boundaries of two divisions where the material form, to use _ the words of Milne Edwards, escapes the supremacy of the nervous _ system. ‘The principle however remains always the remote cause. - ishing law, that wherever the instincts command, the intellect 1s actionless, and wherever the intellect governs, the instincts are silenced or nearly so. There is a struggle and an open struggle ; the victory of one of the principles involves the subjection of . of Vertebrata or the intellectual series, in the order of their zoolog- leal gradation: Reptiles, Birds and Mammals :—then Man crown- . fat they were, although undergoing a renewal of forms. ‘The pri of this is, as Fred. Cuvier states, that the instinct is innate, Pia Sightless, necessary and unchangeable, whilst the intellect Progressive, conditional and susceptible of modifications. an des travaux de F. Cuvier, sur l’instinct et Pintelligence des 44 On the Classification of Nemertes and Planarie. In the intellectual series there was an aim, a design, and 7 was, to arrive at man, the true domain of intellige nee. Thisa realized, the creation would stop and it did stop. Zoological fot had aequired all that diversity with which the sphere of activity of each division was endowed. ‘T'o the immaterial principles nothing was left except a limited play, a contest for supremacy. To intelligence alone was given the power to arrive at the knowledge of the actual world, to look back in time, to contem- plate itself in the past in view of the future, finally to study itself,—in a word, to reflect he power of reflection belongs pateaeaits to man, the last being created. Man being the converging point of the ‘material creation, in him were also to be donate aint in our time the struggles of the two spiritual principles of all past time. ne word more on the intellectual series. The fishes, reptiles, birds and mammals belong to this series, but the fishes, the rep- — the birds and most of the mammals in their ~~ condi- tion of life have no intelligence,—have no intellec The intellect resides within the brain, and the ee alone have a true brain. ‘The brain is composed of several parts. There is the base of the brain which sends nerves to the organs of sense, and the hemispheres, the special seat of the intellect. Now of the hemispheres the fishes have only a rudiment, and this is the reason why they have no intellect. There exists a well defined progression from the fishes to the mammals with . respect to the development of the hemispheres ; placed anteriorly in the fishes, they rise degree by degree in the other classes over the base which is gradually covered and concealed under them. Here we see the organ reflected upon itself, reminding us of its function in its full activity, reflection. To this gradual develop- ment corresponds a position of the head more and more raised which becomes vertical in man,—where it forms a right angle with that of fishes. One step more would have been retrograde: the development there stopped. Thus by a gradation almost imperceptible we have beings be- longing to the intellectual series which have the intellect only in a virtual state. ‘They have the organ without having the princi- ple, or at least admitting the principle virtually — the organ is not sufficiently developed to allow its manifestation These general considerations, although a brief résumé, will perhaps appear out of place in this paper; but my object is the discussion of the value of the nervous system as a zoological character, and to show that while this system of organs gives only the divisions, these latter are governed by it in an absolute manner. ne I now come to the special topie of my communication. * Flourens, Resumé des travaux de F. Cuvier, sur Y'instinct et V’intelligence-des snimaux. Paris, 1844, ; oY Mb, =e Sages Rr Saree. |, VME NE ee Ti On the Classification of Nemertes and Planarie. 45 Il. The place assigned by Cuvier to the Nemertes and to the Pla- nari in his “ Animal Kingdom,” is entirely provisional as ac- knowledged by the illustrious naturalist himself. emertes are placed in the division of Radiata immedi- ately after the Intestina cavitaria. Between Nemertes and the intestinal worms of this order there are only analogies. The extraordinary length of the body of some of them, for instance N. Borlasii (Borlasia anglie), a length retninding us of the class of worms, and above all of some of the intestinals, such as the tape worm, had prevailed over all other considerations. Their aflinities were not acknowledged because their organization was unknown. At that time the intestinal worms were regarded as Radiata, for the reason that their nervous system had not been found, and the Nemertes, as well as Planarie, were regarded as intestinal worms because all of them reminded us by their forms, of the forms of these last. When the more recent labors of some zoologists had estab- lished beyond any doubt that the intestinal worms belonged to the division of Articulata, on account, first, of their having a Nervous system, and a nervous system constructed on the plan of that group, secondly, by the structure of their body, which is Composed of a series of articulations or rings movable upon each other, then the Nemertes were carried with the Intestina cavitaria Into the division of Articulata where they remained as little known a before. It is but of late that they have been made the sub- Ject of a special study by a skillful zoologist, Mr. de Quatrefages, and J am surprised: that this author has not pointed out the close. affinities which they bear to Mollusca. Cuvier was well aware of the space which separated Nemertes from intestinal worms, inasmuch as he foretold that they would ne Nees, their structure which as he says “is of an extreme softness,” caused him to doubt. Nevertheless it did not, on this account, enter into his mind to compare them with Molluses. — At that lime, as indeed now, the idea of a mollusc corresponded with the idea of a shell-bearing animal, with the form of a body zc. or less drawn together into itself, while the lengthening of “si involved by analogy the idea of a worm. fe mi ape abstracting the form, which is not the characteristic of wad Visions, we look at the intimate structure, if we give up . the shell as circumscribing the division of Mollusca, we shall Nemertes all the principal characters of Molluscs: a entirely smooth, covered with a glutinous mucosity ; a nervous system reduced toa small number of cephalic On the Classification of Nemertes and Planarie. sei whence nervous threads depart to distribute themselves in the body. If we further state that, as in the greater number of Moljuscs, the surface of the body i is covered ‘with vibratory ciliz which help their movements, movements generally slow, deprived of energy, then we directly arrive at the idea that Nemertes are really Molluses,—Molluses of a low rank, being * parallel with the worms of the division of Articulata by the analogy of their form Having discussed ede the value of the nervous system as the predominant character of the division, exclusively of any other character, it remains only for me to state that the nervous system of Molluscs: there exists a cephalic mass more or less lobed, toa either the superior esophageal ganglion of other Mollus r that same ganglion to which, on account of the peculiar ibe of the body, are added the two or three abdom- inal ganglia. Nervous threads are distributed in all directions; two of them more voluminous than the rest, but uniform in structure, run along the sides of the animal, and sending off thinner threads without showing in their course those ganglia or swellings which distinguish the nervous system of Articulata, such as it is in Malacobdella, Peripates, &c. The disposition of the nervous system of Nemertes, then, is merely analogous to that of Annelids; its structure is that of the nervous system of Molluscs. ly. The position of Planarie in the division of Radiata is not less curious than that of Nemertes. Included in the second order of intestinal worms, the Parenchymata, they are brought near the T'rematodes, to which they have only analogies, in uve same sense as those that Nemertes have to the Intestina cavitari The Intestina parenchymata have been withdrawn Aer the division of Radiata and brought into that of Articulata, and for he same reasons as that of the cavitaria. The ae eae = course, have thus been compelled to follow them in the sa manner as Nemertes have followed the latter. But also little re vestigated at that time, their affinities with Molluscs have escape the eyes of zoologists. The Planariz are not parasitical as ‘Trematodes are, and it 1s believe, is however of the highest interest. Indeed in Teno pits pe sre is constructed upon an analogous plan with Planaria ; but the digestive system, as wah es ee ee On the Classification of Nemertes and Planarie. AT ; not characterize the primary division. It gives but the subordi- nate groupings. S$ soon as it is acknowledged that the division rests upon the structure of the nervous system, the fact that the nervous system of Distoma is that of Articulata, and the nervous system of ' Planarie is that of Mollusca, there is no ground for further * hesitation. true ; but very apparent towards the posterior region, where they are seen sending off smaller threads distributing them to the body. 'This arrangement of the nervous system of Distoma be- comes especially distinct in Malacobdella where the same arrange- ment is found, with the ganglia of the lateral threads more de- veloped. Thus, taking the nervous system into consideration, _Malacobdella is one degree higher than Distoma, then Clepsine would follow in which the two threads are brought so close to- gether that they combine into one single thread. Above Clepsine would rank the other Hirudines. _ In Planarie we have a cephalic ganglion more or less lobed on its circumference which sends nervous threads to all the regions. There are two more voluminous lateral ones (one on each side of the body) asin Distoma, but uniform as in Nemertes, still recalling here by analo y the nervous system of Articulata. ‘The funda- mental difference, although lest apparent at first sight, consists in the absence of ganglia upon their lengths, and this fact decides all. he body of Distoma, indeed, is not articulated and this ma Perhaps lead to a belief of a closer affinity between Planarie and worms. ‘Their broad and flattened form would be better adapt- ed to their mode of life without that structure. Moreover the * 48 On the Classification of Nemertes and Planaria. ee ee ee ee teropoda without thinking of bringing them together in the same natural group. Mr. de Quatrefages refutes this comparison. We shall come to it again presently For, if the shell does not characterize Mollusca, inasmuch as all living Cephalopoda are naked, and among Gasteropoda we have the whole group of Nudibranchiata deprived of a shell, that — of Pteropoda, and among Acephala that of Tunicata, it requires no effort of imagination to admit in that division, animals such as Planarize. They are flattened Molluscs in the same manner as Nemertes, are elongated or stretched Molluscs, as are also Denta- lium, which nobody would place elsewhere than among Molluscs. any authors have spoken of the organization of Planarie, from Dugés to MM. de Quatrefages and Blanchard. All have viewed them as worms, doubtless —— by the idea -— Cuvier who had established the divisions could not have bee mistaken so far as to place side by side i in the same order anata belonging to two different divisions. But this error of the author of the ‘‘ Animal Kingdom” is easily accounted for. At that time he was in want of the essential datum to settle such a question in its details, the knowledge of the nervous system The plan of structure of the nervous system, we have already said, and we cannot repeat it too often, gives only the division and nothing but the division. Now Cuvier did not know it when he laid the foundation of his classification ; although he foresaw the four plans of organization of te whole kingdom; and as he said there are but four of these He who has done most after paves to establish the doctrine of these four plans of organization, is Prof. Agassiz. He has the unquestionable merit of having followed out the traces of these plans beyond the existing creation, and in ascending through past ages of the world’s history he has been enabled to recon- struct “the biological phases to which I have alluded above. In reading the history of the earth on the strata which compose its crust as so many pages of a book written by the hand of the Creator, we then find again the thought of these four plans of organization preconceived by Cuvier, demonstrated as a doc- trine by Prof. Agassiz. hese four plans of organization would acquire a far greater importance if embryology should ratify them. Now embryology does so. All embryological investigations past and contempora- neous lead towards four plans of structure. I shall not treat of this question more in detail here; it is sufficient merely to mention the “rs 7 * * * %* Now. the aan respecting the class among Molluscs to which Planarie pies is — settled. ‘They crawl on the * On the Classification of Nemertes and Planarie. 49 surface of their body; that they are Gasteropods, there can be no doubt. Do we not see them, as well as Pulmonata, Nudi- branchiata and others, creeping along the walls of a basin and when near the surface of the water, reversing their position and walking in that manner with the same facility ?, Do we not witness the same undulatory contractions in that foot? Therefore were not Baer and Dugés guided aright when they compared the infe- rior surface of the body of Planarie to the foot of Gasteropods ? am not aware that any of the Planarice I have studied moves with the same facility on the back as on the belly as Mr. de Quatrefages states. Whenever I placed them in that position I always saw them changing it as quickly as possible. Besides in most cases I have seen the upper surface differing widely from the inferior one. ior tentacles of Eolidicera and in the same place as in these last. ee There exist then in the marine Planarie# one group which re- Minds us of Doris, another of Eolis, and still another group in- termediate between Eolis and Planaria proper which lead to the freshwater species. This shows that it is near Nudibranchiata that Planarie will find a natural place, and on several accounts we should be tempt- a Strongly defined as this latter, and representing merely a variation - » Mthe thought of the Creator. _For, in Nudibranchiata we find a number of types all as much diversified. These are: Doridians, Folidians, then Canthop- sis analogous to Procerodes which leads to the Acteonians, then finally the genera Pelta and Chalidis which constitute another hind’ almost Planarian, deprived of external appendages of any There exists a strikin llelism between the zoological forms of these two families. : = ee : 7. lewed in the light of their organization nothing is more alike. he nervous and digestive systems scarcely differ. I have already. Spok he first. With regard to the second I shall recall the is ramified in Nudibranchiata as in Planarie; the ns being diversified according to the groups. is 7 * ee =n s ; 50 On the Classification of Nemertes and Planarie. a prise - Jong, they assume a othe analogous to a group of the division of Articulata which attract them but to which they do not belong. pro- The organs of generation do not differ much more. Nudi- branchiata are androgynous like Planarie. Mire fecundation takes place by mutual fecundation as is the case ulmonata. But in Planarize we have cases where an individual fecundates itself, the hermaphroditism being here complete N.. It still He for me to make some general remarks upon Ne- mertes and Pla Mr. de inalietiges tells us himself, “neither Nemertes nor Planarie have externally a resistant and tough layer, similar to that which is found with Annelids, for example, or even with Rotatoria.”* We have then two groups of Gasteropodous molluscs parallel with two groups of annulated Articulata; the group of Planarie reminding us of Helminthes, and the group of Nemertes remind- ing us of the Hirudines. “At the extremes of these two groups, at the bottom of the two rial property. As examples we have: In Molluscs,—the Nemertes which elongate and become worm- like; the Planarize etal remain shorter but pressed down, spread out, flattened in thin leav In Articulata,—the ere of Helminthes in general, the flat- tening of their body i in T'rematodes in which the articulation 0 the body vanishes, analogous to Planaric ;—the softness still of the Leeches with a distinct articulated structure, being parallel with Nemertes These groups do not oppose each other in an exact parallelism, for Nemertes which form a low type of Gasteropods are opposed to the Leeches of a higher grade of worms, and Planariz ahigher rade among Gasteropods are opposed to Trematodes a lower «~~ type among worms. In this manner: . Hirudines, Planariz, 3 Trematodes, a Nemertes, ee In the elongation of the Bédy of Nemertes there is nothing to sur us. Placed at the bottom of the class to which they be- a See Now when a Mollusc, whose body is elongated beyond all * Ann. Sc, Nat., 3d series, vol. iv, 1845. On the Classification of Nemertes and Planaria. SL portion, and obliged sometimes to move by the contraction of transverse muscular fibres, accelerates its progress, then .we see that Mollusc assuming certain transverse, irregular and unequal folds,—shadows of articulations which in reality do not exist. At the bottom of the division of Articulata we observe similar facts. The Trematodes lose insensibly that elongated form of the body which constitutes the prominent character of the worms ; they are flattened, spread out, meanwhile the articulation of the H body, the characteristic of their type, vanishes completely,—thus h foreshadowing the type of Planarie. ; fe lhe position and number of eye-specks in Nemertes and Pla- nari indicate also a greater resemblance to the same organs in Molluscs than to those of Annelids. When eyes exist in Anne- lids, they are arranged in pairs on both sides of each articulation or else form a crown on one of the anterior rings. In Planarize we find the eye-specks irregularly grouped on the upper surface hear the anterior region of the body. The same arrangement is 5: observed in Nemertes. This arrangement forcibly reminds us of what we see in Gasteropods. In Planariz alone they are more humerous and distributed with less constancy, a fact which is ac- counted for by the lower position of that family in the class. ™ he habits of Nemertes and Planari speak rather in favor of z Molluses than worms. Most of them live concealed under stones Which is the case with many Molluscs, while I do not know any which lives within a tube constructed like those of worms. e embryonic development of both Nemertes and Planarize Rees takes place according to the laws we witness among Gasteropods. & The larval condition of both Gasteropods and Planarie is very Similar, It is plain enough, Nemertes and Planarie are only analogous i to Articulata; by their affinities they are Molluscs. The divis- ton of Articulata hence appears to us as a type more natural and Le Tational, as well as that of Mollusca; this latter including all an- at: nt which are soft, slimy and flabby, whatever may be t eir » be * % * * * * i The Rhabdoceelee or freshwater Planarie will be the connecting ink by which the Nemertes approach Planariz proper, as mem- ne of the same group. We say of them that they are the reshwater representatives of both Nemertes and Planarie. And 2. ere the transition: the group, Rhabdoceele, which is in fresh waters, while the other two groups which t together are scarcely found beyond the boundaries If some of them ascend the rivers it is within the ere the water still retains a part of its marine character. Tepeat, lives _ they connec Bd 'nguished at once from Planarie and Nemertes, this group, I * 62 7 On the Classification of Nemertes and Planarie. So that the connection although materially expressed, exists es- sentially in their immaterial essence. Vi. I now conclude by a few words on Annelids and Gasteropods. Having withdrawn from the first of these classes a certain number of its representatives to include them among the second, it is to be expected that I should present in a synoptical manner ‘ the systematic modifications resulting from it. If we admit the two sections of worms proposed by Milne Ed- wards, the Pleuronera and Annelids proper, we should place them one above the other to form a single series instead of one. Opposite we should have the series of Gasteropods beginning with Nemertes; above these the Planarizw, then the Nudibran- chiata ; Annelids proper. Nudibranchiata. Annelides, | Seis Hirudines. Worms. Planarie. | ; { Peripatus. Pines Malacobdella. eT Polyeladus Helminthes, Gasteropods, a a pel | Nemertes. | ee RE Boe | simple reason that embryology assigns a lower rank to all Gaste- ropods provided with a shell, inasmuch as Nudibranchiata, when hatched, have a shell, which they lose at an early period of their’ life. ‘Phe attempt at forming organic series in the animal king- tive value. Unless several series are established in the class of Gasteropoda, the position of Nudibranchiata in the above synop- sis cannot be accounted for. I have already made the remark that Planariz were rather parallel to Nudibranchiata than of a lower rank, finding in these two families groups of equal im- portance, *The natural relations between Animals and the Elements in which they live; by Prof. L. Agassiz. This Journal, 2d ser, vol. ix, p. 369. . 4 lieve it, this fact corroborates the idea that the nervous system characterizes only the primary divisions. And our position would Cambridge, Mass., October, 1850, Arr. V.—Memoir on Emery; by J. Lawrence Surru, M.D.— Second part.—On the Minerals associated with Emery: Co- rundum, Hydrargillite, Diaspore, Zine spinel, Pholerite, E'ph- esite (a new species), E’merylite (a new species), Muscovite, Chloritoid (a new variety ), Black Tourmaline, Chlorite, Mag- | netic Oxyd of Iron, Oligiste Iron, Hydrated Oryd of Iron, Iron g Pyrites, Rutile, Ilmenite and Titaniferous Iron. completely the mind. : Read before the Academy of Sciences of the French Institute, July 15th, 1850, and : communic i al. ated by the author for this Journ Now that it has been shown that emery is found in considerable abundance in certain parts of the world,* occupying almost the position of a rock ; it is useful to mention the different accidental minerals or minerals of elimination, that are found with emery, and what new facts have been observed with relation to them. Corundum may be first mentioned. Corundum.—Although emery is constituted principally of co- rundum, the examination of this substance in its pure state, or tather in the form of those prismatic crystals which I have some- times found in contact with emery, has brought to light several new aud well established facts that could not have been satisfac- torily ascertained from a mixed mineral like emery. €xcept that of Kulah and of Adula, which is of a greenish grey. All that I have to add to what is already known of this mineral, RE Sap eae ee Pos For the First Part of this memoir, see the last volume of this Journal, pages 5804, J. Lawrence Smith on Emery. - » ee, + See the jirst part of this memoir for a description of the localities, this Journal, $4 ee J. Lawrence Smith on Emery. relates*'to its composition and effective hardness ; the latter was ascertained in the way already described in speaking of the em- ery, and it has been found to vary with the composition of the mineral. The analyses were made in the same manner as those of the ——— and the results which I have obtained are as fol- lows: CORUNDUM. COMPOSITION. Eifective : | - TLocaliGiots Sanmire ae |Water. Alumina. | a — Lime.| Silica. gravel " . | * Seppe of Tri a ror | O751-|. reo || Os0. < aig Xe 90 Bgcag © oes 97°32 1:09 }——| 121 ae ag Ty Pu wide hT | 3-8811-60 | 92:39 | 167 |1:12 | 2-05 | trace. Corundum of the island | Witatia, $440) sia. 65. | 3921 0:68 | 87°52 750 |0°82 | 2:01 |—— Corundum of Asia, 60 | 360; 166 | 86°62 821 10°70 | 3-85 |— Corundum of India | 3-89} 286 | 9312 91 j 1:02) 096 |—— Corundum of Asia,....] 57 | 380] 3°74 | 8732 | 812 [100 ) 261 Corundum of India,....| 55 | 891] 310 | 8456 | 7:06 [1:20 | 400 | 0:25 The most remarkable fact ascertained by these analyses, is the presence of water in variable quantity in all varieties of the co- rundum except the sapphire and ruby. ‘To me this fact hasa cer- tain value in proving that the corundum and the sapphire are formed under different circumstances and do not belong to the same geological formation. The different eee ne of these two species of corundum might make one suspect a difference in the condition of their formation ; and this is somewhat confirmed by the results of the beautiful openers of M. Ebelmen in ma- king artificial corundum by subjecting alumina and borax to the heat of a porcelain furnace for many hours; circumstances under which he always obtained crystals under some of the modifica- tions of hyaline corundum, and never as prismatic corundum. In addition to this, I remark that in my most thorough examina- tion of the localities of emery, not the slightest trace of sapphire or ruby was found. ft. The quantity of water found to exist in corundum, coming = from different localities, is variable, and it would appear that all other things equal, those containing the least water are the hard- est. I will not insist on the slight difference between the hard- ness of the sapphire and ruby, having made only one experiment upon each of these minerals. The two varieties of corundum are so evidently united by their system of erystallization, that I-would et undertake to separate them on account of the presence of water in one of them, and that in variable quantity ; nevertheless, fact is important as it ». explains to a certain extent their differences in structure an I would remark that great pains was used to ascertain whether the water might not be due to the presence of Sees : J. Lawrence Smith on Emery. yo or some other hydrate of alumina; but after the most caréefyl and repeated examinations, this has been decided in the negative. Hydrargillite—Hydrargillite is rarely met with. I have one Specimen with this mineral forming the external coating of a erystal of corundum, and also a hexagonal prism of the same min- eral. It was not analyzed, but its physical properties and its re- actions under the blowpipe served to prove its identity with this eet ‘The specimen in my possession comes from Gumuch- dagh. _ Diaspore.—This mineral up to the present time has not occu- pied a very important position in mineralogy, and has been found only in two or three localities. In the course of this article, I hope to show that it plays a somewhat important part in the em- ery and corundum formations. Before my attention was drawn To the localities of diaspore already known, I have toadd those a Gumuch-dagh and Manser in Asia Minor, and the islands of almost every corundum locality. I have already found it on crystals of corundum from China. i examining the emery formations, one of the first things that Struck my attention was the existence of diaspore and corundum together, then observed for the first time. The same year, M Marignac discovered it in the limestone of St. Gothard, along Hy a: i died 5 aie acne, sabes tia {See . 56 ; J. Lawrence Smith on Emery. in order to show well all the plan than any yet known. Not wishing to lose so favorable an occa- sion to verify the crystallography of diaspore, I requested M. Du- frenoy to undertake the measurement of the angles, and it is to this able professor that we are indebted for the crystallographic results here given. la. 2 The crystals are elohgated needles crossing each other in all directions like an acicular variety of arragonite from the Vosges. They resemble small crystals of topaz in lustre and in the dispo- sition of the vertical striz on the faces g. heir color is yellowish white. They are strongly dichroitic, the summits tinder certain inclinations appear black as if the light was completely polarized. The cleavage is very easy parallel to the face g', and it is this cleavage that gives a lamellar structure to that diaspore which is not in the form of needles. his cleavage notwithstanding its facility does not expose surfaces that reflect with great accuracy ; at first sight would not appear to exist, only becoming evident when the angle is examined. he crystals, very much flattened parallel to the face g', are represéhted by figures 2 and 3; the face g' does not exist, being replaced by three series of faces g’, the angles of which could not measured, but the almost absolute identity of these crystals with those of St. Gothard, which M. Marignac first described, * Three of the crystals measured are in the Cabinet of the School of Mines and Garden of Plants at Paris. = es : Z The second crystal above is nearly as thin as the first, although represented thicker _ ee PRR J. Lawrence Smith on Emery. 57 authorizes one to suppose that they are represented by the crys- tallographic signs g* and ¢%. The faces M and those of the sum- mit have a very bright lustre. ‘The primitive form of the dias- pore is undoubtedly a right rhombic prism of 130° 2’; the fact that the base is horizontal, is shown by the identity of the angles of the faces b' on the anterior faces M, and the faces b' on the posterior faces of the same. This position is verified in seeking Diaspore of |Diaspore of { Diaspore of Gumuch- Hydrated Oxyd St. Gothard, [Schemnitz, dagh near Ephesus, _|of Iron, of Corn- MM welncnn i: } Marignec. | nger. Dufrenoy.* _ wall, Dufrenoy. ORO ee 130° | 129° 54’ Ts0° 2” ss 18 a Sd ae idee iedeletld bs car a ae (ASO? 17! M: (posterior faces), | ......00. |e-ee+ oe 125° 18’ BR etc, 118 Lg ies 114° 58’ bi 5 Re a ee 1049 To 9 104° bt ths ft pate CESS 151° 86’ | 151° 36’ 151° 85’ Bi Ta (Posterior faces), |... .......Jepeeeers 151° 33’ 151° 34’ 1: 2, OPPOBite faces),| 116° 38’ |........ 116° 18” ie te |, Oe eae fos ce 67° 6’ fa: aaee Precis cae; 144° 40! |oe.eeees Vike Sooo 14S 40 lis scaned gl oF eo 7 Bee ie ek ee TEG2 1 ht eee ws eee ees eee 126° 20’ a eS 118° BGs. 2550 |e ee eee es 116° 55’ LR eS ct | 1a) meetpreeated Reger PoE, 117° 10’ SS ES a Jeetersesestertes | Thave found crystals of diaspore in hydrated oxyd of iron, the n . - eedles traversing the oxyd in_all directions. There 1s p spect- n ie Summits of the crystal is exposed. In breaking the oxyd of pa hich contains these crystals, they become detached, leaving € oxyd an impression with a very brilliant surface. ake oe * oS a oa values of shew angles are just as given by the goniometer without any ecor- Vol. XI, No, 31.—Jan., 1851. 8 2 \ ee a Spree 5S J. Lawrence Smith on Emery. The diaspore of Gumuch-dagh is also found, of a lamellar structure, but very rarely; that of Naxos, Nicaria and Samos are all lamellar. Yet of all the specimens that I have collected none offer so much interest as those composed of diaspore imbedded in corundum; here we see the two minerals passing one into the other, without being able, in many places, to distinguish the line of separation, so imperceptible is the gradation. After what has been said in respect to corundum, it is not astonishing to see this connection of alumina more or less hydrated with a hydrate of alumina of definite composition. : After a knowledge of this fact one might seek to explain the : existence of water in corundum, by the intimate mixture of dias- pore with this mineral ; if this be the case, the crystal of corundum from the Carnatic, which gave me three per cent. of water, must contain twenty-three per cent. of diaspore, although neither the eye nor microscope could detect its presence. As'to the properties of diaspore, I have nothing to add to what has already been published on the subject, except that the speci- mens [examined do not decrepitate to the same extent as that of Siberia. Its specific gravity is 3-45 and hardness above 7. The following analyses were made, the mineral being attacked with the bisulphate of soda. They afford the formula, Al H. TES Cer See ane | Loealiti's. |Bilica | Alumina. | Lime.) Oxyd of Iron. Wate Gumug@h-dagh, -| 067) 82-20 “41 ; x Gumuch-dagh,............ 082] 83:12 | trace. 0°66 : Le eee ree re 0:26 | 82°04 | 0°35 1:06 14°81 Zinc Spinel.—I possess a single specimen of this spinel in — chloritoid on a piece of emery from Gumuch-dagh ; it is in octa- hedral crystals agglomerated, of a dark emerald green color; the quantity being small I have been prevented from making an ex- act analysis. The quantity of oxyd of zinc appears to be from — thirty to forty per cent. a Pholerite.—A mineral, resembling pholerite in composition, has been found with the emery of Naxos associated with emery-~ lite. It is white, lamellar, and somewhat crystalline, sometimes gre It is soft to the touch like steatite, infusible before the blowpipe, and when heated with nitrate of cobalt becomes strongly colored blue. It is scratched with the nail, and has 4 specifie gravity of 2-564. Its composition is identical with the pholerite of Guillemin, also with the mineral forming the gangue ‘of the diaspore of Schemnitz. For analysis it was decomposed with carbonate of soda. It afforded :— Es v Pholerite of Gangue of diaspore Guillemin. of Schemnitz—Smith. Silica, 44-41 42-93 Alumina, A220 42-07 Lime 12 trace and mag. J. Lawrence Smith on Emery. ae This corresponds to the following formula, Si Al-+21, but it is a question whether or not we should consider the water as existing in any definite proportion, and whether or not they did not all contain more water when first taken from their localities. ‘These hydrated silicates of alumina are numerous, and bear various names, but it is doubtful if many of them are entitled to much consideration as distinct species. Ephesite, (a new species.)—This silicate is found with the emery of Gumuch-dagh and occurs on specimens of magnetic oxyd of iron. It is of a pearly white color, and lamellar in struc- ture; cleavage difficult. It scratches glass easily, and has a sp. grav. of from 3:15 to 3-20. Heated before the blowpipe it be- comes milk-white, but does not fuse. At first sight it might be taken for white disthene. It is decomposed with great difficulty soda. I used also very successfully in the analysis the bisulphate of soda either in attacking the mineral from the commencement, or in operating first with carbonate of soda, and then acting on the part not decomposed with bisulphate of soda. The alkalies Were separated by means of hydrofluoric acid. Silica, 3154 — Alumina, 57°89 ‘ 6s Lime, 189 ies Protoxyd of iron, 134 wie. Soda with a little potash, - pp ater, 3°12 Be This corresponds very nearly to the formula R2 Sitsdr Si+4 Atoms. At. weight. Pr; ct. Oxygen ratio, Soda, oe . tSis 7-08 i Silica, 6 3400-2 30:77 9 Alumina, 10 6416-2 58-08 15 ater, - A A50 4-07 2 This mineral has been designated E’phesite because of its oce currence at the emery locality near the ancient city of Ephesus. * See this Journal, 2nd ser., vii, 285, 1849. 5 Localities. Silica. a Lime. stig erg aa Ms on Water. Mange -. : | = : : uch-dag | aes 29°66 | 50°88] 13°56} 1°78 0-50 1:50 be a Be ca Island of Nicari learia, ...| 80°22 |.4967)| 11:57} .1:33 | trace. |. 231 De earn Ae Mere ewan renin seer 29°87) 4868) 10°84; 163 trace, 2e6 |. 432. — mr Island of Wises ve.) ou O02) 49:52; FGS2 | 1°65 0-48 125 woo, - « ie a : : ie : not es- not @8-| 9 p.nG |} = | ES 98°90 | 48:53) 11 92 0:87 |. at’d timat’d! 5-08 “ “ 3 * not es- “ . «e---| 30°10} 50°08} 10:80 timat’dl 3 452 a a Gumuch-dagh, ewes oe 30°90 | 48°21 9°53 | 281 ~ oe sees | S193! 48°80 941 1:50 Me Siberia,........+... 28°50} 51-02| 1205| 178 | “ 60 : J. Lawrence Smith on Emery. Its connection with all the emerys that have come under my ob- servation except that of Kulah, induced me to call it Hmerylite. When I announced this discovery to Prof. Silliman, Jr., he tened to examine the minerals coming from the corundum locali- ties of the United States, and has succeeded i in finding the eme- rylite with the corundum of several localities.* The s specimen from Siberia on which I found this mineral is in the collection at the Garden of Plants at Paris, and I have also reason to thin that I have found it with the corundum of China The emerylite is lamellar like mica, the plates a are easily sepa- rated, oo possess a little elasticity. Sometimes it is in the form ass composed of very small pearly scales, which are very friable, Meieabling some \species of talc. ‘The plates are com- monly convex and concave, grouped in such a manner as to form a triangular prism. I have also found it massive with a mica- ceous structure, but be an irregular fracture ; the aspect of this Moree is waxy: it comes from Gu much- dach. The crystalline of this nharat fs is difficult to determine, but if we are per- fiend to judge from the streaks on the surface, and the imper- fect cleavage in two directions, it would appear fo belong to an oblique rhombic prism. Its color is white and lustre silvery ; the hardness taken on a specimen from the island of Nicaria is from 4 to 4:5. The sp. grav. taken on ten specimens varies from 2:30 to 3:09 ; this differ- elice is not remarkable in a lamellated mineral. ‘That which gave me the greatest specific gravity contained some small specks of titaniferous iron visible to the eye. Its optical proper- ties have not been examined, for the want of a transparent piece Shee of sufficient size and a This mineral is not attacked by the acids; heated before the blowpipe it emits a bright light and melts with great difficulty on the edges, which assume a blue color if touched with the nitrate of cobalt and reheated. Heate in a tube it furnishes water frequently having an acid reaction due to fluoric ac h cid. : e ree of several specimens sabres to analysis is as follow = ees GOS i= eae, Ree: J. Lawrence Smith on Emery. - 68 The oxyd of iron may be regarded as an impurity which exists between the plates of the mineral. The composition of the emerylite is represented if Atoms. At. Weight. Pratt Oxygen ratio. Lime, 2 700: 13:48 2 Silica, 3 1700-1 32:74 9 Alumina, 4 2566°5 49-44 12 Water, 2 225° 4:34 2 5191-6 Formula, 2 Si-+2Al2 Si+2H, As is seen, the specimens examined came from four distinct local- ities, and were all taken under different cireumstances ; yet their analyses accord perfectly, and also agree with those of the United States coming from Village Green and Unionville of Pennsylva- nia, and Buncombe County, North Carolina.* Localities. Silica. | “ale |Lime, Mague-| - otal) Water. Village Green, 32°31 |49°24/1066 030 | 221 | 527 | =100 Craw: ™ 31-06 |51:20 9-24 0-98 | 2-97 | 5-27 | =100 Craw e 31:26 |51°60)10°'15; 0°50 | 1:22 | 427 | =100 raw Pte 30°18 |51°40/10°87/ 0°92 | 27 ‘B2 | =100-46 Craw. Unionville,. ..| 29-99 |50°57/11°31) 072 | 247 | 514 | =100710 pai « . ; onl not es- po. arts- 32°15 |54:28/11°36) 0°05 itimat’d 0:50 |e trace, hi one ELbe- Buncombe Co.) 29°17 |48-40} 9:87| 1:24 | 615 | 3:99 HF 2°08 =100°80| ig My analyses were made in the ordinary way, only with more carbonate of soda than is usually employed. The alkalies were Separated either by means of hydrofluoric acid or by carbonate of lime, which is preferable to the carbonate of baryta for the de- _ It is seen that potash and soda are present in small quantities : inall the specimens. The composition © this mineral is re- corundum crystallizes, the silica finding itself in presence with an excess of bases, combines with as large a quantity as 1s affinity will admit of. In speaking of the formation of emery, I have already alluded to a nodule in my possession that exemplifies this in a Very exact manner. —- 62 «J. Lawrence Smith on Emery. 4 | Notwithstanding the recent discovery of emerylite there is no other species of mica that can be considered so well established as this mineral, or so constant in its composition. Up to the present time this mineral has not been found except with emery or corundum, which frequently contain it in the interior of the . mass as well as on the surface. Some emerys contain it in such quantity that it has the aspect of gneiss, as I have already said with reference to certain specimens from Nicaria. The most beautiful specimens of emerylite come from Naxos ; and as the blocks of emery from this island frequently contain it, there will be no difficulty in procuring specimens for cabinets. It is often mixed with diaspore. ee eee lah. It is always in small plates on the surface of the emery. The analyses of four specimens are as follows :— Localities, | Silica. 2,0 Lime. is mene eo Se Water. | nese. Gumuch-dagh,....| 42:80 40°61! 3-01 | 1°30 | trace, ae 562 | trace. Mable AS. 43°62 | 38-10 aA 3:50 | 0-95 | 783 | BDL | trace. mon. 49-71 | 3752] 1-41 | 2°32 | trace. ape 5-95 | trace. Island of Nicaria, .| 42°60 | 37-45 | 0-68 1°10 | trace. 9°76 5:20 | trace. The composition is very nearly that of the muscovite or Mus- covy glass, and until farther examination, I shall retain it under that species, as particular care should be exercised in making new species among the micas £ Chloritoid, (a new variety of this mineral. )—It is found with the emery of Gumuch-dagh in considerable abundance. _ Its structure is lamellar, cleaving without much difficulty, and the surfaces exposed are always very brilliant. In thin fragments it transmits the light and appears of a dark green color. The powder is greenish grey. Its hardness is 6, and specific gravity 3:52. Heated in the flame of the blowpipe it loses water, and becomes brown from the absorption of oxygen but does not melt. When heated without being in contact with the air it loses its brilliancy, and acquires the aspect of scales from the blacksmith’s forge. ra J. Lawrence Smith on Emery. 63 * The method of analysis, was to break the mineral in small fragments, to place it in a’small platinum crucible, which was in- troduced into an earthen crucible and surrounded by pulverized quartz: in one word, I pursued the same method as that for esti- mating the water in emery. For the other ingredients, a new portion was taken, pulverized finely, and attacked either by concentrated sulphuric acid or melted with carbonate of soda, and afterwards dissolved in hydrochloric acid with the addition of a little nitric acid evaporated to dryness, and treated with di- lute hydrochloric acid. The liquid separated from the silica is treated with an excess of caustic soda, and the filtered liquid is neutralized by hydrochloric acid and the alumina precipitated by carbonate of ammonia. The contents of the filter which are essentially peroxyd of iron, are placed in a capsule, dissolved by hydrochloric acid, heate and precipitated by ammonia and thrown on a filter. From the filtered solution the lime and magnesia are separated in the ordi- nary way. The peroxyd of iron remaining on the filter after be- ing well washed and dried, is weighed and decomposed 1n a cur- rent of hydrogen gas. ‘To the oxyd thus reduced, nitric acid di- luted with thirty times its weight of water is added, and digested at 100° to 120° C. for about an hour, stirring frequently, when if the iron has been thoroughly reduced it will be taken up by the acid, and a little alumina left which ‘is weighed and added to the first portion. Ordinarily I never have found more than from one to two per cent. of alumina with the oxyd of iron. Care must be taken to decompose the iron completely, as otherwise the iron will not be entirely taken up by the acid. ‘The min- eral thus analyzed afforded as follows :— Magne- | Titanic | Manga- Potash sia. acid. nese. |& soda Silica. Alu- |ar iron. Water Lime. Sen ae RED Sea mina, jof iron Sa. Decomposed by not es-\not es-not es-jnot es- sulphuric acid,| 24-10! 39°8 | 27-55| 65 |timat'd|timat’d|timat’ditimat’d) 0°30 ecomposed carb. soda, .. .|23-94| 39°52 | 28:05) 7-08| 0:45 | 0°80 | érace.| 052 —— Decomposed es-| |_ carb, soda, ...|23-20| 40:21 | 27-25 697] 0°83! 0°95 | trace, |timat'd —— These analyses correspond to the following composition. Atoms. At. weight. Prec Silica, 2 1133-40 23-87 Alumina, 3 1925-88 40-57 Protoxyd of iron, 3 1350-00. 28-44 _ Water, 3 337-50 7:12 The most probable formula is ee Ai Sithe® Sisk 64 J. Lawrence Smith on Emery. . The minerals which are brought under this species are the chloritspath or chloritoid of the Ural, the Sismondine of St. Mar- cel and the Masonite of Rhode Island ; their analyses and form- mule are as follows :— Oxy- Oxy- Oxy- Oxy- | Oxy- Oxy- ‘ gen.| Ib gen. HL ren. AY gen. | N ee Vi gen. Silied,.. 3. 27-48 6 |24-40| 2 | 241) 9 |28:27) 6 25:18! 5 | 23-91] 2 Alumina, . . |35°37 6 |45°17| 3 | 442) 15 |82°16] 6 /83°61] 6 | 3952) 3 Protox. of | SET OD, ‘eses let OD 8 |80°29| 1 | 288! 4 |83°72| 8 85°31) 3} 28:05] I Magnesia,..| 4-29 | Water;:.... 3 16:55 1 BOO 21 S8Rre Sth VeOR ES I. Chlorite spar or Chloritoid of the Ural by ep oh Mg)*Si+-Al? Si+3H. Il. Chlorite spar of the Ural, Erdmann. Fe* 3 III. Sismondine of St. Marcel, Delesse. Fe4 pallies tL IV. Masonite of Rhode Island, Whitney. Fe? SitAl Site. - V. Chlorite spar according to Rammelsberg requires, 3R* Si+2A1? Si+6H. VI. Chloritoid of Asia Minor, J. L. Smith, 1? Site? Sis. This nay is oan very abundantly with the emery of Gu- much-dagh ; ers the surface of the blocks, and sometimes enters ely He en substance of the emery. It is easy to see rom the composition of this mineral, that it is formed by elimi- nation from the mass of emery at the time of its consolidation, which by this means tends to purify itself. The nodule of chloritoid. Its composition is not in perfect accordance with the — nown varieties of chloritoid, and differs from Sismondine (which it approaches most in composition) by its imperfect solubility in hydrochloric acid. Black Tourmaline.—This mineral is found abundantly with the emery of Naxos, and also in small quantities with that of other localities. It appears to have replaced the chloritoid that is found so abundantly with the emery of Gumuch-da The crystals are found agglomerated on the surface, and also disseminated in the interior of the emery. This mineral like the last is aeeey basic, containing a little more than thirty per cent. of sili Chlorite.—With the emery of Gumuch-dagh we find a chlo- rite. It is in compact masses composed of an agglomeration of small crystalline plates, and contains octahedral crystals of mag- netic oxyd of iron. Anpye gives as its conn : J. Lawrence Smith on Emery. 65 | Silica, . : ; ; ‘ , 27:20 Alumina, . , . é . 18°62 Protoxyd of iron, i > «ee neo eee | Magnesia, ‘ ‘ , ‘ . 1764 Water, : ‘ ‘ . < 10-64 It is identical with the chlorite of Mont des sept-Lacs which gave M. Marignac, Silica, ‘ ; ‘ ‘ ; 27°14 Alumina, ’ d . . + SES Protoxyd of iron, ‘ , : 24:76 Magnesia, é ‘ ; é + 678 Water, ’ ; ; ; ‘ 11-50 von Kobell is, oMg ¥1+-3(Mg Ie) * Si+-eH. Magnetic Oxyd of Iron.—This is found with the emery of every locality. It enters into the composition of the emery it- i self and is also found on the surface in regular octahedral erys- be tals. We find it frequently massive and of strong polarity. That A of Gumuch-dagh contains a trace of titanic acid. es _ Oligiste Iron.—tt is associated with all the emerys, and some- times enters into their composition. It is also found in detached masses, either amorphous or as crystallized specular iron. Hydrated Oxyd of Iron.—This oxyd of iron is not unfrequently found with emery, covering the surface. It is found wit Nites having resulted from the decomposition of this mineral. Tron Pyrites.—Pyrites is found principally with the emery of Gumuch and Nicaria. At the Jatter locality it is in small crys tals in the interior of the mass. At Gumuch it is principally on the surface but much less abundant than at Nicaria. _ Rutile —This oxyd of titanium is found with the emery of Gumuch-dagh and of Kulah, where I obtained some large de- tached crystals. I have also a specimen, with it in small erys- __ tals on diaspore attached to emery from Gumuch-dagh. Ilmenite—It has been found on the gangue of the emery of Kulah in minute crystals, of the usual form of this mineral. Titaniferous iron.——Titaniferous iron is found with almost all the varieties of emery that I have examined, but I have analyzed te but that associated with the emery of Nicaria. Care being 9 Szconp Serres, Vol. XI, No. 31—Jan., 1861. : This titaniferous iron corresponds in composition to the Wash- : “ingtonite of Prof. Shepard as analyzed by M. Marignac, and 66 J. Lawrence Smith on Emery. : first taken to see that it was anhydrous, one gramme of it was calcined in a current of oxygen and it augmented -O19, which indicated the presence of +171 gramme of protoxyd of iron, and corresponds to ‘190 gramme of peroxyd of iron; the same por- tion then decomposed by a current of hydrogen gas and the loss sustained was equal to ‘222 gramme of oxygen, which corres- ponds to ‘740 gramme of peroxyd of iron; deducting from this the quantity of peroxyd equal to the protoxyd (-171) contained in the mineral, we have -550 gramme for the quantity of per- c : oxyd present. The mass reduced by hydrogen was treated with : : 0 i hydrochloric acid, and the part not dissolved (-230 gramme) was titanic acid with a little alumina. The acid solution contained 010 lime, and a trace of alumina. The titanic acid was exam- | ined as to its purity and was found to ¢ontain no silica, and only a trace of alumina. The result of the analysis is, Protoxyd of iron, 2 : : 17:10 Peroxyd of iron, . : : . 55-00 BS Titanic acid, : : : ; 23-01 L- Lime Sante ; A 1 Alumina, ‘ ‘ . alittle, not estimated. to the titaniferous iron of Arendal analyzed by M. Mosander. Its Sp. grav. is 4°78. There are still two or three minerals that I have found associa- ted with emery, but their specific characters have not been well established, on account of the difficulty of obtaining enough in a state of sufficient purity for analysis. x The study of these accidental minerals in contact with emery has led to several general conclusions which have been mentioned under the description of the different species ; and now I do not risk much in saying, that the hydrates of alumina, as diaspore,—as well as the silicates, as emerylite, chloritoid and tourmaline,—an the minerals of iron, as magnetic, titaniferous iron, &c,—will be found almost everywhere with the emery and corundum. —__ My labors on this subject are thus terminated, and it is to be hoped that the examination of the emery of Asia Minor has served to elucidate the geology and mineralogy of this substance, . a * . - o _ until now but little known except in its uses. ee ae se ee es ee Velocity of the Galvanic Current in Telegraph Wires. 67 Art. VI.—On the Velocity of the Galvanic Current in Tele- graph Wires ; by B. A. Goutp, Jr., in a Report to Prof. A. D. Bacue, LL. D., Superintendent of the U. 8. Coast Survey. Dear Sir,—You did me the honor, last spring, to place at my disposal the materials derived from the telegraph experiments of the Coast Survey during the evening of Feb. 4, 1850, with an invitation to investigate them independently. I have according- devoted some labor to their discussion, and with your permis- sion, will state the conclusions to which I have been conducted, in the same didactic form in which they were orally presented to the late meeting of the American Association held under your presidency at New Haven. t may be permitted me, however, to add that I submit them with diffidence, for various reasons—not the least of which is that some of these conclusions are at variance with the known views of scientific friends, on whose judgment I place great reli- ance position of the theory before the discussion of those results, A peculiarity of the question consists in its intimate relation with he nature of conduction. discuss the subject without making use of phraseology derived from hypothesis. This may however be done with perfect - >* for instance, “ circulation, , Researches, i, pp. 81, 148. o£ 1d, 6 526. p. 583, v3 * ception), are of iron, and of the size known in trade as aoe 68 Velocity of the Galvanic Current in Telegraph Wires. all other velocities known to us, excepting that of light—as “4 war- his One of these results, as announced by him, was, that the veloci- ty of electricity — the copper wires used, was indeed ap- preciable,—-but exceeded that of light through the planetary space,” that it ost not be less than 288,000 miles i in a second, while light traverses about 196,000 during the same time. e telegraphic observations, instituted under the immediate direction of Mr. Walker, by the U. S. Coast Survey, for deter- mining the differences of longitude between remote stations in the United States, led to a very unexpected result,—viz.: that to distances between the telegraphic stations. No explanation of this phenomenon offered itself, excepting the hypothesis, suggest- edt by Walker, and communicated by yourself to the Am. Phil. Society in March, 1849, that the time elapsing during the pas- sage of the si nals between remote stations was much more con- siderable, and the velocity consequently less than had been before imagined. . ince Walker’s results were first published, the subject has en- gaged the attention of numerous astronomers and physicists in Europe and America, among whom Mitchel, Fizeau and Stein- in which it has forced itself upon the consideration of astrono- mers have made it incumbent upon them to enter into a full dis- cussion of the subject. While in Washington in the month of February last, I accepted with pleasure an invitation from Mr. Walker to take Pious in an pets north of the Capitol, and the city of St. Louis were con- on the 4th February, in one colossal galvanic circuit, and but for the damage occasioned by a storm on the sa ay, the circuit would have extended even to Dubuque in the territory of owa, a distance of some 1500 miles The wires of that line of telegraph, and of all I think which have been used in the experiments for velocity (with a single ex- : me rang, 1834, p. 591, L Soc. v. pp, 76, Astr. Nachr., xxix, 54, Velocity of the Galvanic Currentin Telegraph Wires. 69 being about three millimeters in diameter. We have every rea- son for believing that the velocity with which electricity is con- ducted, varies* with the conducting power of the medium, an should therefore naturally anticipate that this velocity would be found greater in copper than in iron. Wheatstone used in his ex- periment copper wire 1"":7 in diameter. Now the conducting power of iron is according to Lenz, Riess,{ and Pouillet,g¢ who determined it by different methods, less than ,’;'; that of copper at 0°-C. And when we take this circumstance into consideration, it appears a sufficient ground for believing that the results of ' Walker and Wheatstone are not inconsistent with each other— — even without reference to the fact that the one used the galvanic current, and the other machine-electricity of the highest possible ension. Walker’s first results,|| derived from the longitude operations of the Coast Survey, led him to the opinion that the velocity with which the signals passed between Cambridge and Washington on the night of Jan. 23, 1849, was 18,690 miles a second, with a probable accidental error of 1000 miles. On the night of Oct. 31, 1849, a series of experiments was made for the express purpose of determining the time needed for _ ¥ the transmission of signals. The results are published{ in No. 7 zi of the Astr. Journ., with a detailed account of the methods which he used, and an analytical investigation of the effects of those circumstances which could interfere with the accuracy of his re- ul e measurements of all the registers gave him for the velocity on that night 16,000 miles a second,—differing less than 1900 miles from his previous result and tending in general to con- firm it. The final result at which he arrived was the general 16,000 to 19,000 miles a second. Later experiments with the chemical telegraph are described** in No. 14 of the Asér. Journ., and gives a still‘less velocity. . . Prof. Mitchel, of the Cincinnati Observatory, dissents from the view taken by Mr. Walker, and attributes the results obtained by im to the effect of various sources of error and uncertainty in the methods which Walker has used. He devised a special and Very curious apparatus for investigating the question,—and with the ingenuity and mechanical skill for which he is so eminent, SE TSR apa ne — Faraday. Researches, i, p. 423 + Pogg. Ann, xlv, p. 109. } Id, xlv, p. 20. see oe a 4y p> * ge. nn., 7 p- _ § Pouillet-Miiller, Lebrb. fe Physik, ii, p. 186. ‘. : Proc. Am. Phil. Soc., v, p. 74. Astr. Journ, i, p. 49. Astr. Journ, i, p. 105. constructed it at the Cincinnati Observatory, and made a large of interesting experiments on the telegraph line between its influence perceptible until complete circulation of eacht has taken plaée from pole to pole. The velocity of this circulation Prof. Mitchel infers to be about 30,000 miles a second. Finally, Fizeau and Gounelle, in a paper published{ last April, in the Comptes Rendus of the French Academy, express a want of confidence in Walker’s results, and describe experiments of their own, made on a circuit of 374 miles—a distance which they characterize as enormous, although the circuit used in the first Coast Survey experiments of Jan., 1849, extended through 5500 at stations 380 miles apart in a geodetic line. ‘These gentlemen used a method totally different from either. Walker’s or Mitchel’s, and found that it gave them 62,000 miles a second, as the veloc- ~ ity in an iron wire, 4 millimeters in diameter, and 110,000 as the “a velocity in a copper wire, 2""-5 in thickness. ‘Their method is not unlike that of Jacobi’s experiments$ at St. Petersburg in 1838 for the determination of the time necessary for the development of a galvanic current. The experiments appear to have furnished no data for an inference as to whether a signal is necessarily com- — : municated to the several parts of the circuit after intervals pro- — portionate to the distance, or not. & uch is the present state of the theory, to the best of my — 3 knowledge,—and it will be observed that the views in the most fundamental points are far from unanimous. Still greater differ- ences of opinion exist in regard to the more special questions. experiments of Feb. 4, have, it appears’ to me, furnished ample materials for arriving at a decision on very many 0 the © vexed points, and without farther introduction, I shall proceed to — consider the nature of those experiments, the sources of error, a | the amount of error introduced by them. Mr. W. has already done this very elegantly in the memoir|| to which I have referred; but I will also briefly consider the subject here. It will then be more easy to enunciate the questions, to which a discussion of the * Astr. Journ. i, p. 13. Astr. Nachr., xxx, p. 325, eee | cms Resrenane” ¢ 518, 520, 521. . en Comptes Rendus, xxx, p. 437. ; Pogg. Annalen, xlv, p. 281. Astr. Journ., i, p. 105. 3s ; - - m sae 5 a" Wi Velocity of the Galvanic Current in Telegraph Wires. 71 a reply. In the electro-magnetic telegraph offices, using Morse’s ] ie signals are communicated by the magnetization of a piece of soft jron, in the form of a horse-shoe magnet, and placed within a helix of wire. When the current flows, the iron becomes mag- netic, and attracts an armature placed before it and connected with a graving tool. An endless fillet of paper is kept moving beneath the graver, by means of clock-work, so that the fillet is. unmarked when no current exists in the wire, but is grooved by” | the action of the tool while the circuit is closed. - _ Fig. 1, (see Plate, ) represents the recording apparatus and its ad- justments. M is the magnet, A the armature, which is held back by the spiral spring S, while the current is not flowing, but is attracted as soon as the circulation of the current through the helix of wire experiments between Washington and St. Louis ought to furnish me ~*~ upon the roller R?. The roller R? receives motion from the wheelwork W, and communicates it to the paper fillet F. While the armature is attracted, the indentor at the end of lever L te ¥ a: us ca % capable of adjustment by screws. ‘The distance traversed by the armature in passing from the outer to the inner stop is technically called the pass. As the wire may be coiled into any number of helixes in the. course of a circuit, there is no practical limit to the number of intermediate stations, each of which may receive all the signals quite as well as the terminal station. But since the intensity of the current decreases rapidly, as the distance from the battery in- creases, in consequence of the imperfect insulation of the wires, Morse’s ingenious application of a local circuit is used, that these signals may be distinctly registered. Ee _ Fig. 2 represents a station on the main line. The significa- tion of the letters is the same as in fig. 1, the key K regulating ’ the spring. The armature-beam C is connected with one electrode of the local battery, the other being connected with the metallic inner stop I. An attraction of the armature closes the local cir- cuit, on which is the recording apparatus, and thus a very weak current may suffice to close the circuit of the local battery, which » regulated to any degree of intensity required. ; HOW suppose that at one extremity of a long circuit the um of aclock is made to interrupt the current for a mo- telegr aph. 72 Kee et the Galvanic Currentin Telegraph Wires. onaies at each oscillation, the circuit being restored immediately afterwards as before. We shall have on the registers of the sev- eral stations a series of lines alternating with pauses or blank spa- ces,—dots, as they are called, in the technical phraseology of the If the fillets were moved forward with a uniform velocity by the machinery of the registering apparatus, and no changes oc- curred in the intensity of the current in the wire, each of the lines upon any one fillet would be of the same length,—as also would each of the pauses. And if the velocity given to the fil- lets at the several stations were the same, the lines representing seconds would be of one length on all the registers. la we cannot expect, nor is it in any manner necessary, for it isan easy matter to reduce all the registers toa uniform scale. But that the motion of each single fillet be uniform is very desirable. To obtain a near approximation to such uniformity requires ma- chinery far more delicate and more carefully constructed than that which is in use in the telegraph offices, and with which the ex- periments of the Coast Survey have been made. Such apparatus has been devised and is constructing by Mr. Boyden of Boston, and by Mr. Bond of the Cambridge Gbaberanaes It forms also an essential part of the apparatus of Prof. Mitchel. Yet, as we are in fact dependent on the rate of the driving machinery of the registering apparatus only for a single second in each case, the use the mean of a number of cases, instead of isolated observations. At each station on the line of telegraph, during the experi- ments for velocity, a contrivance is introduced into the wire cil- cuit, of such a kind, that the cirenit may be broken by pressing upon a key, which is restored by a spring to its original position as soon as the pressure is removed. One of these ‘“ break-cireuit” keys is represented at G (fig. 1). It is ee in te power of the operator at any station to break the cireuit whenever he chooses; — and in this way to communicate at once with all other stations on the line. : After a galvanic battery and the circuit-breaking clock have been connected with the line, we have at each station, a clock scale, that is, aseries of lines, separated by short pauses, each pause corresponding to the beginning of a second, whose dura- tion is denoted by the length of the grooved line. In the clock of this kind at Washi pgton, that pause is omitted which corres ponds to the begim of each minute, and this enables us iden tify ona fillet from any station, the cheer use. * Velocity of the Galvanic Current in Telegraph Wires. 73 given second. But whatever the velocity with which the clock- pause is transmitted,—or, in other words, however great an inter- val may elapse after the pendulum has broken the circuit before the pause is recorded on the register-fillet of a distant station,—we have as yet no means of detecting it; for in comparing the reg-- isters made at different places, this interval will (other things being equal) be the same for all the pauses, and therefore remain undiscovered. thirtieth of a second. ‘Then the clock-pause will be registered at Cambridge .,th of a second after it took place and was recor ed at Washington, and the arbitrary signal-pause will be recorded at Cambridge as soon as it is made, or ;/;th of a.second before it reaches Washington. We shall thus have the interval between ister will measure twice the time consumed in the transmission of the signals between the two stations. yas a 23 94 25 26 W. C. pig Eiihs 8 ae og cain Ae ee Se dete hay In order to avoid accidental errors, the mean of many measure- ments may be used,—and half the mean excess of the interval between a clock-pause and the next succeeding signal-pause gives Us the time occupied for the transmission of a signal. ' : he one consists of the electrotome, or br Ie of the circuit: the other is the restoration of the circuit, or elec ss | ginnings of the pauses,—be- tween the elect s. or beginnings of the lines,—or as being : inenstive i niddle of one pause to the le of the next. Mr. Walker has used the latter, the mean of Brees : * Astr, Journ, i, p. 51. s, Vol. XI, No, $1.—Jan, 1851. | ee a 10 the signal-pause and the preceding clock-pause longer at Wash- — - ington than at Cambridge, and the excess on the Washington reg- — 74 Velocity of the Galvanic Current in Telegraph Wires. the electrotome and electropm@a readings.* For my own part, I prefer to use the electrotomes alone. The only signal that can be made in a closed circuit is of course an electrotome. We break the circuit by tapping on the key. As_ soon as the finger is removed, the circuit is closed again by a spring, and an electropcea signal thus made. Do these two sig- nals travel with the same velocity? If they do not, the clock- pauses must increase or diminish in length, as they are successive- ly recorded at more remote stations. 'They must become elon- gated if the electrotome signal travel the faster, and contracted if the contrary. ‘This question is an important one, but its diseus- sion may be postponed for a while, as the length of the recorded pause is dependent on many other circumstances, and especially on the adjustments of the registering apparatus, which are not nly very different at different stations, but appear to have been : continually changed at the same station during the evening by. the telegraph operators in charge of the registers. As far as I feel warranted in forming an opinion, I incline to the belief that these two kinds of signals traverse the circuit with equal speed,—or, to express the same idea in a different form, that induction of the electrical state in the successive molecules of the conducting me- dium, requires neither more nor less time than that required for a molecule to be restored to a condition of entire electrical equilib- rium. The better to fix one’s ideas in thinking on the subject, some hypothesis is desirable, which shall be capable of explaining all the phenomena; and I have accustomed myself to consider the propagation of electric polarity through a medium, as taking placey by the inductive force exerted upon each successive mole- cule{ by the adjacent one. _We consider the telegraph-wires as composed of a series of contiguous elements, an electrotome taking place at any point puts an end to the state of electrical tension in the nearest ele- ment on each side. The electrical equilibrium being restored in these elements, no force exists$ to continue the disturbance in the succeeding ones, and soon. An analogy to the propagation of an electropa, or electric perturbation, may be drawn from the known lawsof magnetism. If we have a curved rod of soft iron forming a little less than an entire circumference, and fill the gap witha bit of magnetic iron, the whole circle becomes magnetic. Although the period required for the transmission of this force is so short as to defy all attempts to measure it, there can be no doubt that a finite time intervenes between the introduction of the magnet and the magnetization of the most remote part of the — al 4 Faraday, Researches, i, § 1677. * Proc. Am. Phil. Soc, vy, p. 76. Astr. Nachr., ete 56. rad Ibid, § 1700. Ibid, i, $$ 1671, 1686. : : Velocity of the Galvanic Current in Telegraph Wires. 75 ring. When it is necessary to conceive some actual mode of transmission of signals, I am accustomed to represent it to myself in this way. The experiments of Wheatstone show thatthe tached to the armature-lever makes its mark upon the paper, All these processes require time, and the absolute interval, elapsed be- tween the electropea signal and its record on the paper fillet, is thus very considerably larger than that due to the time of trans- F mission of the signal along the wire. ‘The difference consists— Ist, of the induction-time, or time which elapses after the cur- as been induced in the iron to overcome the tension of the spi- ral spring, and move the armature. | 2d, of the pass-time, or time required by the armature for trav- ersing the pass, and closing the local circuit. _8d, of the time of transmission of the electropoea 1m the local circuit. battery is constant, the last three quantities remain the same for i , and exert no influ- “a. ive one is connected with the ome gb ot coating 0 . es an imitation of a broken circuit connec ith a battery. r _ between the exterior of the last jar in the series and the interior of the first, either throu igh a discharging rod or through the ground, corresponds to Fs beri gid e-cireuit, The difference between the charge of the first ‘the resistance to conduction. rent is established in the helix, before sufficient magnetic power — i, $$ 516, 1630. + Walker, Astr. Journ., i, p. 52. - 76 Velocity of the Galvanic Current in Telegraph Wires. quantities to deal with,—the time of transmission and the induc- tion and pass-times of the main circuit. ; The record of the electrotome signal is not so much exposed to accidental disturbance. The moment that the current ceases in the helix, the enclosed iron begins to lose its magnetic condi- tion, and as soon as it has parted with its magnetism sufficiently to allow the tension of the spiral spring to draw off the armature, the local circuit is broken. 'The outward pass-time has no influ- ence upon the register. ‘The only quantity to be considered is the time elapsing between the cessation of the current in the he- lix and the loss of magnetism in the iron. This juterval is the converse of the induction-time, and might therefore be denomi- nated the eduction-time. The same that has been remarked of the corrections in the ease of an electropm@a holds true with regard to the propagation of an electrotome through the local circuit, and the eduction-time in its-electro-magnet. The local-circuit adjustments being well made and continuing unchanged, and the intensity of the battery remaining constant,—the error from these sources is the same for all electrotomes and electropeeas, h magnet is limited by the condition that the tension of the spiral Spring must be strong enough to wi Velocity of the Galvanic Current in Telegraph Wires. 77 If we assume the intensity of the attraction exerted by the magnet on the armature to be equal to gravity at the earth’s sur- face,—the following numbers give the pass-time for different “-* %.: : . lengths of the pass. seem of at Time. Length of Pass. Time. Millimeters. Seconds. Millimeters. _ Seconds. 2° 0:0226 2°25 0214 1-00 0143 2:00 0202 0-75 0124 175 0189 0:50 “0105 1-50 0175 0:25 0-0086 As far as T can judge, the usual pass in the main-circuit re- ceiving magnet is between 1™™75 and 0™™50, which would on our present assumption, give the pass-time 0-019 and 0010. An attractive force four times that of gravity would give the half of these numbers. But this mode of viewing the subject is a very rough one, for as the attraction varies with the distance, the ini- a tial force, (which exercises the greatest influence upon the time of passage,) would be much less when the length of pass is greater,—and the tension of the back-spring also operates to 1n- crease the pass-time very considerably. I incline to the belief that the average pass-time in the experiments of Feb. 4, was about 0:03. Mr. Walker, on the contrary, estimates it at ;';th of a second—more than twice as much. Had we any means ot measuring the absolute duration of the interruption of the cireult y Mr. Saxton’s clock, it would be of great service in aiding us to deduce the pass-time in many cases. In all conclusions drawn from the telegraph fillets alone, the pass-time and the induction- time are inseparably combined. Denoting the several intervals by their initials, we have for the length of the recorded clock- pause, which we will indicate by a capital letter, C=¢e-e+t+p. As a first hypothesis, we may assume what appears not im- probable from other considerations, that e and @ are equal. Then subtracting the length of the interval during which the circuit axton expressed himself unable to do this, which is much to be Tt had appeared to me that careful observations of the angle with the vertical, made by the pendulum at the ume of ; | f our hypothesis regard- ing the equality of the induction and eduction-times. This is wicgndad ca a * oy i 78 Velocity of the Galvanic Current in Telegraph Wires. * fidence—that the velocity of the electrotome and electropea sig- nals is the same. The latter is, however, inversely proportional to the sum of all the induction-times of the molecules on the line of wire,—the former to the sum of their eduction-times. If these are equal for the wire, the inference is natural that they are equal for the iron enclosed in the helix, if this be as soft as the iron of the w Such apactlatigne are indeed loose, and would not be warrant- the question. But, as the problem now presents itself to us, eve- “rything appears interesting and hae consideration, which affords opportunity even for a presumptio In the apparatus used by my friend Prof ‘Mitchel, he considers* that he is able actually to measure the length of the armature time, which is the sum of the induction and pass-times. The method which he uses is, however, ee of being applied to the record made with Morse’s insttum In an earlier part of my remarks, L deferred the discussion of the question whether the electrotomes and electropaeas traveled with the same velocity, and yet have just now expressed the opinion that they did. The opinion was formed as follows: We have the length of the recorded elock- -pause, C=c—e4? +p, and of the recorded signal-pause, S=s ~e+7+p. _If we take the difference of these, the three unknown quanti- ties disappear, and we have C -S=c—s, the difference of the real duration of the pauses, equal the difference of their recorded duration. The only assumption here made is that the induction, eduction and pass-times are the same for both pauses,—an as- sumption quite warrantable if we compare each signal-pause with the clock-pause nearest it. 'They will then rarely be more than a quarter of a second distant from one another, and the valuesof the corrections are not likely to change appreciably within so short an interval. I have formed a table of the differenees i in the length of the same signal and clock-dots, for six different tele- graph-stations on the “line between Washington and St. Louis, and, from the discussion of more than a hundred different signals, ae find that the mean of these differences is almost identical for all the stations. The intensity of the current even at the same place is quite Say unequal, owing to various influences, among which are thermo- metric and hygrometric changes in the atmosphere, which affect : fhe Jealation and the conduction; want of constancy in the bat- hose activity varies very much with variations of tem- ive: want of homogeneity in the substance of the plates; pera the the continual formationt and flaking off of coatings of vox al and ® a 16. + Faraday, Researches, Velocity of the Galvanic Current in Telegraph Wires. 79 many other circumstances. We have already seen that the pass- time varies with the intensity of the electro-magnetism in the iron and consequently* with the intensity of the current,—and can therefore infer that the different clock pauses would not ap- pear of the same length even on the same registers. That they do not, may be inferred from the following table, which gives _the mean value of clock-pauses at each station for each one o } five successive minutes. MEAN LENGTH OF CLOCK-PAUSE. ,. 8.8. p PRES GS C.,. ae ae St. . 8h.47 Os072 | 0068 0:055 0095 | 0-096 o-oo" 48 0-091 0-050 0-067 0-090 | 0-093 0°100 49 0-094 0-065 0055 0-084 | 0125 0110 50 0:103 0-071 0:059 0-081 0103 0-118 51 0-100 0-078 0-055 0081 | 0098 | 0102 _ Mean. 0-091 0-067 0-058 0087 | O104 | 0109 to irregularities and im Tegistering apparatus. Bain’s galvano-chemical telegraph affords an opportunity of trying the experiment under circumstances totally independent of the pass-time, which has proved so troublesome in the experi- ments made with Morse’s apparatus. The paper on which the tecord of Bain’s telegraph is made, is colored with a solution of ferrocyanate of potash. It rests upon a revolving metallic disc connected with one pole of the battery, while a needle or finely pointed wire connected with the other pole, trails on the peer Surface. When the circuit is closed, the current passes between the needle and the metallic disc, coloring the paper in its passage is by the partial decomposition of the ferrocyanate. Walker has perfections in the mechanical part of the SR etme ie Fechner, Schw. n. Jahrb., ix, pp. 274, 816. Lenz and Jacobi, Pogg. Annalen, 233, Bull. de l'Acad. de Pétersburg, vol. iv. , 272. sate 80 Velocity of the Galvanic Current in Telegraph Wires. made a series of experiments with this telegraph between Boston and New York.* But although the pass-time is here avoided, other sources of error are introduced. The timest of delay and of persistence in the chemical action take the place of the induc- tion and the eduction-times in the electro-magnet, and a new and serious difficulty presents itself in the spreading of the lines which have undergone chemical action. he character of the electro-chemical telegraph allows no lo- cal circuit, in the technical sense of this term, and indeed it is Pe Sperad b for a current capable of closing a local circuit would ce to act with energy on the very sensitive salt with which the paper is saturated. But in the experiment for velocity, it is indispensable that a record be kept at the two terminal stations, at least; and the closing of the circuit, in order to record at one sta ation, necessa- rily diverts the current from the other. With a powerful battery a record may be sqegessfally. net at stations no farther distant than New York and Boston; but if we use a line as long as that between New York and Buffalo, a battery so powerful as to burn a hole through the paper at one terminus, cannot record signals at the other, when the circuit of the signal- -station is closed. r. Bain has ingeniously remedied this difficulty by using @ aor circuit at the signal-station, which is closed by the same key that closes the main circuit. Yet even this introduces still a new source of uncertainty. A curious result which Mr, Walker has deduced{ from his experiments consists in the fact that the discolored lines, which measure the duration of the current, are — perior intensity of the current, and consequently, of its chemical action at the signal-station. The question remains open for dis- ssion. The experiments of Fizean and Gounelle, in France, de- scribed in the Comptes Rendus for April last, were on an entirely different principle, and conducted them to a series of in- ferences which they give in detail. The published description $ of their method is very obscure, and the data on which their in- ferences are founded are not fully given. Their method appears — to be in some degree, analogous to the very elegant rt * Ast. Journ, i, p. 105. f Ase Jou - Assoc, 1849, p-. 189. Ast. Journ, i, p. ai eae ourn., i, Comptes Rendus, xxx, p. Comptes elie: 90, 132. : = Velocity of the Galvanic Current in Telegraph Wires. 81 by which Mr. Fizeau had previously measured the velocity of light between Paris and Montmartre. A wheel, whose circum- ference consisted of 36 divisions, alternately of wood and _plati- num, revolved in contact with the edges of insulated plates of platinum, each pair of plates forming a distinct circuit-breaker. The driving machinery of the wheel was connected with an ap- | paratus for measuring the velocity of rotation ; and the effect of ‘ different velocities and different circuits was observed upon the 1 galvanometer.* | The velocity of the current, which they deduced from these experiments, was, as I have already mentioned, 63,200 miles per second in iron wire 4 millimeters in diameter, and 110,000 in copper wire, 24 millimeters in thickness. They inferred, moreover, That the two electricities were propagated with the same ve- locity.t+ - _ That the tension of the electricity has no influence on the ve- locity. That the velocity does not vary with the section of the con- ducting material, but only with its nature, and then not in the ratio of the conductive power xs od seameaees That the discontinuous currents “experience a diffusion, in consequence of which they occupy a space greater at the point of arrival than at the point of departure.” ; & This latter result is in direct opposition to the experiments of Walker with the chemical telegraph, by which, using a method of determination indefinitely less complicated he found the length of duration of the electric currents to be less at the more remote Station. According to Fizeau,t the electropea 3s propagated more rapidly than the electrotome ;—according to Walker,§ less rapidly. Fizeau used a circuit 374 miles in length, and Walker one of 250 miles of wire, whose two extremities communicated with the ground about 190 miles apart. eg The Coast Survey experiments of Feb. 4, on the line between Washington and St. Louis, 1045 miles distant by the wires, and 742 in a geodetic line, lead me to suppose, as already stated, that the velocity of the two signals is the same, and (other things be- ing equal) the pauses would be of equal length, as recorded at all the stations on the circuit. I am inclined to attribute Walker's results to the more intense chemical action of the current on the prepared paper at the signal stations,—and while entertaining the most profound admiration for the remarkable ingenuity and care Shown by Fizeau, I cannot consider his method as capable of _ Slving results worthy of implicit reliance. + Faraday, Res., i, $1833. § Ast. Journ., i, p. 106. 5 _ 82 Reply to Mr. De la Rue’s remarks on the N. Spencerit. Walker’s conclusions respecting the velocity are by no means inconsistent with Wheatstone’s experiment ; for the tension of the electricity and the conducting power and size of the wire differ so much in the two cases as to prohibit any comparison. Fizeau’s, on the contrary, stand in the directest opposition to it, for he finds that neither the tension of the transmitted electricity, the intensity of the current, nor the size of the conductor, exerts any influence on the velocity; and at the same time’ makes the velocity through his copper wire to be 110,000 miles a second, while Wheatstone found 288,000 to be the minimum limit of the velocity through the copper wire which he used. ‘ (To be continued.) Arr. VIl.—Reply to Mr. De la Rue’s remarks on the Navicula Spencerii contained in the American Journal of Science, Vol. IX, p. 23; with a notice of two new test-objects ; by J. W. Battey. | In consequence of absence from home and long continued illness, I have been compelled to delay my reply to the remarks by Mr. De la Rue upon the subject of the Navicula Spenceril. I trust however that it is not too late for a few words in answer. Mr. De la Rue now admits that the American observers were right in attributing the appearances seen on these shells to rows of prominences, and not to perforations or depressions as stated in Mr. Queckett’s Treatise, (p. 440,) and as the larger figure on Plate 9 of that work represents them. As we agree with re- gard to the structure of these objects, the only remaining points of difference between us are the measurements of the distance between the rows, and the difficulty of the species as a test- object. With regard to the accuracy of my measurements it was impossible for me to judge, as Mr. De la Rue’s were not by Mr. De la Rue, I find that my measurements constantly differ from his, and always in the same direction and amount. AS manipulation, I can only conclude that our scales of « Reply to Mr. De la Rue’s remarks on the N. Spencerii. 83 i. e., our micrometers must differ. My own is an English one divided to ;;';,ths of an inch. Mr. De la Rue states that his is accurate I cannot now determine, and must leave it to future ob- servation, I will remark however that Mr. Spencer of Canestota in some measurements which he has recently made, obtained re- sults intermediate between those obtained by Mr. De la Rue and myself, making the distance between the transverse rows about yorors of an inch. In his remarks, Mr. De la Rue emphatically states that at the time of its arrival in London, the markings on the N. Spencer shown as lines were not a difficult test for the object-glasses of the London observers. I leave it for others to reconcile this statement with the quo- tation which I gave from a letter from a London correspondent, which I will now requote, as follows :— “The evening I received your package there happened to bea small gathering of our microscopic friends. Your slide with the Navicula Spencerii underwent a long examination. We however could make nothing of it. * * * We had some of the best glasses of Smith, Ross and Powell in our examination, and I am boun to state that at present the result is most unsatisfactory.” It appears from the above that it was not Mr. Marshall’s glass alone which in the earlier trials of this test in London failed to resolve it. The fact was that all observers found it a difficult object until they became aware of the great obliquity of light required, and most observers admitted it to be a far more difficult test than any at that time known. Mr. De la Rue appears to be the only one who found no difficulty in his first attempts to see this as a lined object, probably owing to the fact that the difficul- e all his skill it was only “after working about an hour that the dry specimen was resolved most satisfacto 84 Reply to Mr. De la Rue’s remarks on the N. Spencerii. To Mr. Spencer I am indebted for the knowledge of two test- objects of far greater difficulty than the N. Spencerii. The first made by Ross of London and recently imported by Mr. Cole of Salem. The Gt. subtilissima occurs along our whole coast from Massachusetts to Florida. In form it resembles the G. marina of authors, but is more delicately marked than my European speci- mens of that species. The specimens with the finest markings I found growing upon the Polysiphonia Olneyii of Harvey, near R.. I. Providence, resolve them even when mounted in balsam. I think that when r. De la Rue sees these objects, his doubts “ whether the phys- ical properties of light do not put a natural limit to our resolving lines so close as the ;5;'s;;th and 5,,';5;th of an inch” will be removed. Note.—Since the above was in type, I have been informed by — Mr. Spencer, that he considers many of the specimens from Prov-. idence as more difficult than any of the specimens of Amici’s test. The Grammatophora from Greenport, Long Island, is decidedl Miscellaneous Notices. 85 Arr. VIII.—Miscellaneous Notices ; by J. W. Baer. 1. Fossil Infusoria of the Southern Ricefields.—The earth of the rice fields in Carolina and Georgia is rich in fossil, (marine or estuary, ) siliceous Diatomaceze. They are particularly abundant in the earth freshly excavated in forming the canals and ditches, and hundreds of little shells may be seen with even a common pocket lens, upon the freshly fractured surface of any dry lump of the mud. The species are such as now inhabit the shores and up the streams than where the surface water is fresh. Among 3 and of Judge Cheves; and on the Altamaha at Hopeton, the classic ground of southern natural history, near the residence of J. Hamilton Couper, Esq. A perfect agreement was found in the character of the fossils at all these localities. States that he has found it adhering to roots of Marchantia from South America, and Ehrenberg has recently stated* that it occurs abundantly in Texas, but adds however, that it has not yet been etected in the older states of the Union. 1am happy to be able to state that it is a common and abundant form in our southern rivers. During the last winter I found it in a living state in the waters of the Ashley, Savannah, Ogeechee, and Altamaha; also in great abundance forming long chains on the roots of Pistia strati- otes in the St. Johns, Withlacoochee and Hillsborough rivers in Florida. I have also specimens of it from Jamaica, and a few Portions of apparently the same thing, from Mindanao in the Phillipine Islands. It probably inhabits the rivers of all warm Tegions. It is abundant as a fossil form in the ricefields. i o 3. Fossil Infusoria of Maryland.—The infusorial beds of Virginia and Maryland, have been heretofore traced from Peters- Surgh, Virginia, to Herring Bay on the Chesapeake in Maryland, and here “ the ¢rail’? was lost; I have had the good fortune to - * Monatsbericht, &c,, Berlin, Feb, 1849. 86 On the Galvanic Current. recover it again at Wye, on the eastern shore of Maryland, where the iMfusorial stratum reappears with all its usual characteristic cies. © 4, Silicified Polythalamia in Florida.—While passing from . Pilatka to Tampa Bay, in Florida, I collected at “ Piles’s New Place,” about furty miles west of Pilatka, large masses presenting all the mineralogical characters of flint. These occur in veins in masses of the white Orbitulite limestone which is common throughout this portion of Florida. Much of this flint is suf- ficiently translucent to be mounted in thin fragments coated with m for microscopic examination. By this means I detect- ed in it numerous silicified specimens of Orbitulina, Nummulina, Rotalia, Textilaria, &c. The siliceous arrow heads found in great abundance in Florida, often present a similar character, and are doubtless from the same formations. : 5. Localities of Paludicella articulata, Allman.—This beauti- ful Bryozoan polyp appears to be common in the Highlands of New York, I have found it in considerable abundance in all the ponds near West Point, and also in ditches leading from a swamp near the Crows Nest. It occurs attached to various submerged objects, such as growing plants, bits of wood or stone, fallen leaves, é&c., over the surface of which it spreads in an irregular branching manner, sending up from each joint a beautiful animal flower, formed of tentacles covered with vibrating cilia. I have kept it by me for weeks and find it a charming object for micro- scopic study. A figure and description of it may be found in the London Physiological Journal, vol. i, p. 10 . Circulation in Hydrocharis spongiosa.—This plant grows in i almost every wet place in the Southern states, where it is often : known by the name of “Colts foot ;” I recommend it.to southern microscopists as a beautiful object for the study of the circulation. The hairs covering its aquatic roots are as transparent as glass, and afford an admirable display of the currents, and also of re- volving cytoblasts, ss 4 f q Sl ORLA eae ase te es - Arr. IX.—On the time required to raise the Galvanic Current — to wuts maximum in Coiled Conductors, and its importance in = ee ; by Prof. Cas. G. Pace, M.D., Washing- ton, D. C. M. Pourter communicated to the French Academy in 1837, “ that he had established that a circuit of many thousand metres — in length, was traversed by the current in a space of time that did not amount to z5's5 of a second; and that in this very brief instant it was not simply a portion of the electricity that was ‘ On the Galvanic Current. : 87 gvith : manifested in the circuit, but that the entire current passe all its intensity.” Prof. Henry, however, in his valuable paper on electro-dynamic induction, published in 1840, takes ‘the more consistent ground as follows. He remarks that, “rapid as may __ e the development of the current, it cannot be supposed to as-..~ sume per saltum, its maximum state of quantity; on the contra- — ry, from the general law of continuity, we would infer that it passes through all the intermediate states of quantity, from that of no current, if the expression may be allowed, to one of full development; there are however, considerations of an experi- mental nature, which would lead us to the same conclusion, and also to the further inference that the decline of the current is not instantaneous.” Prof. Henry also inferred that the “ time of the subsidence of the current when the circuit is broken by means results lead to conclusions differing from those of Henry only with the rise of the current as well as its subsidence, and that the time of subsidence is the same as that of the rise of the current, and that both depend upon the force of the induced current. The induced current ceteris paribus depends upon the figure, size and construction of the coil, and therefore, the rise and subsidence of the current is governed as to its time, chiefly by the configura- — tion and size of the coil. spark was small, of contact, the d in volume and sound. It was not difficult by the aid of a metronome, to time _ the contact and to ascertain with some accuracy the time required _ to give the spark its full effect. : _ On connecting two, three, or more coils with the same battery, the result was much more striking, from the fact that the 88 On the Galvanic Current. maximum effect of the induced eurrent, or the volume and noise of the’spark were so much increased, although the time required appeared to be the same. It was only from the great contrast manifested between almost “no current,” and a full development of a current which produced a secondary spark of nebular form, having an average diameter of three inches. I may remark here that the form of the spark depends entirely upon the manner of breaking the circuit. When the wires are separated slowly the spark is nebular in form, but when they are separated suddenly and carried to a considerable distance apart, the spark is linear or nearly so, and I have obtained it sometimes when a bar of soft iron was inclosed, from siz to eight inches in length, and I have no doubt that by following out the novel suggestion of my friend, Mr. Lane, viz., to shoot away the connecting wires by a cannon ball, a spark of a foot or more in length, might be obtained. About twelve years ago I noticed in this Journal a nebular spark of nearly one inch in breadth from a powerful magneto-electric machine, and a linear spark of #th inch in length from the same machine, but do not remember that they excited any special at- tention at that time. ‘Their very great magnitude in my present experiments, however, renders them objects of intense interest and beauty. When a soft iron bar is inclosed in the coils, the neb- ular spark is frequently spread out from five to six inches in breadth. But to return to the subject. Measuring the time of the rise and fall of the current by the metronome, it was found to be from 3th to 4th of asecond; when the coils were used alone and when a soft iron bar was included, the time was from $ to 3th of asecond.* The presence of the iron bar increases the initial induced current, and thus delays the rise of the battery currents, — and the terminal secondary is also increased and thus sustains or prolongs the duration of the battery current. It is very interesting to close the circuit in the coil surrounding the iron bar, and watch the subsidence of the current in the coil after the battery current has been entirely removed from it. On opening the circuit by separating the ends of the coil, sparks may Phenomena of Polarized Light. 89 trivances which will be described at some future time, I have been enabled to obviate mostly the principal difficulty, viz,,-the time of the coil, or rather to turn it to a practical account, and to this in part is due my recent great success in the application of this power. I have now an engine of nine to ten horse power, | the details of which cannot be given here. I notice that Mr. Hunt in a recent address before the Society of Arts, in London, describes the effect of secondary currents and also the effect of motion in diminishing the power of electro-mag- netic engines, and claims that the subject was then for the first time specifically brought forward. In 1838 I prepared a special paper upon this subject, which was published in Silliman’s Jour- nal at that time, in which I fully set forth and anticipated al these difficulties, and also shewed by an instrument termed the Magneto-Electric Multiplier, how the secondary current might be used to increase or diminish the motion of a revolving magnet. The method of determining the time for the rise of the cur rent in my coils by means of the metronome, and the size of the sparks is not to be relied upon for entire accuracy, and I have in “one ee an instrument by which it can be done more per ectly. . | Note.—In a recent letter from Dr. Page, he mentions the fol- lowing experiment with his powerful magnet.—Eps. “Ihave just completed a grand experiment with a huge iron bar and helix, with the following results. The bar weighing 532 pounds placed within the helix, is made to start up in the coil and vibrate in the air without visible support. It requires 4 force of 508 pounds additional to its own weight to pull it out of the helix, so that it is equivalent to lifting a bar in the helix, of 1040 pounds in weight. After this it would seem quite easy to Sustain masses of iron weighing many tons. The full time re- quired to charge this magnet and raise the galvanic current to its ‘Maximum is two seconds. Nine-tenths of the charge 1s attained iN one second.” *~; Arr. X.—A new figure in Mica and other Phenomena of Polar- ized Light; by Prof. Cuas. G. Pace, M. D., Washington, D. C. In order to exhibit well the system of rings in mica, we must select the clearest specimens of uniform appearance and density, and the piece should be at least ;';th of an inch thick. If the _ Mica be very clear it may be somewhat thicker to advantage. ‘he inclination of the resudtant azes is so great in mica, that but xp Suures, Vol, XI, No. $1—Jan, 1851. : 90 Phenomena of Polarized Light. and in addition a charming system of aye rbolas. The pieces, each about th of an inch thick, are cemented into frames revolving one within the touching. In viewing this figure by polarized light, the Nicols prism is held perpendicular to the mica plates, and not inclined as in viewing a sin- gle thickness of mica. Fig. lisa rep- resentation of this interesting compo- site system. ‘The colors are brilliant and the negative figure is not less pleasing than the positive. Polarization by Caoutchouc and Gutta Percha.—Gutta per- cha when rolled into thin sheets or drawn into ropes comports itself like a fibrous substance, which is not the case with caout- chouc. A strip cut from a thin sheet of gutta percha may be stretched considerably in one direction, that is, in a line with the fibre, but any attempt to stretch it across this line, is followed at once byarupture. It isnot so with a sheet o tchouc, which will stretch equally well in all directions. Ga. pi ia of thin sheets of these two substances—so far believed to be is0- erical—a marked difference of texture is at once perceived. The caoutchouc gives little or no change of color, while the gut- ta percha exhibits a beautiful spectacle. It appears to be built up of prisms of every variety of hue, and as it were fused into each other. It resembles more nearly some specimens of ice which have examined, than any thing else. The caoutchouc and gutta percha must be kept under considerable tension during the exam- ination. seit is one mode however, in which I have produced some res by means of caoutchouc. The caoutchouc is made into Lite balloons in the parece manner. Avery thin sheet is_ tied over the end of a tube of one half inch bore, and the caout- chouc blown out into a ball and firmly tied just beets the end of the tube with a piece of silk. The form and size of these balloons are nearly as repre- sented by fig. 2. They can with a little prac- tice be very conveniently made by the mouth. The caoutchouc is drawn over the open mouth and by strong suction it is forced in filling the mouth, when the lips and teeth are compress- ed over the outer portions, so as to form a neck which is at ‘gan ee up by the fingers and secured with a The caoutchouc thus Phenomena of Polarized Light. 91 highly stretched becomes almost transparent, and when viewed by polarized light it gives when in this constrained condition a efinite system of colors, not unlike the figures produced ina circular piece of tempered glass. On a mode of preparing figures for exhibition upon screens by the apparatds of Soleil_—T here are no exhibitions within the whole range of optics so fascinating as those with the apparatus of Soleil, in which the various figures, systems of rings and colors by polarized light from crystals, tempered glass and other substances, are thrown upon a large screen in a darkened room. Among the many objects accompanying polarizing apparatus received in this country from Europe, there are usually one or two tasteful dia- grams representing a flower, gothic window of stained glass, or some pleasing device. ‘These pieces are prepared at vast labor and expense, and are in reality mosaic work, of thin pieces of selenite cemented to glass by Canada balsam. The selenite is k the character of the diagram or form to be represented, are lai upon glass as before stated. But as each piece will give two dis- ; tinct complementary colors in one revolution of the eye-piece, £15 to £20. Dr. Brewster suggested a mode of making such fig- ures upon selenite, by scratching out the surface, and afterwards polishing it; but this would be more difficult of execution than the mosaic work. It occurred to me that a good effect might be produced by engraving in a peculiar way upon mica, and my first trials about three years since were quite successful and encourag- ing. The modus operandi is as follows: A piece of very clear and uniform mica is selected, about ,’zth of an inch thick, and this is examined by polarized light to ascertain its color. If the mica splits well we may have the ground-work of almost any color desired, by gradually removing very thin layers and repeat- ing the examination each time. e mica is then laid and sé- cured in place over a drawing or engraving of a bird, flower, but- terfly, or any object fancy selects. The whole outline of the gure is then traced upon the mica with a sharp steel point, ta- king pains to use uniform pressure. The entire film of mica eitcumseribed by the tracer is then removed by lifting one edge “ eee 92 Phenomena of Polarized Light. with a lancet point and stripping it off, and thus we have a new color for the whole figure differing from the ground-work, and we may now proceed to trace all the details, by cutting in toa greater or less depth and detaching 3. the films by the lancet point, and hay- ing a polarizing mirror before us and a Nicols prism, we can in a few hours complete a work which will vie in splendor with many of the selenite specimens that occupy many weeks in construction. The pieces when fin- occupied me more than five hours, yet they are truly splendid objects when magnified upon a screen. These illustrations will we 4. 5. arDAn LOGS Cy Nahe MG A AUR EE ¢ SCA We Mere (oe MP SOUR iG west LS 2 y «'U, Seen Racecns A serve as models for any one to work upon, and although seem- ingly difficult, yet even an unpracticed hand cannot fail to bring out something gratifying. In the figures of the peacock and chameleon, I took the liberty of coloring the trunk of the tree with the brush, which adds much to the picture. Washington, November 12, 1850. Descriptions of new species of Fungi. 93 Arr. XL.—Descriptions of new species of Fungi collected by the U.S. Exploring Expedition under C. Wilkes, U. 8. N., Com- mander ; by Rev. M. J. Berxeney and Rev. M. A. Curtis. Aearicus (Pleuropus) nacorts, Berk. and Curt. ;—pileo sessili elongato-conchiformi, antice latiori; strato superiore gelatinoso setoso-velutino; lamellis subconfertis.—Ad lignum. Oahu, Sand- wich Islands. Cap 14 in. long, sessile, narrowed behind, broad in front, the upper surface clothed with dense short soft bristles, at length na- ked in front. Gills moderately close, tawny when dry, edge en- tire. Spores white, round-oval. Allied to A. atropurpureus , but differing in the coarse velvety coat which resembles that of Hridia hispidula, Berk. It also 4 bears a strong resemblance to Lentinus pelliculosus, but the hairs ; ; are not fasciculate as in that species, nor are the gills toothed, not . to mention the generic difference. san pee as . ae stem 7 lines long, 4 thick, paler that the pileus, furfuraceo-tomen- tose ; gills broad, strongly emarginate or sinuate behind, scarcely n mis spiculiferis—Ad lignum. Feejee Islands. Abo in. broad, white, finely streaked, margin slightly in- _ curved; stem 1 in. long, scarce | line thick, black below, pale , pallide brunneolo zonis obscurioribus; stipite brevissimo p- 2 is but a single specimen of this in the collection, which pretty well with one of the original specimens from the 8 oh ei aey <2 ie - sh 4 C6 94 Descriptions of new species of Fungi. of a beautiful ochre or tan c P. tirvurarivs, Berk. ‘and Curt. ;—carnosus tenuis ; pileo flabel- liformi glabro lineolato ; stipite brevissimo cum pileo postice at- tenuato confluente ; ; poris minutis epg dissepimentis tenuis- simis denticulatis.— Ad ignum. Feejee x: Cap 14 in. broad, 14 long, slightly lobed, pieened brown, marked , with fine radiating lines, slightly depressed behind where it is confluent with the extremely short thongh strictly defined stem ; edge slightly incurved ; hymenium probably white.—A very dis- tinct species to which ‘we cannot point out any near ally. Drummondii is perhaps the nearest. It also resembles P. sector, but has no raised lines and is quite smooth, Favo.us pLatyporus, Berk. and Curt. ;—pileo reniformi sub- lobato rigidiuseulo glabro e contextu supra dissepimenta contracto reticulato; poris amplis oblongis subhexagonis, dissepimentis emarginatis rigidis, acie subintegra.—F'eejee Islands. Cap 2% in. broad, 14 long, depressed behind, reticulated by the thin and acute. Stem extremely short, disciform. Dissepiments scooped out in the middle, pores 2 lines or more long, 1 line broad, but varying much in size. —Nearly allied to F’. alutaceus, Mont. and Berk., but differing in its larger pores and reticulated surface. The pores are more rigid than in any other species with which We are acquainted except an undescribed species from Canada, which has not however the reticulated pileus. F. intestinalis, Berk., has pores as large, but is totally different in other respects. THELEPHORA LaMELLATA, Berk. and Curt. ;—tota ochracea; pileo infundibuiliformi lobato rugoso-lamellato subtiliter tomen- foso ; stipite elongato velutino-tomentoso ; hymenio sulcato rugo- so glabro. Feejee Islands. ) Pileus 2 in. broad, 14 deep, lobed, subplicate, clothed with perma viet appressed down, coarsely lamellate rugose. Stem equal, cylindrical, 14 in. high, 2 lines thick, densely downy, al- most velvety, solid. title cs ae rugose- plicate. The whole is This species is rather thea than 77 caperata, Berk. and Mont., is more strongly edges has a very different kind of coat, and along almost velvety st t does not appear whether this, like 7’ caperata, aa dae on wood. T. scapra, Berk. and Curt. ;—albida; pileo anguste flabellato- : diviso Fare iekaio. granulato-scabro ; hymenio striato.—Ad ter- ram? Feejee Islands. ce Pileus 1} in. high, main divisions much attenuated below, di- | ated above and incised, with the lomee incised or furcate, rough with little granular warts. Hymenium smooth, striate. —Closel allied to 7. pallida, Schwein., ae Bistin nguished by its pileus, which may, however, prove to be an inconstant. character. _ ~*~ On the markings of the Carapax of Crabs. ° ‘95 Hypoxyton pinzrorme, Berk. and Curt. ;—globosum, stipita- tum et sessile, piceo-laccatum ostiolis prominulis exasperatum, intus album.—Ad lignum. Oahu. There are but two specimens of this, one of which is depresso- globose, produced at base into a short rugged stem nearly as long as the head, the whole # of an inch high; the other sessile, or with a mere rudiment of a stem, and deformed as if by the par- tial confluence of two or three heads, thus somewhat resembling a small undulate form of S. concentrica.—The species is closely allied to H. polymorphum, but the sporidia are shorter and thicker. It resembles also S. obovata, Berk., and S. poculiformis, Mont. Arr. XIl—On the markings of the Carapax of Crabs; by James D. Dana. Te areas into which the surface of the carapax of Crabs is subdivided were imperfectly distinguished and named by Desma- rest. This author designated the regions according to the internal parts which they covered. But there is a system in the mark- 3 an one ee Fy 96 On the markings of the Carapaz of Crabs. towards the eyes. These depressions divide the carapax into a medial region, two antero-lateral regions, and a posterior region. From the ‘medial, we exclude a frontal portion as a frontal region, besides also an orbital and from the posterior two postero-lateral regions. ach region has its several subdivisions or areolets. n the figure referred to, the areolets of the frontal region are marked F ; “of the orbital, O ; those of the medial, M ; those of the a posterior, P; those of the antero-lateral, L; and those of the BY postero-lateral, R;—R. being the initial of the last syllable in | the word lateral, while L is the initial of the first. The minor : subdivisions correspond to prominences or tubercles of the surface and are normally as follows :— : Frontal Region.—1F, the front margin; 2F a prominence | just posterior to the front either side of the middle. Medial Region.—1M, two small anterior prominences, the pr@- edial; 2M, two large areolets the extra-medial; 3M, a cen- - tral areolet, elongated anteriorly between the areolets 2M, the intra- medial ; 4M, a transverse areolet just posterior to 3M, the post-medial. Two deep punctures usually mark the limit between 3M and 4M, even when there is no depression. 1M is annexed to the medial rather than the frontal region, because it more com- monly a with the former, and is a part of it often in general o1 Antero- el Region.—In this region —_ are normally six areolets and they are often prominent :—1L, near the Jirst tooth following the post-orbital. 2L, 3L, eaicdes to IL, in a line nearly with the second tooth, and 4L, 5L, 6L, between 4M and the third tooth. Postero-laieral Region.—This region on either side consists normally of 3 areolets 1R, 2R, 3R. . Posterior Region. —1P is situated directly behind 4M and is © often well circumscribed, and sometimes in shape nearly like 3M reversed titi shortened. 2P directly behind 1P, is sometimes { . > Pent The variations in the markings of Crabs arise in the main from — the greater or less prominence of these areolets, their various sub- divisions, or their obsolescence. When only a few undulations but just apparent ; and when once perceived a correct sketch is made without difficulty. , n the obsolescence of the areolets, the posterior are the first to disappear, in which case this part of the surface is flat. Ne : postero-lateral fail of being distinct. Next 5L and 6 OL e On the markings of the Carapazr of Crabs. 97 : and also 1M apd 2M. Next, the posterior of the medial areolets becomes obsolete, and at the same time 5L, 6L disappear, or are indicated only by a slight undulation along the space that ordi- narily separates them. The extra-medial may be only circum- scribed anteriorly, and the slender elongation of the interno-me- dial is all that appears of that areolet ; next, the remaining antero- lateral areolets may disappear with the frontal, and the surface is then quite smooth. 11, is sometimes indistinct when the other areolets are prominent, though usually it accompanies them. hen 4L, 5L, 6L become indistinct, the transverse depression then prominent instead of passing behind them bends more forward along 3M, and passes anterior to them, and so makes a different 2 subdivision of the carapax in its general aspect and character. In another variety, the prominent transverse depression passes ap- terior to 5L, but not anterior to 4L, (which may be obsolete, ) and has nearly a straight course across the carapax. In the subdivision of the areolets, the first that partake of it are 2M, 5L, and 3M. A commencement of this subdivision of 2M (the extra-medial) is very common, and when completed it divides it into two parts longitudinally. This is an important specific character and though hitherto unmentioned in descrip- tions, it is easily described when a proper notation is adopted. 5L also subdivides from above downward or rather obliquely inward. 3M subdivides at times into 3 parts as shown in figure 2 which in- cludes also 4M. Figure 3 represents another form of this areolet eS eee a ey ct anh = | “ - - ag f Seay er some smaller; and the post-medial includes 2 tango eat’ Saree smaller tubercles. When the subdivisions are not carried as far, a portion may be separated anteriorly from each half of 2M, while me rest remains entire. ‘ oat is common for 1R to have a tubercle or two on its surface e same transverse line with the tooth, ol, XI, No, 31—Jan., 1851. 18 =. On the markings of the Carapar of Crabs. “ Teeth of the antero-lateral margin.—The teetly of the margin are normally five in number, commencing with the post-orbital | rst. These five are represented in figure 1, and are desig- | nated in order by the different letters of the word dentes (or dents in French) D, E, N, T, 8. Each tooth is often separated from the adjoining by a minute suture at the bottom of the indentation between them, and hence the letters always mark rather a lobe of the margin than simply a tooth. These teeth vary by obso- ghee or subdivision, like the areolets. obsolescence, the tooth E (second) is the first disappear, i this reducing the apparent number to four. Then N fades out, “8 eaving S alone which may also be wanting. Again s es is sometimes smaller than 'T and even disappears. In the multiplication of teeth, there is often, asa addition, a tooth s’ (or two s’, s’’,) posterior to S. 1ere is often also a tooth (d’) between D and E on a lower level she D. But the multiplication is generally dependent on the subdivision of the normal tee in addition sometimes to 8 and D,—each of these teeth consisting of two or three teeth, either all equal or one more prominent. In order to determine the normal relations of the teeth when the number is large, we have a guide in the are- olets adjoining when they exist; for the areolet 4L (or the range , 4L,) terminates against tooth or lobe T, having about the same breadth that be longs to this lobe, the depression gore to 4L corresponding to the fissure between Nand T. So L (or 3L, 2L) gives the breadth of the normal tooth or lobe N ; fe IL, when present, that of E. We thus find that usually when there are seven teeth anterior to S, each E, N, T, are doubled; when eight E, N are doubled, and either 7-18 trebled, or both T and D are doubled. The medial and antero-lateral areolets may be viewed relatively in two ways. If we compare the medial region as a whole wit either antero-lateral as a whole we find a resemblance in general form and subdivisions. Again we observe that the Bis ; areolets 4L, 5L, 6L, 3M or 4M form a transverse zone across the See zone. ‘These zones are often very distinctly brought out. ‘he lobes E and N are often a little posterior to the areolets adjoining, —or, the line of the lobe and these areolets has a direction a little obliquely backward of a straight transverse line. Again, when the — posterior prominent transverse line ne from the limit between T and S$ inward, anterior to 5L and not to 4L, as alluded to on the — preceding page, the apparent zones are nearly straight transverse. The medial region in the Cancer group is usually narrower than the breadth measured between the outer angles of the orbits: but in the genus Cancer of Leach ns M. Edwards), On a Native Phosphate of Iron, Manganese and Lithia. 99 it is rather wiger, owing to the smaller distance between the eyes. ‘The depression limiting on either side this medial region terminates anteriorly in the line of a fissure in the upper margin of the orbit between 10 and 20. It is interesting to trace these regions in other families of the Brachyura; but this we reserve for another occasion. Snffice it 0 say, that in Atelecyclus, which is broader anteriorly than pos- teriorly, 3M is much elongated, 1P is as long as broad, and there are the normal teeth with others intermediate. In Calappa in which the posterior part of the carapax is broadest, the medial region is comparatively small, and does not reach back quite to the middle of the carapax. 1P i s oblong instead of transverse. 7 In the Maiade, the medial region is usually large, while the 3 antero-lateral is very narrow anteriorly. 1e prominent lateral Spine or tooth oe aeane and is usually far back of the feltioonts outward and backward in these men extends more forward following the outline of the medial region and then bending outward along the — between LL and 2L, 3L, or between 21, 3L, and 5L, 4. In the former case the region of the tooth E is anterior to the am or depression, and in the latter, the regions of both E and N. Traces of the depression separating the antero-lateral and postero-lateral regions are also often apparent in this group. Arr. XIUL—Chemical examination of a Phosphate of Tron, Manganese, and Lithia, from Norwich, Massachusetts ; by . J. Craw, of the Yale Analytical Laboratory. THis mineral from Norwich, afforded me the following blow- 7 pipe Searaters. Fuses vg in the ahha “Disol¥ with intu- Be on EE ie 1. 41:35 27:36 2470 trace 2:27 1-97 trace 207, —— 0-29=100°01. 2. ote 26-02 23-30 trace 2:20 161 trace 207 030100714. 1:21 0°46 780 7-07 5 ve en 100 Ona Native Phosphate of Iron, Manganese and Lithia. The specific gravity of the crystal analyzed was 2:876, dried at 212 F. The manganese was found to be in the state of a peroxyd. The iron was also proved to be mostly if not wholly in the same state of oxydation, and asuaee from the condition of the man- ganese that it was whol ay rom the second morale we have as the oe cage ratio for the oxyds, peroxyds and phosphoric acid, 1-67 : 14°87 : 25-02, a closely to 1: 9: 15, corresponding to ae ah, 3P. Suip- posing the protoxyds absent we have the simple formula #*. But including the protoxyds which are beyond doubt essential to _ the species, we can propose no satisfactory formula. It is possible that the mineral may have undergone altera- tion by a peroxydation of some or all of the iron or manganese, as happens with other phosphates of these metals; but on this point we cannot be fully assured without farther exploration at the locality. On the supposition that all the metals were origin- ally protoxyds, and have undergone peroxydation, and. that the mineral has not lost any essential part of its bases by infiltra- ting waters, it would afford the oxygen ratio for protoxyds and phosphoric acid, 11:86 : 25: 02, or nearly 1:2, which would edge this formula R> £2, But in the present state of our knowl- give the formula is altogether hypothetical. In the first analysis, aie proportion of phosphoric acid was not separated from the iron Although the species appears to be near Triphyline, the results end to prove a wide difference from that species rather than an igen with it. Art. XIV.—On the Physical and Cry ystallographie characters — of the Phosphate of Iron, Manganese - Lithia, of Nor- wich, Massachusetts ; by ‘James D. Dan phosphate of iron, manganese and lithia of Norwich, THe analyzed by Mr. Craw, occurs in crystals imbedded in quartz along with the etlyataltized spodumene of that locality; a mas- sive variety has not been observed. ‘I'he crystals have an iron- ack color, and are wholly opaque; hardness 5-5-5; streak brownish-red. They are rather stout prisms, varying from a fourth of an‘inch or smaller to over an inch in diameter, and often they are regularly terminated at both extremities. ‘The faces are smooth with in general but little lustre, yet somewhat shining. Cleav- age imperfect ; basal sometimes distinct ; also traces parallel t to one lateral plane have been observed. ‘The close approximation in: nthe _ eral, and this obliquity although an irregu- On a Native Phosphate of Iron, Manganese and Lithia. 101 angle of the ptigm to that of Staurotide led to the supposition at first that the mmeral was a black variety of that species.* ‘he accompanying figure exhibits the occurring planes. he form is normally a right prism; yet in very many of the erys- tals the terminal plane is oblique to the lat- larity, is not attended with any distortion of the adjoining plane ¢, the upper and lower edges of this plane being parallel notwithstanding the varying inclination of : e planes N and N’, are similar in lustre, yet according to the various meas- as assumed without the assistance of pressure from other crystals, the quartz being massive. The following are the results of the measurement of ten crystals with the common goniometer. Pha di Tae Vv. [vo vr vn vi) eS ; Palet solo. 6 Lo eres N:N = |19s)131-198 |197-13031 0g ° [196 134 128° 1130 ° [130 © | N:b2 esa haw 13 |—|108 108 a N's b2 = |—H214- |—- 120 120-121 118-119 120 12 P: ag ery 1G h 9 | me asl Nit = |—|101}-1 || —| — eee Nest = | 1198 110s 10-112 |—|=+ Nor N’?):b2 |159/162 Sd Galan = : : 94-97 90 93. fa {Pon edge NN’ } 8687 | 86 86, 180 | 82-83. i | I Several smaller crystals afforded for the last angle 90°, leaving little doubt that this is the true angle notwithstanding the dis- crepancies. The angle of the prism, (N:N’) averages 130°. Owing to the singular variations of angle exhibited, it is eVi- dent that many more crystals must be examined, before their — character is fully understood. The angle of the-prism approaches that given for triphyline, 132°; but this angle for triphyline was obtained from cleavage planes, and no such cleavages have been distinctly made out in this species. Its peculiarities suggest that the mineral is a new one; but so many species have already been Made from altered triphylines that we forbear naming it until : farther investigations have been made. * See this Journal, [2], x, 121; and also measurements by Mr. Hartwell who ob- with Mr. E. Hitchcock, Jr, the first specimens, same volume, page 265. 102 Fossil and Recent Birds of New Zealand. Art. XV.—WNotice of the discovery by Walter MAntell, Fisq., of Wellington, in the Middle Island of New Zealand, of a living specimen of Norornis, a bird of the Rail Family, allied to Brachypteryx, and hitherto known to naturalists only by its fossil remains. (Ina letter from Dr. Manreit to the Senior Editor. ) Tam sure you will be gratified to learn that the perseverance of ; my son, Mr. Walter Mantell, now of New Zealand, has been re- =... warded by the discovery of a living specimen of a genus of Ral- = lida, of which, crania with the humerus, sternum, and: other parts _ of the skeleton, were found by him associated with remains of the colossal Moas, in the sand deposits near Waingongoro, on the west- ern shores of the North Island. The fossil bird was referred by Professor Owen to a new genus, which he named Notornis, (Southern bird), with the specific title Mantelli, in commemora- tion of the discoverer, (see Zoological Transactions, vol. iii.) Now there was a traditional story rife among the natives, that contem- _ poraneously with the gigantic birds, (Dinornis, Palapteryx,) there existed several small birds of various kinds; and a species of -Swamp-hen was particularized as having been abundant down to — a late period, but was supposed to have been long extinct, its ex- termination being attributed to the wild cats and dogs, which at the present time are a pest to the colonists, destroying the young _ poultry and other domestic birds, as well as the indigenous species. his rail was said to be of the size of a small turkey, of a black color, without wings, with red beak and legs: no specimen had been seen or heard of since the English colonized the Island. ’ ‘The South Islanders called the bird “ Takahé,” the North Is- landers “ Moho.” On a second visit to the southern parts of — the Middle Island, my son obtained from. some sealers a fine ex- ample of the supposed extinct Notornis. It appears that these * tion Island, and caught alive. It screamed loudly and fought and a ak . ' Fossil and Recent Birds of New Zealand. 103 This beautiful bird is about two feet high, and much resembles in its general form the Porphyrio melanotus, but is generically dis- tinct ; the characters predicated by Professor Owen from the fossil skull and bones, being well exhibited in this recent example. The beak is short and strong, and was, as well as the legs, when this animal was alive, of a bright red’color. The neck and body are of a dark purple, the wings and back being shot with green and gold. The wings are short and rounded, and remark- ably feeble, both in structure and plumage. The tail is very scanty, and white beneath. Mr. Gould, an eminent ornithologist, (author of the Birds of Australia, &c.), to whom I have given the privilege of figuring and describing it, as a tribute of respect for his indefatigable and beautiful researches in that department of natural history, confirms the opinion that it is identical with the fossil: this, then, isa recent example of the Notornis Mantelli, a bird coéval with those marvelous bipeds—those giants of their class—whose stupendous proportions and mighty strength are celebrated in the songs and traditional tales of the New Zealand- ers, and whose bones and even eggs have been transmitted to Europe, and excited the wonder and delight of the philosophers and the multitude. na letter announcing this discovery, my son writes, that he had sent me both recent and fossil specimens of “ a genus of bird hitherto unknown to naturalists,” and though he had not found “a live Moa, he had at least found a living contemporary.” It is possible that another specimen of Moho may be caught, sooner or later, yet from all I can gather from persons who have long resided in various parts of the New Zealand Islands, there is greater proba- bility that this may be the last ever seen alive. My son also sent me other fine skins; one of that marvelous New Zealand bird, the Strigops—which blends the characters of the owl and parrot, the last is of great rarity ; I believe this is but the third specimen sent to England. I shall let the British Mriseum have it, as there _ 48ho example of this species in our national collections. ‘The Notornis and the other birds I shall retain. as about to depart ‘once more for the bone-beds on shores of the North Island, and with the especial ing certain caverns in the limestone rocks of that two of Neomorpha, and one of Apteryr australis, and Ap. Oweni: . 104 Fossil and Recent Birds of New Zealand. district, which are said to contain bones of Moas and other ani- Uae A friend of mine lately received a letter, dated October, 1849, from Dr. Thompson, surgeon of the 58th regiment, now at Auck- land, in which the writer states that having heard from Ser- vantes, the native interpreter, of caves containing birds’ bones, he accompanied the latter in search of the place, and was rewarded by obtaining several skulls and mandibles. He observes: ‘‘ The beak is not like the Keivi, (Apteryx), but resembles that of the ostrich or Cassowary. ‘The cave is on the west side of the North Island, in the limestone formation which extends along the coast. The country around is wild, and there are many similar caverns which we were told had birds’ bones in them. The popular opinion among the natives is, that the country was once set on fire an eruption from the volcano of Tongariro, and that all the Moas fled to the caves for refuge, and there perished. ‘This story will do well for the North Island ; but how were they extinguished in the Middle Island, where there are no active volcanoes?” I reference to this remark of Dr. Thompson, it is however not a little curious that the tradition of extensive conflagrations over the Middle Island, is confirmed by the state of the subsoil ; for my son found that the now grassy plains, where our modern “Canterbury Pilgrims” have fixed their tents, bore evidence be- neath the turf of former forests that had been consumed by fire, the charred stumps of the trees remaining in situ. Even on the sw r morass at Waikonaiti, where my son obtained the remarkable pair of perfect feet, there were traces of the same catastrophe ; everywhere, he says, there were charred stumps of which had been burnt down to the ground. But it was be- neath this superficial covering that the bones of the Moas were — entombed ; a forest had grown over the ancient swamp, and has — been consumed by a conflagration of comparatively recent date ; and now the sea covers the site except at low water. I see that a paper by Prof. Owen, on skulls of the Palapteryx ingens, 1S announced for the first meeting of the Zoological Society ; [think it probable that these are the specimens collected by Dr. Thomp- son, aud presented to the Governor, Sir George Grey. I intend sending a brief notice of the discovery of the Notornis, to the Zoological Society, as the subject was first announced in the transactions of that body. I may also add that among the fossil shells collected by Mr. Walter Mantell, in the North Island, are species of Cucul/e@a, one apparently identical with Cucullea decussata of England. ak % a full and detailed account ere long. I have too at last discovered abundance of fossil cones, the fruit or seed vessels of the fir-trees composing the forests of the Wealden, and of which, as you ba 2 will remember, Brook Point in the Isle of Wight, affords a nota- ble illustration. I have also a beautiful fossil palm-leaf from the tertiary strata of the Isle of Wight, being the first species of this kind found in England. Chester Square, Pimlico, November 8, 1850. : ; SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. Cuemistry anpD Puysics. es b Crnebuiions” of a similar character from others will of course not be excluded by this arrangement, but I shall hold myself responsible only or those notices which appear over my initials. New York, Jan. Ist, 1851. Woxcort Giszs.] ‘ se U Fetitrzcn in Greiswald.*—The researches of Lenz and Jacobit on the moir,i of the Current upon a magnetic needle by means of a permanent magnet, the magnetic intensity of which has been previously referred to absolute easure. The needle is placed upon the middle of a scale at right Angles to the magnetic meridian, the center of the needle forming the point of the scale. A helix of copper wire the length of which is Tepresented by 2a, (102™™), is placed upon one side of the needle, , $21, + do. xlvii, 225. t do, Lxxviii, 21, No. $1.—Jan., 1851. 14 Scientific Intelligence. 105 — were contemporaries of the Iguanodon: of these I hope to give es ad ee ae a +, 106 Scientific Inielligence. read off, and the magnetic force J? of the spiral or of a soft iron bar in its axis, determined | by the formula ie 1 ( 1 i ae irae weet =J PEL So, Sa Se EG i ee (9—a)}4 ss. fora)? where J, which in comparative experiments may be regarded as=1 represents the quantity of magnetism in the steel bar. ‘The author first determined the force of the current alone, then introduced a bar of the magnetic intensity of the spiral alone and that of the spiral and iron core together, gave the magnetic intensity of the core. A number of bole iron cylinders, fitting closely into each other, were prepared, y means of these and the method of measurement already de- saribel, the author arrived at the following conclusions : (1.) Electro- magnetism penetrates into “the interior of soft i @. ) The more powerful the inducing current the deeper ig pene- on. (3) Every layer of the soft iron has a point of saturation. (4.) The magnetism of hollow and massive cylinders of the same kind of iron is of equal intensity, provided that there be a sufficient mass of iron present for its evolution. And furthermore tha “The density of the electro-magnetism upon the surface of soft iron is the same for all currents whatever may be their force, and may be expressed by the number 7:200.” [The researches above mentioned would appear to lead to the conclu- sion that every bar of iron magnetized by induction must have a point of aegis S at which the magnetism of every layer in the substance of e bar would equal that upon the surface, yet it is probable that this point of saribalion could never be attained by any force of current which we are able to command, at least in the case of bars of any con- siderable diameter. ] = 2. On the law jm the intensity of Magnetism induced in soft iron by galvanic currenis.—Burr and ZAMMINER have undertaken an experi- mental investigation. not the law of Lenz and Jacobi, that the intensity of - mine dime’ ‘may be in Bent is placed horizontally in par position that when produced and at right angles to the meridian passes through the a Wheatstone’s rheostat which forms part of the circuit. If » and ¢’ represent the angular deviations of the two magnetic needles, then for eS ; tan 9 '< the same series of experiments ane must be constant in case the as- sumed proportionality between the intensities of the inducing current and of the induced magnetism, holds good. he iron bars employed were cylindrical, and their surfaces were turned smooth to remove the layer hardened by hammering. The results of numerous careful de- Pee . tang, % terminations show that the ratio aaetet ceteris paribus constant, and consequently confirm the law of Lenz and Jacobi. [The authors attribute the opposite results obtained by Miller partly to the manner In von Feilitzch yield some support to Miller’s view, and certainly render a thorough investigation of the whole subject desirable : c . The gas absorbed consists therefore of olefiant gas, (acetene), Propylene C,H,, and butyrene C,H, ; the unabsorbe portion pod) 4 A oO Q. g, o Set oO. = j=) 4) S 2 S Q. 5 pS = 2) i egan to boil at 105° to 106°, the last portions distilled between 135° and 140° ; the portion boiling 6 of 0-708, at 16°, the density of its vapor was 3954, which leads to the formula C,,H , ,=4 vol. vapor. With bromine this liquid gave a heavy fluid compound, C,¢H,,Br.—=4 vol. vapor, whieh is therefore a homo- logue of the preceding. ‘The author has obtained similar results with see caprylic, enanthylic, margaric and ethalic acids; all of these gave % liquid carburets of hydrogen of the form Cm Hm as well as the gases C.H,, Ce : 6 Cg rbu eH H,- After recalling the analogous results obtained ih valeric acid, the author concludes, that setting out the homologues of marsh gas (palene) do not possess Chemistry and Physics. 1OY: center of the needle. The force of the current is varied by means of of the acid takes place, and that they are therefore resolved into mars 108 Scientific Intelligence. sufficient stability to resist the temperature at which the — gas, hydrogen, and a series of hydro-carburets of the form Cm Ha.— Compies thas July 29th, 1850. 4. On the products of the action of chlorine upon Propylene.— Cauours has also examined the products of the action of chlorine upon propylene, C,H,. hen chlorine and the gas obtained as above by the de ecomposition of Aileen acid are caused to meet in a large re- Rakeoiied 1 to the action of a current of chlorine a series of ida i is obtained, represented by the following formule €,H,Cl, boiling at 104° Dehiity 11514 vol. vapor, er .Ul, os 170° oes eee a SH Choos 195°-2000 “© =1548m4 « «& Cl. * 220°—-229°° © =e) 5484 C,H.Cl, si 2402459 1 6264 C,HCI, = 260° aS Saar C,Cl, ™ 280° eee Sg ey These compounds distilled with an alcoholic eelutoe of potash yield a new series of homologues with those derived in a similar manner from the liquor of the Dutch chemists and its Doi slides by substitution. We thus obtain the compounds C,H,Cl, C,H,Clz, C,H,Cl,, C,H,Clas 1g E ey asl ee of which “corresponds to 4 vols. v vaneh, y tion of bromine upon other hydro-carburets of the series C, Hm, as for instance, ner Abie anilene, paramilene, éc.—Comptes Rendus, August 26th, 1850. 5. On the pa of Iodine and Phosphorus.—CorENwIiNDE has succeeded in preparing definite and crystalline Schtinatiohid of ‘iodine and phosphorus by soiearaic oo the two substances in gular crysta > and apparen) pal plates ; these erystals by distillation give a Chemistry and Physics. 109 — crystallizing by fusion in very long prisms. The iodid Ph], fusesat 55° C. and is decomposed by water with evolution of HI. When five 7 ; eq. of iodine and two of phosphorus are employed, we obtain at first- = erysials of PhI,, and then those of PhI,. By using the sulphuretof = carbon as a solvent, the author obtained in crystals many other com- pounds, such as the perchlorid and the sulphuret of phosphorus.— Comptes Rendus, August 5th, 1850. 6. Preparation of Chlorate of Potash—Catvert has given a new mode of preparing chlorate of potash which offers great advantages over those now in use. One equivalent of caustic potash is to be dis- solved in so much water that the solution has a density of 1°110; six equivalents of quicklime are to be added, and the whole gradually heated 0 50°C. A rapid current of chlorineis then to be passed through the solution till it becomes saturated, the chemical action raising the tem- : - ammoniacal liquids obtained in the manufacture of gas.—Comptes if Rendus, xxx, 612, 537. Lamy, Meyse, Chatin and Personne have found iodine in various fresh water plants, in Confervee, and in the ashes of the beet root— Comptes Rendus, xxx, 463, 478, 475. Absorption of carbonic oxyd by an ammoniacal solution of sub- chlorid of copper.—Stas, Dovere and Lesianc had observed the ab- Pee et plete vacuum expel the 0 pper analogy between this reaction and the absorption of nitric oxyd by proto- ve ps were found to action on the oxvd of carbon.—Comptes Rendus, xxx, 483. 110 Scientific Intelligence. _madder of two red coloring principles, viz.: alizarin and purpurin, and of yellow or orange substances which perform no important part “+ in the operation of the dyer. Alizarin, as prepared by a new process resembling that of Schunck, but for which we must refer to the origi- nal paper, presents itself in two different forms, viz., as hydrous and as anhydrous. The hydrated alizarin is obtained in scales which resemble eating it fuses and sublimes in orange-colored needles, a small portion at the same time undergoing decomposition. It is with difficulty moist- ened by cold water, but dissolves in boiling water with a deep yellow color. The smallest trace of alkali colors the solution red. ‘It is solu- ble in alcohol and ether ; the alcoholic solution is reddened by alkalies, the etherial on the contrary remains unchanged, as the red alkaline compound is. insoluble i in this medium Alkalies readily dissolve ali- liquid assumes a uniform violet tint. In alkaline anaes alizarin is soluble with a color resembling that of litmus, but without a blue re- flection. The authors refer the differences in color of sia solutions to the formation of different combinations of alizarin and alkali. Schunck Debus by C,, 9; the authors propose the formula C,,H,0¢; -and show that it accurately corresponds with the analytical results of both Schunck and Debus. The hydrate of alizarin is represented by C,,H,0,+4HO. The following table represents the constitution of the. principal compounds of alizarin Alizarin, oxyd of lead, #10. 8-0, )4-8Pb0 (Schunck.) Alizarin, pays of lead, 3(C, ato Lerat (Debus.) rin-lime, 2 Va) : Alia via, baryta, ats i * ss 2 (CP HO}, BBO aq. = ee 3 (C,,H,O,)+2Ba0 By the action of different oxydizing agents upon alizarin, an acid is ebtained which was described by Schunck under the name of alizaric acid. Laurent and Gerhardt pointed out the resemblance between ee . . . . ] trecker have placed the identity of the two acids beyond @ doubt, es ‘epresent the conversion of alizaric rots phthalic acid by the a scalk acid Phthalic acid. Oxalic acid. tcc See ee “C,oH, 0,+2HO+0,—C,,H,O,+C,H,0,. * They further demonstrate that the chlo ro-naphthalic. acid of Lau- | rent is denial with chlorinated alizarin, as may be seen by the fol- lowi poets formu "Ali C, oHethee Chloro-raphthelic acid, Cuskke } : Cl §- Chemisiry and Physics. 111 yields phthalic, oxalic, and chlorohydric acids. The authors however, did not perfectly succeed in transforming chloro-naphthalic into alizarin, either by Melsen’s or by Kolbe’s method of replacing chlorine by hy- — drogen; they invite the attention of other chemists to the subject, and point out the practical advantage which would accrue from a metho of converting naphthalin into alizarin. Purpurin crystallizes from its solution in strong alcohol in red needles; from weak alcohol on the contrary, in fine, soft, orange- Laurent long since showed that chloro-naphthalic acid by oxydation ‘ C,H, .;H,O,. The hydrate has the formula C,,H,O,+- - Purpurin contains therefore 2 eqs. less of carbon than alizarin and it is highly probable that the latter may be converted into the former by oxydation. As shown by the equation, C,,H,0,+HO-+0,—C, ,H,0,+C,HO,. Purpurin with nitric acid yields phthalic and oxalic acids.—Annalen ] 1850 der Chemie und Pharmacie, \xxv, 1, July : 0. Action of Sulphite of Ammonia.—Pir1a has found that sulphite 0, 2 that of Debus C..H.O O cylic acids. By the action of a concentrated solution of the sulphite upon an alcoholic solution of nitro-naphthaline two new isomeric acids are obtained in combination with ammonia. ‘These the author terms —Comptes Rendus, xxxi, 489, 30:h Sept., 1850. [Vote.—The naphthionic and thionaphthamic acids of Piria may be. regarded as “ amic acids” analogous to aminsulphuric acid, SO,,. o+ | r S,0,NH,+HO, oxamic acid, &c. Piria’s acids on N C,,H,; if naph Re : 2 a eehiditnile on 1, ; if naphthalidin be considered as ammonia In which one eq, of hydrogen is replaced by one eq. of CzoH,, the body NC,,H, 112 Scientific Inielligence. may. be: ‘regarded as NH, in which the same substitution has occurred. isamerism of the two acids may be due to the existence of two isomeric sg 1 itro- hippuric acid. —Benracnint has found that nitro-ben oh n fe) a 2 . a Pe aap ° “ CO = oot Ss a @ a 2 - ag oO 2,8 2 3 _ Oo 2) aed = D 5 oO a ° oO < = om we [=] and found that when heated with ri acid it was resolve into eiyoonol and nitro-benzoic acids.—Comptes Rendus, xxxi, 470, Sept ss - ion of cyanhydric acid upon aldehyde ammonia.—STRECKEB . a ro < poe) = } Pa cd o o. < BS } eS of = Q 2 & = o ae oa = p fae : ous o 5 3 = > mM a ° oC. rs) 3 o a. S 5 = mM ta “— S = — 3 . studied. When two > paris b pak of aldehyde ammonia and one evaporation and crystallization, sal-ammoniac and a mother-liquor con- ining a new substance, alanin. Alanin crystallizes from a warm so- ution on cooling in ieee usually acicular, prisms, often of con- siderable Size ; ‘the crystals are hard and crack between the teeth; they are soluble in water, lighily soluble in alcohol, insoluble in ether ; the aqueous solution has a sweet taste, does not change vegetable col- ors, and gives no eae ees the ordinary reagents. . e 200° alanin sublimes and condenses in fine Oe crystals ; oh poration is represented by the for tile C,H, and it is consequently homologue of glycocoll; the following equation kbbabie its formation C,H,0,+C,NH+2HO=C,H_NO,. mie recker observes that ie has the same formula as urthethan, lac- mid and sarkosin, from which however its chemical and physica eae sufficiently distinguish it; it combines with acids to form crystalline compounds, as well as with the oxyds of ebb co al lead, and barium; in these respects therefore it resembles glyc Heated aiedlled with sulphuric acid gives acetic acid. With peroxyd of lead nin gives carbonic acid, aldehyde, and ammonia ; when a current of anesen acid a): is passed into an aqueous solution of alanin, nitro- _ that which is obtained from sugar. The following equation, C,H,NO,-+-N 0,=C,H,0O,+2N-+-HO, Chemistry and Physics. 113 13. O Piayrair, (Phil. Trans. for 1849, part 2d3 L., E. and D. Phil. Mag., March, April, and May, 1850.)—Hitherto but little has been known in © regard to the action of nitric acid upon the ferrocyanid of potassium. The most remarkable observation on the product of this reaction was_ that when added to a solution of alkaline sulphid, a magnificent purple d m the Nitroprussids, a new class of Salts; by Dr. ines) White substance which proves to be ovamid. ‘To form i sodium, which is more readily procured than the salt tassium, the solution i8 neutralized with carb. soda, boiled and filtered from the dark-green or sometimes brown precipitate which forms. Concent with soluble sulphids. The author proposes this as the mos ; test known for that class of compounds. The beautiful purple color is © however very fugitive. : _ The precipitates formed by the nitroprussids are salmon-colored Jn the protosalts of iron, light green with salts of copper, and not very Striking with several other metals. ith persalts of iron, salts of tin and mercury, an J neutral salts of lead, no change 1s produced. ALES Vol. XI, No. 31.—Jan,, 1851. 15 Pike aa Be * 114 Scientific Intelligence. The nitroprussids are very liable to change, and hence the determi- nation of their true formula isa matter of some difficulty. The indus- trious and accurate author records over one hundred analyses of the salts on the products of their Jextepoeiiins The analyses most trust wor- thy agree very nearly in assigning a composition which aside from its apparent complexity, seemed so improbable, that they have been repeat- ed under every variety of circumstance with the view of obtaining simple results, which have however obstinately refused to show themselves. e formula thus obtained is Fe,C,,N,,0,R,. The author would have pate the ratio Fe, to o.. , but,as we have said, the analyses would not allow of it. Various conjectures are given as to the rationale of this curious composition, — which point another paper is promised. We are indebted to Gerhardt for a series of formulas by which under his genus of Polycyanid, we can include without difficulty all the vari- ous compounds which have caused so much trouble to chemists, and to explain _— at least oe hypothetical lege are generally re- quired. Let stand for iron with two s its usual wen .» as in peroxyd, Sbechiocid; &c., and we have the Follewinig formulas errocyanid, Cio (Fe, R,) Ne Ferridcyanid, re (Fe, R,)N, Turnbull’s blue, C,,(Fef,Fe,) Nz By similar experiments we can debuts the composition of Everitt’s salt, the complex ferrocyanids and the other varieties of Prussian blue. By doubling the equiv. to avoid fractions, we have the nitroprussids as ollows : Nitroprussids, C,, (Fe Fe? R,)N,.-+3NO. Fe and Fef, or Fe'? being together equal to Fe,, as given in the analysis. The only difficulty is in the relation of 3NO. This from its somewhat basic character may be superadded to the polycyanids as NH, is to the ordinary cyanids. Possibly there may be some connection between this and the absorbtion of y protosalts of iron. Xt any rate the formula expresses a relation to known compounds, and accounts acinntgiee well for some phenomena in the decomposition sf io bah . C. Scu anew property of Carbonic Oxyd ; by F. eee “(Comptes Rendus, April, 1850.)—In absorbing oxygen from a gaseous m mixture the ammoniacal subchlorid of copper, it was noticed that a large bo quantity of carbonic oxyd was also dissolved. The same reagent w protected from the action of the air was found to absorb the gas readily vd at retain its property of becoming blue on exposure to the = or -. The solution of subchlorid copper in muriatic acid possesses “ihe same properties, absorbing the gas as readily as solution of caustic potash absorbs carbonic acid. It is remarkable - after saturation the subchlorid is = tam by dilution with wate All attempts to procure a solid compound of oe gas and salt failed. The quote aiken up was one equivalent of CO for one equivalent t Cu. yellow recl ipitate, : he air. 15. On the Aérometric Balance, an instrument Density of the air in which it is placed; by Pre 2 Chemistry and Physics. 115 pe pump experiment, in which the equilibrium between a solid ball and hollow bulb is disturbed when placed under an exhausted receiver. n the practical construction of the instrument a closed glass bulb is suspended from a hook carrying an agate plane, which rests on a knife edge at the short arm of a beam, the fulcrum of which is pro- vided with a knife edge, &c., as in an ordinary balance, while the long arm terminates in a vernier, the angular deviation being measured on a graduated arc—forming in fact a species of bent-lever balance, the arms however being nearly in a line. The instrument can be so adjusted as to become more delicate than a barometer reading to ‘001 of an inch, A series of observations are given compared with the density as calculated from an aneroid barom- na ‘he eter. The changes indicated by the two instruments are the same in direction but not proportional. G. C. 8. 1 reservation of the Proto-Sulphate of Iron from Oxydation ; by M. Ruspint, (Journ. de Chim. Med., vol. v.)—The crystals are to be dried in blotting paper, and allowed to effloresce in a drying appa- ratus at 86° he salt may then be kept unchanged in bottles with glass stoppers, e have seen the same result attained more readily by precipitation — 3. C. 8 with alcohol. G 17. Freezing point of Water lowered by Pressure; by Prof. W. Tuomson, (L., E. and D. Phil. Mag., Aug., 1850.)—Mr. James Thom- son the brother of the author has recently shown that the fundamental axiom of Carnot’s theory of the motive power of heat, requires as a ne- cessary consequence that the freezing point of water should be lowered by pressure. The result of his calculations gi 0135 ofa degree of Fah. as the depression in temperature for each atmosphere 29-922 inches. f tions. A suitable thermometer containing ether instead of mercury was inclosed in a glass case and hermetically sealed. Each division of the scale was equal to about y of a degree. The experiments re in Oersted’s apparatus for the compression of water—the cylin- der being filled with ice and water. The column of ether was found to descend immediately upon the application of pressure, and to rise as rapidly when the pressure was withdrawn. 9 Observation at Siacacuesbies gave a depression of 0-106" F.—at m, 0°232° F., differing by —0:003° F. and 0-005 F. from the oincidence with theory. » Go Be . Test for the Presence of Chloroform in the Human body; by et in Gaz., June, 1850. )—— e blood or her paris examined are heated by a chlorid of calcium , oe « 116 Scientific Intelligence. chloroform is decomposed in passing the red-hot portion of the tube _ which may be tested by dividing the tube with a file, ammonia beirg and the liberated chlorine or hydrochloric acid forms chlorid of silver, tried in one half and nitric acid int The delicacy of this process may be inferred from the following facts. In undoubted cases of death caused by chloroform, the precipitate ap- peared as soon as the boiling point was reached. Portions of the mus- cles of the leg of a child amputated while under the influence of chlo- roform, gave the precipitate, a few minutes longer being required for its appearance. ‘Two kittens were killed by the inhalation of less than one minim each, the presence of chloroform was detected on six successive _ days after death, no precautions having been taken to protect the bodies _ from the air. It has been ascertained that, at the required temperature,—that of boiling water or a little higher,—no chlorids present in the human res can affect the t G. C. 19. On the bites of Cuminic acid in the animal system; by be Hormann, (Journ. der Pharm., April, 1850.)—Benzoic and cinnamic _acids having been tra nsformed into hippuric acid, in their passage through the ‘body, it seemed desirable to ascertain whether cuminic acid, a homologue of the benzoic, would undergo the same transformation. ener quantities were taken over night by several persons. urine on evaporation furnished nearly the whole of the cum minic . acid iaativied, without a trace of hippuric acid. A repetition of the * experiment gave the same result. 4 Toluylic acid, another homologue, did not reappear in the urine. very — quantity of an unknown crystalline neutral substance was aine 20. Action of Essential Oil of Bitter Almond on the Animal Sys- tem; by C. G. Mirscnerticn, (Buch. Report, iv; Chem. Gaz., Aug., 1850. )—The observations of the author in the main agree with those of Wohler and Frerichs. The poisonous effects of the crude oil in small doses is due only to the prussic acid it contains. € pure oil in small doses is oxydated and hippuric acid is found in the urine. In larger doses, one to two drachms, the aang” is in- complete and the unaltered oil is found in the urine. In such doses it is less poisonous than oil of mustard but more so than the vibe of juni- per, savine, cinnamon, turpentine, lemons, &c. Its effect on the intes- tinal canal is similar to that -% the above named oils. oduced there is a rapid destruction of — and of voluntary motion, while the acbolaneah respiration and pulsa- ‘ac still continue. . C. 8. Il. Mrneratocy anp Grotocy. 1. Report of Progress, o me Geological —- of Canada, b S E. Locan, Esq., Primintt a Geolo i ; “pens | 8vo. Toron d 1850. «Dating the past sabe, Ze Logan has se occupied with ae tigations about Bay St. Paul and Murra ray River, on the north : of the St. Lawrence, near oe 704°W., and 1 the s side east and west of the Chaudié Mineralogy and Geology. 117 The valley of Bay St. Paul, is the course of the river Gouffre, and i Murray Bay River isa few miles to the west. Coal had been reported as occurring in this region, but incorrectly as it was proved, the rocks- Pes. being the ‘l'renton Limestone, calciferous sandrock, white quartz rock Sy! corresponding to the Potsdam Sandstone, and metamorphic rocks as ee . gneiss, either granitic or syenitic. On the uplands, west of St. Urbian a fy Church, the rock is hornblendic and contains large masses of titan- iferous iron, one of which was 300 feet long by 90 broad. Among the ‘fossils of the limestone are Chetetes lycoperdon, Streptoplasma cornicu- ¥ m, S. crassa, Receptaculites neptuni, Schizocrinus nudosus, Leptena alternata, L. sericea, Orthis pectinella, Atrypa ambigua, Platynotus trentonensis, Calymene senaria, species described by Mr. Hall in his Report on the Trenton limestone fossils of New York There are also in the same valleys tertiary deposits containing marine. shells, among which are Tellina grenlandica, T. calcarea, Saxvicava rugosa, and others ; and they were traced to a height of 390 feet. At little Malbasic there were six terraces, and in other places, one or more e oa oa 2) ° e a o cy @ wh ast fo] = " is) So iv) oO i jm Bs @ ° o DN o “ < =] oy s n = o — o 5 oe gg 3 © 2 - a aS oO ay 9") $9? ao oc 7 commences an extensive deposit of clay, sand and gravel ; we followed the section made through it by the river for about a mile and a-half, and constantly found the clay beneath and the gravel resting on It; to- wards the top of the gravel, the bank often presented a horizontal deposit inches thick, filling the interstices among pebbles of various kinds, man Ment exists on a small brook which gives a section through it at right angles to the main stream, on the 8. E. side; ascending this about the _ third of a mile, an rying a few pounds of the gravel at the top which Another locality was about a mile up the stream of ee metal have been found on the River Metgermet, flowing into the = 118 Scientific Intelligence. which discharges into the Chaudiére, opposite the Famine, on the Seig- nory of Aubert Gallion, being on the twenty-second lot of the domaine, “where the metal was first observed by Mr. Fortier, one of the censitaires, in a narrow ravine with steep precipices of clay slate on each side ; it occurs in the clefts of the slate constituting the bed of the stream, and in the clay and gravel immediately on the top of the rock, mingled with magnetic and chromic iron ; the quantity of gravel at the spot is but small in consequence of the narrowness of the ravine, through which the water re ) is crossed by the brook next below the previous stream. Mr. Hunt ae found traces of it in the gravel at the foot of the precipice of serpentine, just below the fall of the Guillaume River, where it was associated with’ grains of magnetic and chromic iron, as well as of rutile and ilmenite. He also discovered it about a mile beldw the Great Fail on the Bras, in similar gravel lying close‘on clay slate, where it could not be far re- These five localities, as well as that of the Touffe des Pins above ‘ ence the Ruiesesu Lessard, and the Ruisseau du Lac or du Moulin, n both of which particles have ‘been met with, are all included in an ing, of about sixty or eighty square miles, with a breadth of about ten ar across the stratification, and I have been informed that traces of Rnibic du Loup, about fifteen miles still farther to the south-east than the Riviére a la Famine. “The Report of Mr. T. S. Hunt, Chemist and Mineralogist to the Sur- vey, is occupied principally with analyses of soils and mineral springs which may be noticed at len aa in igre gb mber. of Darien and the. Gulf of San Miguel umerous rivers flow info the principal stream is the river Santa Maria, forty miles long, and falling into the Gulf of San.Miguel, “dobstrucled by sand-banks or bars estates are still oecupi y the Spanish, but most of the old towns and villages and forts: have n long since deserted. About eight miles up the river Santa Maria (or Tuyra) is the village of pe ra with a corregidor, and’ about 100 inhabitants, mostly Sambos and Ne- groes ; Mr. Hossack, a Scot, and Don Pepe, a Portuguese, are sete tly, ss = residence of the prefect Don Antonio Baraya. rcely 100, and the large fort is in good condition, The. largest vessels can ascend nearly to the Chuquan of the river Tuyra, a few miles below Yavisa, and up 4 extends. This country has been the scone of succe Mineralogy and Geology. 119 under the Spaniards, and of much buccaneering and futile attempts at _ colonization on the part of the British, from the days of Sir Francis ~ archives of the tre of Panama is an nt of former mining operations at the Mina Real, on the river Cana (a source of the cy, Tuyra), in the Cerro del Espiritu Santo; the royal quinto or 5 per cent. on this mine averaged for a number of years three and a-half millions >] sk more than three or four hundred) who hewed out the rock, ground it in me =] -aQ a = _ o —] Q ° = - a @ o oS re) Q fs] S is) oO = a - = oO ‘< a i=) < oO i=] oO < ca] ba ao i) ia) S = 2 ° 3 i$) 5 oO [=F a io) 5 ae - bom a @ * himself collected 3lbs. of gold at various spots, and several pieces of quartz-rock with veins of gold in it. As an agricultural country, Darien we emigrants can go out for £6 per head. The tracts to be colonized con- sist of high table-lands and elevated valleys (nearly 9,000 feet), with a temperate climate (50° to 80°) all the year. On the table-lands wheat s, a communication. ‘The population consists 0 ernment is a pure democracy. The population of the ' A 000. The Cordilleras form a great table-land or’platform, on whic n with the Atlantic; the Savana is navig by miles, above which for fifteen miles it would he “Atlan ne. From a mountain on the rv’ branch of the Savana, both Atlantic and Pacific were visible. he ee would open near the old Scotch settlement of ‘New Edinburg at Punto Escoces. : : 3. On the Glacial Phenomena of the Neighborhood of Edinburgh, with some Remarks on the General ject ; by Mr. R. CHAMBERS, Ath m, No 1189.)—The author compares the glacial phenomena of Sco! th those of Sweden, with this difference, that in Scotland 16 Surface has been masked, and many of the glacial mask- & a wt * bi ee. often form long and narrow hills, running ea rth-east, some 120 Scientific Intelligence. ; obliterated since the glacial epoch. The trap — near Edin- , of them 800 feet high, and several of them sored li ffs to the west, — “and long gentle — on the east. Mr. Chambers described the — Costorphine Hill as a stratum of trap dipping to the west, and with a cliff in a line north eae south. In its crest, which rises to 470 feet above the sea, are three or four transverse clefts: On the west surface of the hill, the rock, wherever it is exposed, is found to be rounded (moutonnée), smoothed, and grooved. ‘The grooves, and the clefts in the crest of the hill, all lie in one direction, viz., directed to a point to the north of east. There are also, to the east oF the hill, long hollows, with rounded intervening swells ; and these run in precisely the same direction. At various places between the hill and the sea are seen sandstone surfaces, worn down toa remarkable flatness and smooth- ness, and in several instances marked with strie, all pointing in the same direction. In Edinburgh itself, the north side of the Castle rock is smoothed and horizontally grooved, as if by ice passing along the hollow below. In forming the Queen’s drive, on the south side of Arthur’s =e the surface of the rock in te hollow between that hill and ** Sampson’s Ribs,” was found to be wholly smoothed, polished and eat UF striated in the direction of the passage, which is easterly ; on the north side of the same hill, the railway works have also laid bare ro 400 feet.. Throughout the Valley of the Forth, from the Pentlands on one side to the Fife hills on the other, from Linlithgow to Dunbar, the sandstone surfaces, wherever the me are likewise smoothed, existing glaciers produce. ut there was great room for specula- tion as to the circumstances under which the presumed glacial agent erican continent, in a direction admitted to be tolerably pian forth. ce ; this ico: wes ae “of aiaiiliog aes tains of ‘da eae height. : v, v of the Forth, there co uld be an ice-torrent of undeviati Zoology. . aa 4. On Labradorite from the Island of Maui, Hawaiian Group ; s 86° 45’. There are no distinct lateral faces upon the crystals seen, igh: According to an analysis by Mr. Adolph Schlieper,* the composition is ae Si Al Fe Ca M, Na 53°98 27°56 114 8°65 1:35 6:06 0°-47=99°21 Oxygen 28°02 12°87 034 247 0°52 1°55 0:08 which corresponds to the formula of labradorite, and gives the special formula (3Ga+4Na) Sit+Ai$ii In a second incomplete analysis, Mr. Schlieper obtained ‘ i Al, Fe Ca 53°88 28°40 8°87 This last result was obtained from specimens procured by the writer at the Hawaiian Islands, and it removes a doubt with regard to the lll. Zooroey. On the order of Succession of Paris in Foraminifera ; by L. F. i he American Association for the Advancement of Science, third meeting, held at Charleston, 8. Cis agreement. ¥ . Mr. Pourtales has, for the first time, pointed outa direct, well-sus- tained analogy, which is to be found in the order of succession of the normal position of parts in organized beings—a link which may © include in one universal formula the rhythmic movements * See Dana’s Mineralogy, p. 686. - Pag D ‘ pa.” 122 Scientific Intelligence. which preside over the development of all finite beings, as the phyllotactie julge themselves are now known to express also the natural relations ie ch exist in the movements of the bodies belonging to our solar systenw . On the Principles of Classification; by L. serge ie ee ma ay be said that investigations upon the structure of a ae already yielded all the information coming from this source oo can serve to improve our classification of the animal kin After the great natural divisions of the animal inpdois have been circumscribed in accordance with their anatomical structure, after the differences, it is hardly possible to expect that further investigations re: upon the structure of animals will afford the means of establishing cor- a — the natural relations of the families. For it is already seen that the amount of organic difference which exists between the different Besiliew is either too insignificant to afford a test by which to settle ed preéminence or inferiority, or so striking as to impress us with an aggerated idea of their difference. Many e examples could be quote a : show, that, in this respect, from the same identical facts, naturalists have arrived at very opposite conclusions. And this diversity of opinion among investigators of equal ability leads me to think that comparative anatomy has done its work in that direction, and that we must seek for. animal kingdom, has brought to light, must naturally have blinded us to the imperfections and deficiencies which constantly accompany the most ment eg the different systems; and there is no philosophical observ o has not noticed this process of gradual approximation abe : . the nero in which t ph oven were introduced. e time Rane powbrehs gone b when the mere translation of a u ‘material addition to the information we possess respe animals, can now be Siisianead as a real advance in Zoology. 123° tion has been paid. When comparing, in former years, the characters of fossil fishes, especially with a view of ascertaining their natural relations to the living types, | was struck with the fact that those of earlier ages presented Many structural peculiarities, which occur only in the embryonic con- dition of the fishes of our days, and also that the older representatives of any family rank lower in comparison to their living representatives. us led me to infer that embryonic data might be applied with ad- Vantage to the correct appreciation of the natural relations of the various members of one and the same family, and perhaps also to the determination of the relative position of closely allied types. ae nder this impression, I began to compare young animals of various - families with the different types of the same family in their full grown condition, when I was forcibly struck with the close resemblance there: is between the younger stages of development of such representatives | in their full grown condition. This principle, once ascertained, led to the result, upon more exten- Sive investigations, that a complete knowledge of the metamorphoses of animals, from the earliest period of their embryonic development to the last change they undergo before reaching their mature condition, would afford, throughout the animal kingdom, a true measure by which to ascertain precisely, and without arbitrary decision on our own part, the natural relative: position of all the minor groups of the animal kingdom. tes ae Beginning the revision of the animal kingdom with the type of the piticulata, it was not difficult, with these views, to ascertain that the oO rg d pa Z which | “.4 derive from the knowledge of these changes sufficient information to “. assign a definite position to all the subordinate groups in each of these % ‘ie, 124 Scientific Intelligence. pupa of insects, and in which the joints of the abdomen alone remain movable, is also the case among the highest Crustacea. The position ‘ of the insects as the highest class, can no longer be denied, when we consider that in them the body is at last divided into three distinct regions—head, chest and abdomen—and that the locomotive append- ages, which, in the lower classes, are so numerous and uniform along the whole length of the body, are reduced to the region of the chest, and assume there a particular development. _ Again, the transformation of the respiratory organs is an additional evidence in favor of such an arrangement, as will be admitted from the fact that Worms and Crustacea have chiefly a branchial respiration, while in insects it becomes aérial, at least in their perfect condition. Oneé-upon this track, it was easy to follow out the minor changes h these animals undergo during their final transformation, and to classes. Taking the insects, for instance, into special consideration, we ascertain readily that chewing insects rank below the sucking tribes, A as their larvee are chewing worms, provided with powerful jaws, even ; in the case of those which, like Lepidoptera, have the most perfectly deyeloped sucking apparatus in their mature condition. _ Again their formation, and the manner in which they are unfolded, when the inasmuch as the upper larval wings of Lepidoptera are a sort of elytra, which, afier being cast in the last moulting, are succeeded by the more perfect membranous wing, which in its turn, undergoes such a develop- ment as to assign to those Lepidoptera, which have their wings folded ma backwards and enclosing the body, a position below those in which the wings spread sideways; and the highest position to those which raise their wings upwards. So that these investigations have settled even at in other classes ; as, for instance, among Meduse, where naked-eyed Discophori, with alternate generations, must be considered as the lowest type, recalling, in one of their conditions, the appearance of the inferior ‘ class of polypi ; when the covered-eyed Discophori, with their strobiloid = generation, begins in its lowest state with a medusoid polyp. : Similar facts are known among Echinoderms, in which, among Cri- noids, the highest free forms begin with germs provided with a stem, thus assigning, on embryological grounds, a lower position to all those a which are provided with a stem 2 __ In the same manner has it been possible to determine the position Bryozoa among Mollusca below Ascidize, upon the ground that their embryonic development is similar. It has been possible, in the sam way to assign to Pte a @ position inferior to that of Ga | proper, and not intermediate between Gasteropoda and Cep Zoology. 125 as anatomical investigations would seem to indicate. For it is now plain that the spreading appendages of the body of Pteropoda are not analogous to the long tentacles which encircle the head in cuttle-fishes, but correspond to the vibratory rudders of the embryo in marine Gas- teropoda. Again, the position of Foraminifere, seems to me no longer doubtful. They are neither microscopic Cephalopoda, nor Polypi, as of late it has been generally thought best to consider them, but constitute a truly embryonic type in the great division of Gasteropoda, exemplifying, in this natural division, in a permanent condition, the embryonic state o development of common Gasteropoda, during which the bulk of the yolk passes through the process of repeated divisions. = is principle—of embryological changes as a foundation of the’ natural classification in the internal arrangement of all the minor groups in the natural classes of the animal kingdom—applies with equal suc- a comparison of the metamorphoses themselves, in the different genera, will leave no doubt as to which of them the highest rank should be — assigned here to add, that even the classification of mammalia will receive decided improvements upon the consideration of their embryological changes. A single instance, even now, will at least show that the true relative rank of their families can be determined in that way. t oe _ These remarks will, at the same time, show that no investigations: re at present more needed to improve our natural methods in classifi-. it natural uld, _ Contribute more to the advance of Zoology, than any amount of descrip- ton of new species, : ,. oe these investigations of young animals should be made witha full knowledge of their various relations, and with the view of ascertaining | chiefly those zoological liariti hich illustrate more full eis. Ze peculiarities, which may 1 ¥ the value of all these relations. : Pe cle fic pate our 26, oe derived from all these different 126 . _ Scientific Intelligence. There is another field of investigation hardly yet entered upon, which — is likely to — largely to the improvement of our classification, I refer to the study of fossils, compared in their —_ feculeeaae _ the — of their living ee aslenk — been period, and also what is the oe of affinity they have to the lower types_of their respective classe I would mention, in this Reis the necessity of a revised com- parison of the Trilobites, With the earliest stages of development of Crustacea, when it will be found, as I have already seen it, that almost all the genera of Trilobites seem to be the prophetic ima genus, its appropriate ran venture even to say an the “time will come when the relative age 2 of fossils, within eertain limits, will be as satisfactory a ide | in assigning them their normal position in a natural system, as the facts derived from the study of their structure,—so inti mate are the oe existing between all parts of the wonderful plan displayed in cre ittle or no adenine ps as yet been derived from the study of the relations of animals with the elements in which they live, in ascertain- — ing = natural relations among themselves; but even in this respect we derive valuable hints from a careful study of the geographical disteibantion of all animals; and the mere nature of the elements in ich they live naturally. Oar reviewing lately the whole animal kingdom, with a view to ascer- tain what is. the value of the natural connection between the animals er guide, iui fabeeatia reapectng their natural seam may be fairly derived from their ae of It w he che. us that as soon as we introduce simultaneously rees; a8 soon as we allow the embryonic development, geolog! succession, geographical disttthunion, and relation to the natural — us in our efforts to assign to all animals a natural | ies ia one cal system, we shall be able to sketch a far more com Zoology. 127 picture of the great diversity which exists in nature, than if we allow enever we attempt to form a correct idea of the manifested relations which exist throughout the creation, as to all their different types, from the earliest period of the existence of animals up to the present day. ae Acassiz. (In reply to a letter of enquiry from the Senior Editor.) == ie The blind fish of the Mammoth Cave, ae for the first time pr» f: in 1842, in the Zoology of New York, Dr. Dekay, Part 3d, eS 187, under the name of “ Amblyopsis spel and referred, wi doubt, to the family of ‘ Silurida,” on nee nt of a remote resem- blance to my genus Cetopsis. Dr. J. Wyman has published a more minute description of it, with very interesting anatomical details, in Le vol: xlv, of the American Journal of Science and Aris, 1848, page 94. 1 es In 1844, Dr. 'Tellkampf published amore extended description, with i figures, in “* Miiller’s Archiv,” for 1844, and mentioned several other ? animals, found also in the cave, among w os ich the most interesting is— a Crustacean, which he calls, “ ‘Astacus pellucidus,” already mentioned, but not described by Mr. Thompson; President of the Natural History Society of Belfast. Both Thompson and Tellkampf speak of eyes, in '$ species ; but they are mistaken. I have examined several speci- mens, and satisfied myself, that the peduncle of the eye i exists, but there are no visible facets at its extremity, as in other ¢ r. ‘Thompson mentions farther crickets, allied to * Phalatneonle lon- O iders, Dr. Tellkampf, found two eyeless small, white yee which he calls * halangodes armata”’ and ** Anthrobia monmouth flies, of the genus “ Anthomyia”—a mi shrimp, called By wits riura scavernicola,” and two blind ‘beetles—** Anophthalmus Tell- kampfii,” of Erichson, and “Adelops hirtus ;”” of most of which Dr. Tell- kampf has published a full deseription and mei in a subsequent As alrea Dekay doubt, to the family of Siluride. Dr. Tellkampf however establishes for ita distinct family. Dr. Storer, i in his Synopsis of the fishes of Peehs Merica, published in 1846, in the Memoirs of the American Aca ears an nd Sci ty ask me to give my saree a cea the primitive state of the eress animals of the Mammoth Cave. This is one of the most im- ‘questions to settle in eNaraeal Bi istory, and I have several years s 128 Scientific Intelligence. — questions to settle in Natural History, and I have several years ago, proposed a plan for its investigation, which, if well conducted, ‘would lead to as important results, as any series of maw which can be conceived, for it might settle, once for ever, the question, in first called into existence. But the investigation would involve such long and laborious — that I doubt whether it will ever be un- dertaken. It has occurred to me, that the final step would bea thorough an attempt to raise embryos the species found in the cave, under various circumstances, diddeneet from those, in which they are naturally found at present. If seaeal circumstances ever modified organized beings, it should be easily ascertained here. For my own part, however, I think that the ca en diet th ey were created cae the circumstances in which t now live, within the limits over which they range, and with the eines tural peculiarities which characterize them, at the present day. But experiment, might be sure to earn the everlasting gratitude of men of science. And here isa great aim for the young American naturalist who would not — from the idea of devoting his life to the solution of one “oe que 4. On Sauce ees of the United States; by Prof. Lewis R GipBes, (Proc. Amer. Assoc., 3d meeting held at Charles- ton, 5. C., March, 1850.)—This coiabewse of the species of Crustacea in the principal collections in this country (exclusive of that of f the Ex- ploring Expedition at Washington) is enriched with many valuable notes, by the sata and epertoes: of — new species. ie mes of the new species are as follows :—Hayas aculeata, from Key West, Cryptopodia granulata, from "Chiesa: Harbor, Carpilius lividus, from the Sandwich Islands, Carpilius pretermissus, E. Indies, Chlorodius Floridanus, from Key West, Panépaus Wurdemannii, from Enterprise, Florida, — Sayi, (Lupa aieaen of Say,) Grapsus transversus, from Key West, Hepatus decorus, Charleston tesek llia armata, Porcellana ocellata, coast of S. Ca rolina, P. armata, from ae Florida, P. sexspinosa, from Key West, P. magnifica, from Vera Cruz, _ P. macrocheles, coast of S. Carolina, Ibarws novemdentatus, Callianassa grandimafta, from Key West, Alpheus formosus, from Key West, Pon- tonia domensiens coast of S. Carolina, Hippolyte Wurdemanni;, from — Key West, H. paludosa, fresh-water ponds, S. Corse Squilla neg- ra Charleston Harbor. cone a Astronomy. 129 5. Observations on the Fishes of Nova Scotia and Labrador; by H. R. Storer, 24 pp. 8vo, (from the Bost. Jour. Nat. Hist., October, vi irard (figure 1 plate 7), Gunnellus ingens, H. R. Storer (figure 1 plate 8), Salmo immaculatus, H. R. Storer, Platessa rostrata, H. R. Storer (figure on plate 8.) There are also critical remarks and notices of many other species. he 4 IV. Astronomy. . The new Planet Parthenope.—The small planet discovered by M. Gasparis of Naples, May 11, 1850, and denominated Parthenope, be- longs to the group between Mars and Jupiter. The following elements of its orbit are furnished by Luther. Epoch, 1850, May 25-0 m.t. Berlin. Mean longitude, 288° 40! 43-27 Long. of perihelion, 316 49 51 -82 a “asc. node, 124.67 55-784 ™ Ear Jam. 0, 1880. Inclination, 4 36 56 “75 Mean daily motion, 924-1747 Sidereal period, 1401 days. 2. The new Planet Clio—Mr. Hind, of London, who discovered this planet September 13, 1850, first proposed to designate it by the name Victoria, but objections being made to this, he has consented to Substitute the name Clio, which denomination will probably be adopted. __ Several sets of the elements of the orbit of the new planet have been computed and published, from among which we select the one by 1850, Sept. 13, mean time Greenwich. Mean Longitude, ‘ ; oh cote? 48! 20-2 Long. of Asc. Node, ‘ r -, 236 49 43 ** _* perihelion, i gee | 902 56, Lo-8 Inclination, - ‘ ‘. pet ees Angle of excentricity, . vine , £17 4 og. Semi axis major, . Py 0:3729403 Mean daily motion, . ; . 978''5796 es on > 2d of November, 1850, a new planet, resembling a star of the 10th magnitude. Its place Nov. 2, 7h. 3m. 6s'5 m. t. Naples, A. 30° 31’ 49”-9 and N. decl. 7° 58’ 55”. The R. A. was dimin- ng, and the N. declination increasing. Series, Vol. XI, No. 31.—Jan, 1851. 5, gat ae new Planet.—M. Gasparis, at Naples in Italy, discovered, 130 Scientific Intelligence. 4, Petersen’s Comet.—On the Ist of May, 1850, Dr. netomat at the Altona oe iscovered a telescopic comet in the constella- tion Draco. D’Arrest has calculated the following slosnenia viz. Time of perihelion passage, 1850, July, 23:48002 Berl. m. t. Long. of paripelicn. 273° 23! fige M. eqx. 1850-0 92 53 23 Inclination, : . 68 10 36 -93 Log. per. dist. . ; 0:0339176 Motion, direct. BP Bo Comet.—On the 29th of August, 1850, Mr. Geo. P. Bond, of the Cambridge Observatory, discovered a faint ‘telescopic comet in the constellation Camelopardus. It was subsequently discovered by four independent observers. The following elements of its orbit by Mr. T. H. Safford, Jr., (Astr. Jour., No. 16,) are based on the Cambridge observations of Aug. 29, Sept. 3 and Sept. 8 Time of perihelion Ban: 1850, Oct. 19°3433 Gr. m. t. Log. of perihelion dis 9:75.15! Long. of perihelion, | 89° 20° 17” asc. node, . . 205 55 47 perce : ? - : 40° 10°52 6. Shooting ee of pie. 10, 1850.—Throughout the evening of Thursday, Aug. 8, 1850, the sky was quite hazy, and at dawn of the next day was L. entirely overcast. The night of Friday, the 9th, was clear, and observations fan the expected meteors wes made by Messrs. J. L. Blodget, M.C. Weld and myself. Dur twenty minutes we noted four hundred and fifty-one different shooting stars as follows, viz. N. E. s. N.W. from Oh. 40m. to. lam. 15 28 12 = 55 ge van 40 107 69 = 216 ee 3 43 78 59 = 180 Of these many were very brilliant, and the majority moved in aths which, traced back, would intersect in the vicinity of the constellation erseus. dy mee of Saturday, the 10th, was also clear. From 10" to 124 s. Bradley, Blodget and Root observed three hundred and po me diferent shooting se as follows, viz. 8. Ww. 10h.—11h. 48 80 AG =e 173 1th.—12h. 55 36. ORs 139 From midnight to 3 a.m., Messrs. Wm. Hillhouse and H. W. Brins- made observed three hundred and fifty-one different shooting stars, al- though many were lost by an intermission of about an hour on the part of one of the observers. The foregoing facts show oe the usual meteoric period of Ase aa was fully sustained the presen t may be worthy of owe that a slight display of the Borealis was seen here during most of the night of the 9th, ang on the night of the 10th. E, C. Herrick. a % Astronomy. 131 two persons who were abroad between that time and midnight report that shooting stars were unusually frequent, but they made no definite observations. I watched a few minutes about 7 p.m. of the 8th, and again about 5 a. m. of the 9th, but saw nothing uncommon. _ &. ©. H. Meteor seen in full Daylight—On Sunday, June 16th, 1850, a brilliant fire ball was seen in the northern sky, by two observers in ew Haven, while the sun was shining in full strength, about an hour before its setting. The time was 64 25™; the sky clear. e meteor was of a brilliant white, apparently as large as Venus, with a train about a degree long, and disappeared without apparent ex- plosion. Its motion was slow, the time of flight being about two seconds, Mr. George Rice and Mr. J. P. Humaston, who were sitting together at the time, each saw the body independently. Their separate testimony gave its position as follows, viz., when first detected, N. 11° or 14° E., and altitude 27° or 35°; at disappearance, N. 14° or 11° W. and altitude 16°. meteor must have been of extraordinary brilliancy to have made itself visible in such circumstances, and had it occurred in the night Season would, no doubt, have been a grand spectacle. If an erson elsewhere saw the henomenon, it is to be hoped they will publish their observations, in order to furnish the means for determining the magni- tude, velocity and direction of the body. E. C. H. 9. Meteor of September 30, 1850.—On Monday evening, Sept. 30, An interesting account of this phenomenon: has been published in the Daily vening Traveller of Boston, Oct. 21, by W. C. Bond, Esq., following particulars, “The meteor exploded leaving a bright train about eight degrees long, extending from near the Head of Medusa towards a point three degrees below the star alpha Arietis, this being the direction of motion, and projecting 4 portion of its mass forward about two degrees. This Ook place at 8" 54™ m.s.t. of the Observatory, and in or very near the small constellation Musca Borealis, in R. A. 28 30™ and N. decl. aey There were numerous radiations, but nothing sparkling in its ap- > At 85 57™ this had subsided into a serpentine figure about & degree broad in the widest part and ten degrees long. At 9b aes 3 . Shad it ubout twenty degrees, these angles being measured approximate 132 Scientific Intelligence. the pomtding portion had extended upward, or, as expressed by one observer, ‘it appeared to draw up its —<_ like a serpent.” At 94 3m the preceding portion had curved quite a “* During these changes the meteor had anind a bright, conspieiinal object, some-ten degrees in length, lying nearly horizontal. It was ex- congregation of minute bright clouds, of the formation usually denomi- nated cirrocumuli.’ gb . it had assumed a figure resembling the appearance of ay’s c Hope, January 28, meteor now commenced a slow, regular motion, passing about a depres below the star alpha Arietis, towards a point somewhat above the planet Saturn, at the same time rotating apparently on a point direetion” to the nucleus of the explosion, ‘and expanding in every irection.” it Fpositintied to exhibit a well defined boundary until past ten o’clock, wider een under observation more than an hour « From a communicated by Hon. Wm. Mitchell, of Nan- ‘ket, combined with our own, we have ascertained that the vertical height of this ee above the surface of the earth was about fifty miles, nthe its distance from Cambridge one hundred miles in a north- east direct = load sciicie an account of the same phenomenon as seen by Mr. J. oadley. ** On leaving Springfield this evening, (Sept. 30th, 1850,) in the . cars, at 8" 51™, (Boston time) for Wor reester, I opened the window for the purpose of casting a glance at Algol, when my attention was ar- rested by a bright ball of fire, sae a me color, moving rapid! horizontal direction, from east to t, leaving a straight, clear cae of yellowish light, and exploding os ave corruseations y instanta- neous impression ‘was that it was a piece of artificial fire- works, like a flying oe quite near, and perhaps twenty feet from the ground but a moment’s observation showed that it suffered no parallax from our mea sad increasing motion, and revealed it to be a meteor. It was then 85° 537, a nd the moment of exlinction.could not have been half a minute earlie thread-like, for four minutes, and occupie th e same apparent position : in the heavens, - : from the Pleiades, westerly oe de- grees, to the head of Cetus, parallel to the horizon, and elevated from with a pocket rule as a sector. “ At 84 57™ the line of light began to curve upward near the west end, as though that part were wafied upward by a current of air; and met as 0m by Sir John Herschel, at the Cape of Good. 836. ; 95 0™ the whole had moved towards the zenith relatively to the stars, ‘about two degrees, still remaining straight from the east end to beyond minutes, and its soft yellowish lustre fully equal to that of the planet Saturn shining near it in Pisces It continued . rise slowly, aud to grow broader and more diffusive, until, at 92 18™ jt could be just discerned as a faint light cloud in the lower part of ieee, about 8° above its first position, and occupy! nearly the same place in azimut “2 During all this time we were in rapid motion, nearly in the direction of the meteor, and reached at 94 20™ the village of Palmer, sixteen a3 miles from Springfield. No sound was heard at the explosion, or sub- : sequen ntly. A few other meteors were noticed during the evening, but only in usual numbers, and of ordinary appearance. and the times mppeetias on reaching Worcester, to Boston time. Worcester, Mas 10. Per iodical Meteors of August, we and 1849; by C. B. For SHEY, (communicated for this Journal.) —1848.—For several years hens I have been inclined to believe that the display of meteors usually seen on the 9th and 10th of August, commenced much earlier in the month, warded by the appearance of several meieors which seven the proper direction, and had the usual en apennte of the August display. Again on the 29th I observed abou hour, and saw six meteors whose paths traced backward, mips near above the head of Perseus. gain on the night of the 2nd of August, two observers with a good se saw only four meteors of this description, from 9 till 10° P.M. n one i twentieth of the heavens. During the whole evening only four meteors were — not conformable to the radiant in Perseus. om my positio n I could not be very sure of the point of intersec- tion of the paths in all those regarded as conformable from their gene- ral appearance; but two I am sure would pass between the sword clus- ter and the he ad of Perseus, both moving horizontally. August 3rd.—With Dr. Riddell and son, sep eerved from 84 to 94 P. M., with a most perfect view of the w vens uring this watch we saw eight conform able ‘and sixteen non-con formable meteors. A majority of the cori pursued paths near the itd — I rose about a A. M. on oe = and observed some m , Was very magnificent, starting near Alioth in Ursa Major, passing N.E., i nelined some 60° to the horizon. It was much = rocket in “a and pursued a halting course, as if obstructed i rted = the atmosphere. No sound was heard after its explo- _ was buicliate cle / Astronomy. — 133° The preceding observations were noted at the time, with a pencil, For the purpose of determining this question, I bsp from about — the 20th of July, 1848. On the evening of the 26th, I was first re- 43.% % . oe Scientific Intelligence. August 5th.—Watched occasionally for meteors but saw only one — ug t 6th.—Made several observations during the evening and Bight, am without seine a single meteor. It would seem that there is a cessation of the dis August 7ih.--On board a tow-boat, bound for the 8. W. Pass, ob- served all the reg to 103 p. M. and saw only one conformable, and three sporadic meteo August 8th——At Pilotsville, S. W. Pass, with a perfectly clear sky ‘ anc perfect horizon, I ohuerved two hours, without any satisfactory evi- | ‘dence that the phenomenon is continuing. August 9th.—This night is the true anniversary of the August mete+ ors ;——being bissextile, the date is one day earli On board the steamship Crescent City, ‘enn the mouth of the Mis- sissippi, | commenced observation as the twilight faded, and soon was rewarded by the appearance of several brilliant meteors. The moon was very Date, obscuring stars of the third magnitude. In 24 hours observation on one-sixth of the heavens, I saw meteors, conforming to the radiant in Perseus, and four irregulars. ranklin Soule, editor of the as Orleans Mercury, a one hour, from 9 till 10 o’clock,—my own watch continuing till er 11 Pp. m.,—with intervals of clouds. Probably one-third of the visible meteors were obscured by clouds. This estimate would indicate about che meteors visible in the whole hemisphere in the 24 hours’ a 5 a- on,—and in the absence of a moon, = less than 100 per hou > Rdaagriat 10¢h.—At three o’clock a. m., I rose for dalrntioa as the moon went down. The pilot of the A informed me that the rockets were shooting all the time I slept. It was obvious at once that the number was greater than when I retired. From this time till daylight, 1? hours, I saw fifty-two conformable, and three sporadic meteors great number were very small, so that four of every five would have been invisible while the moon shone. ew was very limited,—not more than one-eighth of the heavens being visible. But this was in the direction of the radiant point. This with nucleus and train, eight were 10° Jong and four were 20° or more. No sounds were heard. Some blazed before expiring. One left a white train, which was fifteen seconds in — — The color was uniformly pale white, except a few blazing one ae circle of about 3° radius, described from a center midway between the sword cluster, and 7 Persei; and a little N. W. of the line joining = i them, would include all or nearly all the intersections of paths t backward. I find it necessary to extend the area beyond my former limits of 4°, as several of the best marked meteors would o therwise be ce veral were seen to originate near 1h center of this area e, two or three degrees, and expire without leaving eirsdedtiniaes indicated. Two are recollected which moved wer pega Astronomy. - ¥es line of Rice, so directly as to present a star growing in the first mag- nitude and dying in the same spot. 1849.—* On the night of August 3rd, 1849, I observed a meteor, which from its character and course of transit, I a as belon a to the annual display, having its maximum a out the 10th of the mont! ky BS =) | = o ies) = Qu - ° e- = a @ eee = = i=] 9°) o S © < La) = ke fas) < ) =-& S IQ as p n 2 a) Ss QoQ. << oe 2 os - Q hour ; have desired. Mayor Blanchard and Dr. E. H. Barton sei to me, meteors which they saw on the 7th and 8th which evidently from om a scription belonged to the display. They represented them as ne and very brilliant, and coming from the northeast. fi: ugust 10th. The clouds cleared away at 104 Pp. m., and I com- menced observation from a position which Aone, ie a view of about one-tenth of the heavens This field of view was Sroiel the head of Perseus, to a point 15° be- a the zenith and laterally as far as one could see, one tree covering . E. portion of the field. From Perseus to the horizon, a heavy ae obscured the stars. | | many meteors as a field 90° ae _ about an equal number with a field directly opposite or 180° dis here was no perceptible pric in ar point of divergence. Seve- ral of. the meteors ——e within the circle. Assuming that the center is midway between 7 Persei, and the sword cluster, a radius of 23° would clude al the intersections observed this year. This i has not moved in ele nyears.* ‘The pale, white color of the trains, 4 or heb aaa across the sky, distinguish these from all other th—This evening I observed from 94 to 10 P. m. with the largest eine field of obseryation, and no moon. I saw three regu- rand five irregular meteors, and Mrs. F. in half an hour saw two reg- ular and three non-conformable meteors 3 August 12th—Observed from 9 to 10 p. m. with a good field and a clear r ——~ and saw no meteors of a ¥ ae For several subsequent nights I continued easual observation but cc without ionic different from the last * y observations for some years past have appeared in different pa- re ‘and oe those of 1847, in the Sidereal Piorsengan, Some Old Carrollton, La., Oct. 15, 1849. of Sey observations fem 1837 to.1840 inches published i in the Transactions Pcs tneememas hical Society. om a : 136 Miscellaneous Intelligence. - land—tents, provisions, a cook, &c. There remained yet two hundred the most careful drawings and minute examinations of minerals. Jo d V. MisceLLaneous INTELLIGENCE. * 1. Translation of part of a letter from Mr. E. F. de Furuhjelm,one * the officers of a Scientific Expedition sent out by the Emperor of i : to the Northern part of Finnland and Lapland, to Oscar M. Lieber. “ei Kurfamo appimatt, 67° N. L., July 28, 1850. (Comimonicell _ ocbiie “At the beginoin of June, ctr Helsingfors for ‘= s English mies to Kuusamo Kirube. The distance took us six or seven days, though hitherto we had traveled atthe rate of eight miles an hour. The stations where we could procure horses became fewer and fewer, and frequently I was obliged to wait one or two days for horses. At Kuusama F church all roads were at an end, ee thence | was obliged to travel either on the lakes and rivers or on foot. WhenI say I am now in Lapland, I am wrong, for in this parish no a plane oe his lived within the last hundred years, Finnish colonists have pressed them on farther North, somewhat as has been done with your Indians. They have here some litletagriculture (rye), anda few settlements. From ten to twenly miles farther north, we have the true Laplanders, who roam about with e hours are not what we would call daylight, but rather a kind o i: twilight. A few miles farther on they do not see the sun at all for a whole month. The population here is very sparse ; fishery and breed- a ing of cattle furnish the only means of subsistence. Reindeers are much used: a rich peasant has from three to four hundred; the La ge landers several thousand. Very few are seen here in summer, for, a soon as the snow thaws in spring, they are driven into the forests. Tn Z autumn almost the whole population go out; a large space is fenced in, and after tedious driving, they collect the half wild reindeer, and each f individual selects his own—they are all marked—and takes them home. : feed themselves by: scraping out the moss from under the snow, and the peasants consequently do not have to look out for their feeding. For are few horses here, higher up none. A — iret. (in ri landish pulka) is shaped like a boat (conat). Reins are not used with horses, only a strap round the neck. The animal may edithent motion, but so soon as I pull the strap to the side, it.stands still. In driving in. the pulka, we make use of Soar be reindeer hide, through a hole in which the head is thrust Almost the — whole of June, I could see the sun all night a i ee tops, consid- — erably above the horizon. Night was as light as day, and I could make | June and July, we had intense heat, accompanie ies. The peasants guard themselves against these te me t by —e face and hands with tar; I had a mask of gauze. * *t Our expedition is headed by an old officer who is appointed to con- ductthe whole. * * #* am the second in command, as offi- learnt their trade in the Ural. A carpenter and blacksmith, a fifteen or sixteen hands to dig, in all about twenty to twent * * Th acting as paymaster. ‘Then two gold-washers (Quartermen) rage nd ; a ne individuals. * thirty or forty dollars a day, and as yet has not paid a cent] Living is rather cheap in these regions; I might live conveniently for about five cents a day, but as it is, what with a cook, tea, wine, and otker things more or less Juxuries, it amounts to about fifteen. ck, a agnetic iron-sand, locally termed Schliech. The gold occurs only in minute particles. Since the 14th of June, I have examined about sixty valleys, and in all found gold, but as I have said, scattered very spar- ingly and in small grains.” 2. Notice of aremarkable Spring or fountain in Hollis, now Phips- Tg, Maine, about seven miles from Saco an ennebunk ; (com- s the lower meeting house in the town above named. By accurate measurement the basin is sixty feet long, twenty-five Upon a smooth bottom, is disposed to start back. When boiling the ion that of the become so hard that it is difficult to press into it with a sharp pointed pole. When ~ boiling ceases in one place it breaks through in: another; and it | : a Wien DL Inder f Be Weather over the snow. The sand is used for plastering and for sharp- Miscellaneous Intelligence. 137 as e expedition costs the government about ~ hee ‘138 Miscellaneous Intelligence. & Sort W. Anprews, Albany, N no peculiar taste.- It issues from the fountain in a considerable stream, and — six miles below it falls into Saco river cue —As Dr. Cogswell, who has often visited this fountain, makes ng men n of gas, we must re ~ force is hydrauli uly and that dias’ is probably an intermitting or haps more proper mitting fountain, are although saferibe ih in ot ea to the handel Ss near spe punietianes 3 ~ Journal.)—-The barometer used in the following observations has a calibre of 0-29 inch, and a glass ee and a zero point to adjust the level of the mercury for each observation. The attached thermometer is let into the instrument and covered with glass. Place of Observation. pe Time, | Hour. oink | eter. Albany, No, 42 High st., 100 feet above tide- ba rin the Hudson Riv. er, weather fair and . July 25] 6 a.m. |29-944| 74° 4 Ea va Ben nnington, Vt, Tear state “house, 28 « &) 2 pom. 20-386) we South Shafisbury, Vt, near post office, 5 a, p.m. 129-294! 75 sai Shaftsbury Cent e, Vt a 2 “ p. M. |28°926 70 Arlington, ee. “ “ z 7 6) 7 pM. 129-406 64 anc che ester, Vt, hear stage house ee ee 8 « <1) Op, Mm, 129-220, 67 weather fair, . “ |July 26) 6a,m. [29-26 | 61 East Dorse near post offices about ~ ps - maieere. ee . mile from the summit lev : e Otter Cr, an the 1° Balan j 6 s&h ca. M. [29°40 |. 62 me eh ‘ 4 oe A.M. |29°442) 62 : by, 4 « «| aim. [2948 | 64 appl Vt. near post ‘office, e fur 9 “ 4). A.M. |29°576,: 65 Eas t Rutland, Vi. » Village, 9 - 12 noon|29°51 70 i a 7 LS P.M. 129 40 68 « . * Mus sey's tavern, near “the Gee: : 00 Green Mts. est side, . 3 | *-“)7e.m. 29408 «64 Sherburn, Vt., Rufus R Richards s tavern, east a side of the Green Mts., near the Queech Bat 2g « ©1110 p.m, 28°90 | 58 Sherburn, Vt, Rufus Richardson’s tavern, east t eee side of the Green Mts., near the Queechy R.|-- * July 27| 64.m. [23-916 60 Bridgwater Valley, Vt., near the ——— R, : weather fair, . eee | “ 9 a, m..|29-284 68 Woodstock, Vt, near stage how 6 | * 1105 4.m.)29-446 76 hite River _jinetion, ¥t, pat of the Con- es necticut a oR, fates: the _— d : “er idge 10 | *- “|. p.m. (29802, 76 Bath, f, ear com eae i 45 se ET 6 P.M. 12904 | 76 Littleton, N. ‘A, hear Cobleigh’s hotel, : 16 OT Pea ee 66 weat er ; July 28] 7 a.m. |29-212) Cann N. H. , Mr. White’ ‘ White Mtn. house, : near Ammonoosne Lm 20 * - #112 noon|28-456 Carroll, N. H, Mr. White’ me White Min. house. | Start be or Mt. Washington « “jSuly 30) 7 a.m. |28° 40" Flat ing the "Am mmonodsue BR: "weather cloudy, hash pretest all day, ? 3; TOM Ase. ee: he Amm suc R, ‘weather cloudy : sky overcast all om 2 a? vs 109a. M. {27° Fab a ¥ vain} 2 | M@elida aeleba _ |Summi of Me Worhi ington, (6 be below,) 2 “ «ol 1gp, = 2 : Rearing from Dib om me ) ns g “ “ a P. Foot ot rage ea crossing. the Ammo- . Flat Roel neh laite he Ammonoosuc R. 2 fac ul 59 . ; crossing th ag 2 wearer P.M, White Mou house, 2.1" “Lae as lea me | Miscellaneous Intelligence. 139 Second day to Mt. ctengs by way bes Mt. Pleasant, weather fair calm all d Place of Observation. Me aa Time. | Hour. pean ee i White M Mountain hor July 31 8 A. M [28-486 ait Flat Rock, crossing a ecnuatees River, 3 M./28 21 78 tT Summit of Mt. Pleasant 4 eo ie noon'35-41 72 Summit of Mt. Weshingon (6 feet below,) 2 “) 2 p.m.|24-032) 68 : epiomriag ny way of Fabyn’s Camp.) ; ele mp, 2 oe 26'1 12 4 Flat R are crossing the Ammonoosue River, 4 ete le ~ 4 184 a2 |White Mountain hous 3 be 72 be - By the Rersguibe observations I have ascertained the eight of Mt. : Washington as follows: From tide water at Albany to the White Mtn. house, 1622°3 From White Mtn. house to summit of Mt, W Sati 4868.3 Distance of the instrument below summit, 6-0 Height above tide water, . 6496-6 6 ; By ig observation on the first Bs Joly 30th, r pa the height 39 a les enc Sader pe observations on the Aurora Borealis ; by J. Browne, Esq., qu toncedinge of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. ii, 1850, No. 3 #0. 4.)—A table of 184 aurore seen at Makerstoun in years 1843 = 849 is given in pages Ixxv—lIxxviii of vol. xix, part 2 of the Eo eure Transactions ; from ‘this table the lowing results have seen obtaine A — careful outlook for aurorz was kept up paisa the period but especially during the first five years; an outloo iE OF Magnetic disturbance in circumstances unfavorable to = visibility of the 1 meteor, and assisted by a practical acquaintance with the faintest ication ora very faint; these are entered in the table as * Traces,” and, in others, _ there was doubt whether the appearance was truly auroral: these are ve indicated by “Trace?” It should be noted that, with the exception athe years ie and 1845, autora were seldom looked for after mi ht. Diurnal variation of frequency of the Aare pees: sae: fol- cowie are the numbers of times when aurora were seen, a ach hour, rom 54 p.m. till 5° aim., for the whole periode-referring 3 ihe printed ee for the numbers for each season. Hour, 5h. 6h. 7h. 8h. 9h. 10h. 1h. 12h. 13h: ‘Un. 15h. 16h. 17h. ee 5°19 45 57 9175 50 37 27 15 U8 . oe eae oe 140 4 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 80, naacee. it is probable will that € the frequency of the aurora ; some traces of this may be deduced from the previous table. In the winter quarter, November—January, four-fifihs of the times at which aurore were seen were for the hours before 10h P. M., whereas in the spring quarter there were only three-fifths seen before 10h P. M. Annual Variation of frequency of the Aurora Borealis.—The first line following contains the numbers of aurore observed in each month during the six complete years 1843-8, and the second line gives the numbers of hours at which the aurore were seen. Jan. Feb. March. April. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. 15 16 26 1436 Se: 0.27. 18 ee ee 50 62 oo 3948 6a U 0. 10 $2 “44 58 4 The greatest repos of aurorz were observed in March for the first six months, and in October for the last six months of the year; none were observed in lone and July. hen the six months of 1849 are included, the number for February is twenty, -six, and for March twenty- eight. The law of visible frequency of the aurore is the same as that “deduced already for magnetic disturbance ; namely, maxima near the equinoxes, and minima near the solstices, the minimum at the summer solstice being the principal. As, however, the shortness of night during the summer months must diminish the number of visible aurore, it is by no means Seitto from these numbers that a minimum occurs at the the same diurnal law of frequency at all seasons of the year, the exist- ence of the summer minimum could be satisfactorily determined, by oats, 10h Pp. m.-2h a. M., during which (even in the months of August and May) there is little twilight to extinguish aurore. The numbers are as follow, for these five hours in each month of the years 1843-8: Jan. Feb, March. April. May. June. July.: Ang. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. 15 24 38 31-3 TF 0 O 2) 14-16 38 12 autumn months, showing the later epoch of the maximum frequency in the former. An examination, however, of the table for the disturbance of the magnetic: declination (Table 18, vol. xix., part 2,) will show that, _ r on ubt ; ; ber for August than for September and October, if there should bea. doubt in the case of May compared with April. The difference, how- — ever, even in the latter case is too great to be explained by any slight _shift of the epoch of maximum frequency in the two mont the ae it appears certain that a minimum of actual as well as as of visible frequency occurs in summer; a result quite in acco with . Miscellaneous Intelligence. 141 i ¥ that for the amount of magnetic disturbance, which accordance is suffi- ciently close to permit us to complete it, by assuming that the number of aurore is a principal minimum in summer. long ago obtained by Mairan; this statement, made chi au- thority of Kemtz and Hansteen, is not quite accurate. It is true that Mairan’s numbers give a rough indication o law, as wil below vations (229) of which he could find a record for upwards of 1,000 years, it will be evident, that the conclusion that a greater number of aurore occurred at both equinoxes than at the winter solstice would have been ~ hasty ; this conclusion, however, is not made by Mairan, and, though he has combined the numbers of aurore in a great variety of ways, he has made no combination exhibiting this fact. It did not enter into the ne- | ; Jan. | Feb. |Mar. | Apr.|May. [June.|July. Aug. Sept. | Oct. Nov. | Dee Sum. |Mairan, . | 21| 27] 201 iol. 1) 5] 9 84] 50} 26] 15) 220 Kemtz, . | 229) 307| 440) 319| 184, 65| 87) 217, 405) 497) 285] 225/3263 Hansteen, . | 29} 31|47| 34) 2 0) 0} 17| 35] 383] 34) 28) 285 ss A. Broun, | 22} 26] 28| 16) 6 0| 0 7) 16 20 93| 11| 184 otek oa 280) 364| 515| 362 192 65 87 241) 456) 559, 842) 259/8792 HE : aay ee be Te Mairan’s numbers are ‘probably included by Kemtz; a few of the aurore, included in M. Hansteen’s list, are identical with those in my ot ea his i visibility can be considered. ‘The French Commission du Nord, during heir stay in Lapland, found aurore existing, or probably existing, almost every night. In such places variation of frequency there is none, and variation of intensity alone remains for investigation. It is obvious, i cs ares it does not set till midnight, and Sais shines iueuphouttia period - dn brightness and the maximum effect in extinguis 098 faint aurore 142 Miscellaneous Intelligence. that till some better mode of measuring this intensity can be devised for these high latitudes, we are forced to perform this operation in a rude manner, by moving to lower latitudes, where the fainter aurore be- come invisible, and. ae therefore, frequency is a test of intensity beyond a certain limit. Combining the numbers of aurorz observed at each day of the moon’s _ age into six groups of five days, (the first group, four and a-half days,) we find the average number of aurore for one day of the moon’s age in each group as follows, from the six and a-half years’ observations : Moon’s age, 28d—2d 3d—7d 8d—12d 13d—17d 18d—22d 23d—27d Number SGins THs. SG 50 10:2 6°6 Did aurore occur indifferently at all ages of the moon, we should expect to see the greatest number at conjunction, and the least number m and minimum occurred at times equidistant from the woe of oe The frequency of aurore, therefore, is a runes) of the moon’s age. i aw, we consider the probable effect of moonlight in obliterating the staal aphes rances ; remarking, first, that 9h p.m. is the epoch of maximum frequency for the aurora, the occurrence of five-sixt ka of the aurore: afterwards it increases is evidently attained at opposition, when the egins’ to ‘rise late enough to allow the earlier aurorze to be visible ; varie the end of the third quarter when the moon does not rise till midnight, it is also evident that the number of faint aurore rendered invisible must e very small. From the beginning of the fourth quarter, therefore, - sr idpprsi® the numbers seen will obey nearly the true law of frequency ; and as visible maximum occurred before the end of the third se tape the true maximum must have occurred even nearer to opposition. On the whole, it appears very certain, that the hypothesis of an actual pide of frequency at opposition, and minimum at con gis es is satisfied by the previous numbers of aurore seen under the conditions of the varying duration of mgootgnt the hours of maximum free Sack This hy- pothesis is in unison the pe of magnetic sarge which is @ maximum at oppos ibs, and a minimum at conjun 4. Relative level of the Red “ike and Medi escee ;.(Lilnstitut, No. 874.)—The following measurements are by the engineers.attached to the Expedition to Egypt in 1799, and by Bourdaloue —— in Loe with cxep ning ‘and levelling across the isthmus. Expedition. Bourdaloue. : Ser water ‘et Tineh, -0-00 0™-00- aptigh water at Suez, 9 - a: 2a 90 water on the Nile at Mekias, 5 -29 13 27 ; Ra ae eka. E so = hid ine ln oie) ee € a od F Miscellaneous Intelligence. 143 ourdaloue’s results, so different from the others, were obtained with cueatiean instruments and seem to be every way worthy of confidence. His investigations extended from Cairo to the mouth of the Nile; from Cairo to lake Temsah, near the centre of the isthmus, by aie valley of Juadeé Sees. otek thence in two lines, one to Tineh and the other ‘to Suez, the Kemer sixty and the other seventy-five kilometers in length. Bourdaloue made two verifications of his measurements, which agreed | very nearly with his principal measurements - Fall of Dust at Olsterholz, near Detmold ; (Monatsber. —_ Acad., ‘April, 1850.)—This fall of dust accompanied snow, with the — circumstances, while ten aaron were for the first time observed in dust transported by the winds. None of the species were new 6. with man, and its he! ping him in shipwreck—although it is ult to —_— these — to be altogether without some _ af act. »” He must have bee n napping under Diana’s tree, thus short his oe Why did he not ae us of a man who, while fa Sia was king of Corinth, came over from Sicily riding cheerily upon a Dolphin’s back ? There i is ae. historical evidence re this fable than ut tHe may | not be be held a very fanciful ale ai who would regard the Megatherium as eager to climb the tree which he could only shake, and thus producing a progeny fitted to ie that which was the object Of his wishes ;—or the Rock-nose Whale, which loves to rest its head on rocks beside the beach, as wishful ef that mode of life which at . tin to. “press on to gr and bien ote te indefinite nT ss ness, which aay work as seconds in the individual, or strike hours | “3 ye Species,” “ape: . 346,) But why does our author thus ven-* steal t e mantle of Lamarck and the elder transformation- . Bibliography. ae ‘145 for some others, quite as strange, that are vouched for in the Vestiges. _ hea oh al, =A 146 7 Bibliography. the days of the Megatherium or the Rock-nose Whale, and the perfect- ibility of nature which strikes hours in.the species, are, after all, I fear, but the jarring sounds of a smitten organ—the cerebral blights of Diana’s tree.” And also; page 288:— ‘“‘ But I beg the reader’s pardon; Iam only speaking of the Author’s dreams; and in truth he is an honest dreamer. Many a time during m clew to guide me to his hiding-place, that | might have the comic hap- Sie of drawing him from the shade of Diana’s tree, and going with = : of the different sections, which are these. e discovery i. valuable work will be best understood by an enumeration of the titles Bibliography. 147 Observations of New and Variable Stars ; Distribution of the Stars in space ; Motion of the Sun and Fixed Stars; Resolution of renarkable Nebula; History of American Observatories ; Aeebdied ical Expedi- tion to Chili ; Astronomical Results of Public Surveys ; Determina- tion of Longitude by the Electric Telegrap h; ee segs Publica. tions; Manufacture of Telescopes in the United States. The design of the “one is to exhibit in a eats bith form the most im- sources manta cost him much time and labor. € omission should be noticed. We do not find in this volume any allusion to Kirkwood’s celebrated law connecting the rotations of the planets with their masses and distances from the sun. In a history of - ale mention Astronomy especially, this discovery is entitled to an honor- able ment _ 4, New Pleeciis of Geometry; by Spa Smite. 200 pp. 8vo ‘. York, 1850: G. P. Putnam.—The author calls Euclid to picanat for asserting that “a Nees is length without breadth” and ‘a ee is length and breadth without thickness.” These definitions he declar to be false—a verdict that will be pronounce ed upon Mr. Smi th’s ae ; = Fellow of the Clieinical — London, ec, 288 12. American edition. fe ora 1850, Lea & Blanchard. ~Phis vol- ume treats i in Part I, of the Urine in all its conditions healthy and é &e. ie of 5 reat importance to the Eicon with a fullness mentioned js given, 6. Geological Pes ort on the Lake paderior Copper Region, Micht- gan; by Cuartes Ti Jackson, M.D. Executive Document, No. 1, Bist Cen Ist session. “566 pp. 8vo. Washington, pga at Py Dr. Ly levies has been slow in appearing, owing to delays in & = bg 3 hn pia per so poor ‘and in a style eee the day. There is psa: no reason in rane hy.dur. government should not be as well served 'Y US printers as the publishing houses of New York or Boston. Ve ~ © Dr. Jackson was one of the earliest explorers in the Lake Superior _ oe ae se 148 : = Bibliography. A Copper Region; and some of the mines were first laid open by him. In the course of his investigations he has brought to light much v alua- ble information, among which are many curious and aap a! facts relating to the association of native copper and silver with 1 erals of the amygdaloid of the region. A large part of his ea bal ap: peared in this Journal i in former volumes,* and the last volume con- enter into a detailed review in this place. The Report: commences with a historical account of ‘the working of the copper mines in former periods, and then proceeds to descriptions of the region, its explorations and mineral productions. Several analyses are given of rocks and minerals, The volume contains a large number of maps, geological and topo- graphical, besides some views. There are’ also catalogues of geologi- cal, mineralogical and botanical specimens The Daguerrian Journal, devoted to the Daguerrian and Photo- graphic Art, owl so embracing the Seiences, Arts and Literature ; semi- monthly in numbers of 32 pages, 8vo. New York City, S. D. Hum- PHREY, Editor and Publisher. =The rapid prepress of science in this . with ee" popular arts as well as Painting and Sculpture. 8. A Practical, Treatise on the Construction, Heating and. Ventila- tion of Hot- houses, ineluding Conservatories, Green-houses, Graperies, E and other kinds of Horticultural structures, with practic Sead directions for their ip me in Sc a to light, heat and air; by RoBERT B. 9. ate “Eébo’ of Science: Inventions and’ Pateatts 8 insnilieg of PP- BF0,: ch ca Aug, 1G Edited by A 4 KInGsLey | + Vol ahs p 81, and tnd er, 18; vii, 286; 5 88. Asram Loncpottom, Civil and eieggigoe Engineers a Solicit tors. wena an and European Pate New York.—Thi is new Periodi- ain is devoted more anere's to ihe various practical arts, which are treated in a popular m : 10. Journal of the ‘Acad a y of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, ae ak ser. Vol. Il. Part I. Contents :—— J.L. LeConre: An attempt to claneify the Longicorn Coleoptera of the part of America north of Mexico. (Concluded from p. 340, vol. ) T. A. Conran: penne of one new Cretaceous and seven new a Bocene Fossils, (with a plate is EIDY: Descriptions of some American Annelida Abranchia, (vith a plate . ASSIN : “Descripti ions of Owls, supposed to be new, (Syrnium vir- gies S. albogularis, and Nyctale Harrisii,) in the collection of the Academy, (with three colored plates. ) a AMBEL: Description of a new species of Mergulus (M. Cassini!) from. the LO of ee sabes a colored plate. __ D.D. Owen and B. F. arp: Descriptions of my Crinoidea, from the sub-carboniferous os of lowa, (with a plates 8 eae ROW NARAD On the Giant wolf of North Kinpricacigame cgi eee L. Annals of the Lyceum of Ne atural History of New York, Vol. V,N No. I.—Contents “ ELL:: Observations on the Limosa scolopacea of acs .N, Lawe ce: Observations on the preceding paper cee ‘Bane hey Pipilo Oregonus, as distinguished from P. arcti JL. LeConre: Synopsis of the Coleoptera of the group "Cleriduas hine the United States. G. N. Lawrence: On Mimus melanopterus, with a plate. trating the theo , practice and a Gal Be Spe..2 nose , ee ents! ‘Philadelphia, 1850. =~ eed pes & 1 Gras Blements of Chemistry. 2d_ edit. 7 ol New York, 1840. H. _Pror. Mor: The B ritish Paleozoic. Fossils sexs by Prof. Sy Sa ck to & Woodwardian Museum ; in royal 4to, with n es, London, (in the ctu (oi ad » Hooker ar ictoria Regi orm ze imperial folio. London, “ I Dain ec: "St the tei dodichdrons of Sikkim Himalaya ; : folio, sca gece cle pte ies non a rg ee eyaied eats. with colored late ie “ ae Das: The Bir rm oi the third and concluding volume. 8yo. wna Soa nite: London “Mine 16m 0, ), with 20 ciesd plates. ‘third and’ ~* se ie translated from the German by Col. 7 Post. 8yo, . t DE LA Bucue : The, ‘Geological Observer. London, (in the course of amg al 4to volume the Voyage of H. M.S. Samarang, complete in one roy’ : Vertebrata by J. E. Gray,. Viches by Pfolince erage a cary 8 Reeve, with the Anatomy 0 of the ' | Bibliography. “- ; EANE: Fossil Footprints of the Connecticut a (with su 2 ra © i Fey s 4 ganes. 350 pp. in large 18mo, with 12 plate3.> Paris ay > H. ee Mineralogia polygle tay ‘xii and. 28. pp. oe Syo. Hall, * 1849. 1} dol... uf a ho 1 GA. Kogore ralogische Untersudhungen. 2d Heft, with 2 i phs ' iv and 5 ane PP. Seay $ do ~* 0. F/ Naumann: Lehrbuch der Geom. FREsabh Liepzig. ee: cn eet 4 oe E ; Cour London and ‘Edinbur Bibliography. ~ Spirula ae Prof. Owen, Datanns by A. Adams and A. White. London, 1850, _ Reeve & Benham. In clot Be Dexox: The Gedlogy ae Foss ils of ite p aneey and eretaceous formations of Sussex ; 408 pp., pba ise: es. London, 3l. 8s. fe G. Wrsos Chemistr ela = “¢ of ‘ie Sd of Chambers’s Educational Poe . Anperson: The Co ours t ‘Creation, or the Sequence of Geological Phe.” : Bowens. Post 8vo. London, : Lreste anp Korr’s A Annual ‘Report on the Progress of Chemist ry—Jahresbericht iiber die Fortschritte der rein ef pa —— und technischen Chemie, Physik, Mineralogie und ea titer Mi wirkung- von H. Buff, E. Dieffenbach. C. Howe F. Knapp, H. Will, F. Zamminer, , eransgegen yon Justus Liebig und H Kopp. 2d Heft for 1849. Gigs 1850 ANNUAIRE MAGNErIQUE ET ROLOGIQUE du Corps des Soshgletis des Mines “s BRR A Observations Metéowloeique et Magnetiques faites dans l’étendue ome e de Russie et publiées par ordre de sa Majesté L’Em mpereur Nicolas ‘I, sous - ag wa ices de M. e Co robe de Wrontchenko, Ministre des sehen chef des in- TS . 1m ty 2 75 5 Aen § =) ee = a tS 2 = arthquake the pent records, by Alexis Perrey, Professor at Dijon; it poy s 80 ans $ ed the volum Iconograruic Encycropapia or Scrence, LrrerarorE AND Ape: by G. Henz, Part 1 ‘ew York Cit C: Lye.tt: On ‘Craters of Denndation, with observations on the and growth of Volcanic Cones; 28 pp. 8vo. From the Quar rterly Soienal ae the ological thier Socters L. Gmelin’s Hand-Book of Chemistry, translated from the German. ven published, Gmelin’s work is beyo o> doubt the most com-. plete and Sai arranged work on chemistry that has appear ee ; nee jks os ascoageg Descri tion of one new Cretaceous moda seven new Eocene Fossils from ; 3 pp. 4to, witha plate. From the Journal of the Academy of Nav: liral Sone of Philadelphia. 2d ser. vol ii, part I, —41, i Useful Tj pp. 3 OMLINSON: A "Cypenbia f Arts, Mechanical and Chemical, Manu- factures, Mining an Engimeering, illustrated with seve engravi = in numbers. G. reariae, 26 Ivy Lane, London, and 26 John street, Naw 4 J. Kevomnsi Swies: ‘Bosay on the Theory of Attraction. 28 pp. ‘Ato. te ms. pete Bidyag til 1 Kannedom om Ut tvecklingen af M aan “( Embr¥o ologi a ak ope of certain. Mollusea,) Gonith Akad. Hand. for the 3 rh hale 1848. 110 pp., 8vo. with 7 plates o exhibiting with red at beauty the aitforesd phases of the egg in the course of its velopment and the 2 te of the adap ama, al. Vistant: Flora Dalmatica. Vol. iii, part has 4to, iv nad 190 pp. : i Piece! Botanique Cryptogamique, ou Histo e des a Sanileg? mali des Plantes Inférieu ea 1 vol. 8vo:, “~ 1105 figures representing. te pees ‘char- acters of the pris. & icy 7 ET Demet: _ Cours Hlémentaire sivtalen, tak in Isr, ‘with: aoe es. aris. TT. ese J. E. Conway: Sch de where. Humaine, Gendse nice desformes loi @ ordre universel, appréciation des lois, des théories, ee ts, alah Genése des or L Srakie: Deseriptions and Figures of te, 2d Bd. 6th Seer a a aeee ge Cae 1 dol. half color lnm a “= Bibliography. R. Remak + Untersuchungen iiber die Entwickelung der Wirbelthiere. me fo 40 pp. and 3 plates. Berlin bdol, Tu. | ER ; Isomorphismus und polyreieres Isomorphismus, (from the rterbach der reinen u. angewandten Chemie.) Large 8vo, vi and 64 pp. Briue- ahve, 1850. .4 dol. G. : ‘Beriichsicht. der Geschichte a Literatur der Chemie. “Munich, 1847, 1848, Dr. F. UNern: Genera et species plantarum fossilium. x1 and 638 pp. large 8vo, _ -Vindobone. shia R. Buow: eco s der Mineralogie und Geognosie. 8vo, iv and 162 pp. Summa Vegetaiiun § Scandinavive. Large 8vo, last part, 261 to 572 Pp ol ~ Comple ANDWORTERBUCH der reinen u. angewa andten chemie, by Liebig, Bs. See and _ Wohler.. 8vo, 4th volume, 3d part, = part of the series,) pp. 805 to 448, By VO, Brauns chwwei fol. 4 44 Pp, with an atlas of 15 latest in folio, 1848 J. Hyree : Beitriige zur Mor orphologie der Urogenitale-organe der Fische. 21 pp. with 2 fol. lates. 1849, .G. A. Kiysere: Mono: graphize Snipe I, Tragulus Javanicus. Large 8yo, 102 pp. Lunde, 1849. At t Loa ¢, ,, Naumanyta: Archiy f. die Ontthchogie, “vorzungsweise Europa’s. 2d_part, eye rt. tutt OHINZ ¢ ac graphien der os with plates; 23d and 24th parte, $15 PP» 8 — ws oe plates. Zurie. .. A. Steuer : Beschreibung und Vergleichung der galvan. Teligraphen Deut- — at 1849. 64 pp., large 4to.. Munich. are be aaa ewe gavialartiger pp ec pega der brag ammiung v. Scr. PHILADELPHIA, June, 1850: —p. 56, Descrip- ages new" Birds in the eollgetions of the Academy iF Cassin—p. ee A new : lite from Arkansas ; T. F. Moss. ‘ sires oF rie Boston Soc. Nat. Ht tst., 18 50. a singular F. Alger. Descriptions of shells Hs Ad wi 8. Exploring ardhita; C ricardia, Arthemis,- Venus, _ Arca); A. A ov : » Burn a peculiar appearance of Water; Desor—p. 269, of a “shower of of flesh and, — ” J. Wyman —p. nes Sn ag meet 1, Terraces of ; De esor. 4. Gon - we & on skied be eS ie FR Fl : the § of = Alen rai ‘avtion oe oer Th oo pray J, M Screncss Narureties-Paris, DECEMBER, 1849.—On fa ae ease respition the Spee fon tinued) ; #. Blanchard — J. Ruprecur: = Vegetation d. Rothen Meeres, &e,- St. Petersburgh, 1800. O. Wirrsrery: Vollstandiges. etymologisch-chemisches Handwéorterbuch, — me a Bibliography. Be : 4 ; 1 eon the blood of the aah Ne ; E. Blanchard.—On the genital « ‘armure” of cts; 1, Digthi eee a natice = er ville fine Edwards.—Botanical ne Fre ed); ta n Coral-zoophyte ds J. Haime: oe ae “anes an = ais nature raf some cheers Dr. Clos.-- Compe wot genus Nitraria; — und #. Spach——Monograph of the Moaxtofoaeiss in the Paris Museum (oon: Rs ee uaved)? C. Naudin — Additions to the Flo ora of South America; H. A. Weddéll— ~ FEB AnY—On ses gre - (eaakina ; M. Edwards a toz a oir the § tozoids “ des Hermelles-et des Tarets,” and on — * artificial Fecansation ‘of the me ; Fy de Quatrefage’— Additions to the Flora of America (continued); H. A. Weddeli-—Note _ the genus Uropedi a ; dium; A. blapton, genus of Euphorbiaceew; /. F. - Alleméo—New -£ ina, from the shores Cs the Me editerranean “E. Fabre. / lnet@mades ; useym (continued) ;- Hal “ie Ss os; eats NO. 48.—On the process of ’ subdivision : ails Rathke- “Bcltigishy nce Tuba s Dr: Creplin—New esi i in Python ot Ax Retzius.—snatomy and Natural History of — ees limac Wate A small m — cer sia and” Africa ; a he Gregarine 3; A. vo. Frantzir vaste “ and Crustacea, for 1847, (earaiaial Gok: te ve phe —|bid-for M. vient agner. O. = Abe. Pe 2ius—Omnithology 6 of Faroe; A, Holm Repo _- on Mammalia for 1847 (continued); A. Wagner— POG: _¥; 1848.—I for the first fourteen year: “view xpi on He a F. i. “Trowhol Abid fo Geographical and eestor Botany ; ~ I, 1849.— ie Bog g of M sree A, He -—On el ~ Targipe lacinulatus "BE Be —On oitwrtht by subdivision of th the dey, es M. 8, Schaltze—-On ye Salmans of Sweden; ilsson.—On Ste Soelt w gong opiiaag acephala 38. L. Lovén.— “works em a r ee Hartlaub—N0O. TV, 1849.—On the caer Fak: or 7 - ne SRO me of and mi f oe. Hartlaub, habia ing _ Jarityelogy, ad Molla; F. his voll — iid op Ent ee «eet . . " * aS of vi * ’ * “ae tas ss : ” fo ; y ss ee” TOE SP t. rn o y ‘ ae ‘ es Fe * ee an be? ee: 0 e i Snst int Ri + {PTT cH bal CE Ss ay iN K* S66 75 ‘arete “ayer Vote , = ff . ee es On eS bee Inorg = sonable terms. : mains a prices from 100 to 600 dollars ae? te ANALYTICAL LABORATORY. [Attached to the “ megactment of PHflosophy and the Arts,” in Yale eae } Le 2S Be N fe) RTON, r Bg Professor of Scientific Agriculture. $j . = . ~” ie ; E aes ‘ ie fee ee of » Tue course of instruction in this Laboratory is now fally oyetcl - and all practicable facilities are afforded to the students. The Session correspond with those of the College, commencing in January, May and ve Ctober, and continuing about three months each. Instruction given i Agricultural, and in general Analytical Chemistry, both Organic iad Lon ures ag instruction in various branches of Applied Chemistry, are intended to be given by Mr. Henry Worvz, first assistant, h temporary beers of Prof. B. Silliman, Jr., king that department. Students allowed to work during the ‘who e day with use of balances, reagents, glass, porcelain, alcohol, fires, &c., platinum only excepted. he only extra charge is for bre akage. Term s $5 per week or $60 to $70 per term of twelve or fourtee oe previous chemical study an aog of those who enter this depart- men ee on OR ie Sieabarhy by fit Nghe of during winter — , commencing soon after the middle of Jan in Lectures on Geology, Rinerelog . Fismeataty " Cheuiieley and Natural Philosophy, also accessible. Analyses and investigations of- all kinds promptly attended to on rea- é 4 Yale College, New Haven, August, 1850. ’ ‘TELESCOPES. | ¢ AMASA HOLCOMB, Southwick, Massachusetts, . a itinues to manufacture REFLECTING TELESCOPES of sizes from “long and 4 inches aperture, to 14 feet long and 10"inches — aTic TELEscores from 2 t o 4 inches aperture, ‘Sitipe spl rere 50 to 400 dollars, all ehdieetently and substan- ~ thall : ie pA eae 2 Z it ~~" BUNGE AMERICANI EXSICCATIL im Boranists wishing specimens of American F’uner, can obtain packages (of not less than ten Decades each) on application to the subscriber, at Society Hill, South Carolina. . M. A. CURTIS. {tf} March, 1848. eo fet , vz Pad é é . % 4 — f ° ye ee i 2 ei . i fon tg: i io : ad ee * 2) JOHN LAY! eg Rye, Westchester Co., New York.” * Deel Rg. sania ens : “5 ee ae ee To Collectors of British Shells and Fossils. | ROBERT DAMON or Wevrmouru, Dorset, Eneranp, : de collectors of the shells of the British ms on the oat? : ae 2 ies pteesing two or ne % geet £2 12 6. Re 60° 200% ‘ Seti 2 Te ee ag Te oe cee = = bey: also an extensive colleetion of British Fosse on. equally reasonable terms. - Reference in the Paes States ponte to Mr. Reig Wheat- land, Salem, Mass. ee. ipl 1850. Ge, Nieohippun acid: ion of cyanh hydetesacid upon a e fis Ft 2. sig troprussids, a new class of Salts, by Dr w PLayFAtR, 1 —_ property of Carbonic Oxyd, by F Aérometric le by Prof Porrer, 114.—Preservation of the Proto-Sulphate Jron _ from Oxydation, by uspinit: Freezing point of Water Pre ‘ by | 5 W. Tuomson: Test re Presence of Chloroform in the Human ieee or t by Dr. Snow, 115¢-On the behavior - Cuminic acid in the ores :. patil by Dr. ph eae Action of Essential Oil of Oriter Almond Animal. System, b y C.G.M iidmentace, 11 Mineralogypand Geology. , hoe of Progress, of the Geclogcl Survey of Can- ada, b wer Lasae Esq., 116.—On the Gold Mines of Dar Rs Eee aes to New Grenada, and Canalization of the Isthmus #f Darien JULLEN, be 118.—On the Glacial Neighborhood of ‘Dhnbaign, wae Be some Remarks on the Gene ral Snbject, r. R. CuamsBers, 119.— dorite from the Isla nd of Maui ged leds ‘Group, by J.D. Dana: Gibbsite, “21. 3 “Zoology..On the order of Succamean f Parts in Fo raminifera, by L. F. bE i Es, | n L, Acassiz, 122.— Observations on the Blind Fish of the Mammoth Cave, by L. Acassiz, de _ On the Carcinological Collections of the United States, by Prof. Lew gets 128. oe rvations on the Fishes bad Nova Scotia and Labrador, wid H. ks om rie new Planet Purtheriopes ‘The new Planet Chia: Raat new : Phanet. a es Comet: Me s Co met Shooting ad on August 10, _ 1850, 130.—Meteoric Observations in Nove and Deéem 1 ‘ _ Been in “one Daylight: Meteor of September 30, "1850, 131 sen eriodical Meteors: Of Beg t, 1848 and 1849, a 133. ia scella: Se tliat —Translation of part te r from Mr. E. P. de oaaan. one of the officers of a Beienthe Espedition. sant out by the Empe- for of Russia to the Northern part of Finoland and Lapland, to Oscar M. Lie- _ ber, 136.—Notice ring or fountain in. Bots OOe BL nto ' lakers on Browns, Fsq., 139.--Relative level of the Red Sewa Fall of Dust at esa aged near Detmold: Tenacity of Metals, 143.— -—Dr. William Gambel, 143. Bibliography.—A iy ipa on ha Studies of the Seventy of Cambridge, by Apam Sevewiex, M.A., FRS., 144.—Elements of Natural Philosophy, by : Zt va ee ARTLETT é , LL. ~ r ial ‘Inthe United States, see hie AS ate 146.—New Elements of Geome- try vette i i BOWMAN : = IR ‘i a - dake Superior Copper Region, Michigan, eg ogica ox, MD. oa? —The Seas errian : A devoted Hy the i Lit- : Annals of the Lyceum of Natural ‘stor zea New “ERRATA. “ space,” read “sphere,” P. 22, 1.5 from top, sub- kJ < eg , for rKR? read 2rKR?. P. 34, 1.4 from top, PB te A ptt ae ure: A Practical tion of rah oead ed Green-houses, Gapperies, and other kinds . of Horticultural their management in Tegard to light, oak and air, by RoeertT B. Leucnars: Art’s Echo of Sci- Arpt oe and Patents 148.—Journal of the Academy o f Natural Sci- 113 t fom bottom, for ‘ any portion i dbs "read any d*P or ee P24, 1. ian ve earag St Page-33, line 8 * ey * rom bottom, for “ anilene,” read “ amilene.” en 110, Tin Sie = Bion tne read wi Te gen oie P. 112, i. 19 from nee ed I. Comparison of Pijcra on oe Building Stones to determine their r St a a fll. On Meteorites ; 3. by Cuigeee. Urnam Sedesas: 1V. An Essay o n the Classification of Nemertes, mand Planarice : : Preceded = some Bre ral oe the primary Di- _* wisions of the Animal Kingdom; by Caarnes Sales - 41 4 . Memoir on Emery ; se aS PeNges Situ, M.D.—Seco ne of S he E OS a 38 On -the a of the Galvanic Current sh Tele grap a Bins A B. A. Gout, deni of the U, 8, Cos abs of - - }Bartey, _ eh rae Miscellanéous Nitin: - by J. Ww. Battey = se Bs €. time ‘required to . raise the Galvanic Currerit. to: ae: m in Coiled conden and its ipertiae in | Elec- tf: *Mectontes | by Etef. - CHAS. AGE é er; by, Rev. M. J, Bergetey and Rev. M. A..Curtis, - § xt On thé ‘markings of the Carapax of Crabs; by James D. ening ret i XL. Chémical examination of a Phosphate of peor nn = and Lith, from Norwich,'Mass.; by W. J. RAW, XIV. On the Physical and Crystallographic. sesect ae he . . isa of Iron, Manganese and Lithia, of Norwich, Mas-'~ chusetts ; by Jame sD. ANA, Av. Novice of. the eetivery by Walter Manel “Esq. of Wel- = _ lington, in the Middie Island of New Ze: aland, of aes = g specimen of Notornis, a bird of the Rail Family. Auer id ter from Dr, MANTELL to the Senior Editor,) ~ areata rte ‘SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENG : pe You KE MARCH, 1851. f R | SCIENCE AND ARTS. CONDUCTED BY - e ki ies | AND. JAMES D. DANA. SECOND SERIES. 32, MAR bak 1851. _ Tue American JouRNAL oF ieee is publighe bed pomery wo months, on ‘the Ist Ov Sa pees i ., including a 1 Index. prea 1838 by a ; Prof. B. Sintiman; since July, 1838, by Prof B. “Sigieeane st pce 7 3 * unbound, 2 ‘Price for complete set, un -* i ‘2nd Ser., since January, 1846, édite d he mk. Beas B.S Sinuiman, ie ae and J.D. Dana. Price for the 10 vols. ri = "$20 00 *,* It is requested that all communications a 4 for this work, i ie dressed to Srtuiman & Dana, (or J. D. Dana,) ate of the Ameri Science and Arts, New Haven, Conn This Journal may be purchased of the Publishers, and of the following New oe S set mag > 115 Chap. st eloag- 3 = Ss. = alk Albany, N. Y. ITTEL & Co. dford, ass. C. & A. Taser. : ” (Lirtie & Brown C. S. Franc.s & Co. ° Boston, Mass., | Eeraince & Co. New York City, Geo. P. Putnam. Rossy & Nicuo3s. Joun WILEY: . Baltimore, Md., N. Hickman. Paris, France, Hecror Bos#4nce. Hartford, Conn., Brown & Parsons. Philadelphia Pa., A. HART. .<@ GARRIGUE, N. York. burg, Pe Witson & Co. : - WESTERMANN Providence, R EE, Geo. H. WHITNEY. Germany, stabaragy : as, and| Rochester, N. Y., Isaac DoourTrLe. Georce WesTERMANN, Salem, Mass., Henry WuiePne. *e nse nnah, Ga., Ww». S. Wiewrams. 49 Bow Lane, Cheapside, Troy, N. Y., Harr & Jones. . London, : (. Dewr, Putnam’s Am.| Toronto, C. W., Huen RoceErs.. ? teins Agency. Washington, D.C., 'Tavuor & Maury. ! Louisville, Ky, T.R. Nerson & Co. Worcester, Mass., Tucker & a Middletown, Ct., Woonaie & Sons. 2S TRAVELLING AGENTS whose receipts are acknowledged as good :— fe Henry M. a of Montgomery, Alabama,—for Alabama and eee by B. B. B: Z : IsRaEL iecdiaeea ‘si South Tenth —_ ne ee and South western : ‘States,—assisted seh —— K. Warp Wa. H. WE xp. P. Stem, JoHN Com urns, Jaites’Dexr , A. King Wartineseg CHARL es og hae L, E. * EVANS: — James CLARK, Sci ve W. Auuen, and P. Locgs. Ww. James, — m street, €incinnati,—for the Western States,-—assisted = 5. R. Surra, J.T. Dext, pes ck a J. W. cans Perrin Locke, Ws — say and G. SrerN NMAN. : et Sine ce rie ‘FO ates Safes i t Tr dan opi - ery igi: ton sty oe eG if f request- ed at the disposal of the author. Any lar of copies will be furnished at cost. Authors should always specify at the heat of ‘their MSS. the number of snagetie T* ve Bone Raeanhd oa sane it is too Inte after the padi" scr ‘The titles ei of communications be "3 Notice — when communications seat to hs Jory have heats or are to be, published also in other Journals, 2 Our ae Mr. T. Day: Parma’ American Agency 49 Bow forward all works of which notice ty be deere fo Si ae 1] persons wh who may have v progr » will send a ee ded esc mal plese send us ist 3 SS ns XVI—On. the Veit of the Galvanic Currents in Tele- raph Wires ; by B. A. Govtp, Jr., ina Report to Prof. A. D. Be lul.. D., Superintendent of the U. S. Coast Survey. (Concluded from” page 89. ) cae questions to which I propose to apply fhe re= he Washington and St. Louis experiment,.arése — i oat the stations on the. line received the signal pau- ely in their order of distance, and after intervals di- y proportionate to their distance from the Place where the Was made. if the first question te decided.i in 1 the affirmative, —b oute th nals reached the several_statiens ; whether sane Sas _eofnimfaicafed through the earth, as Mr..Walker believes, when the: istance-between. the stations is less by the éarth’s surface — thro ough the wires, and if so, with what velocity; or heth he pay traverged,the wires, and if 80, with What os Asity of he eurtint occasion any appre+ ifference in the velocity,* or whether ‘the interposition of reen two stations affect the velocity appreciably. : the om ments for the determination of velocity, I~ : used the electrotomes only, and the results are thus entirely eg eut of the pass-time of the main circuit ee Pit tsburg be St. Louis registers are both very indistinct, oi partly to want of distinctness in the impression of the ae 154 Velocity of the Galvanic Current in Telegraph Wires. graving tool, and partly to the bad quality of the paper of which the fillet is made. The Pittsburg register is in many plaees illeg- : ible owing to the shortness of the pass. This could be spared : with less inconvenience than any one of the others, but it is a 2 very unfortunate circumstance that the St. Louis record, the most : important of all, should be so indistinct. It is affected, moreover, with the additional disadvantage, that the motion of the fillet was slow, and the liability to error in measuring thus greatly in- creased. The labor of measuring off the intervals on the fillet is great and very tedious, and the average error of reading amounts to some hundredths of a second, although the intervals were mostly measured with dividers and a metallic scale, not with a diagonal *, scale of horn. ; - “All the results adduced depend upon the mean of a great number of readings, more than 5000 measurements of the work of February 4 having been made, in order to obtain them. The a; ging and zigzag course of the wires, but may be used in the ab- sence of positive knowledge on the subject, and gives the follow- ing distances for the several stations as measured on the wire. Washington, 288 _— Pittsburg, 622 334 Cincinnati, 447 45 13 Louisville, 1045 457 423 289 St. Louis. The experiments occupied a period of several hours, the Sea- ton clock graduating the scale, at Seaton-station, Washington City, Pittsburg, Louisville, and St. Louis. The operator at St. Louis gave arbitrary signals by breaking cirenit from time to time, at intervals of two or three seconds, which signals were recorde at all the stations. This he did for two successive minutes, twice during the evening. The same was done by the operat at Louisville, Cincinnati, and Pittsburg. Signals were also at the latter station for ten minutes after the Seaton battery wa + Proc, Amer, Assoc., 1849, p. 189. | Velocity of the Galvanic Current in Telegraph Wires. 155 o : removed from the part of the circuit between the clock and the “oe ground, and interposed between the clock and Pittsburg. umber of measurements used to obtain the mean differ- ence of the registers is so large that the addition or subtraction of fifty consecutive measurements exerts no appreciable influence on the result. : a __ We have seen that when the clock-pauses are made at Wash- TS ington and the arbitrary signal-pauses at St. Louis, the diflerence of the interval between the pauses on the registers of the stations corresponds to the time occupied by the current in traversing twice the distance between the stations,—the clock-pauses being e is) a by the same amount. T me is true of intermediate places, a. the excess of the recorded interval at the clock-station being a. greater by an amount equal to twice the distance between the oe Stations whose fillets are compared, divided by the number of .* miles traversed by the voltaic current in a second. Let us now consider the effect of a signal not made at a ter- _ Ininal station, but at some intermediate one. For all places be- yond this, the two pauses occur later than the corresponding one and its record should be identical with that of the signal-station itself. We are thus enabled to control our estimate of the veloc- ity between the clock and the signal station, by the records made at all the stations beyond. I find the following to be the mean excesses of the intervals between the signal-pauses and the preceding clock-pauses on the Washington fillet, over those on the fillets at the other stations. Washington Excesses. ee Te —e Signals. cee Be a 0 a a 00295 00983. | +«0-0378 00451 0317 0752 0843 0950 * 03847 ‘0750 | 1163 1343 0455 0704 bs S108 1451 ee. ___ Confining ourselves at first to the records of the signals made at St. Louis, we find the several registers to indicate the follow- ocities : . _ 12772 miles in a second. . 18096. “ ' 11124 e 14404 - 156 Velocity of the Galvanic Current in Telegraph Wires. The agreement of these numbers, I consider very satisfactory. It will be observed that the velocity indicated by the St. Lonis register is much greater than that derived from the others. Now have been proportionate to the greater distance. Those who believe the signals to be transmitted throngh the earth (when this measurements accord sufficiently well with one another. But- when it is remembered that we are dealing with such quantities — as hundredths and thousandths of a second, measured too by di- but unequal,—we cannot expect any very close accordance, m the results of different measurements, f Giving the other data more in detail, and determining the prob- able errors of the means by the method of least squares, we have, es St. Louis Signals. Register. No. oe | Interval. Prob. error.._| Velocity. Min. lirnit. Max. Iimit_ es 37 00373 | 0°00267 15442 6633 C. 4 0 0844 | 0-00148. | 14748 14494 | 15012 L. 46 0 °1163 | 0 -00149 12846 St. L, 3 0°1108 | @-00173 13484 Louisville Signals. Register. | No. obs. Interval. Prob. error. imit. | 56 00451 000252 60 00950 000302 1 L | 65 | 0:1343 000252 | 11124 10919 | St. L. 61 01451 000329 14404 14085 : Cincinnati Signals, Reg'ster. | No, obs. Interval, Prob. error. | Velocity, P. 33 00283 459 | 20400 Cc, 32 00752 | 600486 16543 L. | 32 00750 0:00489 . 16587 St. L. 26 60704 000442 17670 Velocity of the Galvanic Current in Telegraph Wires. 157 Pitisburg Signals. Register. No. obs. Interval. | Prob. error. | Velocity. | Min. limit. | Max. limnit. | : 0:0295 0:00154 | 19525 18557 20601 ‘ 36 00317 000233 | 18170 16926 1961 L. | 37 0:0347 | 00258 | 16591 15451 | 17922 St. L. 10 0°0405 000249 | 12659 12003 1339 Classifying these according to the stations whose distances are + measured by the recorded values. . Stations, | Mean Interval.) No. obs. 1 Ded’d Velocity. | Pittsburg. .............. 0°03567 152 16147 miles per second. a 008289 196 15008 co nie ee 0°12291 147 12156 eee | 014510 61 14404 The combination of all these, according to the method of least Squares, gives, as the result of the experiments of Feb. 4, a ve- locity of 14900 miles, with a probable error of the mean = +10 These last tables seem to answer conclusively the first of the questions just propounded,—and at the same time to suggest the seco e are justified in assuming that the signals, given by making and breaking the galvanic circuit of the telegraph, reach the several stations successively in their order of distance, and traveling with a finite and measurable velocity. But do they and another back. But in all the lines in use in this country, the earth forms one half of the circuit. Are we to consider, when the two distant extremities of a line of wire communicate With the earth at a distance of many hundred miles from one another, that there is a special line of tension through the earth rom one extremity to the other? and that a signal is communi- cated from terminus to terminus through the ground, in the same manner as it is through the wire? or may we consider the earth _ 48 a huge receptacle, to speak metaphorically, capable of receiv- mig or imparting any amount of electricity at any time? ‘The rmer opinion is held by my friend Mr. Walker. = But does it not seem improbable that the slight activity of a Vanic battery, traversing a circuit of 1000 miles of wire, should ufficient to establish a special line of electric tension extend- rough the earth in a cord or parallel with the surface for For my own part, when I remember not only the 158 Velocity of the Galvanic Current in Telegraph Wires. grand phenomena of terrestrial magnetism,* but the immense galvanic force which m mustt be exerted by the mutual influence of the huge masses of metal in the bowels of the earth,—when I consider the mighty electrical activity developed{ in the great processes of nature,—I will confess that I can not bring myself to believe that one special continuous line of electric tension in the ground between two remote stations can be established athwart all these colossal sos by the action of a puny os battery.$ Still, any views must be presented with diffidence, which vary from. the "expressed opinions of some of the nue of our scienti ists _ The view which I take appears to be 4 by the ~ Coast Survey experiments of Feb. 4, in a two-fold manner. irst, if we suppose the clock-signals, starting snltaneonsly from the Seaton Station in two directions, to be opagated both through the wires and through the earth to the tall minus at St. Louis, we must assume one of two things :— 1. That the signal which traverses the ground, moves with a velocity bearing precisely sae same ratio to that through the Wire, that the dista ance by one route bears to the distance by the other. This would be Peis infinitely improbable, had we only the St. Louis experiment to guide us. But we have the results of the Coast-Survey experiments to Cincinnaly and to — Charleston, which prove this hypothesis to be incorrect. * Faraday, Researches, ii, p. 151. ¢ Phil. Tran t Pouillet, Ann, de Chim. et de Phys. xxxv, p. 414; Be ecteete rai iv, pp- 164 . : ee Se — Univ., xi 1; Faraday, Researches, ii, pp. 47, 4 Xiv, pp. 129, 17 ae eee special line of tension, meaning by this a line, whether independent or ees naar is capable of conveying electrotome and electropcea signals mn the same man g ly a wire conveys them. After the admirable analytical investi- gation na of Sm: and the corroborative though independent researches+ of + coer Agha character “of “onde ction so the earth can no — be doubtful. palais current ge a peat dependatis | in piste asure upon on eee cal forma- tion of the localities traversed, as his —T. = measure the earth’s conductive — n different directi and Kirchhoff | would lead us to fee a> But are not his expe the criticism, suggested § by Smaasen, that we must know th lates before i i infe > 4 | @ ps) el Le") ae. b~~) But conduct signals as oa this assumption vitiates the ex nts ind of Retin tnd’ Clout : 2 * Pogg. Annalen nee a oe 5 Il Cimento, 1847, May, June. v. Pogg. A n, Ixii, p. 449. Sit itzungsbericht ag aoe) ae May 10, A § Pose. Annalen, lxxii, p. mB Oe § P Annalen, ogg. Pogg. p. 48 + De la Rive, Archives de ’Eleetr.,: “Hf Aste dour pa §§ Comptes Rendus, xxx, p. ris, Velocity of the Galvanic Current in Telegraph Wires. 159 2. We may suppose the velocity through the earth to be so small, that the electrotome after a passage of 742 miles through the earth has not reached St. Louis until the whole signal-pause and electropea have been transmitted through the wire 1049 ; miles. On this theory, the passage of the 742 miles through the ground would occupy more than a quarter of a second, and we can not tell how much more. % The second argument in support of my view is also derived from experiment, and although not consisting of so direct a nega- tion as the first, partakes of the nature of a reductio ad absurdum in a sufficient degree to be perhaps yet more convincing than the former. It depends on the comparison of the records of sig- nals made at St. Louis and at the nearer stations. f we assume that the signals between Washington and St. Louis were transmitted through the earth, it is easy by the com- parison of the Louisville and St. Louis fillets to determine the velocity of propagation in the ground. ‘The St. Louis register gives, on the assumption above made, a velocity through the earth which would make the time of transmission for 742 miles between the termini equal to that required for traversing 528 ‘miles of the wire. is amounts to the same thing as if the current between the termini traveled with the same velocity asin : the wire, but through a distance of only 528 miles. For con- _ Venience of expression, I will speak as though this were the ase. The result would be precisely the same. We have then, on comparing the different registers, two kinds of cases—one in which the distance between the stations is shorter through the wire, and the other in which it is shorter u s + Relative Distance. Corresponding Velocity. Hyp. L Hyp. Ul Hyp. Lb __ Hyp. iL 576 | +259 12800 1311 6 59 10473 1073 1244 427 1309 "651 1244 427 17771 10386 1494 977 11405 1458 * 1494 977 13484 8817 2090 1055 14415 7283 160 Velocity of the Galvanic Current in Telegraph Wires. All the results of the experiments made by the Coast Survey for the determination of the velocity of the galvanic current, have been most kindly placed at my disposal by my friend Mr. Walker to whom you had confided the entire direction of the work. These furnish the materials for a series of tables, containing the deductions from all the experiments. Collecting in one table all the cases where the current must have passed through the wires, and in another all those instances where the ground furnished part of the shortest circuit, we ae two equations with two un- known quantities, viz., the velocity in the ground and in the wires. Determining the latter tiene we find the velo- city deduced from all those cases where the distance is shorter through the wire, to be, by twenty-six different comparisons de pendent on 768 ‘readings, 15600 miles a second. Substituting this value in the other equation, we obtain the number of miles of wire to which the time of transmission corresponded. ‘These equations may be formed by aid of the method of least squares. The discussion of the results of all the experiments of the Coast Survey, namely, those on the lines from Washington to Cam bridge, Washington to Cincinnati, Washipgton to Charleston, Hp Boston to New York, show that the pes ee of a transmission through the ground, with a constant velocity, does not materially improve the accordance of the observations. Indeed, in the ex- periments of February 4, the only indication of a transmission through the ground is to be found in the fact, that the velocity derived from the St. Louis observations can be made to accord better with the mean of the other values, by assuming that the signals traveled 1030 miles instead of 1045. ‘The probable error of our estimate of the length of the wire is much greater than is. The cases depending on 920 measurements, in which the shortest route is through the ground, are twenty-two in number. The velocity deduced, on the assumption that the signals tra- versed the ground, would be 11,200 miles in a secon From all these considerations I infer that in the St. ‘Louis and Washington experiments which were, of all that have been made, the most favorable for exhibiting the phenomena,—the signals were in no case transmitted through the ground. We have thus endeavored to take account, as far as possible, of all the sources of error which cannot be avoided, and to escape all those which can. Our results, obtained from ‘different ie than 20,000 or less than 12,000 miles per sec From the combination of all the Coast Saree experiments with the electro-magnetic telegraph I have endeavored to a measure of the velocity which shall be as reliable as the i Velocity of the Galvanic Current in Telegraph Wires. 161 of the case permits. The difference of temperature, at stations so distant from one another, makes it appear unadvisable to introduce any correction for temperature, even were such a refinement of : the same order of magnitude with the unavoidable errors of our ioe ‘measurements, and therefore congruous with their character. The temperature was, in all cases, as low as the freezing point—the insulation not being sufficiently perfect at other times to allow 4 communication between very distant stations. The distances used are the following, in miles~ten per cent. having been added. re, Washington, Washington, 172 Philadelphia, | 74 Harper's Ferry, 881 209 New York, 165 91 Cumberlar 850 469 260 Cambridge. 309 235 144 Wheeling, © 4 413 269 Cincinnati. 578 Washington to Cambridge, through the ground, . . 380 ashington to Cincinnati, ve is a vi ag aa The great length of wire assigned to the part between New York and Philadelphia is a consequence of the distance to which the line ascends the Hudson before finding a crossing-place. Date. | Terminus. Velocity. Prob. error. Sos sree os * if ae = 1849 Jan. 23, | Cambridge, | 18000 | 150 t. 31, Cincinnati, 18550 | 124 1850 Feb. 4, St. Louis, 14900 10 Seokeb. 6 Charleston, 16856 The resultant is 15890 miles per second, as the most probable value, Mr. Walker’s experiment, 1850, July 8, with the Electro- chemical Telegraph,* gave for the velocity between Boston an New York (220 miles) 13333 milesa second. The wire of Bain’s Telegraph is however of a different size from the other lines, and 18 Coated over to prevent oxydation. Should we assume the sig nals to have been transmitted through the ground, Feb. 5, and uly 8, we should obtain the respective velocities 10690 and 10820 miles per second. In spite of the mutual confirmation of the several results by he another, and although the accordance is even remarkable, Considering the numerous obstacles and sources of error, it is hevertheless true that the observations might be still better repre- _ Sented by supposing the velocity to be different at different parts of the line. Is this assumption admissible? It is, if we have Teason to suppose that the velocity is dependent on the in- tensity of the current—for several batteries were interposed at sis late stations on the line. The most powerful battery was Usburg, consisting of fifty Grove’s cups, each holding a pint, comparison of the different velocities appears to indicate that : * Ast. Journ, i, p. 105. Serums, Vol. XI, No. 32—March, 1851. 162 Velocity of the Galvanic Current in Telegraph Wires. ‘part of the circuit between the clock and Pittsburg. The differ- ence between the times of transmission given in the two cases, 18 so small as to be practically inappreciable, and probably owing to the unavoidable errors of reading. Eight measurements on the Pittsburg and Cincinnati registers, where the battery was not interposed, gave as the time of trans- mission from Washington to Pittsburg 0303049. Seventy-four measurements on the same registers when the battery was inter- 6 Louis register and follows the corresponding one on the Wash- ington registers. This was first discovered by Mr. Walker, who considerst it to indicate that waves caused by breaking and clos- ing the circuit may travel in opposite directions and cross one another, without interference. This view is theoretically startling to those who have looked on electric phenomena as exhibitions of a polar force, and I have examined with great care all the cases of this kind which could be found. In none of them can I find the distance between the signal-pauses on the two fillets to cor- respond, even approximately, to the velocity which the compari son of the same fillets indicates. The interval is generally twice as great as would be due to the time of transmission. [I have been compelled to look in a very different direction for the expla- nation of the phenomenon. ‘The St. Louis operator often struck — the break-circuit key twice in quick succession ; and in the cases ~ under discussion, it would appear that the interval between these two consecutive signal-pauses was very nearly equal to the time * Pogg. Ann. xlv, 23. ene { Hallat, Comptes Rendus, vi, 52. De la Rive, Arch. de l’Electr,, iii, 288. Proceedings Amer. Assoc., Charleston, 1850, p. 124. ine Velocity of the Galvanic Current in Telegraph Wires. 163 of transmission between St. Louis and Washington, and that one of the signal-pauses was confounded with the clock-pause at St. Louis, and the other with the clock-pause at Washington. wo circumstances tend to corroborate this view. 1. The length of the clock-pause is in all these cases greater than the average ; and %. The interval between the clock and signal-pauses is neither too great nor too small to correspond with this hypothesis. There are several other points which I would gladly have dis- cussed ; but will however confine myself to the mention of a sin- gle curious fact. Reducing the velocity found by Wheatstone for friction-electricity in copper, by multiplying it with the ratio of the conductive power of the two metals, we have 51096 as the cor- Tesponding velocity in iron wire of the same diameter (1:75 mil- imeters), ata temperature of 32° F. This is to the velocity we have deduced, almost precisely in the inverse ratio of the sectional areas of the conducting wires. It is to be hoped that still farther materials may be collected during the ensuing winter by the zeal of the Superintendent of the Survey, and the indefatigable energy of Mr. Walker. The Superior insulating power of the posts in freezing weather, renders winter the most desirable. season for instituting experiments of this kind. It is a circumstance in which we as Americans may be warranted in feeling an honest pride that all the telegraph-ex- periments, excepting those of Mitchel and Fizeau, which have been instituted for deducing the velocity of the galvanic current —a result so important to science, and for the proper discussion of telegraph-observations for longitude—have been made under superintendence of the U. S. Coast Survey. In future experiments it appears to me highly desirable that Some machinery, capable of delivering several inches of paper per second, at a tolerably uniform rate, should be employed to move the fillet or cylinder on which the record is made; that the quality of the paper used should be as fine as possible, and that the _ Same circuit, which is not improbable. _. Uhe ordinary size of the telegraph wires is, as I understand, that corresponding toa weight of about 300 Ibs. to the mile. He new line now constructing, by the patentees of House’s wonderful printing telegraph, between Buffalo and New York, is Som pOs Wires weighing from 600 to 800 Ibs. to the mile. Experiments made with this line would be of great service in de- ning whether the velocity varies with the section of the con- wags Wire Very respectfully yours, ge, August, 1850, B. A. Govtp, Jr. 164 On the Gnathodon beds around the head of Mobile Bay. Arr. XVII. AsO bseriations on the Gnathodon ou around the head of Mobile Bay; by Rev. C. S. Hau ‘Tue most striking feature of the low, flat region, which forms the northern coast of the Gulf of Mexico, and perhaps the only legitimate one for determining its place in the geological series, are the numerous Gnathodon beds scattered around its bays and deltas. "These remains have long eee the attention of various in- dividuals, none of whom, howev r, have favored the public with any res: alts of their se at ar per’ me few years since, an im- perfect sketch of what had then been ascertained respecting these beds, was furnished to gratify the desire of a few particular friends. ; Since then, more extended and satisfactory researches on the see have been deemed not unworthy of a greater publicity, as a means of extending the boundary of scientific knowledge. These deposits are not altogether unique in their character: they may be considered as similar in their formation, if not con- temporaneous with various others that have been noticed in dif- erent parts of the earth; and a reference to some of the latter by ; way of example, will not be irrelevant to the present design. s The first we shall name, occurs on the coast of Vendée near : St. Michael. There are three eminences here, which are entirely composed of marine shells, at a distance of five or six furlongs from the sea, and at an elevation of about five yards above the highest tides. These masses cousist of species actually living on the neighboring coast, such as Ostrea 7 Pecten sanguineus, Murex ‘imbricatus, Buecinum reticulatur Another has been observed on the piateanhe of St. Hospice, near Nice: it is seventeen yards above the level of the Mediter- ranean. It consists of calcareous sand, iueluding a large quantity of shells, but little altered, resembling those inhabiting the coast. A thick bed of marine shells also occurs near Maita, on a pen- insula between the Hellespont and the Gulf of Laros ; the species consist of Venus chione and cancellata, Solen vagina, and Ceri- thium vulgare ; the same are still living on the coast. Masses of the same shells may also be seen on the coast of Asia opposite. Similar instances are known in the island of Great a Adanson makes mention of a large collection of marine shells on the Scottish coast, found near Loch Lomond, seven yards above the level of the sea. Another occurs on the bank of the Forth, likewise ot near the Clyde. Each of ane roe 2 is eleval about four feet above the tide. But some of the most remarkable of the shell masses fave been observed in Sweden and Norway at an elevation far above the highest tides. The first is at Figa-elo in the northern part eeway, said to be situated more than one hundred ere | On the Ginathodon beds around the head of Mobile Bay. 165 the level of the sea. Others occur at Tromose and Drontheim, at an elevation of only five or six yards. Near the small town of Uddevalla, in Sweden, marine shells have been accumulated upon the shore to so great an extent, that from time immemorial they have been carted away for the pur- pose of paving the public ways. ‘These are at an elevation of about sixty yards; the shells are like those in the neighboring i sea; they are almost entirely exempt from earthy mixture. : Near Valparaiso in South America, about forty yards above the level of the ocean, there is a remarkable deposit consisting of a single species, the Concholepas, which is still living on the coast. hether the Gnathodon beds in question are to be classed with the preceding remains to be determined. Of the genus Gnathodon, there are two living species on the American coast, the Gnathodon cuneata and G. flexuosa, both occurring about the Gulf of Mexico. ‘These are estuary species, and inhabit brackish water : yet there are some apparent excep- = S re °. ig?) w — = - = ° ag oO 5 ® oa 2 © 3 =) 5 2 | = 2 = _ 5 “- = = Ks oc 5 a = Q > pa) = oo QD. Te) ~ pa) Pee cx} ® Q. B o se J S oO o Lod i) 5 fe a is) i) i] ~ o °o o 8%] ca se) on | @ — i =~ Load - _ Dm PY) SS i. 4 po] manner supposed. It was once thought that the Mytilus edulis Inhabited the Danube. But a more correct examination has since contended that no functional: change has been produced to render _ it permanently a fresh-water species. Jt is more than probable _ that the deposits far in the interior, are composed of individuals " that lived in the vicinity, and were coéval with the formation of as the sea retreated to its present limits at the head of Mobile bay, ‘Here the species are yet found in circumstances congenial to their nature. An instance occurs in Maurepas lake where recent 166 On ihe Gnathodon beds around the head of Mobile Bay. orographic changes have rendered the water permanently fresh; but it is evident, the few hardy individuals that still live there, cannot long abide the effects of their unnatural situation. uta more remarkable event in the history of the species is that of their entire destruction north of Florida. This phenome- non, considered as a rare effect of that more remarkable part of the eco i stibject ness oe It likewise suggests the impor- tance of more extended observation respecting what relates to the species in this aati of their former geographical range—such as the condition of their remains, and the various other paper peculiar to these localities ; also the other organisms that n found imbedded with them ;—together with those indiestigns that may be discovered explanatory of the cause of their extinction; : whether it be an alteration of climate, or some orographic change affecting the thermal influence of the gulf stream along the coast ; or any other agency yet undiscovered. What has already been ascertained concer une the adaptations of the animal may serve to throw light upon some of the circum- stances in which the species is found, aiaions living or fossil. Their natural adaptation to an exposed situation in the loose mud, furnishes the reason why they are so generally found, either in the sinuosities of the shore, or the cavities of river channels, where the wind and the current may not disturb them. In addition to these ee their limited locomotive power, somewhat as in e case of the oyster, will, without the necessity of referring to any shi special agency, natural or artificial, sufficiently indicate the cause why such large masses are found precisely in those cit- cumstances, where they are actually presented to our observation. These deposit will now claim our attention in a geological point of v he fit eal ddccata regards their position, which occurs in three very distinct varieties of ee answering to as many successive periods in which they were formed. First, the submerged beds; next, those which are one partially submerged ; finally, ‘such as are entirely elevated above the water, at various distances from it, and at different elevations. e submerged beds are not unfrequent around the head of Mobile bay. They have been observed more particularly in Raft river, where they occur in a very regular succession for miles, at a depth of fifteen or twenty feet. The various channels that intersect the extensive morass between the Mobile and Tensaw rs a seem for the most part to be weil adapted to the prosperity the species in question; at least, this was eminently the case — in a more remote period, for here are two of the most remarka-— ble deposits, within the limits of our observation, one for its eX- traordinary superficial extent, the other for its st On the Ginathodon beds around the head of Mobile Bay. 167 _ It is evident however that new masses of shells are still form- ing in the beds of these streams, in every respect similar to those which are found in elevated situations. These submerged beds also illustrate the method by which the others have been amassed to such a remarkable extent. The living part of the species are frequently liable to perish in becoming too deeply imbedded by ‘ an unusual increase of alluvium, a very common event in this ic delta region ; the continued propagation of the species in such circumstances, admits of the continued increase of the mass to an indefinite extent. Superficial marsh-deposits are of no rare occurrence in the vicinity in which the shells are thinly scattered was the way of their formation. It is not improbable that those elevated masses which occur free from such earthy mixture, existed originally in a similar mixed state, the drifting of the cur- rent, or the drenching of the rain, having divested the deposits of the more moveable earthy portion of their ingredients. The partially submerged state of the next class of deposits, be s unmixed shells in a submerged state along the shore. Or finall when the mass was elevated, some individuals may have contin- ned to live and multiply by the shore, forming an apparent con- Unuation of the original deposit. The Submerged portion of these beds may often be traced to a distance of man rods. They occur principally in insular and marshy situations, remote from the main land; particularly ton, and was since intersected by numerous rivers and creeks, as of Water fowls, alligators, &c.; and last though not least, of im- mense quantities of molluses, the accumulated masses of whose remains are scattered at short intervals over the entire extent of this region. _ The third class of beds consists of those. which are wholly elevated above the water; they are principally situated on the Main land, near the first terrace from the water’s edge, at nearly , pi: elevations above the tide. They are usually of an oblong ape, their longest axis being parallel with the neighboring 168 On the Gnathodon beds around the head of Mobile Bay. shore. They mark the period of the last retreat of the water within its present more circumscribed limits. Their former sub- merged condition, must evidently have corresponded with that of those which are still found living in a littoral situation. The abrupt termination of these masses, without the appearance of any scattered remains in the interval between them and the shore, likewise the absence of living individuals in the neighbor- ing water, will not seem surprising, when it is considered that the current, caused by the more contracted limits of the channel, must have prevented their continuous multiplication. There are however, some instances, where thinly scattered remains occur even to the water’s edge, but such cases are found only in cit- cumstances which are favorable for the continued existence of the species. “he beds of this class are generally two or three yards above the level of the tide. The foundation on which they rest resem- bles that of a submerged bottom, not that of an open bay,—rather like that of an estuary in the vicinity of rivers and inlets, where the siltings of fresh-water alluvinms are not wholly excluded. Those deposits which occur on the Mobile and Tensaw rivers are evidently of a much older date than those already noticed in the intermediate space, which must have remained longer in @ condition unfavorable for the propagation of the species. That series of inland deposits west of Mobile bay, commenc- ing at the northwest angle of that bay near Choctaw point, an extending northwardly to Twenty-one mile bluff, presents several largest and most elevated masses are found; they also mark in @ very striking manner, the former inland extent and shore-line of the present bay. It is also observable that the largest of these deposits usually occur near the outlet of some stream, where eX- isted a favorable combination of circumstances for their increase, particularly the confluence of the fresh-water current with the ocean tide. Instances of a similar nature are presented along the borders of that chain of lakes, connecting with the Gulf of Mexico, and extending into the southeast section of Louisiana, especially the one which formerly existed at the mouth of Blind river, it is more than twenty feet high and six hundred yards in length. ‘ Before proceeding to the examination of our last object of 1n- quiry, the structure and contents of these beds, it will be proper to notice the distinction which ought to be made between cer tain effects of Indian agency, and those which are the wee natural causes. eae It is evident that at some former period these shell deposits were objects of much interest to the aborigines. They seem tO — F< ee Fore ie On the Gnathodon beds around the head of Mobile Bay. 169 have selected them in a special manner, as burying places for their dead—for this and perhaps also for some other reasons, they ecame places of resort, and the receptacles not only of human remains, but of various kinds of superstitious relics, spoils of hunting, also of various fragments resulting from certain kinds of artificial operations which they found convenient to practice in these places. The different sorts of objects here alluded to, have been distinctly traced, as they occur in the original mass of organic remains. n remains are somewhat abundant in certain deposits, but generally in a very broken state. Fragments of pottery are was ascertained that the natives make special use of these par- ticular shells for the manufacture of ornaments for the neck. Coal and ashes must also have been produced by their fires; but the latter can seldom be detected, having disappeared by mixing with the shells, and the former is seldom distinguishable from the carbonized wood which abounds. The following facts selected from many of like nature, may be presented as a refutation of the notion respecting Indian agency in the formation of the beds in question. ‘There are n . _ gence; the clear proofs of their natural stratification, and espec- : ially the general occurrence of immature and minute species, ‘Scattered through the mass, all which is quite unaccountable if Considered as the effect of Indian labor. Szconp Series, Vol. XI, No. $2.—March, 1851. 29 “ 170 On the Gnathodon beds around the head of Mobile Bay. There is a strange disposition manifested by many of our anti- quarians to seek for the marvelous in whatever relates to the throwing up an almost uninterrupted succession of ridges and mounds, as to leave scarcely the possibility for the employment of Indian enterprise in such operations, without encroaching upon her own domain. But through the entire length and breadth of the flat and level plain bordering the Gulf of Mexico, there happens to be no other means at hand for discovering the celebrity of its equally nnmerous and powerful aboriginal inhabitants, ex- cept the masses of shetls, which unfortunately in this case can serve only as a proof of gastronomic ability. A few facts in relation to the structure of these beds may now be noticed. Only the thicker masses, however, possess much importance in this respect; these contain intermixtures of vari- ous kinds of earths and other ingredients, indicating more or less clearly the circumstances under which they originated. Ref- ase, which is ten feet deeper, extending out at a distance beneath the soil, is one hundred and forty yards. ‘T’he most ele- vated part of the mass, consisting of a ridge forming a chord line near its western limits, is from fifteen to twenty feet above the apparent base. From this ridge the surface gradually declines towards the eastern border where it thins out. The superficial part of the mass consists of shells and a mixture of dark colored earth or vegetable mould; then succeeds a series of strata com- posed of various ingredients besides the shells, such as sand, calea- reous mixtures, several kinds of organic remains, principally those of fish, all of which are so arranged as to exhibit distinct signs of stratification. The following is a perpendicular section 12 the most elevated, part of the deposit. 1. The superficial mass of vegetable mould already noticed. 2. A layer of shells almost ree from mixture. 3. Another intermixture of dark earthy mat- ter with shells. 4. Shells mixed with yellowish earthy matter. On the Gnathodon beds around the head of Mobile Bay. 171 nature, containing a smaller proportion of shells. 9. A thick mass of shells and sand. 10. At this stage, which approaches the level of tide water, a very marked change takes place in the fea- tures of the bed ; instead of shells, earthy matter now becomes pre- dominant, which here consists of yellowish sand, and other organic remains become less common. 11. Masses of red sandstone and conglomerate in a regular stratum, intermixed with sand and shells; dimension of the masses from the size of the fist to six inches in diameter. 12. Stratum of dark sandy marl, with a con- tinued deficiency of shells and other organic remains. 13. A mass of comminuted shells with a little earth and a few entire well pre- served shells. 14. The remainder of the section, extending only tion in this connection. It is about four feet in thickness, rests i nd upon a sandy base, and consists of a stratified mass o _ hation of the shell. 'Their decayed state, in the superficial exposed _ Part of a deposit, may give it all the appearance of an ancient : formation ; while those at the base, with the exception of the Mination of their antiquity very uncertain from the sole exami- 172 On the Gnathodon beds around the head of Mobile Bay. loss of their epidermis, retain all the marks of recent. shells. Their normal characteristics are generally . be sought where they are imbedded in earthy mixtures; the determinations of the relative age of those beds that are differently constituted, must depend upon other criteria. An instance of the former kind is the interesting deposit a st ‘Twenty-one Mile Bluff. These remains have continued with- out disturbance in their alluvial deposit, as they were originally formed, until the present period. They have lost their animal matter, their external surface has become somewhat worn by the wasting influence of time, and a silicious incrustation has been formed in their cavities, exhibiting the bas rant of an approxi- mation to a petrified state. From these older deposits an evident gradation in effects of a similar ends may be traced in other masses conn hp to the date of their formation as it approaches the present tim There are mee other organisms associated with the former, and though not numerous, they are more or less important as means to illustrate the history of these formations. Among these, the Cyrena of Carolina claims a particular notice; it is an estuary shell, and is usually associated with G. cuneatus, both living and fo ssil : and in both of these states it occurs in the same apparent numerical proportion. ‘There are, however, some few deposits, especially such as are more elevated, (the one near the junction of T’ensaw and Raft rivers is an instance,) in which the Cyrene are limited to particular sections; perhaps they are not adapted to every variety of cireumstance in which the G. cuneatus may exist. The Neritina reclivata is another species found in these de- posits, but in various proportions in different beds, and in some they are entirely absent. In the one at Twenty-one Mile Bluff, the sak occur in about the same numerical proportion as those the G. cuneatus itself, while there are very few to be didi in es large deposit, near the junction of Raft and Tensaw rivers. But it isa striking fact that at the present time, living ones abound in the vicinity of the latter, while the former is far beyond the limits of their present habitation. They are usually found living in calm, stagnant situations, attached to water plants and old sunken logs. In a locality of this kind, near Choctaw Point, they may be seen crawling over the bottom where the — G. cuneatus still exists. The few remains of other testacea found in these deposits such as the Unio and Oyster, must have been apace tg | methods more indirect. The former were probably tran from their more interior abode by means of the fresh ies eure rents. But there is evidence that the latter perhaps in some accidental way were to a small extent generated upon the } On the Gnathodon beds around the head of Mobile Bay. 173 The residue of these remains belong to terrestrial mammals, birds, fish, and reptiles. The two former, consisting only of a few broken and rather indeterminate fragments in a somewhat super- ficial situation, may without impropriety be regarded as the spoils of hunting. But the next class, pertaining to fish, were un- doubtedly, with very few exceptions, contemporaneous with the formations where they occur. For with the exception perhaps of a small portion of the superior part of the remains in question, they are scattered more or less abundantly through the entire mass in stich a manner as to render it evident that they found their way there by no artificial process. For the exuvice of each animal occur in separate and distinct masses, more or less com- plete,—scales, vertebrae and all. In one instance no inconsiderable portion of the vertebral col- umn of a large species was found deposited in a connected form in the interior of one of these shell masses, just as other analo- gous remains occur in ancient formations when they have not been exposed to disturbing causes. Some of the species which have been obtained are of more frequent occurrence than others, and these are precisely the kind which might have been expected to be found with these remains, such as the Sargus ovis and an unknown species of Sparus (?). The strong pavement of palatal teeth which these fish possess enables them to feed on the T'estacea in question, whose shells they crush with facility. Besides these, species of Perea, Breme, There are also considerable quantities of drifted alluvium, logs, &c., which have been discovered at various depths, both in the recent and more ancient alluvial deposits. But these lead to no very definite conclusion. And the subjacent sands and clays, so far as observed through the whole series, bordering upon the Water courses, even to the outcropping of the white limestone, are equally destitute of organic distinctions. It is however very 174 On the Mineral Springs of Canada. probable that the sand and mottled clay formation, commencin as it does from the white limestone, was continued up toa peri contemporaneous with the formation of the oldest Gnathodon beds, such as that at Twenty-one Mile Bluff, which evidently rests upon the last of the clay series. And from thence we have or data the succession of the shell formation in question, extend- ing through perhaps the post-pliocene and alluvium period, ex- hibiting a pretty regular series of geological events, even to the present time. Arr. XVIIL—On the Mineral Springs of Canada; by T. Hunt, Chemist and Mineralogist to the Geological Commission of Canada. No. IIL. In two previous communications to this Journal, I have given descriptions and quantitative analyses of several mineral waters which had been described in the Annual Report of Progress of the Geological Survey of Canada for 1848-1849. The following are a continuation of the same series of researches and appear in the Annual Report, 1849-1850. For the plan of analysis pur- sued, I refer to the previous articles which appeared in vol. viil, 364, and vol. ix, p. 266. Varennes Springs.—'Vhese sources are upon the southern bor- der of the St. Lawrence, about seventeen miles below Montreal, and rise through strata, which, though concealed by the tertiary clay of the valley, belong either to the upper portion of the Utica slates or the lower beds of the Loraine shales. They are pleas- antly situated about a mile and a half below the church of Va- rennes, at the base of a little ridge which runs along at a small distance froin the shore, and bounds a fine tract of meadow land. A century ago they were greatly resorted to, but of late years have fallen into unmerited neglect. he springs, which are two in number, are very similar in their sensible properties; the outer spring, which is distant about a hundred rods from the house that encloses the other, is the one generally resorted to for drinking, and is called by the villagers — by the way of distinction the “Saline,” while the spring within the house, from the immense quantity of carburetted hydrogen — which it evolves, is known as the “Gas Spring.” Within about ten feet from this, is another well, but the water has the same — level and temperature as the last, and is said to belong to the — same basin pe The water in the outer well is about eight feet deep; it rises quite to the surface and is limpid and slightly sparkling; from On the Mineral Springs of Canada. 175 time to time a few bubbles of carburetted hydrogen are evolved. he flow of water from the spring is probably two or three gal- lons per minute; around the well, there is a slight deposit, ochre yellow on the surface and bluish green within, and the course o the spring is tinged of a yellowish hue for some distance. The water is saline to the taste, and has a very agreeable flavor. _ above. The discharge is apparently about the same as that of the other spring; the water is saline to the taste and closely re- sembles that of the one before mentioned. he temperature of the two springs is somewhat different; on the 18th of October, that of the outer well was 47°°5 F., and that of the inner one 45°:5; the air being at the same time 44°. I had before visited these springs on the 20th of November 1847, | and found the temperature of the outer one nearly the same as ° above stated, 47° F'., while the inner spring was 40°; the air be- ing 19°. I was informed by the proprietor that the former spring, although not protected from the weather, never freezes to any extent, while the latter, althongh sheltered by the house, and so much below the surface, is filled with ice in severe weather. The escape of such a quantity of gas, which may be supposed to find its way into the spring below in a greatly condensed state, and be rarified in rising, may help to explain in part this difference = but it is conceived by the villagers that it is affected by the changes of the seasons, and is at the same time warmer in summer, a fact which I have, however, not yet been able to verify by ex- periment. . ee a I. The Outer Spring.—This water has been already deseribed aS quite saline to the taste, and analysis shows the presence of large quantity of common salt, with traces of a salt of potassium. he concentrated water is distinctly alkaline, from the presence of a small quantity of carbonate of soda; the lime and magne- sia which are present are also held in solution as carbonates. In addition to these were obtained small quantities of bromine and lodine combined with the alkaline bases; traces of iron, alumina and silica, and the rare bases, baryta and strontia, which have never to my knowledge hitherto been observed in any of the mineral waters of this continent. The specific. gravity of the Water at 60° F., was determined to be 1008°15, pure water bs 1000. One thousand grammes of the water yielded as Ollows ; ate ee ar. 2 176 On the Mineral Springs of Canada. Grammes. Grammes. Chlorine, . . 5777100 Lime, : . 198240 Bromine, . . 009790 Magnesia, . Boolean Iodine, ; . 004512 Protoxyd of iron, ‘003000 Soda, : . 5098500 Alumina, . . wace Potassa,_ . . ‘077900 iit . 046500 Smarts, . °017500 Carbonic acid, . ‘920000 Strontia, . . 007320 e ingredients may be combined to give the following composition for 1000 parts of the water : Chlorid of sodium, , ; . 942310 “ of potassium, . : . *°12340 Bromid of sodium, ‘ ; 3 DEZES Iodid of sodium, ‘ ; a» -QO0541 Carbonate of soda, , " oi) OG ; of baryta, . ‘ . 02260 6 of stroutia, . ; . 01400 of lime, ‘ ‘ os, Bae fs of magnesia, d sx 64432 sg of iron, ‘ ‘ . 00480 ilica, ‘ ; . . 04650 Alumina and phosphates, : F trace Carbonic acid, ; . . °46914 Water, . ‘ ‘ ; 988°80958 1000-00000 The amount of saline materials present is by calculation 10-721. Direct experiment gave of residue dried at 300° F., 10526 parts for 1000. s The quantity of carbonic acid in the earthy carbonates is by calculation -45U8 and the whole amount by experiment °920, 80 that it is little more than the quantity required to form with them bicarbonates. It equals nearly 23-7 cubic inches in 100. Il. Inner Spring.—The same remarks that have been made with reference to the last will apply here; it contains all of the — ingredients there mentioned, but with some little variations in their proportions. Its specific gravity at 60° F. is 1007-71. 1000 grammes of it yield the following ingredients: Chlorine, . . 513300 Lime, ; . 119544 - Bromine, . . °00360 | Magnesia, . . 16950 Iodine, - «00720 | Protoxyd of oa Wiese: — Sod Alumina, © Silica, . . 05400 — Baryta, ‘ . 00960 Carbonic acid, . ‘79200 ‘Strontia, . . ‘00680 i a On the Mineral Springs of Canada. 177 These may be so combined as to give in 1000 parts of the water the following composition : Chlorid of sodium, : : . 8-42860 “of potassium, . : . 03820 Bromid of sodium, : - . 00460 Iodid of sodium, : 5 . 00850 _ Carbonate of soda, : . . °32606 * f baryta, . ’ ; °° -ORar oo Or strontia;**. : . 00960 «of lime, ; ; 34900 “of magnesia, ; . 35590 spate gh : : : Alumina, ‘ oh a2 Silica, . : : ; , 2° “O5E00 Carbonic acid, : : . 31250 Water, . . 990-10067 1000-00000 _ The calculated amount of solid matters in 1000 parts of water in 9-58683 ; experiment gave of residue dried at 300° F., 9°420 in 1000. The small portion of carbonic acid, whichis not suffi- cient to form bicarbonates with the earthy bases, is connected with the presence of carbonate of soda, which, as I have shown in the alkaline waters of Caledonia, forms a double salt with the carbonate of magnesia.* The quantities of adventitious gases as carburetted hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen, which are present 1m small portions in these waters, were not determined. ‘I'he amount of the carbonic acid gas equals 15-78 cubic inches in 100. _ For the separation and determination of the baryta and stron- tia the following method was adopted.t Having evaporated sev- eral litres to dryness with an acid, to separate the silica, the resi- ue was dissolved in a small quantity of water, mixed with a little dilute sulphuric acid, and allowed to stand for twenty-four ours. At the end of this time the precipitate then formed was collected on a filter, slightly washed, dried and fused with car- bonate of soda. The mass thus obtained was treated with water, and the carbonates after being well washed were dissolved in hydrochloric acid, the solution evaporated to dryness, dissolved in a little water, and mixed with a solution of hydrofluosilicie acid, _ Which on standing gave a granular precipitate of the fluosilicid of ium. The filtrate from this (the washings being rejected as holding in solution a little of the baryta salt), gave with a solu- tion of gypsum after some time, a precipitate of sulphate of stron- ao gis * See this Journal, vol. ix, p. 272. See Fresenius Quant. Anal., p. 293, ef seg. 23 Stcon » Series, Vol. XI, No. 32.—March, 1851. 178 On the Mineral Springs of Canada. tia. The nature of this was still farther proved by reconverting it into a chlorid, which dissolved readily in strong alcohol, and gave a solution which burned with a carmine red flame. St. Léon Spring.—This mineral spring is situated in the val- ley of the Riviere ala Glaise, about a mile from the church of the Parish of St. Léon. It rises through the clays of the region which there rest upon the Trenton limestone. The water of the spring is clear and strongly saline, and is kept in constant ebul- lition by the escape of large quantities of carburetted hydrogen gas; the discharge from the spring is very considerable ; the temperature of the well was found to be 46° F. on the 12th October, the air being 42°. The specific gravity of the water at 60° is 1011-23; its taste is at the same time decidedly saline and ferruginous, and a qualitative analysis showed the presence of chlorids, bromids and iodids of sodium, potassium, calcium and magnesium ; minute quantities of barium and strontium were likewise detected, and carbonates of lime and magnesia as usual, with small portions of alumina, carbonate of iron, and silica. 1000 grammes of the water gave on analysis : Chlorine, . 7606820 | Lime, . 226240 Bromine, . ‘007956 | Magnesia, . ‘729070 odine, . 004230 | Protoxyd of iron, 009000 Soda, 6094400 | Alumina, . ‘014500 Potash, ‘115800 | Silica, . 086500 ryta, 001360 | Carbonic acid, 1-224000 Strontia, . 001270 | These ingredients may be combined to give the following composition for 1000 parts of water : Chlorid of sodium, . 3 . 11-496800 ** of potassium, ; ‘ 1832 “of barium, : ; “001957 “ of strontium, ; : 001960 “ of calcium, : : ‘071870 “*. of magnesium, : j 663642 Bromid of magnesium, seek ae 009156 lodid of magnesium, . : : 004630 Carbonate of lime, . : : 349320 ie of magnesia, ‘ ‘ -938800 & of iron, . , : 014500 Alumina, , 014500 Silica, “086500 577400 ‘ ; ‘57 Water, : : ; . 985:585765 1000-000000 On the Mineral Springs of Canada. 179 The amount of solid matters in 1000 parts is by calculation 13-836835 ; the quantity of carbonic acid above that required to form neutral carbonates, is equal to 29:16 cubic inches in 100. Cazton Spring.—This spring is situated in the township of Caxton, on the Yamachiche River, about five leagues from the village of Yamachiche. ‘The river here flows between banks of clay, which are often sixty to eighty feet high, and exceedingly abrupt. ‘The underlying formations are not exposed in the vi- cinity, but the position is probably near the dividing line between the Trenton limestone and the Postdam sandstone. 'The spring rises in the narrow valley that lies at the foot of the hill, and near the river, but a few feet above its ordinary level. The water, which is remarkably transparent, rises with great force, accom- panied with volumes of carburetted hydrogen gas, which keep it constantly in violent ebullition. The discharge of water is very considerable, probably six or eight gallons per minute ; the temperature of the well was found on the 25th of October, to be 49°, that of the air being 44°. The specific gravity of the water at 60° F’. is 1010°36 ; it is strongly saline to the taste, but from the smaller portion of earthy chlorids, less bitter than that of St. Léon, Which it much resembles. Like that, it contains in addition to these and the usual alkaline chlorids, portions of bromids and iodids and a litle carbonate of iron. No salts of barium or strontium were detected. Chlorine, . 744689 Magnesia, . 65650 Bromine, . 02956 Iron (peroxyd), *00360 Todine, . . 00355 Alumina, . °00500 Soda, . . 623900 | Silica, . «. 04795 Potash, . . 05050 | Carbonic acid, 1-12600 These may be combined to give the following compounds : Chlorid of sodium, : . 11°77500 ‘e of potassium, . ; . 08000 “ Of calcium, , ; ‘05030 : agnesium, 37435 Bromid of magnesium, 03420 lodid of magnesium, . 00390 Carbonate of lime, . “21600 “ of magnesia, 105930 : of iron, ; 00540 Alumina, 00500 Silica, : ‘0AT95 Carbonic acid, . 48200 ater, : 985:86660 1000-00000 The amount of solid matters in 1000 parts is by calculation 13-6514. 180 On the Mineral Springs of Canada. The Plantagenet Spring.—I have never visited this spring which is in the township of Plantagenet, not far from the south- — Aas ern bank of the Ottawa, and rises through clays. The following analysis was performed upon a quantity of water furnished me by the proprietor of the spring in February, 1849. ‘The water at 60° F. has a specific gravity of 1009-39 ; its taste is strongly saline, and more bitter than that of the Caxton spring, just described. Analysis shews the presence of the alkaline and earthy chlorids, with portions of bromine and iodine, besides car- bonates of lime and magnesia, with traces of carbonate of iron. 1000 grammes of it gave— Grammeés. Grammes. Chlorine, . 6-96020 Lime, : . 08736 Bromine, - 00700 Magnesia, . 52353 PONE ions} OD Iron, protoxyd, . 00540 Soda, . . 618414 Silica, : . 07000 Potash, : “05600 Carbonic acid, undetermined. These when combined give the following salts for 1000 parts of the water : ? Chlorid of sodium, . ; . 11:66600 “ of potassium, . . . ‘10400 “. of calowimc< . ‘ . 13640 “ of magnesium, 24522 Bromid of magnesium, 00805 Iodid of magnesium, ; . OE Carbonate of lime, ; ‘ . 03300 “© of magnesia, . ‘ . 89043 < OP ion; ‘ : . 00964 Silica, ; ; : . *07000 13-16801 The similarity between the last three waters is very close both in the nature and quantity of the ingredients which they contain. It will be observed that that of St. Léon contains, like the sources of Varennes, baryta and strontia, but in much smaller portions; while that of Caxton is distinguished by the large amount of earthy carbonates which it contains. ~These three springs, with the intermittent of Caledonia, constitute a well defined class of saline waters, which are contrasted with the other sources of Whirlwinds produced by the burning of a Cane-Brake. 181 medicinal powers from the others, which contain chlorids of cal- ____ cium and magnesium ; the medicinal action of these two salts, and ___ especially of the chlorid of calcium, is so well marked that their presence ought not to be disregarded in estimating the therapeutic value of a minéral water ; the distinction here drawn is therefore one to which I would call the attention of the medical profession, and it may also be found that the presence of such active agents . as the salts of baryta and strontia, imparts peculiar medicinal vir- tues to the waters of Varennes and St. Léon. ; Montreal, May, 1849. Arr. XIX.— Whirlwinds produced by the Burning of a Cane- Brake; by Avexanper Fisuer Oiustep, A.M.—With a Plate. canes in an incredibly short period. They form dense thickets, the stems often standing but an inch or two apart, although rising thirty-five or forty feet. They thus constitute a barrier impen- etrable by man and lar there are occasional assages due to streamlets or some variation of soil. There are occasional large trees here and there in a cane- en ee ee ee * Arundinaria macro of Michaux, Ludolfia macrosperma of Wildenow. re is a smaller kind of cane that grows in Georgia and the neighboring states and forms cane-brakes equally impassable. + The sugar-cane y grows from eight to ten feet. ty wf eK 182 Whirlwinds produced by the burning of a Cane-Brake. brake, which probably started before the cane covered the land; but almost all other vegetation is excluded. In.clearing such land only a few simple tools are employed,—as a carpenter’s adze, or an axe, or a heavy kind of hoe called a ‘“ cane hoe,’’—and a single blow is sufficient to divide the stalk. Thé laborer grasps the cane with one hand, and, as he cuts it, throws it behind him and passeson. In this way, an acre of land is soon cleared. To prepare it for the plough it is only necessary to fire the cane; as the roots are, for the most part, near the surface, they are con- sumed at the same time, and the land is then ready for immediate tillage. From the ease with which it is cleared and from the fer- tility of the soil, (which may be accurately determined by the size of the canes, ) cane land is preferred above all others in the region. _ The canes lie for a month or six weeks to dry, and then are gathered into heaps and set on fire in several places at once. As soon as the burning begins, the air that is confined in the hollow thunder cloud. Instead of the light colors of ordinary smoke, @ deep dull black characterized the whirlwinds, and the dense vol- umes of smoke which enveloped the whole scene. On the edge of the fire, the smoke was equally black, but somewhat less dense- his was true also of some of the whirlwinds, particularly those of the form represented by No. 2, while most of the other forms were revolving masses of dense black smo ~ ’ ? 6 Whirlwinds produced by the burning of a Cane-Brake. 183 been sometime concealed. The heat became intense where we stood, although at a distance of more than two hundred yards from the fire. Whirlwinds of a great variety of forms began now to be ob- served in the héttest part of the fire, gradually increasing in size, in number, and in the space over which they prevailed. In this respect they differed from the whirlwinds already alluded to as de- scribed in the Journal of Science, where the flame and smoke _ united in a single column and the energy of the fire was concen- trated towards that column. ese whirlwinds at first were on a comparatively small scale, their height not exceeding thirty-five or forty feet. ‘To these succeeded others on a larger scale, until they reached the height of more than two hundred feet, and the flame and smoke which formed their columns were perfectly distinct from the general mass which rose from the fire. Even after the fire had toa great extent gone down, many whirlwinds were formed on the ashes, and continued to form until we left. During the latter part of the time, however, the whirlwinds were, chiefly, those marke and 3 in the plate. The kinds of whirlwinds that occurred during the progress of the fire may be arranged under four heads. . ? - The most common form was that which was stationary pands into the hour-glass form or funnel shape of the common whirlwinds often seen on a small scale. ; - The second variety (No. 2,) has a progressive motion. Its shape almost indicates the mode in which it was formed. ‘These A very interesting phenomenon occurred in some of the whitlwinds which is srcosented in No. 5. This whirlwind is prolonged into the transparent air above. It is a fact of great 1n- terest that even in these tall cylindrical whirlwinds, the rotary motion was perfectly obvious throughout their entire length, roll- ing the black smoke in wreaths like carded wool to the top of the visible column, and probably beyond, as we may infer from thelt rapid motion.* Towards the top, these whirlwinds were some- times bent by the wind. This change of direction was more sudden or abrupt than is represented in the plate, and the whitl- large fires, or even from the paost powerful furnaces, ejected in a column a : aby movement that we witness in the atmosphere. ars Saale the spiral motion of the column, which presses onward in the direction of its 4 cd until it reaches a limit of elevation which is yet unknown. Even the ring 207m" which is sometimes seen to form at muzzles of cannon or the ejection pipe high pressure steam engines, appears to possess the qualities of a projectile, notwIY™ anding its unfavorable form.” . yV hirlwinds produced by the burning of a Cane-Brake. 185 _ wind was continued notwithstanding the change in its direction. Some were bent into a direction nearly or quite horizontal still revolving rapidly, others were less inclined, and others were cut off on a level with the general mass of smoke or prolonged into the transparent air above * In connection with the whirlwinds several other facts of in- terest may be mentioned which occurred during the burning of the cane. me 8 1. The direction of i wind was changed. Being at first _ from the northeast, it céfttinued.in that direction in the upper part of the atmosphere,.gs was evident from the way in which _ the columns of smoke were bent. But shortly after the com- mencement of the burning, the air beneath blew in all directions towards the center of thé fire. The columns of smoke rising hearly straight for more than two hundred yards, and being then quite suddenly bent, served to indicate accurately where the gen- eral northeast wind prevailed over the currents that surrounded the fire. The influence of the fire may therefore be considered as having extended more than two hundred yards* in height, and Over an area of more than three hundred yards around, for at this distance the air blew strongly towards the fire. - The entire influence of the fire appeared to be expended on — the air in its vicinity, and to produce no effect on the general state of the atmosphere, either at the time or subsequently. This fact is the more important as storms in the region where this fire Sccurred, particularly thunder storms, are much more frequent and violent than in the Northern States. he whole mass of the air, after entering the area above the fire, exhibited a tendency to rotary motion, being full of eddies and whirlwinds. These whirlwinds revolved on their axes from right to left, and from left to right, without any prevailing tendency to one direction more than to the other. Frequently the same whirl- wind would change the direction in which it revolved and would teturn to its first course. In a few instances this was repeated Several times. In no instance, however, was this repeated change of rotation observed in the whirlwinds of the form represented in No. 2, and from this it was evident that this change was owing toa change in the form of the base, as thé fire burned down the pile of cane on which the whirlwind was:formed. The nicely balanced columns of air ascending in the whirlwind would com- mo gy these columns except a few scattering trees in the fir _ Skeoxm Serres, Vol. XI, No. 32.—March, 1851. 4 ra: * Probably more than three hundred yards—there was no object with which to i c 24 - 186 Whirlwinds produced by the burning of a Cane-Brake. 7 5. As the fire spread rapidly from different points, it was at length circular in outline, or approached this form. It was not — until the heated air was rising from this circle that the whirlwinds became frequent-in number or of great size. 'The same phenom- ena are shown on a small scale in the common process of putting tire on wheels, where the whole body of air and smoke above the fire appears full of eddies and whirls. If these fires are made ina _ yard surrounded by high buildings, the effect is greatly increased. In some situations of this kind, whirlwinds of quite regular forms and fifteen or twenty feet high, are sometimes seen. But owing — to the dry wood of which these fires are usually formed, and the — very small amount of light colored smoke which is produced by — this wood, it is generally difficult to determine the exact forms which the whirls assume ; yet at different times all the kinds described in this article have been observed. hese facts have a bearing upon the method which has been proposed of producing rain by circular fires. It has been maib- tained that if a circular fire were created the air would be made to ascend in a single column, a cloud would be formed in the up- per part of this column or at the top, and this cloud being thus formed, would subsequently produce rain. The whole theory, therefore, depends upon the first supposition that the air would ascend ina single column ; but from the phenomena which at- tended the burning of the cane-brake, I have been led to the con- clusion, that, unless the mass of combustibles were very great, and the fire very intense, no single column of rarefied air, in the ma- jority of cases, would be formed, and, consequently, the phenom- ena dependent (as it is maintained) upon this supposition would not take place. The great heat produced by the burning of the canes appears, from the fact that we were obliged to move from @ station within two hundred yards of the fire to one distant about three hundred yards, and even at this distance the heat of the fire was so strong that most of the company present were at a distance still greater. In all the cases mentioned in the Journal of Science, the mass of combustible matter was very great, and, in one case at least, was piled up towards the center. e location of the cane-brake was very favorable to the formation of whirlwinds, being a river bank, to a great extent surrounded by woods and higher land. It corresponded in some egree to the fires for putting tire on wheels when these are kindled in an inclosure partly surrounded by buildings. I have been informed that the whole air of a large space thus inclosed 1s sometimes affected by these fires and put in motion ina direction — Opposite to the beneral course of the wind. A rotary motion ‘sometimes pervades the air of these places. - a3. In the midst of the fire the foliage of the trees (No. 6,) be- came gradually dried and parched, and finally caught on fire, g almost with a flash like powder, and adding greatly to U Description of a new Graptolite. 187 splendor of the scene. By contrast with the deep-red flame of e canes, the flame of these trees appeared of a very light-red color, and the white smoke of the burning trunks was also in lively contrast with the heavy rolling masses of black smoke which surrounded the fire. The charred leaves of the cane being thin and light were driven off in considerable quantities. They were frequently carried up and were sometimes found at a distance from the place of the fire. Compared, however, with the extent of the fire, and the immense amount of matter consumed, very little was carried off in this manner. The combustion was complete as well as rapid, Owing to the dryness of the material, the thinness of the stems and stalks of which it consisted, and the speedy explosion of the hollow joints on the first approach of the fire. Moreover neither the lighter nor heavier parts could rise unconsumed to a great height through the hot air and flame which were above the fire. _ These are some of the principal facts which attended this burn- ing. It isascene of not very common occurrence even at the South, and when it does take place, a few circumstances may en- tirely change the effect. If, for example, the cane is not suffi- ciently dry, or if it has been covered with sediment from an over-_ Art. XX.— Description of a new Graptolite found in the lower — Silurian Rocks near the Falls of St. Croix River; by H. A. Provr, M.D. THE remains of Graptolites are generally found in so imperfect 4 State of preservation that their exact place in the scale of ani- Wahlenberg and Schlotheim refer them to the Orthocerata ; Nilsson to the Fixed Corticate zoophytes (Gorgonide or Anti- 188 Description of a new Graptolite. we compare the analogies in the organization of When the Gorgonide, the Virgulariz, and the Sertularie, “this difference of — opinion, in regard to the true place of the Graptolites, may, in some asure, be explained. The Gorgonide and Pennatulide have a long semi-calcareous or horny axis enveloped in a fleshy or cori- aceous covering ; the Polypi are inserted in, or rather constitute, this cortical envelope, which forms a common bond of association, and have no articulation with the central axis. In the Sertularia on the contrary, the corneous, or hard portion of the polyparium, is external—the axis is traversed by a fluid or gelatinous substance —the cup-like cells or denticles pertaining to the polypi are tubu- lar and have a connection with the material which occupies the interior In the relative changes which would materially take place after the death of these Polypi, it suggests itself to us that the more corneous or calcareous portion would be least liable to decay, and consequently more subject to fossilization, while oe Rare” or fleshy part would be subject to rapid decompositi It is well known that a destruction of the sonicle ‘cover as well as the horny or calcareous axis very frequently occurs, and the imperfect impressions which they leave, impart some uncertainty to the distinctions which have been founded upon them. More- over it is obvious that according to the position of the Polypi on the polyparium at the time of extinction, or the relative position of the sete to the surface of the rock, when subsequently brought to light, some variation in the appearance of the same species may give rise to unnecessary distinctions in an attempt at a re- gular classification of these bodies. r. Beck gives to Graptolites the following generic characters : a ates th elongatum, sublineare, acuminatum, obtusiusculum, statu fossili compressissimum serratum. “ Polypi alternantes cum tubulo communi centrali communi- cantes a fossili statu seepissime secati rarius bifarii oblongi acu- minati. It is sauce that the clause, “cum tubulo communi centrali -communicantes,” implies that the polyparium and the denticles are both tubular. The axis, in most of those which we have see - described, is represented as being capillary while it is not stated whether they are solid or tubular, or whether the sete or disse- -piments are tubular or clasping. With due deference to the opinion of Dr. Beck and others, I am inclined to believe that the species which I shall presently describe, and perhaps all others characterized by a hollow central tube and tubular cells for the reception of the Polypi, more probably owe their origin t0 the tribe of Sertularia than to Virgularia—for we have seen - . .* Murchison’s Silurian System, p. 695. STi Description of a new Graptolite. 189 durable axial support. We know that this relative change does take place in the living genus of Antipathes, while in the Gor- gonize, the central axis and the cortical portion are both preserved, but only in virtue of the calcareous matter which enters into the constitution of the cortex. The axis being preserved in both these genera, while the cortical substance in one is subject to de- cay, renders it probable, I may say certain, that the central stem is in general the most indestructible portion of the zoophyte. _ We have been led to this course of reflection by the absence, in the Specimen which we are about to describe, of any central axis or stem, and the general tubular structure of the polyparium. In it, the cup-like denticles are inserted into a common con: necting tube, are unilateral and vaginated on their external sides, the side of one cup supporting the next one aboveit in the series, in which last feature it much resembles some of the living forms of Sertularide. oe From the appearance manifested in this specimen, we are in- clined to infer that Sertularide existed at the same time with Pen- natulide: in the ancient seas, and that on a more critical exami- nation of the subject,,some of the differences of opinion upon the origin of the Graptolites may be found more seeming than real. € species of Graptolites which we have discovered differ materially from those figured by Murchison or Hall. We have not seen the monograph of Dr. Beck, but presume if he had des- cribed the species, it would have been frequently referred to, not less on accourit of its structure than the elegance of its form. We shall therefore describe it as a new species, giving it at the same time the name of Graptolithus Hallianus, after Professo Hall, whose labors in the field of American Paleontology so justly entitle him to this honor. 3 Graptolithus Hallianus. Potyparrum hollow, well defined, branching in a graceful raceme, much branched, branches mostly on one side, never op- posite, with unilateral cells, each supporting the next one above it, no solid axis or stype. 190 Description of a new Graptolite. times having a faint appearance of a nate point on the outer lip, and two longitudinal lateral ane se ee from the —_ to the terminal border. Hallianus, snlestiuith Fig. 2. Same, showing the ergo zs Sos sate 1), Te Graptolite of another species ; -b, a a E magnified; ¢, diagram of supposed structure ; /, diagram of - Direction of the Spark from Secondary Currents. 191 stead of a slender stype. The larger Graptolite marked a on figure 1, seems to have belonged to another species, its marking is somewhat indistinct under a high magnifying power, but it seems to be covered with close set setze much appressed and verticillate in their general arrangement. ‘T'’o the naked eye it appears to be longitudinally wrinkled. Position and locality—Osceola Mills, near the falls of St. Croix River, in a thin seam of calcareo-aluminous shale, fifty feet — above the water level. Arr. XXI.—On the direction of the Spark from Secondary Cur- rents under the influence of Helices or Magnets ; by Prof. Cuas. G. Pace, M.D., Washington, D. C. Iv the course of my experiments, recently communicated, in which secondary sparks were obtained from two to six inc es In length, the spark seemed to have direction, and in the operation of the electro-magnetic engine this peculiar property of the spark Was occasionally annoying from the fact of its running along and Z oxydating metallic surfaces which were intended to be kept clean _ and bright. On investigating this matter, I found the spark to be subject to the same tangential or rotative action as the con- ductor itself, Let pole of the battery, 6, a block of copper in con- made, and ; the current then broken, a dense spark or flame, S, about one. ‘Meh in height is directed along the surface of the block from g Oe. The lower line of the spark or that portion on the su a, represent one ‘ 192 Conduction and Distribution of the Galvanic Current. Bc XXIL.—On the Conduction and Distribution of the Gal- vanic Current in Liquids; by Prof. Cuas. G. Pace, M.D., Washington, D. C. When the poles of a galvanic battery are immersed in a con- ducting liquid the current does not wholly pass in the shortest distance between the poles but is distributed in all directions out- _ ward and to a considerable extent radially. Thus if a large plate or dish A, is filled with acidulated wa- ter and we immerse in it the poles P N of a galvanic bat- tery the current will be found to have the direction generally of the arrows, 1, 2, 3, at those points. On communicating this fact several years since to Prof. Henry, he informed me that he had noticed it some years before, but that his mode of illustration was quite dif- ferent from mine. The de- sign therefore of this commu- os nication is only to describe my own method and results, some of lich are quite novel. The little oval figures, d, d, represent bules of mercury in the acidulated water and their condition — “i pe Rr rae Conduction and Distribution of the Galvanic Current. 193 while the current is passing. 'The mercury for this purpose must be very pure. Before the current is established, the globule of mercury has its usual spherical form, but as soon as the current flows, the globule immediately elongates and moves rapidly to- wards the negative pole of the battery. This movement takes place when the globule of mercury is at a very considerable dis- tance from the wire, and with very pure mercury it will move up an inclined side of the dish. This curious movement or pro- pulsion appears to be caused by the development of gas about the negative end of the globule. One half of the globule be- comes clouded and the other half remains clear and bright. The clouded half is turned towards the positive pole. In the figure, d, d, exhibit the appearance of the globules, and P, N, the positive and negative poles of the battery, which in this case are platinum wires. Bits of platinum wire laid in the dish as at b, give off gases at their extremities, but a peculiar advantage comes from using the globule of mercury, as it elongates and turns itself at once in the direction of the current passing through it. In the figure, quite a number of these globules are represented nearly in the positions assumed in the experiment. When the negative pole is brought directly over a globule of some size, say from 4 to 3 inch diameter, it is thrown into a violent agitation and has a kind of rotary movement from its rapid elongation in every pos- at e, the larger portion being towards the negative pole, and in eing at c,c,and here there appeared two little vortices, each having a most rapid whirl. in place of the pure, a singular and reverse condition follows. of the globule is not easily explained. It occurred to me tha the zinc contained in the mercury was detained on the oxygen °F positive end of the globule and the mercury as it were filtered out from it. If this supposition be correct, the hydrogen devel- oped at the positive end of the globule by local action, might ac- count for the contrary propulsion and reversal of the whole as- pect of the globule. “This solution does not however seem to be wholly Satisfactory. ashington, D. C., Dec. 4, 1850. Stcoxp Serres, Vol. XI, No. 32.—March, 1851. 25 sible direction. Occasionally the globule takes the form as seen ae this case both ends of the globule are bright, the clouded portion If now some impure mercury containing zinc be introduced — 194 Problems by Bapu Deva Shasiri. Art, XXIIIl—Two Problems by Bapu Deva Shastri, Native Professor of Mathematics in the Benares College.* mmu- _nicated for this Journal by Mr. B. H. Hatt, and transmitted to : this country by Prof. Frrz-Epwarp Hatt, of the College of _ Benares. ) : Prostem I. - Given an are and its chord to find the sagitta. Let A = the given arc, and B = the given chord. Also let a be an are similar to A having a rad = 1. ~; = (Dif. Cal.) =m — $—-93,31 26.9.4.56 7 & 1 1 i “.m= a? a’ ~1-Aa?+ Ba!—Ca* + &e. 1-53-53 +95-3-4.5 ~ &- 1 aed - Aa? + Ba! —Ca*+ &e. 1 m-l *. By trans. Aa* —- Ba'+Ca* —Da*+ &e. =1-—= rae $ 1 “ae B” A-B mes Sop OR PRT B Then = n=Aa?—Ba‘+Ca*—Da*+ &e. *. By reversion of the series, n Bn? (2B?—AC)n? (5B3?—5ABC+A?2D)n* ¢ : a? a‘*t a® r 2 Again, sagitta of a= 5;—5; 3 4+a7-3 4.5.6 & (Dif. Cal. ) =3Aa? —5Ba'+7Ca* — &c. (By subtrn.) 3Bn? 3(2B?—AC)n* 3(5B2—5ABC+A*D)n‘_ . Vv 6n aos ta" soli 1 el og Sh eae ee! a 10” ~a80 ess 2+ sort ien eu ta es ES) get. ASE a= A coat te ee AE #3 Y6( 4-30" —aaa00"" + as000"" 7 SS Example. Er ipl a : to find the sagitta. A=9: Boe, and :’. n=6 196 Problems by Bipu Deva Shastri. © +. @de 149 | Then the sagitta of A= AV Gn (j —30"-a2400”" t+ 448000” 5-+&&c. - =3V 6(.24014) . =3 x2-44949 x 24014 3 =1:76466=1 ri nearly. Prosiem [I.* | _ Given an arc and its chord to find the sagitta. a ~Rule.—Multiply the given are by 100,000 and divide the pro- t by the given chord. Diminish the quotient by the nearest tabular quotient in col. 4 and set down the difference. (a) Take the said tabular quotient from the one immediately Rfeuins it, and similarly find the difference of the corresponding ‘tabular chords and sagitta, 3. Multiply the difference (a) by the 2nd and 3d of the three last ~ differences respectively, and divide the products aa? —A . these quotients respectively, by the tabular chords hdd. sagitta which have been made subtrahends (¢ 2.) Multiply - the 2d sum by the given chord and divide the product by the Ist, and the result is the value of the sagitta required. Similarly the chord may be determined when the arc and the sagitta are given. But in making the calculation the chord is to be considered as the sagitta and vice versa. Also when the tabular difference ($ 2.) is not less than the one immediately following it, it must be subtracted from that imme- diately preceding it. ” And i in ($ 4.) the quotients are to be sub-. tracted from the minuends. Dem.—The ratios of similar arcs and their chords being equal, 100,000 timest+ the ratios of arcs and their chords are easily found and set down in tables. Opposite to these the chords of similar arcs and their sagittas are also given. Hence the value rd sagitta may be easily determined by simple proportion. JA similar demonstration will apply to the rule for determining > chord, when the arc and its sagitta are given. SPaSUNNGR ESE ORAM SMR ON TT This Bo is printed in the Benares Recorder 1€ ratios have been multiplied by 100,000 in order to avoid fractions. 84 628320 198 Problems by Bapu Deva Shastri. These tables may be carried ne any degree of accuracy by in- seeing the subdivision of the a The arc = 9 . eord = 8 : to find the sagitta. 100,000 x 4 : 8 = 112500 112733 — 110383 = 1895 148629 - 141721=6908 33087 — 29289 =3798 1662 x 6908 . 1895 = 6059 1662 x 3798 naa ta05.: °° 6059+ 141721 = 147780. 3331+429289 =32620 32620-+8 5659 3 “47780 =] 7381 a] a nearly . the value of the sagitta required. ha minimum ratio of the are and its sagitta may thus be de- _ termined by the differential calculus. Let are =2r tt len ——— sagitta of 2" versa will be the minimum ratio requi & cee L eee du vers¢—£. sin gue vers & ae vers? ~~ which gives 2=133° 33/ 48” 29” = 2.331122 when the rad =1 and sagitta =1.6891576. . The minimum ratio of the arc and its sagitta is Qe 4.6622444 sagitta Qe — 1.689176 7 00 1004 2.7601004 x 100,000 = 276010-04 ¢ a nd it may be proved by reference to the table that this, which — the differential calculus gives as a minimum, is the minimum, for — u be seen to be less than any other number in the column. t- t= On the Venis of Hot Vapor in Tuscany. 199 Arr. XXIV.—On the Vents of Hot Vapor in Tuscany, and their relations to Ancient Lines of Fracture and Eruption ; by Sir Ropericx Impry Murcurison, G.C.St.8., F.R.S., G.S., L.8.* Introduction —In surveying the principal localities of those remarkable vents of hot vapor in the Tuscan Maremma, called “Lagoni,” “Fumacchi,” ‘“Fumarole,” “Soffioni,” ‘ Mofetti,” and even “ Voleani,”} I perceived that their issue took place upon ~ ancient parallel lines of fracture, along which serpentinous and other eruptive rocks had been emitted. As Iam not aware that this coincidence in lines of eruption, acted upon at epochs so re- mote from each other, has been previously adverted to in any geological account of Tuscany, I will first call: attention to the phenomenon. I shall next take this opportunity of expressing my opinion respecting the origin of the ‘“gabbro rosso” of the Tuscans, a rock intimately associated with serpentine ; and, after a brief allusion to recent earthquake shocks along the same lines, the memoir will be terminated by glancing at the simultaneous production of great divergent elevations in Italy and in the Alps, after the deposit of the nummulitic eocene formation. ¥ _ Hot vapor vents.—If the intensely hot vapor gusts which have issued for centuries from cavities in the rocks of the Tuscan Ma- remma had been as well known to Dante, as they were to Tar- gioni Tozzetti their graphic describer in the last century, the great poet would surely have selected them as a finer illustration — 3 of infernal agency than the feeble “ bullicami” of Viterbo.t In our own day the chief features of the Tuscan escapes of hot * From the Quart. Journ, of the Geological Society, vi, 367, November, 1850. agoni, see Gio. t For Italian descriptions of the L Gio. Targioni Tozzetti, Viaggi; “ petit, Dictionario ik ay &c. della Toscana, tom. iii, p. 369; Bartolini, Kitrded heaton gg tom. vi, p. 335; Mascagni, Commentario (Siena), 1779: Guerrazz, Con- = dei Georgofili, tom, ii, p. 435; and Repetti, Dizion. fisic. stor. ec. della Toscana, Sor 624, tom. iii, p. 874, and Continov. degli Atti dei Georgofili, tom, xi, p. 49- ; See Lyell’s Diicditiow of Geology, 7th ed. p. 243. Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society, vol. i, p. 296 is os oe Coe 200 On the Vents of Hot Vapor in Tuscany. Federigo, and St. Ippolito. These places are all situated in that elevated northern portion of the Tuscan Maremma which lies on the left bank of the Cecina. Thence the affluents of that river (the Pavone, Posera, Trossa, and Sterza) flow northwards ; whilst the Cornia and its feeder the Melia run down to the Mediterra- nean in a westerly and southerly direction. The tract, penetra- ted at intervals by the hot gases, hasa length of about eight geo- graphical miles from N.N.W. to 8.S.E., and a breadth of about five miles from W.S.W. to E.N.E.; the whole being comprised within 43° 8’ and 43° 16’ N. latitude. Subtended generally on the E. and N. by the Cecina, this hilly tract, which is much fissured from N. 15° W. to 8. 15° E., is separated on the east from the deep valley in which that river runs by a lofty ridge extending from Monte Castelli on the N.N.W. to the Gerfalco mountain on the S.S.E.; whilst another but lower ridge parallel to the above, is seen upon the western side of the gaseous district passing from Monte Rufoli to Lustignano, whence it slopes down to the sea-coast between Leghorn an Piombino. The gaseous vents occur therefore in an elevated and broken trough, on lines more or less parallel to the older flanking ridges. The general character and age of the sedimentary de- posits of this region have been recently explained by myself.* It is enough then, for my present purpose, to state, that although the adjacent and undulating hills and valleys abound in marls and sands of tertiary subapennine age, and that to the south the lowest member of these accumulations is charged with coal of miocene age, the upland tract now under consideration, and from which the boracic acid fumes issue, is chiefly composed of the rocks called Alberese and Macigno. ‘The latter containing Num- mulites, represents, in my opinion, the eocene, and the former be- . longs to the cretaceous system. Professor Pilla enumerates, _ indeed, cretaceous fossils found in these hills, whilst the still higher ridge on the east of the tract which terminates southwards in Monte Gerfalco, as well as the ridges of Monte Calvi and Cam- piglia on the west, are both of jurassic age, the Ammonites Co- nybeari, Sow., and A. costatus, Schith., occurring in them. _ All these sedimentary rocks, from the jurassic to those of the eocene group inclusive, have been penetrated, and for the most part much altered, by igneous or plutonic rocks, the greater num- ber of which have a serpentine character, their prevailing direc- tidh being equally N.W. by N., and S.E. by S. Upon entering 1 elevated tract from the north, I found that its chief tow”, cia,t was situated on a plateau of shelly, tufaceous, yel- ae a ‘aa ae rterly Journal of the Geological Society, vol. v, p. 276, et seg. . __ + Pomarancia is the chief residence of Count Lardarel, the spirited and hospita- ble proprietor of the boracic acid establishments. On the Vents of Hot Vapor in Tuscany. 201 lowish, sandy marlstone—in parts a travertine. This band clearly overlies the subapennine marls of the adjacent hills and valleys on the north, in which the rock salt and springs of Volterra oceur, and is probably of the same age as the uppermost yellow marine panchina’ of Tuscany, or as the lacustrine deposit in the valley of the Elsa, which I have alluded to in a previous memoir.* Charged with land and freshwater shells, this rock is disposed in horizontal masses, and denuded into abrupt escarpments, which in the middle ages formed the natural defences of the old feudal rocks of serpentine and gabbro rise up through strata of whitish grey alberese limestone and some contiguous schists and sand- a line from N. by W. to S. by E. (fig. 1.) The sides of this’ valley consist chiefly of alberese limestone and schists, with ‘Some points of protruding serpentinous rocks, the lower slopes being partially covered, as far as observation was possible, with 4 2 a t eter Bos Loud, Tol, bien Firenze, 1846. Estratta defla Gazzetta Toseana delle Scienze Medico-fisiche, An. 4, 2 In this memoir bene, it iw ore oor _ Scoxp Serres, Vol, XI, No. 32.—March, 1851. 202 On the Vents of Hot Vapor in Tuscany. _ . Lardarello and the Soffioni seen from Monte Oebero. Looking 8. by #, Lardarello ere seen three-fourths of a mile off. b a,a, Alberese and macigno. b. Gabbro rosso. younger marls. But whilst these rocks flank the fissure on the W.., it is quite oy as were said, to Monte Cerboli and its hot springs on the N. by W.: it also leads through undu- lating ground to Bagni a Morbo, ater a mile distant to the 3. by E., where hot mineral waters also exist. The present lagoni are artificially formed on those points where water and earth are applied to the escapes of the intensely hot vapors. Par- tially repressing the issue of heat, by throwing on earth and clay, and thus controlling the size of the orifices, human agency forms active mud volcanoes, the number of which and their successive Sobestictn are regulated at pleasure. From the limited space in this valley of Lardarello, so irrigated and operated upon, various columns of vapor are seen rising to different altitudes, at differ- ent degrees of intensity. This perforated ground is in a contin- ually chaotic state from the countless changes it undergoes ; and. its outlines are indeed so constantly varying by the formation of 2 fresh outlets of gas, that the traveller who should venture = pose jon. Throwing up large globules from its Rbbive pe, the heated matter is ever making an effort to overflow the rim of the little crater.* Wherever the subterranean vapor escapes from 4 * In his description of the Hawaiian Islands of the Pacific, Mr. Dana accounts for the absence of active rn a and projection of materials into the atmosphere, by the the chief crater, in which the molten matter having a Vv wide vent, undulates with little or no noise, and quietly ome its —_ from time to time. [To this cause, as even o cause of ~ oer eee ctr Da ay the pra Say of eae On the Vents of Hot Vapor in Tuscany. 203 erack more or less vertical, and which presents no impediment, the muddy liquid rapidly attains its maximum heat, which is so intense, that, as M. Lardarel, Jun. informed me, no instrument had yet been made to measure accurately the maximum heat be- neath the surface.* It is probable that no active volcano exhibits greater heat at any point where a test can be applied. wenty- four hours of this process suffice to saturate the bubbling mixture with boracic acid, and the stuff is then run off into flat cisterns at a lower level. The fluid is there reduced to a third of its vol- ume by evaporation, hastened by the hot vapor being conveyed in tubes beneath the salt-pans, and thus saving the former cost of a great consumption of fuel. After the addition of soda, the desic- cation proceeds, and crystals of boracic acid are formed. The violence with which the hot gas issues from any crack, provided it be vertical, is such, that if stones of some weight are thrown upon a narrow gush of it, they are heaved up several feet into the air, and heavy flagstones are required to repress the eruptive agent, and conduct a current of it down to the drying houses and pans. man, with their natural appearance upwards of eighty years ago, when examined and described by Targioni Tozzetti. The thick with boiling muddy water, discharging gas; for the manufacturer now utilizes all the hot gas, and by the addition of water makes Oss ees dh 2 peed ct oe hi I * Targioni Tozzetti, the old writer, does not pretend to have ascertained the ex- treme heat of the vapor; but Professor Pilla, on what authority I know not, places it at 140° Reaumur, + In rainy weather, or when change is coming on, the vapors cling to the earth with increased subterranean noise, and in settled fine weather they rise to a great 204 On the Vents of Hot Vapor in Tuscany. gaseous orifices into mud volcanos. Nor can we any longer recs enna a hot lagone approaching to the diameter of sixty braccie which Targioni gives as the maximum size; still less have we a little island floating in such a ho lake. The noises and oe in the caverns, which he compared t a the beating of a hundred falline-mills, 2. Ground plan. issue so regulated. We learn, however, fi e above-mentioned faithful his- torian two points of importance in the consideration of these forms of volcanic action :—Ist. That although the lagoni were then said to be increasing in num- ber, one of the orifices at Monte Cer- boli, and another at Castel Nuovo, had ceased to act in histime. 2ndly. "That flames were said to issue by night.* hat a connection exists between the Soffioni and the former geological efuptive agency of Tuscany is appar- ent, the moment we collate the a and the former phenomena. The in- ference is indeed determined by an sai peal to the —. line under consider. tion. (see fig. 2.) Beginning at the nor thy toy Scone, we see at 8S. Michele a copious erg of serpentine and gabbro, and with it much contortion \ Minevel springs. Se Tract covered Bij: 25) by tertiary eee —— 1, depo +5 ca! Sf, a 7 the hot springs of 'S. Michele, celebra- ted for many ages for their medicinal ‘ Virtues, have their issue. Proceeding Pasni a peccianas \ thence over undulating ground, for the most part occupied by tertiary tuff, we again find at Monte Cerboli ( Mons Ce- . > sagt on the § 8. by E., a like conjunc- 4,4. Albere Rape seeesiae * rete of the before-mentioned hot- mabe “ Fines he Thenceforward to the S. by E.,, * Targioni Seen ie ——. da Monte Catini’s description of the fumes at Castel Nuovo, e baths of Bagni a Morbo, and cites his omission of any al- lusion to those of 3 ‘Moone ‘Cerboli as an indication that the latter have burnt - since that time, On the Vents of Hot Vapor in Tuscany. 205 connection alluded to becomes much more interesting ; for, as bonic, and boracic acid, issue upon the very same line; and in following this line a little further to the S. by E., we reach Bagni a Morbo, where hot sulphureous springs issue from fissures in rocks similar to those of S. Michele and Monte Cerboli. Still nomena. hus, in my journey to the miocene coal tract of the wood-cut representing the issue at Sasso, will see that the line of Vapor issuing from cavities is parallel to the main direction of the encasing ridges.¢ Now, these ridges of alberese and macigno Oh a PS + See Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, vol { Trattato di Geologia, p. 282. Pisa, 1847. Se, T cannot but express a hope that Mr. Babbage will at some time give to the public a copy of the suggestions he furnished to the Grand Duke of Tuscany, for hich might thus serve t. * This is well described by Targioni Tozzetti. . ¥, p 2972. 206 On the Vents of Hot Vapor in Tuscany. are still converted into sulphate of lime by the action of sulphu- ric acid fumes ; and the schistose calcareous shale is baked by the intense heat into brittle porcelain rock of a red color. But I would here observe, that in these recent and partial metamorpho- ses by natural causes, as in those of ancient date, traces of the original lamination or stratification are nearly always perceptible in the lumps or masses so affected or altered. » Gabbro Rosso.—The last observation leads me to offer some remarks on the nature and origin of the “gabbro rosso” of the - Tuscans ; for after an attentive examination of this rock throngh- out the tract immediately to the north of the boracic acid coun- try, | feel compelled to express my dissent from the opinion of Professor Paul Savi, in which my friend Mr. W. J. Hamilton in his description of the geology of Tuscany has coincided. The chief masses of “gabbro rosso” lie in the tract south of Pisa, and east and southeast of Leghorn, which is bounded on the north by the valley of the Arno, and on the south by that of the river Cecina. The varieties of this rock are instructively exhib- ited in the ridges of alberese and macigno, which form the east and west sides of a longitudinal depression oceupied by subapen- nine marls, that extend from Salveti near the -Pisan valley on the N. by W., to the valley of the Cecina on the S. by E. The direct road from Pisa to the Maremma is conducted along this depression. 'The westernmost of these ridges, which forms the bold coast, south of Leghorn, containing much granitone, serpentine, and other varieties of eruptive rock, also exhibits, par- ticularly along its eastern face, a good deal of the “ gabbro rosso,” which, as Professor Pilla informed me, obtained this name from the village of ‘““Gabbro,” a few miles southeast of Leghorn, which is built on the summit of a conical hill composed of such rocks ;—I say rocks called “gabbro,” because I shall presently show, that two rocks of entirely different origin have been united under this one name. be rah coolemntes Cour ale ih, 9) oe ie ores ek ON On the Vents of Hot Vapor in Tuscany. 207 - The eastern or inland ridge rises boldly up into the mountains which proceed from the north of Monte Vaso to Castellina Marit- _ tima on the south, and it is-in reference to this group of hills, on the eastern part of which Monte Catini is situated, that I specially call attention, as it affords ample materials for settling the ques- tion which has arisen between Professor P. Savi and Mr. W. J. Hamilton on the one hand, and the late Professor Leopoldo Pilla and myself on the other. The two former have endeavored to show that whether in its globular and amorphous form, or in Its thin-bedded state,* the rocks they call ‘‘ gabbro rosso” are meta- morphic ; whilst Professor Pilla and myself contend that the amorphous, variolitic gabbro must have been erupted in a molten state, whether we consider its composition and unbedded condi- tion, or the part it has played in protruding through, overturning, breaking, and altering the pre-existing strata. And although my deceased friend Pilla has to a certain extent published this opinion, he has not sufliciently illustrated his views, an am therefore the more anxious to do him justice, and to adduce some of the reasons he assigned when we visited the tract together. spected natural sections, where the gabbro had not only penetrated the alberese limestone, but had thrown it off in shreds, contorted fragments, and folds on the sides of the eruption. ow, the red gabbro which had manifestly thus acted was entirely an unbedded, amorphous, felspathic mass, for the most part made up of spheroidal concretions having a variolitic structure, 7. e, with small pustular or globular surfaces in each of the folds or concentric layers into Sabre ion of Savi's descripti . Journ, Geol. Soc. Voli, p, oo nitins translation of Savi’s description, Quart. Journ. Geo : ’ 208 e2°-¢ yoy d ©b c - a. Alberese. b. Alberese with ae eee Gabbro rosso. d, Miocene? with alabaster. - e, e. Subapennine. mountain mass at Civita Castellina, Where it performs, as above mentioned, the part of an intrusive agént. It there throws off on its eastern summit the alberese limestowe in a highly fractured anc mineralized condition, as seen in fig. 3. From the natural section here exhibited, it is certain that this eruption of “ gabbro” took place after the consolidation of the alberese and macigno forma tions, 7. e. after the younger chalk and older eocene. It is also further evident that another movement of elevation occurred after the miocene period ; for not only is the limestone associated with white marls to a great extent loaded with alabaster, which some persons might infer was altered limestone, but the whole of thismass has been considered to be miocene, simply because it dips away from the alberese and gabbro in such inclined strata, and is thus placed in striking contrast with the subapennine or pliocene marls of the valley which surround a boss of “ gabbro rosso” in per- fectly horizontal and unbroken layers. The altered alberese at Civita Castellina has here and there serpentinous soft bands, and bears a metamorphic aspect, with a slickenside surface, accompa- nied by cracks and numerous veins of arragonite, all of which specially abound near the junction of the alberese- with the “‘gabbro.” Copper veins, however, either traverse the alberese or run down its junction with the gabbro ; and are therefore of date sterior to the eruption of the latter. It is indeed the opinion of illa, that the copper veins have resulted from ‘the same igneous ra a = ta § ma i o is) 3 Qu So 2) = o i) my “o pe > =— - a x o 2 ia) = i) a = oO Ler | ond (2) iz) = n ° hema | - me na &. i=.) a 0 diversified in aspect and structure, seemed to me to form parts of the same eruptive matter which has penetr&ted the macigno and aie ee fale a ae a ace alla heel mts of Hot Vapor in Tuscany. 209 ‘al : .— to have most ory fronting the east more a ser- pentinous appearance ; the dull red globular lumps a spheroids being often enveloped in greenish coatings. It is no§ my prov- ince to allude to the: splendid veinstonesyhf copper,* oecasionally as been described, but which I admit is clearly a metamorphosed Stratum. ; This is a jaspidified red and green calcareous schist, marked by numerous thin lamin of deposit, which is evidently nothing more than the argillo-calcareous portion of the alberese or macigno formations, which happened to be contiguous to the true gabbro When the. latter was erupted. For it is plain that the amorphous gabbro (as seen in a very clear natural section) has twisted back these finely laminated jaspideous strata upon themselves at a point of eruption. That in perforating, bending back, indurating, and islocating the schists, the intrusive matter should have communi- cated its color, and to some extent its mineral composition, to the argillaceous and calcareous strata thus affected by it, is nothing More than must be looked for, and is indeed frequently found to be the case under similar geological conditions. ‘This appearance of transition, from what must be granted to be true altered sedi- mentary layers into the amorphous spheroidal “ gabbro,” has led Savi and Hamiltonsto think that the spheroidal red gabbro is Seer was — hospitably received at his villa by Mr. ? I tor of the copper mines of Monte Catini. The ore is erits a special study. ~~ 0. 32.—March, 1851. 27 ¥ aK “— 210 ‘On the Venis of Hot Vapor in Tuscany. ik same aqueous matrix. When, however, we recede from the im- mediate point of contact, we have not only very different forms in the matrices of the altered and the eruptive rocks, but an es- sential difference of composition and structure. Pilla has indeed cited instances just as notable of the conversion or metamorphosis of the strata by gabbro rosso, as by granitic, pyroxenic and por- phyritic rocks.* One of those examples is seen in the spot ealled Botro del Ribuio near Serazzano, where the spheroidal “ gabbro rosso” has thrown the strata of macigno into a vertical position, and has changed them into jaspers of blood-red color, highly charged with silex and oxyd of iron. If, indeed, the argument about transitions from the rock whieh has been the agent of alteration into the strata which are altered, - beadmitted, we must re-open elementary questions in the physics of geology which I had supposed were long ago set at rest. We may in that way be led to abandon many conclusions at which we had arrived, in refuting the doctrine respecting certain rocks of Cornwall, Norway, and other tracts which were believed by some authors to prove transitions from granites to slates, and thus to indicate a common origin of these two classes of rock! If this method of ‘reasoning be again entertained, (as it seems to me it is by M. Savi,) then many of the inferences which geolo- gists have drawn concerning the posterior intrusion of granite and other igneous rocks amid depositary strata will be invalidated. For, although there are numerous examples of such phenomera, which no skeptic can assail, still there are frequent cases where it is impossible to define the precise limit between the erupted molten matter and the altered rock. It is indeed in the very nature of the phenomenon that such should happen, and the time of practi- cal geologists can be better employed than in disputing upon such points. Some persons may indeed argue that many varieties of traps and amygdaloids were to a great extent evolved from the melting of the preéxisting strata in the crust of the globe, and I am quite ready to admit that such may have been the case. But with a the other ophiolitic or serpentine rocks, which having acted as partial centres of eleva- i i ical, ed, and rugged mounts, detached from one another (p. 39). He describes the copper of Monte Catini as lying in a true vel, whi iarity of being contemporaneous with the associated gabbre, both r to the sedimentary strata (p. 40). ; + Trattate di Geologia, Part 1, p. 510, ; {EF LEE Reale hee) ee ORL ce aS ‘ 5 “= ; See a Se On the Vents of Hot Vapor in Tuscany. 211 point, therefore, for which I contend is, that the amorphous. and spheroidal ‘‘ gabbro rosso’’ of the Tuscans is from its composition, and still more from the geological part it has played, a true plutonic and eruptive rock ; whilst the red jaspidified schists, which have been also termed “ gabbro,” are nothing more than sedimentary strata altered by the heat attending the eruption of the adjacent masses. Lines of former and present disturbance.—As it is along the lines of eruption of the serpentines, greenstones and gabbro, zt. e. from N. by W. to S. by E., that nature has been repeat- edly laboring to evolve heat in the west of Tuscany, so also have hills with radii; the centre or box of each wheel-shaped body being composed of concentrically laminated sands, marking the i css sclinle secede mo Pilla, and the Italian authors show that the granite of Piombino and cuts through ine. e serpent 212 On the Vents of Hot Vapor in Tuscany. point at which the water issued. These appearances not only served to explain the origin of the larger muddy bosses of similar form, common in the incoherent subsoils of Calabria, which have been so frequently subject to great earthquakes, but may also be viewed as another link which connects the present small disturb- ances of the surface, with the former powerful subterranean en- ergy proceeding from igneous and gaseous development we have been considering. Thus, in reference to my preceding memoirs and in reasoning by analogy, we are led to infer, that the great evolution of molten matter in former or plutonic times, accompanied by so much heat and its gaseous attendants as to metamorphose whole mountain chains, was succeeded, as the bottoms of the sea rose, by a con- siderable diffusion of volcanic materials, chiefly of subaqueous origin, but in part subaérial ; and that, finally, the lands assuming their present relations to the sea, the extension of molten matter has been confined to a very limited number of fissures or vents of eruption, many of which have become extinct with the lapse of time. A portion, however, of these eruptions in Europe is still in continuous activity, whether in emitting solid matter, as at Stromboli, or hot springs and vapors, as in the Tuscan Soffioni ; whilst another portion is intermittent, as viewed in the paroxysmal outpourings of Etna and Vesuvius, the occasional formation of ll new cones and craters under the waters of the Mediterra- nean and the fitful lines of earthquake shocks with their accom- panying outbursts of water. In viewing the intimate connection between all these phenom- ena, and in looking to the powers of the Soffioni of Tuscany, we might perhaps infer, that if these gusts of heat were entifely re- pressed by closing up the orifices through which they now escape, earthquakes to some slight extent might be expected still more to prevail in the neighborhood, until the expansive forces were libe+ rated ; just as the most calamitous shocks in Sicily and Calabria have occurred when Etna has been most dormant. Putting aside this speculation, the hot vapors may unquestionably be viewed as the remains of former igneous action, which I believe to have been incalculably more powerful, not only because it is on the same band or its subordinate parallels that the copious masses of plutonic rocks of this tract and the adjacent mineralized strata occur, but because this line is absolutely coincident with the axis of the Carrara and other marbles and their associated slates and crystalline rocks of the Apuan Alps. Now, as those lofty masses or western Appennines, together with their lower parallels in the Gulf of La Spezia, have been shown to be simply altered strata of jurassic age*; so in extending our observation in the same line OE ae ite college * See Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. v, p. 266 et seq. On the Vents of Hot Vapor in Tuseany. 213 further to the N. and by W., we find that serpentinous rocks have there, as in the Tuscan Maremma, burst through alberese and macigno and in much greater volume. In truth, the copious ser- pentines and their accompaniments in and around the territory of ‘Genoa, have converted the cretaceous strata into rocks having all part mechanically, the contiguous conglomerates and sandstones of miocene age, which on the sides of the pass leading from ‘Genoa to Alexandria occupy very highly inclined positions. The phenomena in the Genovesato and Piedmont, like those in the Tuscan Maremma‘*, indicate that such beds of the middle tertiary age, whether marine or freshwater, have been dislocated along those lines of disturbance, which at an antecedent period had been marked by the protrusion of the serpentinous rocks in a molten state. In other words, it was by the post-eocene eruption that the great metamorphosis of the pre-existing strata was caused. A long period of comparative repose followed, one of the earliest Operations of which was the accumulation of mioeene conglome- Savona on the one hand, or in the Monferrato (Superga) on the ¥. lorence, that trend from N. W. to S. E.—i. e. from the region of chief eruption—though divergent from the line of the Apuan Alps, and Tuscan Maremma, are exactly coincident with the OS eet heme ee ee * See former Memoir and Section Quart. Journ. Geol, Soc., vol. ¥, p. 283 to 292, Ree os # 214 On the Vents of Hot Vapor in Tuscany. major axis of the Appennines or great back-bone of Italy, the culminating points of which, as at the Gran Sasso d’ftalia, 9530 feet above the sea, are composed of eocene (nummulitic) and cretaceous rocks reposing on jurassic. ain, if we turn from the east and look to the other great band of eruption to the west of the coast of Italy, as marked by serpentines protruding through the cretaceous and eocene deposits of. Cors submarine accumulations had ever been raised into dry land be- fore the cretaceous and nummulitic rocks were accumulated upon them, we have a fair right to infer, that the linear eruptions of serpentine and their accompaniments of gas and heat, absolutely furnished the Peninsula with those chains of hard and altered ma, the Marquis stone with the chalk,’ I trust he will now agree with me. After this memoir was read, Professor Meneghini of Pisca, communicated to me, that Professor Savi and himself had discoyered undoubted species of coal plants On the Vents of Hot Vapor in Tuscany. 215 there found its issue along a line 4, of fracture coincident with the north and south direction which had b vgs impressed upon these lands a very remote period—such a though divergent from them, being simultaneous with the chief axes of upheaval i In speaking of divergent lines of fracture and elevation, “which offer s ptoofs of simultaneous eruption and. dislocation, I am led to terminate m ety pari to these two chains rye axis.—B, Rabie 02: and at the same time distinguish ~—C. Apuan Alps.—D. Corsica —E sti S dinia.-—G sone of Genoa, serpen them. To render my idea clear I tine Tock Lagoons of Tuscany.— have annexed the accompanying 7% Rom a Volcanoes Gron Sasso— V diagram, fig. 4. Whilst the direc- es (Pacopien ecopteris es and Annularia longi folia) in anthracite ape which on the right bank of the Era near Volterra form the lower he of the “Ve errucano,” or oes conglomerate of Italy. A aches to this pa the part of his as at the same time ma = by Profess ie Parlaore a ok the late meeting of the British rarest at Edinbur; This important discovery seems to prove that a lower boa of the rocks call i ‘Verrucano, which RA hitherto been consid- ered to e verter se of the lias, is of the same palzeozoic age as the con- slomerates of the Valorsine and other places in the Alps. Yet still, in reference to my opinion above exposed, the pan cur in Tuseany may either have been de- tived from lands now subm merged, 0 m the adjacent shores, of which the Silu- and ancient éryetalline rocks id ‘sain — Corsica are the existitig remnants. At all events, no rocks have ye to geologists in N r Cen- tral Italy which are of sufficient tiquit ae dry land where the coal plants grew, to’ which Professors Mevegh ini and Savi have drawn n. As Italy is thus connected still more closely with the Alps by the ature of an- thracite lants common to both countries, I would here allude to bl coal ude to an able recent . memoir of Professor Heer (Mittheilungen der Natur. Gesellscht. in Zurich, 1850,) im which, Specially referring to the case of Petit Coeur in Savoy, he argues, that the , ere being terres n plants found there beit strial and of the carboniferou the stratum in tn they are os not be united with th h contains marine iar : neral analogical reasoning of this autho u Journ. hmy wishes, as expres in the Memoirs on the Alps, Appennines and Carpathians Fo urn. Geol. See. , vol. vy, pp. 176, 177), that I have only g omitted int his readers, that I erences solely from the actual = nd position o th ‘ Seg! stated p- b es sider fin d be hep 3 ered separate formations. With a utmost abate. to the value of organic re- per ga I felt however bound to affirm, ong in _ e af me oP of iss —_ nn oe ie de Aap ‘ie sharp, inverted fallawe: hy if ti e by ie otal v deraaloa vt would how observe. oo, thie netapalerte gues are most opposed to the views » De Beaum and Sixmonda have not visited the locality, which they Smeg! Pa mar ve ders can explain awa vbw fair demonstration what they consider t 216 On the Vents of Hot Vapor in Tuscany. tion of the chief ridges of Italy is more or less at right angles to the main direction of the Alps, we know that the greatest amount of metamorphism has been impressed on both chains after the nummulitic period ; and again, that in both, very violent move- ments took place after the deposition of the miocene tertiary. In he chief range of the Swiss and Austrian Alps, the greatest changes of metamorphism, elevation, depression, and contortion n linear bands trending generally from N.W. to S.E., and even veering round to a meridian strike as they approach the direc- tion of the anciént and paleozoic rocks of Corsica and Sardinia. Notwithstanding, however, their great diversity of direction, the Alpine and the Sardinian lines of active disturbance have eac been manifested along primeval coasts, the strata formed upon which contain paleozoic fossils. When, however, we pass from the consideration of events so long past to the contemplation of those agents of terrestrial change which have been most active in compat- atively recent times, the Appennines are at once distinguished from the Alps in possessing those truly voleanic phenomena which con- nect geology and existing history. With the most frequent evr dences of recent mutations to an enormous extent in their outlines —1. e. since the period of the glacial waters*—the Alps present no- where the trace of any subaérial voleano ; the youngest igneous rocks being those which have traversed the older tertiary deposits of the Vicentin and other tracts. The Appennines, on the eon- trary, offer proofs, particularly on their western shores, not only of recent oscillations, but also of copious voleanic eruptions. Thus, early Greek settlements in the Bay of Naples. _ Lastly, let us recollect, that in the tract of Western Tuscany, which has beer the special subject of this memoir, we also a most instructive lesson upon the efforts of subterranean igneous JSorces to develop themselves at successive periods along one ane the same established band of active change in the crust of the —_—— * See “ Distribution of the Superficial Detritus of the Alps, compared with that of Northern Europe.” (Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., vol. vi, p. 65.) t Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., vol. vi, p. 294, On Kirkwood’s law of therotation of the Primary Planets. 217 globe. For whilst one extremity of this band is marked by the eruptions of Ischia and Vesuvius, where volcanic action has pre- vailed in the historical period, we have only to follow such zone from Naples to the N.N.W. to see that it passes along a portion of the Papal States replete with earlier volcanos, and is directly coincident with tracts powerfully affected in much more remote periods, along one of which volcanic action is still partially devel- oped in the hot vapor issues of the Tuscan Maremma. Arr. XXV.—On Kirkwood’s Law of the rotation of the Primary Planets ; by Ex1as Loomis, Professor of Mathematics and Nat- ural Philosophy in the University of the City of New York. Messrs. Editors,—In the last number of the American Journal of Science, in noticing a small volume of mine lately published, under the title of “ The recent progress of Astronomy, especially in the United States,” you say, “ One omission should be noticed. We do not find in this volume any allusion to Kirkwood’s cele- and distances from the sun. Ina history of American Astronomy especially, this discovery is entitled to an honorable mention.” As the enquiry has been made from a great variety of sources, why I have omitted in my book to make any mention of Kirk- ae discovery, I seem called upon to assign a reason for this ect, aes have swelled-the volume much beyond its present size. ; hose topics have been selected in which it was supposed the pub- “ senerally would feel the deepest interest.” omitting to mention even the names of many professors of as- limits of the United States ; but the importance of Kirkwood’s : x recent progress of astronomy, especially in the United States. : m therefore forced to confess that my reason for omitting to Ptice Kirkwood’s law “was that I was not satisfied of its truth. Rie Pe made this public confession, I am bound to give my rea- “8 tor withholding my assent to the law. BOND Sutes, Vol, XI, No, 32.— March, 1851. 23 pas 218 On Kirkwood’s law of the rotation of the Primary Planets. - The following is the law in question, as stated by its author in this Journal, vol. ix, page 395 :— . “ Let P be the point of equal attraction between any planet and the one next interior, the two being in conjunction: P’, that be- tween the same and the one next exterior. “Let also D=the sum of the distances of the points P, P’, from the orbit of the planet; which I shall call the diameter of the sphere of the planet’s attraction ; ; “D’=the diameter of any other planet’s sphere of attraction found in like manner ; “m =the number of sidereal rotations performed by the former during one sidereal revolution round the sun ; "“n' = the number performed by the latter ; then é¢ will be found | D\2. that gO, BER De ee Sor n=n'(5) That is, the square of the number of rotations made by a planet during one revolution round the sun, is proportional to the cube n of the diameter of its sphere of attraction ; or — is a constant Dp? quantity for all the planets of the solar system. The simple question for us now to consider is whether this proposition is true. To test it, however, is a matter of more difficulty than might be anticipated. It involves the knowledge of the distances, masses, and the times of revolution and of rota- tion of all the planets of the solar system. Now there 1s some uncertainty with regard to the mass of each of the planets ; and still greater uncertainty with regard to the times of rotation of me of them upon their axes. Moreover, between Mars an Jupiter, we find a group of planets ; and the assumed law applies to them at a time when they are supposed to have been all united in one body. Of course there is an uncertainty with regard to all the elements of this planet, and we are left to conjecture the time of its rotation upon its axis. It is then difficult to bring this assumed law to the test of truth. Under these circumstances It has appeared to me the most satisfactory course, to take those ele- ments of the planetary system which have the strongest independ- ent probability, and compare them with this law ; and when we find discrepancies, to enquire whether it is admissible to vary the assumed elements so as reduce them to an entire harmony with the proposed law. This I have accordingly attempted, and the result is shown in the following table, where column first exhibits the planets in the order of their distances from the sun ; column second exhibits their mean distances, that of the earth being taken as unity ; column third exhibits their masses, the sun being taken as unity ; column fourth exhibits the diameter of the sphere of attraction of each of the planets computed after the manner = On Kirkwood’s law of the rotation of the Primary Planets. 219 Kirkwood ; column fifth exhibits the sidereal times of revolution of each of the planets round the sun; column sixth, the probable times of rotation upon their axes ; and column seventh exhibits the computed value of dl which, according to Kirkwood, should be a constant quantity. Columns second and fifth are taken from the last edition of Sir J. Herschel’s Astronomy, with the exception of Neptune, which is taken from Mr. Walker’s computations, and the asteroids, which are taken from the latest orbits ; column third is taken from Encke’s Memoir in the Ast. Nach., No. 443, with the exception of Neptune, which is derived from Bond’s observa- tions of the satellite ; and the asteroids, which I have assumed as together equal to Mars; column sixth is taken from Madler’s Populaire Astronomie, 4te Auflage, with the exception of the Asteroids, whose period is assumed at 27 hours, being the time assigned for Juno in the Edinburgh Encyclopedia, vol. ii, page 601, and Uranus, which is taken from Herschel’s Astronomy, page 648. Diameter of Meandistance. Mass, _ |the sphere of| Sidereal revolution. |Rotation onaxis, C. nen attraction. a AS me ee Mere’y, 03870981, 554751 87-969258024 528°3 Venus, 0°7233316 7 5!s75 0°395664, 224-7007869 23 2121-93, 928 Earth; 1-0000000 =; 0°525483) 365°25636122356 4-09) 961 Mars, | 1:5236923,,¢3-537 0°651042| 686-9796458 24 37 20:4 |1275 | | 0 Astr’ds,2545 5.45 0562186, 1488 3138 Jupiter, 52027760 y 574-71 9'409019, 43325848212, 955 26°56) 833 Saturn, 95387861 z547- 8'546946 10759:2198174 1029 168 | 985 Uranus, 1918239 | 22). fr-7igeedanees-sanszog 930 (3614) \ +o Nept’ne 30-0395 T9400 The numbers in the last column of this table are not constant, Y one-twentieth of its whole value. The time of revolution of ranus about the sun is well known. The only remaining ele- Ment which enters into the computation, isthe rotation of Uranus Upon its axis. If we assume that this planet requires thirty-seven 220 On Kirkwood’s law of the rotation of the Primary Planets. ~ “hours to make a rotation upon its axis, the value of C computed for Uranus will agree with the mean result derived from Venus, the Earth, Jupiter and Saturn. Mr. Walker, by employing some- what different data, (Am. Journal, vol. x, p. 22,) has obtained a result of thirty-three and a half hours. The question therefore presented for our decision is, can we admit that Uranus requires from 33 to 37 hours to make one rotation upon itsaxis? I think this assumption inadmissible for the following reasons : 1. Laplace in the Mec. Cel., vol. iv, p. 356, says, “ the time of rotation of Uranus is not probably much less than that of Ju- piter or Saturn ;” and in the last edition of Herschel’s Astronomy, page 648, the time of rotation is given at 91 30™ ? _ 2, Asimilar conclusion follows from the observed figure of the o planet. Sir William Herschel remarked that the dise of Uranus was sensibly flattened ; and Prof. Madler has carefully measured the diameters of this planet, which indicate a compression of 5!5, or almost exactly one ¢enth, which is fully equal to that of Saturn, and greater than that of Jupiter. f it be admitted that the figure of Uranus is the figure of equ librium of a planet once fluid, (and this will not probably be dis- puted by the believers in the nebular hypothesis, to which Kirk- wood’s law is thought to have added new probability,) then we lanet are 4 « y and 4 ap; where g represents the ratio of the ee ee axis, and it probably does not require over ten hours. * page 222 : ¥ I do not therefore perceive how Uranus can be reconciled with Kirkwood’s law, by any admissible assumption with regard to the value of its elements. , IL. We find a similar discrepancy in. the value of C computed for the Asteroids. Arg we permitted ‘in this case to assume ele- ments which shall harmonize with Kirkwood’s law?. The re re On Kirkwood’s law of the rotation of the Primary Planets. 221 flection naturally suggests itself, that inasmuch as several new asterol ntly been discovered, we must be quite igno- rant of their total number; and hence if these planets were once united in a single body, there must be great uncertainty with regard to its mass and the dimensions of its orbit. It is, asteroids amounts to only about one twentieth of Mars. It seems then to be a very liberal allowance to admit that all the asteroids, discovered and undiscovered, are equal in volume to the planet Mars. Mr. Walker has computed (Am. Jour., vol. x, p. 22) thata planet with a mass double that of Mars would harmonize perfectly with Kirkwood’s law. 'The existence of so large a mass appears to me improbable. ; double mass, has obtaingd a period of 58 hours. Is thisanallow- ._ Shag : ae harmonize well with Kirkwood’s law. Mr. Walker bias | long ago computed the mass‘of Mars to be 32375) (Mee. Cel., Vol. iii, p. 334), Barekhardt in the Connaissance des Tems for 1816, | diminished this by one twentieth, making it equal to sss3a37 | id this is the mass now generally adopted. ‘To increase it Without any authority by more than one fifth of its value, seems altogethe i se fii : : ; : r inadmissible. ae: w 222 On Kirkwood’s law of the rotation of the Primary Planets. IV. The values of C computed for Jupiter and Saturn do not harmonize as well as ought to be expected if Kirkwood’s law is indeed a law of nature; but upon this I will not insist, as the computed sphere of attraction of Jupiter depends upon the mass and distance of the next interior planet, with regard to which there is considerable uncertainty. I will now proceed to examine some of the analogies already alluded to, as existing between the planets of our system. We shall find that the planets are naturally divided into two classes, each distinguished by peculiar characteristics. This will appear from the following table, in which, column second exhibits the true diameter of each of the planets, and column third their den- sity, (the earth being taken as unity ;) column fourth shows the time of rotation upon their axes, and column fifth the compres- sion of each planet as far as it has been determined. epee OT RS! Oo Oth A Treeadiguieter. Density. _| Rotation. _|Compression. metedry, oe OBE bh g8 1-225 ZAh-] mene Og ee 0-975 0-908 23 ‘3 meen 8 SP SE EON 1-000 24 0 530 aNreys,;- 0-517 0:972 24 -6 a7 eaters! aca pupiter se Sp Ss, 10-860 0:227 9 °9 73-7 Saturn, . 9-982 0-131 10°5 | sy Uranus, 4:332 0-167 Ts Neptune, A741 0-230 difficult to measure. If the compression of Venus was the same as that of the earth, it would make but one-thirtieth of a second difference between its polar and equatorial diameters when in Superior Conjunction, a quantity too small to be sensible in micro- metric measurements. The compression of Mars has been vatl- On a new genus of Crustacea. 223 ously estimated. Sir William Herschel states that the polar diam- * eter is about ,'. less than the equatorial diameter ; but according to Arago, the two diameters are in the ratio of 189 to 194 which gives a compression of ,';. Even this compression appears irreconcilable with the supposition that the figure of the planet is gure of equilibrium of a fluid body. The compression of the planets of the second class varies from 1 * The compression of a planet depends not merely upon its ve- locity of rotation, but upon the ratio of its centrifugal force to the gravity of the planet, and upon the law of density from the surface to its center. The centrifugal force can be computed when we know the time of rotation, but the law of density im the interior of the planet we have no direct means of determining. Here then we find two classes of bodies with characteristics plainly marked ; and if we suppose the asteroids to have been once united in a single body, probably no one would hesitate to assign it to the first of these classes. These coincidences are so striking that we seem irresistibly led to the conclusion that the time of rotation of Uranus upon its axis cannot much exceed that of Jupiter or Saturn ; and it is im- probable that the period of the asteroid planet could much exceed twenty-four hours. : I cannot therefore agree with Mr. Walker in his conclusion that “ whether Kirkwood’s analogy is or is not the expression of a physical law, it is at least that of a physical fact in the mechan- ism of the universe.” Even if future discoveries should prove it to be a fact, the law seems irreconcilable with what we must at present regard as the most probable values of the planetary ele- ments. It is however much to be desired that the periods of ro- tation of each of the planets, particularly that of Uranus, should be determined with all possible precision, in order that any un- certainty which now rests upon this subject may be entirely dissipated. Ar. XXVI—On a new. Genus of Crustacea in the Collections of the U.S. Exploring Expedition under Capt. C. Wilkes, U.S. N.; by James D. Dana. 224 On a new Genus of Crustacea. ? of the other genus. The following are their characteristics, omit- ting the points in which they agree. Genus TRapPezia. Frons sinuosus vel 6-8-dentatus. Mazillipedes externi marginem posticum fere transversi ; apices que articulorum secundorum inter sese valde remoti. uperficies prelabialis viaque efferens linea elevata divise margoque buccalis anticus utrinque emarginatus, emarginatione vie efferentis ostio Pedes antici elongati, brachio extra carapacem valde exserto, margine brachii antico denticulato et apicem anticum acuto, manu fere recta, pollice parce deflexo. Pedes 8 postici non unguiculati, tarso apicem pusillé producto et truncato. Abdomen maris szpius 5-articulatum. Genus Terratta. Frons rectus aut rectiusculus, subtilissimé denticulatus. Macillipedes externi marginem posticum valde obliqui, apices articulorum secundorum inter sese paulo remoti. Superficies prelabialis viaque efferens lined paulo elevata divisee sed margo buccalis anticus vix emarginatus, Pedes antici breviores, brachio apicem paulo exserto, margine brachii antico apicem rotundato subtiliterque denticulato, pollice valde deflexo. : Pedes 8 postict, breviter unguiculati. Abdomen maris 7-articulatum. cinatu in the ridge separating the efferent canal from the preelabial space as well as the narrow form, these genera are related to Eriphia. Fuller descriptions with many illustrations will be given in the Author’s Report on the Crustacea of the Expedition, now ready for the press. a Mineralogical Notices. 225 Art. XXVII.—Mineralogical Notices. No. I1.* On the Hardness of Minerals; by R. Franz, (Pogg. Ann., Ixxx, 37.)—This very important memoir relates to the compara- tive hardness of crystals on different surfaces, and in different directions on the same surface, and contains the results of numer- ous careful observations. Dorperire, a new species.—This mineral, of vegetable origin, occurs in Styria near Aussee, in peat. According to Doppler, (Wien Acad. Ber., Nov. Dec., 1849, 239,) and Haidinger, (ibid, 287,) it is when fresh, brownish black with a dull brown streak and greasy subvitreous lustre, and also in thin plates which are reddish brown by transmitted light. G=1-089, according to Fot- terle. On exposure to the light, the substance becomes very elas- tic like caoutchouc. Heated to 100° C., when it loses 78°5 p. ¢. of water, it resembles a black pitch; on heating the fresh mineral with potash, ammonia is given off. Analysis afforded Schrotter, (Wien Acad. -Ber., 1849, 285,) fas 51 5:34 O 43:03 giving the empirical formula C*H‘O*%. Schrotter considers it an unusually pure and homogeneous peaty substance from whose cellulose 2 parts of water are removed—C*H ‘07 losing 2HO be- comes C*H*O5, the formula above. . Magnesite.—Breithaupt (Pogg., 1xxx, 313,) found the angle of a magnesite from Snarum, Norway, 107° 284’. Scheerer ob- tained for the mineral on analysis— 6 Mg Fe 1. 51447 47-296 0°786 0-470 2. 52°768 47-232 undetermined The formula from the first analysis is Mg 6. Nemalite of Hoboken, New Jersey.—Analysis by Rammels- berg, (P ogg. Ann., Ixxx, 284,) : Meg Fe st Si 64:36 405 29°48 0°27=98°65 Oxygen, 25-49 0-90 26:20 This result, giving for the formula of Brucite, MgH, confirms the recent analyses of Whitney, (J. Bost. Nat. Hist., 1849, p. 36,) d Wurtz, (Dana’s Min., 3d. edit., p. 682.) Chlorite.—Delesse obtained (Ann. d. Mines, [4], xvi, 520) for a dull bluish green chlorite of feathery texture, from the Mandel- Stein porphyry of Oberstein, and of Planitz near Zwickan, the following composition :— 1. Oberstein, 29-08 set me ss oe 2. Planitz, 2945 1825 817 1512 045 1532 1257= 99°33 Sen * For Notices, No. I, see preceding volume, p. 245. BOND Serres, Vol. XI, No. $2.—March, 1851. 29 226 Mineralogical Notices. In the first of these analyses the magnesia was estimated from the loss. [The second analysis gives for the oxygen ratio of the pro- toxyds, peroxyds, silica and water, 9:51: 10-98: 15-30: 11-17= Bie: 12: 9.) Byssolite.—Kengott (Min. Unters., i, 77,) has measured the capillary crystals of byssolite from the Tyrol, and obtained the prismatic angle 124° 21’, which is that of Hornblende. Aigirine.—The Agirine analyzed by Plantamour is a Horn- blende. Another mineral so called from the Island Skaadén, near Brevig, Norway, proves on analysis by Plattner (Pogg., Ixxx, 315,) to be a pyroxene. According to Breithaupt it is black or greenish black to leek green, (the latter when in small crystals,) with a greenish-gray streak; cleavage brachydiagonal, perfect, macrodiagonal distinct ; parallel to M only in traces. G=3-432— 3:504. Calculation from a measured angle gives for M: M 86° 52’, the angle of pyroxene. Breislakite——The identity of Breislakite and Augite, has been proved by Prof. E. J. Chapman (Phil. Mag., xxxvii, 444, Dec., 1850) from a measurement of minute crystals detected by him in the Vesuvian specimens. They gave for P on the axis 106° 18’, M: M=87° 10’. Staurotide.—Crystals of Staurotide from Cheronice have afford- ed Kenngott (Min. Unters., i, 49) the following angles :—M: M ( «P)=128° 57’; P(OP):a(P« )=125° 36’; M:a=137° 18’; M: e( «Px )=115° 39’. The last angle would give for M: M the angle 128° 42’, and for the vertical and horizontal axes the relation 0°676 : 1: 0-480. Chiastolite—A rhombic prism of chiastolite of a peach blos- som color, affording the angle 93° 30’ and specific gravity 3°10, gave E. Renou (Expl. Sci. de l’Algérie, Paris, 1848, 58, and Lieb. and K. Jahresb., 1849, 736) the following composition : Si 366 Al 61: with a trace of magnesia and iron, which is the composition of Kyanite. It is from mica slate in the vicinity of Bona. Garnet.—A columbine-red garnet from Albernreit near Wald- sassen in Bavaria, afforded A. Besnard (Correspondenzbl. Regens- burg, 1849, iii, 30, Lieb. and K. Jahresb., 1849, 745)— Si a1 Fe Yin Lg 38-76 21-00 82-05 6-43 3°95—=102°19 -—G—=42 Feldspar of the porphyry of Lessines and Quenast, Belgium: by A. Detesse, (Bull. Soc. Geol. de France, [2], vii, 310. )—The feldspar is in macled crystals belonging to the triclinic system; they are finely striated, of a white color or slightly greenish, Wl Mineralogical Notices. 227 a vitreous lustre. The greenish crystals are less hard and prob- ably have undergone some alteration by infiltration. The min- eral from Quenast afforded Si xl e Mn Mg- Oa *Na K 6370 2264 058 trace 120 144 615 281, ign, 1:22=99°69 Delesse thence concludes that the feldspar is an oligoclase. The feldspathic paste of the porphyry contains some more oxyd of iron and magnesia than the crystals of feldspar, and Delesse dis- tinguished minute crystalline plates disseminated through it, which appeared to be chlorite. ‘The chlorite becomes of a bronze color after calcination. The rock of Lessines affords crystals of axinite and epidote, besides quartz in crystals, and calcite. The porphyry taken asa whole afforded on analysis | Si Al, Fe Oa Mg, alkalies, Hand € 57-60 25-00 3-23 9°92 4-25=100. The proportion of silica is hence small, much below that of the d oligoclase above described. Analysis of Wollastonite from Auerbach, by F'. L. Winckler, (Jahresb. f. pr. Pharm., xviii, 317, Si Ca and trace of Mg 6 H #e, Mn 530 45-40 1-0 0-6 On the Variolite of La Durance; by M. Deuesse, (Ann. des Mines, 1850, [4], xvii, 116.)—The variolite consists of globules stand out on its surface. They are often of a violet shade within 56-19 —. Fe €r Hin = Ga Mg Na 719 O51 trace 874 S841 3°72 They are properly therefore a feldspar, although it is difficult to determine certainly the species ; as there is a euphotide in contact With the rock, Delesse suggests that it is probably the same with * K 0-24, ign. 1:93==99°86 the feldspar of the Euphotide of Odern. PNB orca ee * This Journal, [2] x, 252, and Ann. des Mines, [4], xvi, 323. 228 -Mineralogical Notices. The green base, Delesse shows is not hornblende or diallage, but probably —— feldspar discolored by oxyd of iron and magnesia. he variolite of La Durance contains at times ser- geome and may re observed in some places graduating into this Varslite, euphotide and serpentine are usually associated in the same region. The mean composition of the rock from La Du- rance is Si -”l r F Mn Ca ge Na K 5279 11°76 trace 11:07 trace 590 901 307 1:16, ign. 4-38-9914 The rock is intersected by seams of epidote, quartz or carbonate of lime, sa sometimes the globules are broken across by a vein and the alves more or less displaced. The pep formed from the variolite had the density 2:288, showing a great diminution from that of the unaltered rock, which is about 2-9 This variolite receives a fine polish and is worked into orna- ments of various kinds. Orthite from East Bradford, Chester Co., Pennsylvania.— ‘ts mineral was sent by Mr. Thos. Seal, of Philadelphia, to . D. Dana, and by the latter to Rammelsberg. Analysis af- forded this chemist (Pogg. Ann., lxxx, 285 Si Al 6 Me 8186 1687 858 1226 2127 240 1015 1°67, ign. 111=L0117 Oxygen,1655 788 107 272 315 035 288 0°65 This gives the oxygen ratio for the protoxyds, peroxyds and silica 9-75 : 8:95: 16°55, and the formula R* $i+#Si, which agrees with the recent analysis of orthite by Rammelsberg, making the min- ral analogous in composition to garnet. Rutile—The following are analyses of rutile by A. Demoly (These de chemie, presentée 4 la Faculté des Sciences de Besan- gon, and Lieb. and K. Jahresb., 1849, 728) :— i Fe Mn S 1 96-41 1-63 0-18 1:83=100 2. 96°45 162 Or14 1-79=100 3. 96°43 1:62 O11 184=100 kite—N. von Kokscharov has recently investigated the itattization of Brookite of the Ural and the following are 4 rt of the results obtained (Pogg. Ann., Ixxix, 454):—M:M= 90° 50’ and 80° 10’. Angles of octahedron P, 101° 35’, 115° 43’, 111° 26’; of QP, 87° 12’, 104° 54’, 142° 21’: of 2, 135° 37’, 101° 3’, 95° 224’; of horizontal prism, 2Pac , 65° 48/ and 124° 12/; 4B. , 76° 55’ and 104° 5’; 4 poe, 148° 394’, 31° 20%; dpa, 121° 244" 58° 354’; of vertical prism, op2, 45° 383’, 134° 21H, — gravity of the crystals according to Mr. F'rédmann, Mineralogical Notices.» 229 On the Identity of Arkansite of Shepard and Brookite ; by R. Hermann, (J. f. pr. Chem. 1, 200.)—The identity of Arkansite with Brookite has been shown independently by J. D. Whitney, Miller, Rammelsberg, Breithaupt and Descloiseaux. Hermann confirms the previous measurement, obtaining the prismatic angle 100° 30’, and the octahedral angles 135° 30’, 101°, and 94°. His analysis afforded titanic acid 96°50, peroxyd of iron 1-00, protoxyd of uranium a trace, silica and gangue 2°50= 100-00. Specific gravity =3-79. _Niobie and ilmenie acids 62°25, titanic acid 2-23, zirconia 557, Ce 3:09, La 2°00, Y0-70, Fe 5-11, Mn trace, Oa 13°54, K, Na, Li, 3°72, F 3:00, H 05010171. G.==4208. According to a more recent analysis by him it contains Niobic acid 60°83, Titanic acid 4-90, Ce and La 15-23, ¥ 0:94, Fe 228, Ca 980, Mg 1-46, K 0°54, Na 2°69, F 221—=100°83. [It is well known that fluorine enters into the constitution of cer- tain micas and other minerals, in some of their varieuies, an yet _ IN assuming in the above case that the fluorine variety of pyro- chlore is a distinct species or is worthy of a distinct name. | Mengite ; Hermann, (J. f. pr. Chem. 1, 179.)—Breithaupt remarks that the angle of the prism of Mengite (d) 136° 40’, isidentical 2% with a prism of columbite. Another prism fel a | (f) gives 100° 28’, and the rhombic octahe- J dron (3) has the angles 150° 32’, 101° 10’, 86° 21’. According to Rose it is a zirconia mineral, and it is therefore an example of iso- morphism. — On Yitroilmenite and Samarskite ; by R. Hermann, (J. f. pr. Chem. 1, 164, No. 11, 1850.)—Hermann still sustains his view . 7 , . * * that yttroilmenite contains the acid of anew metal ilmenium, con- 230 Mineralogical Notices. trary to the investigationsof Rose. In an analysis of Samars- kite he obtained Niobie acid ae ilmenic 5636, U 16°63, Mg 0°50, Mn 1-20, Fe 8°87, ¥ 13°29, Ce, La 2:35= aeiing 6 teh it is a niobate of protoxyd bases. Color of specimen black, with partly a grayish-brown crust. 5°64. ie Aischynite ; by R. Hermann, (J. f. pr. Chem. 1, 193.)— Hermann has reanalyzed HEschynite and found it to consist of Niobic acid, 33°20, titanic acid 25-90, Ge 22°20, Ce 5:12, La 6-22, ¥ 1:28, Fe 5-45, H 120100557. iy ged and Polymignite, (Hermann, J. f. pr. 1 Chem., |, 181.)—The angles of polycrase are as fol- lows, Ldsidiig to Scheerer and Hausmann’s cal- e\ culations: octahedron P, 152° 0’, 90° 2’, 96° 41’; vertical prism (p) 140°; brachydiagonal prism (h) 56° 0’. Hermann observes that if the crystals be viewed in a different position, the angles approach those of columbite, in which P=150° 17’, 86° 52’, 100° 49’; brachydiagonal aba (corresponding to vertical above) 123° 50’ to 125° 20’; macrodiagonal ee | ( RA Sate to brachydiagonal above) 139° 6’. hot composition is widely different from Rigs of columbite, the two minerals are ap- proximately isomorphous Polymignite is related crystallographically in the same man- ner to columbite. «The three prisms of 70° 50’, 109° 10’ and 140° 51’ in Polymignite, correspond to three prisms 70° 50’, 109° 35’, 141° 8’, in columbite. To perceive the relations be- tween the crystals of the two minerals, the vertical prisms of polymignite, as the mineral is usually drawn, should be compared with a series of horizontal prisms in colu mbite ermann also remarks that Brookite approaches columbite in its angles. Hermann adopts the view that tantalic and the related acids contain 2 of oxygen like titanic acid ; and he concludes also toxyds. engite he makes a titanate of pie a of i and uranium, cerium ; yttroilmenite an ilmenate and titanate of pro- toxyds of yttrium, iron and urahium ; columbite a niobate, pelo- pate or ilmenate of protoxyds of iron and manganese (3 of f acid to 2 of base.) He also concludes that Wolframic acid has the formula W and not W, on the ground that Wolfram (R W) is isomorphous with columbite. [‘This last case of isomorphism ap- Mineralogical Notices. 231 pear to be set aside by Descloiseaux’s measurements which make Wolfram oblique in crystallization. | Red Antimony.—Kenngott has examined crystals of this min- eral from Braunsdorf, (Min. Untersuch., i, 1, Breslau, 1849, an Liebig and Kopp’s Jahresb., 1849, 727,) and obtained for the in- clination of the vertical axis to the terminal plane (OP) 77° 51’; OP: a Pa =102° 9’; OP: Px =149° 46’; two planes (Pa, and 1Pc) incline to the vertical axis at angles of 37° 37’, 71° 65’. Titaniferous iron.—Vast deposits of titaniferous iron have been found by Mr. T. S. Hunt about the bay of St. Paul, Canada. e mass is 90 feet in breadth and 300 long. 'The masses are 1m- bedded in a syenitic rock. ‘The ore is massive and often coarsely granular. Color and streak black. G.=4:56—466. H.=6. Feebly affects the magnetic needle. Analysis gave Oxyd of Titanium 48°60, Protoxyd of Iron 4644, Magnesia 3°60=98'64. The iron was principally in the state of protoxyd, but a portion was in the state of peroxyd and to this the deficiency in the analysis is attributed.—Logan’s Rep. Geol. Canada, 1850. Triphyline.-—The Triphyline of Bodenmais has been analyzed by Baer (Arch. Pharm. [2], lvii, 274, and Lieb. and K. Jahresb., 1849, 773) with the following result: Fe Mn £ Y Kk Ne Si , 8636 4452 576 100 O48 119 516 5:09 178=10059 Supposing the silica in combination with part of the protoxyds as R*Si, the analysis affords the ordinary formula of the species &P. After heating, the mineral dissolves in acids and becomes brownish red Humboldtine or Oxalate of Iron.—This species has been de- tected by Mr. T.S. Hunt at Cape Ipperwash, Canada, in shales ; it occurs as a soft earthy coating or incrustation of a sulphur yellow color. On heating, it instantly blackens, becoming magnetic, and then changes to red. The shales contain species of calamites, which tends to confirm the opinion that its formation is of vegeta- ble origin.—Logan’s Rep. Geol. Canada, 1850. On Beudantite; by Joun Percy, M. D., (L. E. and D. Phil. Mag.., [3], Sept., 1850, xxxvii, 162.)—Dr. Percy confirms the Conclusion of Damour and Descloiseaux, (Ann. Ch. Phys., [3], x, 73,) that Beudantite is Cube ore, although quite impure. In his analyses he obtained 8 8 Fe Pb H 1 1281 9-68 1-46 4946 2447 8499887 2 1235 «=—«:18:60 = undetermined = 8765 29°52 8'49=101°61 Owing to the small quantity under investigation Dr. Percy ob- Serves that these results can be considered as only approximate. The determination of the arsenic acid in the second analysis is 232 Mineralogical Notices. probably somewhat in excess. He infers that the mineral is cube or arsenate of peroxyd of iron) containing as impurities sulphate of lead and sulphate of iron, Copper-Mica of Andreasberg.—Rammelsberg (Pogg. Ann., Ixxix, 465) has examined this mineral, before investigated from a different locality (Ockerhutte) by Beneke (Pogg. Ann., xli, 333) and Borchers, (ib., p. 335,) and first mentioned by Hausmann and Stromeyer, (Schw. J., xix, 241,) and has confirmed the analysis of Borchers. It occurs mixed with black copper in gold-yellow mica-like scales, which separate on subjecting the mass to dilute nitric acid. The results of Rammelsberg and Borchers are— O Cu Ni a Rammelsberg, 18°31 84°63 23°00 22-40—=98°34 2. Borchers, 18°67 35°16 23:97 21:06=98°86 or > Ou Ni Sb 43°38 29:23 96°57 44-28 30°61 giving the formula R12 8b. Specific gravity 5-783. Black oxryd of Copper of Lake Superior.—Rammelsberg states (Pogg., lxxx, 287) that this ore afforded Mr. Joy, of Boston, m his laboratory, in a pure specimen, 99-45 per cent. of oxyd of cop- per; another specimen gave besides oxyd of copper— 119 Be, 0°23 Oa, 3°38 Si. Chalcotrichite (Kupferbliithe).—Kenngott (Min. Unters., p. 31, and Lieb. and K., p. 727) describes crystals of chalcotrichite or the capillary red copper, both from Nischne-Tagil and Rheinbreiten- bach, which pertain to the trimetric system. They occur in rhom- bic prisms of 140 to 150 degrees with the edges truncated. This oxyd of copper appears therefore to be trimorphous. Tin Ore and Gold from Wicklow.—The tin ore occurs with gold at the stream-works in the county of Wicklow. W. Mallet . obtained on analysis (Trans. Geol. Soc., Dublin, and Phil. Mag., — xxxvii, 392) Peroxyd of tin 95-26, peroxyd of iron 2°41, silica 0:'84=98-51. Platinum is reported from the same region, besides — sapphire, topaz, zircon, molybdenite, wolfram, pyrites and other iron ores, &c. The gold afforded Mr. Mallet, Gold 92-32, silver 6:17, iron 0-78= 99-27, equivalent to 8} atoms of gold to 1 of silver. Sp. gr. = 16°34 Trite.—Crystals of Irite in regular octahedrons have been ob- served by Kenngott (Min. Unters., i, 61).—They are much flat- tened parallel to one of the faces. The true formula of the species is probably included under 8 8, which embraces the spinels, magnetic iron and some other tesseral species. __ Nore.—Errata in the writer’s Mineralogy, third edition—p. 45, 9th 1. from bottom, for m’n’ P read m’ P n’—p. 209, Arragoni » anal, for Peli read Be? H®.—p. 211, Mineralogical Notices. 233 Norze.—We add here the following notice communicated for this Journal :— BE. Trescuemacuer.—The surface of the large masses of copper found in the celebrated Cliff mine, on the border of the lake, is H . - . lead. No metal having been found in the solution, it Is probable : that the yellow powder exists here as vanadic acid, VO°. The chocolate-colored earth from Isle Royale is quite a different mineral. After a few preliminary trials, the following process was adopted. The pulverized mineral was digested a short time me =, Qu ph “= or can) jm | =: ton) 8. ou mh ° 3 ma is 7) ~ a = co oat a") n ro) =% - eS ‘S) 3 < is) 7a) ° = - =. 2 T was boiled in dilute hydrochloric acid, washed with a small quantity of hot water and dried. The result of this separa- tion of a considerable proportion of iron was a very light grey- eee eS tht te ee Sat al. 16, before 2:25 add #e, and for No. 21, 22, 23, before the analyses, read 22, %, 24.—p, 213, Hydromagnesite, anal. 1, for 0°27, read 0°57, and for 1°66 read 0-27. —P. 226, 21 and 271. from top, for Mn, read ¥n—p. 250, anal. 7, Pet 19°342, eu Pru; 10010; 7th line from d anal. 3, for 315, read 4-15.—p. 362, anal. 3, for 51°50, f F.—p. 367, anal. 3, : read 5 read 072, and for 100, read 100-46; anal. 6, for 100, read ead 9 366 fi ead 2-°0.—p. 679, Trito- dele 3 before R* Si— 3D. D, 30 ae f ‘. — 234 Mineralogical Notices. colored powder. This was heated to redness in a silver crucible with caustic potash ; prior to red heat combination took place with some violence, and on boiling with water a grey flocculent precip- itate went rather rapidly to the lower part of the filter, which was washed with a little boiling’ water. This precipitate on drying changed to a dark-grey color. Before the blowpipe with borax, in the reducing flame, this gave a clear globule, yellow while hot, fine green while cold, producing these changes as often as desired. A small portion boiled in nitric acid, dried and exposed to the blowpipe alone on the platina wire, fused into brick-red globules, but on urging the reduction flame, after a little time these globules fused together with a brilliant light and left a grey porous mass. These actions before the blowpipe are characteristic of vanadium. If only a minute quantity of the grey powder is used, the bead is yellow while hot, but the green color is scarcely visible. After separating the grey powder, hydrochloric acid was added to the filtered liquor in excess. Evaporated to dryness, silica was separated ; but previous to drying there appeared a small quan- tity of grey powder, which, after twenty-four hours’ exposure in water to the air, changed to a distinct green color. This is prob- ably the silicate of vanadic oxyd, and it passed in solution through the filter; it is almost impossible to separate it from the silica, which was again fused for a considerable time with the caustic potash and separated by hydrochloric acid. The silica was now mixed with a number of colored grains, which, under the micro- scope, varied from a transparent red to a dark black, and were probably VO? and VO*, combined with the silica. From the washing a small portion of alumina was afterwards separated by ammonia. From the absence of all metals except iron and the minute quantity of copper before mentioned, it is probable that the mineral here is in the state of vanadic oxyd VO2. I regret that my stock of this interesting mineral is so nearly exhausted as to preclude any farther investigation, but as it must exist there 1n abundance, and the vanadic oxyd seems to me to amount to at deast 20 per cent., I trust we shall not be long without more knowledge on this subject. On igniting the vanadiate of ammo- nia from the first mineral in a platina capsule, a combination with the platina took place, forming a dark bluish-black stain which Id only be removed by scraping; this made me cautious In using platina vessels. The combination with silica would prob- ably render the process in question useless for quantitative analysis. ee ~ ag te J Notices of Coal in China. 235 Arr. XXVIII.— Notices of Coal in China ; by D. J. Maccowan, . D., Cor. Mem. of the Asiatic Society of Bengal.* of suitable means of transport, enhance the cost of the mineral, which have been mined for the longest period, with which we are best acquainted and are the most productive, lie in the mid- dle and southern parts of the empire. That branch of the Himalayan range, known as the Yun-ling, forming the prominent topographical feature of the provinces of n Humerous sections of which the coal measures exist, generally Interstratified with beds of slaty clay and limestone. Those rst Known lie in the basin of the Kan in Kiangsi, reposing on old ted sandstone and gray compact limestone, in close connection — deposits of iron ore hose in the valleys of the Siang, Ps » and Yuen in Hanan, the west slope of the terminal ridges ine ge Yun-ling in Chehkiang, at the sources of the Tsientang, per the southern aspect of the same range in Kwangtung at ae’ all present analogous geological relations. This vast t ilerous tract appears to be continuous in a measure with at of Assam and Burmah. etal he oe in demand in central China is called “ the Kwang pe the ell brought from various districts in Himan. Sichau ki ar for ail that is consumed in Kiangst and Chehkiang. tu ack, ver compact, specific gravity 134, columnar struc- 'e Occasionally iridescent, and from the large quantity of carbon Beer eer Se Aa * Chinese Repository, vol. xix, July, p. 385, 1850, No. 7 ‘* bees ae ‘ irk Pas co oe Pee ahs 236 Notices of Coal in China. it contains is analogous, though inferior to the American anthra- cite ; it burns intensely with a small blue flame, its ashy residuum being of a reddish color. That in use at Shanghai is of this description. It is brought from Siachau, via Chapt to Ningpo, where it costs $12 per ton, about one third more (the dealers say) than at Shanghai. Its consumption is very limited, being almost wholly confined to the manufacture of brass tobacco pipes. e best quality of this coal, that which most resembles anthracite, is well adapted for grates and stoves, being free from fumes 0 sulphuretted hydrogen, and is more wholesome than the bitumi- nous coal usually imported from Liverpool and Sydney. Numerous varieties are produced in the province of Kiangsi, slaty, cannel, bituminous and anthracite. Portions of the latter are sold at Sachau as the kwang coal. A considerable quantity from the mines in Kwangsin is carried over the mountains into the province of Chehkiang. It is found abundant also in Fung- ching and Chingkiang. he proximity of the coal measures in this province to ferruginous ore and lime, facilitates the manufac- ture of iron. Some of the mountains which support the subter- ranean treasures, afford disintegrated granite, of which the cele- brated porcelain is fabricated. The furnaces in Kingteh-chin, the great seat of this branch of industry, are chiefly heated by coal procured from adjacent mines. The generic designation for the mineral produced from the Chehkiang mines, is Kiangshan coal, e of the district in Kiichau fu, in the S. W. part of the province, whence it is chiefly derived. A large quantity however comes from the conterminous districts of Singan, and Changshan. The principal mines are at the Wiakwei mountain, near Kitung, and at the Chenkia lake in the first named district. ‘There are several varieties, that most valued is termed ‘ wood coal ;”’ it eX- hibits, where it is laminated with the fibres of the bituminated peculiar properties of other varieties are designated by their names as ‘‘ stinking coal,” “crackling,” and “ smoky coal ;”—an inferi quality comes from one of the mines, abounding in sulphuretted hydrogen, and closely resembles the coal found near Canton. Notices of Coal in China. 237 The “ wood coal” is generally reduced to powder, and formed into cakes with mud, and employed in furnaces for culinary pur- poses, and in chafing dishes for warming public offices. It is used to some extent by blacksmiths. Coal cakes are much used at Hangchau, in the liquor shops, in order to keep warm rice- whiskey on hand at all hours of the day ; and in the tea shops, where boiling water is in constant requisition. The furnaces are certainly primitive, consisting of a few bricks making a close square or circular chamber, generally about four inches in diam- eter with a small grate below, and inclosed above. When the cakes are perfectly ignited by a few chips, and the smoke ceases to rise, the top is covered with mud, through which, before dry- ing, an orifice.is pierced half an inch in diameter. The vesse containing whiskey is then placed over the hole, and is thus kept ot all day without further care, at a cost of a cent and a half. The same rude apparatus, with slight modifications, is in general use wherever coal from its proximity is not expensive. Some- times the brickwork is inclosed in boards, elaborately carved and varnished. Were grates or fire-places constructed with suitable ues and chimneys, coal would be found a more useful article, be i great demand, and the mines consequently be better worked. Even the miners find it more convenient and cheaper to burn the shrubs and grass of their sterile hills than the coal they dig from their bowels. ehkia , ton Kiangsi, - * - - - - 160,000 * SS si aan era ier 1 Northern Provinces, - - - - 280,000 Kwangtung and Western Provinces, - 100,000 “ 0,000 : 5 : eae : miner could doubtless bring to light inexhaustible supplies of this SUDterranean treasure. 238 Notices of Coal in China. Chinese miners are extremely poor and rude mountaineers ; it is said they often relieve hunger by eating coal, and if it be trae, as has been represented, that pigs fatten on this mineral in some western countries, this report respecting Chinese miners is not incredible. For the most part, the mines are worked in horizon- tal shafts, though pits are sometimes dug. At one period, pow- dered coal was mixed with flour and the juice of dates, and burned in chafing-dishes for producing a fragrant ined ’ Fo such _pastils, charcoal has been substituted. This mineral, the source of so much wealth and power in the West, does not ap- pear to have been known to Europe more than ‘three hundred years, but Chinese antiquarians refer its use to a remote period in their history. Its utility in the arts has been appreciated at Peking for more than a thousand years, as may be inferred from the en- comiums bestowed upon it by a poet of the Sung dynasty, who lauds it as useful in the manufacture of iron implements. A writer in the early part of the seventh century mentions the arti- cle. The earliest notice of coal is in the history of the Han dynasty, B. C. 202 to A. D. 25, where the remark occurs that Kiangsi produced stones, which were used as fuel. To appreciate rightly the value of these vast coal deposits, ex- tending from Corea to Siam, regard must be had to the increas- ing commerce of the Pacific, to the revolution which seems on the eve of taking place in the route of communication with west- ern nations, and to the prospective greatness of the Anglo-Saxon ‘ states springing into existence on its eastern shores. Of their ca- pacity, aided with the appliances of foreign skill and capital to supply all demands which the steam-engine may make upon them, both for manufactures and navigation, there can exist no doubt. Nor have these primeval forests been stored upon the continent alone; they abound in more accessible situations, isolated, as it were expressly for steam navigation, in the islands of Japan, For- mosa, and Borneo. Before the application of steam and coal to navigation, a skeptical philosophy might have questioned the utility of deposits of this mineral in the torrid zone, and imme- diately under the equator; but the design of the Omniscient Artificer of this beautiful sphere is now obvious, affording another evidence that He left nothing to fortuitous circumstances : it is another lesson fraught with instruction for reflective minds. May the name of the immense sheet of water, on whose shores Infinite Beneficence has scattered this mineral, eetions the peaceful pur- poses of all who traverse it, that both elements may contribute to the diffusion of commerce and civilization in fusing hostile races into a common brotherhood ! Ningpo, February Ist, 1850. Meteorological Journal at Marietta; Ohio. 239 Arr. XXIX.— Abstract of a Meteorologial Journal kept at Ma- rietta, Ohio, for the year 1850, Lat. 39° 25’, Long. 4° 28’ west of Washington; by S. P. Hitpreru, M.D. THERMOMETER. l | BAROMETER. | Se F | | jee | eI eo | MONTHS. a ae o €G| Winds. s e | § ae | ey r=} = fetes Pe CRS ae | eS he | ah ee January, 4 (29°13) 58 1} 13) 18) 5-25) ss. w. & s. E. 39-30 25-85. “< February, = - (34-33 64) Q| 12,16 341) s.,s.w. dx. 29-96 2850 1-4 March, - - 39-11 66 9] 13 18 4:50) 5.8.8. dN. 29-7028-65 1-¢ April, - - [48:11 80 29] 16 14.317, ws. &s. 2. 29-70:28-6511-( May, - ~- (5581 86 32 23, 83:25 s.w.d&w. (29-602898 € June, = == 69-27 88) 39) 4) 4-84) s.w. & w. —29°70)/29-25) 4 July, + -~ |7634! 92 60| 27} 4/441) s.& 8.5 29-45 29-25) -£ Augus - 71-77 89 50) 231 8 6-91) en, 29-60 29-20, -4 September, - (63.33 84 40) 26 4 466 8. — 29-64 29-10, -¢ — eee pee 81) 27) 22; 9 254 s.w. & w. — (29-60)29-10) +5 ovember, - (44-68 75 18 18) 12, 2-42 s.s.w. & N. (29-61/29-15) <4 ec@mber, (34-66 65) 10) 14,17, 7—| ss. w. & w. _29-75'28-45 1-3 __Mean for year, (51-48 333 13 52°36 THe mean temperature for the year 1850 is 519-48, which is somewhat less than that of 1849, being 52°09. This depression may be found in the low grade of the spring and autumn months; the mean for this year being nearly five degrees less in the spring than that of 1849, while autumn is about one degree below. © summer was warmer by about one degree and a half. The greatest heat was in July, the mean for that month being 76°14, while July of 1849 was 722-20, th ording a scanty supply for the ice houses. In the Ohio river ete was much floating ice, but not so abundant as to stop the Tanning of steamboats. The temperature was at no time below Zero, but stood at one above on the first day of the year. ‘There Was a large quantity of rain in January, over five inches, and at ime the rivers threatened an overflow of their banks. Feb- Tuary usually furnishes the coldest weather of any of the winter oka but this year the mean was five degrees above January. PPR of one day, the fourth of this month, was below that ‘ny other, being only eight degrees, while the lowest in Jan- nary was thirteen, 240 Meteorological Journal at Marietta, Ohio. The mean of the spring months was 47°-68, which is nearly 5° below that of 1849. The cold backward weather of March and April, retarded the edie of fruit trees so much, as ina measure to guard them against late spring frosts, which in southern Ohio, is the greatest drawback to the fruit-grower. usual varieties, and of the best quality. A severe drought the last of May and early part of June, at one time threatened the total destruction of the corn, oats and potatoes, it continuing nearly a month without rain. But a full supply the last of June, pat all right again. This drought, however, was very favorable o the wheat crop, ripening it without rust ; a disaster certain to befall it if the weather is wet and hot when the grain is in the milk or immature state. The mean of the summer months was 729-39, being nearly a degree and a half above that of the preceding year. ‘This warm crop, with some of our passa especially near thé large towns. It also suited the grape, which is a valuable article of culture. A serious evil, however, has begun its ravages on this delicious fruit, namely, ‘the grape Cureulio, which threatens to be disastrous to its future prosperit y. ‘Two or three years ago, it was first noticed in this vicinity. I have several of its larvae in a pot of earth, intending to study its economy and habits. The temperature of autumn, was 53°-16; being more than a degree less than in 1849. Severe frosts did not appear, till the 29th October, when Dahlias were first killed. Floral Calendar. —March 19th, First robin, heard; 21st, Black birds; 23d, Blue bird; 31st, Hepatica triloba in bloom—Early Hyacinth. April 7th, Apricot in bloom; 21st, Service tree; 22d, Pe ach tree ; 23d, Im mperial gage and prune ; 24th, Sanguinaria canaden- SIS ; 27th, Pear; 28th, Ranunculus | virosa; 29th, Pyrus Japonica —very late this. year, usually a week before the Pear tree ; 30th, - Cherry. May 2d, Apple tree in bloom; 4th, Judas tree; 6th, Cornus ee 8th, Chickasaw plum ; Lith, Tulips; 12th, "Hickory tree ; 16th, Quince; 19th, Lilac and Black Haw; 20th, Purple mulberry ; "23d, Viburnum ; 28th, Syringa fragrans June Ist, Locust tree—ver ry late ; 2d, White peony ; Ath, ‘alison strawberry ripe; 6th, Kalmia latifolia in bloom ; 10th, Syringa Philadelphica; 13th, Catawba grape in bloom; 22d, China ailanthus; 234d, Purple mulberry ripe; 25th, Magnolia glauca in bloom ; 27th, Catalpa; 28th, Early wheat ripe. y 2d, Red cherry ripe; 4th, Red Antwer erp raspberry "pe; 15th, Blackberry ri ripe, Chemical Conditions of the Water, §c. 241 Ant, XXX.—On the different Chemical Conditions of the Water at the surface of the Ocean and at the bottom, on Soundings ; y Aue. A. Haves, Assayer to the State of Mass. Coysiperine the surface, which the ocean covers in compari- son with any large extent of land surface, we might be led to expect a want of uniformity in the distribution of saline matter throughout its mass. Those parts reposing in immediate contact with saline deposits and many decomposing rocks, would every instant receive more soluble matters than contiguous portions, and while matter to be dissolved remained, the balance of distri- bution would be disturbed. Local differences are known to exist and are referred to the influence of evaporation, and to lower and upper currents, with great degree of probability. Still, the belief that the water of the ocean has existed during the lapse of great geological periods of time, with the same or even a large proportion of saline matter, must gradually give way, as facts connected with the decomposition of rocks are attentively ied. _ The phenomena which form the subject of this communica- tion, are only remotely connected with this point of unequal dis- tribution ; being related to kind, rather than quantity of saline ts. The mass of ocean, exposed on its surface to the mixture of gases forming our atmosphere, absorbs both constituents, the oxygen in the larger proportion. Winds greatly favor this effect, and the increased quantity found in the water after storms, is referred to this action. -When ocean water, taken at the same moment from the sur- face and only one to two hundred feet under this surface, is sub- jected to the usual course of analysis, a larger proportion of oxygen is constantly found in the surface samples. Trials, made at points from the temperate to and within the torrid zone, cor- responded, and only slight deviations were found in the moving water of the Gulf Stream. Another kind of evidence of this fact, is afforded by the observations made on the corrosion, of the Copper sheathing of vessels. Slight inequalities in the kinds of Copper used exist; but when a large number of cases are included and time of observation is considerable, this influence is hardly Seen. It is a general law, that copper sheathing corrodes most Tapidly at those parts of the covered surface, where, by agitation, the most air is dissolved in the water passing in contact with it, The fact is well known, that sea-water, deprived of air, has no “lon on copper even after many years’ exposure, and this relation becomes changed, when we allow the same water to dissolve air. Some persons who have noticed this uniformity of corrosion, at Steon Sunes, Vol. XI, No. 32.—March, 1851. 3 + 242 Chemical Conditions of the Water the points where the water contains the most dissolved air, have attempted an explanation, on mechanical principles. They have on those parts of the coppered surface, really exposed to the greatest friction. If we assume that the oxygen of sea-water is almost wholly derived from solution of one part of the atmosphere, then the surface under existing conditions should contain the largest . amount. The organized beings of the ocean, consuming the oxy- gen as diffused, would constantly diminish the quantity below composition of hydrochlorates, under the presence of oxygen etal; a very common change, resulting in the production of oxyds and chlorids. While pursuing the subject of copper corrosion at the surface, as some years since led to examine samples of copper, which had remained some time at the bottom of the ocean. In these different depths, and in one instance from clean sand below 4 powerful rapid, have given thick layers of sulphurets of copper; or copper and tin. These observations have been lately extended, and as they include other materials, I shall state them more particularly. The Spanish vessel San Pedro de Alcantaro, was blown up off men, from a depth between fifty and eighty feet. The coit reposed in mud and was sometimes covered by a stratum of coral, from six to twelve inches thick. ae wo pieces of the coinage of 1810 and 1812 were taken for 'y The weight of such dollars, slightly worn, was 412 at the surface of the Ocean and at the bottom. 243 grs. nearly. When the coin of 1810 had lost its covering, it weighed 330 grains, or 82 grains of the substance of the dollar had assumed the state of a sulphuret. The other weighed 356°82 or less by 55:18 ers. By exposure during thirty-five years in one case, 100 parts of the coin had been destroyed to the extent of nearly 2U parts, the other 13-39, giving an aver- age of 16°52. These incrustations were crystallized distinctly and their com- position was carefully determined. Water abstracted traces of chlorids of sodium and magnesia, with sulphate of lime only. Acetic acid took up a compound of chlorine, carbonate of lime and oxyd of copper, in minute quantity. The investing coating was removed from one coin by making it the negative of a single galvanic circle, in dilute sulphuric acid, so as to obtain the cover- ing in sheets; a loss of sulphur taking place. Water acidulated , With nitric acid, after several days, detached the covering from the other, and this sample was used for determining the sulphur, in the form of sulphuric acid, as well as the bases. Operating in this way, it was found that very small portions of chlorids of sodium, magnesium, and sulphate and carbonate of lime adhered to the incrustation, while the pure portion of this consisted of bisulphuret of copper with sulphuret of silver and gold; even the minute trace of the latter metal in the silver, being mineral- ized by sulphur. Connected with this observation is another I have made on the corrosion of an alloy of 1 silver in 500 copper, used as Sheathing, in which both metals united to chlorine and oxygen, and were removed rapidly and largely by surface water, as a simple metal would have been _ No opportunity has yet offered for continuing these examina- ons on copper and other metals obtained from great depths ®xert a most important influence. ‘These waters are never desti- tute of organic matter ina changing state. ‘This matter dissolved from the surface of the earth or from rocks in percolating the W. assumes a state in which it powerfully attracts oxygen. aters holding this matter in solution, readily decompose sul- 244 Limit of Perpetual Snow in the Himalaya. phates of lime and soda, even when partially exposed to atmo- spheric air. The line at which the saline waters of the ocean ; and the under-land flow of water meet, is the place, where obser- 3 vations have shown that the greatest chemical action exists. Ordinary decompositions of sulphates by organic matter in ocean | water, are hardly known to take place. 'The phenomena at once become distinct, when land waters are allowed to mix, and the water from deep wells in the vicinity of the ocean has a more highly marked chemical action, than rain water. The decom- position of the sulphates proceeds under the presence of carbonic acid, and carbonates of the alkaline earths are products of the change. : 1 Pine St., Boston, January, 1851. = Arr. XXXI.—On the Limit of Perpetual Snow in the Hima- aya; by Lieut. Srracuey.* “y this part of the Himalaya, it is not, on an average of years, ‘ till the beginning of December, that the snow line appears deci- dly to descend for the winter. After the end of September, indeed, when the rains are quite over, light falls of snow are not - of very uncommon occurrence on the higher mountains, even ¥ down to 12,000 feet; but their effects usually disappear very eI quickly, often ina few hours. The latter part of October, the . whole of November, and the beginning of December, are here | generally characterized by the beautiful serenity of the sky ; and | and it is at this season, on the southern edge of the belt, that the | line of perpetual snow is seen to attain its greatest elevation. | * ‘The following are the results of trigonometrical measurements of the elevation of the inferior edge of snow on spurs of the Treslii and Nandadevi groups of peaks, made, before the winter snow had begun, in November, 1848. g F | Height on fare Point. East. exposed to West. observed. From Almorah, { From Binsar, | Observed from (height, 5586 ft.)|(height, 7969 ft.)| eee | Almorah. No. Feet. Feet. Feet e 1 16,599 16,767 16,683 15,872 2 16,969 17,005 16,987 en j 3 17,186 17,185 17,185 14,878 4 15,293 15,361 15,327 _ The points 1, 2 and 3 are in ridges that run in the southwest- erly direction. The dip of the strata being to the northeast, the _* Jour. Asiatic Society of Bengal, New Series, No, xxviii, p. 287; cited from Humboldt’s Views of Nature, Bohn’s edition, p. 14, : ; Limit of Perpetual Snow in the Himalaya. 245 faces exposed to view from the south are for the most part very abrupt, and snow never accumulates on them to any great extent. This in some measure will account for the height to which the snow is seen to have receded on the eastern exposures, that is, upwards of 17,000 feet. On the western exposures the ground is less steep, and the snow is said to have been observed ata considerable less elevation; but it was in very small quantities, and had probably fallen lately, so that [ am inclined to think that its height, viz., about 15,000 feet, rather indicates the elevation below which the light autumnal falls of snow were incapable of lying, than that of the inferior edge of the perpetual snow. It is further to be understood, that below this level of 15,000 feet, the mountains were absolutely without snow, excepting those small isolated patches that are seen in ravines, or at the head of glaciers, which of course, do not affect such calculations as these. Jn the whole, therefore, I consider that the height of the snow- line on the more prominent points of the southern edge of the belt may be fairly reckoned at 16,000 feet at the very least. The point No. 4 was selected as being in a much more retir- ed position than the others. It is situated not far from the hea of the Pindur river. It was quite free from snow at 15,300 feet, and [ shall therefore consider 15,000 feet as the elevation of the snow-line in the re-entering angles of the chain. I conclude, then, that 15,500 feet, the mean of the heights at the most and least prominent points, should be assigned as the mean elevation of the snow-line at the southern limit of the belt Which is 15,500 feet, on the 9th of August, 1822, and remained there until the 15th of the same month. He found the south- £ri slope of the range generally free from snow, and he states it is sometimes left without any whatever. On the top of the pass itself there was no snow; but on the northern slope of © mountain it lay as far down as about 14,000 feet. On his arrival, rain was falling, and out of the four days of his stay on Ss, it either rained or snowed for the greater part of three. The fresh snow that fell during this time did not lie below \ 246 Limit of Perpetual Snow in the Himalaya. 16,000 feet, and some of the more precipitous rocks remained clear even up to 17,000 feet. The conclusion to which Dr. Gerard comes from these facts, is, that the snow-line on the southern face of the Bissehir range is at 15,000 feet above the sea. But I should myself be more in- clined, from his account, to consider that 15,500 feet was nearer the truth ; and in this view I am confirmed by verbal accounts of the state of the passes on this range, which I have obtained from persons of my acquaintance, who have crossed them somewhat later in the year. The difference, however, is after all trifling. Such is the direct evidence that can be offered on the height of the snow-line at the southern limit of the belt of perpetual snow ; some additional light, may, however, be thrown on the subject generally by my briefly explaining the state in which I have found the higher parts of the mountains at the different seasons during which I have visited them. In the beginning of May, on the mountains to the east of the Ramganga river, near Namik. I found the ground on the summit of the ridge, called Champwa, not only perfectly free from snow at an elevation of 12,0U0 feet, but covered with flowers, in some places golden with Caltha and Ranunculus polypetalus, in others purple with Primulus. The snow had in fact already receded to upwards of 12,500 feet, behind which even a few little gentians proclaimed the advent of spring. ‘Towards the close of the same month, at the end of the Pindur, near the glacier from which that river rises, an open spot on which I could pitch my tent could not be* found above 12,000 feet. But here the accumulation of snow, which was consider- able in all ravines even below 11,000 feet, is manifestly the result of avalanches and drift. The surface of the glacier, clear ice as well as moraines, was quite free from snow up to nearly 13,000 feet; but the effect of the more retired position of the place in retarding the melting of the snow, was manifest from the less advanced state of the vegetation. During my stay at Pinduri the weather was very bad, and several inches of snow fell; but, excepting where it had fallen on the old snow, it all melted off again ina few hours, even without the assistance of the sun’s direct rays. On the glacier, at 13,000 feet, it had all disappeared twelve hours after it fell. On revisiting Pinduri about the middle of October, the change that had taken place was very striking. Now not a sign of snow was to be seen on any part of the road up to the very head of the glacier; a luxuriant vegetation had sprung up, but had already almost entirely perished, and its remains covered the ground as far went. From this elevation, about 13,000 feet, evident signs of vegetation could be seen to extend far up the less pre cipitous mountains. The place is not one at which the height * pen ben asetioae. ee i oe | eee ee RC? 5 Limit of Perpetual Snow in the Himalaya. 247 of the perpetual snow can be easily estimated, for on all sides are glaciers, and the vast accumulations of snow from which they are supplied, and these cannot always be readily distinguished rom snow in situ; but as faras I could judge, those places whic might be considered as offering a fair criterion were free from snow up to 15,000, or even 16,000 feet. owards the end of August I crossed the Barjikang Pass, be- tween Ralam and Juhar, the elevation of which is about 15,300 feet. There was here no vestige of snow on the ascent to the pass from the southeast, and only a very small patch remained on the north- western face. The view of the continuation of the ridge ina southerly direction was cut off by a prominent point, but no snow lay on that side within 500 feet of the pass, while to the north I estimated that there was no snow in considerable quantity within 1500 feet or more, that is, nearly up to 17,000 feet. The vegetation on the very summit of the pass was far from scanty, though it had already begun to break up into tufts, and had lost that character of continuity which it had maintained to within a height of 500 or 600 feet. Species of Potentilla, Sedum, Saxa- fraga, Corydalis, Aconitum, Delphinium, Thalictrum, Ranunculus, aussurea, Gentiana, Pedicularis, Primula, Rheum, and Polygo- num, all evidently flourishing in a congenial climate, showed that the limits of vegetation and region of perpetual snow were still far distant. In addition to these facts it may not be out of place to mention that there are two mountains visible from Almorah, Rigoli-gidri, in Garhwal between the Kailganga and Nandakni, and Chipula, in Kumaon, between Gori and Dauli (of Darma), both upwards of 13,000 feet in elevation, from the summits of which, the snow disappears long before the end of the summer months, and which do not usually again become covered for the winter till late in December.” These remarks are followed by an exposition of the errors into which Webb, Colebrooke, Hodgson, A. Gerard, and Jacquemont, have fallen. The heights assigned by these travellers ‘‘ must all rejected; nor can it be considered at all surprising that any amount of mistake, as to the height of the snow-line, should be Made, so long as travellers cannot distinguish snow from glacier ice, or look for the boundary of perpetual snow at the beginning of the spring.” : With regard to the northern limit of the belt of perpetual snow, Lieutenant Strachey’s observations were made in September, 1848, on his way from Milam into Hundes, vid Untadhira, Ky- ungar-ghat, and Balch-dhira, at the beginning of the month; ce = his road back again, vid Lakhur-ghat, at the end of the ni 248 Limit of Perpetual Snow in thé Himalaya. “Of the three passes that we crosse@dmour way from Milam, all of them being about 17,000 feet in elevation, the first is Wata- dhara, and we saw no snow on any path i the way up to its top, which was reached in a very disagreeable drizzle of rain and snow. e final ascent to the pass from the south is about 1000 feet. The path leads up the side of a ravine, down whicha small stream trickles, the ground having a generally even and rounded surface. Neither on any part gf this nor on the summit of the pass itself, which is tolerably leve# were there any remains of snow whatever. On the ridge to thégright and left there were patches of snow a few hundred feet above; and on the northern face of the pass an accumulation remained that extended about everywhere quite free from snow. On the ascent to Wata-dhara, at perhaps 17,000 feet, a few blades of grass were seen, but on the whole it may be said to be utterly devoid of vegetation. On the north side of the pass, 300 or 400 feet below the summit, a cruciferous plant was the first met with. height; but on the north a large bed lay a little way down the slope, and extended to about 500 feet from the top. On this pass, a boragineous plant in flower was found above 17,000 feet; a species of Urtica was also got about the same altitude, and we afterwards saw it again nearly as high up on the Lakhur pass. n our ascent to the Balch pass, no snow was observed on any | of the southern spires of the range, and only one or two very small patches could be seen from the summit on the north side. The average height of the top of this range can hardly be more than 500 feet greater than that of the pass; and as a whole it certainly does not enter the region of perpetual snow. As viewed from the plains of Handes, it cannot be said to appear snowy, a few only of the peaks being tipped. We returned to Milam vid Chirchun. The whole of the ascent to. the Lakhur pass was perfectly free from snow to the very top, t. e, 18,300 feet and some of the neighboring mountains were bare still higher. The next ridge on this route is Jainti-dhara, which is passed at an elevation of 18,500 feet, but still without — crossing the least portion of snow. The line of perpetual snow is however evidently near; for though the Jainti ridge was quite ree, and some of the peaks near us were clear probably to up- wards of 19,000 feet, yet in more sheltered situations unbroken snow could be seen considerably below us; and on the whole I think that 18,500 feet must be near the average height of the snow-line at this place. : Analyses of the shes of certain Commercial Teas. 249 as : of the principal results of Lieutenant Strachey’s ne Shatvs that “the snow-line or the southern edge of the belt tual snow in this portion of the Him- alaya is at an levator Sof 15,000 feet, while on the northern edge it reaches 18,500 feet ; and that on the mountains to the north of the Sutlej, or still further, it recedes even beyond 19,000 feet. The greater elevation which the snow-line attains on the northern edge of the gt of perpetual snow is a phenomenon not confined to the Thihetan declivity alone, but extending far into the interior of the pain ; ‘and it appears to be caused by the quantity of snow that falls on the northern portion of the moun- tains being much less than that which falls farther to the south along the line where the peaks, covered with perpetual snow, first rise above the less elevated ranges of the Himalayas.” A brief recapitulag ier Arr. XXXII.—Analyses of the Ashes of certain Commercial Yeas ; communicated by Prof. E. N. Horsrorp, of Harvard University. 1. Souchong Tea; by Edward a oo of the Cambridge Laborat 1st Sample :—per-centage of ash ' by the tea, 5-48 A Koa teive examination conducted according to the method of “al and Fresenius gave for the constituents of the ash, potassa, lime, magnesia, peroxyd of iron, phosphoric, sulphuric, bedrochlores, silicic and carbonic acids, charcoal and sand. A quantitive analysis gave the following per-centage of the Several constituents. Per-centage, carbonic acid, Results of analysis charceal and sand excluded. Potassa, : : 3°31 : Soda, . : ; 22°78 ; j 25°46 Ri po os ee EN ope Se Magnesia, : 8-58 ; . 9°59 Periayd of iron, Yt 8-42 Phosphoric acid, . 11:29 3 . 1262 Sulphuric acid, . 9:07 . . 10-14 Chlorid of sodium, 9) See 2-40 Silica TAS gs ie OOM Carbonic acid, : 2°85 ‘ . eget Charcoal and sand, 5°38 ‘ ‘ paseo 97-69 100-00 Brcoxn Srnrs, Vol. XI, No. 32.—March, 1851. 82 250 Analyses of the Ashes of certain Commercial Teas. —per-centage of aly; 6°106. The Soivei gave in 100 parts Potassa, ae Magnesia, ‘ Peroxyd of iron, . Phosphoric acid, Sulphuric acid, . hlorid of sodiu iy Silica, Carbonic acid, ‘ ' Charcoal and sand, 2. Oolong Tea; Results of analysis. 99°76 Laboratory. Per-centage of ash, 5-14 The analysis gave in 100 parts :— r Chlorid of sodium, Phosphoric acid, Sulphuric acid, Silicic acid, Carbonic acid, Charcoal and sand, Results of analysis. 11:57 99°51 Per-centage, unessential ingredients excluded. 100.00 by Robert C. Tevis, A.B., of the Cambridge Per-centage, charcoal, sand and carbonic acid excluded. 100-00 3. Young Hyson Tea; by J. M. Hague, of the Cambridge Laboratory. Per-centage of ash, 5-94. The analysis gave in 100 parts: Results of analysis. Potassa, 30°84 Soda, . 8:42 Lime, . ; 743 Magnesia, . : 6:17 Peroxyd of iron, . 4:32 Per-centage, carbonic acid, charcoal and sand excluded. ay. _ Scientific Intelligence. 251 Per-centage, carbonic acid, Results of analysis. charcoal and sand excluded. Chlorid of sodium, 4:24 ‘ 4-66 Phosphoric acid, . 15:12 ; , 16-64 Sulphuric acid, . 4-4U ‘ , 4:89 Silicic acid, . a 9-90 . . 10°89 Carbonic acid, . 3°83 ; ‘ — Charcoal and sand, 5:98 i —- 100°65 100-00 4. Ninyong Tea; by Charles S. Homer, Jr., of the Cambridge Laboratory. Per-centage of ash, 4:73. The analysis afforded in 100 parts— Per-centage, carbonic acid, Results of analysis. charcoal and sand excluded, Potassa, ‘75 oda, ‘ 11:24 12:88 Lime, . é é 7:32 8:39 Peroxyd of iron, 16°84 . ts PAGSE Chlorid of sodium, 2:84 t : 3°25 Phosphoric acid, . 15°22 : ; 17°44 Sulphuric acid, . re 4-76 Silica : : 4:86 ; : 559 Carbonic acid : 401 ; ‘ a 2 Charcoal and sand, 9:09 ; , ee 100-33 100-00 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. Cuemistry AND Puysics. , The author first determined the specific heat of ice between —21° C. —2° C., employing in the calorimeter a solution of salt the specific heat of which had been previously determined. The specific heat of ice between the limits above mentioned was found to be 0°48. In de- termining the latent heat the ice was formed into cylinders in the axes 252 Scientific Intelligence. of which were placed thermometers showing zAoth degree ; the time of fusion in the calorimeter on the average about 12 mi stant setting out from a temperature of —2°, and was then represented From this it may be inferred that ice approaches very near its point of fusion without sensibly changing its consistence, the slight softening which precedes the fusion being comprised within an in- terval of 2 degrees: the passage of ice from a solid to a liquid state though sufficiently well defined is still effected by degrees and not ab- ruptly. It will be remembered that De la Provostaye and Dessains on the one hand, and Regnault on the other, had found for the latent heat of ice the number 79; the experiments of Regnault had however clearly shown that this number was not constant but increased as the initial temperature of the ice diminished at least as far as —0°61, for which the corresponding latent heat was 79°71.—Ann. de Chimie et de Phys- ique, Sept., 1850. 2. Liquefaction of Gases.—Bertuetor has applied the expansive force of heated liquids to the liquefaction of gases upon a small scale. A thick glass tube having a small bore is to be sealed at one end and then filled with pure and dry mercury free from air; the open end of the tube is then to be drawn out to a capillary orifice, without diminish- ing the ratio between the thickness and the interior diameter of the tube. The column of mercury is then to be heated in a water bath eye. The author suggests the employment of the gas or solar micro- pe é that Light always appears at the negative pole, and that this Aig is properly the positive pole, and that this heat is originally dark heat, 3d, that Light and Heat do not unite in the instant of evolution but — only after the intensity of each has reached a certain point ; from this ha already become very hot. The experiments were subsequently repeated in Paris by means of an apparatus contrived by Duboscq 10 Chemistry and Physics. 253 moderate and regulate the galvanic light; the author interrupted the circuit repeatedly by separating the carbon-poles from each other and then causing them to approach again; at every new contact the origin- _ ally white light showed itself upon the carbon of the negative pole, but soon after the completion of the circuit the combustion began at the positive pole, the carbon here became hollowed out and emitted a far d the electric light becoming wholly insensible.—Comptes Rend., xxx, 359, and Pogg. Ann., 1850, No. 10, 318. perature of from t and passing over it a current of dry air, it then crystallizes by fusion in prisms of very large dimensions and is Chimie et de Physique, October, 1850. » On the employment of Hydrogen in Mineral Analyses.—Rivor d d * This volume, p. 108. 254 Scientific Intelligence. 30 times its weight of water takes up in the course of 24 hours the whole of the iron without a trace of alumina. The result obtained employed the old equivalent of iron 339 in bis calculations. The same process was also found to give accurate results in separating iron from zirconia, glucina, and oxyd of chromium, and in the analysis of ores of tin. [Note.—Should the accuracy of the methods here indicated be verified by other chemists, it might be advantageous to substitute a por- celain crucible with a bored cover and porcelain tube as recommended by Rosé for the far less convenient arrangement of Rivot.]|—Ann. de Chimie, October, 1850. . Capronic and CEnanthic Acids.—Brazizr and GosstEet have contributed many new and interesting facts to the chemical history of these two acids. Caproni id was prepared from cyanid of amyl current upon an acid of the formula Cn+2 2 gives rise to one and the same product. By the electrolysis of cenanthate of potash, @ homologous compound was obtained as an oily liquid boiling at 2U2, hol and ether. Its constitution is represented by Ci2His, an authors term it provisionally Caproyl; by repeated distillation with @ mixture of nitric and sulphuric acids caproyl yields capronic acid. Bromine has little or no action upon caproyl even in the sunlight} mass macie, Ixxv, 249. ine Y Amylo-sulphuric Acid.—Kerxutk has studied amylo-sulphuri¢ — acid and its compounds, C1oH110, SOs+SOs, RO; of the results obtained, however, the only one which deserves special notice '§ Pil Chemistry and Physics. 265 that relating to the action of heat upon amylo-sulphate of lime. When amylo-sulphate of lime is submitted to dry distillation, carbonic and sulphurous acids are given off and two liquids are obtained differ. ing in volatility ; the more volatile boiled at 42° C., was colorless by repeated distillation ; its formula is CioH10, it is consequently identical with amylene obtained by Balard by the distillation of amylic alcohol with chlorid of e substance analyz however not absolutely pure, but contained a small quantity of some sulphur- ompound. ‘The less volatile liquid obtained did not possess a constant boiling point—the portion boiling between 165°-175° gave pretty nearly the formula of amylic ether, C1oH110, with which however its boiling point does not correspond. From the results of this inves- tigation the author infers that in the dry distillation of an amylo- sulphate one portion of the oxyd of amyl passes over as such, one ; : ind ; simply to the passage of the element into an allotropic state or form. Precisely the same change was produced by exposing phosphorus for Some time to a temperature of 226° C.; the mass assumed a fine red color and became gradually less fluid, darker, and finally perfectly opaque. The precise temperature at which the change takes place Be or brownish black: when washed it becomes violet, recovering its _ ginal color when cold. Its density at 10° C. is 1964. Amorphous 26 Scientific Intelligence. phosphorus is insoluble in bisulphid of carbon, alcohol, ether, naphtha and percblorid o sphorus; boiling oil.of nti small quantity of it; in the air it remains wholly un e It is atmosphere nor injurious to the health of the workmen. In a second paper the author fully confirms the results which he had previously that common p orus is capable of decomposing water temper ature between 250° 0°C. Itsh have beea stated above tha amorphous modification of phosphorus is reconverted into TONE h d a compound of chlorine, nittogen and phosphorus; originally discovered by Wéhler and Liebig, but not investigated by them. > chloro-phosphuret of nitrogen isgalways formed when tion is independent of moisture in the ammoniakemployed ; not a similar manner. en | part of pentanipeaid an parts of dry -ammoniac are heated together in a flask connected by means of bored corks and tubes with two or more receivers, the chloro-p ‘€ + Chemistry and Physics. = 267 erystallized compound is somewhat greater than that of aa that of the fused substance somewhat less; on heating, dense vaporsjrre iven is: Very small proportion of alcohol however suffices for its complete pre- Fp tation.—Monats-bericht der Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Ber- in, July, 1850. 7. . 12. Constitution of Tourmaline.--RAMMELSBERG has communicated ‘ h ¢ the protoxyds and the quantities in the sesquioxyds and t Sunes, Vol. XI, No. 82.— March, 1851. ae ae ‘ 258 Scientific Intelligence. two acids is different for different tourmalines. The ratio in question was found to be in six varieties ==1: 3: 5 spec. grav. mean 3:05 in eight * betibtirbs: Goce Hy oe of i 3°10 in six oe poi: f GKe: Bay. th as * 3°20 Wax. os odie Pe AD. bc Muala 3:08 i eo beak 19 ja “* ft 4 sd The author divides the tourmalines into two classes :~~A. Dark (brown * or black) tourmalines ; these contain no lithia, and the first member of their formulas is-always a bisilicate (R* Si?.) B. Light (blue, green and . red) tourmalines; these contain lithia, and the first member of their | formulas is always a trisilicate (RSi); this class includes the trans- ; parent varieties. Class A, is further subdivided into 3 groups, for : h : Formula R?Si?+38Si. These contain the maximum of magnesia but ” very little iron. In this group belong the yellow and brown varieties from Gouverneur, N. Y., Orford, N. H., Monroe, Ct., Windisckappel in Carinthia, Eibenstock in the Harz, and the Zillerthal. -) Magnesia-iron tourmalines.--Oxygen ratio, 1:4:6, Sp. Gr. 3:1. Formula R? Si?+-4 These contain on an average from 6-9 per cent. magnesia, an cent. oxyds of iron. This group embraces - ° c = ce = 5 oO i? 7] ° = ow ° < tas) Ss [= = o 9 Z box 9 oq 5 > =] =] Qu. rom Saar in Moravia, Krummau in Bohemia and Langbielau in Silesia. comprises two groups. iy Tron-manganese tourmalines.—Oxygen ratio 1:9:12. Formula RSi-+3H Si. Sp. Gr. 3-08, hese are characterized by containing both metals. They comprise the green, blue and violet varieties—the green brownish-violet from Elba, and the blue from Sarapulsk in the Ural. -) Manganese tourmalines.—-Oxygen ratio 1:12:15. Sp.Gr. 3°04 Formula RSi+4# Si. These are red or nearly colorless varieties free — from iron, as those from Elba, Paris in Maine, Schaitansk in the Ur and Rozena in Moravia. oe n both classes tourmalines are found which are perfectly opake : ‘ when cut parallel to the axis and examined in polarized light. a The author has further examined the micas and their relations to the aay ES ee : 7. We SIE ee yeaa geatee semmarcse- ce weceeenee ee uF ae? Sate LER EAL - * The ratio 1:12:15 is i tly d king $:9:12, dk aca sae 15 1s incorrectly deduced by Rammelsberg, by antking Bale ‘. ayes Mineralogy and Geology. _ 259 traces of manganese. ‘The presence of this body in the ashes of several varieties of tea, coffee, potato, and squash, which has recently been demonstrated in the Cambridge Laboratory, leaves no doubt as to the source from which the manganese may have been derived. The above observations relieve the experiments of Millon,* which led him to believe in the existence of manganese in the blood, from the imputation of Melsens,t that the metal may have been supplied from the vessels or reagents employed in the examination. II. MinERALOGY anp GEOLOGY. I could not decide on the little | obtained from a specimen which is in be Ag of the Garden of Plants. ad econdary. ‘ t predominate almost exclusively in the west- do Portions (not including Portugal), in the whole of the ancient king- Pra of Galicia, and nds through Astorga, Zamora, Salamanca, acencia, Caceres, Mérida, Lleréna, Aracé Rio Tinto, to the Horth of Seville and to the neighborhood of Italica, the birth-place of the Emperor Trajan, now called Sancti Ponce. m owever be hat a for want of detailed observations, we have no ite Ve can say only that the gneiss rocks occupy abouta fifth of the vce of the soil, extending longitudinally from north to south, but : throwing out, as it were, ramifications toward the east. ___ * Journal de Ph. et de Chim, 3 Sér, t. xiii, p. 86-88. Ann, de Chem. et de Phys, 3 Sér, t. xxiii, p. 388-392. ae 260 Scientific Intelligence. traversed by veins or dykes of porphyritic granite. Only at the northern extremity, viz. between Aracéna and Lleréna, in the villages of Zufre | and Santa Olalla, is a great syenitic outburst visible. The most important of these granitic ramifications to the east, is that which passes by the Sierra de Gridos, Sierra d’Avila, and the Guadar- ’ rama, to Somo Sierra, in a direction from southwest to northeast. The great granitic outburst of Truxillo and of the mountains of Toledo does not extend so far to the east. A third, which is not so well mark- as the other two, 7. ¢. does not appear on the surface with the same . oo is that which has probably given its present form to the a pr ierra Morena. It terminates at Linares, in the province of Jaen deposits. There are some however of considerable importance. All the copper deposits of the district of Rio Tinto occur in talcose schist, in the vicinity of the granite. The famous mines of Guadalcanal Ca i covered at Hiendelencina, in the province of Guadalaxara, traverse the real gneiss, and are also not very distant from the granite of Somo Sierra. The plutonic rocks themselves are still less rich in useful metals compared with their great development. he most important deposit ation must also be referred the carbonate of lead and the antimo- nial-ochre of Losacio, in gneiss entirely surrounded by granite. Th nd abundant minerals of Losa ve not yet proved profitable the Tagus, which are slightly worked in Estremadura, are all derived from the disintegration of the granitic rocks. The auriferous sands of the Darro and the Gerril, sung by the Arab and Andalusian poets, aré hot worth mentioning; they are very poor, and are not derived from the same source. stone, or rather metalliferous limestone. Fossils are very sca The Silurian formation is well characterized in the Sierra Morena, from Santa Cruz de Mudela to Almaden, with its remarkable deposit of Cin- oo Mineralogy and Geology. 261 mabar, It also occurs in the mountain-chain of Asturia, which contains coal of good quality. he secondary formations, which are shut in between the older rocks and the sea, occupy a great area in the centre of Spain, extending to the north and to the eastern coast. The greater part of these second- ary rocks belong to oolitic and cretaceous periods; all the members of the series are fully developed except the Muschelkalk. _ The Devonian formation is very limited. Some traces of it occur in the centre of the Asturias, and a still larger development occurs in the northern part of the province of Léon, which extends as far as Galicia, following a line parallel with the mountain-chain of Cantabria. n both these localities the Devonian rocks abound with coal of an ex- cellent quality. That of the Austurias, which was already known at the close of the last century, not only in the Devonian, but in other forma- tions, will hardly come into competition with other coals, unless the com- pany by which it is worked agree to lay out larger sums in working it. That of Léon is more easily obtained, and although it has been known only for a few years, it is already a source of considerable industry in Castille. It is taken to Madrid for the cast-iron foundries and other works, as gas-lighting, &c. n the Silurian rocks of the Sierra Morena, which we have alluded Espiel and Belsuez, which may be called the basin of the Guadiato, the tiver by which it is traversed. This formation may be traced for a dis- t coal, exten ing over near! square league of ground. is coal is not of very good quality, being friable and dusty ; nevertheless, owing to its situation so near the river and Seville, many thousand quintals *lopar, the marls and dolomites are well characterized, and contain 8 rich deposit of calamine, the working of which is every day becom ae productive. I think I have discovered the upferschiefer of the Germans near Archidona, between Sierra de Lucena and Sierra 4\ntequera, the p> Burassic or Oolitic formation constituted, to all appearances, ‘bottom of the sea during the cretaceous period, inas as it * 262 | Scientific Intelligence. = | verywhere rises above the surface when the ee formation is : faterrag! ted. ‘There is, however, a considerable nt of it exposed, This ridge of oolitic rock is slightly Prete by the chalk and ter- | tiary beds, but it again appears in the kingdom of Valencia as far as | the town of the same name; so that, in fact, io oolitic formation can be traced from Valencia to Burgos for a distance of 180 Spanish leagues (900 kil.) forming an obtuse angle at the culminating-point of Mon- b ince of Serder and in the Ba asque prot inces, as is Ma id down in the Geological Map of France. It probably exists in other localities not yet ee investigated. e oolitic formations of Spain have in my opinion some remarkable features. "They 2 abound in metalliferous deposits of all kinds, See scattered in small isolated masses, and seldom in veins. These beds were formerly worked with profit when mining was carried on on 4 small scale, and with the help of slaves. Now, however, minerals must be very rich and abundant to enable companies to make any return. Almost all those who have worked in the jurassic formation rate been ruined. Cuivre gris or BY. copper ore of good quality is worked out. r Barbadillo, a 2 ext Picts of the province of ore, is most promisin e non-argentiferous galena Is gene i more regular, and a few head veins of sulphate and oxy an- ince of Zarogoza. In several places the rocks of the oolitic group have been affected by volcanic eruption, by which they have been altered, their color an nd > mations at or near the point of junction with the more recent forma- tions. sont may mention, by way of example, the hot springs of Fitero ~ in the province of Navarra, Arnadillo in the province of Logrono, Alama near Edlate ayud, There are also cold sulphureous sprindl ; aracuellos in Aragon, and those of Gravalos in Castille. _ must, hovever, be observed that these same phenomena also oce ¢retaceous formations, although not so frequently ; amongst _— Mineralogy and Geology. 263 The Cretaceous formation covers the whole southern slope of the f i estward into the Basque southern slope also extends towards the west through Navarre, a por- e mou ; : g to Oviedo in the Asturias is a distance of more than seven geographical egrees, i Phe Spanish cretaceous zone stretches towards the south with very ie interruption, passing near Burgos, through Old Castille, the prov- ne ri . ; : * € cretaceous formations of central Spain also afford some phe- nomena Which deserve the attention of the geologist. ‘The most re- Without losing their original horizontality, as the famous plain u of Baraona, celebrated in the annals of Spanish fairies or Witches), between Medinaceli and Almazan in Old Castille. . of inclined beds of th at h nevertheless are not so elevated as the plateau itself. t Tam- hha In the province of Guadalajara, on the other hand, the horizon- no lower than the inclined beds. The same phenomenon, Sich larger scale, occurs in the valley of the Borunda, province . 264 Scientific Intelligence. out the cretaceous formation of central deserves fiotice. The great abundance of beds of lignite (charbon) distributed throughs Spain also me resp hey nearly as important as those of true a peculiarity of our cretaceous formations; the celebrated mine of Cardona in Catalogna may be mentioned, as well as Pozo del Rey in the province of Burgos, the salt springs of Aiiana, province of Alana, which produce more than 50,000 fanegas of salt,* &c. ‘he formations of the tertiary period, both the marine and the la- custrine, overlie all kinds of beds of older date; as, for example, in Catalogna they rest on the chalk, at Valencia on the jurassic, in Anda- lusia on the transition beds, in the valley of the Guadalquivir, on the various surrounding beds and even on granite. The actual configura- along the same shore there are some spots, as at Cuevas de Vera Si- erra Almagrera, where the marine tertiary formation attains an elevation of 900 feet, which gives rise to the question as to whether the waters of directions, which were washed down by the streams into the ancient sea, all proving the existence at that period of a more tropical climate than is found at present in this district. ‘ r tertiary marine formations cover almost without interruption the ind the Straits in the C although it is probable. This tertiary zone extends but a short distance into the interior, except in the valley of the Guadalquivir, where It may be traced without interruption from Cadiz and San Lucar, ascending neighborhooe f Burgos towards the north, which must have been a salt lake at that period. In this formation we find a few deposits of lignite, the mos? — important of which is probably that of Utrillas, near Montalvan, 10 the i f : Se province of Teruel ies fanega is equivalent to rather more than 99} litres or 16 bushels; and a fanega of salt weighs about 112 Spanish pounds (or 113°6 lbs. ay.). Sr Mineralogy and Geology. 265 In the third volume of our ‘ Annales de Minas,’ published in 1845, I have given a general account of the great lacustrine formations of cen- tral Spain. The most important of all, and that which has been best examined, is what I have called the basin of the Douro (Cuenca del Duero), the surfacesof which is nearly forty Spanish leagues square,— 3400 square kilom. o the west and south it rests on the crystalline or metamorphic formations of Galicia and of the frontiers of Portugal, of the Sierra d’Avila, and of the Guadarrama; to the north on the Devonian beds and on the chalk of the mountains of Léon; and to the east on the cretaceous beds. The lacustrine basin of the Ebro is also very considerable, but I do not know its exact limits. It is, perhaps, somewhat longer, following on both sides the course of the river; but itis not so broad. It rests almost everywhere on chalk, and partly on in the centre of Spain, and includes the capital. The fetid lacustrine limestone of Culmenar serves, as well as the granite of the Guadarrama, for architectural constructions, and is also used for statuary purposes, on account of its preserving almost indefinitely its natural whiteness. We also possess other small detached lacustrine deposits in the center of Spain, as e. g. at Libros near Teruel, at Calatayud, where fine speci- mens of sulphate of magnesia are collected, at Hellin and Bénamaurel, already quoted for the production of sulphur, at Molina d’Aragon with its Neritina, nov. sp., and several other localities. It is well known that the surface of Spain is very mountainous and broken up. The onl plain of any extent is that of La Mancha in New Castille, from Tembleque to Santa Cruz de Mudela, a distance of twenty a) while being upraised to a considerable elevation, have acciden- ta a reversed. On seein all the different characters of mountains which have resulted therefrom, tls at once evident that many instances of eruptive rocks must looked for. ae € plutonic eruptions which have pierced the gneissoid rocks been already pointed out in the western districts ; the eupho- toon diorites, and black porphyries are more frequent in the central the oi ain; and the trachytes are almost exclusively confined to _ ‘Me shores of the Mediterranean, and particularly to the southern por- "ECOND Serres, Vol, XI, No. 32.—March, 1851. . * 266 Scientific Intelligence. tion between Marbella and Carthagena. The remarkable and singular deposit of quicksilver of Almaden and Almadenejos must have been occasioned by the action of the euphotides and other analogous voleanic rocks which have burst forth in this district and moulded the mountains yielded such wealth to the Carthaginians under Hannibal, and fro which we still derive considerable benefit, are certainly contemporane- ous with the basalts of Cabo-de-Gata and of Vera, and the trachytes of Mazarron. Earthquakes are still often felt at Granada and along the coast of the province of Alicante, where their effects have been very disastrous. Much further in the interior, in the small Sierra del Tremédal or district of Albarracia, in the province of Teruel, eruptions and shocks have the escape of sulphureous gases when t were young; these same h na have occurred during four consecutive months of the pre- ceding winter, accompanied by earthquakes, which hav sed con- radius of two leagues, They have not however been attended with any loss o ife, on account of the inhabitants hastening to abandon their dwellings at the first indication of dange Mineralogy and Geology. 267 ometer showed 19-194 in., and the thermometer 11° Centigrade. Water boiled at 192° Fahr. ‘This elevation is a little more than twelve thousand feet. y TP Seat, (In a letter to one of the Editors, dated, Philadelphia, Feb. 3, 1851.)—In reading the last number of the Journal of Science I was much interested with Dr. Smith’s paper on the Corundum and accom- panying minerals of Asia Minor. analysis made at present, I think we may safely infer that it is the same the termination of the cor preserving the form of the corun- shee imes there is found on the masses of corundum a mam- millary incrustation having a fibrous appearance which I take to be the heat, but according to Berzelius this is not a constant character. Surprised to find so important beds, almost within our borders. About 'wenty-two thousand tons have been removed, fairly opening the work- ngs, which can be so enlarged as to employ two hundred miners with every prospect of profit to a large amount. : The coal is in favor here for large fires and being sold at one fourth less price than that of Pennsylvania, meets a want which has long existed. ’ 268 Scientific Intelligence. Ill. Zooroey. . Conspectus Crustaceorum que in Orbis Terrarum circumnaviga- Bx Carolo Wilkes e Classe Reipublica Federate Duce, lexit et de- scripsit J. D. Dana.—Pars V1.* Hyas tyratus.—Carapaxt lyratus parce minuté tuberculatus, pone oculos alaté expansus, marginibus ale antico posticoque subeequis, par- allelis, margine externo excavato, rostro levi, cornubus acutis, rectis. Pedes antici subtiliter pubescentes, brachio carpoque margines pustu- latis, manu gracili. Pedes 8 postici longi, graciles, subtilissime pu- bescentes. ab, ad oras Oregonenses. LiBIDOCLEA coccIN Bipiar REINS. Carapax orbiculari-triangulatus, sparsim tuberculato-spino t paulo subtiliter granulosus, rostro sat brevi. Pedes ssbuleiend cara. tenues, digito paris Imi subulato et basin non tumido, articulo paris 2di 3tio valde breviore quam cara- pax, tarsoque parce breviore quam articulus quintus, articulo 4to pe- d posticorum supra complanato et levi. Articulus maxillipedis externi 3tius anticé integer.—Long. 2” 43” Hab. in mari profundo juxta Patagoniam orientalem, Genus PUGETTIA, Dana.—Rostrum, oculos, antennasque externas alimo affinis. Articulus pedum 8 posticorum 5tus cylindricus. PuGETTIA GRacILIs.—Mediocris. Carapax lyratus, paulo convexus, latus, pone oculos utrinque large triangulato-expansus cum angulo acuto, margine postero- -laterali spina crass4 armato, latitudine ante- mediana vix esa tato, carpo bicarinato, digitis fere omnino contiguis. Pedes octo pos- a nudiusculi, articulis 3tio 5toque subcarinatis, 4to dorsum depresso, to infra versus apicem penecillum setarum brevissimum ferente.— bake. 16”, . in maris Oregonensis freto ‘* Puget.” GETTIA Ricnm.—-Sat grandis. Carapax subtriangulato-ovatus, pone Skilos alatus, ala bilobata, lobis acutis, posteriore elongato et fere trans- spina laterali subpostica grandi; regione mediana 4 tuber- Hab. in mari a8 Californiam. —W. Rich. ICIPPA PES minuté pustulatus, marginibus laterali- bus irregulariter paulo i inciso- dehiatia rostro fere verticali, sub-polygo- nato, juxta antennam externam profundé constricto, apicem iriongetats emarginato, superficiem seriatim pustulato, pustulie setigeris. “Oculi longé exserti. Pedes hirsuti—Long. wel lat. 6’”.£ Long. rostri 3”. ab. in mari ad insulam Tongata ae a _ # Vide Partem I, in Nuntiis Acad. Art. Sci. Amer, i, 149; Partem I, 1 ibid. ii, 95 Partem i, ger 201; Partem IV, hoe op. [2], viii, 424; Partem VY, ibid. ix, 129. Vocal “Gar apax,” a mahuwiinte stig tas raul iam, eclontis r0gae 10 voee thorace exemplo. $ Car non corpori dimensiones referendee. Zoology. 269° Genus CHORILIA, Dana.—Pis@ Chorinoque affinis. Carapax an- gustus, triangulaté ovatus, gibbosus, paulo armatus, rostro longo, fur- ubus gracilibus. Oculi in orbitis retractiles. Antenne exlerne sub rostrum celantes, articulo primo anguslo, apicem externum acuto. Orbita infra interrupta, supra angusté unifissa, spina preorbitali acuta. Pedes Imi 2dis breviores, 8 postici similes, 2di dtiis non multo lon- giores. Pisd quoad antennas externas celatas differt; Chorino pedes 2dos 3tiis non cme longiores, lmos 2dis breviores. HORILIA LONGIPES.—Carapax nec villosus nec pubescens, latitudine trans-orbitali perangusta, triplo minore quam latitudo carapacis maxima, spina preorbitali tenui, acuta, margine orbitali superiore angusté uni- fisso ; rostro longo, pubescente, cornubus fere rectis, parce divaricatis ; regione mediana 4 spinis brevibus armata aliisque paucis brevissimis ; regione cardiaca parva, inermi, 2-4 tuberculis parvulis ornala ; regione postero-laterali spina crassa mediocri armata aliisque tuberculis parvulis ornata. Pedes antici longi, brachio trigono, margines spinuloso ; carpo polygonato, margines spinuloso ; ; manu subcarinata, sublilissimé tomen- tosa.—Long. 1” 7’; lat. 10”. Hab. ad oras Oregonenses. Genus LAHAINA, Dana.—Chorilia quoad pedes antennasque ex- ternas celatas affinis. Carapax elongaté ovatus, tumidus, parce arma- tus; rostri cornubus elongatis, gracilis gives icatis. Articulus anten- narum externarum Imus lJatus, parce, longior quam latior, apicem pro- cessu spiniformi armatus. Orbita infra supraque sinu rotundato inter- Tupta, dente preorbitali acuto. Pedes toti graciles AHAINA OVATA.—Cara apax vix spinosus, ca pyilieeea. papillis posterior dorsalibus recté ee spina postero-laterali parvula, aliaque postica ; rostri cornubus corpore paulo brevioribus, tenuibus, valde divericatis, margine orbitali superiore laté fisso, spina antica brevi acuta et lateral- iter unidentata, postica prominenter rectangulaté non acuta. Articulus antennarum externarum Imus apicem spinigerus. Pedes tenues, longi, manu preeangusta, nu Hab. juxta insulatn ss © Maui.” Genus SCYRA, Dana.—Navie antennas orbitamque affinis. trum laminatum, acuté furcatum. Articulus antennarum ite primus undique angustus, apice ae ultra rostrum parce saliente ; Secundus depressus, tertio valde longio A ACUTIFRONS.—Ovata, fere coum rostro brevi, cornubus ovato-lanceolatis, acutis, integris ; spina preorbitali acuta ; regionibus Carapacis valde prominentibus, regione m ediana aliisque profundé se- junctis, cardiacd simpliciter rotundato- sahepaslifonets Pedes antici elo ti, manu se brachio angulos pustuloso, carpo 3—4-carinato. Genus CYCLAX, D.—Mithraci digitos affinis. Carapax suborbicu- i8, rostro parvulo, furcato. Oculi prelongi, retractiles, orbitis oblique transversis, Antenne externe rostro remote, longs, art! culo pom 8picem bi-spinoso, spina externa longa. Pedes longi; eave carapace Sesqui longiores; toti tenues, fere cylindrici. 270 Scientific Intelligence. 'YCLAX Perry1.—Carapax paulo oblongus, convexus, parce pustula- tus, rostri cornubus _subconicis, acutis, margine orbite superiore tri- oso. w externe dimidio carapacis longiores, pilose carapace valde oe 8 posticis sparsim pilosis, tarso infra paulo iloso.—Long, 24”, ab. in mari Vitiensi. EvrypoDius SEPTENTRIONALIS.—Cara apax obsoleté villosus, spinis ucis, in regione cardiaca posterius duabus anterius una; spina post- extus ad basin armatus et juxta dentem processu subacuto. Pede fere nudi; antici crassiusculi, brachio carpoque parce tuberculato-spi- nosis, faint scabro-granulata, paulo tumida, digito cum dente parvulo tuberculiformi intus armato polliceque juxta basin cum dente simili. Pedes 8 postici ene articulo pedis tertii tertio tuberculis setiferis par- vulis biseriatis infra ornato, 5to longiore quam quartus, subtilissimeé hir- suto, ejus margine iieeions versus apicem brevissimé hirsuto.—Long. 2" T$'"; rostri 74"; pedis secundi carapace plus duplo major. Hab. in portu * Nassau” Fuegie. Evryropius Brevires.—Femine : —Carapax valde erie — paucis, brevibus, in ‘regione cardiacé posterius dudbus anterius una; rostro supra complanato, breviore. Articulus antennarum a Imus extus ad basin dente armatus et juxta dentem processu subacuto. Pedes breves, hirsuti, primi subtenues, brachio carpoque cum 3—4ve t uberculos minutos supra armatis, manu lineari, tenui, levi, margine digit interno denticulato. Pedes octo postici crassiusculi, valde breviores, articulo 3tio pedis secundi valde breviore quam carapax, articulo 5to lato et crasso, longiore quam quartus, non duplo longiore quam tarsus.—Long. 1” 74"; rostri or"; cox pedis secundi 1”, articuli 5ti sr" ejusque lat. 24"; tarsi 54”. Hab. in portu * Nassau” Fuegie. - Genus OREGONIA, Dana.—Rostrum, antennas, oculos, spinam postorbitalem pe desque elongatos Eurypodio affinis. Pedes tenues, octo postici articulum quintum aliosque subcylindrici, nunquam cont pressi. EGONIA GRACILIS.—Carapax breviter sparsimque pubescens, rostro valde longiore quam latitudo inter-orbitalis. Pedes breviter sparsimque pubescentes, tenues; primi secundis ™ aulo breviores, brachio tuberculis minutis supra infraque ornato, manu fere lineari, digito intus prope basin unidentato alioque SpE a "Abd domen maris sublineare, mar- gine laterali versus apicem excavato, — truncate.—Lon ng. 1” ws Hab. in maris Oregonensis freto “ Pu Oreconta HIRTA.—Carapa seers. urs hirti, rostro tenui, digito . pax breviore quam latitudo inter-orbitalis. Pedes oa breviores 5 icalato.—Long. 1” MES. > ee ee Presta Zoology. Q71 gentibus; spina preorbitali perbrevi, subacuté. Regio pterygostomiana uni-spinosa. Articulus pedum 3tius minuté tuberculatus et apicem plerumque spinoso-productus; manu tenui, digitis omnino contiguis.— ong. 13” Hab. in mari Vitiensi. Imi 2dis non longiores.— Pericerd, cornubus rostri fere contiguis, forma carapacis, et superficie aggregato-tuberculosa, differt Pericera tiarata hic pertinet. _Tiarrnta Gracttis.—Carapax pone oculos paulo constrictus, latitu- dine carapacis maxima longitudinem post-orbitalem fere equante, lat- gustis, ad apicem parce latioribus. Manus tenui c tiguis. Pedes 8 postici sparsim pubescentes, articulo tertio plus minusve tuberculato.—Long. 6": Jat. BY ab. in mari Suluensi.: dine trans-orbitali parce minore quam latitudo maxima; rostro longo, cornubus apicem conspicué divergentibus, lateribus cum 3-4 dentes mati articulis 2do 3tioque tenuibus. Manus tenuis, digitis omnino contiguis. edes 8 postici pubescentes, secundi 3tiis duplo longiores. Articulus ap paris antici plus minusve tuberculatus.—Long. 6”; rostri 2!”; t. Mm Hab. in mari Suluensi. midé tri-tuberculata. Rostrum breve, latitudine trans-orbitali fere duplo aatios. Spina pre-orbitalis brevis, subacuta. Pedes reves, articulis is} 272 , WScientific Intelligence. MENETHIUS aNGUSTUS.—Carapax sat tuberculatus, perangustus (lati- tudine multo minore quam longitudo post-rostralis), dentibus lateralibus regione post-mediana brevi, uni-tuberculata; regione intestinali grandi unituberculata, margine postico rotundato, i integro. —Long. 54’; lat. 3!” MEN&THIUS AREOLATUS.—WM. subserrato affinis. Carapax lag tu- berculatus, tuberculo cardiaco simplice, quoque post-mediano tinalique simplicibus ; rostro integro, mediocri, margine laterali neers bus tribus, primo simplice, s secundo pau ulo duplice. Oculi apicem ro- tundati et spina antica alteraque postica instructi. Manus oblonga, su- perficie subtilissimé areolata, cgitis plorpmase contiguis, denticulis sex. Pedes 2di Imis Pe age ong. 2”, Hab. in mari Suluens MEN#THIUS spa AN, —Carapax latus, latitudine trans-orbitali di- midio minore quam sive latitudo maxima sive longitudo post-rostralis, one oculos non constrictus ; marginibus lateralibus 3-dentatis, dentibus 0) ae subacutis ; rostro brevi, integro; spina preorbitali laté tri- angula ta 5 superficie dorsali paululum gibbosa, regione cardiaca simpli- cissimé taberculata, mediana tumida, vix subdivisa, regione laterall om . fere plana. Oculi parce salientes, apicem bene truncati.—Long. 5 ; t. Hab. in mari juxta insulam Hawaiensem “ Maui.” AcANTHONYX sIMPLEX.—Femine: A. Petiverio affinis. Carapax parce convexus, tuberculis omnino carens, marginibus lateralibus paral- lelis, posterius cum Nee tes duobus bheoltie orntitis; dente post- -orbitali nullo. Pedes antic t weliga is parce oe digitis plerumque con- acuto 3 aris postici eos = an vation angulo nape io sus 8-10 spinulis na ae ong. 9”; lat. ab. ad insulas Hawaienses. ONYX DEBILIS —Petiv rio affinis. ts aoe — bere J Hab. ad oras Chiesa nses. Genus PELTINIA, Dana.—Epialto Acanthonycique affinis. Cara- pax latus, subleevis, depressus, rostro Pay com planato, profundé bifido, Jatitudine transorbitali grandi, quam dimidium carapacis #ix angustiore, ente preorbitali prominente, ions sat valde producto, postero- laterali parce prominente. Antenne extern rosiro non celate, at ticulo primo i ay apicem non dentigero. Oculi non retractiles, breves. Pedes Imi 2dis breviores, Articulus 8 pedum posticorum penultimus fere So infraque non gibbosus.—Antenni aaa Epialto differt, Acanthonyce congruit; articulo pedum 8 postico indrico Acantbonyoe differt. Latitudo rao ‘ Zoology. 3 273 PELTINIA SCUTIFORMIS.—Carapax serge paulo oblongus, levis, rostro vix longiore quam latiore, bilobato, angulis antico-late- igeris, diametroque gastrico maximo. Mar- gine posiero-laterali dentibus duobus obsolescentibus cer >a -_ regione mediana bi-tuberculaté. Antenne externe rostro valde lon giores. Pedes tenues, cot inermes, digitis contiguis.—Lo de: 2", Hab. in portu * Rio Jan LTINIA NODULOSA Dicey arapax ia tke parce oblongus, lzevis, angulis duobus lateralibua utringue productis, obtusis, rostr! cornubus triangulaté sejunctis, triangulatis, subacutis ; dente pemneaenl ous post-orbitali obsoleto, margine postico inermi. Pedes nudi, medioc res, articulis totis manu tarsoque exceptis, plus minusve nodulosis, tarsis infra minuté spinulosis. Antenne externe apicem rostri parce su- perantes.—Long. 3”. Hab. in mari Vitiensi. Hatmmvus tumipus.—Rostri cornua subconica, laté divaricata. Cara- pax valde tumidus, latere 4-6 spinulis minutis armato; regione me- diana tribus tuberculis ives triangulaté ornata, alio tuberculo obso- lescente pos eriore ; region rdiaca tuberculis obsolescentibus notata. edes pubescentes, sat bre a manu tenui, basin latiore, digitis fere latiore. Articulus agtenparn ext. Imus apicem externum valde pro- ductus extusque 2-3-spinulosus.—Long. 7”. Hab. ad oras Australiz orientalis. Hventa stmpiex.— Maris :—C x levis, valde elongatus, an- - guste subtriangularis, ape oon slererations longis, anticé con- vergentibus fere rectis et integris, in latera rostri recté productis, = acevieag nullo, rostro oblongo, valde obtuso, angulo postero-latera Subacuto ; margine postico integro; superficie 4-tuberculata, (regione mediana 3. tuberculata, cardiac l-tuberculata.) | Pedes antici validi, manu crassa, digitis latigsimé hiantibus ; articulus pedum 8 posticorum penultimus i re al aang 94°". Hab. ad Insulas Hawaienses. UENIA BREVIROSTR veda, Punion &-sOnnesex latus, paulo oblongus, breviter rostratus, utrinque @angulatue, angulis salientibus, lateribus basin v ek quam latitudo secehuaih dente preorbitali vix saliente, ob- tuso, Manus tenuis, digitis versus basin pau ulo hiantibus, carpo inermi ; articulus pedum 8 oe penultimus subcylindricus.—Long. 7y". 4b. ad Insulas Hawaienses. Levcirra tmvis.—Carapax subtriangulatus, levis, regione mediana es P Parce tumida, rostro elongato, furcato, cornubus triangulatis, et trian- tonis postero-lateralis producto : Regio pterygostomiana 3-den- instructa ufo dente in sinu grandi insito). Pedes nudi, artic- Cristato > Senizs, Vol XI, No. 32.—March, 1851. 35 — RTA Scientific Intelligence. LaMBRUS RHOMBICUS. —Carapax paulo Wig cakes medium latior, bu trigona, marginibus salientibus ineeque dentatis, brachio margine anticum minuté eroso et superficiem minuté spinuloso. Pedes 8 re - tici granillimts breviter pubescentes.—Long. 10”. chipelago Vitiensi, mari Pacifico. CERratoca oman SPECIOSUS.—Carapax hexagonus, fere equilate- ralis, depressus, regionibus partim conspicuis, fronte lato, rec té trans: verso, subtiliter crenulato, medium emarginato, utrinque juxta oculum valde saliente. Manus digitusque mobilis spinulosi; carpus parce spin- ewe ; digiti contigui. Pedes 8 postici breviter pubescentes, inermes. ne: Hab in Archipelago Vitiensi, mari Pacifico. 2. Zoological “ge es; by Josern Lerpy, M.D. bend 1.) On American Annelida abranchiata, (Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci., ii, 43.)—This memoir es anes descriptions of the following species from the vicinity of Philadelphia. Nais rane Enchytreeus vermicularis, Henle. Nais gracilis Enchytreeus socialis. Prat “engines: Ehrend. Lumbriculus limosus. Strephuris Setar — Leucophrys clavata. | Aeolosoma venu j The new genus Siephariy is described as follows :—Podal s spines meransing with seta, in two rows. Upper lip moderately projecting. Girdle well marked. Nester, of Ah peti not over seventy. No muscular stomach. Blood bright The paper is gp we hae =a a FGiceaaiio plate illustrating with details ite species descri (2.) On two New tear of Fossil eenalié (Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Philad., v, 90.)— ow git are named Eucrotaphus Jacksoni and Ar- cheotherium Mortoni ; the ey are from the Ha sol Fort Laramie. (3.) Contributions to Helminthology. (Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., v, 96. qe 4 pecies here described are— Ligula T Echinorhynchus ovatus = abba Didelphidis Virginiane, Echinorhynchus tortuosus.— Pentastomum Euryzonum, agit Pa aabtebie Pici collaris. entastomuam pro a deu (4.) Notes on the dev renee oF the Gordius aquaticus, (Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., v, 98, Oct (5.) Two new species of Infusorial pies (Ib., p. 100. Net! peeeiee are Wyctotherus ovalis and Bodo Julidi oe ) exhetag of some Nematoid eebsiba afiiltg Insects, . at _ p. 100.)—-Specie sb shoot a gra Thelastoma robustum. Thelastoma sas ithe: Oxyuris socialis; Thelastoma labiatum. Hystrignathus rigidus. _(7.) Descriptions of three Filaria, (Ib., A Jay 1 See eed | Hominis oris, F. canis cordis, F. Boe cons % he ‘ ined by saying, that if certain existing orga 'e to . . CAT al : (8.) On the nettling organs of the Hydra, (Ib., p. 119.) (9.) New Fossil Mammalia from Missouri, (Ib., p. 121.)—Species : —Palzotherium Bairdii, Rhinoceros nebraskensis, Merycoidodon Cul- bertsonii, Agriochcerus antiquus. The species of Palzeotherium described in this Journal, vol. iii, p. 248, Proutii. ew Species of Vermes, (Ib., 124.)—-Species :— Peloscolex (Leidy) variegatus. Emea (Leidy) rubra. Cheetogaster gulosus Anortha (Leidy) gracilis. of climate, foo reatment produce specific distinctions. Species is defined by Buffon, “a succession of similar individuals which re-produce each other.” Cuvier’s definition is near! ; domestic species are stronger than those of any species of the same genus. The fa or 0 Succession, constitute’ alone the validity of the species.” An objection to these definitions arises from the fact that they apply 88 readily to mere varieties as to acknowledged species. Certain albino - Thave brought together these definitions, int t : that naturalists are by no means agreed upon what constitutes a species, and secondly, to offer some views of m monu ental records, both of Eypt and Assyria, of which we are now Happily possessed of the proximate dates. My view Into the “ night of time,”’ as dissimilar as we see them now, is it € Zoology. Q75 : A 276 Astronomy.— Miscellaneous Intelligence. not more reasonable to regard them as aboriginal, than to suppose them the mere accidental derivations of an isolated patriarchal stem of which we know nothing? ence, for example, I believe the dog family not to have originated from one primitive form, but from many. Again, what I call a species may be regarded by some naturalists as a primi- tive variety ; but, as the difference is only in name, and in no way in- fluences the oakopitel question, it is unnecessary to notice it further hese views appear to correspond with — of Mr. Linnzeus Martin, whe expresses himself in the following term ‘** We are among those who believe that, as ited are degrees in the relationship of species to species, some may, although distinct, a imate so nearly as not only to produce inter se, mules incapable of in- terbreeding, but a progeny of 9 ia hybrids, capable of camisidias even to the most unlimited extent ? Species may therefore be classed according to their disparity or affinity, in the following provisional manner : Remote oe of the same genus, are those among which hybrids are never produced. Allied isaceae ircdees) inter se, an infertile offsprin Proximate species produce with each other a faasle eee. IV. Astronomy. The new planet Egeria, (Gould’s Astron. Jour., No. 21.)—This oa was discovered by Mr. Gasparis of Naples in Italy, on the 2d of Nov. 1850. The iia having requested M. Le Verrier to name the planet, the latter has proposed to designate it Egeria, which name will of course be adopted. The body resembled a star of the 9th or 10th magnitude, and belongs to the group between Mars and Jupiter. The foll lowing ps er of its orbit are by M. G. Ra imker: 1850, November 20 Greenwich, m. t. Mean longitude, 288° 37’ 17-0 Long. of perihelion, 116 26 49 -4 *..%. Age, node, 43 35 24-4 Inclination 15 57 59 ‘8 Angle of ‘excentricity, 5 31 9-38 g- semi axis major, 0:4082517 Log. of mean daily motion, 2-9376290 mn. Eqx. 1851. V. MisceLttangeous INTELLIGENCE. » ee | ; : gs eee es id Miscellaneous Intelligence. QT © explains the apparent anomalies which occur at St. Helena and Singa- pore on the hypothesis induced from the whole of the phenomena. scopes from Mr. Ross of England, Mr. Spencer of America, and M. examination, particularly as it was made under peculiar circumstances 5 namely, by adapting alternately the objectives to the same mounting, ten times; Ross’s was the feeblest, that of Spencer the strongest. The angular opening was first measured with great accuracy and found as follows :-— ; Ross, ; ‘ ; ‘ ; . . 16 Spencer, , ‘ . ‘ ; : 135° » Nachez, . + . ° ; P 7 10 These measurements were all verified by the respective owners of these lenses. _ The objects examined were the most difficult test-objects among the siliceous infusoria, as the Navicula angulata, one of the species of Gramatophora, and a Navicula called the Amici test. The first two were in balsam. The lenses were first attached to one of Nachez’s mounting, and the best adjustment of oblique light used that this instrument affords. The difference in the effect of the three lenses was very slight, all failing to show the lines on the Gramatophora or on the Amici test. AAs not- Thus arranged, the lines on the Gramatophora were distinctly and tifully seen by all, with slight advantages in favor of Spencer and Ross, the former of which magnified them most. ; _ The Amici test was next tried which resulted in Ross showing the lines with perfect satisfaction; Spencer showing them, but not quite 80 well; Nachez still less distinctly. I would remark that this difference between the lenses appears to be Owing entirely to difference in the angle of opening, for where a very ‘Oblique light is necessary to show lines, the lenses must be so con- b ? t > _ ‘Structed as to admit this light. I would also state that Nachez’s system 278 Miscellaneous Intelligence. lacks an ake which the others have, by which the relative posi- tion of the lenses can be changed, so as to compensate for the thick- ness of the in which covers the object, and which appears favorable to the examination of those delicate tests. For the examination of globules we could not perceive any appreciable difference between the ‘lenses. I would here remark in justice to M. Nachez that he deserves much | praise for the manner in which he has improved the microscope in France, without augmenting the cost of the instrument, and out of England he is undoubtedly the best maker in Europe. ‘To. furnish an idea of what he has done to diminish the cost of a good instrument, I will compare st price of the objectives which have been the subject of the experiments. oe ae : : ; e . 9306 francs. Spencer, . : ; : ; | ian Nachez, . oo So = and what is still more he is consul improving his lenses without adding to their expen The lower powers o Cares makers were éxatined: without finding any sensible difference in the defining effects of them, and what little there was, was in favor of Spencer. The field of the "res differed, Nachez’s being the least, and Spencer’s the greatest. We cannot be- is to be regretted that he has not chosen a better mounting for them, than, that of Chevalier, which is very defective and prevents good glasses from showing their best effe I had intended making som sil on oblique light, which has mark that much caution is sare in using it, as it will not ANTS give correct distances between line Logeman’s Magnets.—As he magnets of W. M. Logeman are. pele for their power, we insert here a list of his paces Lhes3 ceived from him in a letter dated Jee cca Sept. o 1850.-- A list of the prices of my magnets was published some months ago ~ by Prof. Poggendorff at Berlin i in his Annalen der Physik und Chemie. ws: They are as follow No. Force of attraction Price No. Force of attraction Price in Prussian pounds. in florins. in Prussian pounds. in florins. iF 25 10 5. 1 2 40 17 6. 200 128 80 42 te 300 170 2 7 8. 400 240 “A. iiss pound is equal to 1-031 English pounds, and two Dutch rins are equivalent to one dollar. Straight bars of every size for’ magnetical observations, of the same relative ve as the above horse tors eee Miscellaneous Intelligence. | 279 s The forces of attraction given above are the constant forces of the magnets, which will not diminish by repeatedly and abruptly forcing the armature from the poles. 4 uminizing Photogenic Glasses, (Atheneum, No. 1205.) —We have received from Dr. Maunoir a translation, made at the request of M. Scarpellini—the President of a Society having its meetings on the Capitol, called Romana Corrispondenza Scientifica,—of a paper pub- lished in the Society’s Journal by M. Luigi Ceselli, on a new process a ten for nearly two centuries. Many difficulties, however, still existed ; for, with the use of glass, a layer of albumen was necessary to the It consists of a small rectangular box, supported by three regulating Screws. To its base is joined a moveable plate of metal, which, being heated by means of a lamp of alcohol, communicates to all parts of box an equal degree of heat. The plate is removed when the water-bath is to be used instead of the lamp. The apparatus Is protected by a glass covering, to guard against heterogeneous bodies falling on the albumen. This cover is also moveable; an the box being trav Plates of gla The glasses are secured and their edges brought to bss nd by means of a tightening screw,—so t e albumen, when either Spreading or shrinking, may always cover the whole sur- face of the intermedial plate of glass. The frame ts furnished on two Parallel sides with a small roove to receive the albumen;—which a Fees J fi ira : _ and is cited from him by Gmelin in the third edition of his Hand-book of Chemistry, vol. ii, p. 733—Eps. - eS 280 Miscellaneous Intelligence. direction to the glass by means of a screw, serves to remove, produc- ing by this means the exact thickness of layer which is required. The frame is furnished along one of its sides with an indented ridge, to which a wheel provided with an external handle corresponds, so that the frame can be made to move with such velocity as the operation -may requi re. 5. New Method of Engraving Plates for Printing Ferns, Sea Weeds, §&c., (Atheneum, No. .)—At a recent meeting of the polished marble; then taking and softening a pi f gutta percha, of proper size, and placing on the leaf and pressing it carefully down, it will receive a sh accurate impression fro ant. The have been executed in Sheffield. As it is, Dr. Branson has had many brass plates thus produced from sand-casting, which required only 4 might easily be taken for it. Besides these matters, the doctor hae ited a large variety of patterns of embossed leather, which had been produced by a somewhat analogous operation. As, however, this latter invention is not so much for copying designs as for creating them, an sion is taken in gutta percha; from that a secondary one, which 0 being cast in brass, as before, may be used for printing or embossing In the ordinary way. The reader stated that his main difficulty was 10 getting the last gutta percha coat to separate from the mould of the same substance into which it was pressed. He had found, however, that by powdering both the surfaces with common bronze dust, before taking the impression, they did not adhere. ‘ ugar in flowers of Rhododendron ponticum.—Prof. Grorce Jxcer of Stuttgardt writes us that the existence of cane r in the flowers of the Rhododendron ponticum, announced as as- “certained by Dr. B. Shlamer in volume x, p. 113 of this Journal, was first determined by him and published in the year 1825 in the Zeits- chrift far Physiologie von Tiedemann and Treviranus, vol. xi, P> - > Miscellaneous Intelligence. ; 281 2 7 On British Eocene Serpents and the Serpent of the Bible; by Professor Owen, (Jameson’s J., xlix, 239,from Owen’s British Reptiles.) ew bones of serpents have been found in the superficial stalagmite, . and in clefts of caves, in peat bogs, and the like localities, which bring their occurrence and deposition within the period of human history. . adamitic or pleistocene period, from which formations the remains of the Mammoth, Tichorrhine Rhinoceros, great Hippopotamus, and other extinct species of existing genera of Mammalia have been so abun- dantly obtained. Between the newest and the oldest deposits of the tertiary period in geology, there is a great gap in England, the middle or miocene formations being very incompletely represented by some confused and dubious parts of the crag of fluvio-marine origin in which teeth of a mastodon have been found to a period much more remote from that at which human history com- live. To this desolate region the spirits of the departed were ferried 97% remote from that at which we have any evidence of the existence of as the progeny of a transmuted species, degraded from its originally . form as the consequence and pun 0 the temptati “i enneae Drs. D’Oyly and e direction of the ‘Ure, erect before this time ; ‘upon thy belly shalt thou go,’ or, ‘ upon R 3 . ee as some versions have it: 2dly, I Provision, ‘and dust shalt thou eat,’ insomuch as creeping Upon the 8tound, it cannot but lick up much dust together with its food. ee S # Macaulay’s History of England, vol. i, p. 5. Stconp Serres, Vol. XI, No. 32—March,1851. 36 i ball . Miscellaneous ff ntelligence. “The idea of the special degradation of the serpent to its actual form, derived from interpreting the sentence upon it asa literal statement of fact, has been so prevalent as to have affected some of the coulbaie® : author, treating of the food of those reptiles, writes,—‘t That dust was _ not the original food of the serpent seems evident from. the sentence ; ~~ passed upon the Paradisaic ie: but the necessary consequence of 4 the change made in the manner of its motion, i. €:, the prone posture of its body, by which it is iiecicid to live ieee food intermixety with earth.” Dr. Adam Clark, commenting more recently spar ‘ha ets in its i literal sense, seeks to elude the difficulties which thence arise, by con- : tending that the Hebrew ‘t Nachash,” may be translated “ A e,” as at well as “Serpent.” But when we find him reduced to the necessity : of glossing the text by such expositions, as that to go on the belly, means ‘on all fours;” and by affirming, of the arboreal fnegincies four-handed monkeys, that ‘* they are obliged to gather their food from the ground,” we havea lively instance of ‘the straits to which the com- mentator is reduced who attempts to penetrate — than the Word warrants, into the nature of that mysterious beginning of crim e and Prana by the dim light of an imperfect and came hand Lodiele of the divine works. ai indeed, the laws of the science of Animated Nature formed part of the preliminary studies _ the theologist, the futility of such attempts to expound the third chapter of Genesis, viewed as a simple ‘narration of facts, would be better appnveiead by him; and if he should still be prompted to append his thoughts, as so many lamps by the side of the second text, he would most probably restrict himself toe ae seeencahr’ elucidate its erin ag signification. hat zoology and anatomy have unfolded of the nature i serpent in regard to their present condition, amounts to this:—that their parts - are as SISA adjusted to the form of their whole, vie to fe habits and sphere of life, as is the organization of any animal which, in the.» terms of absolute comparison, we call superior to them. It is true, the - — Retinal “all these creatures fall its pre The serpent has neither hands not talons, yet it can outwrestle the athlete, and crush the tiger ih the em- race of its ponderous overlapping folds ar from licking up its food as it glides along, the serpent lifts up its ‘erushed prey, and presents: ity eemiel in the ie- coil as in the hand, to the gaping atime drone ee uth, au is truly” ecudetfil to see tHeceork-of auies feet, fins, perfo: ae a a simple ‘modification of the eres pits 6 ina Bern Nee: = joints, with mobility of its ribs. But the vertebrae are specially , as I have already described, to fewer by the ‘st ne :Ahete individual articulations, for the weakness of their manifold ep “tion and of Seananiaget gerne of the slender fol he ae “ . Miscellaneous Intelligence. a 283 _ As serpents move chiefly on the surface of the earth, their danger is greater from pressure and blows from above ; all the joints are ac- cordingly fashioned to resist yielding, and to sustain pressure in a verti- cal direction ; there is no natural undulation of the body upwards and ; ownwards, it is permitted only from side to side. So closely and com- pactly do the ten pairs of joints between each of the two or three hun- | dred vertebre fit together, that even in the relaxed and dead state the. body cannot be twisted, except in a series of side coils. ‘3 Of this the reader may assure himself by a simple experiment on a dead and supple snake. Let him lay it straight along.a level surface ; seize the end of the tail, and, by a movement of rotation between the thumb and finger, endeavor to screw the snake into spiral coils; before he can produce a single. turn, the whole of the long and slender body will roll over as rigidly as if the attempt had been made upon a straight stick. - When we call to mind the anatomical structure of the skull, the sin- ‘gular density and thickness of the bones of the cranium, strike us as a Special provision against fracture and injury to the head. When we contemplate the still more remarkable manner in which these bones are applied one-over another, the superoccipital, overlapping the ex- occipital, and the parietal overlapping the superoccipital, the natural a pr anda p vision of the dangers to which they were subject from falling bodies, apodal vermiform character ; just as the snake-like eel is compensated by analogous modifications amongst fishes, and the snake-like centipede amongst insects. ~~ But what more particularly concerns us in the relation of the serpent _ Posture and a gliding progress on the belly, were given dy & beneti- ‘cent Creator to the serpents of that early tertiary period of our planet’s tory; when, in the slow and progressive preparation of the earth, over, being species of ~ the-original cave, which in extent, curiosities, and mineral productions, g far surpasses the old cave. . Colemar bite Jacob’ ™. 2. to descend rapidly, and they feared they might meet with bad Fn . = x » * o* hy ‘ ? : uy and desired the party which accompanied him to explore it. i two or three of the party objected, as the aperture ap- — * ae 284 Miscellaneous Intelligence. air. Bya little persuasion however, they were prevailed upon to make the exploration. With much difficulty they descended some forty feet, alabaster, &c., of which the party procured many fine specimens. It seems then, that Indiana has a cavern which far surpasses the Great Mammoth, as the last discovery in connection with the great {Indiana cave will make it one of the largest in the United States. It is about eleven miles from Corydon in a southwest direction, and about seven north of Leaven : 9. On the Blue Licks Spring, Licking River, Ky.; by Prof. Ropert Peter, M.D., Transylvania University —Saline, and saline sulphur- waters, are comparatively frequent in our blue limestone strata; but among all the springs of this nature, known at present on this forma- tion, in Kentucky, none are as valuable and as remarkable, in many respects, as those of the lower Blue Licks. flowing out about twenty feet above low water in that stream. pumping out seventy six barrels,* in the course of three hours; and urs; and in» the winter time the stream which flows out from it would probably fill a pipe three inches in diameter he temperature of this spring was observed by Major ne 2 % ‘ e egs.; and it is probable that the temperature of the water in the basin had been somewhat raised by the external heat of the atmosphere. When flowing rapidly it may perhaps be found to approximate more . : pias deg? is On standing exposed to the air, the water becomes of a yellowish- green color, very perceptible in a white pitcher, or even ina white 4 ~ § ., mS Miscellaneous Intelligence. gaa glass bottle. This color deepens on boiling the water,—but boiling does not cause it to appear in the recent water. ; Wine pint of 7°680 grains, viz. : Specific gravity 1-007. Gases in 1090 grains. In the wine pint. Grains. | Cubicinch. Grains. Cubic inch. Sulphuretted hydrogen gas, 003947 0:1086 0°303129 0834048 Free carbonic acid gas, 0°3547 0:76 2°724096 5°8368 The former is in the proportion of about 1:36th the volume of the water and the latter about 1-5th the volume. In the wine pint. 2-9568000 grains. 0169459“ Saline contents in 1000 grains. 0:3850000 grains. Carbonate of magnesia, 0-0022065 ‘“ 0:0058330 “ 0:0447974 <“ Chlorid of sodium, 83472930 64: 1072102 Chlorid of potassium, 0-0226690 0.1740979 Chlorid of magnesiuin, 0:5272000 40488960 romid of magnesium, 0:0009394 0:0302546 lodid of magnesium, 0-:0007340 00056371 Sulphate of |i 0 5533300 4:2495744 ees of potash 0-1519190 11166738 Silicic acid, 0-0179400 0:1377792 Ss, 02819861 22158335 Whole saline contains, 10-3000000 79-1040000 ae Miscellaneous Intelligence. sensible diminution of its saltness. Whence is all this saline matter obtained? Is there, imbedded in the deeper strata of the blue lime- stone, an immense layer of rock salt, derived from the original ocean, under which the rock was deposited ? 10. Wingless Bird, (Proc. Lion. Soc., Dec. 17, and Athenzeum, No. dentally visited by Capt. Poole of the East India ny’s service ; who considering it a favorable spot for colonization, had induced six Irishmen and their wives and families to sett lace 1s at present the property of Capt. Poole. It is of considerable extent, discovery of the extinct wingless birds of New Zealand. No specimen has yet arrived in England,— are on their wa ut some y- 11. Vegetable Physiology, (L’Institut, No. 878,)—MM. Cros and n 0 responds with Chevreul’s on the circulation and ascension of the sap 0 plants. Saat c. Influence of the composition of the surrounding waters.—In rivet water, deprived of air by ebullition and containing only carbonic _ much r considerable than the volume of the plant, and on sub! ting this plant to elementary analysis, it is found that for equal weights; it contains much less nitrogen than a portion of the same plant not = Miscellaneous Intelligence. 287 aves and never by the inferior. They have also as- certained that the oxygen produced by the decomposition of the car- nic acid has a definite course—that it descends invariably from the leaves towards the roots. Thus when a stem of a Potamogeton is placed horizontally in water, the emission of the gas always takes place by the section nearest the root end of the plant. - oO = =] sot) > >) 5 S fo) ap ° 5 = ° - = te] na ay =) . s ts Q. a i) a S S to] a > i=} al - = is o ao @ w Saad =: pa) ~ o ae jal > = upon the part in pain, or upon a piece of linen cloth which is to be Immediately applied to this part, and the contact is maintained by a bandage; and quickly the pain is relieved. A pomatum of this ether may also be employed consisting of 4 grammes to 20 of suet; or if of the sesquichlorid of carbon, 4 of this agent to 30 of suet; It may be used either with friction or without. ‘The insensibility is not simply ble; has a between i ers ae 238 Miscellaneous Intelligence, aaa 6 these is the electro-chemical telegraph. ‘Two patents have been granted for inventions of this kind, one of which has already gqne into practical Bain, came into the contest for priority of inyention upon unequal grounds, the former be a citizen of the Ynit ted States, and the latter a foreigner. It was held by your predecessor in ‘office, that under the law a foreigner could not go behind his foreign patent or printed pub- lication for evidence of his invention, and upon meierenee. of this sub- ject to the Atiorney General, the opinion of the. commissioner was onfirmed, >It was also held that in a contest for alodieg of invention, the sealing of a foreign patent was not to be taken as proof of inven- and that proof of enrolment was alone adequate. On the appeal o Chief Justice Cranch, the parties ee by counsel, who occupied some days in elaborate argument. It was, I believe, the first trial of appeal from the office, had in open court, and the hole case ‘has been faithfully reported and printed at ee expense ye e of the par- ties. The — t will be read with much interest by ncn and professional m he pation: ‘of the electro- chemical telegraph depends upon the chemical re-agency of the galvanic current. Marks or stains are made ed at the time to give it sufficient conducting power. The advantage claimed for this over the electro-magnetic telegraph, is that it may worked with much greater rapidity. In the electro-magnetic welegie a — is ei by the development of ssinntacs -magnetism, and the c sequent movement of a small bar of iron, both of which operations require sinticaihe time. In the chemical telegraph the production of the stains or marks is commensurate with the passage of any portion of the galvanic current; for, according to the best authorities, the cur- rent could not pass through the salt without decomposition. The change of colors, as indicated to the eye, may not be so sudden as the transit = the — but if it should not a so in fact, it beeomes so practical- y, as ra ease not informed agree this point, but it is immaterial ; wm ~ oO 5 3 2 Lo | o & =’ o a So w ® o | as feaal =. : ® 5 wm — 3 ro] vw ° —_ a ® ° . Bee eB: ae t raph being this, that as it sone res time to change a discharge a0 electro-magnet, and also to overcome the inte of maton parts, aking signals, while in { ; “Miscellaneous Intelligence. 289 ots inventor hairpatteited a means of preparing and transmitting com- munication h more rapidly than the ordinary manipulations with the : ‘Tosaccomplish this, strips of paper a perforated by ma- =e in such a manner that the perforations may oo: to the " ibprctenting théletters, figures, or words, and by means of these " petforati ons and the intervening spaces, or whole portions of his paper, ‘the circuit is broken and closed with as great rapidity as a slight spring pressing upon a strip of paper can be made toact. It is ~_ necessary aconsiderable weight, they n e made of a corresponding strength ; and, moreover, as they have : made the sportive targets of lawless that the air is impervious to galvanic electricity, all that can return to . its source between two distant stations, without travelling the whole €d to think however, that the air, when loade eal mo intend is a con- ductor of galvanic as well as of mechanical electricity, as indicated by my €xperiments, several years since, with the immense copper roof of t Office, for ° Theo cwising of rivers sand large bodies of water, by means of sub- ) does not.seem yet to have been attained, and the chief 6, Plan which | Proposed ‘several years since appears to be worthy of trial. It consists in using a local circuit and battery of eames at each — body of water. The sai alge ~~ Serres, Vol. XI, No. 32.—March, 185 Se ee 290 Miscellaneous Intelligence. routes are of small quantity and high intensity ; hence a slight defect i lo of insulation in a submerged wire would be productive of a great some and true American spirit. It does not appear in any way Im- practicable to stretch a wire from the American continent to England ; and in the waveless depths of the interminable waters, the wire would be more secure from depredation than on terra firma. From its weight it would sink beneath the realms of the living monsters, and lie far out of decomposition when exposed to air and moisture, and some cases of its entire destruction when in thin sheets. I have been recently informed a c i transferring and holding even strong nitric acid. It may not be ou of place here to mention its‘unfitness, when in very thin sheets, for models of patented inventions. During the past year a patent was granted for a surgical instrument, an essential part of which was a sac of gutta percha. In the course of a few months the entire sac had disappeared, having crumbled into powder. ; American Indicating Disc Telegraph—An instrument under this are indicated by the figures 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, these being the only sy mbols used. These stand for the vowels, and the remaining letters are repre- Miscellaneous Intelligence. 291 _ Pen Telegraph.—When Prof. Morse’s telegraph was first essayed in this city, it recorded the signs upon a moving fillet of paper by means of a pen charged with ink, the pen being supplied from a reser- a ture be- comes rapidly peroxydized from its porosity and from the spontaneously elevated temperature of the mass. a Carbonate of lime. When no more oxyd of iron and chlorid of cal- cium remain undecomposed, the mixture is expose 292 Miscellaneous Intelligence. The mixture now differs from the original only in containing in place of the chlorid of calcium a sulphate which acts in precisely the same ay. The regeneration of the aid materials is effected in an hour or two and the author has already repeated it fifteen successive times. It becomes at last necessary to wash out the salt of ammonia, when the material regains all its pristine force this process all impurities, even sulphuret of carbon, are removed, with a large portion of carbonic acids while the increase of the illuminating power is estimated at eight per cent. The cost of materials is slight, while the impurities are converted into merchant- able articles, and the wear and cost of apparatus is reduced to a inimum. These results have been verified by experiments at Paris and suc- ceestally carried out on a large scale at the gas works at VT . SH. 15. On the Asphaltic Coal of New ae a by C. T. ape oN, (Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., April, 1850, 279, )—On the 16th of last March, Henry W. Fuller, Esq. o i sent me a box of speci- mens of a new kind of fuel recently discovered in New Brunswick. It was regarded as cannel coal of a peculiar kind. his substance proved to be a very ay birdie of asphaltum. It is jet black, glossy, and free from smut. It s witha brs con- choidal hectuen like obsidian, and presents a brilliant surfac It is a little softer than sonk salt, which scratches its othe Its spe- cific gravity is 1-107. It softens and a when exposed to heat in close vessels. When and a little susie: Heated in a glass flask, it gives off an abundance of bituminous liquid analogou etroleum, and leaves a eryilight and bulky coke of a brilliant black color and very: porous. n eX- posed to heat in a covered rae —— an abundance of ca Feddings a =a yellowish miatter, which is obtained by evaporation of the solution. Oil of tumpentine dissolves a considerable quantity of the asphaltum, forming a varnish such as is used by engravers. ps aaiae the coke remained and was weighed. The results of tw trials gave,— 58:5 of volatile matter. 58°8 of volatile matter. 41:5 of coke. 41°2 of coke. 100-0 100-0 The coke obtained was burnt on . platinum tray, placed in a red-hot mufile, and left 0-47 percent. of ashes, of a deep reddish brown colo, consisting of Panonye of iron with a little eat Cis manganese. and hs ES 5 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 293 enormous amount of fuel. the production of gas for illumination. It is also the best fuel for steam engines, and is particularly well adapted for the use of locomo- _ tive steam engines on railroads. have not visited the spot where this asphaltum is found, but, hav- ing seen it associated with gypsum from Dorchester, N. B., am led to believe that it occurs above the coal formation of New Brunswick. [The facility with which this asphaltic coal melts down in the gas retorts has hitherto, we are informed, been an obstacle in the way of its use. —Es. 16. Shooting Stars of August, 1850.—M. QuereLet states that according to the facts observed, the number of shooting stars per hour on the evening of the 9th of August, was about 60 for Brussels; on the evening of the 10th, 111 for Brussels, 180 for Markree, Ireland, and 58 for Rome. The direction was the same for all these places. e fo] Qa id x — © ~J] — S&S — eo © — | a a = of @ bo) e © os x j=) m S i ag @ oo “3 po) bea | by ° — S. Oo. oO ‘ eS 5 w (2 31 8 © 12 . Syget é ealaadlz Subject, 4 Beasig. Subject. 25 3 23 = Bo ncel| & BC\S.a 512 Zorn Site e ie (4 : 511 —a0| 6] Brought over, - . - | 744| 244/905 General Natural History, 151 40! 36] Brought over, : a ammalogy, - - - 12 1| 14}Physical Sci. and Chemistry,| 10 ] a Ornithology, : - - 35| 27) Medicine, . . - bee tom d Crustacea, | 191} . 23) 56{Trans. and Proceed. of Soc.,) a Ichthyology and Herpetolgy Q 4| 19 ournals, Annals, &c., &c., 622 el Conchology and Helminthol- Voyages and Travels, - ts 136 i Se eee 8} 56) 5 gape tS ae? Geology and Mineralogy, | 10: 21| 57\Dictionaries of Arts and Sci., a ie Pig Botan | “Bibliography, - - ~ ay 127/Miscellaneous,- - ~- . 4 Anatomy and Physiology, 143; 55 oo” Pee a8 | 1719) 715531 m porations 113; by Dr. Wilson 2493; by Mr. Edward ; by the U.S. Treasury Department 5 (charts). he increase in the cabinet during this year, will be briefly noticed i t = 294 _ Miscellaneous Intelligence. ammalia.—-In this class, the Academy has been greatly enriched by the addition of the collection of Dr. J. K. Townsend, made by himself in ue nat so and Oregon, consisting of 37 pre 56 speci- mens, in skin, good state of preservation. These were liberally prvohewed to “the (Sodiey by Dr. Dedipestid: Most of them are the specimens from which the species were originally described, and many of them are exceedingly rare in ss history collections, and a few are unique. Among them are two specimens of the e gigantic wolf of America, Lupus gigas, lately doansibed by Dr. Townsend in the Jour- nal of the Academy. We have also received skins of twenty species of mammalia, of Europe, Asia, Africa, and Australia, from W. E. Strickland, Esq., of England, through Dr. Wilson. Another addition of great value was made by Dr. T. B. Wilson, consisting = one hundred specimens from the pein of the Prince of Canino, C. L. Bonaparte, ae the originals of the species figured and described i in the Fauna Italica. e also indebted to Capt. W. ee ah ee for 7 species, 8 speci- ang of Paws from Van Diemens Lan Besides the above there were a to the Society ten species from various sources. ves.—We have = during the year 71 bird skins, of which 51 are from Van Diemens Land, presented by Capt. W. McMichael ; 10 from China, eh - Capt. John Land; the a from various localities, presented by Dr. E. J. Lewis, ‘and 0 The valuable Des Murs collection of Bird’s egg Bs pena 1281 species, mentioned in the last report of the Curators as a deposit, has since been presented to the Academy by Dr. Wilson. Mr. Samuel Ashmead we are indebted for a donation of 38 species, 48 specimens, of American bird’s eggs. There were also presented by various individuals, principally mem- bers of the Society, 15 species of nests, and 23 of eggs, from differ- ent localities. ptilia.—Of reptiles there have been received 65 species, 80 speci- Pld besides numerous American duplicates, principally from Dr. McCartee, of Ningpo, China; Capt. John Land; Mr. Sa ndwith ‘Drinker, of Hong Kong, China; and Me. Ashmead Pisces.—In ichthyology, the cabinet has received, rather unexpect- edly, a large and very valuable collection, proenaie y Dr. T. B. Wil- o From o lshor persons we have received eleven species of fishes, prin cipally American. Mollusca.—In this department there have been. presented 107 spe- cies of shells, from various localities, principally by Mr. Ed. Verreaux, Ww “aie Dr. McCartee, of China, and Messrs. E. T. and Chas. a _ Insecta.—A fine collection of Brazilian insects, consisting of 494 species, 981 —— has been added to our alana , ean the te Bey Sate en ing Miscellaneous Intelligence. 295 erality of Henry Bond Dewey, Esq., of Para, Brazil, through Dr. Henry Bond, of this city. o Dr. McCartee, also, we are indebted for the gift of 120 species, 216 specimens, of Chinese insects. Other collections have also been received, but without definite number, in exchange or by donation, principally from Drs. Heerman, Townsend, and Watson There have been received, also, nine species from different persons. Eas, Spiders and three Myriapods were presented by Dr. McCartee, of Ningpo. Echinodermata.—Of Echini and star fishes we have received 21 species, 41 specimens, chiefly from Mr. Edward Wilson, and Messrs. Harwick and Argent, of London.” The Report continues with statements of additions correspondingly large, in the departments of Comparative Anatomy, Botany, Palzon- tology and Mineralogy. , President for 1851, Samven Georce Morton, M.D.; Vice Presi- ts, J. Price Wetneritt and Rosert Bripees, M.D.; Correspond- Secretary, Joun Cassin. OBITUARY. Joun James Avpvuzon died on the 27th of January, 1851, aged residence on the banks of the Hudson. ln Which he was aided by Dr. Bachman. ws Prof. H. C. Scuumacuer, the astronomer of Altona, and the distin- _ Buished editor of the Astronomische Nachrichten, died Dec. 28, 1850, in the 71st year of his age. His long and industrious life has been cone devoted to the advancement of astronomy and the allied neces, VI. BrptioGRAPHY. 1. Patent Office Report, for 1849. Part I, Arts and Manufactu 624 pp., 8vo, with plates, Washington, 1850; Tuos. Ewsanx, E missioner of Pat res, Com: i ea nts.—From this valuable document, we learn that ‘ eeen 4 ! o the number of patents applied for in 1849 was 1955; of patents issued uc! hayes, Ba fay ods r é 296 Bibliography. % a Ger, during the year, 1076; of rejected and suspended appli tions (part from preceding year) 1409. About 750 patents expired | in propulsion of steamers. There is much good sense in the remarks on a household branch of patents, (Atmospheric Churns,) reported by Prof. C. G. Page, which we here cite. The subject of churns belongs to the class of agriculture, which class will be reported upon by the Examiner having that branch in charge. In consequence of an unequal apportionment in the number of cases, I have had during the year forty-nine applications trans- ferred to my desk, and among them twenty-one applications for churns. Most of these were styled atmospheric churns, and since I have been in the Patent Office I have never witnessed such a manta by the grant of a patent for a churn in which there were boxes upon opposite sides of a common revolving dasher, ‘so situated that as the dasher revolved, the box containing the cream, with its open mouth downwards, carried down a portion of air to the bottom of the churn ed into spray. Both the descent and size of the box occasioned a com- mingling of the air and cream, and answered the purpose of agitation as well perhaps as any form of dasher. In the report of last year the rationale of atmospheric churns was given. It may be well to repeat that the introduction of air plays no chemical part in the production of of air rises through the cream, it forms a bubble upon the surface before © it escapes, and in some of the atmospheric churns, where the dasher is constantly submerged, the whole mass of cream is converted into a complete mass of foam. From the success of such a churn as that above named in producing butter in a shorter time than other churns, @ most enthusiastic speculation was at once commenced upon atmospheric improvements. From the immense number of churns used throughout the country, great gains could not fail to follow the monopoly of a new ind superior churn. The gol ey i Bibliography. 297 is most complete. A full sized model was exhibited in the office show- ing the operation with clear water only. Upon agitating the dasher, the water appeared as if in intense ebullition. Another peculiarity be- longs to this churn worthy of note. In the common churn, the dasher has to be raised out of the cream at each stroke and plunged down with some force, and as this scatters the cream, it is necessary to cover the churn tightly and allow the dasher to play through a smal] hole in the centre of the cover; but in this atmospheric churn the dasher is and enable you to watch the operation. stron its simplicity, and as one of the inventors stated he could alter any co inventions had been patented, and many more made and presented to the office to effect the same rpose. In truth this invention at first Was not considered patentable; but after the exhibition of its actual operation by one of the inventors, a different view was adopted and a Palent ordered to issue. As atmospheric churns were not hew, t Inventor, and an exhibition of the operation and result of his invention. 4 he patentability of an invention frequently turns upon a nice point, an Inventions the most novel are sometimes the most worthless, while agai a entor, demolish a whole laby- result by means so simple as ee Most to rob invention of its charms. Such means as one would sup- Pose should have been the first and not the last resort. Mingled with Stcoxn Sznrzs, Vol. XI, No. 82.—March, 1851. 38 = e 99 “ (=) = ™~ oO = b>] a ay = G i=] = o oi < * 298 Bibliography. the surprise are often times feelings of regret and chagrin by his com- —s that they had not discovered this most obvious path. To such s the words of Milton are quite apropos “The invention all admired, = ach - we he bs be the inventor missed; so easy it seemed, ce found, which yet cn: aay most youd have deemed impossible’ e Such cases are the most embarrassing to your examiners. ‘If meas ured by the length and breadth of novelty, little is to be found, while yet the measure of utility has in no way been made to appear. But to return to the churns. 5 A modification of the last named churn has been patented, in which A. the hole in the dasher at the lower part was large enough to contain a sig eg ly fitting loosely within the dasher, which acts the part of a ) the office that the inventions claimed “psiied their pretensions to be real improvements. In most of these cases, the results were unfavor- able to the inventor ; but in some, patents were ordered to issue. one occasion an experiment was performed (humorously characterized by a bystander as a “ churn race,”) between a patented and a churn, ip which they both came out ee making butter from new milk in two minutes and a half. Such a rapid separation of the butter, however, is by no means es although this is the general aim of these improvements. We have it upon the highest chemical authority, oes butter made so rapidly is a likely to be as good as that which is ma y- 2. Pictorial Atlas of Fossil Remains, consisting of Colored arid Pisa selected from Parkinson’s ‘“ Organic Remains of a For Worl Hanah Artis’s * eee res Phytology ; 3” with Descriptions by G. fanTeLL, Esq., LL.D., F.R.S., &c., nate 208 Pp: 4to, with 74 H. G. Bohn. ance of J. Morris, Esq., F.G.S., distinguished in the departm Paleontology. The frontispiece to the volume is a beautiful p a recent memoir easguaien ens ase Bibliography. 299 an account of the colossal New Zealand birds. The volume closes with 2” y D oO Animal Remains in Flint and other siliceous nodules ;—On Foraminif- era ;—Fossil Elk of Ireland ;—Fossil Infusoria and Infusorial Earths ; —The Mosasaurus ;—Fossil eptiles of the Wealden ;—Silicification or Petrifaction by flint ;—On Stigmaria, Sigillaria, with figures, illustra- ting the stumps and roots. 3. On the Pelorosaurus, an undescribed Terrestrial Reptile whose remains are associated with those of the Iguanodon and other Saurians In the strata of Tilgate Forest, in Sussex; by G. ANTELL, Esq., -R.S., &c. From the Philosophical Transactions. Part II, for 1850. London: 1850. Supplementary Observations on the structure of the Belemnite and Belemnoteuthis ; by G. A. MAnTELL .R.S. From the Phil. Trans., Part II, 1850. London: 1850 he memoirs, whose titles are here given, have appeared within the past year, in the Philosophical Transactions. As an abstract has already been given in this Journal* a farther notice is not necessary. The illustrations are in the best style of lithography especially those of the various bones of the Pelorosaurus, whose forms are brought out with a clearness of detail and a boldness of tint that exhibits the hand t = 3 ~ = ® & “* a ~~ & &, po — TQ iS) ~ % 5 3 % a ~ ~ x > ® = o ° sae 2 ed = ® ba | Oo o S “s o =) = 4. A Treatise on Trigonometry, Plane and Spherical, with its appli- cation to Navigation and Surveying, Nautical and Practical Astron- omy and Geography, with Logarithmic, Trigonometrical and Nautical Tables, Sor the use of Schools and Colleges. A new edition with exten- ive additions and improvements; by Rev. Cuantes W. Hacxtey,S.T.D., tof. Math. and Astr. in Columbia College. 8vo. 372 pp. text and 238 astheraieat * Vol. ix, 2nd ser., pp. 488, 439. yee. i 300 Bibliography. Geodesy and Nautical Astronomy. He has happily digested into a short systematic treatise the principal abe employe upon the has coast survey of the United States, and explained the use of the magnetic clock in recording aboervatiodn ond entered into the subjects of canal and railroad engineering, and the construction of maps. | The of Bowditch’s Navigator, by permission of G. W. Blunt the proprie- tor of that work. The author has also introduced Prof. Chauvenet’s paper on unlimited triangles, and has given a new sone of deducing Napier’s seep by means of the Gauss equa 5. Revie w of Chemistry for Students, patois to the courses as taught in ie principal Medical schools of the United States; by J. G. Morrny, M.D. 328 pp. 12mo. Philadelphia: 1851. Lindsay & Blakiston.—The author has prepared this work in order to furnish the student with a condensed review of the principles and facts of chem- istry that may be a convenient accompaniment to a course of lectures, and serve for an easy revision of the subject. Although not offered a a text-book it has the same range in a briefer sack We are not salis- see a want of precision in some of the re Serpe But the work Is still a good one, and may well answer the purpose for which it is In- tended. The changes in the formation of compounds by complex de- compositions are exhibited to the eye, - the facts under each head are en and clearly brought o 6. —— es +4 a a Suroey of the State of 4 rela . Louis. 1851.—The state and we add oure ealetnenpnes to ie - has st and our earnest aw ~ at the same tim seriasorabihe- * er inislligedes and love of — Itis a fact ofa some — that-in recent prarsaitess upon the ha de If science has cated forward the world with a progres so wonderful; per, zinc, cobalt, iron; material for glass and porcelain ; soared salt, alum, copperas; and what other undeveloped treasures we know not. But even without such inducements to survey thorou wee het _ borders and obtain a just knowledge of her resources, the advancem of science in its highest and =— signification, should be a incenti ive. Bibliography. 301 7. Reports on the Geology and Topography of California; commu- nicated to the Senate by the Secretary of War. Ex. Doc., No. 47, Blst Congress, 1st Session.—This volume includes a Report on Cali- fornia by Mr. P. T. Tyson; a Report of General Smith; of Lieut. Talbot to General Smith; of Prof. J. F. Frazer on minerals forwarded by Gen. Smith; of Gen. Riley; of Lieut. Ord to Gen. Riley; of Lieut. Derby of his survey of a portion of the valley of the Sacramento; of Lieut. R. S. Williamson of the reconnaissance made by Capt. W. H. tp F litz, Oregon; sp. gr. 1-314 Loss of weight at 212° (water &c.), 4:9 z3 * at red heat (bitumen), 495 * “by combustion (from carbon), 42:9 Ash residuum, 2-7 100-0 A drab colored compact limestone, (sp. gr. 2°63,) from Monte Diavolo near San Francisco afforded Mr. A. Muckle his assistant, Carbonate of lime, : . 8 Carbonate of magnesia, . . : nce, 146 pp. 16mo, illustrated with _ Bumerous engravings. Mew ork, 1851. att, Woodford Unt SNELLING: The a ie Art J ournal, a tebe! periodical ; vol. i, No. 1. January, 1851. New Yor. ISONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO Exo WLEDGE: Occultations visible in the United States during the year 1851, edepaies by John Downes, at the expense of the fund appropriated by Congress for the establishment of a Nautical Almanac. pp. 4to. Washington 850. SMiruson1an Sernuiionsn To KNOWLEDGE: Vinge of the Planet Neptune, for the year 1851; by Sears ©. Walker. 10 pp. 4to. Wd&@hington, 1850. iled ac May, 1795; Ul nasa cacune ms confirmi e authenticity of — tons ul Ut) Con re sequent nani th the 0 Orbit of Neptune. BSN aie te to Know.epGe: Aboriginal Monuments of the State of New Y. Fork: by E. G. Squier, A.M. 188 pp. Ato, with 14 ges 1851. Sarr MITHSONIAN INSTITUTION : Fourth Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the nian ge tognne for the year 1849. 64 pp. te Washington, 1850. Sen- ent 81st Congress, 1st Ses Abbildungen u. Beshrengen neuer u. seltener Thiere u. Pflanzen in Syrien im westl. Taurus melt v. Th. Kotschy, herausg. v. den D. D. Fenzl, Heckel und “Rta ey L Lig. Imp. 4to, (25 rithog- 107—1058 pp. of text in large 8vo.) Stuttgart. 1849. 22 dollars. 1849, 4 olin, Geognostische Skizze yon Hessen. 66 pp. large 8vo. Darmstadt, zUR PFLANZENKUNDE DES Rvss Hrsg. v. der Kaiserl. a Wissenschaften: 6 Lfg. large re "62 F oie "St. ‘Piet 1849. Leip- A. Brarrmany : og ea einen Darstellung der Ce oo, d. Ner- - ae Beriichsicht. yon Rana esculenta. Large in ‘to. ge i Rn: Die La pyri bcdcben aus dem bunten Sandstein burg, zoologis in 4to, Berlin, 1 ie G. Reimer. 3} do a er secidiakats dieiet alaeen. eographische Naturkunde rundziige e: hich Sieg drei Reichs aie physiognom. Perce be Nat. v, Island, Xvi and 446 8 sth 14 lithog. Konig et EW. Dove: Mon —— 2 pp. 4to, with 3. ith. Berlin, 1849. dol. . Zabnbau v. Myliobates. 36 pp. 4to, with eior, A a EISTER : . ch geschildert 1 Abth ; ord matosaurus, iv and 71 pp. with 4 lithog. der Erdoberflache f. seateoea: er u, Gebildete dberhaupt, 1 Abth. Plan der Geog. ig at., 2 Abth.; Geog. 2 304 Bibliography. : a ie Dr, G. A. W. Herricu-Scudrrer: Schmetterlinge v. Europa. Revision u. Sup- saat zu J. Hitbner's Sammlun g europ. Schmetterlinge. 41 and 42 parts, Large a 48 PP. of text, and 20 colored lithog. Regensberg. 8 = ris r. Martius: De Genera et species Plantarum ete, ix. 256 pp. imp. fe oh 26 litho. 1849. Uneol. 34 dol.; col. 453 dol., for eae i—ix uncol, | 2 col. 3 rd 3 Dr. v. MipDENDORFF : agrestis io al Abth. ii and ii, 281 pp. 4to, ao & ‘Yehog. St. Petersburg. Leipzig, Vo . A. Pamieer: Abbild. u ok neuer od. wesig gekannter Conchylien, iii vol. 6 Lfg. with 6 lithog., and 26 pp., 4to. Cassel, 3 Prof. Dr. H. Stannius: das peripherische Nerven ses & Fische, anat,su. phys * slog. planer. iv aoe 156 pp. Large 4te, Rostock, 1849. 8} dol. ogee Be 0 Linas: eee . the family of Fie EET, 8 pp. | sro, with 1 1 ool plate Sor abs aati 9.4 Recherches sur Tovganozraphie if la classification des Globu- erg oy Pa oe with 4 oor plates. _deipeek. ZEITSCHRIFT DER DEUTSCHEN GEOLO Pigs Rehr oe 2nd_ vol. lg it erli Dr. Abert Wicanp: Inte eee und Cuticula,—a Treatise on the 4 ure and metamorphosis of aie able cell membrane. vi and 130 pp: 8yo, er plates. Braunschwei eig, dol, G. Rirscut: Flora des Grossherzogthums Posen, im ri des naturhist, Yo hai en. d 291 pp. 8vo. Ae 1850. _ PROCEEDINGS OF Sg it me AT eg fale > le on erin 8 Th ee wily and Lar g a 2 fe Ibis nea ts ag sR Parle nd; ie abo t. aA eg a s nS Dr. Burnett. August—p.321, Red oxyd of Zine and Foanklinite of New Jersey; 6.7 Jackson —323, A bullfrog found with a mouse in his stomach, and others feeding on ; ; ritchs Sadie th 312, ( ariabilis as distinc oy f hed Nee a] — & n 5 Ae 4 ae) hs 2 Co) § 3 > =] ) no Som is a —p. 335, the San pepeoss Regions, &e.; C. 7° Jackson —p. 336, ; hey OCEEDINGS OF THE AcaD. Nar. Scr seliguceratahy Vol. v * augue “ il Mammalia from Mi TES 7, New - om Missouri D. Owen and J. G. Norwood.—p. 6 ' — of the genera Paradisea, Pastor and a ; J. Cassin. September—p. 81, — On the word species; Dr. Morton.* October—p. 85, On the antiquity of some e ; Dr. Morton —p. 90, O ey new Mammalian Fossils; J. du _ Meteorological Table from Chagres to New York; —p. 96, logy; J. Leidy.4— i On the spree of —p. 103, P tcecieden of some a Parus, E esta aa a and Leu s in the Collections of the Academy ; ZC in ovember.— , Descriptions of se 4 cember:—p. 119, On the nettling organs of the Hydra; ¥: dy.——p. 121, On some aig of Fossil ia idy.t—p. 122, asc ; Dr. Morton.—p. 124, New Gen Species of Vermes; 12 seas ngs ‘assin., —P. 126, On mn Duck; - Proceepines A w Put. S c. PHILADELPHIA. Vol. V, No.45. May, 1850 ag of the pare pare of California on the SPOES sar Prof. Tucker—Gold f : Letter from the : editi ‘on the bhecees. 3 Half-d Es Natu: soa 5 ser., Vol. aii oa RCH, 15a Moles um ; —Research Am. Jour.Sc1. Vol.X1. 2nd. Series. Plate 22 ~ WHIRLWINDS_FROM-THE BURNING OF A CANE BRAKE. 4 t. fellogg Lith. Harttord, ¢ ICONOGRAPHIC ENCYCLOPEDIA # Bo SCIENCE, LITERATURE, AND ART ; posaeet SYSTEMATICALLY ARRANGED BY wits FIVE oc te QUARTO sata PLATES, Bp the most distinguished Artists of Germa THE TEXT TRANSLATED AND EDITED B "SPENCER F. BAIRD, AM. _MD., ASSISTANT SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INS SECOND EDITION. PROSPECTUS. Tur Iconocrarnic Encyciormp1a has met with a patronage so liberal that a second issue has already becom en necessary, for whieh a seid ee is open The splendid work wledge iia h can be illustrated by pictorial “pe pee These illustrations are a prac in strictly systematic order, ON 500 Lance RS Sree. Piares, and are accompanied by letter-press, printed in in the , on the-best pa rn in the most convenient form, of a large, handsome octavo. . The “steprata 1 fill 2000 pages, and will be a — manual of the sciences germs erated below, eet constant references to the figures on the plates. Alphabetical indexes and tables of contents will make it practically nahi sal of easy reference. The subdivisions of the work are as follows: Ri L—Marsematics. Subdiv.: Geometry, Astronomy, Cosmography, . . 15 Plates, ee L—Narvra AND MepicaL. Sciences. Subdiv.: Natural Philosophy, : Meteorology, Chemistry, Mineralogy, Geology, Botany, Zoology, Anatomy, Pistelas, Surgery, . 26 “ pa Ill.—Genrrat Grocrarny. eee eS hysical ” Geography (comprising te Hydrography, Orography, Bota er and Zoological Geography), | Historical Geography (Antiquity, Middle Ages, Modern Times), Ee Political Geography (a gen — Atlas and Plans of Cities), 44 “ ae IV.—Erunotocy. (Comprising the national costumes and customs athe = i parts of the globe), a * V.—Munirary Sctenc ~ bey &e. “CHmpiements of wat; fortifications, eering, arse oS VI.—Navat Scenss (Ship- “building of all ages ; ; details of “vessels, navigation, | " s ava arsenals, rangers oH a 32° VIL—Arcurecrurs. Subdiv : Archeology, Siyles of “the Anctents, ‘the Liddle enaissance, dern Architecture ‘ (comprising Dwellings, Churehes, sone g fone , &e.), - VIIL—Myr anp Rexieious Rires lytheism, Monotheism),. - re a a RT ubdiv. : Seulpture ah ages Sewer pest _ : ; ithography, Typography Music, Dan e Drama, . .- Boe X.—Trc : "Be bdiv Or Public Worl Works (Highways, ae Hydraulic o Works) ; ‘Mini ng, Farming, and Commerce (Agricu _— Economy ee oe of Forests, Coining and Coins, Weights and Measure: ji ee phos F ———_——_- Total, . 500 Plates. tt having deemed of great importance to unite the possible cheapness with beauty ay nosis value, the great ere of resagerng the ar tt has been avoided, and a contract made to secure good impressions, taken un er the immediate supervision of _ Mr. Heek, = original framer of the work, se eh highly finished German plates; end meen w before the sei will prove that they at not have been produced in Country at vo than double price for whic h they are now offered. ‘ A small proportion of a apt Engravings constituting the whole work (about 50, repre- senting Astronomy and Geogra have inscriptions (chiefly astronom ieal and geographical names) in the German language, which could not have been altered except at a very great 4. This eer caetance does, how ever, in no way interfere with the perfect clearness - “ : __ wish to make themselves acquainted with the several names and expressions. oceurring on the plates will be issued at the end of the work for the benefit of those who The Iconocraruic Encyctop pia will be published in 25 Parts, each containing 20 Plates and 80 pages of Letter=press, issued in a convenient portfolio, in which pag ean nate = copies in pees order until completed, when ed can be bound. e issued semi= pai at the gd low price of One Dollar each Part, wick: ue onable all — of meer on int we ost ‘sania sie aie form, however scanty their means, ibers to the wor Subscribers pledge cawiieed to take all the sakes as they are issued. On the other hand, they will at no time be called upon to pay for any part in advance. e continuation of the first edition (13 parts are now ready) will be issued as ber ein monthly, and with great —. Thus both editions will be completed a sia 1851. ent olay ie of science, from their varying natures, demand more or less detailed eeranetions in letter-press, eighty pages of text are not always sufficient to “391s ey the ssousnaie of 20 saratiion, whilst in other instances less than required ia ‘ 5 text and plates will run together, and form a complete manual of the enumerated sciences, vated — collection of pictorial illustrations, executed on steel with the greatest care The eione for this Encyclopedia were originally designed for Illustrations to the Conver- sations-Lexicon of Brockhaus, which is the original of the Encyclopedia Americanas The plates of the Iconographic Encyclopedia will therefore be fou all owners of the meye a Americana an invaluable supplement to this latter work, whilst the elaborate xt, which is published with the valuable e distinguished P a Scholars, makes the Iconographic Encyclopedia a complete work in itself, being not merely explanatory of the designs of the plates, but embracing full and original treatises of the i ated. sciences illustr. RUDOLPH oe Publisher, New York, October, 1850. rcLay Srreet (Astor House). OPINIONS, ‘om the Boston Chronotype. é Democratic Sg oe gee sfc adoeies the rains accu- We have al iheaae bestowed a foe mont ntary para- mber of eg vings whic t i highly facie interesting, and beautiful thie splendid scientific work. publication. The of por’ —— published. up amily it will as Pa endless source of enjoy-|to this period, is ta and we dis no ~ sent pry doetruetion: And we like the plan of pub-| off in the excellence of the style of i sah —- it piecemeal. Where is the family which| value and interests of the literary Sibi "The save oue dollar per month for such an object ?| articles are of uniform fullness and significance, at pees engine - tape Rycjow mine of know- illustrative Vongra Vines equally numerous and well ledge—the universe in a nut-s ? Few could/e ted, e topics iat ine of a sort greatly muster a quarter oA a hundred at once. But by lay- ie 3 serve the. cause of practical art and science, in ing — oe one ——_) dolar monthly, at the end | every ee partieaiarly pl thips people suc uch d yourself i i ure whieh vt ‘G mehtis! From the Methodist Quarterly Review. geoduced: ea enman = pea eng penny acd We mentioned in our last number the progoeas When obtained, let the work be bound in e blication of this work, and then assured 0 Russia seniher. and it will educate two oor readin that it would be amply worthy of a fallest ong ner aid t will = = nstant preacher, a| COMfidence and encouragement. The sf eloquen shal © tay spired one?| humbers have since appeare red, punctua aiiy Oa al We hope, for "ie sake of “the | hapeg seme oy promised times, an . hea contents fully justify en _ sands, rat tt the kK ill our promises. We shall ta asion to giv ‘timely a see yo the pall esac coves ents. m bY) xccount of this great Work at some further poin' ae its progress. In the meantime, we urge all Literary World, readers who desire to encourage a genuine Th we usr -telgad solid es Md substantial value. | Purchase this Encyclopedia. ? 3 The in Idan of this w into general circula- + Providines Journab < and privat vr gets and Foe fy libraries, public) yt is a ate ‘of ps value, and the engravings are hatate cannot luctive of advan-| ajtogether the most elegant that we have ever seen . works of this kind. nying the elegant plates, we may rely a translation, but is carefull Pe irom i rier. : ‘to onthe very jatest discoveries in al a gd have it in our power to ranches of science, ts clearness and Saioets readers with more heartiness Armes a realy iy'hey and’ explanation to the 130 this Encyclo ia, mor agses A as we oor levery way worthy of their AGENTS. cee We dans CINCINNATI: P Pe "Eek ee : he 8 ER, : ost. : H. Deray & Co. | NEWO Norman. THE BOOK TRADE GENERALLY THROUGHOUT co UNtoN. ‘ _ PROSPECTUS TO VOLUMES X AND XI. BOWS SOUTHERN AND WESTERN REVIEW, A MONTHLY INDUSTRIAL AND LITERARY JOURNAL; COMMERCE, AGRICULTURE, MANUFACTURES, INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS, &c. Published simultaneously on the first of each month, 112 to 128 pages, at New Orleans, arte be Mobile, Galveston, Savannah, Vicks- ek: burg, Memphis, St. Louis, Cincinnati, Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Richmond. TERMS $5 PER ANNUM. Publication Office, 22 Exchange Place, New Orleans, opposite : the Post Office. Oxp Series, 9 Vots. New Series, 3 Vots. Z Nive Votumes of this work have been esc in the be on of culture, production, supply, demand, consumption, a mark- tory, etc.; Suear in all relations, with a great number of inal aiad valuable obnicibeasins from planters si manufac- ers in this country, the West Indies and Europe—ineluding ication, complete, of Dr. Evan’s celebrated Sucar PLant- Manvet, published last year in London, and Dr. Scoffern’s, r in this or any other country. A single one of its papers experienced Planter, is said to have a added hundreds of HEAT; The Institution of Suavery examine ed; Stave Laws, Sournern and Wesrern Manuract ERNAL, Improvements, &c.; PopuLaTion, Resources, We UCATION, Minerats, GeoLocy, HyprocraPuy, History ‘of the United States and of American “aa ae kale America, Enrope and the East, etc. ; gether 2 aa THE WESTERN JOURNAL OF MEDICINE AND SURGERY, EDITED BY Pe L. P. YANDELL, M.D., PROF. PHYS. AND PATH. ANAT. IN UNIV. OF LOUISVILLE, AND THEODORE S. BELL, M.D. CONTENTS. FOR JANUARY, 1851. ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS. ESSAYS AND CASES. L—Clinical Observations in Private Practice. . By Dr. E. B. Hasxins, of Clarksville, Tenn 1J.—Catalogue of inorganic ‘substances employed in sete with the powers of each substance. Prepared from the manu- — scripts of Dr. Wu. Tuuty, with a system of powers in the ord ; and kind of their operation. . IlL—Continuation of the “Case of Facial Paley. pe ae upon Otitis,” reported for the December number, Bo Journal. By W. H. Coss, M.D., of Louisville, Be 1V.—Small Pox—Vaccination and Revaccination—thei ie ent position. By Turopore 8. Bet, M.D., of Louisville, Ky- BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES. . V.—Woman: her diseases and remedies. A series of letters to his class, by Cuartes D. Metes, M.D., Professor of Midwifery, and the diseases of women and children, in the Jefferson College at Philadelphia, &c. &c. Vi.—Renal Affections: their diagnosis and pathology. ‘By Cuartes Frick, M.D. a Vil.—The Races of Men: A Fragment. By Rosert Kwox,MD. + VILI.—Silliman’s Journal. See SUMMARY OF RECENT MEDICAL INTELLIGENCE. Surgical ‘Teale of Epilepsy. On the Action of Mercurial Ointment and the Vapor of The Odor of Musk destroyed by Camphor. he Cod-Liver Oil in Phthisis. NEW AND u RECENTLY PUBLISHED BY HENRY G. BOHN, 4 YORK STREET, Convent Garden, Londo In one volume 4to, elegantly bound and ee in cloth, with 75 plates, containing nearly 900 colored figures of fossil animals ; and plants ; price eleven dollars (£2 5s.), ae THE PICTORIAL ATLAS OF FOSSIL REMAINS, Consisting of colored Binstedovs selected from “ Parkinson’s Organic Remains of a For ae 2 gad Artis’s ha 0.3 luvian Phytology.” By Gin n Aveernon Mantett, Esq. 4L.D., F.R.S., ‘Viee-resident of the pelea Society Of ‘Although nearly forty years have — since the ape ee 4 Mr. Parkinson’s work, and hundreds of geological works of © all kinds and degrees of ee have since been issued, these vol- umes, owing to ‘the beauty and ag of a plates, are still in — ow that the works is ee not only the original plates of the celebrated woak of Mr. Artis on fossil plants; ais pe is described, and the newest names annexed, Abe one of the © . - ae gists. Under the nee of ubject, of two works, comprising four 4to vols., which were ae originally at thirteen guineas or eighty-five do dollars,— in the reach of the geologist, paleontologist, and gene ; for this et volume is alike adapted for the aa a should be made, as the : einen speedy Mi GEOLOGICAL EXCURSION ROUND THE ISLE 5 oF WIGHT AND ALONG THE ADJACENT COASTS. 1 vol. 8vo, price 24 dollars. With a map and numerous Pl By Dr. MantTetu. Second Edition, with numerous additions; dedicated ty com- mand to His Royal Highness Prince Albert. Not only to the ; Geologist, but also to the Tourist, this Seating hand-book to the antiquities, picturesque scenery, and geological phenomena of the “ Beautiful Island,” as Sir Walter Scott terns it, is indis- pensable, for the author treats of these varied subjects in that familiar and cpeera manner that throws such a charm over EDITION OF THE WONDERS OF GEOLOGY, A FAMILIAR EXPOSITION OF GEOLOGICAL PHENOMENA, 2 vols. Numerous illustrations; price 14s. THE MEDALS OF CREATION, OR FIRST LESSONS oe THE STUDY OF ORGANIC REMAINS. 2 The above works by Dr. Mantell, are too well known to the American public to require particular description. Ne : Tn one volume, with numerous illustrations, price one ihc a A DAY’S RAMBLE IN AND ABOUT THE ANCIENT | TOWN OF LEWES IN SUSSEX. By Dr. Mantetu. ~ The fine old county town of Sussex, Lewes, is but ten min-_ — distance from Brighton by the railway : ; and as of course every American who visits the “ World’s Exhibition” will g° to “atti so interefiig from with it. Dr. Mantell, as the Cicerone to the interesting obje of his. wn town, has thrown a charm round every anc _ telic—Castle—Tower—or Priory—and the South Downs in i ity are apeeiey ground to the geologist, from their being t es described in Dr. Mantell’s earliest work, The Fossils th Downs. The tomb of the son- in-law of Wie ri me te : ANALYTICAL LABORATORY. | am to the “ Department of Philosophy anv the Arts,” in Yale College] ae . J. PoNOR TOR, Professor of Scientific Agriculture. - Tue course of instruction in this Laboratory is now fully ba nak Cage and al peactioable facilities are afforded to the students. ‘The Ses ; aha with those of the College, commencing in January, Mn} ay an ; r, and continuing about three months each. Instruction given in Agricultural, and in general Analytical Chemistry, both Organic and nhorgan ic. ectures and instruction in various branches of Applied Chemistry, _ are intended to be given by Mr. Henry Worvz, first assistant, in oie allowed to work during the whole day with use of balances, ts, glass, porelain, alcohol, fires, &e, platinum only excepted. e only a charge is for b breakage ms $5 per week or $60 to m of t ele or fourte s. ee chemical study pehirel of those who enter this —— €. 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OBSERVATIONS ON THE ABORIGINAL MONUMENTS | oF 7 THE TATE OF NEW YORK.* ee Cage a Indian tribes: found. in pede of the country gland and the Midele © ‘cite here a few pages from a ‘work by Mr. Squier, just ‘ied ee SIAN InstTITUTION, entitled, Aboriginal Monuments of the State z New. ae $ } original surv s and cp ape peo va pO aa ; w Yor Piadertaken Mr. Squier’s earlier er on “ti ublished in 1848, as ee of -t e jn a 4to volume of 300 : os : Sig Syerers a ie - » wae in 3 ahs chim é Bot, A aa we “i 5 =, by ~ a 306 Aboriginal Monumenis and Relics of New York. the plough of the invader exposes to his curious gaze. Their cemeteries, marked in very rare instances by enduring monu- ments, are now undistinguishable, except where the hand of modern improvement encroaches upon the sanctity of the grave. The forest-trees, upon the smooth bark of which the Indian sonorous language, which still attach to our mountains, lakes, and streams, little remains to recall the memory of the departed race But notwithstanding the almost entire absence of monuments of art clearly referable to the Indian tribes discovered in the actual possession of the region above indicated, it has long been known that many evidences of ancient labor and skill are to be found in the western parts of New York and Pennsylvania, upon the upper tributaries of the Ohio, and along the shores of Lakes Erie and Ontario. Here we find a series of ancient earth-works, entrenched hills, and occasional mounds or tumuli, concerning which history is mute, and the origin of which has been regarde as involved in impenetrable mystery. These remains became a ‘subject of frequent remark, as the tide, of emigration flowed ‘westward; and from time to time, various detached notices of beforé’the “Literary and Philosophical Society of New York,” which was published in pamphlet form, at Albany, in 1818. Mr. Clinton in this memoir did not profess to give a complete view of the matter; his aim being, in his own language, “to awaken the » public mind to a subject of great importance, before the means, — of investigation were entirely lost.” It consequently contains but little more than notices of such ancient earth-wol s, and other interesting remains of antiquity, as had at t ne fallen under his notice, or of which he had received e distinct . u i : ; cae ey a information. Its publi¢ation, however, was without any imme- ; publication of McCauley’s History of New York, in 1828. 18 am * Aboriginal Monuments and Relics of New York, 307 : work contained a chapter upon the antiquities of the state, em- ‘ bodying the essential parts of Mr. Clinton’s memoir, together ce with some facts of considerable interest, which had fallen under the observation of the author himself. Within a few years, public attention has again been directed to the subject by Mr. Schooleraft, in his “Notes on the Iroquois.” Some detached. facts have also been presented in local histories and publications, but usually in so loose and vague a manner as to be of little value for purposes of comparison and research. The observations of all these authorities were merely inci- state ; a deficiency which, it is evident, could not be supplied by descriptions, however full and accurate, and without which it has been found impossible to institute the comparisons requisite to igi able connec- ellipses and accurate squares—features whic are-the very reverse, and that the builders, lated their forms entirely h they were built. And ks of this state, ee ee ae of which traces remain displaying any co » regularity, can lay claim to high antiquity. All of them may be a _ Teferred with certainty to the period succeeding the commence- . 4 ment of European intercourse. - ’ Mr. Clinton was unable to learn of the occurrence’ of any pes remains upon the first terrace back from the lakes, and, upon the = * me basis of the assumed fact of their non-existence, advanced the ee d the formation of this ee. works were erected—a chro- “ie re have, however, discriminately upon the first ‘and 1 the “superior terraces, as also upon the islands of the lakes 2a q 4 # rivers, * led by statements which no opportunity was ve elsewh i m u — ‘th those of Ohio and: the West _ Senerally, Under this hypothesis, the question whether they i xe PRE SREY eT ee a a 308 Aboriginal Monuments and Relics of New York. were the weaker efforts of a colony, starting from the south- western centres, or the ruder beginnings of a people just emerg- ing from a nomadic state, becoming fixed in their habits, and subsequently migrating southward, next suggested itself; and I gladly availed myself of the joint liberality of the Smithsonian Institution and the Historical Society of New York, to undertake its investigation. The results of my observations are briefly pre- sented in the following pages. These observations extended from the county of St. Lawrence on the north, to Chautauque on the south, embracing the counties of Jefferson, Oswego, Onon- daga, Oneida, Cayuga, Seneca, Ontario, Wayne, Monroe, Livings- ton, Orleans, Niagara, Erie, Genesee, and Wyoming. Through- out this entire region, ancient remains are found in considerable abundance; they are also occasionally found in the counties adjoining those above named, upon the principal tributaries of the Delaware, Susquehannah, and Alleghany. They are known to extend down the Susquehannah, as far as the valley of the Wyoming; and a single one was discovered as far east as Mont- gomery county, in the neighborhood of Fort Plain. Some, It is said, are found in Canada; but no definite information was received of their localities. It is to be observed that they are most numerous in sections remarkable for their fertility of soil, their proximity to favorable hunting and fishing grounds—~in short, possessing the greatest number of requisites to easy sub- sistence. They are particularly numerous in Jefferson county, in the vicinity of the central lakes, in the southern part of Monroe, in Livingston, Genesee, and Erie counties. Many are said to exist in Chautauque; but the lateness of the season, and the unsuspected number of remains elsewhere claiming attention, prevented me from examining them. £-e In respect to the number of these remains, some estimate may - allotted to the investigation of that county. It is safe to estimate _ enabled to ascertain the localities of not less than one hundr warranted in estimating the number which originally existed in state at from two hundred to two hundred and fifty. Proba- _ bly one half of these have been obliterated by the plough, oF 80 much encroached upon as to be no longer satisfactorily traced. ©, & Aboriginal Monuments and Relics of New York, 309 astonishment. ‘They are, however, for the most part, compara- tively small, varying from one to four acres,—the largest not exceeding sixteen acres in area. ‘The embankments, too, are slight, and the ditches shallow; the former seldom more than four feet in height, and the latter of corresponding proportions. The work most distinctly marked exists in the town of Oakfield, | i Genesee county ; it measures, in some places, between seven and eight feet from the bottom of the ditch to the top of the wall. In some cases the embankment is not more than a foot in height, and the trench of the same depth. Lest it should be doubted b = intervening country presenting a beautiful variety of cleared and * little hill, or where banks of streams serve to lend security to the position. A few have been found upon slight elevations in the os 2 = — SF Bh s 4 Qu “< g ==} 5 oO 5 et ° oS oO Qu o- = bay) - = oO wm mM | ¥ Q 5 - =) — - be] oo ® A 9 3 5 above the lakes, that the latter have subsided to the present level since their erection. This conclusion does not necessarily follow from the premises. Few positions susceptible of defense, under + 310 Aboriginal Monuments and Relics of New York. I found an entire uniformity in the indications of occupancy, and in the character of the remains of art discovered within these enclosures, throughout the whole range of their occurrence. The first feature which attracts notice, npon entering them, Is a - number of pits or excavations in the earth, usually at the points which are most elevated and dry. These pits are occasionally of considerable size, and are popularly called “ wells,” although nothing is more obvious than that they never could have been designed for any such purpose. ‘They are usually from three to four, but sometimes from six to eight feet in depth, and of pro- evident upon excavation. They were the caches in which. the former occupants of these works deposited their stores. Parched corn, now completely carbonized by long exposure, 1s to be dis- covered in considerable abundance in many of them. Instances fell under my notice where it had been found untouched to the amount of bushels, in these primitive depositories. ‘Traces of ashes mingled with the bones of animals, with numerous frag- ments of pottery, broken pipes, and occasionally rude ornaments, such as beads of stone, bone, and shell. ‘The pottery, may observe incidentally, is of very good material, and appears to skill. It is found in great abundance ; and, in many of the en- closures now under cultivation, bushels of fragments might, if exhibits any appearance of glazing. ‘The pipes are mostly com- which have fallen under my notice. They are, with few excep- = — Aboriginal Monuments and Relics ef New York. 311 well as the peculiar habits of which, the American Indians had, from long observation, a thorough acquaintance. CONCLUDING OBSERVATIONS ON THE NEW YORK MOUNDS.* © By whom were the aboriginal monuments of Western New York erected, and to what era may they be ascribed? The con- sideration of these questions has given rise to a vast amount of speculation, generally not of the most philosophical, nor yet of the most profitable kind. If the results arrived at have been errone- ous, unsatisfactory, or extravagant, it may be ascribed to the cir- cumstance that the facts heretofore collected have been too few m number, and too poorly authenticated, to admit of correct con- clusions, not less than to the influence of preconceived notions, and to that constant leaning towards the marvellous, which is a tadieal defect of many minds. Rigid criticism is especially in- dispensable in archzological investigations; yet there is no de- partment of human research in which so wide a range has been given to conjecture. Men seem to have indulged the belief that here nothing is fixed, nothing certain, and have turned aside into this field as one where the severer rules which elsewhere regulate philosophical research are not enforced, and where every species of extravagance may be indulged in with impunity. I might adduce numberless illustrations of this remark. ‘The Indian who cumstances not less conclusive, imply a defensive origin. hes, on the other hand, seem rather designed for temporary pro- tection,the citadel in which the builders sought safety for their old men, women, and children, in case of alarm or atta N respect to date, nothing positive can be affirmed. Many of them are now covered with heavy forests; a circumstance upo n Which too much importance has been laid, and which in itself * Pages 81-84. P indications of aboriginal dwellings are precisely similar, and, so far as can be discovered, have equal claim to antiquity. Near ancient date, they were not only secondarily but generally oceu- pied by the Iroquois or neighboring and contemporary nations; or else—and this hypothesis is most consistent and reasonable— they were erected by them. The questions by whom were the aboriginal monuments of Western New York erected, and to what era may they be~as- cribed, have probably been answered to the satisfaction of every mind by the simple detail of facts in the preceeding chapters. _ It may be objected that if the Indians construeted works of this kind, it could not have escaped the notice of the early eX plorers, and would have been made the subject of remark by the he omission is singular, but not unaccountable: . They all speak of the defences of the Indians as composed of | firmly set in the ground. ‘The simple circumstance of the being heaped up around them, to lend them greater firmness, | may have been regarded as so natural and simple an expedient, as not to be deserving of special mention, particularly as the em- 2 kek s : d a lisades ee Aboriginal Monuments and Relics.of New York. 313 bankment, in such a case, would be an entirely subordinate part of the structure. After the introduction of European implements, enabling the Indians to plant their pickets more firmly in the ground, and to lend them a security before unattainable, the ne- cessity for an embankment was in a great degree obviated. We may thus account for its absence in their later structures, which also underwent some modification of form, suggested by the ex- ample or instructions of the whites, or by the new mode of war- fare following the introduction of fire-arms. Thus in: the plan of the old Seneca fort of Ganundasaga, we find distinct traces of the bastion—a feature observable in none of the more ancient defences, Fam aware that the remnants of the Indian stock which still exist in this state, generally profess total ignorance of these works. I do not, however, attach much importance to this circumstance. When we consider the extreme likelihood of the forgetfulness of ancient practices, in the lapse of three hundred years, the lack of knowledge upon this point is the weakest of all negative evi- dence. Cusick, the Indian, in his so-called ‘* History of the Six Nations,” has, no doubt, correctly described the manner in which they constructed their early defences. ‘‘’ The manner of making a fort: First, they set fire against as many trees as It requires to make the enclosure, rubbing off the coals with their stone axes, So as to make them burn faster. When the tree falls, they put fires to it about three paces apart, and buriit into pieces. hese pieces are then brought to the spot required, and set up around, according to the bigness of the fort. The earth ts then heaped on both sides. ‘The fort has generally two gates, one for passage and one to the water.” “The people,” continues Cusick, “ had implements with which they made their bows and arrows, Their kettles were made of baked clay; their awls and needles of sharpened bones; their pipes of baked clay or soft stone; a small turtle-shell was used to peel the bark, and a small dry stick to make fire by boring it against seasoned wood.” ; Colden observes of their defences, as they were constructed in his time: “Their castles are generally a square surrounded with Palisades, without any bastions or outworks; for, since the gene- Tal peace, their villages all lie open.”* _ : ' ‘In full view of the facts before presented, I am driven to a conclusion little anticipated when I started upon my trip of ex- erected by the Iroquoisyr their western neighbors, and do not Possess an antiquity going very far back of the discovery. Their ~~ general occurrence upon a line parallel to and not far distant from ao * History of the Five Nations, vol. i, p. 9. Srconp Serres, Vol. XI, No. 33.—May, 1851. 40 ” 314 = Aboriginal Monuments and Relics of New York. and finally expel the warlike people which disputed with them the possession of the beautiful and fertile regions bordering the lakes; and it is not impossible that it was the pressure from this direction which led to that Confederation,—an anomaly in the history of the aborigines. Common danger, rather than a far- seeing policy, may be regarded as the impelling cause of the consolidation. In conclusion, I may be permitted to observe, that the ancient remains of Western New York, except so far as they throw light upon the system of defence practised by the aboriginal inhabit- ants, and tend to show that they were to a degree fixed and agri- cultural in their habits, have slight bearing upon the grand eth- nological and archeological questions involved in the ante-Co- lumbian history of the continent. The resemblances which they bear to the defensive structures of other rude nations, in various parts of the world, are the result of natural causes, an cannot be taken to indicate either a close or remote connection or dependence. ll primitive defences, being designed to resist common modes of attack, are essentially the same in their prin- ciples, and seldom differ much in their details. The aboriginal hunter and the semi-civilized Aztec, selected precisely similar po- sitions for their fortresses, and defended them upon the same gen- eral plan; yet it would be palpably unsafe to found conclusions as to the relations of the respective builders, upon the narrow basis of these resemblances alone. USE OF COPPER AND SILVER BY THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES.* In the paragraphs relating to St. Lawrence county, mention is made of a singular aboriginal deposite of burial, on the Canadian shore of the St. Lawrence River, near Brockville. Here we found a number of skeletons and a variety of relics, among whic * “were a number of copper implements. They were buried four- ‘teen feet below the surface of the ground. ‘T'wo of the copper al- “ticles were clearly designed as spear-heads; they were pointed, double-edged, and originally capable of some service. One was a foot in length. A couple of copper kMives accompanied these, and also an implement which seems to have been designed. as a. gouge.t. Some implements entirely corresponding with the have been found in Isle Royal, and at other places in and around * Pages, 176-188, + Ancient Monuments of Mississippi Valley, p. 201. ’ + Use of Copper by the American Aborigines. 315 Lake Superior. Whether or not these are relics of the existing Indian tribes, it is not undertaken to say, although it seems highly probable that they are. That the Indians of New England, New York, aud Virginia, to a limited extent, ‘possessed copper orna- ments and implements at the time of the discovery, is undoubted ; but it is not to be supposed for an instant that they obtained it by smelting from the ores. They unquestionably procured it from the now well known native deposits around Lake Superior. Raleigh observed copper ornaments among the Indians on the coast of the Carolinas; and Verazzano mentions articles, probably ornamental, of wrought copper, among the natives which he vis- ited in a higher latitude, “ which were more esteemed than gold.” Granville speaks of copper among the Indians of Virginia, which were said to have been obtained among the Chawanooks (Sha- Wanhoes?). ‘It was of the color of our copper, but softer.” He endeavored to visit the place where it was represented to be found ; but after a toilsome journey of some days into the interior, the search was abandoned. This was a grievous disappointment at that time, when the minds of men were filled with visions of vast mineral wealth, and when the value of the New World was thought to consist in its mines. Granville thus concludes his account of his fruitless expedition: “I have set down this voyage somewhat particularly, to the end that it may appear unto you (as true it is) that there wanted no good will, from the first to the last of us, to have perfected the discovery of this mine; for that the dis- covery of a good mine, by the goodness of God, or a passage to the South Sea, or some way to it, and nothing else, can bring our country in request to be inhabited by our people.’”* Heriot says, “In two towns 150 miles from the main, are found divers small plates of copper, that are made, we are told by the inhabitants, y people who dwell farther in the country, where, they say, are mountains and rivers which yield white grains of metal, which are deemed to be silver. For the confirmation whereof, at the time of our first arrival in the country, I saw two small pieces of silver, grossly beaten, about the weight of a dester, [an old coin about the weight of a sixpence sterling,] hanging in the ears of a Wiroance. The aforesaid copper we found to contain silver.”> . ° Robert Juet, in his account of Hudson's discovery of the river which bears his name, asserts that the savages “ had red copper to= their necks.””. He makes mention, in another place, of “yellow copper,” as distinc: from what he terms “red copper.” Both Behr- ing and Kotzebue found copper implements 1n use among the In- dians of the Northwest Coast.t McKenzie mentions copper as NS AGE coca * * Granville’s Voy., 1585, in Pinkerton, vol. xii, p. 580. , «+ Heriot’s Voy., 1586, in Pink., vol. xii, p. 594. ‘se. {-Behring’s First Voy., p. 85; Kotzebue, Voy., vol. i, p. 227. i. mB% we ol f td ca q P,: t co pipes, and other things of copper, which they did wear about < e 316 Use of Copper by the American a being in common use among some of the éxtitihe Northern tribes, on the borders of the Arctic Sea.“ They point their arrows and spears with it, and work it up into personal ornaments, such as col- lars, ear-rings, and bracélets, which they wear on their oO arms, and legs. ‘They have it in great abundance, and hold it in high estimation.”* Owing to the difficulty of reducing iron fei the ore, an acquaintance with that metal has amen been preceded by a knowledge of copper, silver, and gold. “These three met- als,” says Robertson, “are found in their perfect state in the clefts of rocks, in the sides of mountains, or in the channels of rivers. They were accordingly first known and applied to use. But the gross and stubborn ore of iron, the most serviceable of all metals, and to which man is most indebted, must twice feel the force of fire, and go through two iaborians processes, before it becomes t for use.” Says Lucretius “Sed prius eris erat, quam ferri cognitus usus.” It was the difficulty of obtaining iron from the ores, or the possession of the art of so tempering or hardening copper as to make it answer most of the purposes to which steel is now a plied, one or both, that perpetuated the use of bronze instruments in Egypt, as well as in Greece and Rome, long after those nations became acquainted with the former meta regarded as certain, that the American aborigines, at the period of the discovery, were in ignorance of the uses of iron. [tis true Vespuccius mentions a tribe of natives near the mouth of the La Plata, in South America, who possessed iron points to their arrows. It was probably obtained from. native masses in that vicinity. ‘The inhabitanis of Madagascar obtain a part of their iron from such sources. A late traveller in Chile observes: “It appears that the Indians of Chile had, at the time of their discovery, in some very rare instances, iron blades to their lances; which led to the erroneous supposition that they were so far advanced in et as to be able to reduce and refine that metal from the ore Our surprise will cease upon recollecting that this valuable snint already existed naturally in South America, in the very extensive deposits of native iron at Santiago del Estero, which has proved to be of meteorie origin, and differing from that at Zacatecas and Durango in Mexico, de- scribed by Humboldt, in the absence of earthy matter, and in not being, like them, in round masses, but in a horizontal bed of con- ”” siderable extent and variable thickness, now for the Pe Pai covered with drifting sand, and resting on a bed o ; eee: oT Copper, on the other hand, seems to have here oa * Second Journey, p. 3 + Mier’s Trav we te Chile, ‘ete, voli, p 464, at SS foe ale ee ee * - Use of Copper by the American Aborigines. 317 abundant, and much used for implements, among all the semi- civilized nations of the continent. Columbus, when at Cape Honduras, was visited by a trading canoe of Indians. Amongst the various articles of merchandise which constituted their cargo, equally for an ornament as for the field of battle. We first thought these axes were made of an inferior kind of gold; we therefore commenced taking them in exchange, and in the space of two days had collected more than six hundred; with which We were no less rejoiced, as long as we were ignorant of their real value, than the Indians with our glass beads.” In the list of articles exacted as an annual tribute from the various departments of the Mexican empire, as represented by the Mexican paintings, were “one hundred and sixty axes of copper” from the southern divisions. * * * The Peruvians used copper for precisely the same purposes With the Mexicans. Says La Vega, “hey make their arms, knives, carpenters’ tools, large pins, hammers for their forges, and their mattocks, of copper; for which reason they seek it in pref- erence to gold.” And Ulloa adds, “ The copper axes of the Pe- ruvians differ very little in shape from ours; and it appears that these were the implements with which they performed most of their works. They are of various shapes and sizes; the edge of some is more circular than others, and some have a concave edge.”f - The knowledge of alloying was possessed by both the Mexi- cans and Peruvians, whereby they were enabled to make instru- ments of copper of sufficient hardness to answer the purposes for which steel is now deemed essential. ‘Their works in stone and wood, whether in dressing the huge blocks of porphyry composing some of their structures, or in sculpturing the unique Statues which are found scattered over the seats of their ancient ‘Cities, were carried on entirely with such instruments, or wih still rader ones of obsidian and other hard stones. — Res The metal used as an alloy was tin; and the various Peruvian articles subjected to an analysis, are found to contain from three to six per cent. of that metal. The chisel analyzed by Humboldt contained copper 94, tin 6.{ A copper knife found in Peru by . J. H. Blake, Esq., of Boston,’contained about four per cent. of * Herrara, vol. i, p. 260. a. Vol. i, p. 483. ¢ Res, vol. i, p. 260. | " F ee Pie 4. pad 318 Use of Copper by the American Aborigines. tin. This gentlemen informs me, that “The knives, gravers, and other implements found by myself in Peru, contain from sieee and a half to four per cent. of tin, a is sufficient to give them a very considerable degree of hardnes The knives took from ‘cnentepte articles were ; found with it; but these were the only ones of metal, except a medal of silver suspended around the neck. The chisels or gravers are pointed at one end, with a cut- ting edge at the broad part. gn were found at various’ places in the northern part of Peru. At the ancient city of Atacama, I found several hoes of copper, ented very maiich a the ‘grub- bing-hoes’ to be found-in our warehouses.” In 1831, arrow-points were discovered cor a sald near Fall River, Massachusetts. With this skeleton were found @ cor- and a number of rude tubes of the e metal, composing a sort of belt or cincture. The schncacinnes are two inches in length, and one and one-third inches broad at the base. ‘This skeleton the Royal Society. of Antiquaries of D ark. The result of the analysis was published by that carat pe & in ae following comparative table: opper. Zine. Tin. _ Tron. Brass from Fall River, 70 29 28:03 091 0. er 0:03 Old Danish, 13. 2039 924 339 O11 Modern ie a 16. 27:45. 0:79: 020.2 It will be seen by the table, that the metallic relics found at Fall River bear in their composition a suspicious resemblance to modern brass. They certainly differ widely, in this respect, from any of the alloys of copper found elsewhere on the continent. Without alluding to the rudeness of the workmanship exhibited ing them was found buried, after the Indian mode, in a sitting posture, and enveloped in bark, places in a very strong light the probability that the burial was made subsequent to the first sel- pa aa os e Indians ef oe pepvicnn to the diseovery by the Spaniards, made use of 3s é ‘atad. of Backs metal, found na in the , which is an alloy of iat oe fe , zine, and antimony, called rales bs the Spaniard From this they wees Mie etree e—itlere Crema Paps 4 * Use of Copper by the American Aborigines. 319 tlement of New England, in 1625, and that the relics were of native manufacture, from sheets or plates of brass obtained from the early colonists. This probability is further sustained by the circumstance that a portion of the wood attached to the arrows was still preserved, as was also a large proportion of the bark en- velope of the skeleton, at the time of its discovery ; which could hardly be the case, if its interment had been made as early as the tenth century, which is the period assigned to the Scandinavian visits. It cannot be claimed that the preservative properties of the salts of the copper could have more than a very local applica- tion or influence. _ And while upon this point, it may be mentioned that Wood, in his “ New England Prospect,” published in 1634, (p. 90,) dis- tinctly states that the Indians obtained brass of the English for their ornaments and arrow-heads, the last of which, he adds, “they cut in the shape of a heart and triangle, and fastened in a slender piece of wood, six or eight inches long’”’—in a manner, according to the description, precisely similar to that observed in the articles found with the Fall River skeleton. If any further evidence were needed to establish the opinions already.advanced, it might be found in the fact that, a few years ago, in the town of Medford, near Boston, in Massachusetts, a skeleton was exhumed, accompanying which were found some flint arrow-heads, and some brass arrow-points, identical with those discovered at Fall River, together with a knife of English manufacture of two undred years ago. ] _ It has afready been suggested that the shore-of Lake Superior 18 the probable locality whence the copper used by the aborigines of, at least, the Eastern and Middle States, was obtained. “his Suggestion is rendered more than probable by the fact that abun- dant traces of aboriginal mining have been discovered there in the course of recent explorations. Some of the more productive Veins in the “Copper Region” seem to have been anciently worked to a considerable extent. The vein belonging to the “Minnesota Company” exhibits evidence of having been worked for a distance of two miles. ‘The ancient operations are indicated by depressions or open cuts on the course of the vein. Upon feet. In the mine of the:particular company above named, cov- ered by fifteen feet of accumulated soil, and beneath trees not less*than four hundred years old, was found a mass of pure ' Copper, weighing 11,537 lbs:, from which every particle of th Tock had been removed.” It had been supported by skids an ms Was surrounded by traces of the fire which had probably been 320 Use of Copper by the American Aborigines. used to disengage the rock. Here, too, were found various rude river. Fragments of rock, ete., thrown out of the excavation, are piled up along“its sides, the whole covered with soil, and overgrown with bushes and trees. On removing the accumula- tions from the excavation, stone axes of large size, made of green- stone, and shaped to receive withe handles, are found. Some large round green-stone masses, that had apparently been used for sledges, were also found. ‘They had round holes bored in them to the depth of several inches, which seem to have been designed for wooden plugs, to which withe handles might be attached, so that several men could swing them with sufficient force to break the rock and the projecting masses of copper. Some of them probable suggestion, that the various excavations which have been discovered are due to the French, (who, it is well known, * Since the above was written, the subjoined additional facts have been published 1 newspaper, of the date of September 25, 1850: “ We have been shown by Charles Whittlesey, Esq., of the Ontonagon Mine, @ copper arrow-head, and a piece of human skull and other bones, which have lately ‘oun head is now about two inches in length, and seems to have had originally a socket, though but part of i+ remains, Several chisels, or instruments resembling chisels, having sockets like the common carpenter’s chisel, and small gads or wedges, have also been found at the Minnesota Mine. eee 4 “But the greatest curiosity we have seen in the way of these articles Is @ stick of oak timber lately taken out of one of the ancient ‘pits, or shafts, at the Minn sota Mine, twenty-seven feet below the surface. is a small tree, about ten feet 1D length, and eight or ten inches in diameter, having. short limbs two feet apart,, y right angles with one another; and on this account, and from its. sta | nearly upright, it is suppos to have been used as a ladder by the ancient miners. a “In this shaft, and around and over this stick, were rocks and earth, and large trees were ing over it. Many centuries must have elapsed since that ancient os. Te | to Oo jee +, See a Paw es, Pt hate that they procured it only in small quantities, oe e are} P| i Pot aie ? __, Sconp Szares, Vol. XI, No. 83.—May, 1851. Use of ‘Copper by the American Aborigines. 321 were early acquairited with the mineral riches of the Northwest, ) we may find a satisfactory answer to the first of these questions, if not to the last, in the character of the deposits which recent explorations have disclosed from the mounds ef the West. Among the multitude of relics of art found buried upon the ancient altars, or beside the bones of the dead, articles of copper are of com- mon occurrence. It is sometimes found in native masses, but generally worked into articles of use or ornament. I have taken from the mounds, axes, well wrought from single pieces, weigh- ing upwards of two pounds each. ‘They are symmetrical, cor- responding very nearly in shape with the Mexican and Peruvian Some are double-bladed, others gouge-shaped, and evi- dently designed to be used asadzes. Besides these, chisels, grav ing tools, and a great variety of ornaments, bracelets, gorgets, beads, etc., etc., composed of this metal, have been discovered. Some of the ornanrents are covered with silver, beaten to great thinness, and so closely wrapped around the copper that many persons have supposed that the ancient people understood the dif- ficult art of plating. Some years ago, a mass of native copper, weighing upwards of the amount of manufactured copper, implying a large original supply, points pretty certainly to the shores of Lake Superior as the locality whence the metal was obtained. ‘There are other » is found having crystals of silver attached to it,—a peculiar me- chanico-chemical combination, known to exist nowhere except in this region. This characteristic combination has heen observed the mounds, and enables us to identify fully their primitive local- ity. The great industry and skill which the mound-builders dis- they have left us at the West, warrant us in ascribing the wa e In excavations, etc., in the mineral region to them. The Indian hunter is proverbially averse to labor ; and w ‘at the surface, or on the banks of streams. Alexander * > - ie ae : hgh: te 322 Use of Copper and Silver by the American Aborigines. Henry, who penetrated to Lake Superior at the period of the second French war, assures us that the Indians obtained copper here, which they “made into bracelets, spoons,’ ete.* As we rom ‘‘a province called Chisca, far toward the North All the copper found in the mounds appears to have been worked in a cold state; and although the axes and other instru- ments appear to be harder than the copper of commerce, they have been found, upon analysis, to be destitute of alloy. The superior hardness which they possess over the unworked metal, is doubtless due to the hammering to which they have been sub- jected. Some of the sculptures in porphyry, and other hard stones found in the mounds, exhibit traces of having been cut; but as they now turn the edge of the best tempered knife, we are at a loss to conjecture how they were so elaborately and deli- cately worked. The lack of cutting implements, among most rude people, is partially met by various contrivances, the most common of which is attrition, or rubbing or grinding on hard stones. It was thus the stone axes, etc., of the early Indians were slowly and laboriously brought into shape. It however Use of Copper and Silver by the American Aborigines. 323 of finding pieces of silver amongst the Virginia Indians, “ grossly beaten,’ and used for purposes of ornament. Having shown that the copper found amongst the Indian tribes of the north was probably obtained from the native deposits around Lake Superior, we have little difficulty in accounting for the presence among them of small quantities of silver, derived from the same-locality, where it also exists in a native form. That the silver in use amongst the mound-builders was principally if not wholly ob- tained there, seems incontestible. In no instance does it appear to have been smelted. _ A variety of silver ornaments were discovered some years ago in one of the mounds at Marietta, Ohio, under very singular cir- Society, dated “ Marietta, Nov. 3, 1819.” “Ta removing the earth composing .an-ancient mound:in the streets of Marietta, on the margin of the plain, near the fortifications, several curious articles were discovered. They appear to have been buried ee found three large circular bosses, or ornaments for a sword-belt or copper. The copper plates are nearly reduced to an oxyd, or rust. The silver looks quite black, but is not much corroded, and in rubbing . in a tolerable state of preservation. Near the side o found a plate of silver, which appears to have been the upper part ofa Sword-scabbard ; it is six inches in length and two inches tn breadth, and weighs one ounce. It has no ornaments or figures, longitudinal ridges, which probably corresponded with the edges or ridges of the sword; it seems to have been fastened to the scabbard by | three or four rivets, the holes of which remain in the silver. pieces of a copper tube were also eon e 7 ‘GS 324 On the corrosion of Copper and Silver in Sea-water. nament, as near one of the ends is # circular crease or groove, for tying a thread: it is round, two inches and a half in length, one inch in diameter at the centre, and half an inch at each end. Jt is com- posed of small pieces of native copper pounded together; and in the cracks between the pieces are stuck several pieces of silver, one nearly the size of a half-dime. A piece of red ochre or paint, and a piece of iron ore [hematite] which had the appearance of having been partially vitrified [polished ?], were also found E “oT fire and smoke. ‘This circle of stones seems to have been the nucleus over which the mound was formed, as immediately over them is heaped the common earth of the adjacent plain. At the time of i the height was six feet, the diameter_between thirty and forty. It has every appearance of being as old as any in the neighborhood, and was, at the settlement of Marietta, covered with large trees. It seems to ave been made for this single personage, as the remains of one skele- ton only were discovered. -'The bones were much decayed, and many of them crumbled to dust on exposure to the air.” js must, at the same time, be admitted that they possessed the difil- cult art of plating one metal upon another. ‘There is but one alternative, viz., that they had occasional or constant intercourse with a people adyanced in the arts, from whom these articl were obtained. ¥ Art. XXX1V.—On the corrosion of an Alloy, composed of Cop- per and Silver, in Sea-water ; by Ave. A. Hayes, Assayer to the State of Massachusetts. - Some analyses I made many years since of sheathing coppers “which had long resisted the action of sea-water, proved the pres- ~ ence of nearly one ten-thonsaudth part of silver.” It was found that even this small portjon of silver, sensibly modified the chem- - ical relations of the metal, and observations had indica ba the quality for sheathing, was improved. <3 s On the corrosion of Copper and Silver in Sea-water. 325 Copper of this:kind, is frequently met with in commerce and is derived from the Chilian ores of copper, which although ar- gentiferous, do not yield enough silver, to render its separation economical. An occasion offered for again examining this subject, when the argentiferous native copper of Lake Superior was first refined and rolled by the Revere Copper Company, more than five years since, and the results have lately been obtained. oa Four suits of sheathing, for large merchant vessels, formed the subjects for observations, the metal being of uniform composition, as determined by assay of the clipping from many sheets. Two thousand parts of the alloy contained 4 parts of pure silver, or the standard ton of this country contained 4 Ibs. of silver. A proximate analysis of this metal was also made, and it “proved to be pure copper, throughout the mass of which, an alloy of silver and copper was evenly distributed, so as to form either @ mixture, or a compound alloy, iu which one part of the copper 1s truly combined with the silver and the other larger part, simply combines with the alloy. This is a very common constitution of alloys, in which two metals exist, without any metalloid occur- - ever, corrosion should take place, it was in accordance with ob- Served cases that the silver alloy would act as a negative ele- ment, and the copper alone would be removed. How erroneous ese inferences proved, will be seen in the detail of the results. The “Chicora” was coppered Jan. 9, 1847, taking 7,392 Ibs. metal, which was fastened by bronze nails. She was employed in trade to China and wore her copper so rapidly, that it was re- moved in March, 1849, 2,628 Ibs. only remaining. In this case the sheets after the usual operations, had been consolidated by “cold rolling.” Be The ‘Serampore” was coppered January 18, 1847, requiring 8.447 lbs. of “cold rolled” metal, secured by bronze nails. sailed to China and home, via Cape of Good Hope, and to the Pacific and home, via Cape Horn, requiring new copper in March, 1850. The weight of the remaining copper, was not ascertained. The “ Hamilton’. was coppered October 22, 1847, requiring 7,706 Ibs. metal, secured by bronze nails. The sheets used were in the ordinary or annealed state. This vessel was employed in the India trade and wore out her copper in August, 1849. The Weight of the copper remaining was 3,086 lbs. = _ ‘The “ Carthage” w red November 26, 1847, he gat: % Hos ‘ ae ; Be as coppe _ * 8727 Ibs. “cold rolled” metal fastened by bronze nails. * . the average duration now on American ships, is three 326 On the corrosion of Copper and Silver in Sea-water. was employed in the India trade and her sheathing was destroyed in August 1849. The copper remaining, weighed 5,810 Ibs. Omitting the case of the “Serampore” where the corrosion cannot be determined by weight, we have the loss in every one hundred parts of metal, for the time of duration,—thus, The “Chicora,” twenty-seven months, lost 64°45 per 100 ‘*Hamilton,” twenty-three “ << Oyo me “ Carthage,” twenty-one x O35 45 Allowing the same rate of corrosion and taking the time as twenty-seven months for each, The “ Chicora” lost - . 64:45 in 100 Hamilton” - - Be 70-38 “« «& “Carthage,” - - “ A3-00 « In the cases of the “Hamilton” and “Carthage,” we perceive the influence of the different processes of manufacturing the sheets, on the durability of the copper. By the operation of ‘cold rolling,” the surfaces of the sheets are rendered very com- pact, and in any corroding solution, they bear a negative relation to the metal in the same sheets, between these surfaces. Such copper is also always strongly negative to annealed copper in acid solutions, until the hardened surfaces are removed, it then loses this relation. The ‘“ Hamilton” exhibits the greatest effect of sea-water action on the annealed alloy, while in the Carthage, the protecting influence of the hardening surface, was exerted nearly to the time her copper was removed. These observations establish the fact of the rapid corrosion of an alloy thus constituted, and show its entire unfitness for sheath; ing purposes. . The average duration of copper sheathing decreases slightly, as the requirement of greater speed in sailing is more urgent. Taking one hundred merchant ships, sailing on different oceans, years. n the point of the kind of corrosion, following the exposure of the alloy to sea-water and air, the information obtained in these trials, is of a definite character. Part of the sheets rematn- ing and an ingot of the copper from smelting a large quanuty, were assayed and the results showed that; the same proportion only of silver remained, as was originally contained in the alloy: The silver alloy therefore, by taking the negative state 1n the mass of the metal, hastened its destruction, while its own form and condition were such, that it separated as the copper, Was corroded. ar ae 4 For the records of facts and much assistance continued for - years, in connection with the subject of copper corrosion, ‘Bem indebted to the kindness of my friend, Mr. J. Davis, Jr, Treas- urer of the Revere Copper Company. = | ea tet 1 Pine st, Boston, January 30,1851. ocak glee ee ee be a tl "4 3 “ . « a 7. ope, eng iad ¥ i — On the Calculus of Operations. 327 Arr. XXXV.—On the Calculus of Operations; by Joun M.* Paterson, A. In the algebraical and other forms of calculus in vogue, the Various quantities, numbers, symbols, functions, ete., constituting the matter of the science, are understood as ratios of magnitudes merely as such. The expressions z, x”, ©*, for example, are ra- tos of the magnitudes zl, x2. 12, x3, 1*, to the unit magnitudes 1, 1°, 1%, respectively; the units 1, 12, 12, representing a line, a square surface, and a cubical volume respectively. But as all geometrical magnitude is confined to one, two, or three dimen- Sions, it follows, that while such expressions as 4‘, x*, etc. are Yatlos of 7‘ 1+, x5 15, etc. to 14, 15, etc., these units of compari- son can no longer represent geometrical magnitudes. ‘The ques- tion arises, what do these units signify? ‘They are complex units of number, But, we ask, numbers, or number'of what? Wherein does 14, 1°, etc., differ from 1? Number is a general idea, and therefore must be applicable. to several particular instances, If then a particular instance of geometrical unity can be found, to Which all other powers and roots of unity can be referred as a base, we shall be prepared to answer the preceding question. The Calculus of Operations professes to have discovered such 3 base, and to have broached the method and traced the route which leads to the most general interpretation of the functions Of unity, By this calculus, all functions are regarded as ratios of the measures of operations performed in space and time; for ex- ample, the expression x‘ is the ratio obtained by comparing the Operation whose measure is x‘ 1‘, with that whose measure is . 1‘; the latter being a compound unit. of operation, ultimately teferable to a simple unit of space, a linear unit. _ Addition is an operation, in which we take for unit measure of Operation the distance through which the added body is trans- fered in the unit of time; each unit of the recorded result ex- Pressing the performance of one operation of addition, and indi- cated geometrically by the unit of length drawn to the right of an origin. Subtraction is an operation diametrically opposed to that of addition, and will therefore be indicated geometrically by the unit of length (measure of operation) drawn to the deft of an origin. Multiplication is an abridged method of performing a series of additions ; so that when the multiplier is unity, the operation coincides with the performance of one addition. Consequently ra a ee a “an This, article was received by the ¢ditors along with the recent work of Mr. Paterson, arated “The Onleala of Operations.” 184 pp., with 4 plates, Albany, eateety and Sprague. The merit and heii’ views of the work wilt be uth ‘red from-this exposition of the subject by the author, : poe aie a 6 3 . fee A se s - A 2 $ a ca we 328 : On the Calculus of Operations. | successive multiplications by unity, or the involution of a geo- metrical unit, will be geometrically interpreted by so many succes- sive productions of the linear unit to the right of the origin. This informs us that the vth power of a linear unit is a line of n times the length of the line involved, or that 1° =4.1 by this method. But if, instead of a linear unit, we take fora geometrical multiplier the nth part of the circumference of a circle to radius unity, the performance of n successive multiplications will transfer the multi- . “plied body (multiplicand ) around the circumference, by ” succes sive steps, to its point of departure; at which point it had the meas- ure unity (the radius of the circle), aud therefore we now have 1"=1, or the powers of geometrical and arithmetical unity may e made to coincide. Inversely, if the entire circumference be the properties of the four algebraical signs ; for which, see the second and last chapters of the Calculus of Operations. In all cases the distances traversed have a dynamical value, as meas- ures of the respective operations of describing them. Division is an operation compounded of addition and subtrac- tion; wherein the quotient, which is a pure ratio, is retained as the measure of the result of the operation, which consists in ef- fecting an equilibrium between the forces of which the dividend and divisor are the measures. In the fluxionary calculus, the various functions or complex ra- tios are treated by the analyst as though they were primitive eX-— isteuces, or productions furnished by the hand of nature. Just s the chemist collects his specimens of mineral substances from the bowels of the earth, and proceeds to decompose and analyze them by the application of fire; so the analyst takes his given functions, and proceeds to analyze them by differentiation after - the method of Leibnitz, or by derivation according to grange. The calculus of operations, on the contrary, proceeds synthetl- cally, and actually shows how to construct the ratio, or how the function may be generated, and thereby furnishes an irrefragable h gebra, and has an ample bearing upon our views of the philoso- phy of nature.’ By this theory alone, unaided by and uninterfe- ring with the notion either of infinitesimals or of limits except so far as merely to show their necessity for the production of cer- tain particular classes of phenomena), the theorem of Taylor, which is the acknowledged basis of all mathematical develop- ment, is directly established in its most general form, a0 the analogy between symbols of operation and of quantity recelves its fullest generalization. Lagrange’s theory of derivation shows’ > ee 3 On the Calculus of Operations. 329 how, when the primitive function is given, al] the suecessive de- - rivatives are to be obtained from it; but the theory of generation evolves the primitive, together with its derivatives, all by one same process. Generation is still an operation, but characteristically distin- guished by its result, which is, in general, itself a generator, or an operutor of an order or rank next inferior to that of its own generator. : A constant velocity causes a body, or material unit, to describe a distance which increases uniformly, or as the time; and will therefore generate the distance unity (linear unit) in the unit of time, and consequently the distance whose ratio is x in @ units of time. A constant velocity, therefore, has but one measure of Operation, namely the unit of distance, and thus corresponds ex- actly with multiplication by linear unity. _ A constant force generates velocity uniformly ; and this veloc- ity, from the very commencement of its existence, operates upon. the material unit, and causes it to describe the unit of distance in the first unit of time. But at the expiration of this first unit of time, the amount of velocity, having increased uniformly dur- ing that time, is evidently such as will of itself cause the mate- rial unit to describe iwice the distance.in the immediately suc- interval occupied in the j ich the result itself is velocity increases as the duplic as the square of the time; and we have now discoveted a method which enables us to raise the dimensions of a ratio £ Assume a series of subordinated generating forces, or more generally a hierarchy of generating powers, such that the power of the lowest order shall correspond to a constant velocity, which generates distance (power of the order zero) uniformly ; the power of the second order shall correspond to a constant force, which generates velocity uniformly ; the power of the third or- "Stoop Seams, Vol. XI, No. $3 —May, 1851. 42 : 330 On the Calculus of Operations. order uniformly, etc B : wer of the fourth order, which generates power of the third ., ete. ; eduction it is found, in the case of the power of the third or unit measure of operation or distance. And from these con- siderations we find that the generated power of the second order increases as the duplicate of the time, the velocity increases as the triple square of the time, and the distance as the cube of the time. terms of the fourth power of a binomial. We find that the gen- erated power of the third order increases as the duplicate of the time, the power of the second order increases as the triple square” of the time, the velocity increases as the quadruple cube of the time, and the distance increases as the biquadrate of the time. These examples are sufficient to show that the process may be extended to any required positive number x; and thus when the operations performed are genetical, our calculus shows the direct genesis of any positive power of any given number 7; ‘while we have seen that when the operations were performed by a power of the first order, they corresponded to successive multiplications, and served merely to determine the powers of a geometrical unit. Now when the successive multiplications are effected by semi-rev- -olutions around a centre or origin of measurement, we exhibit the successive powers of negative unity ; and similarly by com- bining the principle of revolution with our genetical operations; we are enabled to show the genesis of negative and fraction powers of zx. Other conditions are readily assigned, which de- termine the several forms of exponential series, together with their trigonometrical and logarithmical relations. «ge ee aay ‘ ai oes ; On the Calculus of Operations. 331 The entire structure of the Calculus of Operations is based, upon the principle of wniformity of action. Under this principle, © _ when the order of the primitive operator is higher than unity, the final result will be a corresponding power of*the general number x; but when the operator is of the first order only, we get powers of unity. It is conceived that a uniform action is susceptible of accurate measurement in its immediate result, which must necessarily in- _ The principle of uniformity of action, it is believed, will be found to hold a place in algebraical logic, similar to that held by comprises the categories of existence complete ; that these cate- gories are not merely subjective, like those of the system of Kant, but have full objective validity; and that they are not liable to the charge either of deficiency or redundancy, as are the famed _Itis to be recollected that this is the first publication of the discoverer of this method (if peradventure it shall be admitted to . f tation, it may be remarked, that in ordinary multiplication, & linear unit (unit of operation) is constant, and successive, mu id Plication merely increases the dimensions of x, as 1, 2, 4°, 2°, etc. But when it is shown how the unit of operation may in- MF: A 332 On the Mammoth Cave of Kentucky. crease with the time z, we obtain the series 1, 17, 2¢?, 3x°, ete., wherein appears the leading numerical factor concerned in the process of differentiation: or if the unit of operation be negative, the series becomes 1, — 1z7,+22?,—32r°,+ etc., corresponding to the differentials of a negative function: and fivally when the unit of operation is circulative, we enter upon the differentiation of exponential functions. Nature, in the case of a body falling in a vacuum under the influence of the force of gravitation, actu- ally develops the function (z-+/)?; and it is the inteution of the Calculus of Operations to exhibit the harmony which subsists between the objective and subjective, between the phenomena of the external world, and the mental processes which investigate and record them. Arr. XXXVL—On the Mammoth Cave of Kentucky ; by Prof. B. Situman, Jr. m a letter addressed to Prof. Guyot, Cambridge; dated Louisville, November 8, 1850.*) I wave lately had an opportunity of visiting the Mammoth Cave of Kentucky and have made in connection with Mr. R. N, Mantell a collection of the animals found there, which we pro- pose to send to our much valued friend, Prof. Agassiz, by an early opportunity. My object in writing to you is to say a wort regarding the general topographical features of the country and some other matters which I suppose will interest you. At the level of the Ohio below the falls on which the eity stands, are found the lower beds. of silurian rocks and upper Devonian, the oldest palzeozoic rocks to be seen in all this region. This city is placed on a plateau elevated some seventy-five feet | above the low-water mark of the Ohio, and the plain on which it stands represents the general level of the surrounding country for a long distance above and below. Mammoth Cave lies in @ direction nearly south of Louisville on the Green river ‘apd on the direct road to Nashville, midway between Louisville and the latter city. Leaving Louisville, the stage road follows the main course of the Ohio and generally along its banks to the Salt river, some twenty miles ; crossing this river the road bears south, leav- ing the Ohio on the right, and soon enters a new region. a gentle and easy ascent you continue to rise for several miles by.@ + eircuitous path, passing in succession all the members of the sl- _[* The following letter was written with no intention of its being published and only.for the gratification of a friend, who has sin¢e urged its publication. It is therefore given exactly, as it was first written, which may, I trust, be deemed a sufi- cient apology for whatever want of fullness of detail attaches toa general and sketch. —B. 8., Jr.] Bee pee ~ On the Mammioth Cave of Kentucky. 333 lurian and the lower secondary, or the mountain limestone until at an elevation of 300 to 400 feet above the Ohio you reach the great upper plateau which stretches away for a long distance, in- terrupted only by the deep river beds, which are all very nearly on the same level with the Ohio. These upper plains are called the ‘Barrens,’ from the general sterility of the soil, which is formed to a considerable extent of stiff red clays and unproduc- tive sands, or of lime rocks lying near the surface. Everywhere in this upper country we are struck with the frequent occurrence of those circular holes or shallow pans which are called ‘sinks,’ from the popular belief that the surface has fallen away or sunk at some recent period. You see large trees standing dead in the water which fills these hollows, in a situation where of course they could not have grown supposing the water had long occu- pied its present place. Hence the idea so generally accepted that the surface of the earth has fallen downward, and this is attribu- ted to the wearing away of the rocks beneath by subterranean rivers or by some other mode of aqueous action. It is _prob- able that the hollows, already existing, are made water-tight by the cementing of the surface by fine mud floated by rains from the adjacent roads. I saw hollows of this sort standing full of Water in this very dry season, in which. the trees were not quite dead, while in others only the denuded. trunks were seen. From these stagnant pools arise the poisonous miasms that produce the fevers which are peculiarly abundant in those parts of the. Barrens where the sinks are most numerous. It is remarked that the ‘sinks’ have greatly increased in number, and the miasms in Virulence, since the country was opened by cultivation and by ro teen miles of Nashville the traveller again descends bysa similar > gradual declivity full 350 feet to the banks of the Cumberlan river, on which the city of Nashville stands. Here again the ob- server detects the oldest silurian rocks, compact blue crystalline limestones in which the fossils are almost obsolete, and unfossil- iferous sandstones, alternating with them. é : a a Mammoth Cave of Kentucky is situated in the midst of — level with the Ohio. . Dr. John Locke of Cincinnati has measured the depth of the cave barometrically, and is said to have determined it to bé 325 feet 334 On the Mammoth Cave of Kentucky. below the hotel, and the level of the rivers of the cave to be the same as that of Green river with which the subterranean rivers or lakes rise and fall in times of flood; so that there is no doubt of a connection existing between Green river and these terious silence many miles from.the entrance, and at least 300 feet from the upper surface.. Unfortunately our party was unpro- vided with barometers, and the measurement of Dr. Locke re- mains therefore as the only evidence we have of the relative levels of these subterranean waters and Green river. One atmospheric phenomenon attracted our attention and tasked our ingenuity for a satisfactory explanation. I will mention the fact and our solution of it. If the external air has a temperature If the air without has a temperature of 59°-60° no current is observed and the flame of a lamp held in a favorable position 1n- dicates none. It immediately occurred to me that there must be two currents, one above of warmer air, passing inward, and one below of colder air passing outward, and the reverse, but experi ment soon satisfied me that this was not the case. Only one current could be discovered, and on inquiry of the very intelli- gent guide, ‘Stephen,’ who is well known for his remarkable powers to all who have been at the cave, I found that this phe- nomenon had attracted his attention, and that he was satisfied from many observations that only one current existed and that this flowed owt when the external air was above 60° and inward when this was below 60°. Going in, one day at noon, we fount the outward blast very strong: we prolonged our stay until past midnight; meanwhile a storm of rain accompanied by light- ning had come up, and at 3 a. m. when we again emerged, the temperature outside had fallen to 50°, and the inward gale blew So strongly as to extinguish our lights several hundred yards from the mouth. In fact the guide told us, when more than two Miles in the cave, that a change had taken place in the outer alr, and that we should probably find a storm raging without. His accustomed senses detected the gentle current inward which we did not notice at so great a distance, and he perceived, as he after- ward told us, a change of level in the subterranean rivers, since — - a" see * e ; . : On the Mammoth Cave of Kentucky. B35 our crossing them in the morning—the rain which had fallen co- piously having already affected them. was at a loss for a little time to account for these currents of air, but the following explanation suggested itself. The mouth has formed them. The air which they contain is pure and ex- hilarating. The nitre beds which are of incredible extent in _ these galleries probably account in part for the purity of the air, as the nitrogen which is consumed in the formation of the nitrate of lime must have its proportion of free oxygen disengaged, thus enriching this subterranean atmosphere with a larger portion of the exhilarating principle. 'The temperature of the cave is uni- formly 59° F., summer and winter, and this is probably very near to the annual mean of the external air. The expansion which accompanies an elevation of temperature in the outer air 1s Im- mediately felt by the denser air of the cave, and it flows out in obedience to the law of motion in fluids, and the outward cur- Tent continues without interruption as long as the outer air 1s pos- ere is no exception to the purity of the air in the Mammoth - “ited. The waters of the springs and rivers within it are all limpid and potable, and the avenues with few exceptions are dry at all Seasons. I thought it very remarkable that in all its vast extent sv a e, “ 336 On the Mammoth Cave of Kentucky. .’ there should be no sources of sulphuretted hydrogen and’ of car- bonic acid. “Si The phenomena of life within the cave are comparatively few but interesting. There are several insects, the largest of which is a sort of cricket with enormously long antenne. Of this insect, numerous specimens will be found among the specimens sent to Prof. Agassiz. ‘T'here are several species of Coleoptera, mostly burrowing in the nitre earth. There are some small water-insects also which I suppose are Crustacean. Unfortunate- were lost with my valise from the stage coach, and I fear will not be recovered. Of the fish, there are two species, one of which has been described by Dr. Wyman in the American Journal of Science, and which is entirely eyeless ;+ some ten or twelve spe- cimens of the species were obtained. The second species of fish is not colorless like the first, and it has external eyes, which however are found to be quite blind.{ The craw-fish or small crustacea inhabiting the rivers with the fish are also eyeless aud uncolored, but the larger-eyed and colored craw-fish which are fe>) > 3 =] Q - hm oO ie} =, a re) - 2 a ro) = o n (=) 5 @ (>) ae) - af o) a 9 @ a oO et 13°) [om oe o 3 fish which were caught by us in the cave. The only mamma except the bats, observed in the cave, is a rat which is very abun- dant, judging from the tracks which they make, but so shy and secluded in their habits that they are seldom seen. We caught two of them, and fortunately male and female. " The chief points of ditference from the common rat in external characters, are iu the color, which is bluish, the feet and belly and throat white, the coat which is of soft fur and the tail also thiuly furred, while the common or Norway rat is gray or brow), and covered with rough hair. The cave rat is possessed.of Jark black eyes, of the size of a rabbit’s eye and entirely without 11S; the feelers also are uncommonly long. We have satisfied our- selves that he is entirely blind when first canght, although his who first entered this place in 1802. * Near “Mary’s Bower” there is a spring of bitter water evidently containing sul of cep too which salt is also found abundantly in some parts of the cave. x F * E B *. ee lee x ™ . 3 cave as mentioned by Prof. Agency 20 : < : . 5 es _ Galleries untrodden even by t “_ 7 On the Mammoth Cave of Kentucky. 337 cave, Oct. 16th—-22d, for all the bats to be in winter quarters, as the season was very open and warm. Still in the galleries where they most abound, we found countless groups of them on the ceilings chippering and scolding for a foothold among each other. On one little patch of not over four by five inches, we counted forty bats, and were satisfied that one hundred and twenty at least were able to stand ona surface a foot square; for miles they are found in patches of various sizes, and a cursory glance satis- fied us that it is quite safe to estimate them by millions. In these gloomy and silent regions where there is neither change of temperature nor difference of light to warn them of the revolving seasons, how do they know when to seek again the outer air when the winter is over and their long sleep is ended? Surely he who made them has not left them without a law for the govern- ment of their lives. You may enquire what has formed the excavations of Mam- moth Gave. I answer clearly and decidedly wader and no other cause. No where else can we find such beautiful sculptured rocks as in Mammoth Cave; such perfect unequivocal and abun- dant proofs of the action of running water in corroding a soluble rock. The rough hewn block in the quarry, does not bear more distinct proof of the hammer and the chisel of the workman, than do the galleries of Mammoth Cave of the denuding and dissolv- ing power of running water. At Niagara we see a vast chasm evidently cut by water for seven miles, and still in progress, but We cannot see beneath the cataract the water-worn surfaces, nor the rounded angles of the precipice—while the frosts and rains of countless winters, have reduced the walls of the chasin itself to But in the Mam- moth Cave we see a freshness and perfection of surface, such as rivers, exactly as they were left thousands of years ago by the stream which flowed through them when Niagara was young. No angle is less sharp, no groove or excavation less perfect than it Was originally left, when the waters were suddenly drained off by cutting their way to some lower level. The very sand and rounded pebbles which pave the galleries now and formed the bed of the stream of old, have remained in many of the more distant , he foot of man. ‘The rush of ideas . Sxconn’ Szams, Vol. XI, No. 33.—May, 1851. 43 338 On the Mammoth Cave of Kentucky. was strange and overpowering as I stood in one of these before unvisited avenues, in which the glow of a lamp had never before shone, and considered the complex chain of phenomenon which were before me. There were the delicate silicions forms of cya- thophylla and encrinites, protruding from the softer limestone which had yielded to the dissolving power of the water; these carried me back to that vast and desolate ocean in which they ary: and these past, the slow but resistless force of the contracting sphere elevated and drained the rocky beds of the ancient ocean: the action of meteorological causes commenced and the dissolving power of fresh water, following the almost invisible lines of struc- ture in the rocks, began to hollow ont these winding paths, slowly apologise for detaining you so long. I wish that all my scientific friends could visit the Mammoth Cave; it teaches many lessons in a manner not to be learned so well elsewhere, and in this re- spect I was most agreeably disappointed. I had heard that its interest was chiefly scenic ; but I found it to exceed my utmost expectations as well in its illustrations of geological truth, as in the wonderful character of its features. I will not detain you with any attempts at descriptions of single parts, as no description can awaken those peculiar and deep emotions, which a person study of its details is calculated to produce. I know not how or where to stop, however, in my account of this interesting place. Excuse me if I trespass yet a little longer on your patience. In traversing the high vaulted galleries of the cave, our attention was occasionally arrested by the sound of fall- ing water. We soon learned that in such cases we were in the am satisfied that in one or two instances, they reach through the or near three hundred feet. Such is Gorin’s dome, one of the mest remarkable features of the cave. Without seeing them you will i4 & 8 hg te ‘ LaeoF er Aig Ryde cd ae ; On the Mammoth Cave of Kentucky. 339 hardly credit and cannot appreciate the sharpness with which the - vertical walls of this pit are moulded into architectural forms. tained the first view of its lofty ceiling. ‘The dome is of an ir- regular outline, in the main ovoidal, and from the ceiling hangs a great curtain of sculptured and vertically-grooved rock unsup- ported below, with the graceful outline and apparent lightness of actual drapery. A small stream of water falls from the top, which is broken into spray long before it reaches the bottom, and keeps the whole interior wet with its splashing. No gallery has been found which leads to the bottom of this most beautiful dome. We found other similar domes in which the pendant curtain just described had falleu,- and portions of it but little moved from their original position, seemed poised to a sec- ond fall. Of the mysterious rivers, with their many-tongued echoes— the mounds of mud and drift which they annually heap up,— the long miles of avenues which stretch away beyond them, rug- ged or gmooth,—and of the vaulted ceilings, crystal grottos and gypsum coronets which tempt the mineralogist to untiring ex- ploration, I must say nothing, for I have already gone too far in 340 On the Fishes of the Winnipisseogee. Arr. XX XVII.— Descriptions of new species of Fishes ; froma “ Synopsis of the Fishes of the Winnipisseogee and tts connect- ing waters ;” by Witt1am Prescorr, M.D. of Concord, N. H. Read before the Association of American Geologists and Naturalists, at the meeting held in Boston, in Sept., 1847. Te Winnipisseogee and its tributaries, watering as they do a large portion of the interior of New Hampshire, embrace nearly all the species of fresh-water fishes existing in the state. They consist of twenty-two species ranging through twelve genera, eight families and four orders, and all belong to that ex- tensive and numerous group denominated bony fishes. Among these are the following new species. . Saumo symmetrica. Winnipisseogee Trout.—There are many points of resemblance between this trout and the Salmo econd, with regard to the number and arrangement of the teeth. According to DeKay the lake trout “has numerous eurved teeth in the jaws with series of large teeth along the cen- tral furrow of the tongue and many series of acute teeth on the vomer and palatines.” But the Winnipisseogee trout has no teeth in the central furrow of the tongue and but a single row on each of the other parts, and also on the pharyngeals. Again, DeKay remarks that the first dorsal fin in his specimen, measuring thirty-one inches, commenced one inch nearer the nose than the extremity of the caudal rays.” In the Winnipis- seogee:trout of twenty inches in length it was ¢wo inches nearer _ the anterior extremity. In February, 1846, previous to my having seen DeKay’s re- ‘port on the fishes of New York, a friend sent me a specimen of _ the Winnipisseogee trout, from which, at the time, I drew up the - following description. ight of specimen thirty ounces ; length twenty inches; length of head four and a half inches. Body slender, subcylindrical. General appearance symmetrical. Scales very small. Laterul line waving the first inch, commencing 4 little below the superior posterior angle of the operculum and ‘ nis: \ + # i ead oe cd ; ‘ + thy + ae aa a e Pie a ie Sn el wah neal eae i aes, aaa On the Fishes of the Winnipisseogee. 341 gently descending the first half inch and ascending as much the next, when it proceeds in a straight line to the middle of the tail. Head, slightly flattened between the eyes. Jaws equal and pointed, the extremity of the lower received into a cavity in the upper, which at that place is destitute of teeth. Jaws, tongue, palatine and pharyngeals armed with a single row of small, pointed recurved teeth, which are much the largest, and less nu- merous in the lower jaws. Diameter of the eye half an inch; distance between the eyes one and eight-tenths inches; pupils black, irides golden. Distance from the extremity of the jaws to the eye one and one-fifth inches; to the first dorsal fin, nine inches; to second dorsal, fourteen and a half inches; to ventrals, nine and ‘a half Inches. Length of base of first dorsal fin, where it unites with the ody, two inches; or one-tenth of the length of the fish; height Color, light to dark brown on the back and upper part of head ; sides, dark gray, above lateral line, lighter below; in some, ap- hing to light salmon; lower jaw, chin and abdomen, white, ‘Mottled with fuliginous; pectorals and ventrals gray, their ante- rior part being shaded faintly with pink. Dorsal and caudal fins & dark gray.* The whole fish, including the dorsal and caudal fins, thickly sprinkled with small circular spots, of a drab color on the sides, olive on the back approaching to light salmon below. ‘These spots become elongated and variously curved on the top : of the head, and of an olive color, giving to the part a marbled appearance, This trout is taken in great abundance by the hook through holes cut in the ice in winter, but not in such numbers as for- merly. They are not unfrequently taken weighing twelve to fif- teen pounds. The largest reported to have been taken weighed twenty-five pounds. By most persons it is highly esteemed, and it is generally considered an excellent fish for the table. - Genus COREGONUS, Cuv.—Wherever a large body of water exists in the northern portion of the United States or Canada, so ar as investigation has been made, species of Coregonus have been found. i ced by the nature of the bottom upon which it feeds, being ly.much darker when frequenting muddy than gravelly bottcms, or ra y instances th fe * - 342 On the Fishes of the Winnipisseogee. Two species inhabit the Winnipisseogee ; and it is probable that they will be found also in Moose-head Lake, and perhaps in other large bodies of water in the state of Maine. the figures and descriptions of species from the great northern lakes, it is evident that they are new and undescribed species. It is hoped that the following description may lead to a more ex- act comparison. The trivial names added, are those by which they are known and designated by the inhabitants of the surrounding country. the insertion of the caudal rays. Head, very small, conical, flat- tened between the eyes, length contained more’ than six times in the length of the body including the caudal fin. Mouth, small. and destitute of teeth. Diameter of the eye three-tenths of an inch; distance between the eyes half an inch ; pupils black, irides silvery. Distance from the extremity of snont to nostrils, equal — to diameter of the eye; from the same to the eye, equal tothe — distance between the eyes. & The snout is truncated obliqnely and shut over the lower jaw, which is shorter and inclosed within the intermaxillaries, which are short, wide, thin and truncated blades. The first dorsal fin is three and three-tenths inches from the extremity of the snout, of a triangular form, base eight-tenths inch, height of longest ray one and one-tenth, of the: shortest five-tenths of an inch; the anal is higher than long; the ventrals four, and the pectorals five times higher than long; the caudal is furcated, and the distance between the extremities one and ish reflections ; sides silvery; beneath, white ; two-thirds line which is very conspicuous, and about eight in a diagonal di- rection from the lateral line to the first dorsal, and ten from the a ie sige! he On the Fishes of the Winnipisseogee. 343 Coreconus Neo-Hantontensis. The Whiting.—Length eighteen inches; weight two pounds; greatest diameter two inches, or one-ninth its length ; greatest height three and seven- tenths inches, or the height in proportion to its length is about one to five; least height, in front of the caudal fin one and three- tenths inches. Body compressed ; scales large. Lateral line commences at the superior angle o of the operculum, and proceeds in a direct line to the middle of the tail. Head small, arched and conical, and its length is contained more than five and a half times in the whole length of the fish. Mouth small and eee less. Diameter of the. eye half an inch; distance between the eyes one inch. Distance from extremity of j jaws to the eye eight tenths of an inch; to first dorsal seven and two-tenths inches; to second do. thirteen inches; to pectoral three and two-tenths inches; to ventral same as first dorsal; to anal twelve inches. Base of first dorsal equal to the diameter of the body, height of longest rays two and three-tenths inches, shortest six-tenths ‘inch ; _ height of pectorals four times their length; ventral three times higher than long ; anal longer than high. Caudal deeply furcated, distance between extremities of bifurcation five inches. olor: head and back, olive brown; sides lustrous and silvery, beneath white ; ‘dorsal fins brown, pectorals and ventrals white ‘Margined with br own; operculum silvery with golden reflections, aperenia a Semnt play of colors; pupils black; irides metal- white. Bin zays-D, 10. Pld -V,1A% A, 10. .Cy(?) 4. Lora prosmrana, Storer.—In the paper read before the ys - Clation this fish was referred to asa Cusk. This error arose the circumstance that this fish is so called by the Phebus about the Winunipisseogee, from its close resemblance to a cusk T had not then seen ee Storer’s description of it. The name in the west is Hel Pou In justice to Dr. Sep I substitute his description as published in the Boston Journal of Natural History Yo vol. iv, p. 58, instead of I mon swash most of our fresh-water fishes , there ig consid- erable difference in the color of the Lota. Whilst there are many fuliginous spots on those from the lake, there are few or. id a * +. My - =. 344 On the Fishes of the Winnipisseogee. ee none on those taken from the river. These spots are, moreover, very irregular, generally being more numerous on one side of the fish than on the other. All the specimens I have seen were beautifully reticulated on the back and top of the head,-with brown, yellow and olive. In all other respects, the description of this fish by Dr. Storer, does not materially differ from the specimens I have examined. I conclude by citing here Dr. Storer’s description of the species. “The specimen, which was a female, was twenty-seven inches in length; the length of the head was five and a half inches. The body is very broad in front of the dorsal fin; it becomes much depressed on the sides back of the first dorsal, and tapers to the caudal fin. Its general color is yellowish; the back, be- ‘tween the back of the head and the dorsal fin, exhibits a reddish tint; the top of the head and the opercula are fuliginous, the lat- ter exhibiting golden reflections in their centre. ‘The bo y be- neath is white. The whole body is perfectly smooth, covered by innumerable cup-shaped depressions, like that of the Zoar chus anguillaris, and like that species it is lubricated by a viscid © secretion. . ages ie “The depth of the body at the base of the pectorals is three and a half inches; its greatest depth is four and a half ‘inches ; its depth at the vent is three and a half inches. The greatest breadth of the head across the opercula is five inches. Its breadth across the eyes is three and a quarter inches. The snout is blunt. — The top of the head is flat. ‘The distance between the eyes 3S less than two inches. The eyesare circular, one half inch in di- ameter; the nostrils are double—the posterior, half an inch in front of the eyes; the anterior, which is tubular, and furnished with a cirrhus, two lines in length, is less than half an inch in| front of this. The opercula are nearly two inches in length. a, “'The vertical gape of the mouth, is two inches in extent; the. jaws are equal; the jaws, palatine bones and pharynx are armed with numerous fine teeth, placed like those of a card. ‘The tongue large, smooth and white. Suspended from the chin is 4 cirrhus one and a half inches in length. «“!Phe lateral line commences above the operculum, and eradu- ally curving downwards, does not reach the middle o the body, until beyond the middle of the dorsal fin. The dorsal, pectoral, atial and caudal fins are colored as well as the sides of the fish, With’ bldish blotches, and are margined with black. ‘The ventral -. fins are white beneath, and fuliginous above. - By S% ~~ “The first dorsal fin is situated eleven inches back of the snout; ,it is two inches long, one inch high, the posterior portion being barely higher than the anterior. ‘The second dorsal fi ‘commences half an inch back of the preceding; it is less than an inch high at the eemmencement, and is half an inch high at * a Meteorological Observations at Beloit, Wis. 345 ie pee extremity. This fin is continued nearly to the base of the tail. - The pectoral _ are situated directly behind and beneath the posterior angle of the operculum. They measure three and a half inches across sae extended, and are rounded at their pos- Mrior ieee they are an inch deep at their base. ea ntral fins are situated in front of the, pectorals, the rays are aeshy; the first ray is an inch long; the second ray is continued an inch beyond this; the remainder of the rays are shorter than the first ray. “The anal fin commences half an inch back of the vent and terminates on a line with the second dorsal fin; the rays are of equal height throughout. The vent is large. “The caudal fin i is three and a half inches in length; when eahaag it is three and a half inches high, and candied at its extre ~The weight of this specimen was five and a sg pounds. P; V, 6. A, 68. ree ‘ eR; 7: D, 10-7 1. “In the esophagus of this fish I rise a blade ot grass, and _ the stomach contained numerous bones of a fish, too far digested to ie Ae, XXXVIII.—Meteorological Observations: Abstract of a Leteorological Journal, kept at Beloit sa Beloit, Wis- consin, ‘for the year 1850, Lat. 42° 30’, Long. 12° west of — Washington; elevation above Lake Michigan, 172 feet—above the Ocean, 750 feet; by S. Peart Larurop, M.D., Professor of Chemisty and Natural History. "BAROMETER. THERMOMETER. | Rainand | Prevailing | Min. | Mean. |Max. | Min. ) Mean. | meltedsnow. | winds. _ 18 | 27°90 | 2855 | 46 | -3 | 25°38 259 |S &N. Ww. | 27-87 | 2865 | 60 | -7 | 27°50 ‘50 x. & NW. 9 | 28:09 | 28:58 | 59 | 8 | 81°50 2°82 nv. & 8 “00 | 28:03 | 28°61 | 78 | 18 | 4050 2°81 v. & N.E. 8 28:97 | 28:64 | 87 | 25 | 54°25 110 n. & 8. | 28-45 | 28°70 | 90 | 36 | 69°50 742 s. & Ss. W. | 99-38 | 98-61 | 92 | 58 | 74°10 715 s. & N. W. | 2838 | 28°62 | 92 | 51 | 71-00 15°73 8. & 8. z, 28-41 | 28°64 | 84 38 | 59°72 258 v.& 6. | 98-39 | 2863 | 75 | 19 | 4950 | 330 s. & N. W. | 28-20 | 2866 | 68 | 12 | 39°50 330 | 8 &N. Ww. | 98-98 | 28°69 | 45 | -4 | 24°00 1:94 x. & NW: "28°63 4720 | 51°24 in. This being the first series of Sheacentieie made at this Pee Me no accurate comparisons, of course, can made, in any respect, — Vol. XI, No. 33.—May, 1851. 44 ; BS i ee a ea 346 - Meteorological Observations at Beloit, Wis. with previous years. The past year, however, is regarded by those who have longest resided here, as one of ustial temperature through the summer months, and somewhat warmer than com- mon through the autumnal months and December. ‘The tem- perature of the spring months, however, is thought to have been lower than it is generally. s The mean temperature of the spring months is 42°-08; of the summer months, 719-50; and of the antumual months, 49°57. The mean temperature for the year 1850 is 47°-20; which is very nearly the temperature of the wells of the houses on the bluff upon which the College is situated. a _ The density of the atmosphere, as indicated by the barometer, is thought to be too low. This instrument, (as were a the as well as the elevation of these observations, have not been” Qu © fh 3 = o Ss S a ica) - pe sd S o ie 2) - 9 a = o ® a. o — = 9 ~- Pal 5 D <, Oo rat) — ° = wm s < o =, ° S 7) * They are regarded, however, as being not far from correct. The observations have been made at the hours required by the Smithsonian Institution, viz.: sunrise, 9 a. M., 3 P.M., and 9 P.M. pated, from the great number of fair days, of falling weather, which is very noticeable by one accustomed to the clouds and mists of the Green Mountains. e- remark concerning the West, so frequently heard at the East, that “it rains here only at night and on Sundays,” has been rather won-— derfully established during the past year, as a large portion of t clouds being dissipated and their moisture being absorbed by the was less than the usual quantity, being about four or five inches. . There was some sleighing for three or four weeks. | of snow, as ‘appears from the observations of those here, varies greatly in different winters. | Meteorological Observations at Beloit, Wis. 347 The year which has just past is considered as having been | rather more -productive than usual. Though the spring was uncommonly: backward, yet the temperature was so uniform that no portion of vegetation was unduly brought forward and conse- quently injured by untimely frosts. Fruit, of the various kinds which have been introduced into this new country, did remark- ably well, and gave a fair promise of the fruzt-full years to come. It appears to me that this cannot be otherwise than a very favor- able country, both on account of soil and climate, for growing frnit of most kinds, such as apples, peaches, grapes, &c.,—cer- tainly so, if the last fall can be taken as a criterion of the char- acter of future autumns. before whole fields are cut down by their reapers. The crop of potatoes was good and scarcely at all injured by the “ rot.” The Another fact worthy of note was observed in the second flow- ering of several species of plants, as stated in the calendar, and be deemed uncommon by naturalists. ‘The Cantharis Sedan a bts h z _ Clover, which they destroyed in a short time. ‘Their progiess "+ » “*-.was from north to south. They were in such numbers, that a half-bushel of them could have been gathered.in a short ume, With the appropriate means. ‘The chinck-bug, Lygeus leucopte- 348 Meteorological Observations at Beloit, Wis. rus of Say, which made its appearance in some of the northern counties of Illinois, and was thought to have done great injury to the wheat crop, did not make its appearance, that I am aware of, in this state.* There have been during the year several heavy storms accom- panied with lightning, the most remarkable of which occurred on the 26th of April. The atmosphere here is remarkably transparent, so much so, that the stars have an unwonted brilliancy and seem much nearer to you than in the northern portions of New England. nother fact observed during the past year, is that of the “rotation” of the wind. The law of rotation, noticed by Dr. Dalton and more fully developed by Redfield and Dove, that the winds have a rotation from the north to the northeast, then east, southwest; next to these the west and northwest. The wind very seldom blows for any length of time from the northeast or east ine Floral Calendar, §c.—Feb. 3d, the coldest day of the year. The average of the observations of the thermometer for the day being -3°'50. At 4 o’clock, a.m., it stood at —24°. : March 22nd, Star of Bethlehem, crocus and snow-drop Just Sanguinaria; 5th, Grapes begin to bloom; 11th, Geum ver- num in flower; 14th, Missouri currant; 17th, Apple, Plum and Cherry ; 20th, Flowering almond; 22nd, Tulips; 25th, Dode- catheon media. June 5th, Common Syringa in blosson, Hypoxis erecta ; 7th, Double Larkspur, Sweet William, Peonia ; 12th, Green peas plenty; t4th, Garland’ Syringa in blossom, Strawberries ripe; 17th, Chinese Peonia and all kinds of Roses in blossom ; 18th, fa a Eschcholtzia in flower, bee If 4, . . oo ; in’ fur- -* If any naturalists wish specimens of this insect, I shall take pleasure J. W. Bailey on Diatomacee. 349 July Ist, Currants ripe; 5th, Raspberries ripe; 10th, Wheat harvest commences; 22nd, Gooseberries ripe; 25th, Dahlias and Gladiolus in flower; 27th, Harvest apple ripe; 25th and 27th, the hottest days of the year, the thermometer on each of these days averaging 82°; at 3 o’clock p.m., the thermometer stood at 92°, August 5th, Blackberries ripe; 7th, Tiger flower in blossom ; 10th, Pine apple melons ripe; 15th, Watermelons ripe; 19th, Garland Syringa—Philadelphus grandiflorus, in flower the sec- ond time; 25th, Snow-ball—Virburnum opulus, in flower the - second time, Green gage ripe. Sept. 2nd, Wild Plums ripe; Sth, Corn ripe and fit for harvest- ing; 20th, Isabella Grape ripe; 28th, Frost for the first time, Virburnum opulus in flower through this month. Oct. 7th, Dahlias and Tomatoes injured by the frost for the . first time. Virburnum opulus in bloom up to this date.” Nov. 16th, First snow ; 22nd, Ranunculus fascicularis in blos- som the second time and continued in bloom through this month, -. Dec. 13th, The thermometer at sunrise stood —4°, the only time’ during the month that it was below zero. Art. XX XIX.— Miscellancous Notices ; by J. W. Baitey. 1. On the real nature of the so-called “ orifices” in Diatoma- ceous shells.—It is well known to naturalists that several of the most distinguished writers on the Diatomaceee have asserted the existence of “apertures,” “ orifices” or “ mouths” in the ventral z @ oy —s 5 ~*~ a fas) ia) a = Cal © 5 oO o o ba - a oO wm ia) is*) | oO - - S = is") D i =) laa i o S — o 4 — 5 JQ 4 = ou ” my opinion may be obtained. I now offer proof of another kind which removes all doubt, and shows that these markings are heither apertures nor depressions, but are in reality the thickest parts of the shell. If the shells are placed in dilute hydrofluoric 2 i a if any exist, should become enlarged. Now the very parts whieh. , _ © % See this Journal, vol. xlii, p, 97, American Bacillaria, part 2. an 350 J. W. Bailey on Diatomacee. have been called orifices by some and depressions by others, are the last of all to disappear as the shell is dissolved. This mode of observation, beside establishing the fact that these are really the thickest parts of the shell, reveals many interesting particulars of structure in the various genera of Diatomaceee i large species of Pinnularia, it m e seen with even a low power, that the two parallel bands (separated by a canal) which reach from the central knob to the terminal ones, and which appear smooth before the application of the acid, become dis- tinctly striated after their surface is dissolved off, as does also the central spot itself, showing that striz which existed in the young shell are covered up and nearly obliterated by subsequent deposits. In Stauroneis the cross-band and the two longitudinal bands are the last to dissolve, and these last bands, as. in most of the family, appear separated by what is either a canal or a very thin portion of the shell. In Grammatophora the undulating lines are internal plates which are the last to dissolve. In Heliopelta, Actinoptychus, &c., the polygonal central spot is the last to dis- appear. In Isthmia, the spots on the surface, which at first ap- pear like granular projections, are in reality thin portions of the shell, and under the action of the acid they soon become real holes. The acid also proves that the larger spots at the trans" verse bands are really a series of large arcuate holes in the silic- eous:shell, and the piers of this series of arches, remain some time after all the rest of the shell has vanished. Many other in- teresting facts are revealed by the action of this acid on these shells, and no one can use it without learning much with regard to their true structure. : A few directions with regard to the mode of manipulation in these experiments will probably be nseful. As the fumes of the hydrofluoric acid, if they reached the lenses, would greatly in- jure them, I would advise experimenters (even if they have a micro-chemical stage) to protect the front face of their objectives by temporarily cementing to them a thin plate of mica by means of Canada balsam. ‘his can be attached or removed in a few moments, and completely protects the lens without materially af- * ‘ 2. On the cell-membrane of Diatomaceous shells.— f hydro- uoric acid is applied to recent Diatomacez, the silica soon dis- solves leaving distinct, internal, flexible cell-membranes retaining Ce fal oe J. W. Bailey on Camphor, Infusoria and Sulphur. 351 the general form of the shells. These may sometimes but not generally be detected even in the fossil specimens. When pres+ ent, they materially interfere with the examination of the true nature of the markings of the siliceous shell, and should be de- stroyed by nitric acid and heat, before the hydrofluoric acid is employed, unless it is desired to study the cell-membrane itself. There is a curious difference in the action of hydrofluoric acid of the same strength upon specimens of fossil Diatomaceee from different localities. Some dissolve with even too great rapidity in an acid which is slow and tedious in its action on other speci- mens. The Bermuda and Richmond Tripoli, and some speci- mens of fluviatile origin resist the action much longer than is ustial with most specimens, whether they are recent marine, or either recent or fossil fluviatile ones. This difference is proba- * 3. Mode of distinguishing artificial from natural Camphor of fine specimens of marine siliceous Infusoria or Diatomacee. _ The mud upon this ice is probably in part scraped from the sur- face of the flats, and partly derived from the filtering of the &e. The Co- Scinodiscus I have found in a living state as far up the river as most abundantly. ; a 5. On the detection of Sulphur.—Dr. Playfair’s beautiful salt, the nitro-prussid of soda, is justly recommended by its discov- eret.as the most delicate of all tests for alkaline sul phids [sul- ~ phurets].* An application of it which is very obvions although hot alluded to by Dr. Playfair, is to employ it not only as a di 4 — ©. ® Se Li E.and D. Phil Mag, vol. xxxvi, p. 208. @ = =. oy <4 ia) D 8 a S The usual features of these islands are presented in the above sketch. The narrow belt is seen to consist of several patches of vegetation; and within are the quiet waters which offer 2 | retreat for vessels whenever there is an opening to the lagoon. i Fie eer | On Coral Reefs and Islands. 359 » A few small coral islands are simple reefs without lagoons. In some cases they are bare banks of coral; but generally, the usual vegetation of the islands has obtained a foothold, and affords some protection against the glare of the coral sand. ‘ With these general remarks we may enter upon the more par- ticular consideration of the characters of reefs and islands. 2. Cyaractrers oF F'rincinc anp Barrier ReEers. a. General features. Fringing reefs have been described as those that directly adjoin the shores of an island; and the barrier, as the exterior reefs, separated from the fringing reef, or from. the shores when there is no inner reef, by an open channel. ile there are only narrow shore-reefs to many islands, around others, a distant barrier extends like an artificial mole, sometimes ten or even fifteen miles from the land, and enclosing not only one, but at times several islands. Between the narrow fringing platform and these remote barriers, there is every possible varia- tion as to extent and relative position. The inner channel is head wind with a depth of twenty, thirty, or even fifty fathoms. Yet hidden reefs make caution necessary. Patches from a few * These varieties of form and position are well exemplified in a single group of islands—the Feejees; and we would refer the er to a reduced copy of the admirable chart of this Archi- pelago by the Expedition.* Near the middle of the chart is the island Goro; its shores, excepting the western, are bordered by a fringing reef. The island Angau, south of Goro, is encircled by a coral breakwater, which on the southern and western sides runs far from the shores, and is a proper barrier reef, while on the eastern side, the same reef is attached to-the coast and is a fringing reef. From these exam- ples it is perceived that there. is no proper distinction as regards mode of formation between barrier and fringing reefs. It is also apparent that while a reef is sometimes quite encircling, in other instances it is interrupted along certain shores, or may want- ing along a large part of a line of coast; and occasionally the reef may- be confined to a single point of an island. . * For this chart, see Capt. Wilkes's Narrative of the Exploring Expedition, or the i iter. ‘ ae _ Geological Report of the wri . ie “= Ss. 360 On Coral Reefs and Islands. Above Angau lies Nazrai; though a smaller island than Angau the barrier reef is of greater extent, and stretches off far from the shores. - To the eastward of Nairai are Vatu Rera, Chichia, and Naiau, other examples of islands fringed around with narrow reefs. Lakemba, alittle more to the southward, is also encircled with coral: but on the east side the reef is a distant barrier. In Aiva, immediately south of Lakemba, the same structure is ex- emplified ; but the coral ring is singularly large for the little spots of land it encloses. The Argo Reef, east of Lakemba, is a still larger barrier, encircling two points of rock called Bacon’s isles. It is actually a large lagoon island, twenty miles long, with some coral islets in the lagoon, and two of basaltic constitution, the largest of which is only a mile in diameter. Aiva and Lakemba are in fact other lagoon islands, in which the rocky islands of the interior bear a larger proportion to the whole area. The same view is farther illustrated by comparing the Argo reef with Nairai, Angau, or Moala: the only difference in these cases consists in the greater distance of the reef from the shores which it encircles, and the smaller extent of the enclosed land. Passing to the large islands Vanua Levu and Viti Levu, we observe the same peculiarities illustrated on a much grander scale. Along the southern shores of Viti Levu, the coral reef lies close against the coast; and the same is seen on the east side and north - extremity of Vanua Levu. But on the west side of these islands, — this reef stretches far off from the land, and in some parts is even — twenty-five miles distant, with a broad sea within. This sea, however, is obstructed by reefs, and besides, along the shores there are proper fringing reefs. The forms of encircling reefs depend evidently to a great eX-_ tent on that of the land they enclose. That this is the case even in the Argo reef and such other examples as offer now but a sin- gle rock above the surface of the enclosed lagoon, we shall en- deavor to make apparent, if not already so, when the cause of the orms of coral islands is under discussion. Yet it is also evident that this correspondence is not exact, for many parts of the shores, and sometimes more than half the coast, may be exposed to the sea, while other portions are protected by a wide barrier. In recapitulation, we remark, that reefs around islands may be (1) entirely encircling; or they may be (2) confined*to a larger or a smaller portion of the coast, either continuous or interrupted : _ they may (3) constitute throughout a distant barrier; or (4) the _Teef may be fringing in one part and a barrier in another ; or (5) it may be fringing alone: the barrier may be (6) at great dis- tances from the shores, with a wide sea within, or (7) it may S0 unite to the fringing reef that the channel between will hardly float a canoe. These points are fully sustained by all reef re- gions ah ae | oe ee mn cm On Coral Reefs and Islands. 361 A wide difference in the extent of reefs would be inferred from these facts. There is the mere point of coral rock ; and again, as or example, west of the two large Feejee islands, there may be three thousand square miles of continuous reef-ground, occupied with coral patches and intermediate channels or seas. The en- closing barrier off Vanua Leyu alone is more than one hundred miles long. The Exploring Isles, in the eastern part of the Feejee group, have a barrier eighty miles in circuit. New Cale- donia, as often cited, has a reef along its whole western shores, a distance of two hundred and fifty miles, and it extends one hundred and fifty miles farther north, adding this much to the length of the island. The great Australian barrier forms a broken line, a thousand miles in length, lying off the coast from the Northern Cape to the tropical circle; and the channel within is in some parts sixty miles from the coast, with a depth of thirty to sixty fathoms. The seas outside of the lines of coral reef are often unfathom- able within a short distance of the line of breakers. b. Structure of Reef Formations. In the description of reef grounds or reef-formations there are several distinct subjects for consideration, as is obvious from the preceding remarks. ‘These are— _ L. Outer reefs, or reefs formed from the growth ‘of corals ex- posed to the open seas. Of this character, are all proper barrier reefs, and such fringing reefs as are unprotected by a barrier. 2. Inner reefs, or reefs formed in quiet water between a bar- rier and the shores of an island. 3. Channels or seas within barriers, which may receive de- tritus either from the reefs, or the shores, or from both of these sources combined. 4. Beaches and beach formations, produced by coral accumula- tions on the shores through the action of the sea and winds. The onter and inner reefs, channels, and beaches, act each their part in producing the coral formations in progress about islands. | aration for the next breaker. ‘This marg rises but little above low-tide level, usually slopes beneath. the - water at an angle of forty to seventy degrees to a depth.of three to eight fathoms; thence the waters deepen very gradually for. one to five hundred yards out, and fron this there 1s finally an’ — abrupt descent, generally by an angle of at least forty degrees to depths beyond the reach of a sounding legd.: There*is a great oie difference in the rapidity with which the water deepens, as might Bi ‘Ss aul . 46 : ND Senses, Vol. XI, No. 83—May, 1851. for miles in length is changed from the submerged coral 362 On Coral Reefs and Islands. te be inferred from the varied character of submarine slopes; in some cases the shallow waters may extend for two or three miles beyond the reef, but it is far more common to meet with the op- posite extreme—unfathomable depths within a few hundred feet. - ‘The growing corals are mostly confined to the shallow waters of the reef, and to its sloping margin up which they extend to within a foot or less of the surface. In these shallow waters the various zoophytes at times are crowded over extensive areas; yet very often they occur only in patches scattered throughout large fields of coral debris. The top of the reef is mostly destitute of life, and consists of the naked coral rock, more or less covere with coral sand. Yet there are some shallow pools, especially towards the outer limits, which abound in corals. The exposed edge of the reef is commonly raised a few inches above the general surface, and is, therefore, the first part laid bare by the retreating tide, although a dangerous place for a ramble, on account of the heavy breakers. Though very uneven, the surface has generally a smooth, water-worn appearance, and is spotted with various shades of pink and purple. These colors, as observ- ed by Chamisso, are due to incrusting Nullipores, that grow like lichens over the rock: they are vegetable in nature, though com- posed mostly of lime. Other nodular and branching Nullipores, — some sprigs of Madrepores, and a few of Astraeas grow in the more sheltered cavities, where they are not easily dislodged by the - waves; and among them, despite the breakers, cling numerous echini, asterias, and actiniw. The gradual wear of the reefs by the wash of the sea is prevented, to a great extent, by these Nul- lipore inerustations, as was pointed out by Darwin.* He states that on Keeling’s Island they constitute a layer two or three feet in thickness, with a breadth of twenty feet. ‘They are abundant on the Paumotu reefs. The outer reefs are distinguished in many parts from the inner by becoming covered with accumulations of coral fragments and sand, which are thrown up by the waves: finding a lodgment some distance back from the margin of the reef, the accumula- tious gradually increase, till in many instances they form dry land, ‘and prepare the way for vegetation. Such effects are mostly con- fined, however, to the sides open to the prevailing wind, and are generally of limited extent. Occasionally, as at Bolabola, the po an into,a habitable islet-—a green belt to the island of rocks and for- f BP see ‘ ‘ * x ests within.. The causes and the result are much the same as in the case of the lagoon island, and the steps in the process will be -Thore particularly described when treating of the coral atoll. ° * Darwin,on Coral Reefs, London, 1842, page 9, and elsewhere. Pe sa ’ | i 53 s On Coral Reefs and Islands. 363 The rock of the reef, wherever broken, exhibits a compact tex- ture. In some parts it consists of coral fragments of quite large size firmly cemented: other portions are a finer coral’ breccia, or | conglomerate: and still others, more common, are solid white. limestones, as impalpable aud homogeneous in texture as the sec- ondary limestone of our continents, and usually much harder. It is rare to meet with any corals in this reef-rock retaining the original position of growth. It is at once apparent that the rock o. i o = 2 = sna S - i x) load - ° ay = m oS oO cr =: ° i 4 o 77) x) S S =] ton) nat | ad a | fo) EPS Cee AY SSAA ae GAN WX or i | ces ger ce i SHV , ag ON e Rains ; , = - : i Bs al Fee Pe wh . £\) \ \ AX\ \ WA TAM With eu ant sea US Ma fh N Wy ARS A Sas i See a es Eni a EEA ee Se ees a, Sa a Ss NN wR, 5 ee. : : ting ‘eae, ee = me yo ee Sie ce ak. Be ee UE OT qi" 1 “a, My f ‘hh ash SE Np RS SS (PasihGe ait Vit sa me Se ae Ne * LS Sr alan wey Soe eS WN \\ ~ hc pa sw i. a \ Ny > — aaltenaies o MANN eng S e re, nice wer = " Sepenaneenteaad VME dt ee “ee fon ool | cae Nene _7 Ah al Se ec RE LD ea y Liti wahes'% , BLUFFS OF CORAL SAND-ROCK, NORTH SHORE OF OAHU. One of the most interesting facts, observed in connection with ‘these drift jiills, is the absence of shells, and even of fragments of shells or corals, sufficiently large to be referred to either of these sources. The material is a fine sand, without org mains, although situated on shores off which, within - ie) ls and corals innumerable. * On Coral Reefs and Islands. — 371 e. Thickness of reefs. : We have considered in the preceding pages the peculiarities of form and structure characterizing the regs formations borderin islands and continents, and their influence upon the enclosed land. Could we raise one of these coral-bound islands from the waves, we should find that the reefs stand upon the submarine slopes, like massy structures of artificial masonry ; some forming a broad flat platform or shelf ranging around the land, and others encircling it like vast ramparts, perhaps a hundred miles or more in circuit. The reefs that were near the water-line of the coast would be seen to have stood in the shallowest water, while the outer ram- parts rested on the more deeply submerged slopes. Indeed, it is obvious that with a given slope to the declivity of the land, the thickness of the reef resting upon it may be directly determined, as it would be twice as great two hundred feet from the shore as at one hundred feet. The only difficulty, therefore, in correctly determining the depth or thickness of any given reef, arises from the uncertainty with regard to the submarine slope of the land. It is, however, admitted as the result of extensive observation, that in general these slopes correspond nearly with those of the land above water. Mr. Darwin has thus estimated the thickness of the reefs of the Gambier Group and some other Pacific isl- " ands, and he arrives at the conclusion, as his figures indicate, .. that some coral reefs, at their outer limits, are at least two thou- sand feet in thickness. Assuming eight degrees as the mean inclination, we should have for the depth of reef, (or water,) one mile from the shore, 740 feet; or assuming five degrees, 460 feet. Adopting the first estimate, the Gambier Group would give for the outer reef a * thickness of at least 1750 feet; or with the second, 1150 feet. The island of Tahiti, (taking the north side for data,) would give in the same manner 250 feet by the last estimate, which we judge to be most.correct ; Upolu, by the same estimate, 440 feet. The deduction for Upolu may be too large: taking three degrees as nelination, it gives 260 for the thickness at the outer.margin. results are sufficiently accurate to satisfy us of the great of many barrier reels. ‘ae bee te, 4 eae Ee - 2 : ae ea ~ since May, 1844, and notices of some of his results have appear- ed in this Journal. A recent publication, whose title is given be- served in each case, but a sketch of a portion of the dust as it vom 23. Mai 1844 bis 1849. Abhandlungen der Akad., 1847. 192 pp. 4to' 7 372 On Infusoria in Dust-showers and Blood-rain. These calculations, however, are liable to error from many sources. Very different results might generally be obtained from different sides of the sgme island; and the same group often con- tains islands without reefs, and others with reefs one or even sev- eral miles from the shores. But since we may show that the absence of a reef or its limited extent may be traced to some causes restricting or modifying its formation, it is obvious that the error would probably be on the side of too low an estimate. Adjacent to the larger islands, such as those of Vanua Levu an ew Holland, the error might be of the opposite kind; for the slopes of the land are of a more complex or irregular character than on the smaller islands. In the latter, they may be shown to belong generally to a single elevation of igneous origin, or at.the most to two or three combined; while in the former, they may pertain to different ranges of hills or mountains. For correct re- sults in any instance, the land and its declivities should be care- fully studied beforehand, and the system in its inclinations deter- mined by observation. With regard to Tahiti and Upolu, in- formation bearing upon this point was obtained, and the above conclusions may be received with much confidence. Many of the Feejee reefs, on the same principle, cannot be less than 2000 feet in thickness. Arr. XLIT.—On the Infusoria and other Microscopie forms in Dust-showers and Blood-rain ; by Dr. C. G. Eurensere.* Tue infusorial character of the dust occasionally transported by winds, is one of the most wonderful of Ehrenberg’s discove- ries. His investigations have been reported from time to time, low, contains the details of his various researches, with full illus- trations. ‘The plates contain not only figures of all the forms ob- ® Passat-Staub und Blut-Regen, ein grosses organisches und Leben in der Atmosphiire ; Mehrere Vortrii outs i J } i ey r Wiss. zu Berlin, &c. Vorgetragen in der Kénigl. Preuss. Akad. der Wiss. zu On Infusoria in Dust-showers and Blood-rain. 373 lay under the field of his microscope, exhibiting to the eye the relative prevalence of different forms and the colors they present- e e showers, whose microscopic org@nisms are here report- ed, are as follows: : I. In the Atlantic, latitude 17° 43' N., and longitude 26° W., about 500 miles from the coast of Africa.—The dust was col- lected by Mr. Darwin, from the ship in which he was at the time. The direction of the wind was from the African coast. The dust resembled volcanic ashes, although evidently not of this origin, and about a sixth part of it was siliceous shells of fresh water and land infusoria and siliceous phytolites, eighteen species of the former, and as many of the latter: The most of the forms ers is given in a following table. ther dust-showers in the Atlantic, from the collections of Mr. Darwin.—These collections were made between the years 1834 and 1838, in latitudes 15°, 17°, 19° and 21°, part at San Jazo, (Cape Verds) and part within 250 miles of the land in the open sea, between longitudes 22° and 26°. ‘They afford thirty new forms to those of the shower above noticed, and in- clude also the same South American forms, Himantidium papilio and Surirella peruviana. In addition, there are three species of Eunotia which have been found only in Senegambia and Besides the others, there was one Polythalamium, making Cs 1830.—This 374 On Infusoria in Dust-showers and Blood-rain. IV. Sirocco dust, of Genoa, May 16, 1846.—In this dust, Eh- renberg found 22 species of Polygastrica, 21 of Phytolitharia, and 3 of parts of plants. he forms have much resemblance to those of the Malta and Atlantic showers. The color is yellowish or dust, and about {th to td of the mass is organic. None of the species are characteristic African forms, and Synedra enlomon is South American. This dust was analyzed by Dr. Wolcott Gibbs, who obtained for its composition, excluding the water and organic matter which amounted to 18:5: yo Bie TH Fe Mn €a0 = Mg K Na Ca 45575 20347 9388 4222 11648 2209 38645 2332 0:306=100. The carbonate of lime is from Polvthalamia. It follows from the preceding results that the showers of the Atlantic, of Malta and of Genoa are in general alike in orgamic as well as inorganic constitution, and in the absence of characterts- tic African forms ; and this resemblance is the more surprising as the observations extend through the long period of 16 years, from 1830, to 1846, They are alike also in the brownish-red color of the dust. V. Sirocco dust of Lyons, Oct. 17, 1846.—The Lyons shower afforded 39 species of Polygastrica, 25 of Phytolitharia, 3 of Po- lythalamia besides minute portions of plants. The accompany- ing plate from Plate 5, of Ehrenberg’s work, contains 104 out of 123 of his figures, the species of Polythalamia, Spongolithis, and portions of plants being omitted. ‘The species here figured are as follows :* eas 1. Polygastrica. 1, 2, Gallionella granulata. 88 Eunotia tridentula. 3 ecussata, 39 Eunotia? levis. 4 —— procera. 40 Himantidium Arcus. 5,6, 7 —— istans. 41,42, Tabellaria. 8,9, Discoplea atmospherica. 43 Fragilaria pinnata? LO, Coscinodiscus ? 44 Cocconeis lineata. : 11, Trachelomonas levis. atmospherica. 12, Campylodiscus clypeus. 46 Navicula Bacillum. 13, 14, 15, Gomphonema gracile. —— amphioxys. 16, 17, Cocconema cornutum (nec gracile.)| 48,49 —— Semen. ; 0 —— © lineolata? ' 19, 20, Eunotia longicornis. 51 Pinnularia borealis. 21,22 —— longicornis. |62 —— viridula. 23 —— Argus. 53 ——_—SséViridis. 2. -— longicornis. 54 —_ teniata (n. sp.) 25 —— granulata? 55 ualis ? 26 —— zebrina? (Argus ?) 56 Surirella Craticula ? 27. *...—— Monodon? 57, 58, Synedra ulna. 28-32 —— amphioxys(31,cwmovario)., 59, 60, Fragilaria pinnata? 83,34 —— gibberula. 61 Grammatophora ? | 788 —— zebrina? 62, 63, Incerti generis (1). 36 Himantidium zygodon? 64 Incerti generis (2). — © fi Ennotia gibbe. ; _| 65 Incerti generis (3) (4 oe SS a” 79 ofa) O@mUONnng-. ; 20 J fou 18 GG gan COCDD DDD Ry. at © 27 33 ATR Be TTY” On Infusoria in Dust-showers and Blood-rain. « 377 2. Phytolitharia. 66, 67, Amphidiscus truncatus. 89 Lithostyldium Clepsammideum. us. 90 —+ crenat [ 69-71 Lithodontium fureatum. 91 — Ossiculum. 5 Scorpius. 92 — Amphiodon. | 73, 74 — __ rostratum. 93 a Terebra. . 75-77 a ur 94 ae angulatum. ‘ 78 — los 5 — rude. | id ie a m. 96,97 —— denticulatum. : eee 98 —— Emblema. 1 ape amma clay 9 — irregular i erra, 100 Lithomesites ornatus. © 82 b, —— _ Taurus. 101 Lithostylidium triceros. 8-85 — curvatum, 102 — calcaratum, a —_— biconcavum. 103 — spiriferum. : 87 Clepsammideum, | 104 —— leve. 88 Lithospheridium irregulare. In this shower, the organic forms make up about one-eighth of the mass. In general character including color, there is a close resemblance to the products of the Atlantic showers and the others above described. ‘The species are nearly all of fresh-water or land origin; one-seventh only are marine species. The most abund- E. longicornis, Gallionella decussata, G. granulata, an G. pro- cera ; and those of Phytelithari, Lithostylidium amphiodon, L. ossiculum and rs ru There are two Sonth see ne! species, the Hunotia Pileus. and Himantidium Zyg The number of species brought to light. aie the dust of the ‘nine showers thus far described, is as follow Polygastrica 57. Phytolitharia 46. Poipttalad a 8. Besides these, there are seven kinds of particles ‘ons plants, and one fragment of an insect. Seventeen of the species are marine, and the other 102 of fresh-water origin. ‘There is no evidence of voleanic origin. Second specimen from the Genoa shower of the 16th of May, 1846.—All but one of the oer mentioned were observed dus VIL Storm of red snow in Puster Valley in Tyrol, March 31, 847.—Thi lor to a colored dust, ‘much 22 of which were Pubs acai we ibe ten 2 Polythalamia, particles of plants, and 1 of an e he n dnt a Sirelacdeent (?) There isa remarkable resemblance he col aa tees x a.” to. that of the Atlantic, Genoa es # _ depth, there would be for each square English mile, an amount Ehrenberg favors the view of the atmospheric origin of these _ showers, and speaks of their relation to the fall of aerolites._ 378 « On Infusoria in Dust-showers and Blood-rain. Polygastric species and 20 Phytolitharia are common to the At- lantic showers and the Tyrolese snows. This uniformity of char- acter over regions so widely separate, yet in nearly a common lat- itude or zone, and in so many distinct examples through a num- ber of years, is most surprising. VII. Dust which fell in Italy in 1803, and in Calabria in 1813.—The former of these showers is represented as coming from the southeast. It afforded 49 species, and that of Calabria 64. Out of the 49, 39 have been observed in the more recent showers; and out of the 64, 51 are like the more recent. These showers, although 10 years apart, have 28 species in common, or about one-fourth. In both nearly all the species are of fresh-wa- ter or continental origin. In both, as in other showers, the most abundant species are H'unotia amphiorys, Gallionella granulata, . crenata, G. distans, G. procera, Lithodontia, Lithostylidia. In both, also, there are four South American forms ; Coscinodiscus flavicans from Peru and St. Domingo, Navicu/a undosa from Suri- nam, Stauroneis linearis from Chili and North America, Synedra Entomon from Chili. The last occurs also in Africa and Asia. There are no characteristic African species. Ehrenberg next mentions facts of a similar kind of earlier date. Humboldt when in Paramo, on the way from Bogota to Popayan, at a height of 2300 toises (14,700 feet), observed a red hail, a fact published by him in the Annales de Chimie for 1825. ‘The height of the place gives peculiar interest to the observation. — In 1755, on the 14th of October, at 8 o’clock in the morning, . a warm Sirocco wind was blowing at Locarno near Lago Maggi- ore. At 10 o’clock the air was filled with a red mist, and at 4 o'clock p. m. there was a blood-red rain, which left a reddish de- posit, equal to one-ninth of its mass. There fell nine inches of this rain in one night. About 40 square German leagues were cover- ed with this bloody rain, which also extended on the north side of the Alps into Suabia,,and nine feet of reddish snow fell upon the Alps. Supposing that the deposit averaged but two lines in ~ equal to 2700 cubic feet. But actual measurement gave [or the depth in some places about one inch (or jth of 9 inches). In 1623 there was another blood-rain at Strasburg. It hap- pened on the 12th of August, between the hours of 4and 5in the afternoon. In the year 1222 a similar rain fell at Rome for one day and night. Many other like facts are cited. ’ which fell between 1790 and 1819, amounted to not less an ~ 600 hundred Ly sd weight: while for the single dust-shower of the material that fell was full 7200 hundred Vv a On Infusoria in Dust-showers and Blood-rain.. 379 The Cape Verd shower had a breadth, according to Darwin,* of more than 1600 miles, and according to Tuckey, of 1300 miles, and extended 6 to 800 miles or even 1000 miles from the African coast. This gives an area of 960,000 to 1,280,000, or from 14,0U0 feet. . The facts may seem inexplicable on any other hy- pothesis; yet much more investigation will be required before an opinion so contrary to received principles, can be generally adopted. The work proceeds with a historical relation of all showers of dust, blood-rain, red snow and similar phenomena, from the ear- liest records to the present time. ‘This history occupies 100 pa- ges of the volume. The first instance adduced dates about 1500 years before the present era. It is the plague of blood inflicted upon the Egyp- tiaus, as related in the Mosaic history, which prevailed through- ee whole land of Egypt, continuing three days and three hignts, : The. second occurred about 1181 B.C., the time of Aineas and Dido, as related by Virgil, Aneid, iv, 454. Horrendum dictu, latices nigrescere sacros Visaque in obsccenum se vertere vina cruorem. The third about 950 B.C., as described by Homer, Ilias cae 4 Bey re PANEY eer ee ee I Ce 52, 54, and also Ilias xvi, v. 459, 460. * Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., No. 5, 1846, p. 26. on page 57:—‘ Ich darf ferner jetzt kaum mehr zweifeln Diese beiden neuesten Staubarten, welche so héchst aft gefallen sind, tragen die Spur der Existenz und der Fortentwicklung (nicht durch Fibildung, aber durch Selbsttheilung) kieselschaliger Formen zu deutlich. nnoch kann ich das Verhailt- nifs, der Phytolitharien und Seethicre halber, welche si r befinden, nicht kosmisches nennen. . Ich mich auch deshalb mit demselben noch nicht ganz F und Fortenwicklung nur bei gleichzeitiger Feuchtigkeit be- begiinst: Ww iti UW bes und die feinen Pflanzentheile vor Verinderung, Verrot- durch Trockenheit sicher icht wird. Mischen sich daher — Verhiiltmisse ” . 380 On Infusoria in Dust-showers and Blood-rain. The fourth about 910 B.’C., is the instance of bloody waters mentioned in connection with the victory over the Moabites in 2nd Kings, iii, v, 21, 22, 23. Ehrenberg mentions then the rain of blood in the time of Rom- ulus, as related by Livy, and goes on with other accounts of sub- sequent date, with regard to which the information is not of as ee character as with those just alluded to A supplemental chapter contains a notice ‘of meteoric dust showers since 1846. One on the 31st of March, 1847, in the valley of Gastein, in Salzburg ; another in Arabia, Jan. 24, 1848 ; another in Silesia and Lower Austria, Jan. 31, 1848, The show- ers afforded similar fresh-water and ‘continental forms, with the same South American species before mentioned, and no char- acteristic African form. Other showers occurred in 1849. In March there was a reddish dust fell at Catania in Sicily, during a south wind. On the 14th April, during a hail storm in Ireland, there was a black inky deposit, affording numerous microscopic organisms. The number of showers which Ehrenberg records is in all 340, 81 before Christ and 249 after Christ. These occurred in differ- ent centuries as follows: 1. Before the Christian Era. Century. Showers. Century. Showers. Century. Showers. 16th 1 5th 4 2nd 10th 3 4th 4 1st 18 Sth =, 1 3d 22 2. In the Christian Fra. Century. Showers. Century. Showers. Century. Showers. 1st 5 8th 6 15th 6 2nd 1 9th 10 16th 51 8d 2 10th 5 17th 31 4th 4 11th 6 18th 29 5th 2 12th 11 19th 63 6th 10 13th 6 7th 3 14th 8 These showers or falls of dust, blood-rain, red snow or the like, occurred in the different months, as far as known, as follows January, 27 May, 18 September, 7 February, 1 Jane, 18 ctober, 18 March, 23 uly, 9 November, 16 April, 18 August, 17 December, 14 a z From October to March, the winter part of the year, the num- ber is 112, from April to September, the summer part, 87. : Jatnty to June the number is 118, and from aly to” De “cem 4 id The following is a stag view of the periods of arranged according to the gupner yes they « On Infusoria in Dust-showers and Bloood-rain. 381 1. Iraty and adjoining Islands. A.C. 718 710 461 344 295 294 262 2293 217 216 215 214 21 2 03 0' 54s 61 68 ee 570 594 746 859 864 1104 1113 1114 1128 1222 1456 1530 1652 1689 1729 1791 In Lombardy.—P. C. st 874 Boe In Sardinia—aA. C. — P.©. 220. In Sicily.—A. C. 217 — P. C. 559 1803 1849, 830. In Genoa.—P. C. 935 1678 1744 1814 1841 1847. 2, Germany (including Holland, Prussia, Austria, and Germanic states.) P.0. 787 823 839 869 1006 1009 1010 1117 1120 1146 1226 1887 1348 1349 1376 1416 1434 1488 1501 1502 1503 1584 15839 1540 ee 1547 1548 15:9 1550 1551 1552 1553 1554 1555 1556 1557 1568 1571 1572 1576 1586 1618 1620 1638 1645 1645 1646 1647 a sie 1677 1691 1716 1721 1745 1755 1763 1764 1803 1821 847 184 In Hungary ee tase In Poland 1269, 1550. 8. France. P.0. 484 464 541 581 583 860 1011 1114 1163 1165 1551 1559 1560 1608 1616 1617 1623 1634 1658 1669 1676 1731 1748 1763 1765 1830 1839 1841 1841 1846. Ms 4, Spary and PortueaL. or A.C. %5. P.O. 581 1488? 1531 1551. 5. Greece and Evropran TURKEY. Greece—A.C. 480 488—P.C. 1147 fine 1194. Turkey—P,C. 266 458 478 512 782 860. 6. Enaianp, Swepen, Russia. England—P.C. 58 570 1274 og 1849. Sweden.—P.C. 1319 1529 1629 1711 Russia—P.C. 1755 2 eee A.C. 1577 400 1. P.C. 1160 1181 1421 1555 1587 1608 1627 1810 1815 1817 1820 1821 ey , 29 1836 1837 1838 1838 1839 1839 1839 1840 1840 : 8 ce 2. Open sea, in the A : ~ P.C. 1579 ‘(163 iy 1668 oe 1692 1719 1812 1816 1830 1833 1834 3. Cape Vi erds—P.C 169 33. i ‘ bd : a Canaries.—P. ©. ; : 8. AstA. a Arabia—P. Cc. 570 1065 1365 1680 1825. Palestine—A. 0. 910 332 100;—P.C. 610 1348 1546 1637. _ fa age 80,250 950.—P. C. 358 860 897 929 1819. —P.C. —P.0. 1880, 1815? 1835 1846. Bll 1384. * 1086! 1665 1801 19158 382 On Infusoria in Dust-showers and Blood:rain. 9. AMERICA. 1. S. America—P.C. 16385? 1680 1737 1799 1802 18192. 2. WN. America —P.C. 1741 1780 1785 1814 1848 1848, 10. AusTrRALra. P.C. 1841? The volume closes with a series of conclusions from the facts mentioned. Ehrenberg remarks that these showers appear to prevail most within a zone extending from the part of the Atlan- tic off the west coast of Middle and North Africa, along in the — direction of the Mediterranean —~ reaching a short distance north this sea, and continued into Asia between the Caspian sea and the Persian Gulf, perhaps to Turkistan, Kaschgar and China; and they seldom reach north to Sweden and Russia. This zone accord- ing to the observations of Tuckey, has a breadth of 180 miles in the North Torrid zone. The reddish color of the dust as well as the organic forms, show that the dust is not of African pee. Moreover the petra a and sirocco are found to afford the sam species of organisms. Ehrenberg re peath again his opinion that these phenomena are at not to be traced to mineral material from the earth’s surface, nor | to revolving masses of dust material in space, nor to pee currents simply : but to some general law connected with t earth’s atmosphere according to bss there is a celbaleveléh- ment within it of living organism The whole number of species of organisms observed is 320. Of marine genera there are only the following: Coscinodiscus, — Diploneis, Goniothecium, Grammatophora, and Biddulphia, be-— sides some Polythalamia and Spongolites. ‘The following are American forms: Arcella constricta. Eunotia quaternaria. Navicula undosa, Desmogonium Guayanense. quinaria. Stauroneis dilatata. Eunotia Camelus Gomphonema Vibrio. s a Peru . saan Himantidium Soe? Synedra Entom “o° Plews. Zygodon. Fragmenta tence 4 A simultaneous occurrence of dust-showers and falls of mete- oric stones, has been observed in probably eighteen instances before the Christian era. During the Christian + era, Rathod co- incidences have been observed, making thirty-two in _ We insert here from this most remarkable work of earth the following tables, which present to the eye the range of show- ers through which the different species of organisms have been : ed.* The numbers in the table; following = names of the species, refer to | s of or oar on the plate, of the columns, where there se pet for the same shower, have These omitted col he On Infusoria in Dust-showers and Blood-rain. 383 L Atlantic Dust-showers.—IL Siroceo Dust-showers (in 1813, with meteoric RE PEG Dus riers of ars ve pane 1847.—IV. Winter ye rss e in Silesia and Lower Austria, 1 . Ink-rain, in Great Britain, 1 Table IL—Sprcizes or PotyGastrica. il j Ik. j JI. "a We A A ee ee : ‘ee 5 ‘fF = wt g bo | 8 S : , 23/5 3 | ~ 3} .1% Let Sisle } SS [am (0 [90 | o> 10 lls | “. Ol: lols 3 age ale fT Lee i= |= = Tei 2 Fat OS Hy ibe) 99 8 SS ai ade pe - Sle l |o} = (Dm joe| cs pti i on ee Sofa al oS tiered © Nie te pe SHS Sl1S [-clsis! & [2 clelels& SILIZ(C Nee [se SlEtN] 2 |= ales les ‘eo Ee SI alse fo _ Rese 48 ES lo AIR aie ie 1/2/3/4)5) 647) 8/9 101) 1213 14/16)16 [17 Achnanthes slag #2 Amphora 5 Reyes, ok co Pee ia key Pa ete EO Ee Arcella or che be ele ba ed pote Padre alte? = (hyalina) ebaobe | ebek aie * eek a (69), fbebada | aa vulgaris, SUP EE pete Ledederieene bt Biddulphia ? le Canpylodiseus —_— (12), ala lal ele) ep RL a) ee ee LR Cher togle pe the ed I ee Cie ce Chet rs. Sarr Ag ri hee. e480 xipar P # osteri i pebeds be beb> adh debe lrebege tt pele ae anoapherie (45), Pepe be Pete t opel dsc toe a (4 4), oa ee Cees Poe ee ey Seaeionm (16, 17), | «fete fete pepe] ps |e pee Leptoceros, Peep. fs # Lunula (18), #}#}.]s stele -[. | #2) # : “a ~— é * #|-|% oa latum, Shale beac tela e cahtebdincas Gavicans, al oleeeeree te s, Pa lee Oe gare eae i radi iatus, Eee el a beck eks |e copie es #3 ; radiolatus, cbels Lele) Gel |G | eae a ak Bele apob pete P(A che be ee he bie eee ee ? Des mogonium geyansose, fat. [eps fpae te popes ep ded t Difflusts areolat pho we Pee bebe be Pag ee oe cellulos ae 2 eb he feb ebe toa oa ee t paponst Pi aa es ee ee leonles snap (8,9), }#,#]-|#]*) |e] ey * # ela) *]. | # Jieay atlan #\# ; “3 eae en ? is Co Sh eae | | ee? Mes : ? ie Fi Oe oe ; re Me ny (Se be __ sinensis ? poe ey Gee ao Dh ext i es pn * a Eunotia amphioxys (28-31), x lel. |e pe ep el ee #:) # * * Argus (23), wlalal dal eda. | ef] [eee y us tebe begs #*? : pa ae se «| e?| 37), alal.|.felale {ey} -tepela on oh ? ?; eiberal (3 34), #|%)* we). | #| # | ee] “) ie ta (25), 1c be | ee} eed | Pep © [oe od are a ONavis (39), bebe berets b- [ets dc ds ie Tongicornis (19-22), Ud Eo Oe ad ad Sa Oca al a fll : -. Monodon (27), f sf 384 Table 1L—Continued. On Infusoria in Dust-showers and Blood-rain. uinaria extric piel, 8 G8) Tri (pl sleE |e AIB [2 & aj i= 11) 12. 13}14 15]16 | 17 *|.1% * ols baa *|. |e x state baton 2] e's ee ee * | *1/#2) . ae Bs dae lela]. |. ]* - |e}. | *]* «| | %| e) ep we] #2). |e] 62 eT we? wl alal| «| ele] se Pimre ee eree os aE welll el RL) e oP beget ~ bath She aes et el Gtr ER es # Pal re ee ee oe «ies obs det eae *|. |?) 21% '. -|.1# ae aoe On Infusoria in Dust-showers and Blood-rain. 385 Table 1—Continued. . L | IL. | Ill. py: Ny, lela! & cs : 8 op 1 joo | : a 2 353] oF | lesb BR |S sie pol a fs |S je wD x | a|_-| © Dia bes pat AO Ea eS 5 so Seeclel= [sige ae |3 eg Sslel-“lelsle — 2 5S S| ANB IS Ole) ANB a i 1/2}/3/4)5/6}7/8/9 15j16 | 17 Pinnularia srnphionys: | # : is (51) . |# oie *]. |e). |e] e| eI] # i o- oie bea ee ba ilis, bao) See oe es ep te > faba on) iMeks Ks ol ethiebe feral oie otk e-bié te hed eee «fa he viridis (63), wl«|. fetal fat tal. t tap. pat viridula (62), aie]. [el alall. BG es) a od ol EP SEE She he wed oe Fee ae (A mphora ?). ce ee OPS PIS See tea Podosphenia Pupula, ePe Petet Ses eee Pyxidicula (Coscinodiscus ?), chape hep ut eta? Spirillam Undula, Pbehe bers + | ober ls pecs - |* _ |Stauronets dilatata, * Legumen, hehe ps opel wae linearis, cei pUbet ot ero iets Pheenicenteron, . ele Sem poke bebe] thet | ope ee oe Stauroptera petcaliy be pe ae Te par a Sta aerate Shope eet ete ere Ratko Craticula (36 ?), ol Sb te Oks PE Cpe pee : £ tomon, Pa re oe es Se ee nee ; ? paradoxa, < he Petes p> -|.|* = peruana, : und ; Synedra eed : ntomo ots (87, 58), Tabellaria ? (41, 42), > Trachelomonas levis (11), Fy aaits istertm, ‘ Ie iaee originis, 3 wee § The number of species from te spxinen of dof this storm cole ‘Biechber was 8; sid from Nitcky, + Bioonn Seams, Vol. XI, No. 38—May, 1861. 49 * e ‘ \e 2 # i i 386 Table IL—PuyrouirHaria, PoLyTHALAMIA, ETC. On Infusoria in Dust-showers and Blood-rain. l il. jn fv V- | <|. = 63 (2 | D Rilo lo 33 | | hk SF po | A co] Pa hss Oe et Le “S| im), o (Sen a. In | end a Pe ae 5 sis s/2. BRA Bee a1 | Bi >Los . 2 Ree SSPE ss AIB oie 2/2 |= YTOLITHARIA. 1/2/34 7/8 9 10) 12)12)13}14 15}16 | 17 Asdphidiacs —— F a atus, Z * | % Setchcese; F artil, ofop, MLepoe tate of .|% obtusus (68), #4) [ele al- -lelae|. | #falt otella, het: % aa cers catus (66, 67),|4\alalale|.[elelalele|.[#lelale Assula (silicea 7) hexagon. umbonata, SERLSLE LV Ee pba Pats : Pan eu wal eenervenets Ee 3 ; lalate te]. la pe Lithocheta le roGGr Vee Oe ee .L) | ¥L* oe ie * clavatuen (61) cfwlalalal dal. [aelaelal. laptlt Sereendium. 7) Pan Se Se oe oe er se Se oe ee - apclatorn (90), isles eISlsi blame EE isi [OSS lols t a a) Cc a | _ ale 2 SSIS | ANB EIS 0 S| AIB a ia 8 |= | 1| 2/3/41 5) 6]7/8/9 (10 11 /12/13}14/15)16 | 17 i Lithostylidium irregulare (99), | -|-|* *| - «1. [#]-]-[o{*]* iH leve (104), o |. |e lalalal. lela al el. fale 4 Lima, ee Pal el ee ee Pee ete Be eee oe bliquu ~|#)#) 8]. |. pe]. lela] ey] | T- t Ossiculum (91), ; -|./#|. fe]. [#].1*]- 18 polyhedrum ofdal>lalsPel@tals! «| rostratum, of fed ec obese pals be pe aeiieee : ude (95), eee See eee Se ae Se eed ae ecuris, ee ee 2 eee 2 ae -|* serpentinum, era ea ee we]. fe].] |. )aptl- [A i Serra (82a), wlalala le elel.lelelel-japaytie inuosum a a soe tee ee el ye sO inulos Pia pee Piper eee mee Ce - sebawiar (103), Lo} ede de lal dalla]. jel lapelayt urus (825) wt ola] fal. fa). [ lal. |]. lag pepe ‘Terebra (93), ys Pee be ea ie boetaek a ae rabecula, wlaelelal sl. dal. lelal-lelap [ape y 4 Triceros (101?) ~ |e feat eft. lalate]. feat ndatum, -|-|# : unidentatum, eee ie aoe se ee he ae veutricoaum, (ell. al eb pedaete ts) ) [= Spongolithis acicularis, lalla le lel eel al el el epee TF amphioxys, BEE Pee apiculata, Ate bel et a ed ee We ae ‘ aspera, #] eff -[# wp-le fe beletepets i, Caput Serpentis, |-)-|-|}-]- -P-|°}-]°l*#ho]cPe yy? ! cenocephala We veers eee te he ea lav : ol ots bale be tu obtusa, ej}. . BPR) ede philippensis, oS robusta, Pe ee ad ie s}els ? (obtusa aspera), | -|-/*)+)* -]°}"|*| Triceros, Meee hae ce POLYTHALAMIA. m? 388 On Infusoria in Dust-showers and Blood-rain. Table I1.—Continued. w = o Ge) 1 le oa slBlo| 4 koh: SF $ = s\-is| ¢ FRITS IS ~ Sloie} so [7 bol eS ps = stel =| 2 lo L-Sls 138 s eleis|O jcfeletels s S| sj= ol=| Nilo jm c slels ““s- SIS sle |e 5 = (3 = AIB a a2 J | 1 8 | 9/10/11) 12}13]14 15] 16) 1 an Rotalia globulosa, #|. «|e ] +] * she senaria, * ? ot et : «feet eee Spirillin 3 ae ae 4 Spiro-loculina ? 2 | Mile i Textilaria taste, ’ BR A Ra foe we 3 t] # i - |? P ; Paid rears, . ? 5 ee ere. : -| *]* PLANTARUM PARTIC. MOLLEs. Seminulum reniforme leve ofthe ads tebe | he [ee eee t eave culosum, ft icel of od wa © | ' pet form Al Ad eed «| Ce ee onstrictum Gostatom, fe eae Be se SG Taira pee um acutum oS Pg tees ne he ee roy ee ee Fili poe, -[el-dodelide|-l-

def ebeLel - |Prosenc ae atice cellule, Slis[e| ete ete Cellule hi mo Si bose leeves, aoe oblong leves, Je tate entate, ee Fibra plante nodosa, | spiralis, = ta (Pini), ais fol moarginally, plex le ve rie Siemens gag On Infusoria in Dust-showers and Blood-rain. Table IL—Continued. ° 389 Pilus articulatus levis acutus, obtusus, paper fasciculat coitorhasphus, pera tus, atus ‘dicho ot., ns Shans radiata, See : ae um, 2 triqueteam, Pin s, Musci frondosi susie Conterve tenuissima Ulva, Particule incerte, INSECTORUM FRAGMENTA. |Antenna (Palpus ?), Pes, Lepidopteri ale saenepie, tegra alia, 5dentata, Sdentata, Ala Dipteri, ANORGANICA. Crystalli ent aPe ace o vides, ple vir pragee comet albi, Sem, Tritici forma, et Oi albi (Spathi), » hey i (Spathi), Sie ae oe ee alae Oe a’ Ch cee oe «oR NGEY patene | w|March 10, 1834. & Ky March 8, 1838. eo| March 7, 1833. — cr } March 9, ’38. Ltaly, 1803. Udine, 1803. Calabria, 181 ies) rn ~ ie 5) co Malta, 1830. Prows b —_— 2 || ts mE]. po ed ee ae Ps S ¢ Shia D a |# * ca Ss |= ies | SP = ® firlk«lS a) CO lste|2 bo meanrlOye |S re AB Jes |= 11)12:13,14)15 17 #| ei... | % Hist. echig deep aars ae te * %|*|.].|* oat oe * .| ele]. fart Pate a ote i pbctaek eke tak rag foe Stee OT ie a oh GEERT Sn oe a aa fe eee er ar te Ie ola pereaT Pa ee } ee. ee Lp 390 On the Geology of the Florida Keys. Arr. XLIII.—WNotice of the Geology of the Florida Keys, and of the Southern Coast of Florida ; by M. 'Tvomey, Prof. Geol., University of Alabama. Dvrine the past summer, [ paid a short visit to the coast of Florida, with the view of comparing the recent deposits there, with the white limestone of Alabama. This limestone occurs in the latter state in a stratum two or three hundred feet in thick- ness, composed for the most part of irregular grains of carbonate of lime, sometimes but slightly cohering, but frequently suffi- ciently hard to fit it for a building material. It abounds in fragments of corals, but the most conspicuous fossil, on account of the vast numbers in which it occurs, is Orbitoides Mantelli. This fossil, so far as I know, is not found east of Alabama, and certainly does not extend into South Carolina. Echinoderms and corals are found in great abundance wherever the white limestone occurs. It has been traced from Mississippi to the Cape Fear river above Wilmington ; throughout the entire distance, whilst the stratum varies in thickness, its mineral composition con- tinues unchanged-—a white and nearly pure carbonate of lime. Towards Virginia it becomes more siliceous, the corals and echinoderms disappear, but the other fossils for the most part are identical. Some specimens of white calcareous mud from Florida, which I saw in the cabinet of my friend, Prof. Gibbes, of Charleston, and which, when dried, presented nearly the same appearance as the white limestone, lead me to suppose that there exists, at this moment, in the Gulf of Mexico, conditions similar to those under which the tertiary white limestone was deposited. The recent limestone from the West India Islands, so frequently. brought as ballast by vessels, is seen on all our wharves, and is familiar to every one; but I did not know till I reached Key West, that at all the Keys between that and Key Biscayne, the sands on the shore, and the very mud on the bottom of the “a e 0 readily to the axe, with | nehes on the surface On the Geology of the Florida Keys. 391 quite hard, especially where it is exposed alternately to the action of the tides and atmosphere. This indurated crust may be seen on the road between the town and the barracks, and around the salt-works. Below this crust the rock is quite soft, and in some most striking difference, next to that of organic remains, consists in the distinctly oolite structure of the Florida limestone. This structure is seen where one would be led to expect it, in the fine-grained seams. A few hundred yards from the hospital a quarry has been opened where the rock may be examined. The organic remains consist of broken shells and water-worn frag- ments of corals, which, both in species and state of preservation, resemble those on the shores of the island. Except in degree of hardness, the rock does not differ from the calcareous sands thrown up by the waves on the shore in the vicinity ; and the conditions presented by the loose moving sands, are not favorable to the habits of molluscous animals, nor are fossil shells very abundant in the limestone of the island. Oblique or false strati- fication is everywhere seen in the rock, the inclination of the planes differing very little from the slope of the shore up which the waves push dead shells, pieces of coral, &c. After a breeze, coarse materials are found strewing the beach, a light wind leaves a finer deposit, and in the succeeding calm the sea appears milky from fine calcareous matter suspended in the water; this Is de- posited in the form of free impalpable mud which invests marine plants and other objects, to which it adheres with great tenacity, and becomes a source of annoyance to collectors of Alge. these alternations of fine and coarse materials may be observed in the limestone. Along the south beach, the sand is thrown up by the waves to an elevation nearly equal to that of the highest point of the a island, and during the gale of Oct. 1841, the greater part of it bs was submerged, so that, at first sight, it might appear that the whole island was the result of sand thrown up at such times. But although I observed no beds in the limestone that prove, like those of our tertiary, that the animals whose remains they con- — t shows the the coast, evidences of gradual elevatory movements. = On Key West I found in the rocks, no beds of corals retaining although large fragments are. scattered Living corals of two or three genera are t in the surrounding shallow water. i | ome of .the small Keys, such as the Mangrove Keys, are the of gradual deposition of sedimentary matter, many of those Spersed among the larger islands have not yet reached. the * 392 On the Geology of the Florida Keys. ‘level of high water, but are nevertheless covered by a dense growth of this curious tree. It would be difficult to imagine a plant better adapted to island making, than the Mangrove. Its long pendulous seeds fall into the shallow water, stick in the soft mud and take root; the bud proceeding from the opposite extrem- ity, soon shoots up above water and sends down branches almost perpendicularly into the mud, these take root and produce other trees, and so on. Besides these, lateral shoots are given off, and at a distance of three or four feet, enter the water and take root; from the part above water others proceed and take a similar stride, and in this way they often travel twenty or thirty yards from the pa- rent stem. Seaweeds and drift-wood become entangled among the stems, and very soon a permanent island is formed. Suc islands are generally found under the lee of the Keys. But the greater number, if not all, the Keys rest upon a foun- dation of corals. At Sand Key, large rugged masses of dead coral are seen bordering the Key on the windward side, and rising above low water; similar masses may be seen at Sambo Key and at other places along the outer reef. But the Keys within this barrier present better opportunities for studying the founda- tion upon which they rest. At Key Vacca corals rise to a height of four feet above high water, and present not the slight- est evidence of disturbance, beyond the upward movement which otherwise worn into singularly rugged shapes, with sharp project- ing points. , coral project above the surface wherever the overlying sand is washed away. On Bahia-honda similar appearances are presented, where the coral rocks extend seaward ; on the lee of the island, a long sand- bank is thrown up, and a lagoon of considerable extent is formed, in which the mangrove tree is seen striding about in the soft mud. This island was washed in two by the last hurricane, and the channel formed has three feet of water at low tide. In the shal- interspersed with living corals, are seen within six or eight inches i dark knobs of On the Geology of the Florida Keys. 393 due to the elevation of a vast uneven coral reef whose prominent | points rising above the water, form the foundation of the Keys, the sands driven up by the waves having done the rest. The water between the reef and main land is in many places shallow ; the bottom is covered with white calcareous sand and soft mud, and is intersected by tortuous channels. The first si- liceous sand that I saw, was. dredged up off Soldier Key; from this point it was traced, on the bottom, to Cape Florida, and be- yond this towards the north it covers the Atlantic shore. e adaptation of the Keys and adjoining coast to the produe- tion of tropical fruits, is well known in the streets of Key West ; the cocoa-nut tree ripens its fruit, yet the absence of soil is quite remarkable ; I did not see two acres of land having a depth of soil of three inches, on any of the islands that I visited. Besides Key West, very few of the Keys are inhabited, so that it was not a little cheering to come upon the stations and signals of the Coast Survey, although operations were suspended at that season. ; ; ter examining the limestone of Tampa bay, which I think “Mr. Conrad has correctly referred to a tertiary formation older than the miocene, I did not expect to find the main land at the mouth of the Miami made up of beds of limestone of the same age as those I examined at Key West and elsewhere inside the reef. The fossils are all identical with the shells living in the sur- rounding water.* On both sides of the mouth of the river near Fort Dallas, I found fossils showing on the weathered surface of the rocks; and among them Lucina Jamaicensis, and Pyrula per- versa. Like that of Key West, the rock has the appearance of sented at the falls in every respec Py i i of the river, and it is known that the ‘Everglades’ rest on @ vast basin of this limestone. Judging by the eye alone, | ridge through which the Miami flows must be twenty or thi _ feet in height; while the Glades are said to be but SIX OF | ig tog Smith, Esq., in a report to fter these observations were Be Se * This fact liad been previously pointed out by B. retary of the oats in 1848, which I saw a i ee mits, Vol. XT, No. 88—May, 1851. 0 a of the recently discovered analogy in the periods of rotation of - 7 for withholding his assent to this law are :-— # [have but recently received the species collected, and have therefore ha 394 On the Law of Rotation of the Primary Planets. It seems strange that while so much speculation has been ex- cited in relation to the drainage of this swamp, so few lines of | levels have been seen, the only means after all, of settling this | important question. The soil on the margin of the ‘Everglades’ is composed of vegetable matter and white silicious sand which seems to be washed in by the rains from the ridges.* The best point for the examination of the limestone of the main land, is at Lewis’s Point, a short distance from the mouth of the river; the section is about twelve feet in height, and in a few hundred yards all the characteristics of the limestone are - finely presented It was curious to observe at this locality the influence of the : river on the mollusca. The only oysters that I observed occur ; here. I found also a Perna, which I do not find recorded among | the marine fauna of our coast, although the genus occurs fossil in Virginia and Maryland. a limestone so porous and soft as this, the existence of lime- sinks, subterranean streams and natural bridges is not surprising. What portion of the Peninsula is made up of this very recent” formation, I am unable to say, but as I have already stated, it must not be confounded with the tertiary of Tampa which doubtless extends to Charlotte harbor. The contour of the ridge surrounding the ‘ Everglades,’ taken together with the structure of the rock of which it is composed, and imbedded organic remains, leads very strongly to the con- clusion that it once occupied a position similar to that now occtr eys. And it is evident that an elevation of the Keys of about ten or twenty feet would produce a similar ridge, shutting out the sea from the space, at present, between the ree and the main land, and producing a second ‘ Everglade,’ differing from the present only in its greater comparative length. Tuskaloosa, Feb. 26th, 1851. : ie __ In the American Journal of Science and Arts, for March, 1851, I notice an article by Prof. Loomis, calling in question the tui the primary planets. The reasons assigned by Professor Loomis - I. That it gives an improbable period of rotation. to Uranus. : —— | On the Law of Rotation of the Primary Planets. 395 \ Il. That the mass, distance and time of rotation of the origi- | nal planet between Mars and Jupiter, as determined by the law in question, are inadmissible. ‘A ILL. at the values of the rotation constant for Mars, Jupiter and Saturn are not identical ; an Finally, that the law is incompatible with certain analogies found to exist between the different members of our planetary system. If design in this paper briefly to review these objections in order. The first has the greatest appearance of plausibility, and is therefore entitled to special consideration. The time of rotation of Uranus, according to my analogy, is saa Rats ne eT el al oe this period as inadmissible. His first objection is stated as follows: “ Laplace, in the Mec. Cel., vol. iv, , Says, ‘the time of rotation of Uranus is not probably much less than that of Jupiter or Saturn,’ and in the last edition of Herschel’s Astronomy, page 648, the time of rotation is given at 9h. 30m. ?” To this I reply, that Uranus’s time of rotation has never been measured. Consequently if the first objection is different from the second it has no other foundation than mere conjecture. The second objection is based on Madler’s determmation of the planet’s polar compression. But can its rotary velocity be dex duced from its figure? Exclusive of Uranus, the oblateness of only four members of our system has been measured: viz., the arth, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn. ‘The figure of Saturn, it 1s well known, is not that of a regular spheroid. It was observed by Sir William Herschel that “the flattening of the poles did not seem to begin till near a very high latitude, so that the real figure of the planet resembled a square, or rather a parallelogram with the corners rounded off deeply, but not so much as to bring it to a spheroid.” ‘lhe proportion of the disc, as given by Her- hel is Diameter of the greatest curvature, . 36 Equatorial diameter, - 5 a Polar diameter, : ‘ | _. "This figure, it is evident, could not have been produced sim- _ ply by the centrifugal force due to the planet’s rotation. _ Again, the oblateness of Mars is, according to Arago, eight times, or ac- i een times greater than that of the fig- _et’s: polar compression indicates a rotation-per! irs Herschel’s measurement, less than six hours ; and — ween the two, about seven hours. The true period, there- - e hat inferred from the shape of the planet in rtion as my estimate of Uranus’ period about 34 hours. Professor Loomis, on several accounts, regards - 396 On the Law of Rotation of the Primary Planets. exceeds that of Prof. Loomis. “The singular irregularities in the form of Saturn, and the great compression of Mars,” says a distinguished writer, “ prove the internal structure of these two planets to be very far from uniform.” While, then, the compression of a planet may be regarded as denoting in general the fact of its rotation, it is by no means a reliable indication of its angular velocity. In all probability, a variety of modifying causes, which cannot at present be reache by our analysis, have coéperated in producing the actual forms of the heavenly bodies. If the planets have undergone a progressive contraction from a state of vapor, their oblateness at former epochs must have been indefinitely greater than at present, and must have varied during the entire process of condensation. ‘The question then naturally presents itself whether the ratio of a planet’s diameter to that 0 its sphere of attraction may not have some connection with its present polar compression. Perhaps it may not be improper to rernark that these ratios in the case of Mars and Uranus are about equal, and each very much greater than in any other planet. I shall now consider the objection that my analogy assigns in- admissible elements to the hypothetical planet between Mars and Jupiter. And first in regard to the mass. Thirteen supposed admitted to be extremely uncertain. ‘The apparent diameters of only four,—Vesta, Juno, Ceres, and Pallas,—have been taken ; and in regard to these, the measurements of Herschel, Schroeter, and Madler are very discordant. According to the determination of Schreeter the sum of their volumes is more than equal to one- fourth that of Mars. Adopting this estimate, therefore, and assum- ing that their average magnitude is equal to that of the remain- ing nine, the thirteen already discovered would be nearly equal to It may not be improper to remark in this connection that the apparent brilliancy of the asteroids does not always seem to increase with the magnitude. Pallas, which according to both ~ | Madler and Schreeter, is very much larger than Vesta, appears aS __ a star of the eighth magnitude, while the latter is of the sixth, and has been seen by the naked eye. eee. ee But the objection to the mass of the hypothetical planet, even adopting Madler’s values, does not appear to me very important. — What is there improbable in the supposition that hundreds or even thousands of asteroids, too small to be detected by our telescopes, — ‘May revolve in this mysterious cluster? Indeed, if we may judge from the receut success which has attended the researches, Of as tronomers, it would seem by no means unreasonable -to suppose — _ that a number meh greater than has yet been observed, may D@- overec oe See z We ®, A y 2 On the Law of Rotation of the Primary Planet. 397 The great discrepancies, however, in Prof. L.’s estimates result in part from his assuming a period of twenty-seven hours as the time of rotation of “the asteroid planet.” His authority for this | assumption is the fact that Schreeter from some of his ae i supposed Juno to complete a revolution in that time. If we mit the correctness of Schreeter’s inference (which is doubtfal), it can afford no evidence whatever, that the original planet re- volved in the same or nearly the same — In regard to the values of the constant —;, for Mars and Jupi- D: ter, it is sufficient to say that by using the received masses of these bodies, and certain values of the mass, distance and time of ro- tation of the intervening planet, involving no absurdity, they per- fectly harmonize with the law of rotation. In the case of Saturn there is no discrepancy worthy of noti The objection drawn from the poate observed in the plan- etary system may be stated as follows: The eight principle pri- mary planets consist of two distinct classes : the ‘members of each exhibiting “a strong family likeness.” Uranus is included in the same class with Jupiter and Saturn; hence the probability that his period of rotation does not differ very much from theirs. The class of minor planets includes Mercury, Venus, the Earth and Mars. Of these the periods of rotation are nearly the same; va- rying between 23h. 2Um. and 24h. 40m. Now “if we suppose the asteroids to have been once united in a single body, probably no one would hesitate to assign it” to the last of these classes. The argument here urged against the truth of my law, is, that it makes the period of foinig of the original body between Mars and Jupiter, as well as that of Uranus, entirely different from those of all the dete whose rotary velocity as been as- certained. It is a remarkable fact, however, that in other respects geal iad peculiarities in the primitive constitution of those o bodies unquestionably obtained. I refer to the unknown a which produced the avulsion of the ancient gt and the anomalous motions of the satellites ee Uranus. _ Prof. L.’s discrepancy in the values of "for Venus and the nD? ae Farth results in part from his employing Encke’s mass of Mercu- ry, confessedly only an approximation. The mass adopted by rof. Walker is ip. mean of this value and the first and second masses of Leverr With regard, thee: to the wn/:nown mass and period of is hy- *Pothetical alsnpk and the rotation of Uranus, discussion would oak to useless, That my formula harmonizes with the known elements of the solar system as exactly as even recent determina~ tions of the masses of pee by different astronomers agree ee 5 398 New Genera of Fossil Corals. ; : with each other, is simply a fact which admits of no controversy. We have then at least seventeen* independent variable quantities which harmonize together in a complicated formula. In regar to each of these there are many chances to one against its value being such as to produce the existing harmony ; hence the prob- ability is almost infinity to unity against the accidental coinci- dence of the whole. The conclusion seems irresistible that my formula is the expression of a law of nature. Pottsville, Pa., March, 1851. Arr. XLV.—New Genera of Fossil Corals from the Report by James Hatt, on the Paleontology of New York. Silurian and Devonian rocks, and in no part of the world is this series of strata more fully developed, or more abundant in organi¢ remains. The completeness of the system here displayed will make it classic ground for the student of the ancient life on our a globe, and Mr. Hall’s work, in which these relics of antiquity ie are described, must become of standard importance the worl i over. ‘The first volume, a thick quarto, with nearly a hundred a New Genera of Fossil Corals.—1. Clinton Group. — Genus Hetoprora, Hall, p. 44.—[Bryozodid ?} Simple. branching cylindrical stems, often swelling at the upper extts Rarth py i iz.: The Wistances and jjingses of Mercury, Venus, the New Genera of Fossil Corals. 399 ity, poriferous on all sides. Pores oval or subangular, arranged between longitudinal elevated lines.—Species H. fragilis. opening upward and outwards from the base. Near Fenestella in general aspect.—Sp., P. explanata, P. constellata, P. ensiformis. Genus Rurnopora, Hall, p. 48.—[Bryozéoid?] Corallum con- sisting of an expanded calcareous crust, either subcylindrical and hollow or explanate, poriferous on the two sides; cells arranged somewhat in quincunx order, roundish or oval, and strongly raised in little papilla: or pustules above the surface —Species R. verrucosa, R. tubulosa. : 2. Niagara Group. Genus Potypiiasma, Hall, p. 112.—Corallum turbinate [Cy- athophylloid]; lamelle numerous, thin, apparently rising in pairs one often much stronger than the other; cell broad, margin thick and strong, with a deep central pit; half the lamellae reach- ing to the centre of the cell, where they are complicated or con- torted ; transverse septa below the central part of the cup obso- _ lete or irregular. Allied to Calophyllum, but does not show the transverse septa characteristic of that genus.—Sp., P. turbinatum. Genus Conornyiium, Hall, p. 114.—Corallnm turbinate or subeylindrical, having transverse septa in the form of inverted cones set one within the other; rays or lamelle very thin, nu- merous and denticulate. In weathered specimens the transverse the centre ; cell deeply concave in the centre and separated from the outer portion by a distinct rim, both the nner and outer por- Near the Diphy- ble in size ; rays twelve or more, and ascending points; transverse’ septa direct. id more especially, Favistella, but with spiniform rays ins f 400 New Genera of Fossil Corals. of. lamellar.—Sp., A. venustum, A. parasiticum, A. pyriforme, _ A. constrictum. te Genus Cuiaporora, Hall, p. 137.—Ramose or reticulate, ©. Z branches cylindrical or slightly compressed, terminations terete ; coral composed of a series of tubes or cells radiating equally on all sides from the axis, and opening upon the surface in rounded or subangular expanded mouths; cells more or less closely ar- ranged, but not always contiguous and apparently destitute of septa or rays. The cells when filled with calcareous matter fre- quently separate in prismatic forms like Favosites, but there is no evidence of transverse septa. ‘The cells are not always contigu- ous, and there is often a space between the cells which appears to be solid in one or more species.—Sp., C. seriata, C. cespitosa, C. cervicornis, C. fibrosa, C. multipora, C. macrophora, C. re- ticulata. Genus Catopora, Hall, p. 144.—Ramose or incrusting with a columnar structure; cells tubular with the apertures circular or petaloid, not contiguous, and having the intermediate spaces oc- tate ; tubular cells rarely septate.—Sp., C. elegantula, C. florida, C. laminata, C. aspera, C. nummiformis. The Hetiopora crassa of Lonsdale is probably of this genus. Genus Tremaropora, Hail, p. 149.—Ramose or incrusting, composed of tubular cells more or less closely arranged ; inter- mediate spaces solid on the surface, but in the interior transversely septate ; cells not septate; apertures oval or circular, often con- tiguous, margined by a thin elevated border or calicle, which on the lower side is often prominent or labellate. Near Calopora, but calicle or elevated rim more conspicuous, and intervals be- tween cells solid instead of cellular—Sp., J’. tuberculosa, T. coalescens, T'. tubulosa, T'. punctata, T. ostiolata, T. solida, Es. triata, T. granulifera, T. aspera, T. spinulosa, T. sparsa. — Genus Srriarorora, Hall, p. 156.—Ramose ; corallum solid ; stems composed of angular cells; apertures of the cells opening upon the surface into expanded angular cup-like depressions ; 10- terior of the cell rayed or striated, striae extending beyond the aperture of the cell_—Sp., S. flexuosa. ae Cuarurorora, Hall, p. 159.—Bryozodid. Ramose or — - b fronds, and on all sides of the stems and branches of ramosé _ forms; apertures of cells more or less quadrangular, regularly at- — in series parallel to the direction of stems, or obliquely 19 quincunx order. Near Retepora in habit.—Sp., C. aleicornis, C. frondosa. Genus Ceramorora, Hall, p. 168.—Bryozodid. Incrusting OF flattened hemispherical forms; cells arranged in alternating ricate series; apertures arching or triangular, with the ape + ae Analysis of Pitchstone Porphyry from Isle Royale. 401 *% above , C. imbricata, C. incrustans, C. foliacea. The Be- . renicea iveeulr of Lonsdale, and B. megastoma of M’Coy, ~ are here enus SLyphadatinh Hall, p. 171.—Bryozoéid. Membranous or subcalcareous, growing in circular or flabellate forms, concen- trically or radiately striate, celluliferous on one surface only; frond usually a thin membrane, though often unequally thick- | ened and contorted or wrinkled. It is only in rare instances that distinct cells are visible, though in most cases the surface appears marked as if by stigmata or the commencement of cells, which sometimes pe in low nodes without presenting any defined aper- tures.—Sp., L. concentrica. Genus SAGENELLA, Hall, p. 172.—Bryozoéid. Thin membra- nous, net or web-like, incrusting; cells arranged in regular parallel or diverging series more or less oblong quadrangular when in jux- taposition, and separated from each other by a thin lamina of cal- | careous matter.—Sp., S. membranacea. Genus Dicryonema, Hall, p. 174.—Bryozodid, and near Fen- estella. Frond circular or flabelliform, wigs oe of slender radi- transverse branchlets; branches impressed with deep striae or grooves, producing indentations that sometimes have an elongated thomboidal form; axis subcaleareous with a corneous exterior. Branches sometimes like a graptolite in appearance.—Sp., D. re- aia D. gracilis. s Inocau.is, Hall, p. 176.—A plant-like corneous coral ith 3 basioroue bifurcating branches; structure fibrous or plu- -mose. The texture is like that of Graptolites, a black scaly crust or film being all that remains of the substance. Probably grew in groups of rounded or flattened stems dichotomous above. —Sp., I. plumulosa. Arr. XLVI.—Analyses of Pitchstone Porphyry from Isle Roy- ~ ale, and of a Crystal of Phosphate of Lime from Hurdstown, New Jersey; by C. T. Jackson, M.D., Assayer to the State a Massachusetts. (Read before the Boston Society of Natural ty, March 19, and communicated to this Journal be the or.) te Rit - 1. Pitchstone Porphyry from Isle Royale, Lake Superior. Description. —It occurs in rounded pebbles, on the shores of | Wle Royale, near Scovill’s Pointg Color of the pitchstone, jet ; lustre more rupees. than obsidian. Fracture conchoidal. Sp. gr. =2:375. Hardness 54. B. B. swells 7 much, exfoli- » Seconp cea Vol. XL yee 1851, 402 Crystal of Phosphorite from Hurdstown, N. J. ating and becoming ash grey ; at a higher temperature melts into an apple-green blebby glass. The pebbles are porphyritic with _ crystals of glassy feldspar, and contain occasional amygdules of carbonate of lime, surrounded with a jaspery red crust, and a thin layer of chlorite . Chemical analysis of the Pitchstone——The black mineral, ave picked, was reduced to fine powder by levigation—dried t 212° F., and analyzed in ote eoperete parcels of one gramme iit one for the silica, alum e, manganese, oxyd of iron, and water, and the other fans ue ‘akalis with the following results, per cent. See: : F s ‘ : : 67°90 Alum ‘ : ; s; aed Batherd ‘of i iron, . ; ‘ ; 6:40 Lime, : ; ee Oxyd of manganese, ° . , 0:80 Soda, . ‘ ° + a Water, ; , ; ; ‘ 8:00 100-01 These results were verified by repetition on separate portions of the mineral, the water ‘having been distilled ina glass tube and proved to be pure, no organic matter of any kind existing in the mineral, and no alkali but It is evident that this mineral is analogous to the pitchstone porphyry of the island of Arran, in Scotland; and since it has not, so far as I know, been before discovered in the United States, these results may prove interesting to mineralogists. It is not known, whether it occurs in place in the trap ‘rocks, or in the questions, interesting to men of science. 2. Crystal of Phosphorite from Hurdstown, N. J. - This crystal had a yellow color, and was remarkably resplen- Pa on the surface like those from St. Lawrence connty, Ne York, appearing as if fire-glazed. Its sp. gr. is=3-205. ~ Chemical analysis.—By qualitative analysis, it was first proved — _ to contain fluorine and chlorine, phosphoric acid, lime, oxyd o iron, and manganese he fluorine is sufficiently abundant in it to cause ga etche. ing on glass, when it is disengaged by the action of sul en Specimens of this etchgng I exhibited at the meetings ' e American vies of aes and Sciences last t Ana ae On the Volatility of Phosphoric Acid in Acid Solutions 403 By quantitative analysis, the mineral was found to consist of Phosphate of lime, . : . 92-405 Chlorid of calcium, : ‘540 Peroxyd of iron, ain artes ts ‘040 of manganese, ..; . ‘ 003 F'luorid of calcium, by difference, 7-012 | 100-000 f the oxyd of iron is regarded as protoxyd, it will amount to 0-036 instead of 0-040, but the color forbids its being set down as the protoxyd. ‘The mineral is evidently identical with apatite. Boston, March 27, 1851. Art. XLVII.—On the Volatility of Phosphoric Acid in Arid So- lutions when heated ; and on Schmidt's Process for the Deter- mination of Nitrogen; by J. B. Bunce, of the Yale Aualyti- ‘cal Laboratory. Communicated by Prof. J. P. Norton. 1. On the Volatility of Phosphoric Acid in Acid Solutions. Rose, in a paper upon the determination of phosphoric acid, mentions the volatility of this acid with the vapor of water, when evaporated in an acid solution. The object of the following ex- periments, was to ascertain the extent of loss which would b suffered in analysis in consequence of this volatility. With this object in view, 544 grammes of phosphate of soda were dissolved in a gill of water; hydrochloric acid was then added, and the whole evaporated in a water-bath to dryness, being afterwards heated gently to drive off any excess of acid. The residue was treated with strong sulphuric acid, and allowed to stand several hours in order to convert the pyrophosphate of soda into the or- dinary tribasic salt. It was then diluted carefully, neutralized by ammonia, and precipitated as ammonio-phosphate of magnesia ; the weight of this salt after ignition, was ‘0701 grammes, equal to ‘045 of phosphoric acid. ‘The consequent loss of phosphoric acid in this experiment was 58-66 percent. Another experiment in which the chlorine instead of the phosphoric acid was deter- mined, gives as the loss of acid 53°36 per cent. ‘2 srammes of phosphate of magnesia and ammonia were next taken, dissolved in hydrochloric acid, diluted until about a gill of fiuid was obtained, and the whole was then evaporated as before; after precipitation and ignition, the residue weighed 1316, corresponding to 41:69 per cent. of phosphoric acid. 404 WSchmidi’s Process for the Determination of Nitrogen. Another experiment conducted in the same manner, with the exception that the pyrophosphate of magnesia was converted into the tribasic condition, by fusion with carbonate of soda, gave 8°35 per cent. as the loss. The loss of phosphoric acid when the so- lution was acidified with sulphuric acid instead of hydrochloric acid was greater, probably owing to the higher degree of heat re- quired to volatilize that acid. There was no perceptible difference between the action of hydrochloric and nitric acids. Phosphate of soda was completely converted into the sulphate of the same, by three evaporations with sul phuric acid and water. Phosphates of alumina, iron, lime and magnesia were not perfectly converted into sul phates even bya dozen successive evaporations. Phos phoric acid does not seem shes be more volatile in the vapor of 4 cohol than in that of wat hese experiments serve to show that the ordinary methods of analysis are not applicable to the analysis of phosphates which must be dissolved in acid by the aid of heat. In the ordinary evaporations to separate silica by rendering it insoluble, a very considerable loss of this acid is occasioned. ‘The estimated quan- tity of phosphoric acid in ashes, &c., must probably in many cases be much too low, owing to this loss from volatilization, and we may believe that for this reason many analyses must be re- garded. as almost valueless with respect to the amount of phos- phoric acid which "they indicate. 2. On Schmidi’s Process for the Determination of Nitrogen. Chemists engaged in organic analysis have long felt the want of a quick and accurate process, for the determination of nitrogen. Several objections may be offered to the method of Messrs. Will and Varrentrapp—in following which, the substance to be analyzed is burned in contact with soda-lime, the ammonia formed is pass- ed into a solution of hydrochloric acid gas, and after evaporation pea as ammonio-chlorid of platinum. The more import- of these arises from the solubility of the platinum salt, and the time required for the evaporation, drying, weighing, &c. In Lie- big’s report for 1847 and ’48, mention is made of several new meth- ods for the pte am of nitrogen. ' Of these that of Schmidt attracted my attention and I was led to make some experiments upon it. He al the substance as in the Will and Varrentrapp process, and passes the ammonia formed into a solution of one ] ] r ta is belsalanad by equiva alents. In experimentin on this process, ‘burned carefully crystallized jin ar of igo which ie be a proved pure by ee Pxperiment and I obtained results On Bromine as a Toxicological Agent. 405 differing so widely from each other that I was led to suspect some serious difficulty in the process. It was found upon trial, that ear- bonate of baryta was partially decomposed by boiling with chlo- rid of ammonium in a neutral solution, and also that chlorid of ammonium when boiled by itself is converted into an acid salt. - This holds true with many of the salts of ammonia with the stronger acids. - A solution of chlorid of calcium in alcohol pro- \ duced no better results. The precipitated carbonate of lime was | mevormposrd by the chlorid of ammonium formed, even in presence 1°) : I then tried some of the organic salts. Succinie acid gives with chlorid of barium no precipitate, but upon the addition of ammonia a fine crystalline precipitate is produced, only slightly soluble in water, and insoluble in alcohol. But as succinate of baryta is slightly soluble in ammoniacal salts, it was found that no use could be made of this method. It would appear therefore that none of these modifications are capable of affording accurate results, and that the original process by Schmidt, unless some very essential feature is omitted in our account of it, must be considered faulty. Arr. XLVIIL—On Bromine as a Toxicological agent; by Henry Worrz, Assistant in the Yale Analytical Laboratory. I wave not found in the various toxicological writings any sug- gestion as to the use of bromine for destroying the organic matter of stomachs. Nevertheless, the unparalleled intensity of its action upon organic tissues, together with the convenience of its use, seem to give it some advantage over the ordinary agents used for this purpose. An experiment to this effect was made upon a human stomach sent to this laboratory for examination. with water, and about an ounce of bromine poured in, which had been previously ascertained to be free from any other sub- Stance of a poisonous nature. pe : A gentle heat was now applied, much below the boiling point of water, and the stomach was turned over from time to time with a glass rod. : eae Sead (Especial care should be taken that this operation be periorm _ ina strong draught, because the action of the bromine ree _ Upon the lungs and eyes is injurious beyond the ordinary belief. To of accidental injury from this cause, the best antidote is inhalation of chloroform or ether.) & ‘ 406 Remontoire Esscapement for an Astronomical Clock. When the stomach had completely disappeared, which took place in less than half an hour, some hydrochloric acid was added and the heat continued fora few minutes longer. ‘The liquid was now ready for filtration and left upon the filter only a few flakes of organic matter, together with a little fat and that portion of the contents of the stomach which was insoluble in hydrochloric acid. It may be here noticed that a piece of paper which had been improperly wrapped around the stomach by those who sent it, and which could not be separated from it, also a cotton string which had been tied around it by the same parties, were also completely destroyed by the bromine. In the filtrate, arsenic, antimony, mercury, etc., were searched for by the usual methods. To preclude all fear of fallacy in this process, I may add that an experiment was made to ascertain whether the volatility of the a of arsenic, antimony, and mercury could influence the resu A liquid which contained just detectable traces of arsenious acid, tartar emetic and corrosive sublimate, was evaporated to dryness in the ieaciate of a large excess of bromine. In the res- idue were still easily detected arsenic, antimony and mercury. This result does not, of course, touch the question whether arsenic and antimonic acids are volatilized like phosphoric acid, by evap- oration of their acid solutions, either without decomposition or as so ie or quingnibromids of arsenic and antimony, the de- cision of w ould require many special experiments. In fact, he ie porns of Dupasquier, which have an indirect bearing are this question, show that arsenious acid when evap- orated int resence of a large quantity of hydrochloric acid, may be entirely volatilized, probably as terchlorid of arseni ic. Dr. Wolcott Gibbs recently informed me ~ t he has had occa- sion to confirm this observation of Dupas The boiling points, however, of the abril of arsenic and antimony are “quoted at 428° and 518° F., respectively, while the chlorids of the same metals boil at 270° and 446° I*., which facts evidently render the chance of loss in the bromine " process ke than in the old processes. . Ann, XLIX—On an Improved Remontoire Escenas for an Astronomical Clock ; by J. Fur i asimple pendulum, vibrating seconds in a very ‘small are, ae loss will be according to the extent of the arc fie = on Mgt ae point of rest, as shown there. * ee Se ii, 709. e to describe any of the arcs in the following table, ict) : ee 4 Remontoire E'scapement for-an Astronomical Clock, 407 Ares described on each side} Inches and decimal paris. | ; Daily loss. | O° 15’ 0-165 | 4): L- See. | 0 30 0-337 0-4 Lin) 0-674 | 1:6 | 2 0 1349. | 6-6 eae 2-024 | 148 4 0 2-699 | 263 5 0 3374 All | By inspecting the above table, taken from Reid’s work, on For this purpose, remontoire escapements have been tried, in which the weight, through the train of wheels, 1s made to lift a It occurred to me some years since that it would be possible so to reduce the friction in the un- locking of a remontoire escape- ment, as to leave the pendulum almost entirely to its free natural motion, which being kept up by equal impulses, would be always in equal arcs. With this end in view I contrived an escapement, which I have brought through va- rious stages of improvement; an now respectfully offer to the pub-— lic as here set forth. (The plates, weight, train of wheels, &c., up to the scape whee _ May be as in other clocks.) i Fig. 1.—ka bl, the scape wheel. a 6, pair small pallets with piv- _ ots at c, and lever d f on the same arbor, but broken away about the sarbor to show the pallets. pia taer ns me eo was 408 Remontoire Escapement for an Astronomical Clock. giand hj, two remontoire weights, with pivots at g and 4h, and rollers at 7 and 7. n, the pendulum guide, with two arms nk and nl, ex- tending down to reach the rollers of the remontoire weights. ef, pair locking pallets attached to the arbor of the pendulum guide, to lock the leverd f. (The axis m of the pendulum guide coincides with that about which the pendulum vibrates. ) 3. 2. m a f a e—IF ane Oo eacccammmann wes BE 00 op ‘ (—— @) la —1 Fy | ‘ é = Pe ’ > Fig. 3 shows a side view; rs part of the gridiron pendulum; n q the fork of the pendulum guide passing through an aperture “s plate. The other letters show the same parts as in figs. | and 2. Fig. 1. It will be seen that, as the wheel is urged forward in the direction a b, the pressure of a tooth against the inclined plane of the pallet a, would causé it to move out of the way, if the opel es ea a 2 i¢ Fe ae 4 7 ; ‘A wi the roller j; from the point of the tooth on which it rests Remontoire E'scapement for an Astronomical Clock. 409 j _ by the same motion the lever will be unlocked from the pallet f ! by the time the roller 7 is fairly out of the way of the wheel; at which time the pressure of the tooth against the inclined plane of the pallet a, will cause the lever to move toward and strike against the pin at p; when the tooth will escape from the pallet a; the wheel will move forward half the distance between two teeth, and raise the roller ¢, till it rests on the point of the tooth; a tooth will come in contact with the inclined plane of the pallet let e, as seen in fig. 2, where it will remain till the pendulum completes its vibration ; and when it returns from right to left, the remontoire weight j will give impulse to the pendulum, till it lodges against the wheel behind the tooth on which it formerly rested, as seen, fig. 2; the arm k& will raise the roller z, from the point of the tooth on which it will find it; immediately the lever will be freed from the pallet e; the pressure of a tooth against the pallet 6, will cause the lever to strike the pin at 0; the tooth will escape from the pallet 6, and the wheel will move forward half the distance between two teeth, raising the roller 7 to the : point of the tooth; a tooth will come against the pallet a, fig. 1, q and cause the lever to lock against the pallet f: the pendulum, : after completing its vibration, will again proceed to the right, and 4 the same movements will be repeated. : If in fig. 1, the distance from the pallet a to the fulcrum ¢, is ae one-twelfth of an inch, and the length of the lever from ¢ to f is three inches; the pressure of the lever against the pallet f will e only about one thirty-sixth of the pressure against the pallet a. Now, if in connection with this we remember that the distance m f,is much shorter than the distance from m to 7, the point where the unlocking would be, if made from the scape wheel, swe may readily conclude that the resistance to the pendulum in i this unlocking is almost nothing compared with that in other es- capements. - center of the roller as shown in fig. 3. es a remontoire weight, it should stop before the tooth comes Serres, Vol. XI, No. 33—March, 185]q 52 © “ € 410 Scientific Intelligence. of the wheel. The pendulum guide should be as light as posst- ble, that there may not be much friction at its pivots. I think everything farther necessary, and perhaps much that has been quite up to a line drawn from the center of the roller to the center a said, would readily suggest itself to any skillful workman that sd Me 2 @ ws Ss , al — D _ | | jo) 7 ra) - — a o S ax | 5 go. =, 5S gg 5 5s eo a ra) oe ® - = = iat) = id 3] = =) Ss Q. neutralize the effect of its expansion. How accurate it might be made [ am not prepared to say: it would require the pendulum | to vibrate in pretty wide arcs. Perhaps the principle might be ; | used with advantage in turret clocks in connection with the form . f escapement giving impulse in only one direction, which has but one remontoire weight. sa INN SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. Cuemistry AND Puysics. Esq., D.C.L., F.R.S., &c.—(Proc. Roy. Soc., Phil. Mag., 4th § 68.)—( 1.) Twenty-fourth Series.— On the possible relation of Gravity e employed a cylinder of metal, glass, resins, or other subst the other, and endeavored to ascertain wher en the latter was” 2 = Chemistry and Physics. 411 fall, being surrounded by a helix of wire, whether any electric current was generated. Sometimes the cylinder was allowed to fall through the helix ; at other times with the helix ; and occasionaily the helix was slightest effect was visible. : | igni i therefore, two air-tight chambers were made, e ‘« males formed the chief part of the internal sur- sah se ed oy biti the flat ends of 1th of an inch of each other, with a frame all vi Seve a euese equal he ols introdued into the chamber, and the rnd placed between the poles of the electro-magnet, any possible on of volume would be shown by the gauge as soon as the mag- a A12 Scientific Intelligence. | net was rendered active ; but whatever gas was employed, or whatever d magnetic or diamagnetic, in relation to air. Oxygen passes inwards or tends toward the magnetic axis, confirming the results formerly de- scribed by the author in his account of his investigations of flame and ases Perceiving that if two like bubbles were set on opposite sides of a magnetic core or keeper cut into the shape of an hour-glass, they would I compensate each other, both for their own diamagnetic matter and for a) the air which they would displace ; and that only the contents of the bulbs would be virtually in a differential relation to each other, the au- thor passed from bubbles of soapy water to others of glass ; and then constructed a differential torsion balance to which these could be at- 7 A ie hr cee cocoon silk, and at right angles, at the end of one arm, was attached a horizontal cross-bar, at which, about 14 inch apart, and equidistant from the horizontal lever, were suspended the glass bubbles; and then the whole being of the latter point. For this purpose he prepared glass bu taining a full atmosphere, or half am atmosphere, or any other propor- ‘tion of a given gas; having thus the power of diluting it without the addition of any other body. The effect was most striking. Wh rogen and oxygen bubbles were put into the balance, ea phere, the oxygen drove the nitrogen out powerfully. Chemistry and Physics. 413 oxygen bubble was replaced by other bubbles containing less oxygen, the tendency inwards of the oxygen was less powerlul ; and when what may be called an oxygen vacuum (being a bulb filled with oxygen, ex- hausted, and then hermetically sealed) was put up, it simply balanced the nitrogen bubble. Oxygen at half an atmosphere was less magnetic than that at one atmosphere, but more magnetic than other oxygen at one-third of an atmosphere ; and that at one-third surpassed the vacuum. In fact, the bubble with its contents was more magnetic in proportion to the oxygen it contained. On the other hand, nitrogen showed no differ- ence of this kind; whether a bubble contained that gas more or less condensed, its power was the same. Other gases (excepting olefiant and cyanogen) seemed in this first rough apparatus to be in the same condi- ion. ‘The air-pump vacuams of all the gases were alike, including that of oxygen. Hence the author decides upon the place for zero, and concludes that simple space presents that case. When matter is added to space termined, he concludes to use the word magnetic as a general term, and diamagnetic substances. There is no other gas like oxygen; its paramagnetic character is very high. A solution of protosulphate of iron in distilled water was pre- another case, a glass bubble, containing one-third of a cubic inch of oxygen, was opposed to a corresponding bubble having wit oxygen vacuum. As soon as the magnetic power was 0D, the oxygen passed inwards, and it required a force equal to one-tenth of a grain to hold it out at the equidistant position. : The author then refers generally to the air as a paramagnetic me- ium, because of the oxygen it contains, and in the next, or Twenty- sixth Series of Researches, he proposes to enter, afier some preliminary me o 2 a 2 © a ~ a 5 - ° ae = o 3 D i) > n Sc ae oO if) - ° = bs] | ad 3 ° Da ™ = ® ae oO = 2 = w the author to apply for a time the idea of conducting power to the mag- ‘heti ibed, meaning by that phrase the capability ing the transmission of the magnetic force affected ; and assuming that two bodies are at the.same tim magnetic field, and that one displaces the asa differential effect of their difference 1n conducting power. ie _ Ifa free portion of space be considered with lines of equal magnetic force passing across it, they will be stwaight and parallel lines. If a 2 of paramagnetic matter be placed in such a space, they will Al4 Scientific Intelligence. gather upon and in the sphere, being no longer parallel in their course nor of equal intensity in every part; or if a sphere of diamagnetic mat- ter replace the former sphere, the lines of force will open out where the sphere is, being again no longer parallel in direction nor uniform in force. When the field of magnetic force is formed between the oppo- site flat ends of two large magnetic poles, then these are affected, and the globes also, and there are mutual actions ; a paramagnetic body, if ; | a little elongated, points axially and tends to go to the iron walls of the | field, whilst a similar diamagnetic body points equatorially, and tends to | go to the middle of the field. Paramagnetic bodies repel each other, and so also do diamagnetic bodies ; but one of each class being taken, they attract one another. | The convergence of the lines of force upon the opposite sides of the paramagnetic sphere, and the corresponding divergence of them on the opposite sides of the diamagnetic sphere, the author expresses by the term conduction polarity. ‘Chis polarity he carefully distinguishes from that which depends upon the reversion of the direction of the power ; the latter he considers asa property of the particles of magnetic matter ; the former as dependant rather upon the-action of the mass ; the latter is an absolute inversion of the direction of the power, the former only a divergence or deflection of it. Applying the idea of conduction to magnecrystallic bodies, he con- eluded that the magnecrystallic axis would coincide with the direction of better conduction, and thence concluded, that, if a symmetric crystal of bismuth were carefully examined in different directions, it would be SUE submitted to experiment, than when it was parallel to the magnetic axis. By means of the differential torsion balance described in the former paper, be was able to make the trial, and found the results were as an- ticipated. With calcareous spar and his present balance he was not able to establish any difference, but concludes that it will prove most = diamagnetic when the optic axis of the crystal and the magnetic axis of the field are parallel. Advancing to the consideration of atmospheric magnetism, the author first refers to the earth as a source of magnetic power from which ema- nate lines of magnetic force passing into space according to a particular ut recognized distribution, and in obedience to the general laws which govern the distribution of power about a given irregular magnet. In pure space the magnetic power is considered as transmitted onwards with a certain degree of facility which is constant, but may 1” creased or diminished by the presence of paramagnetic or diamagnetic © continually occur in it under natural circumstances. Four-fi hs nearly — by volume of the air is nitrogen, which is a gas that neither underany — _ difference of temperature or of expansion shows any alteration In 18 power of affecting the transference of the magnetic force; whether | ed to 2 therefore in one state or another, or when un rg ; changes of a corresponding kind by natural a it has no Chemistry and Physics. 415 Series. Those produced by difference of temperature were described in the Philosophical Magazine for 1847, but are now resumed with more care, and found to belong to it alone, and not to nitrogen or car- bonic acid ; as its temperature is raised its paramagnetic force dimin- , its magnetic power. Ifa mass of the air be cooled it becomes mor paramagnetic, if heated it becomes less paramagnetic (or diamagnetic,) as compared with the air in a mean or normal condition. The effect of the approach and retreat of the sun in his daily course ‘i apidly eastward, as the sun passes by, until two o’clock, the dip then decreasing ; after which the needle goes west again, following the sun. On examining the results at Toronto, corresponding effects were found to occur, when the upper or south end of the needle was consi ered, and therefore in accordance with the hypothesis. ‘The examinations of the observations made at Greenwich, Washington, Lake Athabasca, Fort Simpson, and St. Petersburgh, are considered as adding further confirmation. By the aid of these observations the author restates his principles more minutely, endeavoring to indicate what difference, changes in the inclination, declination, place of the sun, land, and sea, &e., will produce. . hough the sun is the cause of those changes in the oo 1 Sie emt, oc | ie fl a which affect the lines of force of the earth, he is not assumed as 1 centre of action as regards those lines; that is considered to exist some- minishes the dip at places which are within the tropics, and with little inclination, as St. Helena. By other kinds of observations, it appears to be in advance of the sun. All the phenomena indicate that the sun does not act directly on the needles at different places, but mediately _ through its effect on the atmosphere. : _ The author then considers the possible cause of numerous irregular variations, such as thos that are shown by the photographic processes 416 Scientific Intelligence. of record at Greenwich and Toronto. The varying pressure of the at- the, meteorologist recognizes in the atmosphere, of the aurora aan he considers may all produce changes in the lin nesop” magnetic fore and become more or less sensible in the records of ‘rregular viitobiel bos author thinks it very possible that masses of air at different temper- y be moved by the magnetic force of the earth, according to te spoiiliples of differential action made manifest in the experiments on cold oxygen, in which case material as well as potential mag- netic storms may exist. He concludes his paper by calling attention the atmosphere. Twenty-seventh Series. Atmospheric Magnetism continued, ing the well-known system of magnetic forces, was placed with its mag- netic axis parallel to a free needle ; when its position was such that a needle within the ring would point with the north end downward, then observed. When the needle can move only in one plane, there are four quadrants, formed (in the case of the doelikation needle) by the intersection of the planes of the habe equator and meridian. When In i force, according to the sores of conduction before gerd Pooa the author considers generally where the regions of cold which travel round the earth every twenty-four hours will be in the northern and. southern ~ hemi: and how they will grow up and diminish in extent and im= portance: as the sun moves north and south during the year. A which | s these considerations, and the result tof nape expel with the ring helix, to is ee of the changes of = oe Chemistry and Physi they are given by observations at St. Petersburgh, Greenwich, Hobar- ton, Toronto, Cape of Good Hope, St. Helena and §j this, he endeavors to explain the night action, the the contrary course of the needle for the same hours cal time dependent on-the distribytion of land an slative —_ of eceding months, ahd the tinual ecially in the tropical regions, of the higheryemperature of the northern megan, above that of the south. these points the author sees such an agree vende between tho natural re which are suggested by the. assumed physical cause of variations, as to give him a growing confidence in the views he has put forth. Jaguerrotypes by Galvanic Light; by B. Situmma 1840, in company wi ith Dr. W. H. Goone, I showed the pos: taking j impressions on an iodized silver plate by the light of a‘ ower- ful voltaic pile. An ount of our trials on that occasion wa Pay lished in this Journal, first series, vol. xliii, Since that time my attention has not bedi: ealled to the niegh bal lately, when the arrival at the Louisville Laboratory of o boscq’s regulators of the pa light by an electro-magnet, ‘sugheged the propriety of repeating the expen: The battery employe 4 in i aan series of 900 pairs of zinc and copper all i: plunged ne moveme d which ‘upc is still (as then) a i bsence at that time ef any contrivance like that of Duboseg for its reg: ulation. The battery employed in the present trials was composed of fifty ; pairs of Bunsen’s carbon battery made by Deleuil of Paris, Although very powerful, it could not be at all ridin with the 900 members of the old arrangement in its initial effect, this defect is more than compensated in its constancy. Our first trial was to make a copy of and the experiment was con niinued throug a two minutes. e result showed =i co relative distances of ‘the light, the figare, and the instrument were not properly adjusted. An impression was pr roduced but it was faint and pai cg a longer exposure than usual to the vapor _ of mercury to develop It was afterwards +e better to bring the figure within about twelve feet of the light and also to approac the camera somewhat nearer. With mompeiceion excellent impressions were procured in forty sec- > onds—and it was the conviction of Mr. Stancliffe, the excellent daguer- bone in aria and who kindly aided me in these experiments, — A418 Scientific Intelligence. Our trials were nd confined to inanimate objects, but good portraits of my friends and assistants, Mr. Brush a u almost any cay. But in the dark and murky atmosphere of London, it may become an important auxiliary in the art. Considering the easy manipulation of a good carbon pile, its constancy and the facile man- agement of the light with the ingenious but simple apparatus of Duboseq, it certairly offers a tempting field of investigation as well to the practi- cal dagierreotypist as to the student in optics. It is much more intense and equally manageable with the lime light, and consequently may be substiuted for it in all optical demonstrations. Whether the properties of galvanic light are in all respects similar to solar light remains also an interesting question for future investigation. Laboratory of Louisville University, February, 1851. 3. Attraction of Electro-magnets.——Dvs has published the results of an elaborate investigation of the attractive forces exerted by elec- tro-magnets upon armatures of different dimensions and placed at dif- ferent distances from the magnet. The method of measurement em- loyed was similar to that made use of by the author in a previous investigation, and consisied in observing in each case the weight necessary to tear the armature from the magnet itself, when the two were in actual contact, or to hold the attracting force in statical equilibrium when this was not the case. ‘The magnets employed were straight cylindrical bars; the armatures similar bars of various dimen- " sions attached successively to the arms of a balance, and held in exact equilibrium by weights placed in the opposite scale pan; the appa- Tatu : D xy Ke: o fom) ° a — ep) 3 =) < oO s n ao =) = oO “¢ bee *| Ld =) nie a] =] GQ © 5 pa “4 % ie) ° 5 i= =) n = i=") 4 = ia) o 572] - 2 - S =) 3 Qa. - a oO = * : e diminution of the attraction is greater in proportion as the attraction itself is small when the attracting surfaces are in contact; the surface of contact remaining the same. a o give a definite idea of the absolute amount of this diminution, the author states that in no one of his experiments was there an attrac- ting force which at a distance of +3, of an inch was greater than half or less than one-fourth of the attraction during contact. = (3.) After a certain distance, the attraction is less in proportion as | magnet or the armature or both are thinner. (Although in genera attraction is not directly proportional to the diameter of the armature.) ; : eer: Pa Chemistry and Physics., 419 (4.) Pointed armatures and een cial at a distance less attrac- tion than cylinders of the same diam 9.) The attraction of armatures ai magnets gl eatoal diameter in- creases “o contact or ata disiance) with their lengths, Vith magnets and armatures of equal weight, the cern di- minishes more slow wly in proportion as these are shorte te\and thicker. (7.) Afier a certain distance armatures of e equal mass are equally attracted, _ (8.) Magnets of easel weight have an equal attractive force ata distance, when, with the same galvanic effect, the spiral surrounds the magnet throughout its whole length. ith an equal surface of contact, magnets and armatures attract equally both when in contact and at a dist nce. -) The attraction is proportional to tha square of the number of Bide of the electro-magnetic spirals. 11.) The attractions are proportional - the squares of the mRgng izing currents.—(Law of Lenz and Jacob (12.) ‘The attraction increases with the He of the whole num- ber of spiral windings to the surface of Contes up to a certain limit. This nt lies very near the surface of con (13.) The attraction increases more her ‘the spiral remains the Same and only the iron core is made longer, than when in making the core longer the same number of windings i is spread out over the whole length of the core. (4, ) With the same magnitude of he se Ps the attraction re- fat the same at a distance, when it is ame while in contact, hatever form the magnet and ices ral hay _ (15.) The slings: remains the same when hig diameters of the Magnet and armature are interchanged. 16.) ‘The Biecion remains the same when the armature is made the magnet and the magnet the armature, (provided that the spiral, with the same galvanic effect, surrounds the iron core throughout its whole length, (17.) In different systems of eqnal length and equal diameter, the maximum attraction takes place when the armature and the magoet are of “als ngth.—Pogg. Ann., Ixxx, Ixyxi, 494, 46. he Amid compounds of Cyanogen.—Coxrz and Cannizzaro have bated the products of the action of gaseous chlorid of oe gen upon ammonia. When the chlorid is passed into an ethereal solu- - tionof the alkali, chlorid of ammonium is formed and separated, while a ey °, but sometimes remaining liquid much below that temperature, in this case however, it instantly solidifies on being touched with a pointed glass rod ;. its ts rkable phenomenon; the fused mass suddenly Eps with ev: of great heat; the new substance thus produc 420 Scientific Intelligence. 3: Cy solves it readily, i if the solution be evaporated a residue is obtained nearly insoluble in water and apparently identical with cyanuramid ; cyanamid is also soluble in alcohol and ether without change, but al- kalis decompose it; with acids it gives crystalline compounds not yet examined. ‘The volatile bases of Wurtz, and many other organic al- kalies yield similar compounds when treated with chlorid of cyanogen 3 the authors have obtained cyano-methylamid, cyanethylamid, and cy- anamylamid, represented by the formulas, Cy 2H,N, Cy C,H,N, y The properties of these substances are not yet de- scribed, aeither is it stated whether there exists a class of isomeric cya- a as would appear highly probable.— Comptes Rendus, xxxii, 62. inchonine : rystallizes in moderately large prisms, yields chinolin by distillation, and partially sublimes as a crystalline wool: its formula Beane zoH4N.0z, which is the formula given by Regnault. come opaque and fuse to an amorphous mass, but do not su ime 3 analysis gave the formula C,,H,,NO,, which is the same as that of @ chinin found by Heijningen in commercial chinoidine: the author terms this base cinchotin. Commercial cinchonine contains also a brown a vane which v? a—seg to be identical with chinoidine; a — ‘ ety of commercia cinchonine gave the formula originally proposed, =~ i by Liebig, C,H, ,NO.—Ann. wth Chemie und palpi aime rie 49. 6. Aldehyde of Caprinic Acid.—Wacnen has studied the action of ammonia upon the oil of rue, which the researches of Gerhardt an Cahours had shown to consist principally of -an oxygenated oil having the formula C,,F,,0, and capable of being readily converted by oxy: dation into caprinic acid, C,,H,,0,. When oil of rue 1s doh 0 002s 3° ed is dissolved in alcohol, a current of sulphurous acid -passe the solution, and the whole: exposed to a low temperature fe ys, a voluminous mass of crystals is obtained resembling margaric © | acid ; these crystals are insoluble in water, soluble in boiling alcohol, Chemistry and Physics. 421 and decomposed by a gentle heat. The author regards this compound as homologous with Redtenbacher’s bisulphite of aldebyd-ammonia, and as having the formula C,,H,,0,, NH, 2: Indications of the existence of a homologue of thialdin were also obtained.—Journal Sir praktische Chemie, 1851. |, 43, Theory of the formation of Ether.—At the late meeting of the British Association at Edinburgh, a paper was read by A. Williamson upon this subject which deserves particular attention. When the com- pound of ether and potash, C,H,O-+KO, obtained by treating abso- lute alcohol with potassium is gently warmed with iodid of ethyl, iodid of potassium and ether are formed, the reaction being represented by the equation, C,H,O, KO+C,H,I=KI+2C,H,0. If in place of iodid of ethyl, iodid of methyl be employed, a similar reaction takes place and a liquid is obtained having the empirica, or- mula, C,H,O,: iodid of amyl in like manner yields a new liquid boiling at 110° C., and represented by the formula C,,H,, > Wil- liamson considers these new liquids as alcohols and employing Ger- hardt’s notation, represents the former by C,H,O, the latter by 7H,,0. The formation of common ether in the reaction given above he explains by supposing that the true formula of wine alcohol isC, y° O» of its potash compound C, ee O, and that ether results upon alcohol. In order to do this it is in the first place assumed that the formation of sulpho-vinic acid, C,H,0. SO,+-HO. SO,, always precedes that of ether and that sulpho-vinic acid is formed by the re- placement of one atom of hydrogen in PuRbANS acid by arr age of ethyl; in the author’s notation, SO, HC H O=S0, Coy +77°- ‘s 5 The formation of ether then ensues simply by the substitution of one atom of ethyl for one of hydrogen precisely as in the case e pot- - ash compound above mentioned, we have namely the equation ue H H 56 Cc so HH’ * 2H. 4 H H | yg, 1 baie 1 sulphuric acid thus set free acts upon a new. ‘portion of alcohol 1 sulpho-vinic acid and thus the process is continuous. The + formation of ether by the action of chlorid of zinc upon alcohol may for a * ” : + ‘a Le 422 Scientific Intelligence. TE. almost universally adopted by chemists, the results obtained by Wil- liamson are to be explained by supposing that one eq. of oxyd of ethyl is capable of voiting with one eq. of oxyd of methyl to form a com- pound in which one of these two oxyds performs precisely the same function as tie water in ordinary alcohol. ‘The formula of the new of ethyl and methyl and not a chemical combination of the two. This argument falls to the ground, however, when we consider that difference in the bodies combining is absolutely essential for chemical combination, and that we know of no one instance in which two molecules of the same kind unite chemically; it is therefore easy to see why two mole- organic radicals in the manner described will lead to the discovery the true molecular structure of a vast number of organic compounds pressed by the equation C,H,0,4C,H,I=C,H,O,+HI. w. 8. On the theory of anisol and its homologues.—The researches of Williamson on the replacement of the hydrogen of the alcohols by the radicals methyl, ethyl, amyl, &c., have led Cahours to examine the ac- tion of the iodids of these radicals upon the compound of potash and oxyd of phenyl represented by the formula C,,H,O+KO. When phenol-potash and iodid of methyl are exposed together ina sealed tube to a temperature of from 100° to 120°, double decomposition 0¢- curs and the results are iodid of potassium and anisol. The reaction ‘In this case is represented by the equation C,,H,KO,+C,H,I=C,,H,O,+Kl. . With iodid of ethyl and phenol-potash a similar reaction occurs and phenetol is formed; with iodid of amyl a new compound is formed which the author terms phenamylol. The formation of phenetol and phenamylol may be represented by the equations x eke sg C,,H,KO,+C,H,I=C,,H,,024+KI ie C,,H,KO,+C,,H, ,I=C,2H,,02+Kl ee Mineralogy and Geology. : 423 Phenamylol isa get onan plot liquid, lighter than water, having an agreeable aromatic odor nd boiling at 224°-225° : nitric acid readily the cause of his failure is now evident; the true homologue of phenol the alcohol of benzoic acid, remains to be discovered. II. Mineratocy anp GEOLOGY. 1 Notices of Minerals and new localities ; by Prof. O. P. Husparp, Dartmouth College. (Communicated for this Journal.)—(1.) A large group of Quartz crystals, now in Dartmouth College cabinet, was ob- m extracting the mass. There are forty-eight mig ules some of which are six inches long, and they have the following dimens 4 crystals each 5 to 54 inches in diameter. 10 “ce 6 4 *% 43 sc “se 13 a4 ec 3 cc 34 sc a4 vd “ce “ - “ 22 ce “ce 5 ec “sé 1 “cs 13 ec oe 10 +4 “6 2 oc oe : (2.) Quartz in prismatic crystals with biti sive from one to three inches long, and half an inch and more in diameter, are found i in ome planted crystals thovgh in a different gangue, and he describes a vein of black crystals near by. (3.) Another Scality of quartz is Mr. Ball’s farm, Beaver meadow, ; ‘the crystals are dug from the loose soil. They are beautifully : transparent, with one perfect termination only, the crystals ~ ‘Api. der Chem. u. Pharmacie, evi, 61, terminating in 3-sided pyramids. “A24 | Scientific Intelligence. having been obviously implanted by the other. One of the specimens I have seen is sixinches long by two and a half inches diameter. (4.) y Staurotide in crosses at 90° and imperfect prisms occurs abundantly in light colored mica slate, in Grantham, about two miles from Meriden village. The single ¢rystals have a dark red rhombic cester,. surrounded by @ Dana’s Staurotide, Grantham, N. H. Mineralogy, with a modification only on the obtuse solid angles. (5.) White Staurotide, with similar modifications, has been brought me from an unknown localit - 6.) Chrysoberyl.—This rare mineral occurs in the granite of Orange t layers of little value, appearing as if the veins with the rock had been much abraded. Large grouped bladed crystals of fine blue and white ) covery of-this mineral in masses several inches in diameter. is 1 believed to be the first notice of its occurrence in North American mineralogy, east of the Rocky Mountains, and a more complete account will be given in a future number of this Journal. Minerals from India.—(1.) Apophyllite. From Rev. Mr. Burgess, Aim. missionary at Ahmednugger, India, ave received unusually large crystals of Apophyllite an inch in diameter, with the terminal . solid angles deeply replaced. 2 Natrolite from the same region, in hemispheres seven inches in diameter, also in sectors of three inches radius and of the most beautiful lustre and whiteness. pond (3.) Quartz, also, with the two last from the trap of the | The specimen is a stalactite three inches in diameter with a ha center, having the exterior entirely covered with crystals | <4 Sette Zoology. | _ A265 2. Boulders Carried by Ice, (Perley’s Report on the Fisheries of New Brunswick, p. 26).—Off the ‘western part of Shippagan Island, within the Bay of Chaleur, there is an extensive shallow flat, extending nearly two miles from the land, called the Grand Batture. On this flat, there are numerous large blocks or boulders firmly imbedded, which render i it dangerous to cross, even wit a fishing boat ; the wrec canoe. ‘These boulders are brought over from the wild and mountain- ous shores of Caspe, directly across the bay, by the huge masses of floating ice, driven over by the northerly gales which ground upon the Grand Batture, and there melting, add the rocks they bring, to those already deposited. With reference to this m moving of rocks by ice, Mr. ilson mentioned that there was formerly a very large. oul directly i in front of his landing place, at Miscow, which was much in the way of his boats, and against which, in stormy weather, they had often received damage. But the severe winter of 1848—49, caused ne ice to — an unusual strength and thickness near the shore of Miscow: and w t moved off in the spring, it carried off this large rock to deposi it tee, he hoped, it would be less troublesome. Ill. Zooroey. 1. On the _ Uiatei ication of the Maioid Crustacea or Oxyrhyncha ; a James D, The Matorpea are usually divided into three tribes, ected: the relative lengths of the legs, viz., the Macropodinea, he Maiinea, and the Parthenopinea. character of the kind here alluded to is of little importance as a distinction in ar bas oe unless the first two are essentially identical in all points, excepting the greater or less elongation of the eight posterior legs. The mouth, the antenna, eyes, branchiz, and other parts, afford no ground for separating them: moreover, the transitions are gradual and numerous. Libinia and poke Mi the maxillze or wan gills ait Thus his Maia, "Pisa and Doclea groups include species having the fourth joint of the outer maxillipeds articulnted with the inner apex of the third joint ; while in his Inachus group, articulation i is with the summit of the tl third joint. This distine- tion wo' ia, a8 this joint in the latter has the ordinary Maia form. On exa mining oe it is “age that the peculiarity of the third joint referred to ao from being. jengthenes or extended 54 ems 426 Scientific Intelligence. Z side, so that the true apical margin slopes backward and outward. The fourth joint is articulated with the same part normally in both, and the only difference is in the greater or less inclination of the summit mar- gin, when greatest it approximating to longitudinal. The little import- ance of the distinction based upon the maxillipeds among the Cancroidea as well as Maioidea is shown by numerous instances. Even the single science. e have admired the wonderful fidelity of his plates, the in the order, as far as we can judge, of their relative bearing upon the or less prehensile,as in Dromia,and that the vulvz have the same position as in that genus (in the base of the feet of the third pair); and he therefore places the genus in the Dromia group. Still, in the number of branchie and some other characters, it is like the Maiinea, and it is properly an intermediate type. The outer antenne are peculiar in being free and cylindrical from the very base, with the second joint much longer than bj the first, nearly as in the Dromiacea. These last facts with re ard ile, somewhat Dromia-like, although they are not at all dorsal and also resemble the preceding legs. The genus referred to is ci- nopus of De Haan. It is apparently intermediate in character between the Maia tribe and Latreillia. es - » aberrant form, Oncinopus, (and also Latreillia, if it be not thrown with the Dromiacea,) will naturally belong toa distinct group, and we therefore divide the Maioid Crustacea into three tribes, Mammza, ONcI- NINEA and ParTHENOPINEA. “ ae oe The Parthenopinea have the basal joint of the outer antenna usually not beyond t andfreeo a's Zoology. A27 between the Maiinea and the Cancroid Crustacea, resembling the latter also in their short epistome. The greater length of the anlerior legs is lated to the Parthenopinea—the orbits, and antennz, epistome and ge- neral form of the body resembling the same in Parthenope. But in its maxillipeds it approaches Dromia, as shown by aan. Telmessus of White appears to belong with the Corystoidea, as the outer antenne, in connection with the form, indicate. The following are the Families, Subfamilies and Genera of MalInEa with their characteristics : Fam. I. MAIIDZ. OcuLI RETRACTILES, IN ORBITIS SESE LATENTES. 1. DIGITI ACUMINATL A. Carapax oblongus. @. OCULI PLUS MINUSVE TRANSVERSIM PORRECTI. @ ANTENNE EXTERNE APERTE. * Rostrum sive elongatum sive breve, porrectum, non tumidum. + Pedes 8 postici prelongi. 1. INACHIN/.—Carapax triangulato-ovatus. Rostrum emarginatum aut integrum. G. 1. Inacaus, Fabricius—Carapax gibbosus, spina preorbitali sive parvula sive nulla, rostro brevi. Pedes 8 postici filiformes, Qdis 3-4-plo longioribus quam carapax post-rostralis. . 2, Ecerta, Latreille—Carapax gibbosus, orbiculato-ovatus, i fle Pedes 8 postici filiformes lon- gissimi (iis Inacht duplo longiores). Bell.* 2. MACROCHEIRINE.—Carapax laté ovatus. Rostrum furcatum. lmus solutus. ‘ica’ * 428 é; inepicd Scientific Intelligence. ee Misi, Lamarck.—Articulus antennarum ext. Imus spinis duabus longis apicem externum armatus. Spina inter-antennalis elon- gata, acuta. ‘Tarsus infra non spinulosus. tt Pars antennarum externarum mobilis orbitd omnino exelusa. . PISIN.—Carapax triangulato-ovatus, rostro bifido. cs 1, Pedes 8 postici non valde compressi ; articulus 5tus processu infra non armatus. G. 1. Paramitarax, Edwards.—Carapax gan ete elon- gato. uli graciles, Ariel us antennarum externarum Imus spinis duabus longis apicem externum ietan passe Maia affin vse G. 2. Pisa, Leach.—Carapax hi pyriformis, gibbosus, spina preorbitali saliente, rostro longo, vix depresso. Articulus an- tennarum ext. Imus angustus. Pedes 2di 3tiis valde longiores. G. 3. Pexia, Bell. *—Carapax elongaté pyriformis, gibbosus, spinis preorbitali et post-orbitali carens, rostro longo, vix depresso. Articulus antennarum ext. Imus angustus. Pedes lmi 2dis breviores. G. 4. Lissa, Leach.—Pise affinis. Carapax pyriformis, rostro lon- giusculo, cornubus laminatis, truncatis, dente preeorbita i saliente. G. 5. Ruopta, Bell.t—Carapax pyriformis, paulo pad ohio _ preorbitali saliente, rostro brevi, acuto. Articulus anten externarum imus angustus, apicem a acute productus eae ‘ae entatus. Pedes 1mi 2dis breviores, G. 6. Hyas, Leach.—Carapax ovatus, sepe lyratus, isc preorbitali ie rostro long giusculo, acuto, ulus antennarum ext. Imus angustus, 2dus ae prcadbis tarsus infra non sploaiami . G. 7. Pisoipes, Edw. et Lucas.t—Hyadi affinis. Carapax lat’ ovatus, spind preorbitali carens, postorbitali parva, vette lon- iusculo, acuto. Articulus antennarum ext. Imus latissimus, G. 8. Herzstia, Edwards.—Carapax orbiculato-ovatus, ible spina parva preorbitali instructus, rostro brevi, he rnubus paulo 4 : ‘ r pressis acutis. rticulus antennarum ext. Imus snngustia apicem acuté productus, extus uni-dentatus. Pedes Imi Qdis longiores. 2, Pedes 8 postici late compressi. G10. Tuo, Bell.\—Carapax late ovatus, rostro Pirvato, ities uli b ente preorbitali saliente. Oculi breves. Articulus antenna : rum ext. Imus — Pedes Imi maris 2dis lagers & ~~ 3. Artieul tik vivdinenrh vie G41 Dewaantvs, ve eay.||\—Hyadi paulo eae , . latus, spina preorbitali saliente, rostro sat brevi. thal affinis, si oculi non retractiles. =f rss Dorbigay’ South America 1 i ke oie “et Pe uw erica 10, ie to be the Hyas Edwardaii of Bel, Zo Trans ik 48. oe jw Leay, Smith’s Inst. Zool. Zoology. (teed ** Rostrum saliens, porrectum, tumidum, apice emarginatum. ieee 5. LIBININ A2.—Carapax laté py itoriaes tumidus, lateribus altis. Oculi {open Pedes sive mediocres sive prelongi. G. 1. Lisrnia, Leach.—Pedes meoeres Carapax dente preeorbitali ne instructus. Abdomen maris femineque 7-articulatum. Articulus antennarum ext. tiie latiusculus, extus non denti- gerus. G. 2. LisivociEa, Edw. et Lucas.*—Pedes longi. Carapax spinis plus minusve armatus, dente preorbitali parvo. Articulus anten- peru oe: lmus angustus, apicem acuté productus, extus den- & : G. Fs Doesnidieck: +-Peren previonsl; Carapaxspinis plus minusve armatus, dente preorbitali care Articulus antennarum ext. Imus oe abdomen maris 6 7- mele, Semine 5-T-ar- ticulatum. ene pute breve, latissimum, bilobatum, porrectum. 6. PRIONORHYNCHIN A2.—Carapax — gibbosus. Oculi breves, Fosse antennales marginem frontalem attingentes. . Prionornyncuus, Hombron et Faiqit not.t #** Rostrum latum, valde deflexum. % MICIPPINE.— G. Micirppa, Leach-—Oculi longiusculi. Carapax anticé parce angustior, rostro laminato. 6 ANTENNE EXTERNE SUB ROSTRO CELATE. 8. CHORININ AZ.—Carapax SARE aM Rostrum furcatum. Pedes 8 postici vix compres -G. 1. Cxrortnus, Leach. —Carapas gibbosus, spinis plus minusve ¢ armatus, rostro longo, cornubus acuminatis, spina preeorbitali sa- = “4 Pe icce orbitals talatior largé interruptus, Articulus an- m ext. at angustus. Pedes 2di 3tiis valde longior G. 2. Cassa a.{—Carapax forma rostroque Chorino ofinis. : Orbita infra fats inerrpta, supra fissa, spina preorbitali acuta. Articulus antenna extern Imus angustus, apice externo acuté producto. Pedes: imi Qdis breviores, 8 postici similes, 2di 3uiis apike © cum processu spiniformi armato. Orbita infra supraque “ 9 ndato acai dente —— acuto. Pedes toti oo eins Edwards. —Carapa ax gi ibbosus, rostro mediocri, cor- -nubus subcylindricis, maa dente preorbitali brevi. Mar orbitalis inferior fissus, non late ee Articulus anten- Sarum « ext. Imus latus, Sleies angus s South America, 6 pl. . oe in! au pole Sud, pl. 1 Si + This volume, p. 269. ite a De es ae: Phil : . 430 Scientific Intelligence. G. 5. Scyra, Dana.*—Carapax gibbosus, ‘rostro mediocri, lami- nato, cornubus acutis, dente preorbitali acuto. Margo orbitalis superior paulo unifissus. Articulus antennarum ext. lmus om- nino angustus, 2dus depressus G. 6. Hvast TENUS, White.t—Chorino affinis. Rostrum niger cornubus non depressis, ante poneque oculos directus. on orbitalis superior unifissus. Pedes 2di longiores. 9. ae Stones om subpyriformis. Pedes 8 postici valde compr ressi. Git: a, Dana.—Carapax depressus, inermis, rostro lamellato, Hider ovatis. Oculi perbreves, orbita spinis non armata. b. OCULI LONGITUDINALITER PORRECTI, CARAPACE ANTICE TRUNC . 10. OTHONINE. —Carapax antice late truncatus, rostro fere obsoleto. Oculi slongell, cylindrici. we ES Bell.t—Carapax parce oblongus, suborbicularis, ‘rostro bifido. ntenne interne minutissime; externe late, articulo Imo lato, 2do valde depresso, inverso- -subtriangulato. B. Carapax paulo transversus. 81, SALACINE.—Carapax fere orbicularis. Pedes 8 postici crassi, longi, ages penultimo infra recto. Rostrum fere obsoletum integru G. Sacuii, Edwards et Lucas.{—Carapax gibbosus. Fossa tennalis sub rostro partim excavata. rticulus maxillipedis cae 3tius medio apice onlarginatus, hacen 6 ema reingnone 2. DIGITI APICE OBTUSI, INSTAR COCHLEARIS EXCAVATI. 12. tesgedece cieetinag —Oculi mediocres. Carapax sive paulo oblongus, e transversu : i. aS ipecuec Leach.\|—Carapax vo orbiculato-ovatus, inter- f ‘dam transversus. Rostrum aut saliens aut fere obsoletum, bifi- dum. Articulus antennarum ext. zaiue apicem externum dua- bus spinis longis armatus. AST ey peta tt Sel a ae a hee This volume, p. 2 Ann . Nat. Hist fe Lee, Ol, = Crust. Voy. of Samarang, p. 11. The species is Seba’s fig. 12, pl. 18 of the Thesaur ook — ii, - ay ati the interior apex of of the jcint. a little over the insertion the fourth joint, It ires” of Edwar . + Zoology. 431 G.2. Miraracunus, White-—Carapax transversus. Articulus an- tennarum ext, lmus duabus spinis longis non armatus.. 13. CYCLACINA.—Oculi longi. G. Cyciax, Dana.*—Carapax paulo oblongus, orbiculato- ellipti- cus, rostro sat brevi, bifido, acuto. Pedes 8 postici longi. Fam. Il. TYCHIDA. OcULI RETRACTILES, SUB CARAPACE LATENTES, ORBITIS CARENTES. 1, gr augeteany ia night valde deflexum. Carapax oblongus. G. Criocarcinus, Guerin.—Oculi prelongi, orbite ooh superior processu ones. late lines apicem armato instructus 2, TYCHIN/Z.—Carapax oblongus, anticé latus, latitudine trans-orbi- tali grandi, rostro non deflexo, sat longo, furcato. Oculi apice pau- lulum exserti. . Tycue, Bell.*—Car é t que duabus phere spina post- -orbitali nulla. longus, inermis. 3. CAMPOSCIN /&. —Carapax oblongus, rostro fere obsoleto, emar- ginato. Pedes 8 postici longi. Oculi lo ongé pedunculati et exserti. G. Camposcia, Latreille.—Carapa subpyriformis, non armatus. Pedes 8 postici subcylindrici, 2di Stiis breviores. ressus nis- totis scr et subeequis oniweish: Articulus antennarum ext. lmus ob- Fam. II. EURYPODID. OcuLI RETRACTILES, NON SESE LATENTES. 1. Antenne externe aperta. 1. EURYPODIN .—Carapax triangulato-ovatus, rostro longo, fur- cato. Pedes longi, 4 postici non bene pre rehensiles. Oculi longi et ina p powers oblonga. 5 postici longi, articulo penul- We timo valde compresso, santa 7 bey G. Oreconta, Dana.j—Pedes 8 1 soidish sat longi, articulo penul- Boe timo subcylindrico. 2. Antenne externe sub rostro celate. AMATHIN. re oculi retractiles, iis Eurypodii similes, eoque genus hac sede Carapax x triangulato- -ovatus, rostro fureato, lati- edes lo G. Amatuia, Rouwx.—Uar pre ay porpebue divaricatis. abe te antennarum ext. Imus perangustus. + Zool. Trans. ii, 57. ! } This vol., p. 270. tudine trans- rniit perangusta. gi ax gibbosus, valde armatus, rostro eee ad 432 Scientific Intelligence. Fam. IV. LEPTOPODID. OcULI NON RETRACTILES, SESE NON LATENTES. PEDES PRELONGI. A, Antenne externe aperte. " Oculi longi, longeqiie salientes. Padee 4 postici subprehensiles. . Acnzv us, Leach.—Carapax gibbosus. Pedes 8 postici fili- formes, longi, tarso pedum 4 posticorum falciformi, articulis aac subcylindricis. 2. pe HOMIN: —Carapax triangulato-ovatus, rostro elongato, sim G. Wiienoaes, Edw. . Lucas.*—Carapax valde gibbosus, rostro longiusculo, acuto, spina postorbitali parva. Pedes 8 postici sat longi, gracillimi. Tarte uta antennarum ext. lmus angustus. B. Antenne externe celate. 3. LEPTOPODIN.—Carapax triangulato-ovatus, rostro elongato, simplice. Pedes longissimi. _ G. Lepropopia, Leach.—Oculi sat salientes. Pedes toti gracillimi. tne 4. ee an tomes triangulato-ovatus, rostro breve, : bifid G. SrEeNornyNcuUs, Lamark.—Oculi sat salientes. Pedes antici crassiusculi. . Faw. V. PERICERID. OcuLI NON RETRACTILES, SESE NON LATENTES. PEDES LONGI- TUDINE MEDIOCRES. A, Antenna exlerne aperte. 1. PARAMICIPPINS.—Rostrum valde deflexum. Micippe aspectu imiles. G. Paramicrrpa.—Rostrum latum, articulus antennarum ext. 2dus breviter cordiformis. Epistoma perbre 2. PERICERINZ.—Rostrum profundé bifidum, non deflex . 1. Pertcera, Latreille.—Carapax sepe ‘tanta interdum u ‘ spina armatus. Orbita tetera pth as includens, mar- : gine superiore subtiliter unifiss G. 2. Tianinta, Dana.it— Citipix subpyriformis, tuberculis ; ple- g atus. nubus gracilibus contiguis. Articulus ante apicem latus et inermis, angulo externo interdum saliente tantum. - ~ * Crust. in D’Orbigny’s S. Amer., 4, pl. 4. Zoology. 433 G. 3. Perinia, Dana.*—Carapax orbiculato-ovatus, tuberculis pau- cis non acutis ornatus, rostri cornubus brevibus, discr retis. Ar. : ticulus antennarum ext. Imus oblongus, apicem non latior, an- gulo externo valde producto. Orbita anticé aperta, margine superiore non unifisso.. G. 4. Hauimus, Latreille—Carapax a — cornubus rostri grandibus, divaricatis. Articulus antennarum ext. Imus angustus. Articulus pedum 8 ee Po se S compres- sus, processu infra non armatu G. 5. Puserria, Dana. seotsinlect triangulato-ovatus. Rostr antennisque ext. Halimo affinis. Articulus pedum 8 sonicated 5tus cylindricus. 3. MENA THIN. gre integrum aut subintegrum. “1. Menxrutivs, Edwards.—Carapax triangulato-ovatus, depres- sus, regione antero- islerati plicis tribus plus minusve ornata. Pedes 8 postici cylindrici G. 2. Acantuonyx, Latr. a rapax depressus, non tuberculatus, sive subtriangulatus sive subquadratus (dente post-orbitali dila- dente preorbitali parvulo, ros- 8 postici mediocres, apic ( 8 posticorum eae infra non dilatatus nec ; dentigerus niatu s, ees tea Jatitudine transorbitali majore (lat. bifido, sat brevi. a.\|—Cara preorbitali biehine sifocties r- fra non dilatatus nec max. 2plo lativre), rostro lato, profundeé b ticulus pedum 8 posticorum penultimus in dentigerus. B. Antenne externe sub rostro celat@. 1. Oculi prelongi. 4. STENOCIONOPIN 4. —Rostrum longum, furcatum, cornubus styli- Lat treille.—Carapax subpyriformis, tp spina preorbitali longissima. Articulus antennarum ex . ob- longus. 2. Oculi aut longitudine mediocres aut perbreves. 5. EPIALTIN.—Rostrum — crassum, sive integrum § emarginatum. Ante t. apicem rostri sepius non pane ‘ SP gentes. Pedes 8 availed subeylindrici. fey ee eee Be es may be longer pedunculate, and as there it i parent ne fe t etractile or not. species svanttine The beak i haat Por and the 3d basal joint of the ‘reaches of beak. 3 ‘AE Zool This volume, p. 272. ear Wo t— Bing, 1881- 55 om, 971. Thid, phus d d Souleyet, as ed i A Ai of Eydoux an siinel'e spine or tooth, outer antenne, and ' - é 434 Scientific Intelligence. G. 1. Eprtattus, Edw.—Carapax inermis, vix tuberculatus, re- gionibus non conspicuis. Octo pedes ne nudi aut subnudi, articulo penultimo sae sepa Sion ike G. 2. Huenia, De Haan.*—Carapax 2-4 iuberoulis acutiusculis sepius armatus, cartoon saresiacs regionibus inconspicuis, ros- tro simplice, angulo carapacis postero-laterali prominente. Ar- ticulus 53 8 posticorum penultimus plerumque infra dilatatus, dentige G, 3. Takaticinns, White.t——Carapax tuberculis subacutis spar- sim armatus, rostro simplice, truncato, margine postero-laterali non angulator, otundato G. 4. Levcippa, Edw. ——Carapax subtriangulatus fere inermis, regionibus non conspicuis, spina preorbitali nulla, Pedes supra carinati, articulo penultimo infra non producto. Dens _post- orbitalis prope oculum insitus, oculum vero non celante. Genus Zesripa, While,t incertz sedis ; antennis externis obitaque Eumedono similis, eoque Parthenopineis congruit.—-Carapax de- pressus, non armatus antice latior, dente post- -orbitali porten- tosé expanso, rostro latissimo, lamellato, profundé furcato. Oeculi paululum salientes. Pedes compressi, angulati. Articulus anten- parum externarum I-mus hiatum orbite occupans, antice non productus. 2. The Apteryx of New Zealand.—With the skin of the Notornis Manteilli deapihed in the January number of this Journal, xi, 102, Mr. Waiter Mantell sent the skins of three birds of the genus Apteryx ; one of them is the small and rare species figured and described in the Zoological Transactions of London, by Mr. Gould, as A. Owenii. The other skins were supposed to be of the common species, generally known as the Apteryx australis; of which some thirty or forty specimens have be nt to Europe, and are distributed in the public and private zoological collections of England an the continent. One of Mr. Mantell’s i s remarkable for its large size, and short and strong legs; but though seen by many emi- nent ornithologists in London, it was regarded o only as a very large and fine exa mple of the common species, till Mr. Bartlett, the eminent sega Mr. Bartlett therefore drew up a description of this bird to before the gr aelrs Society : gi fortunately first applied to » eri iibed by Dr. Shae. i in 1812, and which at the death of that eosaralit passed into Lord Derby’s possession. ea n receiving this bird, Mr. wel found that it was identical with the supposed new species sent by Mr.- Walter Mantel! ; the latter ke is the true Apte Sie australis of Dr. Shaw, and only: the second pecs known in ae mn. 73. cam Mae B; N. Fh Atal rat ox Erebus ag Zoology. A35 os land : the common species having been hitherto confounded with it, from no careful comparisons having been instituted with the original type. are now however three species of this extraordinary “ wingless” bird, viz., Ap. australis, Ap. Owenii, and Ap. Mantelli. It is probable thata fourth and much larger species still exists in the Middle Island. Mr. ee n ) Fi Academy of Natural History of Philadelphia—a specimen of the true . Ap. australis may occur; having been mistaken for a | | of th were from the Middle Island: the more abundant species‘is from the North Island. 3. Ibis guarauna in New England; by Dr. Cazor, (Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., Nov., 1850, p. 313.)——Ibis guarauna has been con- founded with J. falcinellus by many naturalists, among others even by Audubon, Le way of accounting for their appearance, : hich has been mistaken for J. fal- than usual, as we know to have he re shot Middletown, Ct., and is in the pomemnee of Nuttal sa; | casionally expo jon a ies the Sine temade this observation there nt as cat ie Ma Silas 436 Miscellaneous Intelligence. IV. MiscELLANEOUS INTELLIGENCE. en aes . on aE Observations made at Burlington, rs in 1850; ompson.—NVote. The location is one mile from slinte of i chakaaes and te — above the lake (346 above a sea) in lat. 44° 29’, and long. 73° 1850. THERMOMETER. BAROMETER. Months. Mean, Highest.) Lowest. ;Range. | Mean. | Highest. | Lowest. fe) | fa) ° ° Inches. Inches. | Inches. January, . . (23°74) 46 ~} 47 29-86 | 30:37 | 29:10 | 12 February,. . |24°32 54 -18 72 29-65 | 30-49 | 28-81 | 1-68 March, . . {30°47, 49 0 | 49 29-68 | 30:26 | 29°17 1-09 April, isa d@h Oe. 20 17...) 69 29-65 | 30-09 | 28:98 | 1-11 May, . . . pré4, 75 os + 4e 29-60 | 30-00 | 29-00 | 1-00 a. TIT 9B 46 | 47 29-69 | 29-99 | 29-41 | 0-58 July, . 70: | 89 47 | 42 29-69 | 29-9 | 29:33 | 0-65 ugust, 66-03, 90 43 | 47 29-69 | 29-97 | 29-28 | 0-69 September, . (59-69, 82 | 40 | 42 | 2969, 29-96] 29:30| 066 ctober, 48°25) 70 98° | 42 -62 | 29-95 | 29-09 | 0-86 November, 40-38! 62 26 36 29-72 | 30-05 | 28 06 December 18-65, 46 | -10 | 56 9-75 | 30-28 | 28-80 48 n 145-14) il 29°69 | | | 1:69 W bet WEATHER. | SNOW.|WATER- N. NE, E.) .£) 5S. |5.W, W.\N. Wy Fair. ; Cloudy. |Inches. Inches. 6) kul 2 = 0; 2,1 | 4 : 18 16. |. 157 : Sr ryr.e tH) OTe | £ t 13 18 1:79 : Bid POs | 8| 1 15 | 2 | 20 1] 12 1-11 6| 1 2jil| 1 | 4 | 4 | 22 8 8 241 51.2 | 2) 4110}-2 }3 | 2] 18 13 0 5-04 ee. 2114. (2 | & 1 ae 2 0 3-18 ) 2116] 1 | 2|23/| 8 0 | 5-08 14 )} 2113) 0 Y | °s? 4 0 0:89 812042 16: G bay) Bab RQ 8 0 325 71 0-10 LI bt 6147 14 5 S11 ot 3 2/12) 1/3) 3 | 16 14 1 1-77 r,{ IL} 2 2 pat) Oat er a4 17 48 3-31 105) 11 $1123 1146) 10 (25! 341230 | 135 | 108 | 37-5] ~The results in the above tables are deduced from three daily obser- vations made at sun-rise, 12 m. and 9 p.m. The warmest day in the year was the 19th of June, Fas mean heat of which was 82°; the _ coldest day was the 5th of Feb., the mean of which was — ee mean temperature of the year was 0°23 warmer than the average of ae the twelve preceding y he a less, £ ay a Miscellaneous Intelligence. 437 The broad part of the lake opposite to Burlington, was not frozen over during the year, an occurrence which has been witnessed only 0 Henry fora copy of the following letter from the Hon. Abbot Lawrence, informing him of the decision of the Lords of the Treasury with regard to the continued support of the Toronto Observatory ; a subject which deeply interested the members of the American Association at its last ven.——Ebs. “ My Dear Sir,--I have the pleasure to inform you that - ceived a communication last evening from the Viscount Palmerston for the Observatory at Toronto. Ihad not however received the infor- “mation in an official form till now. We I am, dear sir, most faithfully, your obedient servant, Josrru Henry, Esq., Washington. Assott LawkENcE. 3. African Geography ; (Proc. Geog. Soc., London, in Athenzeum, No. 1217.—Two communications on African geography preceded the papers of the evening. In the first, mention was made of the success- ful ascent of the cataract of the White Nile which had ee gto the mis- _ further progress of D’Arnaud. The expedition, consisting of 1 sionaries, Dr. Knoblicher (Vicar), Don Angelo inco, and Don Eman- uel Pedemonte, started with seven vessels from Khartum, on Nov. 13, 4 438 Miscellaneous Intelligence. which the White Nile could be seen stretching away to the southwest, and in the distant horizon the summits of a range of lofty oe were distinctly traced. At the 4° of lat., the Nile was 20 broad, and from two to three deep.—In the second African paper, aba av. D. Livingston paniiltthinehb<; “through the London Missionary So- ciety, an account of another large lake, 150 to 200 miles to the north- wards of Lake Ngami, the dis of which was announced last toane, the well-known chief, resides. The two lakes are connected by a — Stale the Teoge. The inhabitants around this lake are said to be communication with the Portugese settlements on the coast. Mr. ition intended proceeding again shortly to the north ona visit to the chief. 4. The sources of the Nile; (Atheneum, No. 1217.)—The Times of Saturday last contains a letter from ac ett at Vienna, dated February 9th, from which the following is an extra * As everything connected with the sources of ‘Ka ‘Nile't is likely to prove onan “to the British public, | must not omit to inform you that 1 have to-day had an interview with Dr. Knoblicher, the Pope’s + amnba in Central Africa, who, after having passed some years among the Maronites, in the Age aed founded an establishment at separates Blue Nile. Along the former, the Rev. Doctor travelled to within 4 deg. 9 min. of the equator. He twice ascended a mountain called Logwek, n southwesterly direction, until it vanished betw two mountains. e last natives he met with, the Bary negroes, informed him that be- e (about 625 English feet) and from three to five métres deep. . Knoblicher, a native of Lai bach, in Carniola, ied as a linguist a worthy disciple of -gngeas is he ge = the source of the Nile is te. - sout th of the and he onfirmed in this idea by the fact’ oe: vcconths of the rainy season having set in, in districts much far-— ther south. Dr. Knoblicher left Khartum on the 13th of November, The Au again in te lo next, as he is It was with a painful feeling thas tT iat Dr, Knobligher bad. not been a Miscellaneous Intelligence. 439 oi expense of a chronometer before he started on his journey ; he had sextant, thermometer, barometer, &c., and ‘ Griffin’s Facies Nav- feation, but the great essential was and still is wantin The spot to which Dr. Knoblicher thus succeeded in penetrating | is several miles higher up the stream than the extreme point reached, i 1841, by the second Turco-Egyptian Expedition sent by the late Mo. hamme Ali Pasha to discover the source of the Nile,—in which Ex- pedition M. d’Arnaud and M. Werne took part; and the explicit infor- mation now furnished by him respecting the upper course of the river I may add, that the course of the river above 4° N. lat., as described by Dr. Knoblicher, corresponds very closely with that which is marked in the map of ‘The Upper Nile according to Dr. Beke’s Hypothesis,’ published in the Edingburgh New Philosophical Journal for October, 1848, vol. xlv, No. 90, in illustration of a paper, ‘On the Sources of the Nile in the Mountains of the Moon,’ contained in the same number of that ahi am, &., Cuar.es BEke. February 18 5. Survey of the Louisiade Archipelago = the een ioe of New Guinea; by the late Capt. O. Srantey, R.N., with Notes o - aie History of the same, by Mr. adie ie he Nasuratis —(Proc. of Geog. Soc., Atheneum, eas 4.)—After a oe ibis of apite to the memory of the lam hie Mr. Ken- nedy, murdered, as our readers know, by the natives oi his explor- ation of the Cape York Peninsula—Capt. tanley (destined so soon to barrier reef, which, teeta mien the ists apt wid be continuous, - and perm mitted an easy passage to the open s Although, however, barrier ceased on avon ae sistas ‘Capt. Stanley found on edie New Guinea, in order to obtain an astronomical position om whence to carry out the survey, that a ridge of shoal water, 7 bean oe om the mast-head, stretched out about six miles from the g ees mndng Boe sae od dan ngeréa E uae oe money et 440 Miscellaneous Intelligence. clouds, hanging over the highlands of New Guinea, prevented their see- i much of this splendid country as they could have desired, but tered among the trees, gave additional charms to the view. The cur- published) ; and the movements of the Expedition were further ex- plained by several of the officers on the maps just finished and sent by Admiral Beaufort for that purpose. 6. On Peat and its Products ; by Prof. Branpe.—(Proc. Roy. Soe., Jan. 31, Atheneum, No. 1217.)—A peat bog was described as a super- ficial stratum of vegetable matter, which at different depths is undergoing, or has undergone, various stages of change and decomposition. — Its humus and humic acid, among other products of slow decay ; and the abundance of moisture pervading the bog affects the character at once of the peat and of the district. The u loose and fibrous and of a pale brown color. Beneath the surface: aes] a=) oO “ s “a oO pee! nm ° = ~ a o o 2) oa ° fon S a << 5 = 5 © ou. ~ = o os ee o = 3 + Peat may be rendered valuable, either—l1. From the charcoal which “may be obtained from it; or—2. the various products derivable from what is called its destructive distillation. hen it is desired to Sy he.” panes ay ad Miscellaneous Intelligence. 441 ‘ loses about one-third, and the light and porous half of its weight: four tons of dried peat will give about one ton of charcoal. The efficacy of this charcoal in the manufacture of iron, in consequence of the small quantity of sulphur it contains, was mentioned ; and its deodorizing and purifying qualities experimentally exhibited.—2. The products of the destructive distillation of peat were then described. The elements of peat are essentially those of wood and coal; viz., carbon, nitrogen, hy- drogen, and oxygen. If therefore peat were distilled in close vessels, the products obtained, would, as might be expected, resemble the pro- ith by having an arrangement to collect the products of combustion ; and alcohol) used in vapor lamps, (two of which were exhibited and atten- tion called to the brilliancy of the light afforded,) and in the preparation of varnishes, 4, Naphtha used for making varnishes, and for dissolv- Atheneum for December 14th, you have inserted an extract from a Sheffiel giving an acco Me | d paper, 0 . Plates for Printing Ferns, Sea-weeds,” &c. (See p. 280 of this volume. ) ately dusted over with the finest bron letters. The object of this is threefold : der the surface more smooth,—and to preve 442 Miscellaneous Intelligence. avoid the printer skillfully mixes the ink to the tint of the fern, a print is ob- vantage of being more durable, cheaper, and more expeditious. I send for your inspection, several prints of ferns produced by this pro- cess; and have, &c. Fercuson Branson, M.D. . Sheffield, December 18. 2 8. Note on Thapsus verbascum; by H. A. RILey, (from a letter A to the editors, dated Montrose, Pa.)——It may be of interest to announce that a variety of Thapsus verbascum was observed by me the last season aring white flowers. 1 found it about four miles east of Montrose, Pa., in the southeast part of Bridgewater and northeast of Brooklyn town- ships, on the road to the village of Harford. It was intermingled with the common yellow variety, constituting about one-fourth the plants of this species. : 9. Geological Survey of Pennsylvania.—By a recent act of the Le- gislature of Pennsylvania, the Geological Survey of the State, so long interrupted for want of Legislative action, is again in the hands of Pro- fessor H. D. Rogers. Although not under appointment for some years past, Prof. Rogers has been making progress with his work, and we un- derstand that his Report will soon be completed, after a re-survey of some portions of the state. The work will have a vast economical value, on account of the resources of the country in coal and iron, and e esides oth The Report will be fully illustrated by wood-cuts, maps and sections, besides numerous plates of fossils. 10. Observatory of Altona.-The place in the Observatory of Altona made vacant by the death of Schumacher, has been filled by the appoint- ment of Dr. Petersen 11. Cabinet of Minerals for Sale—A valuable collection of minerals : foreign and domestic, the property of a deceased physician, containing : two thousand specimens. Said collection will be disposed of for money or education. Please address M. Leach, No. 6 Harrison street, south Brooklyn. a 12. erican Association for the Advancement of Science.—The > annual meeting of the Association will be held in Albany, in August, - _ commencing with the 8rd Monday of the month. The officers for the. year 1851-52 are as follows: : ; i ; a Prof. L. “Acassiz, President. fot Mie SF. Baro, Permanent Seeretary. W. B. Rocersp,General»Secretary. amp Ls ®a wae. Ph ai Pa Miscellaneous Intelligence. 443 A semi-annual meeting will be held in Cincinnati, commencing with the Ist Monday in May, at which time Prof. A. D. Bacue, the president oe of the last annual meeting (1850) pr ete ‘ The es is a list of the Local Coenhitive for the meeting at Cin- cinnati q Local Committee. a Hon. Jacoz Burnet, Chairman. | Hon. NatHan GuitrorD, ; Prof. O. M. MitcHeEL, Rosert Bucnanan, Esq. Cuar.es Stetso a Rev. Dr. Natuan L. Rice, Hon. Timotay W E. D. Mansrietp, Esq. — Prof. Horatio N. oh tie: Rt. Hae a, B. Purcett, Joun P. Poete: Esq. Dr. JosEepa Ray, Dr. J. A. Warper, Prof. Beit Situ an, Jr. Local Secretary. Dr. Toomas RaAIney. ae & We cite the following from the circular recently issued by the Local Secretary at Cincinnati: ‘The meeting of the Association will open at 3 o’clock, P.M., on Monday. The Secretary and a member of the Local Committee will be in at- tendance at the Burnet House, from Saturday until Monday afternoon, to direct members to the quarters secured for them; the Local Com- mittee having provided for the gratuitous entertainment of all members attending. | is desirable that the members, as they arrive in the cily, A should report themselves at the place above notice A book of registration will be opened at the principal place of i Places of Meeting.—All General Meetings will be held in College Hall, on Walnut street ; Section Meetings will be held in ‘iaidoous rooms in the College Building. Travelling Facilities. _-The Secretary has been enabled to secure the privilege of transit of all members of the Association, who may pass over Lake Erie, or over the railroads of Ohio, at half the usual rates. Similar courtesies will doubtless be accorded by other lines of travel ; all of which will be duly published in the public journals some weeks a val Se n — 13. Munificent Dias tion to Dartmouth College——A legacy of $50,000 has been left to Dartmouth College for founding a School of 20 oY Mr. sesetr of Boston. Mr. Chandler was a native of ord, N. H., and a graduate of Harvard in 1806. 14. Pror pr ape an and his son, Prof. Silliman, Jr., left the country on the 5th of March for England and the Continent, to return ear ly in Serum: They eached Liverpool on the 16th. _ OBITUARY. bc, 'W. B. Goupscumi0r, (from a letter as d by B. en ine of the editors of this Journal.)—Death pag been busy of lat eT as ticians n of fie ‘ ted 3c 1c a we have j ined 444 Miscellaneous Intelligence. illustrious Jacobi at Berlin. The last mail has now brought intelligence of the death of Prof. Goldschmidt, of the Gottingen Observatory. You wi doubtless be glad to give place in your Journal fora line of tribute to his memory, from one who knew and loved him well. 3. W. B. Goldschmidt was Extraordinary Professor of Astronomy in the University of Gottingen, and assistant to Gauss at the Observatory in that place ; filling in both respects the position previously occupied rof. Harding, the author of the Celestial charts, and the discoverer He was nurtured, like Jacobi, in the Hebrew faith, but his character was eminently conspicuous for the Christian virtue—love to God and man. ‘Though perhaps not a great astronomer, he was an enthusiastic and a laborious one; and in his peculiar position, rendered unquestion- ably more essential and lasting services to astronomy, than many a man whose name will occupy a more conspicuous place in the annals of science. If the earnest devotion of a life to his favorite studies, and the sincerest efforts uprightly and conscientiously to fulfill the duties assigned him in the great march of scientific progress, can give ac aim to the gratitude and remembrance of mankind, Goldschmidt’s name will be long honored by those who never knew him. It will not easily be forgotten by those whose privilege and joy it was to call him their riend. Among the scientific labors of Prof. Goldschmidt, I may mention his labors in connection with Gauss and Weber’s Resultate des Magnelis- chen Vereins, and especially in preparing the Atlas of Terrestrial Magnet- _ ism, which accompanies that work ; his discovery of the periodicity of the ’ comet generally known as “ Faye’s ;” his investigation of the minimum surfaces of rotation of curves about a fixed axis; and numerous com- m orbits. His death was like his life——quiet and peaceful. He had long suf- fered from the consequences of an enlargement of the heart; and on the morning of Feb. 15th, he was found in his bed, sleeping the sleep. : : knows no waking Witutam Srurceon.—Mr. Sturgeon, the eminent electrician, died en the 8th of December last. His researches have given his name a prominent place in the history of Science in England. Boro of hum- ble parents at Whittington, near Lancaster, in 1783 » he ticed early in life toa shoemaker. Subsequently he entered the West- moreland militia, and after two years’ service volunteered into the royal artillery, in which corps he served about twenty years. Uuring is connection with the artillery, his attention was awakened by a ter- rifie thunder-storm to thoughts on the mysterious power that was exhib- and he resolved to study its nature. Books about him and ‘thus prepa on the stu éelally the departments of electrici a stay wea ing Ons! Re Miscellaneous Intelligence. 445 mind. His contributions to science, the fruits of this preparation and of his subsequent investigations, were exceedingly numerous. The follow- ing letter from Mr. J. P. Joule of Manchester, briefly announces some of the prominent results, and with slight exceptions correctly so. “I have sifted Mr. Sturgeon’s claims to the utmost. I hav f rg with Prof. CErsted, the discovery of the electro-magnetic engine. Mr. Sturgeon’s claims with regard to the magneto-electrical machine ap- pears to me to be equally well established. |! vised and executed an apparatus for throwing the opposing currents into one direction, thus accomplishing for this Besides this, he is beyond going by the name of “commutator” on the continent, and ‘ unitrep in America; an apparatus now universally employed in every magne- to-electrical machine. Mr. Sturgeon was without doubt, the construc- tor of the first rotary electro-magnetic engine.* ; “The use of amalgamated zinc plates in the voltaic battery was or'g- inated by Mr. Sturgeon. It is an improvement of such value that it as been universally adopted ever since, although all other arrange- _ments of equal date have been superseded. ae - * Mr. Sturgeon’s discoveries in the thermo-electricity and magnetism of homogeneous bodies are very important, and have placed his name higher than that of any other philosopher who, after Seebeck, has cultivated thermo-electricity. ne; but electro- xam- 446 Bibliography. “The above is sion a very imperfect abstract of a small part of Mr. Sturgeon’s discoveries and improvements in magnetism, electricity, and the kindred sciences. Though not himself the author of exten- Ae generalizations, he has been mevlly useful in ip birine. the way d in carrying them out practically ; an now not of one individual who, under equal or even less disadvantages, has acetal so eminently to the advancement of these highly pole and useful sciences. (Signed,) James P. Jove.” Soon after he left the army, Mr. Sturgeon was nied Professor of Natural Philosophy in the Military Academy at Addiscombe, and of his means of subsistence, and he was for a while throw er sap ona peanairicus income from voluntary lectures. Less than two yea before his death he was placed by Lord John Russell on the civil i for a pension of £50 per annum. A _ biographical notice in the chester Examiner and Times, from which the facts here given are hens observes, “The death of this distinguished philosopher has created a hiatus that will not soon be filled up ; and his loss is greater to his ety in that, to great scientific attainments, he unite ed a cordiality, and w m friendliness es characte = that endeared. him to all who knew him ater e was, all respects, a fine, frank, manly fellow-—one of the great original- mide men, ere which Lancashire has produced oe many, wi of whom she may well be proud.” NcK.—This eminent botanist of the University of Berlin, died on the Ist of January last, in his 82nd year. Dr. Linck was director of the Royal Botanical Garden in Berlin. . V. BIBLIOGRAPHY. Report of the Secretary of ie wed on the Coast Survey, Saal Treasury Depariment, Feb. Report of Prof. Alexander D. orn tan YOO © of the Coast: a Survey, showing the progress of the work for the year ending October: 1850. ization Be all the » clinianey sie can be ions d the ng. hide a ihe ay, ihm ) vg propriate sp this Bibliography. AAT * Under this organization three-eights of the coast of the Atlantic and f hese an a forcible light, and due honor is bestowed upon the present illustrious ead of the Coast Survey, who is preéminently fitted for the situation he holds. The Report of the Hon. Secretary of the Treasury will have a hearty response from all who regard the true welfare and honor of the country. The Report by Prof. Bache contains much information of interest tant Papers in Scientific Journals, Reports, etc. ; edited by Davip Wetts, A. M., of the Lawrence Scientific School, Cambridge, and GeorceE Buss, Jr.—428 pages, 12mo. Boston, 185). Gould & Lin- “try occupy the next 150 pages; Geology, Zoology and Botany about 120 pages, and Astronomy, Meteorology, Geography and Antiquities . This work is one of the most important h the country which has been 5 By = = ce. 3. Principles of Zoology, touching the Structure, Developement, Distribution and Natural Arrangement of the Races of Animals, living and €xtinct, with numerous illustrations. Part 1, Comparative Physi- ‘ r Z of Dr. Goul of which itstreats. i familiar with the miputest detailsy sau -y ge . eg ig, i en r a ‘ to a i ete oe me % oud Apia re ae ‘ _ biographical notice of the Author. Tranale ted ae the French. b 448 Bibliography. Smithsonian Institution Publications —The Smithsonian Institu- be under the wise policy which has been adopted, and the general knowledge. The amount of money nodes ieee’ in the occ has however limited much the means of the Institution. Still the increase of the library and the fcinanion of memoirs are going hewn The following i is a list of its er enaratd from Prof. Baird :— I. In Quarto.—-(1.) Ancient Monuments of the pene Valley, forming Vol. 1, of the Smithsonian Coniediiations to Know (2.) Researches relative to aos nti a SEAMS C. Wanxe, (3.) Ephemeris of Neptune for 1848 1849, (4. ) f 66 “6 (5. ) “c 66 1850, 6 “ (6. ) 6“ 66 1851, “ se (7.) Occultations for 1848. Computed by Joun Downes. (8. ) 66 1849, 6 “s Rs 1850. “ “ ie 1851. “ “ ne (11.) On the Vocal Sounds of Laura Bridgeman, by Dr. Francis IEBER (12.) On Wa Physical Geography of the Mississippi Valley, by — Etter, Jr. (13. = Raaeesiien and the allied Genera, by Dr. R. W. G1BBEs. eat Abort nal Monuments of the State of New York, by E. G. UIE ie oe of Soundings made by the U. 8. Coast Survey, by . W. Baltey. Hid ie puapeasea made in the Southern States, by Paks a W. Baitey. (15.) On the Explosiveness of Nitre, by Dr. Har e > The preceding, excepting 1, 3, 7, 8, 9, constitute the second volar 4 of Smithsonian Contributions 6.) Hints on Public Architeeture; by R. D. Owen, Esq. was published by the Building Committee, but is not one of the se of Contributions. Il. In Octavo.—-Annual Reports for 1846, 1847, 1848, pete nthe ress.) Report on the Discovery of Neptune, by Dr. B. A Goutpy Jr. Several 4to. Memoirs are in hand and will be put to _ a + = et * science 5. ‘An Elementary Treatise on Statics ; by GasPARD Sense a a Tey 216] y] =o * oe ga Bibliography. 449 6. Rainey’s Improved Abacus: An explanatory treatise on the Theory and Practice of Arithmetic and Mensuration; by Tuomas Rainey. 313 pp. 16mo. Cincinnati, 1850, E. D. Truman.—-This is a work of practical value in all kinds of calculations in mercantile and every day life. Thirty pages are devoted to figures of coins. 7. Lichenes Americe Septentrionalis Exsiccati. Fascic. I. and IL} curante Epvarpo Tuckerman, A.M., Cambridge, Mass.—This vol- ume is in fact a herbarium of Lichens in small 4to, labelled through- 8. The Old Red Sandstone or New Walks in an Old Field ; by Hvex Miter, author of “ Footprints of the Creator,” &c. From the 4th London edition ; 288 pp. 12mo, illustrated by numerous engravings. Boston: 1851. Gould & Lincoln.—-Science has never been rendered more entertaining than in the works of Hugh Miller: and it is not an extraneous entertainment, but that proceeding from the exalted character and interest of the subject itself, through the ‘workings of a mind that hi ; oe