THE S * wt 


AMERICAN JOURNAL 
a til 


SCIENCE AND ARTS. 


CONDUCTED BY 
PROFESSORS B. SILLIMAN, B. SILLIMAN, Jr, 
AND 
JAMES D. DANA, 
IN CONNECTION WITH 


PROF. ASA GRAY, or CAMBRIDGE, 

PROF. LOUIS AGASSIZ, or CAMBRIDGE, ~ 
DR. WALDO I. BURNETT, or BOSTON, | 
DR. WOLCOTT GIBBS, or NEW YORK. | 


SECOND SERIES. 


VOL. XVII.—MAY, 1854. 


Printed by B. L. Hamten—Printer to Yale Goll 


‘ae 


CONTENTS OF VOLUME XVII. 


NUMBER XLIX. 
Page. 
Art. I. Eulogy on Von Buch; by Professor Corra, - 1 
II. Extracts from the Report on the Geology of the Lake Supe. 
rior Land District; by J. W. Fosrer, and J. D. Wuirney, ll 


Ill. Analysis of Tin Pyrites; by Dr. J. W. Matter, - 33 
IV. Notice of the Hail Storm which passed over New York City, 
on the first of July, 1853; by Professor Ex1as Loomis, 35 


V. Description of a Tertiary Rainbow; by Cuartes Hartwett, 56 
VI. The Earl of Rosse’s Telescopes, and their Revelations in the 

Sidereal Heavens; by Rev. W. Scoresby, D.D.,F.R.S.,etc., 58 
VII. Researches on the Development of Lad ola anet ; by 


Watpo I. Burnett, M.D., - . 
VII. Mineralogical Contributions ; by ome D. Si - src 2B 
IX. Reviews and Records in sige 43 and Pat tee oe 
Watpo I. Burnett, - 89 
X. Biography of Berzelius; by Pfofiscor H. Sone, : - 108 


XI. Correspondence of M. Jerome Nicxtts—Obituary: Frangois 
Arago, 113.—Academy of Sciences: Views on the origin of 
terrestrial magnetism, 116.—Artificial magnets: Ascen- 
sional force of Balloons in water, 118.—Manufacture of Sal- 
ammoniac from the residues of gas works: Separation of 
bromine from iodine: Artificial Silicification of limestones, 
119.—Vitrification of Photographic pictures: Photographic 
Portraits 6n linen cloth: Pyrogallic acid in wood vinegar, 120. 


SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 


Chemistry and Physics.—On the polarization of light by refraction through a metal: Ad- 
ditional experiments on the internal dispersion of light, 121.—On Chemical affinity : 
: Den- 


Oil: Constitution of Butter, 124.—Preparation of Hoe ae Acid: ; 
of Nickel from Cobalt: On a general method of volumetric analysis, ee ides 
metric determination of manganese, 126.—Vessels ie the preservation of fluohydric 


iv CONTENTS. 


Mineralogy and Geology.—Parophite : Crystalline limestone of the Vosges: Pyromeride 
of the Vosges, 127. Deh owes from the trap of Isle Royal: Oxyd of Zinc: Crystal- 
lized Furnace Products: Fibrous amianthoid ae a furnace product from West- 
phalia: Dolomite : aaaaanes: Minerals :—Pinite after Labradorite, 128 —Karpho- 
lite after Wolfram: On Serpentine after is: Mende, pp Tag ae aly a 
On White lead ore after Linarite: On the waters of the Great Salt Lak cky Moun- 
tains, by Dr. L. D. Gate: On the waters of the Warm aa Hot tities : >alt Lake 
City, by Dr. L. D. Gate: Analyses of several native Borates, by Prof. Becut, viz., 
Lagonite, Hayesine, Borax, Larderellite, 129.—On Melan-Asphalt, by C. M. WETHER- 
LL: Thalia, 130.—A new Meteorite from Tennessee, by Prof. J. Lawrence Situ: 
On the Identity of Owenite and Thuringite, by Prof. J. Lawrence Smita: On the 
probable depth of the Ocean of the European Chalk Deposits, by Prof. H. D. Rogers, 
131. 


Botany and Zoology.—Salad for the Solitary, by an Epicure, 132.—Lindley, The Vegeta- 
ble ——— or the Structure, Classification and Uses of Plants: De Candolle’s Pro- 
us: Observations on the habits of certain Crawfishes, by Dr. R. P. Stevens, 133. 


Miscellaneous Intelligence—On the Earthquake at — of Sept. 16, 1852, 135 —The 
Koh-i-noor Diamond, by Prof. Tennant, |36.—Abstract of a Meteorological Register, 
kept at Knoxville, Tennessee, by O. W. Morais, 139. be the Binocular Microscope, 
and the Stereoscopic Pictures of Microscopic Objects, by Prof. C. WurarsTonE, F.R.S., 
140.—On the periodic and non-periodic variations of Temperature at Toronto in Canada 
from 1841 to 1852 inclusive, by Colonel Epwarp Sasine, R.A., 143.—On a 
Laws in the larger Magnetic Disturbances, by Capt. Youncuussanp, R.A 
—Mode of Determining the Optical Power of a Microscope, by Prof. haces, ae -- 
On an Instrument for taking Soundings, by F. Maxwextui Lyte, Esq., 149.—Lonis 
Semann: Cabinet of Minerals for sale: Obituary—James E. TescueMacuEr: Die 
K reidebildunge en von Texas, und irhe organischen Einschliise, von Dr. Ferp. RoEMER, 
150. er Map of Keweenaw Point, Lake Superior, Michigan, by J. D. WuitT- 
ney: People’s Journal, 151 


List of Works, 152. 


NUMBER L. 


Page. 
Arr. XII. On the Elastic Force of Heated Air, considered as a ? 


Motive Power; by Prof. Freprricx A. P. BaRNarD, - 
XIII. Researches on Globuliferous Rocks ; by M. Detessr, - 168 
XIV. Examination of some Deep Soundings from the Atlantic 


Ocean ; by Prof. J. W. Baitey, : 176 
XV. On some New Localities of Fossil pee in California 
and Oregon ; by Prof. J. W. Batrey, - 179 


XVI. Analysis of Beryl from Goshen, Mass. ; by Dr. J. Ww. errs 180 
XVIL. On the soon System of the Lake peri Region ; by 
James Hau - 181 
XVIII. On the rasa fetaitias of Wittal asi Hydrogen ; 
by T.S. Hunt, - ‘ 194 


CONTENTS. v 
Page. 
XIX. Notice of a Geological Map of the United States and the 
British Provinces of North America, by J. Marcou, - 199 
XX. On the Chemical Composition of the minerals ikck em 
Apatite; by J. D. Wairney, - 206 
XXI. Contributions to Chemical Mincretogy: : by sete D. tisk 210 
II. On Microscopes with large Angles of Aperture; by Dr. 
E. D. Norra, - : - - : - - - 221 
XXIII. Further Notes on Cereus giganteus of Southeastern Cali- 
fornia, with a short account of another allied sponse in So- 
nora; by Dr. Georce ENGELMANN, : - - 231 
XXIV. On the Composition of Recent and Fossil Sangean, and 
some other shells; by W. E. Logan, F.R.S., and T. S. Hunt, 235 
XXV. Ona new Meteorite from New Mexico; by Dr. F.A. Gent, 239 
XXVI. Introductory Essay, in Dr. Hooker’s Flora of New Zealand, 241 
XXVII. On the relations which exist between Friction and Pres- 
by M. J. Nicxés, . 252 
XXVIIL. itnareet of a Meteorological Seca for io year - 1853, 
kept at Marietta, Ohio; by S. P. Hitpreru, M.D., - = 355 
XXIX. On the Eye and the Organ of Hearing in the Blind Fishes 
of the Mammoth Cave ; by Jerrries Wyman, M.D., - 258 
XXX. Additional Note to Researches on the Development of the 
Viviparous Aphides ; by W. I. Burnerr, M.D., : - 261 
XXXI. Correspondence of M. Jerome Nickuzs—Academy of 
Sciences; Election of a Perpetual Secretary, 262.—Publi- 
cation of the works of Arago and Laurent, 263.—Death of 
Theodore Olivier: On the Proximate principles of Bran of 
Wheat, 264.—On the Ammonia contained in Rain-water :- 
Heating of Wire by the Voltaic Current, 265.—Various 
Memoirs, 266.—Chemical reactions effected under the influ- 
ence of High Pressure: Heating Apparatus, 267.—Eco- 
‘nomical Manufacture of Bi-chromate of Potash, 269.—Pho- 
tography, 270.—On four new Quinquinas, 271. 
Arrenpix.—Notice of a collection of Fishes from the southern 
bend of the Tennesseé River, Alabama; by L. Acassiz, 297 


SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 


Chemistry and Physics. —Bartlett's Elements of Analytical Mechanics, 271.—Dars ted 
der Secalehn und optische Studien von H. W. Dové: Einleitung in die hé 
Optik von Dr. Aucusr Beer, 272.—Die Lehre von der Reibungselektricitiit von PD as: 
Ress, 273—On the Absolute Zero of the Perfect Gas Thermometer, by W. J. er 
Quorn Ranxive, Esq.: Aridium, by Campari Morrit and James C. tiie A 


fh - 


is 


. 


vi CONTENTS. 


Note to J. D. Dana’s Contributions to Chemical Mineralogy: On the Production of 
Crystalline Structure in Crystallized Powders, by Compression and Traction, by Sir 
Davip Brewster, K.H., D.C.L., F.R.S., etc., 275. 


—On the Gold Fields of Victoria or Port Philip, by H. G. Watuen, Esq., 279.— 
i the Structure of Agate, by THEoporE GUMBEL, 284. 


Botany and Zoloogy—Fungi Caroliniani + ypne by H. W. RaveneL: Comparative 
Anatomy, by C. Ta. v. Sresoup and nius. Translated from the German and 
Edited with Notes and Additions, by Watne a Burnett, M.D., 285. 


Astronomy.—New Planet Euterpe : New Comet, 286. 
Miscellaneous Intellig Contrib to Met y CHARLEs SMALLWoopD,M.D., 
287.— Tornado in Kaus Co., Ohio, Jan. 20, 1854: ios in Photography, 290.— 
Fishes of Northern New York—Frozen Fish, 291—American Association for the Ad- 
vancement of Science: Cabinet of Minerals for Sale ¥ Cameroceras trentonense and 
Orthis bora pare aryl ied . Tes chemacher. , 292 —O utline of the Geology 
G 


Epwarp Bideanett DD., icroscope in its special shite to Veg: 
etable Anatomy and Physiology, ee Dr. Hermann Scuacut. Translated b 

ERIcK Currey, Esq. M.A: Explanations and Sailing Directions, to accompany the 
Wind and Current Charts, by M. F. Maury, LL.D., Lieut. U.S. N., 295.—The Annals 
of Science, conducted by Hamriton L. Surru, A.M. : Sicslinniain of the American 
Philosophical Society, Philadelphia, 296 


ws 
> 
& 
¥ 


NUMBER LI, 


Arr. XXXII. The Primitive Diversity and number of Animals in 
Geological Times; by L. Agassiz, - - 309 
XXXIIL. New Localities of Meteoric Iron; by pe eee 
SHEPARD, - 325 
XXXIV. Sie of Co ia ae gee County 
Georgia; by Prof. J. E. Winter, - - 331 
XXXV. On ee anew Mineral Species ; by R. Fr; Gave, 
ats 333 
— ator Essay in Os Hooker’ s Flora of New Zea. 
and, - 334 
xX Boake on the Mineral species heen by c¥ s. 
351 


Sieve Wales of a Balizsties of Fishes abs the aie 
bend of the Tennessee River, Alabama; by L. Acassiz, - 352 
Appenpix.—Additional Notes on the Holeonoti, - - 365 
XXXIX. Observations on the Development of the ‘Surinam 
Toad” (Pipa Americana) ; by Jerrrigs Wyman, M.D., - 369 
XL. Researches on the Development and intimate Structuré of 
the Renal Organs of the four bem of the A gad ed 
W. I. Burnert, M.D.,. -- « Se - 374 


CONTENTS. Vii 


XLI. The Numerical Relation between the Atomic Weights, 
with some Thoughts on the Classification of the Chemical 
Elements; by Prof. Jostan P. Cooxs, Jz., A.M., — - - 387 

CorresPonbDENCcE.—Extract from a letter from Dr. W. I. Bur- 
NETT to Prof. J. D. Dana, 407.—Correspondence of M. Jz- 
ROME Nicxiis—Award of Prizes by the Academy of Sci- 
ences, 412.—Deaths and Academic Elections: Zoological 
Society for the Acclimation of Animals: Artificial Produc- 
tion of Pleochroism in Crystallized Substances, 414.—De- 
rivatives of nitrotartaric acid: On the gluten of wheat, 415. 
—Natural History of Lupulin, 416.—Various Communica- 
tions: Industrial Photometry, 417.—On forming vessels of 
gold by the aid of phosphorus: Gilding of Silk, &c.: Local 
anesthesis, 418.—Influence of bismuth on the ductility of 
Copper: On the bronze employed in sheathing ships, 419.— 
Traité des Poisons, ou Toxicologie appliquée a la Medicine 
legale, etc., par le Docteur Cu. Fuanpin: Traité de l’Elec- 
tricité théorique et appliquée, par Auc. pe ra Rive: Mé- 
canique Analytique par Lacranee: Lecons sur la Theorie 
mathematique de l’élasticité des corps solides, par Lamz: 
La régle a calcul expliquée, etc., par Benarr, 420. 


SCIENTIFIC. INTELLIGENCE. 


Chemistry and Physics.—Artificial production of polychroism in crystallized mem 
421.—Rate of transmission of impressions made upon the nerves, 422.—Pre n of 
large crystals of sulphate of jodo- -quinine for optical purposes: On the law of mean 
in magnetic and paramagnetic substances, 423.—On the laws of the attraction of elec- 
tro-magnets, 424.—Identity of Niobium and Pelopium, 425.—Preparation and Properties 
of metallic Aluminum : Preparation of Aluminum og electric deposition, 427,—On the 
arsen-ethyls: On the alcohol of benzoic acid, 428.—Formation of nitruret of benzoyl 

m hippuric acid : On the exhibition of the fixed lines of the solar spectrum with ordi- 
dary flint glass prisms, by Oapen N. Roop, 4 


Mineralogy an d Geology.—Appendix to Observations on the Homcomorphism of some 
Mineral ee, by James D. Dana, 430.—On Descloizite, a new Mineral Species, by 
M. A. Damour, 434.—Ancient Lake in the Colorado Desert, 435.—Quicksilver Mine of 
aaa California, by W. P. Buaxr, 438,—Conistonite, 440. 


Botany an Zoology.—On the Age of the pee Tree recently felled in California, by A. 
Gray, ve a de Gow Plantarum Glumacearum, auctore E. G. SreupEen: Lindley’s Fo- 
lia Orchidacea : Epistole Caroli a Linné ad Bernardum de Jussieu Inedite, et mutuse 


Bernardi ‘a Lien: 443.—Localities and Habits of certain species of Insects, &c., 
by J.P. Kirtrann, 444, baie 


Astronomy.—Comet V, 1853, 444,—Obituary, Prof. A. C. Petersen, 445, je a : 


Vill CONTENTS. 


Miscellan ntelligence.—Abstract of Meteorological Observations made at Burlington, 
Vt., in 1853, by Z. Tuompson, 445.—Extract of a letter from Col. J. C. Fremont, respect- 
ing his Explorations for the route of a Railroad to the Pacific, 447.—On the Action of Al- 
kalies on Rocks, by M. De.esse, 450.—On the Prosopite of Scheerer, by James D. 
Dana: Geological Survey of Tennessee, 452.—Telegraphic Longitude at Brussels: The 
World of Science, Art and Industry, illustrated from examples in the New York Exhi- 
bition, 1853, °54, edited by Prof. B. Siuuiman, Jr., and C. R. Gooprics, E hi 
Electro-Magnetic Telegraph, by Lawrence Turnsutt, M.D., 453.— 
Mechanical Theory of Storms, by T. Bannetr: Fownes’ Chemistry for Students: A 
Manual of British Mineralogy, by R. P Grea, F.G.S., and W. G. 

Is and my Schoolmasters, or, the Story of my Education, by Hucu MiLLer : An- 
nual of Scientific Discovery: Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, 454. 


List of Works, 455 
Index, 456. 


ERRATA. 

In part of the edition, (No. 50,) 1. 10 from bottom, enatica, read O. erratica 
P. 211, 1.10  botto m fora, ead CaP. 2817 fre oni eee: 4, read 1: a1: hk 
—P, 240, tot hy pen tage add, phosphorus 0-21. 

P, 240, 1. 1 6 from op, for tartaric acid, read titanic acid. 

Pa 3:27 

NE a Pienaar 

P. 333, 1. 10 oe ii nr tient for Mr. read Dr. 


4 


AMERICAN e. 


JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. 


[SECOND SERIES.] 


Arr. L—Eulogy on Von Buch; by Professor Corra of Freiberg.* 


Ar?Freiberg on the 19th of March was held a funeral festival 
in honor of Leoroip von Bucn, the most sii geologist of 
our time, who died in Berlin on the 4th o 

At 7 o’clock, p.m., the scientific andience pitch ontir in the Wer- 
nerian Hall of the Academy of Mines, which unfortunately did 
not possess extent enough to allow of ‘the unusual attendance of 
the public at large. Professor Heuchler had decorated the ceno- 
taph with the coat of arms and portrait of the deceased. Fittin 
geological specimens surrounded its base, which all had especial 


fessor Pee ae ac vga translation of an en ip 0 
have 


Ss t 
_ itis taken from the Leipzig “ Illustrirti ti Zeitung of A pil 9th, where the proceed- 
ings at length, with the illustrations, are giv speech on the part of the stu- 
dents I have left out; and you also omit if po better, the introductory 


remarks of deg cay aa the translation. I have translated the 
address t give: rtrait of the remarkable man by one who knew 
him intimately, we also ‘that his abors may be better known ecoet they perhaps are 
in America, where he desired so much in his latter days to go, and of whose munifi- 


was 
young again to ao there: and Seuite eile If to the development 
a Thave the honor to be, Sir, your ob’t serv't, 


Royal Saxon Acad, of Mines, Freiberg, dane — 1853. 
—— 4 854. 


2 Prof. Cotta’s Eulogy on Von Buch. 


teference to his scientific labors—such as ammonites and tere- 
bratulas, lava masses aud other eruptive rocks, jurassic limestone, 
aud chalk, druses of crystals and fossil leaves from the brown coal. 

The mining and smelting officers of the crown, the professors 
of the Academy, in uniform, together with the students, at present 
uncommonly numerous even from the most distant foreign lands, 
filled the academic halls. 


Professor Breirnaurt first ascended the tribune and opened 
the exercises with the following remarks :— 


Honored Friends! An aged, venerated and lordly oak in the 
German grove of science has fallen. Leopold von Buch is no 
more! Deeply do we feel this painful loss, the more deeply, as 
we may justly say, that in many respects, he belonged especially 
to us. Already in 1790 he was matriculated at the Academy of 
Mines at this place, and here his gifted genius laid the foundation 
of its subsequent comprehensive attainments. He ever remained 
true and attached to his alma mater, kindly communicating the 
rich fruits of his profound observations and investigations, and 
supporting without intermission a friendly intercourse with the 
literati of Freiberg. Only three years since, at Werner’s festival 
held at this place, where he was the foremost ornament among 
those then present, he proved his old and honorable attachments 
by a noble act of munificence. To such a man are we in duty 
bound to pay a public token of our reverent acknowledgment 
and of our warmest thanks; and for that purpose are we here 
to-day convened—at this festival to his memor 

Through Professor Cotta we shall forthwith learn how much 
and what signal service the great geognost and geologist has reu- 
dered to science. The extent of Von Buch’s merit will ever 
cause his name to shine forth bright and brighter asa star of the 
first magnitude, not alone in Germanic literature, but also where- 
ever his favorite science may find a votary. By ws can he never 
be forgotten—to us he will be ever peculiarly near and dear. 


Then followed the eulogy by Professor Corra. 
We stand here before the manes and before the portrait of a 


man who devoted his whole life to Nature—of a man who once 
was F'reiberg’s and Werner’s scholar, and whose 


f mining life. 

Leopold Baron von Buch was born on the 26th of April, 1774, 
probably at the old ancestral castle of the family at Stolpe, in the 
Uckermark in Prussia. Scarcely 16 years of age, he entered, on 
the 10th June, 1790, Freiberg’s walls, where, under Werner’s 
especial guardianship, and partially in own house, he spent 


Prof. Cotia’s Eulogy on Von Buch. 3 


three years. Here it was, that an intimate and long enduring 
friendship was formed between him, Alexander v. Humboldt, 
and Carl Freisleben. After the completion of his mining stud- 
jes, he it was who most of all next to von Humboldt gave origin 
to that beautiful saying of d’Aubuisson de Voisin, that “* Werner’s 
disciples scattered themselves over every land and interrogated 
Nature as to her import from pole to pole.” He also it was, how- 
ever, who first of all brought back a negative answer from these 
wanderings. He went forth into the worid a true and convinced 
disciple ; soon, however, fact after fact accumulated before his 
clear vision, till he was convinced, at first, doubtless, painfully 
convinced, that his much loved master must have erred in one 
fundamental point. 

We all are subject to error; and those who come after us will 
certainly know more, and know it much better, than we. It can 
therefore on that account never be made a subject of reproach to 
a disciple, that he has given up the system of his master from 
conviction ; and it were also the worst way of honoring great 
men, to say nothing of its opposition to the spirit of true science, 
were we blindly to cling to all of their errors. On the contrary 
the acknowledgment of an error, or the discovery of a new 
truth on the part of the disciple, is ever a proof of the ability of 
bo The master has awakened a spirit of independent investi- 
gation—the disciple, by that, has laid down a proof of his own 
impartiality and of his independence. And never can a disciple 
m such a case act with more delicacy and forbearance against a 
master than did v. Buch, who never meanly attacked the odd, but 
on the contrary presented the new only with more convincing 

Wer, & 


L. v. Buch wandered over,—and that too mostly on foot, as it 
behooves a naturalist to do,—one after another, not only all the 
Mountain chains of Germany, the’ Alps from Nice to Vienna, the 
Appenines from Turin to their most southern spurs, the hilly 
chains of England and the highlands of Scotland, but he was 
almost as much at home in France asin Germany. He traversed 
again and again the Pyrenees, climbed the summit of Aitna, and 
the sublime Peak of Teneriffe. He had early wandered among 
the crystalline mountains of Scandinavia, and late in life even, 
When almost an old man, he wandered all over the Highlands of 
Greece, till then better known to the philologist than to the 
geologist. Everywhere, even where he only transiently tarried, 
he left behind him, as v. Humboldt says, luminous and radiant 
footsteps. 

_ ‘Thus was he ever, year after year, up to his advanced old age 
to the very end of his days, on journeys. In eariy summer he 
Wandered forth, an y with the storms of autumn did 
turn to his neat ¢ oor study on t of the: 


ve 


4 Prof. Cotta’s Eulogy on Von Buch. 


where a cheerful shaper establishment surrounded the worker, 
with nothing however of that luxury which might have been 
expected from a man ik his rank and opulence. The faithful 
Mrs. Baumgarten—known to almost every geologist—had been 
for more than twenty years his only attendant; and it very often 
happened that he himself opened the door to the one who rang. 

ere it a stranger who then had come, and asked, “Is Mr. v. Buch 
at home ?”—he received an answer according to circumstances— 


“T will see’”’—or, ‘“‘ what do yon wish of him”—or, * No.” Evena 
well known ete ae he sometimes also asked, “To whom 
do you come? r, began immediately even in the partal the con- 


Suasaiinemieia's with a question—on some determiuate sci- 
entific subject. Once, while I was engaged in the geological 
survey of Thuringia, and visited him, he asked, even in the 
house-door, “ Now does Ammonites semipartitus occur also in 
Eichsfeld ?” 

I have purposely made mention of these apparently insignifi- 
cant circumstances, because they characterize the man, and be- 
cause the last especially, shows the great activity of his mind, 
which, in moments of the greatest surprise, forthwith and omit- 
ting sit introductory phrase, began at ounce at the very heart 
of the subject—at all times interesting to the new comer. How- 
ever, a 2 shall soon have occasion to speak of many peculiarities 
which not a little characterized the departed. 

Permit me next to cast a glauce at what science has. gained 
from his life and genius. It would engage our attention for 


indebted to him, who also in the departments of natural science 
as elsewhere, has given manifold proofs of a geniug deep search- 
ing into the very heart of things. Tor it is especially character- 
istic of his labors, that he never lingered over trivialities, but 
knew how to discern at a glatice the essential from the unessen- 
tial, to render the characteristic distinctly characteristic, and to 
seek out the true connection of phenomena. It is less difficult 
even for an acknowledged obtuser mind, to make numerous and 
accurate observations, than through these to discern the legiti- 
mate in nature. This latter gil, paneer was lent to L. v. Buch 
in a degree possessed only by t 

The copiousness of his dee however, will make it ne- 
cessary for me to limit ores at this time, to those alone, which 
appear the most importan 

He it was who first of all in Germany proved with precision that 
the disturbance of the — relations in the deposition of strata 
cannot be explained alone by events on the surface, but that 
these have had in an cases a deep seated subterranean, plutonic 
or volcanic origin. e showed by little and little that not only 
the basalt, but “also Pig other crystalline massive rocks have been 


Prof. Cotia’s Eulogy on Von Buch. 5 


pressed upward from below in a molten condition like lava; and 
that by these same reactions of the earth’s interior, the elevation 
of mountain chains, and of whole districts of country have been 
brought about. 

He first directed attention to the determinate, and often recipro- 
cally parallel, direction of lineal mountain chains, or extensive dis- 
locations of strata. He distinguished four principal lines of eleva- 
tion in Germany, upon which generalization Elie de Beanmont 
afterwards building, founded his artificial system of mountain 
lines, which, however, in its last form was not admitted even by 
L. v. Buch himself. He was the first of all to show that the 
large volcanoes had had their origin not alone from the simple 
heaping upon one another of lava streams and loose ejected 
masses, bnt that they had been elevated to a higher altitnde 
together with the consolidated masses before present. In this 
manner he distinguished craters of elevation, and craters of erup- 
tion; and if in this last division he may in isolated cases have 
gone too far, still the most essential part of his doctrine will 
always remain of the highest importance. 

Having once had his attention directed to the effects of volca- 
nic activity, he investigated the mode of distribution of volcanoes 
upon the earth, registered upon charts all known ones, and show- 
ed that they were distributed partially in groups and partially in 
linesof which the last mentioned evidently were arranged upon 
long extended lineal cracks in the earth’s crust. These investi- 
gations were first communicated in his splendid work on the Ca- 
nary Islands. 

Besides the local effects of the present voleanic activity as it is 
there developed where active volcanoes exist on the earth’s sur- 
ace, he early recognized also the effects of this same force in its 
more universal and less distinctly remarked phases. e it was 
Who first of all in Germany proved that the continuons remarka- 
ble changes of level on many of the Baltic coasts cannot have 
their origin, as was generally believed to be the case, in the siuk- 
ing of the sea, but that they are to be explained only by a grad- 
ual secular elevation of a great partof Sweden. And this view 

as since then been established beyond a doubt by an earlier op- 
poser of it, Sir Charles Lyeil. 

Twill not linger long over his‘theory on the part which the 
Melaphyre has played, and its influence on the formation of Do- 
lomite, becanse this of all of his new views is perhaps most sub- 
Jected to doubt. But even if this whole hypothesis should fall 
to the gronnd, still it was at any rate put forth with so much 
Spirit and ingenuity, that it earned and obtained at the time, the 
highest attention, aud in the most lively manner drew the atten- 
tion of others to new investigations. In general the beautiful, 


‘vely and convincing mauner of representation in all + Be 


i 


ey 


6 Prof. Cotta’s Eulogy on Von Buch. 


labors is not the least part of their merit. In so simple and clear 
a style can no one write who is not perfectly master of his sub- 
ject. Somewhat characteristic of him is it also, that he always 
shunned all references in the text, and with right, for they never 
belong to the embellishments of a book. They are generally 
only a consequence of the fact that the author is not able to spin 
out into one thread all that he would say, or that he has hung 
them on to prove his erudition, or they are entirely superfluous 
and do not belong to the subject. As they are impossible in the 
flowing speech, they should also be avoided as far as possible 
in Written productions. 

During the period of his long scientific career, occurred the 
discovery of the true meaning and the geological worth of or- 
ganic remains; which till then had been looked upon as unes- 
sential things and had been but little noticed. Scarcely was 


cameration and at the same time pointed out the peculiar laws 0 
their development, which for primeval zoology and for geology 
has become alike equally important. 

e next turned his attention—ever seizing first of all upon 
what was at the time most important—to the genera Terebratula, 
Spirifer, and Productus, which, as paleontological remains, are 


of life of those remarkable animals. In a similar manner he later 
elucidated the Cystidea—a remarkable division of the Radiata— 
while earlier he had already described, in a splendid work. the 
fossils collected in America by Alexander von Humboldt and Ch. 

egenhard, in these cases animating by his genius those long 


extinct forms of a primeval world as if they were still sporting © 


amid the living. 

The study of Organic Remains, which has given to geology an 
entirely new direction, also led him, who first introduced the con- 
ception of characteristic fossils for formations, to the more precise 


RASS ore Ph ctu SREY Lewitt nw a las aE 


ae 


Prof. Cotta’s Eulogy on Von Buch. 7 


of land and water in this part of the world at that time. He also 
subsequently showed, that the depositions at the period of the 
chalk—at least its organisms—are limited to a determinate zone 
of the earth’s surface, extending, neither in the old world nor 
the new, beyond 60° of north or south latitude, which, if con- 
firmed, will be the oldest proof of a division of zones upon our 


anet. 

Last of all, the deposition and distribution of the brown coal 
formation in Germany as well also as that of the chalk of North 
America engaged his attention. With the investigation of the 
former were connected peculiar studies of a botanic nature which 
had also occupied him for many years, but which he had now so 
far perfected as to bring their result to bear ypon the subject in 
question. The fossil impression of dicotyledonous leaves, whose 
exact determination is often extremely difficult, led him to the 
study of the living forms of leaves. He rested seldom under 
the shadow of a tree without accurately observing the structure 
of its leaves and numbering their nerves. He collected hundreds 
in a small herbarium and by continued comparison succeeded in 
discovering a determinate law in the arrangement of their nerves, 
according to which all leaves arrange themselves under the four 
divisions of “ Randlaufer, Bogeulaufer, Spitzlaufer, and Saum- 


Here permit me to leave the succession of weightier and in 
part more brilliant discoveries, for which the physical sciences, and 
especially geology, whose reformer he was, are indebted to him 
to return once more to the personal, where I may not and cannot 
avoid a more subjective representation, inasmuch as I have had 
the fortune of not being a stranger to him, and in many ways 
know his high manly worth. 

You all may have heard doubtless of many a peculiarity of L. 
Vv. Buch, who at times under a stern exterior, always, however, 
bore a deeply sensitive and noble heart. Great men are seldom 
without sharply defined and deeply stamped peculiarities, and 
these then belong obviously to the full completion of the portrait. 

The custom of performing all his journeys as far as possible on 
foot, without guide, without knapsack, in black dress coat, and 
tound hat, in shoes and (formerly silk) stockings, all of which ar- 
ticles of dress being often from the hardships of the journey far 
more jaded than their bearer, brought him many a time in pecu- 
liar couflict with travellers, police authorities and landlords, from 
Which, of course, by intellectual superiority and a good passport, 
he ever came off at last victorious. Hundreds of original anec- 
dotes which have happened to him on his journeys are known. 
He himself appeared not unwilling even to relate them, and much 
as he was accustomed also to’ be importuned by such misunder- 
standings, still one can scarcely believe that he always shunned 

em. 


8 Prof. Cotta’s Eulogy on Von Buch. 


He never communicated in advance, when and where he should 
travel; and even as he began his extensive journey to the Ca- 
nary Islands, no one in Berlin had the least intimation of it before 
his departure. The mechanician who had to construct his ba- 
rometer, could only conclude that he meant to ascend to high alti- 
tudes, as it must be arranged for the determination of heights of 
14,000 feet. 

I believe myself not to be inexperienced in wandering on foot, 
but I must however acknowledge, that I was right glad late one 
evening to have reached the terminus as we once sixteen years 
ago, wandered thirty-five miles over the mountains from Schan- 


dau to ‘Tharand. We halted for refreshment but once on the 


way, at a spring whose waters we quaffed from the goblet of 
Diogenes. Instead of stopping at an inn to rest, he halted with 
pleasure but once in a beautiful spot in the freedom of nature, 
but even there not without investigating a stone or a leaf in the 
meanwhile. At such a time he once said, “If we contemplate 
with attention any one subject of Nature, we can always find 
something new in it, should it have been investigated and de- 
scribed ever so often.” 

In this way he generally travelled, seeking however of course 
at evening as good an inn as possible, with whose signs and char- 
acters in the greatest part of Europe there was scarely any one so 
well acquainted as he. ‘ee 

, when in a distant land, winter surprised him, then indeed 
the way home on foot was no more practicablé. To travel with 
strangers however, in a stage-coach, was to him, on account o 
the possibility of coming in contact with a smoker, fundamentally 
out of the question. e therefore, before railroads were known, 
used in every case to purchase his own waggon and with extra 
post horses return home. But now as he did not possess the gift 
of selling these again in Berlin, whole collections of all sorts of 
travelling vehicles here collected on his hands, until at length 
some relative resolved upon selling them for him. But enough 
of these peculiarities, which easily could be communicated in 
much greater numbers. They often form, however, only the 
original exterior of one of the noblest hearts. 

Unmarried as he always was, and notwithstanding his being 
ever on journeys, L. v. Buch made use for himself of not the half 
of his large income. Believe not however in the least, that he 
hoarded up or collected the other half! He collected only the med- 
als of creation, none stamped by the hand of man. He supported 
what appeared to him worthy of support, with a lavish hand, and 
that too without having it easily remarked. Not alone in the 
cause of science, but also in the purest philanthropy, he expended, 
doubtless, thousands yearly. I myself have seen him moved to 
tears at the misfortune of another, and I know the satisfaction of 


he 


a a sealing 


eesti 


NS IO Sy (SR 


Prof. Cotta’s Eulogy on Von Buch. 9 


having witnessed it without being near A prize it — enough. 
He was accustomed to say at such a time, ‘ He must be helped,” 
and he was helped, by an unseen hatte emery 

Perhaps it may be said by one or another, that it were quite 
easy for a man so independently cireumstanced as he, to devote 
himself exclusively to science, and with so many means to have 
accomplished great results. With such, however, I cannot agree. 


y' wey 
that would have led to a pleasant, yes, even a brilliant life. 
Hundreds, I fear, who, struggling with necessity, have earned 
for themselves a name in science, ‘would, i in L. v. Buch’s cireum- 
stances, have chosen a path in ‘life leading more directly and 
easily to commanding influence 

The spur of necessity is with many not a small one. But fora 
man of fortune without such extreme urging, to devote his whole 
life voluntarily to earnest, pure ep Rp eT and only for that 
end, there is something in it, as it appears to me, of the great, 
something of the uncommon; for it is one thing to cultivate a 
branch of science incidentally, for pastime or amusement, or to 
acquire a certain credit for erudition, and quite another to resign 
oneself entirely and undividedly to 

ith such zeal for scientific advancement he also knew well 
how to draw forth youthful talent wherever he found it, to cap- 
tivate it, lead it into a fitting path, support it by counsel or assist- 
ance, and with such delicacy of feeling and manner, that it itself 
scarcely perceived how much it was indebted to its patron. 

He never accepted a public office, but bore occasionally on fes- 
tive occasions the key of a « Kammerherr” and many a high order 
of merit. 

may also not pass by without mentioning the uncommonly 
varied character of von Buch’s attainments, and the retentiveness 
of his memory even for trifles; it was his custom to note in his 
small day-book, often embracing the wanderings of many years, 
only brief remarks in a microscopic hand. Perfectly at home in 
five or six languages, he was also deeply read in history and litera- 
ture. Even trivial family circumstances and town occurrences 
his memory retained in all their details, and he knew how to 
rehearse them in the most felicitons manner. His conversation 
Was on that account not less spirited than fascinating, and he 
could, when he was in the right humor, enliven even the gayest 
maloon. in the highest degree. 

w, however, one word as to his death. On Saturday the 
26th February, he was till late at. the Humanitatsgesellschaft—a 
conversational meeting of literati of Berlin. Professors Poggen- 
dorf and Braun accom panied him thence to his dwelling. At the 
door he bade them adieu with some jokes as usual. Upon retiring 
to rest he felt himself slightly indisposed. The = aoe = 

Szconp Series, Vol. XVII, No. 49,—Jan. 1954. 

ee 


10 Prof. Cotta’s Eulogy on Von Buch. 


the malady with violent pains in the foot, in which for many 
years he had suffered from chilblains. -He did not afterwards leave 
his couch, and a letter from Dresden remained unread. On Tues- 
day the physiciau was called. ‘The pains had left him, but a 
general debility, a nervous excited condition, had taken their 
place. His acquaintances, however, still knew nothing of his sick- 
ness. On Wednesday, Prof. Beyrich accidentally visiting him, 
received for the first time information of the sufferings of the 
highly honored man. He found him in bed, but cheerful, and 
joking in his wonted manner, alluding often to the task he had un- 
dertaken on the chalk formation of North America, and which had. 
engaged his attention for some time past. Upon his writing table 
lay the beginning of his work with the superscription, ‘* Nebraska,” 
but under this however, were only two lines, probably written on 
Saturday. On the same evening, Prof. Beyrich carried the intelli- 
gence of his illness to the meeting of the German Geological So- 
ciety, of which von Buch was president. During the night of 
Thursday his condition became much worse. Debility and fever 
had visibly increased. However, on Thursday he could still con- 
verse with most of those who visited him during the day. When 
Prof. Beyrich visited him again at 10 0’clock on Friday, March 4th, 
he found Messrs. Ewald, Braun, and Papiz already at the couch 
where he lay unconscious, and they did not again leave it till 
his death, which occurred at twenty minutes before two o’clock. 

On March 9th the funeral solemnities took place in the dwel- 
ling of the departed, which the Royal Botanic Garden had richly 
decorated with palms and laurel. His mortal remains were then 


to von Buch’s liberality. He often came here, and only three 
years since when we celebrated the memory of his distinguished 
master, he was to our joy with us in this hall, where to-day his 
portrait presents to us only the noble lineaments which we shall 
never forget, as his whole service must forever remain unfor- 
gotten. 

An account of the origin of this portrait may not be without 
interest. L. v. Buch had often received urgent requests to allow 


 eeepameeres 


—! 


Messrs. Foster and Whitney on the Geology, etc. 11 


his portrait to be taken, but had never consented. When his 
friend Friesleben on the remittance of his own portrait, once ur- 
gently requested his in return, he received in its stead a large lith- 
ograph of an Ammonite with the signature under it, “ Leopold v. 
Buch.” There was little hope then, of obtaining a portrait of the 
great geologist, aside from the imperfect failure in the Dictionnaire 
des Sciences Naturelles. Some years since, however, his King 
sent the celebrated portrait painter, C. Begus, to him, and told him, 
that he, the King wished his portrait. What remained for him 
todo? He must obey and sit still. From that portrait is this 
lithograph a copy. 

And now permit me to address myself to you who are dedica- 
cating yourself to the same studies which here once lured this 
distinguished man. If you all however have not proposed to 
yourselves the same course—if you are not all called to furnish 
similar results in your particular departments like a L. v. Buch, 
still may you ever take him as an exemplar. His example like 
that of Alexander v. Humboldt, and many others, teaches at the 
same time that even from an unpretending place of study great 
effects may go forth. May we all strive to imitate him in un- 
tiring zeal, system, and noble sentiments—this will be the high- 
est honor we can show to his memory. For the immortality of 
his name, he himself has provided. 


_ At the close of the exercises, the band of the cavalry regiment, 
im garrison here, played a Dead March. 


Arr. Il.—F xtracts from the Report on the Geology of the Lake 
Superior Land District ; (Part Ul.) by J. W. Fosrex, and 
J.D. Wurrney.* 


Iv Part I, of this Report, communicated to the Commissioner 
of the General Land Office in 1850, and published in 1851, we 
have given a historical sketch of the. exploration of the country 
bordering on Lake Superior, a description of its physical geography 
and climate, and so much of its geology as was necessary to the 
full elucidation of the copper-bearing rocks and their relation to 
the sedimentary formations; this being the subject to which that 
part of the report was principally devoted. The two concluding 
chapters coutained an account of the drift phenomena so con- 
Spicuously displayed in the region of the great lakes. 

In Part IL, of this Report, we shall proceed to the detailed and 
Systematic description, so far as our materials will enable us, 


* The 
We here cite some pa aphs from the chapters, on the the 
mtkayand-onthe Asoic tnd the lomer:Silurian systetea Fs 


fo 


a f this valuable Report, was announced in volume xv, page 295 
ppearance of this valuable Repo ers of 


12 Messrs. Foster and Whitney on the 


the geology of the whole of the Lake Superior Land District, 
commencing with those formations which are the lowest in the 
scale of geological succession, or those which were first formed, 
and ascending to t which are now in the progress of accumu- 
lation. We shall only allude to the results of the former part of 
the report, so far as it may be necessary to enable the reader to 
form a connected idea of the geology of the whole region. 

The following table exhibits the names and the order of suc- 
cession of the geological groups which have been recognized as 
existing within the limits of our district. 


Classification of the Rocks. 
} sree 


Syenite. 
\ sree and Quartz rock, 


Plutonic 
Rocks. 


Of Various Ages. 


IGNEOUS. 


Greenstone, or Dolerite, Porphyry- 
Peete | Basalt, = daloid. - 
rnblende and Serpentine Rocks. 


Voleane [ies of f Spectr and Magnetic Oxyd 


Gneiss and Hornblende Slat 
C lorie,” Patedbi and Argillaceous ‘Slate. 
Beds of Quartz and Saccharoidal Marble 


METAMORPHIC, 


ponies, ennai 


7 


( Potsdam Sandstone. 
pai he Sandstone, 
ZY sto 


2 e 
Lewis Bids ye Limestone 
i. 


FORMATIONS. 


Ajlurian System. Galena Lim 
{ Hudson- nite Gecais 


Clinton Group. 
Upper. oe Group. 
ondaga Salt Group. 
Devonian System. Upper Helderberg Series. 


= 
E 
> 
| 
| 


AQUEOUS. 
Aw 


: Beds of Sand, Clay and Gravel rudely stratified. 
Drift System. | ‘Transported Blocks of Granite, Gre nd tone, dc. 


| Atte ial Deposits, 1 Spits buses bias 4 bore 07 Marshes, Flats, Hooks, 

ithe New York geologists have divided the Silurian system, as 
developed in that state, into eleven groups, while some of the 
Western geologists recognize, in its western extension, but five. 
pala the two systems of classification there is no community 
of na 

The ‘gccishihiid} position of our district is such as to form a 
connecting link between the east and the west. While, on the 


Geology of the Lake Superior Land District. 13 


one hand, the New York and Canadian geologists have traced the 
Silurian groups up to the eastern borders of our district ; on the 


ents, or to subdivide them according to the paleontological 
evidence, 

Under these circumstances, we have endeavored to connect the 
two sets of observations and blend them into one harmonious 
whole. As the New York survey is the only instance in which 


nomenclature, so far as the same groups described by the New 
York geologists could be recognized in our district. 

. The designation of groups of strata by names derived from 
their geographical position, or from the locality in which the rocks 
are first investigated and their relative position clearly defined, 
_ Seems to be of all the methods of nomenclature that which, for 
the present at least, is liable to the least objection. Names given | 
solely with reference to lithological character, or to the presumed 
predominance at any particular point of a certain genus or class of 
organic remains, seem much more likely to lead to misunderstand- 
ing and confusion ; and, however desirable it may be that a uni- 
versal system of nomenclature and arrangement should be in- 
troduced, it seems quite impossible to hope for any such thing in 
the present state of geological science, a science which is so rapidly 
developing, and liable to such constant changes. ‘The names in- 
troduced by the New York geologists, are in most instances de- 
tived from the locality where the group designated is particularly 
well developed, and the fact that those groups have, in their con- 
Unuation through Canada, been described by Mr. Logan, the Pro- 
vincial geologist, under the names recognized by the New York 
survey, seems an additional reason for their adoption, as far as 
possible, by us. 

It will be seen from the details incorporated in a subsequent 
part of this report, that many members of the Silurian series, par- 
ticularly the grits and conglomerates, which are clearly defined 
1n New York, have but a limited range, and disappear altogether 
before reaching the limits of our district. These are conditions 
Which we ought to expect would exist in deposits made along a 
shelving ocean-shore ; but so far as these are persistent, it seems 


desirable that they should bear the same names throughout their 
Whole extent, 


14 Messrs. Foster and Whitney on the 


The following is the synonymy of the groups of the systems 
developed in this region, according to the nomenclatures adopted 
in the reports of the different surveys. 

New York and Lake Superior. | Pennsylvania and Virginia. | Ohio, Iowa and Wisconsin. 
AZOIC SYSTEM. 
AZOIC SYSTEM. AZOIC SCHISTOSE SERIES. METAMORPHIC ROCKS, 
(Not classified in New York.) ‘(Wanting in Ohio and Iowa.) 
SILURIAN SYSTEM. 


rimeval st or ( Lower Sandstone, or For- 
Potsdam Sandstone. if ee Tes mation 1, wanting in Ohio 
wer Magnesia Linke 
Calciferous Sandstone. Lawes ‘part of tie Mateial sto ne oe e cigte n 2, want- 
Series, or part of No, IL. 
Trenton Group ees Poi Limestone, 
Chazy, osc and Black- Miridle. part aft Metre Blue Limestone 
river Limest oe ee - and Marls Ms “the West. 
ded as 
Galena Limestone (not re- be recognized in Penn- J the ais es “of Pike Cliff 
cognized in New York.) sylvania and Virginia. or — Magnesian lime- 


Hudson-river Group. Matinal Shales, or No. TIL ine “Bie "Limestone and 


end Sandstone and Clin- \e Part vs ey Piel a Series, Not round at the 
ton Group. r par 


Niagara Group. { Part os the Le tie Series, 


or part o Cliff ean of Ohio “ia 
per Magne- 


Onondaga Salt Group. Summit of the Levant Series, | sian te 


! 
ee 
[fs 
(i 
== 


DEVONIAN SYSTEM. f 
Upper Helderberg Lime- '  § Upper portion of the Cliff 
stone. Limestone. 


* * * * 

Azoic Series on the Northern Shore.—The rocks of which it is 
composed are developed on an extensive scale, both on the north- 
ern and southern margin of Lake Superior basin. Commencing 
on the northern shore of the lake, we find a series of taleose and 
chlorite slates with occasional beds of coarser grits, in immediate 
contact with the granite and gneiss. They have been divided by 
Mr. Logan, the distinguished Provincial Geologist of Canada, into 
two groups—a division which we have failed to recognize on the 
southern shore—the lowest of which consists of slates partially 
chloritic and talcose, and occasionally holding a sufficient number 
of pebbles derived from the hypogene rocks to constitute con- 
glomerates. “These slates,” he remarks, “are of a dark-green 
color, often dark-grey in fr esh fractures, which at the base, appear 
to be occasionally interstratified with beds of a feldspathic quali NYS 
of the reddish color belonging to the subjacent granite and gneiss 
sometimes they are a combination of feldspar and quartz, occasion 


Salancieieiennecniientcinadiitadineiceme acs a. 


emer 


= e 


Geology of the Lake Superior Land District. 15 


ally with the addition of hornblende, making syenitic beds, and 
in some the hornblende predominating gives the syenite a general 
green tinge. Some of the beds have the quality of a greenstone, 
others that of mica slate, and a few present the character of a 
quartz rock.”* These slates, he conjectures, attain a thickness 
of several thousand feet, and are well exposed at the mouth of the 
river Doré, about five miles from the Michipicoten river. The 
strike of the beds is very irregular and their dip highly inclined. 

The upper group rests unconformably on the preceding, and 
towards the base presents conglomerate beds of no great thickness, 
the pebbles of which consist of white quartz, red jasper, and oc- 
casionally slate, the whole enclosed in an arenaceous matrix. 
Higher up are found layers of chert, occasionally approaching chal- 
cedony. ‘The plates are separated by thin calcareous seams, pre- 
senting a ribbon-like appearance. 
_ In the vicinity of the disturbed parts, the chert sometimes passes 
into chalcedony and agate, and small cracks are filled with 
anthracite, which is also found forming the centre of minute 
globules, enclosed in a silicious matrix. 

Higher up in the series, the argillaceous slates become inter- 


of a purely sedimentary rock ; but the evidences of metamorphism 
are more striking as we approach the lines of igneous outburst. 


* Report of Progress, 1846-17, p. 10. + Ibid. pp. 13-14. 


16 Messrs. Foster and Whitney on the 


Gneiss generally flanks the granite, succeeded by dark masses of 
_ hornblende, with numerous joints, but obscure lines of bedding, 
which often graduates into hornblende slate or chlorite slate, as 
we recede from the purely igneous products. 

The outlines of this class of rocks are extremely irregular, and 
a reference to the general map will give aclearer idea of their 
range and extent than a mere verbal description. * * * 

In this district, the area occupied by these rocks exceeds eighty 
townships, or more than three thousand square miles. ‘The con- 
figuration of the slates and granites may be compared to the con- 
tours of a rugged coast. 'The main granite masses form numerous 
projecting headlands, while the subordinate patches rise up like 
islands. The slates sweep round the promontories and form 
numerous narrow and deeply-indented bays. 

The topographical features of the region occupied by the slates 
are striking. It is diversified by bold, rocky cliffs and narrow in- 
tricate valleys, with lakes and water-falls, with luxuriant forests 
and natural meadows. he culminating points reach nearly 
twelve hundred feet above Lake Superior or eighteen hundred 
feet above the ocean-level. 

We commence our description of the local phenomena of this 
system of rocks where they intersect the lake shore between Ri- 
viere du Mort* and Chocolate river. 'The sketch entitled, ‘ View 
near Carp river’ forming the frontispiece [see Report], may serve 
to convey an idea of the contours of this region better than a writ 
ten description. The lake here forms a spacious bay with gently 
curving shores. A range of quartzose hills rising to the height of 
six hundred feet, terminates abruptly by the coast and forms the 
background of the picture. The extremity of the point con- 
sists of sand-dunes rising to the height of fifty or sixty feet, with 
rounded outlines and highly inclined slopes towards the lake. 
Along its margin are to be seen the remains of ancient terraces 
which indicate its former limits. ‘The middle ground is occupied 
by a range of trappean rocks interlaminated with the slates. ‘The 
settlement represented, has been named Marquette, in honor of 
the early missionary, and has already become the main outlet of 
the Iron region. ‘I'he foreground is composed of another rocky 


~ * This river is generally called Dead river. It cannot be from the sluggishness of 

its current, for in the distance of thirt i 

abounding in rapids and cascades. Its true name is the River of Death. There is @ 

local tradition as to some act of violence here perpetrated, which we cannot now 
name, gitar 


peas 


Be a Ma as ToS SO 


eer emnpecindmrirne ngchinan ctr ammmnat donate are time) 


ee 


Geology of the Lake Superior Land District. 17 


rocks of so many epochs, from the oldest to the most recent, are 
represented. It contains an epitome of nearly the whole geology 
of the district. 

The quartz zone exhibits two distinct ridges, where it ap- 
proaches the lake, hemming in the valley of Carp river with 
rocky walls, from two to six hundred feet in height. As we trace 
it westwardly, it presents but a single ridge, and after having 
passed Teal lake, sinks down and becomes lost. Where exposed 
by the lake shore, it exhibits lines of bedding and obscure traces 
of ripple marks. These lines bear east and west, and dip 86° to 
the south, while the Potsdam sandstone abuts against the quartz, 
in a nearly horizontal position. Some of the quartz beds in this 


using the notes of Mr. Hill—presents a number of conical knobs 
rising from two to three hundred feet above the surrounding coun- 
try. In section 2, township 47, range 25, a granite boss rises above 
the quartz, over which the strataare folded likeamantle. Inthe 
northeast quarter of this section, a band of slaty limestone, soine- 
what silicious, is seen beneath the quartz, bearing northeast and 
southwest, with an inclination of 44° to the southeast. In the 
northern part of section 3, the quartz is observed, with another 
band of limestone interstratified, bearing nearly west-northwest. 
The protrusion of the granite has displaced the beds and broken 
their continuity ; one portion shifted to the south, was traced as 
far as the line between sections 9 and 10, while another portion 
shifted to the north, was traced westward into section 4. The 
northern beds were found to be associated with a layer of lime- 
stone, or compact marble, only a few feet in thickness. The 
northern ridge attains a higher elevation than the southern, the 
highest point in section 6, being five hundred and ninety-two feet 
above the lake. The quartz has been so far metamorphosed as 
to destroy the lines of bedding, but in other portions of the rauge 
for instance, near the Jackson Forge, it assumes the character of 


18 Messrs. Foster and Whitney on the 


fore described, variously colored, white, ash-grey and flesh-red, 
and beautifully veined with tints of a deeper hue. It calcines 
readily into lime, and affords beautiful ornamental materials. 

Along the valley of the Carp, between Jackson Forge and Teal 
lake, beds of novaculite, or fine-grained silicious slate, are found 
interstratified with beds of quartz. It has been already quarried 
at several points, for hones, and there is, even now, a considerable 
demand for them. ‘The beds are exceedingly fissile, and full of 
flaws at the surface, so that much of the mass is comparatively 
worthless; but it is believed that the blocks taken from a greater 
depth, and beyond the action of atmospheric agents, will be free 
from these imperfections. Messrs. Smith and Pratt have estab- 
lished a factory for the purpose of sawing these blocks, at the 
month of a small stream, near the Marquette landing, and are 
driving a thrifty business. 

Between the quartz range and Dead river, the underlying rock 
consists, in the main, of chlorite and talcose slates, intersected by 
three belts of igneous rocks, ranging nearly east and west. 

e la Beche, in reference to the greenstones and schistose rocks 

of Bossiney, Cornwall, remarks that, “there is so intimate a mix- 
ture of compact and schistose trappean rocks with the argillaceous 
that the whole may be regarded as one system, the two kinds 
of trappean rocks having been probably erupted, one in a state 0 
igneous fusion, and the other in that of an ash, during the time 
that the mud, now forming slates, was deposited; the mixture 
being irregular from the irregular action of the respective causes 
hich produced them ; so that one may have been derived from 
igneous action, and the other from the ordinary abrasion of preéx- 
isting solid rocks, and they were geologically contemporaneous.” 

This description is applicable to many of the igneous rocks of 
this region. They form neither long lines of dykes, nor axes of 
elevation, but broad sheets bearing the same relation to the slates 


we frequently find, throughont this district, ‘a green pulveruleut 
substance, somewhat resembling chlorite, and containing a large 
amount of magnesia and lime, which is probably in the nature of 
as e same ingredients enter largely into the composition 
of many of the trappean rocks, for they possess a soapy feel, an 
when reduced to a powder, effervesce feebly with acids. 


Co ad NO et» MR a 


= So opener es eynepre ee 


Geology of the Lake Superior Land District. 19 


There are undoubtedly, at this day, beneath the bed of the 
ocean, numerous “salses,” which, from time to time, pour forth 
streams of pulverulent materials, but whose operation is concealed 
from human sight. We know that for weeks in succession, there 
flowed streams of chocolate-colored mud from the crater of 
Graham’s island, before it finally sank below the surface. he 
contributions from this source, to the first formed stratified de- 
posits, had not been duly appreciated. This voleanic mud is 
nothing more than the comminuted particles of trappean rocks, 
reduced by friction ; and in the early history of our planet, when 
the fissures communicating with the interior were unfilled and 
volcanic energy was manifested more intensely than at this day, 
it would be reasonable to expect that igneous causes contributed 
as powerfully to the reduction of the preéxisting rocks, as the or- 
dinary abrading action of water. ‘The slates are composed essen- 
tially of the same ingredients as the trappean rocks with which’ 
they are associated, and the main difference between them may 
be, that the one was the product of salses, ejected in the form of 
mud, while the other was the product of volcanoes, ejected in 
molten streams. It has been supposed that the talcose nature of 
the slates associated with the igneous rocks was the result of 
Inetamorphism, but the supposition that they have resulted in 
some instances from the destruction of the latter, is quite as rea- 
sonable. 

About a mile from the lake shore, on the road leading to the 
Jackson Forge, a low range of trappean rocks, of a compact text- 
ure, and of a dark-green color, is intersected. Between the Jack- 
son and Marquette landings, by the lake shore, a similar belt is 
observed, which again appears near the junction of the roads, 
about four miles inland. 

Another belt intersects the coast a short distance above the 
Marquette landing, which does not differ essentially from those 
before described. The slates in the vicinity of these belts are 
compact, ofa greenish color, aud traversed by different systems of 
Joints, more distinct than the lines of bedding, cutting the mass 
into cuboidal. blocks. 

At Little Presqu’isle, another band of igneous rocks, of a highly 
crystalline character, projects into the lake. Distinct acicular 
crystals of hornblende are distributed in places through a paste of 


Connected, the latter forming beds of considerable thickness. 
Angular fragments of hornblende slate, chlorite slate; jasper and 
@ green magnesian mineral, are seen enclosed in the mass near the 
Water’s edge which may be regarded as a volcanic breccia, These 
fragments seldom exceed a few inches in diameter. 

Like most of the rocks of this region, its surface is smoothed 
and striated in a wonderful manner. Below the mouth of Dead 


. 


20 Messrs. Foster and Whitney on the 


river, a highly crystalline mass of this charaeter emerges in the 
orm of an island fifty or sixty feet in height. 

The main Presqu’isle consists of a dark-green trappean rock, 
rising in the overhanging cliffs to the height of a hundred feet. A 
description of this rock and the relations which it bears to the sand- 
stone will be given when we come to treat of the Silurian system. 
Over this is deposited a volcanic tuff, imperfectly stratified, filling 
up the previous depressions, and attaining a thickness of twenty 
or thirty feet. It presents a complete net-work of veins, a few 
lines only in width, which penetrate but a short distance into the 
subjacent basalt. At one place, on the northwest side of the point 
an irregular vein bearing north and south is seen for two hundred 
feet in a linear direction, in this obscurely stratified tuff, which 
yields the sulphurets of lead, copper and iron, but not in sufficient 
quantities to render its exploration profitable. Asbestus is also 


sparingly distributed, and may be regarded as a metamorphic 


product resulting from the presence of lime. ‘Traces of mag- 
netic oxyd of iron are detected in some of the veins farther 
eastward. 

Proceeding up the valley of Dead River, between sections 7 
and 18, township 48, range 25, the stream is precipitated from a 
height of twenty feet over a ledge of schistose rocks, which ex- 
hibit distinct lines of bedding and abrupt convolutions of the 
Strata. 

In the next range west (27) the trappean and schistose rocks 
are frequently exposed in the bed of the stream, consisting of al- 
ternations of talcose and chlorite slates, and hornblende and feld- 
spar rocks. ‘They stretch out in numerous parallel ridges, bear- 
ing north of east and south of west, and present, for the most part, 
southerly escarpments. On the northwest quarter of section 16, 
the river is precipitated in a series of rapids over the former class 
of rocks, affording fine exposures for observation. On the west 
boundary of section 6, in a high ledge which rises from the 
northern bank of the stream, the slates are again observed 
dipping to the south at an angle of 70°, 

The stream here bears west-northwest, conforming to the 
direction of the strata. After flowing along the northern line of 
township 48, nearly through range 27, it divides into numerous 
branches whose sources lie to the northwest, in the region of the 
granite. 

Proceeding southward from Teal lake, we first encounter @ 


magnetic oxyd of iron. As we shall devote a special chapter to 
the character of these masses and their relations to the associated 
rocks, a more minute description is here deemed unnecessary: 


4 
f 
j 
) 
w 
: 


Geology of the Lake Superior Land District. 21 


We would merely observe that in this region the iron masses are 
invarjably found in this association—never oceurring in the 
granite. 

These alterations of trappean and schistose rocks continue, to 
near the southern boundary of township 47, and are characterized 
in many places by the ores above describe d. 

Section from Lake Superior to Lake Michigan.—The coast 
near the head of Keweenaw Bay (L’Anse) aflords an admirable 
section of the slates and the overlying sandstone 

The following is the descending order of succession : 

1 and 2. Fissile sandstone—the equivalent of the Potsdam— 
dipping slightly to the west-northwest, of a reddish color, and 
coarse-grained, passing into a conglomerate comiposed of peb- 
bles of t milk-white quartz, and occasionally trappean pebbles— 
13 feet, resting ee on the azoic rocks, consisting of 

3. Chlorite slate and novaculite, or silicious slate variously 
colored, and much obnibiededs places folded o 

4. A dark hornblende and feldspar rock aeannty: ne Gate in 
its origin. 

Formations 3 and 4 are traversed by veins of quartz which in 
no case penetrate the overlying sandstone. The slates are also 
occasionally intersected by dykes of tra 

This section is exceedingly instructive, inasmuch as it enables 
Us to draw a line of demarcation between two formations ond 
ferent in age and external characters. While the newer form 


places, invaded by igneous rocks. Their structure has been 
changed from granular to sub-crystalline, and the whole mass is 
toon by numerous planes of lamination. 

* * 


* 

Thickness of sis System. Foldings of the Strata.—All 
attempts to estimate the thickness of the various schistose, cal- 
careous and quartzose beds, must prove merely approximative. 
ey occupy a. belt which in its widest expansion reaches not 
less than eighty miles in width, and wherever exposed, have an 
inclination approaching verticality. If we were to deduct the 
Spaces occupied by the purely igneous rocks, and then measure 
across the basset edges of those supposed to be sedimentary, the 
result would give us an incredible thickness—a thickness far 
Surpassing that of the whole series of rocks heretofore observed, 
from the base of the Silurian to the crowning member of the 
tertiary. It is highly probable that the beds are arranged in a 
pita: of flexures, and that the observer in passing over the out- 
cropping edges, oe numerous repetitions of the same beds ; 

they have, however, be so repeatedly shattered by uak 


a 


22 Messrs. Foster and Whitney on the 


so disturbed and forced asunder by igneous protrusions, and so 
metamorphosed by direct and transmitted heat, that it is impos- 
sible to trace their continuity except over limited areas. If we 
could unfold these beds, and stretch them out in a nearly hori- 
zontal position, as when first deposited, they would require a far 
greater space than they now occupy. he causes by which 
these foldings have been effected, will be discussed in a subse- 
quent chapter. 

We have thus described the range, extent and mineral pecu- 
liarities of a series of rocks, detrital in their origin, interposed 
between the granite and the base of the Silurian system. 
Throughout their whole extent, they are more or less metamor- 
phosed, presenting a series of gradations, represented at one 
extreme by crystalline gneiss and compact hornblende, and at 
the other by bedded limestone and ripple-marked quartz. To 
the presence of granite and trappean rocks this transformation 1s, 
in a great degree, to be attributed. Much of the compact horn- 


structure as it recedes from the lines of igrieous outburst, we 
cannot but regard it as the more highly metamorphosed portions 
of the dark-green chlorite slates. ‘This compact hornblende is 
not to be confounded with those lenticular-shaped masses 
observed in the slates, which, we doubt not, are trappean in their 
nature. 

We have seen that those igneous causes which produced nu- 
merous axes of elevation, and folded the strata into a series 0 
flexures, had ceased to operate before the deposition of the 
Silurian groups, since they are found to repose in a nearly hori- 
zontal position upon the upturned edges of the slates, or to occupy 
the sinuosities in the granite, nowhere exhibiting traces of meta- 
morphism or derangement of the strata. We do not now allude 
to the renewal of those igneous causes as manifested on Kewee- 
naw Point and Isle Royale during the Silurian epoch, producing 
a class of igneous products widely different from those associated 
with the rocks of the azoic system. In a former report (Part I.) 
we have described the igneous rocks of the Silurian epoch as ap- 
pearing under a variety of aspects, such as crystalline greenstone, 
porphyry, granular trap, and a highly cellular amygdaloid, differing 
little from modern lava, except that the cells are filled with various 
zeolitic minerals. 

From the local details above given, it will be seen that the 
igneous rocks of the azoic period, though crystalline, compact, 
and occasionally porphyritic in their texture, are never amygda- 
loidal; and hence we infer that they were produced under 
widely different conditions. The latter may have been con- 


ot ae etme ones 


a 


eee pre ee Rt pancetta 


etal aie dia 


PERRIS Bac re nd 


# 


Geology of the Lake Superior Land District. 23 


solidated beneath the pressure of a deep ocean, while from the 
former a greater part of this pressure may have been removed ; 
or it may be that both were, in the first aaeenia equally 
vesicular, but that the latter assumed a crystalline or compact 
structure from long-continued ae ‘8 heat, under immense 
pressure. All the “phe nomena wou m to indicate that the 
a of the trappean rocks of this siete took place beneath 
an ocean of great depth; or, at least, under conditions widely 
diteisne from those which prevailed during the formation of the 
trappean belts of Keweenaw Point and Isle Royale. 


Remarks.—The investigations of geologists in different parts of 
the world, within the last few years, have clearly demonstrated the 
existance of a series of non-fossiliferous rocks below the Silurian or 
Cambrian systems, and there can be no doubt that they are des- 
tined to occupy a conspicuous place in the classification of the 
rocks both of Europe and America. At the meeting of the 
American Association at Cincinnati, in the spring of 1851, we 
made the development of this system in the northern portion of 
the United States and Canada the special subject of a communi- 
cation. Professor Mather, after having confirmed the pepe 
of our views, from personal observation, stated that ad ob- 
served the continuation of this system near the sources of the 
Mississippi, and on the waters of the St. Peter’s. Its existence 
in Missouri, where it is associated, as on Lake Superior, with 
immense beds of magnetic, and specular i iron ore, is rendered cer- 
tain by the observations of Mr. Mersh, which will be found 
incorporated in the paveeatieet, ‘ages of this report. At this 
meeting, Dr. King, who has examined this region with much 
care, confirmed these views, eg we regret that the proceedings 
have ‘i yet been made public, that we : might quote his remarks 
in full 

Dr. Engelman, also, on that occasion, described a series of azoic 
rocks, as occurring in Arkansas, between Little Rock and the 
Hot Springs, which present a striking analogy with those of 
Missouri and Lake Superior, consisting of talcose, silicious and 
crystalline hornblende slates, often highly inclined, with beds of 
dark-blue limestone. On these older rocks, rests unconformably 
a sandstone, probably analogous to that o e Superior, 
Within this district of non-fossiliferous, stratified rocks, occurs a 
beautiful syenite. The vast masses s of micaceous, or ‘sul-m ag- 
hetic oxyd of iron, which occur in Missouri, find their represent- 
ative in the well known “ Arkansas Magnets, ”? or, in the iron ore 
of Magnet Cove. It is here associated with the imesseves 
titaniferous minerals, schorlomite, brookite, and elzolite. Dr. 
thinks he has traced this series on the northern oie of the 
Colorado in Texas. 


24 Messrs. Foster and Whitney on the 


In the eastern portions of the United States, there can be no 
doubt of the existence of this system 

We are satisfied from ee observation that it flanks the 
Adirondack range in New York, where it is associated with hy- 
persthene rocks “and ay masses of sub-magnetic oxyd of iron, 
below the Potsdam sandstone. 

The Messieurs Rogers describe a series of obscurely stratified 
rocks in Pennsylvania and Virginia, occupying the same relative 

osition known as the gneissoid series. ‘They undoubtedly 

flank the Appalachian chain on the east, throughout their entire 

range, and vlc Sepmael be found well ‘developed in Tennessee 
and North Car 

In Europe thie existense of this series has been established 
beyond controversy. It has been shown by eminent geologists, 
— by Murchison and de Verneuil,* that the lowest beds 

n Scandinavia, containing the least traces of organic life, are 
edie exact equivalents of the Lower Silurian strata of the British 
Isles, and that these have been distinctly formed out of, and rest 
upon, slaty and other rocks which had undergone crystallization 
before their particles were ground up and cemented together 
again to compose the earliest beds in which organic life is trace- 
able. ‘To this most ancient system of rocks in Scandinavia, they 
have given the name of azoic. By this term, they do not mean 
dogmatically to assert that nothing organic could have been in 
existence during the earliest times, when those rocks were in the 
process of formation, but simply to express the great fact, that, as 
far as our present state of knowledge goes, we look in vain ‘for 
any traces of organic life, and it seems probable that they were 
formed under such physical conditions that nothing living could 
have flourished during that period. 

The great mass of rock in Scandinavia is made up of a crys- 
talline, granitic gneiss, presenting an almost infinite succession of 
feldspathic, quartzose, micaceous and hornblendic lamine, which 
are often highly contorted, though a general strike or direction 
may be traced over a large tract of country. These rocks are 
no means to be confounded with the metamorphic Silurian — 
occurring under a similar and analogous form in the 
country. These azoic rocks are often disturbed and cut chong 
by dykes of greenstone and traversed by ia ape veins of 
granite. 

So is evident from the direct comparison of the more ancient 

with newer metamorphic Silurian, that, from lithological 
shniaeints alone, no distinction could be drawn between them, 
and it is only where the most conclusive evidence is afforde 
y superposition of the latter unconformably upon the former, 


* Russia and the Ural Mountains, vol. i, p. 10. 


eae 


Tec RMON EERE SI 


Geology of the Lake Superior Land District. 25 


that they can be clearly recognized and defined as belonging to 
different ages. 

De la Beche remarks that, although alterations in the mineral 
character of the fossiliferous rocks, from the influence of intruded 
igneous matter in a molten state, or arising from other modifying 
causes, often produce mica slates, hornblende slates, gneiss and 
other forms of laminated and stratified deposits, with a peculiar 
aspect, there appears, nevertheless, evidence in Scandinavia and 
the British Isles, and also in other parts of Europe, to show that, 
beneath all the fossiliferous rocks, there are mica and chlorite 
slates, quartz rocks, crystalline limestones, gneiss, hornblende, 
and other rocks of earlier production. ese may be, indeed, 
merely altered, or metamorphosed detrital and chemical deposits 
of earlier times, and possibly organic remains may eventually be 
discovered in them ; but until this shall happen, it seems desirable 
to keep them asunder, for the convenience of showing previous 
accumulations to those known as the Cambrian group. He, there- 
fore, proposes the name of Mona Series for the reception of these 
older rocks, which are well displayed in the island of Anglesea, 
in connection with those of the succeeding group. 

In the admirable and detailed examinations of the Geological 
Survey of Wales, where the numerous intercalated beds of trap- 
pean rocks and the complicated series of faults have rendered the 
task of unravelling the geology one of great difficulty, the sur- 
veyors have cléarly shown the existence of this azoic series below 
the lowest Silurian strata, which is there represented by the sand- 
Stone of Barmouth and Harlech. 

Barrande, also, in his investigations of the Bohemian basin, 
has recognized a series of semi-crystalline slates alternating with 
Compact argillaceous slates, below the lowest Silurian strata, in 
Which he has failed to detect any trace of organic life ; hence he 
has applied the name azoic to these rocks without meaning to 
assert positively that the series is absolutely destitute of all traces 
of life, but simply as indicating the great fact that, thus far, none 
have been discovered. 

# * * * 
LOWER SILURIAN SYSTEM. 

We now proceed to a description of the palzozoic series of this 
region. Unlike the rocks which we have hitherto described, they 
exhibit few traces of igneous outburst, and few displacements of 
the strata ; but, on the other hand, they repose nearly horizontally 
peace basset edges of the slates, or occupy the depressions in the 

ite. 


This general remark, however, must be received with some 
qualification, for we find that there existed, during a part of the 


* Gevlogical Observer, pp. 31, 32. ‘i : 
Szcoxp Series, Vol. XVII, No. 49.—Jan., 1854. 4 


26 _ Messrs. Foster and Whitney on the 


Silurian epoch, at least two lines of volcanic foci, from which 
flowed numerous streams of lava. These, mingling with the 
detrital deposits then in progress of accutnulation, formed a mass, 
whose united thickness far surpasses the height of the loftiest 
summits in this region. We refer to the trap ranges of Kewee- 
naw Point and Isle Royale, described in a previous report. 

* * * * * 

The limits of this oceanic basin are but imperfectly defined. 
It stretched east and west, from the shores of the Atlantic to the 
flanks of the Rocky mountains ; to the south, it extended beyond 
the Rio Grand, and north, to the Arctic ocean. 

Within this basin, the granite axes between Lake Superior and 
Lake Michigan, and between Lake Superior and Hudson’s Bay, 
rose above the waters of the Silurian sea. 

A large portion of North America is embraced within this 
oceanic bed, constituting its fairest and most productive tracts. 
The uplifting foree, by which this sea-bottom was converted into 
land, must have beeu gradually applied ; since the strata, for the 
most part, repose in a nearly horizontal position, and exhibit few 
marks of derangemeut. e meet with no mountain chains, and 
no transverse valleys, except such as have been excavated by 
running water. The whole region is spread out in gently undu- 
lating plains; or, if ridges exist, they are due to accumulations 
of drift, or to the greater coherence between the particles 10 
certain groups, which enabled them to resist the general de- 
nudation, which has everywhere left such incontestible evidence 
of its action. 

rom the MS. of Mr. Hall, we append some general remarks 
on the identity of the members of the Silurian groups, as developed 
in different parts of this basin. 

‘Ihe observations of the past season have served to show that 


| 

extend uninterruptedly from the more easterly points, where 
they have been investigated, through the northern peninsula of 
Michigan, as far west as the Mississippi, and even beyond. 
These observations form a connecting link between those here- 
tofore made in New York and Canada, and those made in the 
southern peninsula of Michigan, Wisconsin, lowa, Minnesota, 
and other portions of the West, and enable the geologist to form 
a correct idea of the range, extent, and fossil contents of these 
groups, as developed in the northern portion of the United 
States. We believe that these results will render some points 0 
resemblance, heretofore obscure, clear and distinct ; and remove 
any doubts that may have been entertained, as to the identity of 
certain members of the Silurian system, in their eastern and 
western prolongation. If these results are attained, we shall be 
satisfied that we have not labored in vain. 


Carbs esate SRN Ht 


Geology of the Lake Superior Land District. 27 


‘These strata, originally deposited in a wide ocean, everywhere 
present evidences of organic existence. It is not to be supposed 
that in tracing deposits of this kind over so wide areas, the con- 
ditions of the ocean shores would have been uniform in their ~ 


causes which gave origin to it, are of themselves evidence, a 
priori, that absolute uniformity could not prevail over so wide an 
area. We are to look, in like manner, for corresponding changes 
in organic remains. It cannot be supposed that animals, pos- 
sessing ‘certain characters and habits of life, would continue to 
live for any length of time, when the physical conditions were 
unfavorable to their existence. When we consider, also, the 
extent over which these deposits have been traced, the differ- 
ence in longitude alone would lead us to expect some differences 
in the fauna of this ancient period. We have only to compare 
this great linear development of the palwozoic strata with an 
equal extent of modern coast, to form some idea of the changes 
that might be expected to occur under similar circumstances. 
In making such a comparison, however, we shall find that the 


themselves. These changes, though gradual, and readily under- 
stood, when studied continuously, are, nevertheless, difficult of 
explanation, when seen at wide intervals, or examined at distant 
localities, 

“The general results of these examinations, as will be seen by 
the local details, have shown an increasing thickness in the Pots- 


thickness may, therefore, be exposed only at some of the points 

where the originally unequal floor presents some of its elevations, 

and thus give an erroneous idea of its actual, entire thickness. 

The calciferous sandstone, in like manner, appears to increase as 

traced from the eastern limits of the district westward, and on the 

York PPh attains a thickness equal to that which it has in New 
ork, 


“From all of the evidence, it would appear that these two groups 
Which are very intimately related to each other, have their 
most extreme tennity somewhere near the northern boundary of 
the great arch, formed by the circuits of the older formations 


28 Messrs. Foster and Whitney on the 


around the northern shores of lakes Huron and Michigan. From 


this point, they increase in thickness as traced to the east and to ' 


the west. On the other hand, the lower limestories—the Chazy, 
Birds-eye, Black river, and Trenton groups—appear to decrease 
gradually in thickness, as traced westwardly from the Mohawk 
valley, and the outlet of Lake Ontario, where they exist in great 
force. This fact is made very conspicuous, when their entire 
thickness, as developed in New York, is compared with that of 
the same groups on the northern side of Lakes Huron and 
Michigan, where they contract to within a hundred feet, and in 
some places even less. We have also evidence that they do not, 
like the preceding groups, inerease in thickness, when traced into 
Wisconsin and across the Mississippi; for there, they hardly 
attain a vertical range of fifty feet. Although over the entire 
area the identity of character and the continuity of the beds are 
maintained, it is clear that the materials have continually under- 
gone diminution, and that the formation, unless it has been 
supplied from other sources, will be found to die out. 
“In t 


undergone when traced over a considerable area. In the district 
under consideration, it is clearly recognized throughout its whole 
extent, from Drummond’s Island to Green Bay, except where it 
has been denuded, and the space occupied by lakes or bays. 
This group, like the other members of the limestone series before 
alluded to, exhibits a diminution in its thickness, as traced west- 
wardly, and disappears, a short distance beyond the limits of the 
district. 


reverse is true. Leaving out of view the Medina sandstone and 
the arenaceous portions of the Clinton group, which are scarcely 
recognizable here, we find the succeeding limestones muc 
increased in thickness, and exhibiting no diminution, but rather 
an augmentation, as traced to the westward. 

“From these general remarks, the reader will be prepared to 
understand the details given under each division of the series. 
It should be observed, however, in the outset, that the width of 
surface occupied on the map, by a particular group, is not always 
to be regarded as an indication of its thickness; for this, in most 

ases, is dependent upon the amount of dip in the beds, which, 
in this case, nearly corresponds with the slope of the country ; 
so that it often happens that a group, less than a hundred feet in 
thickness, forms a belt several miles in width. ‘ 

“Th ring and inclination of these successive groups indi- 
cate that they formed the outer margin of a great geological basi, 


= Sem a er ee oem 


Geology of the Lake Superior Land District. 29 


whose greatest depression is in the lower peninsula of Michigan, 
where the surface is occupied by rocks of the carboniferous 
epoch. It is only in a northern and northwestern direction, 
however, that we are enabled to trace the strata in a descending 
order quite to the lowest members of the series, and even to the 
non-fossiliferous series beneath them. In other directions, we 
find the most elevated portions of the border exposing only mem- 
bers of the upper, or at most, of the middle, portions of the Silu- 
rian system,’’ 


Potsdam Sandstone—This was the first formed deposit in 
the Silurian basin, and attained, in its greatest development, a 
thickness of about two hundred and fifty feet, if we exclude the 
conglomerate-bands associated with the trap of Keweenaw Pcint 
and Isle Royale 

Range and Extent.—The bed of Lake Superior, embracing 
an area of about 32,000 square miles, is occupied almost ex- 
clusively by this rock, if we may judge from the islands which 
dot its surface, and the isolated patches which occur along its 
shores. On the north, the granite ranges approach near the 
coast and confine the sandstone within narrow limits; on the 
south, it occupies a broader area, and has been traced continu- 
ously around the axis, which divides the waters respectively 
flowing into Lake Superior, Lake Michigan, and the Mississippi. 
While the granite ranges attain in places an elevation of 1200 
feet above the lake, the sandstones, except in the vicinity of the 
trap, do not reach higher that 350 feet, and rest in a position 
nearly horizontal. Consequently, the granites and slates rise up 
like islands through this great waste of sandstone. 

This sandstone does not exhibit, at remote points, a homo- 
geneity of character, or uniformity in thickness; but appears to 
have been modified, to a great extent, by local causes. Thus, 
in the vicinity of the trappean rocks, which afford ample evidence 
of intense and long-continued voleanic agency, the beds attain 
the enormous thickness of 5000 feet, and often consist of con- 
glomerates, composed of trappean pebbles, cemented by a vol- 
canic sand. Away from these lines of disturbance, and where it 
abuts against the azoic rocks, the mass consists of nearly pure 
silicious sand, enveloping pebbles of quartz and patches of slate. 

here granite forms the adjoining rock, an equally marked 
change is observed in the character of the pebbles. 

* * #; * * 

‘The Potsdam sandstone of New York is a quartzose rock, 
whose particles are firmly aggregated, while the same rock, on 
ne northern slope of Lake Michigan, is so slightly coherent, tha 
it may be crushed in the hand. The calciferous sandstone 
New York, when traced west, passes into a magnesian lime- 


ieee ay 


30 Messrs. Foster and Whitney on the 


stone. Even in that state, according to Hall, groups which, at 
one extremity, are of great importance, and well characterized by 
fossils, cannot be identified at the other. 

The great mass of the materials which form the sandstones of 
this region appears to have been derived from the northwest, 
since the, beds there attain a much greater thickness, and are 
composed of coarser sediments. They thin out as we trace them 
south and east, and are charged with fewer pebbles. On the 
Atlantic slope, according to the Messieurs Rogers, the sandstones 


Qs 
i*) 
9 
=) 
re) 
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a 
— 
® 
= 
-_ 
ts 
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he - ? . . - 
northwest, while the intervening space which formed the ocean 
bed, is occupied by the paleeozoic series. 


Sandstones of the Northern Shore. — On the northern shore of 


with conglomerate layers, which become interstratified with trap 
layers, and an enormous amount of a volcanic overflow crowns 
the formation. 
* * - 2 * * 
Sandstone of the Southern Shore.—Between Keweenaw Point 
and Isle Royale, there is, as we have before remarked, an immense 
curvature of the strata, probably reaching five hundred feet below 
the ocean level. A narrow belt of conglomerate and sandstone 
lines nearly the whole southern coast, from the head of Keweenaw 
Point to the Montreal river, beyond which, the latter, no longet — 


in vertical cliffs, which afford many scenes of great beauty. ih 


age 


em 
ledges, or reefs, along the lake shore, but, at a few points, it rises 


Geology of the Lake Superior Land District. 31 


The bedded trap and conglomerate are admirably exhibited on 
Keweenaw Point, and in many places in the Ontonagon district ; 
but as we have minutely described the geographical distribution 
of all the trappean rocks of this era with the associated con- 
glomerate and sandstone, in a former report, a further description 
is deemed unnecessary. 

* * * * * 

[The features of this sandstone are described as presented at 
various points north of the lake, at Presqu’Isle, Carp River, Grand 
Island,—where the variety of colors the rock presents has given 
rise to the name of “ Pictured Rocks,”—on the Menomonee River, 
White Rapids, etc.] ty 


At the White Rapids, the sandstone is again exposed, pre- 
senting very nearly the same external characters, except that it is 
less discolored, and reposes on the uptilted edges of the quartz. 
It may be seen in some of the rapids below, and reappears, for 
the last time, in the river banks, forming ledges six or eight feet 
high, about three miles above the Big Bend, in township 35, 
ange 29 


“* In this vicinity, Mr. Desor discovered, in some of the loose 
masses of this rock; other fossils than the Lingule, which are so 
characteristic of this group further to the east. These fossils 
consist of the fragments of one or more species of trilobites, 
resembling Asaphus. From the characters preserved in a single 
caudal extremity, one species is identical with that which occurs 
in the same rock on the Missisippi and St. Croix rivers. 

From the Menomonee river, the Potsdam sandstone approaches 
Within fifteen or twenty miles of the shore of Green Bay, being 
distinctly exposed on all the streams flowing into it. Continuing 
in the same direction, its easterly limit passes near the Great 
Bend in the Wolf river, northwest from the outlet of Lake 
Winnebago, From thence, meandering westerly, it follows 
nearly the course of Wolf river, crossing it in the neighborhood 
of Lake Pauwaiceen, and is thence prolonged southwesterly 
towards Green and Puckaway lakes. In the neighborhood of 
Pleasant Valley, about twelve miles west of Strong’s Landing, 
©n the F'ox river, it is exposed in several low escarpmeuts, suc- 
ceeded by the calciferous sandstone, which here presents its 
usual characters, From this region, its southern limit stretches 
to the west and northwest. The country here presents a feature 
Which continues to the Mississippi river. The hills appear to be 
outliers, capped by the calciferous sandstone or succeeding lime- 
Stones, while the valleys and the lower part of the escarpments 
are composed of the Potsdam beds. 


of Mr description of the westerly prolongation of this sandstone is from the MS. 


Fite 


32 Messrs. Foster and Whitney on the Geology, etc. 


The rock is fine grained, of a light yellow color and very 
friable. Some of the superior beds, which are thin, have been 
wrought for grindstones. The friable character of this sandstone 
is one of its most prominent features, and, owing to this cireum- 
stance, the escarpments are not usually high, or abrupt, unless it 
has been protected by the overlying rock. In its want of co- 
hesion, it differs, in a very marked degree, from the prevailing 
character of this rock, as developed in New York and Canada, 
where it is usually, though not always, compact. It is not, how- 
ever, unlike the sandstone of the Pictured Rocks, and is less 
friable than that of the Mississippi and St. Croix region. 

The almost uninterrupted continuity with which this rock can 
be traced, even from its eastern extension through Canada and 
along the northern shore of Lake Huron to the St. Mary’s river, 
and thence westerly, leaves no doubt as to its true position and 
identity in age with the Potsdam sandstone of New York. 
we were at a loss in thus tracing it continuously, we have still 
the evidence of the succeeding fossiliferous strata, which show, 
conclusively, the same relations to this sandstone as they do to 
its equivalent in New York. With both these evidences com- 
bined, we cannot hesitate for a moment in our conclusion 
regarding its age and place in the series. z 


bands, or the more calcareous portions of the group, and it is to 
this modification that we should look for the development of the 
d “ 


From all this evidence, we regard the question of the age of 
this rock as settled—that the Potsdam sandstone of New York is 


stone, or lower magnesian limestone. It is a thin mass, evidently 
due to a recurrence of the same causes which produced the 


inferior deposit. This has been well elucidated by Dr. Owen in A 
his reports on the upper Mississippi, in which he has shown that, . 


t 


SNRs ae: ems 


an 


Analysis of Tin Pyrites. 33 


near the junction of the lower sandstone with the calciferous, 
there are several alternations of calcareous and silicious bands, 
the latter having the character of the sandstones below, and the 
former of the calcareous deposits above. These occur in several 
places on the upper Mississippi river, and give the geologist an 
introduction to that condition of things which subsequently pro- 
duced the upper sandstone, which is distributed over a large part 
of Wisconsin, so often mistaken for the lower member of the 
series ; but which, in fact, is separated from it by two or three 
hundred feet of calcareous rocks. 

This upper sandstone can be regarded in no other light than as 
the result of the same causes which produced the Potsdam, and 


pected. It is, nevertheless, shown in many places within the 
Lake Superior district, that the true sandstone, as it is traced 
upward, becomes gradually calcareous, and “ finally passes into 
well-characterized, compact, magnesian limestone.”* The same 
1s true, also, of this rock, in Canada and New York; while, how- 
ever, there is rarely any evidence of increase in the silicious 
materials towards the termination, as we.observe in the west. 
In some localities, there are thin but distinct bands, near the 
Upper portion, having an oolitic structure, which, as we go west- 
ward, appear to be replaced by beds of a granular texture and of 
a silicious character. 


Arr. Ill.—Analysis of Tin Pyrites ; by Dr. J. W. Mauvet.t 


_ Tuts rather rare mineral is one of which the chemical compo- 
sition has appeared somewhat doubtful, owing to the considerable 
discrepancy between the three or four analyses which have been 


* Part 1, p. 117. + Communicated for this Journal. 
SReonp Serres, Vol. XVII, No. 49.—Jan. 1854. 5. 


34 Analysis of Tin Pyrites. 


Cornwall, and which, on examination, proves to be tin pyrites, — 
d. 


and apparently in a purer state than any hitherto analyze 


his specimen occurs in quartz which has obviously been — 


taken from a vein in granite. The structure appears to be crys- 


talline, although no distinct planes could be observed. The color 


1s not steel-gray, as in that of the mineral from Wheal Rock, but 
iron-black, with slight superficial blue and red tarnish in some 
places. Streak black, lustre sub-metallic, fracture uneven. Hard- 
ness =4, Sp. gr. =4:522. Heated before the blowpipe, on 
charcoal, sulphurous acid is given off, oxyd of tin deposited in 
large quantity upon the charcoal, and a black globule obtained, 


from which copper and tin may be reduced on the addition of © 


a. 
A carefully conducted quantitative analysis, in which chlorine 
was used to decompose the mineral, gave the following results. 


Equivalents. 
a 


Supheg a eee ee eae ee 
Tin, : S - 26°85 ‘ é 4 > 455 2° 
Copper, See vip BPs ee. Misr eles, ‘920. 4044 
Tron, : . : 6°73 *240 a: 
Zinc, . . * 7:26 994. t ¥ a 464 2 040 
Gangue, 2 16 

99°64 


Thus the relative number of atoms of sulphur, tin, copper, and 
iron and zinc, as given in the 2nd and 3rd columns above, are 


almost exactly as 8: 2: 4: 2; whence we have the formula first 
assigned by Kudernatsch, (Pogg. Ann., xxxix, 146,) viz., 2(Fe 


S+ ZnS), Sn82+2CueS, SnS:. The present analysis agrees 
so closely with this formula, from which the results of Kuder- 
natsch, and even those of Rammelsberg, (Handw. d. Chem. 


Theils d. Mineral. 2d Suppl., 179,) sensibly differ, that it seems — 


fairly to be considered as representing the composition of the — 


mineral in a pure state. The analysis also possesses some interest 


in showing the presence of zinc in considerable quantity, therein — 


agreeing with Rammelsberg’s analysis above referred to of the mil- 


eral from Zinnwald. It is to be observed that in both cases the irol 
and zinc occur in very nearly atomic proportions, so that perhaps 
the formula should be written 2FeS, SuS:+2ZnS, SnS- +2(2 

u:S, SnS:), though this does not seem very probable, sincé 
Kudernatsch found 12-44 p. ct. of iron to but 1°77 of zinc, while 


Johnston gives 10-113 p.c. of the latter to 4-791 of the former, 


as contained in tin pyrites (from the same locality as the specimen 
submitted to the present avalysis, St. Michael’s Mount). The 
presence of this large quantity of zinc, is however of importance, 
chiefly as proving that the tin must enter into the composition 0 


the mineral as bi-sulphuret, since the other formula which bas 


been proposed, namely, 2SnS, FeS2+2Cu.S, FeS:, woul? 


Prof. Loomis on the Hail Storm of the first of July, 1853. 35 


instead of ter-sulphuret of antimony. Indeed, some real con- 
nection between these two minerals seems to be further indicated 
by their occurrence in the same crystalline system, and their 
close resemblance to each other in hardness, specific gravity, and 
general physical characters. 


a 


Arr. IV.—Notice of the Hail Storm which passed over New 
York City, on the first of July, 1853; by Exsas Loomis, Pro- 
fessor of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy, in the Univer- 
sity of the City of New York. 


On the first of July, 1853, a very remarkable hail storm passed 
over the city of New York. The day had been uncommonly 
hot and sultry, the thermometer having risen to 90 degrees, and 
the air was believed to contain an unusual amount of vapor. 
little before 5 o’clock in the afternoon, a heavy black cloud was 
observed to rise in the northwest, the wind at the time blowing 
moderately from the northeast, and subsequently from the east. 
As the cloud advanced and covered the northwestern sky, 
while it was still clear in the southeast, numerous streaks of zig- 
zag lightning appeared to issue from the front margin of the 
cloud and descend towards the earth. I noticed the approach of 
the storm from my lodgings in Eighth street, within a quarter of a 
mile of the University. About five o’clock the wind came strong 


as large as my fist. They almost invariably broke on striking 
the pavement ; so that I could not secure either of t ose large 
Stones except in fragments; and moreover the rain was falling in 
arene. I however hastened to the yard in isn ie ne _ 

use, hoping to find some upon the grass which had not 
been broken in the fall. After the rain had nearly subsided, we 


36 Prof. Loomis on the Hail Storm of the first of July, 1853. 


found several handfuls of hailstones of good size, though -alto- 
gether inferior to those which I saw in the street. They gen- 


pieces of ice, which individually did not much exceed the size of 
hazel nuts—but they were cemented very firmly together. In- 
deed there was no appearance of seams or joints between these 
individual portions—but the ice was equally strong throughout 
every part of the mass. Their structure therefore did not indi- 
cate that several small hailstones were seperately formed and 
were subsequently cemented together; but rather that all were 
formed simultaneously about a common nucleus. Several per- 
sons independently, and without concert, suggested that the con- 
glomerated mass resembled rock-candy: and the comparison ap- 


inches. These had been lying several minutes in a warm 
drenching rain; and itis my full conviction that two or three of 
those which I saw in the street were three and a half inches 
long, by two anda half inches wide, and they did not appear to 
deviate much from the spheroidal figure. A friend of mine, who 
is by profession a painter, and who saw and handled the hail 


than many which we saw fall. _ 

he rain, accompanied by thunder and lightning, continued 
for six or eight minutes, when its violence somewhat. abated—it 
returned again with renewed energy, but soon afterwards entire- 
ly ceased. Another, but more moderate shower followed half an 
hour later, yet without either hail or lightning. 'Thronghout the 
entire storm, the wind had blown with considerable force, but 
not with destructive violence, in that part of the city which is 
southwest of the University ; and in the lower part of the city 
there was comparatively little win 


Ny 
\ 


Figures 5 to 8—Hailstones, 


Prof. Loomis on the Hail Storm of the first of July, 1853. 39 


In the upper part of the city, however, in the neighborhood of 
the Crystal Palace, the wind blew with destructive violence. 
high brick wall was blown flat to the ground—a block of four 
wooden buildings (not entirely completed) was prostrated—and a 
small wing of the Crystal Palace was blown down. he fall of 
hail was heavy, and considerable glass in the Crystal Palace, and 
the buildings in the vicinity, were broken. 

During the first part of the storm, the lightning was unusually 
severe. Several buildings and treesin New York and Willi 
burgh were struck by the electric fluid, and one or two barns 
were burned to the ground. 

I have succeeded in tracing this storm fora distance of full . 
twenty five miles, and for about two-thirds of this distance have 
followed the track personally on foot. The portion of the track 
which I have myself surveyed, commences about a mile anda 
half southwest of Paterson, N. J., from which point it proceeds 
in a southeast direction—passing over the village of Acquack- 
anonck, together with the cities of N. York and Williamsburg— 
and from this point the storm can be traced with diminished en- 
ergy to Jamaica Bay. Near Paterson, the wind is believed to 
have been more violent than in any other part of the above men- 
tioned track. Where it swept through the forests, many large 
trees, of one to two feet in diameter, were overturned—while 
others were snapped off and twisted like reeds. This remark 
applies to a distance of about three or four miles from the com- 
mencement near Paterson. In the neighborhood of Acquack- 
anonck, a few trees were overturned—but not a large number. 
East of Acquackanonck, the track soon crossed the Hackensack 
meadows where the ground is low and flat, and there were no 
trees to be overturned. Ihave obtained no information of the 
effect of the wind upon the high ridge on the west bank of the 
Hudson river—but the entire length of the track across New 
York was marked by violence, as above stated. This region 
was particularly exposed since it was the highest ground encount- 
ered by the storm in its passage across the island. Having cross- 
ed Hast river, the storm passed centrally over Williamsburgh, 
where it caused more damage than in any other part of its course. 
The steeples of two churches (the first Presbyterian and the 
Dutch) were blown down; the roof of a third church was par- 


it clung to the roofs and was left after the storm in long massive 
windrows. 

The breadth of the track near Paterson is thought not to have 
exceeded half a mile—perhaps was somewhat less than this—and 


40 Prof. Loomis on the Hail Storm of the first of July, 1853. 


yond Williamsburgh, the wind was less destructive—the track be- 
came broader and less distinctly defined—and the general course 
deviated more to the east. The storm was reported as severe at 
Jamaica and South Jamaica. From the commencment near Pat- 
erson to Williamsburgh the track did not deviate sensibly from a 
straight line ; and its course was from N. 40° W. to S. 40° E. 
Throughout the entire track here mentioned, hail fell of unusu- 
al size. Near Paterson the stones were smallest in size, but most 
abundant in quantity. The destruction caused to the fruit and the 
crops was such as not unfrequently occurs in France, but has 
seldom been witnessed in this country. When I visited the spot 
a few days after the storm, the trees looked as if they had been 
pelted by myriads of heavy stones. The leaves were strewed 
thick upon the ground; and most of those which still clung to 
the branches, were riddled through and through, and dried upon 
the stems. The rails of the fences bore marks of large gashes 
where the brown weather-worn surface had been nicked off and 
a fresh surface exposed, as if by a volley of stones from a troop 
of mischievous boys. Upon the north ‘side of the houses along 
the track, scarce a pane of glass was left entire, and the clap- 
boards were covered thick with gashes an inch in diameter, where 
the paint was chipped off. Fields of wheat and rye, which had 
not been harvested, were beaten down as flat as if a heavy iron 
roller (such as is sometimes employed for smoothing gravelled 
walks) had been dragged over them; and fields of corn were 
totally destroyed. On some fields, I was assured that after the 
storm the ice lay ina solid compact mass two inches thick. 
Large quantities of ice still remained unmelted on the ground the 
next morning, and a tenant on one of the farms collected a con- 
siderable quantity and carried it into Paterson, (two miles dis- 
tant, ) to show to his landlord ; and I was informed that in a hollow, 


the crops of wheat, rye, oats and corn, as also the cherries, peaches, 
apples, etc., within the limits of the track. si 


Prof. Loomis on the Hail Storm of the first of July, 1853, 41 


in the city of New York, the damage done by the hail was not 
very great ; for the stones were not numerous, although of pro- 
digious size. The ship-yard of Mr. Thomas Collyer at the Dry 
Dock, was covered with singularly shaped pieces of ice,—one of 
which was measured and found to be 64 inches in circumference 
—another seven inches, and a third measured three inches long, 
and two inches thick. 

{n Williamsburgh the hail appears to have destroyed more glass 
than in New York. In many houses nearly half the glass was 
broken in windows which were unprotected on the north side. 
Over 400 panes of glass were broken from the north side of a 
single school house. 


after the storm had abated. At Norristown and Doylestown the 
crops were much injured by the hail, and at Burlington, N. J., 
the wind was exceedingly violent. 

It is not probable that either of these storms was the same as 
that which passed over New York. ‘The hail-storm near Phila- 
delphia, was about simultaneous with that at New York. The 
storm at Northumberland may have been identical with that at 
Upper Dublin, the distance of the places being 100 miles—the 
interval of time 24 hours—and the direction nearly parallel with 
the track of the New York storm: 

t would appear that a violent wave of great extent set in from 
the northwest, which rolled over both New York and Philadel- 
phia; and within this wave were formed about simultaneously 
several distinct veins of hail. 

as the storm which passed over New York a whirlwind? 
[have surveyed every part of the track of the storm where I 
have heard of any violent effects, especially with reference to the 
decision of this question. Throughout Wilhamsburgh, I could 

nd no unequivocal evidence of rotation. The steeples which 
Were prostrated, fell in a direction coinciding very nearly with 
that of the storm’s progress, that is, towards the sontheast. In _ 
the case of one of the churches whose steeple was blown down — 
Stcoxn Suuis, Vol. XVII, No. 49.—Jap, 1864. ee 


Ls 


42 Prof. Loomis on the Hail Storm of the first of July, 1853. 


(the first Presbyterian Church) I noticed a phenomenon which I 
considered worth recording. ‘The track crossed the ridge of the 
church at an angle of about 45°. On the leeward side, the tin 
roof was started from the boards (but not broken) and pufied up 
forming a wrinkle about twenty feet long, two or three feet wide, 
and ten inches high. ‘This appears to me to indicate the opera- 
tion of a force beneath, pushing up the tin ; but not being able to 
tear the tin open, bulged it up and left it in a ridge. 

This phenomenon appears to be analogous to what often occurs 
in tornadoes, and I ascribe it to a rarefaction of the air on the lee- 


r 
windward roof remains. In the present case, this upward pres 
sure lifted the tin about ten inches, stretching but not tearing it 
This force appeared to be insufficient to tear the tin from its fasten- 
ings—perhaps because from the carrying away of the steeple, and — 
the ripping up of the adjacent edge of the tin, the air beneath © 
found a ready escape. 
In the neighborhood of the Crystal Palace, occurred a phenom- 
enon which appeared to indicate the existence of currents blow- 
ing nearly in opposite directions. ‘The wooden buildings, which — 
have already been mentioned, were blown toward the southeast — 
—but the brick wall, the line of which run from N. 28° E. to — 
S. 28° W., fell toward the west; that is, in a direction neatly 
contrary to that of the storm’s progress. 
e following appears to me to be the explanation of this 
phenomenon. ‘The Latting Observatory is an octagonal tower; 
300 feet high and 75 in diameter at base, sloping uniformly — 
to the top. In the annexed figure, 
the octagon represents the base of the 
tower, and the line NS represents a4 
meridian. On the west side of the 
tower, was erected a brick wall A B, 
25 feet high, and only three feet from 
the side of the tower. At the south 
end, it was connected with another 
wall B H, but at the north end it was 


BE 


the storm’s progress is indicated by the. = 
arrow. Itmight have been anticipated that the wall A B would — 
have been thrown towards the east upon the tower; whereas i 
fact it was thrown outwards towards the west. But we knoW 


Prof. Loomis on the Hail Storm of the first of July, 1853. 43 


from the testimony of spectators, that this wall fell at the first on- 
set of the blast, when, as we shall presently see, the wind blew 
nearly from the north, or perhaps a little east of north. 

violent current from the north, driven into the triangular space 
ADC, would necessarily become condensed between the wall 
and the tower, exerting a force to push the wall outward, and the 
wall had little strength to resist the pressure, being weak not only 
from its great height, but also being unsupported at the north end. 
The bricks also had been recently laid, and the mortar was not 
yet dry. On the east side of the tower, was a similar wall EH, 
but only 14 feet high, which was not prostrated. Its security is 
probably to be ascribed to its inferior height. 

The following facts at first seemed to me a little puzzling. 
Near Paterson, a large oak limb, a foot thick, was twisted off at 
the height of fifty feet, and prostrated in a direction pointing S. 
20° E., the top of the limb lying towards the base of the tree. 
Within a short distance I found another large oak limb, torn off 
at a great height and thrown towards S. 40° E., with its top also 
turned towards the base of the tree. Not far off, I found a third 
limb in a similar position. Broken limbs were generally found to 
have been carried eastward, with the top pointing to the S.E., 
and the base towards the N.W. ‘The three cases I have here 
Specified were exceptions to the general rule, and it appears to me 
that they are to be explained by supposing that the branches 
turned a somerset in falling. 

A like case occurred with the steeple of the first Presbyterian 
Church in Williamsburgh. The spire fell across the street—the 
top struck a brick house on the opposite side of the street and 
broke off, while the upper portion of the spire remained imbedded 
in the roof of the house which was crushed in by the blow. The 
remainder of the spire, which was now the frustum of a pyramid, 
fell down into the street ; but it is probable that the smaller end 
of the frustum struck the pavement first, for the steeple turned a 
Somerset along the street towards the east, and lay after the storm 
with the smaller end of the frustum turned fowards the church. 

A similar supposition will satisfactorily account for the observed 
Position of the three limbs above mentioned. 

n the woods between Acquackanonck and Paterson, I meas- 
ured with a pocket compass the direction of a large number of 
Prostrate trees. The following list shows the entire range of the 
bearings which I measured ; nof arranged in the order in which 
they were measured, but classified according to the points of the 
compass. They were 

S. 70° W.; 8. 20° W.; S. ; 8 : 
10° E.; $. 20° B.; §. 25° E.; S. 30°; 8. 35° E.; 8. 40° 
E.; §. 45° E.; S. 50° E; 0° E.; east. 


4 


a 


44 Prof. Loomis on the Hail Storm of the first of July, 1853. 


These bearings were measured at various points upon a portion 
of the track about two miles in length; and it will be noticed 
that there is not a single instance of a tree which was prostrated 
towards any point between East, North and West. The bear- 
ings extend from east, through south, to S. 70° W., a range of 
160 degrees ; but I found only one instance of a bearing approach- 
ing nearly so close to the west point. With but one exception, 
the bearings were all confined between east and S.20° W. The 
wind did not then blow from every point of the compass indiffer- 
ently, at least not with sufficient force to prostrate trees, but it 
blew only from the northward, including northeast and northwest. 
Neither was the wind a simple rectilinear current. What law 
then did the wind observe? Was its motion merely centripetal ? 
Did it revolve in a whirl? Or did it follow some other law? 

In order to decide these questions, I attempted to apply the 
method which I had successfully practised in the Mayfield tor- 
nado of Feb., 1842. This method consisted in selecting groups 


LAY SE nd da eS nr yy) te ee oe 


Ss a ee i ee ee 


Oe eee ae . 10 E 8.60 E. 
The first four cases present no angle greater than 30°; the 
fifth case presents an angle of 130°; that is, the two trees were 
turned in nearly opposite directions. 
From a comparison of all the facts, I conclude that the wind 
blew first from the northeast, and that this current was succeeded 
y a north and presently a northwest wind. The following are 
my reasons for this conclusion. ' 
1. The fifth case of interfering trees, just mentioned, taken in © 
to 


S. 50° E. 8. 40° E. S. 20° E. 8. 40° E. 8. 70° W. 
ore 2.4 8.45 40 E. 4.48 6.4 


clusion. We find that one large tree was prostrated with its top 
turned towards a point S.70° W. Upon it lay another large tree 
with its top turned S. 60° E. We may safely infer that these 


a point N. 70° E., and was succeeded by a curreut from N. 60° ; 
W. In each of the other cases of interfering trees, the angle of _ 
crossing Was so small, as to convey no very distinct information — 


Prof. Loomis on the Hail Storm of the Jirst of July, 1853. 45 


on this question. In three cases out of the four, the first blast ap- 
pears to have been a little more westerly than the final one; but 
all the trees were prostrated by anorthwest wind. 

2. A very intelligent farmer, whose house was close upon the 
northeast margin of the. track, about four miles from Paterson, 
gave the following testimony. He first took refuge from the 
hail under a shed on the southwest side of his barn, the wind then 

owing from the N. KE. After a short time, the hail began to 
beat upon him, the wind having veered to the N. W., and he was 
obliged to seek a shelter on the southeast side of his barn in order 
to escape the hail. 

. Itis known from the testimony of several individuals, that 
the wind at New York was easterly on the first approach of the 
storm. 

Upon comparing these facts, it appears to me that the direction 
of the wind at the time of its most destructive violence may be 
tolerably well represented by the annexed diagram, showing a 


current from the N. E., on the front of the storm; and from the 
N. W. in the rear, the whole having a progressive motion towards 
the §. E., which would give to each place in succession (unless 
hear the southwest margin of the track) first a N. E. wind, and 
afterwards a N. W. wind, 

_ 1 do not then find in this case that evidence of a complete rota- 
fon which I have found in some other tornadoes ; but it is pos- 
sible that at a little elevation above the earth’s surface, the rota 
Motion may have been more decided. ee 


46 Prof. Loomis on the Hail Storm of the first of July, 1853. 


What was the cause of the hail? 


The hail was caused by a violent upward movement of the air, 


carrying along with it an unusual amount of vapor, which was 
suddenly condensed, and at so low a temperature, that it was 
frozen in large semi-crystalline masses. 


That there was a violent upward movement of the air, I infer — 


from the following considerations. 


1. Rev. J. W. McLane of Williamsburgh was in the street near — 


his house, and noticed the coming up of the storm. He says the 


cloud was very dense and black—moved rapidly forward—and — 


under the main sheet, the clouds boiled up in a violent and angry 
manner, which led him to anticipate a severe blast. Other ob- 
servers have testified to substantially the same facts. 


It appears impossible that two currents, in close juxta-posi- 


tion, should blow from nearly opposite quarters, with sufficient 
violence to prostrate large trees, unless there is opportunity for the 
air to escape by an upward movement. ‘This conclusion is also 


in perfect harmony with what we have frequent occasion to ob- 


serve in small sand whirls and water spouts. 

How was the cold which formed the hail produced ? 

According to the observations of Pouillet, in France, the tem- 
perature of hail-stones when they fall, is sometimes as low as 25° 
Fahr. They must then have been formed ata temperature con 
siderably below that of melting ice—a temperature probably as 
low as 20° Fahr. How can so low a temperature be produced in 
the hottest weather of July? The temperature of the air dimin- 
ishes as we ascend from the earth, and at the height of 8800 feet 
above New York, is estimated at 32° in summer. At the height 
of 12000 feet the temperature is reduced to 20°. Were the hail 
stones in the present case, formed at an elevation of 12000 feet? 


It does not appear to me that we are at liberty to make such an ~ 


assumption. In the summer of 1835, several hail-storms passed 
over the southern part of France, where there were insulated 
peaks of mountains, which afforded precise means of measuring 
the. elevation of the hail. In the storm of July 28th, 1835, no hail 
fell on the summit of the Puy du Dome, an elevation of 4800 feet 
above the sea; but a few stones fell at the height of 3700 feet, 
while at the foot of the mountain, the ground was covered to the 
depth of three inches, and some of the stones weighed eight 
ounces. On the 2d of August of the same year, a hail cloud en- 
veloped the summit of the mountain, rising therefore to the height 
of at least 5000 feet. 

It does not therefore appear to me that we are at liberty to as 
sume that the hail of July Ist, was formed at an elevation much 
exceeding 5000 feet, and here the summer temperature may )é 
estimated at 46°. This cold is of course insufficient to form ice 


Prof. Loomis on the Hail Storm of the first of July, 1853. 47 


It is believed that during the passage of a hail storm, the tem- 
perature of the upper air is considerably below the mean. he 
simple presence of clouds in the lower atmosphere would tend to 
produce such an effect. The atmosphere derives its heat from 
the earth, and is but little affected by the direct passage of the 
solar rays. The heat which the earth imbibes from the sun is 
continually thrown off by radiation ;—but when the surface of 
the earth is covered by a cloud, this radiant heat is intercepted, 
and the temperature of the lower air is thereby elevated a 
still night, the presence of clouds sometimes causes the thermom- 
eter to stand ten or fifteen degrees higher that it would otherwise. 
But if, by the interposition of a cloud, the lower atmosphere be- 
comes unusually hot, the atmosphere above the cloud must receive 
less than its usual supply of heat, that is, it must become unusu- 
ally cold. 

Moreover, in the storm of July Ist, the hail was formed in a 
current blowing violently from the northwest, which came there- 
fore from a higher latitude, and of course brought with it a dimin- 
ished temperature. I have no data sufficiently precise for estima- 
ting the effect to be ascribed to this cause, but I think we may 
conclude that at the time of the storm in question, at an elevation 
of 5000 feet above New York, the temperature could not have 
differed much from 32°. We have not however yet reached the 
temperature necessary to the. production of hail. 

Another source of cold is to be found in the evaporation from 
the surface of the hailstones. It is well known that if we tie a 
plece of thin.muslin upon the bulb of a thermometer, and then after 
dipping the bulb in water, swing it rapidly through the air, the 
thermometer will sink below the temperature of the air, several 
degrees, sometimes ten or fifteen; an effect due to evaporation. 

ring a hail storm, the hot air from the earth’s surface is carried 
by the upward movement to a considerable elevation, by expansion 
it is cooled, and a portion of its vapor is condensed. e drops 
thus formed at a temperature not, far from 32°, are still further 
cooled by evaporation from their surface, (the evaporation being 
promoted by their rapid motion ;) the remainder of the drop is con- 
gealed; and as new vapor is precipitated, it is congealed upon the 


water, like nearly every other substance, in passing to the sofid 
State, inclines to crystallization, the ball as it increases, does not 
generally retain the spherical form, but shoots out irregular prisms. 

ow does a hailstone remain suspended in the air long enough 
to acquire a weight.of half a pound? 

This difficulty is not, to my mind, a very formidable one. I 
Conceive that hail stones are formed with great rapidity. e 
vapor is condensed with great suddenness and almost instantly 
frozen. I think very large hailstones may be formed in five 


nate ar 


48 Prof. Loomis on the Hail Storm of the first of July, 1853. — 


minutes. Ina vacuum, a stone would fall from the height of | 
5000 feet in less than 20 seconds—but drops of water and hail — 
stones fall with only a moderate velocity. From my own ob- 
servations of the hail stones of July Ist, [ estimated the velocity 

f their fall at about 40 feet per second. At the uniform rate oj 
AO feet per second, a stone would be more than two minutes in 
falling 5000 feet. 

In order to obtain some reliable data for estimating the velocity 
of hail stones, I have computed the greatest velocity of a num- 
ber of small bodies differing in size and specific gravity. Dr 
Hutton determined by numerous experiments the resistance of 
the air to bodies moving with different velocities; and in the 
third volume of his Tracts, p. 218, has given a table of the air’s — 
resistance to a sphere 2 inches in diameter. His experiments also _ 
indicated that the resistance, of spheres increases in a ratio some- 
what greater than the squares of the diameters. This excess for 


numbers in the second column, and diminishing the result by 
one-thirtieth part. Hach succeeding column is derived from the 
preceding in a similar manner. 


Resistance of the air to Spheres of different Diameters. ee | 


Velocity |Sphere 2 inch- |\Sphere 1 inch (Sphere } inch {Sphere 4 inch |Sphere + inch 

per second es in diameter.| in diameter. | in diameter. | in diameter. , in diameter. 
feet ounces. ounces, ounces 
5 0-006 0-001 0:000 
10 0°026 0°006 0001 
15 0°058 0-014 0°0038 
20 0°108 0°025 0°006 
25 0163 0039 0'010 
30 0°237 0057 0-014 
35 0325 0-078 0019 
40 0427 0-103 0025 
45 0544 07131 0032 
50 0676 0163 0-039 
55 0°821 0-198 0-048 
60 0-981 0-237 0°057 
1155 0°279 0-067 
70 0°325 0:078 
45 1546 0374 0:090 
80 1-76 0426 0103 
85 1-996 0-482 0-116 
90 2°243 0542 0-131 
5 2°505 0°605 0146 
100 2°780 0672 07162 
200 11°340 27 0668 
300 25°800 6235 1:507 


Prof. Loomis on the Hail Storm of the first of July, 1853. 49 


In a vacuum, a body falling under the influence of gravity is 
continually accelerated ; but when aheavy body falls through 
the atmosphere, the resistance increases with the velocity, until 
the resistance becomes equal to the weight of the body. When 
this takes place, there can be no further increase of velocity, and 
the body will afterwards descend with a uniform motion. In or- 
der therefore to determine the greatest velocity which a heavy 
body ean acquire by falling through the atmosphere, it is only 
necessary to compute the weight of a sphere of given diameter, 
and then to search in the preceding table for the velocity due to 
an equal resistance upon a body of the proposed diameter. ‘The 
following Table exhibits the results for spheres of lead (assuming 
the specific gravity 11:35), of iron (specific gravity 7-78), of wa- 
ter, of ice (sp. gr. 0-93), and cork (sp. gr. 0:25); the diameters 
varying from two inches to one-eighth of an inch. 


Weight of a sphere of Final velocity of sphere of 

: Lead. Tron. | Water.| Ice. | Cork. }) Lead. |Iron.| Water.) Ice.jCork 
Diam. | ounces. | ounces. | ounces. { oun es.| ounces.| feet. | feet.) feet. /feet. feet. 
2 in | 27°5182| 188593 24241 | 22544 | 06060 | 810 |257/- 94 | 90| 47 
1 “ } 34392) 23574 | 03030 | 02818 | 0:0757 | 293 |185/ 68 | 65 | 384 
+ “ | 04299} 02947  0-0379 | 0-:0352 | 00095 | 161/134! 49 | 47) 25 
t “ | 00537! 00368 0-0047 | 0-0044 | O-0012 | 117 97| 36 | 85| 18 
$ “ } 00067| 00046 0-0006 | 00006 |.0:0001 1 84 | 70) 25 | 24| 19 


hus it appears that a hail stone in the form of a sphere two 


and would greatly reduce the velocity of stones of larger size, 
The Strong upward movement which is known to exist in the 
neighborhood where hail is formed, is therefore quite sufficient to 
Sustain hail stones of the largest kind as long as they can be kept 
within the influence of this vortex. After they have entirely 
*scaped from the influence of the vortex, small stones would fall 
fo the earth from an elevation of 5000 feet in about two min- 
ules ; and very large stones in one minute. I see no difficulty 


cases, stones may remain supported for ten minutes and even a 

Steat deal longer. This period appears to me sufficient to ac- 

“ount for the hail which fell at New York. : ae Ws “oe 
Steonp Senims, Vol. XVII, No, 49.—Jan,, 1854... ia 


50 Prof. Loomis on Hail Storms. 


Why did the hail in the present case attain to such unusual 
size? 

Because of the following circumstances which are unusually 
favorable to its formation. 'The temperature of the air before the 
storm was 90°, and it is my opinion that the dew-point could not 
have been less than 80°; in other words the atmosphere contained 
about as much vapor as it is ever known to contain in this latitude. 
This vapor was suddenly lifted to a region of great cold, and rap- 
idly condensed and frozen. The strong upward movement helped 
to sustain the crystals as they increased in size, until the upward 
force was no longer equal to gravity—or until they escaped from 
the influence of the vortex. Most of the stones would fall in 
five minutes and be of moderate size ; others might be sustained 
ten or fifteen minutes, and attain enormous dimensions. 

How did the hail in this storm compare with the most remark- 
able cases on record. 

There are well authenticated cases of hailstones having fallen 
in England and France weighing half a pound—and even more 
than this—but the accounts of hail stones weighing so much 
as one pound, do not appear to me entirely satisfactory. A mass 
of ice of the specific gravity 0-93, weighing eight ounces must 
contain nearly 15 cubic inches; or would make a cube whose 
edge is nearly 2-5 inches. I have selected a piece of ice which 
was estimated to be about the size of the largest stone which I 
saw fall on the Ist of July, and found it to weigh eight ounces. 
But these large stones of July 1st appeared to me unusually 
white, and may therefore be conjectured to have had a spongy 
nucleus—which would have reduced the weight to perhaps si 
ounces. 

The hail therefore in the present storm was somewhat smaller 
than has been observed to fall in other places. 1 

Since the preceding was written, I have received notice of sev — 
eral remarkable hail storms in different parts of the United States, — 
two of which were so extraordinary that I have added an account 
of them to this paper. 


Hail Storm experienced at Warren, N. H., Aug. 13, 1851. 


My first information respecting this storm was derived from 4 — 
letter from Dr. Peter L. Hoyt, dated Wentworth, Grafton Co., — 
Aug. 3, 1853. The following is an extract from Dr. Hoyt’ — 
etter. 

“Perhaps a brief notice of a hail storm which occurred in this © 
vicinity on the 13th of August, 1851 may be of interest to you: 
This shower, about one o’clock, p. m., passed from the west to 
wards the east over an extent of four or five miles around the 


- Warren. The largest and most hail fell in the north east part of 


Prof. Loomis on Hail Storms. 51 


the latter town, in a basin between the mountains near the source 
of a stream called Baker’s river. I stood at the railroad depot 
in Wentworth, at the time of this shower, distant in an air line 
six or seven miles. It was the most remarkable appearing cloud 
I think I ever saw—so black and dense, encircling and covering 
the mountain, and shutting down to the earth. 

“'The hail was of prodigious size and in great quantities. The 
largest of the stones was of an irregular shape, rough and angu- 
lar, suggesting the idea to some that they were made up of a 
number adhering together. They were however very solid and 
not easily broken. 

‘One was weighed upon the spot at the time of the shower, and 
weighed 20 ounces; and the person who informed me of this was 
of the opinion that he saw one fall and break in pieces which 
was still larger. They looked, he said, like vast pieces of ice 
that had been broken above, and were falling to the earth. 
quantity was gathered in a basket and brought to Warren village, a 
distance of three or four miles, and there exhibited at least an hour 
after the shower, and in a hot and sultry afternoon. One of them 
there weighed 14 ounces, and measured 10 inches in circumfer- 
ence. ‘T'welve of the largest taken out of the basket weighed 
on the counter scales in the store, seven pounds. 

“About 4 o’clock, p. m., three hours after their fall, a box of 
them was brought to Wentworth village, where I reside, a dis- 
tance of about eight miles. One of them was shown to me. Its 
diameter according to my best judgment was from 2 to 24 inches. 
It had the appearance of being originally somewhat angular, with 
the angles melted off. It was perfectly-solid and clear. 

“So large was the quantity of hail in many places in War- 
ren, that a cart load might have been gathered without moving 
from the place. Luckily the track of the storm was not through 
the most cultivated part of the towns, but along the borders and 
skirts of the forests, where the population was scattering. Crops 
of hay and grain were ground to the earth, poultry were killed— 
cattle’s backs were bruised—and the roofs of many buildings 
were badly broken. But little glass was broken from the fac 
ae direction of the hail was nearly perpendicular to the 
earth,’ 


Immediately upon receiving this letter, I wrote to Dr. Hoyt, 
Stating that the facts which he had communicated respecting the 
size of the hail were so remarkable, that they ought to be sub- 
Stantiated by such evidence as would be deemed conclusive in a 
court of justice ; that it was therefore important that he should 
obtain written statements from the identical persons who weigh- 
ed the stones ; and that it would not be derogatory to the dignity 
of science for these persons to make affidavit to the truth of their 
Statements before a Justice of the Peace. I also suggested several. 


52 Prof. Loomis on Hail Storms. 


additional points upon which it was desirable that information 
should be obtained. In reply I received another letter from Dr. 
Hoyt accompanied by documents such as I had suggested. The 
following is extracted from his reply. 

‘* As yet I have been unable to substantiate the weight of a hail- 
stone at 20 ounces; yet throughout the town of Warren the 
impression prevails that one was so weighed. The enclosed af- 
fidavit of Mr. Libby, and statement of Mr: Flanders fixes the 
extreme weight of two stones weighed by them at 174 and 18 
ounces ; with the firm belief of Mr. Libby that had he weighed 
them at the time of falling, their weight would have been in- 
creased some two or three ounces. 

‘“‘T have the names of some two or three other individuals who 


storm weighed 14 ounces. A tin pail full containing fifteen, 
weighed 10 pounds—four collectively weighed three pounds, ete. 
Incredible as the above may appear to some, they are facts which 
can be proved by a multitude of evidence, 

“This storm was remarkable for the amount of ice which fell 
as well as the size of the stones. Mr. Flanders thinks that in 
Benton the average depth of the hail was about four inches, and 
from enquiry along the track of the storm, I should judge that 
he is not far from right in his estimate. The extreme width of the 
hail was about two miles, and the length over a cultivated dis- 
trict perhaps about five or six miles. How far east it extended I 

e no means of knowing, as it entered a forest of many miles 
in width. The largest hail stones fell near the edge or skirts of 
its track ; the thiciest and greatest amount or depth of hail fell in 
the centre. Although the sun came out “boiling hot” as one man 
expressed it, after the shower, still the hail remained on the 
ground in many places until the next day. An owner of asa 
mill, on the stream of water which has its source in the forests 
over which the shower passed, told me that the water kept swollen 
for two or three days, when from common showers of rain It 
would have fallen in twenty-four hours. This he attributed to the 
gradual melting of so large a quantity of ice in the woods. I think 
there was but little if any difference in the distribution of the 
large stones along the track, as the two whose weights are given 
by Mr. Flanders and Mr. Libby were picked up about five miles 
apart, and near the extremes of its track before it entered the 
forest. On the borders or skirts of the cloud the large stones fell 
scattering, and as it approached the centre it was as if the whole 
contents of the cloud were let down in ice. During the time 
the hail, which lasted some twenty or thirty minutes, there was 
but little rain ; after the hail it rained briskly for ten or fifteet 
minutes.  pten? alti antlers & emied cioasisiaee 


eo 


| 


Prof. Loomis on Hail Storms. 53 


“ Shape of the hail.—In Benton at the commencement of the 
hail, the masses were angular, having a resemblance to broken 
ice; while further along the track they assumed a smoother and 
more uniform surface, being oval or oblong. In many instances 
the surface is described as being notched or scolloped; and in 
some few as being covered with icy spikes, like icicles somewhat 
resembling a burr. It is the opinion of those who examined 
these stones the most minutely, that they were not formed by the 
union of several masses, but were distinct and individual in for- 
mation. They were compact and very solid ; so hard that they 
might be thrown with great force against a house and not be 

roken. 

“Velocity.—All agree that the hail fell with great velocity and 
force. Mr. E. W. Cleasby, a very correct and veracious man, 
whose statement is appended to this letter, says that hail stones 
very solid and weighing in the vicinity of 10 or 12 ounces, averag- 
ing one on about every two feet, fell in a piece of unmowed grass. 
In their passage through the grass they entangled it so as to carry 
it imbedded into the sward ground to the depth of some two 
or three inches, and after the melting of the hail, left the turf 
full of holes like little bird’s nests. These holes remained through 
the season. As a test of the force necessary to effect this, he 
repeatedly with a pitch fork handle having a rounded head, tried 
to ome it into the ground to an equal depth, and was unable 

0 it. 


“Many of the barns in this neighborhood have their roofs 
covered with what are styled ‘long shingles’—that is with spruce 
Shingles without previous boarding. Whenever these large stones 
fell upon such roofs, they broke a hole completely through ; and 


ces, was obliged to hide under the scaffold. The marks and 
bruises upon the buildings caused by the hail are still to be seen. 

ays one person, ‘they looked like little pnmpkins falling.’ The 
roar and rattle of the hail was distinctly heard at the village in 
Warren, a distance of four or five miles, and was likened to the 
noise of a heavy train of cars. 

. d.—During the storm there was but little wind. The 
hail fell nearly perpendicularly. ‘The general bearing of the 
Wind as appears from my weather table on that day, was west- 
south-west ; and the direction of the shower was in correspond- 
ence with this. 

A 


ing. Such also is the testimony of people living there. — aiid 
A ae Oe eer e 


54 Prof. Loomis on Hail Storms. 


“You ask if it was possible that the larger stones could have 
been formed by the cementing or freezing together of several 
while lying on the ground? I should think it dmpossible that 
such could be the case. Furthermore the general opinion among 
the inhabitants is that each stone was a unit in formation.” 


The following is a copy of the affidavit of Mr. Libby already 
referred to. 
Warren, N. H., Aug. 24, 1853. 
I live in Warren and witnessed the hail storm on the L3th of 
August 1851, between the hours of one and two o’clock, P. M. 
I weighed a number of the hail stones which fell at that time, 
but not until after the shower had ceased—perhaps an hour and 
a half or two hours after. During this time it was very hot. 
The largest which I weighed was 174 ounces in weight. The 
others varied in the vicinity of apound. Iam fully in the be- 
lief that had they been weighed at the time of falling, their 
weight would have been some two or three ounces more. Pre- 
vious to weighing them I washed the dirt from them in water. 
They were very irregular in shape, somewhat scolloped, with ice 
projections from their surface. I picked these stones up from 
soft ploughed ground where they were imbedded more than half 
their size in the ground. During the time that the hail was fall- 
ing there was but little rain, with little or no wind. After the 
hail there was a warm rain of some ten or fifteen minutes du- 
ration. Joun Lippy. 
Sworn to before me, Jesse Lirrie, Justice of the Peace. 


The following is the statement of Mr. Flanders already re- 
ferred to. 

Wentworth, Aug. 30, 1853. 
I live in Benton, N. H., County of Grafton, and resided there 
at the time of the hail storm on the 13th of August, 1851. 
weighed a number of the hail stones after the rain was over: 


Granvitte E. FLANDERS. 
The following is the statement of Mr. Cleasby. 


Warren, N. H., Sept. 3, 1853. 
This certifies that several of the hail stones which fell here on 
the 13th of August, 1851, were measured by members of my 
family. According to my best recollection the circumference of 
the largest was fourteen inches one way and nine the other. 
eir form was very generally oval. Ezra W. Cveassy. 


Prof. Loomis on Hail Storms. 55 


dence that hail of equal size has ever been seen in any other part 
of the world. 


Hail Storm at Montrose, Iowa, on the Mississippi River, in 
Lat. 40° 30’, about the middle of June, 1838. 


The following notice of this storm is derived from a letter re- 
ceived from Mr. D. W. Kilbourne, who resided at Montrose in 
38, but now lives at Keokuk, twelve miles below Montrose. 


“ About four o’clock in the afternoon, a very heavy black cloud 
rose in the northwest, the wind at the time blowing strong from 
that quarter. There was much thunder and lightning; at the 
same time it was clear in the east and southeast. 

Very soon however the whole sky seemed to be covered by 
clouds ; there was a heavy mist, and it was almost as dark as 
night. Rain immediately followed, and for a few moments fell 
in torrents. Then hail stones began to fall. At first they were 
small and excited no surprise in myself or family ; but they con- 
tinued to increase in quantity and size to such an extent as to 
€xcite not only our wonder but our fears. The hail storm con- 
tinued nearly ten minutes, and during all the time small and 
large hail fell together. ‘The wind was high. 

As soon as the storm abated so that it was safe to go out, my 
family were all engaged in picking up the stones. We then se- 
lected the largest and measured their circumference. The largest 
one found measured ten and one-fourth inches. There were a 
large number that measured from two to ten inches in circum- 
ference. | gathered up with my own hands in one spot on the 
grass without moving, a half bushel measure full. 

Mrs. Kilbourne placed several of the largest ones upon the top 
of common sized glass tumblers, and when melted they filled 
the tumblers so that some of them could not be moved without 


lieve the hail stones were particularly noticed or measured except 
at our house.” 


56 C. Hartwell on a Tertiary Rainbow. 


Art. V.2eDesciption A> a oe whe Rainbow ; by CHarues 


On the 28th of July, 1851, the writer observed, from the The- 
ological Seminary, in South ‘Windsor, Conn., what he judged to 


e a Tertiary Rainbow. After a heavy shower, and a little 
before sunset, the sun appeared, artes on the dark clouds in 
the east a beautiful primary bow. At the same time an appear- 


ance of decomposed light was seen in Pie N. W., upon a cloud of 
not very large dimensions, but from which rain was evidently 
alling. o the 8. W., also, upon clouds somewhat separated, 
decomposed light was visible. 
The appearance north of the sun was very bright, te St in " 
were observed only the various shades of red and orange. 


traceable for some fifteen iegttes from the horizon. Had t 
phenomena appeared in the east, no one would have doubted bat 
that they constituted the two ends ofarainbow. The curvature 


have been sufficient proof. But as they were seen in the west, 
on the side with the sun, and tertiary bows are very rarely seen, 
it may be necessary to give the reasons which convinced me that 
I had really seen one. The phenomenon to the north was first 
observed, and filled the beholder with astonishment. What this 
appearance could be, so much more brilliant than oni views 
of the sun’s shining on clouds, and then, too, not on the edge 
but near the middle while the rest appeared as clouds ordinarily 
do, at the same time no reason being manifest from the position 
of the cloud and sun and the state of the intermediate heavens 
why the sun should shine on that part rather than another, not 4 
little puzzled him 
n going to another window, the phenomenon to the south 
was seen. From its greater length, curved form, and its position 
on the opposite side of the sun, the conclusion was immediately 
drawn that they were the two ends of a rainbow. Recalling 
some instructions of my former (iolice Prof. Snell, of Amherst 


American Associaton in Alba: shy, 51. Being > deine to iced himself, he sent if 
bya a o was, however, obliged to leave before the day assigned for its 
; "fit-health and pressing engagements prevented his giving further attentio? 


d si 
think the tot er it rh foe now, mAb find a place in some public record. 
ours truly, ES. SNeELL 
Amherst College, Nov. 11th, 1853. 


E 
a 


C. Hartwell on a Tertiary Rainbow. 57 


College, the thought flashed into my mind that this was a tertiary 
bow. Not recalling the dimensions of such a bow, I measured 
off the heavens as best I could, and judged the radius as seen to 
be about 40°. L have since learned that the radius by calculation 
is 40° 40’, so that my judgment, correct or incorrect, agrees very 
well with the true dimeusions of the bow. 

Having stated these facts to Prof. Snell, and requested a brief 
communication from him, he kindly furnished one, which. I ap- 
pend to this paper. 

“ Amherst College, Aug. 15, 1851. 


Since hearing you give an account of a phenomenon which 
you observed and supposed to be a tertiary rainbow, I have ex- 
amined my notes upon the subject, and am well satisfied that you 
were not mistaken. All the circumstances forbid the supposition 
that it was a halo formed in prisms of ice. You estimated the 
distance of the arcs from the sun to be 40°; this differs but about 
half a degree from the radius of the tertiary bow, as determined 
by calculation. The arcs were seen also in masses of falling rain 
of such limited thickness, that the light might well be supposed 
to have been transmitted through the rain to the eye. 

Though the appearance was not one of remarkable splendor, 
yet you may congratulate yourself, I think, on having witnessed 
a phenomenon of the most rare occurrence. The writer of the 
treatise on Optics, in the English Library of Useful Knowledge, 
speaking of the bows caused by three or four reflections in each 
drop of rain, says, ‘none of these bows, however, have been seen.’ 
Professor Forbes, of the University of Edinburgh, in his learned 

eport on Meteorology to the British Association, 1840, remarks, 
‘These, the ternary, quaternary, &c., rainbows, have been long 
theoretically known, though rarely, if ever, observed in nature. 
The ternary rainbow ought to be about 41° from the sun, but is 
generally stated to be too faint to be visible. 'T'wo observations 
by Bergmann are the only recorded ones I have met with. 
Kemptz observed a ternary amidst the spray of the falls of 
Schauffhausen.’ 

Kemptz, in his course of meteorology, after speaking of the 
bows of the third and fourth order, adds, ‘ but the intensity of 
these two latter is so feeble that they are rarely seen ;’ and puts 
In a note the following quotation, ‘ M. Babinet, when in the most 
favorable circumstances, on Mount d’Or, and on the Canigou, 
vainly endeavored to perceive them. 

It is obvious, as these quotations show, that the phenomenon 
Which you witnessed is as rare as it is interesting. It seems 
to me highly probable -that there is yet no public record of an 
instance in which an American observer has seen a rainbow on 
the same side of the heavens with the sun.” 

Stconp Senses, Vol. XVII, No. 49.—Jan,, 1854. 8 


= 


58 The Earl of Rosse’s Telescopes, and their 


Arr. VI.—The Earl of Rosse’s Telescopes, and their Revela- | 
V 


tions in the Sidereal Heavens; by Rev. W. Scoressy, D.D,, 
R.SS.L. & E., ete.* 


In a second lecture on these interesting subjects, recently de- 
livered at Torquay, much and important consideration was given 
to the inquiry,— What has the gigantic telescope done? 

The lecturer having himself had the privilege of observing on 
different visits, and for considerable periods, with both the in- 
struments, was enabled to reply, he hoped in a satisfactory mat- 
ner, to this inquiry. His opportunities of observing, he said, not- 
withstanding interruptions from clouds and disturbed atmosphere, 
had been somewhat numerous, and, not unfrequently, highly in- 
structive and delightful. Of these observations he had made 
records of nearly 60, on the moon, planets, double stars, clusters, 
and nebule. He had been permitted also to have free access 10, 
and examination of, all the observatory records and drawings, 80 
that he was enabled on the best grounds, he believed, to say, that 
there had been no disappointment in the performance of the in- 
struments ; and that the great instrument, in its peculiar qualities 
of superiority, possesses a marvellous power in collecting light 
and penetrating into regions of previously untouched space. In 
what may be called the domestic regions of our planet—the ob- 
jects in the solar system—all that other instruments may reveal 
is within its grasp or more, though by the prodigious flood of 
light from the brighter planets, the eye is dazzled unless a large 
portion is shut out. 


But in its application to the distant heavens and exploration of 


the nebulous systems there, its peculiar powers have, with 4 
steady atmosphere, their highest developments and noblest ttl- 
umphs. In this department—that to which the instrument has 
been particularly directed—every known object it touches, whet 
the air is favorable, is, as a general fact, exhibited under some neW 
aspect. It pierces into the indefinite or diffuse nebulous forms 
shewn by other instruments in a general manner, and either eX 
hibits configurations altogether unimagined, or resolvés perhaps 
the nebulous patches of light into clusters of stars. Guided in the 
general researches by the worksof the talented and laborious 

erschels—to whom astronomy and science owe a deep debt 0 
gratitude—time has been economized, and the interests of the re 
sults vastly enhanced. So that many objects in which the fine 
instruments of other observers could discern only some vague in- 
definite patch of light, have been brought out in striking, definite, 
and marvellous configurations. 

Among these peculiar revelations is that of the spiral form— 
the most striking and appreciable of all— which we may venture 
to designate “‘ The Rossean Configuration.” Its discovery wa5 

* An abstract of a Lecture delivered at Torquay, November 15, 1852—From the 

inburgh New Philosophical Journal for January, 1853. _ 


Mi 


Revelations in the Sidereal Heavens. 59 


at once novel and splendid; and in reference to the dynamical 
principles on which these vast aggregations of remote suns are 
whirled about within their respective systems and sustained 
against interferences, promises to be of the greatest importance. 
ne of the most splendid nebule of this class—the great spi- 
ral or whirlpool—has been figured in the Philosophical Transac- 
tions for 1850. It may be considered as the grand type and ex- 
ample of a class; for near 40 more, with spiral characteristics, 
have been observed, and about 20 of them carefully figured. 
Dr. Scoresby had the pleasure of being present at the discovery 
of this particular form im a nebula of the planetary denomination, 
in which two portions following spiral forms were detected, Its 
color was peculiar,—pale blue. He had the privilege, too, of 
being present on another interesting occasion, when the exam- 
ination of the great nebula in Orion was first seen to yield decisive 
tokens of resolution. 94 
In these departments of research, the examination of the con- 


—has been decidedly great, and the new knowledge acquired, 
concerning the handiwork of the Great Creator, amply satisfying 
of even sanguine anticipations. 

Dr. Scoresby found, in September last, that about 700 cata- 


to 140 or more. The numberof observations, involving separate sets 
of the instrument, recorded in the ledger, (exclusive of very many 
hundreds, possibly thousands, on the moon and planets,) amount 
tonear 1700, involving several hundreds of determinations of 
position and angular measurements with the micrometer on the 
far distant stars. The carefully drawn configurations, eliciting 


In speaking of the effects of the flood of light accumulated by 
the six-feet speculum of the Earl of Rosse, Dr. Scoresby remark- 


# os 


60 The Earl of Rosse’s Telescopes, and their 


any competition. For comparing the space-penetrating power of 


the six-feet speculum with one of two feet (which has rarely been 
exceeded) we find it three to one in favor of the largest, with an 
accumulation of light in the ratio of 6? to 27, or 9to 1. Oncom- 
paring the powers of this magnificent instrument with those of a 
refractor of two feet aperture, the largest hitherto attempted, we 
have a superiority—making a due allowance for the loss of light 
by reflection from two mirrors, and assuming an equal degree of 
perfectness, figure, and other optical requirements in the refractor, 
and no allowance for absorption of light—in the ratio of about 
4-5 to 1, as to light, and as 2-12 to 1,as to the capability of pene- 
trating space, or detecting nebulous or sidereal objects at the ex- 
treme distance of visibility. Hence, whilst the range of telesco- 
pic vision in a refractor of two feet aperture would embrace @ 
sphere in space represented by.a diameter of 2; the six-feet spect 
lum (assuming both instruments to be of equal optical perfec- 
tion, magnifying equally, and allowing fifty per cent. for loss of 
light for two reflections in the one case, and none (?) in the other) 
would comprehend a sphere of about 4:24 diameter,—the outet 
shell of which, 1:12 in thickness, being the province of the great 
instrumentalone. But let us reduce these proportions to sections 
of equal spaces, that we may judge more accurately of the rela- 
tive powers. Now, the solid contents of different spheres, We 
know, are in the ratio of the cubes of their diameters. Hence 
the comparative spheres, penetrated by the two instruments Te 
referred to, should be 4°24? to 2; that is, as 9'5to lL. Deducting; 
then, from this vast grasp of space the inner sphere, capable © 
being explored by other instruments, we find that, out of nearly 
ten sections of space reached by this telescope, there are nearly 
nine sections which the six feet speculum may embrace as pect 
liarly its own! 

What its revelations yet may prove, then, we can have no idea. 
Several thousands of nebule have been catalogued: the great re 


at the Cape of Good Hope, for the examination of the heavens 
towards the southern pole. Lord Rosse, with his usual noble- 
ness of liberality, will yield up his laboratory, machinery, and 
men, to the service of government, and is willing, moreover, 1 
give the direction and guidance of his master-mind. Will the 
British nation be content with a refusal ? 

The range opened to us by the great telescope at Birr Castle, 
is best, perhaps, apprehended by the now usual measurement— 


- notof distances in miles, or millions of miles, or diameters of the 


Revelations in the Sidereal Heavens. 61 


earth’s orbit, but—of the progress of light in free space. The 
determination, within, no doubt, a small proportion of error, of the 
parallax of a considerable number of the fixed stars, yields, ac- 
cording to M. Peters, a space betwixt us and the fixed stars of the 
smallest magnitude, the sixth, ordinarily visible to the naked eye, 
of 130 years in the flight of light. This information enables us, 
on the principles of sounding the heavens, suggested by Sir W. 
Herschel, with the photometrical researches on the stars of Dr. 
Wollaston and others, to carry the estimation of distances, and 
that by no means on vague assumption, to the limits of space 
opened out by the most effective telescopes. . And from the guid- 
ance thus afforded us, as to the comparative power of the six 
feet speculum in the penetration of space, as already elucidated, 
we might fairly assume the fact, that if any other telescope now 
in use could follow the sun if removed to the remotest visible 
position, or till its light would require 10,000 years to reach us, 
the grand instrument at Parsonstown would follow it so far, that 


enormous interval. 

_ But after all, what is all this, vast as the attainment may seem, 
in the exploration of the extent of the works of the Almighty ? 
For in this attempt to look into space, as the great reflector ena- 
bles us, we see but a mere speck—for space 18 InFINiTE. Could 
we take, therefore, not the tardy wings of the morning, with the 
Speed of the mere spread of day, nor flee as with the leaden 
wings of light, which would require years to reach the nearest 
Star, but, like unhampered thought, could we speed to the farthest 
visible nebula at a bound,—there, doubtless, we should have a 
continuance of revelations ; and if bound after bound were taken, 
and new spheres of space for ten thousand repetitions explored, 
should we not probably find each additional sphere of telescopic 
Vision garnished with suns and nebulous configurations rich and 


Spitit of the Psalmist, we shall each one, surely, be disposed ap- 
Propriately to join in his emphatic saying,—‘t When I consider 
thy heavens, the work of thy fingers, the moon and the stars 
Which thou hast ordained ; what is man, that thou art mindful 
tlm? or the son of man, that thou visitest him ?” 


62 Dr. Burnett on the Development of Viviparous Aphides. 


Art. VII.—Researches on the Development of Viviparous 
Aphides ; by Watvo I. Burnett, M.D., Boston. 


Every naturalist is aware of the remarkable phenomena con- 
nected with the viviparous reproduction of Aphides or plant-lice, 
or their singularity has led them to be recounted in works other 
than those of natural science, and, from the days of the earlier ob- 
servers, they have been the theme of a kind of wonder-story in 
zoology and physiology. 

I need not here go over the historical relations of this subject. 
The queer experiments and the amusing writings of the old Ento- 
mologists are well known. ‘The brief history of the general con- 
ditions of the development of these insects is as follows: In the 
early autumn the colonies of plant-lice are composed of both male 
and female individuals ; these pair, the males then die, and the 
females soon begin to deposit their eggs, after which they die also. 
Early in the ensuing spring, as soon as the sap begins to flow, 
these eggs are hatched, and the young lice immediately begin to 
pump up sap from the tender leaves and shoots, increase rapidly 
in size, and in a short time come to maturity. In this state it is 
found that the whole brood, without a single exception, consists 
solely of females, or rather and more properly, of individuals 
which are capable of reproducing their kind. This reproduction 
takes place by a viviparous generation, there being formed in the 
individuals in question, young lice which, when capable of enter- 
ing,upon individual life, escape from their progenitor and form a 
new and greatly increased colony. This second generation pur- 
sues the same course as the first, the individuals of which it is 
composed being like those of the first, sexless, or at least without 
any trace of the male sex throughout. These same conditions 
are then repeated, and so on almost indefinitely, experiments hav- 
ing shown that this power of reproduction under such cireum- 
stances may be exercised, according to Bonnet,* at least through 
nine generations, while Duvaut obtained thus, eleven generations 
in seven months, his experiments being curtailed at this stage, 
not by a failure of the reproductive power, but by the approach 
of winter which killed his specimens; and Kybert{ even observed 
that a colony of Aphis dianthi which had been brought into a 
constantly heated room, continued to propagate for four years, in 
this manner, without the intervention of males, and even in this 
instance it remains to be proved how much longer these phenom- 
ena might have been continued. 

The singularity of these results led to much incredulity as to 
their authenticity, and on this account the experiments were often 

* Bonnet, Traité d’'Insectologie, ou observations sur les Pucerons, 1745. 


+ Duvau, Mém. du Mus. d’Hist. Nat., xiii, p. 126. 
} Kyber, Germar’s Magaz. d, Entomol. 1812. 


oe 


2 ere ene RRR I 


(aman 


Dr. Burnett on the Development of Viviparous Aphides. 63 


and carefully repeated ; and there can now be no doubt that the 
virgin Aphis reproduces her kind—a phenomenon which may be 
continued almost indefinitely, ending finally in the appearance of 
individuals of distinct male and female sex, which lay the founda- 
tion of new colonies in the manner just described.* 

The question arises, what interpretation is to be put upon these 
almost anomalous phenomena? Many explanations have been of- 
fered by various naturalists and physiologists, but most of them 
have been as unsatisfactory as they have been forced, and were 
admissible only by the acceptance in physiology of quite new 
features. 


As the criticism I intend to offer upon some of these opinions, 
will be the better understood after the detail of my own researches, 
I will reserve their future notice until the concluding part of this 


Aphis with which I am acquainted, the Aphis Carye of Har- 
ris.~ While in Georgia, this last spring, it was my good fortune 
that myriads of these destroyers appeared on a hickory which 
grew near the house in which I lived. The number of broods on 
this tree did not exceed three, for with the third series their num- 
bers were so great that their source of subsistence failed and they 
gradually disappeared from starvation. The individuals of each 
tood were, throughout, of the producing kind, no males having 
been found upon the closest search; they were all, moreover, 
winged ; and those few which were seen without these appenda- 
Ses appeared to have Jost them by accident. I mention this fact 
especially, since it has been supposed by naturalists that the fe- 
males were always wingless, and therefore that the winged indi- 
Viduals, or the males, appeared only in the autumn.: 
he first brood, upon their appearance from their winter hiding- 
Places, were of mature size, and I found in them the developing 
germs of the second brood quite far advanced. On this account 
it was the embryology of the third series or brood alone, that I 
Was able to trace in these observations. 


* For details of experiments by which Bonnet’s original results were verified, see 
Réaumur, Mémoires, iii, Mém. 9 and 11, and vi, Mém. 13. Also, 
egeer, Mémoires, iii, ch. 2, 3. 
Curtis, Trans. Linn. Soc, vi. Philos. Trans. 1771. 
D vages, Journ. de Physique, i. ; 
Falta Mémoires, ii, p. 442. See also the more modern writers, and especially 
irby and Spence, Introduction to Entomology, iv. p. 161. ees 
to V arris, A treatise on some of the Insects of New England which are injurious 
of We etion- 2nd ed. 1852. p. 208, As Dr. Harris says, it is probably Lachnus 
Illiger, (Cinara of Curtis, 
F) ot Sane eens pts uction to the modern Classification of Insects, &c, Lon- 
Gin - i, p. 488—but especiall 
“» Parthenogenesis, éc., 28, ae and p. 59, note, where he says, “ Many of the 
virgin viviparous Aphides acquire wings, but never perfect the generative organs!” 


64 Dr. Burnett on the Development of Viviparous Aphides. 


A few days after the appearance of these insects, the individu- 
als of second brood (B), still, within their parents (A), had reach- 
ed two-thirds of their mature size. At this time the arches 0 
the segments of the embryo had begun to close on the back, and 
the various external appendages of the insect to appear promi- 
nently; the alimentary canal ‘had been more or less completely 
formed, although distinct abdominal organs of any kind belonging 
to the digestive system were not very prominent. At this period, 
and while the individuals of generation B, are not only in the 
abdomen of their parent A, but are also enclosed, each, in its 
primitive egg-like capsule,—at this time, I repeat, appear the first 
traces of the germs of the third brood (C). 

These first traces consist of small egg-like bodies arranged, two, 
three, or four in a row, and attached in the abdomen at the locality 
where the ovaries are situated in the oviparous forms of these al- 
imals. 

These egg-like bodies consisted either of single nucleated cells, 
of 5;'55 of an inch in diameter, or, a small number of such cells 
enclosed in asimple sac. These are the germs of the third gene- 
ration; they increase with the development of the embryo in which 
they have been formed, and this increase of size takes place 
not by a segmentation of the primitive cells, but by the endog- 
enous formation of new cells. After this increase has gone on 


the sac by which it is enclosed. In this way the germs are mul- 
tiplied to a considerable number, the nutritive material for theit 
growth being apparently a fatty liquid with which they are bathed, 
contained in the abdomen, and which is thence derived from the 
abdomen of the first parent. 

When these germs have reached the size of =}, of an inch in 
diameter, there appears on each, near one end, a yellowish, vitel- 
lus-looking mass or spot, which is composed of large, yellowish 

ells, which in size and general aspect, are different from those 
constituting the germ proper, This yellow mass increases part 
passu with the germ, and at last lies like a cloud over and con- 
cealing one of its poles. I would also insist on the point that it 


: 


meaner 


a Ts 


Dr. Burnett on the Development of Viviparous Aphides. 65 


does not extend itself gradually over the whole germ-mass, and 
is therefore quite unlike a true germinative vesicle ora rolige- 
rous disc. When the egg-like germs have attained the size of 
r#5 Of an inch, there distinctly appears the sketching or marking 
out of the future animal. This sketching consists at first of del- 
icately-marked retreatings of the cells here and there, but which 
soon become more prominent from furrows, and at last the 
whole form of the embryo stands boldly out. As the whole idea 
and form of the insect is thus moulded out of a mass of cells, 
it is evident that the separate parts which then appear, such as 
the arches of the segments, the extremities and the oval appa- 
ratus, consist at first of only rows of simple cells. This point is 
here beautifully prominent, and nowhere have I observed finer 
illustrations of the cell-constitution of developing forms. 
he development thus proceeding, each part of the dermo-skel- 
eton becomes more and more distinct, and the increase of size o 
the whole is attained by the constant development of new cells. 
During this time, the yellow vitellus-looking mass, situated at one 
ot the poles of the embryo, has not changed its place ; it has in- 
creased somewhat in size, but otherwise appears the same. When 
the development has proceeded somewhat farther, and the embryo 
s pretty well formed, the arches of the segments, which have 
itherto remained gapingly open, appear to close together on the 
ack, thereby enclosing this vitellus-looking mass within the ab- 
minal cavity, 
tis this same vitelloid mass thus enclosed that furnishes the 
hutritive material for the development of new germs which would 
those of the fourth brood or D; this development of germs 
here Commences with the closing up of the abdominal cavity, 
and the same processes which we have just described are again 
repeated, 

_ The details of the development subsequent to this point, are 
like those of the development of ordinary insects or of the Ar- 
eulata in general ; and although this ovoid germ has at no time 
the structural peculiarities of a true ovum—such as a real vitellus, 
4 germinative vesicle and germinative dot; yet, if we allow a 
little latitude in our comparison and regard the vitellus-looking 


Mit this comparison of parts, then the analogy of development 
tween these germs and true eggs of insects, may be traced in 
Sonsiderable detail. j 
f 'S Comparison I have been inclined to admit at least in part, 
fom the Striking resemblance of these developing forms at cer- 
he stages, with the embryological forms of spiders as they have 
D figured by Herold* and as I have myself traced them. 
* Herold, De Generatione Aranearum in ovo. Marbourg, 1824. 
Szates, Vol. XVII, No. 49.—Jan,, 1854. ee 


66 Dr. Burnett on the Development of Viviparous Aphides. 


When, in spiders, the serous fold of the germinating tissue has 
extended so as to cover two-thirds of the developing form, leav- 
ing the vitelline mass on the dorsal surface near one of the poles, 
the whole embryo quite resembles that of a developing Aphis 
just before the arches of the segments close up on the back. 

With this view of the relative parts of the germ, the following 
would be the details of the development of the different systems, 
and in the noticing of which I shall follow Kdlliker.* 

The germinating tissue consists of two parts; a serous and 

mucous fold. 

- The abdominal plates arise from the serous fold, sprout out 
towards the vitelloid mass, pass over it and unite on the dorsa 
surface of the future animal; on the opposite side are formed 
plates which do not unite, but are formed into the hind legs. 

e wings are the lateral limbs. 
4. The first traces of the abdominal column appear in the 
chain of abdominal muscles, situated between the nerves and the 
intestinal canal. 


the germ at the time when the first traces of development were 
seen. From this it is evident that, even admitting that these germ- 
masses are true eggs, the conditions of development are quite differ- 
ent from those of the truly viviparous animals; such as for in- 
stance in Musca, Anthomyia, Sarcophaga, Tachina, Dexia, Mil 
togramma, and others among Dipterous insects ;} or in the vivip@ 
* Kélliker, Observationes de prima Insectorum genesi adjecta articulatorum evo 
oh cum Vertebratorum comparatione. Diss. Taiae Boe Alb, Kolliker. Turi, 
A work replete with facts interesting estions. 
+ See Siebotd in Frorieps ia Notiz, iii, “3oT and in Wiegmann’s Arch. 1838, i, 
p- 197.—also his Observat. quaed! Entom., ~ p- 18. 


@ 


et 


lead 


Dr. Burnett on the Development of Viviparous Aphides. 67 


rous reptiles,—for in all these cases of ordinary viviparity, the 
egg is simply hatched in the body instead of out of it. The egg 
moreover, is formed exactly in the same way as.though it was 
to be deposited, and its vitellus contains all the nutritive materi- 
al required for the development of the egg until the coming forth 
of the new individual. ‘The abdomen of the mother serves only 
as a proper indus or incubatory pouch for its full development. 
This is true of all the the ovo-viviparous animals whatsoever.* 
ith the viviparous Aphides, on the contrary, the developing 
germ derives its nutritive material from the fatty liquid in which 
it is bathed, and which fills the abdomen of the parent.t The 
conditions of development here therefore are more like those in 
ammalia, and the whole animal may, in one sense, be regarded 
as an individualized uterus filled with germs, for the digestive 
canal, with its appendages, seems to serve only as a kind of labo- 
tatory for the conversion of the succulent fluids which the ani- 
mal extracts from the tree on which it lives, into this fatty liquid 
=~ which the increase and development of the germs take 
ace, 


Pi points which have here been made out. In the first place, 
it is evident that the germs which develop these forms are not true 
‘ss. ‘They have none of the structural characteristics of eggs, 
Such as a vitellus, a germinative vesicle and dot; on the other 


* It is true that in the Scorpionidae, the eggs are developed in the ovary, but 
-.- 800 reason to suppose that the conditions are here different from those of the 
Parous Diptera, 
es, also, the eggs are developed in a kind of uterus situated directly 
a 


above the ovipositor, but. this pears to be only an incubatory pouch. 


shown that in these animals the rate of increase is so great that 


ine he eleven !! 
érby and Spence, Introduction to Entomology, i, p. 175. _ 


68 Dr. Burnett on the Development of Viviparous Aphides. 


hand, they are, at first, simple collections, in oval masses, of nu- 
cleated cells. en again, they receive no special fecundating 
power from the male, as is the necessary preliminary condition of 
all true eggs; and, furthermore, the appearance of the new indi- 
vidual is not preceded by the phenomena of segmentation, as 
also is the case with all true eggs. Therefore their primitive 
formation, their development, and the preparatory changes they 
undergo for the evolution of the new individual, are all different 
from those of real ova. 
2, 


ae > 
MAL CLGO) 
(Ny 
Sacer, bay) 
EEG 


Ore 
Sao 


yA 
C] 

20 

ag 


ac 
macae 


2S 
VOnO" Soe 

rey, Cerda ee 
DaARSes ee lon: 
on BS Wh 
Cy Sop 


c) 


5 


QO 


Cases 


EXPLANATION OF FIGURES, 
Figs. 1, 2,3 and 4, represent the egg-like buds in different stages of development—and 
as they are successively formed sprouting off from the internal surface of the parent. 
Fig. 1,a, shows a bud consisting of a single cell and situated between two larger. The 
same is true of 
Fig. 4, a, where, however, new cells are about to be developed around the central one. 
Fig. 3, a, shows the formation of a new bud by a constriction process, 
Fig. 2,4. appearance of the vitellus-looking mass near one extremity of bud. 
i Farther ps 0 t and diff te banal ga agg ee cut 
. 6. velopment an ‘ L 
es anne Pp erent parts appearing. a, represen 
* Milne Edwards thinks he has found true ova and ovaries in the viviparous forms 
of these animals. (Quoted by Dr. Carpenter in Brit. and For. Med. Chir. Rev., 1849 
iv, p.443.) I think he must have been deceived, as I was at first, by the ge ap- 
aeorey te carefully examined, closely resemble those of true oviparous 
vii 


if 


z 


Dr. Burnett on the Development of Viviparous Aphides. 69 


Another point is, these viviparous individuals have no proper 
ovaries and oviducts. Distinct organs of this kind I have never 
been able to make out. The germs are situated in moniliform 
rows, like the successive joints of confervoid plants, and are not 

| 


enclosed in a special tube. These rows of germs commence, 


eit no alternative but to regard them as buds, true gemme, 
Which sprout from the inner surface of the Aphis, exactly like 


lyp. “ons 

Before proceeding to a discussion of the relations of this im- 
portant conclusion to which we have just arrived, it may be well 
to refer to the views of others upon the exact signification of 
these singular reproductive phenomena. 

Those old entomologists, such as Bonnet, Réaumur, Degeer, 

¢., who were the first to observe, besides verifying beyond all 
doubt, these peculiar phenomena, all believed that each brood 
Constitutes a separate generation, and that the reproduction takes 
place by true ova, as in the common generative act of other in- 

cts. This wide deviation from the ordinary course of nature 
aS It seemed to them, they attempted to explain and reconcile by 
Various theories. Thus, Réaumurf affirmed that these viviparous 
individuals were androgynous; and, in later times, Leon Dufour,$ 
vho knew too well the anatomical structures of insects to be- 
lieve with Réaumur that they could be hermaphrodites, referred 
these phenomena to spontaneous or equivocal generation. 


Which are found in the true ovi betw: 
, arous A es, buds and ova. 
t I would insist upon this pie and ioaokiaas distinction between gon 
pon e, and there is no passage 


Réaumur, loc. cit. Mém! en 


70 Dr. Burnett on the Development of Viviparous Aphides. 


Morrem,* who made somewhat extended researches on the 
anatomy of Aphis persica, and especially of its generative organs, 
advanced the novel theory, that these broods were developed in 
the body of the virgin parent, by a previously organized tissue 
becoming individualized and asstming an independent life, ex- 
actly, as he believed, to be the case with Entozoa. To each an 
all of these views, it scarcely need be said that they would be 
wholly inadmissible according to the present established doc- 
trines of physiological science, even had we no directly contro- 
verting observations. 

ere are other explanations or views which deserve more 
attention. The first of these is that advanced by Kirby and 
Spence.t According to them “One conjunction of the sexes 
wittines for the impregnation of all the females that in a succession 
of generations spring from that union.” In support of the rea- 
sonableness of this hypothesis, they quote several instances which 
they regard as of analogous character ; thus, they say in regard 
to the hive-bee, that ‘‘a single intercourse with the male fertil- 
izes all the eggs that are laid for the space of two-years.” 

In this connection should be mentioned the similar hypothesis 
advanced for a like purpose by Jourdan.{ According to him 
many Lepidoptera lay fertile eggs when completely isolated from 
the males: such are, Huprepsia casta, Episema ceruleocephala, 
Gastropacha potatoria, Gi. Eb Ni a nee G. pint, Sphinx ligus- 
irt, Smerinthus populi and Bom 

But, all these cases have really ata analogy with that of 
the Aphides in question; for there is not, as with these last, a 
succession of innately fertile individuals, but oy females which 
are capable of — — broods from a single coitus, or 
after having been long removed from the males which may even 
then be dead.$ Late stonrelios upon the minute anatomy of 


All these insects which are thus capable of asthe fecundated eggs 
again and again after the first impregnation, have a Recepiaculum 


* Morrem, Anat. de Aphis persicae, in the Ann. d. Se. Nat., v. 1836, p. 90. 
+ Kirby and Spence, Pyne to otomalseyt iv, 


Jin NO f Li 4 
§ Siebold has oe observations — allied aoe occurring in the Psy- 
shown t 


: case. 

shown that there is propagation sine aoe a exactly as occurs with the Aphides. 

See Ueber die Fortpnsng pion” ‘syche: Ein rig. zur Naturgeschichte der 
bold & Kolliker’s Zeitsch. i 93; 

researches on Jal ia, see his Bericht tb. d. enteral _ Artin d. schles. 

im J. 1850—or its English transl. in the Trans. o: 


Dr. Burnett on the Development of Viviparous Aphides. 71 


Seminis connecting with the oviduct, in which the semen is 
deposited during coition and where it may be preserved without 
losing its vitalizing power, for several months.* Thus, by this 
provision, the males, having copulated with the females in the au- 
tumn, may immediately die, while these last, hibernating, produce 
in the spring, fertile ova; and in the instance of the Bombus 
americana, such a coition suffices for all the three broods which 
are produced the ensuing summer. se 

Another explanation of these curious phenomena, and which 
has attracted some attention, as well from its singularity as from 
the eminence of its propounder, is that of Owen, advanced in his 
Hunterian Lectures in 1843. 

He affirms that the larval Aphides are productive in virtue of 
the successive continuation from brood to brood of a portion of 
the primitively fertilized germ, and which material product or 
€aven is not exhausted until nine to eleven generations. I will 
quote his own language: “In the Aphides the corresponding vi- 
telline cells retain their share of the fecundating principle (which 
Was diffused through the parent egg by the alternating, fissipa- 
tous, liquefactive, and assimilative processes) in so potent a degree, 
that a certain growth and nutritive vigor in the insect, suffice to 
set on foot in the ovarian, nucleated cells, a repetition of the fis- 
Siparous and assimilative process, by which they transform them- 
selves in their turn into productive insects; and the fecundating 
force is not exhausted by such successive subdivision until a 7th, 
ot ? OF llth generation.” This same doctrine, the successive in- 
heritance of a portion of the primary germ-mass from brood to 


oc 
P arthenogenesis, and I will here quote one sentence, not only in 
illustration of this, but to show how different his own observa- 
a. the development of these animals, are from mine, just 


of the yolk in the chick. I at first thought it was 
enclosed in the alimentary canal but it was not so. 
As the embryo grows, it assumes the portion of the ovarium, and 


* For many details o * ; era Si halal Miil- 
n this subject of the Receptaculum seminis, see Siebold, Mu 
Go Arch, 1837, p. 392; also a Wiemann Arch., 1839, i, p. 107, ( Vespa), and in 
1847 — i pa ii, 1840. p. 442, (Culex). See also Stein, Vergleich. Anat. &c. 
- p- 96, 112, oi 
i ant but believe that the anomalous reproductive conditions of the Cynipide 
» at last, have a solution equally as satisfactory. See Hartig, Germars Zeitsch.,u, 
P. 178, and iv, p. 395. See also Sicbold and Stannius CO parative Anatomy, transl., 
4 § 848, notes 1 and 4, 
imale tos 0 the Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of the Invertebrate An- 
s, &c. London, 1843, p. 233. This explanation is lately insisted upon (strange 
Mm his r enogenesis, or the successive production 
: “het? ” 849, res ined ce Oe eae 


Serelate) in his recent work “On Parth ion of 
Procreating a single Ovum, anes 


: 
el, 
i 


72 Dr. Burnett on the Development of Viviparous Aphides. 


becomes divided into oval masses and enclosed by the filamentary 


extremities of the eight oviducts. Individual development is 
checked and arrested at the apterous larval condition. It is plain, 
therefore, that the essential condition of the development of 
another embryo in this larva is the retention of part of the pro- 
geny of the primary impregnated germ-cell.”—p. 70. 

This view of Owen, so ingeniously advanced, and which he 
has made subservient for the chief support of his new doctrine of 
Parthenogensis, is indeed plausible and seems at first satisfactory : 

ut, as I hope to show, it will not bear analysis. 

In the first place, it is evident that Owen does not recognize 
any physiological difference between a bud and an ovum ; this is 
elear from what he remarks in the first quotation, but in his work 
on Parthenogenesis he has said so in as many words. ‘“ The 
growth by cell-multiplication producing a bud, instead of being 
altogether distinct from the growth by cell-multiplication in an 
egg, is essentially the same kind of growth or developmental pro- 
cess.—p. 45. 

Here is a fundamental error which, if not removed, will ob- 
scure all our views of the physiology of reproduction. I have 
already insisted upon the necessity of this broad distinction be- 
tween these two forms, a necessity based not only upon differ- 


All physiologists who have carefully studied embryological and 
developmental processes, must feel the correctness and import- 
ance of this distinction which lies in realities and not in words. 

It is true that a bud and an ovum are composed each of the 
same elements,—simple nucleated cells; but in one, these cells 
are simply in a mass, while in the other, they have, throughout 
the animal kingdom, high or low, a definite and invariable at- 
rangement. ‘Then again as to the constitution of each and both 
being, on the whole, of nucleated . cells, it may be said, that it 
could hardly be conceived to be otherwise, for nucleated cells are 
the elementary components of all functional organized forms; 


and it may be added, moreover, that he knows little of the high- 


re E 


oa 


ere 


ene 


a 
AP oa 


Dr. Burnett on the Development of Viviparous Aphides. 73 


est physiology who has not learned that widely different teleolog- 
ical significations may be concealed beneath isomorphic animal 
forms. 


appreciation of this whole class of anomalous phenomena under 
iscussion. But we will revert to the subject of Owen’s hy- 


As to the chief point in this hypothesis, the continuation of 
the primary germ-mass as a leaven, from brood to brood, it re- 
quires but little thought to perceive that it is physically impossi- 
le. I would first allude to Owen’s statement, quoted above, that 
& portion of the germ-mass is taken into the abdomen of the em- 
bryo Aphis, and as he thinks, assumes, without any change, the 
Position of the ovarium. By this he refers, undoubtedly, to the 
vitellus-looking mass I have described in my observations, and ac- 
cording to which, also, it appeared to serve only as the nutritive 
material out of which the digestive organs and the germs are form- 
Moreover, I feel quite sure that the germ-cells are new cells 
formed in the abdomen, and not those derived from the parent. 


is clearly evident that this succession must stop with brood B; 
for these residual germ-cells which compose B in its earliest con- 
dition are lost in the developmental processes, and the germs of 
individuals C, which are found in B, are, each, primarily, nuclea- 
ted cells formed de novo, as I have observed and above described. 
With these observed’ conditions of development, it is impossible 
for the individuals of the successive broods to inherit the original 
‘permatic force in the continuation of the original cells. 
_ The hypothesis of Owen, therefore, plausible and ingenious as 
it may seem, does not appear to me to accord either with observ- 
ed facts, or with the soundest physiology of the reproductive pro- 
cesses. I may here remark also, that his doctrine of Partheno- 
8ensis, based as it is upon the conditions of the hypothesis in 
destion, cannot, as such, be sustained, for the same reasons, an 
&. its phenomena would a pear to find their solution either in 
Steenstrup’s doctrine of “ Alternation of Generations,” so-called, 
or In the conditions of true gemmiparity—admitting, provision- 
ally, that Steenstrup’s doctrine, and gemmiparity, include really 
different: physiological conditions. 

“ut the most important explanation advanced, and the last 
Which [ shall notice, is that offered by Steenstrup* in his doctrine 

ington, the Al i i the Pro ion and development of An- 
fea ries Sortie oe en erga tte 
of Animals. Transl. by the Ray Society, London. 1845—passim. 
Stooxp Suuins, Vol. XV, No, 49—Jan, 1854, 


74 Dr. Burnett on the Development of Viviparous Aphides. 


of the “Alternation of Generations,” and of which it formsa 
chief support: The details of this peculiar doctrine of Steen- 
strup I need not here furnish; they are well known to all physio- 
logical anatomists. Its features, however, may be expressed in a 
formula-like manner. Individuals A, produce true fecundated 
eggs, from which are hatched individuals B, which are unlike 
their parents in all zoological respects, but in which are developed 
spontaneously and without any reference to sex, germs which ul- 
timately become individuals like A, and so the cycle of develop- 
ment is completed. ‘These intermediate individuals, B, Steen- 
strup has termed nurses (Ammen), and he regards them as distinct 
animals subservient fora special end; he therefore considers that 
B constitutes a real generation. 

Instances of such phenomena are found in the lower orders of 
the animal kingdom—Polyps, Acalephs and Worms; and late re- 
search has shown that they are more or less common throughout 
the whole of the Invertebrata. 


gives rise. 
Steenstrup regards the Aphides as furnishing the most perfect 

examples known of nursing individuals, and, on the whole, as con- 

stituting typical illustrations of this doctrine he has advanced.* 


first to the last, inclusive, is merely a repetition of the same. 
But these conditions are external and economical, and, instead of 


* See, Steenstrup, loc. cit., p, 112. 


i 


Dr. Burnett on the Development of Viviparous Aphides. 75 


ty of Steenstrup’s doctrine, I would rather present them as broadly 
indicating that, after all, this doctrine in question involves no 
conditions excepting those belonging to a modified form of gem- 
miparity. All the instances of Polyps, Acalephs, Worms, Insects, 
&e., all would then be classed in the same category, and the va- 
nations in manifestation would belong rather to the economical 
relations of the animal, than to any intrinsic difference of physi- 
ological process. ‘Thus the Distoma-nurses instead of being de- 
veloped to a condition resembling at all their parent, remain per- 
sistent on a low form, and not only is their whole zoological 
character undeveloped, but they also experience morphological 
changes tom the developmental process which immediately go 
on within them. All this is in perfect keeping with their econo- 
my, as animals, for the low order of their conditions of life does 
Fh hecessitate a higher and more truly zoological form of these 
Tsés , : 


4 
= 
ao 
sy 
fee) 
o 
99 
a 
2 
5 
_ 
3 
a 
a") 
ie) 
or 
=) 
=] 
Q 
is] 
3 
> 
o 
cs. 
na 
re) 
2 
> 
a 
= 
3 
a 
~~ 
| wad 
ig 
ca) 
S 
Sc 
ot 
bx] 
> 
<2 
fa) 


mnaterial for the development of its endogenous germs. 
low erein, then, would appear to consist the prominent morpho- 
ogical differences observed in this category of phenomena, and I 
need not labor further to show that they are irrelevant of the 
primary essential conditions of these curious processes. 
peer se to me to be the highest, both physiological and 
Fs a interpretation that can be advanced for these phenom- 
and to a Steenstrup has so ingeniously collected and collated ; 
hues advance the view that these intermediate individuals or 
PRN are not intrinsically and zoologically the same as their pa- 
uts, but furnish examples of how dissimilar animals may arise 
froma om 


a prec 
Soluti 


* 
aon statement is made erhaps more strongly and exclusively than the present 
f our knowledge would warrant, but I throw it out much in a suggestive ae 
: i i tof.” 


'S no subject in Physiology more interesting comprehensive than th 
brace all cre he j question now is, does it, as an individual process, 

the categories of phenomena treated by Lovén, Steenstrup, de. 
nomena i ical conditions, or 


Phenomena) imply something beyond and dissimilar fom gemmation # 


76 Dr. Burnett on the Development of Viviparous Aphides. 


If in this discussion of some of the highest relations of physi- 
ology, we have not wandered too far from our subject proper 
which we have thereby sought to illustrate indirectly, we will re- 
vert to the thread of its discourse for a few concluding remarks. 

The final question now is, what is the legitimate interpretation 
to be put upon the reproductive phenomena of the Aphides we 
have described? My answer to this has been anticipated in the 
foregoing remarks. I regard the whole as constituting only a 
rather anomalous form of gemmiparity. As already shown, the 
viviparous Aphides are sexless ; they are not females, for they have 
no proper female organs, no ovaries and oviducts. ‘These vivipa- 
rous individuals, therefore, are simply gemmiparous, and the bud- 
ding is here internal instead of external as in the Polyps and 
Acalephs ; it, moreover, takes on some of the morphological pe- 
culiarities of oviparity, but all these dissimilar conditions are eco- 

mical and extrinsic, and do not touch the intrinsic nature of 
the processes concerned therein. 

Viewed in this way, the different broods of Aphides cannot be 
said to constitute as many true generations any more than the 
different branches of a tree can be said to constitute as maby 
trees; on the other hand, the whole suite from the first to the 
last constitute but a single true generation. I would insist upon 
this point as illustrative of the distinction to be drawn between 
serual and gemmiparous reproduction. Morphologically, they 
have, it is true, many points of close resemblance ; but there 1s 4 
grand physiological difference, the true perception of which 3s 
deeply connected with our highest appreciation of individual an- 
imal life.* A true generation must be regarded as resulting only 
from the conjugation of two opposite sexes—from a sexual pro- 
cess in which the potential representations of two individuals are 
united for the elimination of one germ. This germ-power may 
be extended by gemmation or by fission, but it can be formed 
only by the act of generation, and its play of extension and pro- 
longation by budding, or by division, must always be within 4 
certain cycle, and this cycle is recommenced by the new act of 
the conjugation again of the sexes. 


In this way, the dignity of the ovum as the primordinm of all 


true individuality is maintained; and the axiom of Harvey, omné 
vivum ex ovo, stands as golden in physiology. The buds may 
put on the dress and the forms of the ovum, but these resemblances 
are extrinsic and in fact only an inheritance from their great 
predecessor. 


* Tn this view as well as in several others herein discussed, I am pleased to Say 
that I have the support of so learned a physiologist as Dr. Carpenter. See his Re 
view “On the development and Metamo of Zoophytes” in the Brit. and For- 
eign Med. Chir. Rev., 1848, i. p. 183; and “On Reproduction and Repair” in Ibid. 
1849, ii, p. 419. 


perenne = 


— 


—— 


a 


Dr. Burnett on the Development of Viviparous Aphides. 77 


These phenomena thus interpretated, furnish us an excellent 
key to many others which mame long been regarded as anomalous, 
in the history of developme 

I refer here to the soiled, hibernating eggs ( Wintereier ) which 
are found in many Invertebrates. These I have not seen, but 
they have been carefully deaaribeil by ita ere trustworthy 
observers. ‘These so-called eggs ee of oval masses or cells 
invested with a capsule, but in which no germinative vesicle and 
dot have ever been seen. Structurally, cucseieee they do not re- 
semble eggs, and it is from their form and ulterior development 
only that they have received this name. Moreover, they sustain 
none of the usual relations of eggs to the sexual organs, and, as 
far as I am aware, no one has witnessed their development in the 
ovaries. ‘These bodies have been observed in Hydatina®* and 


sex was once doubted from its infrequent appearance. 
"is [regard these hibernating eggs as merely egg-like buds ex- 
actly corresponding to the germs of the viviparous Aphides. In 
other words, there are in the animals I have just mentioned, certain 


* Ehrenberg, “Die Infusionsthierchen,” iB 413. 
+ Dalrymple, Philos. Trans. 1849 


} Huczley, Quarte erly Jour. Micr. Se. 1852 i, p. 1 

§ Miller, Entomostraca, p. 84. Tab. XI, fig. baL Rt xr, fig. 5. Also 
Ramdohr, rai PANG Natargesch. kulus-Arten, 1805. p. 28; 
Strauss, avec sur les Daphnia, e Mém. du Mus. Fy Hist. Nat., v, p.413. Pl. xxix; 
Jurine, Histoi ° des Moncks s, "18 ~ P 120. ie ah, Oe. By Jurine calls these 

aggregated wie eee de la se 

There is, moreover, reason to. believe that these anomalous oe seme a 


occur in nearly all the E 
My transl. wt my note under § 292, note 

§ Notice may here be given of s some aro : , observations, which Filipi (Ann. Nat. 
Hist. , ix, 1852, p. 461) has far urnished on his Gevelbpeient o a — a eromalide. A Ptero- 


lus ; this larva becomes a pupa, and, after eight or ten days, changes to the perfect in 
sect whi escapes from the ovum, 

It t observations are verified, we have here a case exactly like that of the 
Ajliaee excepting that like the Beste, the intermediate merge 4 form is bert 
low, and takes on none of the zoological peculiarities of the parent. But these sta 
ments need corroboration, for they do not agree with the vere Po of he: ec 

Pieromalus Mate development is well known, See also, the wo imiparous 

enomena related by Siebold of Gyrodactylus ; Siebold and Kolliker’s eitsch. f. wiss. 

L, i, 1849. p. 847. ers te ee ean 0 arr eae 


78 J. D. Dana’s Mineralogical Contributions. 


P. S.—I regret that I should not have seen until now, when 
this paper is concluded, the important writings of Leydig on the 
subject under discussion. In his article “ Einige Bemerkungen 
aber die Entwickelung der Blattlause” in Siebold and Kolliker'’s 
Zeitsch. f. wiss. Zool. ii, 1850. p. 62, he speaks of his former 
observations in the Isis, 1848, iii, p. 184. These 1 have not seen, 
neither also a work to which he refers, of J. Victor Carus, (Zu 
naheren Kenntniss des Generationswecshels, Leipzig, 1849.) 
Leydig in his criticism of Carus’s views, expresses the opinion that 
the development of the viviparous Aphides is, histologically, like 
that of the Articulata in general. According to him, also, the germ- 
bodies undergo processes corresponding to those of impregnated 
eggs. ‘These statements of Leydig, who is an excellent observ- 
er, have induced me recently to repeat my observations ; but this 
afforded the same results as before, viz.: that the germ-bodies 
out of which are developed the viviparous Aphides, have no true 
histological identity with eggs. 


Arr. VIIL—Mineralogical Contributions ; by Jamzs D. Dana. 


1. Brooke and Miller’s Mineralogy. 


Te reviewer of this work in volume xv, page 41, mentions 
but briefly its importance in a crystallographic point of view. It 
is in. this department eminently an original work, the result of 
special researches on the crystallization of very many of the spe- 
cies, with the measurement and calculation of their angles. It 


s 


ee ACRE CRORE AT 


ee en emcee 


J. D. Dana’s Mineralogical Contributions. 79 


ing with the habits of the species. Moreover, another method of 
tabulating the planes may accomplish the same result more simply, 
we think, and one in. which the planes shall be indicated by their 
true expressions, instead of arbitrary letters. The method allu- 
ded to, has already been presented in this Journal, in the writer’s 
paper on Sphene and Euclase. It contrasts with the method in 
Brooke and Miller’s‘work mainly as Mercator’s projection of a 
sphere contrasts with the spherical projection. 

The method of calculation adopted, is based for the most parton 
spherical trigonometry. It is less general in its formulas and less 
elegant, we think, than the system from analytical geometry, but 
sometimes affords more concise equations. The hexagonal sys- 
tem is rather at variance with itself in the method used. ‘The 
planes are referred to three axes,—the three lines that connect the 
centres of opposite faces in a rhombohedron. The plan is not 


onal system. But in the hexagonal section of this system, in 


must have different mathematical expressions. This leads the 
mathematician to no error; but tends to perplex a simple subject 
for the student. 

But these are minor points, and leave the work still, the most 
accurate, thorough, and original work on the crystallization of 
minerals that has been published. 


2. Von Kobell’s “ Mineral-Namen.”* 


mology. He presents, First, a catalogue of those names that are 
. of mythological origin. Second, leaving the gods and mythology, 
he passes to those derived from the names of cultivators of the 
science, collectors of specimens, patrons, statesmen, and what not, 
among whom, about two hundred and thirty are hereby com- 


eral species are subject and the custom of change in authors, very 
many of the names are already in the rubbish heaps of the science. 
Third, comes a list of the names derived from localities ; fourth, 
those alluding to the structure of the species; fifth, those based 

* Die Mineral-Namen tmd die mineralogische Nomenklatur, von Franz von Kobell. 
162 pp. 8vo; Miinchen, 1853. Briefly mentioned in this Journal, page 304, vol. xvi, 


80 J.D. Dana’s Mineralogical Contributions. 


on color ; sizth, on other physical characters ; seventh, on chemical 
composition and reactions; eighth, names derived from other pe- 
culiarities, uses, arbitrary or fanciful allusions; ninth, those of 


bell lays down several rules for nomenclature in mineral 
requiring that names derived from names of persons or localities 
should be written according to their original orthography, and not 
altered for each different language; that the Greek language 
should be used, rarely the Latin, for the derivation of other names; 
that the earliest name of a species should be retained, only when 
correctly formed in accordance with these princi les: and he 
gives a list of some names that have been more or less recently 
proposed as — for earlier eects pets names, the gene 
ral adoption of which he observes would tend to make minetra- 
logical sas os the same the ohh over. meen greater part of 
these names are already accepted in the scie 

It may be doubted whether, by carrying aaa with full strict 
ness, his laws, we may not in some cases, create more confusion 
than we avoid, especially in the case of species well known in 
the arts. For example in substituting, as is proposed, Liparile 
(Glocker) for Fluor or Fluor spar (Fluss or gamit of the 
Germans), we are giving a new word to science, without special 


of the arts and science. As mineralogy is but a semi-science, 
and its nomenclature but a convenient means of designation with- 
out a proper scientific basis, we should hesitate before adopting 
new names in cases like the above. Print it Liparite and st 
the mineral will be called fluor. 
lende or Zincblende is another case of this kind. We cal- 

not consider Glocker’s Sphalerite a needed substitute for the old 
name. Hematite is an unfortunate substitute for specular iron, 48 
it is restricting to narrow limits an old name of wider significa 
tion; and in this country, it is the most common designation 0 
the species limonite. It is however coming into common use if 
Europe and Great Britain. Arsenite for arsenous acid, and Chro 
mite for chromic iron, are objectionable names, as ae termination 
is a chemical one for a section of salts. Galette not an if 
Na rey on Galena, as the word is as epeibelate without 
the “ tte 

Horn silver (Hornsilber of the German : although two words 
and obnoxious to the criticism of not being Greek, is significant 
and contains fewer syllables and letters than Kerargyrite, —or Ce 
rargyrite as the word should be written with us. For Silver 
glance, early called Argyrose by Beudant, Haidinger’s name 
Argentite is adopted by von Kobell. Clay is dignified with the 
name of Argillite. Azuriteof Beudant (Blue Malachite, Kup- 


J. D. Dana’s Mineralogical Contributions. 81 


ferlasur, of the Germans, Chessylite of Brooke and Miller) is 
written Lasurite, contrary to a canon laid down by the author, 
requiring a Greek etymology; while mzspickel is thrown aside 
for arsenopyrite of Glocker, as it wants this honorable origin. 
—The mineral called Fahlerz by the Germans, has given great 
trouble to English mineralogists, partly on the ground that a name 
like Gray Copper, consisting of two words, is objectionable, and 
partly because of the desirableness of a name common to both 
countries: sometimes the German name has been used, although 
one of the least significant of names, meaning simply Gray-ore; and 
sometimes Fahl-ore is employed, as if preferable to the translated 
expression. Haidinger’s name, Tetrahedrite is adopted for it by 
von Kobell to the rejection of Beudant’s Panabase, which is long 
prior in date, but less appropriate and badly compounded.—The 
mineral named Lédingite by Haidinger, and so accepted by von 
Kobell, was named Mohsine by Chapman, in 1843, and Leucopy- 
rite by Shepard in 1837, and this last name has, therefore, the 
best title. 

_ The name given by the writer to the so-called Common or Ob- 
lique mica, on the ground that the old name was bad, is over- 
looked by von Kobell. The word Muscovite was intended as no 
indignity to the Czar or his subjects, and commemorates the old 
name Muscovy glass, as well as the mineralogical fact that Rus- 
sia has long been famous for affording gigantic plates of this spe- 
cies. Von Kobell adopts the name phengite for the mineral, 
Breithaupt’s generic name for the biaxial micas.—The name Cal- 
amine is adopted for Electric Calamine, and Smithsonite for Car- 
bonate of Zinc, as was long ago proposed by Beudant. Brooke 
and Miller have unfortunately reversed these names. 

Although some objections have been suggested, the names and 
principles of von Kobell will command special attention. 
System of names once agreed upon, would in part stop off the 
crowd of synonyms that are constantly coming in upon the sci- 
ence :—only in part, however, as long as there exists more ambi- 
tion to attach a name to a stone than carefully to determine and _ 
accurately describe a species. Add to Prof. von Kobell’s princi- 
ples, one more,—truth and not self as the end of every investiga- 
tion,—and the remedy would be nearly complete. 


3. The “ Krystallo-Chemische Mineralsystem of Gustav Rose.” 


Prof. Rose has here presented a modification of the Berzelian 
System of classification of minerals, in which the modifying princi- 
ple is derived principally from Crystallography. The first part 
of the work, after an introductory chapter, contains a view of the 
distribution of species, according to their composition, as men- 
loned in volume xv, of this journal, page 430. op eS 

Seconp Serres, Vol. XVII, No. 49.—Jan. 1854. 


82 J. D. Dana’s Mineralogical Contributions. 


tallization to which the species belongs. The divisions are thus 
broken up into natural groups, to a considerable extent, and a very 
interesting exhibition of the relations of the species is afforded. 

f any objection can be made to this arrangement, it is one that 
science is not.at present able wholly to overcome. ‘There are 
various indications among the results of recent researches, that 
peroxyd and protocyd compounds cannot be necessarily separated, 
and also that Aydrous and anhydrous species may belong to one 
and the same group,—whether we adopt the views of Scheerer 
or not. Even in the method of Prof. Rose some exceptions are 
allowed, such as the placing of spodumene near augite, (rightly 
as we think,) although it belongs, in fact, to a following sub- 
division if the constituents of the species be considered. The 
exceptions are prophetic of a higher and wider principle than 


interest. hese v 

classification, and the chemical formulas of species, by one o the 
ablest mineralogists of the age, render the work of great value 
and authority in the science. 


4. Crystallization of Haydenite of Cleveland. 


| Haydenite from Jones’s Falls, Maryland, was described by Levy, 
as monoclinic in its crystallization, and he gave for the angle of 
the rhombic prism 98° 22’, and for the incli- 1. 
nation of the basal plane on the sides, 96° 5’, 
On account of the close resemblance of the 


species has long been suspected to be noth- 
ing but that species; but the difference in 
form and the angles, as well as in the anal- 
yses, has seemed to favor its being distinct. 
In some recent measurements, the writer ob- 
tained the angle 97°—98°, sustaining the ap- 


J. D. Dana’s Mineralogical Contributions. 83 
parent difference. The crystals are coated with Green earth, and 


uncovered. Qn investigating further these and other crystais, the 
writer finds that the crystals are in fact scalenohedral, although 
nearly identical with the rhombohedron (R), the obtuse term- 
inal edge (edge Y ) differing but ta from the inclined diagonal of 
. Its faces are smooth and polished. While the positions of the 
planes show that the form is dicially rhombohedral and not mon- 
oclinic, they also explain how different angles might be obtained 
in different directions, especially as the alternate pyrainidal faces 
of the scalenohedron are often very unequal. ‘This scalenohe- 
dron, since it is formed from a bevelment of the terminal edges 
of R, has the general sign ;--,R”. Theangle Y, (or that at the 
more obtuse or longer REL, edge,) by measurement is 175°— 
Li6°:; X. (or that at the acuter ot shorter edge,) is 979-989. 


These angles give approximately n =',°, and lead to the sign $R ‘. 
but calculation from this expression and the fundamental form of 
Chabazite makes the angle X = 100° 30’, which is too large ; for Y 
it gives 176° 8’, and as Z 84° 467. The measurements are how- 
ever only approximative. The same scalenohedron, apparently, 
occurs in the habeas crystals of Nova Scotia, but the planes 
in those crystals are so made up of strie that the angles are hardly 
measurable ; such striz have been considered an oscillation be- 
tween the planes Rand-sR. There can be little doubt that the 
Species is ee. and physically chabazite. he 
pce he are adverse to this conclusion. But Prof. Silliman states 

at he has reason s aoa his results; and in those by Delesse, 
fan of the iron was probably protoxyd, as obtained by Silliman. 
Small crystals of Heulandite (Beaumontite) cover the specimens, 
and are often implanted on the Chabazite. 'The Heulandite and 
green earth are probably of cotemporaneous formation, and sub- 
sequent to the Chabazite in origin. Some of the Chabazite crys- 
tals consists wholly of Green earth. 


5. Crystallization of Brucite (Mg 1). 


I am indebted to Mr. George J. Brush for a specimen of Bru- 
cite affording some minute crystals. amey es at druse 
upon the foliated brucite in a narrow 
sure in the serpentine. ‘The crystals prove Sere 
to be rhombohedral, as in the figure. The 
cleavage is basal, and the basal plane O is oes. 

pearly, ‘The other faces are brilliant vit- 
reous in lustre. ‘The crystals are so a ) 
nute that the inclinations could be 


ured with the reflective goniometer only be means 5 Teflected ss 


* 


igs 


84 J. D. Dana’s Mineralogical Contributions. 


light. ee thus afforded the angles O: R=119° (to 119° 55’) 
O:2R=105° 30’. These angles correspond to R: R=82° 15, 
and axis @ seen 527. 


6. Crystallization of EZ. Oe as nd its Homeomorphism 
ith Wollasto 

Messrs. Smith and Br ee have ee eu that the distinctly 
crystallized Lancasterite is PAY ASRIDAE NEN while the pearly 
foliated mineral called by this name, is Brucite. The crystalliza- 
tions from Texas, Pennsylvania, (Low’s, oA 
also Wood’s mine,) are either massive fibrous, 
and radiated, looking much like Thomsonite, or 

attened or acicular crystals, more or less group- 
ed. At Hoboken the same mineral is found in 
very fine acicular crystals clustered together 
and having the aspect of natrolite. ‘The lustre 
is vitreous. ‘A distinct cleavage has not yet been 
observed. ‘I'he ‘Texas crystals occasionally 
have regular terminations, as may be seen with 
a maguifier of some power. They belong to 
the monoclinic system. With the reflective 
goniometer as above, I found for the angles 7: 23 = 112—1133°; 
ii (back) : -22 = 103°; 22: ~22 (adjacent in same pyramid) = 1433 
—145°; opposite orthodiagonal edges of the pyramid (or y on y) 
over the summit =94° ; same edge on orthodiagonal edge of prism 
(yont) 133°. The last two angles were measured with Smith’s 
goniometer attached to a compound microscope. 

These measurements give for the inclination of the vertical 
axis, 82—83°; for the angle of the’ rhombic prism 72 (or « 
corresponding ‘eB the octahedron 23, 51° 26’ to 51° 32’; for the 
vertical axis, ar ay orthodiagonal of the octahedron 
2a: 20 C= 1 tm awk Ut. : 

The prism 7 (or xP), ietiee would have the angle 87° 52’-88°9 ; 
and taking this as the fundamental prism, then the pyramid will be 
formed of the planes 22 and —22, (2P/2 and oe as represented 
in the figure. We shall also have 2t: 21 (2P! ©: 2P’ wc) = g4° 
O:2i(0P: 2P’ )=137°, i: 2i( cP’ »:2P’a a 133°. 

The angle of the aa (J on £) is nearly the angle of Wollas- 
— (this J our. [2], xv, 449), and moreover O:2i in Wollas- 
tonite is 137° 48’, or but 49 Seton from that of hydromagnesite. 

Wellanosite and hydromagnesite are hence obviously ho- 
meeomorphous. ‘To this homaomorphous group belong, as else- 
where shown, 


~ 
ee 


Borax, . -.. 3 RDA Pyroxene, . ‘ R Si? 
Glauber salt, . | NaSHve Acmite, Na Si4+PeS? 
Hornblende, . R:Si* Spodumene, Re B244Ks Siz, or (R*, B) Si? 


and probably Laumonite, Ca* Si? +41 Si?--18H, which is, a Spodumene with 18 


J. D. Dana’s Mineralogical Contributions. 85 


Chapman adds Crednerite ; but we have seen no measurements 
of the angles of that species that confirm this reference. 

Hydromagnesite is formed from the alteration of Brucite, and 
the change is one now in progress. 


7. Homeaomorphism of Gypsum and Heulandite. 


The similar pearly cleavage of Gypsum and Heulandite, two 
species monoclinic in crystallization, suggests the idea of an ap- 
proximate isomorphism: and this is sustained by a consideration 
of their crystals, although not obvious in the ordinary mode of 
viewing their forms 

Crystals of gypsum sometimes have a hexagonal outline with 
a bevelment of each of the six sides, by a pair of planes, either 
of which pair might be taken as planes of the fundamental prism. 
The interfacial angles of these pairs of planes or prisms are 138° 
28’, 143° 42’ and 111° 42’ (B. and M.) The first of the prisms 
here mentioned is also a cleavage prism, cleavage taking place, 
though with some difficulty, parallel to its faces. There is some 
reason, therefore for considering this the fundamental prism, al- 
though usually taken as planes of the fundamental octahedron. 

here is a second imperfect cleavage parallel to a plane trunca- 
ting the edge of the prism 111° 42’ (M: M of authors), a fact 
that evinces the prominent importance of the plane. 


we make the former cleavage 0 

directions, the lateral faces of the fun- id 1(2) l 
damental prism (J), the latter its basal 2(v) 2i(m) 
plane (O), the planes hitherto observ- 3i(e}}83(a) 3(x) 33(y)| 
ed (see Brooke and Miller) will be as |—~|—— ~ laa) 
shown in the annexed table, in which ilk) 
O is the base, and the columns contain |— SEER PEN Ps 
the different vertical zones of planes. 2 eee) 


The occurring octahedral planes are situated upon the acute basal 
edges and angles of the fundamental prism. The angle J: J= 138° 
28’, 2i : 21 (clinodiagonal planes 2P/ @:2P’ w)=111° 42’; and the 
faces meeting at 143° 42’, are planes of the fundamental octahe- 
dron (P or 1). The axes, 
W: bes Te Slco, 

and the angle C (the inclination of the vertical axis) =66° 14’. 

Now in Heulandite, J: J=136° 4’; 1: 1=146° 56’; and the 
axes 
© @tbre=105:1:2475. C=86° 26 

The dimensions and the angles here mentioned (excepting C) 
are therefore very similar in these two species, and the crystals 
are much alike in habit. There is a wide difference between the 
two in the inclination of the vertical axis which makes l 
discrepances in some of the angles; for example 2i: 2i in gyp- 


oe a 


rge 
- 


» 


a 


a 


86 J. D. Dana’s Mineralogical Contributions. 


sum is 111° 42’, in Heulandite, 98° 40’. When the axes are equal 
in two cases, the inclining of the vertical axis in one, diminishes 
the distance of its apex from the plane of the lateral axes, and con- 
sequently, the clinodiagonal prisms, and the octahedral forms 
on the obtuse basal edges and angles of the fundamental prism, 
become more and more flattened. This is the main source of the 
differences in angle between Gypsum and Heulandite. It shows 
us that in the oblique systems, we have to, look to the relations 
of the axes, rather than to all the angles, in tracing out the re- 
semblance of form among species. 

Another inference from this case of isomorphism is that al- 
though some cases show that cleavage is a subordinate character, 
we may err in comparing crystals of different species, if we do 
not give due importance to the cleavage directions. 

8. Homeomorphism of Brookite and Columbite. 

Through the kindness of Mr. George J. Brush, I have recent- 
ly received a specimen of Brookite from the Ellenville lead mine, 
Ulster Co., N. Y., occurring implante 4. 
ona group of quartz crystals. The 
mine is situated in the Shawangunk ( 
grit, a Silurian rock. The crystal has 
a striking resemblance in habit to that 
of the Columbite of Middletown, Ct., 
even to minor points in the arrange- 
ment of the planes. The form sug- 
gested at once the homeomorphism of 
the species, and this is closely sustained 
by the angles 


Bie 


= 
es, 
Ni 


Brookite. Columbite. 

Angle of prism J «P) 99° 50’-100° 30’ 100° 40’ 

0: 2%(0P : 2P'=) 117° 54’ 119° 40’ 
G20 -¢ 094438 : 1: 084158 08675 : 1: 08291. 


The isomorphism is as close as between Celestine and Barytes. 

It is of interest to compare the Columbite series (which in- 
cludes Euxenite, Samarskite, Wolfram) with the Barytes series. 
The axes are as follows: ; 

: Columbite. Heavy Spar. 
a:b7¢ 0°8778 : 1 : 0:8292 13127 : 1 : 081413, 

Now it is apparent that @ in Heavy Spar is 14 times a of Col- 

umbite. ‘The relation is consequently a simple one—and so sim- 


nations on the base of the prisin. : 
_. Such remarkable cases of homeomorphism almost show that 
similarity of form may exist irrespective of the elements con- 


__ cerned, or of any numerical ratio in the atoms of the elements 


J. D. Dana’s Mineralogical Contributions. 87 


present. It is obvious that crystallization must follow, or go 
hand in hand with composition, but not lead the way in a classi- 
fication of inorganic substances. 

Hermann has endeavored to meet some of the difficulties pro- 
duced by homeomorphism, by supposing two or more primary com- 
pounds as the bases of a class of species, the occurrence of whic 
in different proportions shall form all the species of an homeo- 
morphous group. This has an appearance of propriety as regards 
some groups of Silicates. But what symmetry in the constitution 
of the two can be made out in this way when Heavy Spar and 
Graphic Tellurium are compared; or Sulphur and Scorodite ?— 
or Arragonite, Bournonite and Nitre ?—or Chrysolite and Epsom 
salt ?—or Pyroxene, Glauber salt and Hydromagnesite ?—or Brook- 
ite and Columbite ?—Such facts evince that homeomorphism is 


seem to matter not what the elements are ; if only the resultant 
has a certain relation as regards atomic volume to the atomic vol- » 
ume of another compound, there is isomorphism. 

Still there is often in related groups, a numerical relation in 
the elementary constitution which affords an explanation of the 
atomic volume relation, without looking to other considerations : 
and this numerical relation may be extended to the whole, when 


n this way, Avinite and Danburite have a like relation and both 
are triclinic. In axinite the ratio between the oxygen of the 
bases and boracic acid, and that of the silica is 1:1; and the same 
Is true for Danburite as the recent analyses of Smith and Brush 
Show.* The formulas may be written, for axinite (R*,#, B,) Si; 


for Danburite (Ga?, B,) Si. The propriety of reckoning the bo- 
racic acid with the bases is shown by the fact that in Tourma- _ 
line the ratio thus obtained is the only one that is constant for all 


* This Journal, [2], xvi, 865. 


88 J. D. Dana’s Mineralogical Contributions. 


ut when we meet with such a case as that of the feldspars, 
where the only constant ratio is that of the oxygen of the pro- 
toxyds and peroxyds, the oxygen of the silica varying, the 
law for the replacement of protoxyds by peroxyds seems to have 
no application. 
9. Anhydrite. 


Hausmann, in his paper on the system of crystallization of 
Anhydrite, (Karstenite), and its homeomorphism with the Bary- 


tes series,* arrives at the following comparisons :— 


= a:bse @ l-@ 1- 
Thenardite Na§ 0°7494:1:05918 118° 46’ 106° 18’ 76° 34’ (103° 26/) 
Heavy Spar Ba§ 07659: 1: 06234 116922’ 105° 6’ 78°18’ (101° 42’) 
Anhydrite CaS 0°7636:1: 06581 118° 42’ 105°16’ 81° 6’ ( 98° 64’) 

A closer approximation of Anhydrite is obtained by making the 
prism m, the vertical prism oc -3, and s the brachydome 4-@- 
Then the axes and the above angles become, 

Anhydrite, 073486 : 1: 059898 118° 35’ 107° 99" 77° 47 (102° 56’). 

Giving the crystal the position usually adopted for heavy spar, 
in which the above «, 1- &, and 1-% correspond respectively to 

-&,1- and o, the axes area: b: c=1°368: 1: 0:8083, while 
those of Heavy Spar in the same position are 1:3127 : 1 : 0-81413. 
The prisms m and s in this view, are ¢-@% and 2-&, and the oc- 
tahedral planes are m-n, 2m -2n, 3m-3n, With m=2 and ast. 

The cleavage in this case is brachydiagonal and basal, with 
the macrodiagonal less perfect. The divergence in crystallization 
of the sulphate of lime from the others of the series, is a parallel 
fact with that of the bisilicate of lime (Ga* Si?, Wollastonite ) from 
pyroxene. 


10. Valentinite or White Antimony and Senarmontite. 


Senarmontite is described as crystalling in the monometric sys- 
tem and Valentinite in the trimetric, the chemical species SbO* 
Oo 


tween the axis and intermediate diagonal of an octahedron, oF 
2: 1, and the vertical axis (a) equals nearly the sum of the two 
lateral (b-+c). 

* Poggendorff’s Annalen, bexxiii, 572, 


y 


Reviews and Records in Anatomy and Physiology. 89 


Art. IX.—Reviews and Records in Anatomy and Physiology ; 
by Watpo I. Burnett. 


1. Traité sur le venin de la Vipére, par Fontana. Florence, 1782. 
p. 229. 


2, Handbuch der Entwickelungsgeschichte des Menschen, von G. Vau- 
ENTIN. Berlin, - p 20o. 

. Mikroskopische Untersuchungen ueber die Uebereinstimmung in der 

Struktur und dem Wachsthum der Thiere und Pflanzen, von THos. 
CHWANN. Berlin, 1839. p. 165. 

4. On the Minute Structure and Movements of Voluntary Muscle. By 
Wm. Bowman, in the Philos. Transact., London, 1840, pt. I, p. 457, 
—also, by the same, Articles, Muscle, and Muscular Action, in 
Todd’s Cyclopedia of Anatomy and Physiology. 1842. 

5. On Fibre. By Martin Barry, M.D., &c., in the Philos. Transact. 
London, 1842, pt. I, p. 89,--also, by the same, Neue Untersuchun- 
gen tuber die schraubenformige Beschaffenheit der Elementarfasern 
der Muskeln, nebst Beobachtungen iiber die muskulése Natur der 
Flimmerhdschen, in Miller’s Arch., 1850, p. 529 ;--and, On Animal 
and Vegetable Fibre, as originally composed of twin Spiral filaments, 
in which every other structure has its origin; in the Edinb. New Phil. 
Jour., Oct., 1853, p. 317. 


i) 


y 
nals and Mag. of Nat. Hist., ili, 1849, p. 109. 

7. Recherches sur la Formation des Muscles dans les Animaux Verte- 
brés, et sur la structure de la fibre musculaire en général dans les 
diverses classes d’animauz; par M. le Docteur Lezerr, in the Ann. 
des Sci. Nat., xi, 1849, p. 349. 

8. Mikroskopische Anatomie, §c.; von Dr. A. Konuxer. Leipzig, 
1850, Bd. Il, erste Halfte, p. 199. 


Ar this late period of histological research it may seem indeed 
@ superfluous task to pass in review a subject apparently so well 
understood as that of the minute and ultimate structure of Mus- 
cular Tissue. But the truth is, that on this, as with most other 
subjects in microscopy, the advent of new observers, or the re- 
appearance of old ones, in the field of research, bring with them 
the prestige of hitherto undiscovered facts and new truths, and 
So the old land-marks and positions laid down by earlier but 
by no means less able, faithful, and accurate observers, seem likely 
to be disturbed. 

We do not propose here to enter upon any formal discussion of 
the historical relations of the doctrines advanced hitherto upon 
this subject. We desire to pass in review what we understand 
to be the leading features of the histology of this tissue, and 

Suoonp Sznres, Vol. XVII, No, 49.—Jan., 1854. 12 


*. 


90 Reviews and Records in Anatomy and Physiology. 


therein to seek the more or less definitely expressed formula of 
its structure—all of which will put us ina somewhat favorable 
position to regard critically some doctrines which are as remark- 
able as they are new. 

But first of all we will briefly refer to some of the more promi- 
nent researches which, from time to time have served as true 
finger-posts as each succeeding investigator and explorer has 
passed along the road. 

Although there can be but little doubt that some of those excel- 
lent old naturalists and observers of the last two hundred years, 
caught, with their rnde magnifying powers, not erroneous glimpses 
of the complex intimate structure of muscle, yet any definite ideas 
of its real compositfon as explanatory of its mode of action, cannot 

said to have been entertained until the days of the cell-doc- 
trines of Schwann and Schleiden. It is true that since the time 
of Leenwenhoek,. or even, perhaps, before, it has been known 
that voluutary muscle could be split up into fine threads; but 
this was the limit of their real knowledge, for, if we except Fon- 
tana, none of the observers appear to have had distinct ideas of 
the nature of these threads. 

alentin, from studies upon the development of this tissue, had 
perceived clearly the general character of its composition, an 
Schwann, a few years after, applied more or less completely and 
successfully his cell-doctrine to its elementary formation and con- 
stitution. ‘These undoubtedly were very important steps; but the 
contribution which marks an era in the histological history of this 
tissue is that of Mr. Bowman, which appeared in the Philosoph- 
ical Transactions of 1840. Rare are the examples in the whole 
domain of minute anatomy, where so much real progress has 
been made by a single set of researches, as in this case. In more 
than one particular, Mr. Bowman exhausted the subject, and it is 
perfectly correct to say that in the leading and essential features 
of the minute anatomy of voluntary muscle, the numerous micro- 
scopical observers have added but little if any thing during the 
thirteen years that have since elapsed. Bowman’s results are s0 
well known and even familiar to all anatomists that it is almost out 
of taste to repeat them; but I will state them in a brief form: 
A series of discs succeeding each other in a row and at re 
intervals ; a row of discs thus formed constitutes the primitive 
fibrilla, Numbers of such fibrille are bound together with an exact 
coaptation of their discs and intervening spaces—constituting the 
striated muscular fibre. ‘This fibre thus composed of a bundle of 
fibrille is encased in a special sheath, the sarcolemma. And, 
finally, a greater or less number of such encased fibres, bound 
together, constitute a fasciculus, and these fasciculi make up the 
gross muscle. We have then muscle: fasciculus, fibre, fibrilla, 
disc. Fibres may be split lengthwise, forming fibrillz, and cross- 


Reviews and Records in Anatomy and Physiology. 91 


wise, forming large dises—the cleavage taking place, from the 
exact coaptation of the discs, through the light spaces. 

Nothing can be more clear than the structure of a tissue thus 
Wrought out, and with such data the student who has once caught 
its formula by an observation through the microscope on a good 
specimen, will never have his zdea of striated muscle effaced,— 
for this in general is the elementary composition of voluntary 
muscular fibre wherever found, as a striated structure, among all 

imals. 

Leaving for a future page a criticism of some of the points of 
Bowman’s doctrine, we will continue our subject by some refer- 
ence to the development of this tissue. Undoubtedly the most 
important because the most comprehensive researches that have 

eeti made in this direction are those of Kolliker and Lebert. 
The two leading features in the primary formation of muscle, are, 
first, that its origin is cellular, and second, that the fibre and not 
the fibrilla is the primary part evolved—the fibrilla being there- 
fore a secondary or resultant formation. 

The fibre is a more or less direct result of a fusion of a row of 
cells together :—this is the foundation ; and the secondary changes 
which supervene thereon vary in extent and character according 
to the more or less complexity of the form of tissue ultimately 
evolved. The details of this genesis we need not here describe ; 
all we wish to indicate is the original cell-constitution of muscular 
tissue in every locality where it is found; it might also be added 
that its departure from this original cell-condition and the meta- 
morphosis of these cells into more or less complicated forms, holds 
a nearly corresponding ratio to the grade either of the animal in 
the scale of life, or of the function the particular tissue in ques- 
tion is to perform. 

But these remarks, with the exception of the last general state- 
ment, refer particularly to the striated form of muscular fibre, to 
which the observations of Bowman and Lebert relate almost 


although they are, it is trne, connected with the functions of the 
organic or non-voluntary life. Upon this subject, at least as con- 
nected with the higher animals, no single observer has thrown so 
much light as Kdélliker. This excellent observer showed that 
the elements of the smooth or non-striated muscles, do not con- 
sist, as had hitherto been supposed, of long bread bands dotted 
with many nuclei, but are composed of comparatively short, isola- 
ted fibres, each of which contains a nucleus. ‘The cell origin and 
Constitution of these fibres | eepoeabe are too apparent to 

questioned. But these cellS have experienced but few changes, 
and have undergone none of those elaborate alterations which 

similar cells form the striated variety of | 


Supervene when 


92 Reviews and Records in Anatomy and Physiology. 


tissue. In one sense, then, the smooth, non-striated muscular 
fibres are only a kind ‘of infra-formation af those which are stri- 
ated—a condition of things in which the developmental changes 
persist on a low type. That this is a true version of these phe- 


a x 
i?) 
ea 


and in some insects the muscles of organic life wa the 
alimentary canal, contain both striated and non-striated fibre 

From smooth, non-striated muscle we can proceed jana 
at sbeves one step ‘farther, where this tissue is cellular in its adult 


have been arrested, as it were, at the very outset. Muscular us- 
sue of this simple kind is found in the Polypi and Acalephe, 
especially, and contraction of muscles thus composed, occurs by 
a lateral widening of the cells, the whole muscle increasing in 
breadth proportionate to ita diminution in Jength 
ith these exordial remarks, in which we have desired rather 
to notice the general relations of the subject, than to be concise 
and explicit on special points—we will now turn and take up 
somewhat in detail some particular sainsidie of this tissue, basing 
our remarks upon a set of recent investigations we have made 
under quite favorable circumstances. In this way we shall have 
occasion to refer to the other writings we have placed at the head 
of oe article. 
will commence by an examination of the highest form of 
the striated muscle, Striated muscle does not occur lower in the 
animal scaie than the Articulata ;* at least, in the other divisions of 
the Invertebrata, viz., the Ce ephalopoda, the Cephalophora, the 
Acephala, the Annelides, the Turbellaria, the Helminthes, the 
Echinodermata, the Acalephe,t and the Polypi, our own observa- 
tions agree w ith those of others who have specially examined the 
subject, that we have never been able to perceive anything of the 


* Busk (Transact. Microsc. Soc. desagits ii,) has described and figured a striated 
hielo of muscular tissue as occurrin n Anguinaria spatulata and Notamia rahe 
ave been unable, however, “after considerable search upon many B * 

ony hich were sev eral species of A/eyonella, to deback any iting like real striped 

is inti man 


lar tissue in Bins pci of Bryozoa = examined unless myostatin this observer was 
deceived bys a nage of the muscular tissue which occurs in these animals. 
in this con n, Comparative & Sms by ’ Siebold and Stannius, Translat. &c., by 
os vol i, rs 29. n 

oceedin siege of the Edinburgh Physiological Society for July 23, 1858 
(See Edin b. Month. Journal Med. Se..§ Sept., vig iig be fet Dr. Cobbold is mentioned as 
having demonstrated striated muscular fibres wrella of Medusa aurita; but 
this point needs further research, since ppb afer re in seb of the structure of 


i ibuti to the N atural Hi of ephee North Ame, the 
Sl ntributions to ory 0 ned America, in 
rs Amer. Acad. Arts and Se. 1850, N.S,, iv, pt. 1, p. 23 onset 


Reviews and Records in Anatomy and Physiology. 93 


kind. But in the three classes of the Articulata,—the Crustacea, 
the Arachnoide, and the Insecta, and in all the classes of the 
Vertebrata, it forms by far the larger portion of the muscular sys- 
tem. Wherever found, it is invariably the same as to the formula 
of its development and constitution, and whatever may be said 
as to the interpretation to be put upon this or that appearance, 
there can be no doubt but that it is always capable of being re- 
solved into the same primary and secondary elementary forms. 
The best specimens of muscular tissue, for the careful, detailed, 
and successful study of its elementary constitution are found in 
the Articulata, or, to speak more definitely from our own experi- 
ence, in the Entomostraca of the Crustacea, or in the Neuroptera 
and Diptera of the Insecta. Our best and most satisfactory ob- 
servations have beeu made upon the alary muscles of the com- 
mon Musquito (Culex pipiens), and which we could particularly 
recommend to those who would follow this line of inquiry. 


have above named on our list. We know of no paper of its pre- 
tension which has met with such universal disfavor among inves- 
tigators. But the misfortune of the case is, that this view should 
have again been produced in a resuscitated form, aud pushed to 
its ultimatum even with new statements, as has recently been 
done in the last two writings we have cited of this observer. 
! he paper published in Miiller’s Archiv appears under the pres- 
iige of being wrought out in many of its most important points 
with a most excellent Pflossel microscope, and as a whole pre- 
pared under the eye of the venerable Purkinje. 

In truth, it would appear that Mr. Bowman’s excellent researches 
to which we have already alluded, ought to have so far settled 
any disputation on these points, as to render any critical exami- 
nation of these anomalous doctrines wholly uncalled for. ut in 
our late review of this whole subject, we have not been unmind- 
ful of this theory, and particularly so since excellent opportunities 
have occurred showing what we believe to be the true version 0 
as unfrequent, singular, spiral-like appearances observed in this 

issue 


In the first place, we will say, that with the advantage of the 
use of some of Mr. Spencer’s best and most powerful lenses, em- 
ployed with the most favorable illumination, we have given sev- 
eral protracted sittings to the investigation of the nature of Dr. 
Barry’s alleged phenomena, with his figures before us, and using 


94 Reviews and Records in Anatomy and Physiology. 


a great number of very pheno prepared specimens of this 
tissue taken from various animals.* 

But with all these Sesad qth we have failed to detect any ap 
pearance in muscular fibrilla indicating its spiral structure as ad- 
vanced by Dr. Barry. is has been the result of all our exam- 
inations notwithstanding single fibrille in both a relaxed aud a 
contracted state, have been subjected to an amplyfying power of 
more than 1000 diameters. 

On the other hand we have not unfrequently observed appear- 
ances of the stric of the fibrille, which, at first, and especially 

when a power of not more than 300 diameters is used, look re- 
markably like a spiral a ; but, by doubling the amplifies 
tion the illnsion ts dispelled, the curions appearance is showa 
to be referable to a peculiar cancer ora kind of dislocation 
of the disc-like elements of fibrillee. By a little rough treatment 
of separated fibrille in water, these appearances may often be 
produced to almost any extent. It is not uncommon to see the 
spiral appearance run one way half the fibrilla, and then change 
and run the opposite the remaining half. But the effect is most 
delusive when the disc-like elements of the fibrilla are not only 
turned awry lateraily in a regular manner, but are also slightly 
tilted up. These same changes taking place i in a bundle of fibrillee 
or a fibre, and occurring with a nice coaptation throughout, 
give to the whole fibre a very spiral-like aspect.¢ Other appear- 
ances than these, eae. a complicated spiral-composition © 
this tissue, we have never observed, and from what we have ob- 
served both of the daeslojanent and of the mature se perg: of 
muscular fibre in all its forms, we can give no credence to the 
doctrines of Dr. Barry, and we say this without the aaa diserutt 
of our instruments, specimens, and opportunities, 

The view of Kolliker upon the composition of the musculat 
fibrilla, is, in one sense, the very antithesis of the one we have just 
noticed, for he thinks that it has no structure at all, but isa homo- 
geneous formation. Hesays: “ The fibrillz are com posed of asub- 

stance which, although but little, is yet very perfectly elastic, and 
is therefore capable, from mechanical influence, of a very ¢ onside- 
rable elongation and subsequent shortening. In the aad con- 
dition, they are smooth and thin; but, when contracted, they are 


* The specim issue we have wed be Rion examinati ions, W 
prepared for us hy Dr. Deke s a Boston ingenuity in su ia 
things, an @ eee ‘in a. for beauty. 7 fovea on of the oid faaoe struc- 
ture, as ‘wall as for the completeness of preservation, exceed by we have 


before 
+ A Aube n his account of the f the th uscles ects has al 
alluded to this point, Her rs of his gure very well representa he opal ike #9 - 
rance of t ille seen eigen 


power. Ue thu 
tructur der Thoraxmuskeln der eaahiek op gs and Koélliker’ tsch. £ wis 
sensch. Zool., iv, p. 388, Taf. xv, fig. u, 5, and rv, 5 tw 


Reviews and Records in Anatomy and Physiology. 95 


thicker, and have varicosities at regular intervals. . . . My 
opinion is, that the transverse strie hold no essential, internal rela- 
tion to the contraction of the fibres, but are simply an expression 
of this last and of the organic elasticity of the fibrillee.”—( Mikro- 
skop. Anat., loc. cit. p. 263, 264.) 

This view which makes the fibrilla a homogeneous formation, 
and according to which the strie and disc-like structure, as usu- 
ally seen, are only resultant or secondary conditions, demands a 
special examination, considering the high authority of its source.* 
In the first place, we have not been successful in verifying the chief 
datum on which this opinion is founded ; we refer to the complete 
disappearance of the strie and the consequent perfectly smooth 
aspect of the fibrilla. If a small bit of muscle be taken fresh, 


ment receiv 


perhaps distorted striated appearance. 

Judging from our own experience, therefore, we should be 
disinclined to accept the opinion that fibrilla may be made to ap- 
pear free from strie,—on the other hand, we should attribute the 
alleged smoth aspect to the fact that probably sufficiently high 
aud excellent microscopic powers were not used in the examina- 
tlons. 


After this discussion of different and dissimilar opinions, we 
may revert to our primary leading question: What is the histo- 
logical composition of the muscular fibrilla? We shall be greatly 
aided in satisfactorily answering this question by referring to 
these formations as occurring under their simplest and most naked 
forms. If the muscles of some of the lower Crustacea, of Ar- 
ulus for instance, cr what is more convenient, of the thorax of 
the common house fly (Musca harpyia), be taken and examin- 
ed under the microscope with the usual care, the fibrille will be 
Seen very distinct, and separated from each other, at the same 

+ ae * 

Hassall advocates the same opinion based upon the allegation mtn the sie ry, 


be made entirely to disap by the action of acetic acid, (see 08. 4 
oxpisioaal Gee VOCE pp HETVs Bick thie ak tort Bhat tho Coed ORO eh 
rience, 


96 Reviews and Records in Anatomy and Physiology. 


time very fragile, for, with light pressure, they immediately break 
up into discs or small regularly-shaped particles. This fracture 
is very uniform, and the resultant particles are of such a complete 
character in themselves, that they may be studied as distinct ob- 
jects exactly as blood-discs or other organic particles. Observed 
with a power of 1000 or 1200 diameters these separated atoms 
preset a regularity of form, shape, and size, fully indicating that 
they are special formations, in contradistinction to the view that 
they are the results of a systematic although accidental fracture 
of a homogeneous cylinder or band.* From these exatninations 


formations. ‘The phenomena observed in the muscles of many 
of the Articulata and especially those to which we have already 
we 


referred, seem to admit of no other construction. Again, 
have seen no evidence that, as Carpenter and Sharpey have ad- 


mined. 

If the best examples of muscular tissue in the form of fibrille 
are examined,—for instance, specimens from the thorax of the mus 
quito,—there may often be observed, besides the spiral-like arrange- 

* Leydig has described and figured this separation into discs of the muscular- 
fibrille, as occurring in Branchipus. His ot tions in thi t these Ento- 
mostraca correspond closely with our ‘own upon many of the Insecta. Se Ueber 
ei 


and so arranged 
ee ioe 1 tara see loc. cit. Taf viii, fig, 6. 
ee Carpenter, Princip. of Human Physiol., Amer. 1858, p. harpey; 
Quains Elements of ‘aii 5th ed. ii, p. 168. ‘ = eee ' 


Reviews and Records in Anatomy and Physiology. 97 


ment of the discs, anomalous appearances in the fibrilla which, 
although regular, are undoubtedly due to some abnormal changes 
occurring in the elastic substance of which the fibrilla or even its 
discs are composed. Several of these curious aspects have been 
described and figured by Mr. Dobie in his paper above cited. 
Thus, in some cases, instead of the appearance of a regular suc- 
cession of square blocks which appear white, while the line of 
their apposition appears dark,—presenting, on the whole, a kind of 
tape-worm appearance,—there is observed another dark line bisect- 
ing the light space. There are then seen, broad dark line (the 
line intervening between the discs), light space, narrow dark line 
(line bisecting the disc itself ), light space, and, broad dark line 
again. In other cases, the broad dark line is as wide as the disc 
itself, and then there appears a regular succession of light and 
dark spaces of equal width —the light spaces being bisected by a 
dark line, and the dark ones by a light line. But this beautiful 
series of light and shade may be completely reversed by a change 
of focus. In some rare instances, one of which we have now 
under observation, these light and dark spaces are quadrisected 
instead of bisected, there being two light or dark narrow lines 
instead of one across each space. 

These singular appearances, of which there are numerous other 
Varieties, might perhaps be accounted for on the supposition that, 
from rough handling, changes have occurred in the constitution 
of the component substance of the fibrilla, which produce the 
refraction of the light here observed. But we will add that in all 
the examinations we have made of this interesting point, we have 
seen nothing in these varying aspects leading us to doubt the true 
dise-composition of the fibrille 

Another point to which we would here refer as at least of some 
suggestive interest, is the question whether the fibrille: are inves- 
ted with a sheath or not. Until quite recently we have observed 
nothing indicating that such sheath exists; but in some lately- 
prepared specimens, not only the disposition of the discs compos- 
lng the fibrilles, to each other, but also a kind of crenulated or 
denticulated aspect of the edges of the fibrille, sometimes ob- 
served ;—such phenomena might be well explained on the sup- 
position of the presence of a sheath, but, at the same time, they 
by no means demand this supposition. Jn some instances they 
have a striking appearance, but it is possible that they may be the 
remains of that gelatinous substance which binds the fibrille 
together in a fibre.* 


* Dobie speaks of a homogeneous, delicate membrane, which is sometimes ob- 
Served stretched between two fibrille when they are separated at a greater or less 
acute angle from each other, resembling the web between the toes of a 
bird. It may be the same substance that we have observed. See loc. p. 114, 
Pl. vu, fig. 8, a, b. ; iy a 

Szconp Serres, Vol. XVII, No. 49.—Jan, 1854. 13 


98 Reviews and Records in Anatomy and Physiology. 


As to the minute structure of the non-striated muscular tissue, 
we have but little to say. We have found it uniform and the 
same wherever occurring, even when it has the futiction of vol- 


untary tissue, as is the case in the Mollusca and Radiata. 


been stated by Lebert and Robin to be the case in some of the 
Cephalophora* ; on the other hand, in many species of this class, 
which have been examined we have found this tissue to be com- 
posed of fibres which admit of no further division except into 
their constituent cells. 

Less studied, but at the same time more interesting, histologi- 
cally, is that form -of this tissue, which persists permanently on 
the cell-type, the cells still preserving their characteristics as such, 
instead of being lost in their contribution to a distinct form of 
tissue. This form of tissue composes the mass of muscle of the 
Radiata proper, and is perhaps best observed in the Acalephee, and 
Polypi. Agassiz has given it a good description, as occurring 10 
the former of these classes,t and in the latter we have frequently 
observed it, while making other investigations. A very fine 
example of this cell-muscle may be observed in the pedicle of 
the medusa-form of Tubularia: here, a double row of cells is 
observed ;—these last, when in a state of relaxation are round or 
ovoid, but when contracted they wear a flattened, dise-like form, 


ak c 
the physiologist than the observation of such phenomena, for 
nature is here observed with just that amount of drapery which 
would hide yet adorn her nakedness. 
Before closing these remarks on the histological composition of 


muscle, we wish to refer to another point, in the form of an 


q : 
than that of being composed of cells? This query is advanced, 
becatise in some instances of the locomotive, contractile, if not 
muscular tissue of the lower animals, we have not succeeded in 
making out any cell-structure. This has been the case with the 
otherwise muscular, and highly contractile parts of some of the 
lower Helminthes, where the tissue in question seemed resolvable 
into granules alone, allocated under distinct forms by a delicate 

* See, Kurze Notiz fiber allgemeine vergleichende Anatomie niederer Thiere, in 
Miiller’s Arch., 1846, p. 120. 

See Contributions to the Natural History of the Acalephz of North America, 

in the Memoirs Amer. Acad. Arts and Sci, 1850, N. S,, iv, P. H, p. 239. - 


Reviews and Records in Anatomy and Physiology. 99 


fibrillated membrane. Again, in along fusiform muscle of one 
of the tentacles of an Alcyonella, we have observed a like want 
of any cell-constituents—the muscle being apparently composed 
of a delicate granular, punctiform substance. On contraction, 
the muscle changed from fusiform to a fan-shape, its punctiform 
aspect becoming darker and more condensed. Further research 
upon these intricate points is greatly needed, but=it should be 
remembered that there is, histologically, no reason why a granu- 
lar stroma or substance should not possess contractility, as well 
as the elaborated formations from cells. It is true that its action 


e 


the internal relation of this process is hidden from our perception, 
and is as much an enigma as the real essence, the remote cause, 
of everything else connected with the organic world about us. 
The apparent phenomena in question are well-known and easily 
observed. A. fibrilla contracts, and its increase in lateral bulk 
is proportionate exactly to the decrease in length that has taken 
place ;—no space, therefore, has been gained. In the striated 
form of this tissue, this shortening is attended with an approxi- 


orms of this tissue, the unstriated and the cellular, nothing is 


* See, for an inquiry into the nature of the contractile tissues of the lower ani- 
selene bstanz niedersten 


here advancedgsupport those we have suggestively thrown out in the above remarks, 
as based upon abe que limited’ observations pig Fo made on this subject. ge 


100 Reviews and Records in Anatomy and Physiology. 


property—contractility—a capacity by which its substance may 
be shortened or lengthened from the action of stimuli. The 


must always be the result of some stimulus, from within or with- 
out, which excites a manifestation of a peculiar organic capability. 


Postscript.—Since the above was written and mostly printed, 
we have received the November No. of the Philosophical Maga- 
zine, which contains two recent communications by Dr. Martin 
Barry relating to our subject, “ A Main cause of discordant Views 
on the Structure of the Muscular fibril,” and ‘Further Re- 
marks on the Muscularity of Cilia.” These papers contain noth- 
ing but a reiteration of Dr. Barry’s former doctrines under, what 
he would perhaps think, better auspices. But we have failed to 
perceive anything new, or indeed anything but a restatement of 
his previously advanced opinions; neither do we think that Dr. 

rry has very satisfactorily stated the ‘main cause of discordant 
views” on the subject, although we do not think it doubtful 


wherein this cause really lies. 


Record of Anatomy and Physiology, Dec. 1, 1853; by W. I. BurnetT- 
SPECIAL WORKS. 
Friedreich, (D. N.) Beitriige zur Lehre von den Geschwiilsten innerhalb der Schad- 
elhohle. 8vo 


Klencke, (Prof. H.) Mikroskopische Bilder Naturansichten aus dem kleinsten 
Raume. In Briefen an Gebildete. Mit 430 Holzschn. 8vo. 
Miiller, (J.) Ueber den allgemeinen Plan in der Entwickelung der Echinodermen. 
Mit 8 Tafeln. 4to., 
Bock, (C. E.) Lehrbuch d. pathol. Anatomie u. Diagnostik, Bd, Il, Abth. 2. 8y0. 
Heusinger, (D. 0. F.) Recherches de Pathologie eee 2 vol. 4to, 
Die Entwickelung rohrige u. blasiger Gebilde im thierischen Organismus. 
Mit 2 Tafeln. 3 
Canstatts,(O.) Specielle Pathologie u. Therapie vom klin. Standpunkte aus bear- 
beitet. 3te Aufl. Von Dr. E. Henoch. In 2 Bdn. od. 8-10 Lief 1 Lief. 8v0. 
Kehrer, (Dr. F.) Das Blut in seinem Krankhaften Verhiltnissen: Ein Beitrag zur 
Pathogenie. 8yo., 
Carus, (C. G.) Tabule Anatomiam Comparativam illustrantes quas exhibuit. Carolus 
Gustavus Carus junctus cum Eduardo D’Altone. Pars yur, 4to. 
Tue Transactions or tar Amertcan Meptcat Assoctation, Vol. vi, pp. 832.— 
i the details of the business of the Association, the reports of the various 
committees, ys on particular medical subjects, this volume eontains two 


Reviews and Records in Anatomy and Physiology. 101 


prize Essays—one on The Surgical Treatment of certain Sheees aan of the 
Uterus; by Washington L. Atlee, mers of Philadelphia—the o n The Cell: its 
Physiology, Pathology, nah hy ; as dadated: from chan investigations, to 
which is added its Histor and ‘Orit ism; by Waldo I. Burnett, M.D. of Boston. 
bettie other ne Sakae mihooed of the above wor s, our space does ‘int allow 
us to tarpiah, at shia: sae a saseal or even a general description of their contents. 


II. PERIODICAL LITERATURE. 
Tue Brrriso anp Forrtgn Mepico-Currurercat Review. Oct., 1853. 


The present No. of this well known and pees toned pi is one of _ than 


usual interest in a eres, en point o Tt with an able 

agreeably written article by T srotke on ate 0 Cell- The —also other able con- 
tributions on subjects eon to practical medicine, an acd _ well- 
digested An calls of Micrology by Dr. Lyons—a labor of great value, s , com- 
paratively, can have access to the numerous foreign w tape sed seciod aie from 
which Dr. Lyons so successfully culls. We hope to have the opportunity soon to 


discuss some points in Mr. Huxley’s article in relation to cell-life and organization, 
Miutrr’s Arcuiv riz Anatomic, PaystoLoGie UND WISSENSCHAFTLICHE Mepicin. 
1853. Heft. 3,4. August, September. 
Maz Schultze. Ueber Chetonotus und Ichthydium (Ehrb.), und eine neue verwandte 
Gattung Turban _ 
h 


bh 
32 
~] 
Cc 
be 
2 
= 
4 
Ps 
° 
j=} 
$2 
a, 
> 
é 


. eber 8 pu 

August Miiller. postertmatoed zur ee sce eo open Anatomie are sg hex mage 

A. Krohn. Ueber die Entwickelung der —— und Holothur 

4d. Grube. Ueber den Bau von Pe eripatu Jwuetel 

A. Krokn. Ueber die Larve von Eohioaw: Sec riapinsens! 

H. Meyer. Das aufrechte Gehen. (Zweiter Beitrag zur Mechanik des Menschen 
Koochengeriste es), 

Adolph Fick and fond i role Aner Ueber die unempfindliche Stelle der Netz- 

haut j ter enchlich 
L. Fick. Beitrag zur Coapquiniepigiantss des Organismus. 
A, iit Ueber die Brut des Cladonema radiatum und semen Entwickelung zum 
auridium 
W. Peters, “Weber des Kiemengeriist der Labyrinthfische. 
W. Berlin, Ueber einem Wurm aus der Gruppe Anguillule, Enophies quadridentolus. 


Annates pes Sciences NaTurELs, xix, 1853. Nos. 4, 5. 
i noy. Mémoire sur les phere ge ra Nil blanc ou d’Abyssinie, et du Sénégal, 
ee nouvelles recherches sur mposition microscopique de leurs Dents, 
p 
a Duthiers * easesaais sur ’armure génital femelle des Insectes lépidoptéres. 
e.) 
——»._ De ee genitale des Aphaniptéres. p. 2 
rmure génital des pound en général, Be sii 


— 
> 


Claude Bernard. Recher Rae sur une nouyelle a csoeg i, Fois, considéré comme 
organe producteur de matiére sucrée chez ’homme e p- 282. 


Comeres Renpus, xxxvii, from August 8, to October 3, 1853. 


A, Lavocat et WV. Joly. Etudes anatomiques Ae et giq 1f iped 
pieds anterieurs, p- 837. 
Philipeux et Vulpiau. Mémoire sur la ooh de lencéphale an —_ cartil- 


eux et sur l’origine des nerfs craniens chez ces Poissons. 
een et Riche. Recherches sur Palla ntation des rave gallicoles. 

port on, by Quatref 394. fe 
A. Killiker oh He, Miller "Nove ba for a structure de a étne humaine, p. 488 


On ae 


- 


102 Reviews and Records in Anatomy and Physiology. 


Virchow. Déconverte d'une substance qui seat lieu aux mémes réactions chimiques 


que la veer B03 2, * be ans le cc we hum p. 492. 
yi cater Rech mode de besiedicticd et sur le développement dans’ 
vers groupes pe seeks et de Mollusques. p. 493 


Tre Annats anp Magazine or Naturat Htsrory, vol. xii, October, November, 1853. 


— Williams, On the Mechanism of Aquatic eee ae and on the Structure of 
e Or — of Breathing in Invertebrate os rig 
Cla = on es Bee nchial Currents in ues 
J. BE. Gra e Teeth of the Pne pabtrascliats Mollus 
Thos. Wiliame ~ the Mechanism of Aquatic Respiration, nm on the Structure 
of the Organs of Breathing in Invertebrate Animals. 


Tue Quanrerty Journat or Microscorican Sorencs, Nos. 4, 5. July, October, 1853. 
[Transact. Microse. Soc., London. ] 


Williamson. On So minute ee of a species of Pear ai 
regory. Notes of a Diatomaceous Earth found in the Isle of M 
bfoiessge a ‘the Binocular ie scope and on Reecetaacntie pictures of Micro- 


Wankans }n ame plication of Binocular Vision to the or 

Shadbolt, A short om sersption no some new forms of Diatomacee from Port Natal. 

Legg. Observations on the mination of Pagans Sand, i ee emarks on collect- 
ing, mounting and viewing Perici ifera copie obje 

Rainey, (Geo.) A method of employing atin ight for ib ilaination of trans- 
parent objects, by which it is so deprived of glare and color as to be equal in its 
illuminating power to the best day- Ten 


[Original Communications, ] 


Brightwell. On the genus Triceratium, with ave and figures of the species. 

Salter. On certain appearances occurring in dentine, te on its sae of cal- 
cification. 

Fister, Observations on the Muscular Tissue of 

T. H. Hucley. a the Structure ad relation of ae Goenwsls tactus, and of the 
Pacinian bodi 
. Rainey. Sek observations on the illumination of transparent objects. 

Hera erapath. Paper on the discovery of Quinine and Quinidine in the Urine of Pa- 
: : : ixed alkaloids. 


ients unde ical treatment with the Salts of these mixed 
Riddell (of New Orleans, U. 8.) ag Binocular Microscope. 
egory. Additional observations o iatomaceous deposit of Mull. 


ere ar short but Sereating: phere pete from the continental Journals, and 
Review 


PuitosopuicaL Transactions, 1853, Pts. 1, 2. 
_— os Jones. Further Inquiries as to the Structure, Development, and Function 


iver. 

vid ae ules. 2 On the ed ne. of the mh one Mollusea, as illustrated by be 
Anatomy of certain Heteropoda Pteropoda collected during the Voyage 
H. M.S. “ Rattlesnake,” in 1846-5 a rege 


i Tomes. —— on the Structure and gicpeeey sce of Bone. 
ewport. e impregnation of al Ovum bia, manna Series, re- 
vised.) And on the direct Agency of the 8 Science re og : 2h 


Biography of Berzelius. 103 


Art. X.—Biography of Berzelius ; by Prof. H. Ross, of Berlin. 
(Concluded from vol. xvi, p. 313.) 


Tue next subject to which Berzelius turned his attention be- 
longs to organic chemistry. It was a comparative investigation 
of tartaric and racemic acids. He first corrected his former anal- 
ysis of tartaric acid, in which he had given an atom more of hy- 
drogen than Prout and Hermann, and adopted the results of these 
chemists. But he then found that the crystallized tartaric acid 
had precisely the same on gone, as the effloresced racemic acid, 

and that both acids e same capacity of saturation —facts 
which, especially at ee ae were in the highest degree remark- 
able. This was one of the first clearly demonstrated examples 
that bodies of different characters may have the same composi- 
tion. Berzelius had, sometime before, observed a somewhat sim- 


a 
tion of phosphoric acid, which he called pyrophosphoric acid. 
On this occasion Berzelins combined together, in an interesting 
manner, what was known of these bodies, to which he gave the 
name Isomeric. This term has been universally adopted, now 
that the number of such bodies has been so greatly increased. 
From this time Berzelius frequently occupied himself with sub- 
jects which are certainly of the greatest interest to every thinking 
chemist, and indeed for every scientific man, since they are cal- 
culated to unfold to us somewhat more fully the nature of matter. 
He made known his views on this subject repeatedly, both in his 
« Jahresberichte, ” and in the several editions of his “ Lehrbuch.” 
inally, he assumed two essentially distinct kinds of isomerism, 
and, in the strictest sense of the word, called those bodies only 


grouped in different ways, forming compound bodies. ‘These iso- 
netic bodies may again be of two different kinds. a hey con- 


Stituents is the same, but in which the atomic ae Pe are not 
equal, but twice, thrice, etc., as great as that of each other. Such 
bodies Berzelius termed, for the sake of antithesis, Polymeric 
compoun nds. 

The other kind of isomerism Berzelius called Allotropism. It 
refers solely to elementary bodies, which, owing to causes not yet 
sufficiently understood, assume a different character from that 
which is usual to them, and, as it appears, re e 


mia 


104 Biography of Berzelius. 


many combinations, where it may be the cause of differences in 
the character of these compounds. When isomeric conditions 


may occur in which both causes are simultaneously at work. 

It is possible that Berzelius may sometimes have gone too fat 
in his assumption of allotropic conditions, for there are some 
grounds for believing that an apparent allotropismh may result 
merely from a different state of division. Thus, a few years be- 
fore the discovery of the first example of isomerism, Magnus 
observed the interesting fact, that when the oxyds of iron, nickel, 
and cobalt, are reduced by means of hydrogen to the lowest 


The next paper by Berzelius was upon Vanadium. Sefstrom 
had found a new metal in the bar-iron of Taberg, which he called 
by this name. He had, however, restricted his investigation 


NS a MTS fs 


PB am 


A SE Re 


a SOP ite 


Biography of Berzelius. 105 


to the preparation of the oxyd, or rather the acid of this metal, 
from the finer slags of the T'aberg iron, and the determination of 
its distinguishing characters. He then transferred his stock of 
vanadic acid to Berzelius, in order that he might investigate the 
characters and history of the new metal. ‘This investigation isa 
very extended one, and through it we have become acquainted 
with the new body in all its relations ; whilst, as these are mani- 
fold and interesting, and as the acid ‘has but little resemblance to 
other acids, it was difficult to assign to it its true position among 
them. In this respect the paper of Berzelius on vanadium may 
almost be compared with that upon selenium ; for both have this 
peculiarity in common, that by them we have become so thor- 
oughly acquainted with new and hitherto entirely unknown bodies, 
although in both instances but very minute quantities of rare 
material could be employed, that subsequent investigations have 
added but little to our knowledge, and nothing essential. Vana- 
ium was afterwards found at several places, although always in 
very small quantities. Wohler directed especial attention to the 
fact, that the acid of the new metal was contained in the lead ores 
of Zimapan, in Mexico, in which, as early as 1801, Del Rio discov- 
ered a new metal, and called it Erythronium ; but misled by the 
authority of Collet-Descotils, who declared it to be chromium 
(with which Vanadium has certainly some similarity, ) he after- 
wards admitted that his discovery was an error. 
is next researches, which were upon Tellurium, were of a 
similar nature. Berzelius had already instituted experiments with 
very minute quantities of this metal, in so many respects interest- 
ing, but he was compelled to discontinue them for want of ma- 
terial. When Wobler sent him a considerable quantity of this 
rare metal, which he had prepared from the telluric bismuth of 
Schemnitz, he again commenced the investigation. He first 
shewed how this metal can be prepared in its purest state. He 
then prepared all the compounds of tellurous acid (peroxyd,) as 
well as telluric acid, discovered by him, with bases, and ind 
the different isomeric modifications which these acids form. 
These researches were likewise so complete, that they fully de- 
veloped the history of this remarkable metal in all its relations. 
The last great investigation by Berzelius, is that upon meteoric 
stones. He undertook this with the intention of studying these 


Szoonp Szrims, Vol XVIL, No. 49.—Jan, 1854. 14 ae 


106 Biography of Berzelius. 


entirely of such minerals as are found upon the earth, and that 
they certainly do not contain any elementary constituent which 
is not met with in terrestrial bodies. It was only in the meteoric 
stone of Alais that he found carbon in an unknown state of combi- 
nation: this stone, when placed in water, disintegrated and fell to 
powder, which had a mixed smell of clay and hay. ‘This shewed 
that if, as Berzelius considered, meteoric stones originated from 
other cosmical bodies, in their native state they could be conver- 
ted into clayey mixtures, like the rocks on our own 

then raised the question as to whether this carbonaceous earth 


blackish-grey sublimate were obtained, but no empyreumatic oil 
and no hydrocarbon; the carbonaceous matter was, therefore, not 
of the same nature as the humus on the earth’s surface. The 
sublimate heated in oxygen, gave no carbonic acid or water, and 
changed into a white insoluble substance, whose nature could not 
be determined on account of the minute quantity. But to have 
pronounced it to be an elementary body, not originally belonging 
to our earth, would have been unwarranted. 

This was the last extensive research made by Berzelius. His 
health, which, never strong, had already often necessitated the 


Biography of Berzelius. 107 


the lectures upon Animal Chemistry, and his work on the Blow- 
pipe have already been spoken of. 

The “Lehrbuch der Chemie” first appeared in Swedish. It 
was translated into German first by Blumhof, then by Bléde and 
Palmstedt, and the later editions were translated by Wohler and 
Wiggers. It was also translated into other languages, but did not 
pass through so many editions in any, as in the German, for be- 
sides the translations of Blumhof and Bléde, five editions have 
appeared. he last but one, the fourth, consisted, on completion, 
of ten parts. The fifth and last was commenced by Berzelius in 
1842, but was not completed, only five volumes having appeared, 
certainly very large, each one containing nearly .sixty sheets. 
The inorganic chemistry alone was completed. Of the organic 
part contained in the last two volumes, the most important—the 
animal chemistry—is wantin 

In this work Berzelius has treated very fully of all the facts 
appertaining to the science, with remarkable clearness, perspl- 
cuity, and apt illustration. At the same time, every subject is 
criticised in such an impartial and just manner as can be displayed 
only by one who stands as high in science as he did. The ar- 
rangement which he selected is indeed not a strictly systematic 
one, which, in a science so imperfect as chemistry, can certainly 
only be called convenient. But especially in the inorganic part, 
there is still a certain well-founded succession, such that it is very 


always declared himself strongly in favor of the application to 
organic chemistry of what we know of the modes of combination 
of the elements in inorganic nature as the clue by which alone 
we could arrive at a knowledge of organic bodies, still he was 
compelled to admit, that we were far from having advanced so 
far as to be able to treat of all organic bodies as radicals, oxyds, 
chlorids, &c., as in inorganic chemistry. ost of the assumed 


108 Biography of Berzelius. 


similarity in chemical characters. It has frequently. been seen, 
that works in which a theoretical principle has been jae! fol- 
lowed throughout, do not so well fulfill their principal objec 
In the organic part of this work, Berzelius has declared hiraself 
against the so-called substitution theory, and the law of types. 
He assumes, on the contrary, that conjugate compounds exist in 
organic bodies, in which, for instance, acids are united with com- 
pound radicals, or with their oxyds, chlor ids, &c., in such a way 
that the acid is not saturated, but is still capable of combining 
with bases without separation of the associated substance,—the 
conjunct,—which enters with the acid as a constitutent of the 
salt. When an acid has entered into such a conjugate combina- 
pe it has generally acquired such altered characters, that neither 
the acid nor its salts are similar to the free acid and its salts. 
When hydrogen is replaced in an organic substance by chlorine, 
or another halogen, this generally takes place in the conjunct and 
not in the acid, “and the former does not on this account cease to 
play its former part, of modifying the character of the salts into 
which it enters, with its acids, more or less, and according as its 
composition is altered by substitution. 
It has been asserted that the replacement of hydrogen by chlo- 
rine, in organic compounds, was not to be explained at all in ac- 
cordance with the electro- chemical views of Berzelius, and that 
consequently these views were incorrect. But when such a sub- 
stitution takes place, it is, as already mentioned, generally only 
in the compound radical,—that is, the conjunct, ‘and a new radi- 
eal is thus formed, in which chlorine may ee occupy ee 
place of hydrogen, but cannot play the same part as it did. 
stitution of elements may therefore be very afaewrily ms 
plained, according to the principles of Berzelins; and if his theo- 
ry be impartia ally co compared with the others which have been put 
forward in such number in organic chemistry, the inference will 
be, that in the present state of the science it is ina position to 
explain the facts more satisfactorily than any othe 
On looking carefully through the various editions of this work, 
it is impossible not to regard it with admiration. It is not only 
the clear and comprehensive description, which attracts, —the 
pis impartial criticism, which compels men of opposite ce 
on to appreciate justly,—or the great minuteness which has 
left unnoticed . single fact, paca trifling, if it was of any in- 
uence—but it is also the enormous industry which must create 
astonishment. gn se seatibie man who had done nothing more 
than publish this <ilet t work, in so many editions, each of 


‘ 


Biography of Berzelius. 109 


It is touching to call to mind the words with which he con- 
cluded the preface to the last German edition, which he could not 
quite complete ; it is dated November, 1842. He says, “I cannot 
overlook that, even if the Almighty should grant me life and 
power to complete the edition of which the first part is now pub- 
lished, this will be the last. For this reason, I considered it 
necessary to revise it so thoroughly, that I could express the final 
views which have appeared to me as the most probable daring 
the long space of time in which I was so fortunate as to be able 
to follow with uninterrupted attention the development of the 
science, from the first growth of the antiphlogistic chemistry up 
to the present time—fortunate if, among the many views which 
a future extended experience will alter or correct, at least some 
few may prove to have been rightly conceived. With the pro- 
foundest conviction of the uncertainty of our theoretical views 
as well as of their indispensability, 1 have endeavored, in pre- 
senting them to the reader, not to inspire him with any more firm 
conviction of their accuracy than they appear to me to merit, and I 
have therefore always directed his attention to the uncertainty 
in the selection of modes of explanation. It is a great obstacle 


mitted to any further examination ; and the history of science 
shews that a deeply-rooted belief in theoretical conceptions has 
often withstood the most palpable proofs of their inaccuracy. 
Many of the defenders of Phlogiston required a regular develop- 
ment of the doctrines of oxydation in order to be convinced of its 
truth, and many distinguished men died believing in Phlogiston.” 

An undertaking by no means less gigantic than his “Lehrbuch” 
was the publication of the “Jahresberichte,’’ which appeared reg- 
ularly from the year 1820 until the death of Berzelius. The 
last completed volume comprises the discoveries of the year 1846. 
Berzelius therefore published twenty-seven volumes. 

After Berzelius had been elected, as successor of the botanist, 


of Botany, Zoology, and Astronomy, Mathematics, and 'Tech- 
nology. Berzelius himself uudertook the reports on Physics, 


110 Biography of Berzelius. 


Inorganic Chemistry, Mineralogy, Vegetable and Animal Chem- 
istry, and Geology. 


He was also led to make experiments himself by these reports ; 
aud he then gave their results, when they contradicted, improved, 
or extended those of others, in the reports. 


ments against the hypothesis that all organic acids are hydrogen 
acids, and against the substitution theory. These arguments 
ve always a rare clearness and simplicity. 
The objection has often been made to this report, that it was 


sometimes very complete, and in some instances too extended ; 


ee en ea ee ae 


Biography of Berzelius. 111 


sometimes, on the contrary, especially in the physical part, scanty 
and imperfect. This is certainly true: but it was very natural 
that Berzelins should have a partiality for the treatment of those 
subjects in which he especially interested himself and of which 
€ was most master; but as he was almost equally at home in all 
parts of chemistry, this objection cannot be made to the strictly 
chemical parts of the reports. With regard to the physical part 
of the reports, Berzelius had only undertaken it because no other 
member of the Academy would or could do so. It was only in 
the years 1838 and 1839 that the report was written by Von 
Wrede. As Berzelius had only occupied himself with those parts 
of physics which were intimately connected with chemistry, it is 
almost only these parts which are touched upon in his reports. 


ence in his reports, and otherwise noticed only the geological re- 
searches referring to Sweden. In the latter volumes reports upon 
geology are altogether omitted. 

{ have thus attempted to furnish a sketch of the comprehensive 
Scientific activity of Berzelius. It is probably seldom that science 
is so greatly advanced through the labors of one man, and there 
is scarcely any chemist who has furnished such admirable and 
sound contributions. 

This representation of his scientific merits would, however, 
give only a feeble idea of the whole greatness of the man, were 
we to judge from it alone. It is rare that so perfect a corres- 
pondence of mind and character is found in any man. That 


those characters which placed him so high as a man; it was the 
consideration for others, the noble friendship which he evinced 
towards all whom he considered worthy of it, the lofty disinter- 
estedness, the extreme conscientiousness, the perfect and just re- 
cognition of the merits of others; in short, it was all those traits 
together which spring from a worthy and honorable character. 

hese were the sentiments which inspired all those who for a 
longer or shorter time came into contact’ with him, and especially 
his pupils—of whom our Academy contains more than all the rest 
of Germany—with the most pious respect for his memory. 


4 


. 


112 Biography of Berzelius. 


Berzelius travelled the path of Science together with other 
distinguished men, who likewise advanced chemistry with giant 
st This was a time such as no other science has yet known, 
for no other has grown up from its childhood to a certain maturity 
in so incredibly short a space of time. 

Berzelius was born almost in the same year as H. Davy and 
Gay-Lussac. However similar were the labors of these three 
men in science, they were in other respects very different. 

Davy’s brilliant discoveries, especially that of the metallic na- 
ture of the alkalies, gave chemistry an extraordinary impulse, and 
caused great enthusiasm in its pursuit. He achieved great things 
by his discoveries, the further following out of which, however, 
he left to others. He died in the prime of life; but in a certain 
degree his intellectual blossom was already past. Born poor, he 


have achieved so muc . 
Gay-Lussac commenced his scientific career with the discovery 


ume,—a discovery, however, of which he did not at first make 
the many applications that were possible. But the most bril- 
liant researches of Gay-Lussac are indisputably,—besides those 
published in common with Thénard on physico-chemical subjects, 
—the two sets of researches upon cyanogen and iodine. Eve 
independently of the extremely importance influence which these 
researches exercised upon the whole range of chemistry, they 
may be regarded as models of investigation, both as regards the 
total results, the strict consistency of the reasoning, and the ad- 
mirable description. As often as they are read, even at the pres- 
ent day, they will be regarded with astonishment. 

ut when, soon after the appearance of his paper upon cyano- 
gen, Gay-Lussac undertook, in conjunction with Arago, the edi- 
torship of the “ Annales de Chimie et de Physique,” his scientific 
activity became gradually less. The first volumes of this Jour- 
nal certainly contain several small papers and remarks which call 
to mind the author of those on Iodine and Cyanogen; but after a 
few years he ceased to write almost altogether ; and it is perhaps 
more to be sincerely regretted than in the case of Davy, that Gay- 
Lussac, who died but a short time since, and after Berzelius, 
should already in the vigor of life have renounced his active 


* . 


scientific career, which seemed to promise so much. 


Correspondence of J. Nickles. 113 


It was not so with Berzelius. He also, after years of poverty, 
gradually attained, if not to great wealth at least to external hon- 
ors, without having sought them in the least. But these could 
not estrange him from science; on the contrary, he took advan- 
tage of every higher position for its benefit. Science was always 
the sole object of his endeavours, and he never employed them 
for a purpose foreign to it. So completely was his whole life 
dedicated to science, that, even under the sufferings resulting from 
a painful disease during his latter years, his whole thoughts re- 
mained bent upon it alone. 

Such men present in their inspired labors, as it were, the type 
of the true man of science ; and who does not feel himself hap- 
py to meet them in life ? 


Arr. XI.—Correspondence of M. Jerome Nickles, dated Paris, 
October 30, 1853. 


: TUARY.—FRancois Araco.—Death has recently made grievous 
inroads into the ranks of French science. We have seen the fall, suc- 
cessively, of Laurent, Auguste de St. Hilaire, the Botanist, Adrien de 
Jussieu, the last male descendant of the brilliant dynasty of the Jus- 
sieus, who died in July last, President of the Academy of Sciences, 
and member of the Botanical Section. A loss, still more recent, has 
increased this list of the dead—a loss irreparable, for it is that of a 
man, who was at the same time an illustrious philosopher, a champion of 
popular progress, and a distinguished citizen. 

Francois Arago was born on the 26th of February, 1786, at Estagel, 
a small village of 3000 inhabitants, situated near Perpignan (Eastern 
Pyrenees). His father was ‘Treasurer of Perpignan. With a moder- 
ate patrimony, and a numerous family, he could not give his children a 
liberal education; but Madam Arago was able to supply it, and devo- 
ted herself to their instruction; and she afterwards had the richest re- 
Ccompense which a mother can look for: her sons were all men of dis- 
tinction, Besides Francois, who immortalized himself by his discove- 


t the end of a year he had left behind him all his fellow students, 

and was detached by Monge to the Observatory of Paris, where 

commenced his researches in Physics and Astronomy. _ 
Szconp Series, Vol. XVII, No.49.—Jan.1854. = 16 ee ee 


114 Correspondence of J. Nicklés. 


In 1806, he left for Spain, where he continued under the direction 
of M. Biot, the measure of the meridian of France, which had been 
interrupted by the death of Mecham. On the demand of the National 
Convention which established oe Decimal system, Delambre and Me- 
chain undertook the measurement of an are of the meridian between 


elevated peaks of Catalonia, our observer had to contend in turn with 
the wind, the cold, and hunger, and also with peiccnooh the chief of 
whom ended by becoming the Protector of our young savants. 

year after their departure for Spain, MM. Biot ater Arago had 
nearly eanalee the measurements as regards Spain. The former 
then returned to Paris, and Arago went on to Majorca to continue his 
operations. But the war was on the point of breaking out between 


ovements of the yo Frenchmen who remained at work about the 
summit of Canstes: rendered him an object of suspicion to the Major- 


but at the moment of entering the Gulf of Lyons, the vessel was cap- 
tured by a Spanish corsair and conducted to Rosas; Arago and his, 


of Palamos. At last, through the reclamation of the Dey of Algiers, 
to whom the vessel belonged, Arago and his associates were returned 
to Algiers. Buta revolution had ‘there taken place, and the Dey had 
just been decapitated; the new Dey was unwilling to let Arago go 
away, whom he supposed to be possessed Mi gro and-under the 


direction of the Danish Consul, and Ara as consequently thrown 
into slavery. Finally, after a series st visiieitaiies of various kinds, 
he succeeded again in quitting Algie d on the 2nd of July, 1809, 


> an 
he entered the lazaretto of Marseilles, with all his instruments which 
he had succeeded in preserving, 

France had believed him dead. The first letter which arrived an 
him at the Lazaretto was one from Humboidt, who knew him only fro 
his misfortunes, and from that time a friendship commenced pada n 
these two great men which continued to the end. On the 17th of 
the September following, Arago entered the Institute: be was then 23 
years old. Already he bad made with Biot an 


fore had not been oor he had determined the relation between 


12, the Bureau des Longitudes charged him with ‘the delivery 
of a course of lectures on Astronomy at the Observatory, which was 


Obituary Notice of Arago. 115 


continued until 1847, presenting in them the most arduous details’ of 
the science. On the 7th of June, 1830, he was named perpetual Sec- 
/ : thi 


gree to that aie an standing and authority now accorded to it by 
the scientific w 

The rvoation of 1830 broke out, and Arago entered political life. 
Name ember of the Chamber of Deputies, he took his seat amon 
the vepibticand’ pee’ eing a 
influence in the parliamentary debates. It was on his Report, that a 
national recompense was voted to Daguerre, the inventor of Photogra- 
phy, and to Vicat, the inventor of hydraulic cements. He voted the 
printing of the works of La Place and those of Fermat; he defended 
the railroads against the coalition of the ‘ maitres de porte”; he pro- 
tected electric telegraphs against the adverse intentions of the adminis- 
tration represented in the Chamber of Deputies by M. Pouillet, the 
Proitese: in a word, in all circimstances, Arago was at the head of 


ment. He had just completed his eulozy of Bailey, the Astronomer, 
the friend of Franklin, who took an active part in the revolution of 
1789, of nora he wasa victim. Reasoning by analogy, ah i looked 
for a like fat This fear was happily exaggerated. __ s had 


Afier the coup @etat of December 2, 1851, pe refused to take 
the oath of allegiance, which was required of him in his capacity as 
director of the Observatory, and thus made manifest once more that 
politics ought to be kept aloof from Science 

A life of so much labor had worn down his health. Although 


his unfinished dorks Bright’s mala ‘ set in and aggravated his 


wa 
with effusions, and swelling of the extremities. All announced his 
pigdiecdh! S. end : et oe ind was not for a moment obse ed. 


whi enttiabd some of the works which Arago accomplished 
in a younger days. These fede were completely “eclipsed by the 
discoveries to which ‘his name has since become attached, which em- 
brace the following principles 
The discovery of ehtomaite and rotatory polarization. 
2. That of Electro-magnets. 


a6 Correspondence of J. Nickles. 


3. That of the magnetism which is developed when bodies are re- 
volved near a magnet. 
rago was an Encyclopedic genius. Science, Literature, Political 
and Social economy, his vast intelligence embraced all with equal abil- 
ity. His powerful faculty of assimilation, Sree: me of appli- 


cation of principles, Dire im every w where in the firs . Wheth- 
er Orator or Professor, he shone with brillianey wy in  pelitical and 
scientific anstaame: e was distinguished for the perspicuity and 


elegance of his ayes and occupies an eminent place among the prose 
writers of Fran 

In the midst of so much grandeur, Arago led a most modest life. 
He considered as lazy whoever did n ot work fourteen hours a day ; 
and such days were for him days of ca Although so absorbed 
with his occupations, he still found time to sage in the society of Pa- 
ris as one of its most spirited conversationists. 

While devoted to continued labor, he kale forgot his own in-— 
terests, and had only what was barely ne saeee ks for the : support of his 
family. He left two children, one Emanuel Arago, an eloquent orator 
of the bar of Paris and of Republican Bi oe the other Alfred 
Arago, a distinguished painter. If he has not bequeathed to them 
fortune, he has left an immortal name: he has created by his 
renown more illustrious than all the renown ever gained by arms—which 
for a long time enjoyed the privilege of giving fame, but now yields the 
right to the peaceful conquests of science. 


fa) 


Academy of Sciences.—For some weeks past, there has been little 
of raieiear” brought before the eoceny of Sciences. The visits of 
several foreign savants, MM. Ric Owes , Magnus, Rammelsberg, 


Kolliker, etc., have afforded some ote variety. But the new scientific 
communications are few atthe present time. I therefore leave this sub- 
ject to my next letter, when I shall also be able to state who is Per- 
aa maga in place of Arago. 
n the origin of terrestrial magnetism.—The earliest view of 
terrestrial magnetism supposed the existence of a magnet at the earth’s 
s this does not accord with the observations on gett 
brslisaticin and intensity, Tobias Meyer gave this fictitious magnet 
vingiellbe position, placing it one-seventh part of the earth’s radius froth 
the centre. Hansteen imagined that there were two such magnets, dif- 
sieht ‘in position sist intensity. Ampeére set aside these unsatisfactory 
hypotheses by the view, derived from his discovery, that the earth itself 
is an Peviec-lignet, magnetised by an electric current, circulating 
about it from east to west, perpendicularly to the plane of the magnetic 
e same c ive directi i 


east. 

A long time before the discovery of electro- -magnetism, Biot was oc- 
cupied with this subject, and regarded the terrestrial magnetism as the 
principal resultant of all the magnetic particles disseminated in the 
earth. M. Gauss adopts this view, as an interpretation of the fact, 


Views on the origin of Terrestrial Magnetism. 117 


ee 
° 
=} 
og 
= 
=: 
2 ad 
° 
a 
oO 
art 
te 
o 
= 
= 
oo 
OD 
“— 
*% 
a 
2 
a 
® 
o. 
te 
2 
~24 
@ 
f=] 
= 
fa) 
5 
- 
° 
o 
7 
o 
' 


ch the su h 
planets of the system. It is the hypothesis reversed of the central 
magnet, for it places in space the magnetic mass which some physicists 
have supposed to exist within the earth 

The real cause of the magnetic polarity of the planets, is in my view 
the same for all, and Arago’s experiment conducts to it in a straight 
line. It results even from the condition of their existence. Each star 
turning around a central axis, and in determinate curves, is influenced 
by the mass of these stars and their velocity at the circumference; ina 
word, the agent decomposing into two fluids the normal magnetism of 
the earth and the other planets, is their rotation. A geometer examin- 
ing this opinion, would find, we believe, that the declination, inclination 
and the perturbations of the magnetic needle, are explained on this 
hypothesis much better than on any other. 

ince my researches on circular electro-magnets and fm general on 
bodies in rotation, | have sought much for experimental demonstration 
of this theory, and have now the conviction that this is impossible, as it 


rved, it 

It to the inductive action of the earth, rendered so striking by the ex- 
periments of Arago and Mr. Barlow. 
_ Alongside of the different sources of magnetism mentioned in Trea- 
llses on Physics,—friction, pressure, percussion, torsion,—we should add 

* Poggendorff’s Annalen, iv, 1. 

t See Proceedings, Brit. Assoc. 1853, Sept. 7, Report of Col. Sabine, 
’ } Sur la chute dune bolide par M. N. Nicklés and J. Nickiés, Compt. Rend. de 
l'Acad,, xix, 1035. “ss 


118 Correspondence of J. Nickles. 


rotation, a mechanical action of equal title with the preceding, and whos 
effects, produced through a subdivision like that of magnetic ola x 
are found grouped at the extremities of the axis in rotation; inthe same — 
manner as the poles develop at the extremities of a bar of iron when 
it is oem oe to torsion. : 


neto-electric machines, these magnets being much more economical on 
account of the difference in ke of cast iron and steel. The follow- 
ing are some of his conclus 
1. Gray metal gives more reaninkctcey results than white metal, which 

is moreover too brittle. 
agnets tempered ata low red heat lose all their magnetism in 

twenty: -four hou 

— ey Met ‘their magnetism perfectly when tempered at a bright 


red hea 
The “following i is the method of obtaining the maximum magnetic 
power. The bars are heated toa t in a blast furnace ; they are 


diately into a large quantity of cold water, with violent agitation. When 

the bars are cooled, they are magnetized by means of a horse-shoe 

electro-magnet capable of lifting about 200 kilograms. The two poles 
e 


this same process of friction. After operating thus upon one of the 
faces, the other is subjected to the same treatment, taking care that the 
same poles are brought into contact with the same branches 

The poles of the bundle of cast iron magnets ought to be a 
kept in contact with an armature of wrought iron of a size proportion 

al to that of the bundle. The bars of cast iron should be a little thick’ 

er than those of stee 

Ascensional force of Balloons in water.—On the 18th of last ae 
Doctor Gianetti of the mineral springs of Urezza, Corsica, made a 


o 
Lal 
1 


from the bottom in deep water; and the force of it is such that “with a 


pe to ita clock movement, which by opening or closing the facet in 
top, by which the Salsas is filled or emptied, shall cause it to rise 
a ft at will. It is also proposed to use this invention in river navi- 


Artificial Silicification of Limestones. 119 


ness of more than 2 centimeters (8 tenths of an inch). 
nufaciure al-Ammoniac fro e residues of gas works.— 
The Industrial Society of Mulhausen offers nually a number of pri- 


acal liquid of gas works. The main difficulty in the operation consis 
in separating the tar-like material which it contains. The following is 
d 


densed. In this state it is nearly free from its impurities ; it is neutral- 
ized with chlorohydric acid and evaporated in a lead boiler. As it de- 
posits it is withdrawn by means of a wooden rake; it is allowed to 
drain, and then introduced into a brick mould and subjected to strong 
pressure. Blocks of sal-ammoniac are thus obtained, which are dried 
in an oven heated by part of the heat furnished by the evaporating fur- 
nace. 

Separation of bromine from iodine.—Balard’s process, as carried on 
by M. H. de Luca, gives a method of recognizing traces of iodine and 


of a milligram of iodine. . 
Artificial Silicification of limestones.—It is some years since M. 
Kuhimann of Lille proposed to preserve pieces of sculpture, etc., by 
impregnating them with a solution of silicate of potash. 3 KO 
CO? CaO=Si0* Ca0-+CO2 KO. This process has been used on a 
grand scale in certain parts of the cathedral Notre Dame. The archi- 
tect of the cathedral reports as follows: 1, that the infiltration of silica 
made “sur les terrasses et contre-fort du choeur,” in October, 1852, 
have preserved the stone fi the green moss that covers stones in 
Moist places: 2, that the gutters and flagging of limestone subjected to 
'§ process present surfaces perfectly dry, covered with a silicious 
Crust: 3, that upon the stones so prepared, dust and spider webs are 


120 Correspondence of J. Nickles. 


less common than upon the stone in the ordinary state. The report 


also states that tender stones have been rendered hard; they have lost — 


- part of their porosity, and afier being washed, they dry more rapidly 


~ 


than stones not silicified. The process has succeeded completely on 
all calcareous blocks, whether isolated or forming part of the structure, 
new and old. 


alteration. 


age by a galvanic deposit and make a kind of plate from which engra- 
vings could be taken. 

If, in place of arresting the process at a red heat, it is continued un- 
til the glass enters into fusion, the image sinks into the interior of the 
glass without being altered, and covers itself with a vitreous varnish. 
It appears like a design of great delicacy, enclosed between two plates 
of glass; and if positive proofs are employed, the method may 
used for making pictured glass which may without doubt be colored by 
the ordinary processes, 

Photographic Portraits on linen cloth.—The Revue Encyclopedique 
of the Abbe Moigno, from which we have taken the preceding note, 
states that the problem of making photographs on linen has been re- 
solved. The Abbé Moigno has assisted at the operations of M. Wulff, 


Chemistry and Physics. 121 


SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. — 


I. CuEemistry AND Puysics. 


1. On the polarization of light by refraction through a metal.—Biot 
found that two gold leaves are sufficient to polarize direct solar rays 
completely. Rollmann has examined the subject anew, and has em- 
ployed the gold leaves both as a polarizing and as an analyzing arrange- 
m When the light is very intense, only a single leaf can be em- 
ployed, as otherwise the field of view appears too dark. hen used 


€ green in order to transmit the light well. Brewster’s discovery of 
the elliptic polarization by metallic reflection is thus extended and com- 
pleted.—Pogg. Ann., xc, 188. 


dditional experiments on the internal dispersion of light.—In a 
lecture delivered before the Royal Institution in London, Prof. Stokes 
has communicated some new observations on internal dispersion, which 
are of much interest. In accordance with an observation of Fara ay, 


he spectrum to a small fraction of its original length, 
the highly refrangible portion being entirely absorbed. The discharge 
Srconp Sznies, Vol. XVI, No. 49—Jan, 1854, 


122 Scientific Intelligence. 


uld 
far into the spectrum as at the end of the last August. The Earth’s 
atmosphere was evidently not transparent for the very highly refrangi- 
ble a of the sun’s hae ——Pogg. Ann., |xxxix 


a body when brought at the same time into contact with two or more 
other bodies. ‘The views of Berthollet upon this subject are familiar to 
chemists ; Bunsen has however found that Berthollet’s law is inaccurate. 
He substitutes for it as the result of his researches, a new law whic 
may be kes in the four following propositions. 
le Mati a body A is brought into contact with two or more bodies 
B, BY’, &c., present in excess an nd under circumstances favorable to com- 
rat hoes the body A, selects only such quantities of the bodies B, B, 
cc. as are to each other in a simple stéchiometrical abparabe so 
that together with 1, 2, 3, 4, &c. pes of the one compound 1, 2, 
4, &c. atoms of the other are form 
2.) When one equivalent of the compound A-FB, is formed in rn 
manner together with one equivalent of the compound A+-B’, the qua 
tity of the body B compared with that of the body B’ may be cranial 
up toa certain limit without changing the ratio of the numbers of 
equivalents. If, however, this limit is passed the ratio of the equiva- 
to 1:2, 1:3, 2:3, &e. The quan- 
tity of the substance may now again be increased without changing the 
ratio of the equivalents until a second limit is paisa: when the ratio 


passes into another 
3.) When a body A reduces a compound B--C present in excess 
so that C becomes free a compound o and B being formed, then if 


can exert a reducing return action upon A+B, the final result of the 
decomposition is such that the reduced baci of B+C is in a simple 
equivalent ratio to the now reduced portio 

(4.) In these reductions also the quantity of one substance may be 
increased up to a certain limit without changing the atomic ratio. Above 
this limit, sudden changes of the ratio may occur butalways according 
to small rational numbers. 

These laws obviously hold good only when the combinations con- 

cerned take place simultaneously, since otherwise the relation of the 
ing. The 


called oxyd of Aridium is ineroly oxyd of iron with a little phosphoric 
acid and oxyd of chromium.—Journal fur praktische Chemie, Ix, 27. 


* 


Chemistry and Physics. 123 


of suboxyd. For a second operation we may take 1 part of nitre, 1 of 
this oxyd, and 1 of metallic copper. After complete washing, the oxyd 


Density of Selentum.—Scuarreortcu has determined the density of 
Selenium, and deduces from a great number of experiments the follow- 
ing conclusions : 

.) Selenium has two different specific gravities, (at 16° R.) namely, 
4.282, and 4:801. The smaller number belongs to an amorphous and 
glassy condition; the higher one to a granular crystalline state; the 
two states may be converted into each other at pleasu 


With iodid of methyl a similar base was produced, the iodid of which 
has the formula CsaHis (C2Hs) NOc+HI; the author terms it me- 


124 Scientific Intelligence. 


thyl-morphin. When morphin is heated with chlorid of amyl, fusel 
oil and chlorid of morphin-ammonium are produced. Codein digested 
with iodid of ethyl yields a highly crystalline colorless substance which 
is the iodid of ethy|-codein-ammonium, and which has the formula C36 


lix, 
8. Preparation of Valerianic Acid from Fusel Oil.—-GriNEBERG 
recommends the following proportions as the most advantageous. 2 


lbs. of hot water poured upon the salt. A cooled mixture of 1 |b. of 
fusel oil and 4 Ibs. of sulphuric acid diluted with 2 lbs. of water is to 

allowed to flow very slowly and in a thin stream into the liquid in the 
retort, and the whole is then to be distilled. The distillation goes on 
quietly, and 9 ounces of stn valerianic acid are obtained. —Jonrnal 
ur 


9. Constitution of Butte ter.—He1ntz has communicated an elaborate 
paper on the constitution of — the results of which are as follows: 

( garic acid — by Bromeis from butter is a mix- 
we of stearic and pa set 

2.) The fixed fluid aa which is meres among the products of 
the saponification of butter consists chiefly of common oleic acid, and 
not as Bromeis believed, of a different acid. ithe is no butter-oleic 
acid. Butter therefore contains common olein. 

mong the products of the a of butter there is 
found a fatty acid, the hydrate of which contains more than 38 equiva- 
lents of carbon to 4 equivalents of sen So This acid, butic acid, has 
very probably the formula Cao Hao Oa. It is with great difficulty sol- 
uble in cold ene and corresponds to a fat contained in butter which 
— be called but 

4.) Stearic sak is also contained among the products of the sapon- 
ification of butter — not in predominating quantity. Butter there- 
fore contains stea 

he ipa proportion of the solid fatty acids in butter consists 
of palmitic acid. ‘The largest proportion of the solid fats consists 
therefore of palmitin. 

(6.) Cocinic acid cannot be detected in butter. 

(7.) The portion of the solid fatty acids most soluble in aleohol con- 
sists of myristic acid. ‘The presence of myristin in butter is therefore 
to be inferred. 

deintz points out the remarkable fact that in ali the acids contained 

in butter, the number of equivalents of carbon and of hydrogen is di- 


ible by 4 like those of the other acids in spermaceti: he proposes to 
resume the subject, operating upon 10 lbs. of spermacet —Pogg. Ann., 
137. 


Cc, 


eet 


Chemistry and Physics. 125 


ming muriatic acid added in small portions at a time, a snow-white pre- 
cipitate of pure ferrocyanhydric acid is thrown down. These are to be 
washed with muriatic acid, dried upon a brick, and dissolved in alco- 
hol; from the alcoholic solution the acid may be obtained in beautiful 
crystals.-Ann. der Chemie und Pharmacie, \xxxvii 


lt remains in solution as unaltered double cya he sesqvioxyd 
of nickel may be washed and ignited, and the nickel weighed in the 
form of protoxyd ; it is perfectly free from cobalt. ‘The solution after 


and treated with chlorine. ‘This method of separating cobalt and nick- 
el has perhaps some advantages over Liebig’s second method which, it 
will be remembered, consists in boiling the mixed double cyanids with 
oxyd of mercury, which precipitates the nickel but not the cobalt. 

1 na general method of volumetric analysis.—-BuUNSEN has giv- 
€n a very accurate and elegant method for the volumetric determina- 
tion of a great number of substances. The principle of the method 


he chlorine is to be ¢ ed int solution of iodid of potassium, 
and the evolved iodine volumetrically determined by means of a 
tion of sulphurous acid. ose in which a substance is sus- 


By calculation. By analysis. 
Fe2QOs . . 68-97 68-96 
FeO... . 31-03 31:04 


100-00 ; 100-00 


126 Scientific Intelligence. 


The mixture contained AsOs 33°15, and CaO, SOs 66°85; the anal- 
ysis gave AsOs 33°14, and CaO,SOs (by difference) 66 86.-—Ann. 
der Chemie und Pharmacie, inkiey’s 265. 

metric determination of manganese.—KricEr has —_— in 

Bunsen’s laboratory the application of the volumetric metho 
termination of manganese more especially when combined with other 
oxyds. The method of determining the quantity of manganese in the 
common deutoxyd will serve as an example of the process employed. 
A few pari pee of the oxyd are introduced into a small flask which 
e 


dissolved in the excess of ‘iodid of aon and colors the solution 


rown. A evolution of chlorine has ceased, a measured portion 
of the normal solution of sulphurous acid is added till the brown color 
has vanished. e excess of sulphurous acid added is then determined 


drops of a clear solution of starch having been added. The quantity 
of this solution required to oxydize one measure of the normal Selgin of 
pe acid having been ea quantity of manganese 
may be calculated. It is well known that the oxyds of manganese are 
all converted by ignition into MnsOs. In the presence of strong bases, 
however, this is not always the case, and a special investigation of this 
point was necessary. Kriiger obtained the following results. To de- 
termine eaten in the presence of iron, the iron is to be peroxydized 
and the two oxyds precipitated together by carbonate of soda: the ai 
Cipitate is to ree ell washed, dried and ignited, and then the manganes 
determined volumetrically. ‘tis present as insOa, The ieee 


the precipitate washed, d ried hed. The manganese in a 
weighed portion of vo uredeante may then be determined volumetri- 
cally : it is present n2Qs. The results obtained by the method in 
question are fedintkabty accurate.—Ann. der Chemie und Pharmacie, 
Ixxxvii, 257. 


Mineralogy and Geology. 127 


14. Vessels for the preservation of fluohydric acid.—Stive.er has 
found that gutta percha and vulcanized India rubber resist the action of 
fluohydric acid almost compietely. A solution of the acid which was 
so concentrated as to fume in the air, was found, after having been for 


somewhat brighter colored on the inside.—Ann. 
acié, Ixxxvii, 187.—[It would doubtless be possible to cover the inside 
surface of a glass bottle with gutta percha by pouring in a solution of 
- the gum resin in chloroform.—w. ¢.] W. G. 


II. Mrineratocy anp GEo.Loey. 


1. Parophite—A rock allied to the Dysyntribite of Shepard, and 
Rensselaerite of Emmons, has been named Parophite by T. S. Hunt, 
(Logan’s Rep. Geol. Survey of Canada, Quebec, 1852, p. 95.) 
name alludes to its resemblance to Serpentine, notwithstanding its non- 
magnesian character. It occurs imperfectly schistose, as well as mas- 
sive, and sometimes a perfect schist ; rarely botryoidal, with an aopear- 

Tex . G27 


ance of concentric structure. re granular to compact 
2 olor pale greenish, yellowish green, olive green, ash grey, 
reddish. Lustre waxy, shining; subtranslucent ar ot over 


to Mr. Hunt— 


si. & Mg K Na H 
1. Schistose, 48°50 27:50 567 1:30 2°24 530 191 17:00 G=2°705 
2. Schistose, 4842 27:60 450 280 1:0 5°02 278 688=—9980G—2-714 
3. Botryoidal, 4913 2780 590 3:80 1:40 undet. 1 a G.=2:784 
4, Schist, 4810 2870 480 210 141 449 153 840=99°53 


at the centre, of feldspar, pyrosclerite, mica, Amphibole, pyroxene, 
Sphene are common in the feldspar or pyrosclerite of these nodules. 
Delesse shows that the pyrosclerite has resulted from the alteration of 
the feldspar nodule previously formed. ‘This paper enters into import- 
ant discussions respecting the origin of crystalline limestones and 
their minerals, 


Pyromeride of the Vosges; M. Detesse, (Bull. Geol. Soc. France, 
[2], ix, 175.)—This Pyromeride is a kind of quartziferous porphyry. 
Containing small globules through it. The variety from the Vosges 
closely resembles that from Corsica. Delesse finds that the globules 
consist mostly of silica, being a mixture of silica (over 60 per cent.) 


. 


and feldspar. He obtained in an analysis : 
Bi Al Be Oa Mg K, Na (by diff.) H 
8809 «603 05888185 58 2. 3 We 100_ 


128 Scientific Intelligence. 


The origin of the globules is attributed to the tendency of feldspar 
to crystallize, and the indirect action of excess of silica present. 
There is an analogy between them and the so-called perlites and _reti- 
nites. Feldspar never takes the globular form, except in rocks rich in 
silica. The rock contains specular iron. Delesse concludes that the 
silica was introduced, subsequent to the first origin of the rock. It oe- 
curs either in veins or intimately mixed with the rock material. Other 
rocks may beome pyromerides through a penetration with silica. 
Pitchstone from the trap of Isle Royal—The following analysis is 
by Foster and Whitney (Rep. Lake Superior, Part ii.) : 
Si Al Fe Ca Mg Na, trace of K TL 
62°51 11-47 11:05 267 2°11 3°03 (loss) 714 


Crystallized Furnace Products —F. Sanneercer has announced the 
occurrence as furnace products, of graphite in 6-sided tables near Dil- 
lenburg ; metallic copper in threads and rarely octahedral crystals, near 
Dillenburg; antimonial nickel in long hexagonal needles, at $5 
lena in cleavable cubes, at Holzappel and Ems; magnetic iron in octa- 
dra; 3Cu? O+SbO? in copper red or yellow hexagonal tables, at Dil- 
lenburg; Ti Cy+3Ti2N in Bodenstein. 

Fibrous amianthoid substance, a furnace product from Westphalia.— 
Scunasex obtained for this substance, 

Si 98-13, Al 1-24, Ca 0-46, Mg and Fe a trace, =99-88 
G, =2:59.—(Pogg. Ann., Ixxxv, 462.) 

Dolomite.——-M. J. Durocuer has obtained Dolomite artificially through 
the action of magnesia vapors. He put in a gun barrel some anhy 
drous chlorid of magnesium and a porous carbonate of lime, the latter 
being so placed that it could be reached only by vapors from the for- 
mer. e gun barrel was closed and then kept at a low red heat for 
three hours. The limestone when taken out, was partly scoriaceous 
i hlo- 


rid of magnesium. Within, it was altered mostly to a dolomite, as as- 
certained by analysis. 

Pseudomorphous Minerals :— 

Pinite after Labradorite.—Resembles a yellowish gray talc-like mi- 
ca. H.=2:5,G.=2-832. Analysis by A. Knop and W. Knop, (Pharm. 
Centr. 1852, 165; Lieb. u. Kopp’s Jahresb. f. 1851, 822): 

Si Al Fe. Ge... ce co Ne Fl H 
5518 2751 408 029 192 $386 4-49 00T 374—=99°94 
Formula deduced, B3 Sit+-5A1 Si+sit, 


Mineralogy and Geology. 129 


Karpholite after Wolfram.—R. Buum, (Pogg. Ann., Ixxxiv, 154.) 

On Serpentine after Hornblende, Augite, Diallage, Schillerspar ; 
by G. Rose, (Pogg. Ann., Ixxxii, 511. 

On White lead ore after Linarite ; by W. TSTENGER: (Jahresb. der 
k. k. oestr. geol. Reich., 1851, ii, 78, and Lieb. u. Kopp, Jahresb. f. 
1851, p. 824. 

On the waters of the Great Salt Lake, Rocky Mountains ; by Dr. L. 
D. Gare, (Stansbury’s Expedition to the Great Salt Lake, Philadelphia, 
1852).—Amount of solid contents, 22-422 per cent. Specific gravity, 
1:170. Composition : 


Chlorid of sodium, . j : ; F 20:196 
Sulphate of soda, ‘ ; ; ‘ ; 1-834 
Chlorid of ce ‘ ‘ : ‘ 0°252 
Chlorid of calcium ‘ ‘ trace. 


On the Waiters of the Warm and Hot Pye of Salt Lake City ; 
by Dr. L. D. Gate, (ibid.) The mineral water of the warm spring 
has a strong smell of sulphuretied hydrogen. Specific gravity 10112. 
Solid matter afforded on evaporation 1:08200 p.c. Analysis afforded, 

Sulphuretted hydrogen ri i ‘ 0:037454 
mbined, 0:000728 

Carbonate * lime precipitated by boiling, 0:075000 
magnesia 0:022770 

Chioria of calcium, ‘ ; F ‘ 0:005700 
Sulphate of soda, . : : é ‘ 0-064835 
Chliorid of Sodium, ‘ j - ‘ 0-816600 


1-023087 
he Hot Spring has the specific gravity 10130, and yielded 1°1454 
per cent. solid contents. Composition in 100 parts: 
Chlorid of sodium, 0:8052, Chlorid of Beet) 0-0288, 
Chlorid of calcium, 0:1096, Sulphate of lime, 0-0806, 
Carbonate of lime, 0:0180, Silica, a 0:0180—=1-0602 
Analyses of several native Borates ; sy Prof. Brcui, ( sis a letter 
from Prof. Meneghini to J. D. Dana, dated Pisa, July 26, 1853.)—The 
borates examined by _— Bechi occurs as incrustations at the baths of 
the Lagoons of Tuscany 
(1.) Lagonite. Asie pte ; 
B47955 #e3c260 H14016 Si, Mg, Ca, and oc 1769100 
Formula hence deduced, ¥e63+3H. 
(2.) Hayesine? Analysis: 
B51135 €a20850 HH 26250 Si, Al, Mg 1°750 
leading to the formula Ca 82-4411. 
(3.) Borax? Analysis : 
B 43-559 Na 19-254 be 37-187=100 
whence the formula, Na B2-+-6H. 
(4.) Larderellite, SY species. )}— White oe very light, tasteless 
Bia under the microscope to be made up of pater’ es 
2 1. pia No. 49,—Jan., 1854. 


130 - Scientific Intelligence. 
angular tables; M: T=110°, according to a measurement by M. Amici. 
1s < ‘ 


B 68-556 N H40 12-784 H 18°325 

The formula deduced is NH10B4+4411. It dissolves in hot water, and 
is transformed into a new crystallized salt, which is represented by the 
formula NH40B6-LoFr. : 

On Melan- Asphalt; by C. M. Werueritt, (Trans. Amer. Phil. Soc., 
x, 353.)—This mineral is the same that has been pronounced bitumin- 
ous coal by other investigators. It is from the Albert coal mine, New 
Brunswick. Some of the reasons for considering it coal are cited in 
this Journal, vol. xiii, 277. Dr. Wetherill states that E. Durand of 
Philadelphia, obtained for the solubility of the asphaltum of Cuba 34 
parts in ether, and 60 parts in oil of turpentine, with 6 residue ; and of 
the Hillsborough material, 4 parts in ether, and 30 in turpentine, with 
36 of residue. Cannel coal gives no solution with turpentine. 

Analyses, afforded— 


Carbon. H O,N 
1. Asphaltum of Cuba, 82-670 9-141 8-189=—100 
1. Melan-asphalt, 86°123 9-871 4:906— 100 


Dr. Wetherill calculates the formula C&8]420N, from the latter anal- 
ysis. The Hillsborough product is stated to be unlike coal in becoming 
electric by friction. [It may be questioned whether this substance can 
be considered a simple chemical compound. It is more probable from 
the trials with solvents and other tests that there is a very large excess 
of carbon, as impurity. ] 


is from the Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Phil- 
adelphia. Dr. Genth writes us that his investigations were independ- 
ent of those of Professor J. Lawrence Smith. 

* I have just completed the experiments with your thalia, and have 
come to the conclusion that it is nothing but magnesia. Magnesia shows 
sometimes such a strange behavior with reagents, that one is inclined 
to think ita new earth. I had the same ease with my analyses of Kaém- 
merite (Rhodophyllite.) It is possible that the relations which exist in 
the mineral had not been destroyed, and that you have a solution of the 
mineral,—for instance, a solution of aluminate of magnesia. | separated 


n 
lents of water crystallized right rhombic, and had the form, appearance, 
taste, and gave all the reactions of epsom salt. It gave me 50'8 per 
cent. of water, 35°5 per cent. of sul phuric acid, which also proves that I 


Mineralogy and Geology. :” 


had sulphate of magnesia. The analysis of the mineral is, according 
to Dr. J. L. Smith, and also the researches in my laboratory : 
H Si Al Mg K 
Jed. Smith, 2066 45°66 487 2-09 3:07... 22°10 0°15==98°45 
E. Reakirt, 19°96 44°07 4°72 170* 3°75 21:49 not det. 


| scrapers jee! a 
ry Keyser, 44-66 179 26°60 O12 016 


According to these analyses the mineral is Saponite.” 

3. A new Meteorite from Tennessee ; by Prof. J. Lawrence Suits, 
(from a letter to J. D. Dana.)—The meteoric iron was found in East 
Tennessee a short while ago, and weighed originally over 60 Ibs. It is 
a highly interesting one, and has furnished for the first time the solid 
protochlorid of iron, found in a fissure. It is also rich in the phosphu- 
ret of iron and nickel, and furnishes material for a full investigation of 
this latter mineral. The examination is nearly complete, and when 


ysis of Owenite accords with Dr. Genth’s; that of Thuringite shows, 
that in the former analysis of it, sixteen per ct. of alumina has been 
overlooked. Full details of these particulars will appear in the fourth 
part of the reéxamination of American minerals. 
5. On the probable depth of the Ocean of the European Chalk De- 
posits; by Prof. Rocers, (Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., 1853, 
97.)— Various geologists, and among them Prof. Ed. For 
excellent and learned Paleontology of the British Isles in Johnston’s 
Physical Atlas, have suggested that the Ocean of the Chalk deposits of 
urope was a deep one ; and in evidence of this, Prof. Forbes cites 
the « striking relationship existing to deep-sea forms of the English 
Chalk Corals and Brachiopods, adding that the peculiar Echinoderms, 
(Holaster, Galerites, Ananc ytes, Cidaris, Brissus, and Goniaster) favor 
this notion, as also the presence of numerous Foraminifera. 


fossil test to the age of the Green Sand and Chalk of Europe. And 
his American stratum was unquestionably the sediment of quite shal- 
low littoral waters. That they must have 


the present deposits with a deep sea, would have likewise overspread 
the low Gneissic hills to the N. W. of the Delaware, which present no 
traces of having ever been submerged during the cretaceous or any 
Secondary period, = ee 

; . The piesauionyd of iron and alumina contain a trace. of silica, which was not 
eparate 1 i aaa : 


Le, Fe 


132 Scientific Intelligence. 


Mr. Ayres remarked, we of those genera of Echinoderms, which 
Mr. Forbes phe as deep sea genera, two or three are found in 
North Amer in water not two yaedred feet deep. Terebratula, 
which has babs generally regarded as only an inhabitant of very deep 
water, and whose structure has been described as admirably adapted 
to the depth at which it has been found, and which Prof. Owen has de- 
monstrated cannot exist at a depth of less than two or three hundred 
faitatesia: exists at Eastport, Me.,in water so shallow that it can be taken 
b e same locality and position, Radiata are found which 
have heretofore been thought to be only inhabitants of deep water. 
Some of Mr. Forbes’s genera are also found in less than ten fathoms o 
water. 


Ill. Borany anp Zootoey. 


1. Salad for in Solitary ; by an Epicure. New York: Lamport, 
Blakeman & Law.—A book which has a very large sale, and is com- 
ended as a m seal of erudition. A chapter in it, w hich treats of curi- 

ous matiers concerning plants, having casually atiracted our attention, 
o it, to Aina negatively, the pee Spi to mor- 

alize eiiviecly. upon any department of nature, or to v felicitous 
illustrations, requires that an author should know Se paitat of the sub- 
ject matter he writes about. The following mai tae are culled from 
a doz zen pears of the book (from p- 185 to aed The Papyrus. of 


Bark, ‘its Sea owing to the Srequent sealing of the bark, is said to 
be Sais seen thi cker than the arm, although it attains a great height.” 

Camphor is said to be distilled * from the roots of a tree, growing in 
Borneo and Sumatra.” ‘\t is the leaves of plants and trees that act 
‘upon the air like human me _ absorbing carbon and evolving vital 
air for animal respiration,’ urious and confusing way of e express- 
ing what is meant. The (Sarees tree at Chapultepec, near the city of 
Mexico, our author affirms to be “one hundred and seventeen feet ten 
inches in girth.” The two latest measurements that we have heard of 
made it ve or 45 feet: but this was several years ago! On reading 
feetick, we perceive that the author has mixed up various famous s Cy- 
presses of Mexico into one salad; and has then applied De Candolle’s 
(or as he writes De Candalle’s) remark on the tree of Santa Maria del 
Tule to that of sa Se epec. Contrary to the rep ground opinions, 
we are told that the Great Chestant es Mou ase was probabl 


measures from way to five fee “ i, grvely a ce.” Our Magnolia 

grandiflora i is said to be a “tro a) plant;” with “leaves from. ere 

to nine feet in length: * beaut white Dicesoies are of like dimen- 

sions.” Truly of such a tree he would have reason to say: ‘itis 

doubiless one vf the ana superb vegetable productions of which we 
fw 


Botany and Zoology. 133 


stars, and despising the minor denizens of the forest.” To ies stars, 
indeed, they must give their odor; for they have none for m Dis- 
coursing of flowerless vegetation, our author states, that Laven yeast 

+. 18 supposed by botanists to belong to this genera of the vegeta- 
ble world ;”—so that, after all, the botany is as good as the gram- 


a sa piece of vegetable morphology, we are told that “ seeds 
are merely leaves preserved in peculiar cerements ;” in respect 
o these coverings a series of statements follows, the logical con- 
nexion of which may perhaps be divin successfui, the reader 


h 
May next attempt to extricate the author’s meaning from the con- 
fused statements respecting the boundary between the vegetable and 
the animal kingdoms. Lastly, the Venus’ Fly-trap is called ‘a native 


rest of the book may be, surely, as to this chapter, the intelligent 
reader will hardly be able a ti 5 se ot one of the mottoes of the 
volume, taken from old Quar 

“The herbal savor gave his sense delight.” 


et us open the book in another place. On p. 92, we read that ‘* pa- 
per is produced from a beautiful fibrous plant, called Linum, or flax, the 
leaf of which i is rotied, and passing through certain processes, becomes 
colton cloth,” &c. Truly, ignorance, however preposterous, is not ne- 
cessarily a sin per se. lis heinousness dopants very much o vies use 
that is made of it. 

2. Lindley: The Vegetable Kingdom; or the Structure, Classifica- 
tion and Uses of Plants, illustrated — the Natural System; with 
upwards of 500 illustrations. hir ition: with ae ret and 
acetone genera. London : Besieged & Evans, aS Roy. 


the science down | to ite time of sli tion are > incorper . Itisan 


cessfully combate 

3. ndolle’s Prodromus.—Our Botanists may be glad to kaos 
that the ves g of the fourteenth volume of this work (to contain the 
Polygonacea, Thymelacee, Proteacee, &c.) has at length commenced. 
Probably the volume cannot be published before the early spring. 


A. G. 
4, Pye ial on the habits of certain Crawfishes, (in a letter 
ee Dr. R. P. Stevens to the Smithsonian Institution.) — While e en ising 


coal mine, sane the banks of Coal Creek, a tributary of Gree. 
River, Bureau Co., ~~ I found innumerable little paths of an Sitetae 


134 Scientific Intelligence. 


leading from the water, along the sands and up into the neighboring 
low lands. Visiting these paths early in the morning, while yet the 
fogs were unrisen, | often found the Aséacus returning from his mead- 
ow rambles, but never could ascertain the precise object of these ram- 
bles, whether predatory or otherwise. 


viding the waters of the Chicago River and the Aux Plaines, is a wet 
marsh, lying near the deposit of bituminous limestone. ‘The marsh, at 


paths of the Astacus, some of them showing evidences of a very re- 


ly he was lost. By careful examination in the rank herbage, I found 
he had disappeared in a well or cistern about 10 or 12 inches deep and 
13 wide. Here was his own pool, provided for by himself, for the long 
summer draughts. In following up other trails I invariably found them 
terminating in similar pools. In many the inmate was present, whilst 
absent in others.” 

Extract from a second letter from Dr. Stevens, dated Nov. 23.— 

“ Our friends, the Astaci, increase in interest as I become more and 

Hate ae 


ing much damage to dams and embankments. On the little Genesee, 

they have within a few years compelled the owners ofa dam to rebuild 

it. e¢ former dam was built after the manner of dykes, i.e. with 

upright posts, supporting sleepers laid inclining at an angle of 45° up 
On th ere laid pl 


els of dirt and gravel in the course of a night. I have seen this sea- 
son, where they had attempted the present dam, piles of dirt, of at least 
one bushel. 

They now travel over the dam in their migration, often climbing up- 
right posts two or three feet high, to gain the pond above.” 


It is to be regretted that no specimens were procured in order to as- 
certain to which species the above Crawfishes belong : ther 
Cambarus fossor, or C. diogenes, or some other. This deficiency, 


mud chimneys being 
built upon the exterior surface of the wells, such as are constructed by 
C. diogenes in the district of Columbia. s Barnp. 


* 


Miscellaneous Intelligence. 135 


IV. MisceLtaneous INTELLIGENCE. 


1. On the Earthquake at Manilla, of Sept. 16, 1852, Ses Bost. 
Soc. Nat. Hist., 1852, 300.)—The first shock occurred at To 


of the danger, were on their knees devoutly praying. The houses are 

built of stone, with very thick walls, and rather low, in order to withstand 

better such shocks of earthquakes, and yet many of them were com- 

pletely destroyed. In one of the strongest houses, an occupant writes, 
a 


noise made by the breaking of walls, the falling of furniture, and the 
cracking and creaking of the timbers was such as to impress every one 
with an ee idea of the dee of property. ‘The shock 
lasted about one anda half minutes; during the evening there were 
four more pense shocks, at regular intervals of about an hour, name- 
ly, at eight, nine, ten, and eleven, and another at four the next morn- 
ing. At each shock the great bell of the cathedral tolled, followed by 
all the bells of the city. 

t night the city was almost deserted, from the danger of remaining 
in houses with tiled roofs ; ; the inhabitants fled to the native houses of 
the suburbs with thatched roofs, and many slept in boats on the river. 
For two or three days after, there were several slight abs and for 
weeks eae ships in the river were used as lodging hou 

This was the longest and most severe earthquake tha has visited 
these isla ee for two hundred years. The damage to property was 
comer though the loss of life was small ; only three or four lives 
are known to have been lost. Imost every stone house suffered more 
or ens Birding to its strength ; nearly all the government barracks, 
the custom house, colleges, palace, theatre, and many private dwellings 
were Felderg! completely untenantable. Two churches were destroy- 
ed. One, the oldest in Manilla, founded Sn sig three hundred years 
ago by the Jesuits, very large, with igen and arches four feet thick, 


was thrown down into one imme of ruins. The movement 
was not slow and gradual, like a long heavy swell, but a quick succes- 
sion of short sudden shocks. e effects of the shocks were different 


in different parts of the island ; inv! ‘did not seem to be any regular 
track pursued by the earthquake + ; in places within a few miles <4 in 
other, in one it was not felt at all, while in the other it was quite ere. 
At Mariveles, just across the Bay from Manilla, the earth bgehed wih 
an eruption of black sand, which covered the country for a considera- 
ble extent; how large the opening was at the time is not known, but it 
is now seven hundred yards long and one yard wide. The volcanoes 
at Albay and Taal, which have not been in operation for many years, : 

ve been since discharging lava, stones, &c., with considerable activ- 
ity.? 

Observations by Prof. H. D. Rogers.—Prof. Rogers referred to the 
circu mstance that the undulatory movement of an earth is fel 


136 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 


much more sensibly at a point above the earth’s surface than enigne d 
upon it. An instance illustrating this had come within 
knowledge. The e yh pe which destroyed the areca i ‘of 
Guadaloupe was felt in the city of New York, but only in the fourth 
story of a printing office. The sound generally precedes the shock, as 
has been observed in this country Nor merica, tbe undulation 
is always parallel to the physical features of the continent, making it 
pensooete to believe that through a long series of epochs the motion 
s been in one rather than various directions, as supposed by Elie de 
an There are two movements in earthquakes; an undulating 
and a molecular movement. ‘The latter, Prof. Rogers thought was the 


co 
S, 


movement, causing the sudden shocks which are so destructive. 
Prof. Rogers gave an account of some of' the opinions of geologists as 
to the thickness of the earth’s crust. He gave it as his own opinion, 
that in most places it is not more than ten miles thick. 

he Koh-i-noor Diamond, (froma Lecture by Prof. TENNANT.)— 
On closely examining the Koh-i-noor Diamond at Buckingham Palace, 
in company with my — the ~ W. Mitchell, I found that two of 
the larger ie were cleavage planes; one of them had not been pol- 
ished, or it had been so slightly polished that the effect was not discov- 
erable. B measuring the sione with a goniometer, and ascertaining 
the inclination of its larger faces, 109° 28’, [ ied which were 
the cleavage planes and which the cut planes of the diamond. Upon 
further examination I found two other cleavages, which make the stone 
correspond with an octahedron 

aws in the bie i-noor are 

shown in the annexed figu 


shows ag ey Sinai pee to the cleavage plane F:: this con- 
stituted oa prey danger to be apprehe nded in cutting the stone, 


cut. 's flaw seemed to proceed from a fracture marked B. 
and E were little notches cut = tes stone for she purpose of hold- 


Fr. 
racture from a blow or fall, showing at its base a cleavage 


There is every probability that the awit -I-noor-is only a portion of 
bes original diamond of that name, as procured from the mines of Gol- 
onda. My own opinion is, that in its srigiial form this diamond was 


Miscellaneous Intelligence. 137 


a rhombic oon aoe and that in its present state it is about one- 
third of the original si Iam confirmed in this opinion by Tave 

ier, who states that it afginalle weighed 7874 carats; after having been 
broken or cut, it weighed 279.9. 5 and if we make allowance for the 
difference between the French and English te of ps period, it 
would reduce it to 252 carats of the present tim e give Tav- 
ernier credit as to the original weight of the jone we ma dul ein 
a very reasonable gi bamnes, that two other remarkable existing dia- 
monds once formed of it. _ Dr. Beke, in a paper read before the 


peared to correspond with the Koh-i-noor.”? Another anno which 
singularly corresponds with the Koh-i-noor, is the great Russian dia- 
mond : and it is not improbable that they all formed one crystal, and 
that, when united, they would, allowing for the detaching of several 
smaller pieces in the process éf cleaving, make up the weight described 
by Tavernier. 

ote.—Since the date of my lecture the recutting of the Koh-i-noor 
has been successfully accomplished by the Messrs. Garrard. The 


iled in the Crystal Palace, the Keh-i-noor weighed ing LP carats. lam 
indebted to Messrs. Garrard for the following : account : 

“In cutting diamonds from the rough, the process is so uncertain that 

- cutters think themselves fortunate in retaining one-half the original 

pie The Koh-i-noor, on its arrival in England, was merely surface 

cut, no attempt having been made to produce the regular form of a 

brill: by which alone lustre is obtained. By reference to the figures, 


Upper Surface. Under Surface. 
THE KOH-I-NOOR IN ITS PRESENT STATE. 
which are the exact size of the Koh-i-noor, it will be clearly understood 
at.it was necessary to remove a large portion of the stone in order to 
*“ Les Six Voyages, &c., Seconde Partie, Paris, 1676.” Tavernier, at page 249 
_— 


Six 
of this volume, ne = weight of the diamond to be 7874 carats ; but at. 
334 he calls it 798 ca 


Szconp Szris, va; Doty No. 49.—Jan., 1854. 18 2 os 


138 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 


obtain the desired effect, by which means the apparent surface was in- 
creased rather than diminished, and the flaws and yellow tinge were 
removed 


ved. 

“* The process of diamond-cutting is effected by an horizontal iron 
plate of about 10 inches diameter, called a Schyf, or mill, which re- 
volves from two thousand to three thousand times per minute he 
diamond is fixed in a ball of pewter at the end of an arm, resting upon 
the table in which the plate revolves ; the other end, at which the ball 
containing the diamond is fixed, is pressed upon the wheel by moveable 
weights at the aan of the workman. The weights applied vary 
from 2 to 30 Ibs. acco 


aw 
at C, described by Professor Tennant and the Rev. W. Mitchell as 


amined it,) to be a natural flaw of a yellow tinge, a defect often met 


portant by the cutters was removing a flaw at G. This flaw was not 
thought by Professor Tennant and Mr. Mitchell to be dangerous, be- 
cause, if it were allowed to run according to the cleavage, it would only 


take off a small piece, which it was necessary to remove in order to — 


acquire the present shape. The cutters, however, had an idea that 


might not take the desired direction, and, therefore, began to cut into : 


ceeded in getting rid of it. While cutting, the stone appeared to 
become harder and harder the farther it was cut into, especially just 


the mill at the medium rate of 2400 times per minute, for six hours, 
little impression had been made; the speed was, therefore, increased to 
an 3000, at which rate the work gradually proceeded. When 


See eee 


Miscellaneous Intelligence. 139 


the back (or former top) of the stone was cut, it proved to be much 
sofier, so that a facet was made in three hours, which would have oc- 
cupied more than a day, if the hardness had been equal to that on the 
other side ; ; nevertheless, the stone afterwards became gradually hard- 


the cutting. An attempt was made to cut out the faw at A; but it 
was found not desirable, on account of its length. The di amond was 
finished on September 7th, having taken thirty- eight days to cut, work- 
ing twelve hours per day without cessation 

By permission of her Majesty, models of the Koh-i-noor, as it a 
rived in this country and in its present state, have been ne Wha ne 
diamonds in the mineralogical department of the British Mus 

3. Abstract of a Meteorological Register, kepl at the Tianektes Tnsti- 
tution se the Deaf and » Knoxville, Tennessee, for the year 
1852; by O. W. Morais, Principal. The Latitude is 35° 56’; Longi- 
tude west ror Washington, 6° 57’; elevation above tide, 960 ‘feet.* 


METER | THERMOMET Cl 
Maximum fiisiaee ‘Means, }Rangej Maximum, te 
Jan. |19, 29-692 _ 
Feb. 19, 29° 431/28, 23° 474) 29-075) 


Months. 


oud- Prev’g 
ee |Range, iness. Winds 
| || = —— 


5, 28:434/29- 127| — 31, 63. 219, —4: 20-513 67-2 be} In Ww. 


March, | 3, 29 eget 28 434 i 29-¢ 327) 1-02 26, 79820, 21: 52-401 58 8\ 5-02 lw. 
April, {10, 2 5, 23:348/28-856| -798]30, 79: | 1, 32: |50-423] 47-0) 4-90 lw. 
May, % 29 s4uler 28 827/29 054 615] 2, 84: |21, 43-2/64-689| 40-8] 4-74 lw. 
June. |14, 29:391) 8, 28-732'29-094| -659123, 86-611, 59-5/68-498| 36-1] 4-32 |w. 
July. a - nt 2/30, 28 833)20-068 459) 38224, —s 3, 59- |74-096| 33 5} 4-01 In. 
Aug. 318|27, 28.775|29:086, -541/19, 87 5) 7, 55:9/69-953| 316] 5 44 \n.z. 
Sept. 18 39 316 11, 23°747/29-120| -569) 2, 85-4 14, 66-452) 40-4) 4-90 nx. 
Oct, , 29 360| 9, 28-779/29-124) 581] 8, 83-225, 39°6/59-656) 43-6) 3-79 Ine. 
Nov. 29, 29-447|26, 28-483/29-048| -956] 5, 71-219, 24°6/44-119| 466) 5-10 Nawe 
Dec. |29, 29-425! 7, ” 98-667 2 9078, -755]20, 64814, 25°1/14514| 39-7) 653 |n.x. 
Au.M?ns|  29°392| 28 3628 29 29-063, 764] 7868) 43.37/55 667 4551) 4°89 | w. 


The mean temperature of the winter page the of 1851-1852, was 
39°-279 ; of the spring months, 58°-838; of the summer months, 
70°: 849 ; of the autumnal months, 56°°742. The highest degree of the 
ordinary thermometer, as noted, was twice 92°5° in July ; the lowest 
was —4° in January. The winter of ’51-"52 was an uncommonly cold 


Rain fell on 114 days; it was accompanied by thunder and lightning 
on 32 days, on some of them twice, and on one day three times, with 
very lieavy thunder and vivid lightning. On the third of May the 
lightning struck an oak tree within one hundred feet of the building. 

Snow fell on 11 days, to the depth of 34 inches; the first snow in 
» winter was on the 12th ‘al December, and the last snow in the 
ve was on the 2nd of 

he mean relative byinidity of the atmosphere for the winter months 
was 72-96 ; for the spring months, 66°89; for the summer months, 
78: ef for ‘the autumnal months, 77°79 ; and for the year it was ge! 


ost prevalent wind was the west, ‘the next the northeast, and 5 a. 


he 
next ihe northwest. 


* In thejeolamns: Maxinium: and nina he day of he month 
statement of the observation. — es 


140 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 


The Aurora Borealis was observed on four nights only, viz: Jan. 
19th, Feb. 19th, April 22d, and May 9th; that on the 19th of January 
was the only one that exhibited any perceptible motion, the others 
were a steady light; that on the 9th of May was a faint light, only a 
few degrees above the horizon. A solar halo was noticed once, and 
lunar haloes on fourteen nights. Both solar and lunar haloes were 
followed by rain or snow within a short period of time. 

A shock of an earthquake was felt on the 27th of October, at 11.30 


wind, the atmosphere hazy and smoky. The loose boards on the 


glasses and other pendant articles swung fro e to side, horses that 
were trotting or walking in the road involuntarily stopped, and the do- 
estic animals seemed stupefied and i instances frightened. 


by a sound resembling the reverberations of cannon among the moun- 
tains, dying away in the distance. Many people throughout the coun- 
try were much alarmed, and ran out of their houses. 

At 8 o’clock vp. m. of the same day there was a very bright meteor ; 
its course was from N. W. to S. E., leaving a track of bright light, 8 
or 10° in length, which continued several seconds; it was at some dis- 


the relative positions of every point, in depth as well as in length and 
breadth, can be directly determined. 

The stereoscope affords a convincing proof that the two projections 
of an object presented to the two eyes, suggest the real object far more 


effectively to the mind than a single projection to one s; and 
ho have paid much attention to the appearance of binocular 


Fully imp m the re 
above stated, that a binocular microscope would possess great advanta- 
ges over the present monocular instrument, I, shortly after the publica- 


~ 
RG eS A ee ee eas es ee ee 


= 


ps a 


Miscellaneous Intelligence. 141 


tion of my first memoir, called the attention both of Mr. Ross and Mr. 
Powell to this subject, and strongly recommended them to make an in- 
strument to realize the anticipated eflect; their occupations, however, 
prevented either of these artists from taking the matter up. The year 
before last, previous to the publication of my second memoir, I again 
urged Mr. Ross, and subsequently Mr. Beck, to attempt its construc- 
tion, and for a short time they interested themselves in the matter, but 
ultimately relinquished it for want of time, and in my opinion over- 
estimating the difficulties-of the undertaking. 

It appears, however, from a communication in the * American Jour- 
nal of Science’ of January 1853, which has been reprinted in the last 
number of the * Microscopical Journal,’ that such an instrument has 
been actually constructed by Professor J. L. Riddell, of New Orleans, 
and the results expected have been obtained. The method Mr. Riddell 
employs is similar to the one | recommended to Mr. Beck. After the 
rays from the object pass through the compound object-glass in the usu- 
al manner, he deflects them by means of a system of rectangular 


le P, Cherubin d’Orléans, Capucin.’ This work was published at Pa- 
ris in 1677, and in it eight chapters and a plate are devoted toa minute 
description of the instrument, which he informs us he constructed, and 
pusehanes to the Dauphin. The following is an extract from the Pre- 
ace :— 


‘Some years ago I resolved to effect what I had long before pre- 
meditated, to make a microscope to see the smallest objects with the 
two eyes conjointly ; and this project has succeeded even beyond m 
expectation, with advantages above the single.instrument so extraordi- 
nary, and so surprising, that every intelligent person to whom I lave 
shown the effect has assured me that inquiring philosophers will be high- 
ly pleased with the communication. For this reason [ have determined 
to make it the principal subject of the present work.” 

And the second part, which contains a description of the instrument, 
is thus headed :— 

“Section the first, in which is taught the method of constructing the 
newly-invented microscope to see the smallest objects very agreeably 
and conveniently, represented entire to the two eyes conjointly, with a 
Magnitude and distinctness which surpasses everything which has been 
hitherto seen in this kind of instrument.” 

n the Pére d’Orléans binocular microscope, two object-glasses ke 
their lateral portions cut away so as to allow of close juxtaposition, and 
these nearly semi-lenses are so arranged, that their axe 


$ corres 
with the two optic axes passing through the tubes containing the ye 


ah 


¥ 


142 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 


pieces. The author’s aim in its construction was solely the riot 
ment of the impression by presenting an image to each eye, for he a 
sumes, according to the then prevalent error, that vision by the two or- 
gans conjoiotly is naturally aud necessarily unique, from the perfect 
conformity of all the homonymous parts of the two images of the ob- 
ject on the two retine. ‘The real advantage of such an instrument en- 
tirely escaped his attention; viz., that of presenting to the two eyes 
the two dissimilar microscopic images of an object, under precisely the 
same circumstances as the two unlike images of any usual object is 
presented to them when no instrument is employed, by which simulta- 
neous presentm oe the same accurate judgmentas to its real solid form 
and the relative distances of all its points, can be as readily determine 
ed in the former case as in the latter 

n the gaeras of a binocular microscope there is one thing es- 
pecially to be attended to—viz., that the images be both direct, for in 


The reason of these effects is fully explained in Sections 5, 10, 22, 23, 
of my Memoirs. The reversal of the images by re flection from mir- 
rors or reflecting prisms, will produce the same result as to the a 
oscopic and pseudoscopic appearances as their inversion by lens 
The binocular microscope constructed by the Pére d’ rléans was 
pseudoscopic, though be describes one which, had it been made, woul 
have been stereoscopic ; he was, however, quite unaware that there 
would be any difference of this kind between them. The pseudoscopic 
effects when inverted images are presented, and the natural appear- 
ances when erecting eye-pieces are employed, have not escaped the 
observation of Mr. Riddell, 

Besides actual inspection by means of the binocular microscope, 
there i . another way in which the advantages of binocular vision may 


nal, ma 
they were not accompanied by their ‘Stereoscopic complements. 
very simple modification of the usual microscope would fit it for pro- 


ed round on an iniagin is within itself, from But this 
method is inapplicable = the light be perfectly diffused and uniform 
o as to avoid all shadows, the presence of which would give rise to 


false stereoscopic a euarenunh In the former case, ahem the object 
remains stationary and the tube moves independently of the frame, the 
a of the light so as to sca re gle shadows might a an ad- 
van and judgme 


assist the visual j 


; 
t 


Miscellaneous Intelligence. 143 


. On the periodic and non-periodic eo heb of Temperaiure at 
aba in Canada from 1841 to 1852 inclusive ; by Colonel Epwarp 
Sasine, R.A., Treasurer and Vice-President of ne e Royal Society, (Phil. 
Mag., [4], Vv, '376. )--The principal object of this communication is to 

make known the non-periodic variations of temper peti ‘i every day 
in the twelve years, from 1841 to 1852 inclusive, at Toronto in Cana- 
da. The non- ponies variations are those differences of the tempera- 
ture from its mean or normal state which remain after all the known 
periodical variations are allowed for, and are such as are generally ac- 


for a sufficient time to afford a proper basis for inductive generalisation. 
Toronto, from its latitude 43° 40’ N. and inland situation, is ae suite 
to supply such a comparison with stations in the middle parts of Eu- 


rope where similar records have been kept; and the tw ira years em- 
braced by the observations, viz. : its o 1852, have been years of un- 
usual meteorological activity in Euro 

Details are given in the co see a of the paper showing the 
care bestowed on the examination of the thermometer employed, with 
a standard divided “ @ Té échelle arbitraire,” by the method of M. Reg- 


on-commissioned officers of the detachment of the Royal Artillery 
oneness in the duties of the observatory. ad oe 

he period of twelve years comprises two series, In one of which 
the thermometer was observed hourly, and in the other less frequently, 
each observation in the second series receiving however a correction to 
the mean temperature of the day furnished for every hour and every 
day of ae year by the pie te eps The two series, each of six years, 


from the mean monthly bene by the method suggested by Bes- 
sel (Astron. Nach. No. 186), whereby the most probable values of the 
temperature, on every day and every hour, are computed correspond- 
ing to the whole body of the observations. These the author regards 
as ppl normal oiets and ove com paring with them the actual 


having been corrected for the hour in oo manner ad »—the non- 
periodic variations for every day in the year are obtained and are given 
ina pic e. 

om the approximate normal temperatures the author bas, syogeea 
ed in a plate the phenomena of the tempeaniare at T 


144 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 


of the temperature at different seasons of the year, exhibited by means 
of a numerical index analogous to the probable error of the arithmeti- 


v, 379).—In 
this communication the author has arranged, in tables, the disturbances 
of the magnetic declination at St. Helena and the Cape of 
for the purpose of exhibiting the systematic laws by which those phe- 
nomena are regulated, which were long described as irregular varia- 
tions, because they were of occasional and apparently uncertain oc- 

ren 


The frequency of the disturbances, and their amount, whether viewed 
t eral abnorma 


‘ 


Miscellaneous Intelligence. 145 


tude of magnetic changes of the same character as that which has been 
found to exist at other places, and which has been considered to be eo- 
incident with variations of the solar spots. 

The disturbances of larger amount only are noticed ; those observa- 
tions which differed by 2:5 scale divisions (18 in are at St. Helena, 
and 19 in arc at the Cape) and upwards, from the normal place, were 
separated from the others and the values of the differences taken; 
there were therefore two series of figures to be dealt with, viz: the 
number of disturbances, and the aggregate amount of disturbance. 
These were separated into disturbances of the north end of the magnet 


ered separately. 

The periodical character of disturbances at St. Helena and the Cape 
in a cycle of years is indicated so far as the limited extent of the ob- 
servations would permit; sufficient however to point to the year 1843 
as that of least disturbance at these i 
decrease from the previous years, and an increase in every succeeding 
year of observation. Though the hourly observations were discontin- 
ued before 1848, the year which Colonel Sabine has shown to be that of 
periodical maximum, (as 1843 was that of minimum magnetic activity 
at Toronto and Hobarton,) the observations now discussed are shown 
to be quite consistent with this period, and thus tend to establish it as a 
general law of magnetic phenomena. In the aggregate of each year 
the disturbances towards the west are shown to preponderate over those 


least in June at St. Helena and the Cape of Good Hope; the same 
months being those of greatest and least disturbance at Hobarton, 
whereas at Toronto, doth January and June are months of minimum 
disturbance, the maxima disturbance occurring there in April and Sep- 
tember, 


From this identity of the epoch of greatest and least disturbance,— 
at St. Helena, where the months of January and June are not those of 
opposite seasons, viewed either with respect to the sun’s extreme allti- 


The westerly disturbances were found to exceed the easterly in eve- 
Ty monih in the year at St. Helena and the Cape, which —* with 
the results deduced from the Hobarton observations, while it appears 

Szconp Serins, Vol. XVH, No. 49.—Jan,, 1854. 19 - 


146 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 


from the observations at mieeson that the easterly disturbances exceeded 
the westerly in every month. The average value of a westerly distur- 
bance is greater than that of an easterly in every month at St. wee ena 


gree, Toronto has awk me peculia rit 

Arranging, the disturbances into = several hours of their occurrence, 
the hours of the day are found to be those of greatest disturbance in a 
.very considerable degree ; the sum sie the nse during the twelve 
hours of the day, being about seven times as great as the sum of those 
in the twelve hours of the night at St. Helena, and about 2°6 times as 
great at the Cape of Good Hope ; while at Hobarton the sum of the 
twelve night ratios slightly exceeded the day; at Toronto the excess 
was larger, viz: as 13to 1. The laws of easterly and westerly dis- 
turbances, i in relation to the local hours, are then examined separately. 
At St. Helena and the Cape, the easterly day-disturbances exceed the 
easterly night- wcll att and the westerly day-disturbances exceed 
the westerly night- damarntioes: These results are compared with those 
at poo and Hobarton 

At elena, withotigh but comparatively few disreiliadicen occur 
during the night hours, those disturbances are almost all westerly (183 


which 174 were westerly and but nine easterly). In the day hours the 
westerly only s/ight/y exceed the easterly disturbances. At the Cape, 
the westerly excess is less in the night and greater in the et wo at 
Ll. Sto and the night excess mach greater than the day ex 
At St. Helena, the fact of the disturbances being more aneen in 
the dost thaws in the night is consistent in every month of the pea 3 = 


appears worthy of remark when it is remembered that at St. Helen 
the curve of the diurnal variation of the declination is sate eneuaea 
at two = gt periods of the year; i orresponding to the 


ronto, the mean effect is westerly in the day and easterly in the night; 
at Hobarton, easterly i in the day and westerly i in the —_— 
Mod 


best, permitting us, as it does, to ascertain witha great me of accu- 
racy and certainty, the since: limits of penetrating and separating pow” 
er possessed by a microscope, and hence easily to express anally 
te ~~ qualities in. the most varied circumstances. 
This method consists simply in subjecting to observation under the 
Ja toubin the dioptric images of certain apes objects instead of the 


See 
= ae 


Miscellaneous Intelligence, 147 


and hence we have it in our power to measure the extreme limits at 
which the object continues to be visible. 

or the formation of the dioptric images achromatic object-glasses 
might be used; but even where those of the shortest focal length are 
employed, the object whose image it is required to form must be placed 
ata great distance. ‘This would cause various difficulties, and only be 
practicable wilh a microscope placed horizontally—unless, indeed, the 
object selected were very minute, in which case the accurate determi- 
nation of its diameter (from which that of its image must be afterwards 
deduced) would be rendered difficult. 

Small air-bells in a fluid are for this purpose far better. I employ 
by preference a watery solution of powdered gum arabic, which always 
contains numbers of such air-bells originating in the air entangled 
among the particles of the powder. The water employed should have 
stood for a considerable time freely exposed to the air, or been shaken 
up with the air for some time ; for when we use water which is not sat- 
urated with air, the bubbles in ‘the fluid gradually become smaller, an 


subsequent pet ag et as we shall actually find to be the case. 
dro e fluid must then be placed on a clean glass object- 
slide, and — with a good clear mica plate, a ring shaped piece be- 


ing 
of a glass lene would a It will, pate be alw s easy to 


mirror and stage some easily recognized object, e. g. a piece of paper 
or the like. ‘The image is ‘always formed on the under surface of the 
air-bell, which must consequently be brought nearer to the object-glass 
than when it is desired to bring its margins into 

The object whose image is to be ihe subject of examination shos shone 


ward in the space beiween the oe and silage. In some micimecnpes 
fie can hardly be eones® either from the space being g too limited, or in 


ae envelops the space. If such microscopes, in place of a mirror, 
provided with a reflecting prism, the object may be placed opposite 
the side external to the microscope. The instruments best adapted for 


* The following se ol will ee eee this. I brought a printed page of a 
book to such a distance from an air-bell t the length of the image of the whole 
pace was 1- th h milinetre =akoinb 1- con a an inch, and a of the image of each 
etter about 1-480th millim. = 1-12.000ih of an inch. e of their minuten 

these images, oud ae diane 9 light, possessed such danas and , that 
eee SE Dower 54 diameters the whole page was without dificulty 


148 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 


the manipulation which we are describing are, however, those whose 
illuminating apparatus consists of a mirror and converging lens, which 

i wh. ens being removed from the ring 
which supports it, the object is substituted in its place. The relative 


o 
ny 
a 
a. 
a) 
re 
(9°) 


Of course it is impossible to measure directly the dimensions of this 
most minute visible image, for our best micrometric methods will here 
fi no avail. Yet their size may be estimated with extreme 
accuracy in the following manner. At the same distance from the air- 
bell and in place of the object used, substitute another body; such as a 
piece of card, of 4 to5 centimetres = 1 2ths to 2 inches diameter, which 
has been exactly measured. Let this be now again measured (by some 


more minute object, but to divide its true diameter by the figure ex- 
pressing the diminishing power. 

For example, let the true diameter of the greater object be 5 centi- 
metres =to 1-969 English inches, and the diameter of its image = 
32:2 micromillimetres,+ = 00127 English inches, then the figure ex- 
pressing the amount of diminution will be 3;95% = 1553 very nearly. 


round or long thread-like form, grains of pear sago, or vegetable bod- 
jes, such as mustard-seed or the pollen-granules of many plants, hairs 
of animals, metailic wires, &c., may be employed. Small round open- 
ings and chinks may serve for the determination of the visibility of pos- 
ilive images of light. In the last case, care must o rse be taken, 
by means of suitable screens, to shut off all licht except what passes 


* See translation from Het Mikroskoop in Monthly Journal of Medical Science, 
June, 1852, p. Seba seq. 

+ The micromillimetre is equal 1-1000th millimetres = -0000394 English inches. 
See Monthly Journal, June, 1852, p- 456, me 


Miscellaneous Intelligence. 149 


= 
thin glass capillary-tube placed in water, and compare it with tender 
organic tubes and vessels, which may also be seen in water, but whose 
limit of visibility is of course far more circumscribed than that of ab- 
solutely opaque objects. 
n fact this method admits of innumerable variations, and is conse- 


ground could not be seen. Hence it is by no means indifferent to re- 


experiment. he mode of ascertaining the limit of vision, witha given 


. On 

Esq., (Phil. Mag., [4] vi, 344.)—I see, from what Dr. Scoresby has 
brought before the Association at Huli, that there seems to be some dif- 
ficulty about obtaining correct soundings in places where the currents 
are strong and flow in different directions at the different points of depth, 
causing the line to assume different curves in its descent ; and when it 
comes to be measured over, after the weight has reached the bottom 
and deen hauled up again, the measurement gives no approximate idea 
of the real depth, Now itis plain that this mensuration of the depth of 
Water might be as well made by estimating its vertical pressure, as, in 
measuring the height of mountains, we measure the barometrical pres- 
sure of the air; and so I would propose to do it by an instrument con- 
structed as follows :— 

An accurately constructed tube of gun-metal or brass, or some metal 
not very easily corrodible by salt water, has a glass tube fitted on to it 
on the top by a screw joint, and again on the top of the glass tube is fit- 
ted a strong hollow copper ball by a similar screw joint. The lower 
tube, which we will call a, has a well-turned piston fitted to it, from 
which runs a rod which is only a trifle longer than the tube a, and just 
enters ihe tube d when the piston is at its lowest point. A well-made 
spring is placed in the tube a above the piston, and the tube a being 
narrowed at the top, so as just to admit the free passage of the rod, and 
the rod having a little button at its top, the piston is kept at its lowest 

* « La ar Pee C 1:3 4. ee 
point by the spring, pt when sufficient applied 1 


* 


150 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 


to compress the spring. The glass tube has a small ring fixed in it, 
just so as to stick at avy pointto which it is pushed, and the bution at 
the top of the rod serves to push the ring straight, and the ring thus 
forms an incex of the degree to which the spring has been compressed. 
The ball on the top serves as a mere reservoir of air to equalize the 
action of the apparatus as much as possible. The whole of this appa- 
ratus is enclosed in a wire cage for the sake of protection frum blows. 
To graduate this apparatus, T let it down in a known depth of water, 
say ten fathoms, and having observed the point to which the ring in” 
the glass tube is pushed, and having marked this point off, the “ae il is 
to be unscrewed, and with a small ramrod the ring is to be pushed 
down till it resis on the top of the pision-rod. ‘The ball being scpinchde 
the apparatus is sunk in twenty fathoms; afier a similar manner it 18 
sunk in thirty, and next in forty fathoms. This will test the accuracy 
the apparatus ; and the marks made on the glass tube 3b afier each 


account of the smote use which may be ait of such an apparatus. 

- Louis Semann.—Mr. Seemann, who formerly travelled alee 
the U. Siates, has arrangements at Paris for the sale of eee 
or collections in Mineralogy, Geology, and Paleontology. To a thor- 
ough knowledge of miner als, Mr. S. unites a most excellent and obli- 
ging disposition ; 3; and “ oh gesting is one of the largest in Europe. 
His address is Louis Semann, Comptoir Mineralogique_ et Palzeontolo- 
gique, Rue St. André-des- ae No. 45, Paris. 

10. Cabinet of Minerals for sale.—-A win and excellent cabinet of 
minerals, and mineralogical works accumpanying, is for sale sh- 
ington. Address Fr. Markoe, Esq., Washington City. It is one of the 
best esi Sateen: in the country. 

11. Osituary.—James FE. Tescuemacner died suddenly near Boston 
on the 9th of last Riverabet. Mr. Teschemacher, although engrossed 
with other cares, has been an unceasing and successful laborer in Sci- 
e 


nce. He was an exact observer, and delighted in searching il 
his microscope what passed unnoticed by others. has contributed 
much to our knowled merican minerals, both through the detec- 


peci 

been laboring of late on the cine of the Fossils connected with coal, 

and the structure of the coal itself, and had collected much that was 
novel, which he was preparing for publication. 


12. Die Kreidebildungen von Texas, und irhe organischen Ein- 
schliisse; Von Dr.-F OEMER. 410. eit 1852.—This work has 
already been briefly noticed in the Se eptember number of this Journal. 
The Introduction contains, 1. A sketch of the geographical situation and 


Miscellaneous Intelligence. 151 


general — condition es Texas ; 2. General geognostic _— 
tion of the country ; 3. Diluvial and ally vial formations; 4. ‘ ary 
formations; 5. Older or keane strata; and 6. Plutonic i 

The principal part of the volume is a toa toclogiens descrip- 
tion of the chalk formation of Texas, with an enumeration and de- 
scription of its organic remains, sores occupy eighty-eight pages of the 
volume. These are followed by descriptions of Paleozoic fossils, and 
of three species of fossil wood from the tertiary. 

The cretaceous fossils figured occupy ten quarto plates, and number 
one hundred and twenty- -four. Of these one bundred and one are new 
or yet undetermined species, and twenty-three are identical with spec 
previously known. ‘These are senotiadty illustrated, The Pa iescnitl 
fossils number ten species, of which eight are new. hese are chiefly 
of the carboniferous period, and we recognize them as forms which 
prevail farther to the north and west in the same formation. ‘The three 
species of fossil wood from the tertiary, described by Pad ae are Silli- 
mania Texana, Roemeria Americana, and Thuyoxylon Americanum. 

The fossils here described and figured, had been already indicated 


_in Dr. Roemer’s previous work on Texas. 


m4 present work offers a very valuable accession to our knowledge 
e American Cretaceous formation; contributing more species of 


know of it, we have but a foreshadowing of what is yet in store for us 
when this formation, which extends from the Tropic of Cancer to the 


~ en of — shall have been completely explored. H 
3. Geological M ap of Keweenaw rage Lake Superior, sear cde) ; 
by = D. Wartney, gf ew by S. Hitt and W. H. Srevens.— 


This is a large pocket map of the iiake Superior Mining Reiida: "2 feet 
by 4 in its dimensions. It gives an admirable view of the Geological 
siructure of the region, and is excellent in illustration of an article in 
this volume from the Report of Messrs. Whitney and Foster. The 


ern Mines. It is tavalatle to geological science as well as to the to- 
pographer and traveller 
14. People’s cast: yer I, Nos. 1 and 2, November and Decem- 
ber, 1853. 32 pp. large 8 —'This new popular monthly opens with 
an article on Willison’s Hand Thrashing Machine. The Journal is de- 
* Texas: mit hesonderer Rucksicht auf deniecine Auswanderung und die *F ed 
schen Verhiiltnisse des Lan ac r Beohachtung g' ponagpeetes | oueens von 
it ei hen Anbange und einer 


ognostischen Karte yon Texas. Bonn, bei A. Marcus, 18 49, 


152 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 


voted to Farming, ao rtenty Horticulture, Mechanics, and practical 
science, and is very fully and handsomely illustrated with cuts repre- 
senting machinery, implements of husbandry, ren cattle, plans of build- 
ings, the Natienisl Exhibition of Horses at Springfield, American steam- 
ships, etc. o. 2 contains 72 wood-culs, some of them illustrating im- 
portant inventions at the Crystal Palace. Price 50 cts. each 6 months. 


E. Hrreucocs, D.D.: Outline of the Gomes .? of the Globe, and of the ape 


lips Sail son & Co, 

s Cote, A. M: List of Tafas orial Objects, Pky chiefly in the neighborhood 
of Sal slat: Massachusetts, with a sketch of the progress of this branch of Natural 
Bary: — the Pro Saal of the Essex Institute. 18 pp. 8vo. Salem, 1853. 

Maen AL AND Mk&TEOROLOGICAL OsservaTIONS aT Toronto, IN 1843, 1844, 1845, 
printed ey pore of her Majesty’s ago sine under the se erthsaattiiies of Col. 

wa sng 640 pp. 4to. London, 

B. Sroper: Geologie der Schweiz et of Switzerland), in 2 vols. 12mo. 
Berne srg Zurich, 1853 

. F. Kevaart, M.D.: Prodromus Faune Ceylonice. 198 and 62 pp.8 Ceylon, 

1852 —Treats with consilerae igh of the Mammalia and Reptiles of Ceylon. 

ANNALES DE L’OsservaTorre Puysiq . septa pe Russie, Parts 1 and 2 for 1850. 
808 mad a PP. at = Peteraburg. 


oO 
= 
& By o 
BEB G 
Ue 
fp 
"S 
za 
De) 
3 
Oe 


Comersr-REN {. de Brock, Min. des Finances, par 
ys aia de Pobservatire Pea anes er T. Kupffer, année 1852. 172 pp. 
t. Petersburg, 18 
ce MELSBERG : Fiiaf tes pee zu ‘cag Handwérterbuch der chemis- 
chen Theil der Mineralogie. 270 pp. 
eae Anfangsgriinde der Telimeebin 2nd Edition, 292 pp. Svo. 


Lapa is 
tepia anv Kore: J ahresberichte for 1852. Parts I and II. 
roceepines Acap. Nat. Sot Part LADELPAIA, vol. vi, No. 10.—p. 375. Note on 
Chatsibniras ’Gaaibel “Agassiz.—p. remains in the U. States; 
Leidy.—p. 378. New Rana and B Bufo; Baird—p. 379. On Thaha; Genth— 
380. A new Salmo; @. Girard—Note on Cai — wate 6 Girard— —p. 381. 
Notes on the Ornithology of Wisconsin; P. R. American 
species of Esox; C. Girard—p. 387. New species eo OF Hin ane byd, = pan 
. S. and Mexican Boundary Commins Bai “i d Girard——p. 3 
Arkansas fishes; Baird and Girard—Note on Nebras' ile mmalian os Chelonia 
Fossils; Leidy—No. 11—p. 395. Cata fates of Birds of ni ae C. Read—p- 
402. New species of Pacane Nut; J. Le Conte.—p. a new American 
Arvicole, and remarks on other Rodents; p. 415. On Crotalus hihi and OC, ad- 
amanteus ; nte—p. 420, New Reptiles of the Pxploring Mspedition under 
kes; C. Girard—p. 425. Not the O} R. 
oy.—p. 430. New see of es 4 - y U.S. Exploring i 
tion under C. Wilkes; W. H. Harvey and J. W. Bailey. 


Works received from the Publish 

Vindicie Pliniane, a tC. L. ects Fase. I. Gryphie, 1853. In Libr. C. 
A. Say a, Th. Kuni 
e Pan Tor Oouhanenbatis i ane scripsit G. F. Scnormany. Gryphiz, 
‘on In. Li b. ©. A. Kochian 

Leon uler’s Theorie a Pevorns e fester oder starrer Kérper mit Anmer- 
i n von J, Pu. Wotrers, Dr. und Professor. 


De e i 
und die Panathenaische Rede des Isokrates in ihrem gegenseitigen Verhaltnisse dar- 
e ifswal 8. C. A. h’s Verlagsb. 
sal oo 


itische nm zur 
Franz Susemihl. Greifswald, 


AMERICAN 


JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. 


[SECOND SERIES.] 


Arr. XTI.—On the Elastic Force of Heated Air, considered 
asa Motive Power; by Frevericx A, P. Barnanp, 
sor of paategrcant i ai Natural History in me Uniseratyset 
‘Mabon 


In the d discussions which have recently taken place with regard 
to the power, economy and value of hot-air engines, the attention 
of all who have participated in them appears to have been exclu- 
sively directed to the advantages and disadvantages presented by 
a particular case. The question seems not to have been contem- 
plated in its more general aspect ; or rather it seems to have been 
assumed that there exists no general question which the success 
or failure of this particular experiment will not settle. Those 
who are satisfied that the engines of Capt. Eriesson cannot suc- 
ceed, seem ready at the same time to conclude that no engine 
whatever can be successful which proposes to derive its power 
from the same source. Experiment may prove this conclusion 


scientific history no in remarkable than true, that all those dis- 
tinguished men whose labors in this branch of science have illus-' 
trated the present age, and have built up the entire theory of ca- 
lorie as it is now received, have been completely in error in regard 
to one of their most important practical inferences, deduced ane 
the careful study of years et: 
Thompson, Rankine, Joule and. Regnault have ns 
the opinion that an air engine may be constructed w 
» Vol. XVII, No. 50.—. , 


154 Prof. Barnard on the Elastic Force of Heated Air. 


economically much superior to the steam engine.* One of these, 
Mr. Joule, has even published an outline of a plan which he 

would adopt in order to secure the advantages to be attained by 
the use of this motive power ;} and he has shown, by the appli- 
cation of the convenient formula of Prof. Thompson, for deter- 
mining what fraction of the heat expended is converted into 
power by thermo-dynamic engines, that an engine constructed on 
his plan would produce an amount of mechanical efiect greater 
in the ratio of 6 to 5 than a condensing steam engine with four- 
teen atmospheres of pressure in the boiler, and sin which the 
steam expands itself in the cylinder to the temperature of 80°. 
Compared with steam expanding in like manner from the press 
ure of a atmospheres, the economy would be nearly as 3 to 2; 

and taking the steam at the original pressure of two atmospheres 
it would be almost as 2 to 1(L: 18). But in these computa- 
tions, the expansion of steam in the cylinder is presumed to carry 
the temperature down to 80°, a condition never fulfilled 1 in aes 


gine as 34 to 1. And if we compare it with a non- eee 
engine at two atmospheres, we shall find that the air engine 
would be mee times and upward superior to the other in point 
of econom 

In all she discussions. which the engines. ok Capt. Ericsson 
have provoked, certain propositions, which are rendered true by 


stroke, there te in the natur Sex be a great waste of 
heat, — the ide of the he aoe air. 


be too and too Penervs be well suited ie rapid we cs tt 
may nevertheless be yoo great advantage in driving machinery or serving 


and Ed. Phil. Phil Mag. Jan, 1868; and Phil. Trae, 1868, Pat T 


Prof. Barnard on the Elastic Force of Heated Air. 155 


4. That a very large additional waste must occur through 
chimneys and flues, and by radiation from the eylinders. 

5. That the leakage must be enormous, as compared with - 
what occurs in engines driven by steam. 

6. And finally, that air cannot be heated in such quantity, with 
such rapidity, and to such a degree as the exigencies of the case 


Not one of these propositions is necessarily or universally true; 
and it will presently be seen that the plan of Mr. Joule is in de- 
fiance of all of them. On the other hand, it must be admitted 
that there are some disadvantages quite inseparable from all air 
engines of whatever description. It’ is certainly true, 

1. That the mean effective pressure must, in the case of every 
such engine, be moderate compared with the absolute tension of 
the air in the cylinders. . 

2. That the mean effective pressure, if the engine is worked 
strictly with a view to economy, bears a less ratio to the absolute 
pressure, than it might do with less economical arrangements. 

3. That a large apparatus is necessary for the development of 
high power, even though the power be obtained economically. 

4. That the highest economy ‘equires so large expansion of 
the air in the working cylinder, as to make the counteracting 
pressure in the supply cylinder a great inconvenience, though not 
dn insuperable difficulty. 

Professor Thompson, of Glasgow, has shown that the frac- 
tional portion of the heat which in any thermo-dynamie engine 


156 Prof. Barnard on the Elastic Force of Heated Air. 


But, if we draw our supplies from the atmosphere directly, a 
very moderate pressure as compared with what is often employed 
with steam, will throw the regenerator entirely out of the ques- 
tion. ‘Taking the supply cylinder at two-thirds the working cyl- 
inder, as in Ericsson’s engines, supposing the external tem pera- 
ture to be 60°, and assuming that the tension of the air at the end 
of the stroke is, as economy requires, no higher than that of the 
atmosphere, the temperature at discharge is found by simple cal- 
culation to be 3199-5 F. Now air at 60° F. and density 1; will, 
on compression to density 2692, be raised to this same tempera- 
ture, and will have an elasticity of almost exactly four atmos- 

heres. An Ericsson engine working with this pressure would 


derive no advantage from a regenerator. And it is furthermore - 


evident that any approach to this limit must render the regenera- 
tor of no practical value. When, in addition to this, we take 
into consideration the imperfect manner in which this contrivance 


oes its work, the degree to which its numerous meshes of wire 


make 1, (the temperature of discharge) equal to 1’ (that of compression), and observe 
foe, ‘ 


7- It 2-2 
that atl, and Yo(T) (7) 
we shall have the equation, 


Ok 
wi ==") 7 


1 
Fred pra 
Whence I=(J,m a ¢ 
which is the value of % as shown further on, at the Maximum of power. The re- 
erator, therefore becomes useless, when the engine is producing the greatest ef 
eat sup- 


, & mai larger proportion of the heat su 
plied, is com erted into useful labor, than when a lower pressure te weed 


Prof. Barnard on the Elastic Force of Heated Air. 157 


air from the point at which it leaves the regenerator to its original 
temperature, is a great objection to such an arrangement in-an 
engine designed for locomotion either on the water or on land. 
If, on the other hand, we abandon the regenerator, we must 
look for our economy in enlarging the expansion in the working 
cylinder, and thus increasing the range of temperature through 
which the heated air descends in working. The disadvantage, 
already mentioned as accompanying this arrangement, of creating 
a great counteracting force, at the period at which the positive . 
power is reduced nearly or quite to zero, must be met and dis- 
posed of by mechanical expedients., This appears to have been 
the view taken of the subject by. Mr. Joule in the plau he has 


will presently appear, is not rigidly true, though nearly so. The 


which we will represent by 7. 


The general equation,t ; 
tT 
P =P ( le, 

* Lond, and Ed. Phil. Mag., Jan, 1853, In the Phil. Trans. Part I, 1852, Mr. 
Joule enters into some very elaborate calculations in regard to the power of air en- 
gines under various suppositions, but the plan given in the Magazine is more practi- 
cal than anything contained in the previous article. ' ghee 

+ He also proposes another and more economical mode of heating, which is no- 
ticed further on. ‘et aS 

t In this equation, p is the pressure at the absolute temperature 1, and density 1 ; 
while p’ is the pressure at empensture +0, and density ¢, The Reged at dis 
charge (i. e, ¢) must necessarily be to the original density in the inverse of 
eylinders. 

: ee 


158 Prof. Barnard on the Elastic Force of Heated Air. 


making p’=p, and e=3, gives 6=41, which is the amount of heat 
to be added to t to expand the air-at the constant atmospheric — 
pressure from density 1 and temperature 509° to density ?. ‘The 


air at discharge, therefore, will be a ea 1693° above 50° F., or 


at 219§° F'.—equivalent to an absolute temperature of 678%°, 
which we will represent by 7,. 

Mr. Joule now proposes that the air shall be compressed in the 
supply cylinder to one-fourth its original bulk, which will make 
its temperature 898°'59 (=439°-59 F.); and that the air so com- 
pressed may be expanded to the relative density 2, it must be 

oO. 
further heated S98 99 9990-53, making the total maximum 
temperature =1198°-12 (=739°-12 FE.) which we will represent 
by *’. The heat of compression, 898°'59, may. be put =”. 

By an application of the formula given on page 248 of the last 
volume of this Journal, we find the mean effective pressure of 
the engine working under these conditions to be 9:891 lbs. to the. 
square inch, The absolute pressure will be, in the mean time, 
105-92 lbs. 

It may be objected that Mr. Joule proposes to carry his heat 
extravagantly high. All that can at present be said as to this 
point is, that the difficulty with regard to a high temperature has 
hitherto been to reach it. It has not yet been ascertained what 
degree of temperature would be seriously injurious to the mate- 
rials of the machine. The great liability to loss of heat by radi- 
ation at these high temperatures, is a more serious consideration. 

ut Mr. Joule has undoubtedly placed his minimum tempera- 
ture too low. Sixty degrees of Fahrenheit, which is the usual 
temperature to which scientific determinations are. referred, is 
quite as low as we are justified in assuming the ordinary atmos- 
pheric temperature to be, in our estimates regarding a machine of 
this description. For though the mean temperature of the year 
may in northern latitudes be lower, yet as the engine is expected 
to work in all seasons, we ought rather to assume a temperature 
above the mean than below. 

If we adopt 60° as the atmospheric temperature, we shall have 


P (mean pressure) = 9°846 lbs. to the sq. inch, 

p (absolute press. )= 105-92 “ = as before. 
The conditions here supposed are highly favorable to economy 
of heat, and do actually convert into useful labor, as will present- 
ly be shown, forty-three and a third per cent. of the caloric im- 
parted to the air from the furnaces. They are not however alto- 


Prof. Barnard on the Elastic Force of Heated Air. 159 


gether the most favorable to the production of power, nor abso- 
lutely the best as it respects economy. Moreover they involve 
an absolute pressure greater than is required for the attainment of 
a higher mean effective pressure, and therefore a larger amount of 
useful labor. 

By differentiating the formula already referred to, on page 248 
of the last volume of this Journal,* in reference to m and 7 suc- 
cessively, we shall find that neither the ratio of capacities of the 
two cylinders, nor the degree of compression of the air as as- 
sumed by Mr. Joule, is that which is most favorable to power un- 
der the given working temperature. 

If we make m variable, the maximum Boe occurs when 


al ( (t+ "jy —1T"1 a 
al (2y—1)r ye 
or a wide range of working temperatures and for a great va- 
riety of values of 2, m falls but little below unity. It seems to 
increase with 7’, and to diminish as 7 diminishes: but it is only 
in extreme cases ’ that it becomes less than -90, while it is usually 
above ‘95, and is sometimes higher than 1-00. In the present 
case, with 7” = 1220°-7 and /=-25, it is ‘907, and the dependent 
Mati will be as follows: 
= 967°-66 (=508°-66 F.) 
eats 447 as to ihe aquare inch. 
p=128 
To compare the working under these conditions with the for- 
mer, in point of economy, we have to observe that the expendi- 
ture of heat is directly as m(t/’— 1’), and the useful effect, direct- 


ns 


ly as P. The economy will therefore be as —_——. ale) The val- 
ues of this expression for the two cases are as the numbers 430 
and 456, nearly ; or as 1: 1-057, the condition of maximum pow- 
er relatively to m, being nearly 6 per cent., the most favorable to 


By ee with respect to /, we shall find that a max- 

imum occurs W 
* This formula i > “mien and geet to a more orm — —— page — of 
the last number of the Journal. may be rendered still 
by substituting for the symbol & ‘ the last form given) its ae =. It me 
becomes 
4 ” MW mm 
P= ef a RereeH 

in which IT is the pressure against which the engine works, 


s. the 
working piston, m is the ratio of the supply pets to the pie Bck cylin 
section, fis the fractional part of th of the stroke before cut-off, and x and 1! 
values assigned them in the text. 


<a 


er in cross 
sega tes 


160 Prof. Barnard on the Elastic Force of Heated Air. 


' pes i eae | 
And, in the present case, ™” being =1220°-7, and m=:75, l 
will Have" the value ‘37309 instead of -25; and the dependent va- 
riables will be, 
1’ =815° (356° F 
P=10-823 Is. to the square theh. 
0-92 


Comparing this arrangement with ihe first in regard to econo- 
my, we find it to be inferior, in the ratio of ‘8264 to 1; but it 
has the advantage of requiring only about two-thirds as much ab- 
solute pressure in the cylinder 

hrough the formulas above given, we find by a tentative pro- 
cess, that the absolute maximum of power under this tempera- 
ture occurs, when the value of m is about 1-094, and that of l, 
‘4363. We have, ap these conditions, 


7’ = 869° a 
P=12-069 bs. to ae square ach 
= 88-52 


p 
And this arrangement compares with the first, in point of econ- 
omy, as *7285 to 1. Thus the increase of :power is accompanied 
by a more than oe increase of ome eee although the 
absolute pressure is still comparatively modera 
The relative economy of these several sides geioints as com- 
pared with steam expanding from five or three atmospheres to 
one, is exhibited at one view in the following. The temperature 
of steam at 5 atmospheres i is, according to the French academi- 
cians, 308°-8; and Prof. Thompson’s formula for the per-centage 
of heat converted into useful labor gives,* 
* The formula of Prof. Thompson is the follo owing. Let H be the mechanical 
equivalent of the total amount of caloric entering any thermo-dynamic machine; let 
7'’ be the tem ig ie ure 0 i e pad by fe auiering the machine, and 1, the same 
at leaving it; nf? s the fe ssion of temperature in working; 
and, putting Wi ib: ere the total w ref effect, it will generally be true that 
Wadi 
The formula of Prof. Thompson is apa however, only when the conditions. 
conform to the definition of a perfect thermo-dynamic = Dgin e, as laid down by Car- 
and adopted ompson and Clansius :—that is to say, an engine which, by 
e same amoun 


following. ori to ust be true, viz 


2% OF 

The formula which, in the at keneral. ‘Tosiiner, expresses the amount of heat 
utilized, rang H aang ae pnt amount drawn. from the source, is the follow 
ing ; 


a mi r kia Ie oh : 


Prof. Barnard on the Elastic Force of Heated Air. 161 


m—t, »,167-8—671_, ' 
HH 1267 XH, 
as the measure of the economy of working with steam under 
those conditions. In like manner we obtain ‘0861 x H, for steam 
of three atmospheres. And Joule’s engine gives 

1220-7 — 915°5 

_ zai gd ‘433 XH. 


By properly combining these numbers with the foregoing, we 
obtain these ratios, steam being in both cases taken as unity 


ql 


i) 
= 
Py 
Me 
3 
& 
~ 


Steam. Joule. Max. m. flax. 1. 

5 atmospheres = 1 3°436 3631 2839 2502 

3 atmospheres = 1 5-031 5321 4153 3665 

There can therefore be no doubt of: the very great econumy 
which would attend the working of a hot-air engine, should suc- 
cessful ingenuity overcome the difficulties (entirely mechanical) 
that have hitherto, in a great measure, baflled the efforts of 

inventors. 
~ Tam willing to admit that the working temperature assumed 
by Mr. Joule is too high; or is at least higher than is to be de- 
sired: and I may add that it is higher than is necessary. But 
before examining what would be the effect of reducing this heat 
within limits to which no one could reasonably object, it may be 
well enough to examine one or two of the difficulties which have 
been mentioned earlier in this article, as having been esteemed in- 
separable from the use of this motive power, and insurmountable. 
Mr. Joule has provided against losses of heat by escape through 
chimneys, &c., by proposing to make the furnaces air-tight, and 
to pass the air through them in its way from the reservoir to the 
cylinder. The blast may be directed in part through the fuel ; 
but as the entire mass of air might create unnecessarily powerful 
combustion if driven through the fire, the greater portion may 
pass over it.* It may be added that, as the difficulty hitherto has 


which on supposition that the foregoing proportion holds, becomes, 
y-1 t 1 79 deere 1! — 4, 
u[—( -5)+,0-pJ=H( 7 =H zh 
which is Thompson’s formula. The demonstration of this proposition is reserved 
for another place. 
* By this arrangement the oxygen of t 
acid, but without change of volume, although with some small increase of specific 
heat. Should the plan be adupted of employing confined air previously compress- 


= 


ed, some fresh air will require to be regularly supplied, to sustain the combustion. 
This ma h th i 


he air is shortly converted into carbonic 
e 


1 
co 


be introduced beneath the fuel, while the rest passes over it. The amount 
ecessary mi ily b ted. According to Dr. Prout, 100 cubic inches of ai 
at the normal pressure and density weigh 31-0117 grs. ; of which ght 238 cent. 
is oxygen. Accordin ule, one grain of coal produces by it bustio 
heat enough to raise the temperatur pound of water 1°634 cording to 
ault, the specific heat of air at constant pressure is (taking a mean of his val- 
ues) = a ; d, t. equivalents of carbo is XY, - vf gt 8 
respectively, the composition of carbonic acid, COs, requires that eight grains of oxy- 
gen be supptied Sor the jpartie aeenbostion of three grains of carbon. From these — 
Secoxp Szniss, Vol. XVII, No. 50.—March, 1854. Se 


162 Prof. Barnard on the Elastic Force of Heated Air. 


been to heat the air with any power of furnace, since radiant heat 
produces no sensible impression on it, since there is little time for 
the process of convection, and since but a limited portion of it 
can come in contact with the surface of the heating chambers, it 
would be advantageous to fill the fire boxes above the fuel with 
meshes of wire similar to those of Ericsson’s regenerators. These 


to the steam engine. : 

These arrangements not only afford a good security against 
waste of heat through chimneys, and by radiation, but they put 
the fire most completely under the command of the engineer, 
and they secure what has not yet been sécured, the certainty that 
the air will be heated to the temperature desired. 

There remains no serious objection to be considered except that 
which arises from the resistance of the supply cylinders. This 
difficulty is entirely of a mechanical nature, and it is to be sut- 
mounted by mechanical expedients. There is abundant force, 
but this force happens to be greatly in excess at one time, and in 
deficiency at another. I have already pointed out, in a former 
number of this Journal, in what manner the difficulty may be ob- 
viated in engines designed, like Ericsson’s, to carry not more than 
two atmospheres of pressure. That method will answer, witha 
supply cylinder of. three-fourths the capacity of the working cyl- 
inder, to an extent of more than four atmospheres, preserving 4 
predominance of positive power at every point of the revolution. 
By attaching three piston rods to the same crank, the cylinders 
being placed at angles of 60° from each other, the method will 
answer for still higher pressures. But that other and still more 


data it appears that the oxygen contained in 13 cubic feet, or one pound of air will, 
t 


by the combustion of a due amount of carbon, raise the temperature of one pound 
of air 4152 A refere summaries presented further on in the text will 
show that t gements theoretically the most-eligible, do not require a larger 

os le som 200°, 


and while those which are likely to be most convenient in practice will make neces- 
sary only about 250°. One pound of air will therefore furnish oxygen enough to 


heat about fourteen , or more than 180 cubic feet of air through the largest re- 
ired range. It is consequently quite safe tosay that one pound of fresh air intro- 
uced at each stroke would heat at least ten pounds to the necessary extent, besides 
heating itself and making good all waste. If three cylinders, therefore; work in con- 
nection with one crank cylinder capable o ting ten pound ir of the or- 
dinary temperature and density, they will hold under the pressure of five atm 
pheres, fifty pounds each, same tem e. If two of these cylinders be 
supplied from a reservoir into which air has been compressed to this ee, 
one, working against the atmosphere alone, w oxygen enough to keep uP 


combustion, If compression in the reservoir is less, the supply of oxyge® 
will be proportionably in excess. pply of oxys 


“ 


Prof. Barnard on the Elastic Force of Heated Air. 163 


effectual methods of roe the evil may be devised by ingen- 
ious mechanics, I have no doubt. Upon this point I shall pres- 
ently have something more to say. 
s it is perhaps too much to expect that the air engine will ever 

Ye wnictoant lly employed to propel the largest ships, on account 

its weight and bulk, it is obvious that the effective pressures 
which we have already seen are considerable, may be materially 
increased by resorting to the expedient which Capt. Ericsson is 
said to have adopted in his engines now in process of construc- 
tion, of employing air which has been previously condensed in a 
suitable chamber to such a pressure as may be thought expedient, 
A double density only, given to such a confined mass, might fu fur- 
nish to the engine a mean effective pressure of more than twenty 
pounds; whereas not more than three or four at the outside are 
attainable in the engines of the ‘ Ericsson,” and only between 
two or three appear to have been attaine 

It follows of course that engines worked on the principle of 


in er July number ‘of hues s pd e, by ‘ia neal an 
pansion of the top and bottom of the working cylinders. 

I have observed that the working temperature assumed by Mr. 
Joule is higher than is necessary. It remains to consider what 


* Still, I cannot but think that the leakage has nel ees a and that the 
ck of power which has been to such a degree imput o this cause, has resulted 
from the impossibility of heating the air by the contrivances bite ie ed in the aban- 
doned engines. The idea that “the regenerators were e the principal source of 
heat” led to me ee eg of furnace arrangements viandhuelly uae, IS to the 
eae — n them 


every stroke. t 10 revihakiods am inute, wo 40° 95 ¢ 
Now the velocity with which air under pressure escapes into the per tlt ard is rep- 
ion 


viavV B'-P 


p’ 

in which v is the Hoge hs beep which the atmospheric 
(= 1299 ft. des ) P e elastic force of the confined s air, rand iP gore of the Ps 
mosphere. h Z, gies ain in the case in hand, v’ = 765 «hes nches, 
And 40-95 eu. ft. Sabai 70761 cubic inches, which would ala an apert 
to wear sq. inches to admit of their escape in one second. Such we as 
this is incredible. Maj. ‘Barmard Lhgrision Mie July, ee reo the so." 

e to +}, , which is still 11-373 cu. in. per sec—equal to @ escape from 


in the reservoir of one of his engines, 


164 Prof. Barnard on the Elastic Force of Heated Air. 


would be the effect upon the available power, of considerably re- 
ducing this. Still retaining the relative dimensions of the cylin- 


ers proposed by him, [ wi rst assume a compression in the 
supply cylinder to one-third _ eed _— This will give an 
absolute temperature of 8139-8, (= 35498 F.) which will be re- 


quired to be further raised to 1085.07 nt 626207 F.). That this 
temperature is admissible if it can be reache d, I have no doubt. 

y this arrangement we shall obtain a mean available pressure 
of 7°33 lbs. to the sq. inch, under an absolute pressure of 70:56 
Ibs., and with an economical superiority to the non- cone 
steam engine of five atmospheres, of nearly three to on 

But in “order to show that the economical advantages petongial 
to this method of employing air dre to a great extent attainable 
under much lower temperatures, I will suppose that Mr. Joule’s 
principle is applied to an engine working under the temperature 
upon which all my former computations were founded, viz., 
above the temperature of melting ice, or 482° PF. We find that, 
under this temperatue, when 7, is made equal to 7’, the mean pres- 
sure becomes 4°61 Ibs., and the absolute pressure 43-22 Ibs. to the 
sq. inch, while the economy, compared with steam, as above, is 
more than two too 

In the following: sioner statements, are exhibited at one 
view ail the particulars relating to the several cases under each of 
the three temperatures which have been considered. In these ta- 
bles 6 stands for the temperature, Fahrenheit, produced by com- 
pression; i. e., J == 7’—459°; R stands for the ratio of economy 
as compared with steam expanding from five atmospheres to one ; 
and R’ represents a similar ratio, steam of three atmospheres eX- 
panding to one being taken as unity.* 


= 1220°°7 = T61°7 F: 
Q 


: m Z Fr Pp R’ 
Joule, ‘750 250 9-85 10592 4569-5 3-436 5-031 
Max. m, ‘907-250 10-45 128-00 508°-7 3-631 5321 
Max. J, ‘750 -373 10°82 70°92 356°-0 2839 4:153 


Abs. max, 1094 -436 12:07 88°52 410°-0 2-502 3665 


* In order that a comparison may be made with gore Eriesson’s abandoned en- 
gines, in which he proposed to carry a pressure of 12 pounds (above the atmosphere) 
in his reservoir, while 7 was made =, we observe, fee that these conditions require 
a Bebstan J temperature of 592° F, which i is nearly equal to to the medium temperature 

proposed above. We shall 438 then for Ericsso 8 arrangement, 


vf! == 1051" == 592° F, 


m I bg scat R R’ 
‘667 “T50 4°35 27 156°6 1195 1-750 
These a of Rand R’ su no regenerator to be used. The epg 
if perfect in their action, woul coats R=3-153, R’ = 4-167. Allowing that 
fail to he see of 30°, asstated by Ca pt. Ericsson, the values would be R= 2668, 
Ris 


x 


Prof. Barnard on the Elastic Force of Heated Air. 165 
t = 1085°°07 = 626°°07 F. 


m 1 P Pp ] R R’ 
Joule, ‘750 -333..7:33 70-56. 36498 2877 4-212 
Max. m, 917 +333 787 8626 403 -7 3-087 4-530 
Max. J, 750 -420 763 55.98 301 8. 2-507 3-670 


Abs. max, 1021 -478 876 67:00 342 6, 2-412 3-539 
t == 941 = 482° F. , 
Joule, ‘750 ‘A472 461 43:22 246°-7 2-086 3-054 


Max. m, ‘928-472 «5:14 63-49 291 9 2325 Bagg 
Max. J, ‘750 -488 465 42:00 241 0 2-054 3-007 


Abs. max, *960 “538 516 48°55 271 -5 2-034 ° 2-977 

It appears from these summaries, that the arrangement most fa- 
vorable to economy is that in which, the cut-off remaining where 
Mr. Joule’s principle would fix it for the given supply cylinder, 
thissame supply cylinder is enlarged to the dimensions which 
give the maximum of power for that cut-off. It also appears that 
the conditions which furnish the absoluée maximum of power for 
the temperature, are the least economical of those which the ta- 
ble embraces. . 

Two double action cylinders fixed at right angles to each oth- 
er, with their piston rods attached to the same crank, will, with 
the arrangements proposed in my September article, preserve a 
preponderance of positive power throughout the stroke, which- 
ever of the above proportions are adopted under the temperature 
of 482° F, 

For the higher temperatures, three cylinders, or four, would 
be necessary ; unless some new mechanical expedient should. be 
resorted to, to reduce the resistance at the énd of the stroke. 
Such an expedient it was a part of the design of the present article 
to propose—not as the best possible, for it has not been a sub- 
ject of much study—but merely for the sake of illustrating the 
practicability of overcoming what has been regarded as a formida- 

le difficulty in the way of the success of the air engine. It 
would extend this article, however, beyond reasonable limits, to 
attempt a particular description of the contrivance here. It ma 
be sufficient to say that it is a contrivance for causing the piston 
at the period of maximum power to encounter and overcome the 
Maximum resistance :—that is to say, to throw the burthen of 
driving into the reservoir a charge of air fully condensed by a 
previous stroke, upon the first third of each stroke, (or first fourth, 
if Mr. Jonle’s proposed temperature be adopted,) and to leave to 
the last two-thirds, only the labor of bringing a new charge to the 
required density.* By this means, the great resistance which, 

*It is obvious that this might be effected, by so adinsiing the cranks that the 
driving piston ma: begin its stroke just as the air in the sappy ayia reaches the 
maximum*of condensation. It is desirable, however, to avoid the severe strain 
on the shaft which this plan would h ge the method hinted at in the 


' 


ee 


166 Prof. Barnard on the Elastic Force of Heated Air. 


under the ordinary arrangements, extends over all that period 


when the driving power is approaching zero, is easily disposed of, . 


and the remaining resistance only becomes serious when the com- 
panion piston possesses a powerful mechanical advantage over it. 
The mechanism which I would propose is simple and liable to 
no objection at present discoverable; yet I have no doubt that 
other contrivances might be devised to accomplish the same end 
as well or better. I shall consider, therefore, the resistance of 
the supply cylinder as no longer entitled to very grave considera- 
tion; and, if it were, a heavy fly wheel would be a sufficient 
regulator for stationary engines of moderate power. For as the 
engine may be started with a cut-off which produces no counter 
resistance, there can be no difficulty in putting the regulator in 
motion. 

It is sufficiently obvious that, for all the ordinary purposes to 
which stationary engines are applied—that is, for all purposes In 
which immense power within limited bulk is not an indispensa- 
ble condition—the air-engine may take the place of steam with 
an economical advantage of at least two, and probably three, to 
one. It remains only to examine what dimensions would be ne- 
cessary to create a power equal to that employed to propel the 
great ocean steamers. ; 

There can be no doubt that the effectual modes of heating 
which may be made to supersede the very imperfect arrangements 
of the “ Ericsson,” will'render possible a material increase in the 
velocity of the piston. That at least twelve revolutions may 
be obtained with an eight foot stroke is a moderate estimate. 
Under the lowest of the foregoing assumed working temperatures, 
(482° F’.) a mean pressure of more than five pounds is obtained; 
but we will assume one lower than the lowest, that is; 43 |bs- 
per sq. inch. Now one double-action six foot cylinder with 4 
stroke of eight feet, twelve revolutions, and a mean pressure of 
four and a half pounds, will give an aggregate horse power 0 
1063. Let the air be drawn froma chamber in which it has been 
previously compressed to the density of four times that of the at- 
mosphere, and the power will be 425. Two such cylinders will 


* If the air he heated without coming into actual contact with the fuel, the three 
cylinders may all be supplied from the reservoir, and by making them only five feet 
each in diameter they will give an aggregate horse power of 855. This doubled will 


Prof. Barnard on the Elastic Force of Heated Air. 167 


If however, we adopt the higher temperature of 626° F. to 
which there is as yet no well established objection, we may ob- 
tain an equal power with much smaller cylinders. The tables 
show that it is practicable to obtain nearly 9 pounds of available 
mean pressure under this temperature, when working only against 
the atmosphere ; and this moreover with an economy which, 
though not absolutely the highest, is considerably higher than any 
that is attainable under a lower temperature, and nearly two and 
a half times —— to that of steam of five atmospheres. Now 
if we compress air into the air chamber to the extent of five at- 
mospheres, and als two cylinders of each set against this pres- 
sure, while the third works against the atmosphere alone, we shall 
require no larger diameter than 45 inches for each of our cylin- 
ders to enable. us to obtain 1750 horse power, which is equal to 
that of a first class steamer. If then we increase the diameter to 
48 inches, we shall have more than 2000 aggregate horse pow- 
er, which enables us to allow nearly a sixth part for friction and 
other drawbacks.* The weight of the cylinders themselves will 
no longer be an objection. That of the air-chamber, heaters and 
refrigerators may be a more serious matter ; how far it wilf be so 


ocean steamers 7 

In making these estimates of power, I have not overlooked the 
manner in which the velocity of the piston is controlled by the 
increased or diminished resistance, as pointed out by Maj. Barnard 
in Appleton’s Magazine ‘for October. It will be found, upon the 
principles of estimate adopted by hi. that too low rather than 
too high a velocity of piston is here assumed. I admit ine con- 
clusiveness of all that Maj. Barnard has said in regard to the in- 
sufficiency of the original Ericsson engines to perform the task 

* Tfagain all these cylinders work against the reservoir, 38 inches will be as large 
a diameter as is necessary, and 40 inches will afford nearly 200 horse power surplus. 

+ All the estimates of power salty in this paper have been founded on suppositions 


pressure ich no serious objection can be take as the power is always 
directly as the pressure in the air chamber, there is plainly no limit to its increase 
except the rials. The question of mpactness is also de- 
ndent upon the same considerations. With a pres 0 atmospheres in the 
air ch a single twenty-inch cylinder (the other suppositions remaming as m h 
text) would give 300 horse power; and a forty-inch, . Two thirty-six inch cyl- 
eg would give 1950 horse oh cds more than enough to drive the Jar rgest ocean- 
ture o er. 


Two six-foot cylinders “would sfarish equal power with but five peers ospheres of 
pressure in the air-chamber. om themselves would have to are a 
pressure of more than twenty pragcn ti eres. These are the dimensions adopt by 


oes 
them also less, (as it must te so long as it is proposed to make the regenerators of 
id use,) the — which th engines will develope mnst be co 
re considered and compared wi with the lead gin nn a 
lished in the last number of this Journal. 


, 


168 M. Delesse on Gilobuliferous Rocks. 


the idloming conclusions, viz 

1. That the elastic force of maou air isa force available for 
all ~ purposes for which stationary powers are require 

That it isan eminently economical source of pow er ; being 

in this respect — to steam, as usually employed, in the ratio 
of two or thre 

3. That oc ; appears to be at present more doubtful to what 
extent it is applicable, if at all, to the purposes of ocean naviga- 
ae n, es value in that respect remains yet to be experimentally 


aoe of Alabama, Nov. 2, 1853. 


Art. XI1.— Researches on Globuliferous Rocks ; by M. Devessé, 
Ingenieur des Min srs Professeur Honoraire de Geologie 4 la 
Faqulté de Besancon 


- [Tis important paper by M. Delesse, is published in the 

Transactions of the acing eal Society of France, and is one 
among the many contributions of its author to our knowledge of 
the structure of rocks and their minerals.* We give our readers 
an abstract of it, presenting the prominent facts and the author’s 
conclusions. The article is illustrated by several elegant plates, 
only a few figures from which we have copied.—Ebs. | 


Under the name of Guiosunirerous Rocks, those rocks are 
ok eae mere contain certain minerals disseminated through 


£ 


f some of the papers of M. Delesse on these subjects. 
sur le Sciul pe Vosges.—Ann. de la Soc, d’Emulation des Vosges, ¥4 
end Cate, pies 
eb provenant de la Fusion des Roches.—Bull. de la Soe. 
Geol de France ah iv, 1380, 1847. 
3. Notice Sur les Ciarkesires de l Arkose dans les Vosges.—Bib. Univ. de Geneve, 


ur le pouvoir Magnetique des Roches— oy ch at de Pha 1849, xxv, 
194, and Annales des Mines, [4], xiv, 81, 429 rp ae Xvi, 323, 
7. a re ches sur le Porphyre Quartzifére. “Bull de la Soc. Geol, ‘de Fr. [2], vi, 
629, 1 
8. rs le Porphyre Amygdaloide d’Oberstein—Ann, des mines, [4], xvi, 511, 


9. Recherches sur ’Euphotide.—Bull. Soc. Geol. de France, [2], vi, 547, 1849. 
10. Sur Ja Constitution Minéralogique et ee des des HB 
Degas avec tourmalines de St, Etienne-—Ann. des Mines, [4], xvi, 184 


11. Sur la Constitution Minéralogique et Che ome de la Syenite du ballon d’Al- 
sace, Mem. de la Soc, d’Emulation du Doubs. 1 
12. Sur la tg des Alps.—Bull. de la ae Ode de France, [2], vi, 230, 1849. 


18. Serpentine des Vosges, Ann. des Mines, [4], sii, 309, 1850. 


M. Delesse on Globuliferous Rocks. . 


them more or less thickly in globules.* These globules are 
generally ens and this memoir has especial reference to 
th ind, occurring in rocks that are rich in silica. 

Gestiaen are sometimes globuliferous, as those of Rappawiki, 
in Finland, which contain globules consisting’of orthoclase, sur- 
rounded by oligoclase. But these researches relate particularly 
to porphyritic or compact rocks, especially eurite, pyromeride, 
trachyte, retinite, perlite, obsidian, and a large variety of por- 
phyries. The pyromerides of Corsica and the Vosges, the 
porphyries of Esterel, of the country of. Bade and Thuringia, 
the trachytes of Iceland, the retinites of Saxony, and the perlites 
and obsidians of Hungary, are taken as types of this structure. 

The globules vary much in color, being either black, violet, 
green, brown, yellowish, reddish, gray or white ; usually differing 
alittle from the color of the paste. ‘They are commonly harder 
than feldspar, when undecomposed, owing probably to the excess 
of silica; but in perlites they are less hard than feldspar, perhaps 
because the mineral is in a semi-vitreous state, and also, it may 
be, because opal penetrates them, as stated by Hausmann aud 
Fuchs. The specific gravity is low, viz. 23-26; 2-322°4, 
perlite. This.is. far less than for quartz, which has G. = 2.65. 
Before the blowpipe, they fuse less easily than feldspars, owing 
to the excess of silica and small proportion of alkalies. 
Composition :-— 

ae Si Al #e Mn Ga Mg Nak. ign 


1. Fr. Pyromeride, Wisenheim, 88°09 Hie 0- 58 —- 0°28 1°65 2°53 «084 =100, Delesse. 

2 Fr. Pd Hlinic Ks Hung., 43 - 12°00 2°45 1] oa3 1'76=1 , Ficinus. 

3. Fr. e; Baula 58 43-78 1-04 4 1°19 O85 068 B57 263 208— 101-00, Forchh. i 

= - ttn Baxony, 3. 00 14:50 1-00 0-10 1-00 1-75. 8°50 99°85, “Klaproth. 
Perlite, Saxony, 68°53 11-00 4:00 2:30 8-33 1°20 3-40 0:30 —99°16, Erdmann. 


Phe large excess of silica is the remarkable characteristic, and 
as a general rule in the pyroméride, the composition of the 
globules is the inverse of that of the enveloping rock, 
Structure—The globules have generally a well defined 
structure. In most of the pyromerides of Corsica and the oe 


4, Recherches sur l Association des Mineraux dans og» 
pouvoir magnétique élevé-—Bull. de la Soc. Geol. — aca (3) vii, oF ton ra 
15. Sur la Variolite de la Story ce—Ann. des Mines, (th 6 116, 1850. 

i énite Rose d’ 


Bull. Soe. Geol. de France, vii, 484, 524, 1 
. 17, Sur le gies de vm [2h et de Samat ne —Bull. Soe Geol. de 
a [2], vii, 310, 1 
| ur la Constitution Minéralogique du Diorite, Kersantites—Ann. des Mines, 
it 149. 
ur la onsttt ution rrr it de la Calcaire Saccharoide du Gneiss. 
yh, des Mines, xx, 141, 

_* This sub ject has’ a apd hy revive ed some attention—see especially, von Bucu, 
Recueil de planches de Petrifieat fons remarquables, fol.; R. C. vox Leonsarp, 
Charakteristik dr Fist Ba. 52 L. Bronenrart, Essai ar les Orbicule es siliceuz, 
a the hack der Geognosie 


— M. Delesse on Globuliferous Rocks. 


and in the porphyries of l’Esterel and Oppenau, the silicious and 
feldspathic parts differ in color: and the distinctions of the two 
are often brought out in decomposition, the silicious part resisting 
change, while the feldspar ts kaolinised. Acids (especially 
hydrofluoric) develop the structure in a short time. 

The globules may be either solid throughout, or they may 
contain interior cavities: the former I call normal globules: the 
latter abnormal. 


independent crystals. 

The excess of silica in the feldspathic paste, is considered an 
excess of a solvent, as is admitted by M. Delafosse, for different 
silicates. 

Normal globules may either contain quartz or be free from it. 

Normal globules without quartz.—When globules of this 
kind have a crystalline structure, there are usually distinct 
cleavages. They are frequently observed in quartziferous, por- 
phyrites, or eurites. Figure 1 represents one of these globules 

ae 2 3. 


te. 
‘= 


a 
ee 


BE, 


b 
ey 


transparent, and it is surrounded by a thin milky or reddish 
compact zone of a feldspar which is probably triclinic. In cer- 
tain micaceous eurites of the Vosges (Minettes), the globules 
are spherical and consist of feldspathic lamell, probably of 
orthoclase, irregularly aggregated, along with some mica, and they 
have a reddish exterior like the above. When the structure is 
radiated, there is but a single system of rays, diverging from the 
centre; the radiation is often veryrude. At Oppenau, the feld- 
spar forms but a small part of the globule, it being surrounded 
by chalcedony. Yet it is evident that the globule has resulted 
from the tendency es to crystallize and to bring 
ica, te ae : 


the same influence, tes 


M. Delesse on Globuliferous Rocks. . 


The globules in obsidian are usually more or less radiated, and 
sometimes have an exterior coat or layer. ‘They resemble much 
those found in the crucibles of a glass furnace when slowly cool- 

ed erlites and retinites, even when apparently compact, con- 
sist wholly of globules which may be distinguished when care- 
fully examined ; and the structure is very ine aay and spar- 
ingly concentric, with some cross fractures (fig. 

Normal globules with quartz.—Globules —— quartz pass 


quence of the solidification of a crystalline crust, The structure 

is either es or concentric, and both kinds may occur togeth- 

rays consist of feldspar needles or conoids separated by 

quartz ; oad both at the alga igo was centre there are often 
zones of feldspar alternating with 

The structure of the globules of the ‘pytomeride of Corsica is 
shown in the following magnified vi 


172 M. Delesse on Globuliferous Rocks. 


There are irregular exterior zones of feldspar of different shades, 
u; needles or conoids of pe 3 converging from the zones 
towards the centre, and others diverging from the centre out- 
ward, the two sets much interlaced; the forms and structure of 
these conoids are very irregular, and sometimes they become iso- 
lated globules. Quartz penetrates the whole, and is also to a 
considerable extent free and glassy (6), filling the spaces or form- 
ing zones. Sometimes’ the quartz is much more abundant at the 
centre than at the circumference. The quartz is beautifully 
brought out by means of hydrofluoric acid; but t should. be 
observed that hyaline a i is much less readily oucied than 
chalcedony or opaque qua Ng 

Abnormal globules. Tes e globules contain cavities, which 
may be reguiar or confused, filled or unfilled ; and they have been 
produced either by contraction or expansion. Globules with eavi- 
ties formed by contraction are common in the trachyte and other 
rocks of Iceland. One of these enlarged is shown in fig. 5. The 
cavities are of irregular form and surface. Sometimes they” have 
been filled with quartz. and occasionally with 5. 

oxyd of manganese, spathic iron, zeolites, ae 
rytes, calcite, etc. At Llan beris m Wales, 
the globules are sometimes a decimeter in 


an exterior zone of opal and an interior of 
jad crystals, or a kind of jasper in layers 
r bands. 


In other globules the cavities are numerous and confused; and 
often they have been filled with quartz, which may be quite dis- 
tinct from the feldspar or shade into it. In Corsica, the cavities 


The indent inate of globules, occurring in the feld- 
spathic paste constituting them, may be either quartz, ortho- 


The most ee PRN of the rocks containing 
globules, is their holding an excess of silica; and in a given rock 
they are especially developed where the silica is most prevalent. 
By this presence of silica, connected in some cases with the shi 
etration of the rock by veins of quartz, the occurrence 
formation of the globules has been determined. Mc 
the globuliferous rocks are ae eecepel nd the 


M. Delesse on Gilobuliferous Rocks. 173 


would ordinarily have appeared as crystals, has taken the form of 
globules. The excess of silica has acted as an impurity in the 
mass, hindering the formation of regular crystals and leading to 
radiated and globular concretions. It may have acted also by 
causing too rapid a solidification for perfect erystallizations of the 
feldspar. Besides, there was a kind of repulsion between the 
feldspar and the excessively silicious paste, which was superior - 
to the molecular crystallogenic forces tending to form crystals of 
the feldspar, and which by acting upon all sides of the agglom- 
erations, reduced them to spheroidal globules. 

n the globules of normal form in the pyromeride of Corsica, 
—which are characterised by exterior feldspathic layers, the outer 
very quartzose, the inner less so, and a semi-radiated structure 
within—it appears that the exterior was first consolidated, since 
these layers are not onl y very impure, but also support the converg- 


from the centre fill up the spaces between the convergent ones, 
and arise from a solidification nearly cotemporaneous, beginning 
at the centre, where there is often a zoned feldspathic paste, as a 
nucleus, which is very siliceous. The solidification of the feld- 
Spar appears to havea repelling action on the silica, driving it 
either to the circumference or the centre. Thus, cooling from 
the circumference, and cooling from the centre, may occur to- 
gether, or the former may alone characterize a globule, where its 
Structure is made up of convergent needles alone. When con- 
Sisting only of divergent needles, or when throughout zoned, it is 
Considered probable that the solidification took place simultane- 
ously throughout. The silica fills all the interstices between the 
: Idspar heedles and zones; it was solidified after the feldspar as 
i granite. The needles or conoids usually contain a quartz nu- 
Cletls, so that they are analogous in structure to a globule ; the so- 
lidification beginning at the surface, the excess of silica was driv- 
®n to the interior of the conoid. 


Nee of fissures. But in the liquid or pasty state, the circum- 


— are different, especially as a process of desiccation may 
mai been in progress ocks of aqueous origin often contain 


Nereti 
that have resulted from a desiccation of the nodule after the ex- 
Was solidified. They may be argillaceous, silicious, calca- 


Common indifferent deposits, especially the chalk, as the & 
Sig » especially ’ 
Persteine or Achilleum eotiaie of the chalk of the Isle of Moen. 


174 M. Delesse on Gilobuliferous Rocks. 


The calcareous include pisolites, the priapolites of Castres, the 
kupstein of the Loess, ete. ere are also the ferruginous, con- 


traction while the mass within was ina pasty state. Such cavi- 


1 of the cavities. Hence the cavities must have been ” f 
during the state of partial fusion, before the crystallization © 
these minerals took place. sei 

rom the characters. of the cavities and their surfaces, wie 


water while the globules were still in a liquid state. It might 
objected to this view that normal and abnormal globules often 
occur together. Still the presence of water is altogether proba 


: 


M. Delesse on Gilobuliferous Rocks. | 175 


ble, and we cannot conceive of any other volatile ingredient being 
concerned. It is hence altogether probable that these abnormal 
globules at first contained silica in the state of a hydrosilicate, or 
ajelly rich in silica ; the water was at first retained by the pressure 
or the heat causing the spheroidal state ; and afterwards it gradu- 
ally escaped, and thus occasioned the contraction and the forma- 
tion of the cavities. 

In abnormal globules having cavities formed by expansion, 
these cavities have beyond doubt been produced by a disengage- 
ment of volatile substances, which has taken place while the rocks 
Were still fluid. When the volatile substances were simply gas- 
eous, they formed no deposit in the cellules ; but when they car- 
ried along other substances, cooling would lead toa crystallization 
of different minerals on the walls of the cellules. These miner- 
als are those composing the rocks, especially feldspar, quartz and 
mica: and in fact it has been found at Sangerhausen that feld- 
Spar may be deposited by sublimation in furnaces. 

In some cases, there has been an expansion by gaseous substan- 
Ces, producing an enveloping cellule, and afterwards a contraction 
forming a feldspathic globule at the centre of the cavity. In 
other cases, the expansior’ has taken place within the globule 
while the paste was still soft, producing a multitude of small cel- 
lules. These cellules have been afterwards filled by chalcedony. 

Filling of the cavities.—The filling of the cavities has taken 
Place either by secretion, infiltration or by both combined. In 
the filling of septaria, there may be a secretion of carbonate of 
ime or iron along the walls of the fissures, and alsoan infiltration 
filling up the rest of the cavities, the two processes producing de- 
Posits of different kinds or colors. In the filling of a mineral. 
Yein also, both processes have often operated, secretion introduc- 
ing a part of the minerals, and infilération another portion. 

The infiltration of the silica into cavities, may have been 


pe which is easily dissolved in hot water, when this water Is 
ider pressure and is charged with carbonic acid. 

whi € same causes account for the threads or veins of quartz 
ich intersect the globules. 
-elinj @ feldspar of the globules may be either orthoclase or a tri- 
are le feldspar. The abnormal globules rather than the normal, 
Whee veloped in globuliferous rocks, which are rich in soda. 
N orthoclase and a soda feldspar occur together, the latter is in 


1859.) that has recognized in a recent paper, (Rendiconto della R. Acad., — 
mica, quart t, hornblende, pyroxene, sodalite, nepheline and ot 
licates may form by sublimation. i = 


i, 
su 


have resulted from the penetration of the cavities with gelatinous 


- 


176 J. W. Bailey on Deep Soundings from the Atlantic Ocean, 


the smaller crystals; and this inferior tendency to crystallization 
thus indicated, may be the reason for the formation in such rocks 
- abnormal globules which are less crystalline than normal globules. 

In conclusion it may be observed that the theory here proposed 
is universal in its application to all globules or concretions, both 
those of sedimentary and igneous rocks. 

One deduction of interest deserves to be noted. It is that as the 
vapor of water and volatile substances have acted an important 
part in the formation of globules, the theories for explaining the 
origin of granite and feldspathic rocks, ought necessarily to include 
this agency ; for it follows that the feldspars, including orthoclase, 
may be formed even in the presence of water. 


Anr.XIV.—-Beamination of some Deep Soundings from the 


RT. 0) 
Atlantic Ocean ; by Prof. J. W. Bartey, West Point, N. Y.. 


In an account of a microscopical examination of soundings 
made by the U. S. Coast Survey near the Atlantic coast of the 
United States* I made known that the soundings along the coast, 
from the depth of 51 fathoms S. E. of Montauk Point, to 90 
fathoms 8. E. of Cape Henlopen were chiefly made up of vast 
amounts of Foraminiferous shells, rivalling in abundance the de- 
posits of analogous fossil species which I had proved to compose 
immense beds under the city of Charleston, 8. C. 

The facts were also mentioned that none of the species found 


Virginia. These facts were confirmed and extended by the © 
servations of IF. de Pourtales in his Report to Prof. A. D. Bache, 
on the distribution of Foraminiferee on the coast of New Jersey 
as shown by the off-shore soundings of the U. S. Coast Survey-T 
In this paper Mr. Pourtales states that “the greatest depth 
from which specimens had been examined is two hundred and 
sixty-seven fathoms, and there the Globigerina are still living ™ 
immense numbers.” He adds that the region of Globigerina && 
tends to a depth not known. £ 
lam indebted to that zealous cultivator of science, Lt. Maury 
of the National Observatory, for an opportunity to examine the 
deep sea soundings made by means of Brookes’s lead on oard 
the U. 8. Dolphin by Lt. Berryman. These soundings proved 
to be of great interest and furnished results which have an Ir 
portant bearing upon Geology and Physical Geography. 
* See Smithsonian Contributions to ii F 
igi 84. ings of Amara or ge a Res ee t of Science, 
» P- . 


” 


J. W. Bailey on Deep Soundings from the Atlantic Ocean. 177 


The soundings examined were as follows: 
1080 fathoms, Latitude 42° 04’ North, Longitude 29° 00’ West, July 25, 1853. 
1860 “ “ 3° ? “ “ ie) Ud “ “ 18, “ 


1580 “ f 49° 56/ 30” i 139 187 461/ * Ang, 22; fH 
Led wet OB Ee ue A 09° 087 “<r . No date, 
2000 “ “ 54° +7t “ “ 92° $3’ “ “ “ 


As these soundings are believed to be the deepest ever submit- 
ted to microscopic examination, and were obtained at localities 
far remote from those previously noticed, they were studied very 
carefully, and the following are the facts ascertained : 

. None of these soundings contain a particle of gravel, sand, 
or other recognizable unorganized mineral matter 

2. They all agree in being almost entirely made up of the cal- 
careous shells of minute, or microscopic Foraminifere ( Polytha- 
lamia, Ehr.), among which the species of Globigerina greatly 
predominate in all the specimens, while Orbulina universa, D’Orb., 
is in immense numbers in some of the soundings, and particularly 
abundant in that from 1800 fathoms. 


Diatoms, among which Coscinodiscus lineatus, C. excentricus, 


- They all contain spicules of sponges, and a few specimens 
of Dietyocha fibula, Ebr. 


ing to the group of Agathistegues (Plicatilia, Khr.), a group 
Which appears to be confined to shallow waters, and which in the 
fossil state first appears in the tertiary, where it abounds. 


traces of the Marginulina Bacheii, B., Textilaria Atlantica, B., 
Pasther species characteristic of the soundings of the western 
tic, 


9. Examined by chromatic polarized light, the foraminiferdus 
shells in these soundings showed beautiful colored crosses in their 
cells, and the mud accompanying them also became colored, 
owing that it is not an amorphous chemical precipitate. It in 
qerean be traced through fragments of various sizes, to the per- 
“et shells of the Foraminifere. 

10. In the vast amount of pelagic Foraminifere, and in the 
“atire absence of sand, these soundings strikingly resemble the 

Serius, Vol. XVII, No. 50.—Mareh, 1854. 28 


178 J. W. Bailey on Deep Soundings from the Atlantic Ocean. 


chalk of England, as well as the calcareous marls of the Upper 
Missouri, and this would seem to indicate that these also were 
deep sea deposits. The cretaceous deposits of New Jersey pre- 
sent no resemblance to these soundings, and are doubtless littoral, 
as stated by Prof. H. D. Rogers (Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist. 1853, 
p. 297).* 
11. The examination of a sounding 175 fathoms in depth, 
made in latitude 42° 53’ 30” N., longitude 50° 05’ 45” W. (near 
Bank of Newfoundland) by Lt. Berryman gave results singularly 
different from those above stated. It proved to be made up 0 


the bottom of the North Atlantic Ocean, as far as examined, from 
the depth of about 60 fathoms, to that of more than wo miles 
(2000 fathoms) is literally nothing but a mass of microscopic 
shells. 


13. The examination of a large number of specimens of 
ocean water taken at different depths by Lt. Berryman at situa- 


tions in close proximity to the places where the soundings were 
made, shows that even in the summer months when animal life 


animals present, some of which are even now alive in 


* See also this Journal, vol. xvii, p. 131. _ 


J. W. Bailey on New Localities of Fossil Diatomacee. 179 


Arr. XV.—On some New Localities of Fossil Diatomacee in 
California and Oregon ; by Prof. J. W. Bamey, West Point, 
New York.’ 


Some interesting specimens of fossil Diatomacez from Califor- 
nia and Oregon having come into my possession, I am induced to 
publish the following brief notices of them, in hopes to direct 
the attention of travellers in those regions to those remarkable 
deposits, and thus acquire more information concerning their po- 
sition and extent. 

he first specimen of fossil Diatomacew from California, I 
found among specimens of minerals collected two or three years 
ago in California by Washington Chilton, Esq., of New York. 
It was from Suisun Bay, 25 to 30 miles above St. Francisco, 
where Mr. Chilton says a large bed of similar material exists. It - 
consists of a light white claylike substance made up entirely of 


2. In a box of minerals collected in Oregon and California by 
Lt. Robt. Williamson, of the U. 8. Topographical Engineers, I 


a8 specimens A, B, C, and D. 
Specimen A.—This is a very light white substance, made u 
of the siliceous shells of fluviatile Diatoms. The predominant 
Species are a small Gallionella, and a Discoplea mingled with a 
few species of Epithemia, Cocconema, Gomphonema and Spongi- 
Olites. "This specimen was without a label, but is believed to be 
the specimen referred to in the following extract from a letter re- 
ceived from Lt. Williamson; “You will find some of the light 
White clay from Pit River, which I spoke of to you.” ‘This is, 
T believe, the same substance which has given rise to the news- 
Paper accounts of cliffs in California composed of carbonate of 

Magnesia, 
’ Specimen B.—This is a light white chalky mass, whose local- 
tty is not given. It consists of fluviatile species, among which 
Various species of Biblarium are quite abundant. The species 
of this genus have been found living in Siberia, and fossil in 
gon. Lt. Williamson’s specimen resembles the Oregon mass 
Paed by the U. S. Exploring Expedition under Capt. Wilkes, 
Pie pe a different group of forms and therefore must be 
& different locality. : 


’ 


180 Analysis of Beryl from Goshen, Mass. 


Specimen C.—This is also a chalklike mass, whose precise lo- 
cality is not marked. It is composed chiefly of a minute species 
of Gallionella, mingled with sieve-like discs which at first would 
be referred to the marine genus Coscinodiscus, butsthe entire ab- 
sence of all other marine forms and the presence of several deci- 
dedly fluviatile species, makes me believe that the deposit is @ 
fresh water one, and careful examination of these discs: show that 
they are more nearly allied to the fresh water genus Stephanodis- 
cus than to the marine Coscinodiseus. 

Specimen D.—1s an ash-colored earth, marked as from near 
the Boiling Spring, Pit River. It is chiefly remarkable for con- 
taining a great number of Phytolitharia, or remains of the sili- 
ceous portions of plants, mingled however with numerous minute 
fluviatile Diatoms. 

It is hoped that travellers in California and Oregon will keep @ 
-look out for specimens of light white clay like substances, and 
carefully marking the locality at the time of collection, send them 
to me for microscopic examination. Even a minute portion sent 
by mail will be very acceptable. . 


Arr. XVI.—Analysis of Beryl from Goshen, Massachusetts; 
by Dr. J. W. Maxter. 


inches in diameter, having a very faint tinge of rose color. Sp. gt 
= 2813. It yielded on analysis, 


Silica, . - = - 66:97 
Alumina, - . - - 17-22 
Glucina, - - - = 12°91 
Peroxyd of iron, = - - - 2:03 
Oxyd of manganese, - - trace 

99:13 


which numbers are obviously those of Beryl. 


On the Silurian System of the Lake Superior Region. 181 


Arr. XVII.—On the Silurian System of the Lake Superior Re- 


gion; by James Hatu.* 


Chazy, Birds-FEye, Black River, and Trenton Limestones.— 
These limestones are so intimately connected, one with another, 
in the Lake Superior district, and each is so thin, that no ad- 
vantage can be derived from treating them separately. It is true, 
however, that each can be recognized asa distinct member of the 
‘lower Silurian geries, and is characterized by fossils peculiar to 
itself, as has been shown in New York. Reduced as these forma- 
tious are in thickness, it will, nevertheless, be necessary to study 
them separately, and for the geologist, or collector, to preserve 
the fossils distinct. 

Commencing at the eastern limits of the district, these lime- 
stones are first seen upon the St. Mary’s river; but they are bet- 
ter exposed upon the eastern side of St. Joseph’s island, than upon 
the main land of the Michigan side. The sandstone, which is 
seen on Sugar island, plunges to the south, and passes beneath all 
these limestones, leaving, as far as observed, no trace of the cal- 
ciferous ; but an interval, covered by drift, occurs, where no rock 
is visible. In examiuing the shore of the island, the first rock 
seen, after the disappearance of the sandstone, is the Birds-eye 
limestone ; but, further to the eastward, near a projecting point, 
some layers of the Chazy make their appearance, having, tow- 
ards the bottom, an arenaceous character ; while higher up, they 
assume an argillo-calcareaus composition, and contain fossils char- 
acteristic of this member of the New York series. This jime- 
Stone is also seen to pass directly beneath other beds, which, by 
their peculiar character, may be recognized as the Birds-eye. The 
fossils of the Chazy do not pass above the limits of the Birds-eye ; 

ut the respective limits of the two members are as well defin 
as in any of their eastern localities. : 

The Birds-eye limestone is, for the most part, thin-bedded, the 
layers being separated by shaly matter, which rapidly wear away 
under the influence of the atmosphere and the water, while the 

tder parts are brittle and easily fractured. This limestone ap- 
Pears to be more fossiliferous here than in New York, and, in the 
Upper layers particularly, we found a great number of Orthoce- 
Tatites, 

The Black-river limestone, or beds which may be regarded as 
the equivalent, seems to be intimately incorporated with the 
— ye; so much so, that no line of demarcation could be de- 


* The following pages are cited from Chapters IX and X, of Messrs. Foster é& 
Whitney’ Reporte dn toa Laie Rapicior Region, Part 2, and are in continuation of 
part of the work from which we have cited on pages 11 to 


182 On the Silurian System of the Lake Superior Region. 


Further to the south, the Trenton limestone was observed ex- 
tending in a low cliff, for some distance along the river, maintain 
ing, to a great extent, the characters by which it is distinguished 
in more eastern localities. Its higher portions are made up, in a 
great degree, of crinoidal remains, and it preserves the same char- 
acter as this portion of the series in the Mohawk and Black-river 
valleys. The whole mass is evidently much thinner than at any 
locality east of Lake Huron, and there is, also a larger proportion 
of shaly matter, not only between the layers, but incorporated in 
them. : 

In addition to the evidence derived from lithological characters, 
the fossil contents are of such a character, and so abundant, as to 
leave no doubt in this respect. The aspect not only of this mem- 
ber, but of the others, was such as to impress one with the belief 
that, though identical in agé and in composition, and a continua- 
tion of their eastern equivalents, they were deposited under cit 
cumstances less favorable to organic life, resulting from the na- 
ture of the materials deposited, or from varying conditions in the 
ocean. ‘The quantity of shaly.materials mingled with this lime- 
stone, and distributed in layers between the beds, would seem to 
indicate that a shallow and turbid state of the water prevailed 
during its deposition. 

he observations made by Messrs. Whittlesey and Desor, on 
the Manistee river, tend to confirm these views. 

On the Escanaba river, for more than seventy miles along ifs 
meanders, above its mouth, these limestones are almost constantly 
exposed, and present these features. The river, for the distance 
of a mile before it enters the lake, flows over limestone sfrata, 


which are nearly horizontal, or dip very slightly in the direction 


consequently, the strata are cut through and their edges expose 
to the thickness of only a few feet. The first rock met with, in 
ascending the stream, is a tough limestone, in thin layers, 


Birds-eye, and contains Orthoceratites and other fossils, charactet- 
istic of that member of the series, as well as of the Black-river 
limestone. The succeeding layers, which are well-exposed about 
a mile above this point, consist of thin, irregular, or wedge-shaped 
layers of light ash-colored limestone, verging to a dark-blue color, 
and contain many species of fossils, characteristic of the Trenton 


ination of these crinoidal fragments shows that they belong ‘to 
genera, and, perhaps, species, known in this series elsewhere: 


On the Silurian System of the Lake Superior Region. 183 


The thin and even-bedded layers at the mouth of the river, 
may be quarried to a considerable extent, whenever there shall 
exist a demand for them, and they will form a durable building 
material. ‘Ihe succeeding layers are too irregular to be of any 
value, except for burning into lime. 

t the lower mill-dam, a mile above the first exposure, the 
banks of the stream, as well as the base of a small island, consist 
of beds of limestone, which form an escarpment fifteen feet thick. 
These also belong to the Trenton group, as indicated by the fol- 
lowing fossils, which were collected at this point: Isotelus gigas, 
Calymene Blumenbachii, var. senaria, Orthis testudinaria, Lep- 
lena sericea, and L. alternata. : 

fascending the river, this limestone, and even the identical 
beds, continue as far as the Lower falls, distant two miles from 
the upper mill-dam. ‘The stream for the most part is very rapid, 
and the dip of the strata very nearly corresponds with the descent. 


ble iMterest, noticed here for the first time. These compact, grey 
beds lie above the limestone seen at the Lower falls, since they 
clearly pass beneath the channel of the river, before the others 

ge. Between the Lower falls and the Meadow,* distant 


e f 
wit ent size, the nearest ones standing out in bold relief, while the farthest blend 
the forest growth of maples, 2 &c. Their mode of growth shows that, 


184 On the Silurian System of the Lake Superior Region. 


nine miles from the lake, the surface is mainly covered by an ac- 
cumulation of boulders, apparently derived from the drift, which 


into an accumulation of this character; but, above, it again 

to the westward, and lays bare, on the east side, a ledge, some 
twelve feet thick, of grey limestone, thin-bedded, and containing 
small cavities, sometimes lined with crystals of magnesian carbo- 
nate of lime, and at others empty. ‘These layers are a continua 
tion of those before described as occurring at the water’s edge, 
several miles below. 

From this point, onward, for a considerable distance, the dip of 
the strata is more rapid than the descent of the stream, though 
the latter is quite rapid ; consequently, there is a succession of the 
lower strata presented to view in its banks. I had, therefore, an 
opportunity of verifying my first observations, that the grey, gran- 
ular limestone rested upon some shaly and arenaceous beds wit 
thicker calcareous strata, like those seen at the Lower falls, suc- 


are almost constantly in view to the Upper falls, and from thence, 
onward to the forks of the river. About two miles from the up 
per end of the meadow, the Birds-eye limestone is seen at t 


ner, and an examination shows that it is filled with a kind of 


from their commencement, which is very ancient—since two or three were observed 
which had fallen from age—they had stood in the open areas which they now ena 
. In such wooded bottom-lands, in this latitude, we often find plants and trees 
ourishing luxuriantly, which, under ordinary circumstances, are found only more 
southern situations. ‘ 


On the Silurian System of the Lake Superior Region. 185 


tough, silicious and irregularly-shaped concretions, or segrega- 
tions, which stand out in relief, while the calcareous part wastes 


ay. 

At the Upper falls, the strata rise more rapidly to the north- 
ward, and though the ascent of the stream is considerable, yet, 
on arriving at the foot, the calciferous sandstone is exposed, form- 
ing the base of the escarpment over which the water is precipi- 
tated; while, above it, there are two layers which represent the 
Chazy and Birds-eye limestones and the lower part of the Tren- 
ton group. 

Here, the following séction is exposed in an ascending order. 

1. Birds-eye limestone, fine-grained and compact, of a bluish- 
drab color. 

2. Calcareous layers, of a grey color, with crinoidal joints and 
other fossils, —4 feet. 

- A heavy-bedded, variegated limestone, with much silicious 
matter, the surface weathering very unevenly,—2 feet. 

4. A thick, silico-calcareous bed, with fossils in the upper part, 
—« leet. 

5. Silico-caleareous layers at the foot of the falls, thin and 
even-bedded,—1 foot. : 
‘The whole exposure at the falls is about fifteen feet, and in 
the bank above, about ten feet more. The beds forming the top 
of the falls disappear below the river, near the point where In- 
lan creek comes in from the east. ‘The layers having the char- 
acter of the Birds-eye limestone disappear a short distance below, 
and are succeeded by thin beds containing an abundance of Or- 
this lestudinaria, Leptena sericea, and JL. alternata, with other 
fossils of the Trenton limestone, and have the same character as 
some of the layers about midway in this group, as developed in 
the Mohawk and Black river valleys, in New York. Above the 
falls, the low cliff of fossiliferous limestone continues for some 
distance, gradually declining to two or three feet in height above 


the river. The same changes take place, with the recurrence of 


Méstones, at a point some three miles above the falls, and con- 
tnuing thence up the stream for the distance of two miles above 
8 forks, 


tock and the descent of the river, is less than sixty feet. ‘There 
's, however, very little parallelism between the two; for, within 
Stcoxp Sznims, Vol. XVII, No. 50—March, 1854. 24 : 


186 On the Silurian System of the Lake Superior Region. 


the first eight miles after leaving the lake, we meet with the high- 
est beds of limestone in the series which occur on this river. Al- 
though its descent is rapid, yet it is unequal in its rate, and these 
inequalities appear to be due to undulations in the strata, which 
can be detected at several points. For the most part, the stream 
is very shallow, and its bed rocky.* 

Along the whole exteut of this exposure of the rocks, whether 
examined continuously, or at intervals, there is no difficulty in 
identifying different portions with their New York equivalents. 
When taken as a whole, and all of the beds examined in connec- 
tion, the principal subdivisions, such as the Chazy, Birds-eye, and 
Trenton limestones, are readily identified, not only by their litho- 
logical characters, but by their organic remains. Even in the 
arenaceous layers, which form some twenty feet of the whole 
thickness, we not only detect numerous species of fossils peculiar 
to the Trenton limestone, but many peculiarities of bedding, and 
other characteristics, which, though not easily described, are 
readily understood and comprehended by the geologist. 

t is deemed unnecessary to give farther details of the variable 
features of these limestones along the Escanaba river; in all the 
localities examined, they offer little of economical value, aside : 
from their application to building purposes. ' 

At the mouth of Rapid river and along its borders, and also at 
the mouth of the White-fish and the head of Little Bay des No- 
quets, the ‘Trenton limestone is exposed, exhibiting the same . 
lithological characters, as at the upper dam on the Escanaba. — 

arther explorations made by Mr. Whitney, along the White 
fish river, in crossing from Little Bay des Noquets:to Lake Supe 
rior, proved the occurrence of the Trenton group, for the distance 
of fifteen miles, or moré, from the head of the bay. The spec 
mens procured are filled with fossils, principally Leptena sericea, 
and occasionally with ZL. alternata and Orthis testudinart@, 
while, in lithological characters, they agree with those observe 
on the Escanaba and Manistee. The country along the White 
fish river is low, rising little above the river margin; consequent 
ly, there are no cliffs, or escarpments, where the strata are e* 
posed to any extent, and specimens can be procured only at the 
water’s edge. This river then, like the Manistee, affords ev! 
dence of the existence of certain groups, but does not admit © 
continuous observation as to their succession, thickness, and im- 
portance. 


* The name Escanaba signifies Smooth Rock, given for the reason that the stream 
often flows for considerable distances, over the smooth surfaces of the slightly 1 
clined rocks. The inequalities caused by the offset of particular beds, give TIs€ 
numerous rapids, and render the navigation so difficult that even a small eel 

a ag: the when the water is low, except by using setting” 
poles armed with steel points. 


On the Silurian System of the Lake Superior Region. 187 


In the present state of the northern peninsula, being almost an 
unbroken wilderness, and the elevation of the country occupie 

y the Silurian series but a few hundred feet above the lake, 
with no abrupt curves in the strata, by which they are brought 
to the surface, it is impossible to determine anything more than 


and it was only with the hope of acquiring more detailed infor- 
mation, that we desired more time and better opportunities of in- 
vestigation. ; 

Leaving the Escanaba, and following along the coast of the 
bay in a southeasterly direction, we soon find the limestones, Just 
described, coming out to the surface at the lake-level and scarcely 
tising above it, the character of the beds being the same as those 
seen within a mile of the mouth of the river. 

At the mouth of Ford river, the country is low and there are 
no rocks visible. The banks consist of alluvial, or drift materi- 
als, for four miles, when there occurs a long rapid over the thin- 
bedded limestone, the same in character as that at the upper mill- 
dam on the Escanaba. Proceeding towards Cedar river, we 
passed several reefs of rock and observed large slabs of limestone 
in the shallow water, which appeared identical with those at the 
mouth of the Escanaba, and lower than the thin-bedded portion — 
of the Trenton group. Upon Cedar river, there are no rocks vis- 
ible for two miles after leaving its mouth; but here, at the end 
of a mill-dam, the arenaceous and shaly bands, which occur at 
the Lower fails of the Escanaba and opposite “ Wood’s Camp,” 


oidal joints being the most numerous. 

‘rom the mouth of Cedar river to the mouth of the Menomo- 
hee, the more thickly-bedded portions of the T'renton, with lay- 
ers of Birds-eye, occur along the margin of the bay. Although 
hearly in situ, the beds have been raised and broken by the wa- 
ter, and, in some places, piled up in walls, or barriers, which have 
@ Very artificial appearance. 

_ At the lower dam, on the Menomonee, a little above the water, 
limestone is observed, in places, on the right bank, its surface be- 
Ing ground down, and grooved with drift-scratches. Its charac- 
ler is very similar to that of the Birds-eye, aud the only fossils 
0 


: Menomonee. The fossils collected were two species of Mur- 
“sonia, Pleurotomaria lenticularis, aud several Brachiopoda. _ 


188 On the Silurian System of the Lake Superior Region. 


After examining the eastern shore of Green Bay, I took up my 
observations upon the same limestones at Depere, tracing them 
along the Fox river to the outlet of Lake Winnebago. Subse- 
quently, in order to connect the geology of the Lake Superior 
district with that of the Chippewa district, I continued my exam- 
inations across.the state of Wisconsin to the Mississippi river, and 
thence, at intervals, along that river to the falls of St. Anthony. 
At Mineral Point, the lower members of the series have become 
very argillaceous, weathering into a light drab color, and are char- 
acterized by numerous fossils. At Plattsville, the Birds-eye lay- 
ers are pretty well:defined, though associated with much shaly 
. matter and some layers of dark shale. The rock, on being 
freshly fractured, is very dark-colored, but weathers to an ashen 
hue. The Trenton limestone, which succeeds, is thin-bedded 
and light-colored, and all that remains is scarcely more than twen- 
ty-five feet in thickness. ‘The same features are observed at Ga- 
lena, and again at Dubuque. At the latter place, the connection 
of this group with the succeeding limestone is very obvious. 
all these localities, the entire thickness of these lower limestones, 
which can clearly be identified with the Trenton and associat 
limestones of the east, is less than fifty feet; but it is possible 
that some better exposures would give a greater thickness. 

I conceive that there can be no’ longer a doubt in reference to 
the age of the limestones under consideration. Their identity 
with those of New York and of Canada has been established, 
not only by a comparison of the fossils, but also by tracing al- 
most continuously their range from the Mohawk, Champlain, and 
Black-river valleys, throngh Canada, to the eastern limits of this 
district, and thence westward, continuously, to the Mississipp! 
river. 

These remarks also apply to other groups, concerning which 
some difference of opinion has heretofore prevailed. Feeling the 
necessity of adopting some recognized standard, we have refer 
these subdivisions, so well marked, to those which have already 
been made by the New York geologists, 

Before leaving the subject of these limestones, it will be neces 
sary to recall to mind some observations made on the Escanaba 


— 
i=) 


have observed farther east. In going westward, I had not an 0p- 
portunity of observing the overlying deposits of the Trenton 
limestone until I arrived in Wiscousin. Here, in numerous local- 
ities, as well as in Illinois and Iowa, the deposit above that which 
is marked by an abundance of fossils characteristic of the Tre™ 
ton, is a grey, or drab-colored limestone, and very friable, forming — 


On the Silurian System of the Lake Superior Region. 189 


a part of the “cliff limestone” of the Ohio and Indiana reports, 
and is called by Dr. Owen, in his report on the Lead region, the 
“upper magnesian limestone.” From its position, as well as its 
lithological characters, it appears that this limestone, which is the 
principal lead-bearing rock in these states, is a continuation of 
that noticed on the Escanaba, lying above the fossiliferous beds 
of the Trenton limestone; but that it has increased in thickness, 
as traced westwardly, and becomes an important member of the 
series; and hence, we have designated it in the classification of 
the rocks, as the “Galena limestoue.” ¢ 
_ In the neighborhood of Galena, Dubuque, Mineral Point, and 
other places, there are numerous localities where a direct succes- 
sion in the beds may be traced. It is verv evident that this lime- 
stone diminishes in thickness eastwardly from these points, and 
becomes a very subordinate member of the series, losing, at the 
same time, its metalliferous character. From the general absence 
of fossils, and from its resemblance to the next succeeding lime- 
stone in lithological character, no distiuction has usnaily been 
made between them. In the localities cited, particularly in the 
neighborhood of Dubuque, the higher grounds are occupied by a 
limestone containing an aburdance of Catenipora, Heliolites, 
and other corals marking it as of the age of the Niagara. From 
the relative position of these ¢oral-bearing rocks to the lead-bear- 
ing strata, it has been inferred that they were: but parts of the 
same group, and they have heretofore been described as such, 
This was the state of our knowledge, when I examined this 
Series in 1841, and having satisfied myself that the coral-bearing 
limestone of Wisconsin and Iowa could be clearly identified with 
the Niagara group of New York, I expressed the opinion that the 
lower part of the cliff limestone was of the same age. Up to 
the present time (1850) 1 am not aware of any published evi- 
ence from an examination of the rock in place, to prove that the 
lead-bearing rock is of lower Silurian age.* The principal fossil 
resembles a Coscinopora; but is probably a Receptaculites. 
have found, however, in the same rock, the head of an Illenus, 
a Leptena, not unlike ZL. alternata, Spirifer lyn, and Airypa 
increbescens. ‘The still higher, thin-bedded, argillaceous lime- 
Stone contains a species of Lingula, undistinguishable from: L. 
subquadrata, Spirifer lynx, Pleurotomaria lenticularis, Murchi- 
* Mr. Conrad, in the proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Phila- 
: ne was of the age 
ined Mineral Point. These fossils are 
ftom the Trenton limestone proper, but no roductive veins are known to occur in 
roc: as I can learn i ; 4 
marked that the veins die out on reaching the “blue limestone.” This blue lime- 
of eg + apace: is no other than the Teen es large bs reciyel 
Je tossils peculiar to that pot, apt underlying vised 4 bead and 


190 On the Silurian System of the Lake Superior Region. 


sonia bellicincta, and another species with angular volutions, a 
large Orthoceras, and fragments of Idlenus. Up to this point, I 
found no corals of the Niagara period, and though the fossils are 
not numerous, they are all of lower Silurian forms, and furnish 
the best evidence we have of the age of this limestone. 

This lead-bearing rock, as before observed, rests upon fossilife- 
rous strata of the Trenton age, which can be recognized as the 
identical group traced over several hundred miles. The galena 
sometimes penetrates the Trenton series, in films or sheets, but 
does not form veins, as in the grey, heavy-bedded limestone 
above. 

From all the evidence, therefore, the lead-bearing, or Galena 
limestone, Must be regarded as a distinct member of the lower 
Silurian system, which is not recognized at the east. F'rom its 
gradual diminution in thickness, its source appears to have been 
towards the west. The conditions of the ocean, though favora- 
ble to the deposition of this immense mass of calcareous materi- 
als, were unfavorable to the development of organic life ; for, al- 
though there remain a few species which continue through the 
period of its deposition, the greater number known in the group 
below did not survive beyond the commencement of this. The 
occurrence of more highly fossiliferous strata above, still of lower 
Silurian age, would show that the Galena limestone does not form 
a series of transition beds between the upper and lower Silurian. © 

To the south and southwest, this rock is of limited extent, 
probably nearly coincident with the lead region; the universal 
testimony showing that no productive lead mines exist int 
western states, out of the range of this rock. 

This fact sets at rest all speculations as to the probable metal- 
liferous character of certain rocks which have been supposed to 
be identical with the Galena limestone. The lead-bearing rock 
is a peculiar one, holding a certain place in the series, and of lim- 
ited geographical extent. It is metalliferous throughout the 
greater part of its known limits, whereeit has considerable thick- 
ness. ‘l'he lead veins are almost wholly confined to it, and evl- 
dently have their source in it. The small quantities sometimes 
found below its base are in seams that die out, as they penetrate 
the inferior rock, and it often takes the form of interlaminations 


On the Silurian System of the Lake Superior Region. 191 


There is another question which may arise, and that is, as to 
the relations of the lead-bearing rock to the Hudson river group; 
for there appears to be little probability of identifying this group, 
at any of the localities west of Lake Michigan. If the upper, 


near Galena. 

_({Mr. Hall next describes the Upper Silurian’ and Devonian Se- 
nes, showing that the region presents strata of the Clinton Group, 
Niagara Group, Onondaga Salt Group and upper Helderberg Se- 
nes. The Medina Sandstone which occurs below the Clinton 
Group was not recognized. The Clinton Group oceurs at Drum- 
mond’s Island, along the eastern shore of Green Bay, on Stur- 
geon Bay, and probably about Lake Wiunebago. ‘To the south- 
West of Green Bay near Hartford, there is a band of oolitic argil- 
laceous iron ore, similar to that of the Clinton Group in New 
York. Beyond the entrance to the Bay des Noquets, fossils of a 
Species of Cytherina, an Avicula and Murchisonia subulata were 
observed ; and at Sturgeon Bay, the Pentamerus oblongus. The 
Clinton Group becomes calcareous to the west; while in central 
New York it consists mainly of shaly and arenaceous beds, wit 
Very subordinate layers of calcareous matter, at the Niagara river 
itis made up of two members of limestone and one of shale. 
= closing his remarks on the Niagara Group, Mr. Hall ob- 

tves] :— 


Notwithstanding all the changes which have taken place in the 
Niagara group, as developed at different points, and its intimate 
blending, as in this district, with the limestone of the Clinton 
stoup below and the Onondaga salt group above, we find no se- 
nous difficulty in recognizing it as a whole, both by lithologica 
characters and fossil remains. We have been able, by these 
characters combined, to trace its continuation throughout the en- 
Ure district from east to west. We have seen it, in this extent, 
assuming different aspects, dependent on causes before adverted 
‘0; but we have never failed to find a greater or less number of 
Known characteristic fossils, even where the strata were explored 
only to a limited extent. Their occurrence, under such circum- 


192 On the Silurian System of the Lake Superior Region, 


stances, and their persistence over so great an area, where phys- 
ical characters have in a great degree failed, only serve to demon- 
strate the value of these means of studying and identifying the 
stratified deposits. 

I have, also, had an opportunity of tracing this group, at inter- 
vals, across the country between Lake Michigan and the Missis- 
sippi river, and of recognizing it by its fossils, particularly its co- 
rals, even beyond that point, to the southwest. It exists in 
Ohio, Indiana, Kentucky, and Tennessee, and may be recognized, 
not only by its lithological characters, but by its numerous fossils, 
identical with those first described in the New York Geological 
Reports, as occurring in this group. Among these, we have, in 
addition to the corals, which are the more common fossils, several 

yo- 


characteristic fossils. His observations will be found incorpora- 
ted in the subsequent pages of this-report. 

Thickness of the Niagara and Clinton Groups.—As already 
remarked in the commencement of this chapter, the lowest beds 
are seen at the lake-level on the eastern side of Drnmmond’s ist 


mond’s island. The entire height of the cliffs does not exceed 
two hundred and fifty feet, and we have nowhere evidence of the 
existence of superior beds of more than one hundred feet in thick- 


ness belonging to these groups. The entire thickness, therefore, 
a fa Qa oes 


* Geological Survey of Canada, Report of Progress, 1847-48. 


On the Silurian System of the Lake Superior Region. 193 


In this estimate, it must be understood that the elevated por- 
tions of the island and peninsula of Mackinae are not included, 
for they are occupied only to a small extent, if at all, by strata of 
this age. 

[The Onondaga Salt Group occurs at Mackinac and St. Ignace, 
but only in thin beds, having diminished in thickness to the west. 
North of St. Ignace Mr. Whittlesey found a marly bed about 50 
feet thick, containing gypsum in isolated masses occurring under 
the same forms as in New York and Canada West. ‘This marly 
bed with some higher and more calcareous ones, represent the 
Onondaga salt group. This bed is not recognized along Green 
Bay or at Milwaukee, and has probably entirely thinned out. 

The Upper Helderberg series, including the Schoharie grit, the 
Onondaga and Corniferous limestone, is largely represented in the 
west, though those subordinate groups cannot always be made 
out. The series, like others, is marked by an increase of calca- 
reous matter on passing westward. ‘The limestones have been 


Ce 


Scribed, but are identical, however, with species which occur in 
the ocks in New York. Some of the smaller bryozéoid 
Skconp Seems, Vol. XVII, No. 50.—March, 1854. 25 


194 TJ. S. Hunt on the Relations of Water and Hydrogen. 
corals belong to the genus Trematopora and Cladopora, while 
t 


wo or more species of F'avosites were observed. A few shells 
‘only were collected, and these, with a single exception, belong to . 


——— 


Art. XVIIIl.— On the Theoretical Relations of Water and Hy- 
drogen; by T. 8. Huw, Chemist to the Geological Commis- 
sion of Canada. 


In carrying out his theory of types, M. Laurent proposed to 
consider water H:O:2, having its equivalent represented by fout 
volumes of vapor, as the type of the oxyds like M2Oz, of the hy- 
droxyds (MH )Oz, and of the sulphurets corresponding to these 
two classes. By his system of compound radicals, Liebig had 
extended to organic chemistry the nomenclature of Lavoisier, 
and he looked upon spirit of. wine CiH:<Q:2, as the hydrated 
oxyd of a radical ethyl (C1 Hs = Et), while hydric ether C1H:0, 
was the simple oxyd of the same radical. But as ether-vapor 
contains in the same volume, twice as much carbon as the vapor 
of alcohol, Gerhardt had already proposed to double the formula 
of ether, and Laurent now showed that while alcohol is to be re- 


and should be written Et:Oz. Hence while ether is neutral, 
alcohol is monobasic, having an equivalent of hydrogen replacea- 
ble by a metal, and is the type of monobasic vinie acids, while 
water 1s the type of bibasic acids. (Laurent, Récherches sur les 
Combinaisons azotées. Ann. de Chim. et de Phys., Nov. 1846.) 

In.a review of that remarkable essay, published in this Journal 
for Sept., 1848 (vol. vi, p. 173), I suggested that this view WaS 
‘susceptible of still farther extension, and that we may inelude in 
the same type all those saline combinations (acids) which conta 
oxygen.” I referred to the hypochlorites. CLO, MO, as deriva 


* 


tives of the type H2Oz, in which Cl replaces H; being (CIH)O 


T. 8. Hunt on the Relations of Water and Hydrogen. 195 


and (Cl M)Oz, while anhydrous hypochlorous acid is Cl2O2, the 
result of a complete substitution. “In the same manner nitric 
acid, NHOs, is a monobasic salt (i. e. acid), corresponding to wa- 
ter in which NOz is substituted for H, as in many organic com- 
pounds; we have then (NOz, H)O and (NOz, M)O;” or (NO, H) 
O: in the notation adopted above. “As an adaptation of this 
idea to bibasic compounds, sulphuric acid, S H2Os, is to be re- 
garded as water in which S HOs replaces H; thus (S HOs, H)O. 
As the replacing elements contain an equivalent of hydrogen 
which is saline (i. e. replaceable by a metal), the acid is bibasic. 
When the hydrogen in S HOs is replaced by a metal, we have a 
class of acid sulphates like (SKOs,H)O. The complete re- 
placement of hydrogen in the original type yields (S HO:)20, 
Which is the Nordhausen acid commonly represented by 280s, 

20. This latter compound as Gerhardt has shown, corresponds 

to the anhydrous bisulphate of potash.” 
__ “The tribasic acids may equally be reduced to the same type, 
if we conceive the elements which replace one equivalent of hy- 
drogen, to be bibasic instead of neutral or monobasic ; phosphoric 
acid, PHsO4 is (P H2O:, H)O.” 

“The primitive saline type is then essentially bibasic, and is 
presented in its most elemental form in water, while the simplest 
type of the monobasic salt, which is a derivative of the last, is 
found in hypochlorous acid.” p. 174. This view of the deriva- 
ion of polybasie acids is illustrated by the bibasie sulphacetic, 
and the tribasic sulphosuecinic acid. 

On page 177 we further remark, that “the binary molecule of 
the metals, hydrogen, chlorine, bromine, ete. will be seen to be 
the type of an immense number of combinations, embracing the 
Various alloys and amalgams, the hydracids like hydrochloric 
acid, with their corresponding salts, and such compounds as Cl Br 
and CII, while [Cls is referable to a triple molecule of these ele- 
ments, represented by Ho; to this type belong the perchlorids 
of atitimony, arsenic and phosphorus, while the corresponding 
ttichlorids form a double molecule.” : 

In a subsequent Essay on Chemical Classification read before 
the American Association for the Advancement of Science, at 
Philadelphia, in September, 1848, and published in this Journal 

t May and July, 1849, (vols. vii and viii,) we observed that the 
lation between alcohol and acetene is that which subsists be- 
tween the two types H:Oz, and He, acetene being hydrogen in 
Which ethyle replaces H, thus C:Hs,H=C:Ho, while hydro- 
chloric ether is a chlorinized hydrocarbon corresponding to hy- 

rochloric acid, so that having repeated what has been already 
Cited as to the type Hz, we add, “moreover it follows from the 
relations of HCl to the chlorinized hydrocarbons, that it (H2) is 
the type of all the hydrocarbons, as well as of the alkaloids 


196 T.S. Hunt on the Relations of Water and Hydrogen. 


which may be described as amidized species of them, and are 
equally susceptible of substitutions by chlorine.” It was also re- 
marked that ‘“‘as many neutral oxygenized compounds, which do 
not possess the saline character, are still derivatives of acids which 
are referable to the type H:O2, we may regard all oxygenized 
bodies as belonging to this type.” ‘ While nitric acid is N HOs, 
or (NO2,H)O, the result of the complete replacement of H by NOs 
will be (NO: )2O, or the unknown dry nitric acid, homologue of 
the so-called anhydrous phosphoric and arsenic acids, which are 
equally (PO2)2O, ete.” Vol. viii, p. 92. 

ne of the objects proposed in the essay just quoted, was a 
comparison of the views of Gerhardt and Liebig with regard to 
the formation of ethers, amids, aud allied bodies. Gerhardt in 
accordance with the electro-chemical theory of Berzelins, had 
considered the acids in these reactions to be electro-negative by 
their oxygen, while the alcohols, ammonia, and the hydrocar- 
bons were electro-positive by their hydrogen, so that these bodies 
minus H2, replaced O2 in the acid.* To this view we objected 
that it leaves unexplained that change in the basic relations of 
the acid, which Liebig rightly understood when he compared the 
ethers to salts, and represented the acid as losing H, which is re 
placed by the elements of the alcohol minus HOz. This theory, 
unlike that of Gerhardt, made the ethers of the hydracids enter 
into the same class with those of the oxacids; at the same time 
it did not include those bodies which are produced with the elim- 
ination of H»Qz, by the action of oxygen acids upon ammonia 


, 


>} 
In this Journal for March, 1848, (vol. v, p. 265,) we observed 
tha 
of water to hydrocyanie acid, and that water differs from oe 
" ; tne 
nds 


eC wit HAAS, 
C2Ha., (Me H) which Frankland calls hydrids of ethyl and me- 
thyl, as well as of his zineo-methyl C2Hs, Zn. The bodies 
which he regards as the alcohol radicals are still homologues.of 

* Précis de Chimie Organique, tom. ii, p. 495. # 


T. S. Hunt on the Relations of Water and Hydrogen. 197 


hydrogen, the result of a complete substitution, and are (C2H:3)s 
ete., like benzile C2:H120.4, which is Bzz, while bitter-almond 
oil is Bz H. ; 

In the Journal for January, 1850 (vol. ix, p. 65), this is again 
referred to, and we remark that as water is to be regarded as the 
homologue of the alcohols, it follows from the principles already 
laid down “that the ethers are homologous with their parent 
acids,” a point which was illustrated by the action of the cyanic 
ethers with ammonia; while the volatile bases of Wurtz “sus- 
tain to their corresponding alcohols, the same relation that ammo- 
nia does to water.” In volume xiii, p. 2U6, we repeat, ‘ water is 
hot only the analogue, but the strict homologue of the alcohols, 
so that the molecule He is the equivalent (homologue) of CsHe 
aud its homologues, and H of ethyl and methy!; (the hypothet- 
ical radicals, )” 

The question whether these homologues of hydrogen Hz are 
to be regarded as the radicals of the alcohols and ethers, has been ~ 
discussed by Gerhardt, Hofmann, and others, but resolves itself 
into this; Frankland’s ethyl is to EtCl what Zua is to ZnCl, 
and He toH Cl; the metals, hydrogen and chlorine always pre- 
seit a dualism in their reactions, as marked as ethyl, kakodyl and 
- cyanogen, 

Williamson (Philos. Mag., Nov., 1850,) has made a beautiful 
application of Laurent’s theory of the alcohols; by the action of 
potassic alcohol (Et K)O2 upon hydriodic ether, iit I, he obtained 

I, and Et2Q:2, and by a similar process mixed ethers, such as 
(Et Me)Oz, eat the same time explained the theory of the 
ordinary ether process, as the reaction between sulphovinie acid, 
S2(EtH)Os, and (Et H)Oz, giving S:H2Os, and Et2O2. Mean- 
while Chancel, following out the same idea, aunounced almost 
simultaneously with Williamson, the production of hydric ether 

y the distillation of sulphovinate of potash with potassic alco- 

ol; by the reaction of oxalovinate with sulphomethylate of pot- 
ash, he also obtained a mixed oxalic ether C4(Et Me)Os, oxalic 
acid being CaH: Oc 


4H+0;, was represented by (C1H»O2, H)Oz, and the anhydrid 
Would be (CsHsOz)202=CsH.Oo, corresponding to four vol- 


198 7. S. Hunt on the Relations of Water and Hydrogen. 


umes of vapor. This body has been obtained by Gerhardt as 
well as the butyric, valeric, benzoic, and cinnamic anhydrids, be- 
sides mixed species analogous to the mixed ethers, such as the 
aceto-benzoic anhydrid, which contains the elements of one 
equivalent each of acetic and benzoic acids, minus H2O2. These 
bodies are of course neutral, and regenerate acids by assimilating 
the elements of water. 

The process by which these bodies are obtained, is very in- 
structive: when the perchlorid of phosphorus PCls;, or the oxy- 
chlorid PO2Cls acts upon a salt like the acetate of potash, a body 
represented by C:H:Cl Oz is obtained, which bears the same re- 
lation to acetic acid that hydrochloric ether does to alcohol; by 
the action of this acetic chlorid upon acetate of potash, chlorid 
of potassium and anhydrous acetic acid are produced. Alcohol 
C1H-Oz2 being represented as (Et H)O2, we may write the for- 
mula of acetic acid (Ac H)O2, (C:H:02 =Ac), while the chlorid 
is AcCl. This corresponds to hydrochloric or hydriodic ether, 
while acetate of potash (Ac K)Oz, is analogous to potassic alco- 
hol. The process is then similar to that by which Williamson 
obtained hydric ether; Ac Cl+ (Ac K)Oz =K Cl+Ac:Osz, or the 
anhydrous acid. ie 

The reaction in all these cases is, as I have pointed out in th 
paper before quoted, (vol. viii, p. 93) identical in essence with 
that between HCl and (K H)Oz, yielding an alkaline chlorid 
KCl, and water HzO, the prototype of all the above acids, 
ethers, alcohols, and anhydrids. We have there aiso. remarked 
that H2Oz is to be regarded asa derivative of hydrogen, Hz, and © 
that it is often difficult to distinguish between the types. ‘Thus, 
for example, the acetic chlorid might be regarded as a chlorinized 
aldehyde, (C1Hs,Cl)O2, belonging to the second type, while its 
reactions permit us to compare it with the hydrochioric ethers 0 
the type Hs. It must be kept in mind that although the app 
rent dualism deduced from the results of chemical change, is sub- 
ject to but very simple variations in the elements, it is exhibited 
in so many different ways in the higher species, that we cannot 
assign an- absolute value to any hypotheses based upon thelf 
changes. i 

I have been particular in again bringing forward these views, 
because they now belong to the history of chemical theory; and 
because after having maintained them alone since 1848, av hav- 
ing insisted upon them in various ways in my communications to 
this Journal, I now find them brought forward by Williamson, 
Brodie and Gerhardt. This latter chemist in a paper presented t 
the French Academy in June, 1852, and published in the Annales 
de Chimie et de Physique for March, 1853, abandons those theo- 


ane . 


ries to which I long since objected, and brings forward, with 7 
istaken 


Marcow’s Geological Map. 199 


Williamson in a paper read before the British Association in 
July, in 1851, has expressed the same ideas with regard to the 
typical relations of water, and is recognized by the English edi- 
tor of Gmelin’s Handbook (vol. vii, pp. 17 and 201) as the au- ° 
thor of the theory. See also Brodie’s lecture before the Royal 
Institution in May, 1853, (Chemical Gazette, Aug., Ist) “On the 
formation of hydrogen and its homologues.” 

It is gratifying to find that the views which [ have so long 
maintained, are at last recognized by chemists, and are found pro- 
ductive of beautiful and important results; but it would be only 
just in these chemists, to have admitted the priority, by three or 
four years, of my own published views, anticipating the brilliant 
series of discoveries which have served them as the basis of their 
generalizations. 

ontreal, Dec. 20, 1853. 


Arr. XIX.—Notice of a Geological Map of the United States 
and the British Provinces of North America, with Explana- 
tory Text, Geological Sections and Plates of the Fossils whic: 
characterize the formations,* by J. Marcou. 


Ing had been done by geologists in America :—notwithstanding 
the publication in this period of the Final Report on the geology 
New Jersey, the first Final Report on Massachusetts, the An- 


that from 1828 to 1839, when Murchison’s work appeared, noth- 


* A Geological Map of the United States and the British Provinces of North 
Bites, Wah ccpletriry tai veslogiea), vects 4 plates of the fossils which 
anat logieal sections an ates of the fossils w 
characterize ki enrevteert d oc ie rae , Uni ess Geologist, member of 
d & Lincoln. 


0 
the Geological Society of France, ete. etc. Boston, G & 


200 Marcow’s Geological Map. 


nual Reports of Pennsylvania, New York, Ohio, Michigan, 'Ten- 
nessee, and Maine, which gave altogether a very good general 
view of the Geology of a great part of the United States. 

On page 15, the adthor says, “Troost, Vanuxem and Eaton 
were also among the first to compare the American formations 
with those of Europe, and laid the true foundations on which all 
the geological maps and memoirs published on this side of the 
Atlantic for sixteen years, have been constructed.” Now as one 
example in point, Troost identified the Silurian of Tennessee 
with the carboniferous of Europe, and Eaton the Silurian of New 
York with the New Red Sandstone. Giving every due credit to 
these named geologists for their labors, which in many respects 
had insportant results, nothing is more entirely unfounded than 
the above quoted assertion ; what they did could not by any pos 
sibility have served as a foundation for maps and memoirs subse- 
queutly published. Mr. Vanuxem did indeed, in the division of 
the Cretaceous, identify that formation of New Jersey with the 
same in Europe; and had from the beginning a clearer idea of 
the age of our geological formations, as compared with Europe, 
than avy other geologist. — 

The map of Byrem Lawrence, which is next mentioned, in 
terms of high praise, is essentially copied from a map made 
Dr. D. D. Owen, and published in the Transactions of the Geo 
logical Society of London. 

e proceed to the body of ‘the work. 

The Lingula antiqua, our author says, “is found in New 
York, Michigan and Wisconsin.” We do not-know of it in Miehi- 
gan ;—perhaps in thesame locality with Lingula prima (Fostet 
and Whitney’s Report) in the Lake Superior region, where it 
occurs in a sandstone which Mr. Marcou further on calls the New 
Red Sandstone. ‘lhe last sentence in the same paragraph re 


on the Mississippi at much less than 1000 feet, and we do 0 
know any authority for believing it greater than this. Why the 
thickness should depend on the more or less horizontal positio2 
of the bed, is what we do not comprehend. . ae 
Under the Trenton Limestone, page 22, we find, “It is in this 

fi 


planet. The first division of the Lower Silurian ie Potsdam 
offers only a few species of animals, rarely to be found, and mostly 
ation.” i 


in a bad state of preserv 


Marcou’s Geological Map. 201 


_ The writer appears to be ignorant of what Dr. Owen has dis- 
covered in these strata on the upper Mississippi, viz.: Trilobites, 
Corals, Crinoids, Orthis, Lingula, etc. The Lingule are in a 
most perfect state of preservation ; and in numbers of individuals 
unsurpassed in any formation of any period. The author speaks 
of Barrande’s labors in Bohemia, but does not seem to know that 
Barrande too has described a distinct fauna in these lower beds, 
or their equivalent in age, and. places there very properly, as do 
all American geologists, the first degree or stage in the “ biologic 
development of our planet.” 

The author gives, among his characteristic fossils of the Tren- 
ton formation, Orthoceratites communis, of Wahlenberg, and re- 
fers the name to a figure of Cameroceras trentonense, evidently 
copied from Paleontology of New York, vol. i, pl. 56, fig. 4; 
fossil very unlike the O. communis in every respect. Still fur- 
ther, he cites it as common in New York, Pennsylvania, Canada, 
the Mingan Islands, on the coast of Labrador, and in Newfound- 
land, near the straits of Belle Isle. Now the form figured is a rare 
ossil, known only in a few specimens found in New York. 

The author cites Orthis testudinaria and Verneuili, Dalm., as 


equally in Europe and America.” If the author has been as 
careless of his localities as he has been in his citations of author- 
ities, we can judge very well of his accuracy in this case. e 
O.Verneuili is one of Eichwald’s species, and the fignre in Marcou’s 
book is copied directly, reduced in size, from Murchison and de 
Verneuil’s Russia and the Ural Mountains, vol. ii, pl. 12, fig. 1; 
and is there cited from two localities in Russia, viz., Reval and the 
sland of Dago. ‘This is the first intimation of its having been 
found in America; and as no locality is given, we may be per- 
mitted to discredit it altogether. Orthis testudinaria is an abund- 
ant species in Europe and America. : 
page 23, it is asserted that most of the blue limestone in 
the neighborhood of Cincinnati is of the Trenton formation. 
This was believed ten years since. The author appears not to be 
aware of what has been published during the last three or four 
years, or he would not have made the mistake. ae 
Jn page 24, speaking of the Hudson river group and Utica 
slate, he says: “Fossils are rare in this division.” Perhaps no 
Portion of the palzeozoic rocks is more densely crowded with fos- 
Sils than this group when in an unaltered condition. In central 
and north New York, in “Upper Canada and Bay des Noquets,” 
the two latter localities cited by our author,—the fossils are ex- 
tremely abundant. While Mr. Marcou says the only fossils of 
Se rocks are Graptolites and fragments of Trilobites, it is 
shown in the Palezontology of New York that more than sixty 


Szais, Vol. XVII, No. 50.—March, 1854. 26 


202 _ Marcou’s Geological Map. 


species of fossils are restricted to these beds, and more than thirty 


k was so named from its containing great 
numbers of Pentamerus galeatus, this being, with its associated 
shaly limestone, the only position of that fossil. Now our author 
makes the rock Silurian, (p. 25) and describes and figures the 
fossil as Devonian (p. 31). He asserts that it is ‘common to 
Upper Silurian and Devonian of Europe, and is in the same geo- 
logical position in America, but on this side of the Atlantic, it is es 
pecially found in the Devonian division.” Now this fossil is never 
found in any rocks of America included by this or any otber au 
thor under Devonian; nor is it true that it ocenrs in the Devo- 
nian of Europe. Had our author read what was published on 
the other side of the Atlantic as long ago as 1848, he would have 
known this. 

The author cites Upper Silurian rocks as forming ‘the upper 
part of the Falls of the Mississippi at Fort Snelling.” The ex- 
plorations of Dr. Owen and others have shown that the rock 1s 
the Trenton limestone; and it is underlaid by a soft, shaly and 
fucoidal mass representing the Birdseye limestone ; and that this 
rests on a sandstone belonging to the lower formations. It will 


eric 
beds of rock salt.” he italicising is ours, the statement 1st 
author’s. ‘ 

Leaving the Upper Silurian, we find under the Devonian, 4 
ae a assemblage of rocks, as one or two citations will 

10W. ii 

n page 29, our author says, ‘very fossiliferons sandstones 

form the first devonian beds in Pennsylvania and New York} 
then comes a great extent of marl and clay, presenting in certain 
localities quite numerous fossils ; and lastly, the whole is crowne 
by very deep red sandstone, especially at the Catskill mountains, 

. Y., at the base of the Alleghany mountains, Pa., and a 
Gaspé, Lower Canada.” 

* We know something of the rapid growth of western towns, but we cannot sup” 
pose that the environs of Cincinnati extend to forty or fifty miles. sites 


Marcou’s Geological: Map. 203 


Our author here takes no notice of one of the most extensive 
limestone formations in the United States, which extends from 
the Helderberg in New York to the Niagara river at Black Rock, 
and thence through Canada West, and forms the higher part of 
Mackinac and the northern part of Michigan proper, or the lower 
peninsular of Michigan. The same limestone extends from 
northern Ohio to ‘Tennessee ; amd though elsewhere noticed, it is 
here omitted in the description of the successive beds or forma- 
tions which constitute the author’s Devonian System. 

Ou page 30, he says, “Since Mr. Agassiz has recognized car- 
boniferous fishes, and Goniatites in the black slate of Ohio, this 
group ought to be placed in the lower carboniferous of which it 
form the base.” Our author has evidently some confused idea 
that the position of the shales and sandstones of Ohio had heen 
a mooted question, aud that it has been settled as above. ‘The 
truth is that Prof. Agassiz has not recognized carboniferous fishes 


slate of Ohio; and those found in the black shale of Indiana 
Were not recognized by Prof. Agassiz. 


_Now Mackinac is a locality of Devonian limestone in part, and 
Yielding very few fossils. ‘he falls of the Ohio consist of Silu- 
"an and Devonian rocks, each yielding a good number of species. 


as fara 
hutian fossil (see page 27, and figure). Our anthor cites Spirifer 
pucronatus. and applies the name to two fignres, both copied 
from Report of New York, one of which is the true species, 
While the other is Spirifer macronotus, a widely distinct species, 
former having a narrow area and strong plications, the latter 
* wide area and numerons fine plications. He is equally unfor- 
inate in his localities, citing New York, Ohio, and ‘Tennessee. 
* Suspect that no other person has seen either of these from 
the two last named localities. 
Spirifer heteroclitus, Def. pl. iii, fig. 7, 7a.—F or this species 
put author has reduced in size two figures of Spirtfer congestus, 
‘om Report 4th, Geol. District of New York, which species differs 
* Widely from Spirifer ‘heteroclitus, that we cannot comprehend 


204 Marcou’s Geological Map. 


how he could have made the mistake. To make the matter 
worse, he cites the following I-calities in the United States: “It 
is very frequent at the Ohio fall, and at Charlestown Road, Indi- 
ana; in Ohio, New York, Pennsylvania and Tennessee.” Now 
the species figured is not Spirifer heteroclitus, it has not been 
found at either of the localities named except New York; the 
species found at the Ohio Fall and Charlestown Road is neither 
the species figured, nor is it the Spirifer heteroclitus ; though not 
only it, but one other species of that vicinity, resembles the Sp. 
heteroclitus still more strongly than the one figured: and finally, 
Wwe venture to say, that neither the species figured, nor either of 
those at the Ohio Fall or Charlestown Road, have been found in 
the other localities cited. , 

As an offset to the above, Chonetes nana, which is abundant 
and almost universal in rocks of this age, is cited as found only 
in the environs of Louisville. 

Our author commences his description of our carboniferous 
rocks by insisting upon the existence of “vast beds o 
and rock salt.” ormer is true of a few localities; as to the 
latter, one well authenticated locality only, so far as appears, fur- 
nishes rock salt. ; 

It is very remarkable that our author should have repeated the 
same rocks and groups under carboniferous, which have been de- 
scribed under Devonian, viz.: “The bituminous shale, (or black 
slate) and Waverly sandstone series, and the fine-grained 
stones of Ohio, Illinois, Indiana, the black slate of Tennessee, 

C. ese names, it is true, are not used, since he has omutte 
reference to all the western states in his Synonyma of Devonian 
sedimentary rocks; but as will be seen, he cannot extricate him- 
self from this difficulty. On page 30, he thus describes the Devo- 
nian: “To the west it extends through the southern part of the 
state of New York, forms the whole contour of Lakes Erie and 
St. Clair,” &c. Now the extension of those rocks occupying 
southern New York, and along the shore of Lake Erie, to form 
its ‘‘ whole contour,” comes thence into Ohio, not by any identi 
fication or parallelism, by lithological or fossil affinities, but by 
absolute continuity. Yet our author describes first his Devoniat 
as forming the contour of Lake Erie, and afterwards represents 

e s, the bituminous shale and Waverly sandstones of 
Ohio, as carboniferons,—these very rocks themselves forming the 
southern contour of Lake Erie. 

We have thus run over the work to the 33d page, and here 
leave it. One point only we will notice. The sandstone of 
Lake Superior is classed as the New Red, notwithstanding all 
the labors of Logan, Owen, Foster and Whitney, and others, who 
have agreed in considering it lower Silurian. 


” 


Marcou’s Geological Map. 205 


We will say nothing of our author’s attempts to systematize our 
mountain chains; if we needed a parody on Elie de Beaumont 
and his systems of mountains, we have it here. j 

Mr. Marcou lameuts the want of accurate topographical maps, 


map any mountain chains, but has “ written ear the places oc- 
cupied by the different chains of mountains, the names of those 
chains.” For the same reason we suppose, or some other equally 
cogent, he has given no lines of States, but has written the 
names of the various states somewhere near the places occupied ’ 
by them respectively. This allows the limits of the various ge- 
ological formations to be laid down any where near the places 
they occupy, without giving the pupil or the critic the means o 
determining their accuracy within many miles, a device perhaps 
convenient for the author, but not so for the student. 

e map in its geology is little more than a reproduction of 
that published by Lyell in 1845, and in many respects it is infe- 
rior to that. As we have remarked respecting the text, the sand- 
stone of Lake Superior is represented as the New Red, or of the 
age of that of the Connecticut, New Jersey, &c. -But besides 
this, he continues a belt of the same formation across from the 
head of Lake Superior, by the sources of Red river to the head 
of the Coteau des Prairies. In that direction he again takes up 
the same formation in the Wind River chain of mountains. In 
both these instances, there is vot the slightest authority for sup- 
posing such belts of sandstone formation, and particularly any of 
the age of the New Red. 

Without the slightest reason or authority, and in the face of 
facts, he runs a belt of lower carboniferous from the coal field of 
Michigan to the northeastern part of the Illinois coal field, aud 
another from the eastern side of the Lilinois coal field to the 
northwestern side of the Alleghany coal field. The latter is a ~ 
Worse error than the former, for he positively traces it across a 
broad belt of Silurian rocks which are a prolongation of those to 
the north of Cincinnati, and which are clearly followed north- 
eastward to the lake shore and the islands west of Sandusky. 

n like manner he traces another similar belt of carbouiferous 
tocks to the southward of the Cincinnati axis, connecting the 
east and west coa! field. The idea many years since promulga- 
ted that the Waverly sandstone of Ohio did pass around to the 
South side of this elevation, was long since proved otherwise ; 
and no geologist for the past seven years would have ventured to 
republish an exploded error. 

The union of the coal field of Missouri and Iowa with that of 
Arkansas is without authority ; and so also the exteusion of 
lower carboniferous over so great a breadth of territory to the 


206 J. D. Whitney on Algerite and Apatite. 


The Devonian formations, which on the map are colored ina 
broad belt through New York and thence narrowing westward to - 
Cleveland and Sandusky, are there represented as cut off by the 
belt of lower carboniferous, before mentioned, which runs west- 
ward to the Illinois coal field. Now the fact is, that the forma- 
tions traced through southern New York and thence to Cleveland, 
are absolutely and unmistakeably continuous along the western 
margin of the great Alleghany coal field, through Ohio and Ken- 
tucky, and even into Tennessee and Alabama. 

’ Our author has recognized the formation about Richmond, Va. 
as Liasic. while the same formation in North Carolina is colored 
as New Red Sandstone. We do not discuss the question of the 
age of the New Red or Triassic of Connecticut Valley and*fur- 
ther south: we only say here that there is no reason whatever 
for regarding that of North Carolina as differing in age from that 
of the Richmond basin. 

There are other errors with regard to regions less known, 
as, for example, that of extending the cretaceous area to the east 
side of the Missouri for several hundred miles above Council. 
Bluffs; and-of terminating the same formation on the northwest 
more than a hundred miles short of its known limits. But these 
are excusable, compared with many points we have passed in 
review. . 


Arr. XX.—On the Chemical Composition of the minerals Al- 
gerite and Apatite; by J. D. Wuitne é 


1. Algerite. 


Iv the Journal of the Boston Natural History Society (vol. ¥), 
p. 118) an account of the analysis by T. S. Hunt of a supposed 
new mineral, to which he has given the name of Algerile, will 
be found. Another analysis of the same substance by Mr. R. 
Crossley has been published (see Am. Jour. Science, [2], x; 77): 

Having been furnished’ by F. Alger, Esq. with specimens of 
this mineral, I have made an examination and analysis of it, the 
results of which appear to be of interest in their relation to a0 
important branch of mineralogical chemistry, hitherto much neg- 
lected, but which has received a new impulse from the laborious 
and interesting researches of G. Bischof. 

The first light thrown upon the real nature of this supposed 
new mineral species, was by J. D. Dana, who was struck by the 
evident altered appearance of the specimens examined by him, 
and published the following remarks (Am. Jour. Sci. [2], ¥¥ 
440): “Lam satisfied that the form of the crystals is a sqva7e 
prism. In external appearance they would not be distinguished 


J. D. Whitney on Algerite and Apatite. 207 


from scapolite, and this naturally suggests some relation to this 
Species.” The results which | have obtained in my examination 
-of Algerite seem to sustain the opinion of Dana, and it appears 
highly probable that this is an altered mineral, and also, as sug- 
gested above by Dana, a scapolite of the Wernerite variety. 

On the first examination of this substance it seems evident that 
it is a mineral in the progress of decomposition. In some of the 
specimens the crystals have been wholly removed from the mat- 
rix, or only a trace of a brownish yellow powder left remaining. 
Their hardness varies from 2:5 or 3 to 3.5 or 4 

A comparison, of the results of the analyses of Messrs. Hunt 
and Crossley will show that the discordances are too great to be 
explained on the ground of errors of analysis. My own analysis 
differs still more from theirs, than they do from each other, and 
though time and material were wanting to enable me to make as 
accurate a determination of some of the ingredients as I could 
have wished, yet it seems, at least, sufficient to settle the ques- 
tion of the claim of this substance to rauk as a distinct species. 

_ In noticing Hunt’s analysis it will be seen at once that the ra- 
tio of the oxygen of the silica and bases caunot be expressed by 
any approximate simple numbers; so, also, in Mr. Crossley’s, the 
latio of the oxygen of 4i, #, R &H is given as 7:3: 1:1; while 
itis really 7-05 : 3-22 : 1:22: 1. : 

For convenience of comparison, the results of these two anal- 
yses are here given, side by side: 


Hunt. Crossley. 
Plies iis 5 ioych evkeme 2) MOOR ce 2051-4006 
Mehing, Gc 8- Oe REDE ee REM 
Peroxyd of iron, - 1°85 - 1-48 


Megicnit ia) i 5 40) eB eee BAB 
Potash and traces of soda, 1021 potash, 9°97 
Carbonate of lime, - 3:94 - 4-21 
Wate, = - BY cas: aOR 

99:45 100-27 

The results of my examinations are as follows ried ; 

Before the blowpipe it blackens a little and soon fuses, intu- 
mescing considerably, giving a colorless glass, and glowing with 
4 Vivid light. ) 

A small quantity of the mineral, selected with care as being 
he least altered in character, was ignited in small fragments, and 
st 6°20 per cent. of water; another portion, which had the ap- 
Pearance of being more decomposed, lost, under the same treat- 
ment 668 per cent. The pulverized mineral was found to be 

Mody t i ications were made two years since, and 
tat the Publiention of| Riel Mies hot dela fod in the hope of an opportunity to 

farther examinations. 


* 


208 J.D. Whitney on Algeriie and Apatite. 


very little acted on by chlorohydrie acid, even when digested 
with it fora long time. The acid however took up a small por 
tion of lime which was intimately disseminated through the min- 
eral in the form of a carbonate. After the ignition it was no- 
ticed that portions of the ignited mineral remained nearly unal- 
- tered in appearance, while the larger part acquired a brick-red 
color, and on examination with the microscope was seen to coll 
tain silvery white scales, apparently of mica. 
As only a small quantity could be used for analysis, the results 
can be relied on only as approximately correct. ‘They are as 
follows : . 


Silica, - - - - - - 52:09 

Alumina, and a little Pe, —- - - 18-63 

Phosphate of lime, - - - . 8-22 

Carbonate of lime, -  - - - 4-41 

ater, - - - - - - 6:68 

Loss, potash and soda? wichita - 9:97 
100-00 


The difficulty of reconciling this analysis with either of those 
cited above, on the hypothesis of the algerite being a mineral of 
a fized composition, will be apparent. Several specimens were 
examined and all were found to contain phosphate of lime. — 

_ Scapolite is, of all others, a mineral which seems most liable 
to metamorphosis. Numerous examples of this will be found in 
Bischof’s “ Lehrbuch der chemischen und physikalischen Geolo- 
gie” (ii, 403, 1433, &c.). It is proved by the analysis of a mica 
in the form of scapolite (from Arendal) that all the lime of this 
mineral may be removed and a part replaced by potash. It is 
proved by numerous analyses that a portion of the lime may 
main in combination with carbonic acid. It is also demonstrated 
that the lime may be exchanged for magnesia so as to give ris 
o a magnésian mica; also that the entire mass may be ¢0P 
verted into steatite, or a hydrous silicate of magnesia. My analy- 
sis shows in addition to these facts, that in the process of mela 
morphosis a part of the lime may enter into combination with 
phosphoric acid. i is iuteresting to notice, in this connection, 
the analyses by Messrs. Brewer and Garrett of a substance V 
similar in composition to the Algerite, and also evidently 0 a 
tered scapolite, which are published in Dana’s Mineralogy, uh 
edition, p. 680. 

So much is evident, that the Algerite is not a homogeneous 
mineral and cannot claim to rank as a distinct species; and vat 
highly probable that it adds one to the already numerous list 
the products of the transformation of the scapolite family- Fur 
ther analyses of specimerts from this locality, if such can be ob- 
tained, will throw more light on this interesting subject. 


. 
- 


J. D. Whitney on Algerite and Apatite. . 209 


2. Apatite. 


The theoretical composition of apatite according to the latest 
a weights (Ca=250, C]=443:3, P=400, F=235-4) is as 
ollows : 


Ca C - Oa Ca Cl Ga? B 
Chlorine Apatite, 3°82 677 4127 4814; or 1059 89°41 
Ca Fl p Oa Ca Fl 6a? 
Fluorine Apatite, 3°94 872 42°62 49°72; or 766 92°34 


There has been a good deal of discussion as to whether the 
formula proposed by G. Rose was borne out by the analyses. 
Rammelsberg analyzed the fine crystallized apatite from the Zil- 
lerthal,* and endeavored to make a direct determination of the 

uorine. He only succeeded in obtaining about one-fourth of 


edges, 
of the phosphoric acid was effected by mercury, according to 


Rose’s process; in the other the lime was separated by means of 
Sulphuric acid and alcohol. The results were : 
co IL. 
Insoluble, - a - 029 =«- 0:25 
uime, as (ee60 = B83, 
Phosphoric acid, -  - 4328 - 43°17 
Chlorine, a - “ - 1:02 
mee ACE. es trace 


* Ramm. 2d Supp, p.15. + Pogg. 84,308. + Inaugural Dissertation, p. 44. 
Stoonp Sunies, Vol. XVII, No. 50.—March, 1854. oe 


210 _ SJ. D. Dana’s Mineralogical Contributions. 


These results give on calculation : 
Ca? oe si Ca Fl 
I. 93-77 3-04 
Il. 93°54 15 8 02 
The analyses agree well together, fii give too small a quan- 
tity of chlorid and fluorid of calcium. 


at 


Arr. XXI. ra wpiasions to Chemical Mineralogy ; by 
James D. Dana.—Part IL. 


1. Relations of Anhydrous Carbonates and Sulphaies. 


Te Carbonates that come under the general formula 8 6, and 
the Salphades RS, present each a case of trimorphism : and a 
third example of similar character is ort in the coma 
of Sulphates and Carbonates (RS4nRC). These cases are as 
follows; the angles given are R: R in the rhombodedral forms, 
and I: I (oo P) in the Amory — 

Rhombohedral. Monoclinic (basal cleavage). 
Calcite, GaG; 105° 05’ Pras res 116° 10’ nee ferent (Ca, Ba) 6; 


{ Anglesite, PbS; 108° 88”) 
Dreelite,(Ca,Ba)S; 93-94° { Anhydrite, Pe srs - ’ Glauberite, (Ca, Na)5; 83° 
Barytes, Ba 8; 
soe PbS+3hv6; — a Pb S4aPb0, ae Lanett: PoS+Pbd © 


nd 
nd 


There is a sihuokcabe cuales between ss sulphates @ 
carbonates. ‘The difference between the angle of Atragenias® ” 
Calcite is about Ll degrees; between Calcite and Barytoca 
10 degrees. Nearly parallel with this, the angle in Anglesite 
Avhydrite is about 10 degrees larger than that in Dreelite, and 
that of Dreelite is 10 degrees larger than that of Glauberite. 
The sul phatocarbonates correspond with the sulphates ieee in 
angle, and confirm this parallelism. Susannite and Dreelite 4 
nearly the same in angle; so also Leadhillite and 1 
and Lanarkite and Glauberite.* 

It hence follows that the homologous prisms in er 
and Anglesite are the prisms, above mentioned, of 116° W 


angle of Susannite mentioned iy Haidingtr is that of oR, Brooke - 
Miller give Leadhilit another position which makes the angle I: 1 
‘It is pret rg oe his is not the posi position, from the fact that the 4 with 
he carbonate and sulphate of lead, or ident ition, 

one posts ot! uch larger than that of th nate ther pos 
g 1% as I, we have I © 16’, or An This view pest) 1 


taking 17 as ; or near Anglesite. 

by — of Susannite (which is identical with Leadhillite in compos" 
Lanarkite, according to measuremen R. P. Greg, Esq., recently Cag i 

cated to the writer, the oceurring vertical ee Bagh! has the front angle 49° 50’; a” 

this being taken as the prism i2 (x P’2), makes I: 1= 85° 48’, as above state 


J. D. Dana’s Mineralogical Contributions. 211 


103° 38’; and the carbonate and sulphate series differ fundament- 
ally by 10 to 15 degrees. Hausmann therefore cannot be right in 
making the carbonates and sulphates homceomorphons; by assum- 
ing a different prism in Anglesite (one usually taken as a horizon- 
tal prism) as the fundamental vertical prism; the alleged homeo- 
morphism was based on a comparison of parts nob hanolegsth 
and does not exist. This conclusion also follows from the fact 
that the common hexagonal and 6-rayed twins of Arragonite and 
Cerusite, arising from the nearness of the angle of the prism to 

, hever occur in the sulphates, showing that the angle of the 
fundamental prism is not near 120°, 


2. Homeomorphism of Beryl, Pyrosmalite, Dioptase, and 
Eudialyte. s 


0:1 :2 
“Beryl, (Be, AlSiz 150° 3’ 180° 57’ 
Pyrosmalite, 4( ie, eye Bir re or [+Pe fe « . 148° 30" 129° 8” 
Eudialyte, R* Si? Zr 148° 38’ ~—-129° 21” 
Dioptase, Gu? Sis fit : : 148° 38” 129° 21/ 


0 is the basal or terminal sthie} in cack and tis 1P. In Diop- 
tase it is a cleavage plane (1R), and in Budialyte, althongh usu- 
ally designated 4B it is also a direction of cleavage, though im- 
perfect cleavage, and should be taken as 1 

ith the above group, the foliage a may also be seca 


Cinnabar, Hg S, or 36’) O : $=146° 32/ O : 1=127° 067 
Quartz, $i, (R=94° 15’) O : $=147° 85! 0: ean die 13! 
Dreelite, (Ca, Ba) §, omen ) 

Susannite, Pb §+3hb 6, (R=94°) 0: 4=147° 26’ O : 1==128° 03/ 


It is possible that the plane 4 in Cinnabar and Quartz may be 
homologous with that of Lin Dioptase or Beryl. With regard 
to Quariz or Dreelite, there is the objection to this view that they 
do not correspond with Dioptase in cleavage. ‘Taking them as 
here designated, the vertical axis in each is twice that of Ber yl. 

Chabazite also is near quartz in angle. 


3 Homeomorphism of Pyrrhotine (Magnetic Pyrites ae Green- 
an 


ochite, Breithauptite, Copper Nickel, Nepheline, oe yt rinile. 
Pyrrhotine, Fe7 Ss; FeS? QO: 1==185° 16’ O :4=158°? 39° 

- Greenockite, Cas, O :1==136° 24/ O : $=154° 82’ 
Breithauptite, Ni Sb, O : 1==135° 15’ O : 4=158° 38’ 

pper Nickel, Ni As, O : 1=5136° 35/ O : 4==154° 41’ 
Nepheline, (Na, K)? Si-2%1 Si 0 : 1=136° O: J=154° 13} 
ochre and Nepheline are nearly identical in poe'* — 

‘ =< ae from the allied species; O: 159° 10, 
8 : inlay ond O ; 3 in either of the above. 


The expressions here used for the planes are essentially those of Naumann, ct 
mere ‘edhe P is ropped. In the monoclinic system the clino- 
forms are ie Gitingeiahed by by a gfave accent (°). 


212 = J. D. Dana’s Mineralogical Contributions. 


These species have O:1 nearly coincident with O:2-2 in 
beryl (2-2, or 2P2 being a plane on the basal angle of the hexag- 
onal prism). Hence if the series of planes on the angles in Ne- 
pheline and others of this group is homologous with that on the 
edges in Beryl, the two groups would be properly united. But 
there is no good reason for this supposition. Taking the planes” 
as presented, the vertical axis in the Beryl group is to that in the 

y 4 


~~ 


Nepheline as v5: 4. 
4. Homaomorphism of Willemite, Phenacite, and the species of 
the Corundum Group. 
y Weainliet 2008 Bh eh ie Oe, on gt 
Phenacite, Be Si - Ri ees “ a R=116° 40’ 
These angles are the angles of $R in the Corundum Group, 

and may be reasonably taken as of 4R in Willemite and Phena- 
cite. 3:4 in Specular Iron=115° 22’, Oxyd of Zinc (Zn) 18 
shown by G. Rose (Kryst.-Chem., p. 64) to have the form essen- 
tially of Corundum ; and water (If) is probably of this group. 
Corundum has for O : R, 122° 26’, being 4° 40’ less than in Cin- 
nabar, and nearly 6° less than in Quartz. 


5. Homaomorphism of Apophyllite, Nagyagite, Uranite, Ana- 
tase, Matlockite. 


These species have a more or less perfect basal cleavage. 


Ost 
Apophyllite, (Ca, K)SitoH — - - “ 119° 30° 
Nagyagite, (Pb, Au) (Te, 8)? ne ee - 118° 37’ 
Uranite, Oa B+ 82 Bie - - - 118° 35’ 
5 natase, Ti - - . - és 119° 99° 
Matlockite, Pb Ci+-Pb O - - - 119° 34” 


Hausmannite (Mn ¥n) is stated to be homceomorphous with 
Anatase ; its angles diverge more widely than the others from the 
type, O: 1 giving 121° 3’. It is intermediate between this grouP 
and the Idocrase series. Calomel has 0: 1=119° 51’. But = 
cleavage is not basal. : 

The Zircon group, which includes Zircon, Rutile, Cassiler 
ite, Eirsiedite, have the vertical axis twice that of the grouP 
above. O: 1 in Zircon=137° 50’, and O : 2=118° 54’. eagied 
if the plane 1 in the Apophyllite series may be taken as 2, ¥ 
groups come together. it 
may be of the Zircon type. O:1 in Scapolite is 148° 20’; — 
So that if the prism of most perfect cleavage in Scapolite be 
taken as the fundamental prism, and 4P o becomes 4P, the tw? 

angles. . eae 


J. D. Dana’s Mineralogical Contributions. 213 
6. Homeomorphism of Romeine, Idocrase, Cerasine, Chiolite, 
Braunite. 


The species have no basal cleavage. 


Romeine, rea Sb) Sb - - O : 1=124° 05/-124° 35” 
Idocrase, R® Si+-# Si : - O : 1(2)=128° 

Cerasine, Fi Cl+Pb - - O : 1=123° 067 

Chiolite, 3Na F-+2Al? FF - - OF T==i287 17” 

Braunite, Mn* - - O : 1=125° 40’ 


ied plane in Idocrase here taken as 1 is usually made the 
plane 

The Scheelite series may be related both to the Apophyllite 
and Idocrase series. In Scheelite (Ga W), O: 1¢=123° 59; in 
Scheeletine. (Pb W), 122° 33’; in Wulfenite (Pb Mo), 122° 26 ; 
in Fergusonite ((¥, Ge)« Ta), 124° 20’. But if the planes 1¢ are 
not homologous with 1 in Apophyllite, and the planes usually 
given as 1 should be retained so, then the angles O:1 are be- 
tween 114° and 116°. In Scheelite, both 1 and 1¢ correspond 
to cleavages, and the formér is most distinct, while the latter is a 
plane of . ‘twin-com position. 


7. Homeomorphism of Sylvanite, Mispickel. 


Srlvanite (Ag, Au)Te? =1108 46) (B.d&:M) 0: 9%==148° 34’ 
pickel, Fe (S, As y: i=i1 O: 4%=148° 56’ 


* Volger i in his Studien zur eo oa = eae oe Zurich, 1854, p. 
421, in an oy sire ae er on mangan nite an altered mineral 
with the € original composit prc si me a poo omceomorphism 
with tin ore a and wattle “i ee angles however are rather remote for such a 


conclusion, much nearer those of *‘docrase, We have evidence in the dimor- 
of idoer net in connectian with the dimorphism o oO e 
men and the pr yds and peroxyds, that a monometric = a rhombo — rd 
= ° to 8 d a dimetric with the form of id y be he three forms of a 
orph, and — it seems possible that a peroxyd (4) may have an idocrase Beg 
Idocrase, as explained beyond, may be viewed as consisting of peroxyds R8, # Si, 


each containing of oxyge me 
dusmannite is suppose a by Volger (p. 414) to be homologous in composition 
With anatase; and Polianite ( (p. 403) ‘which bea ay Géthite in its angles and af- 
Mn on analysis the composition © ite, Mn, is supposed to be an altered 
in H, rendered envi tg by the fisener Manganite, which is generally con- 
sidered #n H, is regarded by him as probably Mn Hi? and “i pt tl ie with an- 

ite (Be 2) 

The “wis undoubted bacty ea of the mange ores are liable to alterations 
by eo ation and om r losing water, so that ook or eet a are yet few in 


makes Brookite homemomorphous with Guth ‘doe cit., p. 483 and 
500). But the resemblance is not close. In Brookite I: ft =99° 5 —100° 30’, and 


that Brookit 
not trimorphous. Sagenite, or acicular rutile in Quartz, he endeavors to 
ct citer Brookite or cram hs of Rutile after Brookite. Brookite is closely 


homceomorphous with Columbite. as shown by the wri writer in this volume, page 86. 


214 J. D. Dana’s Mineralogical Contributions. 


8. Homeomorphism of Andalusite, Topaz, Staurotide. 
_ T: Tin Staurotide is 128° 42’, in Topaz 124° 19’, and in An- 
dalusite (taking #2 as I), 127°. 28. Compared with Topaz, the 
plane 17 (Px ) of Staurotide is 37, and the plane 17 in Andalusite 
is 27. The axes in this view are as follows: 
Topaz, (Al® Sit. F replacing some O) — a: b : c==0'8989 : 1: 18931 
Andalusite, (AI? Si?) a:b: c=0°9487 : 1 : 20268 
Staurotide, (Al? Si) a:b: c=0-9652 : 1°: 20825 
The species Lievrite has some relations to this group: the 
prism I, referred to the above type, would be ¢. 


9. Discrasite, Witherite, Aragonite, ete. 


Discrasite, Ag? Sb I=119° 59’ O : 13==130° 41’ 

Witherite, Ba 6 I=118° 30’ 

Aragonite, Ca G I=116° 10’ O : 17=180° 50’ 
; 10. Augite and Wollastonite. . 


In volume xv, [2], page 449 of this Journal, the author pointed 
out the fact that Wollastonite, by a change of position from that 
ordinarily taken, and one fully authorized, had nearly the angles 
of Augite, as follows: 

Augite, (Mg, Ga)® Si? Es 287 5? O : 22==131° 17’ C=73° 597 

Wollastonite, Ca? Si? I: I=87° 28’  O: 2i==137° 48’ C=69° 4a’ 

The main difference is in the less length and greater obliquity 
of the vertical axis in Wollastonite, and in the cleavage. The 
axes are: 

Augite, - : : : @:b :c=05412 : 1: 091846 
Wollastonite, = - - ~ a:b: e=04838 21: 089789 . ‘ 

It may be of some interest to observe, that the angle I: I in 

the Augite series is near the rhombohedral angle of the Corun- 


dum series, which varies from 84° to 88°. 


11. Pyrolusite and Gthite not closely homeomorphous. 


The angle I: I of Pyrolusite =93° 40’, and is near the corres- 
ponding angle of Gothite and Diaspore. But O: 42 in Pyrolus 
site is 160°, which gives 143° 57’ for O: 13, and this differs 5 
from the same angle in Gothite. 

12. Homeomorphism of Monazite, Lazulite. 
Monazite (Ge, fa,th)® (I); Wagnerite Mg*P+MgF (11); Lat 
ulite (R+A1)B4+H? (IIL). 

L 1:T=98° 10’; C=76° 14’; O: 101389 87 ..+. a:b :¢ == 0.94715 5 1: 10269 

IL I:1==95° 95/; C=63° 957; O:11=146° 3’.-.a:b:e = 07401 21: 09881 
TIT. 1: 1=919 80’; C=88° 15’; O:17==139° 45’. a:b:¢ = 086904: 1: 10260 

The inclination of the vertical axis (angle C) varies widely; 
and consequently O on the clinodiagonal prism 1i(P/ «) 


J. D. Dana’s Mineralogical Contributions. 215 


much. But excepting Wagnerite, the relations between the axes 

are close. In Wagnerite the plane w (see Brooke and Miller) is 

taken as the basal plane O. ~ A 
In Triphyline 1:1 = 94°; but the approximation to the others 

in the value of the vertical axis is not very close, even if the 

prism be oblique. ‘The author has before shown that Crocoisite 

is homceeomorphous with monazite. 

he Monazite and Apatite series are mutually dimorphous. 


13. Datholite and Euclase. 


The following figures of crystals of Datholite present some 
planes hitherto unobserved. Fi 1. 
land 2 are from Roaring Brook, 
Connecticut, and 3 and 4 from . 
Isle Royale, Lake Superior. 
Fig. 2 presents only a lateral por- 
tion of a crystal which in most 
respects resembles figure 1. A 
tratisparent crystal from this lo- 
tality afforded for I : I, 115° 12’ 
giving by calculation 73:73 76° 

8’. The plane O and all the 
others are highly polished, ex- 

Cepting sometimes 82, 72, and usually s; s replaces 
edge I: 23; and as its intersections with 63 and 4 are 
not parallel, nor is the intersection with 63 parallel to_ . 
that of 63 and 6%, it is probable the plane is 'y - }. 
The angles of 188 are X= 139° 25, Y=57° 8, 
Z=141° 32. The minute plane ¢, figure 4, gives 

4. 4. 


®pproximately © : ¢ = 140°—142°, é@: ¢= 109° 30’, whence 
*t=1419, which are near the angles of plane 22; but the inter- 
Sections of ¢ with 2 and 2% are not parallel, although those with 
and 43 are parallel. From the last parallelism m =4n-—(2 +2). 


216 J. D. Dana’s Mineralogical Contributions. 


Datholite, as Brooke and Miller show, is trimetric and hemihe- _ 
dral, instead of monoclinic, its hemihedral character giving ita 
monoclinic aspect. Still it is hom@omorphous with Euclase. 

In Euclase, I: I=114° 50’; and a: b : c=0-4894: 1: 1-477. 

In Datholite, l: 1=115° 26-12’); a: b: e=0-5: 1: 1:6829. 

In each, the axes are very nearly as 1: 2: 3. 

The homeomorphism of Sphene and Euclase is shown by the 

author in this Journal, vol. xvi, [2], p. 96. 


14. Isodimorphism of Tourmaline and Calcite. 


In the last number of this Journal, the author has written for 
the formula of Tourmaline, (R*,#, 8): Si*, (which is equivalent 
to (R*, #, B) Siz.) ie ot da 

The species Euclase is known to have the formula (41, Be)! Si. 

The analogy in these formulas of Tourmaline and Euclase 
will be observed. And if an analogy in crystallization existed, 
we should have thereby good evidence that the formula of Tour- 
maline was right in fact and also in principle. / 

Tourmaline and Calcite are closely homceomorphous, as was 
sometime since suggested to the writer by Mr. T. S. Hunt. fed 
rhombohedron 2R of Tourmaline has the angle 103°, near 105 °5 

of Calcite. The planes 2R are as highly polished as R, and 
" sometimes more highly so; and there is no reason in cleavage oF 


called R (giving the angle 133°8) / 
become $R, analogous to the com- 
mon nail-head form in Calcite. No 
objection therefore exists to the ho- 
mcomorphism of these species. The 
annexed figure presents a new form 
of Tourmaline, from Hunterstown, 
Canada East, for the privilege of study- : 
ing which the writer is indebted to 
Mr. Hunt. It is of arich dark-brown color and transparent, nA 
uring two-thirds of an inch across. It is lettered to correspoD 
with the above views, the plane 6. Me 
usually called 2R being made R. 
Calcite and Barytocalcite are i 
well known to be mutual di- 


=) 
pee 
= 


J. D. Dana’s Mineralogical Contributions. 217 


changing the lettering of the former. They represent crystals » 
of the species, seen in profile. A‘resemblance is apparent ata 
glance ; besides, f: f (over edge nm) of Euclase = 106°; I: I (over 
tt) Barytocalcite = 106° 54’. In Barytocalcite I,1 are cleavage 
plaues, and so also the plane O; and making I, I the sides of 
the fundamental prism and O, the base, the planes are as let- 
tered in the figure. The plane in Euclase corresponding to O 0 
Barytocalcite, would be ¢. Taking ¢ as O, and f for the com- 
parison as I, the axes of the two species are as follows: 

Euclase, I=106° a:b: c=0'83892 : 1: 182674 C=106° 8’ 

Barytocaleite, I=106° 54’ a:b: c=0-81035 : 1: 129583 C=88° 46’ 

In this view, r, u, i are the clinodiagonal prisms i, 3i, 47; the 
plane s =4-4, k=1-3, 9, a plane between s and k, mentioned 
by Brooke and Miller, is the plane 1, or belongs to the funda- 
mental octahedron, having for the angle X, 128° 48’. 

emembering how Auhydrite diverges from the other sulphates 
RS in angles and cleavage, and Wollastonite, another lime species 
from Augite in the same particulars, and also noting the differ- 
ence in angle between Tourmaline and Calcite, it will be admit- 
ted that the homceomorphism is close 

Since then, calcite and tourmaline are homa@omorphous, and 
also barytocalcite and euclase, tourmaline and euclase are mutual 
dimorphs as well as calcite and barytocalcite ; and, moreover, 

ourmaline and Calcite are isodimorphous. 

Hence the formula of Tourmaline, analogous with that of Eu- 
clase is the right one; and condensation in writing formulas is 
apparently the correct method, in place of the hypothetical sub- 
division adopted by Hermann, and others. i ld 

he Laurent School in France is obviously right in making 
the protoxyds and peroxyds replace one another, the parts equiv- 
alent being those having the same number of atoms of oxygen. 
The principle is sustained by the homeomorphism of Willemite 
and Phenacite, %n* Si and BeSi; or if Be be written Be’, other 
cases show the mutual replacement of Be® and 1 It is exempli- 
fied in Augite and Spodumene, the former 2? Si, the latter (R’, #)Si*; 
and also in many other species. 


15. Observations on the formulas and relations of some species. 


_ Luclase, Datholite, and Sphene.—The formulas are as follows, 
M accordance with the above principles. 
i ie ee £ 
lase, . 3 i : (4414-38e) Si? =‘%) Si 
Datholite, adopting th iew, and making 3H Mie ws 
replace eerie anor desory, haethe eeacds, - (¢R44B) Si =k, B) om 
Or if 8H replace 80a, it becomes, - - (@R*+4B) Stas, B)8i 
| 4 - * a - . (€a+Ti) Sita sit 
Szconp Szares, Vol. XVII, No. 50.—March, 1854. - 98 


218 J. D. Dana’s Mineralogical Contributions. 


In Sphene there are 3 of oxygen within the brackets as in the 
other species. The usual formula is 2¢aSi+Ga'tis. But the rela- 
tion in form to Euclase sustains the above mode of writing it. 
(Ca+Ti) Si? is equivalent to (#) sit, since R=RO+RO?; so that sphene 
is essentially a silicate of the common form, or of iin which 
partof #iis replaced by Ca. Some chemists write for the ses- 
quioxyd Brannite Mo+Mn, and others adopt the same form for 
other sesquioxyds, denying the existence of a proper sesquioxyd. 

re are but few anhydrous silicates, in which the bases ex- 
ceed the silica in oxygen. These are Sillimanite, Kyanite, An- 
dalusite, Topaz, Staurotide, with Tourmaline, Euclase and 
Sphene. Andalusite, Topaz and Kyanite, have the same formula 
mst; in Sillimanite we have both &18i*, and i ai; and in Stau- 
rotide, home@omorphous with topaz and andalusite, * ai’, Hence 
the ratio of silica varies in the same species from 3 to # (and per- 
haps to 1) and in the same homeeomorphous group, from 3 to 3. 
The formulas of Euclase, Datholite and Sphene, are therefore 


essentially of one type. And if this be true, then ‘Bei (under 


which.we include (R*,# or B)Si") is trimorphous. (1.) Triclinic 
in Kyanite and Sillimanite ; (2.) monoclinic in Sphene, ete; 
(3.) érimetric in Andalusite, Topaz. G. Rose considers Kyanite 
and Sillimanite distinct in form. But the angles of Sillimanite 
observed are too doubtful to enable us to decide upon this point, 

Beryl and Eudialyte.—These species are shown to be closely 
homeomorphous on page 211. 

The formula of Beryl is (4Be+3%1) 8i?; that of Endialyte, 
(§R?+}2r) Sit. We also add that Pyrosmalite and Dioptase have 
the ratio 1:2, if the water and also the chlorid in the former be 
excluded. 

Groups of Anhydrous Silicates among minerals. —Making the 
ratio between the oxygen of all the bases, and that of the silica 
of fundamental value, the anhydrous silicates among minerals 
— into i groups, presenting the ratios 1:3, 1:2, 1: 12, 

21, 1:($-—3 -3. ips 

I. Ratio 1:3. This includes Edelforsite, Ca Si, and Mancinile, 
Zn Si, both species of somewhat doubtful existence. 

IL Ratio 1:2. Includes Wollastonite, Augite, Spodumene, 
Wichtyne, Beryl, Eudialyte. a 

Iif, Ratio 1:14. Includes Eulytine, Bis Si*. 

1V. Ratio 1:1. Includes—_ 


1. Trimetric, _ Chrysolite, ete. R3 i Tephroite, Mn3Si 
2. Hexagonal. .Phenacite, Bei Willemite, 225i 


_ J. D. Dana’s Mineralogical Contributions. 219 


3, Monometric. Garnet, ($2343) Si Helvin, (2R344Be) Sit 
Pyrope, (i83+28)Si in which R=Mn, Fe, Mn S, 
4. Dimetrie. Zircon, Br Si Meionite, (3023-541) Si 
Idocrase, ($R3-+48) Si Seapolite, (2R3-+42Al) Si 
« (283428) Si Mellilite, (¢R3-+4#) Si 
Sareolite, (4R3-+4Al) Si 
5. Monoclinic. Epidote, (483-4333) $i | Zoisite, (3-124) Si 
(283428) Si Gadolinite, 82 Si 
Allanite, (4R2+38) Si 
6 Triclinic. Danburite, ({0a3-+28)5i Axinite, (83, 8, B) Si 


V. Ratio 1: 3(to 3-4). Includes—Tviclinie, Kyanite, Sil- 
limanite; Monoclinic, Euclase and Sphene; Trimetric, Anda- 
lusite, Topaz, Staurotide, and perhaps Lievrite; Dimetric, Geh- 
lenite; Hexavonal, Tourmaliue. 

From the Formulas of Datholite, Tourmaline, Axinite, Dan- 
burite; it follows that these are not borosi/icates, the boracic acid 
being a buse. It is a general fact that all mineral species con- 
taining boracic acid are either hemihedral or oblique in erys- 
tallization. 

The Feldspars and some other species do not appear at first to 
come into this system, unless the alumina and silica are consid- 
red as replacing one another, and on this ground, any ratio be- 
tween 1:1 and 1:3 may be made ont. ‘he constaucy of the 
Oxygen ratio of R to # (=1:3) in the feldspars, seems to pre- 
clude our taking such a liberty with the Aland Si. ‘The follow- 
ing are the species, their oxygen ratios, old formulas, and the 
formulas proposed. 

: Oxygen ratio. Old formula. Formulas. 


1. Monoclinic.  Orthoclase, 1:3:13 kK Si+Al Sis (K+) Sit 


2. Trictinie, Albite, 1:3:12 Na Si+-A1Si3 (Na+) Si 
Oligoclase, 1:3: 9 RSitAISi2 (B+!) Sit 
Andesine, 1:3: 8 re Sie+sai sie (Rai) Sis 
Labradorite, 1:3: 6 R Si+A1 Si (R+-A) Bia 
Anorthite, 1:3: 4 Rs 'Si+3Al Si (R+A1) Sis 


The following species also belong to the section, as they have 
the same ratio 1:3 for the protoxyds and peroxyds; Leucite has 
the composition of andesite ; and sodalite, etc., that of anorthite. 


- \,* The formula of Helvin, as written by G. Rose, is (Min, Fe)* Sit+Be Si+MnS 

MnO. “But we conform as closely to the analyses, if we add 30-74MnS, ‘wh 

At becomes as above written, or (3 (48+4Mns)?+4Be) Si = Silica 345, glucina 
egg of manganese (part Fe in the analysis) 398, sulphuret of manga- 
‘Rese 16-3, 


je 


220 | J.D. Dana's Mineralogical Contributions. — 
- Oxygen ratio. Old formula. algae 
8. Monometric. Leucite, 1:3:8 K3 Si2+341 Si2 (K++) Sis 
- = eo. = 2. Ww o- 4 1 
Sodalite,1:3:4 Na3 S$i+341Si+NaCl (Na+) Si3[+pNa ll 
rs eS ae 
Hauyne, 1:3:4 Nas S$itskSiteCaS (Na+) Sisp+gaS 
Rg te . | eee 
Nosean, 1:3:4 Nas SitsAlSi-NaS (Na+aAi)Sie[+pNad 
Lazulite. 
=" ‘esi ied 
4, Dimetric. Nepheline,1:3:4 R2 Sit+-2A1 Si (Na+X))Si2 
ne er eee 
Cancrinite, 1:3:44 R2 Si,2A1 8i+ RG (Na+) Siz 4gR6 
The formulas of the feldspars in the last column, show what is 
equally plain in the oxygen ratios, that the species differ in the 
amount of silica, and this is the great essential difference. It is 
least in anorthite; and from this species it increases to 4Si 1n al- 
bite or orthoclase. This increase takes place without any change 
of crystallization, there being only very small variations in the 
angles. In anorthite, the oxygen ratio for the bases and silica 
is 1:1; and as anorthite is common in good crystallization, 
and is every way a well characterized species, it shows us that 1 
of oxygen of the silica to 1 for the bases is all that the feldspar 
type requires. Moreover, the relation of the species to Scapolite, 
which has the ratio 1: 1, also favors this view. Hence 1:1 may 
be considered the ¢ype-ratio, upon which, variations take place 
according to definite proportions. When silica abounds 10 the 
rock material in process of crystallization, and the other ingredi- 
ents are at hand, the species holding the largest proportions of 
silica would be formed. : 
The isomorphism of Sodalite, Hauyne, and Nosean, and di- 
morphism with Anorthite, parallel with the dimorphism of Leucite 
and Andesine, show that the ratio 1: 3:4, is their type ratio. 


modifying the form, and although chemically included, are wnes- 
sential to the type. ‘The same is true of RG in Cancrinite, which 
has the crystallization of Nepheline. 
The facts above exhibited appear to show that a type admits 
of some variation in the amount of silica without changing the 
character of the species. In Meionite, having the ratio of 1 122% 
the scapolite type is exhibited ; and Bischof and Rose take this 
as the only ratio of the species. But the ratio 1 : 2: 4 appears 
be required by most analyses of Scapolite, in which there 3§ ” 
addition to the silica. In the same manner R25i2, with an ad 
tion of 485i, becomes Hornblende.* oa 
Among the feldspars, Andesine and Leucite have essentially ~ 


oxygen ratio of Angite,1+3:8=1:2, and the formula mig 

* The amount of silica p t may be on e leading to the formation of Hort- 
blende in place of Augite. But in pseudomorphic changes, the same proportion® 
ey of the bases, or an addition of magnesi@ 


may result, by a removal of 
Bium and Bischof have suggest: 


Dr. North on the Angle of Aperture in Microscopes. 221 


be written (}R*+3) Sic. Moreover, oligoclase has similarly the 


oxygen ratio of Hornblende = (4R*+38) Sif, Hence we may 
look upon Leucite, and Andesine, with Pyroxene; as in a certain 
sense trimorphous. Still, their relation to the feldspar series is 
such that they are naturally classed with the other feldspars. 

The zeolites, if the water be excluded, have the oxygen ratios 
of the feldspar-section, as shown in the following table; the oxy- 
gen of the water in the zeolites is annexed to the name of the 
Species :— 


Oxygen ratio.  Feldspars. Zeolites. 

RE Bi 

1:3:4 Sodalite, Anorthite, Ittnerite (2), Thomsonite (24). 

1:38:44 Nepheline, - Zeagonite 4 

1:3:6 Labradorite, Levyne (4), Natrolite (2), Scolecite (8). . 

1:3:8 Leucite, Andesine, Analcime (2), Chabazite (6 or 5). 
Philippsite (5), Laumonite (4). 

P3879 Oligoclase, Harmotome (5), Chabazite (6). 

£e3:12 Orthoclase, Albite, Heulandite (5), Brewsterite (5). 


: Stilbite (6 or 5), Epistilbite (5). 
Some of the species are correspondingly isomorphous with 
feldspar species, as Analcime with Leucite, Ittnerite with So- 
dalite; and the ratio 1: 3:12 produces oblique forms in both 
series. But we do not intend to draw a general parallelism, as 
the water whatever its relations, must in some cases modify the 
ratios. But as regards the origin of the species, the table is an 
interesting one. Bischof remarks on the identity in the ratio be- 
tween the oxygen of the. bases and silica in chabazite and that 
of Hornblende, and thereby explains the occurrence of pseudo- 
morphs of chabazite after hornblende. 
Pyrrhotine (Fe7S*) and Greenockite (Cd S).—As Pyrrhotine 
and Greenockite are homeomorphous, they are naturally arranged 
in the same group, although the former has a little too much 
sulphur. The formula 5Fe S+F'e? S*, may perhaps be written 
FeS [+1Fe? S*], the latter term being unessential to the type. 


— 


Art. XXI1.—On Microscopes with large Angles of Aperture ; 
by Dr. E. D. Norru. 


si y ; 

“5m the whole diameter of the front lens receives a pencil of rays 

tom each minntest point of the object, and that, consequently, 
€n these pencils from each point are large, more light is re- 


re oe e points separately as well as from the entire object, 


222 Dr. North on the Angle of Aperture in Microscopes. 


* But it may perhaps be supposed from this reasoning, that if 
we throw a greater quantity of light upon an object, so that more 
may be collected by the object-glass, we shall be better able to — 
define a structure ; which would probably be the case if the ad- 
ditional light could be thrown only upon those minute parts of 
the object which we wish to examine, and not upon the whole 
object. But as we cannot do this, as the increase of illumination 
caunot be made to increase the relative proportions of light which 
proceed from those minute parts, the intended advantage will not 
be derived.” 

This paragraph involves implications directly opposite to some 
, of the most important facts in regard to using Microscopes suc- 

cessfully. The second sentence says in effect, that when, with 
an object-glass of small aperture, and in a faint light, we discover 
a certain degree of minuteness of structure, we shall, under 4 
strong illumination, discover no more, which is directly contrary 

act, unless the objective is miserably deficient in correc 
tion. Indeed, a most important quality of first rate objectives, 1s 
their ability to bear a strong illumination. 

It is also taken for granted that an increase of the relative propor 
tions of light upon minute’stria and other markings, would ena- 
bleus to see them better. On the contrary, the true requisite 1s 
that the objective shall be so perfectly corrected as to preserve Ihe 
relative light, shade, and variations of color on adjoimiug minute 
portions, thus exhibiting the object precisely as it would ap ked 


were its smallest parts /arge enough to be visible to the we 
a 
the 


hysiological than on optical conditions, being different with dif 
ferent individuals; one person’s eye being pained and dazzled, 
ed. 


notice that, although intrinsic brightness may be the same 
very intense, yet if all the light entering the pupil comes from 
a minute surface, the eye is less affected on the whole. Place 4 
ecard with a pin-hole at each end of a tube, and hold the ree 
near the eye, and we can gaze steadily at the small portion of t ‘ 
sun thus visible. But in general, the dazzling and blinding ene 
of intense light is owing to contrast, as when one comes IfOM” 
dark room into sunshine. The contrast may be of surrounding 
objects, as in viewing in a darkened room the light of a iene 4 
battery.* In reference to extreme intensity of illumination, : 

By means of this cont i . isplays may 8° 
times be made of lines aes hes pts Ne gah cna een Mr Wenham : 

i le conden: , the transverse lines - the ob 
(Greenport, in balsam,) are shown at regular intervals and sharply defined, °° 
jective being Smith & Beck’s +45, of largest angle. : - 


Dr. North on the Angle of Aperture in Microscopes. 223 


following observation is most important. | Artists, such as painters, 
engravers, sculptors, never employ a strong light on their work. 
The most important discriminations for them, are delicate grada- 
tions of color, of shadows, or of the mingling of the two. "Thei 
eyes, according to our observation, are by natural constitution 
very easily pained and dazzled. The finest artistic effects ar 
possible only in a subdued light. An able writer on painting, re- 
‘Marks: “ Itis the property of (strong) light to convert objects into 
its own whiteness, and to take away color.” Dimness of light 
and indefiniteness of outline, assist an active imagination. Faint 
illumination in the microscope may gratify an artist’s eye by ma- 
king the representation more pictorial, and especially by assisting 
the imagination in regard to depth. Such _ pictorial effects are 
suited to the popular eye, and it is allowable for the most accurate 
and reliable observer to gratify himself and friends with them as 
exhibitions of a peculiar kind. The object of the common Ster- 
oscope, is to produce a pictorial, rather than a geometric impres- 
Sion onthe mind : yet the brief reports as yet published respecting 
Stereoscopic vision applied to the microscope, have not often dis- 
Criminated these two kinds of effect. ; 

‘he most minute objects now examined under the microscope, 
are colorless and transparent, and consequently do not need a di- 
minished illumination for bringing out delicate variations of color, 
and, as is the case with the naked eye, it may be said in general 
that the more the light, the more distinctly will ‘the minutest por- 
tions cast a shadow or reveal themselves by their refractive and 
“ispersive effect, up to that degree of general brightness of the 
image which a given eye can bear 
ck Bat what constitutes the extremest minuteness in regard to vise 
ibility 2 Simple‘and obvious as the answer is to this question, 
yet writers on the microscope speak of an increased angle as if it 
Could in all cases compensate for a higher magnifying power. 

As is the case with the telescope, or with the naked eye, an 
area is visible when it subtends an angle at the eye of at least 
“more than half a minfite of a degree.” Or, it may ‘be assumed 
that one minnte of angle is a good general measure for the visi- 
bility of areas”—*“' therefore, that areas are visible at a distance 
of about 3,000 or 4,000 times as great as their diameter.” “ But 
though such a spot can be seen, it cannot be defined as square, 
‘Cireular, &¢.” “+ 'l’o be thus clearly defined to the naked eye, 

k spots on a white ground, must have a diameter of about 
TI5 Of radius.” But black stripes can be separated when areas 
cannot be defined, and the whole is greatly dependent on illumin- 
ation. As no two persons’ eyes have precisely the same power 
of ™inute vision, the limitation in question must be to some ex- 
‘ent indefinite ; it deserves, however, and will doubtless receive 
further investigation. — 


224 Dr. North on the Angle of Aperture in Microscopes. 


Yet it is important to keep in mind that there ¢s a limit which 
no illumination or enlargement of aperture will overcome without 
increase of magnifying power. It may lead to serious error to be 
accustomed to strain the eye with a low eye-piece or objective, 
when a more extended amplification of image ought to. be em- 
ployed for more decidedly separating lines or points. M. Robin 
argues for employing high powers in anatomical investigations, 
with an earnestness which proves a then prevalent error. Prob- 
ably such mistakes have contributed to establish an impression of 
there being often a danger of using too much light. When en- 
deavoring to look into minute structure with a low or medium 
power, when a high one is what is needed, one will unconsciously 
strain and prolong his attention, until, if the light be strong, 
-he brings on confusion, dazzling and pain, which a weaker light 
may alleviate, and at the same time be sufficient for what the 


of lines, which is so often noticed. Although not well defined, 
those now in question are seen in focus, and although thickened 
and badly defined, are yet plainly visible and easy to count 10 
micrometrically measuring their distances.. Among other expe! 
iments in proof, the following is selected: The ribs of Pinnula- 
ria major’ were viewed with a low objective and intense !ampP 
light, (sunlight is still better,) at an obliquity, very near the 
ich produces a dark back-ground. The ribs pia 
strongly visible, though not entirely across the semi-breadth of t 
valve. Being easily counted, the micrometer gave their or 
saz and ;,';5 of an inch in different cireumstanees, with su™ 
cient accuracy for the experiment. But when with the ame 
light and illumination, a 4th objective was employed, the! 
-were visible in their whole length, and with a perfect definitio™ 
Their distance was, in the specimens examined, beyond all Kate 
for doubt, found to be very accurately equal to only ;z307 ith 
Two acute microscopists and practiced observers, one of them 4) 
able microscope maker, witnessed, and themselves repeated t nt 
demonstration, and confirmed its reliability. The expet™®! 


Dr. North on the Angle of Aperture in Microscopes. 225 


When it is confirme the micrometer. 
It is obvious that as the image of a faint star in the telescope, 
So Is an indivisible point or line in the image forme h 


Magnifier, or with the unaided eye, illuminates a tissue with as 
much light as possible, often employing two condensers of artifi- 
cial light, yet as the brightness of an image is diminished in in- 
Verse proportion to the square of the linear magnifying power, 
an ultimate fibrilla of voluntary muscle, when magnified 1000 
diameters (and as much or more amplification is needed ), would 

ve only ,.,1,,;th part the light on its image, were it not for 
the large aperture of the objective. Saag 

Witha microscope just as with a single eye, we judge of depth 
and form, by means of geometrical foreshortening and infinitely 
delicate gradatiouis of light, shade, and sometimes color ; assisting 
our conclusions by change of focus and directing attention to 
different parts and presentations. Nothing shows more strikingly 


: recogn 
Stooxp Senizs, Vol. XVII, No. 60.—March, 1854. 29 


226 Dr. North on ihe Angle of Aperture in Microscopes. 


the perfection of the human eye than this power of looking at 
points in the plane of the-exact focal distance, and yet at the 
same time receiving impressions appropriately indistinct from 
points within or beyond the focus. It is the same, thongh in less 
pefection, with a well corrected object glass of large angle; in 
proportion to the length of its focus, do points beyond the focal 
distance form suitable images. But upon this requisite more will 

e said presently. The power of exhibiting minute variations 
of light and shade thus being essential in reference to solid form 
and also being that chiefly by which lines are separated on @ 
plane surface, becomes obviously the most valuable quality of an 
objective. 

No object glass can be wholly freed from the two kinds of ab- 
erration. Of these the spheroidal is the most difficult to correct, 
particularly when the residuum of error is to be magnified by an 
eye-piece. ; 

Mr. Pritchard should therefore have explained that when an 
objective has a small aperture, and is at same time not well 
corrected, the more light is sent through it by increasing the 
illumination, the greater is the amount of uncorrected aberration, 
which has its confusing effect subsequently magnified with the 
rest of the image. But if additional brightness of the image and 
greater amount of light entering the eye is gained by enlargig 
the angular aperture, the lens must be corrected for this aperture 
or no definition is gained. The benefit from large aperture, then 
is as before, simply that of an increase of light. If the spherical 
and chromatic aberrations could be perfectly corrected, a stronger 
illumination would assist an objective of small aperture, precisely 
as it does the vaked eye, up to a surprising degree of intensity; 
while injurious extremes would be farther removed by suce 
in discrimination, and the pleasure of the exhibition. 

But images are formed more by the marginal than the central 
rays, as these are the most numerous; yet as spherical aberration 
increases in proportion as rays are further from the centel, the 


ity of the most perfect object glasses being as much superior for 
a stronger as for a weaker illumination. Dr. Goring repo 
that only the coarsest tests could be resolved by sun-light; 
present some rely upon it solely for those of extreme difficulty. 

* A striking illustration of the effect of large apertures, and of that degree of 
correction which is indispensable, was afforded by the surprise which some DUCT” 


* 


Lia 


Dr. North on the Angle of Aperture in Microscopes. 227 


_. The following experiment is interesting : 

Let any one who has an objective with a large angle, try it in 
aroom nearly dark, no light being had except from a small lam 
oracandle in an adjoining one. Let the rays from the distant 
candle shine on the stage of the microscope, which yet receives 
so little light that with the naked eye the smaller letters cannot 
be read upon an engraved bank bill which is laid on the stage, 
and receives no condensation of light from a lens or a concave 


Large aperture being so important, it has become customary 
simply to mention its extent in commending an objective. Dr. 
Goring seldom mentioned the magnifying power of an object 
glass needed for a particular test; but in regard to the tests 


definition sufficient for counting with a micrometer, is the only 
standard which can enable one investigator to compare his obser- 
Vatious with those of another. 

f late, the superior correction which opticians can accom plish 
on medium powers, makes them more efficient than higher ones 
even on tests for which the greater expansion of image of the 
latter is an important advantage. A smaller angle now bares 
accomplish more than one larger by a half. Ihe auticipation o 
scopists felt, on reading the report of the Jury of the Great Exhibition, pronouncing 
the objectives of M. Nachet te he uncorrected for spherical aberration. But this ar- 
tist’s angles fall much chort of Mr. Spencer's. Persons accustomed to the effect of 
'efined spherical correction were less surprised. 


228 Dr. North or the Angle of Aperture in Microscopes. 


Mr. Pritchard* that large apertures by permitting a longer conju- d 
gate focus, may ultimately enable all organized structure to be— 


investigated with 4 inch glasses, has been fulfilled sooner than he 
probably could have anticipated. Objectives of this grade now 
resolve every known test. 

Of the two unavoidable remainders of error, the spherical be- 
comes the most important for farther reduction ; we thus gain not 
only in what is called definition, that is fineness and delicacy of 
lines, but in light and shade, in depth, and even in light. Take 
a 4 inch object-glass of very fine definition, but an aperture no 

larger than reported by Mr. Quekett (between 60° and 70°) and 
one of the Naviculee whose lines it will resolve, though not too 
readily—one with diagonal lines being best for this purpose. 
Adjust the screw collar for au uncovered object, and let the cover 
on the slider be a thick one, or interpose another piece of thin 
glass; better also for the object to be mounted in balsam. Turn 
down the wick of a lamp and remove the light till there is barely 
light enough to see the lines yet only on a part of the valve; 
fixing the eye on a portion of the surface where the lines seem (0 
be hidden by a dark shade, adjust the front lens for the thickness 
of cover, and this shade will disappear; the lines will come out 


ma- 
ceous test, especially if sun-light be employed, in a strong and 
bold manner (though thickened and perhaps highly prismat 
when its deficiency of spherical correction shows them through 
a mist and does not show a perspective definition of general form. 
Among the Diatomacee, the genus Nitschia was established by 
Hassall who yet makes no mention of its most distinctive cha 
acteristic, the prominent keel, which strikingly distinguishes 
from Synedra (Hxilaria ), as is shown by thé Rev. Wm. Smith: 
yet the founder of the genus, though he expressly not 
connection of the two genera, failed to point out this ma 
difference which at once attracts the attention if a first-rate ob- 
jective be used. : 

If angular aperture be wnnecessarily large, we have the disad- 
vantage of a useless or injurious limitation of foeus—even SUP 
posing the working distance to be not too inconvenient. Taking 
the semi-diameter of front lens as radius, the working distance 
the tangent of the inclination of the extreme rays: when be 
inclination, as in large apertures, is small, the tangent varles more 


nearly as the angle, and any error of focus causes the outer i)" 


* Micrographia, Essay on Solar Microscopes, 1839. 


° 


ic) 


ay 


Dr. North on the Angle of Aperture in Microscopes. 229 


to have more aberration. View of depth is therefore necessarily 
more limited. Still, for extremely slight elevations and depres- 
sions, and for very thin objects, some restriction will afford a more 
exquisite discrimination, provided the spherical correction is car- 
ried toa degree of perfection in due proportion to the angle. 
Indeed, whatever tends to bring the performance of an object- 
glass nearer to mathematical exactness, must limit its focus. Stop 
off aperture and we see farther in depth, because we see more in- 
distinctly in regard to minute details. Again, we may gain the 


ally as we carry the focus from the upper to the lower edge, the 
ellipticity of the figure is plainly seen to change, as evidently 
by the laws of geometry it must do, from the change of angular 
rection of its different points to the lens. Instead of the right 


* 


+ 


230 Dr. North on the Angle of Aperture in Microscopes. 


Again, if we bring into focus the under side, say, of the circle, we 


may Notice a slight mistiness about its general outline, which — 


ey % 


may be removed by entting off half the objective front lens, or of — 


the eye lens. But on more careful examination, we shall perceive 
that we are bringing no one point into perfectly accurate focus, 
and at the same time concentrating our attention upon it. If 
these two things be attended to, all mistiness, thickening, and 
uncértainty, will disappear from such objectives as this gentleman 
employed. Such facts are no real obstacles to microscopic accu- 
racy. ‘They occur equally in unaided vision, whether of small 
or of large objects. If possible, we hold a solid body—a crystal 
for instance—in the hand, and turn it about, yet each change of 
position projects a different geometrical figure. The laws of 
vision are the same with a microscope as without, and no perfec- 
tion of instruments can supersede the necessity of comparin 
different views and of arriving at a knowledge of the third dimen- 
sion in space, through operations of the mind. . 

In some cases a restricted focal distance is both convenient and 
advantageous: one is when we look through a set of markings. 
The Stauroneis pulchella of Rev. Wm. Smith, is described by 
him: “striae very distinct, 30 in 001% punctate; puncta hexag- 
onal.” In his introduction, Mr. Smith remarks: “ ‘The exper- 
ments and authority of Professor Bailey place the existence of an 
internal membrane (in the Diatomacez) beyond all doubt.”—* Tn 
Stauroneis pulchella the membrane in question possesses a0 anu 
sual degree of firmness, the siliceous valves, after a slight mace 
ration in acid, may be seen to fall away from the internal mem- 


Lieberkuhn, and having (to quote the term a plied by the Jury 
of the Great Exhibition) the “exquisite” correction of St 
and Beck, they show by an achromatic condenser, the hex onal 
puncta in three sets of lines, yet obscured in definition, and con- 
fused by the mingling of what seem like shadow 


s. 

Intense illumination of a suitable obliquity and combi “8 
nd ruu- 

of 


the ;*; of 100°, the 1 of still larger angle, and the $ of 1* sh 
128°, these two distinct sets of markings may be seen Wl! 
either perpendicular or oblique light, simply by carrying the be ss 
distance from the one to the other, and without changing the} nf 
mination. ‘The upper strie are at the distance quoted; the B® 


Dr. Engelmann on the Cereus giganteus of California, 231 


gons below are twice as distant; each set in turn may be seen in 
in its own plane, and without confusion from the other. We do 
not refer to these hexagons as an instance of the interior mem- 
brane referred to in the passage just now extracted, which seems 


P 
every specimen, and fragment, whether lying flat or edgewise. 
he striz are similar, only more difficult to distinguish with ae- 
curacy, to the fine diagonal markings on the surfaces of ‘Trice- 
ratium, Actinocyclus, Coscinodiscus, and other genera which have 
large hexagonal cells. - 

An able optician from Berlin says that the importance of spher- 
ical correction is but imperfectly understood in Germany: we 
thus find accounted for the mistakes of Ehrenberg, which have 
caused so much surprise, and Dr. Hannover’s omitting all men- 
tion of a screw collar, in a work of such merit as to be selected 
for translation into English. 


Arr. XXII1.—Further Notes on Cereus giganteus of Southeast- 
ern California, with a short account of another allied species 
in Sonora; by Dr. Georce Enceimann, St. Louis, Missouri. 


In question in fower. ‘These materials enable me to furnish the. 
ollowing detailed character. 


Catis angulatisque albidis demum cinereis, radialibus 12-16 imo 
Stmmisque brevioribus, lateralibus (preecipue inferioribus ) longi- 
oribus robustioribus subinde cum aculeis adventitiis paucis seta- 
els summo areola margini adjectis ; aculeis centralibus 6 robustis 
albidis basi nigris apice rubellis demum totis cinereis, 4 inferiori- 


* See this Journal, New Series, vol. xiv, page 335, Nov., 1852. 


232 Dr. Engelmann on the Cereus giganteus of California. _ 
. . 2 * . . i Sag 
bus decussatis quorum infimus longissimus robustissimus deflexus, _ 


This species ranges from north of the Gila river southwardly 
into Sonora, to within 20 miles of Guaymas on the Californian 
Gulf. It doubtless also occurs on the Peninsula of California; 
where, according to Vanegas in his history, published about 100 
years ago, the fruit of a great Cactus forms an important article 
of food to the natives of the eastern coast, the harvest time of 
which was a season of great festivity. The flowers are produc 
in May and June, and the fruit ripens in July and August. Mr. 
Thurber collected the last flowers and the first ripe fruit in the 
beginning of July. He has collected abundance of seed, and 
will be pleased to communicate it to those who take an interest 
in the cultivation of Cacti. The youngest plants Mr. Thurber 
noticed were three or four feet high, with narrow furrows and long 
spines ; the smallest flowering plants were about 12 feet high, 
and the tallest specimens observed appeared to reach the elevation 
of 45 or 50 feet. 

The ligneous fascicles correspond with the intervals betwee? 
the ribs, and not with the ribs themselves; of which Dr. ol 
has fully satisfied himself, and which indeed is the case inal 
ribbed Cacti. From between these bundles ligneous fibres radi- 
ate horizontally towards the ribs, and especially to the areo 
‘At the base of the stem the ribs are broad and obtuse, W 
wide and shallow intervals ; upwards the ribs are somewhat t 
gular, rounded or obtuse, with deep and acutish grooves betwee 
them ; towards the top of the plant the ribs are equally ane 
but quite compressed, and the grooves are deep and natruw: | 

e elevated areole are 7 ‘lines long, nearly 6 lines in diam- 
eter, about an inch distant from one another, sometimes mote 


closely approximated. 


_ Dr. Engelmann on the Cereus giganteus of California. 233 


wards, 20-30 lines long; the two upper central spines 15 to 18. 
lines long. The stontest spines are one line in diameter, their 
‘bulbous base being fully twice as thick. ‘The old’ spines together 
with the whole areola readily come off in one bunch, but gener- 
ally the 6 central spines fall off first, leaving the radiating ones 
appressed to the stem, till finally they also fall away. 
he flowers are produced near the summit of the plant, but 
hot on it, and the fruit is usually 6-12 inches from it. 
The dried flower communicated by Mr. Thurber is 3 inches 
long; but the drawing represents the flowers as fully 4 inches in , 
length and diameter. The ovary in the dried specimen is {ths o 
an inch long; the lower naked part of the tube 1 inch, the upper 
staminiferous much widened part 2ths of an inch long. Upper 
sepals fleshy, greenish white, #ths of au inch long, below 2, 
above 4 lines wide. Petals of a light cream color, an inch long, 
6-7 lines wide above, very thick and fleshy, and very much 
curled. Filaments light yellow, adnate to the upper half of the 
tube: anthers 0:8 to 0-9 of a line long, linear, emarginate at the 
base and apex. Style not seen; the drawing represents the nu- 
merous (15-2()?) stigmata as half an inch long, suberect, of a 
green color. The flowers appear to be open night and day, and 
probably for several days in succession. =~ eo 
The fruit seut by Mr. Thurber (in alechol) is obovate 24 inches 
long, by 14 in diameter, beset with about thirty scales, having 
short brownish wool in their axils, but entirely destitute of spines. 
Mr. ‘Thurber informs me that this specimen is: unusually long : 
the fruit, he says, is usually 2 or 3 inches long by 14 to 2 in 
diameter ; the color is green, reddish towards the summit; the 
remains of the flower fall off, leaving a broad and convex scar. 
The pericarp has the hardness of a green cucumber, some what soft- 
er towards the apex, and is about 2 lines thick ; it bursts open on 
the plant with 3 or mostly 4 irregular, interiorly red valves, which 
Spread horizoutally, and appear like a red flower when seen ata 
distance, which accounts for the report of this species having red 
flowers. ‘The crimson-colored and rather insipid pulp has the con- 
sistency of a fresh fig ; it completely separates from, the rind, and 
drying up from the heat of the sun, falls to the ground, or is beat- 
en down, when it is collected by the natives and rolled into balls, 
Which keep several months, or is pressed for the thick molasses- 
like sacharine juice which Jt contains. ‘I'he iunumerable seed 
are 07 to 08 lines long. 
Another, apparently nearly allied species, was collected in 
Northern Sonora. Front the half of a flower before me, tegetlier 
Stooxp Szaus, Vol. XVI, No. 60.— March, 1854. - 80 


234 Dr. Englemannon the Cereus giganieus of California. 


with Mr. Thurber’s meagre notes, (other specimens unfortunately 
having been lost,) I have ventured to make out the following — 
description : a 

Cereus Tuursert (n. sp.): erectus, elatior, e basi ramosus sub- 
14-costatus, sulcis param profundis, aculeis brevibus nigricanti- 
bus; floribus tubuloso-campanulatis virescenti-albidis ; ovario 
globoso sepalis 80-100 carnosis squamiformibus triangularibus 
acutis imbricatis ad axillam villosis stipato ; sepalis tubi inferiori- 
bus 24 lanceolatis acutiusculis axilla nudis, superioribus 20-25 
orbiculato-obovatis obtusis ; petalis 16-20 obovato-spathulatis 0 
tusis crassis. : 

Collected in June 1851, in a rocky caiion near the mountain 

ss of Bacuachi, a small town on the road to Arispe, in Sonora; 
afterwards found with Cereus giganteus, near Santa Cruz: tt 
abounds also near Magdalena and Ures. Santa Cruz appears to 
be the northern limit of this species, which does not extend to 
the Gilariver, Stems 4 to 12 feet high, many from the same base, 
6 to 10 inches in diameter, sometimes articulated, occasionally 
branching above, with about 14 ribs and shallow grooves. Flow- 
ers greenish white, borné about a foot below the summit of the 
stem. Dried flower 22 inches long ; the tube narrower, and more 
elongated than in,C. giganieus ; the globose ovary and the naked 
and staminiferous part of the tube each about 3 inch long; free 
part of petals of the same length, and 4 lines wide. Anthers 
much larger than in the foregoing species, 1-3 to 1-4 lines long. 
Style not seen. 

I have dedicated this to the collector, Mr. George Thurber, of 
Rhode Island, an excellent botanist, who has kindly furnished me 
with the materials for this article. : 

Cereus Thurberi aud C. giganteus appear to be closely allied 
species. ‘They have high and erect stems, flowers with @ short 
tube, half of which is naked, the filaments occupying only the up 
per half of the tube; both have short and fleshy sepals on the oF 
ry, with short wool in their axils, unaccompanied by any bristles 
or spines; in both the petals are whitish, obtuse, and fleshy. ‘ 

th, and especially C. giganteus, stand very near the Piloceré 
on account of the great height of the stem, the short ventricose o 
of the flower, and the thick petals ; but they have not the z0° 
indication of a cephalium (or woolly head) nor of any particular 
development of wool; their flowers spring from the axils of f 
ordinary and unaltered areole ; and the seed is quite differeos 
at least. from that of Pilocereus senilis, the ouly species of tha 
genus, I believe, which has been well examined ; these seeds ve 
said to be obliquely thimble shaped, densely dotted, and to awe 
an embryo with thick globose cotyledons. It is also said 
the filaments cover the whole inside of the tube of the foweh 


~ 


Chemical Composition of Recent and Fossil Lingule. 238 


and even the free upper part of the ovary. In all the Cered and 


Echinocacti examined by me, I find the lowest part of the tube 
free, the filaments being adnate to some distance above the ovary. 
Itis not improbable that the Chilian velvety Cerei ( Velutini, Pr. 
Salin.) are to be classed near our species. he flower of what 
appears to be Cereus Chilensis, Pfr., obtained near Valparaiso, and _ 
figured by the artist of the U. S. Exploring Expedition, greatly 
resembles that of C. Thurberi: it is a little larger, but has 
the same shape, and the same closely imbricated sepals on the 
ovary ; the tube has about 100 sepals, and the white petals are 
acute ; whether fleshy or not is uncertain. 


Arr, XXIV.—On the Chemical Composition of Recent and Fs- 
sil Lingule, and some other Shells; by W. E. Loean, F.R.S., 
and 'T.-S. Hunt. 


In the Report of Progress of the Geological Survey of Canada 
for 1851-52, we have mentioned the existence of small masses 
containing phosphate of lime, and having the characters of cop- 
rolites, which occur in several parts of the Lower Silurian rocks. 
In a bed of silicious conglomerate towards the top of the calcife- 
rotis sandstone, at the Lac des Allumettes, on the Ottawa, they 
are abundant in cylindrical and imitative shapes, sometimes an 
inch in diameter. The same material forms casts of the interior 
of a species of Holopea or Pleurotomaria, and often fills or com- 
pletely incases the separated valves of a large species of Lingula, 
which Salter has referred to L. parallela of Phillips. ‘The phos- 
phatic matter is porons, friable, and of a chocolate brown color; 
it contains intermixed a large quantity of sand; and small peb- 
bles of quartz are sometimes partly imbedded in it. The analy- 
sis of one specimen gave 36 per cent. of phosphate of lime, with 

P. ¢. of carbonate and fluorid, besides some magnesia and oxy 
of iron, and 50 p. ec. of silicions sand. 

_ Similar masses occur in the same formation at Grenville, and 
in the lower part of the Chazy limestone at Hawkesbury, in both 
cases containing fragments of Lingula.” Those from the latter 
place, are rounded in shape, and from one-fourth to one-half of an 
inch in diameter, blackish without, but yellowish-brown within, 
and having an earthy fracture; the analysis of one of them gave: 
Phosphate of lime, (P Os, 3Ca O), - 44-70 
Carbonate of lime, - -- - - 6 
Carbonate of magnesia, - - - 
Peroxyd of iron, and atrace of Alumina, 8°60 
Insoluble silicious residue, - - - 27 
Volatile matter, -  - - - ° 5-00 


236 Chemical Composition of Recent and Fossil Lingule. 


From the color it is probable that the iron exists as a carbon- 
ate. When heated in a tube, a strong odor like burning horn is 
perceived, accompanied by ammonia which reddens turmeric pa- 

er and gives white fumes with acetic acid, showing that a part 
at least of the volatile matter is of an animal nature. The spe 
cimens from Lac des Allumettes lose 1-7 p. c. by gentle ignition, 
with a like production of ammonia, and an odor of animal mat 
ter; the same thing was observed with those from Grenville. 

he existence in Lower Silurian rocks, of these masses, whose 

characters leave no doubt that they are coprolites, and whose 
chemical composition is like that of the excrements of creatures 
feeding upon vertebrate animals, led us to examine the shells of 
the Lingule always associated with these phosphatic bodies. ‘T 
result has beeu that all the specimeus yet examined consist chiefly 
_of phosphate of lime; they dissolve readily with slight efferves- 
cence in hydrochloric acid, and the solution gives with ammonia 
a copious’ precipitate readily soluble in acetic acid, from which 
oxalic acid throws down lime. With a solution of molybdate of 
aminonia there is obtained a quantity of the characteristic yel- 
low molydo-phosphate, many times greater than the bulk of the 
shell. 

We have thus examined Lingula prima, and L. antiqua, from 
the Potsdam sandstone, Z. parallela from the calciferous, and a 
species somewhat resembling L. guadrata, from the ‘Trenton 
limestone. It was desirable to compare with these, the shell of 
a recent specics. and for this purpose, fine specimens of the Lin 
gula ovalis, of Reeve, from the Sandwich Islands, were farnished 
us by J. H. Redfield, Esq. of New York. The shell of this spe 
cies had the same composition as the fossil ones, and the thick 
green epidermis, which swelled up like horn when heated, ga¥¢ 
a buiky white ash of phosphate of lime. 

For a further analysis the shell was boiled in water to remove 
all soluble matters, the soft parts still adherent were carefully de 


been concentrated, the phosphoric acid was thrown down by @ ; 

grms. © 

pyrophosphate of magnesia, equal to 044 of phosphoric acid, oF 
‘U978 of phosphate of lime, PO;,3CaO. 

The lime was separated from the acetic filtrate, as an oxalat®s 

and gave “1US of carbonate, equal to -0605 of lime, being 4” a 


Chemical Composition of Recent and Fossil Lingule.. 237 


cess of ‘0075 over the amount required to form the phosphate, 
and corresponding to ‘0134 of carbonate; the small amount of 


sia; the results from the calcined shell of Lingua ovalis are then 
as follows: : 
Phosphate of lime, ‘0978 = 8579 p. centum. 
Carbonate of lime, . ‘0134 = 11-75 
Magnesia, - = 0032 = 280 
1144 = 10034 
The proportion of phosphate of lime is that contained in hu- 
man bones, after their organic matter has been removed. 
- The texture of the ancient Lingule was observed to be unlike 
that of most other fossi! shells, being more or less dark brown in 
color, brilliant, almost opaque, and not, at all crystalline. ‘These 


same dark color and brilliancy were also remarked in the genus 
Conularia, and the shell of C. trentonensis, proved on examina- 
tion to be composed in like manner of phosphate. — 

The similarity of composition in these genera Is In accordance 
With the acute observations of Mr. Hall, who finds that Conula- 
ra is almost always associated with Lingula and Orbicula, and 
remarks that “these shells so unlike in structure and habit, ap- 
pear-to have flourished under similar circumstances, and to have 
required the same kind of ocean bed or sedimeut.”—Paleontol- 
By, vol: i, p. 1U1. 

For the sake of comparison, we have examined the following 
fossil shells : they have a common character, distinct from those 
already described, being lighter colored, more translucent and 
granular in texture; Atrypa ertans, Leptena alternata, aud Or- 
this pectenella from the ‘Trenton limestone ; O. erratica from the 
Hudson River group, and Chonetes lata ? from the Upper Silu- 
tan, besides Isotelus gigas, anda species of Cythere trom the 
Trenton. All of these consist of carbonate of lime, with only 
Such traces of phosphate as are generally found in calcareous 
shells, 

In the Report already quoted we have given a description of 
Some ‘phosphatic bodies which resemble the coprolites of the 
Calciferous sandstone, and are found at Riviére Ouelle in thin 

yers of a conglomerate limestone, which is in with 


~_ 


238 Chemical Composition of Recent and Fossil Lingula, 


red and green shales, and belohgs to the top of the Hudson River 


group or the base of the Oneida Conglomerates. .The phos 


hatic masses are very abundant, and rounded, flattened, or cyl- 


diameter ; they sometimes make up the larger part of the con- 
glomerate. Iron pyrites in small globular masses occurs abund- 
antly with them, often filling their interstices, but is not found 
elsewhere in the rock. These coprolites are finer grained and 
more compact than those from the Ottawa, and have a conchoidal 
fracture ; their color is bluish or brownish black; the powder 
is ash-grey, becoming reddish after ignition. They have the 
hardness of calcite aud a density of 3:15. When heated they 
evolve ammonia with an animal odor, and with sulphuric acid 
give the reactions of fluorine. The quantitative analysis of one 
gave— : 


Phosphate of lime, PO*,3CaO, - 40:34 pc. 
Carbonate of lime, with fluorid, - 5:14 
Carbonate of magnesia, - 2k O79 
Peroxyd of iron with a little alumina 12°62 
Oxyd of manganese, - - - trace 
Insoluble silicious residue, - - 25°44 
Volatile maiter, he tele gehe twig gS 
95:37 


bodies, resembling bones in appearance. ‘The longest one 3S au 
inch and a half long, and one-fourth of an inch in diameter. 
is hollow throughout, and had been entirely filled with the cal- 
careous sandstone, in which it is imbedded, and whose isinte- 
gration has left the larger end exposed. The smaller extremity 
is cylindrical, and thin, but it gradually enlarges from a thickeD- 
ing of the walls, and at the other end becomes externally some 
what triangulariform ; the cavity remains nearly cylindrical, 
the exposed surfaces are rough and irregular within. 


- 


F. A. Genth on a Meteorite from New Mezico. 239 


_ The texture of these tubes is compact, their color brownish 
black with a yellowish brown translucency in thin layers. Anal- 
ysis shows them to consist, like the coprolites, principally of phos- 
phate of lime. One hundred parts gave, 


Phosphate of lime, —- - - - 67:53 
Carbonate of lime, = - - - - 4°35 
Magnesia, - - - - - 1-65 
Protoxyd of iron, - - - : 2-95 
Insoluble silicious sand, - - - 21:10 
Volatile, animal matter, - - - 2:15 

99°73 


The microscopic examination of a section, shows that the walls 
of the tube are homogeneous, unlike the coprolites, and that the 
Silicious sand in the analysis, came from the sandstone which in- 
crusted the rough interior of the fossil. The phosphate is finely 
granular and retains no vestige of organic structure. ‘The chem- 
ical composition and the remarkable shape of the specimens how- 
ever, leave little doubt of their osseous nature, unless we suppose 
them to be the remains of some hitherto unknown invertebrate 
animal, whose skeleton, like those of Lingula, Orbicula and Co- 
nularia, consisted of phosphate of lime, a composition hitherto 
Supposed to be peculiar to vertebrate skeletons. 

Montreal, Jan. 5th, 1854. 


Arr. XXV.—On a new Meteorite from New Mezico; by 
Dr. F. A. Genta, of Philadelphia. 


T am indebted to Prof. Joseph Henry, Secretary of the Smithso- 
nian Institution, for a small piece of an interesting meteorite from 
Yew Mexico. It was labelled ‘ Native Iron,” and is said to oc- 
Curthere in large quantities. Fortunately it was just sufficient 
or an examination, the results of which I here give. There is 
no doubt that the mineral is of meteoric and not of telluric origin. 
_It is very crystalline and shows a distinct octahedral cleavage. 
Its color is iron-gray, its lustre metallic. Quite ductile. Sp. gr. 
(at_18° Cels.) = 8-130. : 
issolves readily in diluted nitric acid, leaving a small quantity 
of insoluble residue—which, however, was also slowly dissolved 
¥ Strong nitric acid or aqua regia, but still more easily by fusion 
With bisulphate of potash. 

@ methods used for its analysis were the following : In 
analysis I, the meteorite was dissolved in strong nitric acid; 
nickel and cobalt were separated from iron by carbonate of baryta ; 
Nickel and cobalt were separated by hydrocyanic acid, potash and 

yd of mercury. 


240 F’. A. Genth on a Meteorite from New Mezico. 


In analysis II, the meteorite was dissolved in diluted nitric 
acid, and the residue filtered off on a weighed filter. In the filtrate 
iron was separated from cobalt and nickel, by addition of a suffi- 
cient quantity of acetate of potash, in order to convert the nitrates 
into acetates, and evaporation to dryness in a water-bath. The 
dry mass was boiled with water and filtered. From the filtrate, 
which contained the whole quantity of oxyds of cobalt and 
nickel, these were precipitated by caustic potash. The precipi- 
tate of sesquioxyd of iron was re-dissolved in hydrochlorid acid, 
and precipitated by ammonia. his method gives excellent 
results, if used with care. The only objection might be, that the 
sesquioxyd of iron, thus separated, is difficult to filter 

The insoluble residue was ignited and fused with bisulphate of 
potash. On treating the fused mass with water, a white substance 
of the appearance of tartaric acid remained, which bydrochlori¢e 
acid slowly dissolved. This substance and sesquioxyd of iron 
were precipitated by ammonia, and from the filtrate, oxyd of 
nickel separated as usual. The precipitate was weighed, dissolv- 
ed in hydrochloric acid, and the iron precipitated by sulphid of 
ammonium, after the addition of tartaric acid and ammonia. 
From the sulphid of iron, the iron was determined as usual. 
From the filtrate, the other substance remained after the tartar 
acid was destroyed by heat. It was, however, a very small quan 
tity, and only sufficient for one blowpipe reaction. The borax 
bead gave in the inner flame an enamel of a bluish color. 
therefore believe that it is tartaric acid, though the reactions 
somewhat differ. 

The insoluble residue seems to be a combination of Iron, 
Nickel and Titanium. It contains no cobalt. Neither patt of 
the meteorite contained carbon, sulphur, phosphorus or tn. 

I 


Tron enone Deo Sex 6 6 
Nickel, = + - = 3:07 : 
Cobalt, « - = = 0-42 ‘ a ¥ 357 
Insoluble, °° s 2 4+ os ahaotca are see 0:57 
99°66 100-00 


The insoluble part consisted of a steel-colored powder in micte 
scopic crystals, which showed three-sided planes. Its compost 
ion Is: ; 

: Tron, Ps - . a = 55-07 p. ¢. 


Nickel,  - bait 3 — 28-78 
? Titanium, - < - = 1615 
: 100-00 


It is remarkable that the elements in the insoluble part a" - 
the following ratio: 


Fe: Ni:? Ti=6:3:2. 


t 


Notice of Dr. Hooker's Flora of New Zealand. 241 


Art. XX VI.—Jntroductory Essay, in Dr. Hooker’s Flora of 
New Zealand: Vol. 1.* 


Dr. J. D. Hooxer, thé Botanist of the Antarctic Expedition - 
under Capt. Sir James C. Ross, on his return to England—com- 
bining with his own extensive collections and observations all the 
accessible materials which have been accumulating in herbaria 
ever since the first voyage of Capt Cook—courageously assumed 
the task of preparing general floras of the three principal masses 
of southern land, in which his researches were made ; viz., Ant- 
arctic America, New Zealand, and Tasmania. The first of these 
undertakings was accomplished several years since, in the publi- 
cation of the Flora Antarctica; including Antarctic America 
With the Falkland Islands, the Campbell and Auckland Islands 
(properly pertaining to the New Zealand region), and the remote 
Kerguelen’s Land. Some abstracts were given in this Journal at 


of the work, as interesting to the systematic botanist alone. 


of the New Zealand Flora, and its relation to that of other countries. 
The history of the Botany of New Zealand, from the visit of 
Sir Joseph Banks and Dr. Solander, during Capt. Cook’s first voy- 
age, in 1790, down to the present time, need not arrest our 
attention. 'The actual number of species inhabiting these islands 
18 matter which it would be interesting to know, even approxi- 
mately. Dr. Hooker has brought together about 2,000 species in 
* The Bo ; ie V of H. M. Discovery Ships Erebus and 
poe, in eee ee a ae command of Capt. Sir James ond 
Flow. by Joseph Dalton Hooker, MD.,, ete. ete. Il. Flora N ovee-Zelandie, Part 
ering Plants, London. Lovell Reeve, 1852-1853. pp. $12, 4to, tab 70. 
Stoosp Serres, Vol. XVII, No. 50.—March, 1854. 31 


242 Notice of Dr. Hooker’s Flora of New Zealand. 


his Flora, including upwards of a hundred of the lower Crypto- 
gamia of which the materials are in too imperfect a state for 
satisfactory determination. This is more than double the number 


the attention which has been devoted to the lower orders. 1S 
may be easily shown ; for, whereas in all the earlier enumerations 
and collections the number of Flowering plants exceeds the Flow- 
erless, in M. Raoul’s catalogue they are equal, and in the present 
work the relative proportions at ; 

plants being to the Cryptogamic as 1 to 1:6, i. e. about two to 
three.” As to the probable ratio of the known materials to th 

whole flora, Dr. Hooker remarks that “the islands have been 
botanized upon by upwards of 35 individuals, whose specimens 
have (with a few unimportant exceptions) all passed under my 
eye. The flora of the Northern Island has been tolerably well 
examined, so far as its flowering plants are concerned; thoug 

there remains a good deal to be done on the west coast, especially 
in the neighborhood of Mount Egmont. Dr. Lyall alone has 
collected on the Southern Island, and on the west coast north of 
Dusky Bay. The Middle Island has been visited by few explorets; 
its north and east coasts alone having been botanized: the west, 
and the whole mountain range require a careful survey ; and, ¢on- 
sidering how many Auckland and Campbell Islands’ plants are 
still strangers to New Zealand, it cannot be doubted that much 


remains to be discovered there. Excepting from the above men- 


plants, for the following reasons: 1. There is a remarka 
sameness in the flora throughout large tracts, (in which res} t 
New Zealand contrasts remarkably with Tasmania); 2. Because 
out of the 730 flowering plants known, there are scarcely one 
hundred that have not been gathered by several individuals ; 
3. Because the collections I have lately received, though some 

them are extensive, and from scarcely visited localities, bind 
tain little or no novelty. With Cryptogamia the case is W1@®. 

different ; and it is difficult to estimate the vast number, especially 
of Mosses, Hepatic, and Fungi, that will reward future explot- 
ers in what, as far as Flowering plants are concerned, are eX 
ted fields.” From the data now possessed, and from a compariso™ 
of the same with the flora of better known countries, Dr. . ae 
ventures the opinion that there are not more than 4000 species: 


Notice of Dr. Hooker’s Flora of New Zealand. 243 


New Zealand, of which 1000 may be Flowering plants. ‘“Com- 
pared with any other countries in the same latitude, this is a very 
scanty flora indeed, especially as regards Flowering plants; of 
which Britain contains, in about the same area, upward of 1,40 
species ; and in Tasmania, not yet well explored, and containing 
only one-third of the area, upwards of 10U0 have already been 
discovered. In Cryptogamous plants, on the other hand, these 
islands are extremely rich, not only proportionately to the 
Phenogamic, but absolutely so. Great Britain, where the lower 
orders have been assidously studied for fifty years, contains about 
50 Ferns, and Tasmania 64 ;” while Dr. Hooker’s list of New Zea- 
land Ferns (including Lycopodiaces), after reducing almost half 
as many nominal species to more varieties, contains upwards of 
114 species. The same result would appear all the more striking- 
ly ona comparison with any equivalent continental tract in the 
northern hemisphere. In all British America and Oregon only 
62 species of Ferns and Lycopodiacee are recorded. ea. 

Dr. Hooker’s second chapter, on the limits of species, their dis- 
persion and variation, deals with matters of higher general interest. 
To bring the points in question fairly into view, he assumes four 
positions as heads of the subjects upon Which he proceeds to dis- 
course, namely : ; 

“1. That all the individuals of a species (as I shall ettempt to 
confine the term) have proceeded from one parent (or pair), and 
that they retain their distinctive (specific) characters. 

2. That species vary more than is generally admitted to be the 
case, 2 a 


' 3. That they are also much more widely distributed than is 
usually supposed. 

. That their distribution has been effected by natural causes ; 
but that these are not necessarily the same as those to which they 
are now exposed.” ; sis ; 

The first of these propositions should have been divided into 
two :—inasmuch as the first clause is not only open to some very 
Specious if not cogent objections which donot apply to the others, 
but is from. its very nature incapable of being supported by the 
kind of evidence which may sustain the other propositions. The 
act that we constantly see like individuals reproduced, and under 
favorable circumstances increased, from a parent stock, lays, 
Indeed, a solid ground for the inference that this process has been 
8oing on from the beginning: but how things go on, and how 
they began, are two different questions ; and it is seldom, if ever, 
that the facts and deductions which account for the former, can 
be made to throw much direct light on the latter. Why is it not 
antecedently just as probable that several or many individuals of 
fach species of plant, as identically like each other as are the 

spring to the parent now, were created at the beginning, as 


244 Notice of Dr. Hooker’s Flora of New Zealand. 


that each began with a single pair? We would still maintain 
that the objective idea of species arises from this “ perennial 
succession of like individuals (to use the phrase of Linneus), 
sustaining to each other the relation of parent and progeny ; and 
we think that the evidence on that side of the question strongly 
favors the inference, that plants, at least, have been distributed 
each species from a single and specific primordial area: but we 
know not what scientific evidence makes it needful to maintain 
the doctrine of the single creation of species in the restricted form 
of a single initial individual or pair. Were we even to go so lat 
as explicitly to assume the likelihood, in certain cases, of the 
original creation of- numerous individuals of a species, all alike 


“ Arguments in favor of these views are not wanting, derived both 
from the animal and vegetable kingdoms; the chief of which are 
drawn from a large class of well established facts, upon the bear! 
of which the most distinguished and candid naturalists are divided a 
opinion: such are—the great number of genera whose species ® a 
with which breeds of certain plants and animals may be propa 

omparative certainty with which some few varieties are ae or 
duced under favorable circumstances,—the great facility with W 


sports,—and the difficulty of accounting for the existence of plants ® 
localit 


animals in two or more ities, between which they cannot have bee? 


4 . 


Notice of Dr. Hooker’s Flora of New Zealand. 245 


transported by natural causes now in operation. These are all ques- 
tions Hef to the diffusion and variation of. species, which will be 
dis ere and in the following s scan 


distribution. Comparative anatomy, which has thrown so great light 
upon this branch of. study in the sister kingdom, has not done so much * 
for asada er arises from several. causes: 1. The habits of allied 


plants do not differ so remarkably as those of animals, and there is con- 
sequently te modification of their functional organs. 2. The relation 
of these modifications to the habits and wants of ihe species, is in the 


animal kingdom directly appreciable, but in plants no such connection 
Can be traced.* 3. The individual organs of support, respiration, and 
reproduction, are infinitely more variable and susceptible of change and 
even pvemiian 4 in plants, without affecting the life either of the indi- 
vidual or of the species.t The result of these facts is that we have 


its and naam which we hav noe in the vegetable kingdom, and 
which the phenomena of Phaioac! assure us do not exist to a degree 
that has, within the limits of oh experience, ieee available for throw- 
ing much light on the subjec 

e — in favor of a permanence of specific characters in 
Plants 


, how 
ever much w e may a alter conditions ; it is much ore difficult t to pip tats 
an induced variety from reverting to its aad § state, though we perse- 


,. The structure of woods offers many illustrations of this, tee ireerire allied 
Plants (especially Leguminose) ditfering otively 3 in the nature, arra and de- 
ee cular and cellular tissues of their trun 


ted t 
ony known to be indicated ie ‘the structure, Nig the structure 

to the function. This is not so in the sister kingdom, for ie @ content 
esa al to he a climber, Boye Se sae 8 i ates are adapted to 
opt f that function e habit is not only indicated by the struc- 

ture but oes intr is explained by ihe ag ante eee | it en eae ve animal to ful 
t To take e an ex e of his ;—many plants ig ae a wild and culti- 
vated state, which sree ta abundantly by root or vision, white ae do not do so 
i. seed. acharis Alsinastrum is a conspicuous example: it is a unisexual wate 
of wick one sex alone was introduced omy North Segre into Tog la, 
Where it has within a few years so ad by division as to be a 5 ine men 
navigation, The dish i is another sale, it em Asi T beli ieve, saaee 
known to or even to bear pees. pi be still more remarkable case has 
been poi ed out to me by Mr. Brown, in t ph lant spread (not 
My cultiva er ~~ the whole oesk ¢ awe amie which  hente hermaphro- 
flowers, ery rarely seeds. 


T- 


246 Notice of Dr. Hooker’s Flora of New Zealand. 


vere in supplying the original conditions ; and it is most difficult of all 


this, whether we take such plants as 
aid of man (as Sonchus oleraceus, Callitriche, and Montia) through 
‘all latitudes from England to New Zealand; or such as have. within 
modern times followed the migrations of man (as Poa annua, Phalaris 
Canariensis, Dock, Clover, Alsine media, Capsella bursa-pastoris, and 
a host of others); or such as man transports with him, whether such 
temperate climate plants as the cerealia, fruits, and flowers of the gar- 
den or field, or such tropical forms as Convolvulus Batatas and yams, 


all these, in whatever climate to which we may follow them, retain the 


egree. — i 
ith comparatively few exceptions, plants are confined within 


not the case. : 
. A multitude of allied species of plants grow close together wit 
out any interchange of specific character; and there are instances 
exceedingly closely allied plants keeping company under many moe! 
cations of climate, soil, and elevation, yet never losing their distinctive 


h- 
of 


6. One negative argument in favor of distribution from one centre 
only, is, that taking the broadest view of the dispersion of ape 
find that the more extensive familiest are more or less widely distri0U- 


rul 
whose facilities for dis are proverbial, are amongst the most local; and th 4 
same may be said of Ligeetiind and Solanew, whose ads retain their vitality 
a remarkable degree: a few of their species are remarkably cosmopolite, but “ia 
greater number have generally narrow ranges, 


Notice of Dr. Hooker’s Flora of New Zealand. 247 


ted, very much in proportion to the facilities they present for disper- 
sion. Thus the most minute-spored Cryptogams* are the most widely 
dispersed of all organized nature; plants that resist the influence of 
climate best, range furthest; water-plants are more eosmopolite than 
land-plants, and inhabitants of salt, more than those. of fresh water: 
the more equable and uniform is the climate of a tract of land, the 
d 


scriptions of the New Zealand Fungi) fails to find the most trifling 
character by which to separate many New Zealand species from Eu- 
ropean. 


har 
unaltered in spite of the change of constitution, just as the climate of 
One part of the globe disagrees with the human race of another, and is 
even fatal to it. 
uch are a few of the leading phenomena or facts that appear to me 
to give the greatest weight to the opinion that individuals of a species 
are all derived from one parent: for such arguments as the New Zea- 
land Flora furnishes, I must refer my readers to the following chapter. 
I would again remind the student that the hasty adoption of any of 
these theories is not advisable: plants should be largely collected, and 


Thus some of the seedling Pines whose parents grew at 12,000 feet appear har- 
» Whilst those of the same species from 10,000 are tender. The common sear! 
ron of Nepal and the Northwest Himalaya is tender, but seedlings 
ae from Sikkim, whose parents grew at a greater elevation, have proved 
uy hardy, 


248 Notice of Dr. Hooker’s Flora of New Zealand. 


or necessity arises for combining results, and presenting them in that 
systematic form which can alone render them available for the purpo- 
ses of science, it becomes necessary for the generalizer to proceed 
upon some determinate principles.” 

The considerations here adduced bear partly in favor of the 
single creation of species of plants, partly on their permanence of 
specific characters from age to age; which are different questions, 
although closely connected. In respect to the first, we have tl 
mere statement of the nature and kind of evidence that is avail- 


view which, by separating the idea of genetic meagre of 


our conception of a species, seems to leave these no gro 
basis of natural history npon a@ priori conceptions, and there 


form” (the definition of the late Dr. Morton), but one Te " 
sented in nature by the perennial succession of essentially 


Notice of Dr. Hooker's Flora of New Zealand. 249 


acommon standard to which our empirical determinations of 
? 


ome valuable and timely remarks are to be found in the fol- 
lowing extract : 

“Tt is not surprising that two naturalists, taking opposite views of the 
value of characters, should so treat a variable genus that their cenclu- 
Sons as to the limits of its species should be wholly irreconcilable. 
Some naturalists consider every minute character, if only tolerably con- 


of OWering, ete. Th 
Practically carried out in man 


In such hands the New Zealand genera 


temperate cli- 


'n the herbarium. ‘The It of my observations is, that differen- 
Ces of habit, color, hairiness, and outline of leaves, and minute charac- 
drawn from other rgans than those of reproduction, are generally 


s 
Whose specific characters are evident. In doing so I believe I have 
Seris, Vol. XVII, No. 50.—March, 1854. 32 


%. 


250 Notice of Dr. Hooker’s Flora of New Zealand. 


followed the practice of every systematist of large experience and ac 
knowledged judgment since the days of Linnseus, as Bentham, Brown, 
the De Candolles, Decaisne, Jussieu, Lindley, and the Richards names 
which include not only the most learned sol WF but the most pro- 
found anatomists and physiologists. I am far from supposing that the 


and variation of species, and to weigh characters not only per sé, but 
with reference to those which prevail in the order to which the species 
under consideration belong. 
n working up incomplete floras especially, I believe it to be of the 
utmost importance to adopt such a course, and to resist steadily the 


temptation to multiply names, ‘for it is practically very difficult to ot 


s much to be said on both sides of such questions : the local botanist 
aes closer, perceives sooner, and often appreciates sees! ince 
ous crap and characters, w ich are overlooked or too hastily ais 


and the knowledge and experience required to make us 
purposes of generalization, another; minute differences peter 


long dwelt u on, become iis Stee ed and ass sume undue value, and : 
ions de- 


of a ately distributed han 
I have been led to dwell “i length upon this point, because I a <n 
the New Zealand student will at first find it difficult to agree plowiins 


lar cases) he must bear in mind that I have examined many 
specimens of the plant, gathered in‘all parts of the south a h be 
hemisphere, and have found, after a most laborious compariso , tne . 
cauld not define its charcters with sufficient comprehensiveness from 


* The state of the British flora proves not only — but further, that © — 

ror leads to many more of the like kind: students are led to ors od 

stant characters, to take a narrow view of the peti: and end 0 f botany, | 

to throw away time upon profitless discussions about the difference vets are 2 
nite i, Manica forms of plants, of whose identity really learned botanists 


Notice of Dr. Hooker's Flora of New Zealand. 251 


study of its New Zealand phases alone, nor understand the latter with- 


out examining those of Australia, South Africa, and South America, 


forms of his race on the spot. We do not know why varieties should in 
h 


conclusive. To the amateur these questions are perhaps of very tri 
fling importance, but they are of great moment to the naturalist who 
re 


observation and judgment, and the resulting chaos of synonymy which 
has been accumulated by thoughtless aspirants to the questionable honor 


dy 
Sophical manner or spirit, or without due attention to all the modes of 
testing the validity of characters, afforded by the study of living and 
dried plants, by direct observation, and by experiment, there might be 
hopes of such a revelation; but such hopes are inconsistent with the 
sreat advances that have been made in systematic botany, which, hay- 


* The time however is happily past when it was considered an honor to be the 
the botani i art, D 


Herage| of a plant; nist who has the true interests of science at heart, 
“Y feels that the thrusting of an uncalled-for synonym into the nomenclature of 
rve ut that a wid 


Sclence is an ¢ ; : b 
xposure of his own ignorance an 8 censure, : 

Hom: knowledge and a riatse Uap of ind are required, to prove those dis- 
aad a forms to be identical, which any superficial observer can separate by words 


* 


* 


% 


252 «CT M. J. Nicklés on Friction and Pressure. 


ing all tended toa more perfect knowledge of the affinities of plants, 
we are assured have been the effect of progress in the right direction.” 


Without doubt the preponderating tendency of the ablest and 
most experienced botanists of the present day is, to cancel nominal 
species, and, taking a more eularged view of specific characters, 
to reduce slight or varying modifications to a common type; 4 
point not yet reached by zoologists, though probably it will be 
hereafter. Dr. Hooker’s tendency in this direction is evidently 
very decided ; possibly too much so. But it must be allowed 


_ that, while the botanists who multiply species unduly are always 


those who work upon scanty materials, or whose personal obser- 
vations are limited to a single district of country ; on the other 
hand, those who have access to the largest collections, or who 
have themselves botanized over various parts of the world, are for 
the most part as strongly inclined in the opposite direction. No 


tr. Hooker possesses both these advantages in an eminent de- - 


gree. Young as he still-is, no living botanist has investigated on 
the spot so many and so widely separated floras, and few like him 
have had constant access to the largest and best determined her- 
baria in the world. he principal danger here arises Irom 
Pembaras des richesses. It is hardly possible that a vast series of 
apparently confiuent forms should receive the detailed examina- 
tion which the less privileged botanist may concentrate upon his 
fewer materials ; and much is left to the quick, almost intuitive 
judgment, which is liable to error, indeed, but in which the true 
genius of a botanist is generally disclosed. 
rhaps there is no equally well known flora which compels 
the botanist to allow of such wide limits of variation in so large 
a proportion of its species, as that of New Zealand: at least $0 
it would appear at first sight. Yet this character seems to be 
exhibited more or less by insular floras generally, in which a con- 
siderable number of the peculiar species are apt to be surprisingly 
polymorphous, as was remarked by Bory de St. Vincent half @ 
century ago. =" 
(To be continued.) 
SS al 


Art. XXVII—On the relations which exist between Friction 
and Pressure; by M. J. Nicxtas. 


Iy preceding numbers of this Journal I have proposed for the 
Mechanical Arts the use of magnetic adhesion, a principle purely 
physical; and it becomes necessary to ascertain the relations 
which exist on a horizontal plane— : A 
tween pressure and the friction of iron sliding on iron. 
2. Between the pressure which one of these masses of iron 
converted into an electro-magnet exerts on the other, and the ef- 


M. J. Nickiés on Friction and Pressure. 253 


fort to overcome it in order to make this electro-magnet move on 
its armature. 

The Treatise on General Mechanics by Morin does not men- 
tion the first relation, that of the friction of iron on iron. It is 
well known however, that in practice the number 0:33 is adopted 
or it. 2 

[have reasons for thinking that the relation is the same in 
amount between magnetic pressure and the friction of sliding 
under this new condition. If the experiments which I have made 
on this subject do not prove that the friction is equal to one-third 
the pressure, they tend at least to establish an identity of relation 

tween the two pressures and the two frictions. I have had 
occasion to recognize a like identity between the adhesion or 
friction of rolling under the influence of added weight alone and 
the adhesion or friction of rolling under the influence of magnetic 

_ attraction.* 

The electro-magnet employed in the experiment was one of 
Joule’s+ The helices consisted of 30 metres of copper wire, 2 
mm. in section ; each of its polar surfaces were 0-080 m. in length 
and 0-020 m. in breadth. They are shown in figures 1 and 2, which 
tepresent, in elevation and section, the apparatus as well as the 


ee - £5) i. 2. 
f 
A RE SS BAe ee 
[a] ed 2ye 
Ss & tS oO? 
e se 1 é 
£ $ 
= 
I , : 
P 
P P . 


different phases in the experiments. The armature consisted of a 
€ce of a railroad rail, e, placed level on a bar o wood, s; the 

* Magnet and armature had been carefully cleaned and polished. : 
A cord attached to the axis of the magnet was connected with 
‘system of pulleys, 2, 2, and at the other extremity was attached 


* See this Journal, vol. xvi, p. 387, Nov., 1853. + Phil, Mag, [4], ii, 450. 


“ 


’ Relation of pressure to sliding on dry rail, 
“ “ “ wet as 


254 M. J. Nickles on Friction and Pressure. 


a scale for receiving the necessary weights, to determine the foree 
of the magnetic attraction. This force, once known, the cord 
attached to the axis of the magnet was deétached, and another 
was applied a little above the poles, at the height of a small pul- 
ley; y, fastened to the extremity of the rail: this cord which 
passed between the arms of the magnet terminated in a small rod 
of copper which was secured to f, on the arms, where it was held 
by rivets. A second scale, P’, smaller than the preceding, re- 
ceived the weights required for moving the apparatus onward, In 
the plane of the rail. The experiment was tried with a dry at- 
mature, and also with one wet with well water. To the weight 
carried, given in the table, 4 kilograms should be added, for the 
electro-magnet, and this is noted in the column of means. _ More- 
over the horizontal sliding observed was a kilogram too great, 
this representing the effort to be overcome in causing the electro- 
magnet to slide when not magnetized, and this is deducted in 
the column of means. The results with the dry and wet rail are 
as ‘follows: 


ci aatdauaite With mane reeligtans AS SE erates Oe 7 oe oe 
Weight carried normally, i: Horizontal ‘Means Relations. 
or magnetic pressure. ie sliding. i 3s Le a 

Dry rail, 231 k, 73 30 

236 23214=236k.; 73 19~12=%3E 0 

229 "3 a ae 
Wet rail, 230 k. 63 k, yt 

224 237+4==231k.| 67 645-1635, 02 

63 


Pb 

The circuit being broken, a weight of 232 kil. was added 2 
the magnet, by means of the bar mm, supported on the pen 
the magnet; the cord directly below carried a pulley to wine? 
a scale for the weights was adapted. The pressure was at 
erted normally on the magnet. The magnet itself weigh ‘s 
kilograms; the charge was therefore 236 kil., which i abe 
the pressure exerted on the armature in the preceding experimen” 


Normal pressure. 


Means.| Horizontal sliding.) Means Relations. | 


fis coke Ry 


Dry rail, 236 k. 


236 k. 236 k, 68 fee 
63 a 

Wet rail, 236 k. 236 k. l236 k. Pd | Be re 
Wet rail, 250 | Sewee 


The results are hence as follows: so 
Magnetic pressure. Pressure by wel 
0-25 
It would have been interesting to have determined the oo 
of effort required to make the apparatus slide when both species 
ized and weighted, to ascertain if the result would be the — ' 
the two slidings. But an accident which happened preven 
the month 


the repetition of the experiments which were made in 
of January, 1851. 


Meteorological Journal, kept at Marietta, Ohio. 255 


Arr. XXVIII.—Absiract of a Meicorologial Journal, for the Year 
1853: kept at Marietta, Ohio, in Lat. 39° 25’ N., and Long. 
4° 28’ West of Washington City; by S. P. Hitprern, M.D. 


| THERMOMETER. i | BAROMETER. 
dt Rk 2 | Eas... 
: 34 | 
5 A ae] Prevailing | 
MONTHS. Heer E | 22 | Winds. ‘. ‘ 
|) 2/3 /6/%) 2s jad Bones 
ni eee ee 1 ee 18 
Sisifiei sia ee 2 
SE |e Sif |S |= (8 4 oe 
January, . . . (8330/64, 0) 16) 15| 220) ws. &s.w. 29°90 28-45 1°45) 
February, . . ~- |8710)64) 11) 19) 16, 492) wd&s.w. 29552885 “70 
March,” . . . (40°66/74) 14) 17| 14! 088! wis. & E+ 29°70 98-80! -90 
\pril, j 53:00/80, 24! 17| 13] 592) nw. eds. |29°55/28°75 
ay, 61:13|88) 34) 16) 16) 3°21) s. w.,s.s.e. /29°60,29°10) “50 
une, 7460/95! 50) 28) 2) 0 s.&s.W. 29°652 5 
uly, 7115/94) 54° 26) 5) 4°12! s. ws. FB. dN. 29°60 29°23) “37 
71°55|91; 50) 22) 9] 2°83] s,s. nm d& Nn. (29°63 29-20) -4: 
eptember, 6433/87, 40 20, 10, 2°80, ssw. és 900-6 
etober, 4886/82; 28) 22 4°29) N., w.d& 8. E. 29°70 28°98) “75 
Yovember, ; . 14617 | 14) 16) 2°83} 4n,s.s.E 9°83 29 20) “6% 
Jecember,. . . |31°08/62' 6 12) 19| 216) Nn. w.,N.wW. (29°62 28°60:102| 
‘Mean for the year, . 52°74 229-143'37-04! ; 


The temperature for the year is 52°°74, which is rather above 
the mean annual heat for this place. No very .remarkable ex- 
tremes of heat or cold have distinguished the year, although the 


ul, in Assyria, on the river Tigris, where the American ard 
of Missions have several missionaries, whose health remains good 
With the thermometer at 112° or higher. ‘T'o render it deadly, 
tequires some imprudent act, as drinking cold water, which par- 
alyzes the motion of the heart, by its sudden reduction of temper- 
ature. A benevolent and all-wise creator, has regulated the laws 
of Nations in a way most beneficial to man ; so that water from 
Springs and fountains shall be of the same temperature as the 
Mean annual heat of the climate ; thus in a measure preventing 
the injurious effects of cold water on the over-heated human 
‘ame in the tropical regions of the earth. 


256 Meteorological Journal, kept at Marietta, Ohio. 


The amount of rain and melted snow was 37:;%'; inches— 
being nine and a half inches less than in the year 1852; but this 
is not the lowest in the scale, as it is sometimes reduced to thirty- 
four inches. 

The Ohio river was low all the summer, commencing early in 
June, as we had no rain at the summer solstice, a period when a 
rise in the Ohio is always expected, and seldom fails to appear. 
With the exception of a few feet of elevation in November, the 
water continued low until the setting in of winter, and closed 
with ice on the 25th December, when steamboats ceased run- 
ning. The fall of snow was light, only about five inches near 
the end of the month. The lowest temperature in December, 
was six degrees above zero. 

Winter.—The mean of the winter months was 36°-90. The 
coldest day was on January 29, when the mercury fell to zero. 
In February the lowest was 11° above. Great fluctuations 4 


depth. The winter was a very mild one. 

Spring.—The temperature of the spring months was 5 19°59, 
which is rather below the mean for this climate. The amoutt 
of rain was quite abundant, especially in April, and is very 1 
portant, as laying the foundation for the grass crop and other ce- 
real productions. 


Ss he temperature of the summer months was 
72°-43, which is higher than any previous one for many yer" 
the mean average being about 70 ra ss. ‘The 


commenced in June, and one of the hottest days was the thit- 
tieth, rising to 95°. July is generally the hottest month, but oe 
1853 the temperature was three and a half degrees below that 
June, being only 719-15, and the latter 74°60. At Cincinnatl 
the heat was considerably greater than in Marietta, rising 0? ve 
days to 98°, and on several to 94°. h n for the mont 
was five degrees above us, or 79°°32. It was six degrees above 
the mean for June in the last ten years. With this greatly 10° 
creased range of the thermometer there was a less amount obe 
than usual, there being quite a drought in June and July, W - 
was doubtless one cause of the heat. It had a favorable 


cote ot 


Meteorological Journal, kept at Marietta, Ohio. 257 


on the grape crop throughout the State, and especially near Cin- 
cinnati, where the vine is extensively cultivated. The fruit rip 
ened early and without any tendency to mildew and blight, as 
it does in wet seasons, especially the last of June. Wheat also 
felt the healthy influence of dry weather, while maturing its 
Seed; and was never of a better quality or more abundant in 
quantity, The heat of August was a little above July, owing, 
probably, to a less amount of rain, being only about half as 
much, 


Autumn.—The mean for the autumnal months was 52°-12; 
and is higher than the average by one or two degrees, arising 
chiefly from the heat imparted to the earth in the summer month 
being radiated in September. The fall was very favorable to the 
tipening of fruits and grain, Indian Corn never being better, not- 
Withstanding the excessive drought of June. It is a wonderful 
plant, and when judiciously tilled ina congenial climate, resisting 
both wet and dry weather above all other grains, its long fibrous 
roots penetrating the earth to a great depth, while its broad, ta- 
Pering leaves, collect the dews and fogs from the night air, con- 
ducting the moisture to the ground,’ so that in, droughts the soil 
18 Wet in the morning at the base of the stalks. For actual nu- 
tritive qualities, it stands at the head of all the grains, and will 
Yield the greatest amount of bushels to the acre. ithout this 
Plant, the surplus production of beef and pork in the valley of 
the Ohio, would be small. 

Floral Calendar.—March 3d, Yellow Crocus in bloom ; 15th, 

ow Drop; 22d, Bluebird building her nest; 24th, Hepatica 
triloba: 29th, Martin appears; 31st, Earth very dry, less than 
an inch of rain all the month. 


hardy flowering shrubs from China; 13th, yellow and white 


th, Early Strawberry ripe, Burr’s pine ; 21st, White peony ; 
24th, Purple peony; 29t 


258 Dr. Wyman on the Blind Fishes of the Mammoth Cave. 


protection ; 20th, Red Cherry ripe; 22d, Antwerp Raspberry; 
25th, Wheat harvest begins, a week earlier than common, from 
the heat and drought—less than an inch of rain during this 
month, meadows ready for mowing. 

July 6th, Blackberry ripe; 15th, Sweet bough apple; 17th, 
Chandler Apple. 

‘The crops of grain, potatoes and fruit good ; the sweet potato 
was excellent ; melons in great perfection, the hot and dry weather 
congenial to their habit; grapes were more abundant and per 
fect than in any former year.” 

Marietta, Ohio, Jan. 9, 1854. - 


Arr. XXIX.—On the Eye and the Organ of Hearing in the 
Blind Fishes (Amblyopsis speleus, Dekay) of the Mammoth 
Cave; by Jerrries Wyman, M.D. 


Tue general structure of the blind fishes was described ina 
former number of this Journal,* but a more complete descrip- 
tion was given in the New York Journal of Medicine, by Tel- 
kampf, who in company with J. Muller of Berlin, for the first * 
time detected the existence of rudimentary eyes.t ‘They are de- 
scribed as one twelfih of a line in diameter, round, black, destl- 
tute of a cornea, having an external layer of pigment, beneath 
which is a colorless membrane. No nerve was detected in con- 
nection with the eye, and the contents of the globe were not 
determined with certainty. Prof. Owen has described the orga! 
as a simple eye-speck, “as in the leech, consisting of a minute 
tegumentary follicle, coated by dark pigment which receives the 
end of a special cerebral nerve.”{ Dr. John C. Dalton, Jr. has 
also detected the eyes and describes them as minute globular sacs 
containing blackish pigment. deeply imbedded in the adipose ts- 
sue of the orbit and measuring a little less than one seventy- 
eighth of an inch. : 

Through the kindness of Mr. Charles Dean of Cambridge, 
and of Prof. Agassiz, I have had placed at my disposal some specl 
mens of Amblyopsis, well preserved in alcohol, and have been 
able to make in some respects a more complete description than 
has as yet been given. I have had also an opportunity of inspect 
ing superficially fourteen specimens varying from one inch and @ 
half to four inches and a half in length, but in three or four only 


* Vol. xiv, p. 94, July, 1843. raed 

+ New York Journal of Medicine, vol. v, p. 84,1845. Dr. Dekay had previous'y 
mentioned eg Ao magi oe of eyes, but was evidently misled by some other appear 
ance, since he states that eyes exist of th t are covered b 
He had not disseeted hens” Fain Oy than ee : 

+ Lectures on Comp. Anat., vol. ii, p. 209, is figure, p. 175. . 

@ New York Medical Times, vol. a ei oe eae — 


Dr. Wyman on the Blind Fishes of the Mammoth Cave. 259 


could the eyes be detected through the skin. In the three speci- 
mens recently dissected, the eyes were exposed only after the 
removal of the skin, and the careful separation from them of the 
loose areolar tissue which fills the orbit. In a fish four inches 
in length the eyes measured one-sixteenth of an inch in their 
long diameter, were of an- oval form and black. A filament of 
herve (fig. la) was distinetly traced from the globe to the cranial 
walls, but the condition of the contents of the cranium from the 
effects of the alcohol, was such as to render it impracticable to 
ascertain the mode of connection ‘vf the optic nerve with the 
optic lobes. A few muscular fibres were traced to the immediate 
neighborhood of the eye, and even in contact with it, but were 
hot ascertained to have that regular arrangement which is seen in 
the more completely formed eyes of other fishes. 


Eye of Amblyopsis. 


Brain and auditory apparatus. 


_ Examined under the microscope with a power of about twenty 
diameters, the following parts were satisfactorily made out: Ist, 
®Xternally an exceedingly thin membrane, 6, which invested the 
Whole surface of the eye and. appeared to be continuous with a 
thin Membrane covering the optic nerve, and which was there- 
fore tegarded as a sclerotic ; 2d, a layer of pigment cells, d, for 
& Most part of a hexagonal form, and which were most abund- 
“nt about the anterior part of the eye; 3d, beneath the pigment 
4 Single layer of colorless cells, c, larger than a pigment cell, and 
fach cell having a distinct nucleus; 4th, just in front of the 
aiahe, a lenticular shaped, transparent body, e, which consisted of 
€xternal membrane coutaining numerous cells with nuclei. 
his lens-shaped body seemed to be retained in its place bya 
sth ugation forwards of the external membrane of the globe; 
“, the globe was invested by loose areolar tissue, which ad- 
fate to it very generally, and in. some instances contained yellow 
ty Matter; in one specimen it formed a round spot visible 


260 Dr. Wyman on the Blind Fishes of the Mammoth Cave. 


ument ceased. 
According to Quatrefages, however, the eye of Amphioxus 1s - 
contained wholly in the cavity of the dura mater, and yet it has 


regard to its development, the anatomieal characters which sa 
been enumerated show, that though quite imperfect as we see " 
in the adult, it is constructed after the type of the eyes of othe 


vertebrates. It certainly is not adapted to the formation of wrt 
1c 


as representing the latter the increased number of pigment cells 


Dr. Burnett on the Development of Viviparous Aphides. 261 


The Far.—lt is said that the blind fishes are acutely sensitive 
to sounds as well as to undulations produced by other causes in 
the water. In the only instance in which I have dissected the 
organ of hearing (which I believe has not been before noticed) 
all its parts were largely developed, as will be seen by reference 
to figures 2and 3. As regards the general structure, the parts do 
not differ materially from those of other fishes except for their 
proportional dimensions. The semi-circular canals are of great 
length, and the two which unite to enter the vestibule by a com- 
mon duct, it will be seen, project upwards and inwards under the 
vault of the cranium, so as to approach quite near to the corres- 
ponding parts of the opposite side. ‘The otolite con- 8. 
tained in the utricle was not remarkable, but that of l 
the vestibule (fig. 3) andwhich is seen in dotted out- te 
line in fig. 2 e is quite large when compared with that tr 
of a Leuciscus of about the same dimensions as the 
blind-fish here described. | nana 

The parts represented in fig. 2 are the olfactory lobes and 
nerves a, the cerebral lobes b, optic lobes ¢, the cerebellum d, the 
Otolite in situ e, the medulla oblongata f, and the eyes 

The parts in figures 2 and 3 are enlarged three times linear 
measurement. 


=—_— 


Arr, XXX.— Additional Note to Researches on the Development 
of the Viviparous Aphides ;* by W. 1. Buryetrt, M.D. 


8enitalia. Among the proper females there were, besides those 
Which were filled with eggs or had already deposited them, other 
Individuals in which the ovaries were but feebly developed, or at 
_ Hast, in which no mature eggs had been formed. An opportu- 


* This volume, page 62. 


262 Correspondence of J. Nickles. 


nity was thereby afforded me to examine the structural differen- 


ces between the true ovaries and their quast representatives—the 
bud-like processes. ‘The true ovaries had their usual, well-known 
structure—multilocular tubes containing nucleated cells which 
are probably the undeveloped germs; the bud-like processes, on 
the other hand, consisted of a row of cell-masses, oval and con- 
nected by a kind of peduncle, as described in detail in the prece- 
ding paper. ‘These wide differences have, more than ever, per- 
suaded me of the morphological dissimilarity of these two kinds 
of reproducing parts in this animal. It seems to me then that 
the real intrinsic difference between an ovum and a bud lies as 
deep as the conditions of sex itself, notwithstanding the latter of- 
ten has, as in the present case for instance, some of the morpho- 
logical characteristics of the former. 3 
The appearance of sexless, gemmiparous individuals in the ter- 
minal brood would seem to indicate, moreover, that the conditions 
which determine the appearance of individuals usually exclusive- 
y male and female, are not, perhaps, referable to the fact of this 
being the last brood, but rather to relations of warmth and nuttl- 


physiology, and these very animals will, perhaps, subserve th 
successful study of the primary morphological conditions of sex, 


‘ART. XXXI.— Correspondence of M. Jerome Nicklés, dated Paris, 
_ December 30, 1853. 


eal class comprises five sections, as follows: Geomelry, Mechant 
bt Geography and Navigation, and finally, General Phystt® 


' The class of the Physical Sciences contains six sections, namell 
0 - 


Chemistry, Mineralogy, Botany, Rural Economy, Anatomy and. Z ‘ 
ogy, and Medicine and Surgery. The President of the Ac demy 8 


Publication of the works of Arago and Laurent. 263 


h 
was the Perpetual Secretary for the Mathematical Scie 


nominations are held very select. It is hence understood why the elec- 
tion of a perpetual secretary is an occurrence of great importance, a 

should have been with the Academy the subject of constant delibera- 
tion, ever since the death of Arago. When the decision was to be 
made, a large number of names were put on the roll; and finally the 
commission for preparing the list of candidates, fixed upon three names, 
taken from the Mathematical class, MM. Charles Dupin, Lamé, and 
Pouillet. On the proposition of M. Cauchy, the Academy added to those 
names that of the able geologist, Elie de Beaumont. The Academy 
Was nearly complete in its attendance. Members detained at home for 


@ long ti ast, on account of health, were conveyed to the meeting. 
Two ballotings took place, and on the second, the name of Elie de 
Beaumont was drawn ot the urn victorious, to the great disap- 


it from 
pointment of the Mathematicians, already inferior in nym 
whose votes were divided between the three candidates. 

A fifth name was obstinately put into the urn: it was that of M. de 
Senarmont, to whom mineralogical physics owes so much of its recent 
Progress, r ime M. de Senarmont was the preferred candi- 
date: but he deciined the honor, excusing himself on the ground of his 

h 


Elevation, which he has developed and extended. He is an elegant 


8, 
reports, historical eulogies, several of which have not yet been pub- 
esl and a popular Astronomy. The printing Is rapidly going for- 

ard, 


' Circumstances have hindered thus far the entire publication of the 
Work left by Laurent,—a work in which this chemist, so prematurely 
aken from science, rapidly collected together his views on chemical 
, along with a historical account of organic chemistry, in the 


264 Correspondence of J. Nickles. 


construction of which branch of science he had had so large a patt. 

work is now in press and will soon be published. The avails of 
its publication are the only dowry which the unfortunate Laurent left 
to his widow and children, his long sickness having absorbed all his re- 
es. As an addition to this, the French savants, headed by MM. 


r. 
Lavallé, the Central School of Arts and Manufactures, which has pro- 
duced all the distinguished engineers of the country, and which is now 
attended by students from all parts of Europe. 

Olivier was an able Professor. His language, clear, precise and ele- 
gant, fitted him for public instruction. A chair of Descriptive Geom- 
etry was created for him at the Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers, and 
he filled it with distinction till the time of his death. For illustration 


models, made with most admirable care, precision and economy. 
Besides this collection, there is another likéwise made by Olivier, illus- 
trating the movements of cog-wheels, either as employed in the Indus- 
trial Arts, or as interesting simply in a mathematical point of view 2 
the transmission of motion. 

In he published an important memoir on White’s theory of 
cog-wheels without friction from sliding. He afterwards occupied 


de munition”) was more healthy and more nutritious than white bread. 


mmeni 
opinion is now sustained by Chevreul, who declared his views 9? the 


Ammonia in Rain-water. 265 


occasion of a memoir of M. Mourier on this subject. It is known too 
that according to Magendie’s experiment, dogs could live on bran bread, 
whilst they died when kept on white bread. This fact which appeared 
so singular, is explained through the researches in question. 


. 


e inner surface of bran is covered with azotized principles which 


ra 
that the bran acts as a ferment in fermentation, and consequently in 
a similar manner in digestion. 
the Ammonia contained in Rain-water.—M. Boussincautt has 
continued at his country seat at Liebfrauenberg (Lower Rhine) his re- 
searches mentioned in the November number of this Journal. From 


fn ammonia. € proportions, by several trials, were 6 milligrams 
to the litre ; but the amount is reduced to 1-02 a day. On 


Monia, that the water had an alkaline reaction; a litre of the water 
contained about 2 decigrams of carbonate of mmonia. Seventy-five 
rains (including the dew and mist) examined by Boussingault between 
the 26th of May and the 8th of November, contained, as a mean, half 
@ milligram of ammonia. The great quantity of ammonia contained 
in the mist appears interesting in its bearing on vegetable pathology: 
n fact, although ammonia in small quantity is favorable to vegetation, 
a large proportion would be injurious, and would show its effects espe- 


hese physicists admit that both currents traverse the joining wire, that 
they neutralize one another in one case, and add to one another in the 
. et; and as the development of heat is regarded as due to the reun- 
10n of the two fluids, nothing prevents that the four equal streams should 
©°mbine two and two in the common part of the current, and produce 
in all cases an elevation of temperature alike whatever may be the di- 
Tection of one of the currents. ait 

Stcowp Serms, Vol, XVII; No. 50.—March, 1854. 34 


266 Correspondence of J. Nickles. 


But this is not so in the experiment, and because the currents do 
not pass along the wires as MM. de la Provostaye and Desains regard 


it. the aid of the platinum wire the two circuits of the pile form 
no more than one, whose tension varies with the direction of the cur- 
rents. When both are propagated in the same direction, a¢, 


On the contrary, when the currents pass in opposite directions, 
the batteries A and B are coupled for tension, a condition less favorable 


form of these phenomena. 
[take an electromagnet which I place in a circuit, formed of four of 

Bunsen’s pairs. The electromagnet carries 200 kilograms. If now I 

interpose four other elements in an opposite direction, | ought to have 0, 

according to both theories; in fact the magnetization disappears en- 

tirely. But if in place of four reversed elements I take only éwo, I find 

that the electromagnet retains part of its force ; and, provided the mode 
communication of the conductors remains the same in both cases, 

thi 


derived currents, and the magnet was in a certain degree magnetised. 
Various Memoirs.—Among the memoirs brought before the Acad- 


moirs by M. Virchow, relating to the discovery in the human body fr 
t 
t by 


dia-rubber, etc.—A memoir of M. Schlosing, on testing for nitri¢ aci 
accompanied by organic matters. The author who is inspector of to- 
bacco, has applied his process to this vegetable substance. 


Ld 


Chemical Reactions under High Pressure. 267 


without decomposition, by s of a high temperature (21° to 23° 
Wedgewoo The means he used were suggested by considerations 


published by Hutton, respecting the influence that pressure might exert 
on geological phenomena. Hall used a closed vessel under a pressure 
8 


To avoid accidents, the following are his arrangements. A square 
Structure or vat, A, of brick, divided into three unequal parts, one above 
the other, contains the furnace, b, B being the doors, ¢ the ash-pit, D the 
chimney ; a plate of iron separates this part from the oven of the up- 


aT et on. 

ing of the vat with a heavy plate of iron. The space containing the 

oil bath is thus closed on ail sides. we 
€ boiler is half filled with oil; and the temperature of the oil is 

oe by a thermometer, T, placed in a metallic tube which passes 


a 
Fer they are enclosed in iron tubes (s), solid at one end, and at the 
T closed b d 


other ¢ 


* This Journal, vol. xvi, p. 100. . saps aa ie 


268 : Correspondence of J. Nicklés. 


occasional explosions, which throw out or set fire to the oil, in conse- 
quence of the projection through the oi] of gases produced by the ex- 
‘plosion. M. Berthelot avoids this result by surrounding the iron tube 
by a case (“‘manchon”) of sheet iron, closed below: the gas in this 
case, does not pass into the oil, but escapes above. 


:, 
Ane 
3 
2. A A 
i\ | == ‘ 
Oo OO) 4 ==, , 4 
whens By a 
a Deion 
= power Ty BE fies 
fe = 
— = 
os = 
-— eo sa 
Sate ee 


Parca arconge of the Figures —1. A, brick structure, reduced to one-twentieth ; bB, ae 
of the furnace; c, ash-pit; , chimney,—2. Horizontal section of the pei: posi 
: bela: 3 orizo) 


mometer enclosed in an iron tube; F, grating ; G, cast iron plate; P, ore on pile ; 
In recapitulation, the glass tube (c) is placed in a tube of iron (s)s 
surrounded b se; the whole-is heated in the oil bath, 
enclosed within a brick oven or vat. ‘ 
The closed vessels employed are either balls, matrasses, or tubes, of 
glass. The first hardly resist a pressure of more than 3 or 4 atmos- 
pheres. They are closed by means of a lamp after the substance S 
introduced. _ Glass tubes are generally used; they should be bard, little 
- fusible, unattacked by the reagents and by the heat of a lamp- The 
glass tubes used for organic analysis, are excellent for the purpose: 
They will sustain a pressure of 50 to 60 tmospheres; they — 


Manufacture of Bi-chromate of Potash. 269° 


the tension of water, to about 270° C., and that of turpentine to above 
° : 


over‘one-half or Siienthind full; and they should be short enough to be 
entirely covered by the oil when placed vertically in it; if to a 
heat, tubes of 50 to 60 centimetres are employed, and they are filled 


Tol TS or a_ mill (‘moulin a poix’’), and afterwards with water under 
siliceous millstones or of iron, bringing together the millstones, so as to 
obtain No, 90 :— 3), then made into a paste with carbonate of potash, 


the mixture and drying it completely at 100° C.:—(4), thus calcined, 
Ibis put into earthen retorts, which have at the lower part a head 
Metal provided with an opening for admitting air previously heated, for 


270 Correspondence of J. Nicklés. 


evaporation of water :—(5), after the roasting is thus completed, the 
material is removed to the boilers, to undergo five treatments success- 
ively with boiling water, in order to extract all the chromate of potash, 
using the last waters with a new supply of the roasted ore; if there is 
some chromate of lime in the liquid it is precipitated by means of car- 
bonate of potash :—(6), the solution of chromate of potash is concen- 
trated to one-third of its original volume, one-half of the potash of the 
chromate is saturated with sulphuric acids which allows of a separation 
at once of the bi-chromate from the insoluble sulphate of potash which 
is precipitated ; then the concentration is completed before conducting 

iquid to the vats for crystallization. aaa 

. Jacquelain expects considerable profit from this process, obtaining 
425 francs for 500 kilograms of the bi-chromate, which amount may 
be manufactured in one day. To 100 kilograms of ore, 45 p. c. 1D pu- 


photography to zoological studies. A. very successful attempt has bee 
made by MM. Rousseau, naturalist attached to the Museum, M. Deve- 


and of man. As photography thus gives us economically what cou 


ters. 

On learning the death of Arago, a French photographer, M. Claudet, 
established for some years in London, recalled his having taken 1D 
1843, some Daguerreotypes of this philosopher, M. Claudet, aided by 
M. Lerebours, has taken from different positions pictures from t 
guerreolype, such as may be used with a stereoscope; and we om 
have a stereoscopic picture of the man who may be said to have a¢ 


t) 
e de St. Victor, of whom we, have spoken in the number 
for November last, proposes to extend the use of his new process oP 
glass, and operate with it as for an engraving on steel. When the plate 
~ has received an impression, he submits it to the vapors of fluohydri¢ : 
acid or else pours upon a little of the liquid acid ; in the first cases" — 
engraving is unpolished, in the second, it is deep and ' ; 


Scientific Intelligence. 271 


Chemical examination of four new Quinquinas from the Province of 
Ocagna, New Grenada.—These four Quinquinas have never appeared 
in commerce, and it was important to ascertain their richness in qui- 


No, 1. Specimen labelled Pale Red Quinquina from New Grenada. 
No. 2. » « White “ from the province of Ocagna. 


No. 3. y ad Brownish red =“ - 
No. 4. 6 6s Rose red 6s 6s “s 
One kilogram of the Quinquina afforded, in grammes: 
No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. No. 4. 
Sulphate of Quinine, 0-18 0:06 15°50 
Cinchonine, —- « 0-02 0-12 4:00 


_Itis seen that only one of these Quinquinas js of any interest: it is 
0, 4.. M. O. Henry has not been able to determine the species 
Which the bark belongs. 


=_—_ 


SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 


I. Cuemistry AND Puysics. 


has presented the American student with a very complete and excellent 
Introduction to the science of mechanics. A work in which the ana- 
i 


utes analysis. The whole science of mechanics is contained in six 
€quations. Prof. Bartlett, following Lagrange, deduces these equations 
ater a brief preliminary introduction giving the necessary definitions 
‘od explanations of the terms used. From these equations formulas 
plicable to particular cases are deduced, and the work will be found 
Mane ovens and completely illustrated by examples and problems. _ 
ch matter of a purely practical character is introduced, and the — 


272 Scientific Intelligence. 
treatise terminates with a series of tables of coefficients of friction, re- 
sistances to n the whole the 


compression, tenacities, densities, &c. 


one of the most difficult but most beautiful and useful of the sciences. 
2. Darstellung der Farbenlehre und Optische Studien von H. W. 
ové.—Under this title Prof. Dové has published the second edition of 
an admirably clear and well written exposition of the theory of colors. 
The first edition of this work appeared in 1836, and has long been out 
of print. The author has now materially enlar 


e 
exclusively. Genera ics, however, are rarely SU rl 
ciently full and explicit in the details of the application of theories; = 
usually confine themselves in a great measure at least to phenomen™ 


gravitation—in short to be considered as the second great phy 
eralization to which the human mind has arrived. A com mp’ 


Chemistry and Physics. 273 


into two parts he first division, which is of a more elementary 
nature, treats of the principles of the wave theory for the simple case 
of isotropic media. ‘[he explanation of the attributes of color, intensity 


Catoptrics and Dioptrics are theoretically deduced. ‘This portion of 

the work is in itself a very full treatise on descriptive Photics, though 

ina few particulars, as for example, upon the subject of circular polar- 

ization, more details would have been desirable. The chapter on inter- 

ference is particularly worthy of notice, the subject ee treated in 
: s 


description of Fessei’s wave machine, for the representation of plane 
circular and elliptically polarized waves, as well as for the illustration 


nomena of the motion of light in crystalline media. The treatise con- 


Work. Upon the whole, then, we regard Dr. Beer’s treatise as one o 
the most truly important and valuable contributions to scientific literature 
Which have a peared in recent times, and it is to be hoped that it may 

on appear in an English dress, and thus become more generally ac- 
Cessible and useful. 

4. Die Lehre von der Reibungselektricitét von P. T. Riess.—Prof, 
Hess is one of the few physicists who has devoted his energies exclu- 
Sively to the subject of frictional electricity—a subject which, though at 
one time very popular, has of late years been but little studied. The 
treatise before us i 


t e excitement of electricity, and the sixth of atmospheric 
electricity, The author abstains entirely from theoretical considera- 
» and devotes his work exclusively to phenomena an laws, 


A great mass of isolated experiments with which works on electri- 
ity usually abound serves only to confuse the subject, and Prof. Ri 
. it 85 ade tas ze 


274 Scientific Intelligence. 


has most judiciously confined himself as much as possible to general 
sone and to the statement of numerical results. English treatises 
hysics of late have done little else sot re-echo the opinions of the 


Recteibns Faraday upon this branch of scie and we owe this Ger- 
man physicist no inconsiderable debt of gratitude for his faithful expo- 
sition and dispassionate criticism of the labors of other expe 


The results of Prof. Riess’s own labors form no inconsiderable or un- 
important part of his work, and we find here reproduced his Bs 
on the torsion electrometer, on the development of heat in the connect 
ing wire of the electric battery, on induced electrical currents, and 
upon many other interesting subjects. No treatise which has yet been 
published upon frictional Meditisive, at all compares with this in real 
extent, fullness and completeness, and it is no small part of its — 
that it has been drawn wholly from the original sources, and has not 
been built up upon some other and older work as a smewrrness “Such 
works as this are needed in every branch of science; they demand 
for their production the ath insight, the most dispassionate judg- 
ment, and the most thoro and comprehensive knowledge. We 
a’ bint that Prof. ‘Bless’ noble trealise may not long — 
alone 


possible to maintain a perfect gas at so low a temperature, the pressure 
would be null. 
no a is entirely devoid of cohesion, the immediate results of 
Exberinent me only approximations to the position of this absolute 
ro, € approximate positions approach nearer to the true posi- 
tion as hy si is rarified. 

The author having deduced the true position of the absolute zero 
from M. Regnault’s experiments on atmospheric air and carbonic acid, 
soon after at publication, announced the result in the Edinburg 
New Philosophical Journal for July, ites and in the Transactions of 
the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. 

The present paper gives the details “of the method of dele 
which he adopted, and a copy of the diagram which he u 

The following were the results arrive dat: 

The absolute zero of the perfect gas thermometer is 

274°°6 Stang sao hans 
494°-28 Fahrenhei } below the temperature of melting ! 
cient of oc, of a perfect gas, in fractions of its vole 
ume at the temperature of melting ice, is consequently ,— 


Per degree of the Centigrade scale, 0-00364166. 


1 — 
2746. 
1 
og: 314. 
re aed 0:00202 


6. Aridium ; by Campzett Morrir and James C. Boots, (Commu 
nicated for this Journal.) —Bahr (Jour. Prakt. Chem., ts, tr having a 


Per degree of Fahrenheit’s scale, 


Chemistry and Physics. 275 


Stated his conviction, after recent and careful examination of the Nor- 
wegian Chromic Iron Ore, that Aridium, which Ullgren first announced 
as a new metal obtained by him from that mineral, is nothing more than 
oxyd of iron admixed with traces of phosphoric acid and oxyd of 


ote to J. D. Dana’s Contributions to Chemical Mineralogy, 
iti ages 218 to 
220, fractions are used as preferable often to whole numbers. ‘Thus, 


Si, al Bit, #l si* #18, are obviously more immediately appreciated 


sis affords. The actual number of molecules may be for the first, 
for example, Al4o Si30 or A124 Si1s, etc., and Mr. T. 8. Hunt has 
given good reason for believing that the molecules are in some suc 
multiples. Hence 414 Si3, taken as an expression of the absolute 
number of molecules is beyond doubt false ; taken as a ratio simply, 
the fact is better exhibited by the fraction. sa i 

In the formulas, such as (¢8?-+34) Si or (285+28) Si, the sum of the 
fractions is a unit; and in the first of these two formulas, they show 
that Rs is to # as 1:1; in the second, as 3:2. These expressions 
or formulas of course come under the more general formula (R3,#) 


ma 
Tourmaline that the planes of it are less common on crystals than 
f -4R (the R of authors). But it is true also In Calcite that 
-$R is one of the most common forms, much more common than h. 
- On the Production of Crystalline Structure in Crystallized Pow- 
ders, by Compression and Traction ; by Sir Davin BrewsTER, Kika 


ssess it, has been long known; but with this class of phenomena, 
those which I am about to describe have no connexion whatever 


es, wh h 
Obtained a transparent film, exhibiting the phenomena of double re- 
flexion and polarization from its surface as perfectly as if I had been 
a large crystal. Ge 


276 Scientific Intelligence. 


as well as the film itself, ha egular axes of double refraction, as if 
they were regularly crystallized portions of the substance under exam- 
ination. Th treaks and capillary lines, which were often of ex 


there is the appearance of a polished surface on the compressed oh 

stance. In general, I have used both the smooth and the rough een 

and have frequently obtained results with the one which were not da 
he other. 


of yellow reflected light, the phenomena are peculiarly splendid ; of 
natural colors of the substance, which vary greatly with Ce 
of the streaks and films, being combined with the different tints ey 


- 


by traction ; and the superficial colors which they reflect vary with os 
azimuth which the plane of incidence forms with the plane pass!P& 
through the axis of the prism. “ey 
The remarkable property which Ihave now described I have found, 
in a greater or a less degree, in the following crystals :— 


Chrysammate of magnesia. Palmic acid. 
" of potash, Amygdaline. 
1ydro-chrysammid, - Tannin, pure, 
Murexide. Quinine, pure. 
Aloetinate of potash. “ acetate of. 
Aloetinic acid. «sulphate of. 
Oxamide. + muriate of. 


Palmine. “ phosphate of. 


Chemistry and Physics. 277 


» Quinine, citrate of. Cer 


ium, oxyd of. 
c Parmeline, 
Veratric acid. Lecanorine. 
Esculine. Indigo red. 
Theine. : Ammonia, oxalate of. 
Silver, cyanid of. ms sulphate of. 
(74 


acetate Soda, chromate of. 
Platina and magnesia,cyanuretof.| Lead, iodid of. 
‘* and 


barytes, cyanuret of. Strychnine, sulphate of. 
** potassium, cyanuret of. e acetate. of. 
‘* ammonia, chlorid of. Soda, native nitrate of. 
Potash, oxymuriate of. ~ Berberine 
‘** chroma ‘ Mucic acid. 
Urea, nitrate of. Solanine. 
Asparagine. 
hor. Mercury, oxymuriate of. 
Cinchonine. Isatine. 
* sulphate of. Alizarine. 
Meconic acid. Manganese, sesquioxyd of. 
Brucine, sulphate of. Lead, protoxyd of. 
Morphia, acetate of. Tungstic acid. 
Tin, iodid of. Chromo-oxalate of potash. 


In submitting other crystals to the influence of com| ression and 
traction, I have found great numbers which do not exhibit the least 


ydrate of potash, pure. Soda, acetate of. 

lndigotie acid. ercury, prussiate of. 
Urea. - muri 
Citric acid. * ~— sulphuret of. 
Silver, nitrate of. . Barytes, acetate of. 

onine, Zinc, chromate of. 
Naphthaline. “© sulph 
Soda, nitrate of. Cobalt, sulphate of. 
Potash and copper, sulphate of. Magnesia and soda, sulphate of. 
Soda, phosphate of. Borax. 


As both compression and traction are necessary in producing the 
transparent ideaua and lines in both classes of the substances I have 


278 Scientific Intelligence. 


enumerated, it became interesting to ascertain what effect was pro- 

duced by each of these forces acting separately, and which of them 

was chiefly influential in developing the doubly refracting arrangement 
exhibited by the substances that possessed it. 

The force of compression was undoubtedly the agent in forcing the 

i m 


& question has no bearing upom our present subject, I have not at- 
tempted its solution. 

Without expecting any very interesting result, I submitted to exam- 
ination several of the soft solids which possess double refraction, such 
as bees’ wax, oil of mace, tallow, and almond soap. The last of these 
substances, though in common use, is a very remarkable one. Owing 
to its particles not being in optical contact, it has a fine pearly lustre, 
and may be drawn out into long and slender strings. Upon laying a 
portion of it on glass, it hasa quaquaversus polarizing structure, with @ 
tendency to form circular crystals; but when it is drawn out into 
strings, and laid upon glass, these strings have neutral and depolarizing 
axes, like the streaks formed by compression and traction. In the 
present case it is by traction alone that this crystalline arrangement of 
the particles is produced. ‘ , 

In oil of mace and tallow a similar effect is produced by compression 
and traction. With bees’ wax the de olarizing lines are still better 
displayed, and the effect is considerably increased by mixing the bees 

f rosi 


the preceding experiments place it beyond a doubt that the opti- 
cal or crystallographic axes of a number of minute particles eo 
e i to ac 


d e traction into the same direction, so as to 
upon light like regular erystals, it became interesting to discover r 
of phe which certainly could not have been anticipate 
from theoretical principle with which we are a ed. T 
primary force, and ji d the only apparent one exerted in 
experiments, is a mechanical force; but it is not improbable that @ 


but ev 4 
electricity was the agent in producing the phenomena under ee 
eration. In subjecting asparagine to compression and traction, 


he experiments with soft solids, but especially those made < 
the almond soap, exclude the supposition that the electricity of beats ; 
is the cause of the crystalline arrangement of its particles; thoug 
is not improbable that the sliding of the particles upon one another; af 
produced by traction, and their mutual separation, as in the ease 


rd 
Geology. 279 


tearing asunder mica or paper, may produce enough of electricity to 
have some share in giving the same direction to the axes of the par- 
ticles. 


ces to crystalline arrangement are diminished ; elementary prisms, or 
crystals whose length is greater than their breadth, will have a tenden- 
cy to place their greatest length in the line of traction; and all lateral 
obstruction to the play of its natural polarities being toa great extent 
moved, when the substance is drawn into a capillary thread the mole- 
cules will have free scope to assume their natural crystalline arrange- 
ent. 
The application of these views'to the powders and particles of hard 
crystals is not so readily apprehended ; but when we consider that the 


Pieces, and combine them by turning one of them round 90° 0° 
Polarized light transmitted through them perpendicularly will exhibit 

© same colors as when they were in their natural position, and also 
the Same neutral and depolarizing axes. 1 the polarized light is trans- 
Mitted obliquely, the hemitro ism of the combination, as we may call 


on be instantly Poser by the difference of color of the two 
Plates, 


II. Gzonoey. 


1. On the Gold Fields of Victoria or Port Philip; by H. G. 


Waruen, Esq., Mining Engineer, (Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., vol. ix, p. 
74, communicated by P. N. Jounson, Esq., F.G.S.)—General Descrip- 


> Geographical and Geological.—A chain of mountains, or rather 
* series of distinct ranges, runs round the southeastern corner of Aus- 


4 


280 Scientific Intelligence. 


tralia, nearly parallel to the coast line, and from fifty to eighty miles 
from t orming part of the main chain of the continent, 
rising at its highest summit, Mount Kosciusko, to 6500 feet above the 
sea-level. This mountain chain in Victoria consists of clay-slates, 
mica-slates, and flinty slates, in successive steps, forming collectively, 
a recurring series, ; 
The slates are nearly or quite vertical, with a north and south strike, 
and are intersected by numerous quartz-veins, running at an acute 
angle with the slates. Vast plains of trap, forming high table-lands, 
run up to the base of the mountains and tobably cover their lower 


deposits of gold are found. The auriferous districts are commonly 

en by deep valleys and precipitous steeps. The hills are thickly 
forested ; the soil poor and gravelly, and the surface strewn with angu- 
Jar fragments of white quartz. 


ravines. These valleys are known by the names of the streams of 
“creeks” that run through them. One of these, Forest Creek, — 


approaches the higher granite country, where it originates. On 

banks of the River Loddon gold is found in small quantities, lodged 

the crevices of the rocks, but no large deposits have been met with : 

the river, and even the stream into which Forest Creek ee . 
i n 


never washed down to the large streams. Auriferous sands on 1 
banks or in alluvial plains’are unknown in the Colony. When w! 
12 inches of the surface, the is disseminated in a q 


thin 


Geology. 281 


gravel; when found at lower depths, it is almost always imbedded in 
clay, usually of a very tenacious kind. 

_ Ballarat Gold-field.—The Ballarat gold-field, which is about fifty- 
five miles north-west of Geelong and Port Philip Bay, lies at the junc- 
tion of the slates with the trappean country, about seven miles from an 
extinct and now forest-grown volcano, known as Mount Boninyongs A 
second similar black volcanic mount rises out of the slate ranges, 
about ten miles due north of Boninyong. Granite crops out in small 
patches between the two Mounts. 

This auriferous tract is united to that of Mount Alexander by a sue- 
cession of similar dark forested ranges, rough, rocky, and sterile, 
strewn over with quartz, and consisting of the same series of micace- 
ous, flinty, and clay-slates. 

olcanic tract.—At the western base of these sombre hills lies a 
large tract of the most fertile and beautiful country—the garden o 
Australia Felix—the rich soil of which is the product of decomposed lava. 
These park-like plains, sprinkled over with groups of trees, are diver- 
si by numerous domelike lava hills, without trees, but of the richest 
verdure. I have counted no less than twenty-four of these remarkable 
bold hills from the summit of one of them. The south and east sides 


action cannot be very remote. Alto ether this voleanic region forms a 
Most interesting subject for geological research and speculation. 
riz Veins.—The sedimentary rocks are traversed by numerous 
Veins of quartz, about 3 feet wide, of unknown length, insome districts 
descending to an unknown depth, in others not more than three or four feet 
deep. These veins or dykes run N. and S., or N.N. E, and. S. W., 
and always make an acute angle with the laminz of the slates. They 
Seem to be the original matrix of all the gold found in the valleys and 
creeks, The quartz is often intersected by many Joints narro 
fissures, filled with a red ferruginous earth, in which particles of gold 
are disseminated. Gold is also found implanted in the quartz itself, 
and attached to the sides of its cavities. ‘These auriferous veins were 
iscovered and wrought before the alluvial gold deposits or “ Diggings ; 
and as they were worked with profit by the 
mand of the untrained diggers, they would doubtless well repay those 
Wa May operate upon them with all the appliances of modern European 


‘Stooxp Seams, Vol. XVIJ, No. 50.— March, 1854. 


282 Scientific Intelligence. 


the beds of clay, gravel, &c., now found in these depressions ; whilst 
the particles, grains, and nuggets (or pepites) of the precious metal by — 
their own weight descended to ihe lowest of the permeable beds, and 


every intermediate depth. The Diggings” may however be conven- 
ientlv classed into two divisions : first, ** Surface Workings ;” second, 
* Pi” or * Hole Workings.” — In the first the gold is either found lying 
on the surface or (much more commonly) is diffused through the grav- 
elly soil to the depth-of six or ] inches, beneath which is usually a stiff 
red clay containing litle or no gold. These deposites are commonly 
on the sides and crests of hills adjoining rich gullies. ‘The second of 


will yield nothing on the surface, 
ese deeper or Pit Workings are of three kinds :— 
1. In the channel of an auriferous creek, at points where the stream 


channel beneath. Here the gold is lodged ina grey clay, which fills 
the chinks and fissures of the slate rock whence the miners extract Jt 


auriferous deposit will also increase in width. Such was the frst- 


of creeks are commonly from three to ten feet deep. They were i 
first undertaken at Mount Alexander. The deposits are richest at pols 
where the stream has been impeded in its course, either by feel 
Sinuiosities or by being crossed by a bar of slate as already mentioned. 

- 4. second kind of deep auriferous deposit is met with in the ory 
gullies which descend from the higher ranges to the main 


oe oy 


| 

ngth. These gullies in some spots are narrowed by the converging 
hills meltimes expand into open slopes or flats. Here the gold i 
commonly found, at from 10 to 29 feet beneath the surface, ina reddish 
or yellowish clay, lying either upon the fundamental rocks, in the 
chinks of the vertical slate, or else upon a thick tenacious white or 
yellow clay, known. by the miners as “ Pipe Clay.” This is sometimes 
of unknown depth, and sometimes passes imperceptibly into the vertical 
laminge of soft micaceous slate. In some of these gullies there is a 
cantinuous line of workings half a mile in length, The richest deposit 

1 


Sure to the air. [t is remarkable, that these gullies are, with scarcely 
aN exception, on the south side only of the valley. 
3. The.third kind of deep workings are those on the sides and crests 
of the low rounded hills or acclivities at the sides of the auriferous 
‘gullies. [tofien happens that the widih of an auriferous gully is con- 
tracted before it falls into the main valley by spurs from the lateral 
hills, which, protruding from either side, form a kind of gateway to the 
gully, la such localities the gold deposit was found to continue across 
the gully up tu the foot of these enclosing hills, and thence up their 
Sides to the rounded crest, where the rich field commonly ceases. In 
the gully below, the gold-bearing deposit may be ata lerable depth, 
tthe crest of the hill it will also be deep ; but intermediately, at the 
foot of the hill, the **holes’’ will be perhaps only two or three feet deep, 
or the gold may if this intervening space be scattered in the surface 
Sfavel ; so that a section through the hill and gully below would exhibit 


The alluvial strata on the sides and tops of these hills have a general 
Conformity to the present surface, but are extremely irregular, so that 
WO pits, a few yards apart, may present two totally different sections ; 


‘sses of a conglomerate of fragments of lava, trap, and quartz, im- 

i . i ich ** Kke 
bedding rounded pieces of gold. At these workings the rich * pock 
Sal gold were commonly associated with a bluish clay, running in 


‘ 


284 Scientifie Intelligence. 


Enormous amounts of gold have been taken from some of these 
rounded alluvial hills. The yield, however, is not so uniform as in the 


the rock, small lumps or nuggets of gold will sometimes slip down 
between the vertical slates, 
In concldsion, the methods of separating the gold from the gravels 
and clays are the same as those used elsewhere in New South Wales 
and California, and vary of course according to the means at the com- 
mand of the miners*. - 
. On the Structure of Agate ; by Tueopore Gimpst, (Leonhard 
u. Bronn’s N. Jahrb. f. Min., 1853, pp- 152-157; Quart. Jour. Geol. 
-» Ix, 259.)—The curious and beautiful appearances afforded by 
agates have long made them of pri ary importance in mineralogi- 


Zimmerman is the first, to my knowledge, who observed? that the dif- 
ferent varieties of quartz—as amethyst, calcedony, carnelian, age 


posed of layers of diverse character ; secondly, that towards the centre 
of the nodule is a large mass of amethystine quartz, the nuéleus of the 
latter again being formed of very small concentric spherules. 

In the Jahrbuch fiir Praktische Pharmacie, Sc. 1852, isa short paper 


not homogeneous, but consists of lamellee overlying one another ce 
varying angles and confusedly distorted. As in the thin pellicle of 
blown glass the intimate structure of the soap bubble is as it were fixed, 
so I sought to make further researches by means, of experiments 00 
molecular movement, such as can be observed in so many instances. 
One of the most successful experiments was the use of melted stearie 
with which very fine graphite had been mixed, spangles of which easily 

* Besides the Ballarat and Mount Alexander gold-fields, “diggings 

d on ne Moorabool 


» have been 
op rat; on the 
Plenty and Yarra Yarra Rivers, N. E. 0 Melbourne; on the Mitta Mitta River v3 
Lake Omeo, in the N. E, part of the Colony ; as well as at several points along 
eastern portion of the Boundary-line between Victoria and New South Wales. 

+ In his Taschenbuch far Min ogie. 
¢ See also Mr. Hamilton’s Paper on the Agate Quarries of Oberstein, Quart. 
Geol. Soc., vol. iv, p. 215.—Tranal. § Vol. ii. No. 2, p. 124 


a * 
ened at Mount Blackwood an River, near Balla 


Botany and Zoology. 285 


indicated the intimate motion of the mass. By this easy experiment 
it ean that in some parts there was a strong tendency to the forma- 
tion of spheres, and which existed even i n the interior of the larger 
spheres, na rise to smaller spherules 


Ill. Botany anp Zootoey. 


1. Fungi a — ee of Carolina, illustrated by 
natural specimens of th y H. W. Raven Mem. of 
Acad. Nat. Sciences, Philadelphia, &c. Fasc. I].—We are glad to 


see Mr. Ra venel encouraged to so early an issue of another century of 
Carolina Fungi. In the quantity and quality of a igre this 
fasciculus is equal and perhaps superior to the firs e paper is 


We are acquainted with. Rather more than half of the species are 
ie American, some of which are now for the first time pub- 
- 


first e contained much fewer blemishes of this kind. In a work 
Containing so little letter- pont and so easy of correction, such errors 
moi the less excusable. M. A. C. 

Com mparative Anatomy ; by C. Tx. v. Stzzoxp and H. Srannivs. 
ae from the German, a Edited ers Notes and Additions, re- 
cording the — oo of the Science, by Waxpo I. Burnet 
M.D. “Vol. § y of the ste aban by C. Tu. v. chase 
Boston, “sch Go a & Lincoln. - 


s 
Ina ie | Gteditable to all parties concerned. _As a treatise upon n Anat 


68s together with the additions of the translator, wil be regarded as 


"1 Comparative anato my. In this way, the work as a whole furnishes 
® complete dictionary of the science, and will prove invaluable even as 
* Work of s Suggestion and reference, to those who would pursue any 
Special line of i inquiry and research in this department.” * 


286 Scientific Intelligence. 


Dr. W. I. Burnett, who is well known by his own thorough and mi- 
nute researches in many points in anatomy, has performed his duties 
as translator with great fidelity, and has also increased largely the value — 
of the edition by his extended additions to the notes and references. He 
has thus included the most recent results of foreign researches, and has 
made the work more complete in its exhibition of American Science. 

The typographical appearance of the volume is excellent. We have 
seen no scientific work published in this country that is more credita- 

e in-ils appearance. It is filled with technical words, and the biblio- 
graphical references in the notes are given, as to their titles, in the dan- 
guage in which the works referred to are written. ‘This technicality of 


as their science instructs the mind. We hope that we shall see more 
in equaily excellent style, and from the same enterprising publishing: 
house, Messrs. Gould & Lincoln, of Boston. ; 

The second volume of this encyclopedian anatomical work 's, We 
learn, in press, and will be issued as soon as practicable. It will com 
prise the anatomy of the Vertebrata, and we wish Dr. Burnett 00 bet 
ter success than that it may prove the mate of the present anna 

G. N. Ps 
IV. Astronomy. 
ro 

1. New Planet, Euterpe (27).—Mr. J. R. Hixp announces | 
covery of another asteroid on the evening of Tuesday, Nov. 8, '9 Ta 
rus. {1 is less brilliant than stars of the ninth magnitude. ‘The follow 
ing elements were calculated by Mr. Cuartes Mattev from observa 
tions of Nov. 8, 12, and 17th. 


Epoch, 1853, Nov. 8395103. 
. 336° 


he dis- 
Ue 


Mean anomaly, - - B69 ¥ 
Long. perihelion, - - 84 2 ) Mn. eqn 
“ e, . oer 108 16 } Nov. 8. 
Inclination, é m a 
xcentricity, - : - 0-18902 
Semi-axis major, - - - 2:26007 
Siderial revolution, - - 3:397 years. 


2. New Comet, (Astron. Jour., 66.)—Mr. Ropert Van ArsdAt® a 

ber in the 
constellation Cassiopeia. Its position Nov. 25 at 62 50” P. M» ie 
R. A, 257", Dec. + 60° 12. Noy. 30 at meridian passage , 
R. A. 15 44m, Dec, + 54° 10, , 


Miscellaneous Intelligence. 287 


V. MisceLLaneous INTELLIGENCE. 


1, Contributions to Meteorology,—Mean results of Meteorological 
Observations, made at St. Martin, Isle Jesus, Canada East, (nine 
miles west of Montreal) for 1853; by Cuartes Smattwoop, M.D.—— 
(The geographical co-ordinates: of the place are 45° 32’ N. Lat., and 
73° 36’ W. Long. Height above the level of the sea, 118 feet. 

Barometric Pressure.—The readings of the barometer are all cor- 


from three daily observations, taken at 6 A. M., 2 P. M., an P. M. 
I 


yearly range was equal to 0-993 inches. ‘The atmospheric wave of 
November was marked by its usual fluctuations, the final trough termi- 
ated on the 20th dav. 


thermometer was on the 16th of June, and marked 99°-2; the lowest 
reading of the minimum thermometer was on the 27th of January, such 
Wits —28°-7 (below zero). The mean temperature of the quarterly 
Periods was, Winter 19°22, Spring 42°-46, Summer 68°43, Autumn 
4°10. The yearly mean was 42°89, and the mean yearly range 
59°27. "The ureatest intensity of the sun’s rays was in August, and 
Indicated 143°°6, the least intensity was in January, and was 64°-0, and 
the lowest point of terrestrial radiations was —22°-] (below zero) in 
December, 
_ The mean humidity (saturation being 1:000) was, in January ‘$09, 
in February ‘906, in March ‘881, in April °858, in May ‘895, in June 
739, in July -727, in August ‘741, in September -834, in October °855, 
‘0 November -798, in December °759. ‘The yearly mean was ‘825. 
Rain fell on 99 days, amounting to 44°201 inches, and was accom- 
Panied by thunder and lightning on 17 days. The greatest amount of 
mn which | observed, fell in September; it commenced at 5.10 p. M., 
on the 14th, and continued until 5.40 Pp. m. on the 15th, and amounted 
'05°142 inches. 1 have only observed once, this year, a yellow mat- 


r 


Was without thunder or lightning, but was accompanied by slight hail. 
Snow full on 37 days, amounting to 116°81 inches on the surface. The 
‘St snow of the winter 1852-3 fell on the 17th day of October, 1852, 
and the last fell on the 14th day of April, 1853; the whole amount of 
Mow in the winter 1852-3 amounted to 119-10 inches. The river Je- 
rn Was frozen over on the 28th day of November. The last steamer 
ft Montreal (on the St. Lawrence) on the 7th of December; the first 


¢ 


288 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 


steamer arrived at Montreal on ihe, 15th day of April. The winter 
fairly set in on the 1] mber 

The amount of ate was geome regularly from the Ist of 
April to the 3lst of October, and amounted in April to 1:80 inches, in 
May 2°51 inches, i in June 3°41 inches, in July 3°98 a in Aug sgt 
3°16 inches, in September 2°23 inches, in October 2°31 inches. This 
period includes what I consider could be taken with anything approach- 
ing to accuracy, owing to frosty weather. 

The most prevalent wind during the year was the W.S. W., the least 


’ prevalent was the E.; in the winter quarter the most prevalent wind 


- and the least S.; in the spring quarter the most prev- 
alent wind was N. E., and the least so S.; in the summer quarter the 
most prevalent wind was W. 8. W., and the least N.; in the autumn 
quarter the most prevalent wind was W. N. W., and the least E. The 
greatest haga of the wind was on the 14th ‘day of March, and was 

s per hour. The yearly mean of the maximum velocity 
was 15: SI sales per hour, the yearly mean of the minimum velocity 
was 0°32 miles per hour. The quarterly means were as follows: wine 
ter, maximum velocity 17:93, minimum velocity 0°25; spring, maxi 
mum velocity 16°68, minimum velocity 0°81; su mmer, m maximum ve- 
locity 11:23, ‘minimum velocity 0-29 ; autumn, maximum velocity 16:18, 
minimum Pssiy 4 0°18 miles per hou 
ere first seen on the 7th day of March, wild Pair: Anser 
Se ieee, on the 30th day of March, swallows, Hirudo rufa, were 

rst seen on the Ist of April; shad, Alosa, were ~ ph in this 
neighborhood on the 30th of May ; fire- flies, Lampyris corusca, were 
seen on the 10th day of June: frogs, Rana, were Gal heard on the 
23d of April. . 

The Aurora Borealis was visible on 39 nights as follows: 

January 12th, 10 p.m. Faint auroral arch, dark segmen 
neath. —13ih, 10 P. ™. Idem, Zodiacal light, bright. 


Q 


t under- 


ebrua Faint auroral streamers. 4AM 
Faint auroral light—14th, 10 P. m. to =) Ue Bright Bee arch.— 
20th, m. Faint auroral arch. unar halos were visible on two 
oe during this month,—Zodiacal light \ was very bright also on 5 
nigh, 
March h, 10 p. m. Faint auroral light to horizon, occasional 
streamers. Gaiacal light still visible and bright. 10 
April w auroral arch, dark segment underneath ; “ 


P. M. Streamers, segment aie —5th,9 p.m. Zenith clear, +%- ‘ 
horizon clouded with strati, Aurora Borealis faint ; oe nae 


low arch; 9 P. m., arch 20° broad, dark segment sole h 
stteamiase in N. W. of a ged green color; 10.30, sairtigs, ex 
- gto the zenith.— 10th, 9 P aint auroral arch. 
ight very bright on 5 nights Te aie month. 
ay Ist, 10 P.M. Pont “et light.—2nd, 8.40 P spi 
gree of clouds of auroral light, forming a distinct eb a So 
m the Eastern to the Western horizon, the apex of thea rch passing 
oe zenith, extending through the constellations Bootes and sh . 
auroral clouds in the N. W. low and very near the horizon, ®°"— 


Miscellaneous Intelligence. 289 


very faint; 9.5, aveh resumed the same brilliant appearance as at 8.40; 
9.10, the whole of the Eastern and Western heavens were lighted up 


a- 
sional streamers.—30th, 10 P. m. Low faint auroral light to the hori- 
unar halo visible on the 20th, diameter 63°. 

June 14th, 9 to 10 Pp. m. Auroral streamers, moderate brightness, 
dark segment ed aes, —30th, 10 p.m. Faint auroral light. 

July se. P. M. a light, dark segment, occasional stream- 
eys5 1 M., dark se nt and streamers vanished.—Il lth, 11 Pp. m. 
Paint ihviaiad light to + ne Pre —12th, 10 to ll vp. m. nina to 
the zenith, extending from N. N. W. to E.—18th, 1 to2 a Low 
dark arch of auroral light, moderate brightness, occasional hieuiebs _— 
23d,10 rp. m. Auroral streamers of moderate brightness.— 26th, 10 

Faint auroral arch.—27th, 10 p.m. Auroral light to the hori- 
zon, splendid streamers. Shooting stars numerous during the month, 

August 7th, 10 rp. mw. Faint auroral streamers, dark segment in the 


?.M. Faint auroral light. Shooting stars numerous from the 6th to the 
13th. Comet first seen here on the evening of the 22d day, in the con- 
stellation Leo, at ‘gh 20m M. T., R. A. 114 80™ 10%, Declination N. 20°-5. 
tember Ist, 8.50 p. M. Splendid display of auroral clouds, form- 

ing four chews erohda of about 3° in width, with dark segments between, 
stretching from E. to W. froma point centered as it were in Arcturus. 
€ most southern arch passing at its zenith through Aquila, the next 
through Lyra, the next through Polaris, under which was a dark seg- 
ment, arom which were sent at —. obec pe These ee 


(until 10.5), Stars of iow magnitude were visible through these ap- 

Fances,—2d, 8.50 to 11. 40 p.m. Much the same appearance as 
last night, but the arches not so weil defined. The most southern arch 
Was several degrees south of the zenith. Many floating auroral clouds 
arene from E t o W. —3d, 7.30 p.m. Auroral arches rane so 


°s.—121h, 10 p.m. Faint auroral rapa nee 10 p.m. Faint auro- 
ft Nat ~24th, 10 p.m. Faint auroral arch, dark segment under- 


yea 28rd, 10 p.m. Faint auroral light. 
November 9th, 1 10 p.m. Floating auroral clouds—very high wind.— 

»10 Pp. w. Faint auroral light to the horizon. Zodiacal light very 
bright and well defined apex at « Leonis. (Regulus.) Base in East 
Very extended. 
cember ah 8 p.m. Auroral light bright to the horizon.—20th, 

10r. roral arch; no dark segment.—28th, 10 P. m. w au- 
oral light to: ee horizon. 
menrical slate of the atmosphere-—The atmosphere has daily af- 
cations of electricity, nsgidezhee in intensity, and kind: the 
ND fame Vol XVI, No. 60.—March, 18 37 


290 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 


® 
highest tension has been generally noticed in the winter season; the 
tri-daily observations (which could not be condensed) would occupy too 
much space for the columns of this Journal. 
Ozonometer.—Observations have been carefully registered twice 


having been exposed to the atmosphere, shaded from the sun, and 
rain. Asa general rule, rain or snow shows an increase, and so far 
as my own observations go, a high electrie state of the atmosphere does 
not show an increase in the amount of ozone. 

St. Martin’s, January 2 4, 

2. Tornado in Knox Co., Ohio, Jan. 20, 1854, (Cleveland “ Plain- 
dealer.”’?)—The tornado broke out not far from 3 P. M. an 
ded by a light Yain which had fallen all day accompanied by wind and 

For a short time before the tornado made its appearance the 

weather is said to have grown idly warm, and the wind to have 
lulled. The hurricane first manifested itself in the western part of 
Miller township, about eight miles west of south from Mount Vernon. 
It seemed to spring into full life and passion all at once. No serious 
traces of its work were seen until it blew down the stable and unroofed 


ferent estimates, in passing any one point. It seems to have worl the 


appearance of a mighty black pillar, reaching from earth to heavens HF 
diated by blinding flashes of lightning, and accompanied in its devas 


n. 

Discovery in Photography, (Edinb. New Philos. Journal, Jan-, 
1854).—A letter from Berlin of the 17th, says,—It is well known that 
the paper prepared for photography grows more or less black by rays 


taken advantage of this property in photographic, paper to edrvsavel 
i i Afte 


exact force of the sun’s light may be ascertained. Baron A. von _ 
boldt, M. de Littrow, M. Dove and M. Poggendorff have congratula 


Miscellaneous Intelligence. 291 


M. Schall on this invention, which will be of the highest utility not only 
for scientific labors, but also in many operations of domestic and rural 
economy. 

4. Fishes of Northern New York—Frozen Fish, (Sci. Amer., Jan- 
uary, 1854.)—Our lakes and streams, which, I believe, are the high- 


ice, they will revive on being thawed out. But if allowed to toss about 
inthe sun, on a clear day, and probably not freeze for an h6ur or two 
afier they are caught, then they will never revive. 

tis so common a thing, that I have only to go back to the last day 
I was fishing for an example of it. 1 went down to Lake Sandford with 
- our men, on the 29th ult., and at night we carried home in our 


Sai boe 
trough of running spring water, and when thawed out found six of them 
alive. The others had probably been caught in the warmest part of 


Notice how many. ey are, however, a much more delicate fish 

= the Siclgiel ae sank and more easily hurt and killed than either 
them, 

. On the afternoon of the 24th ult. I had fished faithfully for pickerel 

till Sundown, without even getting an encouraging nibble ; tired at last 


Pg pond behind the village, formed by the damming of the river, is 


fee one male and two females; every one of them were brou 
, y 


, 


292 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 


been thawed out ina trough. The male one I caught, it lay on the 
ice, frozen, for three hours, ‘and then not finding a mate for him, I run 
a stick through his gills and dragged him home on the snow, two mi iles, 
threw him into the trough, and thought no more of him tll next morn- 
ing, when [ found him alive and seemingly enjoying himself as well as 
his narrow _— would permit. [took pity on the — fellow, car- 
ried him n to the pond, and he went off with a 

These are one a few instances of what occurs sis eri every day 
the winter through. The fact of their eae etter after being frozen 
as [ liave described, is knowa to every one here who is in the habit of 


thawed out before they can be clean 

I have heard some say that they bade taken trout when frozen, and 
Hat pe the fins and tail off, and on being thawed, found them alive; 

ut I have never tried this nor any other experiment ri them, @ 

rie not vouch for the a cee it. RopertT CLARKE. 

Adirondac Iron Works, Essex e's 

5. American Association fs the Advancement of Science —The next 
Wile of the American — will be held in Washington City, 

commencing with the of April. 


ser make a g tion for a ry wc emy or College where there 
is instruction in seearaiee It will be sold low. Addre — 8. 
Esq., No. 145 Mulberry st., Philadelphia. 
7. Cameroceras trentonense and Orthis Verneuili,—Mr. 


ume). But if the figure orn by Hisinger is to be relied upon, itis 
Continet 


siphonem modicz crassitiei zequantem circiter partem diame- 
tri sbaeteatins lotius teste, eumque ut sees inter axin et amo! 
tum tubi in medio si Bat in the C. tonense, the siphon 's 


marginal and full one-half the shortest diameter of the tube, — 
nearly as possible to four-ninths of the — diameter, the form 0 
the shell being oval in all specime 

De Verneuil cites Orthis Verktesiili ae the Ottowa River, Canada, 
in Logan’s collection, and if this be correct, it is an American n species. 
Mr. Marcou has therefore the authority of de Verneuil for pronounciag 
both of these species as American; yet there is reason 10 believe : 
the facts are otherwise 


8. Osrrva ae —J. E. Tescnemacuer, (Communicated by the ares 
Soc. of Nat. Hist.)—Ata meeting of the Boston none ety of Nat oa 
History held Dec. 2Ist, the President, Dr. J.C. War spoke of 1 a 
oe death of one of its members, Mr. J. E. Teschemacher, % 
follow dni 
Ge osleee :-—Our Societ y has Seervinton’ a great loss in re 
of Mr. Teschemacher, one.of its most valuable members ; 


Miscellaneous I: ntelligence. ~ 293 


turn aside a moment from the path of science to pay a tribute to his 
mory. This gentleman, who joined our Society in the year 1835, 


contributor to the advancement of science in our country, has suddenly 
terminated his mortal career at the age of sixty-threé, from a disease 
of the heart. 

r. Teschemacher was a botanist, a mineralogist and geologist, and 
the records of our Society will show that he studied these sciences not 
in aloose and general way, but with untiring minuteness and assiduity. 
Although born on a foreign soil, he became so entirely affiliated with 
his adopted countrymen, that no one ever considered him in any other 
light than that of a fellow-citizen, and all regarded him with affection as 


oO 
oO 
his able and practical investigations of the carboniferous formations. 
Wealso regard his productions on the composition and improvement of 
soilsas a valuable and permanent contribution to the agriculture of the 
country. 
Resolved ; Second, that the President of the Society be requested to 
eee some notice of the life and labors of our learned associate. 
esolved ; Third, thata copy of these Resolutions, with the preamble 
and appended notice of bis productions, be presented to his family, to 
the Scientific journals of the country, and the daily paper which pub- 
ishes the proceedings of this Society. ; 
In compliance with the second of the above resolutions the President 
Presented the following noti 


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truth so constantly pervading all his thoughts and writings. 
In the year 1830 Mr. 'Teschemacher accepted the offer of a partner- 
ship in a ‘house of considerable standing in Havana, and proceeded to 


294 Miscellaneous Intellizence. 


rally inferred were few, but those few were employed (apparently asa 
recreation) in the severer branches of study, which frequently form the 
labor of a life, even with those who make science their occupation. 
Ett may he be said to have improved the talents committed to his 
charge. 


The following is a list of his Academic papers and published works: 


1885. June 3rd, A report on a specimen of Sulphur. 
“July 5th, ‘Ona collection of Minerals from Russia. 


** Bist, On alloys ste Nt ckel. 
* February 20th, On Palm 
arch, An account of tlie Camellice 


1840. April ‘nd, On Minerals from New York. 

feo Saly TSth, On plants from New Zealand. 

1841. February, On plants from Illyria. 

April, On Phosphate of Uranium at Chesterfield. 

1841. June, On a new species of ent sia from Manilla 

August, On plants from Kent : 

1842, March, On fossi! Ferns Pod Mansfield. 

' October, On corn from Texa 

n soil from Huron Prairie , Ohio Gf 

“  —— On the identity of Pyrochlore with the Microlite 
Binal Shepard. 

1843. January, Ga a slab with dendritic markings, from Newton 
M 


February, Remarks on Guano, 
4, a Beryls from Acwo 
18451 June, On Melo- -cactus, Pein | St Diego, California. 
November, On Russian minerals. 
December, On Ferns from the Sandwich Isla 
1846. March, Mineralogical notices of Damourite aiid Pyrite 
" n fossil vegetation. 
1848. January, On fossil vegetatio 
April, On angles of the salve Arkansite. 
1850. February, On the:mineral Vermiculite. 


_ Published Papers. 
An address before the Boston Society of Natural History. 
* Horticultural Society. 


“ “Harvard Natural History Society. 
An essay on Guano. 


In the Boston Journal of Natural Bistary; vol. ii, 1837 saci 
Notice of three species of Trillium, found in the vicinity of Bosto™ 


Miscellaneous Intelligence. 295 


ree Ibid, vol. iv, 1841. 
On a new species of Rafflesia from Manilla. 
On the occurrence of the Phosphate of Uranium in the Tourmaline 

locality at Chesterfield. 


Mineralogical Notices—Ibid, vol. v, 1845. 


On the occurrence of Uranium in the Beryl limits of Ackworth, N. H. 
On Melo-cactus viridescens. 
On the fossil vegetation of America. 


ceology. A large geological chart of the United States closes the 
volume. : 

10. The Microscope in its special application to Vegetable Anatomy 
and Physiology ; by Dr. Hermann Scuacut. Translated by Frep- 
ERICK Currey, Esq., M.A. 132 pp. 12mo, with numerous illustrations, 


Plants, in the course of which there are occasional wood-cuts. Two 
closing chapters treat of the drawing of objects in Natural Philosophy, 
*specially microscopical objects, and on the preservation of objects for 

microscope. The volume isa good companion for the microscope 
and opens to the student or amateur, subjects and methods of investiga- 
Hon that cannot fail of giving both profit and delight. 

Explanations and Sailing Directions, to accompany the Wind 
and Current Charts; by M. F. Maury, LL.D., Lieut. U.S. N., Su- 
Perintendent of the National Observatory. 6th edition, enlarged and 
Improved. 772 pp. 4to, with 16 plates. Philadelphia, 1854. E.C. & 


We have but time to mention its contents. he sixth edition, owing to 
the demand for the work, has followed rapidly on those preceding. The 
Volume has a miscellaneous character; but bears in all its topics on 
the great subjects of physical geography and navigation, The topics 
discussed are the following. The Wind and Current Charts, including 
8€neral observations on the atmosphere and sea. Universal System of 
Meteorological Observations, and Report of the Maritime Conference 
at Brussels, Explanatory Notes for keeping Abstract Log. Influence 


296 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 


of the Gulf Stream on the Trade of Charleston. Currents of the Sea. 
General Circulation ” the Atmosphere, and its probable relation to the 
Magnetism of the Earth. Red Fogs and Sea Dust. Clouds and the 
Equatorial Cloud-Ring. Red Sea Currents. Geological agency of the 
Winds. Saltness of the Sea. Open Sea in the Arctic Ocean. Phys- 
ical Geography of the Sea. Gales in the Gulf Stream. Wind and 
Current Charts; Pilot, Thermal and Trade Wind Charts. Routes to and 
from Europe. Routes to Rio. Passage round Cape sid Route to 
California, and between California and Australia ; Routes Euro 
and the United States to Australia; and from the Sandwich Islands, 
The general system of Meledrviowont Observations proposed, 
if vg out, must give rapid progress to our knowledge of physical 
geog With so large an object as the earth for our study, @ 
pat its atmosphere and oceans, whose motions are world-wide in 
their system, the examinations at a single place, or even many places, 
are alone of little account. It requires the combined action of civilized 
nations, with accurate observers spread over all lands and seas, to pro- 


one dollar a year. It contains much that bears on practical science, 
and records of discoveries which are of — pera and will be @ 
valuable acquisition to any who may become subscribers to it. 
Transactions of the American Philosophical gaierin Philadel- 
phia, vol. x, new series, Part III. 
Contents—Art. XXII. Description of an extinct species of American 
read ; Felis atrox; by Josepa Leipy, M.D. 
=a XI 2 A Memoir on the extinct Dicorylinds of America; by J 
EIDY 


M.D. 
XXIV. Chemical Examination of two Minerals tin? “ag neighbor- 
hood of Reading, Pennsylvania; and on the occu of Gold in 
Pennsylvania ; by Cnartes M. Werueritt, Ph. 

Ona New Vaiieky of Asphalt ; (Melan-asphalt,) by Cuannm® 
M. Werueritt, Ph.D. d 
nthe Decomposition of the ese Sulphates by Hyer 
chloric Acid and Chlorine; by R. A. Titcum ited 

XXVII. Notes on the Classification of the “Carabide of the Uni 

ge by Joun L. Le Conte, M.D. HN 

VIIE. Revision of the Elateridee of the United States ; es Jo 
L. ‘Le Ook M.D. 


OSEPE 


sa 


297 


- APPENDIX. 


Notice of a collection of Fishes from the southern bend of the 
Tennessee River, in the State of Alabama ; by L. Agassiz. 


Tue only information we have at present upon the fishes of 


‘the Tennessee River, has been published by Dr. D. H. Storer, 


who mentions nine species from the vicinity of Florence, Alabama, 
in the Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History for 
1845, and of which short descriptions appeared in his Synopsis 
of the Fishes of North America, in 1846. Having lately received a 
collection of not less than thirty-three species from the same water 
system, brought together by the untiring efforts of Dr. Newman, of 
Huntsville, who has most kindly placed them in my hands for 
description, it seems desirable that an early notice of the general 
character of the ichthyological fauna of that region should be 
published, to serve as a staudard of comparison with the fishes of 
the other western and southern rivers, in the study of their geo- 
graphical distribution. I arrange them below according to their 
natural affinities. 


PERCOIDS, Cuv.—Whether the genera Perca, Labrax, and 
Lucioperca, are really wanting in the Tennessee River remains to 


be ascertained. No specimens of these genera were found among 


those forwarded by Dr. Newman; though many less conspicuous 

forms were collected. ‘Thus far the genera Grystes, Centrarchus, 

a omotis, as understood at present by ichthyologists, are the 

ti representatives of the family of Percoids in the ‘Tennessee 
iver, 


Grystes, Cuv.—I have already shown in my “ Lake Su- 
Perior” that the genera Girystes and Huro of Cuvier do not differ 
essentially one from the other, and must therefore be united into 
One natural group; moreover when the fishes of Kentucky shall 
be better known, it may become necessary to substitute for either 

them the name of Lepomis, introduced in ichthyology by 
finesque, as early as the year 1820, for the western species of 
this genus. If I hesitate to make the change now, it is simply 
ause I have not the means of deciding upon the value of his 
Many species. The species of this group are indeed very difficult 
‘ocharacterize. They differ chiefly in the relative size of their 
les, the presence or absence of teeth upon the tongue, though 
Cuvier denies the presence of teeth on the tongue of any of 
Srniss, Vol. XVII, No. 50.—March, 1854. a8 Ein 


298 JL. Agassiz on Fishes of the Tennessee River. 


them, &c. There are hesides marked differences between the 
young and the adults. These circumstances render it impossible 
to characterize any one species without comparative descriptions 
and figures. The species from Huntsville, known there under 
the name of Trout, differs equally from the northern species men- 
tioned in my “Lake Superior,” and from that of the Southern 
States described by Cuvier and Valenciennes as Grystes salno- 
neus. Its snout is shorter, the posterior end of the upper maxillary 
extends beyond the hinder border of the eye, the head is higher, 
aud the scales much larger in the dorsal as well as in the ventral 
regions. No teeth on the tongue. I call this species provision- 
ally Girystes nobilis, Ag. It reaches a large size, and weighs. 
occasionally from ten to fourteen pounds. : 

2. Cenrrarcuus, Cuv.—Under this name Cuvier has combined 
a variety of Percoids agreeing in general form; their body being 
oval aid compressed, and the two dorsals continuous; but these 
fishes differ from one another in so many respects that they 
require to be further subdivided.* I shall retain the name of 
Centrarchus for that group of species of which Centrarchus 
irideus may be considered as the type. Thus circumscribed, the 
genus Centrarchus may be characterized .as follows: Body very 
broad, greatly compressed, above as well as below. Dorsal long 


spinous and soft rays ; spinous portion of the fin largest. Ana 
shaped like the dorsal, but with fewer spinous rays, extending 
between the ventrals. Mouth small. No species of this geuus 
has been found in the Tennessee River. 

3. Pomoxis, Rafin.—Vhis genus was established by Rafinesque 
for a species closely allied to the Centrarchus hexacanihus of 
Cuv. and Val., and it well deserves to be retained. ‘The boay '8 
much elevated and compressed, resembling somewhat Central- 
chus proper. Like that genus it has a high dorsal and a high anal, 
of nearly equal size, and the spinous portion of these fins rises 
towards the soft rays without a depression ; but in Pomox!s the 
soft portion of these fins is much the largest, whilst it 1s the 
smaller in Centrarchus ; in Pomoxis the lewer jaw is very promi 
nent. ‘The mouth is very large, which is smaller in Centrarchus. 
I have found representatives of this genus in all the Wester? 
States, from the western parts of New York to the Gulf of Mex- 
ico, and in the southern Atlantic States, but none in the nore 
Atlantic States. The species from the Tennessee River, call 
there Speckled or White Perch, agrees fully with the desrripre 
given by Rafinesque of his Pomoxis annularis, with the mtb 
exception of a golden ring at the base of the tail, which may 


* DeKay has contrived to render the genus Centrarchus of Cuvier still Jess nati 
ral, by introducing into it his Centvarehus fasciatus and obscurus, which truly belong 
to the genus Grystes. See “ Lake Superior,” page 295. 


LL. Agassiz on Fishes of the Tennessee River. 299 


faded in the specimens. sent by Dr. Newman, from Huntsville. 
Not -haviug however specimens from the locality quoted by Rafin- 
esque, [ must leave it for further investigations to determine 
beyond any doubt their specific identity or difference. Centrar- 
chus hexacanthus, Cuv. and Val., belongs unquestionably to this 
genus, : 

4. Ametoruites, Rafin.—This is another of the natural genera 
established by Rafinesque for one of the many distinct types com- 

ined by Cuvier and Valenciennes under the name of Centrar- 
chus. The well known Centrarchus @neus may be considered 


_ Ones by the structure of its dorsal and anal fins. The spinous 
portion of the dorsal is much longer than the posterior soft por- 
tion of that fin and scarcely half its height, causing a marked 
depression to appear between the spinons and the articulated rays. 
The same is the case with the anal, which is also long ; but low 
I its anterior spinous portion. The general form of these fishes 
1s oval, and the body less compressed than in the preceding genera. 

he species from the Tennessee River agrees in every respect 
With Rafinesque’s Ambloplites ichtheloides. It is called at Hunts- 
ville Goggle-eyed or Black Perch. In adopting the genus Am- 
bloplites and referring this species to it with Rafinesque’s authority 
Thave acted with that discretion due to an author who labored 
under the greatest difficulties when prepariug his work upon the 
fishes of the Ohio. It is tree he himself describes this species 
as Lepomis ichtheloides; but he also suggests the desirableness of 
distinguishing it generically and proposes a new name for the 
genus, should it be admissible. Finding it to be so, Ido not 
hesitate in giving him the fullest credit for his suggestion, even 
though I must add that he has described another variety of the 
same species under the name of Ichthelis erythrops. 1 have 
found both these varieties among the fishes sent to me by Dr. 
Newman and I have no hesitation in considering them as spe- 
Cifically identical with one another and as agreeing fully with 
Rafinesque’s descriptions. Should naturalists be more generally 
Melined to correct simply what they consider as errors in their 
Predecessors instead of discarding altogether what they can not 
at once determine, we should have much fewer of those nominal 
Species in our descriptive works, which are the curse of our sci- 
entific nomenclature. Ambloplites ichtheloides is much stouter 
and more elongated than Ambl. eneus ; body less compressed 
above ; face broader, lower jaw less prominent, and strongly 
arched from side to side; mouth opens less obliquely upwards; 
‘pious rays of dorsal and anal shorter than in A. eneus; dorsal 
‘pinkled with white spots. | 


i 


oe 


. 


300 L. Agassiz on Fishes of the Tennessee River. 


referred by them to the genus Centrarchus. This species how- 
ever belongs neither to Ceutrarchus nor to Pomotis, if we are to 
consider genera as expressing the same general features under a 
variety of modifications; for all true Pomotis are fishes with a 
small mouth, feeding on worms, while P. gulosus has a large 
mouth like Grystes and is a voracious animal living upon small 
fishes, which he chases with great energy. Again, Ceutrarchus 
has fins widely ditferent in their structure from those of P. gulo- 
sus; there being a large number of spinous rays in advance of 
the anal in Centrarchus proper and those genera mentioned above 
which have been finally separated from Centrarchus ; whilst P. 
gulosus has only three, like the true Pomotis. Notwithstanding 
these peculiarities I have been hesitating for a long time to con- 
sider P. gulosus as the type of a distinct genus, until I ascertained 
that there exist many species of this type in different parts of the 
country, all of which reproduce the essential peculiarities of P. 
gulosus under a variety of modifications. Upon a careful inves 
tigation of all the works in which American fishes are mentioned, 
I ascertained however that Rafinesque had already established a 
distinct genus for a species of this type described in his Lehthyo- 

gia Ohiensis under the name of Calliurus punctulatus. It is 
hardly surprising that this genus should have been overlooked by 
European ichthyologists and that it should even have escaped the 
notice of the authors of the great French Histoire naturelle des 
Poissons, for the fishes of the Ohio river have remained entirely 
unnoticed since Rafinesque, until Dr. Kirtland published his 10- 
teresting and highly valuable papers upon the fishes of Ohio, 10 
the Journal of the Natural History Society of Boston. Dr. Kurt 
land however, though the first author who has done full justice 
to the valuable contributions of Rafinesque to the Ichthyology ° 
the United States, does not mention the species described by 
Rafinesque, as Calliurus punctulatus, and so this genus has re- 
mained unnoticed until now. It has oecurred to me that 1 


Body oval, rather elongated, not compressed above. Dorsal long 


species from Huntsville is identical with Rafinesque’s Calliurus 
punctulaius. It is called there Black Perch or Goggle-eye- 


L. Agassiz on Fishes of the Tennessee River. 301 


6. Pomorts, Rafin.—Every ichthyologist must be familiar with 
the freshwater sunfishes, so common throughout the United 
States; but it is perhaps not so generally known that the author- 
ity to which the genus Pomotis onght to be ascribed is question- 
able. , Indeed, I find it universally ascribed to Cuvier: but that 
name occurs already in Rafinesque’s Ichthyologia Ohiensis, pnb- 
lished in 1820, as a subgenus of his genus Jchthelis, which he 
there divides into Telipomis and Pomotis. It seems therefore 
probable to me that Cuvier not considering these subdivisions 
necessary, and finding the name Pomotis better adapted to ex- 
press the prominent character of all the species of this group, 
adopted the name of Pomotis in preference to Jchthelis, aud in 
conformity with an objectionable practice, followed by some nat- 
uralists, to which Cuvier however did not adhere in other in- 
stances of applying a new authority whenever the range of a 
genus is modified, allowed in this case his name to supersede that 
of Rafinesque, which I would however restore, in conformity 
With the more just practice now prevailing. If it were further 
asked, what should be done with the name of Ichthelis which 
Was proposed by Rafinesque as early as 1818. Whether it should 

€made a synonym of his own subgenus Pomotis? or disregarded 
altogether, because Pomotis has come into general use? I would 
Suggest that neither would be the proper course to follow. It is 
My opinion that in a complete monograph of this gronp, the 
hame Ichthelis should be finally restored to its right and T'elipo- 
ms and Pomolis used for such sections or genera as it may be- 
come necessary to. separate from it, now that the number and 
diversity of species of this group has increased beyond expecta- 
tio his is at least the course I shall adopt when publishing 
the descriptions of the many view species of this type | have col- 
lected in the Southern States. For the present, I limit myself 
to describing the seven species sent to me by Dr. Newman, six 
of which are new to science. 

1. Pomotis sanguinolentus, Agass.—Called Sun Perch at Hunts- 
ville. "The general outline of the body is that of Pomotis nitida, 
Kiril. but the back is more compressed, the dorsal and anal fins 

fe more pointed behind, and the spinous rays are longer, the base 
of the anal is shorter. The sides of the head are marked with 
Mregular uudulating longitudinal lines of a metallic steel blue 
» extending from the cheeks across the gill cover to the base 
of the pectorals and even continuing alone the sides of the body 
i dotted lines. There are generally four of these lines below 
the eyes, the first being close to its margin, and extending back- — 

Salong and around the border of the opercular appendage 
and feturuing, meets the centre of the hinder margin of the eye, 
bat teappears immediately in front of the eye and continues to 
the edge of the upper jaw. ‘Though the opercular appendage is _ 


302 I, Agassiz on Fishes of the Tennessee River. 


rather large, the lateral line is so high near the back, that it is not 
ec y it anteriorly. The general color is of a reddish brown, 
motiled with red above and passing gradually into a uniform 
bright brick-red color prevailing upon the lower part of the body, 
aud sprinkled with irregular light dots. 

2. Pomotis inscriptus, Agass.—Small species, the outline of 
which is more elongated than in P. sanguinolentus. The gill 
covers are marked as in that species with three or four lines of a 
metallic steel blue color; opercular appendage long, directed more 
obliquely upwards than in any other species here described, black, 
with a light border which is a continuation of two of the lines 
of the cheeks, the one running below the eye, the other termina- 
ting behind the eye. Each scale of the back and sides is marked 
in its centre with a short narrow black line, hence the sides are 


3. Pomotis notatus, Agass.—Called Pond Perch at Huntsville. 
Body more elongated than in P. vulgaris; its upper and lower 
curve nearly equal. Opercnlar appendage very short, not eX- 
tending beyond the base of the pectorals; its hinder margin !s 
orange-colored, with a black spot in front, from which a faint 
dusky band extends to the eye. The spinous rays of the dorsal 
and aval are more slender than in P. vulgaris, and the articnlated 


toral fins are long, extending beyond the base of the anal, as 10 


oO 


the sides, gill cover and belly being silvery ; scales not dotted 
with black as in many similar species. 


that the profile is still more precipitate and the body somewhat 
moré elongated as well as much stouter, especially in the per? 


L. Agassiz on Fishes of the Tennessee River. 303 


of the head and across the pectorals. The opercular appendage 
is longer and broader, but also without a light posterior margin. 
The posterior soft rays of the dorsal are marked with a black 
spot as in the preceding species, but all the spinous rays of that 
fin are shorter and stouter. It is a dark colored fish throughout 
the lower as well as the upper side of the body, almost uniformly 
brown, the belly only being somewhat lighter in hue. The face 
and lower jaw are of a leaden color. The fins are all darker than 
in P. incisor, especially the ventrals. 

6. Pomotis bombifrons, Agass.—Body higher than in P. obsen- 
tus and profile even more arched. Forehead prominent especially 
over the eyes. Head quite broad and short. Opercular append- 
age black, and small; a light narrow band runs along its lower 
margin. No black spot upon the hind part of the dorsal. The 
last spinous rays of this fin are shorter than in P. obscurus, thus 
making the passage to the soft rays more abrupt and marked, the 
Soft portion of the fin being almost as prominent as in Ambloplites 
and Calliurus when compared with the spinous rays. Bod light 
brown, fins lighter colored; scales of the belly and sides dotted 
With golden orange. The face and under jaw have not the leaden 
color of P. obscurus. Considering the peculiar form of the ver- 


_ 1. Pomotis pallidus, Agass.—This species resembles P. incisor 
M the outline of the body, the nature and coloration of the scales, 
and in the size and form of the fius, but it differs greatly from it 
by its large mouth, the free extremity of the upper jaws reach- 
Ing the vertical line of the middle of the eye, by the presence 
of teeth upon the palate, and by the ventral fins being placed 
tmmediately under the pectorals. The black opercular appen- 
dage which is very short, has a narrow orange border behind. 
There is a black spot at the base of the posterior rays of the 
dorsal. Both dorsal and anal are marked by one or two dark 
Stipes; the caudal is crossed by several dotted vertical lines. 
here are eight or nine dusky bars across the sides, between the 
ead and tail. This species bears the same relation to Pomotis, 
that Pomoxis bears to the true Centrarchus, in the size of the 
Mouth, and the form of the body, and I have no doubt it will 
“nie day become the type of a distinct genus. 


THEOSTOMOIDS, Agass.—There are comparatively few 
Natural families in the animal kingdom so limited in their geograph- 
cal distribution as to be entirely circumscribed within the boun- 

tes of a single continent, aud these few belong mostly to the 
'Ype of Vertebrata. Though among fishes we should least ex- 


304 L. Agassiz on Fishes of the Tennessee River. 


want of connection between the single suboperculum and the 
preoperculum forbids also a more intimate alliance with that fam- 
ily. orm of the ventrals of the Etheostomoids reminds 
us somewhat of those Gobioids in which the two ventrals are dis- 
tinct. Since the publication of the work. above mentioned, I 
have become acquainted with three new genera of tis family, 
for which [ would propose the names of Hyostoma, Catonotus, 
and Hadropterus. ; ‘ 

The more extensive knowledge I have acquired of this family 
by these recent accessions enables me to give more precisiou " 
the characters assigned at first to its genera; as follows: 

1. Erneostoma, Rafin.—Head elongated pointed ; mouth ve 
minal, widely open, not protractile, broad; jaws of equal length. 
Opercular apparatus and cheeks bare. First dorsal distinctly SeP- 
arated from the second. Anal and second dorsal smaller than the 


. first ti 1 ander the namie of Pecilosoma. 
ing however at the time of its publication far away from Cambridge, a0 d : 
consult my library or any other, | did not perceive that that name was lready pt 
occupied; I would therefore change it now to Peecilic ES Several new 
us 


* The genus Peeeilichth ys 


5 , . “ott; 

., remarkable for its “7a 
se , i the sides of the 0 
ig gh row, vith Gack ook lines oon Ss 
upon the sides of the tail; dorsals banded ‘with black, white and red. Tr 
species P. spectabilis, Another found by Dr. L_ Watson in small creeks baie 
Llinois, similar in color to the eceding but without black stripes along ¢ 
also less compressed. 4 | 


i . of 
collected = ery Geo. Stolley in the Osage River, Mo. 
d 


eall this species P. versicolor. apron toning pe ie 
were also received from River. A fourth species from the Osage ‘lack, tbe 
also discovered by Mr. Geo. Stolley, is of a greenish color mottled with dotted all 
second dorsal, the anal; the ventrals and the pectorals being ¢o"™ 


over with minute dark specks. J call this species P. punctulatus. oes 


L. Agassiz on Fishes from Tennessee River. 305 


first dorsal, but equal to one another. Caudal lunate. Type of 
the genus: E'thblennioides, Raf. 


per. Opercular apparatus, cheeks and neck destitue of scales, 
First dorsal much lower than the second, with clubshaped rays 
when full grown; membrane of this fin extending to the base of 
the second dorsal. Anal smaller than the second dorsal. Caudal 
rounded. Only one species known: C. lineolatus, Agass., dis- 
covered by Dr. L. Watson in small creeks near Quincy, lll. Phe 
whole body olive green with close narrow interrupted black longi- 
tudinal lines; transverse lines of the same color across the caudal. 

3. Pitzoma, Dekay.—Head conical, pointed, truncated at the 
end, in form of a hog’s snout; mouth moderate, in form of an 
oblique are of a circle, opening below the end of the snout, very 
slightly protractile. Lower jaw shorter than the upper. 
culum and cheeks scaly. Membrane of the first dorsal not reach- 
ing the base of the second. Anal smaller than the second dor- 
sal. Caudal truncate or slightly lunate. Type of the genus : 
P. caprodes. (Htheostoma caprodes, Rafin.) 

- Haprorrervus, Agass.—Head conical, obtusely pointed, 
tounded at the end; mouth moderate, terminal, not protractile, 
Jaws nearly equal. Operculum and cheeks scaly. Membrane of 
the first dorsal extending to the base of the second. Anal and 
second dorsal large and equal. Caudal truncate or slightly Iunate. 
Only one species known: Hi. nigrofasciatus, Agass. From the 
neighborhood of Mobile, Alabama. Discovered by Albert Stein, 

q- Brown above, lighter below, with transverse black bands, 
Wider in the middle than nearer to the back or the belly. 

5. Hyosroma, Agass.—Head short, blunt, rounded, with swol- 
len cheeks, Mouth comparatively small below the snout, slightly 
Protractile. Lower jaw shorter than the upper, which may be 
Concealed in a deep furrow below the snout. Opercular appara- 
tus and cheeks scaly. First dorsal long, but not reaching the 

of the second. Anal smaller than the second dorsal. Cau- 

dal slightly lunate. Only one species known: H. Newmanii, 

‘sass. Discovered by Dr. Newman in the vicinity of Hunts- 

Ville, Alabama, where it is called “Salmon.” This fish is uni- 

‘ormly brown with irregular transverse black blotches. A red 
Sttipe along the base of the first dorsal. 


tractile, though the maxillary bone be moveable. Opercular ap- 
Paratus sealy, cheeks bare. First dorsal distinctly separated from 
the second. Anal smaller than the second dorsal. Caudal tran- 
‘ate or slightly rounded. The species of this genus are among 
Stooxn Sruies, Vol. XVI, No. 50.—March, 1854. 89 : 


- 


306 L. Agassiz on Fishes from Tennessee River. 


the most brilliant freshwater fishes in the world. Type of the 
genus: Liheostoma variatum, Kirtl. Several new species are 
mentioned in the note above. 

7. Boreosoma, Dekay.—Head short, rounded; mouth below 
the end of the snout, small, horizontal, slightly protractile. Op- 
ercular apparatus and cheeks scaly; neck scaleless. Membrane 
of the first dorsal reaching the base of the second, thongh the 
two fins are distinetly separated. Second dorsal much larger than 
the anal. Candal rounded. Type of the genus: Boleosoma 
tessellatum, Dekay. For references to other species, see “ Lake 
Superior,” page 299. . 

All the representatives of this family are confined, as far as we 
know, to the fresh waters of North America; not a single spe- 
cies having thus far been noticed either in Europe or Asia. ‘To 
this circumstance we must no doubt ascribe the total neglect of 
the genus Etheostoma of Rafinesque by European ichthyologists. 

The geuus Hyostoma is the only type of this family I am ac- 
quainted with from the southern bend of the Tennessee River. 
It is true, Dr. Storer has described two species of Etheostoma 
from the vicinity of Florence, Alabama, but they do not seem to 
occur farther east; at least I have found nothing to remind me of 
his species in the collection forwarded by Dr. Newman. 

It is a fact worthy of notice that not a single species of Gas- 
terosteus has as yet been discovered in the Mississippi River or 
its tributaries, or in any of the rivers emptying into the Gulf of 
Mexico. I have also searched in vain for them in the southern 
Atlantic states, though they are common in the northern states 
aud in the waters emptying into the St. Lawrence. . 


SCLENOIDS, Cuv.—In the old world no representative of this 
family is known to inhabit the fresh waters, whilst in North Amet- 
ica a remarkable species has been found in Lake Champlain, Lake 
Erie, Lake Ontario and the Ohio River, which truly belongs 
this family and has generaily been referred to the genus Corvina, 
under the name of Corvina Oseula. It should however be te- 


to examine the value of this genus, nor even to state on what 


L. Agassiz on Fishes from Tennessee River. 307 


species of Ammblodon in different parts of the United States and 
that this type is not limited to the Northern States but extends 
West as far as the western parts of Missouri aid South as far as 
Louisiana and Alabama. 


Ampiovon, Rafin.—External characters of Corvina, combined 
with the form and appearance of Pogonias. Upper pharyngeals 
distinct, covered with broad, hemispherical teeth closely set, like 
pavement stones and arranged in regular rows; outside of these 
are a few small poiuted teeth. ‘The lower right and left pharyn- 
geals are soldered toyether into a broad triangniar plate, covered 
with teeth of the same kind and arranged ini the same manner as 
upon the upper pharyngeals. In the genus Corvina the lower 
pharyngeals are distinct as the upper ones atid support short coni- 
cal teeth not numerous, nor closely set. Fyrom want of a snffi- 
cient number of specimens { am unable to determine whether the 
Specimens from the great Lakes are specifically identical with 
h Ohio River described by Rafinesque as Amblodon 

grunniens ; but I have ascertained that the species of the Ohio 
~ River differs from that of Huntsville, which I call Amblodon con- 
ciunus, Agass. This species differs from A. gruimiens in having 
the body less elongated, the profile steeper, and the dorsal fin 
Placed further forwards. he profile is most arched immediately 
over the upper aitachment of the preopercle, in A. granniens 
it is most prominent over the opercule. ‘The dorsal fin ends 
slightly in advance of the hase of the pectorals; in A. grunniens 

ehind these. The serrated edge of the preopercle is directe 
more obliquely downwards and backwards, making the inferior 
angle of the preopercle more acute. ‘This species is known in 
the Tennessee River by the name of Drum. It reaches there the 
Weight of fifty pounds. 


Amblodon lineatus, Agass.—This species sent to me by Mr. 
0. Stolley from the Osage River, Mo., resembles more A. con- 
Cintns than A. grunniens, but the head is shorter; the promi- 
hence of the foréhead is nearer the dorsal fin, immediately over 
the opercle, thus having a less arched profile. ‘The anterior 
border of the eye nearly reaches the profile of the head. The 
-Spines of the dorsal fin are bent more backwards. The dark col- 
ation of the centres of the scales, especially in younger speci- 
_ Mebs produces the appearance of regular lines following the di- 
_ Féetiou of the rows of scales, hence the name of this species. It 
stows also very large, 0 
mM as the species of the Tennessee River. Mr. Stolley in- 
forms me that the Amblodons are very sluggish, and live at the 
bottom of muddy waters, where they are often seen progressing 
Owly, raising as it were, clouds of dirt before them, now lying 
"pon one side of their body, then turning upon themselves 


= 
Gu 
ae 
A) 
i=) 
~ 
wn 
_— 
o 
7) 
Hh 
2 
= 
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a 
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yh 
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= 
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5 
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308 L. Agassiz on Fishes from Tennessee River. 


stomach; they however bite occasionally at a minnow. 

E'soces, Cuv. (Joh. Miller.)—Though we have only the genus 
Esox representing this family in North America, it is perhaps not 
superfluous for me to state that I agree with the modifications 
J. Miller has introduced in this group since it was first established 
by Cuvier. We have one species from the Tennessee River, 
called Pike at Huntsville. 


misapplication of English names to our native animals, which has 


already led to somuch confusion. Unless applied as a generi¢ apel- 
lation, the name Pike must be retained for the European “ 
Lucius, to which only it belongs by right; whilst the Belg 
Pickerel designates the young of that fish. It would be quite at 4 
advisable to introduce in our scientific nomenclature the eye . 
Calf to distinguish the Bisons from the type of our domesticat 
cattle, as to apply the name Pickerel to any particular specles ” 
set of species of the genus Esox. 


(To be continued.) 


AMERICAN 


JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. 


[SECOND SERIES.] 


Arr. XX XIL—The Primitive Diversity and number of Ani- 
mals in Geological Times; by L. Acassiz. 
Tuere is a view generally entertained by naturalists and geol- 
gists that genera and species of animals and plants are greatly 
More numerous at the present age of the world than in any pre- 
vious geological period. This seems to me an entire misconcep- 
tion of the character and diversity of the fossils which have been 
discovered in the different geological formations, and to rest upon 
&stimates which are not made within the same limits, and with 
‘the same standard. Whenever a comparison of the diversity and 
umber of fossils of any geological period has been made wit 
lose of the living animals and plants belonging to the same 
Classes and fainilies, it has been done under the tacit assumption 
Which seems to. me entirely unjustifiable, that the fossils formerly 
inhabiting our globe are known to the same extent as the animals 
Which live at present upon its surface; while it should be well 
_ Mderstood that however accurate our knowledge of fossils may 
be, it has been restricted, for each geological formation, to a few 
circumscribed areas. Comparisons of fossils with the living an- 
‘a Imals ought, therefore, to be limited to geographical districts cor- 
_ “sponding in extent to those in which the fossils occur; or, 
properly, a fossil fauna with all its local peculiarities ought 
!0 be compared with a corr ponding fauna of the present period, _ 
and not with all the animals of the same class living at present 
“Pon the whole surface of the globe. And when this is done 
Stooxp Senies, Vol. XVII, No, 51.—May, 1854. 40 | 


310 £L. Agassiz on Animals in Geological Times. 


with sufficient care and proper allowance is made for the limited 
time during which investigations of fossils have been traced com- 
pared with that which has been almost everywhere devoted to 
the closer study of living animals, it will be seen that the number 
and diversity of species peculiar to each special fossil fauna is, in 
most instances, equal to those found to characterize zoological 
provinces of similar boundaries, at the present day. And this 
may be said of the fossil faunze ofall ages. In many instances 
the result is even quite the reverse of what is generally supposed 
to be the fact, for there are distinct fossil faunze which have 
yielded much larger numbers of species, presenting a greater Var 
riety of types than any corresponding fauna in the present age. 
Some examples will justify this perhaps unexpected statement. 
The number of species of shells which are found living along 
the shores of Europe, does not exceed six hundred. About six 
hundred species is again the number assigned to the whole basin 
of: the Mediterranean, including both the European and Afnican 
coasts. Now the most superficial comparison between them an 
the fossil species which occur in the lower tertiary beds in the 
vicinity of Paris, shows the latter to exceed twice that number; 
there are indeed twelve hundred species of fossil shells now 
known from the eocene beds in the immediate vicinity of Paris, 
affording, at once, a very striking evidence of the greater diver- 
sity and greater number of species of that geological period when 
compared even with those of a wider geographical area at the 
present aay. ; 
If it be objected that the variety of forms which oceur in trop 
cal faune is greater than that which we observe on the shores of 
our temperate regions, and that the temperature of the teruiary 
period having been warmer we may expect a larger number 
fossil species from those deposits, 1 would only refer to local enu- 
merations of marine shells from several tropical regions, to sustain 
my assertion that the number of fossil shells of the eocene beds 
of the immediate vicinity of Paris, is much greater than that of 
any local fauna of the present period, even within the tropics: 
A catalogue of not quite three huudred species of shells given by 
Dufo as occurring around the Sechelles Islands, the extent of 


of the Red Sea by Hemprich, Ehrenberg and Riippel, and there 


L. Agassiz on Animals in Geological Times. 311 


over 50° of latitude, 28° N. of the equator, and 22° S. of it, in- 
cluding the most favorable localities for the growth of shells in 
the Pacific under the tropics, and yet we shall find his list exceed- 
ing but little the number of 500 species. In this instance again 
we find that the advantage in number and variety is in favor of 
the tertiary period, and not of the present age. If a different 
result has been obtained by the estimates made before this, it is 
OWing to the circumstance, that the fossils known from a few 
localities within narrow geographical limits were compared with 
the living species known to occur upon the whole surface of the 
Gove. But let us trace these comparisons through other geolog- 
leal periods, with reference to other classes also, and we shall find 
mM every instance, similar results. The tertiary fossils of Bor- 
deaux, though less numerous in species than those of the eocene 
In the vicinity of Paris, will compare with any local fauna of the 
present period as favorably for variety and number of species as 
those of the lower tertiaries. This may be said, with the same 
certainty, of the tertiary shells of the Sub-appennine Hills, or of 
those of the English Crag of which we now possess a very com- 
plete list. 

If from the tertiary periods we pass down to the cretaceous, 
do we not find in the deposits of Meestricht, or in those of the 
age of the white chalk, a number and variety of shells as great 
as that which may be found on any shore or in any circumscribed 
Marine basin of an extent at all comparable with that of the cre- 
faceous beds within similar limits? Do-we not find in the lower 
ctetaceous strata such as the green sand or the Neocomien, other 
assemblages of the remains of Mollusks, which, in number and 

atiety, are not inferior to those of the white chalk? The 
Sdlitic series, again, will stand a similar comparison quite as well. 
We need not even take the whole group of those deposits, but 
Consider each subdivision of the Jurassic period by itself, and 
Sull we find in every one, local faunee of Mollusks, assuming of 
Course, a different character from those of the cretaceous or ter- 
tary, but nevertheless’ sufficiently diversified to admit of an 
*stimate, as advantageous, with respect to the points under 
Consideration, and to the local faunee of the present day as to the 
us assemblages of fossils, or those of the tertiary period. 
Of course, in accordance with the peculiar character of the age, 
diff ent families prevail in these different periods; the Cepha- 
lopoda are extremely numerous and surprisingly diversified during 
the cretaceous and Oolitic periods; while they dwindle down to 


312 L. Agassiz on Animals in Geological Times. 


a few representatives in the tertiaries, and so with other families. 
The shells found in the deposits of the new red sandstone period, 
of the coal period, and of the still earlier ages, are perhaps less 
numerous on the whole, though they can hardly be said to be 
less diversified; for, the extinct forms which occur among them, 
are quite an equivalent to the variety of their families which have 
lived during more recent periods; and the daily increase of the 
species found in the different paleozoic deposits shows that, even 
in point of numbers those ancient faunze may, even in the pres- 
ent state of our knowledge, be compared with local faune of sim- 
ilar extent at the present day. 

Desirous of making the most accurate comparison possible be- 
tween the subdivisions of the paleozoic formations of the state 
of New York with local faune of similar extent in the present 
seas, I have requested Professor J. Hall to furnish me with sum- 
mary indications respecting the results of his extensive investiga- 
tions in this field, and I have obtained from him the following 
statement : 

“Tregard the Potsdam and Calciferous Sandstone as discon- 
nected with the groups above, forming of themselves with their 
fauna (not yet well known in this country) a distinct geological 
period. The entire number of species thus far known in these 
rocks, admitting all of Owen’s species, is however only twenty- 
Six. 


“The Chazy limestone has 45 species restricted to itself, and 
one other species which is also known in the Black River Lime- 
stone. The Birdseye limestone has 19 species restricted to itself 
and two others which pass upwards. ‘The Black River lime 
stone has 13 species restricted to itself, and one common to It, 
and the Chazy limestone, one common to it and Birdseye, and 
one common to it and the Trenton, and one other which is com- 
mon to the beds below and above, extending into the Hudson 


covered since the publication of the Ist volume of the Palaontol- 
ogy of New York, and which would make the restricted species 
about 200.” 
“The Hudson River group, including Utica slate, has abovt 
- persica sgt besides those which are common to it an 
he rocks below, making altogether about 100 species. 
“You will observe that the development of life at the Trenton 
period, has been far the most marked, though it is true this 


L. Agassiz on Animals in Geological Tiines. 313 


formation is much thicker than either of the preceding limestones, 
the Chazy being the thickest, and the Black River the thinnest 
of the three below the Trenton.” 

“In that portion of the upper Silurian period included in the 
2d vol. of the Paleontology of New York, the fossils of the Me- 
dina Sandstone, Clinton group, Niagara and Onondaga Salt 
groups, amount to 341. Medina and Clinton groups 123 spe- 
cies. tagara and Onondaga Salt group, 218 species.” 

“The Medina Sandstone and arenaceous beds of the Clinton 


New York and the western localities. Of all that is yet known 
in these limestones besides Carals aud Bryozoa, it would be un- 
safe for me to estimate more than 100 species.” e) 
“From the Hamilton, Portage and Chemung groups I antici- 
Pate at least 300 species within New York, and I shall not be 
Surprised if more complete investigations produce double that 
number in New York and the West.” 
“The number of species given here I regard as only approxi- 
Mate. I hope this general statement may meet your present 
fequirement, but I regret that I cannot now give you more defi- 
Hite information, particularly regarding the Upper Helderberg. I 
8ive you from this and the higher groups an estimate based on 
the species known to me at the present time; but my final inves- 
ligations always reveal a greater number than I anticipate.” 
hese statements of Professor Hall place already each of the 


+ 


Pringipal group of rocks of the state of New York in the cate- 


as many local faunse of the present period, for we may repeat that 
the fauna of the Sechelles contains only 258 species, and that of 


314. —sL. ‘Agassiz on Animals in Geological Times. 


of coast along the western shores of the American continent, 


the state of New York only. (See above the results of Professor 
Adams’s investigations upon the coast of Panama.) 

t is a most unexpected and very significant coincidence that 
the late admirable investigations of Elie de Beaumont upon the 
mountain systems, have led him to the recognition of nearly ten 
times as many periods of great disturbance in the physical con- 
stitution of the earth’s surface, as he himself knew twenty-five 
years ago, each attended by the upheaval of as many mountain 
chains, differing in their main direction. The investigations 
of paleontologists having an entirely different character, an 
founded upon facts which until recently have apparently had only 
a remote connection with the other series of phenomena, have 
nevertheless brought them at about the same time to like concla- 
sions respecting animal life, showing that the periods of disap- 
pearance and renovation of organized beings upon earth, have 
been much more frequent than could be supposed even ten years 
ago, each set having probably been characteristic of one of those 
long periods of comparative rest, intervening between two great 
successive geological cataclysms. ; 

What is true of Mollusca, may be said of all other classes. 
Among Radiata, are not the coral reefs of the paleozoic ages as 
rich in species as any coral reef of the Pacific? Let us even 
compare the most extensive list of corals yet given as belonging 
to any circumseribed locality,—those of the Red Sea as described 
by Ehrenberg,—those of the Feejee Islands as described by Prof. 
J. D. Dana,—and let us inquire whether the palzozoic rocks of 
the state of New York do not show as great a variety and as 


~ 


L. Agassiz on Animals in Geological Times. 315 


oolitic period, or any of the subdivisions of that formation, sur- 
pass the number of species of that class which may be gathered 
around the coast of entire continents in the present day. The 
diversity of forms of these animals comparing them with those 
of the cretaceous periods, is equally great, though the Crinoids be- 
gin to diminish in number. But the variety of Spatangoids and 
Clypeastroids which come into play, compensate largely for the 
diminution of the family of Crinoids. 

The type of Articulata may seem, in the present condition of 
our knowledge, to form an unanswerable objection to the broad 
statement [ have made above, for the- hundred thousands of in- 
sects which are known in the present creation will hardly allow 
a comparison with the fossils. But let us examine upon the prin- 
ciples by which we have been guided in the preceding computa- 
tions, what is the true state of things respecting the occurrence 
of Articulata in former geological periods. We can, of course, 
hardly expect to find worms well preserved in geological forma- 
tions, on account of the softness of their body, which will 
scarcely allow of preservation to a greater degree than Meduse. 
But a few instances in which impressions of these animals have 
been found justifies the assertion that they existed as well in for- 
mer periods as now. ‘The impressions of Meduse found in the 


class to the Jurassic period, but justify the question whether a 
large number of the fossil polypi from older periods, which have 
been described as belonging to that class, are not in reality nurses 

Medusz similar to the Campanularie, and Sertularie of the 


Present day ; and I doubt very much whether such a variety of 

Crustacea could be collected any where on a shore of equal extent 

'0 that of the white chalk of Sussex, as Dr. Mandell has uneov- 
in the vicinity of Lewes. For a comparison 0 

'acea of the oolitic period, I would only refer the skeptic to the 


316 L. Agassiz on Animals in Geological Times. 


monograph of the Crustacea of Solenhofen by Count Minster, 
who has figured from that single locality more species than are 
known in the whole basin of the Mediterranean, excluding the mi- 
nute species which have not yet been sought for among the fossils. 

n earlier geological ages, during the deposition of the coal and 
other palzozoic rocks, the class of Crustacea presents a very dif- 
ferent character. ‘The gigantic Entomostraca and the extinct 
family of Trilobites take the place of the lobsters and crabs 0 
later periods. But paleontological works illustrating the fossils 
of Sweden, Russia, Bohemia, England and France, have made 
us acquainted with as great a variety of species of those families 


where within similar limits in the present time. 

The carcinological fauna of the whole Indian Ocean scarcely 
exceeds in variety or number of species that of Bohemia alone, 
as it is now known by the admirable investigations of Mr. 
de Barande. 


of Switzerland, the insects were as numerous and as diversi 
there as they are any where in our day, within similar bounda- 


ries. And the fragmentary information which we already om 
will 


justify the prophecy that insects will be found, some day 
other, even among paleozoic rocks older than the coal period. : 


L. Agassiz on Animals in Geological Times. 317 


cal formations. But should we compare the fossil fishes of each 
geological period as they are known from a few localities, with 
the whole number of fishes which exist all over the world in our 
day? It would be as unphilosophical as it would be inconsistent 
With our knowledge of the geographical distribution of animals. 
Like all other living beings, fishes are located within definite 
boundaries, and it will be but fair to compare the fossil species of 
4given locality with the special Ichthyological faune which oc- 
cur in different oceans, or in different fresh-water basins. 
with this rule we may institute a comparison of the fossil fishes 
with the living ones, with reference to their number as well as to 
their variety. 

he number of species of fossil fishes known at present from 
the tertiary deposits, in a single spot, upon the Island of Sheppy, 
18 greater than the number of fishes which have been gathered 
around the coast of any of the islands of the Pacific Ocean, as 
far as we know the local Ichthyological faunze of those regions ; 
itis as great, nearly, as the whole number of fishes known from 
the shores of Great Britain. ‘The same may be said of the fishes 
Mount Bolea, or of Mount Lebanon, or of those of the white 
chalk of England, or of those of Solenhofen, or of those of the 


curs at the present day? So that it can be fairly said, that at all 

Periods, fishes have presented as great a variety of forms, and as 

numerous Species, as under corresponding circumstances at the 
da 


The class of Reptiles will allow similar conclusions, for though 
,.- slants of the class have chiefly been studied, do they not in- 
dicate an abundance, and a variety of these anima ing the 

Stcoxp Seams, Vol. XVII, No. 61.—May, 1854. 41 


318 L, Agassiz on Animals in Geological Times. 


upper secondary formations, as great as in any tropical region? 

ave we not sufficient indications among the tertiaries to be 
justified in expecting that they also will turn out to be more nu- 
merous than they are now known to be 

The class of Birds seems to form au exception in this view. 
But there seems to be particular reason why the bones of birds 
should be more liable to destruction and decomposition than those 
of other vertebrata. And whoever has traced the discoveries 
made recently among the fossils of this class, will certainly not 
insist upon a supposed scarcity of birds in former periods, but 
rather be inclined to admit that the limited number now known 
is to be ascribed to the deficiency of our knowledge rather than 
to a want of these animals in earlier formations, indications 
their presence having been ascertained for several tertiary forma- 
tions, for cretaceous deposits, and even for deposits belonging to 
periods older than the chalk. 

Fossil Mammalia are comparatively too well known to call for 
many remarks, after what has been said above. Let us only re- 
member that the number of fossil species found in Brazil alone 
equals the whole number of Mammalia known to live at preset 
in that country; that the fossil Mammalia of New Holland com- 
pare already favorably with the living species of that continent ;, 
and that the locality of Montmartre alone bas yielded as many 


granted that the great variety of types which occur at any latet 
riods has arisen from a successive differentiation of a few still 

earlier types, it should be shown that in reality in former pe 

the types are fewer and less diversified ; and we have now shown 


real 


types of the animal kingdom, I need not therefore repeat here 
what may be gathered from the diagram at the head of the we 
ological Text Book I have published jointly with Dr. Gould. 

shall limit myself to a few more general remarks upon the spe- 
cial difficulties involved in a more thorough investigation of th 


L. Agassiz on Animals in Geological Times. 319 


‘The study of the order of succession and gradation of the or- 
ganized beings which have inhabited our globe at different peri- 
ods, presents indeed difficulties of more than one kind. Unhap- 
pily these difficulties have seldom been all considered in their 
natural connection by those who have ventured to consider the 
subject in its whole extent; thus presenting certain results as 
general which would require various qualifications to be true. 
In comparing fossils of one and the same or of different geologi- 
cal formations, it is in reality not enough to ascertain their true 
geological horizon, which we may call the chronological element 
of the enquiry; it is equally important that the differences or re- 
semblances arising from the geographical distribution over the 
wide expanse of the whole surface of the globe, which we may 
call the topographic element of the question, should be also con- 
sidered, for it is already known that within certain limits the 


n separated by long periods of time, and existed upon earth 
under very different physical conditions. This chronological 
confusion is further increased by the too extensive limits fre- 


forming the crust of our globe. For instance, when the creta- 
ceous or the oolitic formations are considered respectively as indi- 
visible natural groups, and the fossils of all their subdivisions are 
enumerated in one single list as the inhabitants of a long period, 
an infinitude of anachronisms are presented to the mind, which 
no special mention of localities can rectify; and until the fossils 
of each of the natural subdivisions of these formations shall have 
been grouped together and compared carefully, as I have attempted 
to do it in my Monographs of the T'rigonie and of the My@ 
of Switzerland and the adjoining countries, or as Al. d’Orbigny 

S done it upon a much larger scale in his Paléontologie Fran- 
goise, no correct ideas can be formed respecting the succession of 
animals and plants characteristic of these long successive periods. 

do not believe there is a single paleontologist, whose opinion is 
Worth having, who can suppose, at this day, that any of the ani- 


) remains of which are buried in the lias, lived sim 


320 L, Agassiz on Animals in Geological Times. 


neously with those of the inferior oolite, or these with those of 
the Oxford clay, or these with those of the upper division of the 
so-called oolitic formation. 'The same may be said of the differ- 
ent natural subdivisions of the cretaceous formation, and of the 
subdivisions introduced of -late among the paleozoic rocks, by 
Sir Roderick Murchison, and Professor Sedgwick, and in America, 
by Professor J. Hall. ; 

But even after this separation of the fossils, the synchronism of 
which may be fully established, our task is only fairly laid open, 
for then must begin the zoological identification of all the spe- 
cies, which has to be correct in every respect before general con- 
clusions can be drawn from it. 

n the first place the specific identity of organic remains is not 
so easily ascertained as many geologists would seem to suppose, 
if we judge from their statements; but unless the validity of @ 
species is sanctioned by a practiced Zodlogist, it can not be taken 
as a basis for sound generalizations in reference to questions of @ 
purely zoological character. The number of false identifications 
which have been accumulated in geological works is truly fright- 
ful. It would be however very unjust to accuse geologists in 
general of inaccuracy for this, the fault is mostly to be traced to 
other parties from which the names were obtained. It should 


es 1S 
three-fold: 1, different species may be considered as identical, 2, 
specimens of the same species in different states of preservatiols 
or of different age, or sex, é&c., may be considered as distinct 7. 
cies, or 3, the same species may have been described by di io 
authors under different names, and their identity afterwards over 


L. Agassiz on Animals in Geological Times. 321 


looked by later writers. Who does not see what amount of error 
may accrue from the indiscriminate use of materials which are 
not first submitted to a very critical revision in these different re- 
spects, not to speak of the general difficulty of agreeing upon the 
limits of specific differences. With regard to this last point, 
however, I would say that whosoever would only use in discuss- 
ing general questions materials revised candidly with the same 
principles, could not fail to obtain at least uniform results. And 
when the results of investigations made upon materials corrected 
in different ways by different authors are compared with one an- 
other, if these differences are kept in view, the disagreement in 
the results would not be found so great as it might otherwise 

2m. The astronomers and physicists have long learned to cor- 
rect their observations before using them, and to take into consid- 
eration what they call the personal equation of different observ- 
ers; are we never to learn from them a lesson in the estimation 
of our respective investigations, and shall our facts for ever be 
used without being first ‘corrected for all the possible canses of 
error and disagreement? As long as there are differences of opin- 
ion respecting the natural limits “of genera and species, is it not 
absolutely necessary to reduce or expand the scale applied to the 
investigations of different authors, when using them for the same 
purposes, exactly in the same manner as thermometric observa- 
tions made with the scales of Reaumur or Celsius or Fahrenheit 
are reduced to the same standard, before being compared. 

In the second place, species must be referred to genera circum 
scribed within the same limits, before they can fairly be compared 
or at least lead to trustworthy general results. As long as certain 
bivalve shells of the carboniferous and oolitic series were referred 
oe e genus Unio, it could appear that the family of Natades 

an its existence at a very early period ; but since the oolitic 
Species of this kind have been na neblaneibis o differ essentially 
fom our freshwater shells, and to constitute a themseles asnat- 
ural genus more closely allied to Crassatella than to Unio, nobody 
thinks any longer of looking for Unios in marine deposits. ge 


these genera are the types could be supposed to have extended 
their tange far beyond the tertiary formations, a which how- 
ever no one of their representatives is to be found. Before the 
Sfiatangoids < divided into natural genera, ine genus Spatan- 
WS was mentioned among the fossils “al the oolitic as well as 

the “it Sai ‘a tertiary formations; now it is restricted to - 

among the fossils and found also among the living. I 

ieve that a single genuine species of Gorgonia i is found enemy 
the fossil Polypi, and yet that genus appears in the lists of ete 
ftom the paleozoic period to the present time. 


322 L. Agassiz on Animals in Geological Times. 


Since it is not my intention to enter here upon a special eriti- 
cism of the innumerable errors of this kind, still to be found in 
even modern lists of fossils, I shall not multiply my examples. 
These may be sufficient to show how important a correct generic 
identification of the fossils may be in the estimation of the order 
of succession of organized beings; and I cannot but lament the 
utter want of consideration evinced even by many distinguished 
palzontologists in this respect, who seem to think that the knowl- 
edge of species is sufficient in itself to a proper appreciation of 
the order of creation, and that genera are arbitrary divisions es- 
tablished by naturalists merely for the sake of facilitating the 
study of species, as if the more general relations of living beings 
to one another were not as definitely regulated in all their de- 
grees by the same thinking mind, as the ultimate relations of in- 
dividuals to one another. 

In the third place the natural affinities of genera should be as- 
certained. Unless the genera are referred to the families to which 
they truly belong, unless the rank of these families in their 
respective classes is positively determined, unless the peculiarities 
of structure which characterizes them is taken as the foundation 


geological formations among these animals.- Before it was ascef 
tained that the little animal described by Thompson —— 


tire classes of animals during successive geological ages. #° 
ong as the natural position of Trilobites remained doubtful in 
the animal kingdom, the characters of the prototypes of the class 
of Crustacea could not be appreciated. Who does not see how 
impossible it was for those who classified the Trilobites with the 
' Chitons to arrive at any sound results respecting the gradation 
and order of succession of these animals? Whilst now they 4 

beautifully linked to the Macrura of the Trias, by the gigantic 
Entomostraca of the Devonian and Carboniferous periods. Aga, 
the knowledge of the embryology of Crustacea gives us 2 key 
a correct appreciation of the early appearance of the Macrura 
the late introduction of the Brachyura. ‘The removal of 
Bryozoa from among Polypi to the class of Mollusks, will entirely 


LL, Agassiz on Animals in Geological Times. 323 


change the aspect and relations of the faune of the paleozoic 
rocks. How different, again, would the order of succession of 
Mollusks appear, were we to adhere to Cuvier’s view of separa- 
ting the Brachiopods, as a class, from the other Acephala, to 
which they are now more correctly referred The vexed question 
of the period of appearance of Dicotyledonous plants in the ge- 
ological series would have been settled long ago, had it been 
placed-upon its real foundation. It is not in reality to be argued 
upon paleontological evidence chiefly, for it resolves itself in the 
main into a botanical question, and the definite answer must de- 
pend upon the position finally assigned by botanists to the fami- 
lies of Coniferee and Cycadex. If these natural orders of plants 
are really allied to the Dicotyledonz, then this type begins with 
the paleozoic rocks in the Devonian system, and there is no gra- 
dation in the order of succession of plants during geological times. 
But if the view of Brongniart is more correct, if the Coniferee and 
Cycadex have to be separated from the Dicotyledcne as Gymnos- 
perme, and if moreover these latter should prove, as I believe 
they are, inferior even to the Monocotyledouez, then we may at 
once recognize in the vegetable kingdom a similar gradation of 
types as among animals. ese examples may suffice to show 
what is required for a proper investigation of the order of succes- 
sion of organized beings in the course of time, and how little con- 
ence the investigations in this field deserve, which have not 
been made with due reference to all the points mentioned above. 
It is indeed only in the classes, the structure and embryology of 
Which is equally well understood, we are able to discover the 
laws regulating the succession of animals and plants in geological 
ations, and our knowledge is at present still too imperfect to 
catry the investigation into all families of the animal kingdom. 
And yet enough is known to leave no doubt as to the final result ; 
We may confidently await the time when the glory of the won- 
derful order of creation shall be fully revealed to us, and this may 
stimulate us to renewed efforts, since the success depends entirely 
Upon our own exertions. 

The geographical distribution of animals began only to be 
Studied long after systematic zoology had made considerable pro- 
gress, but even to this day the limits of the faunz are nowhere 
circumseribed with any kind of precision, the principles upon 
which they might be determined are in many respects questiona- 
ble, anda large number of animals are daily described without 
any reference to their natural distribution upon the earth; though 
Much has already been done since Buffon to place this branch of 
our knowledge upon a better foundation, and especially to ascer- 
tain the laws regulating the geographical distribution of certain 

sses and families considered isolately. ‘The point which re- 
quites now particular attention, is the combination of these differ- 


324 L. Agassiz on Animals in Geological Times. 


ent types within definite regions, and their common circumserip- 
tion within natural zoological provinces. This study would be 
particularly important with reference to the comparison. of the 
local faunee of former geological periods with those of the pres- 
ent creation. But since the latter even are comparatively little 
known, we must be’satisfied to wait for the time when thorough 
comparisons shall be possible between the local faune of each and 
all geological periods inter se, and with those of other periods. 


identity of the species, their generic affinities and their zoological 
classification should be equally tested. : 


and profusely scattered upon the whole globe, at all times and du- 
ring all geological periods, as it is now. No coral reef in th 
Pacific contains a larger amount of organic debris than some 
the limestone deposits of the tertiary, of the cretaceous, or of the 
oolitic, nay even of the paleozoic periods, and the whole veget@ 

e€ carpet covering the present surface of the globe, even if we 
were to consider only the most luxurious vegetation of the trop 
ics, and leave entirely out of consideration the whole expanse of 
the ocean, as well as those tracks of land where under less favor- 
able circumstances the growth of plants is more reduced, woul 
not form one single seam of workable coal to be compared to the 
many thick beds contained in the rocks of the Carboniferous 
period alone. 


C. U. Shepard on New Localities of Meteoric Iron. 325 


Arr. XX XIII.—New Localities of Meteoric Iron; by Cuarues 
U D. 


PHAM SHEpParD, M 


1. Tazewell, Claiborne county, Tennessee. 


For the specimens of the highly interesting mass here described 
I am indebted to Prof. J. B. Mitchell, of the East Tennessee 
University, at Knoxville.* Though but a fragment of three 
téths pounds, (having been detached from a mass originally 
weighing sixty pounds,) it nevertheless has much the appearance 
of an independent meteorite. Its shape is that of an elongated 
three-sided pyramid, whose axis is slightly oblique, and whose 
Upper edges are obscurely truncated, so as to resemble an imper- 
fectly formed six-sided pyramid of corundum. The height of 
the mass is four inches. 'The*base is triangular and nearly smooth, 
presenting however a cleavage surface, partially coated by brown 
oxyd of iron. By this face, it was originally connected with the 


tection in which it took place. At any.rate, its occurrence shows 
that these lumps, though generally composed of very tongh and 
Strongly coherent materials, are nevertheless susceptible of cleav- 
age in certain directions, and that they may occasionally explode 
or subdivide into numerous fragments, without the necessity of 
. any very considerable force. 
€ upper planes of the pyramid are indented, and somewhat 
Undulating, as is usual in meteoric irons; but there is no thick 
The following is an abstract from Prof. Mitchell’s letter in reference to its dis- 
a | 


~ 
a 

covery: “This meteorite was found April, 1853, about ten miles west of Tazewell, 

Claiborne county, Tennessee. It was discovered by a son of iam Rogers, while 

i had been much 


SE 
be ed 
—_ 


soa accou 

With no small difficulty that the finder was induced to part with it, even by my pay- 
38 him w ed to be an equivalent, and then agreeing to give him its weight 
insilver, provided it should prove to be that metal, when ang examin 

My first information of the iron, I am indebted to J. C. Ramsay, 
Who, not limiting his researches to the mere details of his profession, loses no oppor- 
tunity of contributing to several branches of natural history. I retain a fragment of 
abo es which he inati mass 


Sequaintance for examining and reporting upon the same. These three em| 
all the Pieces into which this meteorite has been divided.” 
Secon Seams, Vol. XVII, No. 51.—May, 1854. 42 


326 C. U. Shepard on New Localities of Meteoric Iron. 


incrustation of peroxyd: on the contrary, it merely possesses for 
coating a thin, brownish-black pellicle, which is much covered 
also by firmly adhering clay. 

The iron is highly crystalline in its texture ; a fact which may 
be seen in a few spots upon the surface, even through the coating 
itself. It is exceedingly tough, breaking with the greatest diffi- 
culty, and having a hackly surface, in which no crystallization is 
apparent. The fresh surface is much whiter than pure iron; an 
it retains its color and lustre apparently without change from of- 
dinary exposure to the air. Its specific gravity = 7°30. 

A part of the broad cleavage surface (or base of the pyramid) 
above described, was polished, and acted upon by dilute “hydro- 
chloric acid. e corrosion was very partial ; but it revealed a 
perfectly crystalline structure in the iron. The subsequent appli- 
cation of nitric acid rendered it still more striking. Wi 
mannstattian figures are somewhat peculiar. While there 1s 4 
general ground subdivided by innumerable thin and perfectly 
straight lines, into small equilateral triangles, and oblique-angled 
parallelograms of similar areas in size, presenting a picture on the 
whole closely resembling the Guildford (North Carolina) iron, 
there are also irregularly disposed veins, or interrupted seams, of 
a shining, white metal, ,),th of an inch in thigkness, and eac 

. from 4 to 2? of an inch long. These occur on the whole pretty 
near together, and impart a singular aspect to the surface, 1as- 
much as the veins do not’coincide in direction with the fine lines 
above mentioned; nor do they follow any parallelism with one 
another. ; 

Neither of the acids employed attack this substance in the 
slightest degree, any more than they do the thin lines producimg 
the small and regular areas. But closely associated with the 
larger veins are noticeable small particles of magnetic pytite® 
which as usual are decomposed by the acid. : 

Having separated a few grains of this metal or ore forming the 
seams, and heated it with acids, I convinced myself that Sal 
identical with the substance which I discovered as entering 1! 
the composition of the Seneca Falls (New York) meteori¢ 1r0, 
and which I denominated Partschite. ee 

A fragment of the iron was treated with hydrochloric ac” 
The solution went on very slowly, and unattended by the — 
cation of any sulphuretted hydrogen. The solution proces’ 
so slowly that it required nearly three days to dissolve 26°59 mia 

the iron, although the process of digestion was several 1! “a 
hastened by the application of a gentle heat. The acid Lai 
hind 1-16 grs. of undissolved matter, in the form of innumeé 
brilliant erystalline scales of an iron-gray color, and a high me 
tallic lustre. When washed and dried, they were found an 
flexible, highly, magnetic, and insoluble in hydrochloric 9°" 


C. U. Shepard on New Localities of Meteoric Iron. 327 


but were readily attacked by hot nitric acid, though still leaving 
undissolved a few particles of another metallic species, suppose 
to be the Partschite, and which were finally taken up by diges- 
tion in warm aqua regia. The thin, crystalline scales, undoubt- 
edly consist of the schreibersite (of Patera). 

From the hydrochloric solution a precipitate was obtained (by 
means of a stream of sulphuretted hydrogen), which, after wash- 
ing and reduction before the blowpipe, yielded metallic copper. 
A solution of the perchlorid was precipitated by ammonia, and 
the peroxyd of iron thus obtained was ignited with nitrate of 
potassa; when its solution gave decisive evidence of the presence 
of chromic acid. : 

The proportion of nickel obtained from the iron (without in- 
cluding the schreibersite and partschite) was 12-10 to 13-05 p. c. 
_-—thus placing the present meteorite, as regards the high propor- 
tion of nickel, in the rank of the following rather small number 
of meteoric irons, viz., that of Caille, which has 17-37, of Clai- 
borne, Alabama, which has 12°66, of Greene county, Tennessee 
14-7, of Krasnojarsk 10-7, of Bitburg 11-9, and of Cape Colony, 
Aftica 12-27. 

I have abstained from a complete analysis of the present iron, 
as Prof. J. Lawrence Smith is, as I understand, about to pub- 
lish full results of this nature. 


2. Haywood county, North Carolina. 


This specimen, which weighed scarcely {th of an ounce, was 
Sent to me by Hon. T. L. Clingman, accompanied by the follow- 
ing remark: “It was given me by a pérson in Haywood county, 
Whose father had obtained it in that region, but without his being 
able to designate the locality. It ‘is evidently meteoric iron, but 
1s perhaps from some mass already known.” 

_ The fragment is highly crystalline, and somewhat tetrahedral 
in form. One side was polished and etched. It displayed a 


marked character; and one which has no analogue among our 


Meteoric irons. It is irregularly veined by a black ore, which was 
hot acted upon by the acids; and which, when separated and 
submitted to examination, presented all the properties of mag- 
netite. The general ground of the etched pattern is almost iden- 
tical in character with that of the Hauptmannsdorf (Braunau) 
Iron, it being characterized by this, that instead of brilliant pro- 
Jécting lines, it has fine, depressed lines, or grooves, which how- 
ever are bright and glimmering in a strong light, and meet each 
other, mostly at right angles, parting off the ground into squares 
and rectangles, which are also to some extent, diagonally streaked, 
always in a much fainter manner. 

Specific gravity—=7-419. It dissolves in hydrochloric acid 

Without the odor of sulphuretted hydrogen. ‘The solution, when 


328 C.U. Shepard on New Localities of Meteoric Iron. 


perchloridized, gave with ammonia a precipitate which afforded 
distinct evidence of the presence of phosphorus and chromium: 
and the ammoniacal liquor was rich in nickel. 

The small quantity of the iron at my disposal prevented a 
fuller examination of its properties. It is much to be desired 
that the present notice may lead to the discovery of the original 
mass. 


3. Union county, Georgia. 


For my specimen of this iron also, and for my chief informa- 
tion respecting its discovery, I am indebted to Hon. T. L. Cling- 
man, as will appear from the following extract from his letter, 
dated Washington, Nov. 16, 1853. ‘“ Not long before I left home, 
I was at the copper mines of Ducktown, Polk county, Tennessee ; 
and while there, in looking over some specimens of Mr. 8S. Cong- 
den, I found this pre, and told him that I was satisfied it was 
meteoric iron. He had taken it to be merely a rich iron-ore, and 
informed me that some weeks previously, it had been brought to 
him by a person, who had picked up a large lump of it in his 
field, and who had broken off this piece with a view to having 
it tested. The discovery was made in the edge of Georgia, but 
in what county Mr. Congden could not learn.” 

have more recently ascertained from Mr. B. R. Dickey of 
Habersham county, Georgia, that the mass was found by a Mr. 
Freeman, in Union county of that state; and that its weight 
when picked up was about fifteen pounds. 


very coarse-grained colophonite garnet, or the coccolite variety of 
pyroxene. [It is, however, more or less traversed by cylindrical, 


2s not give the Widmannstattian figures; but ouly develops 
a series of web-like meshes, or, at most, a mottled, map-like de- 
lineation. we 
Its specific gravity =7-07. A fragment, as nearly as possible 
free from pyrites, was found to contain 3°32 p. c. of nickel. It 
is rich in chromium, and contains traces of phosphorus, 004" 


magnesium and calcium. : 


C. U. Shepard on New Localities of Meteoric Iron. 329 


4, Meteoric Iron? from Long creek, Jefferson Co., Tennessee. 


This iron was forwarded to me by Judge J. Peck of Oakland, 
_ East Tennessee, (to whom we owe the discovery of the Cosby 
Creek iron, and that from Green county in the same state) with 
the following remarks respecting its discovery. “It was found 
on Long creek, Jefferson county, a few miles north of the mouth 
of Chucky creek. Before I got possession of it (which was acci- 
dental) it had fallen into the hands of a young vulean, who 
would try its metal, as you see. I regret its being disfigured : 
but I have saved all I could. Near the same place, another piece 
was picked up, of which, however, I possess a mere fragment ; 
but it appears to be quite identical with the specimen | send. 
The pieces are described to me as being of about the same size 
and not unlike in figure. The family who made the discovery, 
rmed to me, when I visited the locality, that there was a vein 
of it, and that wagon loads could be picked up. But the creek 
re the vein was said to be, was too high. I made a liberal 
offer for all they could find and bring to me, in an unaltered con- 
dition; but I hear of no more. Feb. 7, 1853.” 

‘he mass sent, weighed about two and a half pounds, and had 
an oval flattened form, much like a thick, freshwater bivalve 
Shell. It is somewhat flattened on one side, and presents a broad 
fractured surface on éhe side, as if it had been broken from a 
arger mass. ‘The natural outside is somewhat undulating and 
pitted, and bears some marks of having been heated and ham- 


lamellar structure. This coating moreover, often penetrates by 
little irregular veins, for half an inch or more, into the substance 
Ol the mass. ; 
It breaks with difficulty; at first, slightly flattening under the 
ammer. The fresh fracture shows no bright metallic points. 
It presents a granular surface, much resembling certain rather fine 
grained blackish chlorites, or some varieties of graphite. Here 
and there throughont its mass, are noticeable rounded globules of 
Metal from jth to 1th of an inch in diameter. These are quite 
Smooth externally ; and when detached from their bedding, leave 
behind a smooth corresponding cavity. he material of the 
globules does not differ sensibly from the rest of the mass, except 
in being rather finer grained. 
pecific gravity 7:43. When polished, it presents a dark 


330 C. U. Shepard on New Localities of Meteoric Iron. 


r wet with a solution of acetate of lead, when held over 
the solution. A mineral resembling graphite rapidly separates as 
the solution goes on, and floats through the liquid in small shin- 
ing black scales of perfectly uniform size. When no heat is em- 
ployed in the process, their form is very definite, and on being 
washed and dried, they gave in one instance a specific gravity of 
3°30. Deflagrated with nitrate of potassa they gave decided traces 
of titanic and silicic acids. Where heat and aqna regia were em- 
ployed in acting upon the iron, the graphite-like substance was 
more acted upon, and had a specific gravity of but 220. This 
when deflagrated with nitre also afforded traces of silicic and 
titanic acids. The proportion of the heavy graphite in the iron, 
obtained in the first process was 4°5 p. c.; but by the latter pro- 
cess it was 3°3 p. c. 

A portion of the iron was heated with hydrochloric acid, and 
the solution saturated with sulphuretted hydrogen. A yellowish 
brown precipitate was formed. It was separated and treated with 
concentrated nitric acid. A heavy, white powder was formed, 
which was not reduced in quantity by further. digestion in the 
acid. It was separated, washed, dried and ignited, and amounted 
to 0°4 gr. or 5°50 gers. of the iron. : 

A portion of the nitric acid solution, on being treated with 
sulphuretted hydrogen, gave a brown precipitate of sul phuret of 
molybdenum. Another portion gave with tannic acid, a yellow 


tions of the presence of phosphorus and of chromium, wheu sub- 
jected to the usual tests for these elements; but does not conlain 


nickel, cobalt, magnesium or calcium. Besides the specular 100 
of the crust, therefore, it contains, 


Iron, - - - = . ‘ -- 95576 
Carbon, . - - " . if 3:30 
Chromium, - - - . . 
Tin, - - a i : = 1:125 
Molybdenum, - - = =- 
Silicon, - - 3 - 3 
Titanium, - - = Z y 
Phosphorus, - - - - nage 
Sulphur, = - «= Pana 

100-00 


J. E. Willet on Meteoric Iron from Georgia. 331 


\ 


Arr. XXXIV.—Description of Meteorite Iron from Putnam 
County, Georgia; by J. E. Wituxt, Professor in Mercer 
University, Geo. 


Tus interesting meteoric iron, the first that has been found in 

Georgia, was presented to Mercer University by John A. Cogburn, 
., in the fall of 1852. 

The circumstances of its discovery, as detailed by Mr. Cogburn, 
are briefly these. The iron was first observed by his overseer, in 
1839, in a field which had been cultivated for several years; but 
Was supposed to be the common black rock of that region. Mr. 
Cogburn first noticed it March, 1840, and, attempting to raise it 
from the ground, found it so heavy that he carried it to his black- 
smith shop to have it broken. Its weight, at that time, was 72 
pounds, and the mass was coated deeply with a brown, scaly 
crust. He attempted to break it upon an anvil, but could remove 
only the outside crust, including a large blister, the place of which 
is now indicated by a deep fissure. Finding it so untractable, 
he threw it out into his yard, where it lay neglected; until a 
knowledge of the fact Jed me to request him to send it to the 
University for examination. He states further, that he supposes 
itto have been originally buried, and brought to the surface of 
the earth by cultivation and the action of rains; that there is no 
tradition of its fall; and that no similar pieces have been found 
in the neighborhood. 

Its weight, when it was brought to the University, was about 
Sixty pounds. In shape, it represents a rude triangular pyramid, 
With its base and edges rounded, and its faces exposing many 
knobs and depressions. 

Most of the crust has been removed by the rough handling 
which it has received. The outer layers of what remains sepa- 
rate in thin scales of no regular shape ; the inner portions break 
into rhombohedral masses, which, under the influence of a mag- 
net, become permanently magnetic ; showing that the iron has 

ere been converted into magnetic oxyd. ‘The mass of iron ex- 
hibits no magnetism. 

In removing a slab, the iron was found to be remarkably tough 
and compact. The torn edges oxydized rapidly and developed 
the crystalline structure, before the application of acid; the oxy- 

lation proceeding inwardly from the edges and following the 
lines of cleavage first, and afterwards spreading over the inclosed 
areas. The sawn surfaces, after a few days exposure, were found 
bedewed with drops of a liquid, supposed to be chlorid of iron. 
After longer exposure, the exudation has ceased ; a point of strik- 
ing similarity with the Texas iron. The polished surface is uni- 
orm, without markings, and with few flaws. 

Hydrochloric acid, applied to the heated slab, attacks it, with 
rapid evolution of hydrogen bubbles, but develops only a 


332 J. £. Willet on Meteoric Iron from Georgia. 


of the larger bars; and the crystalline structure of the mass might 
be overlooked with the action of this acid alone. Nitric acid, 
however, brings out the Widmanstattian figures most beautifully. 
The etched surface is a perfect miniature copy of the Texan iron; 
the largest bars of the Putnam county iron corresponding with 
those of medium size in the Texas iron, and thence diminishing 
to bundles of striz hardly visible to the naked eye. The trian- 

les and parallelograms are proportionally small. Query: Are the 
crystalline figures of meteoric irons, in any degree, proportional 
to the meteoric masses? If so, may we not infer from the size 
of them, whether the iron be an entire mass, or a fragment of a 
large one? 
Neutral sulphate of copper produces no precipitate of metal on 
the iron; the slightest addition of acid causes the deposit of cop- 
per. Moreover, I find, that if the film of copper be wiped off as 
soon as formed, the sulphuric acid has etched out the figures su- 
perficially but very imperfectly. Liquid sulphuric acid, wher 
cold, has no effect upon the surface. ? 

In addition to the above description, I subjoin an interesting 
note from Prof. Shepard, containing an analysis of the 10n, 
which he has very kindly furnished at my request. 

“ Charleston, 8. C., February 10, 1854. 

My Dear Sir—In comparing the Putnam county meteoric iron with 
specimens from other localities, I notice a striking similarity 10 its 
structure to that of the Texan mass. Like it, your iron is compact, 


oO 
-_ 
ed 
Q 
= 
5 
oO 
n 
a 
a 
~ 
= 
i) 
a 
oO 
2 
Ss 
Qu 
- 
= 
oO 
“= 
Hy 
o 
ro 
a 
S 
gq 
i=} 
i] 
- 


into beads ortknobs. The pyrites in my specimens is scarcely | 
recognized, except in one or two very limited patches, which are irreg- 
ular and vein-like. : ‘ 
The iron appears to have suffered a very remarkable disintegrai 
to the depth of half an inch or more below the thick, scaly crust wil 
which the mass was coated; in consequence of which it cleaves be 
regularly, like the Cocke county, Tennessee iron, into tetrahedral 
rhomboidal fragments. 
The specific gravity of the fresh internal portions of the 
769. A single analysis gave me the following result: 
Tron, é ‘ ‘ 3 ‘ é < 89°52 
Nickel, with traces of cobait, - - + - 982 
Tin, phosphorus, sulphur, m gnesium and calcium, 1-66 
——— 


100-00 


mass is 


Very truly, yours aaa 
a Cuances Uran SaEPan: — 


R. P. Greg on a new Mineral. 333 


Art. XXXV.—On Conistonite, a new Mineral Species ; com- 
municated by R. P. Gree, F.G.S., of Norcliffe Hall, near 
Manchester. 


Mr. B. Wricut, a mineral dealer in Liverpool, forwarded me 
some months since, a specimen, found at the copper mine near 
Coniston in Cumberland, by Mr. Marrat, a teacher of Natural 
History in Liverpool. The specimen was of a urplish-red col- 
or, somewhat resembling earthy cobalt-bloom, and implanted on 
it were a few small crystals resembling calcite. ‘Thinking how- 
ever the form of these rather peculiar, on trial I found the usual 
cleavages of that mineral wanting; and its peculiar behavior be- 
fore the blowpipe soon convinced me that it must be a new spe- 
cies. I give the following general description : 

rgest crystals not more than one-eighth of an inch across, 
and in general form not unlike the double four-sided crystals of 
Edingtonite. Primitive form probably a right rhombic prism. 

0 cleavage observable. Fracture small conchoidal, uneven. 

ustre vitreous. Transparent to translucent; colorless. Slightly 
sectile. H.= 22. Sp. gr. = 2:05 


Rt M:M’= 97-05 
M:e = 122:50 
e:e = 9400 
Ae The faces M brighter and more distinct. 
than e. 


Does not effervesce in acids. Before the blowpipe becomes 
white and opaque, expanding into seven or eight times its original 
bulk, After exposure to heat almost instantaneously dissipated 
M acids, with strong effervescence. 

As yet only two specimens of this interesting mineral have 
been found. Ihave called it Conistonite from its having been 

tst discovered at Coniston. 

t is very probable that the matrix in which the erystals of 
Conistonite are imbedded, will itself prove to be a new miner 
species. Mr. Heddle supposes it to be oxalate of cobalt. 

T transmitted to my friend, Mr. M. Forster Heddle, of Edin- 
bed a few crystals of the Conistonite for analysis, which he 
kindly undertook to make; and he has sent me the following 
Particulars respecting it. 

a. “Sp. er., determined on 3-666 grs., found to be 2-052. 

6. Powdered mineral absorbs 23 per cent. of moisture. 

©. Soluble without effervescence in hydrochloric and _ nitric 
acids, and on addition of ammonia a precipitate is thrown down. 

- When heated gives off water and carbonic oxyd, and is 
*onverted into carbonates; and then effervesces in acids. 

Skoonp Sxxims, Vol, XVII, No. 51.—May, 1854. 43 


334 Notice of Dr. Hooker’s Flora of New Zealand. 


e. Qualitative sige bi made on a very ep sai gave 
Baiteatinbs of lime, magnesia, water and oxalic acid. 
Jf. Quantitative analysis made on 3°83 grs. : 
Carbonate of lime, sae = 
Water, nee eins { L 21055 
Carbonic oxyd, a 002) which ecm and Magness 822 {21 ur 
Daheanee of soda } corresponds + Oxalic a 28-017 
and magnesia in 1-400 to Fe ge . - 49°155 
aeaity equal 
quantities, 
: “99-049 9-04 
g. Uniting the soda and magnesia with the lime to calculate 
the formula, we get, 


Atom. 
Lime, to sa 21877 = Cee 
Oxalic acid, - a 98-017 = 622=1 
Water, - - - 49-155 = 4369 =7 
which gives 2 oe CaO, C:O:, 7HO; being an oxalate 
of lime with 7 atoms of water instead of one; or more probably 


oxalate of lime ith 6 atoms of water of crystallization, thus 

aO, C20s, HO+6HO; or 6a 67H 

h. The great interest of the mineral lies in the fact of the wa- 
ter of crystallization, rendering oxalate of lime dimorphous, the 
Whewellite of Brooke being oblique. 

It is curious that the specific gravity of Conistonite should be 
greater than Whewellite; we should have expected that the addi- 
tional HO would have lowered the gravity.” 


Art. XXXVI. — Introductory Essay, in Dr. Hooker’s Flora f 
New Zealand. 


(Concluded from p. 252.) 


Hysripization has been supposed by Any to be an important 
element in confusing and masking species. Botanists of one 
class are apt to refer to its agency the tii na 2 appearance 0 
a specimen which combines two nominal species, founded on 1n- 
constant characters. Another class of naturalists appeal to the 
Spores occurrence of fertile hybrids, to negative the eel 


ise unavoidable, that the production between two 
tale of inherently fertile offspring, is a good reasop for rae 4 
cing them identical in species. Any continued effects from hy or 
— in Broa uallen nature seem to be thoroughly jit iy 
ways; first by the constitutional debility if Pe é 
the variable sterility of the hybrid gy ge one it of 
uration ; and secondly, By the fact that, when prot 


sasg ee 


Notice of Dr. Hooker’s Flora of New Zealand. 335 


other of the parents, when the offspring reverts to that specific 
type. Dr. Hooker justly remarks, that, 
“Asa general rule, the-genera most easily hybridized in gardens 


are not those in which the species present the greatest difficulties. 


how many of the latter were fertile, and for how many generations 
they were propagated. The most satisfactory proof we can adduce, of 


Sextial, eir progeny is most likely to be originated from 
the conjunction of different trees, and individual peculiarities must 
thereby blended and obliterated. we consider 


or pine forest are fertilized by the pollen of another; when we 
take into view the great number of unisexual plants, and consider 


nature for limiting congenital or induced individual forms than 
Would at first appear. ‘That some such controlling or amalga- 
Mating agencies operate in nature may be inferred from a com- 
Patison of the general homogeneity of an indigenous species, over 
ven a large area, with the ready development of marked varie- 
'€S or races in the case of every cultivated plant which is mul- 
tiplied from seed, and their perpetuation from generation to gen- 
eration, which is almost always ensured merely by ene 


that an isolated race retains certain characteristics so long as kept 
Sparate is no proof that it constitutes a species. Many a variety 


Whatever individuals, however distinguished by minor differences — 


en separate, are found to blend into a fertile race when associ- 
ated, must on sound principles be regarded as belonging to one 


Species, Perhaps if zoologists would contemplate the wide varia- 


336 Notice of Dr. Hooker’s Flora of New Zealand. 


tions presented by many plants of indubitably one and the same 
species, and the still wider diversities of long cultivated races 
from an original stock, they would find more than one instructive 
parallel to the case of the longest-domesticated of all species, man. 

Let it also be especially noted, that varieties are not always, 
not even generally, the result of external agencies, at least of 
‘such as we are able to detect. Certain varieties of plants are so 
originated: these are generally as transient as the cause that pro- 
duces them, and under altered circumstances often disappear even, 
during the life of the individual: the plant may outgrow them. 


of a polymorphous plant such as a Coprosma, Metrosideros or 
Alseuosmia in New Zealand, and any difference of circumstances 
attributable to station ; still more so when these diversities occur 
side by side. Yet such are the varieties which ordinarily exhibit 
the greatest persistency, i.e. when kept from intermingling by 
mutual fecundation ha n 

least account for the origin of the race of «Dorking fowls, or 
Manx eats, or indeed of almost any of our domesticated races 
which were not produced by cross-breeding, that is by mingling 
the characters of two such races already in existence. Yet how 


brief, but very decided and remarkable. He has already declare 
in the previous section ‘that it is by far the smaller half of t 
vegetable kingdom that is confined to narrow geographical of 
climatic areas, and that very few plants indeed are absolutely 
local ; whilst the operations of the gardener and agriculturist prove 
a vast proportion of the plants of the two temperate geen 


to the distribution and variation of species, can have consid si 
a garden in a philosophical spirit, or have weighed such facts 


Notice of Dr. Hooker’s Flora of New Zealand. 337 


that there have been cultivated, within the last seventy years in 
the open air of England (at Kew), upwards of 20,000 species of 
plants from all quarters of the globe, and this within a space that, 
had it been left to nature, would not have contained 200 indige- 
nous species. The fact that an overwhelming proportion of 
these have come up true to their parent, and have continued so 
under every possible disadvantage of transportation and trans- 
plantation, of altered seasons, and amount and distribution of 
temperature and humidity, of unsuitable soil and exposure, and 
of the multitude of errors which unavoidable ignorance of their 
natural locality and habit engenders: such appears to me the 
most forcible argument in favor of the power of plants to retain 
their original characters under altered circumstances.” 

The validity of the last inference is unquestionable and valua- 
ble. As long as the plants survived, they doubtless retained their 
characters. But the value of the general statement, as respects 
its bearing upon the natural diffusion of species, depends much 
on the answer to the question, how long did the majority of the 
Species survive. We should like to know how large a propor- 
tion continued beyond the first two or three years, even with all 
the advantages of being looked after by the gardener. 

- But, returning to the general question, we remark, that there is 
little or no reason to expect a similarity between plants and ani- 
mals in this respect. From the nature of.the case we should 
Suppose that the latter, at least that land-animals, would be much 
more local than plants. 

€ give to our readers the whole of the third section; as 
some of the statemeuts, especially those that relate to the proba- 
ble number of vegetable species known, are likely to excite some 
surprise. 


their distribution : an extensive knowledge of the subject is only to be 

tained by actual observation over large areas, and many of them, or 
by the study and comparison of the contents of many museums. It 
ha ers . 


ing Species, which has always been a favorite pursuit of mine. I have 
further had the advantage of collating my results with the largest and 

€st-named botanical collections in the world, and have received a 
greater amount of assistance from my fellow naturalists than has fallen 
fo the lot of most: facts which in ordinary cases are the result of long 
Study and much consultation have been placed at my disposal rather 
than worked out by myself. A very extended examination of these 
‘Materials has only tended to confirm the view which originated in my 


338 Notice of Dr. Hooker’s Flora of New Zealand. 


personal experience, viz., that the estimate of the number of species 


known to botanists is a greatly exaggerated one,* and the prevalent 


ideas regarding their distribution no Tess contracte 
any more ‘plants are common to most countries than is supposed ; 

I have found 60 New Zealand Flowering plants and 9 Ferns to be Eu- 
ropean ones, bere inhabiting various intermediate countries ; and 
amongst the lower Orders we find a greatly increased proportion of 
species common e all countries: thus of Mosses alone 50 are found in 
New Zealand and Europe ;+ of Hepatice 13; of Algae 45 are also na- 
tives “ eeeee seas } of tri poe 60; and of Lichens 100. 


to Australia. The identity of many of these has ‘peated been 
collectors have greatly increased the ist. 


too aeolees idea that the tones of newly discovered, isolated, 
or little visited localities must nece arily be new, has been a fertile 


fore describing the plants from uel spots. The New Zealand Flora 
presents several instances of this; two conspicuo ous ones occur 1n the 
genus Ovalis ; one, O. Sphabitee is amongst the most widely diffused 


and variable plants j in the world; of its varieties no less than seven OF 
eight species have been made, iho ost of them supposed to be peculiar to 
New Zealand ; not only is O. corniculata hence excluded from the 
flora, but, ia the deieripiall of these its varieties, no allusion is made 
to that plant.§ In the case of the other species the error is more eX- 
* Se, to the se sa of compilers, 100,000 is ae fee received 
own plants: from a a icity of data I can e to no other con 
er th i 


r 
and varieties, all of which are catalogued as species in the ordinary works © 
ence whence such estimates are compiled. 


oO ritai i : 
tries, Cockburn Island, in lat. 64° 12’ S. and long. 64° 49’ W., nea’ - 
sedition. I thereon collected nineteen plants, of which three-fourths are natives 0° 


pendix to Flinders’s Voyage, vol. ii, 
at ive oe very confidently in the ay dy of this mpi that bee of ae 


cies s are all referable to on 

probeliy oot me , approbation of the local epee es will an "40 et ok 
ory. with w nich some states retain their characters under varied cae 
¥ aiue such facts very highly, and attach great weight to them, M 
. oe Soe Zealand I should perhaps have withheld so strong 0. a 
—— the sub ject ; h not th me ta varies much m aes: 
pst — rts of the world; and admitting, as eve — par varieties 

retain } or less constancy for certal 4 
some other evidence is necessary to shake the opinion of the botanist who grounds: 
his views on an reviniagtlon OF ag oem pee of the globe. 


ised 


Notice of Dr. Hooker’s Flora of New Zealand. 339 


usable, and may be still open to question ;* it is that of O. Magellan- 


still a third name, QO. dactea. In this case a more important fact was 
smothered than that of the distribution of O. corniculata, namely, that 
of a very peculiar plant of the south temperate zone being common to 
these three widely sundered localities. 

Many similar instances might be added, for there are several New 
Zealand plants (as Pieris aquilina) that have a different name in almost 
every country in the world: and, partly from changes in nomenclature, 

partly from the reduction of species, | have found myself obliged to 
quote 1500 names for the 720 New Zealand Flowering yess described ; 


obliged me to reduce the synonymy as much as a ia in many ca 
Se€8 {00 much, I fear, for the requirements of working botanists in 
rope. 


Eur 


One thing is clear, and important to be enforced: namely, that 
if determinations of species are to be of any value, especially in 
their bearing on general questions, they must rest solely upon 
observed characters of admitted value, irrespective of all theory. 
We pronounce such and such individuals, from a certain habitat, 
to belong to a distinct species, only because we find them pos- 
sessed of certain adequate distinctive marks. If we at length 
ascertain that particular species are peculiar to particular stations 
or parts of the world, we have a sound and valuable deduction. 

But to assume that certain plants, or certain animals, from widely 
sundered localities belong to different species, notwithstanding 
their resemblance, until the contrary is proved, and e 
hounce this as a principle for general adoption, as has ‘een done, 
is surely a gross instance of reasoning in a vicious cir 

We cannot pentite to condense, and therefore ian the 
Whole of § 4, viz. 


“ The distribution vie species has been effected by natural causes, but 
these are not necessarily the same as those to which they are now ex- 
osed, 


- OF all dhe branches of Botany there is none whose elucidation de- 
Mands much preparatory study, or so exten sive an acquaintance 
with plants and their affinities, as that of their geographical distribution. 
Nothin hin g is easier than to explain away all obscure phenomena of dis- 


* As no identification is proved till all the organs of the anes to be compared 
have been studi ed, there yet a possibility of these three species proving distinet, 
but I do “oa * all pei it; the only difference I can find is * greater re ag 

petals of a New Zealand species, but se 
much both in eis plant and in wets o of the genus that ‘loses all pei ale alue. 


340 Notice of Dr. Hooker's Flora of New Zealand. 


over run great risk of distortion in the hands of those who do not know 
the value of the evidence they afford. I have endeavored to enumer- 
ate the principal facts that appear to militate against the probability of 
the same species having ligt in more places (or centres) wit 
one ; but in so doing e only partially met the strongest argum 


how does it happen that Edwardsia grandiflora inhabits both New 
Zealand and South America? or Oxalis Magellanica both these local- 
ities and Tasmania? ‘The idea of span igir a by aerial or oceanic 
currents cannot be entertained, as the seeds of neither could stand ex- 
posure to the salt water, and they are er heavy to be borne in the air. 
Were these the only plants common to these uae sundered localities, 
the possibility of some exceptional mode of transport might be admit- 
ted by those disinclined to receive the doctrine of double centres; but 
the elucidation of the New Zealand Flora has brought up many sini r 
instances equally difficult to account for, and has developed innumera- 
ble collateral phenomena of equal importance, though not of so evident 
appreciation. Th re which all bear upon the same point, may be ar- 
i al as follows 
. Seventy-seven a iene are common to the three great pout oe 
ate masses of land, Tasmania, New Zealand, and South 
Comparatively few of these are universally disibted peta be 
the greater part being peculiar to the south temperate zo 
3. There are upwards of 100 genera, subgenera, or aye well- 
marked groups of plants entirely or nearly confined to New Zealand, 
Australia, e: extra- -tropical So ze America. These are represented 
y one or more species in tw more of these countries, and they 
thus effect a botanical ralaniaalip: or affinity between them all, which 
every botanist ie ene! es. 
4. 


ese three peculiarities are shared by all the islands in the south 
temperate zone aia luding even ‘Tristan d’Acunha, though placed so 
close to Africa), between which islands the transportation of seeds is 


even more unlikely than between Ai larger masses 0 
he plants of the Antarctic islands which are equally natives of 
New Zealand, Tasmania, and Australia, are almost invariably found 
only on the lofty mountains of these countries. 
Now as not only individual species, but groups i these, whether or 


ders, genera, or their subdivisions, are to a great degree distr yisled 
se la 


any other attribute of insularity, which indicates the nature of the vf 
culiarity of endemic species, The islands of each ocean ‘oe i 
i u 


others to the North Pacific ilsiate, others to those of the § en 
and others again to the Malayan Archipelago; just as there are 


Notice of Dr. Hooker’s Flora of New Zealand. 341 


others peculiar to the Antarctic islands, and many to New Zealand, 
Fuegia, and Tasmania. 

Each group of islands hence forms a botanical region, more or less 
definable by its plants as well as by its oceanic boundaries; precisely 
as a continuous area like Australia or South Africa does. There is 
however this difference, that whereas the Natural Orders that give a 


table kingdom one to another. It is not true in every sense that 
all existing nature appears to the naturalist as an harmonious whole ; 
each species combines by its own peculiarities two or more others more 


i 
just as the flora of an intermediate spot of land connects those of two 


as 
cles must hence create an hiatus in our systems, and I believe that it is 


— subject of their possible transport ; an the conviction was soon 
Orced i 


Where), there were such peculiarities in the plants so circumstanced, as 
fendered many of them the least likely of all to have availed them- 
selves of what possible chances of transport there may have been. As 
les they were either not so abundant in individuals, or not prolific 
®nough to have been the first to offer themselves for chance transport, 
oF their seeds presented no facilities for migration,* or were singularly 
Perishable from feeble vitality, soft or brittle integuments, the presence 
Oil that soon became rancid, or from having a fleshy albumen that 
Pt ig of the Composite, common to Lord Auckland’s Group, Fuegia, and Ker- 
with n's Land, none fave ats pappus (or seed-down) at all! of Ge ooe species 
none are m to two of these islands! 


common 
Stoonp Sznizs, Vol. XVII, No. 51.—May, 1854. 


342 Notice of Dr. Hooker's Flora of New Zealand. 


quickly decayed.* Added to the fact that of all the plants in the re- 
a. 2 ras of the Antarctic islands those common to any two of 
them e the zo unlikely of all to emigrate, and that there were 
plenty ot; species possessing unusual facilities, which had not availed 
themselves of them, there was another important point, namely, the 


to some prea where the available soil is pre-occupie 
yond the bare fact of he, difficulty of accounting by any other 
means for the presence of the same species in two of the islands, there 


missed it as a mere speculation which, till it gained some su 
philosophical principles, could only be regarded as shelving a "fic: 
ty; whilst the unstable doctrine, that would account for the creation 
each species on each island by progressive development on the spot, 
was contradicted by every fact. 

It was with these conclusions before me, that I was led to speculate 
on the possibility of the plants of the Southern Ocean being the Te 

ains o ra 


Antarctic genera and species may be the vestiges of a flora character 
ized by the predominance of plants which are now scattered throughout 
the southern islands. An allusion to these speculations was made 1? 


upon, and their resemblance to the summits of a submerged mountalo 
chain was pointed out; but beyond the facts that the general features 


intervening land, there was nothing i in the shape of evidence by pera 
my speculation could be suppor ned I am indebted to the invalua 
labors of Lyell and Darwin,+ for the facts that could alone have gi 


* Of the seeds sent to England from the Antarctic regions, or transported by my 
self between be several ar: almost all sabe ed during transmission. and Co- 
t Se s ‘Jo a Naturalist,’ ssays on Voleanic Islands 

The proofs of ves ame of Chal ad Patagonia ia having been 
cntontah , for several hundred miles, to elevations varying between 400 the first- 
mdr pe period of the sae ey of existing shells, will be found Xe ig 
acta pero lt nyo orks, which should be in the hands of ev: pit ex 

atura’ only from its sestainice important observations on pa 
sr et ted Nell ct a ed 
on tory of the Southern materials 
influenced and prone furthered Gv encgrees and I feel it the more necessary 


Notice of Dr. Hooker’s Flora of New Zealand. 343 


countenance to such an hypothesis; the one showing that the necessary 
sothe influence of climate in directing the migration of plants and 
t 


ideation: It follows from what is there shown, that a change in the 
Telative positions of sea and land has occurred to such an extent, since 


fe) 
(where land-shells, still existing in Italy, and which could not have 
crossed the Straits of Messina, are found imbedded on the flanks of 
Etna high above the oe —_— which Sir Charles Lyell states 
that most of the plan animals of rice ere are older than the 
mountains, plains, aa rivers they now inhab 
It was reserved for Professor Edward =e one of the most ac- 
complished naturalists of his day, to extend and enlarge these views, 
and to illustrate by their means the natural history of an extensive 
w 


ored to illustrate in this Essay. I know of no other way in w ih I can acknowl- 
edge the extent of my obligation to him, thar che adding that I should never have 
taken up the subject in its eet form, but for the advantages I have derived from 


harles Lyell’s works — Tam ee for the ae pies gi those 
es that are essential to of e 1 geolog 

mean, that affect the acute od exti neni dispersi and yoga uent Solston of 
organic mae 8 ~oeee though botanists. ane differ in opinion as as to the views he enter- 


n and ence of ies) 
there is, I thinks but one as to the is and originality _— = grea on 


: iven a di 
in this department, but for an example of oT . reasoning on the facts he has 
collected Peteniing the distin of plants and animals. I have no hesitation in 
recommending the ‘ Principles of Geology Pp tas Now Zonland student, of Samal 
poe ost important os aig 
ane of heen g 9, et 8p 702, and Address to the Geological So- 
. wine London by the Horner, Esq.), in 1847, p. 66. 


344 Notice of Dr. Hooker’s Flora of New Zealand. 


configuration of the land and seas of Northern Europe. The argu- 
ments which a. this theory are based upon evidence derived from 


feature 
The spastephiend distribution of British plants has been the subject 
of the most rigorous investigation by one of our ablest British botanists, 
. Wa atson, who first drew attention to the various botanical 


ae: Cybele esate vol. i, p. 18). ion 
tion of them shows the relations borne by the plants of England to 
those of certain —_— of Europe and ‘of the Arctic regions; and Pro- 


aaa a Saeivas association of Poon 
To extend a theoretical oe ‘of these views to the New Zea- 
land Flora, it is necessary fo assume that there was at one time @ land 


necessary to suppose that for this interchang e there was a continuous 


2) 
° 
iq») 
Cu. 
= 
= 
= 
wm 
Oo 
3 
@Q 
oO 
bee 
2 
oO 
2 
oO 
= 
ter] 
2 
"a 
oO 
° 
= 
3 
_) 
° 
3 
i 
~ 
3 
> 
“< 
= 
~ 
<2 
oO 
oO 
38 


was as yet above water.t To account, however, for the Antarctic 


* For the enn of the Essay eh - mae refer to the Records of the Geolog- 
ical Surve a _— at a vol. i, his is the _ original and able. essay 
ared o1 ibseri be to 


° rae * d 
tanical details. consider sti the mode of reasoning adopted is per ae gulf- 


versal application. What I dissent from most strongly is, the origi a 
ed, the ling of Scotch mountains by iceberg tran of seeds, and ne 
great stress laid upon the west Irish flora, whose peculiarities appear : 
1 ver-estimated., 
+ It may be well to state to the New oe a spe se are no reasons 
to suppose that Botany can ever be ex ct proof 0 of _— 


having survived geological changes of ee ~ —- ee eer fos gdes do; of 


ed, even w her to new, 

¢ This disappearance : ne aed cists Ps oe ee of i = flora and fauna pee | 
may be illustrated to a meen extent by the ‘delta of an ew Zealand 1 the 
— as 


ad 
ves gr on the 0 st land i it forms. The ee" pie 8 
of of the t bank (oth its mangroves) is cut off, and becomes an island: anaee —_ 
of the river wihisccoy filis up that between the islet and the opposite shore, on the 
. hence becomes a peninsula, peopl d by. mangroves, ioe ree grew | ‘lave 
bank. Hert bt emred no su bsidence is req such as must 
cparsied i in the assumed iso! i Benet 


Notice of Dr. Hooker's Flora of New Zealand. 345 


wy on the lofty mountains, a new set of influences is demanded ; 
nd 


have prevented it. But changes of relation erneee sea and land in- 


vegetation. ‘The retirement of the plants to in summit of the New 
Zealand mountains,* would be the necessary consequence of the ame- 
lioration of climate that followed the isolation of New Ze 2h and the 
replacement of the Antarctic continent by the present oc 

The climate throughout the south temperate zone is so e yoqudble, and 


Th he fires inference from such an hypothesis is that the Alpine plants 
of New Zealand, having survived the greatest changes, are its most 
ancient boloninte : and it is a most important one in many respects, but 
especially when considered with reference to the mountain floras of the 


With Sag oe © the British mountains, Professor Forbes imagines that they were 
with | 


itade, and ery slight gevlogical change aghiins: lower its mean temperature many 


+ The New Zealand naturalist has probably a very simple means of determining 
for hi whether his island has been subject to a geologically recent amelioration 
of climate ; to do which, let him examine the fiord-like bays of the west coast of 
he Middle Island, for evidence of the — which there exist in ne pane nten o 
having formerly descended lower than they now do. Glaciers to this day escend 
® the level of the sea in South nage : oo latitude of Dusky Bay; and if oad 
lave done so: in. the latter locality, the 1 have left abst Mg ‘the shape of 
‘moraines, and scratched and Mtished rocks. 


2 


346 Notice of Dr. Hooker's Flora of New Zealand. 


Pacific and southern me hominphere generally. These may be classed 
under three heads: 

1. Those that comet identical or representative species of the Ant- 
arctic Flora, and none that are peculiarly Arctic; as the Tasmanian 
and New Zealand aie 

2. Those that pie besides these, a of the Northern 
and Arctic Floras;¢ as the South American Alps. 

. Those that contain the peculiarities of neither; as the mountains 
of South Africa and the Pacific Islands 

We thus observe that the want of an Arctic or Antarctic Flora atall 
in the a islands, and the presence of an oe a one in the Ameri- 
can Alps, are the prominent features; and I s onfine my remarks 
upon these to the fact that, with regard to = ghee wi islands of the 
Pacific, they are situated in too warm a latitude to have had their tem- 


which many Antarctic ones may have anal northward to the 
equator 

There is still another point in connection with the subject of the rel- 
ative antiquity of plants, and in adducing it I must again refer to the 
‘Principles of Geology,’ where it is said, ‘Asa general rule, species 
common to many distant provinces, or those now found to inhabit many 


rv 
Physical Geography.’|| If this be true, it follows that, consistent with 
the theory of the antiquity of the Alpine flora of ealand, we 
should find amongst the plants common to New Zealand aa the Ant- 
arctic islands, some of the most oe ., and we do so in Montia 


* T need scarcely remind my reader in thus sketching the characteristics of 
these Alpine floras, I make no altel we exceptions that do not alter the main fea- 
tures. Iam far from asserting cr — are no peculiar Arctic or Antarctic forms 
in the Pacific —— nor = peculiarly arelis ones in Tasmania ew Zealand: 
but if, on the one hand, futu eiscoveries of such shall weaken the sale of differ- 

in regio 


ence between these ot 
strengthened by adducing ates nu eae of Arctic species common to the South Amer 


nD 

+ These Antarctic forms are ve' er numerous; familiar ones are Acena, Drapetes, 
Donatia, Gunnera, Oreomyrrhis nophora, Pumrk Ourisia, Fagus, Callexene, 
Astelia, i Alepyran Oreos Carpha, Uncinia, Fre 
Berberis, Sisymbri aspi, Arabis, Draba, —— Lychnis, Cerastium, pied 
garia, Lathyrus, Vicia, ‘pucks Chrysoplenium, Ribes, Sazxifraga, Valeriana, Aster, 
oe Te Primula, Anagallis, Pinguicula, Statice, Empetrum, Phleum, 
us. : 


these a forms have not extended into North America, as tH ead 
ve into merica, is a curious problem, and the only hypothesis pes 
suggests i derived fi mi the fact ¢ hough the P d rea 


. ; ien' 
tion that they ane ve had sufficient ‘altitude at a f er period, and that one 
which preceded the of the i nal ie er northern latitude. 


Notice of Dr. Hooker's Flora of New Zealand. 347 


fontana, comets verna, Cardamine hirsuta, Epilobium tetragonum, 


and many ot 


On the maa han it must be recollected that there are other causes 
besides antiquity and facility for migration, that determine the distribu- 
me Be : 


regards — the plants mentioned above seem wonderfully i in- 
different to its e 

Again, even shengh we may safely pronounce most species of ubiq- 

uitous plants to have outlived many geological changes, we may not 


rse the position, and assume local species to be a t the 
recently created ; for whether (as has been conjectured) species, like 
individuals, die out in the course of time, foll e inscruta 
law whose operations we have not yet traced, or wh (as in some 


instances we know to be the case) they are destroyed by natural causes 
(geological or others), they must in either case become scarce and lo- 
cal while they are in process of ne pees ee 

In the above speculative review of some of the causes which appear 
to affect the life and range of species in abe vegetable kingdom, I have 


eminent Ceres with those laws that govern animal life also; but 
there is nothing in what is assumed above, in favor of the antiquity of 
Species and their wide distribution, that is inconsistent with any theory 
js their origin that the g pogtnad may adopt. y object has not so 

h been to ascertain w ar or may not, have been the original 


not ear, D 
any means of knowing: if the expression of an opinion ps insisted on, 
Ishould be tid 6 follow the example of an eminent astronomer, 


wits Watson (Cybele Britannica) gives ed yes ihe of Callitriche in Britain alone 


mean nl ar ge of 40° to ascending hee ig level of 
Saret 2000 feet in the East Highlands of Scotland. ~ Mon 
os sa range of $ and mabey to 3300 feet seat 


sacs 
of 40° to 51°, and Sts to 2000 
Perature of f° 52°, and ascends to 3000 feet. 


348 Notice of Dr. Hoeker’s Flora of New Zealand. 


who, when the question was put to him, as to whether the planets are 
inhabited, replied that the earth was so, and left his querist to argue 
from analogy. So with regard to species, we know that they perish 
suddenly or gradually, without varying into other forms to take their 
place as species, from which established premiss the speculator may 
draw his own conclusions * , * . 4 


ture discoveries. I may add, that after twelve years’ devotion to the 

laborious accumulation and arrangement of facts in the field and closet, 

untrammelled by any theories to combat or vindicate, | have thought 

that I might bring forward the conclusions to which my studies have 

led me, with less chance of incurring such a reproach, than those 

would, who with far better abilities and judgment, have not had my e%- 
29 


perience and opportunities. 


one, and worthy of the most extended and critical examination. 
Its establishment, moreover, by satisfactory evidence, woul 
stroy one of the strongest grounds upon which the doctrine of 
the multiple origin of species (at least in the form maintained by 
Schouw) is supported. To complete the view, and fairly to exhibit 
the grounds upon which these theoretical conclusions are bas ’ 
we should embrace in our extracts a large part of the remaining 
chapter ; on the physiognomy and affinities of the New Zealand 
Flora, and on the variation of New Zealand species. But the 
necessary limits of our article forbid. A few facts regarding the 
more striking peculiarities of the New Zealand flora may be col 
lected. ‘The large proportion, both relatively and absolutely, of 
the Cryptogamia, and especially of Ferns, has already been noted. 
“ A paucity of Grasses, and absence of Leguminose, and abun- 
dance of bushes and Ferns, and a want of annual plants, are the 
prevalent features of the open country ; whilst the forests abou 
in Cryptogamia, in Phenogamic plants with obscure and green 
flowers, and very often of obscure and little known natural orders. 
the bi sa of natural orders of the Phanogaiaie plants 1s 
remarkably large In proportion to the genera, even for an “ 
flora ; being 92 to 282, or about one three: while the gener 


Notice of Dr. Hooker’s Flora of New Zealand. 349 


are to the species as 282 to 730, each genus having on the aver- 
age only 24 species: so that the species average but eight for 
each order. ‘This makes it one of the most difficult floras in the 
world for a beginner, who must know a natural order for every 
eight species. How recondite, vague, and unsatisfactory the nat- 
ural system of Botany must appear to the New Zealand student ! 


prominent features in the landscape. The Conifere prove to 
be the most prevalent family; but the majority of their species 
are not social but grow intermixed with the trees, soas to give no 
character to the landscape ;—a case just opposite to what occurs 
in the northern hemisphere, at least in North America, where the 
Species are few, but mostly social, and existing in a vast number 
of individuals, which often occupy considerable tracts almost 
exclusively, and thus strikingly impress their features upon the 
landscape. 


The number of kinds of trees is very large in proportion to 
the herbaceous plants; as there are 113 Phzenogamous trees, in- 
cluding shrubs above twenty feet high, or one-sixth of the flora, 
while in England there are not more than 35 native trees, in a 
much larver flora. 

Atemarkably large proportion of the Phenogamous flora of 
New Zealand consists of absolutely peculiar plants: of these 
there are 26 genera and 507 species; or more than two-thirds of 
the whole. The greater part of these are Exogens, Of the 
temaining third, consisting of plants common to New Zealand 
and other countries 

“193 species, or nearly one-fourth of the whole, are Australian. 

89 species, or nearly one-eighth of the whole, are South 
American, 
77 species, or nearly one-tenth of the whole, are common 
to both the above : 
60 species, or nearly one-twelvth of the whole, are European. 
Species, or nearly one-sixteenth of the whole, are An- 
tarctic Islands, Fuegian, &c.” 
These several elements in the New Zealand flora, whether as 
od by identical or cognate species, are in turn subjected 
'0 a critical analysis. The following extract, respecting the Aus- 
at element, is interesting from its direct bearing on the ques- 
lon of transport by water. 


“If the number of plants common to Australia and New Zealand is 
reat, and quite unaccountable for by transport, the absence of certain 
bf extensive groups of the former country is still more incompatible 
Tee theory of extensive migration by oceanic or aerial currents. 
desu is most conspicuous in the case of Eucalypti, and almost 


'Y Other genus of Myrtaceae, of the whole immense genus of . 
Szniss, Vol. XVII, No, 51.—May, 1854. Sings GOS 2 


il ag at Foc 
sr 


Te 


350 Notice of Dr. Hooker’s Flora of New Zealand. 


and of its numerous Australian congeners, with the single exception of 
Clianthus, of which there are but two known species, one in Australia, 
and the other in New Zealand and Norfolk Island. 

The rarity of Proteaceae, Rutacee, and Stylidee, and the absence of 
Casuarina and Caillitris, of any Goodenia but G. littoralis (equally 
found in South America), of Tremandrea, Dilleniacee, and of various 
genera of Monocotyledones, admit of no explanation consistent with 
migration over water having introduced more than a very few of the 
plants common to these tracts of Considering that Eucalypti 
form the most prevalent forest feature over the greater part of South 


inhabit New Zealand, none favor such a theory; one, Clianthus, I have 
just mentioned ; the second, Edwardsia, consists of one tree, identical 
with a Juan Fernandez and Chilian one, and unknown in New Hol- 
land ; and the third genus (Carmichelia) is quite peculiar, and consists 
of a few species feebly allied tosome New Holland plants, but exceed- 
ingly different in structure from any of that extensive Natural Order. 
Dr. Hooker then appends a carefully prepared table of 228 
phznogamous species which may be said to represent each other 
in two or all the three South temperate masses of land, viZ., New 
Zealand (including Auckland and Campbell’s Islands), Australia 
(including Tasmania), and extra-tropical South America, 
ding the Falkland Islands ; the list being confined to cases of 
real and usually very close botanical affinity, to the exclusion of 
analogical resemblances, however striking. The list is by no 
means overstrained, nor as full as it might be; since one oF two 
more good instances have occurred to our memory while looking 
over its columns. On comparing together the Australian i 
New Zealand columns, we find only fourteen blanks, not fille 
by known representative species ; a similar comparison of the 
New Zealand and South American columns shows forty-s 
blanks, sixteen of which are among the Endogens. —__ 
On fairly weighing all this testimony, the botanist will os 
h 


accede to our author’s conclusion,—viz., that the floras 0 


three great areas of land in southern latitudes ‘“ exhibit a e 
ical relationship as strong as that which prevails throughout de 

ands within the Arctic northern temperate zones : ich 8 
not to be accounted for by any theory of transport or of variali® of 


‘up by: 
A 


-T. S. Hunt on Algerite. 351 
Ant, XXXVII.—Remarks on the Mineral species Algerite ; by 
T. S. Honr. 


In this Journal for July, 1849, I published a description by 
Mr. Alger, of a mineral from Franklin, N. J., together with an 
analysis of it by myself, from which I was led to consider it a 
new species, and to give it the name of Algerite. It was again 
analyzed by Mr. R. Crossley, whose results will be found in this 
Journal for July, 1850. The mineral had been described as hav- 
ing the form of an oblique rhombic prism, M:M = 94°, but Mr. 
Dana has satisfied himself that the crystal is really a square prism. 
The hardness is 3-0—3-5 (Alger, Crossley); density 2.697— 
2712 (Hunt), 2:78 (Crossley). The mineral which is imbedded 
| 


Le 


in a white coarse-grained crystalline limestone, is subject to de- 
composition in the weathered portions of the rock, but as I stated 
in my paper, ‘ the crystals selected for analysis were hard, semi- 
translucent and undecomposed ; their powder when elutriated 
and carefully dried, was of a buff color, which was not changed 
by ignition.” Mr. Crossley remarks that in his case “many of 

_ the crystals were incrusted with idocrase, and in some instances 
penetrated so much that it required great caution to secure por- 
tions free from that mineral.” He rejected all decomposed por- 
ions, and analyzed only pure honey-yellow fragments. ‘The 
tesults of the two analyses are as follows : 


; Hunt. CrossLey. 
Silica, - - 49°82 . mM « 49°96 
lumina, - - 24°91 > - - 24-41 
Peroxyd of iron, = - 1:85 - - - 148 
Magnesia, - _ 115 ‘ : : 5:18 
zotash, : 10°21 . : . 9-97 

i; Soda, 

Carbonate of lime, - 3:94 . - - 421 
Water, “ - 157 - . . 5:06 
99°45 10027 


. 


A subsequent incomplete analysis gave me, Silica 49-42, alu- 
Mina 25-67, peroxyd of iron 1:93, carbonate of lime 3:57, water 


publ ished in the last volume of this Journal, of which see 


352 T. S. Hunt on Algerite. 


From the square form of the prism Mr. Dana has suggested 
that Algerite may be a result of-the alteration of scapolite from 
which species however it differs widely in composition; while 
the latter affords from 13 to 24 p. c. of lime, and from 
soda, Algerite contains neither lime nor soda, but 10 p. ec. of pot- 
ash, so that the change must have consisted in the removal of 
lime and soda, and the substitution of magnesia, water, and a 
large amount of potash, which reactions, especially the replace- 
ment of one alkali by another, seem very questionable. As scap- 
olite has not yet been found with this mineral, it would have 
been better to regard algerite as derived from the alteration of the 
associated idocrase, a process which presents less difficulty to the 
chemist than the other. It may fairly be questioned whether 
the extreme views maintained by some, with regard to the altera- 
tion of mineral species, do not tend to discourage mineralogical 
chemistry, and to embarrass the science with groundless hy- 
potheses. ; 

In support of the view that Algerite is an altered scapolite, 
Mr. J. D. Whitney has given at page 296 of this volume, the 
results of his examination of the mineral. He observes of the 
material selected for analysis, that “after the ignition it was noticed 
that portions of the ignited mineral remained nearly unaltered in 
appearance, while the larger part acquired a brick-red color, and 
on examination with the microscope was seen to contain smal 
silvery scales apparently of mica. As only a small quantity could 
be used for analysis, the results can be relied upon only as ap 
proximatively correct.” p. 208: He gives the following as the 
result of his analysis: Silica 52-09, alumina 18°63, phosphate of 
lime 8-22, carbonate of lime 4-41, water 6:68, loss, potash and 
soda? 9-97 = 100-00. | 

Had the analysis of such a compound agreed with my own, I 
might have had reason to doubt the results of Mr. Crossley and 
myself. Since reading Mr. Whitney’s remarks I have exam) 
several crystals of Algerite for phosphate of lime, by digesting 
their powder with heated hydrochloric acid, and testing the soln: 
tion with molybdate of ammonia; this delicate reagent indicated , 
the presence of traces only of phosphoric acid. The ‘apparently 
pure calcite in which the crystals are imbedded, gives a more G& 
cided reaction, and traces of this acid are seldom wanting eve? 


in feldspars and tourmalines. While, therefore, we do not qgtles- 


scapolite. urther examinations of the mineral may throw oe” 
light upon the variations in the proportions of water and magne>™™ 
Montreal, C. E., March 7th, 1854, re aie 


EL. Agassiz on Fishes of the Tennessee River. 353 


Arr. XXX VIIL.—WNobtice of a collection of Fishes from the south- 
ern bend of the Tennessee River, in the State of Alubama ; 
by L. Agassiz 

(Concluded from page 308.) 


CYPRINODONTS, Agass. —Only two species of this family 
have thus far been discovered in the waters of the ennessee 
River, and both of them have already been described by Dr. Sto- 
rer under the names of Pecilia catenata aud olivacea, Synopsis, 

-178. Having made lately however, a thorough revision of the 
getiera and species of this family found in the United States, I 
would remark that Pacilia cutenata, St., ought to be referred to 
the genus Hydrargyra, and that Pecilia olivacea belongs to my 

newly established genus Zyszonectes. ‘These species ought there- 

e to stand in future in our systematic catalogues under the 
names of Hydrargyra catenata, aud Zygonectes olivaceus.* 


CYPRINOIDS, Cuv.—This is one of the most interesting 
families of our fresh wraier fishes, both on account of the number 
of genera and species inhabiting our lakes and rivers, aud of the 
diversity of their forms and habits 


_Carrroves, Rafin.—In the great French Ichthyology, se 
ciennes has established a new genus me the name of Scler 
Snathus, for Lesnenr’s Catostomus cyprinus, and this genus aie 
deservedly been acknowledged by se tnathan writers. In con- 


* The species of the genus ee may be arranged int ups: 1, tho 
in which there are several m r less lationtty dotted line along the sides 
of the body, and in which a broad. blak band ples across the eye and cheek 
s cer 


te wit! i : ands 
Dark olive above, ied upon the sides, silvery y belo Operculum, throat, and 
space in advance of the eye light orange color. Mobile ee saslekneas Collected there 
with Dr. Nott, eeeipp! Col. Deas—Z. lineolatus, As ary Longitudinal line 
broader and undul ae or serrated, the tasers bands of the male Mae distinct 
and broader e, longitudinal ones. soharedy darker along the back 
and fading upon the side lower parts si irs “Dissoe red by Dr. W. I Burnett at 
Augusta, Ga.—Z. guttatu ie A large dark spot upon the centre of each scale 
on the back eo forming longitudinal rows of disconnected dots, The trans- 
‘Yerse bars of the males are much narrower and nearer together than in Z. Liwclaten, 
Dark olive ne fading upon the sides; abdomen silvery. Mobile, Alabama.—Z. 


= 
@ 


ede) the body, alt ing b ith continuous li the males, which 
re bes transversely barred, whilst the female has only continuous serrated line 
Upon the sides, Light olive above, silvery upon the sides and below. In small 
creeks » Louis, Mo., on the Illinois side of the Mississippi, and also in the Illi- 
Rois River at Beardstown.—Z. hierogl 8, Agass. erior and upper part of the 
Tay regularly sprinkled with dark spots, passing into longitudinal rows backwards 

olive above, silver ry upon the sides and below. Mobile, Alabama. 2. The 


Second group includes species with one tread A i black band extending from 
_ ‘he tip of the er ja w to rot pase passing thr ch the 
_ S¥es and along the sides of sis Sel To th group belongs 
 §Sove from the Tennessee River, and also Z. lateralis, Agass, w a 
ted species from Mobile, Alabama ; also dotted above the broad lateral 
no 


zonaius, A 8 has 
*k, and in which the outlines of the longitudinal band 


he 
coat 
5 
i) 
ei 
og 
74 
att 
=a 
ct 
er 
i=] 


- 


354 L. Agassiz on Fishes of the Tennessee River. 


sidering this type of Cyprinoids as a distinct group among the 
Catostomi, Rafinesque has however the priority over the able’ pro- 
fessor of the Jardin des Plantes; for we find in his Ichthyolo- 
gia Ohiensis that the third subgenus of Catostomus, which he 
calls Carpiodes, though not characterized with the precision with 
which Valenciennes has circumscribed his genus Sclerognathus, 
exactly corresponds to it. o not hesitate therefore to adopt 
Rafinesque’s name as the older; the more so, since this writer has 
at the same time wisely separated from the common Catostomi 
at that early day two other types of the same group, which are 
even now left among Catostomi by all ichthyologists. I allude 
to the subgenus Lctiobus, with Catostomus Bubalus as its type; 
and to the genus Cycleptus for the Missouri sucker ; for though 
Rafinesque did not himself examine this latter fish, and ascribes 
to it two dorsals, it must be evident to any one who has had 
an opportunity of investigating this rare species that the few 
words with which it is mentioned apply to it, and that the indi- 
cation of two dorsals is éasily explained by the very form of that 
fin, the anterior part of which rises like a separate fin in advance 
of the following low part which extends uniformly far behind. 
I should add that Catosiomus elongatus belongs also to this genus 
Cycleptus. As to Ictiobus, it resembles Carpiodes in external ap- 
pearance, but is at once distinguished by its thin lips and more 
terminal mouth.* Nothing is to be more regretted for the progress 
of Natural History in this country, than that Rafinesque did not 
put up somewhere a collection of all the genera and species he 
has established, with well authenticated labels, or that his cotem- 
poraries did not follow in his steps, or at least preserve the tradi- ~ 


those with whom he had intercourse by his innovations and that. 
they preferred to lean upon the authority of the great naturalists 
of the age then residing in Europe, who however knew little of 


somewhat hasty man who was living among them, and who 
collected a vast amount of information from all parts © 
States, upon a variety of objects then entirely new to science. 
From what I can learn of Rafinesque, and from a careful study 


* In connection with the genera mentioned above, I may remark here that Rafin- 
— has established another sub-genus under the name of Mozxostoma, which fully 
esery i isti j 


tostomus anisurus West, C. 8) i 
of the South. After acknowledging these alterations of the genus Catostomus, aa 
is now generally un ichthyologists, there would still remain a § 
ies to constitute the genus Catostomus proper of which C. hudsoni 
e rece ‘atostomus was ) ; considered kd ea 
freed of all unjustifiable additions engrafted upon it in course of time, the he 
tostomus would be restored to its primitive natural circumscription: 


ye 


inet a 


L. Agassiz on Fishes of the Tennessee River. 355 


of his works, I am satisfied that he was a better man than he ap- 
peared. His misfortune was his prurient desire for novelties, and 
his rashness in publishing them, and yet both in Europe and in 
America he has anticipated most of his cotemporaries in the dis- 
covery of new genera and species in those departments of science 
which he has cultivated most perseveringly, and it is but justice 
to restore them to him, whenever it can be done. Personal con- 
siderations should no longer be allowed to interfere with this late 
act of redress. May the example of Rafinesque not be lost for 
those naturalists in this country who describe new species with- 
out taking the least care to preserve the original specimens of 
their descriptions, or to circulate authentic ones among other nat- 
uralists, 


of Cyprinus described by Heckel; indeed they truly represent 
upon the Continent of North America the genus Cyprinus of the 
old world to which they bear the greatest resemblance in out- 
ward appearance, though they differ strikingly in their generic 
characters. I have applied to the new species here mentioned 
Names reminding us of the common name of Buffalo applied to 
all of them throughout the country. The large number of spe- 
Cimens including all sizes, which [ have been able to collect of 
Some species of this genus, has enabled me to ascertain the range 
of variation in their characters. 


1. Carpiodes Urus, Agass.—From the Tennessee River. It 
grows very large, weighing occasionally from 30 to 40 pounds. 
The body in this species is not so high as in C. Cyprinus, nor is 
it so compressed above ; the scales are also not so high, but more 
angular behind, and the anterior portion of the dorsal is not so 
elongated. The gill cover is larger, and the distance from the 
ind border of the eye to the inferior angle of the subopercle, 
Near the base of the pectorals, and the distance from the same 
point to the superior and posterior angle of the opercle, are nearly 
equal. In C. Cyprinus the distances differ by nearly one-third. 
The subopercle is not triangular, but its hind border is néarly 
tegularly arched from the upper angle to the posterior angle of 
the interopercle. ‘The anal has its posterior margin full, and not 
lunate; the caudal is not so deeply fureate as in C. Cyprinus. 
The ventrals do not reach the anal. All fins are of a dark color. 
Tam indebted to Dr. Newman for this species. 

_ 2. Carpiodes Taurus, Agass.—From Mobile River, Alabama. 
‘The form of the body is intermediate hetweeu that of C. Cypri- 


. 
=e 


an y! 
tus and C.-Urus. The gill cover has the same form as in — 


356 L. Agassiz on Fishes of the Tennessee River. 


C. Urus, but it is larger and more strongly arched behind. The 
hind margin of the scales is waving, owing to a somewhat prom- 
inent middle angle. The anterior rays of the dorsal equal in 
length two-thirds of that of the base of the fin. Anal not lunate 
behind. The veutrals do not reach to the anal opening. Cau- 
dal not so deeply furcate as in C. Cyprinus. 

3. Carpiodes Bison, Agass.—F'rom the Osage River, Missouri. 
This species is more elongated than C. Taurus. The head is 
smaller, the opercle also smaller, and the subopercle triangular. 
The dorsal has its anterior rays longer, hence its hinder border is 
more deeply emarginate. Aval more deeply Innate. Horizontal 
diameter of scales greater. I have received this species through 
the attention of Mr. George Stolley. 

4. Carpiodes Vitulus, Agass—From the Wabash River, Indi- 
ana. This seems to be a smaller species than the preceding ones. 
The form of the body resembles that of C. Taurus; but the eyes 
are smaller; the opercle is more broadly rounded behind; the 
subopercle has its posterior and free border regularly arched above 
and below, and not emarginate as in C. Taurus. The direction 
of the numerous water tubes on the head and cheeks also differ. 
The upper and lower borders of the scales are nearly straight. 
The dorsal does not extend quite so far forwards. I am indebted 
to Col. Richard Owen of New Harmony for this species. 

5. Carpiodes Vacca, Agass.—From the Susquehannah River. 
This species resembles more closely C. Cyprinus than any other ; 
the anterior rays of the dorsal are also very elongated, yet they 
do not reach beyond the base of the fin itself when bent back- 
wards; the candal is not so deeply furcate, and the scales have a 
greater horizontal diameter. I owe this species to the kindness 
of Professor 8. S. Haldeman. 

Carosromus, Lesweur.—The following species of this genus 
have been collected by Dr. Newman in the vicinity of Huntsville: 

Calostomus communis, Lesueur.—Called Fine-scaled Sucker 
at Huntsville, 

sae nigricans, Lesueur.—Called Hog Sucker at Hunts- 
ville. 

Catostomus Duquesnii, Lesueur.—Called May Sucker at 
Huntsville. 

Catostomus melanops, Kirtl—Also called May Sucker at 
Huntsville. This species agrees with Kirtland’s description of 
C. melanops, except in having longer pectorals and in the reddi 
color along the sides. Rafinesque’s description cannot apply '0 
this fish. “Having no specimens from the localities mentioned by 
Rafinesque and Kirtland, I do not venture to pursue furtber 4 
comparison between these fishes. agers 
nse, em cid 

€ Superior,” page 353. Several new species have b 3 


L. Agassiz on Fishes of the Tennessee River. 357 


ee since by Prof. Baird and myself.* te Newman has sent 
another undescribed species, which I call 

inichthys obtusus, Agass.—Body cylindrical, slightly com- 
pressed, more blunt than in Rh. marmoratus. The mouth ex- 
tends but little beyond the margin of the upper jaw; lower jaw 
strongly arched from side to side. Eyes rather large and nearer 
the end of the snout than the posterior angle of the opercle. 
Dorsal exactly intermediate between the ventrals and the anal, 
quadrangular, its last rays about two-thirds the length of the fish, 
so that when the fin is folded backwards their ends meet. Pec- 
torals broadly rounded behind ; do not reach the base of the ven- 
tals, Caudal not very deeply fureate ; its lobes are broad, rather 
than slender, the lower lobe is senerally a little the longer. The 
color of the ‘body i is dark chocolate above, and of a silvery white 
below; these two colors are separated by a longitudinal band of 
a darker color than the back, extending from the end of the snout 
through the eye in a direct line along the sides to the middle of 
the base of the caudal. The whole dorsal region is mottled with 
black blotches, sometimes running together “and forming large 
patches, and often descending to the lighter portion of the sides. 
Scales rather small. Called Minnow at Huntsville. Found in 
the Spring branch. 


_Cuonprostoma, Agass.—This genus was established by me in 
1834 in the Mémoires de la Société des Sc. Nat. de Neuchatel, 
for the Cyprinus Nasus of Europe, and has been adopted with 
Various modifications by subsequent writers. Thus far no repre- 
sentative of this type had been known to exist in North America, 
though the species I now refer to it here, has been described for 
sometime by Dr. D. H. Storer; but having been referred to the 
senus Leuciscus, to which C. Nasus was also referred formerly, 
it has not been distinguished from the ordinary Leucisci. I nee 
only allude to it for “the present.t Other species occur in the 
tesh waters of the Pacific coast of North America. Hzoglossum 
dubium, Kirtl. , may belong to this genus. 

SS iedristoma prolicum, Agass.—Leuciscus prolixus, Storer, 
Synops., page 165. Called Minnow at Huntsville. Found in the 
Spring branch. 

* Lam indebted for another new species of this genus to Dr. I. H. Rauch, of Bur- 
lington, Towa, _— I would call R. —— Ag. It is go tages lag short noe] stout 
a i ts congeneric types, also smaller. The whole bo yi is dotted bbe 3 
= ad a Wirary ground, the dots got confluent; the belly only is plain sil. 

+1 ow S spoter entirely new species * this genus to Dr. I. H. Rauch, o of Bur- 
lington, Tos Towa; which I inscribe as Ch. pu lum, se a is the smallest species of ne 


8enus; much ere than the others in compari © its length; head es 
Small, eee indicating isiinet generic ectliagition oe which I am however una- 
ae enquire from want of a sufficient number of specimens. This ef a 


18 of a peculiar deep but dull green, darker above, passing into yellowish white 
Szcoxp Srnres, Vol. XVII, No. 51.—May, 1854. 46 


358 L. Agassiz on Fishes of the Tennessee River. 


Hysoprsts,* Agass.—So little attention has thus far been paid to 
the generic differences existing between the American Cyprinoids 
that it is not surprising to find several yet unnoticed. Among 
others I mention here a new type remarkable for its slender elon- 
gated form, its long head, its obtuse prominent snout, its inferior 
mouth and the advanced position of the anal. This genus is 
founded upon a small species from Huntsville. Leuciscus Sto- 
rerianus, Kirtland, which 1 have however not examined in na- 
ture, may be another species. 

Hybopsis gracilis, Agass.—Body much elongated and slightly 
compressed; head long, equalling nearly one-fourth the entire 
length of the fish. The snout is very short and broadly rounded ; 
the nostrils are large, above the middle line of the eye and nearer 
the end of the snout than the centre of the eye. The eyes are 
very large in proportion to the size and width of the head; the 
horizontal diameter which is slightly the longest, equals one-third 
the length of the head, their upper edge is on a line with the top 
of the head, the lower edge with the anterior edge of the mter- 
maxillaries and the extremity of the upper maxillaries reaches 
the line of their anterior border. The fins are all long an 
pointed. The pectorals are low down on the sides and reach the 
base of the ventrals. The hinder base of the dorsal is midway 
between the end of the snont and the extremity of the tail. 
The height of the dorsal is one-third greater than the length of 
the base; the second and the third rays longest ; number total of 
rays 8, and two united as one for the last ray of the fin. e 
base of the ventrals is below the anterior part of the dorsal ; their 
extremities reach nearly to the anal fin. The distance of the 
anal from the base of the tail is equal to twice the length of its 
own base. ‘Ihe anal is like the dorsal in form, but smaller, num 
ber of rays 7, with a last double ray. Caudal long, deeply fur- 
cate, the lobes being slender and pointed. 

Curosomus, Rafin.—The fish for which Rafinesque es ablished 
this group in his genus Luxilus, well deserves to be considered as 

* While these pages were setting in type, I have dee another pretty species 

i I. H. Ra 


uch, from Burling? 
make some additions 


fashion of Catostomus, so much so that had I not had ample opportunity te on 
ine young Catostomi, and to study the changes they undergo with age, might ver 
is f i enus. Moreo 


that gel } 
the lips are not swollen nor thickened. The pharyngeal teeth differ also ep 


in each main row, and one or two in a second row.” was thy geet 
is new species differs from that of Huntsville, by its smaller size, its 
pointed snout and the P pelea coloration. A deep black marrow band exten f the 
the neck to the base of the caudal along the whole back, dividing in advance of © 
niting a ind it upo’ 


wey 
color and a deeper rose-colored spot upon the base of the first ray of 
shall call this species H. dorsalis, Ag. 


id 


L. Agassiz on Fishes of the Tennessee River. 359 


a distinct genus, as it stands very isolated among the other Amer- 
n0ids. It may be considered as corresponding upon 


FE: 


differs however by the continuous lateral line and the shorter 
lower jaw. es has given it a very appropriate specific 
name, calling i 

Chrosomus seca Raf.—It is one of the prettiest po 
water fishes of North America, varying greatly with age an 
different periods of the year. It remains yet to be i eer 
whether the specimens from the Tennessee River are strictly 
identical with those from the Ohio River. I have received speci- 
mens from the Osage River, from Mr. G. Stolley, which differ 
— in having deeper colors and a somewhat elongated 
‘orm. 


Stix, DeKay.—In his Natural History of New York, DeKay 
has established this genus for the Cyprinus chrysoleucos of 
Mitchell. Without a thorough revision of the many new gevera 
of Cyprinoids established by Heckel and Prince Canino, for 

Which I have not the necessary materials on hand, I am unable to 
decide whether DeKay’s genus may stand or not. "So much how- 
€ver is certain, that Storer’ s Leuciscus obesus from Florence, 
Alabama, which has also been obtained in the vicinity of Hunts- 
ville a8 Dr. Newman, also belongs to iad genus. Abramis versi- 


ing the form of Abramis elongatus, and other elongated 
Species of that genus with hihi small anal, and the 
Prominent lower jaw of Alburn 

Stilbe obesus, Agass. ae obesus, Storer, Synopsis, p. 
166. Called Hickory or Gizzard Shad at Huntsville. 


Hypsoteris, Baird.—This genus was established for those 
Species of Leuciscus the body of which is compressed and cov- 
ered with high short scales. ‘Leuciscus cornutus may be consid- 
ered as its ty pe. My Leuciscus frontalis from Lake Superior, is 
another species of this genus. To it belongs also Dr. Storer’s 

iscus gibbosus from Florence, Alabama, ‘which has also been 
found about Huntsville, by Dr. Newman. 


Aypsolepis gibbosus, Agass.—Leuciscus gibbosus, Storer, Sy- 
mp page 166. Called Siiver.sides at Punteville. 
Lever iscus, Cuv.—One species from Huntsville, the same 


| which Dr. Storer has described from Florence, Alabama, under 
the hame of 
euciscus croceus, Stor., Synop., p. 165. 


360 L. Agassiz on Fishes of the Tennessee River. 


SAUROIDS, Agass.—Before I began to collect the materials 
for a monograph of the genus Lepidosteus, I had no idea of the 
wide geographical range of this type in North America. Indeed 
our ichthyological works mention only Lake Huron, Lake Erie 
and Lake Champlain in the North, the Ohio and Mississippi in 
the West, and 8. Carolina and Florida in the South, as its home, 
and the whole number of species described, even including all 
those of Rafinesque without questioning the validity of any of 
them, does not exceed nine or ten. Yet I have now, in my own 
collection, not less than twenty-two well characterized species of 
the genus, and I have ascertained its existence in all the water 
systems of the South from Florida to Texas, in the Mississippi 
and all its larger tributaries up to the latitude of Lake Superior, 
where it does not however occur, in all the lower great Canadian 
Lakes, and in the St. Lawrence. Also in those river and Lakes 
of western New York which empty into the waters of the St. 

awrence ; in those of western Pennsylvania emptying into the 
Ohio, and in all the Atlantic rivers, from the Chesapeake Bay to 
Florida; leaving only the New England States East of Lake 
Champlain without any of its representatives. Poey describes 
also one species from Cuba. It seems however to be wanting 
west of the Rocky Mountains and in Central America. The 
species sent me by Dr. Newman from Huntsville, agrees with 
Rafinesque’s : 

Lepidosteus platostomus.—It differs however from the species 
described under the same name by DeKay from Florida, the 
original specimen of which I have examined myself. Its name 
at Huntsville is Gar. 


species as L. huronensis; this differs however widely from the 
southern ZL. osseus and from Rafinesque’s L. oryurus from ? ; 
Ohio River. I shall take an early opportunity of describing all 
the species I know of this genus and settling as far as possible 
their complicated synonymy. 


L, Agassiz on Fishes of the Tennessee River. 361 


C@LACANTHS, Agass.—Until an extensive and minute 
comparison of all the representatives of the genus Amia from 
different parts of the United States can be made tovascertain the 
true value upon which the different species described by Rich- 
ardson, De Kay and Valenciennes, are founded, it may be sufficient 
to mention here the existence of that genus in the waters of the 
Tennessee under the name of 

Amia calva, L, which has long been considered and may in 
reality be the only one of the genus. It is known at Huntsville 
under the name of Scaly Cat and Carp. Found in Mill ponds. 


SILUROIDS, Cuv.—Two species of this very natural family 
have been sent to me from Huntsville by Dr. Newman. 

Pimelodus cerulescens, Rafin.—Channel Cat. Grows very 
large and weighs occasionally over one hundred pounds. 

Pimelodus Catus, Lin.—Several species are confounded under 
this name ; but it is impossible to characterize them without en- 
tering into details which would be out of place in this short no- 
tice. Called Mud Cat at Huntsville. 


STURIONES, Cuv.—Two species of Sturgeons occur in the 
Tennessee, specimens of which I have received from Dr. New- 
man. 


Acipenser rubricundus, Lesueur. 
Acipenser maculosus, Lesueur. 

These two species have been considered as synonymous b 
Some ichthyologists. It is true that the young A. rubicundus 
like all young Sturgeons are more or less maculate, and yet there 
are so many other differences between the two specimens I have 
before me, which are nearly of the same size, that I can hardly 
consider them as identical. ‘The whole genus requires a thorough 
revision and would be an interesting subject for a monograph. 

here are some genera of North American fresh-water fishes 
the absence of which surprises me in the collection sent by Dr. 
ewman, and mention them with the view of calling attention 


- 88 specimens of the Salmon? JLabrar, known everywhere as 

White Perch. The presence of the genus Perca seems more 
doubtful. Chatessus, generally known as Hickory or Gizzard 
Shad. I fancy that the Stilbe obesus mentioned above, was mis- 
taken for a small specimen of this type. Hyodon, known as 
Toothed Herring. Anguilla, the Eel. Lota, known as Barbot 
or Relpout. The genus Pogostoma, of Rafinesque, is evidently 
Synonymous with Lota. Polyodon, known as Shovelbill, and 
Petromyzon, the Lamper-eel. I should also expect a long-billed 


362 LL. Agassiz on Fishes of the Tennessee River. 


oa 


everywhere together in the West. 

If the study of the geographical distribution of animals is ever 
to furnish us any indications respecting the circumstances under 
which organized beings were created, we must, in investigating 
it, turn our attention particularly to those facts which disclose 
differences of structure in connection with the special localization 
of the different representatives of each family within their natu- 
ral boundaries. For years I have been collecting diligently all 
the data within my reach bearing upon this question, and from 
the results of this enquiry already in my possession, Iam satisfied 
that the day is not far distant when we shall know with sufficient 
precision where all the living beings now existing upon earth 
have made their first appearance. ‘This must of course be the 
first step towards a deeper insight into the conditions of that or- 
gin itself. 

In connection with this train of thoughts it is interesting to 
notice how much different families of animals vary from eact 
other in the most prominent features of their geographical distri- 
bution. There are those the representatives of which are almost 
uniformally distributed over the whole range of their natural 


species of Lepidosteus, for the two types of this genus occur 
t 


me is the case with the family of Esoces, which has howevera 
much greater number of species in the fresh waters of North 
America. So are also the Sturgeons, with this difference, that 
upon the continent of America two peculiar genera, Scaphirhyn- 
chus and Polyodon, are added, which have no representatives in 
the old world. The Percoids however present very different 
combinations: some types are common to North America, Europe 
and Northern Asia, as the genera Perea, Lucioperca and Labrax, 
with this difference however, that North America has many fresh 
water representatives of the genus Labrax which are wanting 1p 
the old world; other types are only to be found either 10 North 
America or in the old world,—for instance Grystes, Centrarchus, 
Pomoxis, Amploplites, Calliurus, Pomotis, have no representatives 
in Europe where we find in their stead the genera Aspro and 
Acerina; the balance being in favor of North America as si 
the number and diversity of the fresh-water types of this family 
is concerned, whilst the old world has many more and more Ce 
versified marine representatives. ‘The family of Cyprino™ 

g with that of the Percoids in the features of its geograph 
cal distribution; the types peculiar to each side of the Atlantic 
being however more equally distributed, for whilst in the © 
world we find the genera Cyprinus, Barbus, Tinca, Cobitis, Pele- 
cus, Aspius, Rhodeus, Phoxinus, North America has 1s 


* 


L. Agassiz on Fishes of the Tennessee River. 363 


piodes, Ictiobus, Cycleptus, Catostomus, Rhinichthys, Chrosomus, 
Hypsolepis, Hybopsis which are foreign to the old world, and 
they share together the genera Alburnus, Chondrostoma, Leucis- 
cus, &c., still, with this difference, that the true Leucisci are far 
more numerous in the old world than in North America. In the 
family of Cyprinodonts we find exactly the reverse, there being 
in North America a much greater diversity and a larger number 
of representatives of this type than in the old world. ‘The case is 
still different with the family of the Etheostomoids ; which are 
altogether peculiar to North America, not a single species being 
known in the old world. The family of Ccelacanths is also en- 
tirely foreign to the old world, whilst the Sauroids are represented 
y one genus, Polypterus in the old world and by another, Lepi- 
dosteus in America. The Scienoids differ in another respect : 
whilst these fishes inhabit exclusively the sea in the old world, 
there are in North America besides many marine representatives, 
a number of fresh-water species constituting a distinct genus, Am- 
odon. Again the family of Siluroids, is represented by a great 
Variety of species in North America, and on a few in the 
old world. Similar facts might be mentioned of other families, 
but this may be sufficient to show how important it is to combine 
the study of the modifications of the structure of animals with 
that of their geographical distribution. 

For it is not the presence here or there of this or that species 
of any genus, or family or higher group which I would particu- 
larly consider in the study of the geographical distribution of 
organized beings, but the localization upon certain parts of the 
Surface of the globe of special modifications of definite types 
representing each a distinct idea, expressed in a variety of living 
orms and combined in various ways in time and space. 

There is another point of view of equal interest in this con- 
ection ; the mode of association of different families in different 
Parts of the world. It is a fact for instance that the Goniodonts 
are limited to South America, and that this family, which is en- 
tirely wanting in the old world, has no nearer relative than that ge- 
hus of Sturgeons peculiar to North America, the Scaphirhynehus. 
Again, whilst the families mentioned above as characteristic of 
the North American fresh-water fish fauna seem to be equally 
distributed over the surface of this vast continent, there is yeta 
Specia adaptation of some of their types to peculiar localities. 
The great similarity of their representatives throughout the 
Southern Atlantic States, the Gulf States and the Mississippi 
Valley, as high up as the Ohio, including even Lake Champlain, 

€s not extend to the New England States, which although en- 
circled by this uniform combination of fresh-water animals, have 


another zoological character, peculiar to itself, aud approximating 


Rore to that of the old world under the same cl 


364 L. Agassiz on Fishes of the Tennessee River. 


than the western and_southern parts of the Union. In this iso- 
tated region of North America, in this zoological island of New 
England, as we may well callit, we find neither Lepidosteus, nor 
Amia, nor Polyodon, nor Amblodon, nor Grystes, nor Centrar- 
chus, nor Pomoxis, nor Ambloplites, nor Calliurus, nor Carpiodes, 
nor Hyodon, nor indeed any of the characteristic forms of North 
American fresh-water fishes, so common everywhere else, with 
the exception of two Pomotis, one Boleosoma, and a few Catos- 
tomus. The study of these features is of the greatest importance, 
inasmuch as it may eventually lead to a better understanding of 
the intentions implied in this seemingly arbitrary distribution of 
animal life. 

Before closing this notice I would remark that there is still 
another very interesting problem respecting the geographical dis- 
tribution of our fresh-water animals, which may be solved by 
the further investigation of the fishes of the ‘Tennessee River. 
This water course, taking the Powells, Clinch and Holston Riv- 
ers as its head waters, arises from the mountains of Virginia 10 
latitude 37°, it then flows S. W. to latitude 34°-25, when it turns 
W. and N. W., and finally empties into the Ohio under the same 
latitude as its sources in 37°. The question now is this: Are 


chief condition of the geographical distribution of our fresh-water 
fi 


o they differ in different stations along its course! 
and if so, are the differences mainly controlled by the elevation 
of the river above the level of the sea, or determined by climatic 
influences corresponding te differences of latitude? We should 
assume that the first alternative was true if the fishes of the upper 
course of the river differed from those of the middle and lower 
course in the same manner as in the Danube, from its source '0 

esth, where this stream flows nearly for its whole length under 


the same parallel. We would on the contrary suppose the secont 
bserved 


circumstances upon the surface of the globe. Nothing, however, 
short of such collections, compared closely with ove ane 
will furnish a reliable answer. I know already from a mere 
alogue of the vernacular names of the fishes from the vicinlt 
Jonesboro, sent me by Dr. Cunningham, and from a few ve 
mens collected by Prof. Erni, late of Knoxville, that the fishes 
the upper and lower course of the Tennessee differ greatly from 


y of 


Additional Notes on the Holconoti. 365 


each other, without being able to tell exactly how, from want of 
specimens, ‘l’o set this question completely at rest, it would be 
best to obtain callections from the different tributaries of the Ten- 
nessee, as well as from the main stream, one from the Powells, 
one from the Clinch, one from the Holston, one from the French 
Broad, &c., and from the main river, one from the vicinity of 
Washington, Tenn., or from Chattanooga, another from Florence, 
(the Muscle Shoal being the point, as I am informed by Dr. 
Newman, above which fish do not migrate in the Tennessee, ) 
and another anywhere above its junction with the Ohio, perhaps 
best about Reynoldsburg, at some distance from the Ohio. Who- 
ever will accomplish this survey will have made a highly val- 
uable contribution to our knowledge. 


Appennix.— Additional Notes on the Holconoti. 


Havine lately received a large number of specimens of Holco- 
nott, from California, through the kindness of my friend, T. G. 
Cary, Esq., of San Francisco, Lavail myself of this opportunity to 
make several additions to my first notice of that remarkable family. 
As I had anticipated, the uumber of species belonging to it is rap- 
idly increasing. I have now no less than six distinct species before 
me, presenting even a far wider range of differeuces than I was 
prepared to find among them, which has led me to establish several 
hew genera, besides E:mbiotoca. Respecting the family characters, 
I have to add that there is another space deprived of scales, extend- 
mg along the middle line of the belly, from the sides of the ventrals 
to the base of the anal, undoubtedly a provision to facilitate the 
dilatation of the abdominal cavity during the growth of the aston- 
‘shingly large young of these fishes. It is rather surprising, how- 


Mammalia. Nevertheless the males and females differ widely 
rom one another, in each of the four species of which I have 
thus far been able to obtain both sexes. Thiscircumstance adds 
Steatly to the difficulty of distinguishing and characterizing the 
Pecies. ‘Ihe males are uniformly smaller than the females, con- 
trary to what has been observed in the genus Peeilia, in which 
the males ( Mollinesia) and the females ( Pacilia) differ so much 
48 to have been considered as distinct genera, but agreeing in this 
fespect with my genus Heterandria, in which the males are also 
Smaller than the females. ‘The difference consists chiefly in the 
Peculiar form of the anterior part of the anal in the males, which 
sembles somewhat that of the male of Mallotus villosus, being 
mote rigid and more expanded than in the females. The jaws — 
“f€ more or less protractile. Air bladder large and sim In 
Stoop Seams, Vol. XVII, No. 51.—May, 1854. | : 


366 Additional Notes on the Holconoti. 


males the sexual apertnre is at the sommit of a projecting conical 
ila. The genus E’mbiotoca as first established, does vot re- 
quire modifications ; I have only to add a new species to it, and 
to mention some features by which it differs from the following 
genera: he spinous portion of tne dorsal is uniformly low, so 
that the soft portion rises abruptly to a much greater height; the 
atterior articulated rays of the anal simple and not branching at 
their extremity. In the male the anterior articulated rays of the 
anal are swollen near their base, forming a continuons longitudi- 
nal ridge on each side of the fin. This ridge is variously modified 
in the different species. The jaws are moderately protractile; 
the lower lip is fixed by a frennm to the symphysis of the lower 
maxillaries, and not free and moveable all round the jaw. The 
young of the third new species of this genus resembles exactly 
those of the two formerly described, but differ remarkably from 
those of another species belonging to a new genus whick I shall 
mention below, thus showing that there are generic modifications 
in the growth of the young, thongh the mode of reproduction Is 
exactly the same in all. In Embiotoca proper, the yonng resem- 
ble most remarkably the mother, about the time of their escape 
from their confinement, except in color ; in addition to the pecu- 
liarities described in my former paper, I would mention a large 
black diffused spot upon the anterior part of the soft portion of 
the dorsal and of the anal, which is found in the young ol all 
three species of this genus, whilst ZB. Caryi alone shows signs 
of it when full grown. 'The male papilla is rather large. 
E'mbiotoca Caryi.—1 possess the most complete series of this 
species, for besides two pregnant females with young ready to 
escape, caught in July, I have males and females of various s1Zes 
caught in January ; at this period the marsupial sac is reduced to 
a fusiform tube, extending from the sexual aperture to the an- 
terior extremity of the air bladder, but the state of preservation 
of the intestines did not allow a minnte examination of its sine 
ture. The male, which is more elongated than the female, has 
also much brighter colors: the longitndinal and transverse bands 
of the body are more distinct, the black specks upon, the soft 
dorsal and the anal are more brilliant, and the cheeks, opercule, 
jaws and chin are adorned with bright blue blotches more OF less 
e~nfluent ; the ground color of the body seems to vary from 
olive on the back toa yellow-orange upon the sides. see 
_ Embiotoca Jacksoni—The form of the male does not differ 
quite as much from that of the female in this species, a8 1) a 
preceding, though it is also slightly narrower. ‘The color, as 
as I can jndge from alcoholic specimens, is of a deeper olive 
green, whilst the female is more yellowish. in ay 
: jotoca lateralis, Agass.—Resembles closely E. Jackson! 
general form and appearance, but seems to bring forth its you?’ 


Additional Notes on the Holconoti. 367 


at an earlier period, for among several specimens caught in July, 
only one was full of young, and that was a younger specimen. 
The body is dark olive above ; sides with alternate silver-gray 
and rusty bands; fins brown. In younger specimens the longi- 
tudinal bands are more yellow, and the fins also yellowish. 


Ruacocuitus, Agass.—In this genus the vertical fins have the 
same structure as in Embiotoca and the sexes differ in the same 
manner ; but the jaws are very protractile, almost as in our south- 
eri Paxhnolainitis and the lips very fleshy, the lower lip especially 
broad, lobed and have their outer margin free from the jaw bone 
all. round, and not attached by a frenum to the chin, as in Embi- 
_ otoca and Amphistichus. Teeth few and only in front of the 
jaws, and none on the sides. ‘The body is also more elongated. 
The young differ widely from those of the preceding genns : 
their form is more elongated, the caudal remarkably large and 
long and truncate at its extremity, whilst it is forked in Embi- 
otoca : and the extremities of the dorsal and anal aie beyond 
the base of the ca audal, whilst in Embiotoca the not even 
Teach it; finally there is no black speck upon ph Sed the dorsal 


Rhacochilus toxotes, Agass.—Color uniform olive above ; sides 
silvery with light longitudinal bands; female darker than male; 
vertical fins and ventrals dark; male blackish upon opercule an 
Cheeks. Female with mature young in July. 


Ampuisticuus, Ayass.—The spinous rays of the dorsal shorter 
than the soft rays, but gradually iuecreasing in length, so that the 
soft portion of the fin does not rise abruptly higher than the 
Spinous portion, though the anterior soft Aes sare the longest of the 

i. Articulated rays of the anal all divided, and not simple i in front 
48 in Embiotoca, nevertheless the fin is separated into an anterior 
and a posterior portion, by the introduction in the male of a short 
flat-triangular ray, which produces a deep emargination in the 
outline of the fin, and in the female by the presence of two or 

Aree articulated rays of equal length with the others but much 
stouter and oftener divided. In the male the anterior rays are 
Swollen as in Embiotoca and Rhacochilus. Papilla of the males 


Young have not been observed, the specimens obtained having 
been ¢ caught in January. 

Amphistichus argenteus, Agass.—Bluish gray above, sides sil- 
very with occasional indistinct and irregular transverse bands of 
live color. Vertical fius yellowish. 

_ Hotconotus, Agass.—Dorsal long, and lowest behind, its si. 
nous rays being the longest; the anterior and posterior honed 


368 Additional Notes 6n the Holconoti. 


this fin are not separated by a depression, but its outline descends 
reguiarly from the fourth or fifth anterior spinous rays to the 
o0sterior extremity. Structure of the anal the same as in Am- 
phistichus but proportionally longer; the sexes differing also in 
the same manner. Young not known, the female obtamed hav- 
ing been canght in January. Jaws very slightly protractile, lower 
jaw projecting ; two rows of teeth in the upper jaw only. Lips 
not fleshy ; lower lip free all round. 

Holconotus rhodoterus, Agass.—Bluish gray above, silvery upon 
the sides with rose colored spots in irregular longitudinal lines; 
vertical fins, especially the caudal, reddish. 

I have just been informed (February 28th) that the California 
Academy of Natural Sciences claims for Dr. W..P. Gibbons the 
discovery of the viviparous fishes upon which I had established 
the family Holconoti and the genus Embiotora ; but upon what 
ground [ am not informed. This is a question in which [ am 
entirely disinterested, having thus far been only the historian of 
the discovery and the biographer and godfather of the fishes. 
Dates and reference to other publications which may have been 
made in California, will easily settle the question of priority which 
as far as the discovery of the viviparity of these fishes 1s cole 


I learn also, from the same quarter, that Dr. Gibbons has 


The knowledge of this curions family is likely to lead to many 
other interesting disclosnres. Dr. ‘Thom. H. Webb, one of = 
scientific corps of the Mexican Boundary Line Commission, has 
sent me under date of Dec. 9th, 1853, the following abstract ee 
his diary, dated San Diego, May 3, 1852: “Capt. Otunger, . 

the U. 8. Revenue service, caused his seine to be drawn for Us 
to-day. Caught many Tiger and Shovel-nose sharks, two floun- 
ders, . . . also a number of small fish, about two or bly 
song, each, of which contained ten or twelve living youns. | 


quite a number of them alive, in a vessel of water, for some ys 
In the mother they were not, so to speak indiscriminately hue 
dled together, but methodically arranged, and so placed in re 
to each other as to form a compact series, without the loss of 1° 
terstitial space, in other words, so disposed as to best accommon™ 
the family. On leaving San Diego, I took extra pains to P) 


Dr. Wyman on the Surinam Toad. 3 3BA9 


specimens of this fish, but these special efforts proved an injury,” 
&c. We may therefore confidently look forward for some new 
type of viviparous fish from San Diego. Mr. Wm. Couper of 
Toronto, Canada, writes me also that an intelligent young man 
residing in Buffalo, New York, obtained some fish taken at Black 
Rock, in which a number of young were found enclosed in a 
pouch attached to or near the back bone, resembling the parent 
in form. May this not be some Cyprinodent? Iam inclined to 
believe it, since I have of late ascertained that many of our rep- 
resentatives of that family, if not all, bring forth living young, 
though these are very small at the time of their birt 

That among our Sharks the Dogfish (Acanthias americanus, 
St.), is viviparous, has long been known. So is also Mustelus 
Canis, Mitch. But Mr. Thayer S. Abert, of the U. 8. Engineers, 
informs me that the Stingray of the coast of North Carolina also 
brings forth living young. ‘This would be, as far as I know, the 

tst example of a viviparous species in the family of Rays. 


& 


Arr. XX X1X.— Observations on the Development of the “ Suri- 
nam T'oad” (Pipa Americana); by Jerrries Wyman, M.D. 


(Presented to the Boston Society of Natural History.) 


‘Tue specimens upon which the following observations were 
made, were obtained by Dr. Francis W. Craigin, U. S. Consul, 
to whom the Society has been so frequently indebted for his gen- 
erons and munificent contributions to its cabinet, of zoological col- 
lections from South America. ‘The habits of these extraordinary 
animals during the reproductive season are well known. The 
eggs are transferred by the male to the back of the female, to 
Which they adhere, and where they are impregnated ; their pres- 
ence excites increased activity in the skin, it thickens, is gradu- 
ally built up around each egg which it at length nearly encloses 
in a well-defined pouch; this process of investment has been 
compared by J. Miller and others to the inclusion of the mam- 
miferous ovum by the deciduous membrane of the uterus. The 
Opening which is left after the pouch is formed, is at length closed 
up by an operculum, and thus the egg is shut off from all direct 
Communication with the air. 

Of the eight specimens which I have examined, two were desti- 
tute of eggs in the back, and the skin of these presented a uniform 
surface throughout covered, as is usual, with conical papilla. One 

them I ascertained by dissection to be a female, the ovaries 
being well filled with eggs. In the backs of all of the others, ova 
existed in different stages of development, the number of egg- 


Saes varying in different specimens from forty to 


370 Dr. Wyman on the Surinam Toad. 


fourteen. The structure of the sac may be understood from an 
inspection of fig. 1, which represents a magnified vertical sec- 
tion through the whole thickness of the skin: a@ represents the 
operculum, 6 the epidermis, ec dermis or true skin, aud d the 
yelk with its embryo. The sacs are at variable distances from 
each other, sometimes so closely approximated that the interven- 
ing integument is reduced to the thickness of a piece of paper. 
The operculum adheres to the circumference of the mouth, and 
there is usually found just beneath it a layer of gelatinous matter 
which is continuous, in some instances at least, around the whole 
circuinference of the egg. The structure of the operculum as 
seen beneath the microscope was not homogeneous, but seemed 
to be composed of ill-defined fibres, not unlike those of the white 
element of areolar tissue, and there were intermixed with them 
granules of pigment. The interior of the pouch was covered by 
a layer of pavement epithelium, continuous at the orifice with the 
cuticle covering the surface of the body; it was easily detached, 
and its cells were nucleated and contained colored granules. Be- 
neath the skin there exists over the whole back a large cavity, as 
in Frogs, but unlike the one in them no nerves were seen pass- 
ing through it, in the region of the spine, to the integuments. 

‘he eggs are quite remarkable when compared with those of 
other Batrachians for their great size, the yelk alone measuring 
oue-fourth of an inch in diameter. In almost every instance, 00 
removing the operculum, the embryo, however small, was ound 
just beneath it, and thus occupying a position on the yelk which 
had the nearest proximity to the air. 

In the earlier stages, as seen in fig. 2, the head is broad and 
flat, the cerebral vesicles are easily detected, the lateral portions 
not having united on the median line; the eyes were prominent 

i 2. 3. 


portion of the trank, but the legs consisted of oval masses entirel 
disconnected with the parts surrounding the vertebral colum®, 
and seemed to have an independent centre of growth, aud 


earlier spect 


t 


did not bud out from the trunk. In all of. 


Dr. Wyman on the Surinam Toad. 371 


mens three branchial appendages were visible on each side of the 

ad. The general aspect of the embryo, as it lies extended on 
the surface of the yelk, reminds us of the larval condition of 
Salamanders and Tritons. The vitelline vessels communicated 
with the trank hy means of two afferrent vessels on each side of 
the head, and several efferrent ones on the sides of the trunk. 

In a later stage as exhibited in another series of embryos (fig. 
3), the external branchize had disappeared, the legs (a) now uni- 
ted with the trunk. were terminated by an expanded extremity, 
the rudiment of a foot; the ventral lamine: as represented by the 
dotted line extended farther down upon the yelk, but still this 
last was to a great extent uncovered ; the nostrils were visible as 
round terminal depressions, but it was not ascertained if they 
communicated with the mouth. A small branchial fissure was 

tected on each side of the neck, and within this, as was shown 

by slitting open the mouth and cesophagus, there existed on each 
side a series of fringed branchial arches. 
- The most extraordiuary feature however of this stage was the 
peculiar change going on in the yelk mass; the whole of the yelk 
sibstance was nioulded into a spiral coil, fig. 3, and invested with 
a thin tunic, and thus converted at once into a spiral intestinal 
canal, the coils of which extend from the sides of the trunk to 
the most prominent portion of the yelk, and there changing di- 
fection and occupying the axis of the coil the intestine passes 
back again towards the trunk. The whole yelk-mass is, therefore 
Moulded into a spiral intestine. 


In the most advanced stages which were examined (figs. 4 
-and 5) the ventral Jaminz had almost entirely included the intes- 
tinal canal as seen in fig. 5; the papille and rows of tubercles 
Upon the skin were developed, the intestine had increased in 
length, and the extremities had become elongated and were pro- 
Vided with well defined toes. The legs were folded against the 
Sides of the body, usually one towards the back and the other 
towards the abdomen, and the tail which had become proportion- 

& 


372 Dr. Wyman on the Surinam Toad. 


ally much atin was folded against the side and directed towards 
he head. The mouth as in the preceding instances, was not 
terminal, but jenodea a little on the under side of the head. 

When the most advanced ova are compared with those whieh 
had made the least progress, as will be seen by reference to figs. 
2 and 4, which are proportionally magnified representations, it 1s 
ane obvious that in the later periods, the mass of the embryo 

s much greater than that of the yelk and the embryo of the ear- 
tier This increase as shown by weight was found as follows :— 
the embryo represented by fig. 2 weighed 2-95 grains, and that 
by fig. 5, 3°37 grains. It is not improbable that if earlier and 
later periods had been compared, the difference would have been 

sull greater. 

In none of the instances which fell under my notice had the 
final metamorphosis taken place. But Bonnet, Dumeril and oth- 
ers have observed that the tadpole remains in the dermal sac un- 
til its limbs are perfectly formed and the tail has been absorbed, 
until in truth it arrives at the same stage reached by the common 
toad, when having finished its aquatic life to which it is no lon- 

er ada ted, it leaves the ere and seeks its livelihood in a more 
congenial manner on the lat 


Remarks.—In addition to the unusual circumstances under 
which these animals are developed, it will be seen that they are 
objects of especial interest in connection with the general subject 
of the development of Batsachian reptiles. 'The first peculiarity 
which may be noticed is as to the period at which the arms ai 
egs make their appearance. ‘The tadpoles of frogs and toads ac- 
quire a comparatively advanced — of development before any 
traces whatever of limbs are seen ; they leave the egg, cies) of 


sides of the Mbaiinareae ‘The Bg in of the limbs, independ: 


Pa Pairs the vertebral “axis, goes to show rh whatever 
view we may adopt, with regard to the homology of legs, the 
Pest included, they are something superadded to it and not 
volved from it, or any of its processes. I have ascertained by 
direc observation, that even among Frogs, the legs which ap] 
of the tail, in the form of small papille, are prima- 
fily tegumentary growths, that beneath these there 1s developed 
a cartilaginous plate which gradually extends upwards on each 
side until it meets with the transverse processes of the verteb bral 
pe itary with which it becomes permanently connected U 
the form of the pelvis, and at the same time the papillee lee are de- 


Dr. Wyman on the Surinam Toad. 373 


veloped into limbs with their contained bones; thus the pelvis 
which in the adult seems to be an appendage to the vertebral col- 
umn, is in the embryo an ee structure, just as the tooth 
is primarily independent of the ja In this mode of the devel- 
opment of the legs, we havea anieatie analogy to the perma- 
nent constitution of the same parts in Fishes, in which the ven- 
tral fins are never connected with the vertebral column by their 


pelvic bones, these being confined to the abdominal surface of the 
- body. 


The complete development of the tail, adapted to swimming, 
is under the circumstances worthy of attention. In the ordinary 
Ranide the phases of development are in accordance with the pe- 
culiar conditions under which the earlier periods of life are pass- 
ed; their habits are not only wholly aquatic, but they have many 
of the anatomical and physiological sin of fishes, among 
which may be mentioned the existence of branchie, for aquatic 
respiration, and a broad and scien tail for aquatic locomo- 
me on. The embryos of Pipe differ from those of other allied 

ra, in passing through all of theirembryonic phases in closed 
hae sacks, where they neither breathe by the action of aquatic 
currents, nor are capable of executing the ordinary locomotive 
movements ; yet the external branchize are developed, disappear 
and are replaced by internal branchiee, and these in turn by lungs ; 
the tail also acquires its full dev velopment with swimming adapta- 
tions, in the form of muscles and folds’ of skin, as in other tad- 
poles, and after having existed for a certain period, is removed by 
absorption, without having been even once made use of as a lo- 
comotive organ. It appears that in this particular instance the 
exigencies of embryonic life do not require the existence of a 
tail for the purposes of locomotion, and its presence seems to be 
accounted for only on the supposition of the existence of a pre- 
established plan according to which Batrachians generally are 
éveloped, and this plan is adhered to, although the organ may 
Hot be used or not used in the same way as in the. other species, 
It is possible that the materials of the tail serve as a store of nu- 
tritive RPeianess shapee this seems scarcely probable ; but even 
if this be the case, it is none the less a fact that the part assumes 
a “sd the adapatons of which have reference to a function 
wholly differen 

As regards i existence of branchiz, I have observed an anal- 
0gons instance in the embryos of Salamandra gre baie where 
these organs are developed externally, though the eggs are depos- 
i under a log, and the auimal is not aquatic at any hs of 


The only other subject to which it is proposed to refer, is the 
oh of the embryo, by which there is formed at the end of ineu- 
a larger mass than existed in the egg when it commenced, 

Stconp Serius, Vol. XVII, No. 51.—May, 1854. 


374 Dr. Burnett on the Renal Organs of the Vertebrata 


This increase in bulk could have -been effected in no other 
way than by an absorption of materials furnished by the dermal 
sac, since the existence of an operculum would prevent the en- 
trance of nutritive matter from without. The gelatinous matter 
which originally surrounded the egg, may have contributed some- 
thing, but still there is growth after this has disappeared. It 
seems highly probable, therefore, that the walls of the, pouch se- 
erete the necessary additional quantity to supply all that is re- 
quired for development. In so far as observation has extended, 
this is a solitary instance among Batrachians if not among Rep- 
tiles generally in which the embryo is nourished at the expense 
of materials derived from the parent 


Eanes 


Arr. XL.—Researches on the Development and intimate Struc- 
ture of the Renal Organs of the four Classes of the Verle 
brata ; by W. 1. Burnett, M.D., Boston. 

Tere are two facts strikingly indicative of the importance of 
the urinary organs in all the higher forms of animal life. 
are: first, their widely distributed presence; and second, 
early appearance in developing embryonic forms; I might, iI 
haps, add as a third fact, that their functional activity Js usually 
in pretty exact ratio with the grade of organization. sill 

Throughout the higher classes of the Invertebrata,* and nae 
the Vertebrata, these organs are present, and their functional re 
lations quite prominent ; it is only in the lower classes of nine hs 
imal kingdom, where there is an absence or incompleteness © : 

in which, as also ip 
ns Stated eon ko eee 
function, and are often of a complex structure. See Comparative Anatomy, ™ ’ 

bold and Stannius, transl. &e. by Burnett, vol. i, $8 223, 265, 288, 814, 345 


Dr. Burnett on the Renal Organs of the Vertebrata. 375 


true circulatory system distinct by itself, that these structures are 
wanting. The kidneys are organs inseparably connected wit 
an important blood-function, and in the Vertebrata where the 
conditions of organization rest upon an active and widely distrib- 
uted circulation, they possess determinate anatomical and physio- 
logical characteristics, and may therefore form the subject of a 
distinct and complete investigation. 

n this account, I limit myself in the present paper to an ex- 
amination of these organs as observed in the four grand classes 
of Vertebrata: Fishes, Reptiles, Birds, and Mammals,—and by 
the terms Urinary Organs, | mean those both of a transient and 
a permanent nature—the Wolffian bodies of most embryos, as 
well as the true kidneys of all adults. 

I have lately enjoyed excellent opportunities for the study of 
the development and intimate structure of these glandular organs ; 
and their apparent peculiarities, as observed in the four different 
Classes, require the detail I have given, in order to convey a clear 
idea of what may be called the formula of their organization. 
I say formula, for the intimate organic structure of a urinary 
organ wherever observed among the Vertebrata, is invariably the 
Same; the variations being only apparent and extrinsic, and due 
to the many modes of combination of a single individual structure. 

As before mentioned, the Renal organs appear under two forms 
viz.: the Embryonic, or the so-called Wolffian Bodies, and the 
Permanent or true Kidneys. 


I. Wolffian Bodies. 


To the physiologist it is a beautiful and suggestive fact, not 

unfrequently observed in embryological studies, that nature some- 
imes puts up a temporary, provisional structure, for the perform- 

ance of an important function, until the conditions of the general 
Organization shall be so far advanced that there can be formed a 
Permanent organ of a certain type, belonging to the animal as 
Such, and which persists through its entire life. Such a fact is 
Presented by the Wolffian bodies. : 
_ In the higher forms of organization, the blood, directly upon 
i$ active circulation, seems to require some means for the remo- 
val from it of certain effete particles, and to effect this a delicate, 
transient structure is erected, to remain only until a permanent 
She in the shape of a true kidney can be formed. 

These temporary kidneys are found in the embryos of all the 
Vertebrata, excepting the Fishes and the Amphibian Reptiles; 
that is, in the true Reptiles, the Birds, and the Mammals. The 

sth of time they persist is, in general, in an inverse ratio to 
the grade of the animal; in fact, this law of gradation seems so 
Marked, that there would at first seem some ground for the opin- 
ion that in the Amphibia and the Fishes, which have only per- 


376 Dr. Burnett on the Renal Organs of the Vertebrata, 


manent renal organs, these last may be only persistent Woiffian 
bodies, but this point will receive our attention at a future time. 

Wherever occurring, these Wolffian bodies present the same 
unvarying form and type of structure; their mode of develop- 
ment [ have found to be equally invariable, whether occurring in 
Reptiles, Birds, or Mammals. They always make their appear- 
ance during the very earliest phases of development of the em- 

ryo, and, with the neg te of the heart, are the first organs 
formed in the abdominal ca 

As I have studied these liens of development in Birds more 
earefully than in the other classes, [ will describe them as ob- 
served in the chick; and this description wiil include what belongs 
to these organs in Reptiles and Mammalia, in all their essential 
details. 

In the Chick, there appears, at about the fiftieth (50th) hour of 
incubation, a bitte on each side of, and lying close to, the vertebra 
column; this line extends from near the region of the heart to 
the caudal vertebrae, and is composed of a collection of nucleated 
cells which soon beeome arranged so as to forma tnbe; this tube 
is the basis of the future Wolffian body. At this stage of devel- 
opment there is observed, then, a simple tube on each side of 
the vertebral column ; but a few hours nlite the surface of the 
tube becomes nodulated at regular intervals on its inner surface. 
These nodulations are the beginnings of a series of eversions 
from the main tube which soon therefore ape a digitated appear- 

ance—each of the finger-like prolongations being a future urinif- 

erous tube. These prolongations having been formed from with- 

out inwards, the original tube, which now has become a common 

se lies upon the external side, aud the former overlap the ver- 
al column. 

This formation of tubes by deverticula from a main one, con- 
stitutes the first phase in the development of this organ as a coml- 

und structure. - The second phase is the formation of a direct 
connection between the blood-vessels and these near pie 
tubes, so that an eliminating function may b rformed. This 
occurs at about the sixtieth (G0th) or sixty-fifth (65th) hout of 
incubation. At this time, the free extremities of some, but not 
all, of the newly-formed tubes become enlarged aud dilated into an 
infundibuliform body which, together with its attached tube, te 
sembles a flask with a very long neck. Jn this dilated extremity 
of the tube, a knot of blood-vessels is formed anew from epit 
lial cells ; ‘this ones in a manner so beautiful that I digress here 
for its more careful descr 

This infundibuliforn or teed end of the tube is nothing but 
the tube at this point taking on a little on proms - jt is there- 
fore lined, like the tube itself, with a layer of epithelial 
These cells, by a more or less linear arrangement, form form a 


Dr. Burnett on the Renal Organs of the Vertebrata. 377 


convoluted tube enclosing in its calibre smaller cells; this tnbe is 
the future blood-vessel which connects afierwards with the blood- 
vessels of the general circulation, and then the enclosed smaller 
epithelial cells become blood-corpuscles. ‘This convoluted blood- 
vessel is the so-called Malpighian tuft, or the Glomerulus, and is 
the functional or active structure of the organ. 

rief but comprehensive description of the structure of the 
Wolffian body would then be: a straight, main duct into which 
empty many digitiform tubes, the capsular dilatations of the free 
ends of which contain each a knot of blood-vessels. In the 
same way, I might describe the method of its function, as: the 
straining off from the blood, through this knot of vessels, those 
effete particles which as a whole form the uritiary excretion of 
the embryo. A structure more simple cannot easily be conceived 
of, yet its function is most effectual, for although thus quickly 
formed, we shall soon Jearn that both the structure and function 
of the complex permanent kidney rest upon precisely the same 
primitive types. 

‘These temporary kidneys, thus formed, which have, as before 
remarked, exactly the same structure wherever found, have a du- 
ration varying in the different classes, which stands in an inverse 
ratio to the grade of the animal. b 

In the true Reptiles, and in Birds, they persist as active func- 


tional organs during a considerable portion of the embryonic life ; 


dependent, vitelline life; thus, in the chick the kidneys assnme 
the urinary excretion at about the tenth (10th) day, yet the ves- 
tiges of those bodies may often be observed after hatching; and 
in the Alligator, I have seen, even four or five months after the 
animal had escaped the egg, the remains of these organs so well 
preserved that the Malpighian bodies were distinct in them. But 
in the Mammalia, where their existence as active parts is very 
brief, in fact so limited that it is difficult to observe them ina 
State of functional activity, they are correspondingly soon ab- 
sorbed, and although these remains are observed more or less dis- 
tinctly after birth in some species, yet, generally, they have 
Mostly passed away by the latter half of the intra-uterine life.* 


* Miller, (Physiologie, transl. by Jourdan, &c., Deux. éd. Paris, 1851, ii, p. 760, 

. C. 5.) bas gi g Wolffian body in 

& human foetus of 84 inches. As is well known, there may be observed during the 
t months of the human feetus, or even after birth, peculiar canaliculi situated in 
the n tube. They form the s ed or- 

of Rosenmiiller (De ovariis embryonum, Leipzig, 1501), and are probably the 
i olffian bod th inanti ipeda, and Suina, there are 


378 Dr. Burnett on the Renal Organs of the Vertebrata. 


As I have shown elsewhere,* the receptacle of this urinary ex- 
cretion of the Wolffian bodies is the Allantois, which, as I have 
described in the paper referred to, is at first, properly nothing but 
their receptacular appendix—the excretory ducts terminating in 
it below. 

In conclusion, I may remark that the Wolffian bodies are tran- 
sient in all their relations; they subserve nothing for the forma- 
tion of the permanent organs that succeed them—being every 
way distinct structures; and the testicles or ovaries which are 
first observed on their bodies, have no other relation with the part 
on which they rest except that of mere contact. 

But before leaving this section of the subject, I think it neces- 
sary to explain one point which otherwise might seem assumed 
on too little authority. I refer to the statement I have already 
made that the Wolffian Bodies are absent in the Amphibian Rep- 
tiles. This, as is well known to physiologists, is directly opp 
to the views of Miiller, and therefore demands here a special ref- 


erence. 

Among Miiller’s earliest anatomical publications, upon the for- 
mation of glandular structures and particularly those of the genl- 
tal apparatus, he pointed out and gave a careful descriptiont of 
what he regarded as a new structure in the embryos of Amphibia. 
Up to this time, the so-called Wolffian bodies had not been 0 
served by Meckel, and Rathke, who had specially studied them, 
in either the Fishes or the Amphibian Reptiles,—and these new- 
ly-discovered structures Miller regarded as a peculiar form of the 
Wolffian bodies. He described them as two organs situated, one 
on each side of the vertebral column, directly under the branchie 
of the larve of Batrachians, and from which proceeds a duct that 
runs along the side of the vertebral column and opens, finally, into 
the lower portion of the intestinal canal. 

But the presence of these organs, thus carefully described and 
especially by so excellent an authority, has not been acceded to 
by all, although by most, subsequent microscopical anatomusts it 
membrane and the muscular tunic of the vagina, and open, at last, near the urea 

y ; imordial Nieren, 10- 


view 


a paper, On the ai tio 
Amer. Acad. of Arts and Sciences, Boston, for October, 1852. his 
+ J. Miller, Bildungsgeschichte der Genitalien, Dusseldorff, 1830. See an 
De Glandularum secernenti ura penitiori earumque prima formatione, 1830, 
D . éd. Paris, 1851, 


r e lum. struct 
p- — xii, and his Physiologie, transl. by Jourdan, &e., Deux 
p. 758. 
¢ Among those who have followed Miiller, may be mentioned H. Meckel, (2% 
Morphologie die Harn—und Geschlechtswerkzeuge der Wirbelthiere, Halle, 15% 


and Reichert, (Das Entwickelungsleben im Wirbelthier-Reich, 1840, p- 26). = 


Dr. Burneti on the Renal Organs of the Vertebrata. 379 


at least that they are distinct organs as independent of the per- 
manent kidneys or as the ordinary Wolffian bodies of Birds an 
Mammals. 

This is a point to which I gave special attention in makin 
these investigations, and after the most careful and repeated ex- 
aminations of the larvee of Batrachia, in all their stages, I have 
wholly failed to find a structure, such as Miller has described, 
distinct from the developing kidney, and which would correspond 
to the ordinary Wolffian body. On the other hand, all that I 
have observed in this respect is, that the common duct (future 
ureter) of the forming kidney extends quite high up towards the 
cardiac region, some distance beyond the upper limit of its 
branching out into uriniferous canals. The upper end of this 
free portion of the duct is convoluted and seems to have some 
direct connection with the blood-vessels, though I have never 
here observed any thing like Malpighian bodies. As the devel- 
opment of the kidney progresses, this free extremity of the tube 
gradually disappears, and towards the end of the larval state is 
observed only in remains. In brief, then, I have observed no 
distinct, temporary urinary organs in the undeveloped forms of 
Amphibia. 

These observations, made for the most part during the summer 
of 1852, though repeated from time to time until quite recently, 
I was pleased to perceive confirmed by so excellent an observer 
as Wittich in a paper published in the antunin of the same year.* 
Wittich’s investigations have been very extended, and as far at 
least as they relate to the renal organs, furnish results much like 
my own. He found nothing in the larvee of the naked Am- 
phibia which would correspond to Miiller’s Wolffian bodies, ex- 
cepting the free prolongation upwards of the main duet or the 
ureter of the developing kidney. 

Phe doctrine here insisted upon that the true Wolffian bodies, 
or feetal kidneys, are present only in the embryos of the true Rep- 
tiles, the Birds and the Mammals, is so apposite with the results I 
have obtained from an investigation of the Allantois, that it may 

urged with an added force. In the paper already alluded to, I 
have sought to show that the Allantois is, primitively, the vesicu- 
lar expansion of the combined extremities of the ducts of the 

olffian bodies, and finally becomes the receptacular appendage 
of these organs—its contained liquid being properly urine.t But 
afterwards it subserves also another function—that of the aeration 

e blood. 


h 
Zeitsch, f. wissensch. Zool, 1v, 1852, p. 125; also, Harn- und 


: chtso yon 
lossus pictus und einiger anderer aussereuropaischer Batrachier, ibid, p. 168, 
+ Jacobson, as is well known, detected urea in the liquid contents of the 
of very young embryos. See loc. cit 


380 Dr. Burnett on the Renal Organs of the Vertebrata. 


This view being correct, we could expect to find Wolffian 


bodies only where there is observed an Allantois, and vice versa. 
Thus, in the Fishes and Amphibian Reptiles, which truly have 
no Allantois, there would be no temporary kidneys or the Wolffian 
bodies; while in the other Vertebrata, which are allantoidian, 
these last wonld be found. TI scarcely need refer further to this 
parallelism as far as regards our doctrine in question.* 


Il. Permanent or true Kidneys. 

These organs being apparently indispensable to the adult econ- 
omy of all the Vertebrata, have a physiological importance of the 
highest character. Althongh the primitive essential type of their 
structure is precisely like that of their temporary analogues just 
described, when present, yet as they are permanent organs ab 
sustain definite relations and connections with various parts of the 
general system, the study of their structure as organs is the more 
complex and interesting. It would be foreign to my subject to 
enter upon the details of the comparative Auatomy of these or- 
gans, describing those variations of external form belonging to 
each type ;+ I shall limit mysclf to those points that bear directly 
upon the subject of development and intimate structure. 

As a leading fact | may mention that the idea or formula of 
the kidney, wherever observed in the vertebrate, is always the 
same; aud thus finding the intimate structure essentially alike 
everywhere, we should naturally infer that there is throughout a 
single and invariable mode of development. This indeed, I have 
found to be the case, as I hope to show in the following details. 

In the Fishes and Amphibian Reptiles, where there are NO 
temporary urinary organs, the earlier phases of development of 
the kidueys seem to bea little less complicated than in the higher 
classes. In fact, the type of structural development here is quite 
allied to that of the Wolffian bodies, and by some anatomists 


I much regret that in preparing this account of the Wolffian bodies, I shoul 


not h ess to the work of Follin, (Recherches sur les co’ ‘ 
Paris, 1850), which I have failed to get on the reputed ground of its being out of Lig 
Considerable reference, ho S to this work, by the copying of 


pag tl ii, p. 761. ut by the figures in question, I can judge nothing of the v. 


e. r * 

Besides the well-known works of Rathke, Meckel, Baer, Jacobson, Valentin, B® 
ee already referred to, see especially for representations of these bodies, hain : 
Bildu gre der Genitalien; his De Glandularum secernent. &e.; 4 

e, Transl. by Jourdan, Paris, 1851, ii, p. 757. " 
Wolffian bodies of Amphibia, see Wittich, loc. cit., Taf. ix, figs. 1, 2, 3, 4 ae ce. 
am 
spect. My obse 

stages of formation of ail the parts, and concerning th 
ed by no investigator. 
+ For full details on this pon eee, with a pate a reference to its literature, oe, 
ee. Anatomy of Siebold and Stannius, transl. &e. by Burnett, ¥ 
> ~- . / o 


Dr. Burnett on the Renal Organs of the Vertebrata. 381 


these organs in Fishes have been regarded as merely permanent 
forms of the above mentioned bodies. This last, however, I @o 
not think correct, for in be class the subsequent phases of de- 
velopment by which the organ is increased in size, are exactly 
like those of the general pact of these organs in Birds and 
Mammals. 

_ The formula of development is the branching ~— in spe! 
of a primitive tube which is the future ureter ;—the | por- 
tions of these branches forming an intimate schletion with the 
general vascular a either by Malpighian bodies, or by a del- 
icate net-work of vessels. 

The mode of jbettmtions is therefore arborescent, and the anal- 
ogy of the development and growth of this s gland with that of 
vegetable forms is too striking not to be noticed. We shall see 
that the growth exactly resembles that of a tree even sco ks in 
its details. 

The line of development being everywhere the same, I will, 
for the sake of uniformity, describe it as occurring in the Chick, 
where, moreover, I have carefully registered the successive phases. * 

In the chick no traces of the kidney are perceptible, according 
to my own observations, until Soa end of the fourth or the begin- 
ning of the fifth day. The ureter, then, is the part first seen, 
and consists of a simple tube, ne upper part of which sends off 
branches. Each of these branches then divides and subdivides, 


* Here T may poe hoe a to the views of other oleate who hay e spe- 


cially studied the deve lopment of the kidney. th authors best wn in this re- 
—— Rathke, ae Valentin wae d as well also as Wit “ich of later times. 
orks of these men have alrea y been cited, According to Rathke, the first 
traces, of the ki ing ein a a number of small claviform protuberances appeari g 


quently appear, but in a manner ee pr ome Re pier ne 
alentin’s Uoleations agree in general with those of Rathke, but, from some 


‘p \ 

squeal Pa Vale niin’ view of t ormation of the uriniferous tu 
Ades with that of Henle, viz.: that it ao by the condensation of a linear arrange- 
ment of the vesicular contents of the 

Both Miiller and Bischo off con ae in ional vi views be oe but Bischoff 
differs not a little upon some points which dese: He says, “I have 
never been able to convince ing hat the ureter, ; pelvis, ae canaliculi are he 
Sped se rl ely, and : think that their ru diments e continuous throughout. ‘ae. § 


©pmen; 
But ot Goh results most closely approach my own. Speaking of these 
organs in mphibia, he says: “ The further growth of the kidney occurs, it would 
ily by a aed deverticulation of the ex eretory “see eae and partly 
ening, lengthening and branching of the primitive dev 
ill n in the text, t he view ! ngs nee is the arbo iss mode of devel- 
oe c d accordi the class, of these organs—the formula 
being a more or less extended oes Pa of tubes from a Pk a a duct. 
_ Stoowp Seems, Vol. XVII, No. 51.—May, 1854. oe 


382 Dr. Burnett on the Renal Organs of the Vertebrata. 


and around these subdivisions are collected a mass of blastematous 
cells. These cells serve as the material for the growth and further 
division of the tubes—in fact for their ultimate ramification, until 
the whole structure is completed. There is observed, therefore, at 
an early period, a main stem (ureter) which has many branches, 
each of which is the foot-stalk of a leaf-like body ; this last is one 
of the future lobules of the kidney. ‘Mhe whole plan of structure is 
here lai®out—a branching ureter with lobules. The increase of the 
size of these lobules, and the formation of the ultimate uriniferous 
tubes takes place by one and the same process, viz.: by the 
branching of the original tubes in a plumate form from a main 
tube,—the whole resembling the plume of a feather. The tubes 
do not end, however, on the edge of the plume (so to speak), but 
here loop and return, and when near the shaft or main tube, they 
dilate into Malpighian bodies; this is, as far as 1 have observed, 
their invariable mode of termination, there being no auastomoses 
of the tubes as some have supposed. : 

The mode of formation of the Malpighian body of the true kid- 
ney, is precisely like that of the same structure belonging to the 
Wolffian body, already described; I need not therefore here re- 
peat the description. I may remark, however, that the two blo 
vessels which compose the glomerulus, usually penetrate the cap- 
sular dilation of the tube at some point more or less near the op- 
posite one of its insertion upon the tube, and rarely more laterally, 
or at least on the inner half of the capsule. In the chick, the 
Malpighian bodies begin to appear at about the tenth day; they 
are then very few in number, but they become more numerous 
exactly in proportion to the growth of the organ—not ceasing 10 
be formed until the kidney has reached its full size. : 

Nothing could be simpler therefore than the mode of formation 
of the renal structure; it is clear and unmistakable—one tube 
_ gives rise to another by an eversion of its walls, aud this last pro- 
duces another in the same way, and so on. , 

Such is the mode of development as occurring in Birds, and 
my observations upon it as found in all the other classes, show 
that the formula is there invariably the same. There are, how- 


ever, peculiarities of the combination of this formula ™ each 


class, which demand a special consideration. cht 
In Fishes, these organs appear at an early period as two straigh 
-tubes, extending, one on each side of the vertebral column, i 
the region of the heart to the anus. These tubes soon g!v@ oh 
from their inferior and inner surface, deverticula, exactly a8 W! 
the Wolffian bodies just described, and for a time the organs pis 
much the same appearance as embryonic kidneys. But ak - 
wards, as the animal increases in size, a new development tas 
place. This consists in the branching, dichotomously, Oe. 
deverticular tubes,—a process which goes on indefinitely, giving 


a - 


Dr. Burnett on the Renal Organs of the Vertebrata. 383 


the whole organ much the same lobulated, arborescent structure 
as that of the chick—although the plumate arrangement of the 
terminal tubes is not here present. In both the Cartilaginous and 
the Osseous Fishes, the functional or secreting structure is, as far 
as I have observed, always the samie; that is, the tubes invariably 
terminate each in a well-formed Malpighian body. 

In the Amphibian Reptiles, the kidneys quite closely resemble 
those of Fishes, yet simulating even more closely than these, 
the general character of the Wolffian bodies. They present little 
tendency to an aborescent structure, the tubes of the main duct 
rarely dividing but rather forming convolutions, and ending inva- 
riably, according to my own observation, in Malpighian bodies.* 
These Malpighian bodies, together with their adjacent portion of 
the uriniferous tube, are lined with long lash-like cilia, the ever 
constant, rapid action of which, waving towards the outlet, pre- 
Sents a beautiful aspect. ‘The use of these cilia is, evideutly, to 
direct the course of the current out of the Malpighian body, 
therby keeping this last in a free, unobstructed state. In the true 
Reptiles, the development of the kidney is arborescent as in Birds, 
and in the Serpents the lobules thus formed remain more or less 
Separate through life. ‘This is also the case, but in a less degree, — 
in the Chelonioide. 


delicate anastomoses bring every such cecal secreting tube within 
the influence of a blood vessel.t 
n the Chelonioide, the kidneys quite closely resemble, in every 
Point of view, those of Birds. The uriniferous tubes have the 
same form of distribution and terminate always, each, in a Malpi- 
. Shian body. 
_ As for these organs in the Birds, I have described their pecu- 
liarities in speaking of the chick, and have only to add that 
throughout the entire class there seems but little or no variation. 
In Mammalia, the course of development followed is like that 
observed in Birds, but the subsequent changes by which the organ 
comes more compact, often entirely conceal the original forms. 
By observations upon very young embryos in the different fami- 
_* For representations of the intimate structure of the kidneys of Amphibia, see, 
‘specially, Wittich. loc. cit. Taf. ix. 
anh emer is, as I have lately observed, a similar relation between the blood-vessels 
Snd the terminal exca of the poison-gland of the Rattle-snake (Crotalus—a kind of 
Rete mirabile. 


° 


\ 


384 Dr. Burnett on the Renal Organs of the Vertebrata. 


lies, it is evident that the development is arborescent, forming 
lobules,—and these lobules are at first exactly like those observed 
in Serpents and Birds. In some species, as is well known, these 
lobules remain distinct through life; this is well seen in the otter, 
bear, and whale, and in many of the Ruminantia, these remains 


are distinctly visible. It is only in the higher forms, that they 


have so coalesced as to be concealed. 

This intimate combination of parts produces the greatest 
amount of secreting surface in the smallest space. Take, tor 
instance, the kidney of Man; here the lobules are arranged in a 
half-circle around a common cavity or the pelvis. But they are 
so united as to become conical in shape (with the bases of the 
cones at the surface of the organ) thereby producing the so-called 
pyramids. + These pyramids are composed in part of tubes that 
spread out in a fan-like manner from a common point (calyx), and 
the gradually increased size of the medullary portion is produce 
by the branching of the tubes in a dichotomous manner. The 
straight regular way in which these tubes run, seems to be dne, 10 @ 
measure at least, to the mechanical pressure to which they are sub- 
jected by the combination of the lobules,—for I have been unable 
to perceive it in very young embryos, and, moreover, it does not 


‘ agree with the invariable arborescent conditions of early forma- 


tion. The so-called Medullary portion of the kidney is made 
up of fasciculi of straight tubes which divide dichotomously, 
but have no Malpighian bodies; they continue directly to the 
Cortical portion which is composed of more or less convoluted 
tubes—the result of the dichotomous division. These tubes 
finally end, each, in a Malpighian body. ‘These Malpighian 
bodies sometimes lie upon the surface, directly beneath the ¢ap- 
sule, but often also the tubes run up to the surface, loop, return @ 
short distance, and end in a Malpighian body deeper in the.renal 
structure. From all I have observed, it appears that in Man the 
Malpighian body is the on/y termination of the final tubes, there 


being therefore as many of the former as of the latter. I have 
seen nothing like an anastomosis of the final tubes, as some re 
] = 


supposed is sometimes the case. The pelvis of the human 
ney, as also that of other mammals, is formed by th 
of the main duct, or ureter, involving the primary brane 
give off the straight tubes of the medullary substance. In 

way, and by the union of the bases of the pyramids, the ap 
are left free, projecting into this pelvis or main cavity. - 
changes I have 6njoyed an opportunity to trace in an embryo 

_ It will be seen, therefore, that the development of the kidney 
in Man and the higher mammals involves no new phases—t 
differences of general structure being extrinsic and due toon 
binations which produce compactness and decreased size withou 
a corresponding decrease of functional surface. sa 


ices 
ese 


e dilatation * 
hes whiel 
his 


Dr. Burnett on the Renal Organs of the Vertebrata. 385 


In the foregoing account, [have preferred not to burden the 
general text with a reference to the history and criticism of 
some of the most important as well as disputed points connected 
with this subject. These can better be discussed by them- 
selves. 

The most important of these points is the character, relations, 
and connections of the Malpighian body. ‘This secreting organ 
of the kidney had long been recognized by both the older and 
the more modern observers, but its intimate structure and its con- 
nections with the other parts of the renal substance as the fune- 
tional secreting organ, were first successfully made out and pub- 
lished by Bowman* in a memoir which has since become classic 
on this subject. I may here mention that it is quite a remarkable 
historical fact that more than fifty years before, Schunalask yt ex- 
pressed the view that these bodies were the source of the urinary 
secretion and had direct connection with the uriniferous tubes. 


Myxinoid Fishes, where he describes the kidney as consisting of 


sac-like deverticula from a main tube or ureter, terminating ce-» 


vessels. The value of this discovery was not appreciated until 
Bowman (ignorant, however, at this time of Miller’s investiga- 
tions on this point) published the next year his memoir. ‘To 
owman, therefore, we seem indebted for the first full exposition 
of the secreting structure of the kidneys of Vertebrata. 
PRowman’s doctrine was, that the Malpighian body is the infun- 
dibuliform expansion of the uriniferous tube, and that the glom- 
erulus or tuft of blood-vessels lies enclosed freely in this expan- 
sion, being composed of a tortuous loop, the two component 
Vessels entering at the same point which is generally opposite or 
nearly so to the point of insertion of the uriniferous tube. The 
Malpighian body thus composed, Bowman maintained, is the ex- 
clusively secreting structure of the kidney. _'T'hese are the essen- 
tial features of the results advanced, and I need not enter into 
the details of a memoir so well known as this. 
Results so valuable in physiology, were, of couse, examined 
by different investigators on every side. Reichert,$ in his report 
Upon the progress of Microscpical Anatomy for 1842, enters into 
4 Critical discussion of this subject. He denies that the urinife- 
Tous tubes end in the capsule, and regards this last as a distinct 
and separate formation. He also denies the presence of ciliated 
epithelium in the Malpighian body, and the uriniferous tubes. 


é 


386 Dr. Burnett on the Renal Organs of the Vertebrata. 


On the other hand, he maintains that the glomerulus or knot of 
blood-vessels is enclosed in the Malpighian body. ‘These views 
he has defended in some of his subsequent reports. 

ni 1845, Gerlacht published a still different opinion upon this 
disputed point of the Malpighian body. He maintained that the 
uriniferous tubes do not end in flask-shaped ceca, but loop and 
pass into each other. he Malpighian bodies he declares to be 
globular deverticula from the tubes, and that they contain, as 
Bowman advocates, the glomerulus. This author has likewise 
reasserted his views in a subseqnent paper. 

The view of Bidder$ is even still different. According to 
this observer, the uriniferous tubes end. in flask-shaped ceca, but 
these last do not enclose the glomeruli. On the contrary, the 
Malpighiay bodies receive each a glomernius in a kind of depres- 

sion, and so the cavity of the Malpighian body is as disconnected 
- from the glomerulus as is the cavity of the pleura from the lung. 
These, as far as I am aware, are all of the dissimilar deve 


tigators 
Bowman. Among these may be mentioned Kolliker,4l Patru- 


tion, in this last, of the Malpighian tuft or glomerulus,—l can 
have no doubt that all these connections and relations really exist. 


* Reichert, see Bericht, dic. for 1848, in Miller's Arch., 1849, p. 65; also that for 
1849 in ibid, 1850, p. 67. 218 
+ Gerlach, Beitrige zur Structurlehre der Niere, in Miiller’s Arch. 1845, P- Ain 
t Gerlach, Zur Anatomie der Niere, in Miiller’s Arch., 1848, p. 103. 5 
§ Bidder, Ueber die Malpighischen Kérper der Niere, in Jfiller's Arch., 1845, P- 
| A : is, that the 
uriniferous tube does not end in the Malpighian body. See Beitrage zur Faye 
sekretion, in the Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft der Aerzte zu Wien, 1, P rch, 
ey Ko}liker, Ueber Flimmerbegungen in den Primordialnieren, in Mailers * 
ted truban, Beitrige zur Anatomie der menschlechen Niere, in the Prager Vier- 
teljabrsschrift. “xv, - 87. 
+ Nicolueci, Su l intima struttura dei reni in Filiatre-Sebezio. Feb, 1847. 
Mand!, Mémoire sur la structure intime des Organes urinaires, P- ey and Kél- 
} Vietor Carus, oS Malpighi’schen Kérper der Niere, 0 Siebol 
s - wissenschaftl. Zool., ii, 1850, p. 58. +1 Virchow 
ant! Wittich, Beitrige zur Anatomie der secaehae und kranken Niere, in Virco 
Reinhard’s Arch,, iii, p. 147. 


The Numerical Relation between the Atomic Weights. 387 


Arr. XLIL.—-The Numerical Relation between the Atomic 
Weights, with some Thoughts on the Classification of the 
Chemical Elements; by Jostau P. Cooke, Jr., A.M., Erving 
Professor of Chemistry in Harvard University.* 


Noumericat relations between the atomic weights of the chem- 
ical elements have been very frequently noticed by chemists. 
One of the fullest expositions of these relations was that given by 
M. Dumas of Paris, before the British Association for the Advance- 
ment of Science, at the meeting of 1851. This distinguished 
chemist at that time pointed out the fact, that many of the ele- 
ments might be grouped in triads, in which the atomic weight of 
one was the arithmetical mean of those of the other two. ‘Thus 
the atomic weight of bromiuc is the mean between those of chlo- 
tine and iodine; that of seleninm is the mean between those of 
sulphur and tellurium, and that of sodium, the mean between 
those of lithium and potassium. M. Dumas also spoke of the 
remarkable analogies between the prorerties of the members of 
these triads, comparing them with similar analogies observed in 
organic chemistry, aud drew, as is well known, from these facts 
arguments to support the hypothesis of the compound nature of 
many of the now received elements. Similar views to those o 


to characterize its series. In the first it is nine, in the second 
eight, in the third six, in the fourth five, in the fifth four, and in 
the last three. The discovery of this simple numerical relation, 
Which includes all others that have ever been noticed, was the 
sult of a classification of the chemical elements made for the 
Purpose of exhibiting their analogies in the lecture-room. A 
Short notice of this classification will, therefore, make a natural 

Introduction to the subject. 
very teacher of chemistry must have felt the want of some 
system of classification like those which so greatly facilitate the 
acquisition of the natural-history sciences. In most elementary 
text-books on chemistry, the elements are grouped together with 
little regard to their analogies. Oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen 
are usually placed first, aud therefore together, although there are 
ly to be found three elements more dissimilar ; again, phos- 


* Communicated to the American Academy, Boston, Feb. 28, 1854. 


4 


388 J.P. Cooke on the Numerical Relation 


phorus and sulphur, which are not chemically allied, are frequently 
placed consectively, while arsenic, avtimony, and bismuth in spite 
of their close analogies with phosphorus, are described in a differ- 
ent part of the book. This confusion, which arises in part from 
retaining the artificial classification of the elements into metals 
and metalloids, is a source of great difficulty to the learner, since 
it obliges him to retain in his memory a large number of appat-_ 
ently disconnected facts. In order to meet this difficulty, a classi- 
fication of the elements into six groups, differing but slightly 
from that given in the table accompanying this memoir, was made. 
The object of the classification was simply to facilitate the acqui- 
sition of chemistry, by bringing together such elements as were 
allied in their chemical relations considered collectively. As the 
classification has been in use for some time in the courses of lec- 
tures on chemistry given in Harvard University, I have had an 
opportunity for observing its value in teaching, and cannot but 
feel that the object for which it was made has been in a great 

easure attained. The series which is headed the Six Series 
will illustrate the advantage gained from the classification ina 


difficulty can, however, be in a great’measure removed, if, after 
he has been taught that nitrogen forms two important acids with 
oxygen, NO: and NOs, that it unites with sulphur and chlorine 
form NSz and NCls, and also with three equivalents of hydro- 
gen to form NHs, he is also told, that, if in these symbols of the 
nitrogen compounds he replaces N by P, As, or Sb, he will obtain 
symbols of similar compounds of phosphorus, arsenic, and ant- 
mony ; for he thus learns, once for all, the mode o combination 
of all four elements, so that when he comes to study the proper 
ties, in turn, of phosphorus, arsenic, and antimony, he has not to 
learn with each an entirely new set of facts, but finds the same 
repeated with only a few variations. Moreover, these very varl- 
ations he will learn to predict, if he is shown that the elemen!s 
are arranged in the series according to the strength of thelr elec- 
tro-negative properties, or, in other words, that their affinities or 
oxygen, chlorine, sulphur, etc. increase, while those for hydroge? 
decrease, as we descend. He willjthen readily see why 1t Is that, 
though nitrogen forms NO; and NOs, it forms only NCI: a 
NS:s, and that this reason is correct he will be pleased to 


between the Atomic Weights. 389 


confirmed when he learns that phosphorus, which is more electro- 
positive than nitrogen, and has, therefore, a stronger affinity both 
for chlorine and sulphur, forms not only PCls and PSs, but also 
PCls and PS;. Again, he will not be surprised, after seeing the 
affinity of the elements for hydrogen growing constantly weaker 
as he descends in the series, to learn that a compound of bismuth 
and hydrogen is not certainly known. Should he inquire why, 
though NH: has basic properties, PHs, AsHs, and SbHs have 
not, he can be shown that the loss of basic properties in passing 
from NH; to PH; corresponds to a decrease in the strength of 
the affinity between the elements, and that if in PHs, SbHs, or 
AsHs, atoms of methyle, ethyle, or other organic radicals analo- 
gous to hydrogen, are substituted for the hydrogen atoms, and 
more stable compounds thus obtained, strong bases are the result. 
The other series would afford similar illustrations, and, from my 
own experience, I am confident that no teacher who has once 
used a classification of the elements like that here proposed, 
would ever think of attempting to teach chemistry without its aid. 

Classifications of the elements, more or less complete, have 
been given by many authors; but the fact that no one has been 
generally received, is sufficient to prove that they are all liable to 
objections, and would, indeed, also seem to show that a strictly 
scientific classification is hardly possible in the present state of 
the science. The difficulty with most of the classifications is, 
undoubtedly, that they are too one-sided, based upon one set of 


fication into metals and metalloids, which separated phosphorus 
and arsenic, sulphur aud seleninm, because arsenic and selenium 


or a zodlogist to separate the ostrich from the class of birds 

catise it cannot fly, would not be more absurd, than it is for a 
chemist to separate two essentially allied elements, because one 
has a metallic lustre and the other has not. Yet it is surprising 
to see how persistently this classification is retained in every ele- 
Mentary work on the science; and if it is sometimes so far modi- 
as to transfer elements analogous to selenium and arsenic to 

the class of metalloids, this is only acknowledging the worthless- 
hess of the principle, without being willing to abandon it. I 
there were any fundamental property common to all the elements, 
the law of whose variation was known, this might serve as the 
is of a correct classification. Chemistry, however, does not 
as yet present us with such a property, and we must, t erefore, 
here, as in other sciences, base our classification on general analo- 
gies. The most fundamental of all chemical properties is, un- 

Seems, Vol. XVII, No. 51.—May, 1854. 50 


390 J. P. Cooke on the Numerical Relation 


doubtedly, crystalline form; but a classification of the elements 
based solely on the principles of isomorphism is defective in the 
same way as it isin mineralogy. It brings together, undoubtedly, 
allied elements, but it also groups with them those which resem- 
ble each other only in their crystalline form. The mode of com- 
bining seems to be also a fundamental property; but, like crys- 
talline form, it would bring together in some instances elements 
differing very widely in their chemical properties. A classifica- 
tion of the elements which shall exhibit their natural affinities, 


ments is hardly possible in the present state of chemistry. At 
best, the task is attended with great difficulties, and it cannot be 
expected that these should be surmounted at once. The c assifi- 
eation which is offered in this memoir will, undoubtedly, ‘be 
found to contain many defects. If, however, it is but one step 


to the science. It was originally made, as has already been Sale; 
simply for the purpose of teaching, and never would have been 
published had it not led to the discovery of the numerical rela- 


it 


chemistry. In the group of volatile acids, homologues of formic 
acid, for example, we have a series of compounds yielding § 
derivatives, and producing similar reactions, and many of whose 
properties, such as boiling and melting points, specific gravity, 
vary as we descend in the series according to a determina 


* 


te 
From formic acid, a highly limpid, volatile, and corrosive fluid, 


. 
* 


between the Atomic Weights. 391 


the acids become less and less volatile, less and less fluid, less and 
less corrosive; first oily, then fat-like, and finally hard, brittle 
solids, like wax. As is well known, the composition of these 
acids varies in the same way, and the variation follows a regular 
law, so that by means of a general symbol we can express the 
composition of the class. ‘This symbol for the volatile acids may 
be written (C2H)Os, HO+n(C:H:2). 

This description of the well-known series of the volatile acids, 
applies, word for word, nominibus mutatis, to each of the six 
series of chemical elements. The elements of any one series 
form similar compounds and produce similar reactions ; moreover, 
they resemble each other in another respect in which the mem- 
bers of the organic series do not. Their crystalline forms are 
the same, or, in other words, they are isomorphous. Although 
this may be true of the volatile acids, yet it cannot be proved in 
the present state of our knowledge. Still further, many of their 
properties vary in a regular manuer as we descend in the series. 


be expressed algebraically, though in most instances it cannot be 
determined. Finally, as one general symbol will express the 
composition of a whole organic series, so a simple algebraic form- 
ula will express the atomic weight, or, if you may please so to 
term it, the constitution of a series of elements. _ 

ints may be illustrated with any of the series in the 
table; with the first, for example, which consists of oxygen, 
fluorine, cyanogen, chlorine, bromine, and iodine. All these ele- 
ments form similar compounds, as will be seen by inspecting the 
symbols of their compounds given at the right hand of the list of 
names, where the similar or homologous compounds are arranged 
in upright columns. Moreover, they are all isomorphous, as ma 
seen by referring to the left-hand side of the list, where the 
similar compounds in each upright series are jsomorphous, the 
humbers at the heads of the columns indicating the systems 0 


Bromine is a fluid at the ordinary temperature ; aud, finally, iodine 
is a solid. Moreover, starting from cyanogen, the solubility of 


ences between the atomic weights of these elements are always 
4 multiple of nine. This general formula may be said to repre- 


392 J. P. Cooke on the Numerical Relation 


sent the constitution of these elements, in the same way that the 
symbol (C:H)O:, HO+n(C:H:) represents the composition of 
the volatile acids before mentioned. In the place of (C2H)Os, HO 
we have 8=-O= the weight of one atom of oxygen, and in the 
place of C2H2 we have nine. What it is that weighs nine (for 
it must be remembered that those numbers are weights) we can- 
not at present say, but it is not impossible that this will be here- 
after discovered. In order to bring the general symbol of the 
volatile acids into exact comparison with that of the Nine Series, 
we must reduce the symbols to weights, when the two formule 


ome 
46+n14, where 46=(C2H)Os,HO and 14=C:H:; 
and 8+” 9, where 8=O and 9=2. 

The numbers 46 and 14 are known to represent the weights of 
aggregations of atoms. The number 8 represents the weight of 
one oxygen atom, but we cannot as yet say what the 9 represents. 
After this comparison, it does not seem bold theorizing to suppose 
that the atoms of the members of this series are formed of an 
atom of oxygen as a nucleus, to which have been added one or 
more groups of atoms, the weight of which equals nine, or pet- 
haps one or more single atoms each weighing nine, to which the 
corresponding element has not yet been discovered. As 1t will 
be convenient to have names to denote the two terms of the 
formule which represent the constitution of the different series, 
we will call the first term, in accordance with this theory, the 
nucleus, and the number in the second term multiplied by the 
common difference of the series. 

From what has been said, it will be seen that the idea of the 
classification is that of the organic series. It is in this that the 
classification differs from those which have preceded it. Other 
authors, in grouping together the elements according to the prit- 
ciples of isomorphism, have obtained groups very similar to those 
here presented. Indeed, this could not be otherwise, since, 8S 
has been already said, the members of each series are isomorph- 
ous, while, as a general rule, to which, however, there are many 
exceptions, no isomorphism can be established between membe™ 
of different series. These groups, however, have been merely 
groups of isomorphous elements, and not series of homologues 


These general remarks will suffice to indicate the principles 


to speak of those points which are of special interest, oF pec 
may require explanation, or in regard to which there may © 
doubt. The series I have named from their common differences 


between the Atomic Weizhts. 393 


The first I have called the Nine Series, the second the Eight 
Series, &c. Let us examine the doubtful points in each, com- 
mencing with the first. 

The last five members of the Nine Series are connected by 
so many analogies, that they have been invariably grouped to- 
gether in the elementary books. There can be no doubt, there- 
fore, in regard to the propriety of placing them in the same series, 
on the ground of general analogies. Fiuorine, it is trae, presents 
some striking points of difference from the rest. Fluorid of eal- 
citin is almost insoluble in water, while the chlorid, bromid, and 
iodid of calcium are all very soluble. We must, however, remem- 
ber that we have to do with series, and must not therefore expect 
to find close resemblances except between adjacent members. If, 
then, we consider that oxygen is one of the series, and that fluo- 
tine stands but one step removed from oxygen, while it is two 
Steps removed from chlorine, the discrepancy in a measure van- 
ishes, for lime CaO is but slightly soluble in water.- Nevertheless, 
the difficulty does not entirely disappear; for CaF is much less 
soluble than CaO, although it should be more soluble judging 
from the law of the series and the fact that CaCl is so much more 
soluble than CaF. 

The solubility of a series of homologous elements or com- 
pounds in water, may be regarded as a function of one or more 
variables. In the case of the elements there may be but one varia- 
ble, but it is easy to see that in the case of compounds there must 
be several. One of these variables is probably the same which 
determines the common difference of the series to which the ele- 
Ments or compounds belong ; (it will be hereafter shown that the 
atomic weights of the homologous compounds are related in the 
Same way as those of the clements;) the other variables are per- 
haps the atomic forces which determine the hardness, density, 
&c. of the solid. We may, therefore, with justice, compare the 
relative solubilities of a series of homologues to a curve which 
Should be the same function of the same variables, and what 
Mathematics teaches we ought reasonably to expect in the case of 
this curve, we ought to expect also in the variations of solubility 
of these substances. Now every mathematician is familiar with 
the remarkably rapid changes which a curve undergoes that is a 
function of several variables, and we cannot be surprised that 
Similarly rapid changes should be observed in the solubility of 
homologous substances in passing from one to the next in the 
Series. Jn the curve which corresponds to the relative solubility 
of CaO, CaF, CaCy, CaCl, CaBr, and Cal, it would seem that at 
CaF there is a singular point where the curve, after rising for some 
distance above the axis, bends down again towards it. Several 

the other series of compounds of these elements present simi- 
lar anomalies ; for example, KO, KF1, KCy, KCl, KBr, and KL 


394 J. P. Cooke on the Numerical Relation 


Here the solubility diminishes until we come to KCl, which is 
less soluble than KCy; then it increases to the last. Here, of 
course, the singular point is at KCl. With the corresponding 
compounds of sodium, the solubility diminishes to NaFl, which 
is the least soluble of the series, and then increases constantly to 
the end. 

These facts at least seem to show that apparent variations from 
the law of series in properties, which evidently are unknown fune- 
tions of several variables, should not be allowed to outweigh 
strong analogies, and certainly the analogies between Fluorine 
and the other haloids are very marked. Fluorine itself possesses 
properties such as we should expect to find in a member of the 
series above chlorine. The strong and active affinities of fluorine 
might be indeed predicted, after seeing the rapid increase both in 
the strength and activity of the affinities in passing from iodine 
to chlorine. In passing from bromine to chlorine, we pass from 
a liquid to a gas, permanent under any natural conditions ; and 
we should expect, therefore, in rising still higher in the series, t0 
find in fluorine a gas less easily reduced to a liquid than chlorine. 
Now although, on account of its remarkably active affinities, this 
fact cannot be demonstrated on the gas itself, it can, neverthe- 
less, be inferred with perfect certainty from its compounds. Fi- 
nally, the isomorphism of fluorine and the other haloids may be 
urged as indicating close analogy. From these considerations, I 
cannot but think that those chemists who have questioned the 
propriety of classing fluorine with the other haloids will, on Te- 
viewing the facts, and regarding the haloids in the light of a 
series, and not simply as a group of elements possessing certain 
general properties, be led to change their opinion. ; 

Cyanogen, though a compound radical, has been classed with 
the other haloids, not only from its atomic weight, but also from 
its other analogies. Its properties are in most cases those which 
we should expect from an element occupying its position in the 
series; but in others it presents remarkable variations, OWIDg 
probably to the fact that it contains a radical which is easily de 
composed. As is well known, it is perfectly isomorphous with 
chlorine. 

The propriety of classing oxygen in this series seems to be 
placed beyond doubt by the discovery of ozone, which, although 
it does not seem to possess such energy as we should expect 18 
an element higher in the series than fluorine, may, nevertheless, 
be found to fulfil all anticipations should it ever be obtained 1n 4 
perfectly unmixed condition. The isomorphism of oxygen Wl! 
chlorine, and therefore with the other haloids, seems sufficiently 
established by the determination both of Proust and Mitscherlich 
of the tetrahedral form of CuzCl. It must, however, be admitt 


that oxygen presents as strong analogies with sulphur as it does 


between the Atomic Weights. 395 


with chlorine ; and since, not only from its analogies, but also 
from its atomic weight, it appears to be the nucleus in all the 
first three series, I have placed it at the head of each. It ma 

be mentioned here, that in all cases the fact that the atomic 
weight of an element is included in the general formula of a series, 
isan argument for classifying it in that series, if the relation between 
the atomie weights pointed out in this memoir is admitted to be 
a law of nature; but as I wish to show that the relation is not 
that of a mere accidental group of numbers, but is connected 
with the most fundamental properties of the elements, and has, 
therefore, the claims of a law, I have endeavored to show the 
correctness of the classification which conforms to the law, and, 
indeed, in fact suggested the law on other grounds. 

The atomic weights of the numbers of the Nine Series, as de- 
termined by experiment, present greater deviations from the nu- 
merical law already explained, than are to be found in any of the 
others. The weights which would exactly conform to the gene- 
ral formula 8+79 are given in the column of the table headed 
Theoretical, while in the next column at the right are given the 
weights of experiment. These for the most part (in this as well 
as in the other series), have been taken from the table of Atomic 
Weights given in the last yonirt of Liebig and Kopp, Jahres- 
bericht for 1852, which was supposed to i the cae and most 
accurate results. In the few cases in which the numbers have 
hot been taken from this table, the initial letter of thd name of 
the observer has been annexed. It will be seen, on comparing 
the two columns that the greatest deviation from the law is in: 
the case of fluorine, if we consider the care which was taken both 
by Berzelius and Louyet i in the determination of the atomic weight 
of this element. It may, however, be remarked, that, as the pro- 
cesses used by both experimenters were essentially identical, any 

lidden constant source of error would produce the same effect 
on both results; so that the atomic weight of fluorine cannot be 
Tegarded as yet absolutely fixed. ih ti it is not possi- 
le that so great a difference between the true and observed 
Weights as two units could have escaped aenssied in the number- 
less analyses which have been made, by the most experienced 
chemists, of the fluorine compounds. It must, therefore, be ad- 
mitted, and not only in the case of fluorine, but also in other in- 
stances, that there are deviations 8 the law ; but these devia- 
tions are not greater than those from similar numerical laws in 
astronomy atid other sciences, and indeed, judging from the anal- 
ogy of Fi sciences, they ought to be expected. 
who are not familiar with the amounts of probable error 
in the de determmation of the different atomic weights would judge, 
on comparing together the columns of theoretical and obser 
Values, that the deviations from the law were much greater than 


396 J. P. Cooke on the Numerical Relations 


they are in reality. It should, therefore, be stated, that, in by 
far the larger number of instances, the deviations are within the 
limit of possible errors iu the determinations, leaving only a few 
exceptional cases to be accounted for. It must be remembered 
that, other things being equal, the amount of probable error is the 
greater the greater the atomic weight, so that a difference of 1:9 
in the case of iodine is not a greater actual deviation from the 
law than only 0-5 in thecase of chlorine. Indeed, it is very pos- 
sible that on more accurate determinations the atomic weight of 
iodine will be found to correspond to the law, which cannot be 
expected of that of chlorine. It is well known that many of the 
larger atomic weights, especially those of the rarer elements, can- 
not be regarded as fixed within several units. 

I have calculated, as well as the data I have would permit, 
the amount of probable error in the determinations of many of 
the atomic weights, and by comparing the results from different 

esses, and by different experimenters, I have endeavored 
to detect the existence of constant errors, which seem to be the 
great errors in all these determinations, those accidental errors 
which are made in the repetitions of the same process by equally 
careful experimenters being comparatively insignificant. The 
results of this investigation will be published in a subsequent 
memoir. It is sufficient for the present purpose to state, that, 
while they show that, in the greater number of cases, the appat- 
ent variations from the law are within the limit of probable error, 
there are yet several instances, where, after allowing for all possl- 
ble errors of observation, there is a residual difference. I do not 
therefore look alone to more accurate observations for a confirma- 


tion of the law, but, regarding the variations as ascertained ine 
i her the 


according to a numerical law, as the perturbations in astronomy 
are a necessary consequence of the very law they seemed at first 
to invalidate, or whether they are due to independent causes, can 
of course, for the present, be only a matter of speculation. There 
are, however, facts which seem to indicate that the variations are 
not matters of chance, but correspond to variations in the prop- 
erties of the elements. . ! 
From the beautiful discovery of Professor Schénbein we have 
learnt that oxygen has two allotropic modifications, and that be- 
sides its ordinary condition, it is capable of assumin nother 
highly active state when its properties resemble those of chlorine. 
Cyanogen is known only in a quiescent state. The other haloids, 
fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine, are known only in a high'Y 
active state. Now it will be seen on examining the table, that 
the atomic weights of the highly active elements, as determined 


between the Atomic Weights. 397 


by experiment, exceed slightly the theoretical numbers, and that 
where the affinities are the most intense, in fluorine, the deviation 
is the greatest. A similar fact may be observed in the atomic 
weights of the members of the Six Series. Arsenic has been 


thombic system. In the other aide, in which it may be 
obtained by sublimation at a low temperature, it crystallizes in 
regular octahedrons. ‘The other members of this series are prob- 
ably isodimorphs with arsenic. The ordinary condition of phos- 
phorus is its monometric modification, while the rhombic state 
seems to be the normal condition of arsenic, antimony, and bis- 
muth. Now the atomic weights of the last three are either equal 
to, or slightly exceed, the theoretical number, while that of the 
first falls short, perhaps even by a unit. Other facts, which also 
tend to show that the deviations are not matters of chance, may 
be found in the affiliations of the series. There are some ele- 
ments which seem to be most remarkably double-faced, having 
certain properties which connect them closely with one series, 
aa at the same time others which unite them nearly as closely 
to another. In such cases we find that the atomic weight either 
falls naturally into both series, or, not corresponding exactly with 
the theoretical number of the series to which the element prop- 
erly belongs, it inclines towards that of the other, and sometimes 
equals it. Such is the case with chromium, manganese, and 
gold, as will be seen by referring to the affiliations at the bottom 
of the Nine Series. These various facts force upon me the con- 
Viction, that this relation between the atomic weights is nota 
matter of chance, but that it was a part of the grand plan of the 
Framer of the universe, and that in the very deviations from the 
law, there will, hereafter, be found fresh evidence se the wisdom 
and. forethought of its Divine Author 

The general formule for the Eight Series are, 8:08 and 4+n8. 
The two nuclei correspond to two different sets of elements, or 

Sub-series, one pipetege asi of oxygen, sulphur, selenium, and tellu- 


rium, the other of molybdenum, vanadium, tungsten, and tanta- 
lum. ‘The sli weights of the first are all equal to 8+78; 
those of the second to 4+n8. The sub-series exhibit marked 


analogies, as well as certain differences. ‘They resemble each 
other chiefly in that the members of both form analogous acids 
with oxygen, while they differ in that though the members of the 

sub-series form compounds with hydrogen, those of the sec- 
Ond do not. The isomorphism of the members of each sub- 
Series among themselves, with the exception of vanadium, is 
Complete ; but there seems to be no proof of any isomorphism 
between t the sub-series. Johnston attempted to establish the iso-: 
™Morphism of chromic and molybdic acids from 4 red aiuaad of 

Stoop Szrtms, Vol. XVII, No, 51.—May, 1854. 


398 J. P. Cooke on the Numerical Relations 


molybdate of lead from Rezbanya, which he supposed to be a 
chromate ; but the fact has been disproved by G. Rose, who has 
shown that the supposed chromate isa molybdate mixed witha 
small amount only of chromate. There seems, nevertheless, to 


series, since chromic acid is i8omorphous with sulphuric acid. 

or the present, however, we must regard them as sub-series, 
related, but distinct, the second being in ameasure supplementary 
to the first. ‘They are distinguished in the table by printing the 
names of the second sub-series a little to the right of those of the 
first, and the fact that their atomic weights are intermediate to 
those of the first, I have indicated to the eye by giving to the 
names also an intermediate position. ; 

The analogies between oxygen and sulphur are so numerous, 
that, were we to place oxygen in but one series, we should place 
it in this. HO and HS, HO: and HSs2, resemble each other very 
closely, as do also the oxygen salts the corresponding sulphur 
salts. Moreover, there can be no doubt in regard to the isomorph- 
ism of the two elements, since it has been established upon the 
authority both of Mitscherlich and Becquerel, and from two dif- 
ferent compounds. The only doubtful case in the series was that 
of vanadium, which in some of its properties resembles arseme 
more closely than it does molybdenum. The reasons for giving 
it the place which it occupies were the facts that its acids corres 
pond to those of molybdenum, and that it forms remarkably 
highly colored oxyds which are repeated also in molybdenum. It 
is trne that the properties of the element itself are not those we 
should expect from the position which ‘it ocenpies in our table ; 
yet, if it were placed in the Six Series, it would fall between 
phosphorus and arsenic, which on-the whole it resembles less 
than it does molybdenum, for although it is combustible, yet 
neither it nor its oxyds are volatile. I consider it, therefore, 48 
a member of the Eight Series, but affiliating very closely with 
the Six. Its atomic weight favors this hypothesis. Vavadate of 


# See G. Rose's Mineral System. 


- 


between the Atomic Weights. 399 


The members of the Six Group form a well characterized fam- 
ily, so that, with the exception of oxygen, there can be no doubt 
in regard to the justice of classifying them together, and any 
discrepancies will disappear on considering the group in the light 
of aseries. They form acids containing three and five atoms of 
oxygen which are completely homologous, and make two series 
parallel to that of the elements. hey form also a remarkable 
series of compounds with three atoms of hydrogen. ‘The idea 
which has been advanced by some authors, that NH: is the ni- 
trid of hydrogen, while PHs is the hydruret of phosphorus, or, 
in other words, that hydrogen is electro-positive with reference 
to nitrogen and electro-negative with reference to phosphorus and 
those lower in the series, does not seem to me correct, since the 
remarkable bases which may be formed from PHs, AsHs, SbHs, 
and BiH, by replacing the hydrogen atoms by organic radicals, 
seem to indicate that they have the same type as NHs, and are 
therefore homologues of it. 

The isomorphism of the four lower members of the series is 
perfect. It has been shown in the table, both by the crystalline 
forms of the elements themselves, as well as by those of their 
compounds. In the other series, wherever it was possible, the 
sane double proof has been given. The doubt expressed by G. 
Rose in regard to the dimorphism of arsenic, as I hope to be able 
to show ina paper soon to be published, has been removed. In 
one state arsenic crystallizes in perfect octahedrons of the regular 
system, and is therefore isomorphous, not only with antimony and 
bismuth, but also, in its allotropic state, with phosphorus. 
morphism, as is well known, is not absolute, except in forms of 
the regular system. The rhombic angles of the crystals of ar- 
senic, antimony, and bismuth, are respectively, 85° 41’, 87° 35/, 
87° 40), and therefore conform to the general rule. It will be 


course, the amount of possible error. The deviation in the case 
of phosphorus has already been noticed. Oxygen, it must be 


admitted, is not connected with the series from any similarity 


of properties though the phosphids, arsenids, and antimonids, 
Present certain analogies with the oxyds. As has already been 
said, oxygen was placed at the head of this, as well as of © 
last two series, because its atomic weight seemed to be the nu- 
Cleus of all three. 


s 


400 J. P. Cooke on the Numerical Relation 


The Five Series is the shortest of all, consisting of only three 
members, carbon, boron and silicon. Of these, the last two are 
as closely allied as are any two members of the other series, sili- 
con having precisely the properties we should expect in a homo- 
logue of boron, which was lower in the series; and the same is 
also true of their compounds. The analogies, however, between 
these two elements and carbon are by no means so close, for not 
only carbon cannot be proved to be isomorphous with them, but 
it does not form similar compounds. Carbonic acid, it is true, 
presents some points of resemblance to boracic and silicic acid; 
like them it unites in a large variety of proportions with bases, 
its alkaline salts give a basic reaction, &c. ; but according to the 
generally received opinion, its symbol is COz, while those of bo- 
ron and silicon are BOs and SiOs. In its uncombined state, 
however, carbon resembles boron and silicon, not only in its out- 
ward properties, but also in its action before the blowpipe. “I'wo 
of the allotropic states of carbon, graphite and charcoal, are prob- 
ably repeated in boron, and are known to be insilicon. ‘The 
principle of exclusion would also seem to place carbon in this se- 
ries, for it certainly presents no analogies with the members of 
any other. The correspondence of the atomic weights of the 
members of this series to the law is remarkably close. 


ble, or nearly insoluble, in water. And finally, the elements of 
the series have all those physical properties which are known 4s 
metallic properties, 

This series may be naturally divided into two sub-series. The 
first contains those elements whose protoxyd bases are their chat- 
acteristic compounds, and which do not form acids with oxyge)- 

e second contains those elements whose characteristic com- 
pounds are their sesquibases. They generally unite with two OF 
more equivalents of oxygen, and form acids. These sub-series 
are distinguished in the table in the same way as those of ‘the 
Six Series. Corresponding to these sub-series we have two sets 


between the Atomic Weights. ae 


. The sub-series affiliate with each other in a most remarkable 
manner. Manganese, for example, not only forms a strong pro- 
toxyd base, but also unites with a larger amount of oxygen, 
forming: ‘both a sesquibase and acids. Its atomic weight places it 
in the first group, and it has therefore been classed there, although 
by its properties it is equally allied to the second. Cobalt and 
nickel certainly resemble much more closely the members of the 
first than of the second sub-series, although their atomic weights 
place them in the secon ith this exception, the subdivision 
of the series which the atomic weights require does not differ 
from that suggested by the properties of the elements. The 
members of this series may of course be still further subdivided 
into groups according to their special properties, as they are in all 
works on chemistry. They are placed together here because the 
atomic weights form but one numerical series. 

The isomorphism of the members of this series will be found 
well established with the limitations .before given. In order to 
establish the isomorphism of cobalt and nickel with iron, the 
isomorphism of one atom of arsenic with two atoms of sulphur 
has been assumed. This is generally admitted; but if it is not, 
no one can doubt in regard to the isomorphism of these three met- 
als, as they constantly replace each other Glucinum, zirconium, 
lanthanum , cerium, and thorium, cannot be shown to be isomorph- 
ous with the other metals by any of their compounds, but their 
oxyds are known to replace the analogous oxyds of the other 
metals. So also is ruthenium known to replace rhodium. There, 
have been doubts a hh in regard to the existence of a mono- 
metric form of zine ; but as we have established its isomorphism 
with the other members of. the series, not only by its own crys- 
talline form, but also by those of its compounds, the fact is of no 
eo to the present question. 

e atomic weights of the members of this series, as deter- 
ined: by observation, very nearly correspond with the theoretical 
humbers, which is the more remarkable, as the limit of error in 
the determination of the atomic weights of the greater number, 
especially of the rarer metals, is quite wide. 

The Three and last Series is composed of hydrogen and the 
metals of the alkalies. The analogies between lithium, sodium and 
potassium, are very close, as is well known, and there can be no 
doubt in regard to the propriety of classing them together. It may 

‘said however, in regard to hydrogen, that it resembles as closely 
Some of the metals of the four series as it does those of the alka- 
lies. Though this cannot be denied, yet the fact that the atomic 
Weight of hydrogen is the nucleus of the series, and the great 
solubility of the alkalies in water, may be urged as reasons oe 
cargg it at the head of the Three Series. 


402  ~——s«S-<. P. Cooke on the Numerical Relation 


The isomorphism of lithium, sodium, and potassium, is fully 
established ; but [can find no data which prove hydrogen iso- 
morphous either with them or with the metals of the other group. 

The unit of the atomic weights which has been used thins far 
throughout the table, is the double atom of hydrogen; but the 
nucleus of the Three Series is the weight of the single atom, so 
that the unit in this series is one half of the unit of the weights 
in all the other series. This fact must be kept in mind in com- 
paring the atomic weights of this with these of the other series. 
All the weights might have been made uniform by doubling them 
throughout ; but as this would not have changed the relation, and 
would have been departing from the general custom, it was 
thonght best to confine the donbling to the Three Series into 
which alone hydrogen enters. The general symbol of this series 
is 1+3n, where of course the unit is one half of that of the sym- 
bols at the head of the other series. The observed atomic weights 
will be found to correspond very closely with the theoretic 
numbers ; indeed, the two coincide, except in the case of potas- 
sium, where the difference is 0-6. This, however, it must be 
remembered, is 0°6 of the single hydrogen atom. Compared 
with the donble atom, as the weight of potassium is generally 
given, the difference amounts to but 0:3. F 

One of the most remarkable-points of the classification which 
has been now explained, is the affiliation of the series. We fin 
in chemistry, as iu other sciences, that Nature seems to abhor 
abrupt transitions, and shades off her bounding lines. Many of 
the elements, while they manifestly belong to one series, have 
properties which ally them to another. Several examples of this 
have already been noticed. In such cases, we find invariably, 
that there is a similar affiliation of the atomic weight. O all 
the elements chromitm and manganese are the most protean. 
Two atoms of these elements unite with seven atoms of oxygen 
aud form acids analogous to perchloric acid, and, as has already 
been shown, the weight of two atoms of either element falls 1to 
the Nine Series. Moreover, one atom of chromium or of man- 
ganese, unites with three atoms of oxygen, to form chrome or 
manganic acid. Chromic acid isa strong oxydizing agent, an 
resembles closely nitrous acid, and the atomic weight of chroml- 
um falls into the Six Series just below that of nitrogen. Manganle 

id, on the other hand, resembles sulphuric acid, with which it 
is isomorphous, and the atomic weight of manganese would place 
it in the Eight Series. In like manner osmium in many of its 

perties resembles platinum and the other metals with which it 
is associated in nature ; but, unlike them, it forms a very remars- 
able volatile acid, whose insupportable and suffocating odor, a 
well as composition, reminds one of the acids of the Nine Series; 
and its atomic weight seems to justify the apparent analogy- old 


between the Atomic Weights. 403 


likewise, though the noblest of metals, yet in some of its chemi- 
eal relations resembles much more closely the members of the 
Nine than of the Four Series, and here again its accommodating 
atomic weight seems to account for its double-sided character. 
Several other examples of similar affiliations are given in the 
table, but do not need explanation. 

In the description just concluded of the classification of the 
chemical elements, which is offered in this memoir, I have not 
eltered into details, for to have done so would have been to write 
a treatise on chemistry. I have confined myself almost exclu- 
sively to general points, and referred only to those particulars 
which I thonght might present doubts. I hope that I have been 
able to show, first, that the chemical elements may be classified 
in a few series similar to the series of homologues of organic 
chemistry ; second, that in those series the properties of the ele- 
ments follow a law of progression; and finally, that the atomic 
Weights vary according to a similar law, which may be expressed 
bya simple algebraic formula. As already intimated, I have en- 
deavored to prove the correctness of the classification on general 
grounds, in order that it might appear that the simple numerical 
relation which has been discovered between the atomic weights 
is not a matter of chance, but is connected with the most funda- 
Mental properties of the elements.- I might leave the subject at 
this point, but the existence of the law which I wish to establish 
will be proved more conclusively if it can be shown, not simply 
that the general properties of the members of each series vary in 
a reguiar manner, but also if in one or more cases the exact law 
of the variation can be pointed out. 

There are but few properties of the elements which are sub- 
jects of measurement, aud which therefore can be compared nu- 
Merically. Such are the specific gravity in which the three states 
of aggregation, the boiling and melting points, the capacity of 
heat, and a few others. It is easy to see tnat there are but few 
of these properties the law of whose variation in the series we 
could reasonably expect to discover in the present state of science. 

ost of them evidently depend upon molecular forces with which 
We are entirely unacquainted. Such in solids is undoubtedly the 
case with so simple and fundamental a property as specific gravity, 
and most, if not all, of the other properties of solids belong to 
the same category. It cannot therefore be expected that we 
should point out the laws by which these properties vary, altthongh 
the remarkable investigations of Kopp, Dana, Filhol, Schréder, 
and others, on the relations between the density of substances 
and their atomic weights, and those of Kengott on the relation 

rdness to atomic volume, give grounds for expecting that 
€ven they will before long be discovered. In liquids and gases, 
however, most of these molecular forces which produce the ap- 


404 J. P. Cooke on the Numerical Relation 


parent irregularities in solids have less influence, as we should 
naturally expect, probably because the atoms are removed out of 
the sphere of their action. We may therefore hope, on compar- 
ing together the properties of the liquid or gaseous states of the 
elements in any series, to discover some numerical relation .be- 
tween them. Unfortunately, however, we have not sufficient 
data for making such a comparison except in the case of one 
property, the specific gravity. The boiling point, which would 
be a very valuable property for the purpose, is known ouly in a 
few instances. 

That the specific gravity of the elements in their gaseous state 
varies in each series according to a numerical law, follows neces- 
sarily from what is already known. It is a well-known fact, that 
the specific gravities of the gaseous states of the elements divided 
by their atomic weights give quotients which are either equal, or 
which stand in a very simple relation to each other. For any 
series, as far as we have data, this quotient is the same for all the 
elements with only a few exceptions. That is ~y;=p. But 
we have found that At. W. may be expressed in general by a+nb, 
_and substituting this for for At. W. in the above equation, it be- 
comes =p, or sp. gr. =pa+npb; so that pat+npb isa 
general expression for the specific gravity of ail the elements of 
any series, in the same way that a+7 6 is-for the atomic weight. 
The value of p will differ according as the specific gravities use 
are referred to hydrogen or air. Below will be found tables which 
give the calculated and observed specific gravities of the elements 
of the Nine and Six Series referred to hydrogen, which has been 
taken as the unit instead of air, as we thus in a great measure 
avoid fractions. In the Nine Series p=1, so that the numbers 
representing the specific gravities are the same as those represent- 
ing the atomic weights. In the Six Series it equals two, so that 
the numbers represeuting the specific gravities are in this series 
twice as large as those representing the atomic weights. When 
the specific gravity has not been observed, the calculated number 
only is given. The observed numbers are taken from the “ Table 
of Specific Gravity of Gases aud Vapors,” in Graham’s & 
of Chemistry, which is a very complete collection of all known 
data. For the other series, we have only occasional data, $0 that 
no complete tables of their specific gravities are possible. sine 

It is evident, then, that at least one property of the elements 
varies in the series according to an ascertained numerical law. 
But, it may be said, this proves nothing, for these specific grav 
ties are connected so closely with the atomic weights t 
is true of one must be to the same extent true of the other. 
It must be remembered, however, that the specific gravities are 2” 
distinct set of observed facts, and that the probability of a law 


between the Atomic\ Weights. 405 


in exact proportion to the number of facts which accord with it. 
Moreover, the closeness of the connection is unimportant. Wheth- 
er the value of p be expressed by a single digit, or by a compli- 
cated algebraic formula, is evidently a matter of indifference so 
far as the confirmation of the law is concerned. 


THE NINE SERIES. THE SIX SERIES. 
p. Gr. __ 1 Sp. Gr. pre 
At. ‘ : At. W. 
Sp. Gr, = 8-++- n9. Sp. Gr. = 16 + 12. 
N SPECIFIC GRAVITIES. SPECIFIC GRAVITIES, % 
ames, Names disasaieal ining il 
pareay: Theoret. | Observed. Theoret. Observed. 
yge 5 xygen j 
Fluorine | 17 | Nitrogen 28 14 
Cyanogen 26 26 Phosphorus 64 64 
lovine = [© > 85. | "855 ‘| Arsenic | 148 150 
Bromine | 80 | 48 Antimony 256 
Todine |. 196 ve Bismuth 412 


I regret exceedingly that there are not stfficient data in the 
case of any of the other properties of the elements in the state of 
gas to allow comparison, as I feel confident that the law which 
governs their variation in the series might easily be discovered ; 
but [ look forward to the time when in the general formula 
pa+npb the value of p shall be known, not only for the proper- 
ties of the elements in their gaseous state, but for every property 
capable of numerical expression. 

In this memoir I have confined myself entirely to the elements, 
but it is evident that the classification here offered, and the nu- 
Merical law here explained, may be extended to all compounds. 
The elements of any one series, by combining, give rise to per- 
fectly parallel series of homologous binaries, some of which are 
given in the table. The binaries of those series which have the 
greatest common difference are generally acids; and of those 
Which have the smallest, they are generally bases. ‘These acids 
and bases unite together and form series of homologous salts. As 
It organic chemistry, many of the series are very incomplete ; but 

y are much more generally perfect than in that newer depart- 
Ment of the science, and almost every day fills up some gap. 

It will be seen, then, that not merely a plan has been given for 
classifying the elements, but one which will also embrace all 
inorganic compounds, and affiliate with the similar classification 
Which has already been established in organic chemistry. We 
have not attempted to develop such a classification, since to do it 
Would require a volume; nor is it necessary, as any one can de- 
Velop it for himself. 

‘That the atomic weights of the series of homologous com- 
Pounds follow the same numerical law as those of the elements 
Is easily shown. T'ake as an example the series of salts homolo- 
80us with KO, NO;, which may be expressed in general by 

Secon Serres, Vol. XVII, No. 51.— May, 1854. 52 


406 J. P. Cooke on the Chemical Relations, Sc. 


KO, ROs, where R is any member of the Six Series after oxy- 
gen, and whose atomic weight, therefore, equals 84+n6. ‘The 
atomic weight of KO, ROs must'be necessarily 39°5+48+(8+76), 
or 95:°5+n6. As this symbol differs from that of the Six Series 
only in the nucleus, the atomic weights of the salts which are 
represented by it must progress by the same differences as those 
of the corresponding elements. 

The properties of these series of homologous compounds will 
also be found to vary in a regular manner, and the law of the 
progression of the specific gravities in the gaseous state can 
easily expressed algebraically, since in each series the quotient of 
the specific gravity divided by the atomic weight is a constant 
quantity. As an illustration, we may take the series of binaries 
homologues of water given in the Nine Series of our table. 
follows from what has been said, that the atomic weights of 
these compounds equals 9+”9. With each as = 3, therefore 
Sp. Gr.=4-5+74:5. We give below a table of the observed or 
calculated specific gravities, not only of these compounds, but 
also of those homologues of NHs whose specific gravity has 
been observed. 


(| HOMOLOGUES OF WATER. | HOMOLOGUES OF AMMONIA GAS. | 
Sp.Gr p. Gre. 
auw. ape 8 peng + 
Sp. Gr. = 45 + n4'5. pee Sp. Gr. = 55 + pce ee 
ie e ! aE TIES. 
Symbols. SPECIFIC GRAVITIES. Symbols. |, Seer, Coe 
Theoret. Observed. | Theoret. __Observed. 
HO 45 9 NH; 8-5 85 
HY. 9 PH, rea Ve 175 
HCl 135 135 An, | Se 38°5 
HBr 405 39°5 | ; 
HI 63 635 anes 


ven, 


we shall be able to calculate, nay, predict, its properties with ab- 

solute certainty ; and when our chemical treatises shall have been 
ina few 

will 

be realized, for the problem of the transmutation of the e 

will have been theoretically, if not practically, solved. 


Correspondence.—Physical Features, etc., of Florida. 407 


EXPLANATION OF THE TABLE. 


The formula at the head of each series is a general expression 
for the atomic weights of that series. 'The names of the series 
are derived from the ‘‘ Common Differences,” which are the num- 
bers multiplied by » in the general formule. In the columns 
headed ‘“ ‘Theoretical’ are given the atomic weights calculated 
from these formule and the values of n given in the last columns 
at the right of each division of the table. In the columns headed 
“Observed” will be found the observed values of the same atomic 
weights. These have been taken from the table of atomic weights 
given in the last volume of Liebig and Kopp’s Jahresbericht (for 
1852), with the exception of those against which are placed the 
initials of the observers. The last were taken from Weber’s 
Alomgewichts Tabellen. In some cases the atomic weight is 
taken at twice its received value, but it is then underlined. The 
compounds in any one column at the right of the names of the 
elements are homologous. In the same way, those in any one at 

the left are isomorphous. The numbers at the head of these last 
columns indicate crystalline systems as follows: 1. Monometric ; 
imetric ; Trimetric; 4. Monoclinic; 5. Triclinic; 6. 
Hexagonal. The data from which the table was compiled were 
drawn from numerous sources, but especially from the following 
works: Gmelin’s Handbook of Chemistry, Graham’s Elements 
of Chemisiry, Phillips’s Mineralogy by Brooke and Miller, and 
Gustav Rose’s Krystallo-chemische Mineralsystem. References 
have been given only in a few cases, to avoid crowding the tables. 
For authorities in other cases, the author would refer to the above- 
mentioned works. 


———— oe = SS 
% e 


CoRRESPONDENCE. 


Extract from a letter from Dr. W. I. Burnett to Prof. J. D. Dana. 


Magnolia, Florida, March 1, 1854. 

® ® # * * 
Frortpa still remains almost a terra incognita to naturalists, al- 
though in geological structure, and Fauna and Flora, one of the most 
interesting States in the Union. Even from the limited survey I have 
of its surface and general features, | am persuaded that some 
*rroneous views have been entertained as to its formation and the 
€xact nature of its peninsular relations. Naturalist after naturalist, 
from the time of the quaint old Bertram to the present day, have trav- 
®rsed its various sections, collecting specimens relating to their partic- 
War line of study, but no report has yet been made, {in full, of the 


* * 


a 


408 Cerrespondence. 


geological structure, the agricultural resources, or the Fauna and Flora 
of the state.* 

Gen. Bernard’s report of a survey by a corps of topographical en- 
gineers fora practical object, contains the greatest number of details, as 
well as the most reliable, upon the general features of Florida, that I 
have seen. In making these notes I shall draw somewhat from this re- 
port, especially as to measurements. From the southern boundaries of 


north to south, terminating at the above-mentioned line. ‘The height 


the land rises very gradually and, without instruments, one is wholly 
deceived. The highest elevation is situated one mile west of Kinsley’s 
pond and seven miles east of Sampson’s pond, and is two hundred and 
thirty seven and one-half (2373) feet above low tide in the Atlantic 
ean. e are other points on this ridge between 150 and 
feet high; and, distant only a few miles west of St. John’s river, | have 


to the substratum of limestone crumbling or being undermined from 
some cause v 


result was obtained by a repetition of this same levelling. The fact Is 
quite interesting in connection with the phenomena of the Gulf Stream. 


* Buckingham Smith, Esq., is now engaged upon a detailed history of Florida, 
as I understar Th oak i eis ‘ikon to consult ancient documents 
relative to its P 

ysi will ensure from him a most valuable work, But it is h 
gislature of this state will soon take measures for having a careful 
vey of Florida, by a competent geologist and naturalist. 


Physical Features, etc., of Florida. 409 


But the physical features of the eee nts of Florida are, as 
is well known, the most interesting. It is still land incompletely form- 
ed, and the conditions of its successive odtth are yet visible. It is 


has, as is well known, ghee sr studied not only the phases of the 


about thirty miles, and it is reputed to be quite deep. It contains a few 
islands, and is the reservoir of the neighboring streams, and of the 
issime river. South of this lake are the everglades which lie in a 


modern date. Thus recently formed, the geology of this promontory 
may be easily inferred. It is oolitic limestone filled with the shells and 
corals, and the fossil remains of species that still exist. he present 
State of the Indian affairs did not allow me to visit this southerly point, 
but from intelligent gentlemen connected with the army, 1 learned that, 
besides the curious geological features I have above alluded to, this land 
Presents many wonders and objects most interesting to the naturalist 
who will have the intrepidity and hardiness to explore it 

High up on the St. John’s river there are from point to point vast de- 
posits of fluviatite shells. At Enterprise especially, these form even 
bluff-like elevations of forty to fifty feet, and of considerable extent. 

reabouts have been found also the fossil remains of Vertebrata that 
still exist. The whole physical structure of this region is of great ge- 
ological interest, and would well repay the most careful examination. r 


that of other American rivers, and this fact alone would indicate that 
the conditions of its primitive formation are different from those of other 
Streams. It is in fact a chain of lakes, as its Indian name signifies, ( We- 


t, 
miles, there is a fall of only about twelve feet, and the tide is felt 100 
milesabove its mouth. But fed mostly by forere! infiltration chiefly on 


* Onur friend, Prof. Bailey, has been all about the travelled rye of Florida 
With his microscope, and his recently published results show that he had his eyes 


Microscopical Observations Per n So et priest Georgia and Florida, by J. W. 
Bailey, dc. dc. Smithsonian Co erations to Knowledge, vol. ii, Art. 8. 


410 Correspondence. 


its western side, and receiving, besides, a few large tributaries, this ma- 
jestic river, slow moving as it must be, discharges an enormous quantity 
of water into the sea. The segment of land included between its 
mouth and a line draw from its source to the sea, is at no point elevated 


this river became truly an inland stream. this view of the gradual 
ological changes that have supervened in this state, it would appear 
that ancient, primitive Florida, must have n of quite insignificant 


Stream. Agassiz has shown that the coral building is now at an end 
on the southern extremity of this promontory, since the depth of the 


ue 
so-called 
g 


Physical Features, etc., of Florida. All 


e experiments that I have already made have proved deeply inter- 
esting to me, and have modified somewhat the opinions | have hitherto 
entertained upon this class of nervous actions. But this point will have 
my special Ranmeranne at another time. 


almost to A ai sa of this most ie slicidus fruit. All along the St. 
John’s river there are groves of the wild- -orange that ep ihe eye 
most peeennly: tps this fruit is too acid to be palatable except 


when used to n a beverage (orangeade). 
The China ee (Acai sinense) is the species which has here 
been introduced for cultivation as a commodity. ere it grows most 


luxuriantly, and, for size and flavor, has always had the preference in 
the market, even to those produced in more tropical regions. Some 
fifieen years since when the orange-culiure of this state was in its most 
favorable condition, the revenue from this business was indeed wonder- 
: 6,500 o anges have been yielded by a single tree, 2,000 being a 

not uncommon yield. Ata small place called Mandurin, situated on 
the St. Johns river, thirty-five miles om its mouth, there were annu- 
ally produced 1,500,000 oranges. At other Dieser such as St. Augus- 
tine, there was a yield of evena Sctlak er. 

he cold of the winter of 1835 se fiauely affected thg vitality and 
Prosperity of the trees throughout the peninsula. But the great draw- 
back now to their successful culture, is Looe the orange insect 
or Coccus. ‘This insect appeared so as to be felt about the year 1838, 
and its increase and distribution since "het worked most lamentable 
effects. Section after section has yielded to its ravages, and those fine 
groves above ort ued have become nearly ruined. The trees seem 
blasted, and only yield a very small quantity of fruit. Some of the 
groves S valieg are now completely deserted; all hopes of an exter- 
mination of the pest being relinquished. Some trees that I examined 
Seemed completely covered, trunk, limbs, leaves, and fruit, with this 
insect, and it is not at all strange that the vitality of the trees yields to 
Such a draft upon its juice 

areful, from scientific foaiiua: not to lose so excellent an opportu- 
bity Ang the study of the animal, and desirous, from practical reasons, 
to out, if possible, a means for its extermination,—this insect has 
received no little attention from me. _[t.is exceedingly small and insig- 


females about . zy Of an inch in length. On this account, iis anatomy 
and physiology “could be successfully studied only by the microscope ; 
t the results afforded have well repaid the labor thus bestowed. 
These results are certainly sufficiently important for a special consider- 
_ Ation, which I propose to Biv e them, at some future time. It will suf- 
or me to say here eke conditions of their reproduction are 
Temarkable, and quite Recrabic for the prodigious saihiplaceny of this 


412 Correspondence of J. Nickles. 


animal. The life of the females is almost vegetative; with an out- 
ward form so undeveloped as to quile resemble a larva, she fastens 
herself to the leaf or bark, and, drawing the juices therefrom, develops 
her ovaries, successive litters of eggs being formed ; and, as the condi- 


impregnate the females. The means I shall recommend for a removal 
of this pest, will be based upon a consideration of the intimate econ- 
omy of the animal. 


Correspondence of M. Jerome Nickles, dated Paris, February 27, 1854. 


At one of its late sessions, the Academy of Sciences awarded the 
annual prizes to authors of works on different subjects proposed Dj 
and also * encouragements” to those who have distinguished themselves 
by researches in their own proper domain. As the list of prizes is 
long, we will only mention those of more special interest. 

1. ‘The Academy awarded the prize in Mechanics to Felix Fro 

pe 


4 
moderateur,” brought forward by him in 1836 and 1837, the use of 
which has now become general; ( i i 


report upon them was made by the distinguished engineer and mecha- 
nician, M. Combes, at this moment President of the Academy of Sciences. 


the application of steam to navigation and to naval force. Sine this 
epoch, until 1848, great improvements have taken place, but they were 
not first put in practice in France; they were brought out in America 
and England. But now, by the construction and success of the “ Ne: 
poleon,” a vessel of the line with sails and steam, the end of the prize 
has been completely attained. The Academy has consequently assigned 
the prize (1) to M. Dupuy de Léme, officer of the naval Engineer COFPS, 
for devising and constructing the ship Napoleon with sails and steam 
having a screw propeller, which unites in a remarkable degree rapid 


manufacturing establishment of Indret, for having calculated the theory 

of, and constructed, the mechanism of the Napoleon, and for having» in 
* In awarding the prize to M. Franchot, the Academy does not touch the q! a 

of priority as to hot-air engines, it being well known that M. Franchot in this 

has others before him. ne 


Award of Prizes by the Academy of Sciences. - 413 


connection with M. Bourgois, made the experiments with the screw re) 
peller, the results of which are now the rule with engineers. (3.) T 
M. Bourgois, Captain in the Navy (“de fregate”) for his labors on the 
screw propeller, and for his views on the progressive gee of 
the existing naval marine into a mixed marine of sails and s - The 
Report made by M. Charles Dupin, is extremely i airoainnc as iat 
the ‘aloedd of steam navigation, and we regret that we cannot find place 
for it 

The elation ee in 1852 for the physical sciences was the fol- 
lowing: “ To discover by direct observations and exper ment the mode 


the remarkable Report of M. de Quatrefages, the Academy awarded 
the prize to M. van Beneden, Professor at the University of Louvain 
(Belgium), and made honorable mention of M. Kiichenmeister of Zit- 
tau (Saxony). 

The prize in Experimental Physiology has been awarded to M. Claude 
Bernard for his dis sneer Ty with ma to the influence, which the cer- 
vical portion of the Gre eat Sympath c Nerve exerts on the tempera- 
ture of the parts, to which its atedes are distributed, accompanying the 
arterial vessels. 

aliens prize has been given for the Traité de Chimie Anatomique 

et Physiologique of MM. Robin and Verdeil, on account of the new 

facts which it contains and the thorough manner in which chemical 
‘acts in = relation to medicine are presente 

e prizes, there are also, the medals awarded to MM. de 

Scien rt ce Luther and Hind for the discovery of five new 

planets; a prize to M. Fontaine and M. Machecourt for a parachute for 

the use of oa an “ — to M. Chuard for his attempts 


*‘ Etudes sur le drainage au point de vue pratique et adminis- 
traf.” 

Among the subjects of _— offered we mention only those pertain- 
ing to the eR sciences 

1. For 1856.—A rigorous and methodical investigation into the 
metamor otihiex and bags of the Infusoria properly so called, 
(the Polygastrica of M. Ehr g) 

2. For 1855.—An sinbiline of the laws governing the distribution 
of inci in the different 9 ere strata in their order of superpo- 
sition; and a discussion of the question of their appearance or disap- 

france, successive or ices 
: research into the nature of the relations existing between the aoe 
nt and past states of the organic kingdo 

Another for 1856.—The determination, gost the study of the dae 
Yelopment of the embryo in two species, one taken from the class of 
Vertebrata, and the other pt from the —— or Articulata, of the 
Proper foundation for comparative embryolo 

Pat prizes for either of the above isa nh medal of 3000 francs 


eee 1854. gies saad 


414 Correspondence of J. Nicklés. 


A medal of gold, of 800 francs, is decreed each year to the work, 
rinted or in manuscript, which appears to have contributed the most to 
the Progress of Experimental Physiology. 

A gold medal of the value of 2500 francs, is offered for 1856, for 
the best work on the mode of fecundation of eggs, and the structure 
of the organs of generation, in the principal natural groups of the class 
of polyps, or of that of Acalephs. 

A large number of prizes are offered in mathematics, medicine and 

gy, and NOTHING for physics, chemistry or mineralogy ; it 
would.seem as if these sciences had no existence. It is true that the 
Academy of Sciences of Paris has little to show among the great dis- 
coveries which physics and chemistry have accomplished in these later 


action on the part of the Academy. 


son of the illustrious zoologist, and who should not be confounded with 
the botanist, M. Auguste de St. Hilaire, to whom we have above alluded. 
M. Is. G, St. Hilaire is Professor of Zoology at the Jardin des Plantes, 
and for a long time he has prepared himself for the noble work which, 
aided by several other savants and the principal great proprietors od 
France, he is about to undertake. The end of the Society is to promote 
(1) the introduction, acclimation and domestication of species of animals 
either useful or ornamental. (2.) The perfection and multiplication 
of new varieties, introduced or domesticated. The number of members 
of the Society is not limited, and foreigners may unite in it 4 
among the latter, there are already. Prince Demidoff, MM. Graélls, 
Ramon de la Sagra, Vilanova of Madrid, and a large number © Bel- 


an Dp : 
Artificial Production of Pleochroism in Crystallized Substances. 
The influence which small quantities of a foreign substance chemically 
inert, exert upon the physical properties of bodies, as their density, 
index of refraction and angle of polarization, has long been known. 
Some years since,* I showed that these causes act also on the angles 
of crystals, and at times produce modifications as great as 2 change 
f the type and system of crystallization, and thus may g seis 
dimorphism.+ Since then M. Hugard has observed facts of a similar 


* Comptes Rendus de I’Acad. des Sci., 1848. 
+ Comptes Rendus de Laurent, ete, 1850, and Annalen de Ch. et de Phys, 1858 


has 


Derivatives of Nitrotartaric Acid. 415 


kind in sulphate of strontian, and M. G. Rose, in tetradymite; accord- 
ing to the latter, foreign matters cause the’ ging ee of tetrady- 
mite to vary nearly 3 degrees from that of the pure meta 

In view of such facts, my opinion appears less exequedand than at 
first. ‘The two forms of dimorphous bodies are in general approximate 
forms, whose prisms, although pertaining to distinct systems, differ be- 


presides in crystallization, so as to give ne waving what is needed 
to cause them to pass from one system to a 

Should a new planet suddenly appear in our panes all the other plan- 
ets would feel it as much as if a planet were withdrawn. A crystal is in 
my view a planetary system formed of atomic planets 1 in motion; for- 
eign molecules or planets abruptly introduced, bring in their own attrac- 
tion and proper movements, and impress on the other atoms another 


t the coloring material that was eliminated entirely . some 
¢rystallizations in pure water. on the co e substance is 
tive em ; for change either totally or partially. 


have illustrated fen glycocoll and its combinations, oxalate and chlor- 

hydrate of methylammine, e 
lt is not my intention at this time to touch on these nessa They 

have been called up by the reading of an important paper by M. Senar- 


with wrod, changed to ore by some ea of ammonia. 


leisure hours to science, has brought out several new facts of interest. 
He has observed that the nitrotartaric acid which he has obtained, de- 
composes ms tpn in water, producing an acid which he cats tar- 
tronic acid, CeHsO10. Heated to 160° C., it loses carbonic acid and 
leaves a residue which appears to Single to CaH2Os ; this in con- 
tact with potassa affords a salt, the acid of which has the cee 
CsH40Oc and is ves with slycollic acid, extracted from t r 
of gelatine. This a orms an amid which is not the sugar of dela 
tine although like ii in rent pies Glycollamid is an isomere of gly- 
Cocoll, just as lactamid is an isomere of alanine. . Dessaignes con- 
Siders the insoluble substance CaH2Os as having the same relation to 
glycollic acid as lactid to lactic acid ; and he hence calls it glycollid. 
On the gluten of wheat.—M. Millon, compelled by his high military 
Position to rather a nomadic life, has for some years suspended the fine 
Tesearches which he had undertaken—researches on the oxydized com- 
3 of nitrogen, chlorine, mercury, nitric ether, also on vegetable 
Physiology, etc., which had given him a high rank among men of sci- 
ence. Removed from his laboratory and sent to Africa, for political 


416 Correspondence of J. Nickles. 


reasons, he has found the means of carrying on some important inves- 
tigations without a chemical laboratory, and he has just now brought 
before the Academy a series of papers which he proposes to present, 
po area the results of some researches on wheat. 

s first memoir, he brings out the important fact that there are 
some reales of wheat, of good “appre that conta in no gluten. me 


which sl niereuts well, was nearly destitute of this important 
ingredient. thus led to examine a quantity of the wheat poor 
in “gluten, and i ine it to be a mixture of rich grains with others 
containing none of this albuminoid substance. Dough made from the 


that which is ren or stale. The ha substance of this nhs 
is ame in wate 
In a second memoir, M. Millon takes up the chemical composition of 
sachs vite a wheat, and he deduces from his results a distribu- 
tion of the wheats—using terms already in maoee tender wheal, an 
hard wheat, the characters of which are as follow 
Tender wheat: Fracture white, ie and fox iteminell the starch 
escaping more or joa abundantly ; a more or less complete gate bare 
ment of the gluten by a soluble aibuminoid principle varying widely in 
the praeron of nitrogen. 
wheat: Fracture horny, semi- translucent, without a starch- 
like spstionnen ; all the nitrogen existing under the form of gluten and 
the weight of it always a little superior to the quantity of albuminoid 
principal represented by the nitrogen ; only small variations in the pro- 
ortion of nitrogen, the amount of which is large. This last charac- 
teristic dees not serve to distinguish the hard wheat, since it is not rare 
to meet with tender wheat containing as much nitrogen as the hard 
wheat, or even more. 
Wheat intermediate between these two eotietioty M. Millon names 
semi-hard wheat, which he describes as follows rade 
Fracture close and less horny than in ies wheat; whitish — 
crushed; a proportion of gluten mixed with the albuminoid principle ’ 
a large proportion of nitrogen, and this nearly consta 
These descriptions are completed by a mention of a external char- 
acters, taken from the volume, color, integuments, etc. His facts aa 
derived mainly from the wheat of Algeria and those of the north 0 
France, and it remains to make the results general, and applicable to 
wheat of whatever origin. 
atural re y of —— at ig pete principle of Hops, 
was first examined by Dr. A. W. Ives, of New York; MM. eit 
Payen, Chevallier aie Sesto have ute — pees with it, — 
fully establishing its chemical constitutio M. Personne, Assis - 
hool of Pharmacy at Satin has ees up the subject, and sven 
a satisfactory solution. ffords 
He has found that when acted upon by boiling water, lupulin & d 
two groups of substances; one obtained by distillation with water aD 
the other by means of steam. 
The former consist of valeric ‘ao. and of valeral or valeric-alde 
The matters which are volatilized only through the action of steam, 


Various Communications. AIT 


consist of an organic and a nitrogenized substance, which the author 
has now under examination. 
arious Communications.—In the name of a Commission consisting 
of MM. Thenard, Balard and General Piobert, M. Balard read a very 
favorable Report on the researches of M. Violette on the carbonization 
of wood by means of over-heated steam, of which we gave an account 
in the number for September, 1853.—M. Payen read a memoir, demon- 
strating the presence of carbonate of lime in vegetables.—A naval 
flicer, M. Tramblay, read a paper on a new apparatus for saving prop- 
i 


mpolsiely the problem of calculating machines: we shall return again 

oO it.—At each session of the Academy, communications flow in from 
the four quarters of the globe both on the subject of the Bréant legacy 
(100,000 francs, to the person who shall discover the cause and cure o 
cholera), and that of the prize proposed respecting the disease of the 


now amounts to thousands. 
In the year X. of the first Ronnivice the French Government founded 
a prize of 60 ,000 francs, to a given to the person who should through 


Sciences. The fact of this offer has recently been called to mind by 
Madame (Ersted, who claims the prize in the name of her late husband, 
M. CErsted. A commission consisting of MM. Pouillet, Becquerel, 
Despretz, Thohare and Regnault, have been charged with the examin- 
ation of this demand. hey nd much embarrassment, since without 
ae the merit of Girsted’s discovery, his is not the only important 
made since “ year 1801. The discoveries of Dav vy, Ampere, 
ig Faraday, Ohm, Morse, Wheatstone, Jacobi, the pile with a 
constant ectaet: discovered by M. Becquerel, the thermo-electric cur- 
Tents discovered by Seebeck,—all show that it would have ek far 
easier to have awarded the prize in 1820 than at the present ii 
Industrial Photometry.—An instrument by Mr. Babinet for exact 
Photometric measurements, has for a long time been used, which is. 
ed on the neutralization of the tints of vocab light, as alicia’ 
in eaccmmetty by Tago. -We have not space for a figs ure and com- 


ing a ground ee at one end, and at see other e d 
an analysing prism of Iceland spar. A pile of plates of glass, serving 
as a polarizer is fixed to the tube so as to form with it dn angle of 35°, 
the angle of polarization of the glass. The light diffused upon the 
ground glass, reaches the eye only after having passed across the pile 
of glass, and is consequently polarized by refraction perpendicularly to 
ak of incidence of the rays. 
The ground glass is for receiving the illuminations for parepacisen, 
is successively illuminated by the lights to be compared. On trav- 
pile of glass blniers she FAAP ght into a condition | 


418 Correspondence of J. Nickles. 


sources of light, as, when they are two jets of gas, or of electric light, 
not easy of access. But it is impossible here to enter into these details. 

On forming vessels of gold by the aid of phosphorus.—The property 
of phosphorus, of precipitating certain metals from their solution has 
long been known; and gold is among the number. M. Levol has used 
this process in forming gold vessels useful in chemical research. He 
takes the perchlorid of gold, and places in it, at the ordinary tempera- 
ture, some phosphorus, moulded of a form convenient to serve as @ 
nucleus fog the vessel of gold. To give the phosphorus the desired 


i 

sary. The precipitation of the gold or the construction of the vessel 
is then begun; and it finally remains only to remove the phosphorus 
by re-melting it and washing by the aid of boiling nitric acid until the 


fabric of wonderful solidity. The author of the'process is M. Pouilly- 
He first metallises the silk, then covers it with a thin layer of copper 


stant success afier the causes of failure are studied out. ; 
Local anesthesis.—The process invented by Mr. Harris enables the 
surgeon to render insensible the part of the body to be ope ed nee 
ecting the rest of it. MM. Nélaton and Paul Dubois, two 
skillful surgeons of Paris have made with the apparatus the following 
periments. ‘After having for five minutes directed a jet of the vapor 
élaton w 


and could not use her arm. The first application of chloroform -— 
made on the armpit. The tumor, although so painful that ‘ could 


Influence of Bismuth on the ductility of Copper. 419 


not bear to have it touched, became so completely insensible, that it 
could be handled without pain, and the woman could faise her arm; 
the insensibility continued for three eek The operation was not per- 
formed that day. When the abscess was at its head, the chloroformic 
fumigation was renewed, and almost immediately Dr. Dubois plunged 
the knife into the abscess without any sensation on the part of the pa- 
tient; he then turned her attention from it, and after this there was no 
more feeling of pain in the region. Afterwards the small place'on the 


hese facts are strongly affirmed by two hororable physicians who 
also cite the witnesses to the operations. Other doctors have attempted 
10 repeat the experiment; but, as is singular, without success. More 
study of the conditions and may lead to new and complete suc- 
cess; and we hope toa nee such in our next communication 
Influence st bismuth on the ductility of Copper.—There has recently 


liar properties. Although of high per-centage the color is bronze ; it 
is but little ductile ; the fracture is loose and crystalline, which may be 
removed by refining according to the ordinary methods. 

. Levol, Assayer at the Mint of Paris, has analyzed this copper 
before cot after refining, with the following results: 


Crude. Refined. 
Copper, - - - 99-400000 - -  99-480000 
Sulphur, - - - 0314000 - - F 
Lead, . - - - - - 0°362000 
Silver, - - -  0-100000 - - 0-100000 
Bismuth, - . - 0-144000 - - 0048000 
Gold, - - - 0-000833 . - 0-000833 
Antimony, } - trace } - - trace 

rsenic, - - - - 

Loss, - - - 0041167 - - 0:008917 


The lead and trace of arsenic proceeded from the process of refining ; 
and it is found by experiment that the small proportion of antimony, 
arsenic, gold, sve: and lead do not explain the want of ductility 
of the copper. The bismuth, then, only one-third of which had re- 
Sisted oxydation, is the sole cause of the loss of ductility. M. Levol 
has proved the correctness of this conclusion by preparing different 
alloys. It is remarkable that bismuth which has so many points of 


important to examine for bismuth the coppers of commerce, in order 
to search out the cause of the peculiar mechanical a chemical quali- 
Hes ofien found, even in copper of excellent sid agen 


alluded to in the November number of this ane Some new facts 
have been brought out by M. Bobbierre, idea the results before 
Sascha Ay and he has established them by experiments. For the 
Purpose of experiment, he has made with metals either pure or impure, 
ingots of bronze of a a cylindrical form by castings in sand, having 
height of 40 centimeters and weighing 25 kilogra ms. Portions for 
analysis were taken from different parts of the ingot both from nie 


420 Correspondence of J. Nickles. 


surface and interior. The central parts in all cases contained less tin 
than the surface. For example, in the alloy of 97 of copper and 3 of 
tin, the = i pal in tin for the two parts had the ratio of 1 to 3°97. On 
adding to the alluy 1 p. c. of zine, the homogeneity was much increased, 
the ratio were 1: 1-45. 

Under Louis XIV, the cannon were of better ene than those of 
the present ind zinc was mixed with the metal, e condition of 
brass. The trials made in our time have failed pacath the zinc was 
introduced directly into the alloy while in fusion, in which case the 
zine is burnt off and forms no combination with the fused metal. 

Traité des Poisons, ou Toxicologie appliquée a la Medicine ven 
la Physiologie et a la Whdnaucnttane ar le Docteur Ca. FLaNnpiIN. 

vols. in 8vo. Paris, chez Ma llet-Bachelier.—The fires eoldnip of we 


Poisonous substances are not, as has been said, irritants, etc., but sub- 
stances not capable of being assimilated, which penetrate into the or- 

nism by absorption and become an obstacle to chemical or physio- 
logical action on which life depends. Thos the pathological and thera- 
peutic department of poisoning are distinct. ‘These views characterize 
the work. Il the processes for detecting poisons before and wea 
inhumation are given with details, among which are some that hav 
givena * reputation to M. Fiandin, their discoverer. 

Traité de I Electricité thtociane et appliquée ; par AuG. DE LA RIVE. 
2 vols, in vat Paris. Bailliére—The first voles has just appeared 


self, and that nothing is given 3 witht good authority. 
Mécanique Analytique par LaGRance, 3d edit., revue et apnea’ pat 
Berrranp. 2 vols. Paris, chez Majiet-Bachelier. —Lagrang pub- 
lished the first edition of his work in 1788. In 1811, the sracipled 
and general applications, contained in the first edition, were extende 
and completed. Some obscure points remained, which one of our 
youngest geometricians, Joseph Bertrand, Examiner at the Polyseaue® 
School: has elucidated with skill, profiting by the progress which 
science had made since that period. The edition of 1811 having been 
exhausted, the new edition en been received with much favor by 
eenerione and mechanicia : 
Lecons sur la Theorie i heesitling de Vélasticité des corps soli ides, 
par Lamé; Shae Byvo, ¢ avec planches. Paris, chez Mallet-Bachelier.— 


of 


S 3 
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a 
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= 
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= 
ae 
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ta 
addressed to engineers, physicists, goles ts, aed! especialy to pao 
tical men in these arts, who will find in it, rigorous laws on hi 
of elastic forces, and on the oe i fot constructions. 

La régle a caleul expliquée, ou guide du calculate pled a eg de i 


constructing the sliding computing scale, wid of its 


Scientific Intelligence. 421 


SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 


I. Cuemistry anv Paysics. 


1, article! mension of polychroism in crystallized substances.— 
SENARMONT has communicated to the Academy of Sciences the results 
f acaba upon this subject which are very unexpected and im- 
portant. ‘The capital fact which the ips has discovered is, in his 

own words, expressed a s follows: a coloring matter disseminated 


tallizations in pur ay nevertheless communicate to it in the 
highest degree the properties of polychroism, ane a gy of absorb- 
Ing action comp | not superior to tha substances naturally 


colored in which it shows itself in the most a gp manner.’ 

proof of the correctness of this assertion, 1 the author exhibited large 
crystals of nitrate of strontia formed in a concentrated tincture of cam- 
peachy wood tendered purple by a few rops of ammonia. In these 
crystals white light developed by transmission under certain incidences, 
a red color, and “under others a blue or violet. Observed with a doubly 
refracting prism the crystals gave two images, the one red and the other 
dark violet, according to the thickn ness, and these images exchanged 
their colors, passing through ideatiiys as the crystallized plate was made 


to turn in its own plane. Two similar and perfectly transparent lam- 
ine superposed gi a parallel sian allowed a portion of the inci- 
dent white light to pass with a purple color; superposed with a right 


angled area they arrest the light like tourmalines, or at least re- 
duce it to a violet shade so obscure that we may consider the light as 
extinct. Finally we may detach from these crystals perfectly pure and 
homogeneous plates slightly inclined to the optic axes. By placing 
late very near the eye and using white natural rate we see 
ae. | in the direction of each of the. axes, a brilliant orange spot 
ltaversed by a hyperbolic branch. These open to the right and left of 
the principal section under the form of curved brushes composed of 
two equal parts of violet and sombre blue and dividing the field of the 
Plate into two regions in which the purple tints regularly degenerate on 
th sides of their common limit. The dark tufts interrupted by the 
luminous spot are moreover fringed towards the point with a little yel- 
low and blue, colors which are altogether local, and which arise mani- 
festly from the dispersion of the optic axes corresponding to the differ- 
ent colors. hese phenomena are characteristic of polychroism in 
crystals = a4 optic axes, and perfectly similar to those which Brew 


The Rathoe ened similar results with other coloring matters and 
other crystals, and p romises more ample details hereafter.— Comptes 
» XXXViii, 101, Janvier, 1854. 

[Note.—The results obtained by Senarmont clearly demonstrate that 
the existence of polychroism in crystals by no means necessarily im- 
Plies their chemical SS iecenait, since Bs, polychroism may in any 

Szconp = Vol. XVII, No. 51.—May, 1 54 


422 Scientific Intelligence. 


case be produced by the mechanical admixture of foreign coloring 
matter. Is it not possible that the difficulty of expressing the composi- 
tion of certain minerals by chemical formulas may arise from such aa 
admixture of coloring matter, the optical characters of these minerals 
having hitherto entirely misled us ?—w. G. 

. Rate of transmission of impressions made upon the nerves.— 
Hetmuoutz has communicated to the Physico-Agricultural Society of 
Konigsberg a paper on the methods of measuring very small portions 
of time, and on their application to physiological purposes. ‘The au- 
thor alludes in the first place to the remarkable difference observed by 
astronomers between the observations of different individuals and 
termed by them the personal equation. ‘The measurements of eac 


tus of Siemens for the measure of the velocity of a musket or cannon 
ball is next described in its general features. This apparatus only dif- 


takes place at the instant of this passage. In this manner the me du- 
ring which the ball traverses a space of half a line may be measured. 
The author next alludes to the principle of the revolving mirror due to 
Wheatstone, and used with so much success by Fizeau and Foucault. 
Finally he gives an account of the method of Pouillet as modified an 

used by himself. This consists in causing the galvanic current to act 
upon an oscillating magnet, observing this magnet by Gauss and We- 
ber’s method, and determining the constant factor necessary 10 convert 
differences of oscillation into differences of time. In this manner ac 
curate determinations could be made up to the zgdgath of a second of 
time. The physiological questions which the author sought to solve 
were these. In the transmission of intelligence, is a measurable ime 
necessary for the ends of the nerves 10 communicate to the brain the 


distant muscle? By operating with the muscle of a frog severed from 
the body of the animal but connected with the nerves proceeding from 
it, the author found that the activity of the muscle is by 90 means In- 
stantaneous, but appears sometime after the excitation of the — 
i afier- 


wards. The object was to show that the different stages of activity 0 
the muscle take place later when the excitation has to pass throug 
greater length of nerve, and this is actually the case. ‘The most prob 
able value of the velocity of propagation in the motor nerves of the 
frog was found to be 26-4 metres or about feet per second. 
results of the author’s experiments upon the human subject were ae 
follows: The intelligence of an impression made upon the ends ms 
nerves in communication with the skin is transmitted to the brain Wi 


Chemistry and Physics. 423 


a velocity which does not vary in different individuals, nor at different 
limes, of about metres, or 195 feet per second. Arrived at the 
brain an interval of about ;4th of a second passes before the will, even 
when the atiention is sirung to the uttermost, is able to give the com- 
mand to the nerves that certain muscles shall execute a certain motion. 
This interval varies in different persons, and depends chiefly upon the 
degree of attention. It varies also at different times in the case of the 
same person. When the attention is lax, it is very irregular, but when 


In all therefore from the excitation of the sensitive nerves till the mov- 
ing of the muscle 14 to two-tenths of a second are consumed. [For 


more ample details and for much matter of a highly suggestive char- 
acter, we must refer to the original lecture.]—L. §& E. Phil. Mag., 
Nov., 1853. 

3. Preparation of large crystals of sulphate of todo-quinine for 

optical purposes.—Herapatu has succeeded in obtaining crystals of 
this.very interesting and valuable substance of sufficient size to be sub- 
stituted for tourmaline in polarizing light. For the details of the pro- 
cess however, we must refer to the original paper—L. & E. Phil. 
Mag., Nov., 1853. 
4. On the law of induction in magnetic and paramagnetic subsian- 
ces.—PiucKer has communicated an elaborate memoir on this subject 
from which we shall content ourselves with abstracting the summary of 
results. These are as follows: 

(1.) In all magnetic and diamagnetic substances the same general 
law gives the intensity of the induced magnetism as a function of the 
exciting force. For each substance this law is particularized by the 
values of two constants. Of these two constants the one gives, as the 
inducing force vanishes, the ratio of this force to the induced magnet- 
ism (constant of induction), and the second determines the resistance 
which prevents the induced magnetism from increasing proportional to 
the inductive force (constant of resistance 

(2.) For every substance there is a po 
Constantly approximates as the inducing force increases. 

Diamagnetic substances (Bismuth, Phosphorus,) so far as the 
law of the imensity of their excitation is concerned, behave precisely 
like magnetic substances, though they exert a directly opposite action 
Upon the inducing magnetic pole. This similar behavior compels us, 
in my view, to assnme that the condition of a diamagnetically excited 
body is in itself in no wise different from the condition of a magneti- 
cally excited body, that furthermore polarity is also present in the exci- 
tation of diamagnetic substances, but that this is called forth by an in- 
duction which is the opposite to that which occurs in magnetic bodies. 

‘The curves which represent the law of induction for diamag- 
Netic substances are surrounded on both sides by the curves for mag- 
Netic substances. They show that the resistance which is opposed to 
the excitation of diamagnetic bodies is less than in most magnetic sub- 
stances, but by no means vanishes; on the contrary it is greater than 
in oxygen and hydrate of oxyd of cobalt. 


— 


int of saturation to which it 


A24 Scientific Intelligence. 


(5.) There can be no assumption of a specific magnetism in a sub- 
stance in a general signification as we speak of specific gravity. Co- 


balt is precisely as magnetic as iron, when we use a definite magnetic 


each other by the multiple 24, according as we use a single element or 


great as with the first. For oxygen and bismuth this ratio descends to 
bout 1°9 and 1- This partly explains the fact that while Faraday’s 
estimate of the magnetism of oxygen, with a nearly equal force and 


(7.) Those substances which oppose a lesser resistance to magnetl- 


at pleasure by changing the poles of the electro-magnet when conta! 
in an indifferent glass sphere.. 

In conelusion the author promises us a memoir on the nature of the 
coercive force.—Pogg. Ann., xci, 1, Jan., , 
_ 5. On the laws of the attraction of electro-magnets.—DUB has — 
lished a continuation of his interesting and valuable researches on etl 
netic forces. Before stating however the results of this we 

. : + 


traction, and sustaining power in electro-magnets. By magnetism he 
understands the magnetic excitation of a piece of soft iron by ” ae 
vanic current; Lenz and Jacobi measured this by means of the induced 


Chemistry and Physics. 425 


current excited by the vanishing of the magnetism, to which it is pro- 
portional. Whena second bar of soft iron is caused to approach the 


squares of the currents it is clearly necessary to distinguish between 
these two cases of attraction in contact and attraction at a distance. 
The author gives the following summary of his results: 

(1.) The attraction of U-shaped electro-magnets with an equal num- 
ber of windings of the electro-magnetic spirals is proportional to the 
squares of the magnetizing current force. 

(2.) The attraction o magnets is, with equal currents, proportion- 
al to the square of the number of windings of the magnetizing spirals. 

(3a.) The attraction of U magnets is proportional to the square of 


d U mag 


nets an agn 
multiplied by the square of the number of windings. 


rals of an equal number of windings closely surrounding the core, is 
accurately proportional to the square roots of the diameters of these 
cylinders. 

(5.) For the particular case in which the surface of contact does not 
disturb the result, the attraction and the sustaining force are, with equal 
magnetizing forces, proportional to the diameters of the bar or U mag- 
nets. 


(6.) The attraction of bar and U electro-magnets, with equal mag- 
netizing forces, increases the nearer the whole of the windings are to 


(7.) The attraction, like the sustaining force of U electro-magnets, 
ceteris paribus, remains the same whatever be the distance of the 
branches of the magnet. 

(8.) The length of the branches of a U electro-magnet has no influ- 
ence on its attractive or sustaining force if the windings of the spiral 
surround its whole length. 

In addition to these laws the author has found that the attraction 
which a helix or spiral exerts upon a soft iron bar placed in its axis 

lows the same law as an electro-magnet, so that we have 

(9.) The attraction of a spiral is proportional to the square of the 
magnetizing current multiplied by the square of the number of wind- 
ings. — Pogg. Ann., xc, 248, 436, Oct. and Nov., 1853. 

6. Identity of Niobium and Pelopium.—H. Rosé has communicated 


Continued researches have, however, completely established the fact 
that pelopic and tantalic acids are essentially different, while between 
4 


426 Scientific Intelligence. 


niobic and pelopic acids there exists a remarkable and unexpected con- 
i The remarkable peculiarities of the chlorids of niobium and 
pelopium long since attracted the author’s atiention. — It will be remem- 
bered that the only method yet given for the separation of these metals 
consisted in tuking advantage of the difference in the volatility of their 
chlorids. Chlorid of pelopium being orange red and more volatile than 
chlorid of niobium. Every time, however, that the white chlorid of 
niobium was converted into niobic acid, mixed with carbon and heated 
in a current of chlorine, a quantity of the orange red chlorid of pelo- 
pium was formed, and ti finally appeared afier innumerable most care- 
ful and laborious experiments, that the one chlorid became converted 
into the other by absorbing or losing chlorine; chlorid of pelopium 
always yielding chlorid of niobium in greater or less quantity. A small 
quantity of niobic acid considered perfectly pure was mixed with a very 
large quantity of sugar and gradually carbonized. Th 
mass was again mixed with sugar and charred 


. 


“ 


niobic acid the following precautions were necessary. 1. A large pro- 
portion of carbon in comparison with the acid applied. 2. A ver 

eareful expulsion of all moisture by strongby igniting the mixture In 
dry carbonic acid. 3. A complete expulsion of the carbonic acid afier 
the mixture had been cooled in this gas by a very rapid current of chlo- 
rine which was only introduced afier all the atmospheric air had been 
driven out of the chlorine apparatus. 4. Finally a very gentle heating 


orange chlorids. From these experiments it is clear thi 
pelop‘c acids are derived from one and the same metal. 
very remarkable and wholly without analogies among other 0: 


hat it Is 
o in two 
I} i 


ses niobium. ‘The former pelopic acid now becomes 
as the highest state of oxydation, but the author does not p an 
pvt at present for the former niobic acid.— Pogg. Ann. xc, 456, Nov-s 


s 


Chemistry and Physics. 427 


%. Preparation and Properties of metallic Aluminum.—Sr. Ciair 
Devitte has communicated a ‘memoir on aluminum which contains 


4 
afterwards fusing the globules into one mass under the mixture of com- 
mon salt and chlorid of aluminum. As thus prepared it was silver- 
white, malleable and ductile, and had the fusing point of silver. Its 


ing. hts density was 2°56; it was a good conductor of heat and could 
be fused and poured out in the air without becoming sensibly oxydized. 


minum was acted upon by common metals at high temperatures and 
hoped that further experiments would point out a simple and cheap 
method of procaring in large quantities and at a low rate a meta 
likely to be useful in the aris. ‘The Academy unanimously voted that 
a sum of money should be placed at the disposal of M. Deville to aid 
him in the prosecution of his experiments.—Comples Rendus, Feb. 6th, 
1854. 


Note.—The propertiesof aluminum as described by Deville, differ 
in some particulars from those of the metal obtained by Wohler. us 
Vohler’s metal slowly evolved hydrogen. when placed in boiling water 
and was very readily dissolved by a dilute solution of caustic potash. 


8. Preparation of Aluminum by electric deposition.—Gork has ad- 
dressed 10 the editors of the L. and E. Phi 
asserts that aluminum and even silicon may be thrown down from their 
solutions in a coherent state by feeble electric currents. Hydrate of 
alumina was dissolved in muriatic acid and a porous cup contuining 
dilute sulphuric acid placed in the mixture. A plate of zine was placed 
in the acid and a plate of copper in the solution of alumina, the two 
i wire. Afier a few hours a lead colored deposit 


cf 
S 
42 
G 
et ae 
aa 
> 
oO 
2 
D 
fos 
o 
vant 
- 
s 


The result was hastened by warming the solutions, and the 
experiment succeeded with other solutions of alumina. With a small 
*s battery the effect was produced much more rapidly. 
When a solution of soluble glass was employed, a single Smee’s 
battery threw down a nearly silver-white metallic film which the author 
onsidered to be silicon, but which certainly possesses no analogy with 
the silicon obtained by purely chemical processes.—L. and hil. 
Mag., March, 1854. 


Sone 


428 Scientific Intelligence. 


9. On the arsen-ethyls——Lanpott has studied the combinations of 
ethyl with arsenic, which are obtained by the action of iodid of ethyl 
upon an alloy of arsenic and sodium. Of these compounds two, namely, 
arsenbiethy! and arsentriethyl, are to be regared as analogues o kak- 
odyl, while the third, arsenethylium, is an ammonium in which nitro- 
gen is replaced by arsenic and hydrogen by ethyl. We omit the de- 
pounds, and pass to the description of their constitution and properties. 
Arsenbiethy! is a faintly yellow colored liquid, which strongly refracts 
light, and which possesses an extremely disagreeable penetrating odor 
of garlic. It boils between 185° and 190°C. Exposed to air it bursts 


chlorine, iodine, bromine, &c., gives with 1 equivalent of oxygen 
a powerful base which forms with acids both acid and né ral _— 
These cqmpounds are remarkably susceptible of crystallization, an 


remain unchanged in the air. They are all without smell, have a 


bitter almonds. By the action of nitric acid at a gentle heat the new 
alcohol is converted into oil of bitter almonds ; the action of chromic 
acid converts it into benzoic acid. The vapor of the alcohol passed 
over red hot platinum sponge yields an oil which is specifically lighter 
than water and is probably C1zHe. By passing muriatic acid gas eid 
the alcohol the liquid separates into two layers, of which the upper 18 
the chlorid C1all7Cl. This is a highly refracting, strong-smel'in 
liquid, heavier than water, and boiling between 180° and 185°. With 
caustic potash it gives chlorid of potassium and the alcohol is regen’ 


Chemistry and Physics. 429 


This is a colorless liquid, having an aromatic odor, and boiling at 210°. 
With caustic potash it yields acetic acid, and the alcohol.—Ann. der 
Chemie und Pharmacie, \xxxviii, 129, October, 1853. 

1 ormalion of nitruret of benzoyl from hippuric acid.—Lim- 
PRicut and von Ustar have found that when hippuric acid is heated 
in a tubulated retort, the acid fuses at 130°, gives off a little benzoic 
acid at 210°, and boils at 240°. The only volatile products of this dis- 
tillation are benzoic acid, colored faintly red, traces of prussic acid, 
anda liquid which proves to be nitruret of benzoyl, CisHsN. The 
constitution and properties of this body correspond perfectly with those 
of the nitruret obtained by Fehling by the distillation of benzoate 
of ammonia.—Ann. der Chemie und Pharmacie, |xxxviii, 133. 

W. G. 


dinary flint glass prisms ; by Ocpen N. Roov.—Herschel in his treatise 
ines in 


sessed of a prism of even comparable flint glass, | was led ‘to try what 
could be done with articles of poorer quality. Two flint glass prisms 
having angles of 60°—such as are ordinarily sold by opticians, and 


diameter, through which sunlight was admitted ; the room not being 
darkene n this manner about twelve or fifieen lines could plainly 
seen by the ~haked eye: the principal of these were D in the or- 


trum should rather be expanded. 
onD Senses, Vol. XVII, No. 51.—May, 1854. 55 


430 Scientific Intelligence. 


Light from a white cloud was next employed with the same prism, 
the slit having a diameter of =,th of an inch, and being distant from 
the prism about 12 feet. D, F, with three or four of the lines to the left 
of F’, and the strong line in the blue, could thus easily be made out with 
the nuked eye: when magnified by the telescope about forty lines 
could be counted. In each case, the lines were shown to a number of 


none of them would give a defined image by total reflexion, and some 
would scarcely give an image that could be recognized. Sunlight was 
employed, the slit, &e. being as above: to the naked eye one of the 
prisms exhibited five fixed lines, two of the prisms showed four lines, 
four of the prisms showed three lines, four showed two lines, and the 
remaining two showed one line. : 

When the light from a white cloud was used, eleven of these prisms 
showed two lines, viz. F and the strong line in the blue; two showed 
‘three lines, viz. D, F, and the line in the blue. In examining the light 
from the clouds these prisms were not placed at more than four feet 
from the slit. . 

It would seem from these experiments then, that the real difficulty 's 
to find a flint glass prism which will mot exhibit some of the fixed lines, 
provided its dispersive power is sufficiently high. 

New Haven, Feb. 28, 1854. 


Il. Mineratocy anp Geronoey. 


1. Appendix to Observations on the Homeomorphism of some Min- 
eral Species ;* by James D. Dana.—In order to exhibit the true erys- 
tallographic relations of bexagonal and dimetrie mineral species, they 
are presented together in the following tables. The hexagonal species 

in five groups, and the relations of these groups are shown DY the 
symbols of planes at the head of the column. oe 

As dimetric and hexagonal forms are alike in having the lateral axes 
equal, the relation between the crystals of these two systems are | 
shown by the inclination of the base of the prism ona pyramidal plane. 
these angles are the same, since in one system the lateral axes are 90°. 
garded as crossing at angles of 60° and in the other at angles of 9° 

* Page 210 of this yolume. ae 


. 


Mineralogy and Geology. A431 


If we conceive of an ellipsoid of revolution tangent at its sides to the 
several faces of the prism, as the molecule of each form, it is plain 
that the angles alluded to afford a correct exhibition of the relations of 
such molecules as respects their dimensions, and therefore a true repre- 
sentation of the relations of the forms. ' 

There are blanks in the Tables, which are easily filled by calcula- 


groups, and exhibit their relations. The Corundum group was first 
brought to its present extent by the investigations of G. Rose, who 
added to it the rhombohedral metals, with tetradymite and red zinc ore. 
The earliest recognition of the relations of corundum, specular iron 
and ilmenite, was made by the distinguished chemist and mineralogist 
of Munich, Prof. von Kobell, in an important paper in the Jahrbuch 
der Chemie und Physik of Dr. F. W. Schweigger-Seidel for 1832,* in 
which he was also the first to point out the homa@omorphism of apophyl- 
lite and anatase; of copper pyrites, braunite, scheelite, scheeletine, 
wulfenite, cerasine, idocrase, uranite and mellite, besides other facts of 
interest. , 

The following important conclusions flow from the Tables. 

A. Hexaconat Sysrem.—(1.) ‘The vertical axis in Section IT is to 
that of Section las 14:1. The species of the two Sections may be re- 
garded as closely related in form if not homa@omorphous. 

2.) The vertical axis of Section IV is to that of Section I nearly as 
3:1, showing again a simple mathematical relation, if not pointing to 
actual equality. 

3.) The fundamental pyramid of Section V, is nearly identical in 
angle with the intermediate pyramid 2-2 of Section I, 4-2 of Section II, 
in 2.2 of Section IV. 

(4.) The Rhombohedral angle of Section IV, is near 90°—or mostly 
between 84° and 88°; and this approximation to the angle of a cube is 
its characteristic. The pyramid 1(1P) should consequently approach 

28’, (the angle of a monometric octahedron,) in its basal angle ; 
it actually varies for the species from Corundum to Iridosmine from 
113° to 117°. 

(5) In Section V, the basal angle of pyramid 1 is near 90°, and 
this appears to be the characteristic of the species. Hence the Rhom- 
bohedral angle of the Calcite series is near 105°. Hence this rhombo- 
hedral angle is a common one among rhombohedral! species. , 

6.) Section IIL in its rhombohedral angle approaches 90° as nearly 
‘as Section IV, but differs in having the angle greater than 90° instead 
of Ides. Its vertical axis is most nearly related to that of Section I, it 
being approximately twice as long as in that Section. 


5 d E 
iv, Heft.7, 1832; paper entitled, Beitrag zur isometrischer und hombometrischer 
ihen. he writer's attention has been directed to this paper since the re- 
i plished; but he has not yet been able to 


+ Neues Jahrbuch der Chemie und Physik, of Dr. F. W. Schweigger-Seidel, Band 
‘ honk 


reihen. 
sults on page 210 of this volume were pu 
consult it, except at second hand. 


432 Scientific Intelligence. 
HEXAGONAL SYSTEM. 
I. O:1 0:2 |0:3}0:1-2; O:2-2 
Coquimbite, 151° 00’ 
ryl, 0° 8/ | 180° 57’1120° 315389 29’ | 135° 4’ 
Pyrosmalite, 148° 30’. | 129° 18/1118° 83/1152° 37 | 83°: 18/ 
Eudialyte (R), 148° 38’ | 129° 21’|118° 40152910’ | 188° 27’ 
Dioptase (R), [148° 88’ | 129° 2917/1189 40//152° Lu’ | 188° 27’ 

Il. 0:2 O:4-})0:2 | O: $2 
Apatite, 150° 354} 131° 35’ |12 ° €6 | 185° 41’ 
Levyne(R), {150° 48/ | 131° 43’ |12 ° 44° | 186° 50’ 
eho 150 13:2 637 |120° 62.0" 
|Pyromorphite, 150° 27’ | 131° 26’ |120° 28’ | 135° 32’ 

Il. O:4 | O:1 10:3 |0:$-2| O:1-2 

uartz (R) 147° 35’ | 128° 13’ |117° 42’1151° 12’ | 192017" 
Chabazite (R), |148° 32’ | 129° 157|118° 25'1152° 5’ | 188° 20’ 
elite ( 147° 
Susannite (R), |147° 26’ | 128° 03’ 151°. Bf): (3689. 
Cinnabar (R) 146° 32’ | 127° 06’ 15u° 13’ 18t° 87 
5 126° 57’ 

IV 74 O:% | O:1/0:4-2) O:§-2 
COrundum (R), |152° 19’| 133° 37’ |122° 26’ 34’ | 187944" 
Specular Iron( R) ; 122° 80/1155° 874/| 187° 49” 
(ene (R), 122° 80/1559 3874/1879 49” 
Willemite (R), 122° 1841559 27’ | 137° 85’ 
Phenacite (R), 123° 1611569 15’ 138° 39’ 
Bismuth (R), 123° 36'1156° 31’ 139° 1’ 

Arsenic (KR), [229° 971155° 20 137°: 26" 
Antimony (R), 128° 32/|156° 28’ 138° 56’ 
‘ellurium (R), 122° 24/1155° 33 187° 42’ 
ridosmine (R), 121° 83’ 
fetrady mite (It), 118° 38/ 
ine Ore, 123° 5//156° 5’ | 188° 27’ 
Jopper Mica ( R). 124° 2.9! 
(RB), ajii9° 
¥i O:3- :$2 0:22; 0: 
ot 149° 53’ 115° 53411538° 20° 
rreenock 154° 397 
sreithauptite, 153° 38° 
Joprer Nickel, 154° 41’ 
odid of Silver,* 154° 49/ 
Vepheline, 154° 134/ 
Jancrinite vid 
arisite, 
‘ourmaline, 149° 10’ 2° 40’ 
Caleite(R), 150° 20/ 153° 45/ 
Dolomite (R), 154° 20/ 
Magnesite (R), 154° 57’ 
Spathie Iron (R) 154° 43’ 
Smithsonite (R),_ 5°" 
logite (R), 154° 37’ 
Pyrargyrite (R), 155° 32 
Proustite (R,) qr 
|Millerite (R), 
* Relation to G kite is sk by Deseloi Ann. d. Ch, et de 


O:4-2 


116° 37’ 
115° 13’ 
115° 20' 
115° 20’ 


0 :2-2 
114° 27’ 
15° 15" 
114° 19’ 
118° 354’ 


Mineralogy and Geology. A33 


DIMETRIC SYSTEM. 


J 7. 
I. OF bit Os Be] 
Tin, 151° 24’) 132° 31’) 121° 26’ 
| geen "SE 6 FE | 0:1) 0:2 
Zircon, 148° 59’ 137° 50’ | 118° 54’ 
Rutile, 137° 40’ | 118° 46’ 
Cassiterite, 136° 26’ | 117° 43’ 
(Erstedite, 
| ie 
1 ee | | 0:21 O:4i | 
Scapolite, 138° 38’ | 119° 36’ 
Sarcolite, | 38° 25’ | 119° 24° 
Meionite, [138° 43’ | 119° 40/ 
Mellilite, nen 43’ | 118° 48’ 
IV. O:4 O44 Oss 
Apophyllite, 149° 30’ 138° 82’ | 119° 30’ 
Nagyagite, 137° 30’ | 118° 37’ 
Uranite, 137° 27’ | 118° 85’ 
natase 138° 23’ | 119° 297 
Matlockite, 138° 37’ | 119° 34’ 
Calomel, | 138° 56’ | 119° 51’ 
Hausmannite, 140° 17’ | 121° 3’ 
V. | O:rk O:2 
Romeine, 134° 17"| 124° 35’ 
Cerasine, 128° 06’ 
Chiolite, ge ay ae 
Braunite, 125° 40’ | 
Tdoerase, (2)123° 277 
\Copper Pyrites, 185° 25’) 125° 40’ 
?Tin Pyrites, 
Meliite, (1) 188° 27/| 128° 16’. | 
YL O:$ | O:li | | 
Scheelite, 133° 38/| 123° 59’ | 
Scheeletine, 132° 5’| 1229383’ | 
Wulfenite, | 122° 26’ | | 
Fergusonite, |. 794° 20 | 


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9 
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ed 
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4 
m 
= 
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fas) 
< 
19) 
a 
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i.) 
s 
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2. 
TM 
a) 
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3 
5 
— 
7] 
zt 
3 
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- 


‘of Section Il nearly as 1:14; of Section II to that of Section IV, as 
1:2; and as it is somewhat hypothetical whether, in the last two, 4 or 
1 be correctly the fundamental plane, the relation may in fact be that 
‘of equality. For a like reason, since 2 may be correctly plane 1, Sec- 


ee: 
oe 


2 ee 


434 Scientific Intelligence. 


tion III may also fall into the same category ; so that Sections I, Il, ms 
may form a single homa@omorphous Group. 

(2. ) Sections V and VI have the same relations to one another as itl 
fe! IV, and may constitute a Second yaaa ri s Grou 

(3.) ‘In this Second Group, the basal angle of the fundamental pie 

mid, 1, is near 109° 28’, and the pyramidal angles also; or in other 
words, the furm ee to the monometric octahedron, as is 
been often observ 

(4.) In the First Grou up, the basal angle of the fundamental pyra- 
mid, taking Section Il as the type, is near 90°, or varies between 82° 
and 86°. 

(5.) The first of the two Groups of Dimetric species, corresponds 
in ea ttcheet dimensions with Section V (or Group II) of the flexago- 
nal System, and the second most nearly with Section 1V (or Group 1) 
of the .. see It remains to be shown how far this rela- 


ed it from Mr. Semann, Naturalist at Paris, who has owed me the 
pleasure "of examining it. The following are its character 

Crystals 1 to 2 millimeters oman clustered in a group. Form a right 
2 ah, octahedron, with the sal edges truncated; cleavage none. 


eral deep black ; but sone of the smallest crysials have an olive tint with 
chatoyant bichen: like lustre. Translucent on the edges, and the color 
by transmitted light, brown, inclining tored. Ona ouriaies of fracture, 
the color is zoned with straw yellow, reddish-brown and black ; and 
nearly clear at middle; the brown and black colors are deepest at the 
extremities. Powder pale brown. Surfaces of the crystal, although 
shining, are generally striated, rugose, and present numerous little cave 
pa craiches calcite, and is scratched by fluor: specific gravity at 
Vertleal prism M, 116° 25/; brachydome (top angle) 122° 6’; octa- 
hedron, 127° 10’, 88° 18’, 115° 10’, the last angle over M. 
ented j ina eh he little moisture is disengaged at an incipient red 
heat. B.B. on charcoal it melis, and is partially reduced toa 
of metallic lead enveloped ina black scoria. Afler cooling on char- 


in the reduction flame a glass of a ay chrome-green color, W 
comes orange-yellow in the oxydation flam 
Dissolves in the cold in nitric acid dikited” with 6 times its volume © : 
water, and leaves a residue of brown oxyd of manganese, mixe ed wil 
B reste quantity of siliceous sand from the gangue; the so solution Is 
color On adding sulphuric acid to it, affords an immediate prec ip- 
itate of sulphate of lead. » . 


Mineralogy and Geology. 435 


The following is the mean of two analyses : 


. Oxygen. 
Vanadic acid, - - - 22°46 5°82 3 
Oxyd of lead, - - - 54:70 3°92 2 
Oxyd of zinc, : - - 2°04 
Oxyd of copper. - - - 0:90 
Peroxyd of iron, - - - 1:50 
Protoxyd of manganese, - - 5:32 
Waiter, : . - : 2:20 ’ 
Chlorine, - - - 

Sesquioxyd of manganese, insol. in nit.acid, 6°00 
Siliceous sand, - : - 3°44 
98-88 


2 his compound is a new one among minerals, the author pro- 
poses for it the name of loizite, in honor of M. Descloizeau 
s ient Lake in the Colorado Desert; (Commercial Advertiser, 


California.)—The desert lying on this side of the Colorado river was 
a 


Gorgonio to the eastern side of the mountains, thence along the north- 
ern extension of the Colorado Desert to the emigrant trail leading from 
the Gila river to San Diego. ‘his is a portion of country never before 
explored. ; 
Mr. Wm. P. Blake, the geologist of the expedition, made a geolog- 
ical reconnoissance of the country passed over, and has communicated 
omume 


436 Sanniife I: ateligrnct 


careous incrustation over the oe enlon' of the rocks below the 
horizontal line. Big crust was evidently coralline, and had been de- 
posited under water; in its interstices were small spiral shells, similar 
to those inhabiting fresh water lakes. On examining the clay, this also 
was found to contain the shells i in great number, and 1 soon collected 


exceedingly numerous, and portions of the surface were thickly cov- 
ered with shells like the ordinary ‘ fresh water clam.” 

We were traveling in a long, gradually cinandidis valley, extending 
eastward towards the Colorado, and evidently the northern and western 
extension of what has been called the ‘* Colorado Desert.” The south- 
ern side of this valley, along under the bordering range on the south, 
is thickly inhabited in its western part by Indians calling themselves 
Cohunillas.” We passed large villages of them during the day. They 


number of * pale faces” to their hitherto almost “unvisited retreat. 
Many of the men oe often been into the settlements, and had learned 
some Spanish and accumulated quite a stock of second-hand clothing. 
Our coming having been duly heralded by smokes and excited express 
riders from one village to the other, the whole population had collected 
to gaze-upon us in wonder, Old hats and odd buttons seemed to have 


athers lived in the mountains. The waters subsided ‘“ poco poco,” 
(little by little,) and they moved their villages down to the valley it had 
left. Suddenly the great waters returned and overwhelmed them, 
rowning many of their people and oe “aK — to the mountains. 
It is their belief that the waters will again c 
At this part of the valley its width batweed ‘ire bounding se is 
probably fifteen miles, and it here widens towards the south. Our In- 
dian guide refused to accompany us further, and “ mucho malo! [" wes 


ty miles on the opposite side: of the valle On our si ide: it was now 
high above our heads, following all the irregularities and sinuosities of 
the rugged granite ridges. Observing a few miles off a place that ap- 


peared accessible, I started with an assistant and barometer to ascertain 
the elevation of the line. Arriving under it, the rocks that had ap- 
peare diminutive in the distance were found to be Suge blocks © of 

nite, pies: with the coralline growth torte = feet thick. Large 


masses of this had fallen off by its own weight d rolled to the foot 
of the cliff. "by the barometer, the altitude of this — line “js nearly 
that of the sea level. The lowest point of the gi is poy ” 
less than five - tome feet below the water lin ‘ 


Mineralogy and Geology. oe 


The clay surface that has been mentioned, was deposited by the 
ancient lake. It is of great thickness, and now forms the substratum 
of the desert. We found numerous deep ravines extending across our 
course, deeply cut in the clay by floods from the mountains; they 
were generally narrow, but had vertical banks ofien twenty to thirty 
feet high. They could not be seen until we came within a short dis- 
tance, and this often obliged the train to make long and tedious detours. 

The ** New River” of which you speak has been well known to the 
travellers of the desert since its sudden appearance a few years ago. 
The grass that springs up along its banks has hardly an opportunity to 
attain its full growth, as it is rapidly eaten off by the large droves o 
cattle and sheep constantly pouring into California from New Mexico 
and Sonora. 

Ihave reason to believe that this is not the first instance of the 
overflow from the Colorado, and that it once flowed in a much larger 


pools known as the great and the little lagoon,” in December last ; 
there was no water in it, and that in the lakes was green and charged 
with organic matter, but made excellent coffee. 

It is probable that a local change of level produced by earthquakes 
has modified the direction of New River, and the quantity of water 
admitted to its channel. 

Sarthquakes are not uncommon in that vicinity. In Nov. 1852, two 
voleanoes burst out from the surface of the desert, and threw upa 
large column of steam and showers of mud; the country was well 


were also opened. 

I did not find the eastern borders of the ancient lake ; it is beyond 
the Colorado ; its extent and boundaries cannot be precisely determined 
until the maps of the region are completed, but itis probable that its 
area will not be less than 7,500 square miles. 

There were a series of outcrops of marine sedimentary formations 
rising ahove the general surface of the lake bed ; these were filled with 
the most extraordinary concretions of all sizes and shapes. The an- 
cient sea-drift abounds with silicified wood and marine fossils, all highly 

ished by the wearing action of sand. Numerous remarkable ex- 


438 Scientific Intelligence. 


ed on a smaller scale in the valley of the Tulare Lakes, into which the 
waters of the San Joaquin are said to ow when the river is high. 

The Gulf of California has undoubtedly extended far to the North 
of its present limits. Indeed the great ocean once washed the base of 
the Sierra Nevada and hid the interior of the country far from the 
light of day. In the slow, but persistent elevation of the continent 
since the tertiary era, the waters must have necessarily occupied more 
and more narrow limits, retiring from the elevated plain to the deep 
valleys until we find them imprisoned between the mountains of the 
Peninsula and the shores of Sonora. We cannot say that this elevatory 
movement has yet ceased; it is more probable that it still continues, 
although unappreciable during the comparatively momentary existence 
of man. ‘The lake may have been originally cut off from the upper 
part of the gulf by submarine elevation ; but, as the waters covered the 
whole surface, the sands could not have been acted on or drified by 
the northwest winds to form the gapposed barrier, as is suggested by 
your informant. 

4. Quicksilver Mine of Almaden, California; by W. P. Buake, 
(from a letter to J. D. Dana, dated San Francisco, Feb. 14, 1854.)— 
I visited the Quicksilver mine at New Almaden a few days ago, and 
took a general view of it, and the establishment for the reduction of 
the ore. { shall soon visit it again and spend several weeks for the pur- 
pose of making a full examination of the geology of the vein. 

The * Valley of San José’ is properly the southern end of the great 
valley occupied by the Bay of San Francisco. The ground slopes so 
gently towards the bay that it is hardly perceptible, and appears like a 
perfectly level plain ; the portion bordering the water is low and marshy, 


t 
The works (or “* Hacienda”) where the Cinnabar is reduced are two 
or three miles from the broad valley, up one of the small side val- 
leys of the mountains. The small village has the name of New Alma- 
den, and it has few inhabitants that are not employed in or about the 
works or the mine. , 
The mine is about one mile from the works, and high up on the side 
of the mountain. The cinnabar is brought down on mules that carry 
about lbs. each, and make two trips a ay. ae : 
‘ I expected to find the ore in close relation with the deposit of ni 
tary age, and among bituminous shales, but in this I was disappo!n'ee- 
All the tertiary beds appear to have been washed away, and hard seT- 
pentine and trappean rocks constitute a large part of the ridge in ah 
the ore is found. There are however large outcrops of sedimentary 
rocks, composed of alternating beds of argillaceous shales and 


Se 2 ES aie 


Mineralogy and Geology. A439 


of flint; they are highly tilted and much flexed. They are unlike any 
of the tertiary series that I have seen in the state, and I am inclined to 
refer them to the lower Silurian age. ) 

ore appears to be mingled with the strata of this formation ina 
series of beds and interlaminations. 

The mine and works are now under the management and general 
superintendence of Capt. H. W. Halleck, formerly of the U. 8. Engi- 
neer Corps. An adit level bas been run in for 900 feet, cutting the old 
workings about 200 feet below the former entrance to the mine; this 
adit is 10 feet by 10, and is well timbered. A railroad of 4 feet guage 
has been laid down throughout its length, and all the ore and refuse 
rock of the mine is brought out in cars that are weighed as they pass 
the office of the mine, and pass to the dressing floors, or to the attle 
heap. ‘The irregularities and contorted windings of the excavations of 
the mine can scarcely be imagined ; they extend in all directions. The 
transit between the upper and lower workings is effected by means of 
stairs or rude steps cut in the slopes, often replaced by notched poles 
instead of ladders. ‘The ore has been followed and excavated wherev- 
er it could be found, and occasional pillars are left to support the roof. 

The prevailing opinion among the miners and others appears to be 
that there is no regular vein of the ore—that it is a “ pocket,” a ‘de- 
posit,” &c. ‘ 

The great width and number of the beds has confounded all ideas of 
extension or prolongation in any particular direction, and led to the 
general belief that the bed is “as broad as it is long,” and the mode of 
working conforms to this view. ‘The character of the deposit may not 
be that of a crue vein, but that it has a determinate extension and di- 
rection I have not the slightest doubt, and I had. abundant evidence of 
the fact. There is no reason why systematic mining should not be 
practised, both on the score of economy and safety. 

The ore is divided into lenticular masses by intercalations of rock of 
variable thickness, and these are often filled with seams and veins of 
the sulphuret. 

N 


lines cavities in the masses of cinnabaf, and is then finely crystallized, 
and sometimes contains small quantities of bitumen in cavities, and im- 
planted in globules among the crystals. 

Sulphurets of iron and copper and arsenical pyrites are associates of 
the ore, but occur in very small quantity. Gol is said to have been 
found frequently in small quantities. 1 searched for crystals of cinna- 
bar in vain, it is all massive, but presents various shades of color, and 
fresh fractures possess great brilliancy and beauty. 

The mine is so free from water that the vein is scarcely decomposed 
atany point. If this had been the case, there would probably be so 
interesting mercurial salts formed along the walls. 

The mining is principally performed by Mexicans and by Yaqui 

ians. ese are eG 


_ ® Similar rocks (talcose and argillaceous shales and a Jasper rock) occur north of 
the harbor Francisco; they are more or less metamorphic, and probably not 
iz Oe ee tee! aie Fa vig) 9 


older than stated above by Mr. Blake—s. v. >. 


enh eM oN a SE 


440 Scientific Intelligence. 


miners, and endure much hard labor. One or two Cornish men had 


condensing chambers. Some improvements can yet be made, espe- 
cially in the apparatus for condensation, as a small quantity of mercu- 


coating on their tops. 
I have before me a specimen of cinnabar from a new vein recently 
discovered in Sonora. It has been found in small quantities only, an 


parts of the vein near the surface. They occupy small cavities in the 
— and are apparently derived from the decomposition of the sul- 
phuret. F 

5. Conistoniie.—In a recent letter from R. P. Gree, Jr., (dated Man- 
chester, Eng., March 17,) we have received a drawing of another crys 
tal of Conistonite, which has on the angles, the planes of a brachydome, 
in addition to those of the figure on p. 133. He gives also the follow: 
ing revised angles, M: M@=97° 5', M: e-—=122° 55, M: c(brachydome) 
== 117° 30, e:e==121° 0, ¢:¢ (10p) =96° 50’, c: ¢ (base) =83° 10, 


1. On the Age of the large Tree recently felled in California; by 
A. Gray. (Read before the American Academy of Arts and-Sciences-) 
~-The age attained by the largest known trees is a matter of considera- 
ble interest ; but it is seldom that an opportunity occurs of testing " by 

. ig is said 10 


a shell, is now on exhibition at Philadelphia. The trank of this tree 
“‘was sound from the sapwood to the centre ;” and its annual layers 
are very distinct to the naked eye in pieces of the wood in my posse 
sion. he size of this tree is such as to give ita presumptive claim 10 
rank among the oldest of the present inhabitants of the earth ; its lengli 
being 322 feet; the diameter of the trunk at 5 feet from the grow® 


Botany and Zoology. 441 


ity of the proprietor of the section now at Philadelphia. ‘This section 
was taken at the height of 25 feet from the ground, and, according to 
the measurement of my friend, Thomas P. James, Esq., of Philadel- 
phia, it is about 124 feet in diameter, including the bark. Mr. James, 
at my request, has taken careful measurements of the wood itself, ex- 
cluding the bark. The three diameters taken by him, respectively meas- 
ure 9 feet 6 inches, 10 feet 4 inches, and 10 feet 104 inches; the aver- 
age diameter of the trunk at the height of 25 feet from the ground, is @ 
litle over 10 feet 3 inches. From the statements which have appeared, 
it would seem as if the layers had actually been counted, and ascertain- 
ed to be 3000 in number. ‘This surely ought to have deen done ; but 
an examination of the statements does not prove that it was. Mr, Lobb’s 
statement, as definite and reliable as any, is, that ** the trunk of the tree 
in question was perfecily solid, from the sapwood to the centre: an 
judging from the number of concentric rings, its age has been eslima- 
ted at 3000 years.” 

The number of layers, therefore, has only been estimated ; and we 
are not in possession of the exact data on which the estimate was found- 


the centre, giving the rate of the tree’s growth as a young and middle- 
aged tree, when it must undoubtedly, like other trees, have increased 
more rapidly than in later years. 

Dr. Lindley, | find, (in the Gardener’s Chronicle), has accredited the 
estimate which assigns to this tree an age of above 3000 years; stating 


give up the odd 500 years. ‘There isa further consideration. At 25 feet 
rom the ground the diameter of the wood is less than 10 feet 4 inches. 
Here the rate of two inches in diameter in 20 years would give the 
trunk an age of only 1230 years, so that on these data, the tree in its 


The section of the trunk at Philadelphia bas been hollowed out, by 
fire and other means, toa shell of 3 or 43 inches in thickness. Of this 


doubtless be supplied hereafter. The data at hand, however, will suf- 
fice for determining an age which the tree cannot exceed, unless it be 

posed to have grown more slowly during the earlier % of its exist- 
ence than during its later years, which is directly contrary to the ascer- 
tained fact in respect to trees in general. Now the piece of wood in my 
hands exhibits an average of 48 layers in an inch. The semi-diameter 


442 Scientific Intelligence. 


of the trunk at the place whence it was taken is about 5 feet 2 inches. 
If the tree increased in diameter at the same rate throughout, there 
would have been 2976 annual layers; which, allowing 24 years for the 
tree to have egress: ihe height of 25 feet, would give it an age of 300 
years froin the seed. ‘This mre so closely with Dr. Lindley’s 
estimate that we pa suppose him to have employed equivalent data in 
a similar manner. How great a deduction must we make from this es- 
timate, in consideration of the greater thickness of the layers as a 
younger tree? ‘The only direct data 1 possess bearing on this — 
are derived from a piece of a transverse section 3$ inches deep, o 
“rail,” which the exhibitor says was taken from the trunk at the height 
of 275 feet from the ground. As its layers, on a breadth of nearly 
gths of an inch, show only a slight curvature, it must have come from 
a part of the trunk still of several feet in diameter. On this settion the 
exterior inch, nearly all alburnom, contains 90 Jayers ; the next 60; the 
next 45, the remaining half inch 16, making 32 to the inch. That the 
exterior layers shou ld. be thinner at this height than those near the base 
ree, is just what wouid be expected. If we apply this ratio of 
decrease of the number of layers to the inch as we proceed inwards, 


within that part of the anoalibcce which ] have examined, have — 
only 17 layers to the inch, which taken as the average thickness, would 

make the tree only 1034+4-24— 1058 years old. But it is not probable 
that the thickness of the layers increases so rapidly. | The data we pos- 
sess on other trees goes to show that a tree after it is 400 or 500 years 
old, increases in diameter at a pretty uniform rate for each 20 additional 
years, on the whole, although the difference in the thickness of any 


of an old one, ett ee! we Witla not be warrauted in assuming more 
than the average of 17 layers to the inch for the whole sectio 
Some useful data m may be obtained from a tree more eit related 


in semi-dia 

it to — roe at the intermediate ratio of 35 layers per 
the nex —— and at the actual rate of the last rentury ts ascer- 
tained by inspection), namely at 48 layers per inch, for | yy ee 
10 inches, we on ae assign to it the age of 2066 years. as it 


Botany and Zoology. 443 


probable age. | think it more likely to be shown, when the wanting 
data are supplied, that the tree does not antedate the Christian era. 
There are said to be 80 or 90 such trees, of from 10 to 20 feet in di- 
ameter, growing within the circuit of a mile from the one felled. 
When the next of these venerable trees are wantonly destroyed, it is to 
be hoped that its layers will be accurately counted on the whole sec- 
tion, and the thickness of each century’s growth carefully measured on 
the radius. 

The tree in question is a near relative of the Redwood of California, 
namely the Zaxodium sempervirens of Don, of late very properly 
distinguished as a separate genus under the unmeaning and not eupho- 
nious name of Sequoia, a tree now grown in England, and Speen 
also in our own vicinity, where it is barely hardy, My friend, Dr. 
Torrey, has for nearly a year possessed specimens of folin ze of 
this tree, which he took to be a new species of Sequoia. The fruit 
and branches of the jutipar like foliage (probably only one form of a 
dimorphous foliage, which is common in Cypressinee) having been re- 
ceived in England from Mr. Lobb, by Dr. Lindley and Sir. Wm. 


lingtonia. The wood is, I believe, much the,sume as that of Sequoia 
sempervirens, which tree also attains a gigantic size. The principal 
characters yet ascertained are that the cones of We/llingtonia are ob- 
Jong and have a thick woody axis. Additional materials are needed to 
confirm the genus, if such it 

Synopsis Plantarum Gluniacearim, autore E. G. Steuben, fase. 
Grim we, p. 1-80. Stutigart, 1854. Imp. 8vo.—The oe in 
this new revision of Gaines: are about < full as those of Kunth’: 
Enumeratio Plantarum: the references less full. The large page is 
compact mee in double columns, so that eleven such fascicull may, as 


takes in the Oryzee, ee Phalaridee (in which Zea is still included !) 
and the greater part of the Panicea,—among them 568 species of Pa- 
nicum ! without aeahik the end of that genus. A proper snk coe 


3. Lindley’s Folia Orchidacea: part 5, was published in Eatiniane 
last. It comprises 8 genera, of which the il ncipal as to — a) 
Species are Brassia, Sobralia, and Celogyn 

4. Epistole Caroli a Linné ad Fgh de Jussien Iurdiva, 
mutue Bernardi ad Linneum; curanie Adriano de Jussieu, (Ex A 
Acad. Art. et Scient. Amer. ser. nov. tom. v.) 354 = opp. 54, hoe 
lt is somewhat singular that the correspondence of these two founders 
of modern botany should have remained so long unpublished (except- 
ing translations into English of several of the letters published by Sir 
J. E. Smith); and it is not a little remarkable that it should at length 
be given to the world in this country, as a contribution by the lamented 
editor to the publications of an American scientific society of which he 
was a distinguished foreign member. ‘The notes furnished by Adrien 
de Jussieu possess the sad interest of having been the last scientific oc: 
Cupation of the last of the Jussicu’s. The ‘publication makes a han 
aie ee of ne ammeiss of the American 

and Scien The greater part of the extra co 


of As 


444 Scientific Intelugence. 


have been vos rete to the family of the editor for distribution nim 
his ep aeape frien 
calities erty Habits of certain species of Insects, &c. ; by ai 

P. Kir Faantcsdiis vol. xiii, page 336 of the Amer. Jour. of Science, 
were described the Libythea Bachmanii and the Macroglossa balteata, 
from solitary specimens, captured many years since at Poland, O., lit- 
tle was known respecting them. monte facts in regard to their 
fotsiities and habits have been aed obtaine 

n June last, while visiting the late Wm. Jenisbap of pat pegs 
several specimens of the first tert insect in his collection. 
formed me that they visited his gardens ev ery year, in rather limited 
numbers, but he had never diienuaead them in their larva state. 

Subsequently Dr. Hoy, of Racine, Wis., furnished me with many 
fine specimens. From him I learn that during a brief period of about 
two weeks, they resort in great numbers to the flowers of the garden 
raspberry, (Rubus Idveus), and are seen at no other time. During their 
sojourning they doubtless deposit their eggs ou some species of vegeta 
tion, which affords appropriate food for their larva. Whether their re- 
sort to the flowers of the raspberry is for that purpose, or to obtain f 
for themselves, has not been asce ager 3 It is evident that one brood 
only can be produced in a summ 

The Macroglossa I found in Dr. "Hoy? s cabinet, as also in Gov. Far- 
well’s collections at Madison, Wis., and learned that it is proto abe 
seen in different parts of that state. In its habits it is said to resemble 
the Sesia pelasgus. 

From what I have ascertained, I conclude that the Libythea is some- 
times found as far east as Bastin, Mass., but that both it and the Macro- 
glossa belong more appropriately to sections of the prvtees west of Ohio. 

The crustaceous animal, closely allied to the Palemon vulgaris of 
Say, taken by oat of. Baird at Port Sarnia, in Canada, [ have recently 
captured in Rocky River, seven miles west of Cleveland. This animal i 
Prof. Dana has, ; believe, decided to be —— new, and related in 
genus to Anchistia of the Paleemonide 


IV. Astronomy. 


1. Comet V, 1853, (Astron. Jour., No. 67.)-—This comet, discovered 
Mr. Van Awebite: on the 25th of November last, was obse served at 
Gottingen by ee on December 2. Professor S. ALEXAN- 
ieee | of Princeton, N. J., has obtained the following elements of its orbit 
from Van ARSDALE’S obbérvalions of Nov. 30, Dec. 27, and Jan. 21. 


T. 1854, Jan. 54: ee as 3 aay ich. 
Long. st aaron belion 1b) 7”) Mn. Eqnx 
.node, - - . Pe 5 27 Jan. 1. 
ticitssnos é : 66 1153 


Log. of betihelich dist. : - 03097879 
Motion retrograde, 
enison died i ra last. His was a life of vicissitudes, He was at one 
riod a pesto of Com ah 1. Inthe retired situation in which he spent anu 
of the last years of 4 life, near Dayton, O., amusing Bins self with horticulture, 2 
of natural science. hi amiabl Jents and (tain 
nor te and i 


Miscellaneous Intelligence. 445 


2. Obituary. vie Dealiih r A. C. Perersen, (Astron. Jour., No. 68. 
—This eminent sasiaieniad has recently en his earthly labors, For 
many years he had been connected with the Observatory at Altona. 
His numerous contributions to the botreiiniaisat Nachrichten continued 


fallen upon Petersen. To him, in conjunction ri Preteenar Hansen, 


of Altona. And he possessed in a signal degree the ‘oie qualities of 
heart and soul which have endeared the weil of Schumacher to all 
who knew him. Warm hearted, unselfish, true, devoted to science, to 
duty, and to his friends, he has left a void which it will not be easy to fill.” 
V. MiscELLANEous INTELLIGENCE. 

1. seeaitns of ri Pt Observations a at Burtngton, yy “¢ 
in 1853; by Z. Tuompson.—Location, Lat. 44° 29’, ie & 
one ‘tile east of Lake Chattiplaie and 256 Py "ghee i or 246 ot 
above tide. 


1853. THERMOMETER. BAROMETER, 

Months, Mean. | Highest. |Lowest.| Range.| Mean. |Highest, | Lowest. | Range. 
° °o 
Jamary, . . |1963{ 45 |-11 | 56 | 2976 | 3045 | 2854] 1-91 
re eae i yea y ~10 57 29°68 | 30°13 | 2886 | 1:27 
.| March, ‘ 277 | 64 1 53 29°57 | 30-28 | 28°84 | 1: 

April, . 42:58 | 77 22 55 2963 | 3000 | 2870 | 1:30 

ay, -. 4) 66419 |. BT 27 60 2965 | 3008 | 29°38 
June, : 6727 | 94 48 51 29°72 | 30°02 | 2940 62 
July, > 6870 | 90 50 40 29°71 | 29°94 | 29°39 55 
¥ 6815 | 95 44 51 2965 | 29°90 | 29°28 62 
September, 59°48 | 93 30 63 29°10 | 2997 | 2910 87 
October, 47:02 | 170 23 47 29°67 | 30:14 | 29:09 | 105 
November, y+ ee 9 53 29°93 | 3050 | 29:09 | 141 
: 22°94 2 ~4 46 29°67 | 3001 | 2874] 127 
Annual mean, | 4521! 95 -11 '106 ' 2969 ' 3050 2854' 196 
___ 18538. WINDS, ATHER ow, | WATER 
N. IN.E. BE. ts. ®.) S. 1S. WOW, {N. Ww. Fair. | Cloudy. Inches. Inches, 
January, . 8/011} 101 1;T) S| 16°) 16 4 1-22 
February,. | 10} 2/1/4) 9) 0/0} 8] 18 | 15 29 3-94 
March, . . 4 POE i Gat wk! aoa Yo ent a 10 14 1-70 
OM a PO £84 Ok 2 ek 9 14 2°25 
me oroerae ty yy righ 111] ¢{ I 1. 18 0 | 395 
i, ee 5101/11/00] I6) 1/4] S| 2% 5 0 1-74 
gg: Rae 612)1 18) 5/2} 8] 2 4 0 312 
August, 8,10 15} 3/1} 2| 2 5 0 346 
September, | 11 SRR Cao: er eae eee 9 0 567 
ber, 2 1} 2] 12 6| 6] 20 11 4 3:04 
November, 81110] 2/11 2} 5} 15 15 4 217 
ber, TO) 7 VO} 2) 14) 211) 2) 4 14 8 079 

94 14 (8 !17 144° 18 Metae! 236 | 129 | 90 * $806 | 


Been Sk ane 
Ssoons 2 ee Vol. XVII, No. 51.—May, 1854, 


446 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 


The results given in the above _ are derived from three daily 
observations, made at sunrise, 1 P. M., an .M. 

e€ mean temperature of 1853 was one- half of a degree warmer 
than the average of the preceding 15 years. The warmest dwy was 
the 12th of August, the mean heat of which was 834°; and, on the 
same day, the thermometer was highest in the shade, standing at 95° 
at3v.m. The coldest day was the 26th of January, which averaged 
— 3°, or 3° below zero; and the greatest cold was — 11°, on the morn- 
ing of January 27th. 

“The barometer was — on the 27th of November, when it stood 
at 30:50 inches, and low n the 24th of Hehe standing at 28°54 
inches, showing a range for he year of 1-96 in 

The range of the inaepooioee was 8° less, aa that of the barom- 


The fall of water in rain and snow, was just 1 inch more than the 
mean annual fall in the prctiling fifieen years, (which was 32-05 
inches) and 4°23 inches more than in 1852. The fall of water in De- 
cember, 1853, was less than in any December in the preceding 15 
Pe at and less than half the average for December, that being about 

‘D inches. 

The fall of snow was 13 inches ee: Sg in 1852, and 19 inches 
more than in 1851. During the pear ere were 54 days of tolerable 


A; rubeim; White kim, U, calle cana; Barn 1 ila soi 

May 9h, Tree Toads, H: versicolor ; 18th, Bobolink, I. agripennis 
17:b, Plums in es 21st, May Bugs, M. aurecied | 22d, Pears in 
blossoms 26th, Cra b Apple, Sheckn: 27th, Com n Apple. 

he appearances of the Aurora Borealis at Butbagisic in 1853, noted 

in my journal, were as follows: 

January 4th, A bright e* in os N., but no distinct arch; 6th, ibid ; 
8th, a Sadie arch j in } ¢ 

February 8th, Glow of light in ’N. W.; 14th, a well formed arch, 
12° high at 9 Pp. m. 

March Tib, Faint Aurora at 8 Pp. m.; 8th, very splendid from = ie 
10 P a.; 10th, ibid, with a well defined flat arch, 15° ba at 10 P. 


30th, faint. 


Miscellaneous Intelligence. _ AAT 


April 1st, Aurora Borealis in N. E., arch 10° high at 9 p. wm; 5th, 
Aurora very splendid, commenced as the clouds — a little be- 
fore 9 p. m., and increased in brightness till 10. At 94 it consisted of 
an exceedingly bright glow in the north, rising nearly to the pole-star. 
At 10 it rose considerably above the pole, with numerous bright pillars 
of light lower down; 7th, a very fine Aurora, with the principal arch 
nearly stationary from 8h to 10 v. m., and its vertex about 10° high ; 
10th, faint. 

May Ast, Faint Aurora low in the — ; 2d, meteor very splendid, at 

o N 


8 faint, at 84 a regular arch from E. . W., 6° above the pole; at 
55" a corona formed 8° S. W. ee the zenith, with the radiations 
very distinct and beautiful. The meteor was very changeable, and the 


streamers at times exhibited a dazzling brightness. 4th, faint Aurora, 
with no distinct arch; 6th, ibid; 7th, chides 3ist, ibid. 

June 2d, Aurora Rorsalis faints 8th, ib bids Oth, ibid. 

July 4th, Faint Aurora; 10th, ibid; 12th, fine Aurora, with stream- 
ers fitting rapidly at 95; 23d, faint Aurora in N 

August 3ist, Slight Auroral light. 

September Ist, Fine Aurora, commenced at 9 P. m. and continued 
through the night; 2d, very fine Aurora which continued ——— the 
night, ,—at 9 P. m. there was a flat arch under the pole, 15° high; 3d, 
another fine Aurore: with a distinct arch under the pole, 25° hak at 9 

10th, faint Aurora ; 24th, ibid. 

or tars 31st, Slight Aurora low in N, 

November Ist, Ibid. 

December 4th, Beautiful Aurora, bright arch low in the N.; 8th, 
faint —_ light in in 

tract of a letter from Colonel J. C. Fremont, respecting his 
eeboneite for the route of a Railroad to the Pacific 

[The letter from which extracts are here given was prepared by Col. 
Fremont for publication shortly before he set out on his journey, oa for 
particular reasons it was not printed at the time.” Those reasons no 


the correspondence of Col. F. should be given to the public. The 
name of the person to whom the principal letter is addressed need not 


en. | 
“My own journeys through our interior mountains had already in 
1847 satisfied me that a direct railroad route ought to be searched for 
along the parallel of 38° 39’. Information acquired from all sources 


the Three Parks, with the numerous ee fae igp enclose t 

waters of the South Platte, the Arkansas, and the Del Norte on 8 one 
side, and the sources of the East Fork of the Great Colaraiee: on 1 the 
other. 


pre dt rie 


sah ne eat 
Vs aie) 


es ap sii y er z ‘ Ser ee side Hi 
“mags 1 en Sea AE SO TOL PER A a ae Mee TOE be ee - 
jo Reena as A pc ga Sai a a TRA Acc on nl ua a ab lc ct a 


448 ' Miscellaneous Intelligence. 


Since 1847 my attention has been continuously occupied with this 
line, and with this section of the Rocky Mountains through which I 
have proposed that the great road should pass, entering the valley of 
the Colorado through the valley of the San Luis or Upper Del Norte. 
To this point my own examinations have been extended, with the satis- 
factory result of finding a way easy and good, through a broad and 
fertile country, allowing straight roads and choice of jines with contin- 
uous and expanded settlements. Such a line seems to comprehend all 
the advantages which ought to be combined in a trunk road to the Pa- 
cific. It is direct, central, and feasible of construction; it commands 
the most practicable pass, and best known route for a branch road into 
Oregon, and would be the means of forming a new and great state of 
this Union—the Switzerland of America. 

With these views I attempted, but was prevented from exploring it in 
1847. In 1848 I resumed the attempt in an expedition which was de- 
feated in its complete result; but was successful so far as it went, and 
completely successful so far as it realized my own idea. 

About this time finding myself owner of a property which promised 
to be of extraordinary value, [ conceived the idea of wholly devoting 
it, as far as it would go, to the prosecution of the work; and on m 

I 


started for Washington. On my arrival I found the [U. States] explo- 
g parties were fully organized, and the Government commands al- 


° 
° 
a 
5 
Ss 
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the road which shall go through the state of California from San Fran- 
cisco to its western frontier, at whatever point the road from the East 
should strike it. 

Under this deprivation of resources, I can only go on with one 
branch of my intended enterprise, that of completing my examinations 
of the country between the Upper Del Norte and the valley of the San 
Joaquin. Upon this line I propose to make a double examination— 


Miscellaneous Intelligence. 449 


going out before the snows fall, and returning in mid-winter. A winter 
exploration, in making me acquainted with the depth and prevalence of 
the snows, and the extent of their impediments to winter traveling, 
would enable me to jae é ciepseyred of some points very material to 
the right decision of the question 

The field of apes! mii over an expanse of mountain wilder- 
ness extending the whole length of our domain from north to south. 
In view of the enduring and “unchangeable character of the work, no 
line can be considered approximately. sab oat cas until all possible in- 


formation should have been obtained, so that the best route, under eve- 
ry aspect for the country, may be adopt "To meet the actions of 
the next Congress, will give ample employment to all the labor that 


can be brought to it, and my examinations therefore must necessarily 
contribule to the mass of materials for the solution of the question. 
Whatever may be the results at which I arrive, they shall be fairly 
= baie to the public, as an element in aid of their decisions. 
nally, and above every other consideration, | have a natural desire 

to do something in the finishing up of a great work in which | had 
been so long engaged. I do it with the object and the hope of adding 
to the thvorable Seonadetatiste which (f may be permitted to say) have 
recognized the disposition I had already shown to serve the country. 
A deference to this favorable opinion, which I should regret by any act 
to impair, makes the ocaasion fur the: present letter. I felt that some 
explanation was due to the public for taking part as a private individual 
in this public concern, and was unwilling to leave the motives of the 
present journey exposed to misconstructions. I judged therefore that a 
clear statement of them would not be considered improper or un- 
called for.” 

Soon after Col. Fremont started on his journey, illness forced him to 
return to St. Louis for medica é Y 


tal 
Pat 
1) 
Q 
S 
iar] 
i] 
7) 
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a 
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pel 
@ 
= 
= 
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c 
ia 


had become “ neuralgic sciatica.” He had been free from it for a year 
or more, but the great change of living seemed to develop it again. 
After a delay of just a month, he was “able to make a second start, 
leaving Westport the 2st of October. During his illness, his party, 
Which consists of some twenty-two men (half being Delaware Indians,) 

Waited for him about a hundred and fifty miles from the frontier. On re- 
joining them, Col. Fremont wrote that the animals were all in bad travel- 


trading post where corn could b ured in its place. From this 
Cause he anticipated aaah delay, as his ast letters prove was the case. 
His own health however was so entirely restored, that, with ve success 
uerreotypist, and some other causes of satisfaction, he writes 
xt steam 


Suppose his calculations may prove just, and that he will have reached 
San Francisco in February—about a month since. 
Extracts from letters from Bent’s New Fort, Nov. 24, 1853. 

* The expedition so far, has been successful —- to gratify all 
Our a both in its general results, and in its particular object. 


per ED ly sane Me pee gs AW eM 


450 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 


r way forward now will in a few days become a struggle with the 
winter, forcing our way on and preserving the lives of men and ani- 

ls, while at the same time we carry on the work uninterruptedly. 
It will amount to a wintering in the mountains, but will be a progressive , 
one, and will fulfill all the requisitions of a winter there, as the two 
months of December and January exhaust the strength of the winter. 
Rite em ithout some bad mischance, you may expect when 
you next hear from me, to learn of good results.” 


‘Our condition as regards the efficiency of the camp in animals, is 
very bad, as regards the work we have done and are doing, very good. 
Provided we can reach the San Joaquin valley in the same position, our 
main object will be accomplished. Before reaching this place, we had 
lost thirteen animals. I arrived here with difficulty, traveling 10 or 12 
miles a day, and having nearly all my party on foot. In the early part 
of the month we had encountered severe weather, the daylight ther- 
mometer being at 15° and 17°, and the buffalo had so eaten off the 

3s, indifferent as it was, that our animals were nearly starved. [Lam 
determined to carry this enterprise through. We will fight with the 
winter, and every other obstacle, to the end, prudently and cautiously, 
but never giving way. In the mean time, we shall do a valuable work. 
The astronomical, barometrical, and topographical work all goes on 
well. After surmounting some difficulties which required much skill 
to remove, the daguerreotypist has been eminently successful, and we 
are producing a series of pictures of exquisite beauty which will admi- 
rably illustrate the country. Every successive picture improves upon 
its predecessor, and those of yesterday were jewels. They were of 
the Cheyenne village here among the timber. As we go on, and the 
mountains rise before us, the views will become more interesting. 

The coal formation re-appears in this neighborhood, and I have be- 
come acquainted with a locality where the coal-beds are said to be de- 
veloped largely. The coal has been tried and found to burn perfectly 


3. On the Action of Alkalies on Rocks; by M. Devesse, (communica- 
ted for this Journal by the author.)*--In order to study the action of 
alkalies on rocks, | have taken the powder of the rock under trial, and 
have heated it with a solution containing a quintuple weight of potash ; 
I have then determined what substances were contained in the potash 
solution. 

As a large number of rocks contain water, after I have dried the 
residue from the action of the potassa and determined its weight, I 
bring it to a red heat and take anew its weight; in this way | have 
obtained for different rocks the following comparative results : 


* This paper should have had a place among the articles of this number. =~ ’ 


Miscellaneous Intelligence. 451 


tree et | iB Iv. | v. | vi. | via. fvini.| 3x. ; . | XII { xa, 
Tra ra~ |T ra- |Perti-/Reti-'Reti-Per- | Ob- | Eu- |P. Mela-} Ba-|Black} Por- 
chyte chyte| nite. ‘nite, nite, |lite alle rite.|gonite phyre salt | leva. phyry 
Siltca ie ived by potash, 36-0 00 i % ee 12:23) 9 £0)19°5: | | 11-45! 7-05 | 850 | 7 6C; : in 335. 
Alum 1-16} 1-25) 18 378) 1-55} 2:10} 220° 2 8h i. 
Total = of rock va | } 9 
— er — ition lars 5| 27°27 30 89 16 at i BE] 24 hes eed 20/18°60 | 18-41 [15 3&| 8°50 | 5°80 
the residue. } : 


L Brownish red Trachyte with gray globules and blackish mica, from Hungary. 
IL Trachyte “ molaire,” with a little orthoclase and mica, from Hungary. 
IIL. Blackish brown Pertinite, from Planitz. 
a Globulous Retinite of a —— color, from Meissen. 
. Retinite without lustre, ery r esinous, from Sardinia. 
VEG Grayish white and black Perit, shies Cape de Gata 
VIL Deep black Obsidian, from Lipar 
VILL Argillaceous Eurite, of a tir re di coker; from Saxony. 
IX. Mist iane brow igre lagonite, with a resinoid paste, from Teeland. 
X. Mel aphyre with a dark walt paste containing greenish-white Labradorite, 
from Belfah 
. ea _ a backs paste and Bie ewe of Bt from Bohemia. 
XITL Bla n Lava, from the s of 
XML Qunrtaierous oak yry with a  oaltilat sisas of a reddish-gray color and 
glassy quartz, from Saxony, 


pals 


The cS general conclusions may be ded 

When a rock is attacked by an alkali, some ning as well as silica 
is removed, with also some water, potash and soda ; besides also a litile 
ime, magnesia, and traces.of oxyd of iron. The amount of silica re- 
moved exceeds that of all the other substances. 

The alumina and water follow next after the silica in amount removed. 

Granite is not thus attacked when boiled with an alkaline solution ; 
Quariziferous Porphyry is feebly attacked, losing sone 2 hundredths. 
Lava, Basalt, and Melaphyre, lose less than 20 per 

Trachyte, Retinite, Perlite and Obsidian, suffer tos Taree loss, but 


rock containing water is attacked much less readily by alkalies af- 
ter it has been calcined ; for the Perlite of Cape de Gata, for example, 
the loss before and after ee is nearly as 23 to 

A rock is much more easily attacked when partially decomposed. 
Argillaceous Eurites or Kaolins, which are only desomateed granitic 

rocks, experience a much greater loss than the granitic roc 

Other things sil, the action of the alkalies is greater the larger 
the amount of silica, or the oe crystalline their structure, and the less 
of hyaline quartz they conta 

The vitreous rocks, wich: eoitaie little or no quartz, like Retinite, 
Faplite. Obsidian, Trachyte, are strongly attacked by alkalies. 

substit ituting alkaline carbonates for the alkalies, phir rocks, and 
BSA 5 the vitreous, are still attacked, but to a less extent. 

The facility with which the alkalies and even the alkaline carbonates 
attack rocks, shows that it is difficult to use them for separating the free 
or immediately soluble silica which may exist in a rock, especia 
in clays and kaolins 

I observe, also, that in obsidian, for example, the silica which is dis- 
solved is not free silica, but it is in the condition of a silicate attackable 
by the alkali; so also with Retinite, the silica is not in the state of opal, 
as — satiate but in that of an attackable hydrosilicate. Ina 


452 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 


word, i in all vitreous or porphyritic rocks, hydrated or not, the silica 
is in combination, forming a compound, not definite, which the alkali 
attacks, and which is the paste of the rocks. 

The waters of infiltration which penetrate rocks contain always 
small proportions of alkaline salts, even near the earth’s surface ; and 
hence it is obvious that these salts should contribute towards the de- 
composition of the rocks and the formation of pseudomorphs. But at 
a small depth below, the waters are more largely etaroat with alkaline 
salis, and both temperature and pressure increase rapidly ; they may 
attack, therefore, quite strongly, the rocks with which they come in 
contact ; as happens notably ‘with mineral waters, geysers, ‘and other 
results of volcanic action. Consequently the action of alkalies or of 
alkaline salts on rocks plays an sh aphe part, not only in the forma- 
tion of pseudomorphs, but also in the chemical reactions which take 


4, On the Prosopite of Scheerer ; by Jamrs D. Dana. — Prosopite 
is described as a new mineral by Scheerer_in Poggendorff’s Annalen, 
No. 10, 1853, p. 315. The —— occurs at the Tin mines of Alten- 
berg in crystals altered mostly to a kaolin; and from some qualitative 
trials of unaltered cepa it is reat: to consist of aluminium, cal- 
cium, fluorine and water. It had been regarded as a pseudomorph after 
Heavy Spar: Sohieeter. recognizes its relations to that species in the 


132°, 1164°. Unlike Heavy Spar, the crystals are hemihedral. The 
faces of the Somes: are dull, and admit of measurement only with the 
common goniomete Scheerer suggests that the formula may be 
CaF-LAIFS, aoslagoes to that of Heavy Spar which is CaO-+-SO$. 
This comparison with Heavy Spar does not exhibit its true affinitie 

In fact the angles are almost identical with those of Datholite, with 
which it also agrees in its hemihedral character. ‘The following angles 
show this resemblance. The planes of Datholite oo referred to will 
be learned from the figures on page 215 of this volum 


_ Datholite. — E _Prosopite. 
42 : 2 = 76° 44’ i2 : i2 = 17°-78° (=d : d! of Scheerer.) 
O : 22 = 135° O : 22= 135° (=C:B 


2 : 2 (adj.) = 131° 52’ 2: 2 (adj.) = 132° (=z: 2’) 

i : 2t (top) = 115° 26 = : 2 (top) = 1164° (=o : 0’) 

23 : 23 (adj.) = 118° 9 23 : 23 (adj.) = 119° =(t: ¢’) 

Owing to the disguised character of the mineral, it was named Pros- 
opite from go0uzevor, a mask—a name ceriainly well deserved. 

The symbols of the planes used above become Naumann’s on insert- 

a P, and putting & fori. The plane i3(aP%¥) is that usually 

considered aP. 

5, Geological Survey of Tennessee.—The State of Tennessee has 
ordered a Geological Survey of its territory, and appointed to the 
work Prof. J. M. Safford of Cumberland University, Tennessee. ‘1 he ap- 
pointment is a most excellent one. Professor Safford is well prepared 
for the duties, and his final Reports will, Ht hee doubt, ae? both re 
uable and honorable to the State and to re 


Miscellaneous Intelligence. 453 


6. Telegraphic Longitude at Brussels—Under this title, the Athe- 
neum of January 14th, states that the American method of determin- 
ing difference of longitude by means of the Electric Telegraph, has 
at last been introduced into Europe. “The Roya Observatory at 
Greenwich is now permanent spe tem by one line of wires with the 
South Eastern and Electric Telegraph System, and by another line 
with the System of the Submarine and Electric Telegraph.” At the 
observatories of Brussels and —- _ 3000 signals have been 
observed simultaneously for the compar of the two transit clocks, 
The lines are available also for experimenting on the time occupied by 
the passage of the galvanic pulse from Greenwich to Brussels and the 
reverse. And from “the observations thus far made, it appears that the 
time is “ pretty accurately one-tenth of a second.” ‘Rapid as is the 
velocity which this implies (about 2700 miles per second, supposing the 
velocity uniform along the whole line) it is much less rapid than that 
found in the experiments with Edinburgh (about 7600 miles per second), 
and still less than that determined on some of the American lines 
(about 18000 miles per second). The difference undoubtedly depends 
on the circumstance that the greater part of the line to Brussels is subter- 
ranean and submarine, which position of the wires, one in any de- 
gree impairing the insulation (which, perhaps, is the most perfect in 
the world), does by an ill-understood effect of induction, oes retard 
the speed of transit.” 

It is expected ‘Abt before long Greenwich will be connected in a 
similar way with the French and Dutch observatories, and these with 
others over Europe. 

‘Nearly the whole of Europe is now covered with a net of geodetic 
triangulation, nopeopatn the western coasts of Ireland and France 


with the interior of Russia and borders of Turkey. The combination 
of the geodetic “pra ey the ascertained difference of longitude 
will afford one of the best materials for the measure of the ear! 


7. The World 3 Science, Art and Industry, illustrated from Exam- 
ples in the New York cael “ee *B4. Edited by Prof. B. Sinit- 
MAN, Jr., and C. R. Goopricn, Esq., aided by several scientific and 
literary men. With 500 osetia, silo the superintendence of C, 
E. Dépler, Esq. 200 pp. 4to., New York, 1854, G. P. Pulnam.—This 
work, independently of the great number ‘and elegance of its ~ nea 
tions, has a high value asa record of the Exhibition at New 
1853, « and also on account of the man essays it contains on aceon 
a with the recent progress of practical science and the va- 
rious a 

8. The bhets Maganic Telegraph ; by Laurence Turnsutt, M.D., 
2nd edition, revised and improved, illustrated by numerous engravings. 

264 pp. 8vo. Philadelphia, 1853. A. Hart.--This work on the Tele- 
graph j ~ practical, scientific and historical, and the best exposition we 
have of the American system. Moreover, in an =< mated it contains 
several important telegraphic decisions and laws. The w 
improved by an — of the application of the Delegnaith to the de- 
termination of longitu 


Szcoyp Series, Vol. nn No. 51.—May, 1854. 58 


454 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 


9. Outlines of a Mechanical Theory of Storms, containing the true [?] 
law of lunar influence, with practical instructions to the navigator, 


10. Fownes’? Chemistry for Students.—A new edition of this well es- 
tablished and valued work has just been published by Messrs. Blanchard 
& Lea, of Philadelphia, from the last Lond. edition by Drs. Bence, Jones 
and Hoffman. The American edition is edited with care by Dr. Bridges. 

11. A Manual of British Mineralogy; by R. P. Gree, P.G.S., and 
W. G. Lertsom. Price £1 1s.--The British Mineralogy of 
Messrs. Greg & Lettsom is now in press and its appearance is prom- 
ised in the course of the season. he work, as we learn, and should 
infer from our knowledge of the authors, will be a thorough treatise on 
the minerals of Britain, and will contain a large amount of original 
matter, descriptions and figures of many new forms of crystals, new 
analyses, besides statistical and other useful information respecting the 
mines of Britain and their products. The work will be illustrated by 
nearly 300 wood-cuts and a few colored lithographic plates, illustrating 
some unique and remarkable specimens. 

12. My Schools and My Schoolmasters ; or, the Story of My Educa- 
tion, by Hucu Minter. Edinb., Johnstone & Hunter. (Extracts from 
a notice in the Athenzeum of March 11, 1854).—Mr. Miller’s grandfa- 
ther was a buccaneer—his father was a sailor-—to whom he was born, 


force on his schoolmaster, who tried to flog him because he would not 


that which (to avail ourselves of one of Mr. Ruskin’s fantastic figures 

of speech) creative wisdom has written in the caverns of the earth. 

His kith and kin, some of them pure Highlanders, were men of marked 

character,—-so that, with these surroundings, and these propensities 

of mind and endowments of body, there was small chance of the Cro- 

marty boy lacking such adventures as serve a bold spirit for schooling, 
~_ 


was no alternative for him save to betake himself to manual labor. 
garding this again, he shall tell his own story. 

A The husband of one of my maternal aunts was a mason, who, con- 
tracting for jobs on a small scale, usually kept an apprentice or (Wo 
and employed a few journeyman. With him [ agreed to serve for pe 
term of three years ; and, getting a suit of strong moleskin elothe 


Miscellaneous Intelligence. A455 


and a pair of heavy hob-nailed shoes, I waited only for the breaking up 
of the winter frosts to begin work in the Cromarty quarries—jobbing 
masters in the north of Scotland usually combining the profession of 
the quarrier with that of the mason. * * 


¥ 


straint that confined me for day after day to this spot, I would perhaps 
have paid little attention to either. * * *# 
r 


eventful and instructive history, the final result of which, in the able 
geologist, Hugh Miller, is familiar to all. 

13. Annual of Scientific Discovery, or Year Book in Science and 
Art for 1854—exhibiting the most important discoveries and improve- 
ments in Mechanics, Useful Arts, Natural Philosophy, Chemistry, &c., 
edited by Davin A. Wetts, A.M. Boston, 1854. Gould & Lincoln. 

14. Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, vol. v, 1853.—Art. I. 
Introduction. 

IL. A Flora and Fauna within living animals ; by Joseph Leidy, M. D. 

IIL. Memoir upon the Extinct Species of Fossil Ox; by J. Leidy. 


I; b a Gray. 
15. Seventh Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smith- 
Sonian Institution for the year 1852. Washington, 1853. 


Wm. Stimrpson: Synopsis of the Marine Invertebrata of Grand 
Manan, or the region about the mouth of the Bay of Fundy, New 
Brunswick-—From the Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge. 56 pp. 
4to, with two plates. Contains descriptions of many new species and 
Some new genera in the different orders of Invertebrata. 

Dr. J. Vicror Carus: System der thierischen Morphologie, 506 
Pp. 8vo, with 97 wood-cuts. Leipzig, ; gelmann. 

Hanns Bruno Geinitz: Die Versteinerungen der Grauwackenfor- 
mation in Sachsen und den angrenzenden Lander-abtheilungen. Heft 
Il. Ato, with 20 lithographic plates. Leipzig, 1853. W. Engelman 


456 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 


—This work a the preceding were received too late for a further no- 
tice in this nu 

PaLZONTOGRAPHICAL ‘peg Volume for 1853—rich in its con- 
tents, containing Part IV of Fossil Corals of Great es Part 1V 


. 
Net 
G 
ia) 
ee 
- 
r 
bor) 
a} 
— 
_— 
— 
° 
mr 
~ 
a 
@ 
Q 
i 
be] 
gg 
al 
= 
wn 
O 
2 
~~ 

oa 
SS 
MD 
iq") 
be) 
re I 
oO 
n 
<* 
_— 
aes 
o 
soa 
- 


cal pees is one guinea. 

E. Sasine: Observations made at the Magnetical and Meteorological 
enrciaty at Hobarton, in Van Diemen Land, poe by the order 
of Her Majesty’s Government, under the superintendence of Col. Ed- 
ward Sabine, of the Rope prllose. Vol. il, sharers with 1846. 
622 pp. 4to. London, 185 

American Association "for the Advancement of Science.——The — 
meeting of the Association will be held in ie ae D.C., 
mencing with Wednesday the twenty-sixth of April 


F. pig Practical Mineralogy, Assaying — Mining, etc., 2nd Edition. 230 
pp. 1ett0. Philadelphia. need & Blakiston, 1853. 

Pe n Antiquities, by dward Bay and John James ite: bay shar 
translated into English by Fokneia ry Hawks. ar dies - New York, 1 P. 
Put = A work of great popuiet and scientific 

s D. Forses: Norway and its Glaciers visited i in 4T03 followed by Journals 
aft Excursion in the High vm bh of Dauphiné, Berne, and Savoy. Edinburgh, 1853. 
oe g i 


~~. ie o 
on, s Mo = Ros 0 pp. 4to, with 2 tables. Leipzig, 1853. Also, Neue 
steieaahil ungen + die ‘pti atin Geographie und die ponies der Alpen, by 
Adolph Rttntwen und Her ee chlagintre 

KOCEEDINGS OF THE Acap. N Scr. Puttapetpata, vol. Be On 
new Entomostracan of the family prorat (, & Limna bees “6 ys art 4 

the Ancient Alluvium of the Ohio River and its Tributaries; A. 7. King.—p. 8. 
Notice of American Animals formerly known . now forgotten or lost; — Le 
Jonte.—p. 16. Descriptions of some new Coleoptera ares ar a : . Le G sgt 
—-p. 20. Synopsis of the Gidemeride of the United Sta ag ze ‘le Con 

ANNALS OF oe oe Ohio. he ea — ry Binion * a 
plants ; J. S. Newberry.—p. 4. Peecilosoma eryth um, a fish Rocky rive 


near Cleveland ; 7 "Pp Hirtand—p 5. List of Suara Lap idoptera nt "Northern and 
Middle Ohio ; J. P. Kirtland. —p. 6. New locality of the Limnea megasoma ot Say; 
J.P. Kirtlane —p. 44. On the a or ovoviviparous gr tis ofa 


® e 95 On of Fi an sr EO : 
diurnal Lepidoptera of Northern and Middle Ohio; J. P. Kirtland.—p.1 i. — 
of pre coals; J. 8. Newberry—p. 78. Revision of the species of the eg 
biting Lake Erie and the River Ohio; JP. Kirlland. Avuit~p. 100. On 
us acutus; L. A. Laphu 


Received from the Publishe 
_Gustav Lenz: Ueber die geschichtliche Enstehung des Rechts, Eine Kritik der der 
historisch Schule. 352 pp. 8vo. G@reisswald and Leipzig, 1854, ©. A. Koch's Ver- 
lags Buchhandlung, Theodor Kunike. 


Barer: Symi der christlichen se mem und Religions- -partheien. 
Erster Band. Symbolik der rémisch-katholischen Kirche. Erste Abtheilung, Die Idee 
und die Principien des rémischen i pap and Leipzig, 


C. A. Koch’s Verlags Buchhandlung, T. io - ae 


£ 


INDEX TO VOLUME XVII. 


A. zoic acid, alcohol of, 428 
Academy of Sciences, Paris, prizes awarded \., mee nitruret of, formed from hippuric 
by, Spied s process s with pizcente, 267. 


elections to, Bi ti 103. 
election of a perpet ua; secretary, 262. yt Baan — Seats inkiin Licked 
ne of Sciences, Philadelphia, Proceed- Dever ; 433 neient lake in Colorado 
es icolees mine of California, 438, 


ings a 
Acid, decans of ge okirarb ook 403. 
ferroc ya nhydrie, preparation of, 125. 
fluohydric, vessels for preserving, 127. 


Aluroinum, preparation and properties of, 
427. 
n of by electric deposition, 427 
beset "Philos sates Society, Phitadel- 
a, Transactions 6. 


25. 
of mang: nese, 126. 
Annals of Beicnte. noticed, 296. 
Annual of Scientific Disewsery, 454. 
pabides, on viviparous, W, I, Burnett, 62, 


Ara ee nas ication of works of, 263. 


Borate, Glad of several native, Becht, 


Brew r, D., on producing crystalline struc- 
bac is crystallized powders by compres- 
sion and traction, 

Bromine, separation of from iodine, 119. 
Bronze of sheathi on di of ships, 419, 

Buch, Von, eulo 


Bunsen ,on pe | affinity, 122 
Burnett, W. E., on viviparous ‘Aphides, 62, 
261 
ws and records in Anatomy and 
Plt ch 


on Bh tiss' 
“Te ransiati on by, ‘Of t ” Siebold and — 


on Florid ; 
Butter, constitution of, 124. 


Cabinet of minerals for sale, 2 
VCa Mornin, Serious tlake in Saloraite Desert, 
Blak 
age og ues 
nicks ie min ne of, 438. 


Aridiam, on the supposed aid metal, 122. 
+2 


minerals, of furnaces, 128, 
Atomic phy of the elements, Jahns of, 
J. P. Cooke 
saree seen in Canada in 1853, 288. 
in Vermont in 1853, 446, 


B. 
Bailey, J. W., Microscopic examination of 
Soundings in the Atlantic Ocean, 176, 


new localities of fossil Diatomacew in 
as 


California and Oregon, 


Barnard, F. A. P., on heated air as a motive 
iodo 
n Storms, n iced, 4 
Burilett s i ts of Analy Seal Mechanics, 
notice 


Balloons, ‘ascensional force of, in water, 118. 
Beer's * Opaik ik,” noticed, 272. 
- Benait on the Sliding Seale 420 


van seaniens, Engelmann, 231. 
Chalk, depth of ocean during formation of, 


C hemical foot and oad high pressure, 267. 

Chemical affinity, 1 

Chemistry, neatly notices in biography of 

Berzelius, 103. 

Enremete of Potash, menefectare e 269, 
and nickel, separation of, 1 

Coal, ‘org 130. 

Come 


v oF 3833, 4 44, 

e, J P., relations and classification of 
eae: ‘elements, S37: 

peg logy of, it hee by bismuth, 419. 

eulo; 
Crawfis es, on habits of certain, 133. 
Crystals of caiohate of iodo-quinine, prepa- 
La talling of, pak or optical purposes, Sade 
rystallin produced by 


458 


D. 


Damour, on Descloizite, 434. 
Dan a, J. D, mineralogical contributions, 7 
notice of Brooke and Miller Tee. 


ney i. 8 
"iat of von Kobell’s Mineral-Namen, 
9 


on Haydenite of Cleveland, 82. 
erystallization of Brae Bes 83. 
crystallization of Hydromagnesite, 84. 
aa and Heulandite homceomourph- 


a ar ee Bey of some minerals, 85, 
86, 210. 

on Anhydri 

trimorphisra ‘of Eaicie. Dreelite and Su 
sannite 

Dath lite, ‘crystals of, and homceomorph-_| 
ism with Euclas e, 215. 


INDEX. 


(Galvanic oor heating of wire by, 265. 
Genth, ae A., on a meteorite from New Mex- 
1c, 2 23 9. 
GEOLO 
de Ay of « ocean during origin of chal ae 
on the gold-fields of Victoria, or ” Por 
ip, 279. 
globulif elessee, 168. 
on Lake Superior prac J. D. Whitney, 
A: 
parallelism of American rocks, 14, 
tape eries, | 
rian system of the Lake Superior re- 


a of. — 0 ig 
Geological m f Keweenaw Point, by J. 
D. hitney, Factiabs. 151. 


arcou’s noticed, 199. 
Geological periods, diversity and number of 
animals, L. Agassiz, 309. 


seg of Tennessee, J. M. Safford, in 


— morphism tok Calcite and Tourma- 
line, 2 

a caecitbeink on the oer and rela-|) 
tions of some mineral species, 217, 275. 

homeeomerphism of oesmuenal and di-|\G 


. 452. 

rodro mus, noticed, 133. 
De la Rive's Electricity, noticed 420. 
rocks 
on crystalline limestones and pyrome- 

ride of the Vosges, ra 
on the action of Alkalies on rocks, 450 

Deesig net, ee tpakvas of nitrutartaric acid, 


Dincwond, fae seed 136. 
on cut 
Diatomacere in ¢ alifornia and Oregon, 179. 
‘Dolomite, Durovher on, 123. 
ene Farben! lehre, ete., noticed, 272. 
ge f the attraction of electro- -mag- 


E. 
Earthquake at Manilla, 135, 
Elec ctro-magnets, laws of the attraction of, 
erg Telegraph, Turnbull on, no- 


Bloussiane relations and classification of, J. 
P. Cooke, 

Ellery, J. GC otta’s eulogy on von Bue 

Engélmann, @. , on Cereus ree eos 

Ericsson’s air engine, Barnard un, 153. 


F, : 
te i Seen of northern New York, 2 
hes of the southern bend of the’ Pecibi: 


Burnett on, 407. 
Fluohydrie. acid, vessels for preserving, 127. 
pe Bote —. 


Fremont, J. C., his recent 
Re hy Movkeda' Explorations, 447. 
Farn agg products, tallized, Sundberger, 


G. 
Gale, L. Doe Ee 


he arge of, 452 
ibbs, Ww. panes abstracts, 121, 271, 411. 
Gilding of S 
Glob aiferous rors, Deloss 168. 
ye i — in 


ee Millon, 4 
ing vessels of, by aid of phos- 


285, 


° 
S 
me 
é. 
8 
s 
4 
Es 5) 
va 
2B: 
S 
—_ 
8 


Flora of New 
reg, ,on € onist« 
Greg and Basten s British “areal 454. 


H. 


Hailstorm, New York, E. Loomis, 35. 

Hailstones, figures - large, 37. 

Aull, J., on t the Silurian System of the Lake 

Superior Region, 181. 

Har rtwell, C.,on a ‘Pentiary Rainhow, 56. 

Heated Air Eng ine, F. A. P. Barnard on, 
153. 


oi transmission of impres- 


elmholtz, on 
sions on Sex ie 8, 422. 


Hildreth, ig = Mapaoeskaieal Journal, for 
1853, 2 

Hippie acid, nitruret of benzoyl formed 
from, 4 
itche sa , Or ee = the Geology of the 


Globe fe noticed, 2 
syne i 6a of need of Zine and Co- 
rundum, 
ass i tte. Mineral Species, J. D. Dana, 
Hooker’ . Flora o w Zealand, introducto- 
ry Essay in, ba Nitec 241, 
and fs S, theoretical relations of Water 
a dr rogen, 19. ‘ 
~ — ition of recent and fossil Lin- 
gule 
on ‘Aiea, 351. 


ae 
Infusoria in California and Oregon, J. W. 


etc., 


\ Bailes 2m ; 


INDEX. 


Jenison, death of, 4 
Jussieu’s Epist. dion: noticed, 443. 
K. 


idneys, Burnett on, 374. 
Ree * ft Localities and Habits of 
one ins s, 444. 
Koh-i-noor ‘Sav ond, 136 
Killiker on Meioatet Tissue, reviewed, 89. 


L. 
ener’ s Mecanique Analytique, noticed, 


Lake "Superior Region, Geology of, J. D. 
Whitney, 
Lamé oe Elasticity of bodies, noticed, 420, 
Laurent, publication of works of, 
Light, polarvzation of, by refraction through 
a metal, 121. 
on internal dispersion of, 121, 
Limestone, cadens silletexiiah of, 119. 
Lindley able Kingdo m, nouced, 133. 
Folia s Orchiacen no ied, Fi ” 443. 


gr en on composition of recent and fos- 
be sg E., New York Hailstorm, 35. 
Sencha, 416. 


Magnets, artificial, 1 
pgaone areeeiae views on, 116. 
=e n, offered “by Pasta Govern- 


Magnetic aE ae on periodical laws 
in, 1: 


Po and para —— po cam law of in- 
duction in, Pluck 

W., Auatye ee a Tin Pyrites, 3 

Cave e, on Blind Fishes of, J. Wy 


t 2 
Maaoih 
man, 25 
Manguacus, eat 47 determination of, 126. 

Marcou’s Geological Map, notice of, 199, 
Metal pat hae on the ibnpieed Hew. 122,274.) 
Mord 38. Iron, new Youdlities on 6. U: Shep 
f Georgia, Willet, 331. 
Meteorite from New 
m ‘Tennessee, 
Meieorcoga ‘al Register, bine “es Knovilté: 
enn 
Journal for 1353, kept by S. P. Hildreth, 


observations at Burlington, Z. Thomp- 
son =< 


Mexico, Lf £. oo 239.) 


459 


Minerals, pseudomorphous, 128, 129. 
alteration of, by action of aikslies, De- 

— mee 

MINER 

at struitare of, 28 

Algerite, analysis of; dP ‘D. Whitney, 206. 


Algerite _ S. Hun 

nhydri 
Apatite ely of, J. D. Whitney, 209 
Borates, n vids 129. 
Borax of Pace 7129 
Brookite and - “olumbite 86, 
Brucite, lion a, 83. 


Carpho fat fter Wolfr m, 129. 
Cinnabar of C: alilorites "133, 
olumbite an 


ze 


and Hiiiendie. homceomorph- 


Haydenite, cry sie of, 82. 
Hayesine ? « hy any, 12 
Henlandite and 
Hyde 
dromagnesite, erystallization of, 84. 
abe Se 129. 
pense ereaiins, of the Vosges, 127. 


‘Ge psum, homeeomorph- 


Lagonite 

elan- sa C. M. Wetherill, 130, 
Owenite and Thuringite. identical, 130. 
‘arophite, . Huni, } 


—e 


orite 


ions 


tl 
Mork. nee on Aridium, 274. 

Macouter Tissue, W. I. burnett on, 89. 

N. 

Nerves, rate of transmission of impressions 
on, 422 

Nickel, separation of from my" 125, 

Ne chlisy a obit 


n and ge 


riations in Temperature in Canada 
frm | Ist _ ce E.  abine, 143. 


Meteorvlogy, ‘mullwood’s Contributions), 
to, 237, 
sg. Bh oe pooewens r, C. Wheatstone on. 


, 140 
e of determining optical power of, 
otae 146. 
with large angles. of aperture, 
forth on 
= Hugh, My Schools, &c. by, 


noticed, 


Milton n on wheat without gluten 
ay ina artificial of furnaces, eee 


artificial dolomite, = 


ee eT: homceomor 
86, 210, 430. 


brs J. D. Dana,} 


“ee 


Niobinm oe Pelo; eens ag 
Ne on Mvoccopes ree ‘inks an- 
pit of aperture, 22 


* 


[ee entcon, F. a 113. 


| 


eniise 


| 


| 


; e: hreschvanciae: 150, 292. 
sgcatigd purposes, preparation of large erys- 
of iodo-quinine Jee 423. : 
{ 


| se nities law of induction ; 


ae, 423, 


460 1N 
oe and Niobium identical, 425, 
eople’s Journal, noticed, 151 
ersonal equation = observ ations, 422. 
Photography, discovery in, 290. 
applied to Zoological studies, ete , 270, 


Photographic pictures, vitrification of, 120. 
portraits on li clot , 120. 

Photometry, ind Pes 

lanet, Suterpe, 


Pleochroism, orufioelly grees Senar-|| 
4 S$ 


mont, 
Plue. 
s, 423. 


stad on ‘magnetic and paramagnetic sub-| 


DEX. 


J. L. Smith, = the identity of Owenite and 
Thurin ite, 
emmy cau for taking, F. M. 
149. 


in the Atlantic, microscopic examination 
of, J. W. Barley, 176. 
Species in Botany, on affinities, limits, ori- 
32m ete. of, 241. 
ectrum, fied eg 


es of, — with com- 
mon glas od, 


iil “a. % 
ersion of Jight, 121. 


Stokes on 
|| Sto Loomis, 


f Hail 


orm 
Pension of light by refraction through a iSainart Toad, Wyman on, 369, 
1.221, 


metal, 

eb igpeesis artificially progaced, 414, 4 

Pota: anu = of, 069. 
os 


Slectrical ecance, pr Ba _ a 
ae of Sciences, 
Pyrogallic acid in wood + vinegar, 120. 


Q. 
Quicksilver mine of California, Blake, 438. 
Quinquinas, new, examination of, 271. 


R. 
Rainbow, tertiary, C. hag 
Rainwater, ammonia i 
Runkine, J. M., on ag abso Zero of the 


“ones 


erfect st hermome te 
venel’s Pacsi - Eice. prods 285. 
Renal Organs, Burnett-on, 3 


Riess’s Reibungsele ici » noticed, 273. 


vbable depth e oth 


O.N., on xed 
lines o1 Solar Spectrum, with or buary 
flint wat oe prisms, 4: 


pte nag of ‘Senutiae 103. 
f, 


Dans ‘i elescope, revelations of, 58, 


Ss. 
a establishment at Paris for the sale! 
of Minerals, 150 
ine, E., on variations of Temperature in 
Canada, 143. 
pebrreg - from the residues of gas- 
works, 11 
Salad for the ‘Solitary, noticed, 132. 
H. on the Microscope, ee 
W., revelations of Ross * Pele. 
scope, 53. 
—. — of, 123. 


Zo 
ificiai ‘production of pleochro- 


ase 4 i 2 
Sheathing of Ships, ge for, 419. 
Siebold and Stannius, Comparative Anato 
my of, t translated by W. L. Sanaa. no- 


Silicification of limestones, artificial, 119. 
Siik, gilding of, hag 
Sans of the Lake Superior Re- 
on, 
sinaleoud, C., Contributions to “Meteorolo- 


af q 1 f 


, commen ced, 452. 
Ten nae geologic ‘al ee of, ordered,452, 
Tescl = ach ns a ary of, 150, 292, 
alia, on ays 
ometer, phe zero of gas, Rankine, 


| 
penn 
ee 


Ohio, 
Pe ie of Flandin, noticed, 420. 
Tree of Cali fornia, age of, A. Gr ray, 440. 


Valerianic acid, from Fusel Oil, 124. 
Van Arsdale, Comet discovered by, 444. 


W. 
of een of Groat po Lake, and Hot Springs, 
ule, 


‘etherill, U. Py on Me ie trae 130. 
vain’ on gluten of, Millon 

ximate principles of ‘ee x nf, 264 

W heastone on pee rae 146. 
Whi of Lake Superior 


of ackih secs! egg 151. 
analysis 0} “of A igerit and Apatite, 206. 
Wife J, Meteoric ian of Putnam County, 


Wolff n Bodies, Burnett on, 375. 

World “of Science, noticed, 453. 

Wyma ye and organ of Hearing of 
Blind” Fish, 258. 

tk oe ce development of ihe Surinam 


Z. 
— tay of, isomorphous with Corundum, 


re bel Aphides, W. J. Burnett, 62. 
on habits i Crawfishes 133. 

on Blind of Mammoth Cave, J. Wy- 
mun, He 

Fishes. of the southern bend of the Ten- 
ssee, ae , Ba. 

fistesacitin'| in California and Oregon, 179. 

on the Rena anna. , Bere 374. 

wating ntof the Surinam ‘Tad, J. Wy- 


eae lochieies and habits of some, J. 
P. Kar , 444, 


Smith, J. L,ona new Meteorite from 'Ten-! 
nessee, 131. 


Zoological ee Secs for the soca of 


THE NINE SERIES. 


THE EIGHT SERIES. 


8 -+ n8 or 4+ 28. 


THE SIX SERIES. 


8 + n9. 
oh 
| ISOMORPHS. HOMOLOGUES. ATOMIC WEIGHTS. 
=| 
ah 3 Theo. | Observed. | 
*Cu,O Oxygen, HO 8 8 n= 0 
KFI Fluorine. Fl 17 18 8B i= | 
_ KCy Cyanogen. HCy CyO 26 n= 2 
KO,C10; *Cu.Cl KCl Chlorine. HCl ClO ClO; ClO, ClO; ClO, 35 35.5 n= 3 
KBr Bromine. HBr BrO? BrO,; 80 80 i= 8 
: KI Todine. HI 10 10; 10, 125 | 1269M | n=13 
Q Sey hoe 
: KO,CrO; Chromium. Cr0; 53 53.4 n= 5 
4 
_| KO,Mn,0;| KO,Mn0O; Manganese. Mn,0, | 53 
: 
Osmium. OsO,g 98 
———— a, — 
Gold. AuO, AuO, ? 197 


* Mitscherlich J. pr. Chem. 19, 449. 


. ISOMORPHS, HOMOLOGUES. ATOMIC WEIGHTS. 
6 4 3 2 i Theo. Observed. n 
; tPbO *Cu,0 Oxygen. HO HO, 8 8 u= 0 
KO,SO; | jFe,S, PbS *Cu.S Sulphur. us HS, SO, SO; 16 16 n= 1 
i 
KO,Se03 PbSe Selenium. lSe ScO, SeO, 40 39 6B era 
PLO,Mo00; Molybdenum MoO, MoO, 44 46 n= 5 
Te PbTe Tellurium. UTe TeO. TcO3 64 64.1B n= 7 
Vanadium. Va0z VaOz 68 68.5B n= 8 
FeO, WO; PbO,WO3 Tungsten, wo, |. Wo, 92 92 n=11 
? 
sid 
Fe0,Ta0; Tantalum. TaQ, | TaO, | 188 | 184 n=23 
AFFILIATIONS. 
As '{Fo,(AsS.) Arsenic. 148 
Manganese, MnO, | 28 


| 


* Mitscherlich J. pr. Chem. 19, 449. 


+ Berqnerel Ann. Chem. Phys. 51, 105. 


t G. Rose Krystallochemische Mineralsystem. 


8 +- 06. 
ISOMORPHS. HOMOLOGUES. ATOMIC WEIGHTS. 
$ 3 Theo. | Observed. n 
Oxygen. ee oe 8 n= 0 
| 
| 
Nitrogen. ‘NH, | NH, | NO, | NO, | 1¢ | 14 oun 
Ff PMe, | PMe, | 
NaO0,P0,+4HO ji Phosphorus. | PH, PH; PO; | PO, 32 31 n= 4 
AsMe, | 
As NaO,AsO,+4HO AsO; | As Arsenic, AsHs | AsO, | AsO, | 74 | 75 sant’ 
SbMe, | 
| 
Sb SbS, | SbO, Antimony. SbH, | SbO, | SbO, | 128 | 129 n=20 
x Bide; | 
Bi BiS, Bismuth. BiH,? | BiO,; | BiO, | 206 | 208 n=33 
q 
=i 
AFFILIATIONS. 
z 
Chromium. x CrO; 26 26.7 n= 3 
Fs 
¥ 
Vanadium, — Va0; 63 | 68.5 n=10 
Be ee ay -<jeieaiabimiass. f wisi 


* Only known in comLination.