AMERICAN JOURNATL ae 3 OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. CONDUCTED BY PROFESSORS B. SILLIMAN, B. SILLIMAN, Jr, } ‘ AND JAMES D. DANA, IN CONNECTION WITH PROF. ASA GRAY, or CAMBRIDGE, PROF. LOUIS AGASSIZ, or CAMBRIDGE, DR. WOLCOTT GIBBS, or NEW YORK. : 9 : : $ oy x at ) SECOND SERIES. VOL. ZV ILF, —NOVEMBER, 1864. WITH SEVEN PLATES. j NEW HAVEN: ete Tans | NEW YORE: G. popu Loo O. Os | ae | Printed by B. a. Hamien—Printer to Yale cose 46 DEC iid Ps se at: Oo ee Maney > CONTENTS OF VOLUME XVIII. NUMBER LII. Page. Arr. I. On the first Hurricane of September 1853, in the At- : lantic; with a Chart; and Notices of other Storms: as W.C. Reprietp, - 1 Il. Account of a Rainbow See by vee ‘eineied & from Waser; ; by Prof. E. S..Snezb,. - . - 18 Ill. On Changes of Sea-Level effected by existing Pisin’ Cesies during stated periods of time ; by Atrrep Tytor, F.G.S., 21 *V. On the Phosphate of Iron and Manganese from Norwich, Mass., by Dr. J. W. Mauer, 33 V. On the Homceomorphism of la Spesis of the Trimetric System; by James D. Dan . 35 VI. On certain Physical sane of Light, sipreduced = the combustion of different Metals, in the Electric ae re- fracted by a Prism; by Davip Atte, M.D., 55 VIE. Chinese and Aztec Plumagery; by D. J. escoouan M. D. a OT VILL. Binocular Microscope; by Dr. E. D. Nortx, - 61 IX. Mechanical Action of Heat; by W. J. Macquorn aime 64 X. On the Resistance experienced by Bodies falling irons the Atmosphere; by Prof. Exras Loomis, 67 XL The Brandon Tornado of January 20th, 1854; - Prof. 0. N. Stopparp, - - - : - sae |, XII. Considerations on ths Gpat of Small Planets situated be- tween Mars and Jupiter; by M. U.-J. Le Vernier, - - 80 XIE. Oa Electric Induction—Associated cases of Current and Static Effects; by Professor Farapay, D.C.L., F.R.S., - 84 XIV. Reclamation of Borocalcite, as distinct from a mixture of minerals, found near Iquique, South Peru; by A. A. Haves,M.D., 95 XV. On the present condition of the Crater of ae Hawaii ; by Rev. Tirus Coan, - - 96 XVI. Note on the genus Buckleya ; _by Asa Gnay, M.D., oO XVII. On a mode of giving permanent flexibility to brittle spe- cimens in Botany and Zoology; by Prof. J. W. Bamey, - 100 iv CONTENTS. Page. XVIII. Caricography ; by Prof.C. Dewgy, - - 10 XIX. Reviews and Records in igoge and Physiology sid . Watpo I. Burnett, M.D.,_ - 104 XX. Correspondence of M. ipouk NibxGis : : Dackin Roux, 114. —Admiral Roussin: Beautems Beaupré, 115.—Victor Mau- vais, 116.—The Paris Observatory, 117.—Electricity : Ta- ble Turnifigs, 119.—Works of Arago: Poisonous effects of Carbonic Acid, 120.—Blowpipe with a continued Blast, 121. —Use of Oxygen in Asphyxia: Local Anesthesis: Photog- raphy and Stereoscopy : Bath for bringing out Photographs, 122.—A new red dye for dying wool, 123. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. sone Researches on Hydroelectric Currents: On the double refraction temporaril uced in isotropic bodies, and on the relation between me- chanical = Rae 124.—On a new Filtering Apparatus, by Professor J. P. Coo Mines wees emical Contributions to Seca me by James D. Dana: Chlorite Sec- io} Hydrous Silicates, 128.—Wahle : Keilhauite, 130, anu and Zoology.—The ftimemediin Dito a Guide to the pier and Investigation of the Structure and Nature of Microscopic Objects, by J. GrRIF- Firtu, MD., F.L.S., and Artuur Sarat, F.R.S., F L.S., &c., isi balers of the Voyage of the Herald, by B. Seemann: Dr. foikai's Flora of New Zealand: Botany of the U.S. Exploring Expedition under Capt. Wilkes; Phanerogamia, by A. GRAY, 132.—Dr. Wallich: On preserving the Balance between the Animal and fps ; Organisms in Sea Water, by Rospert WarrincTon, 133 Astronomy.—New Planets :—Bellona; Amphitrite, 137 —New Cenet of 1854: Atm lar Solar Eclipse of May 26, 1854, 138.—Eclipse of the Sun, May 26, 1854, at Yale College, 142. Miscellaneous Intelligence —List of Papers read at the meeting of the American Ass0- ciation for the Advancement of Science, 143—Abstract of a Meteo. orological Journal kept at Beloit College, for the year 1854, by Prof. S, P. Laruror, M.D., 146—The cli- mate of San Francisco, ete., by Dr. Henry Gipzons, 148 Meee Trees of Cali- fornia, 150.—Recent Earthquake Shocks in California, by W. P. Bhaxke : Memorial to the United States Congress, on establishing a Geographical Department of the Library of Congress, 151.—On Gold and Platinum of Gai co, by W. P. BLaxe; Sup- posed Corallines of the Colorada Desert: Additions to the Article on Chinese ri agery, by D. J. Maccowan: Brazil, 156. — Obituary er aaitioace, igs Geology, by Epwarp Ht D.D., D.- : re ee Cree the Superintendent of the U. 8. Coast Survey, 158. ee List of Works, 159. ; CONTENTS. v NOMBER LITII. Page. Arr. XXI. On the comparative Expenditure of Heat in different forms of the Air-Engine; by Prof. Frepericx A. P. Barnarp, 161 XXII. On the first Hurricane of September 1853, in the At- lantic ; with a Chart; and Notices of other Storms: ~ W.C. REDFIELD, - 176 XXUHI. Researches upon Richiiéieuat and Retaackocion Hy. drogen, and their relations to ere “ Professor RapwaeEt Napotl, - - - 190 XXIV. On some of the Cryin eee ee of North f ome ; by T.S. Hunt, - - - 193 XXV. Documentary Publications dad etche in ihe Cat Sur- vey Report for 1853, _—- - 200 XXVI. On the use of Hydrogen Gas and terceke Acid Gas, to displace Sulphuretted Hydrogen in the analysis of Mineral Waters, &c. ; by Prof. W. B. Roczrs and Prof. R. E. Rocers, 2138 XXVII. On Changes of the Sea-Level effected by existing Phys- ical Causes during stated ear of time; Bd ALFRED Tytor, F.G.8.,° - : 216 ~ XXVIII. On Fuchs’s method for as loon sh a Tio by J. R. Brant, - - - 227 XXIX. On Stibiotrizincyle and Stibiobizineyle; two new com- ~ pounds of Zinc and Antimony, with some remarks on the deconiposition of water by the ie of these metals; y Josian P. Cooxe, Jr, - - 229 XXX. On the Nature of Forces; by aout BI B. Hont, - + 237 XXXI. Contributions to Mineralogy ; by James D. Dana, - - 249 XII. Notice of the Life and Writings of the late Dr. Waldo Irving Burnett ; by Jerrries Wyman, M.D.,_ - - = oe SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE, aes Chemistry and Physics.—On the continuity and — = we eurrent of the magneto-elec- __ trie machine, 264.—Galvanic reduction of 266.—On_ the losses of _ Weight which minerals undergo by heat: Ilustrations of poe omolog ue Mineralogy and Geology.—Notice of von Kobell’s 5 Dope. os age of Isomorphous and . the Chloritoid of _ On the Alteration of Scapolite, by G.v. Ratu, , 272.—Report on the Salt and Gypsum of the Preston Salt Valley of the Holston River, Virginia, by ‘Prof. H. D, Rogers, 273, —The Metallic Wealth of the United States described and compared with that of other Countries, by J. D. Wartney, 274.—City of San Salvador destroyed by an Earth- quake, 277. vi ‘ CONTENTS. —Hooker’s Icones Plantarum: J. D. Hooker’s Flora of New Zealand: Genera fccan Flore Germanice Teoniba et Descriptionibus Ilustrata: Flore Danice Supplementi fasciculus I, 1853, 284.—The Micrographic Dictionary, by Drs. GRIFFITH and Henrrey: Linnea; ein see fiir die Botanik ; herausgegeben von D. F. L. von ScHLECHTENDAL: Annales des Sciences ~~ etc., redigée pour la Zoologie par M. Mizne Epwarps, pour la Botanique par M p. Broxnentart et J. DECAISNE, 285.—Mammoth Ags of California, 286.—On ae a Plants found in Amber, by Professor Ga@preRt, 287. Astronomy.—New Comet: Orbital Elements of Bellona and Amphitrite, 290. Miscellaneous Intelligence —New Process for Desulphurizing Metals : Separation of Nickel and Cobalt by Wohler’s process, 291.—Researches on the Tides of the White Sea, by if e on the eee of Chemical Light for artificial Nlamination, by Dr. LAND, F.C.S., 295.—Mechanical Action of Heat, by F. A. P. Barnarp, 300. ee The History er the Oldest Known Rocks Sete! cor Remains, with a brief sketch of the Distribution of Gold over r the Earth, by ir R. I. Murcuison, G.C. StS, &c lem h Manual of Natural pile for the use of Travellers, by ARTHUR Apams, M.R.C.S., F.LS., re Wr ieease Datroor Basti ae F.R.S.E., and Cuarxtes Barron, 301. —The its application to piceal Medicine, by LoveLu BEALE, M.B.: Report on the Geology of the Coast Mountains and part of the Sie rra Nevada, by Dr. oun B. Tras ee yageats - en IRON ers Notices by M, Jz- ROME sae , par F, Reecu, 302.—Précis des ceuvres mathematiques de Ferma’ ne de l’arithmetique de Diophante par Brassine: Traité de ipa par M. Dunamex.: Uranographie ou Traité élé- ar M mentaire d’astronomie par Lecgons de Cosmographie par RANTE et LarittTe, 303.—Chimie potograpi par MM. Barreswitt et Davanna: Re- cherches oe sur les Eaux- s par E. Cazenave: Des accidents sur les er par E. Wits, 304. NUMBER LIV. : Page. Arr. XXXIII. On the Tides at Key West, Florida, from observa- tions made in connexion with the United States Coast Sur- vey; by A. D. Bacue, Superintendent. (With six Plates.) 305 XXXIV. On the igen x: Distribution of Crustacea; by James D. Dana, - - 314 XXXV. Notes on Map Picjediiaae ws bau BE. B. om - 326 XXXVI. On the Educational Uses of peren cs EpwarpD Forses, F.R.S., &e., —- 340 XXXVII. On the Cause of the Tiers Bacal: . Protatiee A. peta Rive, < - . - - 353 XXXVIIL. Notice of three ee masses of Meteoric Iron at Tuczon, Sonora; by Cuartes Uruam Sueparp, M.D., - 369 CONTENTS. vii XXXIX. Reéxamination of American Minerals: Part [V—Bol- ‘tonite; Iodid of Silver; Copiapite; Owenite; Xenotime ; Lanthanite; Mangano-magnesian Alum; Apophyllite ; Schrei- bersite ; Protosulphuret of Iron; Cuban; PY J. LAwRENCE Situ, M.D., - - - 372 XL. Correspondence of M. Jerome ask tem ketdseg of Sci- ences, 381.—On the Phenomenon called “ Spirit-rappings :” ” Electricity-—Electro-chemical action, 382.~-Pyro-electric currents: On the electricity produced during the evapora- tion of salt-water, 384.—_Economical illumination by Electric light: Decomposition of Kyanite by galvanic heat, 385.-- Electro-magnetic Machine: Magnetism by Rotation, 386.— Experiments with reference to firing mines by electricity: Various Memoirs, 387.—Dilatation and Contraction of Me- tallic Platess New Greek Fire, 388.—Coupled Cannons, 389,—Photography—Heliographic engraving: Collodion : Société d’Encouragement pour I’Industrie Nationale, 390. Economical Lamp for obtaining high temperatures, 391.— XLI. Observations on the Nomenclature of the metals contained in Columbite and Tantalite ; by Prof. A. oe ln . - XLII. Murchison’s Siluria, —- = . ee | aes the Chemical Composition of ‘Clintonite by sil J. - 407 Stay eas to asics: ; by Dr. F. * ‘ee - 410 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics —On the so-called Benzotoxyd and some other conjugate com- pounds; Researches on different questions in Organic Chemistpy—Composition of tan- nie acid, 412.-Decomposition of brucine by nitric acid : _Hydrocyanaldin : Production of propionic acid in fermentation: On some combinations of hydrargyro-methyl and —On a new Test for Zirconia, by G. J. Brusu: On the Electricity 7. the sue M. L. Paumrert, 415—A Vacuum made by Chemical means, by M. C. — 416. contributions to Mineralogy, by Jamzs D. Dana, 417.—Bei- trige zur Kenntniss dine Eisenhohofen-Schlacken, nebst einem geologischen Anhange, (on Iron Furnace Slags, etc. “ip by J. F. L. Hausmann, 421.—Temperature of the inte- rior of the Earth: A System of Mineralogy, comprising the most Recent Discoveries, by James D. Dawa, 424. a pe I SE Botany and Zoology.—Vietoria Ragin: othe Greet Water Lily of America; by Jon Fisk ALuen : Plante Junghuhnian umeratio Plantarum quas in Insulis sano et Sumatra detexit Fr. Junghuhn : site's Synopsis Plantarum Glumacearum, 4 Vili . CONTENTS. le ann's Botany of the ilies of the Herald: Notice of the death of Dr. Fischer, of St. Petersburgh, M. Moricand of Geneva, and Philip Barker Webb, Esq., 429.— Description of a New Species of Cry shots Sond California, by James D. Dana, 430. Astronomy.—New Planets : New Comet, 430. Miscellaneous Intelligence.—Correspondence of M. JERomE Nréxiis—Death of f Dr. Lal- Jemand and of Melloni: Weights and Measures: Researches on Colored Impressions produced by the Chemical action of Light, 431.—Protection against — 482: —Dis- disabled ae abandone 8. Ocean Bird, Sept 4th, [civil time] at 4p. m. gale increasing from east, with ss swell, steering south, under double reefed topsails, in lat. 27°, lon. ude Atl 10 P m. full hurricane from E.N. E.; scudded un- N. E. to S. W., lat. 29° 30’, lon. 69° 50’; was hove on beam ends and dismasted. * This Journal, vol. ii; i “iat Series, + From Capt. Atkinson ometer had fallen to 29-10 in the earl: of. dhl cea nen eure eee tar — its greatest violence. ae Cape Verde and Hatteras Hurricane. 3 10. Regatta, Sept. 6th, lat 29° 20’, lon. 71°, hurricane ; veering from N. E. to 8. W.; split storm sails; main rail under wate r three hours ; could not be heard four feet, with utmost effort of voice. 11. Elena, totally dismasted, Sept. 6th, lat. 32°, lon. 70°. 12. J. Grierson, = Gulf of wiht Sept. 6th, lat. 31°, lon. 74° 30’, heavy gale from N. N. E., hauling . W.; dismasted. Caroline, crippled i s heavy blow, Sept. 6t h, é ee put back to Charleston. 13. one Sept. 6th, lat. 33° 40’, lon. 76°, hurricane from N. E. to ; dam 14, Dione, Sept. 6th, lat. 33° 15/, age duet 20’, hurricane from E. N. E.; lost topsails, top-gallant-ma 15. G. W. Lawrence, Sept. 7th, lat. 33°, ree 75°, dismasted in hurri- cane from E. N. E. : 16. Norfolk Packet, hurricane, Sept. 7th, lat. 33° 50’, lon. '76° 20’; ismasted 1% Levant, dismasted Sept. 7th, lat. id 10’, lon. 74° 10’, ina terrific gale from ie ‘eastward,—_— islet Ada rah disthast ed in hurricane, 6th-7th of Sept. on sci side of gulf strea 18. Viola, dismasted in hurricane, Sept. “th, near lat. 34° 16/, lon. 73°. 19. Segesta, Sept. 7th, lat. 34° 32’, lon. 72° 30’, hufrieane, 8. 8. E. to N.N. W.; dismaste 0. Steamship Georgia ;* Sept. 6th, barometer at noon 29°85 ; lat. nak 9’, lon. 73° 55’; wind southward, with a large —. swell from swell: bar. at 1 a. m. 29°78, 4 a. m. 29°76, wind mii to a gale: at 9a. M. bar, 29- 45, blowing heavy and sea oe At noon bar. had descended to 29- 10, wind still increasing and sea high ; steamer’s an tion-about 80 miles E. of Cape. Hattoras [lat. 35° 14, lon. 74° 10°] 5" 1p, M. bar. 28:40; blowing very heavy in squalls. At 2:30, modera- hit no one could eitisinntd its force; at4 P. m. bar. 28°10, ‘Gowioy than ever, and so sonata till 6: 30 vp. M.; skylights and part of hurricane deck blown away; a p. mM. still blowing heavy and sea ~ high : Midnight bar. 29 in., ind still subsiding ; and at daylight on the 8th, had abated sufficiently to make sail ; 8 A. M. weather moderating. Noon, lat. 35° 40’, lon. 72° 48. 21. Rescue, Sept. 7th, lat. 36°, lon. 7 30’, hurricane; dismasted. — 22. Albemarle, capsized i in the hurricane be midnight on the 7th, lat. 35° 30/, lon. 73°; all lost except one se 23. Lyr a, bound south, Sept. 7th, lat. 35° 50’, lon. 73° 30, hurricane, from E. S. E. to W. N. W.; dismasted. 24. Fanny, Rept 7th, lat. 35° 09’, lon. 71° 39, hurricane, dismasted. ‘i Pew eeR. | gorna, for the Chesapeake, dismasted i in lat. —, lon. 70°. [Either € date or the latitude erroneous! 25. Brig Swan, Sept. 7th, [eivil as oe at noon, lat. 36° 26’, lon. 71° 44’, had reduced to short sail, gale S. E. by S., and high sea for last * From reports and Se Me of Capt. Budd. 4 Cape Verde and Hatteras Hurricane. 24 hours; standing south; 2 P. m. heavy gales furled foresail and hove to; 4. M. gale increasing, furled topsail and scud before it under storm stay-sail, then bare poles ; 6 P. M. ea ta E.8. E.; broached to on port-tack ; 7 P. m. wind truly terrific ; thrown on beam-ends ; dismasted about 9 p. M; barometer 28°85: [2894 as compared with mine], at 11 p.m, free: of hurricane began to abate, and before mid- night gale had veered to E.N. E, At 4a. m. Sept. 8th, gale N. N. E. moderating ; 8 a. M. stiff breezes; noon, moderate; lat. 36° 13’, lon. 72° 40. 26. Star, Sept. 7th, lat. 36° 10’, lon. 72°, hurricane, from N. E. to W.: dismasted. 27. Addy Swift Sept. 6th, [civil time] fine weather, lat. 37°20’, lon 71° 30’, bar. 30°10 in., a very heavy swell from S. E. , gradually i in- oreasing: wind from 8. W. to N. E.. Sept. 7th, fine; light win m. bar. 30.in.; at noon, lat. 36° 30’, lon. 71°; windS.S. E., a double reefed topsail breeze ; western horizon very hazy; 2p. M. cloudy, wind increasing; bar. 29:90; 5p. m. sails furled, hove to under storm try- 2 gale S. 8. E., slight rain, and tre mendous sea running ; bar. 29°50; tals hours from gale’s center]. 7 P. M. severe hurricane from 8, “i at 8 p. m. vessel on her beam-ends, heading within five points of the wind ; remained in this position until 10 Pp. m., when I cut away the mast, and she righted. At 11 P. M. it was almost 28. ation Sept, 7th, lat. 36°, lon. 70°, severe hurricane from 8 ~ Pp. M. till next morning, from S whe Mt S. W.; thrown on beam-ends, with loss of topmast, sails, rudder . L. Swan, night of Sept. sh (ean lat. 37°, = SB hur- tithe: from E. 8. E. going round [probably by N.] to N ; dis- masted. 4 eed abana PR 8th, lat. 36° 37’, lon. 69°, hurricane, from S. W. dis 3l. Octavia, — 8th, lat. 37° 05’, bigs ng 04’, severe gale from S. and heavy seas; damaged, and one man ’. alten danse uddecke, diamiasted in te. aie, and foundered: crew pinks up on the I1th, lat. 39°, lon. 65°. . Adrian and William, Sept. 9th, lat. 39° 50’, lon. 66° 50’, hurri- cane ; dismasted. 34. Nauticon, nt 8th, lat, 33° 15’, lon. 65°, at daylight gale com- menced fro he and increased rapidly : boat's bulwarks and spars swept from Mina ship. . Bessie Grant, Sept. 8th, lat. 37° 30’, lon. 63°, in hurricane from N. N. E. was thrown on beam-ends and dismasted. hurri t. Berry states, that from ie to * p, u. the cards of his compasses van flying round from east to west like a top; perhaps at the — of ee times a minute. When the gale was from the western quarter the co. ere steady. Cape Verde and Hatteras Hurricane. 5 36. Revenue, Sept. 8th, lat. 38° 30’, lon. 64° 48’, at 10 a. m. the hur- ricane blew all sails from the yards; at 12 30 still i increasing ; hove n beam-ends at 1°30 p. m., and dismasted ; at 5p. m. hurricane abated. 37. Liverpool, near lat. 41° 02’, lon. 68° ne, Sept. 9th; gale com- menced from eastward, blowing badd at N. EK. and N. N. E. about four hours, late in the ufiernoon, and veering pope barometer at noon 29:20 in. [Estimated as 210 miles to the left of the center path]. 38. Abner Taylor, Sept. Sth, lat. 39° 30’, lon. 66° 20, hurricane, from 8. E. to N. W.; dismasted. Georgiana, dismasted on the 8th, in lat 40°, and nbandosed. Cairo, thrown on beam-ends, on southern edge of gulf stream, and abandone 39. Glamorgan, Sept. 9th, lat. 40°, ‘lon. 65°, hurricane, from E.N.E.; dismasted. i Saragossa, dismasted in violent hurricane, Sept. 8th, lat. 39°, on. 63°, 1. Queen of Sheba, Sept. 7th, a hurricane, in lat. 39° 50°, lon. ox 35’, in which’ lost spars, sails and bulwarks ; with other damage. 42, Juanito, Sept. 8th, severe gale from N. E., lat. 40°, lon. 64° thrown on beam-ends and dismasted. Tarquin, Sept. 8th, eas — in the hurricane, in lat 40° ; lost sails, topmast, &c. 3. Conqueror, Sept. 8th, lat. "38°, lon. 59°, hurricane; dismasted 3 filled. Haabet, Juosaauee Sept. 8th, ened of the Grand Bank ; abandoned. Matchless, Sept. 8th, lat. 89° 29’, lon. 59° 45’, severe hurricane from south four hours, when it died away and suddenly shifted to the west, blowing very violent ; dismaste 45. Ionian, night of Sept. 8th, lat. 40°, lon. 60°, took the hurricane from S.; which shifted to N.; was hove on beam- ends and dismasted. 46. Henry Harbeck, Sept. 8th, hurricane comm enced at noon from the southward, lat. 40°, lon. 56°. While lying to was struck by a sea, on larboard side, with loss of bulwarks and deck house; five men lost or disabl 0 At 3. ™. blowing harder, lost topmasts and sails. i foundere » Lusca: sh on beam-ends, with loss of sails, &c., in a violent hae, Sept. 9th, lat. 41°, lon. ccd be sha ae 8 - Cadet, darnes ed in heav nip from ept. 10th, iat. 43° 30/, lon. 61° 20 W. : 49, independent, Sept. 9th, lat. 40° 20’, lon. 50° Ne pede from 8. W.t .; lost topmasts, sails, é&c.: at 11 a e hurricane poser ith j its utmost fury ; and the barometer had he ‘alle to 27°75 nehes, 50. Wildfire, Sept. 9th, lat. 42° 04’, lon. 51°21, at 11 4. m. under close reefed topsails, wind E., was struck by the geen and hove on &m-ends : lost mainmast, topmasts, &c., and o 51. Albert Gallatin, Sept. Pte lat. 39°, lon. 48°, severe coos well six “ah Pes 3.3. Bet oN. W saison Sept. "Oth, | t, 48° 16, lon. 45°, in the gale under etn’ reefed topsails, wind rapeties changed from 8, to N, ut any warning and blew a hurricane ; lost sails, &c. * From the official report and protest of Capt. Smith, 6 Cape Verde and Hatteras Hurricane. 53. London, sg 9th, squally, with rain; 9 a. m. barometer 29:80 : noon, lat. 43° 13’, n. 44° 12’; at 2p. m. barometer 29°60; blowing harder; 3 P. mM. ue 29° Pa ali ealciaoae of a heav blow ; wind S. veering to S. W.; Pp. M. bar. 29°20; nearly calm, but looked — threatening : At pis lie mM. bar. 29 thicken, when the blast struck us from N, W., like a iit of cannon; went before it furiously ; burst the spencer and sprung main-yard ; ship settling away every few seconds as if going down. At 5p. m. bar. had risen to 7 29-2 20; at6 Pp. M. the fury of the hurricane was broken, but the gale blew from N. W. through the night ; moderating at noon of 10th in Jat. 42° 27/, lon - 46° ; so that at 2p. m. we had set fore and main topsails.* bieceianse 165 miles to the right of center pat 54. Connecticut, ate 9th, lat. 44° 30’, lon. 47°, —— tea sr at 10 4. M. b roached t ; lost spars and ‘sails, with four seamen ; noon, gale gradually seat; ship lying to on port tak, with bond 55. Washington, Sept. 10th and 11th, lat. 46°, lon: 48°, heavy gale at S. S. W., veering round to the northward, Wilton, from Jamaica, was dismasted i in the gale Sept. 10th. 56. Nathaniel Thomson, Sept. yer lat. 42° 26’, lon. 38°, severe hur- ricane from 8. S. W. to N. N. W. for 12 hours; ship on beam ends for three hours ; lost all — Juno, for Bremen, had shes hurricane Sept. 9th, lost three men : wa spoken 13th, lat. 41°, lon. 42°.—— Kezia, a Mirimiehi, vibatiitietad it on the 10th, trom 5. os with much dam 37, Mercury, Sept. 12th [?], lat. 44°, lon. 41°, took the ‘hurricane from § i Hibernia, Sept. 10th, lat. 45°, lon. 42°, hurricane, foes N. E. to 59. Ossippee, Sept. 10th, lat. 46° 30’, lon. 42° 30', very heavy gale from 8S. E. to N.; split suite, stove bel weerkeny &e. 60. a ee eta Sept. ag lat. 46°, lon. 36°, hurricane, from S. E. and 8. to N. N. E.; lost spars and sails, other dam mage. 61. Sardus, Sept. 9th F10th ?], lat. 43° 16’, lon. 32° 24’, in a hurri- cane, lost sails and bulwarks ; with other Acuigi &. Burlington, Sept. 10th, lat. 40° 45, lon. 29°, severe gale, 16 "63. “John gpa Sept. 9th, lat. 35° 48’, lon. 29° 30’, severe hur- ricane, from S. W. to N.; lost spars, sails, &t. 64. lympus, ‘Sept, 10th, lat. 36°, lon. 27°, hurricane, with loss of ge sails, and rigging. 6 n Dunlap, Sept. 11th, lat. 46° 15’, lon. 32° 15’, hurricane ; lost aida: &c 66. Eli Whitney, ng 11th, heavy gale, with damage. Sept. 12th, lat. 47° 19’, lon. 30° 38 w Barbar a Ann, disabled. 67. Clara Wheeler, Pape ‘10th, lat. 49°, lon. 35°, was thro sa with loss. 11th a still continuing, saw a large shige in aaanitel ndition. * From Prof. C. U. Shepard, then passenger on the London. Cape Verde and Hatteras Hurricane. 7 68. Robert Kelly, Sept. 10th, lat. 46° 30’, lon. 31°, hurricane ; lost sails, ne barometer fell to 28°15 inches 69. Rialto, in the gale, lat. 50° 28’, lon. 35° 43’, shipped a heavy Ste filled cabin, shifted cargo, &c one Elizabeth, Sept. 9th, lat. 45°, lon. 29° 30’, heavy gale from 8. E. to N. E.; ‘hove on beam-ends while under bare poles; gale abated at P.M. next day 71. Stephen hats Sept 10th, nag? 47° 13’, lon. 30° 16’, hurricane W.S. rom N. W. and . ; thrown on beam-ends and dismasted. 72. Emperor, Sept. soi lat. 47° 30’, lon. 30° 30/, severe gale from 8.8. . W. ending in a perfect hurricane ; lost sails, spars, &c. 73. Rowaliet, dismasted in the gale, Sept. 10th, lat. 48°, lon. 30° 30’ ; abandoned. 74, Southerner, Sept. 9th, ended with i increasing gale from E.S. E.: 10th, at 4 a. m. gale heavy from N. A.M. a hurricane 3; 7 a. M. broached to under bare poles; 2 P.M. wind hauled to N. N. W. blowing tremendously ; ; eran yond 28°27 in.; 7 P.M. heavy cross sea; 10 p. mM. 7 feet water in hold: at 11:30 P. m. crew took to the boat. Sept. a at 6°30 a. M. ship ski down head foremost, in lat. 47° 15’, lon. 24!. 7. Caroline, Sept. 10th, lat. 48° 12’, lon. 30°, gale commenced in heavy squalls from E.S. E., soon ha ulin ng to different points of the compass, and bhai a hurricane; laid six hours ar? bare poles ; eae ce canvass blown from yards, with other dam 6. Harvest Queen, severe hurricane Sept. 10th, ae 47° 10’, lon. 29° 30", from 8S. S. W to N. W. Tk George Hulburt, for Havre, violent gale Sept. 10th, between lat. 48° and 49° ; lon 80°; was hove down and lay many hours on port- i 78. Palermo, Sept. 10th, lat. 49°, lon. 31°, in hurricane from S. E., decks swept, with loss of the mate : gale cantata’ next day from N.W.; in lat. 48°, lon. po On three following days strong winds from 8. Ww. to N. W., to lon. 18°. 79. William. Hitchcock, ve ga &c. in the hurricane from W.S. W. Sept. 10th, lat. 46° 30’, lon evon, in violent aia! ‘onder bare poles, Sept. 12th [?], lost spars, bulwarks, binnacle, é&e. &e. ; lat. 46° 39), lon. 26° 40. Victoria, dismasted and water-logged i in terrific gale from west- ward, Sept. 10th, lat. 47° 17/, lon. 27 82. Chesapeak, Sept. 10th, lat. 47° 10’, lon. 27° 30’, severe hurricane from S. E. to N.; received much da amage. , dea, Sept. 10th, lat. 47°, lon. 26°, gale from 8. W. to 84. oan hurricane, Sept. 10th, lat. 47° ol’, Ton. 2° ——Next day, passed La ady Seymour, dismasted - Larpool, Sept. 11th, om 48°, lon. 25°, heavy gale 5 on biadinsdude four hours, with much damage ; barometer, 28 oe inches lay, abandoned Sept. 11th, | asian tg tose 24° 30/, at 9 a.m: wind then ary from N. Was wrecked the day we in the gale. a a, hurricane, Sept. 11th, lat. 46°, lon. 22° 50’; hove on beam-ends, w with much damage. 8 Cape Verde and Hatteras Hurricane. 88. Brown, Sept. 10th, nt 49° 45’, lon. 25°, lying to with strong gale from S. E.; about 4 v. mu. it fell déad calm i about half an hour, while rain fell in torrents ; 2 4:30 a sudden gust came up from the west, and continued to blow a be feet hurricane ; ship hove to under 89. Barque Elizabeth, at Quebec, reports ; ais 1], lat. 47° 56, lon, 22° 07’, experienced a hurricane from 8. W. which proved to be a revolving storm. At midnight, wind veered from W. to W. N. W. At 2 a. M. being most violent, it blew away the close reefed topsails. The ship being laid to with head to the southward, escaped the vortex.* 90. Avalanche, Sept. 10th, lat. 48°, lon. 20° 15’; at 4p. m. [civil time] gale very severe at 8. S. Bs brought the ship under a single top- sail ; [bound west] at 5 p. m. barometer 28: 50, was struck with a ial gust from N. W., and thence twice round the compass : 6 P. lying to under bare on oroineter 8°70; gale, after the crisis, waaay N. N. [N. W. nearly.] Sept. llth, at 8 a.m. wi N. W., and so far SRE as to allow aclose reefed main- -topsail. T 91, "Rufus K. Page, in the gale, Sept. 11th, lat. 39°, lon. 17°, was struck by a heavy squall from the northward and dismasted. 92. Barque Swan, from Lisbon, ep 12th I} lat. 36° 50’, lon. 15° 25’, severe gale from E. N. E. round by S. t (93. William Ray, Sept. 11th, lat. 49° 10’, or 20° 30', hard gales ; at 4 p. m. furled all sails and have to, in a mountainous sea ; midnight, dreadful sea, ship lay on her broadside ; 6 a. . got before the wind un- der double reefed fore-topsail; water-logged; abandoned on 14th. The gale veered from S. by the W., to uterpe, Sept. 9th, lat. 48° 42, lon, 19° 30, severe hurricane, which came on at S. E. and abated at N, W 95. Esther G. Barney, severe gale Sept. 10th, lat. 48° 04’, lon. 18° 36’; threw over part of cargo. 96. Nicholas Biddle, lat. 52°, lon. 19°, etch Sept. 14th [?], while lying to in a gale from N.N. 96 a. R. M. steamer Andes, severe gale, §.S. W. veering to N. N. W.; lat. 51° 30’, lon. 18° 30’; barometer 28-48. 97. Constantine, lost dette: top-gallant-masts, and sprung fore-topmnast ni gale from W.S. W., Sept. 14th [?], lat. 52° 34’, lon . Devonport, took the gale oo 10th, in 54°, lon. 22° ; continued ae A. M. of 12th, with heav 9 ommerce, lost spars sik “eels in the gale, Sept. 10th, lat. 48° 53’, lon. 13° 40’, 100. Mar ary Glover, in gale from S, W., Sept. 11th, lat. 50°, lon. 14°, lost mainsail, with other damage. 101. Susan § Sores sass 11th, lat. 55° 20’, lon. 15° 30’, in severe n bea gale. from S. fed shen m-e nds 5 lost mizenmast and one man. Returned to *Tt too ek 3 that é chips, when running westward ina jaicsiaily gale in these latitudes, thus in the right side of the storm- are hove to un- wil : ittingly on the peda 2 tthe mane as more convenient, or a view to av of the a, nb oe Sapien a | igh gare t Statement of Capt. Leach. ia gh eee or ; ; iF: Cape Verde and Hatteras Hurricane. 9 2. Anne, from Orkney, for Limerick, lost bulwarks in the gale, with sundry other damages; was as faras lat. 55° 20’, lon. 10° 15’ W.; hove to for sixty hours, and drifted off Tory Island ; never experienced such a séa, ry ha with loss of foremast, was passed Sept. 13th, Jat. 50°, lon. 25° 4 103. Zanoni, pal Greenock ; Sept. 11th, lat. 57°, lon. 15°, heavy gale ; sprung a leak, and was Maidoned This position is on the Rockall Bank. 104. Virginia, from Gothenburg, Sept. 12th, [naut.?] in lat. 60° 40’, lon. 11° 34’, encountered a hea avy gale and was struck by a heavy sea which caused the ship to leak : in continuance of the bad weather, lost ea and bore up for the nearest port. Had good weather previous to this gale. The master of an English brig who was off the Lands End of Corn- strength was only sufficient to bring him to two-reefed topsails. S. E. to S. W. fresh, with heavy rain; pri age Sept. 11th, wind S. 8. Ww. fresh, with rain; bar. 29°70, “75. At gs at 70 miles west of Liverpool, Sept. 10th, wind E. to 8. E. — llth, S. W., hard gale and squally. n western coast of England and coast of Ireland, the exterior Portion of this cyclone set in from the eastern or southern quarter, and veered to the eed as the body of Ic storm passed on to the north- ward; with “a very heavy ground sea on the coast.’ 7 WP ehcrtiery. 1. of Mull, lat 56? | 37’, lon. 6° 04’ W., Sept. 11th, » a heavy gale from N. E.: evening more moderate. The varia- tion being 282° W., shows the wind at N. 64° W., true. In view of the trending of the strait and the high land nat, Ba its northern opening, this may consist with an outside gale from N. N. W The e foregoing accounts show the right border of the storm to have extended to the shores of England ; but in no pete ig force, and with a depression of less than half an inch in the rometer : while the axial area, with the more active portion of the cyclone, appears to have passed over the Rockall Bank or on a center-path still more distant from the British meee in its course toward the polar basin. See Track xxiv on t rt. n reviewing the daily progress and phenomena of ‘the storm, - it should be recollected that most of the sea accounts are given in nautical time, and thus are often one day in advance of the calendar. 'The direction of the winds being given by compass, The whole number of yessels noticed in the foregoing reports, is 125; of whic = are seen to have reported their several positions at the time of va aos etre le, making an t he Were lost or dismasted ; br 46 were crippled, or damaged: while of the remainin, one was occasioned by rocks, shoals, or a lee ercial koonn Srxius, Vol. XVIII, No. 52.—July, 1854. 10 Cape Verde and Hatteras Hurricane. a correction of ten to thirty two degrees is required for the west- erly variation, from off Georges Shoals to the Rockall Bank, and the shores of Europe The first report in the above series is important, viewed as the earliest notice, and as from a region long supposed to be free from hurricanes and gales; of which more hereafter. e commencement of the gale at N. E. with the Independ- ence (2) marks nearly its center-path. On carrying back the trace-line derived from this and subsequent reports, it appears that the William Money (1) was north of this line, in the right side of the gale, as relates to its course of progression. e In- dependence © was also on the right of the center-path, during the middle and latter part of the gale, as is shown by the veering of the wind: both vessels being bound northward. The positions reported, are probably those of the noon immediately preceding _the onset of the gale. e Hermann (5) was bound southward. Hence her final position in the gale was probably more southward than that re- ported. The remarkable fall i as her barometer showed a position near to the axis of the storm The Ocean Bird (8) first “encomterd the gale at E. N.E., which places her in the right-front of the storm. Had she then hove to on the starboard tack, it wind would have veered by the east, as with (2); but steering south, and then scudding before the wind during the night, she crossed the center-path and ran partly round the axis of rota- N. i) interest to some who think we have not shown 7 the wind’s rotation. The rate of advanee appears to have lessened as the storm ap- proached the line or axis of equal diurnal motion ; the position of which, on this occasion, appears to have been somewhat above the 30th parallel of latitude.t sage os Daily Times, I find a letter of which the following is an ex- Phy 2 ech an obvious correction, probably gives the true place of the Her- n int € man t. Thomas, Sept. 19, agen On the 4th, the barometer fe: and the wind was fresh from the Nort , giving rise to some apprehension that a hurricane was at hand. But it was as only 1 the py oni the wings of one i to the northeast of us, where the French brig Diamond, and the American brig Carl- ton, from Boston, and the ge ooner Ann Maria, from Baltimore, pena with its fury. Col. Rew’s Theory, or rather Mr. Reprreiy’s Theo ory of the gyratory move- -ments of these storms, can no axa be doubted. A vessel was seen by the Dia- mond on the 4th, dismasted.” From the a payee relations between the diurnal rotation of the earth’s crust that of the immediately incumbent atmosphere, which result from the inertia Soyer cornea Rate of the Storm’s Progression. 11 The progression of the gale, as in former cases, appears to have been greatly accelerated after it passed the axis of equal diurnal motion, on its recurvated course through the temperate and higher latitudes. ‘The following estimates are roughly made, by set- ting off the progression on the Chart, as shown in trace xxiv, reckoning in English miles, at seventy for a degree of the me- From a point opposite the position of the William Money (1) to that opposite the Hermann (3) Hours. Miles. Ay. per hour. 84 1942 22 mT position of Ove Bird (8) 50 980 19°6 Georgia (20 62 814 13 ‘ Addy Swift (27) 7 175 25 “8 Independent (49) 36 1102 30°6 = Avalanche (90) 30 1505 50 ¥ Virginia (104) 15 (?) 758 50°6 (?) 284 7276 and unstable mobility of the latter, the great storms of the inter-tropical regions must necessarily have a westerly progression; the rate of which denotes the exist- ing difference of the diurnal motion. It is shown also by numerous investigatio vio hat ¢ stwar ower orm re esa and that of the Jower incumbent se mc equal. This line, or wpe 7 call the Chart. On crossing > 0 he lower atmosphere is found o exceed that of the earth’s marines an Petineet a relative movement from the west, which, combined with the continued m ent from th equator, determines the route of the storm through t the temperate “latit udes, is prevailing tendency or movement from the equator, in the inferior =_— seasons g oO =e of i ni ‘ lose cases where the easterly and westerly currents of roto are less act- hand in other words, when the diurnal motion of the pbc oe is least un- 1 eas y he storm becomes greatly modified, in degree, though subject to the same gene- ral law of planetary iptamie y, “ This ma’ ~~ seen exemplified on a ha nse 0 . , Would a it to the lower winds and currents so far only as to include an eleva- Pac usand, to 5 six thousand i feet above the surface. The latter will prob- 12 Cape Verde and Hatteras Hurricane. Thus we have an estimated distance of 7276 miles, traversed by the storm in about twelve days: at an average rate of progres- sion of nearly 26 miles an hour. e slower rate of progression at and near the axis or belt of equal diurnal motion, accords with results ascertained in my pre- vious inquiries, and with those severally shown by Rem, Tom, and Pippineron, in the gales of the Southern Ocean and the Asiatic Seas. In my approximated delineation of the axis line or center-path on the Chart, I have had reference to the path of greatest vio- lence, where observations were had from both sides, and espe- cially to the opposite veering of the wind, which is found in the opposite sides of an advancing cyclone. Northeastward of Cape Hatteras, we find the storm-center to have passed between the Georgia (20) and the Swan (25) on one hand, and the Addy Swift (27) on the other. The incurvation of the storm-path toward the Azores is quite remarkable. ‘This feature I first noticed in the case of the storm of Sept. 1846, as shown by observations extending to lat. 62° 30, far beyond the limits of my former map, on which its track (x1x) was first delineated. This tracing, with that of the hurri- cane of August 1851, (xxi) has been copied on this Chart, and extended without further alteration. The number and extent of the reports obtained in the present case, have induced me to de- lineate this feature more fully than I first intended. Its probable relation to the expansion and perhaps the falling off of the south- ern portion of the cyclone toward the equator, may be considered hereafter. Bastward of the Grand Bank, nearly all the reports are from the right side of the storm-path, and so far as appears, mostly at great distance from the true axis path of the gale. This may be owing to the diminished violence of the two left quadrants of the cyclone, caused by its accelerated progression, as wel paucity of reports from the more northern portions of the Atlan- tic, which are less frequented by navigators. That the cyclonic ities. it as r e movements in the upper atmosphere, in regions higher than the limits first mentioned, almost nothin ears to have been yet learned; al- t inferences, ur, with great confidence, have been sufficiently common. = a may be as Mand as : = ypotheses on whic spac are founded ; seldom appear reconcilable with visible phenomena, if these be widely and care- fally camldaeed Sf Great Expansion of the Storm. 13 extended beyond lat. 60°, in the general direction of the Feroe Islands, and the main entrance to the Arctic Sea. n other cases we find, that after passing the latitude of Ber- muda, the expansion of the storms is often so great that their southern portions advance nearly from west to east; but reach the successive meridians no sooner, and sometimes even later than the axial portion of the gale, which pursues a more north- easterly course. ‘Thus in the present case, east of lon. 60°, and between lat. 35° 30’ and lat. 42° 30’, a belt of seven degrees, we have a series of thirteen observations, carrying us east to lon. 15° 25’, in lat. 36° 50’; almost to the southwestern extremity of Europe. See reports 43, 44, 46, 47, 49, 51, 56, (including Juno, ) 62, 63, 64, 91, 92. If, instead of the broad range of our present inquiry, we were limited, as in the United States, to fewer paral- lels of the temperate latitudes, how readily might an east pro- gression of the storm be shown, by these partial observations, and its true course remain unnoticed. ut I apprehend this southward expansion of the storm to have been due to something more than the centrifugal force of the cyclone, acting against the statical pressure of the circumja- cent atmosphere. In such a wide-spread cyclone, whose diame- ter on the 9th of September extended from Newfoundland,* to beyond the Azores, or more than 1500 miles, how could its vast entireness be much longer maintained, against both the centrifu- gal and gravitating forces of the earth, acting in opposite direc- tions, and with opposite degrees of effect, or predominance, on the sides respectively nearest the equator and the pole?) May we Not suppose that the southern portion of the gale was in process of separation or falling off toward the equator, and thus supply- ing the influx which sustains the inferior trade winds in north- western Africa and the eastern Atlantic? And is not such a view she had fine weather, left Gibralter Sept. 11th, and encountered Strong gales from N. E. with heavy sea; arriving at Southampton On the 18th ;—thus showing a brisk movement of the winds, at this period, toward Madeira and the lower latitudes.t * * * = s *. h the ki Dinwiddie, 1am in possession of observations Made at Sas rege we ‘Bay, x. Pots 47° 40’, lon. 53° 1 6’, which show rans - left margin of the storm touched that place Sept. 9th, with a stiff wind m NV. E. and ] dy i t Taking into-view ibe greatly diminished force of this gale at the entrance of the English Channel, and that we have no notice of its action in the Bay of Biscay, while we trace its violence continuously from off Cape Hatteras to the Rockall Bank and veqond lat. 60° on one hand, and to lat. 36° 50’ and lon. 15° 25’ on the other, with the characteristics of a severe gale, I confess that some so like the 14 Cape Verde and Hatteras Hurricane. Errect or tHe Storm-Winp on THE Baromerer.—The un- failing mechanical effect of the cyclonic wind in producing a fall of the barometer within the area of its circuit, and greatest in the axial region of the cyclone, is clearly seen in this storm. The following are the cases reported in which the barometer fell below 29 inches: to which I have annexed a rough estimate of the prob- able distance of the vessel from the axis of the storm at the time of nearest approach. es “ed Barometer. Sepppent distance from ncnes, ales axis. Hermann (5) 27°30 near, Georgia (20) 28°20 — 45 miles. Swan (25) iF te 5: Sia a0 Independent (49) 27°75 220 Robert Kelly (68) 28°15 woo Southerner (74) 28:27 yap 28°52 Die Avalanche (90) 28°50 430 * ndes (96 a) 28°48 280 “ From observations of the barometer and winds taken at vari- ous points in the United States near the Atlantic coast, and from those made at the signal station in Bermuda, it appears that the storm was but little felt at the latter place, except as exhibiting the true cyclonic wind, from 6th to 8th, from S. E., veering grad- ually from 8. E. to S. W., as the bearing and progression of the storm became changed; with a force of wind marked from 2 to 4; the barometer at 30-10, at noon of 5th, 6th and 7th and 30°07 at noon of 8th. The left side of the storm encroached to some extent upon the eastern borders of North Carolina and Virginia. At Scuppernong, N. C., lat. 35° 50’, lon. 76° 20’, the cyclonic wind blew from N. E., with a force marked 3 and 2, with rain; and the lower stratum of clouds [the true storm-scud or cyclonic barometer. At Fort Monroe, Va., the reported direction of ‘the storm-wind and cloud, are the same as at Scuppernong, with rain from S. W. at 9 e. m., with thunder and lightning. At Savannah, on the 5th and 6th, in front of the storm, the maximum of the barometer was 30-20, and 30:19; on the 7th, the minimum of the report is 30-06, and on the 8th, under the rear portion of its annular wave, 30-21. At Jacksonville, Hast above is apparently required. The normal course of the circulation, or of the “ cur- rent of rotation” in the basin of the North Atlantic, between latitudes 10° and 50°, well as the routes taken by some storms which have recurvated in low latitudes, clearly indicate that a part of the out-moving atmosphere, from the tee eae bites, in the w ic and Mexican Gulf, moves i iptical cir- cuit, and returns to the trade wind in the eastern Atlantic. This apparent tendency : ’ : Caikaioas aatitatiniiiateemiee Curves of Barometric Progression. 15 poke, nearly the same: as also at Charleston, S. C., nearer to the path of the storm; and scarcely falling below 30 inches at New York and Nantucket, as the storm passed, But at Camden, S. C., 140 miles N. N. W. of Charleston and 280 miles W. S. W. of Hatteras, the successive maxima on the 6th and 8th were only 30°04, and 30 in nches; showing this place to have been beyond the crest of the external barometric wave. When storm-tracks recurvate on the interior meridians of the United States, the minimum depression of the barometer frequently moves nearly parallel to the direction from Camden either to Hatteras or to Chesapeak Bay.* The annexed diagram shows the barometric curve at Washing- ton, Fort Monroe, steamer Georgia, and Bermuda, while the storm was passing between the latter and Washington. These two places are distant from each other about 840 miles; which perhaps may be considered as an approximate measure of the barometric diameter of the storm on the 7th of September. The barometric curve of the Georgia, if increased so as to reach the minimum of the Swan, may represent a section through the cen- ter of the cyclone, in the direction of the storm’s progression. Storm-Curves of barometric progression. A. M, Sepremser 7th A Paes |] Serr. 8th, A. M. 3 6 9 12 3 6 9 12 3 6 9 ee Se % OMe Ce & pha * Ae oe ek a a 30 in. ~ = om ey 4 ” 7 Ca - @ Ca - ig e 4 29in. oi F x = af 4 5 ~ F ~ -~ ba c. os : “ A 28 in. 4 2 J xin. - Pe sites cnx cena ee eee Ll a at Washington: 2, at Fort Monroe: 3, Steamer Georgia: 4, Brig Swan: 5. Ship Eagle, crossing in front of storm: 6. Bermuda. i officers of the Smithsonian Institution, and to Gen. 2 nda yy. mea ran at Ny png for aah esr from Various of the United S o Lieut. Maury, 5 upt. of the Naval Obser- nea Rr al abstracts of the books of of Ship Eagle, and steamer Northern Light, Surgeons Wi and Harrison of the Navy, and many ship-masters, and others have kindly aided my inquiries. 16 Curves of Barometric Progression. It will be seen that the above diagram includes a period of thirty-three hours ; and if we rate the progression at twenty-five miles an hour, it will comprise a distance of 825 miles. It con- tains the curve derived from observations on board the ship Eagle. I add the following condensed statement which is derived from the abstract of the ship’s log sent me by Lieut. Maury. The clipper ship Hagle, Warren, from Rio, crossed the center- path on the morning of Sept. 7th, perhaps 350 miles in front of the axis of the gale, while running in the direction of Cape May. It is interesting to find that this vessel, which crossed the equator Aug. 17th, was overtaken by the external barometric wave 0 the storm as early as 4th-5th of Sept., and by a lon coming up from S. £.; being then from 100 miles to 60 miles southward of Bermuda. Through the 6th, winds from southeast 29°90, at noon, 29-84 in. lat. 37°17’, lon. 72° 28/: p.m. very threatening appearances from S. E. by S. to S. W., with a very heavy swell from S.W.; at 4 p.m. bar. 29°70,—at 5 p. m., 29:77; wind fresh from E. N. E. toN.; 8p. m., lightning at N. W.; at 11 p.m, in a heavy squall, wind shifted to N. N, W.; no rain; heavy sea still. Sept. 8th, cloudy; no sea; lat. at noon, 38° 38’, lon. 74° 13’; bar. 30 inches. The steamer Northern Light, bound for the Isthmus, was sev- eral hours ahead of the Georgia, and ona more eastern track. She crossed the center-path in front of the gale, and ran through i Sept. 7th, lat. 34° 30’, lon. 73° 25’; through its eastern side. the day, strong gales from the South; with a heavy sea from .W.—Sept. 8th, lat. 32° 01’, lon. 73°, strong gales from S.W., with heavy squalls, and a large sea from W.N. W.: Clear in the S. E., with stormy appearances in the N. and W.:——found the weather improving as we made south. This account is probably in nantical time. ; The succeeding diagram represents, in its horizontal scale, the distance of 840 miles between Washington and Bermuda. The full line (1) represents, approximately, the barometric curve through the center of the storm, transversely to its path. The comparison of this transverse curve with the central curve of pro- gression, indicated on p. 18, is of some interest; although we have no observations intermediate to the Swan and Bermuda. The re- semblance of the two central cross-curves may show that the storm was of nearly equal extent and force on all of its sides, at that time. I have been apprehensive of a clerical error in the barometric report from Fort Monroe for 3 p. m. and 9 p. m. of Sept. 7th; an that 29-063 and 29-087, should have read 29-63 and 29:87, re- spectively. In preparing the second diagram I became convinced OS EEESE ehiee e a eae Vortical Rotation of the Gale. 17 that the correction is required; and have accordingly applied it, in tracing the transverse curve: but have drawn a short trace line to show the observations as found in the report. I have also inserted in this diagram, in broken lines, the trans- verse barometric curve through the center of the Cuba hurricane of October, 1844; when in nearly the same geographical position. This curve is approximated from twenty-eight observations in the path of that storm. Barometric Storm-Curves, transverse to the Progression. ]. Transverse centre-curve of Cape Verde and Hatteras hurricane, Sept. 7, 1853. 2. Transverse center-curve of Cuba hurricane of 1844, Oct. 6th. Vortican Rorarion or THE GaLE.—The true character of this gale as a cyclone, is made evident by the foregoing series of ob- Servations. 'This is most extensively shown by the various ob- Servations made on all sides of the storm during its passage tween Bermuda and the nearer portions of the United Staies. the barometer, in the interior portions of the gale, are e man- ifest by direct observation. This I might point out in full detail, Were it at all necessary in the present stage of the inquiry. Nor can these results be evaded by denominating any one portion of the cyclonic wind, on either side of the cyclone, as another or distinct gale. The local variations and inequalities of the cy- clonic action and the errors, imperfections or defects which may exist in the reports, are alike overborne by the amount of evidence 3 Skconp Serses, Vol, XVIII, No. 52—July, 1854. 18 E.S. Snell on a Rainbow caused by reflected Light. which serves to show the extent and general entireness of the vortical rotation in the gale. It would be an error to suppose that the gales and hurricanes which have been traced on our storm charts, were but exceptional cases of cyclonic action and progression in the winds of our globe. For there is a constant succession of rotary movements, greatly variant in their activity and their visible effects, and to which I shall further allude, It is the more violent cyclones, however, that afford us complete evidence of their geographic routes and their continued movement of rotation. Of this active class, designated as hurricanes, gales, and storms, it is believed that the tracks or routes of several hundred might be added to our storm maps, by carefully collating the records which already exist. It is certain that a large number might be traced from the records and notices now in my possession or oth- erwise at hand; of which, the case I have now presented is but a single example. But the storms noticed in the succeeding por- tions of this article are selected in reference to their peculiar local- equal latitudes around the globe, rather than for the amount of information possessed, regarding their extent and progression. (To be continued.) Art. I].—Account of a Rainbow caused by Light reflected from Water ; by Prof. E. 8. Syetu, of Amherst College. I nave received from my friend and former pupil, Mr. H. M. Adams, of the Theological Seminary in East Windsor, Conn., 4 very interesting description of a brilliant rainbow scene, witnessed y hi and others, on the 24th of Sept. last. After a slight shower, the sun shone out, about 5 p. m., and produced the usual primary and secondary bows, except that they were of uncommon brightness. Four or five supernumeraries, exceedingly vivid and beautiful, underlined the upper part of the primary, the usual at- tendant of a very brilliant rainbow. In addition to these, there was seen an excentric bow, quite as luminous as the secondary, but in angular size and order of colors, just like the primary, ane * While the printing of these pages was in, progress I received from the gover™ ment of Denmark, through Consul Bech, observations made at Oefjord, on Skage i ele 0 e W.. which show ? h “7 p.m. Sep 10th, under an east wind, the force of which is marked 2. The fall of the barometer ; rwards changed to S. W., its force being normal effect of the cyclone at Oefjord, a position which is remark- ered clonic winds, by the peculiar outline and the elevations of Iceland, is deserving of notice; not taking into account the the abatement of which appears to occur in the left quadrants of the gales in this highly northern portion of the Atlantic. E. S. Snell on a Rainbow caused by reflected Light. 19 vertex 4° above it. Its extremities came within 15° of the hori- zon, and if prolonged a little, would have intersected the pri- mary itself. This gorgeous display lasted some ten minutes, when the third bow began to fade at the top, and soon wholly dis- appeared. (See Fig. 1.) Mr. Adams rightly judged that this additional bow was the effect of the sun’s rays, reflected from the Connecticut river, which runs on the west side of the Seminary hill, and whose waters were then very placid. It was in fact a primary bow produced by an image of the sun in the river. As the vertex of the re- flected bow was 4° above that of the secondary, or 16° above that of the primary, the image of the sun must have been 16° below the sun itself, and the sun therefore 8° above the horizon. In first considering the case, I found it difficult to conceive, that the stratum of light, reflected so obliquely from a narrow belt of water, could have sufficient thickness to form a bow occupying between 160° and 170° of a circle. The accompanying vertical section through the axes of the bows, exhibits in their true proportions, the breadth of the river, the distance and elevation of the observer, and the thickness of the reflected sheet of light; and shows pretty accurately what Zp S n \ N 5 G — ie must have been the situation of the drops concerned in producing the upper and lower parts of the bow. (See fig. 2.) The breadth the river, AB, is a little more than half a mile. (The observer at D, is elevated 100 feet above the level of AB, and his distance fram B, the nearest bank of the river, is three-fourths of a mile. SDH is the axis of the direct bows, inclined 8° to the horizon. The axis of the reflected bow, ID H’, intersects S DH at D, ma- king with it an angle of 16°.. ABEF is the reflected sheet of light which penetrates the shower and forms the image-bow. Its thickness in the section GB, measures about 370 feet. RD, D, making with DH the angles 40° 17’ and 42° 2’, are the @ and violet rays from the summit of the primary bow; vD, 8° much elevated, as to cross the secondary, and extend at the 20 E.S. Snell on a Rainbow caused by reflected Light. r D, in like manner, mark the top of the secondary, making with D H respectively the angles 50° 59’, and 54° 9’; whiler’ D, v’ D, are drawn so as to make the angles 40° 17’ and 42° 2’ with the axis of reflected light, 1D H’. These last rays must come from drops occupying the space Ee. DF is next drawn, at an incli- nation of 15° with the horizon, that being the estimated height of the extremities of the image-bow. ‘This line, piercing the lu- minous stratum in Ff, indicates the position of the drops which produced the lower portions of the bow. DE, representing the distance of the remotest drops, which could reflect the summit- rays to the eye, is about one-half of A B, or one-fourth of a mile; and these drops, if falling perpendicularly, would reach the ground within 900 feet of the observer. But the lowest rays, vertically projected in FD, must come from drops, whose least a e ai since FD is 7° above the axis DH’. Now DF in the section is about equal to DB, or three-fourths of a mile. Hence the ray, whose vertical projection is DF, is #m. Xcos 7°-—cos 42° 2’=one mile in length, very nearly. The lines, BG, DE, and DF, may be readily calcula- ted, and will be found to accord nearly with the above values. It appears, then, that the drops forming the top of the bow, can- not fall at a greater distance than 900 feet, while those forming the lower ends, cannot fall nearer than 5200 feet w can we account for what at first view seems to be true, that the light already somewhat enfeebled by reflection from the river, should be able to penetrate more than 4000 feet into the shower, aud then return through the same 4000 feet of rain, an yet reach the eye in sufficient quantities to exhibit brilliant colors? I apprehend that this part of the phenomenon can be explained only on the supposition that several favorable circumstances con- spired to produce a remarkable result. 1. The air was undoubtedly so clear that the sun shone with intense brightness. ‘The extraordinary brilliancy of the bows, and the number and vividness of the supernumeraries, are a suf- ficient proof of this. 2. The shower was probably not very dense; so that the rays could penetrate into it much farther than usual, and return again to the eye. 3. A more important favoring circumstance than any other, perhaps, would be a convexity toward the observer of the nearest outline of the shower; so that, while rain was falling within 900 feet of him in a direction precisely opposite to the sun, and thus near enough to form the top of the bow, the nearest rain, on the right and left, where the extremities were seen, might be 5000 or 6000 feet distant. If the light was intense, and the drops sparse, then a much less degree of curvature might be attended with the same result. In the present instance, there can be little doubt, distance from the eye, is A. Tylor on Changes of the Sea-Level, &§c. 21 I think, that the western limit of the shower was more or less convex towards the point of observation. 4, If the river bends eastward at all on the North and South of the observer’s position, this circumstance would virtually add so much to its width, since the rays forming the branches of the bow would then fall lower than BF in the vertical projection. Whether this is so, I am not informed. It is obvious from an inspection of the figure, that most of the reflected bow would disappear sooner than the direct bows, inas- much as the angular thickness of the luminous stratum, at its in- tersection with the shower, would rapidly diminish as the shower retiréd. And, furthermore, as the vertex was produced by the nearest drops, this part must have vanished first, as was observed to be the fact. Had the sun been about 6° above the horizon, the vertex of the image-bow would have coincided with that of the secondary ; and by its opposite arrangement of colors, would have partially neutralized its tints, and made a white segment common to the wo, It was in this aspect that the direct and reflected bows presented themselves to the view of Dr. Halley, in 1698, on the bank of the river Dee, of which he published an account in the Transactions of the Royal Society. 0 the inquiry, why do not those, who live near a sheet of water, more frequently witness the reflected bow, it may be re- plied, that, if the water is not of greater width than a fraction of a mile, the favorable circumstances already enumerated will very rarely concur to produce the phenomenon with much distinct- hess; and if there are several miles of water, so as to reflect a am of large vertical thickness, yet the surface would very rarely be smooth enough, directly after a shower, to form a single and well-defined image of the sun. And it may be added, that there are few persons, except such as have made the theory of the rain- bow a matter of careful study, who would consider a bow as par- ticularly noticeable and worthy of description, simply because it happened to intersect the others, especially if, as must ordinarily be the case, the intersecting bow was only a short and indistinct arch. Arr. TIL—On Changes of the Sea-Level effected by existing Physical Causes during stated periods of time ; by ALERED * Tytor, F.G.S.* Introduction. Tue First Part of the ensuing paper is occupied with the de- tails of the probable amount of the solid matter annually brought into the ocean by rivers and other agents, in suspension and solu- tion; and the conclusion is arrived at, that the quantity of detri- tus thus distributed on the sea-bottom would displace enough ® From the Philosophical Magazine for April, 1853. 22 A. Tylor on Changes of the Sea-Level effected by water to cause an elevation of the ocean-level to the extent of at least 3 inches in 10,000 years. In the Second Part an endeavor is made to compute the num- ber of such periods of 10,000 years that must have elapsed dur- ing the accumulation of the immense mass of recent freshwater strata said to exist in the valley of the Mississippi. The calculation as to the latter is made from the data collected by observers in America, of the extent of the deposit in question ; and it is here supposed, first, that in former periods the same quantity of mud as at present has been annually carried into the Gulf of Mexico; and secondly, that the amount of sediment de- posited on the delta and plains of the Mississippi does not exceed one-tenth part of the solid material which has been carried out (suspended in the water of the river) into distant parts of the Gulf of Mexico, or into the Atlantic Ocean itself. From recent accounts by Mr. C. Ellet, of the United States, it appears that a column of fresh water, 14 mile wide and about 7 feet deep, is constantly entering the Gulf of Mexico at a speed of 2 to 24 miles per hour, and floats on the surface of a stratum of salt water, to which it partially communicates its own velocity. And below this a stratnm of sea-water is found to be flowing in an opposite direction to that of the two strata of fresh and salt water above it. See figs. 1 and 2. From the data submitted, it would appear that the accumula- tion of the alluvial deposit of the Mississippi must have occupied a great number of periods, during each of which an elevation of the sea-level of 3 inches may have occurred. erable change in its height, even during the construction of a re- cent deposit like that in the valley of the Mississippi, which ma be called small and local compared with those older formations familiar to geological observers. the subsidence arid elevation of the crust of the earth would be accompanied by alterations of the area of the sea-bed ; and the frequency of such movements would therefore furnish additional reasons for not considering the sea-level permanent for the lengthened periods requisite for the accumulation of sedi- mentary deposits of any magnitude. : In the Third Part of this paper an attempt is made to direct attention to the difficulty of finding any test by which to distin- guish strata gradually accumulated during a long-continued up- ward movement of the sea-level, from those strata formed on 4 sea-bottom slowly subsiding while the ocean-level was station- ary. In either case no change of depth of water may have oc- curred of sufficient importance to cause the removal of the Mol- Fig. 1.—Section of the Bar of the Mississippi. ‘ Gulf of 262 feet South-west Bar, 15 feet deep, Mexico. deep. 95 miles from New Orleans. Point Balize, pag ea Ne SE SIR OSS SARIN ern ener A a) a ne RCN neo aonemamesests wero Sw == —— = ——— ee 9 ss — ———SSS——SS=—_—OSSS SS ee —— ee a. ee = —_ SSS SS ‘4. Sa SSS Ss = SSS aS 5 = _———————— nn one = = --. vaw S Poe - = aes oe nye . $ Vee, CS a ee ts 8 . 7 a! be = ey ee oO ee eS ee ~ eR TAR AS Eee ah haa Rea ee ere = a sy ve wy ge) e eae att Pair. a Gate ve eae let eo, i fee ge tip as to Sees Peat Piys ra) ice we One ar) ° “ The Bar. Jrom top to bottom of a thick existing Physical Causes during stated Periods of Time. 23 osit 1s not an absolute proof (as has been supposed*) that lusea inhabiting the locality, and therefore the discovery of the same species of organic remains dep Fig. 2—Theoretical Diagram of four successive Bars, with the section of the junction of a ser the land or elevation of the sea-level. r ei ¢ b a, b, c, d, 1st, 2nd, 3d, and 4th Bars of marine forma The marine stratum a is - with 4. ir accompanying fluviatile fo d, 3d, and 4th fluviatile deposits. This holds good w hether the land has subsided or the sea-lev. 1; 6 with 2; ¢ with 8; andd , el risen. rmed during eit running per hour from 2 to 2545 miles, and passing over the sous showing a er subsidence Finvia- tile form- ations. hi 700 feet of thai feet must have be 28 Z . “Fe re. #257 UEHLCH Le Baye ges 3° Ais 24 Hla sa gtebgitt et ed es Sge SEs eice283 ehaeh Pian Ge b ESEsse ga. S83 9°2 : 2e28 soreiasdalcge ay egstede eo Ee sidaies oy es a Pee es clear of the 24 A. Tylor on Changes of the Sea-Level effected by gradual subsidence has occurred during that particular formation ; because the condition of equal depth of water during any deposit might be produced either by subsidence of the sea-bottom or ele- vation of the sea-level, or by both conjointly. In discussing these questions, the writer has not assumed that during gradual subsidences or gradual elevations, greater denuda- tions or depositions would occur than when the level of the land and sea-bottom was stationary; because it is not certain, either that during such gentle oscillations the forces that would produce denudation are sensibly diminished or increased, or that the rocks which are brought within the reach of denuding forces are neces- sarily more easily worn away than those which were previously exposed to the same influences. Parr I. It has long been acknowledged that the quantity of detritus annually carried into the ocean from various sources must dis- place an equal volume of water, and thus tend to raise the level of the sea. any years since it was estimated by an Italian that this change might amount to one foot in a thousand years. The general opinion on this subject has been, that the effects produced by the present supplies of detritus would be too minute to be perceptible, and on geological inquiries the ocean-level has been considered as permanent for all practical purposes.* I here pro- pose to offer the evidence of present denudation in certain coun- tries where careful observations have been made, in order to show, that, if such rapid destruction of land occurs in most localities, — then the operation of present physical causes must be amply suf- ficient to effect a perceptible alteration in the sea-level in a mod- erate space of time. ; ‘The mere consideration of the number of cubic feet of detritus may be obtained by calculation from the published accounts of the quantity of mud annually abstracted from districts of known dimensions by their rivers. In this manner it is found that the Ganges would in about 1751 years, at its present annual rate, car- ry away from the land it drains (which is supposed to be about 400,000 square miles) as much detritus as would cover that area to the depth of one foot, as the following calculation will show: Thus, 27,870,400 (superficial feet in a mile) x 400,000 = 11,151,360,000,000, the number of superficial feet in the area of 400,000 square miles drained by the Ganges. ‘The number * Manfredi. See Lyell’s Principles, edit. 1850, p. 270 and 542. existing Physical Causes during stated Periods of Time. 25 of cubic feet of detritus discharged annually by that river is 6,368,677,400. (See Lyell’s Principles.) 6,368,677,400 11,151,360,000,000 ~ 1751? mean level of the Ganges district is consequently the reduction of the - 7 of a foot annually, or v5 1 foot in 1751 year 6,368,677 ,440 ie feet of mud discharged < 856 water to mud = 5, 444,074,288,640 = the number of cubic feet of water annually discharged by the Ganges. 5,444,074,288,640 11,151,360,000,000 discharge of water is equal to about 6 inches of rain on the whole area of “400, 000 square miles. The Mississippi, on the other hand, would ocenpy 9000 years at its present annual rate in reducing to the amount of one foot the mean surface-level of the district it drains, which is compu- ted at eleven hundred thousand square miles. » ‘The result is ob- tained as follows: If 3,702,758, 400 @hbic feet of mud are annually carried down y the Mississippi (since the mud is to the water as 1 to 3000), 3,702,758,400 x 3000 = 11,108,275,200,000 = the number of cubic feet of water annually carried by the river into the Gulf of exico. The area of district drained by this river is stated at 1,100,000 square miles — 5280 X 5280 = 27,878,400 = the number of superficial feet in a mile—27,878,400 x 1,100,000 = 30,666,240,000,000 = the namber of superficial feet contained in the area ‘ot ) ,100,000 square miles drained solely by the Mis- sissippi. 11,108,275,200,000 30.666 ,666,240,000,000 foot = $ foot nearly. Consequently the water carried down by a river is equal to about 4 inches of rain over the surface of land if it be assumed that thie ROP of the rivers, lakes, and springs are the same in this district at the same period 0 of two consecu- tive years, the water sufficient to produce the above-mentioned 4 inches of the total of rain-fall upon the whole of this district must have been annually derived from clouds which have thee with vapor in parts of the earth beyond the confines of tract of country under consideration ; since, : if the - 4 inches ‘Tain: leet carried into the Gulf of ) were 1 rom fi —_ Sources, the levels of the rivers, lakes, and Springs must rapidly fall. po CL hee ae he estimate i ‘denudation obtained from these countries may == about 4 a foot, so , that the mean mee, iceipt of rain. Besides, many rivers empty themselves _ and inland seas, and other extensive tracts are a. y wi Stcoxa Series, Vol, XVII, No, 52.—July, 1854. 26 A. Tylor on Changes of the Sea-Level effected by out rain. Since there must be extensive districts which contribute no detritus whatever to rivers, | propose to assume that one-half the earth’s surface only is drained by rivers flowing directly into the sea,* and that the average supply of detritus does not excee that afforded by the district through which the Mississippi flows (a country where there are no very high mountains, and only a moderate quantity of rain). The quantity of soluble salts annually carried into the ocean must amount to a very large volume, particularly as river-water always contains matter in solution, while it is only during two or three months of the year that alluvium in suspension is carried down in large quantities. The proportion of soluble salts in the water of the Thames is 17 to 70,000, or 1 to 4117; while the proportion of alluvium suspended in the water of the Mississippi is as 1 to 3000. The level of the land is as much reduced by what is carried away in solution, as if this were mud and sand removed in sus- 3 feet and raise that of the ocean 1 foot. It was during the con- templation of the changes of level that might have been pro- duced by the operations of ordinary physical agents upon the sul- face of the earth, that Hutton was led to remark that it was not © necessary to suppose the area of the land always maintained the drain ers running into European lakes and inland seas oth a be seen. He issippi River, see Sir Charles Lyell’s Second Visit 5 SSISS to the United States, edit. 1847, vol. ii, p. 249 to 253, and other places, 4M Balbi shows (Atlas, Soc. Diff. Useful Knowledge, 1844) that the land on the sabe equals 37,547,000 square geographical miles, the sea equals 110,875,000 squar eran Ee : fs : a ate ay * By a to Johnston's Physical Atlas, the calculated portion of land 1e TL . ‘ ot i Sn ei nS a eee eee existing Physical Causes during stated Periods of Time. 27 same extent, but that from time to g time new land would be formed by the elevatory movements of the sea- DUT 3F bottom to compensate for what had se 8 y been carried into the ocean by the Sako continued operations of rivers and FBG breakers.* In speaking of the ele- Te § vation of the sea-level, I only refer . aes to the intervals between those move- gs ments of the land which might 8 neutralize in an instant all that had 8 4 been effected by the operation of 8 = rivers for immense periods of time. a ve _ It would add very much to the interest of this inquiry if any proof could be brought forward of a re- cent gradual upward movement of the sea-level. This would, how- ever, be difficult to observe,} on ac- uab o hg paruvduosow nas ay; uodn poogia ay2 ssardva of popuayu ru oo 82 asayy Bursoddns “was ay2 fo OL 9) yenba [aAa]-eas Jo ast oy} sejvatput (,2) oll] payjop [ejuOZHo0Y oYT, 7 La level, except just at the mouths of ese rivers, where the deposits of fluvia- a hay tile alluvium might raise the land 8 = § from time to time and keep it al- sss ways above the rising waters. Ses The deposits situated at a few sy such localities have been described SSS by the best observers, and [ hope to sq show that in several cases there are 2 Sq appearances which might be partly ess explained by changes of the sea~ & 22g evel, but that amuch greater num- % £38 ber of cases and more certain evi- = ee: dence would be needed before such > wbay an event could be satisfactorily © iz? ved. I propose to make some J ond remarks upon this point, after hav- 3 = qd) 8538 ing submitted the evidence which 3 . ae be has induced me to believe that the oF ae Supply of detritus under present — : = & a3 | * “Tt is not necessary that the present land - 4. should m away 1 ee a g as = Proportion as new land shall appear; or con-— eo 4 3 & versely, an equal proportion of new land S 38S be produced as the old is made to dis- 3 eis win Ss atene cee of the Earth, 1795, SF Ss { See Darwin, in, Coral Reefs, &c., edit. 1851, a7 E Pp 28 A. Tylor on Changes of the Sea-Level effected by physical conditions is sufficient to raise the ocean level 3 or 4 inches in 10,000 years, provided no subsidence or elevation dis- turbed the result. To this subject [now proceed. Sir Charles Lyell’s published statements of the quantity of mud annually carried down by the Mississippi and Ganges appear to have been made with so much care, that they may be a better guide to the general rate of remo-- val of soil by rivers than information obtained from a greater number of smaller rivers, which of course are more likely to be influenced by local circumstances. Eleven hundred thousand square miles of land are drained by the Mississippi,* which annu- ally discharges a quantity of water equal in volume to 4 inches of rain, or about one-tenth of the total rain-fall over this entire sur- face, which forms one-fifth part of North America.+ From the mean of a great number of observations, the average quantity of alluvium suspended in the water appears to be 1 part in 3000. Consequently, as the water annually drawn off would cover an area of eleven hundred thousand square miles to the depth of four inches, the quantity of mud removed in the water (as measured at or near the mouth of the river) would.cover the same exten- sive surface to the depth of ,,),;dth part of four inches, or to the depth of ;,';;dth part of a foot. Or, in other words, the Missis- Sippi at its present rate would occupy 9000 years in carrying away detritus before the mean surface level of one-fifth part of North America would be reduced one foot. ‘The Ganges discharges into the Indian Ocean a supply of wa- ter equal to about six inches of rain on 400,000 square miles, ora much greater volume of water than the Mississippi pours into the Gulf of Mexico, taking into consideration the difference in size of the countries they drain. PTs which it is derived to the depth of +,'-+ of a foot ; that is to say, 2737 : propose to estimate (aS — before mentioned) that only half the land contributes detritus iD - * See art. Meiers, Penny Cyclopedia, vol. xxv, p. 277. + The total rain-fall of the United States is 39 inches between 24}° and 45° N. existing Physical Causes during stated Periods of Time. 29 suspension to rivers flowing directly into the sea.* If this area be annually reduced in level at the same rate as the district through which the Mississippi flows, then the mean level of the land on the globe would be reduced 3 feet in 54,000 years, and ' consequently the level of the ocean raised 1 foot in the same pe- tiod by means of the detritus suspended in river-water poured into the ocean. What this would annually amount to, for old maps and charts are hardly accurate enough to represent the waste of cliffs by breaker- action even within the last 100 years. Capt. Washington has, however, published a reportt which gives an account of the en- croachment ef the sea at intervals on one part of the Suffolk coast. This will give a general idea of the contribution of detritus that may beobtained from some points of a coast-line. The following statements are collected from Capt. Washington’s Report on Har- oe Fale in 1844, from which also the figures 4, 5, 6, 7, are copied, The cliff on the western side of the harbor is about 1 mile long and 40 feet high, and the encroachment of the sea appears to have been at the rate of 1 foot per annum between the years 1709 and 1756, so that the annual supply of detritus was equal to 40 cubic feet for each foot of frontage. Between 1756 and 1804 the advance increased to nearly 2 feet per annum; so that the annual removal of cliff amounted to nearly 80 cubic feet for each foot of frontage. Between 1804 and 1844 the encroachment of the sea averaged 10 feet per annum, and the annual removal of detritus must have amounted to 400 cubic feet for each foot of frontage. It was during this latter period that extensive dredging for cement stone took place at the base of the cliff. On the eastern side of the harbor events of an opposite char- ons on this 3 + Tidal Harbors’ Commission, A. Tylor on Changes of the Sea-Level effected by 30 —Map of Harwich. Fig. 4 “quIog prena' O OUITINO IOWIOJ 9Y1 SMOYS OUT] pay “YIU 1o}VA-MOT PUB YSIY Ul oovld usyE} oABY ate pia Buiredgeeds rn sole tems te pet ‘D Bite f he a in ae oe we, Minas ’ ae ’ ‘ 50 ae ae ae me te ‘ a ‘en, ae ak ani “Sey i] . et | he, ‘ ; 1 . esa, es ' Hi ge Ae, Uso ‘ : af * ee kag, i -* ’ quel ! , 7 Tihs eas VA, 4 PS 5 r “See EVA cal t wou it > ee y Ni ij —— S S it ~~ 4 — XA ‘i — Sk | aE 5 ee | sno I : j n m,, Vy, aim Yj Ypy : I Ae » Pe ff — YY a Y g Fig. 5—.Section showing the Destruction of Beacon Cliff between 1752, 1804, and 1844. "H2OM OOP. seemmnnnnn} COLT Ur ie YAVUT TAVAA-MO'] eee ‘PPST Ut yaeur TOPO M-MO'T serene existing Physical Causes during stated Periods of Time. 31 have been brought from the north, in which direction there are recorded instances of great destruction of land by storms during the last 300 years. 'The aspect, however, of much of the coast- line appears as if it had remained unaltered for a very long period, except in the manner Mr. R. A. C. Austen* alludes to when he remarks, “that although the sea for months together, and in places even for whole years, may not acquire any fresh spoil, yet there are few hours when its waters are unemployed in fashion- ing and abraiding the materials already acquired.” In considering the effect upon the sea-level caused by sand, mud, and pebbles washed in by the breakers, it is only necessary to regard those materials that may be brought in from cliffs above high-water mark; for the movement of sand and mud below high-water mark can produce no effect upon the sea-level, because the ab- straction of these materials from one part of the shore is exactly balanced by their addition to some other part. For instance, some of the flint-pebbles which have contributed to the recent deposit at Landguard Point have been brought along shore a great distance from their original position on the cliff. These flints formed an addition to the sea-bed, and tended to raise its general level by displacing an amount of water equal to their bulk the moment they fell on the shore below high-water mark ; and it is quite cleat their subsequent movements, either beneath the wave ot on the beach, could produce no further effect upon the sea- level, the spaces they occupied on one part of the coast being bal- anced by the vacancy left at some other. It is also evident that the beach at Languard Point will go on extending so long as the fresh supplies of shingle and sand from the north exceed the. re- movals southward. Figs. 6, 7—Sections showing the Increase of Landguard Point between 1804 and 1844 Beach end in 1804. Lise: YH de Lis a. a, Low-water level of ordinary springs. In the same manner the continued supplies of pebbles from the Westward enables the Chesil Bank to preserve its position. As * Austen, Quart. Jour, Geol. Soc, vol. vi. p. 71-73 ; and De la Beche, Geol. Obser- ver, 1851, p. 65, 32 A. Tylor on Changes of the Sea- Level, eic. soon, however, as any disturbing causes interrupt the supplies of new material, the sand and shingle beaches dependent upon them must soon disappear ; and in fact the termination of every beach will be at that point where the waste and abrasion by breaker- action are balanced by the supply of pebbles and sand drifted from other places. Although it appears clear that only the detritus ob- tained from cliffs above high-water mark need be taken into cal- culation, yet I regret to find that scarcely any data of this kind exist, and therefore it is not possible to ascertain the probable effect upon the sea-level that is being produced by the detritus so derived. In the same manner the per-centage of soluble salts in the water of the few large rivers of which notes have been pub- lished has not been given separately from the per-centage of mat- ter in suspension, and therefore we are in ignorance of the sup- plies that are annually introduced into the ocean from the forma- tion of submarine deposits from materials dissolved in the sea- water. When therise in the sea-level from the effect of alluvium brought in suspension by rivers was bau considered, I supposed that that cause alone might produce an elevation of one foot in 54, years; but in order to make some allowance for the simi- lar effects that must be produced by the introduction into the ocean of materials from above high-water mark on n coast- -lines* by breaker-action, and also by the formation of submarine depos- its from materials which were brought into the ocean in solution, I now propose to consider that all these causes together might produce an elevation of the sea-level equal to one foot in AO, 000 oe or hae inches in 10,000 years. win has remarked, that ‘the knowledge of any result, which, vith sufficient time allowed, can be produced by causes, though appearing paste improbable, i is valuable to the geolo- gist, for he by his deals with centuries and thousands of years as others ie: wih minutes.” For these reasons, even if, upon further bie er it should be found that the true rise in the sea-level is much less than three inches in 10,000 years (in periods ubdistarbed by subsidences and elevation), yet it may still be an important element in accounting for those changes which we are now about to consider (To be sees) * The rough estimation of the a of coast-line, kindly supplied by Mr. A- Jabioatni, (Noy. 1852), is as follow ae by +s me English statute miles (60 toa degree.) (694 to a degree.) Europe, +e cane AHROO 20,425 Asia, - . - - 80,800 34,825 Africa, - - - 14,000 16,625 Amer - “ 37,600 44,656 99,600 116,581 J. W. Mallet on the Nerwich Phosphate. 33 Arr. IV.—On the Phosphate of Iron and Manganese from Norwich, Mass ; by Dr. J. W. Mauer. T'nis mineral, first observed by Dr. E. Hitchcock, Jr., and Mr. Hartwell, and since described by Professor Dana and analyzed by Mr. Craw,* possesses much interest from the distinctness of its crystals (which yet in their angles present unaccountable irreg- ularity), since it belongs to a class of minerals which are in gene- ral found massive, or but imperfectly crystallized. The following are the results of a chemical examination of some pure specimens, for which I am indebted to Mr. C. Hitchcock. They do not add much to our knowledge of the mineral, but serve to confirm es- sentially the former determinations by Mr. Craw. The crystals are opaque and of a dark brownish black color, and give a beautiful violet streak. Sp. gr. = 3364, higher there- fore than that of the specimen analyzed by Mr. Craw, which he gives as 2:876. Hardness about 5. Before the blowpipe the rend gaa of phosphoric acid, iron, and manganese, are easily ob- tained. A portion of the mineral was pulverized, weighed, and kept for some time at the temperature 100°C. ‘he loss of weight was scarcely appreciable. This portion was then exposed toa bright red heat, and on cooling was found to have assumed a light brownish yellow color, and to have lost 633 p.c. In an- other experiment the loss was 5°97 p.c. To ascertain the amount of water contained in the mineral, a portion, dried as before at 100° C., was heated in a glass tube in a stream of dried air, and the water expelled was absorbed by chlorid of calcium and weigh- ed. It amounted to 1-92 p.c. In another experiment the pul- Verized mineral was heated in dry hydrogen, and lost 2°18 p.c. of water beyond that formed by the reduction of the peroxyds of iron and manganese to protoxyds. ores , ‘The phosphoric acid and peroxyds were determined. by fusion with carbdnate of soda, and the lime, magnesia, and lithia, were estimated in a separate portion. ‘The results of analysis were— i %. 3. 4, Phosphoric acid, - - 43:12 4335 4265 —— Peroxyd of iron, - ~- 29:90 2923 2937 ——— Sesquioxyd of manganese, 23-02 21°98 2276 —— Lime, % r% 2 ; geen sa ae - Magnesia, : - + > . litte: . 2 19 * Amer. Jour. of Science, [2] xi, 99, 100. Srconp Szams, Vol. XVIII, No. 52.—July, 1854. 34 J. W. Mallet on the Norwich Phosphate. The iron and manganese appeared to exist altogether as ses- quioxyds. The lithia contained a little soda, but the quantity of the latter was too small to separate and weigh. The mean of these results makes the composition of the mineral— . Atoms. Phosphoric acid, - - - 43:04 -598 Peroxyd of iron, = - - - 29°50 meee 654. Sesquioxyd of manganese, - 22°59 285 Lime - ares - - 09 003 Magnesia, aes - ae ‘73 036 > *163 Lithia, - ee. - - To 124 Water, - - - - - 2°05 228 99°79 Hence we have the complex and not very probable formula s846s+R5hs47H; but if we consider, as suggested by Mr. that the iron and manganese originally existed as protoxyds, the above numbers give the equivalents of phosphoric acid, pro- toxyds, (adding in the lithia and earths), and water, in the ratio 598 : 1471: 228, or very nearly 2:5:1, although the water does not amount to quite 1 atom. Hence we have the much simpler formula, R5f2+H, which is that of Damour’s alluaudite, if we reduce the per- to protoxyds as above, though that mineral differs from the present in containing soda instead of lithia, and in the manganese actually existing toa great extent as protoxyd, while in the substance from Norwich the peroxydation of the metals has been completed. - There have been already described three phosphates occurring in nature which have this general formula, with the exception of the water, which varies in amount in each—Ist, this mineral from Norwich and the Alluandite from Limoges, the formula of which is RsP2+H; 2nd, Heterosite or Hetepozite, of Dufrénoy, from Li- moges, with the formula &5~2+2H; and 3rd, Hureaulite, also from Limoges, “and represented by Rsf2+sH. Whether any of these minerals deserve to rank as distinct species seems very doubtful. It would seem more likely that they are all the mere products of a gradual alteration, in the course of which “the heavy metals were more or less peroxydized, water was taken up, and probably some of the alkaline constituents of the mineral were lost. - This last mentioned action seems indicated as having affected the lithia of the phosphate from Norwich, since the phosphoric acid found is a little in excess of that required by the formula. ) J.D. Dana on the Homeomorphism of Mineral Species. 35 Art. V.—On the Homeomorphism of Mineral Species of the Trimetric System; by James D. Dana.* AtrHoucH many cases of homeomorphism among minerals of the Trimetric System have been pointed out by different investi- gators, no general review of the species has yet been made. propose, therefore, to consider the relations in form among all the Species, believing that in this way, and in this way alone, we may arrive at the true system among the homologies, and the principles upon which they rest. In the outset, it is important to ascertain what may be consid- ered true criterions of homology in the comparison of forms. In a trimetric crystal there are often several occurring prisms in the three axial directions, the vertical, macrodiagonal, and brachydi- agonal, and as either axis might be assumed to be the vertical axis, and either prism in each direction the fundamental prism,t there are wide limits as to the possible cases of homceomorphism that might be made out. So among rhombohedral forms, in Cal- - cite for example, rhombohedrons occur of a great variety of an- gles, and homceomorphism may be deduced between it and al- most any rhombohedral species, provided any one of these rhom- bohedrons may for the time be taken as fundamental. There is obviously one right position for the comparison of two species, and the others are wrong. Hence it is essential to have some basis for deciding upon this point, and especially for ascertaining which is the true vertical axis, in order that we may Ompare like axes and their planes with one another. {t must be admitted that there are no tests of homology which are of invariable application. As elsewhere in science, the rela- ions of species are to be ascertained rather by the general range of characters, than by the severe application of one single law. t there are important aids, and their exact value should be understood. . - Cleavage.—Cleavage is one of the most important means. In the trimetric system, it may take place parallel, (1) to the ax- dal Sections, one or all; (2) to the lateral planes of different rhom- bic prisms ; (3) to octahedral planes. Rm _ & When cleavage is parallel to one or more rhombic prisms, it S generally true that, (1) the vertical axis of the prism of most pettect cleavage is the proper vertical axis of the species, and also that (2) these cleavage prisms for different species are homolo- §0us prisms. * vi, 37, March, 1854. mi Dea clnc tes Leeteniat whch is ee iat k. the ratio 14: le. The f tal macrodome and brachydome have the analogous ratios la: 16, unit prisms. 36 J. D. Dana on the Homeomorphism Hornblende and Angite correspond to the first of the two prin- ciples just stated, but are well known exceptions to the second: the cleavage prism of one has twice the breadth of that of the other. ‘These species, nevertheless, are closely homceomorphous, and hence there may still be homology when the cleavage forms have a simple axial relation, as 1:2. Diaspore and Gathite ex- emplify the same fact ; the former has an imperfect cleavage pat- allel to the prism 72(a P2). Staurotide and Andalusite may be viewed as another example. he occurring forms of these spe- cies have the same relation as those of hornblende and augite, or a ratio of 1: 2, in the longer lateral axis, and traces of cleavage correspond ; while in topaz, a third homeeomorphous species, both forms are common, and indistinct cleavages are described as o¢- curring parallel to each, the rhombohedral. 2. T'win-composition—In compound crystals composition takes place in general, parallel to planes or sections of fun- damental value. This is well seen in monometric forms, it which the only planes of composition are, (1) the faces of the cube; (2) the faces of the regular octahedron, or planes trunca- ting the solid angles ; (3) the faces of the dodecahedron, or planes truncating the edges of a cube. It will be observed that the SS enn Pw LN ah oy ke Se of Mineral Species of the Trimeiric Sysiem. 37 twin-composition gives importance to its indications, and there- fore similarity in modes of composition suggests identical or ho- mologous relations between the planes of composition in different species, and vice versa. Thus when we observe different species, as Aragonite, Cerusite, etc., affording stellate twins and hexago- nal forms by composition parallel to the faces of a prism nearly -120° in angle, we infer that the prisms are homologous; an when similar prisms occur in Chrysoberyl or Copper Glance, we conclude that the prism of 119° in these species, parallel to faces of which the composition takes place, is the true vertical prism, as in Aragonite. The fact that 120° x3 or 60° x6 equals 360°, is evidently the fundamental reason for the occurrence of such twins; and hence in other species a like angle for the vertical prism, especially if the prisms are alike in their other dimensions, would be likely to produce the same result. Hence we conclude that the sulphates (RO, SO*), although affording in one direction a prism near 120° in angle, have not. this prism as the fundamental vertical prism, for stellate composi- tion, does not occur parallel to it; the true vertical prism is the one usually so assumed—that of 101° to Bournonite affords another illustration of this subject. G. ose has assumed its homeomorphism with Aragonite, on the ground that it has a vertical prism of 115° 58’. But this species, instead of forming twins parallel to the faces of this prism, actu- ally affords cruciform twins parallel to a prism of 93° 40’, the one usually taken as the fundamental prism. The prism of 115° 58’ is i3(a P 3) and there is no reason for regarding it as other than a secondary prism. f Chrysoberyl has been placed near chrysolite by the author, and also by M. Scacchi, of Naples. In a certain position the re- semblance in angle exists. But still the species are rather widely remote, inasmuch as the twins, like those of Aragonite, parallel to faces of the prism of 119° 46’, show that this is the funda- mental prism. Chrysolite affords no such twins; the angle of its Vertical prism is 94° 3’, and it belongs to a different zone. Chryso- beryl is actually near Aragonite in angle; it has a brachydome of 108° 26’, and Aragonite one of 109° 39’ Monoclinic prisms near 120° in angle, never present stellate twins like trimetric prisms. Such twins in oblique forms appear to be impossible, since they require a regular symmetrical charac- ter in the molecule above and below the middle section. This remark appears to apply also to hemihedral forms of the trimetric System, like those of datholite. : : _ 3. General Habit of Crystals.—A resemblance in general habit is often to be detected between species related in crystallization. ‘as Brookite, ured in this Journal, vol. xvii, p. 86, resem- bles Columbite in the general arrangement of its planes; and we 38 J. D. Dana on the Homaomorphism cannot mistake, in comparing them, as to the homologous prisms o the two. Again, it requires but a glance at the forms of feldspar and pyroxene to see that the habit here is wholly op-: posed to any homeomorphism between the species, while the family resemblance among the feldspars themselves is very striking. 4, Frequency of Occurrence of Planes, or Zones of Planes.— This criterion is sometimes of importance, and still it is very likely to lead astray. It is the common principle on which crys- tals are mathematically described, for that is usually assumed as the fundamental form which will give the simplest mathematical view of the crystallization. But it is well known that in many species secondary forms are most common. In Quartz, the fun- damental form is rarely seen; in Calcite, the rhombohedron —$R and scalenohedron R°, are of far more frequent occurrence than R; in fluor, cubes are more common than octahedrons, the cleav- age form; and octahedrons, when they occur, often have their surfaces made up of the angles of minute cubes; and the same is true of many species. It is consequently no certain evidence, when a prism terminates in a pyramidal summit (as in mesotype), that it is the unit pyramid, or even that the occurring prism in a species is one of the three unit prisms. It is natural to assume that an occurring zone of planes is one having the simplest ratios, and that among them exists one having the axial ratio of unity, la:16: 1c. But this may be far otherwise. Anhydrite is 4 familiar example. The occurring prisms, according to the vieW of the author,* are 27(2P@) and 2%(2P&), which bring out well the homeomorphism of the species: with the other allied sulphates; but the three octahedral planes are then 3%, $754 and ¢%,"; and in any other view that recognizes the hom@0- morphism, the expressions for the planes are scarcely less complex We cannot be too guarded, therefore, when deducing the form for comparison with another species, in relying on the prevalence of certain planes. Valuable hints are often thus given, but they may lead to error. ; ‘The lustre or smoothness of planes is a better guide, though far from certain. ‘The fundamental vertical prism in Barytes 18 generally less highly polished than many other faces; and as We ve above remarked, the octahedrons of fluor have often rough surfaces. r The prevailing direction of the more extended zones of planes, especially the octahedral, often suggests rightly which is properly the terminal plane of the prism, these zones rising towards that plane; and they thereby afford a hint as to which is the vertica axis. In dimetric and hexagonal species, this criterion is a sure CPS iy) Set Aa Tomr, Bel, (2].27,/ 08. * ae - of Mineral Species of the Trimetric System. 39 guide (except sometimes in hemihedral forms); but here it is uot needed, as the basal plane is fixed from the nature of the prism. The principle holds true for topaz and many trimetric species. In the rhombic octahedron of sulphur, in which either axis might be made the vertical, the apical angles, in which the true vertical axis terminates, are at once distinguished in modified crystals, by the cluster of planes about them. But the ambiguous cases are numerous, and this criterion, like others, is not an un- failing reliance. en we may succeed in fixing upon the vertical axis ina Species, and also the unit vertical prism, it is often difficult to determine which planes about the base should be taken as the unit domes or octahedron; and often there is a choice between two or three planes equal in lustre and size; and consequently it may be altogether doubtful whether the vertical axis equals la, 24, or 3a. Crystallographers may take whichever is most con- venient without any important objection. But when looking to _ 6. Values and Relations of the Angles of Forms.—In the se- Nes of prisms in each axial direction, the vertical, macrodiagonal, and brachydiagonal, the planes, as is well known, have simple axial ratios, and the more common ratios are 1: LAB If but a single prism occur in either direction, it is easy to caleu- late the values of the angles of other prisms having the above Mentioned relations. This gives a series of angles. If, then, two species correspond nearly with one another in one element of Principle that can be laid down; or it may be halved in the same way. But we may with certainty determine whether forms are 40 J. D. Dana on the Homeomorphism related in the series of angles, and when so related, the species are in a correct sense homeomorphous. Augite and Hornblende may be regarded as differing in this way, as we can by no crite- rion decide that the lateral molecular axes of Hornblende and Augite are identical; we know that they are so related that one form might be a secondary to the other,—that the prism of horn- blende has its orthodiagoual twice that of augite in length, and that the serial relation of the forms is such that they may be said to belong to one type. This point will be abundantly illustrated beyond. We observe that in all the comparisons made in the fol- lowing tables, the only changes from the forms assumed by ate thors made on the above principles to exhibit the homcmorph- ism of species, are such as depend on the simple ratios, 1:2, 2: :2,2:1. No torturing of the forms has been required by em- ploying unusual or complex ratios, notwithstanding the hypothet- ical manner in which the received fundamental forms have been in many cases assumed. The preceding are some of the methods that are of importance in determining the crystallographic homologies of species. It ap- pears that the first point to be determined, is the true vertical axis of species under comparison; and _this being ascertained, the second is to fix upon the fundamental or unit vertical prism, oF that which shall give the relative values of the lateral axes; and third, we have to determine upon a unit dome, either a macro- dome or brachydome, in a trimetric species, or else the unit octa- hedron, in order thereby to ascertain the true value of the verti- cal axis; and fourth, to make out the serial relations of forms, for a full comparison where the actual relations of the axes may be doubtful. = While studying forms by the above methods, it is also of in- terest to compare them as a whole without reference to which is. the vertical prism; and only by viewing them thus in every dif- ferent light can we fully understand their actual dimensional re- lations. In this point of view, the results of Hausmann respect- — The position of the vertical axis derives special importance lecules. In a trimetric mole- cule, if we suppose three crystallogenic axes, a vertical and two lateral, while the vertical is at right angles to the lateral, from the nature of the form, the lateral may either intersect at right angles,’ corresponding to the form of a rectangular prism, or at oblique angles, corresponding to the angle of a rhombic prism; that is; in other words, they may connect the centres of the lateral faces of a rectangular _ or of a rhombic’ prism. Hither condition — will express the forces as indicated by the form}and result in the of Mineral Species of the Trimetric System. AY solids of the trimetric system. And when the cleavage prism is rhombic, there is better reason for regarding the lateral axes as oblique in their intersections, than rectangular. The subject of twin crystals affords evidence that this is not mere hypothesis ;* and additional proof is shown beyond in the relations of the domes to the angles of the regular octahedron. And still another argument may be derived from the relations of the domes in an- le to the vertical prism. If such views may be adopted, it must obviously be essential to correct comparisons of form between species, that the vertical axis should be determined on the best possible data. The preceding remarks are offered as introductory to the fol- lowing tables of the values of the axes and principal prisms in trimetric mineral species. I have endeavored to apply with fidel- ity the principles that have been briefly reviewed. The unit prisms, as has been stated, are not in all instances those assumed as such by other authors; but although they are in general well entitled to be so regarded, they are not all supposed to be the unit prisms, as has been explained by referring to Hornblende and Augite as examples. An exhibition of the mathematical re- lations of the forms is the main point in view. ehever we have placed in the columns of unit prisms, angles usually re- garded as those of other prisms, it is stated by a mention of the form to which they have been commonly referred. Thus, under Chrysolite, the prism taken as 17 is $7 of most writers, as men- tioned. ‘These forms, as observed, differ from the unit prisms, either by the ratio 1 : 2 or 2: 3, ratios of the simplest kind. he trimetric species are naturally divided into four grand groups, differing in the angle of the fundamental or unit vertical pews (angle J: I of the tables, o P : » P of Naumann), as fol- 0) 1. Angle I: I from 904° to 95°. 2. Angle I: I near 102°, or from 98° to 105°. 3. Angle I: J near 110°. A. Angle I; I near 120°. It will be shown that these specific values of the angle J: i are dependent on a principle of the most fundamental character. The third Group may however belong with the d as re- marked upon beyond. ; The angles mentioned in the table are the obtuse angle of the Prism J: J (column 1), and the summit angle of the unit macro- dome and brachydome (1i and 12 or P@ and P ).f * See : ; ; t To fet cpt tereey Miner@lee referred to in the following pages, and render the subject intelligible to those who may tot be familiar with crystallo- Sraphic language, a few explanations are here given. The annexed figure represents Szconp Senms, Vol, XVIII, No. 52.—July, 1854. 6 ectangular prism with ig ee — and ee, andl the three axes a e bas vertical prism. — ral axis, c, having for the axes a, 5, the ratio a:1b; extende constitute a brachydome, or dome parallel to. to the shorter lateral axis, and Ped the ratio ? 42 J. D. Dana on the Homeomorphism TABLE I. Angle of Vertical Prism near 90°. bag: Macrodome. | Brachydome, Axes. Trism eae o Le 231% Lies 4 O22 6 ive L Thomsonite, - - - -| 90°40’| 108° 187 ° 5610-72253 : 1: 1°0117 esotype,- - - - -| 91° |(27)108° 48/2709? 42/0°71644 : 1 : 10176 Harmotome, - - - -| 91° 46’ 08° 48’ 71626 : 1: 10312 ohlerit - = -1 90° 54). 1089 00-7261 :1:1:01588 Pyrolusite, - - - - 93° 40’ 104° 29/\(an107° ey, 0°77601 : 1 : 1:0661 Andalusite : . 0° 44", 109° 6) 109° 198 : 1: 10129 write, - - - |(#)91 111° 14] 112° 40/.0-68429 : 1: 10271 Staurotide, - = = |(4)93° 87\(47)108° 121 111° 10’10-79388 : 1: 1:05617 vellite, - - (4)90° 84//(27)106° 14/1 106° 46/10°75047 = 1: 1:0099 Aas, ee See Sear Oo aay co Anes oe eg Libethenite, - => = 92° 30 108° 28 110° 50’10-72034 : 1: 1:0446 Caledonite, - - - - 5° (42)105° 8/\(3%)109° 54/10-76568 : 1 : 1:0913 Chondrodite,- - - -| 94° 26'(47)106° 52’\(47)111° 4’ orai76 : 1: 10805 Antimony Giaiies, are 90° 45/ Sad 26/1(2%)110° 8/10°6901 : 1: 1:0132 0. do. - =} 90° 45’(12) 88° (12) 88° 471-035 132 Polycrase,- - - - -| 96° {{1z) § 38° 30’(12) 98° 5811-09666 ; 1: 10918 Despore: - - = = =} 90° 34" 120° 4% 190° 8340-57657 : 1: 1°01 Diaspo - = = =| 98952" 115° 16’) 118° 49710-63398 : 1: 10699 Gatite, - a ee 94° 59/ BR Sarg 117° 30/10°66063 : 1 : 1:0888 Polian an Oe a ok 52! 115° 26’ 118° 06317 :1:1:0513 achrane - - - - LT? met 19° 1310-6088 :1.: 10388 Pepa? Pu boss) 2% layas 4 (@gniis° 2’(42)118° 10’10-63258 : 1 : 1:05617 Chrysolite, - - - -| 94° 8/ (47)115° 36/199 12/6297 :1:1:078 Triphyline, te ee ($2)118° 277\(4%)121° 55/\0:59549 : 1: 10724 Bournonite, - - - one 40’ ($7)115° —{(%)1 18° 14’10'63745 : 1 : 10662 i Se Ne aro (12) 92° 84/17) 96° 1210-95618 : 1: 1066 # Warwickite, - - =|. 98°-949 ?Lanthanite, - - - 93° 45/| la: ron, having it is therefore # the wnit 3 aa angles are planes of the axes a, b,c, = la:16:le; J med me sneha Cae tween species; all other angles are & QOMC: Lo ied le. uit Scheie Peres Ae Ki slew! ie angle Osa ‘le i eee i and there bition of the degree of home are dependent upon these, an oe of Mineral Species of the Trimetric System. 43 The preceding table is naturally subdivided into two sections: I. Species having the summit angles of the domes, near 109°. II. Species having the summit angles of the domes, near 120°. In the first of these groups there is a remarkable closeness of coincidence to the angle mentioned ; and in the second, the vari- ation from 120° in the brachydome is but small. The verti- cal axis typical of the groups differs therefore theoretically as 3: /2, which is nearly as 6 to In section I, the axes a, b, c, have nearly or typically the ratio : : 2. In Andalusite, the ratio is almost identical with this, and 109° 28’ is exactly a mean between 109° 6’ and 109° 50%, the angles given for the two domes. In section II the ratio of the axes approaches 1: /3: /3, which it is very closely in Epsomite, the domes of which are nearly 120°. 109° is approximately the angle of the regular octahedron, the faces of which solid incline to one another 109° 28’. Moreover the angle of the vertical prism J varies but little from that of a cube, or 90°. Here is an obvious relation to monometric forms not to be overlooked. Moreover, the angle 120°, in section HL, is the angle of the dodecahedron. ; In the change, therefore, in a case of dimorphism, from the monometric to these trimetic forms, the characteristics of the pe ioe molecule, or form, are to a considerable degree re- ine It is to be observed that the domes 27 and 22 for the same spe- cies afford nearly the angle 71°, the supplement of 109°; in fact, 109° 28’ for 1i would give precisely the supplement 70° 32’ for the summit angle of 27. In several of the species the occurring dome is that of 70°-71°, instead of that of 109°; so that either might be taken as characteristic of the first section in table I. 70° 32’ is the summit angle of the regular octahedron. If, therefore, we compare the regular octahedron with the rect- angular octahedron that would result from the united domes 2% and 27 in the species of section I, we find them nearly identical. We observe, further, the important fact, that the aves of the reg- ular octahedron correspond to diagonals between the apices of the basal angles of the rectangular octahedron. But these axes in the latter solid, cross at oblique angles equal to the angle of the thombic prism J, instead of at right angles ; and they correspond to ines between the centres of opposite lateral faces of the rhombic fore a long series, for the sake of comparison although often given, is not necessary errs at be. me with the vertical axis twice ag rely 4 i. —— pe oe #, ie Malt as long ; and soon. The first i refers always to _ or letter the verti is a, the longer or shorter Tahal ac, acourdyng as it has over it the long or short mark, +", 44 J. D. Dana on the Homeomorphism prism, J, and not to those between the centres of its opposite lat- eral edges. In other words, these lines are not the erystallo- graphic axes of the Trimetric system, but what the author has called the crystallogenic axes. This is one reason alluded to on a preceding page for believing that the crystallogenic axes are not necessarily the same lines with the crystallographic. The latter are lines assumed for the convenience of calculation. If instead of the domes 1i in section I, the species had afforded Zi as common and dominant forms, and these were taken as the unit domes, then the unit octahedron, in place of the domes, would have the pyramidal angles near 109°, approaching those of the regular octahedron. Could we therefore assume this as the fundamental octahedron for the species, the derivation of the oc- tahedron from the regular octahedron would be a change in the lengths only of the axes, and not in their angles of intersection. But this assumption would do violence to the facts. Still in An- timony Glance, we have an example probably of this form and mode of derivation; the dominant form is an octahedron, with is evidently the occasion of the wide divergence. Yet in one — nised as species that belong to a specific system of ratios, rathet than to definite and identical dimensions. Andalusite, Staurotide, and Topaz, have this relation. ‘The forms of these species may be referred to a similar type; yet W@ cannot affirm that the axes have the near identity presented iD the table, rather than a multiple ratio of 1:2 in some of the axes; we only know that they pertain to a common series. Staurotide alone offers a choice between three uncertainties The occurring form is a prism of 129° 20’ and this is usually by he eo aine author in vol. ix, p. 407, 2nd Series, of this Journal, and afterwards # ASS SRNR SPM IORI MR eosmcneNgomae® a ' of Mineral Species of the Trimetric System. A5 taken as the unit vertical prism. A prism with the longer lateral axis half as long, has the angle 93° 8’, and this approaches the prism of Andalusite; and as the frequency of occurrence of a plane is no sure proof that the plane is necessarily of the funda- mental series, we may with some reason assume the prism of 93° 8’ to be the fundamental one. But Staurotide forms twins in two directions, or parallel to two planes, and neither of these planes, referred to the above fundamental forms, has a simple ra- tio or expression, and this, notwithstanding the general fact that the faces of composition are of the highest value in ascertaining the directions of axial sections: moreover, one of the planes has the unusual symbol 22 if referred to the prism of 129° 20’, and ; # if referred to that of 93° 8’. Now, if instead of halving the longer lateral axis, we take two-thirds for the new axis ¢, then the expression is of the simplest kind in every respect.’ The fol- lowing are the angles and symbols of the planes according to these three methods :— A—Prism J=129° 20’; W= 69° 16’; 3% (one face of com- Sle : ae position) = 83° 24’; 23 other face of composition. B.—Prism J= 93° 8’; 27 69° 16/; 3% (one face of compo- sition) = 88° 247; & 3 other face of composition; *1i==108° 0°7239 : 1: 105617 12’; 1y¥== 111° 107, C.—Prism 7— O44’. 17 —89° Tel: 1 3 ei ponte) = 66° 4’ i sahek cant alien Mame wes t Pept Tn the last, the planes, and the faces of composition have all a unit ratio, and it affords the simplest possible view of the crystal- lization. Whether regarded as the fundamental form or not, the relation to andalusite is shown by the fact of the two belonging to one and the same series or system of ratios. Topaz has I: [=124° 19’ and 55° Al’, and 73 : 23=86° 52’ and 93° 8’. The two prisms might either be taken as the fundamen- tal, with nearly equal propriety. If the first be so taken, and the macrodome of 58° 31’ be the unit one,.the axes are a: b:c= 189774 : 1-05625 : 2 (=1-7587 : 1: 18936), a being treble what it is in Table I, and b double, the 5 also becoming ¢ or the longer lateral axis, If the unit macrodome is that of 96° 2’, the axes are the same except that @ is half as long. Lievrite is usually considered as having for its fundamental Vertical prism, a prism of 111° 12. Now this angle is near 109° 14’ for Staurotide, (type C); and taking 2% as the vertical prism I, the angle is near that of Andalusite. Moreover the species has hear relations in its domes to the species of Table I, and none to those of Table IL. Besides, in composition it resembles Anda- lusite and the allied species, in having less oxygen in its silica than in its bases. These facts afford some reason for placing the Species where it stands in Table I. 46 J. D. Dana on the Homeomorphism The following are notices of other species in Table I: Chondrodite has for the summit angle of 12, in = three types, 68° 32, 64° 54’, 70° 29’, giving as the mean 67° 58’, from which the mean for 3, eae as 12 in the table) is 106° 52’, and ‘the ites 103° 28’ and ° 26’. The angle for 17 in the New w Jersey chondrodite is 68°. t vertical axis is twice that given in the table, or 148352. ; In Chryso- lite, also, we have as good reason for doubling the vertical axis, in dome has the angle 70° 57’, and taking this as a unit dome, ¢ axis a= 1-53136. The relations of Polianite to Gothite and Diaspore appear to sustain the conclusion of Volger, cited in the American Journal of Science, vol. xvil, e 213. - - - (E.) B becomes identical with C. = Although the law expressed by the equation C, being partly founded on hypothetical principles, was at first to a certain extent conjectural, yet it has subsequently being so closely confirmed by the experiments of Messrs. Regnault, Joule, and Thomson, that it may be regarded as almost, if not altogether, demonstrated. It is still, however, uncertain, whether the constant x has an ap- preciable value. The values computed from the experiments absolute zero of a perfect gas thermometer, and «=0. ; It gives me much gratification to find, that the conclusion to which Mr. Joule, Professor Thomson, and myself have been le by our researches, as to the great economy of fuel to be expected from the Air-Engine when its practical difficulties have been over” come, is confirmed by the opinion of an investigator who has 8? carefully examined the subject as Professor Barnard. 59 St. Vincent street, Glasgow, 14th April, 1854. # ed ‘ Prof. Loomis on Bodies falling through the Atmosphere. 67 Arr. X.—On the Resistance experienced by Bodies falling through the Atmosphere; by Extas Looms, Professor of Math- ematics and Natural Philosophy in New York University. a whirling machine. Since the case of a body revolving about a fixed axis is different from that of a body descending freely through the atmosphere under the action of gravity, [ have en- deavored to test these results by experiments upon the direct fall of bodies. For this purpose I have performed various experi- ments upon the velocity acguired by falling drops of water; also by small spheres made of cork; and have experimented with lumps of ice varying from the size of a pigeon’s egg up to masses weighing*more than two pounds. These results coincided tol- erably well with those obtained by computation from Hutton’s data, but I refrain from publishing them at present in the hope of being able to repeat them with greater care and with the advan- tage of a greater elevation. In the mean time I have sought for experiments of a similar kind made by other individuals. The experiments made at the request of Newton in St. Paul’s Cathedral at London, seemed better suited to my purpose than any others I have found. There were two series of these experiments. In the first series, made in the year 1710, several hollow glass globes of about five inches in diameter were let fall from an elevation of 220 English feet, and the times of descent carefully measured. In the second se- ties of experiments made in the year 1719, several bladders formed into spheres about five inches in diameter, were let fall from a height of 272 feet, and the times of descent carefully observed, j For the purpose of deducing from these experiments the coef- ficient of resistance, I proceeded in the following manner. It is evident that the resistance to a falling body beginning from zero, continually increases with the increasing velocity of the body; i i ce is constantly the same, while the 68 Prof. Loomis on Bodies falling through the Atmosphere. descent became sensibly uniform after a fall of 40 feet; and in the second series of experiments after a fall of 10 feet. I care- fully computed the time of descent through the space just men- tioned, and dividing the remaining distance by the remaining time of descent, obtained the terminal velocity, from which the coefficient of resistance is easily deduced. In these computations I made use of Hutton’s formule which are as follows; Agce — oo < “Tat eae log. — Ta = h. log. N, 1 N-1l er Ne cae ; w 1 Ww Site =a. 2x h. log. a PES w eke 5 Where c = the coefficient of resistance, g = 16,, feet, w = the weight of the body expressed in ounces, x = the space fallen through, v = the velocity acquired in falling through the space z, ¢ = the time of descent through the space x v’ = the terminal velocity of the body. The following Table shows the results deduced from the first series of experiments with glass globes. Column first shows the weight of the globes in grains; column second shows their diam- eters in inches; column third shows the entire time of falling from a height of 220 feet; column fourth shows the velocity ae quired in falling through a space of 40 feet; column fifth shows the time of falling 40 feet ; column sixth shows the coefficient of resistance deduced from the time of descent; and column seventh shows the same coefficient reduced to a sphere of 5 inches i diameter by assuming the resistance to vary as the square of the diameter. 8 | A NEAR. IA A ee | | Weights of \Diamet'rs of Whole times Velocity in |Time of fall-| Coefficient Do. reduced to8} the globes. | the globes. | of falling. | falling 40 ft.| ing 40 feet, | of resistance. | sphere of 5 im+| grains. inches, 8. 8, : 510 51 82 28-237 1:9967 13845 0013307 642 52 TT 30-026 1-9386 0015033 0013899 599 51 wa 30070 1/9373 14033 0013488 B15 5: 7:95 29°188 19650 0013014 0013014 chad 5 ve 28°383 19917 0013133 0018 te 1 52 i 30°099 1°93 "0015022 0018 Prof. Loomis on Bodies falling through the Atmosphere. 69 In making these computations I was obliged to assume a prob- able value of ¢ for the purpose of computing v and ¢; but the w, value of ¢ deduced from the formula c= pra 3S but slightly af- fected by an error in the first assumed value of ¢. In order how- ever to eliminate even this small influence, having computed the value of ¢ by these formule, I repeated the computation for v and t with the value of ¢ thus deduced, by which means I obtained a second determination of c which is almost wholly independent of the first assumed value. | Weights of |Diamet’rs of Whole times| Velocity in |Time of fall-| Coefficient |Do. reduced toa the bladders,|the bladders| of falling. | falling 10 ft.| ing 10 feet. | of resistance. | sphere of 5 in. grains, | inches. ary 8. 128 528 19 14-200 0°9955 0013816 *0012390 156 5:19 17 15581 0°9528 0013376 "0012415 1375 53 185 14539 | 09844 | ‘0014047 | -0012501 97 5°26 22 12°375 10690 0014223 “0012852 | 99125 | 5 21-125'| 12°91! 10450 70013508 0013308 _ The mean of the preceding values of ¢ for a sphere of 5 inches in diameter is 0012693, whence for a velocity of 15 feet, which is about the terminal velocity in the preceding experiments, the resistance on a sphere 5 inches in diameter is 2856 ounces. In the year 1802, a great number of experiments on falling bodies were made by Benzenberg in the tower of St. Michael’s church at Hamburg. Metallic balls about one and a half inches in diameter were allowed to fall from heights varying from 25 to 340 French feet, and the times of descent were measured by a watch having a hand which made one revolution per second. ‘Y ese experiments were performed with the greatest care; but since the specific gravity of the balls employed was more than ten times that of water, they do not appear to me as well adapted to indicate the amount of resistance, especially for smal! veloci- tes, as the experiments of Newton. ewton’s experiments have furnished us the resistance on a sphere 5 inches in diameter, at the two velocities of 15 and 30 feet per second. We will now compare these results with those obtained by Hutton with the whirling machine. Hutton deter- mined the resistance upon a sphere of pasteboard 6 inches in diameter, for velocities from 3 to 20 feet per second. I have re- duced these results to a sphere 5 inches in diameter by assuming 70 O. N. Stoddard on the Brandon Tornado. the resistance on spheres to vary as the squares of their diameters. I have also added the resistance to a velocity of 30 feet per sec~ ond, computed upon the assumption that the resistance varies as the square of the velocity — In the following Table, column first shows the velocity in feet per second; column second shows the resistance to a sphere 5 inches in diameter, moving with velocities expressed in the first column, deduced from Hutton’s experiments with the whirling machine; column third exhibits the same numbers corrected s0 as to conform to the results of Newton’s experiments. is | EET TT Tas es =. 5 2. 3 a, ¢ o 3. 3 oO — ba : 2 m a i=} - ° | | of = 1 = = i * | S28! ees | - | $28} eee 1.2] 223| eee ll -2| 222 | ee #5/ 822 (S88 | S5| 551/888 |\S3| 88) S88 ies | ene i sse Ge}; een ess Se] nen |e S's of Sea ese e2/)/ gn | ees 2/382 | sb |\5| 222 | sbi ise| see) stelle | eee | eee seigekt S22 ise] ses | Sas Fs | eet |Se8 > 8] ees aes] feet. ounces. ounces. || feet. | ounces. | ounces, || feet. | ounces. | ounces. || feet. | ounces. ounces.) 8 | 017 | -014 8 | 100 | ‘080 || 13 | -268 | -214 2 | ait 4 9 | -023 127 2 9 || 19 4 | 467 | 5 | *042 034 10: f° *toT 126 15 | *857 | -286 20 | 650 | °520 ] 6 | -058 047 41 7}: 192 153 16 | 408 | *326 30 }1487 |1211 TOT 062 12.| 228 182 17 | -463 | -370 poaam ema Ts The resistances deduced from Newton’s experiments at veloci- ties of 15 and 30 feet per second are about one-fifth less than those obtained by Hutton. Diminishing the numbers in column second by one fifth part we obtain the numbers in column third which are presumed to represent the resistance in conformity with Newton’s experiments. a3 If now we assume the specific gravity of ice to be 0-869 as given in the French Annuaire, the weight of spheres of ice 2, 1 and 4 inches in diameter will be as follows; and the greatest velocities which they can acquire by falling through the atmo- sphere are shown in the following ‘Table. ~— Weight ~ Terminal ef sphere. | velocity. | 2:0908 ounces. 98 feet. 02614 * 70 “ 49 ce rol =o ole? cess UOs24. een Arr. X1L—The Brandon Tornado of January 20th, 1854; by O N. Sropparp, Prof. Chem. and Nat. Phil., Miami Univer : sity, Ohio. Tue whole breadth of the State of Ohio from Southwest t? Northeast, was swept on the 20th of January, 1854, by a storm of unusual violence. Ss Traces of the same storm have been obtained from a point QT miles N. E. of Little Rock, Arkansas, also from the western patt of Pennsylvania. The whole length cannot be less than 800 O. N. Stoddard on the Brandon Tornade., 74 miles. 'The breadth, I have not been able to determine. At Dubuque, Iowa, on the 20th of January, it was clear and very cold, with the wind from the N. W. At the point named in Ar- kansas, heavy rains from the southwest occurred on the 19th, fol- lowed by a clear and cold atmosphere on the morning of the 20th. On this day, the 20th, the storm passed over Ohio. The temperature became mild on the 19th, and on the next day at noon, the thermometer stood at 70° in Cincinnati, and 68° in Oxford; the latter place more elevated than Cincinnati and about 30 miles from it, N. by W. The barometer fell gradually during the 19th, and rapidly on the 20th; and at 45 minutes past 12 m. the time when the storm began at Oxford, it stood 28:21; lower than at any period during the last twelve months. The air was saturated with vapor, and the walls of brick buildings Were dripping with moisture. Three strata of clouds were dis- tinctly observed: the highest cirri light and fleecy, moving tow- ards the N. E.; the second, the proper storm-cloud in dark heavy Masses, moving rapidly in the same direction ; the third and low- est, the scud of sailors, flitting violently past, a little east of North. Along the track of this wind, there were at different times during the day, violent rains, vivid lightuing, heavy thunder; and in some places large hailstones fell, though not in great quantity. In the northeastern part of the state the storm assumed the form of a tornado of great violence. It first struck the earth in the S. W. part of Miller township, Knox County ; N. Latitude 40° 18’, and Longitude 5°30’ West of Washington. ~ _ Iscourse in that county was N. 564° E. Traces of it are found im some of the counties farther east; where its path gradually curved more towards the east; presenting its convex side to the north. The tornado in Washington Co. Pa., on the same day, Was not probably a continuation of that in Ohio, as its location Was several miles farther south. The track pursued in this state 18 given in the accompanying diagram. It appears to have passed over one tier of counties without diagram) the north gable end of which was crushed in, and the eastern half of the roof taken off and scattered to the S. East. On the right were a barn and house (2, 3,) of E. Coleman, both of which were unroofed, and a rafter from the barn was ae through the side of the house and into a chest standing Within, ‘ nt - {- \. ER gie t GN ith a th am Ye vf, (4% it 4, Pig ee COSHOCTON, apni es EEE an Carrollton Hadalnhia CARROLL [ HARRISON GL ‘oppUusof, UopuDlg ay}? UO PLvpposy "N ‘O O. N. Stoddard on the Brandon Tornado. 73 The tornado then crossed the valley of Sycamore creek, and ascending a gentle slope on the eastern side, struck Dr. Wheaton’s house and barn, (4, 5,) which were utterly demolished. A brick church (6), a brick school-honse (7), and a log house (8), were en- tirely swept from their foundations. A Presbyterian Church (9) Was unroofed ; a small frame house (11) had the roof and ceiling raised but not thrown off; an out-house (10) was destroyed; a sta- ble (12) was also unroofed ; a large frame house (13) was moved 18 inches from its foundations; a stable (14) carried 12 feet; a blacksmith and wagon shop (15, 16) and E. Squire’s brick house (17) were prostrated. Some small buildings on the right, not rep- resented, were unroofed or otherwise injured. About one-fourth of a mile east of Brandon it struck a dense forest. At this point a careful survey was made across the track; represented by Section IL. For nearly three miles its course was mainly through the forest, with intervals of cleared land, uprooting or breaking al- Most every tree, and crushing the buildings which unfortunately Stood in its way. Crossing the Newark and Mt. Vernon railroad, It swept over cultivated fields, destroying the few trees which had been left, and razing to the ground a stable and brick house. Three-fourths of a mile beyond this, an open grove of very large storm’s axis. They seemed like an advanced guard to the forest alittle farther in advance. ‘The tornado struck them with appal- ing fury, and appeared well nigh irresistible. Scarcely one was left Standing ; some were uprooted, others broken, and split into fragments. Near this place where it entered the forest, another survey was made (see Section III). In this survey, as well as the other ex- Plorations made during this day, the writer was aided by Rev. -C. Colmery, of Mt. Vernon. A part of the forest here passed through was heavily timbered and covered with a dense under- stowth. ‘Though the action of the wind was less symmetrical While struggling through and entangled among so many obsta- cles, yet the renewal of the velocity as fast as destroyed, and the ree with which it plunged down and clung to the earth, were exceedingly interesting features of its workings. .'S path was followed several miles farther, in all about eleven miles, and occasional bearings taken, but as they correspond *ntirely with the previous ones, no special record was made of them. The breadth of the track became somewhat less, but Without any decrease in violence. Houses included in its vortex Were still demolished ; a horse was lifted into the air and carried over a fence; a cow was blown twelve rods against a tree, stri- King it twelve feet from the ground. In the vicinity of Gambier, ter a course of twelve miles, its destructive influence was for a While suspended, till it again struck the earth in another county. Stooxn Semmes, Vol, XVIII, No. 52—July, 1854. 10 74 O. N. Stoddard on the Brandon Tornado. Having made these general statements, we may now examine more particularly the bearings of objects prostrated by the wind. The following table contains the bearings of a survey across the path of the tornado, 14 mile S. West of Brandon, commencing on the right. The plot of these bearings will be found in the left part of Section L Course of the storm, N. 56}° E. 1. Atree, - - - N. 564° E. 2. - . - N. 45°. E, ae ee eee mea . - . N. 224° E. 5. Several trees, - N, 45°... E, 6. A tree, - - - 1B sagen 8 7. “ overlying 6, N. Bae - - : N. Seis terse B45 ING S292 Ke: We. Sf nepese 9 2 5 N. 563° E. 11. A fence, : - N. 6° W. This was near the middle of the track. 12. A tree, - - - N. 112° W. 13. A hickory, diagram (23) N. 45° W. The top after falling broken off and turned round to the East. 14, ee oaks, = - - N. 45° E. Near the hickory, but much smaller. 15. Trees in orchard, = - E. 10° '8. 16. Roof of Baxter’s barn, E. 45° S. vine, and afterwards half of the tree, including the top, was turned round towards the east. The same current which pro- duced this effect, prostrated three small oaks (3). ‘The shingles from Baxter’s barn (1) were first carried southeast, and then strewed for fifty rods in a curved line gradually bending in tow- ards the course of the storm. ‘The curved arrows from the bart correctly represent the arrangement of the shingles. ‘Trees in an orchard near by were thrown down E. 10° S., coinciding in direction with the fragments from the barn. The central whirl of the storm passing over the hickory and oaks, might account for their position, but not for that of the fence. The evidence from the latter of a secondary whirl, was as clear and explicit as well could be. Had the rails been re- moved by hand and laid on opposite sides, the result could not have been more regular. A secondary whirl about 60 rods in di- ameter, lagging a little behind the more extended one on the ight, seems undeniable from the facts in the case. ge - ‘To what extent this may have disturbed the general action, it is impossible to say. Its existence, if admitted, did not however O. N. Stoddard on the Brandon Tornado. 75 continue long, for all trace of it is lost in the forest one-fourth of a mile east of Brandon. We will now examine briefly the action of the tornado at Brandon. The right hand part of this storm seems to have slid over that division of the town, merely prostrating fences and un- roofing some small buildings. Its a ons effects were felt. ; ‘opie of night cut it short: and the — observations were given to a part of the track farther east. Section [ represents that portion of the town most severely visited ; and the arrows represent the direction in which objects were ‘prostrated. The cluster of arrows (18) mark the —— of trees in an orchard. ‘Their direction was from N. to Casting the eye from this point along the track of the sin the buildings 7, 8, 12, 14, 15, 16, give the same general result. Com~- bining them we obtain the mean N. 5° W. If we take another section farther to the left, commencing with the brick church (6) and extending nearly to Dr. Wheaton’s house (5), we obtain a mean result of N. 15° 5’ W. From this estimate a tree (20) and the church (9) are rbideted No. 20 was an apple tree which ad been twisted more than 45° after falling. The roof of the church was torn to fragments and scattered between N. E. and The direction in which the wind struck the church, can be made out with sufficient accuracy from other data. Ist, The south gable end was crushed in, and 2d, A bier was lifted from the grave yard, carried across the street ee the line of the dotted arrow, and set down in the church The remaining objects on the left Gucaing Dr. Wheaton’s house er barn, and the trees near the creek give a bearing of N. 33° 45’ W. From this 21 was rejected. It was a small oak, broken ee off, ids turned round 90°. No. 22 wasa limb from a tree carried S. 10° E.; supposed to be due to the reverse action f the storm own, Was not made; t In the tabular view of these bearings given. low, in order to fill it out for the right of the track, for which no Materials existed in Brandon, the first three are interpolated from @ survey farther wes 1. N. 564° E. . 5. N.15° 9 W. 2. N. 50° 37’ EB. 6. N. 33° 45’ W. 3. N, 33° 45’ E. 7. ae E. ~ B. W, The bearings from this table are satvarlble: and if the read- er will construct a curve to suit them, he will find a singular cor- Tespondence with the cycloids which were planned with special referen nee to Sections If and d il. * 76 O. N., Stoddard on the Brandon Tornado. To these sections we will now turn. Section II representsa survey across the path of the storm, one-fourth mile east of Bran- on, where it first struck the forest. The distances from bearing to bearing were not measured with a chain; it would have been impossible to use one in the midst of such a mass of fallen tim- ber. They were determined, as nearly as could be, by the eye. On the right of the dotted line, the number of bearings might have been increased to any extent, as the ground was covered with fallen trees. The largest and straightest trees were selected. Those which were partially decayed or which had been thrown down by others were rejected. The arrows do not in every in- stance represent the relative distances of the trees from each other; in many cases they lie side by side in contact. On the left of the dotted line, they are sometimes placed nearer in the plot than was actually their position. The direction is accurately given. The arrows with cross-bars point out trees which lay across others. ‘The prostrations appear to have been made almost entirely by the front of the tornado, with the exception of the left hand portion of the path, where the reverse action was fre- quently the most violent. This front action rendered the posi- tion of the trees more symmetrical, and the mode of action of the wind easier of solution. Objects thrown down at the first stroke of the current would accurately represent a tangent to the curve at that point, whatever the nature of the curve might be. As the trees which fell above others, must have been struck down after a part of the storm had passed, and cannot therefore exhibit the front action, they are on this account either rejected in obtain- ing the mean of the bearings, or included with others in the re- verse action. ‘The parallel lines were drawn to aid the eye in grouping the trees. Where the trees lie across them, they are il- cluded in that interval whose bearings most nearly correspond. A tabular view of Section If, one-fourth | A tabular view of Section IIT, six miles mile east of Brandon,—% mile wide. east of Brandon,—% mile wide. Course of the storm, N. 56}° ¥, lI group, - - N.56° 15’ E. 1 group, - -. N.45° B BAe 5, So oy BU eee | ete - + WN. 34° @ es ee pe a“ =e Be oar Se oy ee ae : Seed - - N. 10° 7° W. See > - N. 10° W. 5.8 + ae Ds elt es ees E. tO ot So ee ee ea + ecu pe? & $F oe ee Recs - - E. 459'S, G28 - ns W. G & - - B78? Sx Ba lommad : W. 45°98 ay - - E. 679 §, te iB - = s. ts Pied : : - §. ie . ¥ 8, 22° 3s. Li © oy a eee . - - 8. 46° E. 14 ‘The curtate cycloids were constructed to represent approxi- mately these tabular views. The radius of the generating circle” 18 to that which describes the curve as 1; 2. The blanks in the — O. N. Stoddard on the Brandon Tornado. 77 loop of either section could be supplied by interpolation from the The barred arrows on the left of the loop in Section JI desig- nate trees which, though lying side by side with those on the Opposite part of the same loop, yet rested with their limbs above the latter. The barred arrow in Section If which lies at the in- tersection of the curve was resting upon six large trees. An in- volute converging rapidly towards the centre might answer toler- ably well the conditions of Section I, but it fails entirely when applied to Section IIL. The involute action does not seem to have been distinctly marked. While. passing rapidly over another part of the track, the bearings of scattering trees which were taken afforded more significant indications of the involute form near the axis. The telative distances in the latter case were not noted with sufficient accuracy to justify a projection. The data thus far given are believed to be sufficient to enable the reader to form an intelligent opinion of the mode of action of this tornado. A few additional observations may afford some urther aid. Ist. The space between the dotted line and the right hand border of the storm includes the path of most destructive violence. Within this limit almost every tree was prostrated or broken. This limit was clearly defined, especially on the left where the tornado first encountered the forest ; but after plunging into it for some distance, its action became more obscure, and less sym- metrical, 2d. On the left of the dotted line the force was much less vio- lent, but trees enough were prostrated to determine the direction of the wind, No case was found of an object on the right thrown in- Ward more than 11° or 12°, The mass of the trees on the right border lay parallel with the course of the storm. : Ath, Along the dotted line, the trees generally lay N. 23° W.; Making an angle of 794° with the general course of the storm. ery few cases were observed of objects in the centre thrown forward in the direction of the path. . th. There was no distinct case of the outward explosive ac- hon in buildings. The ascending current was, notwithstanding, oo Violent, for large objects were raised and transported several les, 7th. Persons just outside of the path describe the storm asa column of Vapor or smoke, whirling in indescribable confusion, accompanied with a deafening roar, so that the thunder, if any, Was Uundistinguishable amid the general din and confusion. 8th. The atmosphere on the borders of the track appeared to Suffer but little disturbance from the passage of the storm; and nO current could be observed setting in towards it. 78 O. N. Stoddard on the Brandon Tornado. 9th. There was scarcely any hail, but torrents of rain followed the tornado, equally, and perhaps, more abundant outside of the track than within it. — 10th. ‘The temperature sunk so rapidly that the next and suc- ceeding days became marked as among the coldest in the month. Rate of Progress. Great discrepancy existed between different observers in refer- ence to the progress of the storm. ‘The estimated time o its passage over any one place varied from one-half to one and a half 2p. minutes. Mr. Coleman stated that he saw the whirling mass ‘Minute as the time of its passage over any point, and three-fourths of a mile as the diameter of the storm, we obtain a velocity of 45 miles per hour. I have not been able to obtain the barometric minima along the track of this extended S. West current; but if the lowest depression of the atmospheric wave passed near Little Rock, At- kansas, at noon on the 19th, then to have reached Oxford, Ohio, at 123 p.m. on the 20th, would have required a velocity of nearly 29 miles per hour. My own opinion is that the first estimate is nearer the truth. The clouds during the forenoon of the 20th, flew past with a velocity which attracted special attention.* In reference to the velocity of rotation an approximate estimate only can be reached. If the ratio of the progressive and rotary velocities adopted in the construction of the cycloid be correct, and 40 miles per hour be taken as the rate of progress, then the velocity of the wind on the right would have been 120 miles pet hour. This velocity would be increased, especially near the axis, by the involute form of the curve; but to what extent this ope- rated cannot be stated. rig ' Another mode of estimating the force of the wind may be adopted. Among the oaks previously named as standing on ris- ing ground, was one, a giant among giants. Its trank was three feet in diameter and straight; its top symmetrical, and the whole sound to the core. It was shivered to fragments near the ground. * Since writing the above, a communication from Mr. Raiff of Sandyville, north- eastern part of Tuscarawas Co., states, that the tornado peed about 1 mile south of that place at half past three o'clock v. w.; moving in a direction north of east, but grac from Sandyville, and passed on to the east; in all a course of 17 miles. Tht tion corresponds with what has already been stated. we < The roar of the tornado burst upon Brandon while the clock was striking 2 baie * ' an hour and @ uatly curving towards the east. It commenced southwesterly about 24 miles ; The direc is corres ee eel with the previous estimate, the difference being only one-third fe ile. |The mode of action seems to have been the same; parts of buildings, itis — O. N. Stoddard on the Brandon Tornado. 79 the assumptions are exaggerated. The most doubtful point is the amount of surface supposed to be presented to the wind by the limbs, &c. The estimate is believed to be a large one, as € trees were at the time destitute of foliage. Other circumstances are not wanting to sustain this view of a high rate of velocity in the tornado. A mass of brick cemented together, 4 feet by 3 and 1 foot thick, containing at least 12 cu- bie feet, and weighing more than 1000 Ibs., was carried 15 feet tom the wall of a house. A board was driven inches into a Snarred oak stump. ‘The writer pulled a shingle from an oak tree half mile wide and 100 feet high, exerted a force equal to half ; © steam power of the globe. More than 50,000 trees were pros- ‘ated or broken by it in less than one half hour. temark ble for the number and violence of its tornados during the winter, It is important to state another fact in this connec- on. A southwest wind has prevailed to an unusual degree this Moving with the general current. ‘The writer has no t lendents of the Cincinnati and Columbus, and the H. and D. tailr is, Who generously tendered him a free ticket for more than 300 miles of travel, 80 On the Small Planets between Mars and Jupiter. Arr. XII.— Considerations on the Group of Small Planets situ- ated between Mars and Jupiter ; by M. U.-J. Le Verrier* possibility of employing more powerful instruments. The liber- ality with which astronomers, who have been recently engaged in these examinations, have submitted to the public their facilities of discovery, in the publication of costly ecliptic charts, has ret dered this labor henceforth easy. The multiplicity of discoveries in this field, instead of diminishing the interest in them, is of 4 nature rather to enhance their importance. For if it has beet necessary to give up the hypothesis of Olbers, it may be ho ‘at least that the knowledge of a great number of sinall planets will lead to the discovery of some law in their distribution, a0 to the determination of the configuration of their principal groups: It is hardly credible that these asteroids should be scattered pr0- miscuously in all parts of the heavens: besides their having bee! discovered hitherto only in a single zone, we must suppose thé the same cause which has brought together so much matter 10 each of the principal planets, has distributed all the rest also into separate and distinct groups. a e are acquainted at present with the orbits of twenty-s'? asteroids (omitting in these remarks the twenty-seventh just dis- covered by Mr. Hind). These twenty-six asteroids having bee? found under diverse circumstances and by different observers, at as we believe capable of furnishing some grounds for generaliz .* From the Comptes Rendus, vol. xxxvii, p. 793. On the Small Planets between Mars and Jupiter. 81 tion upon the whole group to which they belong. This is what we propose here to examine. The small planets revolve in a zone which begins at the mean distance of 2°20 from the sun and extends to the distance of 3-16; unity being here the mean distance of the earth from the sun. The excentricities of the orbits are quite considerable; their mean rising to 0-155, The amount of excentricity in each one seems to bear no relation to the mean distance from the sun, or to the longitude of the perihelion. The inclinations of the orbits, both with reference to each other and to the ecliptic, are also quite large. 'The mean of the sines of the inclination to the ecliptic is 0:155. The amount of the inclination in each one does not appear to depend either upon the mean distance from the sun, or upon the direction of the ascending node. The perihelia and the ascending nodes present some special peculiarities. The perihelia of teventy of them, having their longitudes between 4° and 184°, are embraced in an extent of the heavens less than a semi-circumference. The ascending nodes of the orbits of twenty-two, whose longitudes are between 36° and 216°, are also comprised within less than half of the circumference of the heavens, and nearly coincident with the Space occupied by their perihelia. Possibly we may trace a regu- lar difference between the mean direction of the ascending nodes of the planets nearest to the sun and of those more remote, and so have ground for the conjecture that these asteroids belon really to two distinct groups. But we pass this by for the present. What has been said suffices for our present purpose; viz., the de- termination of a superior limit of the total mass of matter that can exist in the zone of the heavens which we are considering. _ _ Such an investigation can be based only upon a close examina- tion of the nature and amount of the influences exerted by this Matter upon the nearer planets, Mars and the Earth. The differ- ent terms into which we commonly resolve these influences are hot equally well suited to our object. The periodic terms, de- Pending upon the relative situation of the planets influenced and the small masses which act upon them, neutralize each other, if there are a great number of asteroids situated at each instant in every part of the heavens: so that the sum total of the disturb- h long ude of the perihelia and nodes, may however present analo- Stoonp Senrms, Vol. XVII, No. 52.—July, 1854. il 82 On the Small Planets between Mars and Jupiter. gous difficulties, which we can eliminate only by considering the terms in which the longitude of these.elements does not enter, if such terms exist. Now the motion of the perihelion, whether of Mars or the Earth, actually contains a sensible term of this kind: this term depends only upon the mean distance of the asteroids from the sun and upon the excentricity of the disturbed planet; moreover it is essentially positive whatever may be that of the small planets whose action upon Mars and the Earth we are here considering, so that all these small masses combine by their action to impress direct motions upon the perihelia of the two principal planets here referred to. If then we suppose that the zone in which these small planets are found contains a very great num- ber of others like them, we should conclude that the whole group acts upon the perihelia very nearly as if they were collected into a single mass situated at a proper mean distance, and we should deduce therefrom the means of determining the total mass, or at least a limit which it cannot exceed. ft ; This subject however presents other difficulties. Besides the term upon which we have been reasoning there is a second in the expression of the motion of the perihelion, of the same mathe- matical order of magnitude as the first, but which depends upon the direction of the perihelia of the several disturbing masses: it is important to inquire whether it can modify the results fur nished by the first term. . situated in one half of the heavens, would be destroyed in this second term by the action of those masses whose perihelia are in the perihelia of twenty out of twenty-six being placed in one- half of the heavens, a result doubtless not of chance and seeming to indicate that the matter whose mass we are investigating is nearer the sun on the side of the summer solstice than of the winter. This circumstance must be taken into consideration, not for the purpose of introducing it as an essential condition into the solution of the problem, but on the contrary of arriving at @ result which shall be independent of it. ' (a This consideration will lead us not to make use of the motion of the earth’s perihelion although it is better known than that of Mars. The earth’s perihelion being in fact situated in that very portion of the heavens occupied by the perihelia of more than three-fourths of the asteroids, the second term which enters into the expression of its motion may become appreciable as com pared with the first and of the contrary sign: inasmuch as thes On the Smali Planets between Mars and Jupiter. 83 terms are respectively proportional to the excentricities of the terrestrial orbit and the orbits of the small planets, and as the excentricities of these last are at the mean nine times greater than that of the earth. | The perihelion of Mars is situated much more favorably in re- lation to the mean direction of the perihelia of the asteroids; and besides the excentricity of its orbit is greater. Asa result of these two conditions united, the second term which enters into the ex- pression of the motion of the perihelion is only one fourth of the rst. Now this superiority of the first term may be expected to continue after the discovery of a great number of new asteroids, whether this predominance of the perihelia in the mean direction of the summer solstice shall be confirmed, as it probably will be, or whether we shall be obliged fo return to the idea of a uniform distribution of them through every part of the heavens. n accordance with these remarks I have found that if the mass of the whole group of asteroids was equal to the mass of the earth, it would produce in the heliocentric longitude of the perihelion of Mars an inequality which in a century will amount to eleven seconds. Such an inequality, supposing it to exist, surely could not have escaped the notice of astronomers. If we reflect that this inequality will become strikingly sensible at the moment of the opposition of Mars, we must believe that at pres- ent and although the orbit of Mars has not been determined wit perfect accuracy it cannot nevertheless admit of an error in lon- gitude greater than one-fourth of the inequality which we have Pointed out. Hence we conclude that the sum total of the mat- ter constituting the small planets situated between the mean dis- lances 220 and 3:16 cannot exceed about one-fourth of the mass of the Earth. : , ~ Similar conelusions may be reached by considering the motion of the plane of the ecliptic; the result will depend however in that case upon the hypothesis that the ascending nodes of more than three-fourths of the orbits are situated in a semi-circumfer- nee. The limit moreover which we should reach in this way Mare by the discovery of new asteroids. Such as it ls, it ms fitted to throw some light upon a subject in regard to the 0} lowj Pi ere ing propositions. : , suffe The excentricities of the orbits of the known asteroids can euist only very small changes as the effect of perturbation. ® Compt. Rend., t. xxvii, p. 965. 84 Prof. Faraday on Electric Induction— These excentricities which are now quite large, have then always been and will always remain large. . 2. The same is true of the inclinatioy of their orbits. So that the amount of excentricity and inclination answers to the primi- tive conditions of the formation of the group. These propositions are true only for distances from the sun above 2:00. An asteroid situated between Mars and the distance of about 2:00 would not be stable in the meaning which 1s . attached to that word in celestial mechanics. and that coming to their opposition only near their aphelia, they will then be too far from us ? _ 4, Owing to the magnitude of the excentricities and the inclina- tions and the smallness of their variations, the mean motions 0 the perihelia and of the nodes are proportional to the times. Arr. XTIL—On Electric Induction— Associated cases of Current and Static Effects ; by Professor Farapay, D.C.L., F.R.S.* Certain phenomena that have presented themselves in the course of- the extraordinary expansion which the works of the Electric Telegraph Company have undergone, appeared to me to opper wire is perfectly covered with gutta percha at the Com- pany’s works, the metal and the covering being in every patt regular and concentric. The covered wire is usualy made into half-mile lengths, the necessary junctions being effected by twist- or binding, and ultimately soldering ; after which the place * Phil. Mag., 4th Ser,, vii, 197, March, 1854, : tan 4 Associated cases of Current and Static Effects. 85 is covered with fine gutta percha, in such a manner as to make the coating as perfect there as elsewhere: the perfection of the whole operation is finally tried in the following striking manner by Mr. Statham, the manager of the works. The half-mile coils are suspended from the sides of barges floating in a canal, so that the coils are immersed in the water whilst the two ends of each coil rise into the air: as many as 200 coils are thus immersed at once; and when their ends are connected in series, one great length of 100 miles of submerged wire is produced, the two ex- tremities of which can be brought into a room for experiment. An insulated voltaic battery of many pairs of zinc and copper, with dilute sulphuric acid, has one end connected with the earth, and the other, through a galvanometer, with either end of the submerged wire. Passing by the first effect, and continuing the contact, it is evident that the battery current can take advantage of the whole accumulated conduction or defective insulation in the 100 miles of gutta percha on the wire, and that whatever portion of electricity passes through to the water will be shown by the galvanometer. Now the battery is made one of intensity, in order to raise the character of the proof, and the galvanometer h little less, being ,,nds in diameter ; the gutta percha on the metal may therefore be considered as 0-1 of an inch in thickness. 100 miles of like covered wire in coils were heaped up on the floor of a dry warehouse and connected in one series, for comparison with that under water. . Consider now an insulated battery of 360 pairs of plates (4 x3 he hes) having one extremity to the earth; the water wire with th its insulated ends in the room, and a good earth discharge Wite ready for the requisite communication: when the free bat- tery end was placed in contact with the water wire and then re- moved, and afterwards a person touching the earth discharge touched also the wire, he received a powerful k. ‘The shock 48 rather that of a voltaic than of a Leyden battery; it occu- Pied time, and by quick tapping touches could be divided into numerous small shocks; I obtained as many as forty sensible 86 Prof. Faraday on Electric Induction— shocks from one charge of the wire. If time were allowed to intervene between the charge and discharge of the wire, the shock was less; but it was sensible after two, three, or four min- utes, or even a longer period. be hen, after the wire had been in contact with the battery, it was placed in contact with a Statham’s fuse, it ignited the fuse (or even six fuses in succession ) vividly; it could unite the fuse three or four seconds after separation from the battery. When, having been in contact with the battery, it was separated and laced in contact with a galvanometer, it affected the instrument very powerfully ; it acted on it, though less powerfully, after the lapse of four or five minutes, and even affected it sensibly twenty or thirty minutes after it had been separated from the battery. When the insulated galvanometer was permanently attached to the end of the water wire, and the battery pole was brought in contact with the free end of the instrument, it was most instruct ive to see the great rush of electricity into the wire; yet after that was over, though the contact was continued, the deflection was not more than 5°, so high was the insulation. Then sep rating the battery from the galvanometer, and touching the latter with the earth wire, it was just as striking to see the electricity rush out of the wire, holding for a time the magnet of the instrtr ment in the reverse direction to that due to the ingress or charge. These effects were produced equally well with either pole © the battery or with either end of the wire; and whether the electric condition was conferred and withdrawn at the same end, or at the opposite ends of the 100 miles, made no difference the results. An intensity battery was required, for reasons wh will be very evident in the sequel. That employed was able 1 decompose only a very small quantity of water in a given time. A Grove’s battery of eight or ten pairs of plates, which w have far surpassed it in this respect, would have had scarcely # sensible power in affecting the wire. é When the 100 miles of wire in the air were experimented with in like manner, not the slightest signs of any of these effects d equally good conductor. This point was ascertained by attacl- he ing the end of the water wire to one galvanometer, and the end Associated cases of Current and Static Effects. 87 certain, these instruments were changed one for the other, but the deviations were still alike; so that the two wires conducted with equal facility. The canse of the first results is, upon consideration, evident enough. In consequence of the perfection of the workmanship, a Leyden arrangement is produced upon a large scale; the cop- per wire becomes charged statically with that electricity which the pole of the battery connected with it can supply ;* it acts by induction through the gutta percha (without which induction it could not itself become charged, Exp. Res. 1177), producing the Opposite state on the surface of the water touching the gutta per- cha, which forms the outer coating of this curious arrangement. The gutta percha across which the induction oceurs is only 0-1 of an inch thick, and the extent of the coating is enormous. The surface of the copper wire is nearly 8300 square feet, and the surface of the outer coating of water is four times that amount, or 33,000 square feet ; hence the striking character of the tesults. The intensity of the static charge acquired is only eqnal ‘othe intensity at the pole of the battery whence it is derived ; but its quantity is enormous, because of the immense extent of the Leyden arrangement; and hence when the wire is separated ftom the battery and the charge employed, it has all the powers of a considerable voltaic current, and gives results which the best ~ —688 Prof. Faraday on Electric Induction— in the sea, exhibit the same phenomena as those described, the like static inductive action being in all these cases permitted by the conditions. Such subterraneous wires exist between London and Manchester; and when they are all connected together so as’ to make one series, offer above 1500 miles; which, as the dupli- cations return to London, can be observed one experimenter at intervals of about 400 miles, by the introduction of galvan- ometers at these returns. This wire, or the half or fourth of it, presented all the phenomena already described ; the only differ- ence was, that as the insulation was not so perfect, the charg condition fell more rapidly. Consider 750 miles of the wire.in one length, a galvanometer a being at the beginning of the wire, a second galvanometer 6 in the middle, and a third c at the end; these three galvanometers being in the room with the experi menter, and the third ¢ perfectly connected with the earth. On bringing the pole of the battery into contact with the wire through the galvanometer a, that instrument was instantly affec- ted; after a sensible time 5 was affected, and after a still longer time ¢: when the whole 1500 miles were included, it required two seconds for the electric stream to reach the last instrument. Again; all the instruments being deflected (of course not equally, because of the electric leakage along the line), if the battery were cut off at a, that instrument instantly fell to zero; but > did not fall until a little while after; and ¢ only after a still lon ger interval,—a current flowing on to the end of the wire whilst there was none flowing in at the beginning. Again; by as touch of the battery pole against a, it could be deflected and could fall back into its neutral condition before the electrl¢ wer had reached 6; which in its tarn would be for an instant affected, and then left neutral before the power had reached ¢; 4 wave of force having been sent into the wire which gradually travelled along it, and made itself evident at successive interv of time in different parts of the wire. It was even possible, bY adjusted touches of the battery, to have two simultaneous waves in the wire following each other, so that at the same mom that ¢ was affected by the first wave, a or 6 was affected by the second; and there is no doubt that by the multiplication of i struments and close attention, four or five waves might be 0 tained at once. al after making and breaking battery contact at a, a be imme diately connected with the earth, then additional interesting ef- fects occur. Part of the electricity which is in the wire will f& turn, and passing through a will deflect it in the reverse direc tion; so that currents will flow out of both extremities of the wire in opposite directions, whilst no current is going into it from any source. Or if @ be quickly put to the battery and then the earth, it will show a current first entering into the wire, as SS Associated cases of Current and Static Effects. 89 then returning out of the wire at the same place, no sensible part of it ever travelling on to b orc. When an air wire of equal extent is experimented with in like manner, no such effects as these are perceived; or if, guided by principle, the arrangements are such as to be searching, they are perceived only in a very slight degree, and disappear in compari- son with the former gross results. The effect at the end of the very long air wire (or ¢) is in the smallest degree behind the ef- fect at galvanometer a; and the accumulation of a charge in the Wire is not sensible. ea other (Exp. Res. 1320, 1326,* 1338, 1561, &c.). If we puta plate of shell-lac upon a gold-leaf electrometer and a charged wY Leyden jar being charged sufficiently, its outside connected with € and its inside with m, will give a charge to the wire, which fet 1326, All these considerations impress my mind strongly with the conviction, insulation and ordinar i rly se Phenomena are produced. They appear to me to consist in an action of contiguous n in electrical excitement: . Every body i i ity L ; ? ; in ' makes ther, thee this capability in a greater or smaller for se rth ini _ in their principle and action (1320), ex- to be the same in princip on (1 vie the latter an effect scan to both is raised to the highest degree, ‘as in the former it occurs in the best cases, in only an slmost insensible Stcosp Sznies, Vol, XVIIL, No. 52—July, 1854. 12 90 Prof. Faraday on Electric Induction— instead of travelling wholly through it, though it be so excellent a conductor, will pass in large proportion throug the air at s, as a bright spark; for with sucha /[ \ length of wire, the resistance in it is accumulated until it becomes as much, or perhaps even more, than that of the air, for electricity of such high intensity. Admitting that such and similar experiments show that conduction through a wire is preceded by the act of induction (i338), then all the phe- nomena presented by the submerged or subterra- nean wires are explained ; and in their explana- : tion confirm, as I think, the principles given. After Mr. Wheatstone had, in 1834, measured the velocity of a wave of electricity through a m copper wire, and given it as 288,000 miles ina wl -second, I said, in 1838, upon the strength of these principles (1333), “that the velocity of discharge through the same w may be greatly varied, by attending to the circumstances which cause variations of discharge through spermaceti or sulphur. Thus, for instance, it must vary with the tension or intensity of the first urging force, which tension is charge and induction. So if the two ends of the wire in Professor Wheatstone’s exper a Leyden battery, then the retardation of that spark would be still 3 | Associated cases of Current and Static Effects. 91 Miles per second. * Wheatstone, in 1834, with copper wire made it 288,000 * Walker, in America, with telegraph iron wire 18,780 *O’Mitchell, do. do. do. 28,524 _* Fizeau and Gonnelle (copper wire) - - 112,680 e iron wire) - - - 62,600 0. : t A. B. G. (copper) London and Brussels Telegraph 2,700 t Do. (copper) London and Edinburgh Telegraph 7,600 Here the difference in copper is seen by the first and sixth re- sults to be above a hundred fold. It is further remarked in Lie- big’s report of Fizeau and Gonnelle’s experiments, that the velocity is not proportional to the conductive capacity, and is in- dependent of the thickness of the wire. All these circumstances and incompatibilities appear rapidly to vanish, as we recognize and take into consideration the lateral induction of the wire car- tying the current. If the velocity of a brief electric discharge 1s to be ascertained in a given length of wire, the simple circum- stances of the latter being twined round a frame in small space, or spread through the air through a large space, or adhering to walls, or lying on the ground, will make a difference in the re- sults, And in regard to long circuits, such as those described, their conducting power cannot be understood whilst no reference 1s made to their lateral static induction, or to the conditions of intensity and quantity which then come into play ; especially in the case of short or intermitting currents, for then static and dy- namic are continually passing into each other. It has already been said, that the conducting power of the air and water wires are alike for a constant current. This is in per- fect accordance with the principles and with the definite charac- ter of the electric force, whether in the static, or current, or tran- Sition state. When a voltaic current of a certain intensity is sent ®mes proportionate to the battery intensity, an equals that in the air wire, in which the same state is (because of the absence of lateral induction) almost instantly attained. Then of course they discharge alike, and therefore conduct alike. _Asstriking ‘proof of the variation of the conduction of a wire by variation of its lateral static induction is given in the experi- er Liebig and Kopp’s Report, 1850 (translated), p. 168. t Atheneum, January 14, 1864, phon ; 92 Prof. Faraday on Electric Induction— ment proposed sixteen years ago (1333). If, using a constant charged jar, the interval s, page 90, be adjusted so that the spark shall freely pass there (though it would not if a little wider), whilst the short connecting wires m and o are insulated in the air, the experiment may be repeated twenty times without a single failure; but if after that, 2 and o be connected with the inside and outside of an insulated Leyden jar, as described, the spark will never pass across s, but all the charge will go round the whole ‘of the long wire. Why is this? The quantity of elec tricity is the same, the wire is the same, its resistance is the same, and that of the air remains unaltered; but because the in- tensity is lowered, through the lateral induction momentarily al- lowed, it is never enough to strike across the air at s; and it!s finally altogether occupied in the wire, which in a little longer time than before effects the whole discharge. M. Fizeau has ap- plied the same expedient to the primary voltaic currents of Ruhm- korff’s beautiful inducting apparatus with great advantage. He thereby reduces the intensity of these currents at the moment when it would be very disadvantageous, and gives us a very stir king instance of the advantage of viewing static and dynamic phenomena as the result of the same laws. Mr. Clarke arranged a Bain’s printing telegraph with three pens, so that it gave beautiful illustrations and records of facts like those stated; the pens are iron wires, under which a band of paper imbued with ferro-prussiate of potassa passes at a regu lar rate by clock-work ; and thus regular lines of prussian blue are produced whenever a current is transmitted, and the time of the current is recorded. In the case to be described, the three lines were side by side, and about 0-1 of an inch apart, The pet nW sline of equal thickness, showing by its length the actual time during which the electricity flowed into the wires; and the” record was an equally regular line, parallel to, and of equal length with the former, but the least degree behind it; thus indicating that the long air wire conveyed its electric current almost instal taneously to the further end. But when peus m and o were 0 action, the o line did not begin until some time after the m lin® and it continued after the m line had ceased, 7. e. after the 0 bat tery was cut off. Furthermore,: it was faint at first, grew up '° a maximum of intensity, continued at that as long as battery co™ = ae OL EE EO Oa eee Associated cases of Current and Static Effects. 93 tact was continued, and then gradually diminished to nothing. Thus the record o showed that the wave of power took time in the water wire to reach the further extremity; by its first faint- ness, it showed that power was consumed in the exertion of lat- eral static induction along the wire; by the attainment of a max- imum and the after equality, it showed when this induction had become proportionate to the intensity of the battery current; by its beginning to diminish, it showed when the battery current was cut off; and its prolongation and gradual diminution showe the time of the outflow of the static electricity laid up in the wire, and the consequent regular falling of the induction which ad been as regularly raised. With the pens m and 0, the conversion of an intermitting into a continuous current could be beautifully shown; the earth wire, by the static induction which it permitted, acting in a manner analogous to the fly-wheel of a steam-engine or the air-spring of apump. ‘Thus, when the contact key was regularly but rapidly depressed and raised, the pen m made a series of short lines sepa- rated by intervals of equal length. After four or more of these had passed, then pen o, belonging to the subterraneous wire, be- gan to make its mark, weak at first, then rising toa maximum, but always continuous. If the action of the contact key was less rapid, then alternate thickening and attenuations appeared in the o record ; and if the introductions of the electric current at the one end of the earth wire were at still longer intervals, the records of action at the other end became entirely separated from each other ; all showing most beautifully how the individnal Current or wave, once introduced into the wire, and never ceas- ing to go onward in its course, could be affected in its intensity, ls time and other circumstances, by its partial occupation in static induction. Sustained by its length and the battery, in the same condition which is given to pr short wire for a moment by the Leyden Scharge (p. 90); or, for an extreme but like case, to a filament of shell-lac having its extremities charged positive and negative. 94 Prof. Faraday on Electric Induction. Coulomb pointed out the difference of long and short as to the insulating or conducting power of such filaments, and like differ- ence occurs with long and short metal wires. he character of the phenomena described in this report indu- ces me to refer to the terms intensity and quantity as applied to electricity, terms which I have had so frequent occasion to em- ploy. These terms, or equivalents for them, cannot be dispensed with by those who study both the static and the dynamic rela- tions of electricity ; every current where there is resistance has the static element and induction involved in it, whilst every case of insulation has more or less of the dynamic element and con- duction ; and we have seen that with the same voltaic source, the same current in the same length of the same wire gives a difler- ent result as the intensity is made to vary, with variations of the inductién around the wire. The idea of intensity, or the power of overcoming resistance, is as necessary to that of electricity, either static or current, as the idea of pressure is to steam ina boiler, or to air passing through apertures or tubes; and we must have language competent to express these conditions and these ideas. Furthermore, I have never found either of these terms lead to any mistakes regarding electrical action, or give rise 1 any false view of the character of electricity or its unity. I can not find other terms of equally useful significance with these ; of any, which, conveying the same ideas, are not liable to such mis- use as these may be subject to. It would be affectation, there fore, in me to search about for other words ; and besides that, the present subject has shown me more than ever their great value and peculiar advantage in electrical language. Note.—The fuse referred to in page 86 is of the following n& ture :—Some copper wire was covered with sulphuretted gutta percha ; after some months it was found that a film of sulphuret of copper was formed between the metal and the envelope; a0 further that when half the gutta percha was cut away in any. place, and then the copper wire removed for about a quarter of an inch, so as to remain connected only by the film of sulphuret adhering to the remaining gutta percha, an intensity battery could cause this sulphuret to enter into vivid ignition, and fire gunpoW- der with the utmost ease. The experiment was shown in the lecture-room, of firing gunpowder at the end of eight miles of single wire. Mr. Faraday reported that he had seen it fired through 100 miles of covered wire immersed in the canal by the _use of this fuse. A. A. Hayes on Borocalcite. 95 Art. XIV.—Reclamation of Borocalcite, as distinct from a miz- ture of minerals, found near Iquique, South Peru; by Ave. A. Hayes, M.D., Assayer to the State of Massachusetts. Ts mineral which was early analyzed and described by my- self, has under the name of T'eza, been confounded by Messrs. Ulex and Lecanu with other minerals which occur with it in the same bed. These chemists have apparently analyzed the minerals, constituting distinct species, together, without that care- ful separation mechanically, which should always precede a chemical analysis. The parcel I originally received from John H. Blake, Esq., weighed several hundred pounds, and the existence of other salts with the borocalcite, was pointed out by me in detail. Yet, there were nodular masses frequently found, containing mere tra- ces of other compounds, and quite as pure as commercial salts in general. : Supposing that future explorations had shown a more intimate union of the different salts, I have refrained from noticing the discordant results obtained by others, until the mineral as au arti- cle of commercial importance, should come to my hands. Within a few weeks, the “muster” samples of two hundred tons have been sent to me, and I give the results obtained by careful analysis of these, as follows: Water of crystallization, - - - 27-16 Anhydrous borate of lime, - - - 41-34 Glauberite, - - - + . 23-20 Chlorid of sodium, - - - - 6:40 Sand, Sey he rae ae eer 1:90 100-00 Some samples could be differently reported, but the point Which I deemed essential, after reading the statement of M. Le+ can was, the absolute proof obtained by different modes of anal- Ysi$, of the entire absence of any borate of soda, in the samples. The Glauberite and common salt are mere mixtures, apparent on ‘nspection, and most easily separable by washing,—the borate of 16 Boylston St., Boston, 3d Apr. 1854. 96 T. Coan on the Crater of Kilauea. Art. XV.—On the present condition of the Crater of Kilauea, Hawaii; by Rev. Trrvs Coan.* se Kiavea is still quiet. Many parties have visited the crater during the past year, and of these I have made special inquiries, as I have not been able to visit it myself. Changes have been slowly taking place within the crater. The aperture in the summit of the great dome which covers the igneous lake,} is gradually en- Jarging by the falling of avalanches from its walls, and thus reveal- ing more and more of the fiery abyss below. But the melted lava does not approach the top of the dome. It is still 150 feet below, and you see it as you see the fire in the bottom of a coal-pit, by looking down through an orifice in the summit. The dome is probably two miles in circuit at its base, and some 400 feet high. Steam and smoke are constantly escaping from numerous holes the highest points of which are now some 600 feet above what was the floor after the eruption of 1840. This central elevation rises in some places gradually, in others abruptly, from the suf rounding floor. On the east and southeast its mural walls at perpendicular, presenting a dark, lofty, and frowning rampatt, * From a letter to J. D. Dana, dated Hilo, Hawaii, Jan. 30, 1854. + The lake referred to cee ane the southern end of the large area that form# the bottom of the crater of uea—D, Oe me T. Coan on the Crater of Kilauea. 97 which no human foot can scale. At some points, immense ava- lauches have fallen from these high battlements, forming a steep inclined plane of confused and toppling debris, from the base of the walls two-thirds of the way up to their summits. On the north and west the elevation is less and less abrupt, and the pla- teau can be ascended from these points. This central “table-rock,” as will be seen, is surrounded by what used to be called The Black Ledge,” embracing all that portion of the crater which was sunk to the depth of 400 feet dur- ing the eruption of 1840. Of course “the Black Ledge” is now a lower plane than this central table, at its highest points, by about 200 feet. Many parts of “the Black Ledge,” have also been el- evated by local overflowings, and all of it, probably, by subterra- nean forces, Occasionally the light of Kilauea is seen along the shores of Hawaii; but these exhibitions have been faint and few since 840—a result of the roofing over of Halemanman (the great Pacific. These hidden eruptions will, doubtless, add to the dry land in our ocean in due time. Should there be a connection and a sympathy between these lower eruptive points and those above us, we may argue a diminution of the upper fires in pro- portion to the intensity of the submarine; and yet this may not follow, as we have magnificent eruptions on Mauna Loa, while Kilauea Sleeps. These phenomena have puzzled me; but the ‘shes my mind better than any theory I have seen. All is quiet at Mauna Loa. The eruption of 1852 still steams alittle at a few points in the woods back of us, not half so much however, as the eruption of 1840. ‘There are points on this line, (that of 1840,) midway from Kilauea to the sea, where there are still much smoke and heat. ou ask if there were any small cones thrown up along the stream in the eruption of 1852. There were a few, but none of much size, so far as I explored. You are aware that the erup- tion commenced on the 17th of February, on the summit of Mauna Loa. In two days this valve closed, and the summit ac- tion ceased. On the 20th the lateral valve opened, 4000 feet below the top of the mountain, and the thundering torrent of fire rushed Cut and continued its awful disgorgement for twenty days. Be- tween the summit point and the lower one, the ribs of the moun- Nb Series, Vol. XVILL, No. 52—July, 1854. 18 98 Gray on the genus Buckleya. tain were rent, and seams and fissures were opened by the ex- pansive force of the internal fire, as it forced its way in subterra- nean chambers down the sides of the mountain to the point of final eruption. Along the line of this covered duct an occasional jet was thrown up through a fissure to the surface, and in some places small cones were raised like warts on the side of the moun- tain. Many such were formed by the grand eruption of 1843, an account of which you have probably seen,—and the explore tion of which was one of the most arduous and perilous I have ever undertaken. You will recollect that this eruption, (1843,) when it had flowed down the northern surface of the mountain for some two weeks, extending about thirty miles in length, witha breadth of from one to three miles, suddenly solidified on its sur face, like a frozen river, still continuing its flow for weeks in a sub- terranean canal from the top of Mauna Loa to the base of Mauna Kea, throwing off lateral streams to the west and northwest. On ness, and gliding under your feet at the rate of a steam ship. Art. XVI.—WNote on the genus Buckleya; by Asa Gray, MD. Iv a foot-note on page 170 of the 45th volume of this Journal (eleven years ago) is published a brief character of an interesting Santalaceous genus, founded on the orya distichophylla © Nuttall, and named Buckleya by Dr. Torrey, in compliment !0 Mr. 8. B. Buckley, who first collected and communicated speci mens with the fructification. Although specimens were collected about the same time by Mr. Rugel, and doubtless distributed In the year 1843, I was fortunate enongh to procure and trans rt to Cambridge several living plants. Some of them were to be a female plant; and has flowered and produced abortive fruit for the last two or three years, in the form of a fust form pericarp, crowned with four elongated and foliaceous cal¥- cine lobes. But the greenish flowers, although not very small, Gray on the genus Buckleya. 99 are so inconspicuous that they have until now escaped my notice at the proper season for examining them. The point of principal consequence is that the female flowers prove to have a double perigonium; one, moreover, in which the exterior or “‘accessory calyculus,” far from being minute or rudi- mentary, is much more couspicuous than the inner, being of more than twice its length! The divisions of this accessory perigonium are regularly alternate with the inner or normal perigonium of the amily, that which is opposed to the stamens, and which mani- festly answers to the single floral envelope in the allied Pyrularia. ut they so perfectly resemble the leaves in shape and texture, ‘(although narrower as well as smaller,) as also in vernation, ex- panding with the leaves some days before the inner perigonium Opens, that they do not perhaps suggest much argument, in addi- tion to what is already furnished by Olacinee and Loranthus, for changing the generally received view of the nature of the flora covering in Santalacee. Their foliaceous nature is further evinced by their distinct articulation with the summit of the calyx-tube. These long and narrow lobes are the “ perigonium” of Dr. Tor- rey’s character of the genus, at least of the female flowers; the Proper perigonium having probably fallen in the specimens he examined, although it is by no means very deciduous. I have not seen the male flowers. — - Plant whose floral envelopes (at least in the male flowers) distinctly double, and the inner series imbricated in estivation, ¢ ; the more so as it is said in the published character to have a uniovulate ovary. ‘This character, however, may have been merely inferred from the soli- of the inner perigonium that the female flowers examined were ian advanced state. A dissection of the unimpregnated flowers 1 the living plant brings to view in B the ordinary struc 100 On giving flexibility to Botanical and Zoological specimens. ture of the Santalaceous ovarium. The small cell, if it may be so called, where there is no empty cavity, is filled by a short, oval or olong, erect central column, which bears near its free apex four very minute and simple ovules, evidently reduced to naked nuclei. This genus therefore undoubtedly belongs to the small alliance or class that comprises the Olacine@ and the San- talace@ ; and as respects these two orders I should not hesitate to refer it to the latter, notwithstanding the double floral envel opes. ‘I'he moderate imbrication of the divisions of the perigo nium in the bud is surely a discrepancy of slight importance in comparison with this characteristic ovulation; and I cannot but recognize in this case something like a direct confirmation of the’ opinion [ had already ventured to express (Botany of the U. S$. xpl. Exped, i, p. 301), namely, that Mr. Miers, in excluding on such grounds Bursinopetalum and Pleuropetalon from his ordet Icacinee, has over-estimated the importance of a character which, however valuable, is seldom perfectly stable throughout all the that the published character should be modified as follows: Fl. fem.: Perigonium basi quadribracteolatum ; tubo clavato * oris laciniis oppositis. Ovarium uniloculare. Ovula 3 vel 4% minima, simplicissima, ex apice placente centralis crasse liber® {loculum parvum implentis) pendula. breviuseulus: stigma cruciato-quadrilobum, lobis perigonii inter ——— Art. XVIL—On a mode of giving permanent flexibility to brit- tle specimens in Botany and Zoology ; by Prof. J. W. Basie, U.S. Military Academy, West Point, N. Y. Tue excessive fragility in the dry state, of many plants, and particularly of those which secrete carbonate of lime is well nown to botanists. There is no herbarium in existence 1 which the specimens of Amphiroa, Jania, Corallina, Halimed Liagora, Chara, &c. are not in a more or less mutilated con dition, which becomes worse every time the plants are examined. In studying a large collection of the stony Alge I was led to re" mark their perfect flexibility while moist, which passed to great brittleness when dry, and it occurred to me that if they could be kept permanently moist they would remain permanently flexible. | On giving flexibility to Botanical and Zoological specimens. 101 I then remembered that General Totten, of the U. S. Engineers, had mentioned to me, some years ago, his success in preventing the cracking and peeling off of the epidermis of various shells, by impregnating them with chlorid of calcium. I also remem- bered Boucherie’s experiments with the same substance in giving flexibility to wood. The principle that a substance which is flexible when moist, will remain permanently moist, and therefore permanently flexible, when impregnated with a deliquescent salt, 1s So obviously true that it needed no experiments to convince me of its applicability to the fragile plants above mentioned, and to many other specimens in natural history. But as practical diffi- ‘culties often occur in the application of correct principles, I have tested the process by numerous experiments in which chlorid of calcium was employed to give flexibility to various vegetable and animal products, and the results have fully equalled my ex- department, find many useful applications for this process. The mode of application which I have employed Is to immerse the dry specimen for some time in a neutral saturated: solution of chlorid of calcium, (which any one can make for himself by sat- warm wat ion in the salt. A speedy impregna- ion will bunch piadipnioe which the specimens, if plants, 102 Prof. Dewey on Caricography. may be subjected to moderate pressure in the usual way, and re stored to the herbarium, while other specimens may be kept on shelves or in any way usually employed for similar objects, and all will for any length of time retain sufficient moisture to pre- vent brittleness. ‘The salt being neutral, no fear need be appre- hended of its injuring color or texture, while its antiseptic prop erties will aid in the preservation of matters liable to decay. Art. XVIII.—Caricography ; by Prof. C. Dewey. (Continued from vol. ix, p. 30, Second Series.) - No. 243. ” Carex aristata, R. Br., var. longo-lanceata, Dew. Pistillate scale oblong, long-awned or long-cuspidate, longet than the fruit ; leaves, sheaths, and bracts scabro- pubescent. Collected in the Mauvaises Terres (Bad Lands) of Nebraska Territory in 1853 by F. V. Hayden. e common forms of C. aristata, R. Br. and of C. trichoeat- pa, Muh., appear abundant over that western country, with some tendency to unusual length of their scales, but in the above marked variety the scales are considerably longer than the fruit, and sometimes only very elongated lanceolate. Perhaps th plant should be held to be a distinct species, “ No, 244. C. nebrascencis, Dew. Spicis 4-6; staminiferis binis apicem approximatis oblong's brevibus densis, inferiore sessili parva, cum squamis oblongis su obtusis ; pistilliferis 2-4, oblongis brevi-cylindraceis densifloris, superioribus apice staminiferis sessilibus, inferiore brevi-peduncu> sub-approximate, two upper sessile and often staminate at the pi Prof. Dewey on Caricography. 103 convex; pistillate scale ovate, acute, or mucronate, sometimes lanceolate, narrower and once and a half longer than the fruit, tawny with a white line on the back. No. 245. C. Haydenii, Dew. Spicis 4—6, cylindraceis tenuibus; interdum quatuor, suprema staminifera, reliquis fructiferis; nune staminifera unica vel binis, inferiore basin fructifera: pistilliferis 3-5, distigmaticis longo-cy- lindraceis erectis gracilibus laxifloris subremotis foliato-brarteatis, Superiore vel pluribus apice staminifera, et infima brevi-peduncu- lata basin rariflora; fructibus ellipticis utrinque convexis apicu- latis ore integris levibus, squama lanceolata nigrescente dorso alba sub duplo brevioribus; culmo triguetro levi basin foliaceo api- cem scabro 2-3 pedali. Note.—The following species, just alluded to, were also col-— lected by Dr, Hayden in that western region: C. eburnea, Boott ; ; .; ©. leporina, L., credi before b - Boott Arctic America; C. stenophylla, Wahl., found also by aisle 104 Reviews and Records in Anatomy and Physiology. Muh. ; C. vulpina, L., so exactly the European plant, that there can be no doubt of its correct determination in Ohio, and that the hesitation expressed by Dr. Boott in Richardson’s Arctic Expedi- tion, p. 466, is groundless, especially from any supposed resem- blance to C. stipata, Muh., as the two are vastly different; C. Davisii, Tor. ; C. longirostris, Tor. ; and C. recta, Boott. | Arr. XIX.— Reviews and Records in Anatomy and Physiology : by Watpo I. Burnerr, M.D., Boston. I. Psorosrpermia.* tents of very manifold characters, namely: 1. A peculiar, unt formly divided, granular mass. 2. This mass encompassed by small groups of an oval or fusiform shape. 3. Fusiform bodies, invested with a structureless membrane. 4. Developed psor0- spermatic corpuscles. ‘These different objects are found wholly or partially in one and the same cyst. The mature psorospel- mial corpuscles usually contain three to five baton-like or ellip- soid or globular diaphanous corpuscles which are structureless; they usually have also a rather large nucleus. The diaphanous corpuscles are seen moving and springing in their capsules, ana the nucleus is thereby moved about hither and thither. Such kidneys contain also free amcba-like corpuscles, and gregarilia like bodies largely nucleated,” rs These formations are by no means common,—our author hav- ing found them in four cases only out of a thousand specimess he has examined. But in other animals, and in other organs he has found similat formations, as have others, such as Miller, Gluge, Leydig, be im. In fact, these psorospermial forms occur in both a free and a cystic state in different tissues. eae The question is certainly a most interesting one: What signif a cation shall be put upon these singular animal-like forms? ” this is only one passage in the comprehensive question, What at most infusorial forms not evidently of a vegetable nature which every microscopist meets with perhaps daily in his studies? Th@ subject certainly is not yet ripe for decision, but we may allude it in a suggestive point of view. Both Kauffmann and Lieb i kihn, in watching these Psorospermia in glasses on their tables, * W. Lieberkithn, Ueber die Psorospermien, in Afudler’s Arch, 1864, Hit. p- 1-25. i Reviews and Records in Anatomy and Physiology. 105 have observed that they multiply by a segmentation of their nu- cleus, and that the product of this division resembles precisely the parent. In some specimens observed by Lieberkihn, taken from a dog, he found the parent vesicle to contain sometimes 16 segmented globules. But here the observations unfortunately ceased, and we are not aware that in any case or instance they have been extended beyond this point; that is, so as to show that the offspring of this segmentation which so closely resembles its parent pursues the same course and produces by segmentation a third series. The doctrine that individual animal forms may be unicellular or that an animal may be composed solely of a single cell, as advanced by Siebold and Kdlliker,* we regard as wholly untenable in the present state of science; for, aside from its being against the general analogy of individual zoological forms, it has not yet facts enough to sustain it merely as a point of observation. The cell is indeed typically the primordium of all organized forms, but true individual animal life seems to involve a cycle o relations not implied in single cells; in other words, these last must always lose their character as such in a definite form which belongs to the individual. Extended researches in Microscopy In all directions of the organic world,—all tend to establish the doctrine that sex lies behind all true individual forms,—that the ovum is the point of departure on one side, and the spermatic particle on the other,—and that by the conjunction of the two a new individuality is produced. There is indeed a most strik- ing and beautiful uniformity between the simple cell and the ovumina morphological point of view, or between the cell and the parent sperm-vesicle, thereby indicating a unity of idea and place in the first expression of life and the functional means of its cy- cle of actions; but without wishing to be mystical, it appears to us that life as expressed under the individual whether in its first or last forms,—as an egg ready to develope, or as a complete ani- mal, rises high above and implies. a great deal more than simple cell-conditions, Wear ue, then, that all true animals arise prima- tily or secondarily from ova, and therefore have sex, and that those animal-like forms so often se arasites or entozoa m ations. f the contents of the lower portion of the intestine of a fro be examined under the microscope, there will usually be dein mnumerable moving particles which give a very life-like aspect tothe whole field. "These belong to the infusorial genus Bodo of * Sicbold and Killiker, See their Zeitsch. fiir wissenschaftliche Zoologie, 1, p. 270, and ibid p, 1, BCOND Serizs, Vol, XVIII, No. 52.—July, 1854. 4 ¢ 106 Reviews and Records in Anatomy and Physiology. Ehrenberg. Examined with the highest and best microscopic powers, they are found to be composed of a more or less globular head to which is attached a thread-like tail of considerable length. This head taken by itself has all the appearances of a simple cell, ——it is nucleated and even nucleolated ; yet the whole body moves about by means of its tail in a most animal-like manner and it studying the field one can hardly divest the mind from the opin- ion that they are true animals. The intestinal canal of many insects likewise, especially those feeding in damp, moist places, will often be found teeming with forms so large and numerous that it is singular that the insect should live. Many of these forms are composed of a more of less globular sac filled with a punctiform matter in which lies 4 round nucleus; at one extremity of this sac is an orifice surround ed by a circle of cilia. Others are more vermiform, regularly wrinkled, but apparently non-nucleated. These belong to the Gregarine, and are the forms upon which Siebold and Kolliker ave based their doctrine of unicellular animals. Other instances might be cited, equally prominent, which almost daily come ut der the eye of the microscopist in his studies in the lower depatt- ment of the animal kingdom. bch Our own observations upon these objects have not led us to the view that they are, any of them, perfect individual forms ;* on the other hand, research is constantly reducing their generic numbers, — on the one side, by showing that many so-called genera are only different developments of one and the same form; and by remov- ing them, on the other, from that Receptaculum omnium anima- * recent investigations of Siebold and others, in Helminthology, sh Gregarine, or other forms which have been grouped under special genera or species, we must wait further research, and they will n valid; and some of those which in late years have been regarded as among the most constant, have quite recently been declared equally unsound. . + Thus Agassiz bas shown that Paramecium and Bursaria, de. are only larvel forms Annals of Nat. Hist, vi, 1860, p.156. uglena, Amabs others, will most probably meet with a like resolution. Reviews and Records in Anatomy and Physiology. 107 Robin has argued that the Psorospermia are plants because they contain cellulose; but as the investigations of Kolliker, and of Owig and Schacht have shown that this substance occurs indu- bitably in animal tissues, this can no longer be considered as a criterion.* Weare reduced to voluntary motion as the only now known differential criterion on this subject, and as this must bea point on which different observers will vary, the subject must still remain unsettled ; but we protest against any fusion of the two organic kingdoms on this obscure arena. Il. On roe.Mermirues.t A memoir of great worth has recently appeared upon these sin- gular parasites, which has a double importance of quite clearing up the history of these animals in all their stages, and of furnish- ing a contribution to the histology of the lower animals o most valuable character. ‘This memoir is by G. Meissner of Min- chen, under the direction of Siebold who furnished him with Specimens and other opportunities for its successful prosecution. Seldom have we met with a paper of more careful and extended detail, and which leaves so little behind for investigators in the Same direction. Added to this textual detail, each and every an- atomical point is illustrated by admirably executed figures. Wit our limited space we can at best notice only a few of the more prominent points of this paper. In the first place it should be remarked that the natural history of the Gordiacei was for a long time quite obscure and little un- derstood, and many detached observations not of a parallel char- acter did not improve the subject. ‘I'o the sagacity of Siebold We are indebted for the successful resolution of the whole enigma, and the results he has obtained are as singular as new.{ It ap- ke peesies are almost exclusively Insects of different orders in at _* For full reference to the subject of cellulose in the tissues of the lowe See Siebold and Stannius's Comparative Anatomy, Amer. ed., vol. i, $ 172. i, Beitrage zur ei ie von Mermis albicans. Von Dr. 1858, p. 207 n Siebold and Kélliker's Zeitschrift fir ftliche % » P. 207-285 Siebold. See “imo zu Stettin, 1848, p. 292, 1850, p 329, also Fe ee ee en, ia tld aid: Kaliiberls fite nsch. Zool, y, 1858, p. 211. a 108 Reviews and Records in Anatomy and Physiology. made their escape. These freshly-escaped individuals were all sexless, but contained each a considerable corpus adiposum, at the These animals crawled about, and soon entered some damp earth, quent recipients of Mermis, and we have seen many specimens 0 imals; we will now turn and glance at some of the important histological points as wrought out by Meissner. Cutaneous System.—Omitting the very full details given of the structure of the skin in these animals, its composition of three distinct layers, é&c., we will allude only to the fact that Chitine enters likewise into its formation. This fact is important as cor roborative of other observations. Chitine was formerly supposed to belong exclusively to the teguments of the Arthropoda, being particularly prominent in the skin of insects; but recent chemb cal analyses of the teguments of lower animals show that it 0 curs in nearly every class of the Invertebrata.* Jt can therefore no longer be regarded as having diagnostic characteristics for cel tain classes, but sustains relations to the external dermic skeleton Qo of the Invertebrata generally, analogous to those of bone in the brata. 7 four classes of Verte * Besides the present case we would refer to the following: Grube, Miller's Arch 1848, p. 461, and Wiegmann’s Arch. 1850, p. 253; Schultze, Beitr. zur Naturg' 92, a. Tube larien, p. 33; and Leuckart in Siebold and Killiker’s Zeitsch., 1851, p- } 2, p. 22. yi 83 2 Reviews and Records in Anatomy and Physiology. 109 Muscular System.—This was found quite developed, and it is a singular fact that all the muscles have a longitudinal direction. Transverse muscles do not exist. But Meissner has indicated a her describes the fibre of Mermis as readily capable of being split up into longitudinal fibrilla of the most regular and delicate character, and yet neither these fibres nor fibrille are properly transversely striated. He remarks however, that an appearance like striation is sometimes observed by a wave-like contraction of the fibre.+ Results of this character which the more careful re- search of the present day is developing, in studies of the lower animals especially, fully indicate that the subject of muscular tis- sue is not well understood as to its manifold variations of form ; at least, after we have left the typical forms of the higher ani- mals. Thus, as conrpany for the present instance, I may mention that Leydigt found the muscles of the alimentary canal of Arte- mia among the Crustacea, composed of spindle-shaped instead of dise-like elements, so arranged, points and bases alternating, as to orm a symmetrical fibrilla. In conclusion upon this system, we may remark that Meissner found here no sarcolemma, and no Perimysinm of the muscular layer. } _Vervous System.—The researches of this investigator in this direction have particular interest, because this system n 8enerally denied to the Gordiacei, and if seen by previous observ- es it was only most unsatisfactory.§ But the histology of this system is quite as interesting. leissner found it so developed that he divides it into three Portions : a central, a peripheric, and a splanchnic portion. * This Jour é t We « Dect it inthis came egbveliie aspect that his been often ‘mistaken for dente” in the muscles of some of the lowest animals, thereby leading: tp no_ little p. 99 note, among observers in their statements. See this Journal, Jan. . 0, 1864, 53 ee Ueber Artemia salina und Branchipus stagnalis, in Siebold and Kolli- @ Berthond eggs. Tat, Vit Be. Os they saw corde which might be nerves Beit rvati worn okelly naati ry :—for references see Siebold and ‘us’ Comp, Anat., Amer. ed., yol. i, § 104, note 5. 110 Reviews and Records in Anatomy and Physiology. The central portion is divided into two parts, one at the ce- phalic, the other at the caudal extremity of the body. In the rst, are two anterior and two posterior cephalic ganglia, and an cesophageal ring composed of a superior and an inferior ganglian ‘united by lateral commissures. In the second part, situated in the tail, there are three fusiform ganglia, of like character but smaller than those of the head. i The peripheric portion consists of six filaments given off from the upper part of the anterior cephalic ganglia which go to as many papillz on the head and probably organs of sense,—of two lateral cords arising from the superior cesophageal ganglion, which traverse the sides of the body, giving off filaments to the mus- cles, the skin, é&c., and of some smaller twigs from the cephalie centres for the muscles of that region. 3 . e splanchnic portion consists of two lateral trunks arising from the cesophageal ganglion, which soon meet and unite on the median line of the body, forming one cord which extends to the tail. From this cord are given off filaments to the organs of vegetative and reproductive life. i: The three cords thus formed, having traversed the body, end each in one of the three ganglia above described. e can here allude to only one more point in the disposition of the nervous system; this is the final termination of the nerve-filament 1% muscle. According to our author, a twig enters the muse fibre at right angles to the course of the latter, and upon its e0- trance divides into two twiglets, one of which runs with the fibre one way and the other the opposite, and is lost in the muscular tissue.* The histology of this system in so minute animals as, thes? worked out by an observer so expert and faithful as Meissueh presents many note-worthy points. ive The ganglia in question are composed exclusively of gangliou cells or globules which appear to be the infundibuliform expat sion of as many nerve fibres that compose the nervous cord col- necting these ganglia with the general system. There are none of the so-called nerve-cells usually found in nervous centres— fact these central masses rather resemble true ganglionic forma- tions, excepting that they are terminal instead of on the course of a nervous cord. The description and figures, especially the latter, of Meissner are so good, as to leave no doubt that there is here A direct continuity of the nerve-fibre with the ganglionic vesicle, In a former reviewt we alluded to some discrepancy on 'P point, and as this continuity had been observed by some, and yet * Mei Hats ae? Fe ba ap cosinor ng 843, xix, p. 300) in idina, some eli Rotate. ssner observes, a similar disposition is mentioned by Doyére (Ann. d. St 46) i : ¢ Tardigrada, and by Quatrefages (ibit Sept. No, 1855, p.253. | wore Reviews and Records in Anatomy and Physiology. 111 not seen by others who had searched carefully for it, we suggested that this direct connection, when present, might be an exceptional condition. But numerous researches since published, and espe- cially the very complete memoir of Axmann,* represent this as a, very common form of disposition of the elements of nervous cen- tres in man and the mammalia. The subject is indeed somewhat that this last gradually disappears and the nerve appears as a homogenous cord. But from our own investigations upon the terminal nerves of some insects, we stispect that this disappear- ance of the true fibrillee may have been apparent and not real; for we have, in the cases referred to, thought that the like was true, but using higher powers with some reagents, the fibrille Were seen. We think therefore that whatever may be made of termination of the nerve-fibre, the fibrilla structure is never lost. Digestive Apparatus.—This structure, according to Meissner, presents so mauy peculiarities and is so widely different from any thing observed in other animals, that we almost relinquish any attempt to give even a brief description of it, without the aid of figtires. In the first place, the alimentary canal has no anal or €xcretory passages, and therefore the food and assimilation must be such as to leave little or no so-called faecal matter. _“tom the circular buccal orifice proceeds a semi-canal a short distance, when it passes into another structure. This semi-canal 1s the esophagus. ‘The structure into which it passes is a tube quite small at first but which soon expands and is filled with a finely granular spongy-like substance, and is alternately dilated from side to side into sacs. Through this laterally varicose tube the semi-canal of an cesophagus extends to its very end. Sup- pose then a tube with alternate lateral dilatations, filled with a tube like an cesophageal groove. Each of these dilatations has an ‘vetsion—a folding in of its internal membrane, producing an tion, which is continuous into a tube connecting with some adi- Pose receptacles. : Axmann, Beitr, z. mikroskop. Anat. u. Phys. d. Ganglien-Nervensystems des Menschen wu, d Wirbelthiere. Berlin, 1853. 112 Reviews and Records in Anatomy and Physiology. To perhaps make the matter more clear, fancy the human ali , mentary caval without an anal opening, with alternate stomachs throughout its course, filled with a semi-solid granular substance; and that directly through it ran a half-tube; and that each stom- ach had a folding in of its internal lining forming a globular body, the neck of which passed off at right angles by a continuation of the peritoneum, into a tube which connected with receptacles of nutrition ;—this would convey some idea of the most singular structure of the digestive canal of these animals. The food passes along the semi-canal or groove, is gradually absorbed by the spongy substance filling the dilatation, thence passes into the invested body by endosmotic absorption and is then conveyed as assimilated material into the fat-receptacles which lie in the cavity of the body. ‘These receptacles are store houses of nutriment and are particularly enlarged and develope during the larval condition,—their contents being used for the formation of the sexual parts afterwards. Now as there is n0 vascular system in these animals, the dispersion of the nutrient material for the growth and substance of the various tissues must occur by permeation and endosmosis from the fat-bodies which extend over and between all the organs. This assimilation with out any particular excretion is a remarkable fact; but it appeals more conceivable when we bear in mind the economy of the animal. Its larval or parasitic state is like that of insects—merelf preparatory for the ulterior changes of its full development. Dut- ing this time its food is probably mostly pure fat which has only to be taken up and stowed away for material of the development of the reproductive organs. ‘This last ensues during a quiescent state, and after the full discharge of the sexual functions, the animals probably die. Genitalia.— Males.—The disparity in numbers of males and females was remarkably wide—our author having found only three males among several hundred specimens examined. *™ divides the internal organs into testis, vas deferens, vesicula sem inalis, and ductus ejaculatorius ; but these are all continuous, forming a cecal tube stretching from the anterior portion of t body to the caudal extremity. The testis consists of the infun- dibuliform cecal extremity of this tube and is lined with nucle- ated, epithelial (?) cells. rs The external organs consist of two penises situated one on each side of the Ductus ejaculatorius in a sheath. They 4% — composed of two somewhat curved half-canals disconnected when unprotruded with the internal organs; but when protracted, they form a more or less closed tube projecting beyond the external orifice of the duct. tee Females.—Meissner divides the internal female organs, which are double, into five portions: ovary, vitellus-organ, al ae a as es Sele ish tee ans Reviews and Records in Anatomy and Physiology. 113 sac, tuba, and uterus. Their names indicate their respective functions and we can here enter into no description of their inti- mate structure. In this connection should be noticed one point not a little re- markable, that is, a kind of hermaphroditism occurring in these animals, Meissner found individuals which had perfectly well-formed wholly male. Thus, there were the penises, with their protractor and retractor muscles, their sheaths—in fact, all the external or- gans of the male, yet in these individuals no trace of internal male or of external female organs could be found. Moreover these organs present precisely the same characteristics as though In proper males and females, and had also a functional activity,— eggs being found in the ovaries, &c. But this anomaly was not What we have before never clear! y understood, viz: how botryoidal ovular masses are formed, and moreover carries out the beat ftom the ovary is seen; it increases in size and its nucleus seg- Ments, several nuclei being formed. These nuclei approach the surface of this which we will now call the parent egg-cell; de- Verticula are given off from the cell-wall by a protrusion contain- * This Journal, Nov., 1853, p. 393. Skooxp Serres, Vol. XVIII, No. 52.—July, 1854. Pd 114 Correspondence of J. Nickles. ing each a nucleus. These protrusions become constricted and at last appear as little, or daughter-cells, on the surface of the parent-cell. ey now increase at the expense of this last, be come pedunculated, and finally appear as larger pedunculated cells attached around a common, insignificant centre. These are the b- served even twenty, though there are generally less. ‘Thus formed, their peduncles break off and they pass from the ovary proper into the other sections of the genital tube. ‘here is one other point taken up in this connection by Meiss- ner, and to which we briefly allude as it has been a subject of discussion on a former page.* We refer to the wonderful Micro pyle of Keber, whereby it is alleged that the spermatic pa penetrate the interior of the egg and impregnate it. Meissner has seen nothing to justify the view that such a structure exists in the eggs of Mermis excepting the remains of the pedunele above mentioned, and this he is not sure of being hollow. More- over even if it were hollow, it appears to us wholly different - from the special structure insisted upon by Keb As to the embryonic development of Mains our author found nothing essentially different from what had been described by previous observers upon this order, (Grube, Leidy, &c.) There appears to occur no proper metamorphosis, and therefore the aad aed embryos more or less closely resemble in se , thea : is ole we repeat what we said in the beginning, that this memoir is one of the most excellent of its kind we have evel seen, and the care, patience and fidelity displayed therein will | ensure attention towards its author as one from whom much may be expect ted. —— Ant. XX.—Correspondence of M. Jerome Nicklés, dated Paris, % April 30, 1854. Dearn has tani made great havoc among the ranks of ee France. In the month of March alone, the Academy of Sciences lot two navigators, an herbie and a celebrated surgeon. Three® — these eminent men died at an advanced age; the fourth, M. Mau- vais, the astronomer, was but 45 years old, see came toa tragical end. : They have been co-laborers in the common field, and we shall re : pie — by giving some details of ‘teks life and labors an, or Roux was born in 1780 at Auxerre. In 1795 his atainmest a in Si were already so great t a he was admitted as an assi Surgeon in the armies of the Republic. In 1797 he came to Paris — on the espa seu. comer wie Noy. No. we p : Admiral Roussin—Beautems Beaupre. 115 gained the friendship of Bichat. In 1806 he entered as surgeon into the huspitals of Paris, and from ‘that time he devoted himself with much distinction to the progress of his art. Endowed with great ardor and extraordinary activity, he was equally successful in scientific liter- ature and in the amphitheater of surgery. He contributed much to the The first person upon whom he performed this operation was an Amer- ican physician, Dr. Stephenson, who after his cure, exhibited the ope- ration to the Academy of Sciences. : A large ¢ trived by M. Roux. He showed how to treat cases of lacerated pe- rineeum, an affection before his time regarded as incurable. One of his most important specialties was the treatment of cataract, which he practised quite recently with as steady a hand as in youth. e pre- Served io the latest moment his characteristic vigor, and died suddenly in an apoplectic attack, distinguished as one of the greatest operators of the age. Admiral Roussin—The Admiral Albert Reine Roussin was born at Dijon, on the 21st of April, 1781. In 1793, at the age of twelve years, he was admitted as cabin boy to the floating battery ‘* Répub- lique,” charged with the defense of Dunkirk. e commenced his ca- reer in the navy in the midst of engagements; and it was not until 1801 that he was able to devote himself to his studies. We will pass Over the battles in which young Roussin bore a part, and which Capt. Duperrey has enumerated in detail upon the monument of the deceased, We will speak only of the services which M. Roussin has rendered to Science and homanity. e made the hydrographical survey of the Western coasts of Africa, rectifying the positions of the coast, and es- Academy of Sciences. Admiral Roussin has added political honors '0 his scientific distinctions. He was Ambassador and afterwards Minister of Marine. He forced the entrance of the Tagus in 1831, d dispelled the notion then entertained, that the Tagus could not allacked from the sea. Rice Admiral Roussin was a man of superior intellect, and of consum- Mate skill in naval affairs, as expert in the art of producing as in the art of destroying. . Seaulems Beaupré, the navigator, had not the double talent of Rous- sin. All his attention was devoted to the progtess of navigation. He Was born the 6th of August, 1766. He early evinced a decided taste 116 Correspondence of J. Nickles. . . 4 the capacity of hydrographical engineer, in search of La Per on which voyage, he made a great step in the art of navigation, by substituting astronomical observations for the magnetic needle. He used the Reflecting Circle of Borda, and with much talent applied the problem relating to the angular capacity of a segment, which had beea long familiar to geometricians, but had not been brought into prac tical use. $ This long voyage was fertile in discoveries. To him is due the re connoissance of the Kermadec Islands, the Archipelago of Santa Cru, and of the Salomon Islands; of the coast of New Caledonia; of the island of Bougainville ; of Boughton straits; nearly 300 leagues along the south coast of New Holland, and a small-boat survey of the bays of Van Diemens land, &c. &c. hese operations were finished just before the two frigates were Cap tured by the Dutch. M. Beautems Beaupré was sent prisoner to we Cape of Good Hope, where he remained until! 1796. Upon his retura to France he resumed the continuation’ of the Neptune de la Baltiquty which he had commenced before his departure. He afterwards pub- lished a survey of the Scheldt, and demonstrated that the seaport of Antwerp was accessible for vessels of ithe line of the Jargest class. Among the other labors of M. Beautems Beaupré, we mention ouly one,—namely, the hydrographical exploration of the southern and eastern coasis of France, a work which has commanded the ad mira- for naval life; and in 1791 he went with Admiral d’Entrecasteaux in ‘Ouse, the distinguished title of the Father of Hydrography. The volume rought together all the documents which might be useful hereafter in case of any new projects relative to navigation. This last labor comprises at present 527 volumes in 4to, and embraces all the documents neces sary for preparing upon a gigantic scale, a plan of all the coast of France. ~ Afier the completion of these great labors in 1838, and their publi- cation in 1848, the distinguished author aspired to a well merited Te pose, but he still continued to the end of his days to assist at the sittings of the Academy of Sciences, of which he had so long been one most assiduous members. He died in his 88th year, with the just nown of a good man 4 Victor Mauvais, the astronomer, commenced life with the study of the law, but having an irresistible passion for the mathematica scien" ces, he renounced the duties of an advocate, and sought admissi®” to the Observatory of Paris, to which he was nominated in 1836 by ‘ M. Arago. From that moment he gave himself exclusively to scien He discovered, successively, four comets, whose path through the heavens he watched with great assiduity during the whole time of thet appearance. In the long series of observations which constitute the Archives of the Paris Observatory, the name of Mauvais is found 1 Victor Mauvais—The Paris Observatory. 117 scribed upon almost every page. Of the 150,000 observations there recorded, over 30,000 are due to Mauvais. In 1848 he was called by the department of Doubs to represent the people, and he remained in that capacity a member of the National As- sembly until its dissolution. These duties did not interrupt his astro- nomical observations. He passed the day in parliamentary labors, and the night in observing the heavens. He had undertaken a serious la- bor, in the absolute determination of the position of the fundamental stars. Struck by the discrepancy which had been remarked between the right ascension of certain stars, be conceived the idea of a series of observations with the meridian circle. He had chosen two groups each of twenty stars, succeeding each other on the meridian, after an interval of twelve hours, and had observed their passage at intervals of six months, proposing to compare them afterwards with the sun in or- der to deduce the position of the equinoctial points. This important labor remains unfinished. Incessant fatigues and night watchings had broken down the health of Mauvais. He suffered much from a disease of the intestines. The death of Arago and the unexpected separation of the Bureau of Longitudes from the Observatory affected him deeply. Disapproving the course taken in this case, he left the Observatory with MM. Mathieu and Laugier, son-in-law and nephew of Arago, and determined to sus- pend for some time his researches. Effort was made to induce him to resume his position in the Observatory ; but being the friend of Laugier he preferred to share his fate. ‘he care and anxiety which sprung from these circumstances sadly affected the health of Mauvais. From the stomach the malady went to his head, and in a paroxysm of burning fever he took his life by the discharge of a gun. ° Mauvais was born at Maiche, a little village of the department of Doubs, on the 7th of March, 1809. He died the 23d of last March, and was consequently 45 years old. The Paris Observatory.—Before the death of Arago the director of the ureau of Longitudes will not have a voice in this nomination ing to these changes and to many others made in the regulations, some of the astronomers (MM u, Mauvais and Laugier,) gave in their stronom ely appointed, M. Chacornac, a pupil in the Marseilles Observatory, of the Beli ed on his duties on the afiernoon ptic. M. Chacornac entered on his of the 2d of March, and on the night of the 3d-4th of March he dis- 118 Correspondence of J. Nicklés. on the second of March, by Mr. Marth, at the Observatory of Mr. Bishop, in London, and named Amphitrite. and the circuit was always complete. It may be objected to this fact that the signals were not exchanged at the same indivisible instant, and that it only proves that the currents were of unequal intensity. Not- decomposition of water, the process of which is not always as simple as it would seem to be from theory, has received new light through a recent discussion. When care is taken thoroughly to refrig- erate the acidulated water, which is the subject of experitnent, it is Te marked that the volume of the gases is no longer in the relation of 10 augain has studied some of the forms of batteries with refer i hat each cup of the galvanometet receives the -+- pole of one couple and the — pole of the other. Aluminium— Glucinum. 119 M. Bean has also compared the battery of Wheatstone with that of Daniell, adopting the method of the opposition of piles. According to this phearver, in Wheatstone’s batlery, the cause which has the most influence upon the electro-motive ne is the diaphragm. Thi is cause arious preg a the numerous communications which have been made to the Academy, there are new facts relating to the sexes or non-absorption of the nitrogen of the atmosphere by Plants. M. Boussingault rejects the theory of absorption, which his nibs experiments have failed to verify, and M. Dumas agrees with him in opinion. ut a young chemist has appeared, who sustains with Courage the opposite view, and appeals to many facts and experiments In his support. On sehiush, side is the truth? ‘The question is too near- ly poised, soon to be solved. The debate has He piitiad a sensation equalled ad me that of another memoir—one on the preparation of nai aluminium economically, aeaitap to the process ‘ies reed te: Polassiam and sodium, using a very high temperature. We propos 1 another communication to give views of the lamp and forge mae Deville uses in his laboratory for fusing the most refractory bodies. The note of Deville has brought out a number of communications on the Subject of the economical preparation of Aluminium, none of which st web been verified, and we wait for positive facts before touching ot While Deville has been occupying himself with Aluminium, his as- Sistant, M. Debray, has been studying Glucinum, which metal (as well as Aluminium) M. Wobler was the first to obtain separate, although i in, aci 4 der no circumstances. Chlorhydric and sulphuric ‘ ies, even uciiped, dissolve it, disengaging hydrogen. Potassa disso T, cold ; ammonia is without action. qs Durni ings. ee interest a been at by a paper of M. Yreul’s to the seth i of Sciences, taken fro so epcer ie tion of tur K now in press, in which he a big ae phenomena of table- eh > This Stedinmscioh el chemist does not confine himself to this “Divin alone, but connects with it, the “ tice Pendulum,” and ‘Vining Rod,” and he endeavors to reduce these phenomena to cer- i In 1812, he noted the phenomena of the pendulum . we peter addressed to Ampére, and showed that the ——- move- nt Was produced only when the aye of the experimenter was fixed — 120 Correspondence of J. Nicklés. on the instrument; and he endeavored to prove thereby that the motion was due to a play of the muscles. e work of M. Chevreul should properly be read and submitted to a commission; but some members of the Academy have objected to the consideration of a subject cot nected to such an extent with superstition. M. Chevreul believes that pages. The first article is entitled ‘The History of my Youth.” It is in fact a romance, in whic are-interwoven the adventures of Arago in Spain, and also piquant details relating to many of the principal sciem The volume is preceded by an introduction by M. Alexander vo" Humboldt, whose friendship for Arago dates back nearly half a century: Poisonous effects of Carbonic Oxyd.—At the World’s Fair at Lot don, there were exhibited certain samples of iron and steel, of ae “< $Q oO ° ag c be S ga bs] 8 ~ 7- bof a ° tac} = Q = ° ga o) fo ~) S QQ ie) <] = Blowpipe with continued Blast. 121 chemist, relating to the poisonous effects of carbonic oxyd. Having een for many years occupied with this gas, he has proved upon him- self its deleterious qualities; and he announces that he is at this ver thorax. The lassitude continues general for several days; sleep be- comes heavy and troubled, and there are severe cramps in the legs and toes. These effects are continued for months; the person appears sad and dejected ; any noise produces a neryous shock like an electric dis- charge, The antidote used by M. Chenot is gum or marsh-mallow water ; bathing gives much relief. These remedies alleviate but do not reme- dy the effects of the poison. For several weeks, now, since M. Chenot inhaled this gas, through the breaking of a manometer, he has suffered from an insurmountable feebleness and loathing; and the least touch, even his own, produces on him severe irritation. Blowpipe with a continued Blast.—The blowpipe here figured has the merit of enabling the operator to keep up a continued blast, without the a Tequired for the ordinary blowpipe, and without fatigue. M. <3 Luca observes that it is only necessary to as in an ordinary fe, @ peculiarity of the blowpipe consists in the addition of a bag ope canised india rubber, G, having within a valve A (fig. 3), which pens from without inward, and closes from within outward, and 1s 7 Tubber bag; in figure 2, the cylindrical recipient Is rem OND Serres, Vol. XVIII, No. 52.—July, 1854. 16 122 Correspondence of J. Nicklés. M. de Luca is a refugee Neapolitan, and one of the directors of the Ateneo Italico. The application which he has here made of the vul- canised india rubber bag appears to be copied from the ‘* Cornemuse,” a picturesque musical instrument much used among the Neapolitan erdsmen. cases, such as usphyxia by chloroform, carbonic acid gas, and even strangulation. “When life appeared to be extinct, so that the beating of the pulse and movement of the chest were hardly sensible, they have injected oxygen into the lungs and almost immediately the effect was apparent and there was a restoration to life. In some comparative e& periments, made under like conditions, they have shown that the atmo- spheric air was almost always without effect, and ji can ils action be compared to that of oxygen which is all-powerful and instant medical journals. After cooling with the ether for four minutes, the Surgeon, perceiving that the part was insensible, plunged in his ie and made an incision near 5 centimeters in length; and the patient felt sented to the demy, on the part of M. Frederic Martens, engrave and photographer at Paris, a number of photographs on paper, TeP mon correct, but in fact right, the error being that of the observer, to whowt as has been often remarked, vertical objects, such as mountains af distant edifices, always appear steeper and more elevated or inte? A new Red Dye for Dyeing Wool. 123 direct positive proofs. This effect will not take place if the proof has been carefully washed afier leaving the bath of sulphate of iron; still the decomposition of the hyposulphite S$ on spontaneously, and 1 new red dye for dyeing wool.—On treating uric acid with nitric acid and then with ammonia, Proust obtained, at the beginning of this cen- tury a red substance which he called purpurate of ammonia. M. Wohbler and Liebig have since studied this substance and separated a compound of a fine red color represented by the formula C12N®H®O8, Thi which they call murexid. This material, which is easily prepared : T € red of murexid fixes itself on the wool without a mordant. After imbibing the alloxane, a bit of wool drying exposed then to am- moniacal vapors and afterward to the heat of a steam dram heated ron, the red color is seen to be immediately developed. It is indis- on murexid, Although this color requires no mordant, M. Schlumberger has how- ; ver found that a mordant may be useful. That which he prefers is a bath Consisting of equal parts of bichlorid of tin and oxalic acid, the — forming with water a solution marking 1° Beaumé. The mor- nts made with protochlorid of tin give indifferent results. : Under the pie of the sun’s rays, the Commission found the red of murexid to be more stable than that of cochineal, and they do not hesi- to recommend the use of it in dyeing gobelins in preference to “ochineal, although the new red is just now dearer than the old, since n heated ; water rerioves this last, while it is wholly without action. } 124 Scientific Intelligence. uric acid or alloxane are now known only in the laboratories. The price will be cheapened when it is cee a branch of industry, and iris certain that guano will here find a ne nd. he red of murexid resists the bee of alcohol, ether, and ie re and oxalic acids. Muriatic, nitric and sulphuric acids destroy ; but if the destruction is not complete, the color may be restored by means of ammonia. Caustic alkalies destroy it rapidly. Reducing iehamotin, such as a on tin, sulphate of iron, cause it to dis- appear; but the color may be restored by means of am Cotton, com with a ian td or not, whether snimalized (Bro- quette’s process) or mixed with wool, is not dyed with murexid. Im- pressed with the op cone and then treated with hot iron, cotton is col ored it is true of a rose tint, and the color is deepened with ammonia; but the color does not stand washing, water causing it wholly to dis appear. Silk does not take the amaranth color of murexid; it becomes yel- lowish rose. . Schlumberger recognizes in this property a means —o cotton, silk, and wool. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. Cuemistry AND Paysics. >] & <4 i) is] S = > Mm = =] = a” = oO a. - fa) =r) > Hh ee y 2 ° oy =) 5 < S: 5 = =. Tr) = 3S i re which the current may produce. The results obtained are 4 follow (i: ) The chemical actions generated by the elements in activily at the exclusive source of the calorific effects produced by the battery. (2.) All the chemical actions which take place in the voltaic couple concur simultaneously in the production of the current. 3.) The disengagement of heat produced by the passage of voltai¢ electricity through. metallic conductors is rigorously nasa he heat confined in.the elements of the battery, to form a sum eq to the total heat corresponding simply to the chemical actions inde- SPs of all electricity transmitte 4.) The chemical decompositions which the passage of the elect e city through the cireuit may effect, always bring into play quantities heat the same as those which accompany chemical decoraposinees ” Chimie et de Physique, xl, 293, adn 185. ms “On the donble Bows ion He bed serait in eieirenis ot Chemistry and Physics. 125 EM has communicated an elaborate memoir upon these important sub- jects; we must however refer to the original paper for the details of the experiments and content ourselves with stating the results which, in the author’s own words, are the following. (1.) The double refraction artificially produced, either by traction or i If we lay off the weights on the axis of abscissas and the correspond- ing lengthenings and shortenings upon the axis of ordinates, the: first below and the second above this axis, we obtain two similar, if not equal, curves, the first of which is convex and the second concave to- d the axis of abscissas. These curves insensibly become straight and for linear char es which a rcely measurable by ordinary Servers, experiments the results of which were only too uncertain to pie. exhibit the truth of the law; this confirmation results especially rom the experiments of Mr. Hodgkinson when we calculate them so (8) 'Solropic bodies, whether they have been endowed with negative double refraction by pressure or with positive double refraction by traction. The double refraction or the difference of path of two rays, ordinary aordinary, may be determined very accurately by means of > NOWeve ) than the first seven half rings: the colors of the transmitted rings are paid the ordinary image while the tints of the reflected rings cor- Pond to the extraordinary image. 3 é (4.) Making no account of the small differences which have just been eet Out, the temporary double refraction is independant of the ight and length of the piece, proportional to the weight applied and to “ doubly refracting power of the substance, and reciprocally propor- '0 its breadth and to its coefficient of mechanical elasticity. — 126 Netentific Intelligence. (5.) The doubly refracting power of an isotropic substance which has become temporarily doubly refracting, cannot be expressed but by the difference between its ordinary and its extraordinary index ; this difference changes its sign only according as we apply pressure or trac tion, which would not be the case if we wished to express the doubly refracting power by a function of the two indices other than the differ- ence of their first powers. (6.) The dispersion of double refraction is insensible for substanggs which have been submitted to experiment. (7.) Glasses which had been submitted to the operation of compres sion while in a pasty state, ceased to be optically homogeneous bodies, and this alteration, entirely distinct from what is called tempering, did not always disappear by annealing. i 8.) The doubly refracting power is not the same for different iso tropic substances ; no connection can be established between this power and the ordinary index of refraction or even the density. .) By analogy with the ordinary or mechanical coefficient of elas- ticity E, we call coefficient of optical elasticity C the ratio between ! charge applied to the unit of surface and the double refraction which it produces ; we have then the simple equation, | Sep a aes. ee which serves to determine the doubly refracting power p= +t Uo — Te). (10.) The value of the doubly refracting power being once known for a substance, we may use the phenomena of double refraction 10 d¢ termine any one of the quantities which enter into the equation _ P(lo—le) = d. E. Sy the indices for the ordinary and extraordinary ray, d is the difference of path, and La the breadth of piece employed. _(11.) The most important of these applications consists in the deter mination of the force P, whatever be its magnitude and mode of action. where P is the charge, lo and I the useful and the theoretical effect, to graduate ordinary manometels accurately, and even to measure living forces, 12.) The same formula would serve to determine the coefficient of mechanical elasticity if we had a direct method of finding the extract dinary index le; but in the mean time it has permitted me to establis! the optical coefficient of the diamond, and to fix certain limits betwee® which its mechanical coefficient is comprised. oe (13.) The difference of path d being independent of the length 0 the undulation 4, if the ratio z is to remain the same for the differet! values of 2, P must vary proportionally to 4; which furnishes an easy method of determining the lengths of undulations, and of deciding whether a gist ray is homogeneous, or what are the different simp! rays of which it is composed. Chemistry and Physics. 127 f ro- tation are those which are at the same time endowed with the feeblest doubly refracting powers.—Ann. de Chimie et de Physique, xl, 156, February, 1854. “é Cannas : \\ é \\Uiararavars, glass bottle, into the neck of which is firmly ground with emery a fun- nel (a, fig. 2) having a short but large spout. These are made suffi- “888s plate. Within the outer funnel the common filtering funnel is raced Festing loosely against its side so as to allow a free e of air. a pede represented at e, fic. 2. The plate is about three inches in diam- ter, and when tedtin, # the ali d, (see fig. 1) covers the opening smpletely and permits sufficient lateral motion to bring the stream of Water on different paris of the precipitate. A vacuum is readily ob- 128 Scientific Intelligence. tained by connecting the apparatus with an air pump by means of a flexible tube having a brass plate at the end sufficiently large to cover the opening in the plate d, and by an easy manipulation the interior may afterwards be filled with hydrogen, or any other gas. . Numerous processes in which this ego csr | be advantageously ea will ac themselves to the chem I have found it very be found useful in ay both precipitate and filtrate from the dust and fumes of a laboratory in many cases even when exclusion of aif is hot essential. The apparatus is manufactured by the New England Glass Co., and sold by Mr. . Wightman, of Boston, at a price not exceeding that of a filtering stand with brass rings. Tl. Mrneratoey. Chemical Contributions to Mineralogy; by James D. Dana. Chlorite Section of Hydrous Silicates—Among Anhydr ous Silir cates, there is a group of species (which the writer has called ie An dalusite petal in which the oxygen of the bases exceeds that of the silica. It in 1. Staurotide Al iat Andalusite 18i*, Topaz a8 —Trimetric and homaomorphot® 2, Kyanite 41 Si®, Sillimanite 418i? also 41 Sit, 21 Sis, A) Siz—Triclinie. 8. Euclase Bit, Sphene (Ti+Ca) Si? =(R02-LRO) sit=xn sit ;—Monoclinic. 4. Tourmaline (R3, 8, 5) Sit ;—Rhombohedral. 5. Gehlenite (R3, #) Si? ;—Dimetrie. Parallel with this Group, there are Hydrous Silicates, and they cot stitute what may be called the Chlorite Section. In a few among them, Pg Euphyllite, Hisingerite, and Pyrosclerite us part), there is the ratio : 1; but in alt the others, the ratios are eith ,1:gorl: "re oxygen ratios of ee gore for the neler peroxyds, silica) and water, according to the = recent analyses, together with accepted formulas, are as ‘follow R i Bi Hisingerite (A), - - - 1 2 3 sues 8) 7 bare rer 08 3 Ce ee Best e Whutinhite: <0 2, 400% iS... Bo A i. 6H Pyrosclerite (A), - - - 4 2 6 4 2k? Si+ res oll ” t ‘ DB). = 8 4 it 66 tiphyiite, <5 ge eg iapaeita, Si Ss ee ee Re Si4 sai Si+3H : icant Se, ee Re Sit HSi+ Mee lessite, - - - - - 9 V4 8 2 Bitilie 2° REQ AE Es sk? Si+ 8 Sit on Aphrosiderite, - - - - 8 3 4 2 ae = psd (AS eR, AES BT R* Si + Ar Si+3H ne eee te See ee | Cronstedite,- - - - - 1 1 1 : Bideroschisolite, - - - 0 2 1 1 ee oe ee ee 2 s of this species by Meitzendorff the, ratio for B, 4,52 10 aie Gee ener S : Mineralogy. 129 It will be observed that in several of the above formulas the two sili- cates of the formula differ widely in oxygen ratio; thus, in Ripidolite, the protoxyd silicate has the ratio 1: 1; while the peroxyd bas the ratio 3: I=RSit, a very doubtful possibility under any circumstances. Viewing these same ratios in a different manner, that is, taking the ratio between the sum of the oxygen of the protoxyds and peroxyds and that of the silica, more simple results are obtained, and the paral- lelism with the Andalusite Section of Silicates is brought out. We thus make out four groups, as follows: 1. General Formula (R*,#) Si-++ Aq. 2. “ “ (R3, ¥) Sif tag. Gs is « (R*, #) Si® + Aq. ie «“ (R?, B) Si? + Aq. In Clintonite, whose ratio corresponds to sk, 5Al, 2Si, 3H, if 2A1 re- Place silica, the species has the general formula (Rs, 8) Si? + Ag, like Chloritoid (A). . Again, in Thuringite, if one third of the alumina replace silica, the formula may be (R, #) (Si, Xl) analogous to that of Hisingerite. Writing out the proportion of R# to ®, these formulas become : Group I. General Formula (R®,#) Si + Aq. Hisingerite (A), Fe? Sito¥eSitoH =(gFe* + 3¥e) Sits se oR s¥e? Si+ Fe Sitoml = (are? +3%e) 8i+ 2} Thutingite, fe Sit+RGLAN+3H = (he?+4H) Gi, +14 Pyrosclerite (A),* 9h Si4- Al Si+ 6It = (3R* + 4A) Si+ 2 Euphyllite, ReSi4skiSiter | —(gR*+ $A Si+ gH ; Il. General Formula (R*, #) Sit + Aq. * haan (B, «= she Sit LORS + at = (Re + 2B) SF +149 Chlonite t ; 5? Sit + 3h Si#+ 19 = (eR? +28) Sit +142 Delessite, fe Sit+HSit + oft — (gh? + 4H Sif + 14st IIL General Formula (R3, #) Sit+ Aq: Ripidolite, witzasttsn =@k? + ipsiP+iyt Aphrosiderite, Fe stpast+or =@re+iysit+H Clintonite, RG, ATL HEL Sy i — GR +) Gi Ani + it Chloritoid (4), “W!Sit+omst+ on =a@r?+eens#+H IV. General Formula (R?, #) Si?-+ Aq. Chloritoid (B) «= (ssa +eaiSiF+sH@ = GR’ + 221) Sit + anf Margarite, (ee) sit+emst =a, wy + east Cronstedite, RStpRSt+ st = = GR + se) Et +1 Sideroschisolite, Fe? Sit 4 1300 pee Oe * The first of these formulas of Pyroscletite corresponds to Silica 376, aici . it, magnesia na 2 mag 832, water 14-9; the second, (which accords i by H sa eies ake Ciccies Teersaupaul 326, am 130. Other analy- wT Gthese by Genth, and Smith and Brush, afford an intermedia ratio. Olinochlore has for R3:# nearly the ratio 7: 4, instead of 5 : 3. Secon» Senres, Vol. XVIII, No. 52—July, 1854. 130 Scientifie Intelligence. These formulas belong to a single system or natural Group, and ex- hibit ina simple manner the relations of the species. Chloritoid and margarite are often associated together with corundum. a he second formula of Chloritoid corresponds to a recent analysis by Prof. von Kobell of a specimen from Bregratten, in the Tyrol, and to that by Dr. J. L. Smith of Asia Minor specimens. he water is not regarded as a base in the above, excepting in the margarite. This independent relation of water is illustrated in other crystallized hydrous silicates. Thus Pectolite, has the crystal. line form of hornblende; and excluding the water, its formula. So also Laumonite has in a similar manner the form and formula of Pyroxene, and in fact it isa hydrous Spodumene. Dioptase and Py- rosmalite, likewise, have the form and formula of Beryl! and Eudialyte, as shown on page 211, vol. xvii, of this Journal; Tritomite the form and formula of garnet; while Analcime is a hydrous Leucite, and Iitnerite essentially a hydrous Sodalite. ‘These are some of the exam ples among minerals, which show through homceomorphism, that the water in hydrous silicates is sometimes not a base. re In other cases, the water must be included among the bases : and this may be the fact with Apophyllite. The formula (Ga, K) 54-8 (Rose) gives 3 per cent. too little of silica. But taking the exaet rallo afforded by the analyses, as deduced by Berzelius, and making part of the water basic, we arrive at the formula k Si2--2% = Silica 52°7, lime 2°60, potash 4:4, water 16:7, in which R® corresponds to Ga, KH ™ the proportions 8:1:6. Datholite is a less doubtful example, givilé nearly the form and formula of Sphene af: It will be observed, that in most of the species following Pyroselerlé A, if the oxygen of the water be added to that of the bases (see table, . 128), its ratio to that of the Silica is then 2:1, on which ground, if the water be basic, the general formula of these species would be Vv third, of 1: 1. The analysis gives more exactly 4Na and 1403 thence the oxygen of the silica is to that of the other ingredients ® 1; 1, giving the general formula (R3, Zr, Ni) $i, in which i: Br: Re=1:3:4 and affording the special formula 6R? Si+ 3%r Si+ NiSi, or (R? + +758) Si = Silica 31-2, niobie acid 14-3, zirconia 18-9, lime 27 soda 8: Keilhauite.—The formula of this mineral, according to Erdmann, 7 30a* Sit + BSi+ is, which contains three members with the widely unlike ratios 1: 2,1:1,1:6. E : make appears to be a silicate analogous to Sphene, with the general (#) Si? or (8, #) Si, 3 | ke a peroxyd if combined with the 7. Consequenti Keilhauil@ Botany and Zoology. 131 To Table I. of this volume, page 42, a Aschynite, Te T= 90? B4, Te: wesc d st li: neta 28’. The plane I is 2 (a P2) of Rose. a:b: = 067534: Zine Vitriol. I: == 90° — - seonae 80% 1%: 1%¥==120° 8/3 a:bie= ‘ Libethenite. J: I= 92° 20!, iP -1z==107° 40’, 12: 1%==109° 52’, a:b:e= To Table If, page 47, add :— ag ence. Av Vanadate of ont vol. is of nes ire a 434)—I: [= 100° 38’; oe Gi° 86! 103 aT = Bs 12052. ‘The striated Jeg e# are here Seaanied ¢ as spied) . the eet Re which makes Ma brachydome : and it becomes = brachydome 4%, having the summit angle 116° 25’. Taking this as 1% instead of 3%, the vertical axis has half the above , length or 0°747, the other axes being the same. aiorye! friapare Selppte of Potash). FE, [= 104° 62’, lt > 145260° 38 t= 73° aA Bhevarite *Y. Te 3° 36 i: 1z=61° 12’, 14:17 == 78° 42’; a:bie= ae “Strot Ts T=101942/, 10: 17= 85° 4’, 14: 17= 96° 50’; a:b se=1-0900 : 1212283, - oontsthy plane is here made the base, and the rv of 9 6° 50’ the unit rea: me, a i. It seta st and the dimensions are rend near those te Heavy Spa 16350: 1 : 12283, a here being one half greater than abo To ree in last ae on pp. 432, me, add :—— Funjasite, Dimetric, Sect ; O:1=118° 16%, 0: 1§== 127? 15’. Edin ngtonite, Dimetric, Set ee Oo t= i386" Gismondine, Dimetric, Section VI; og Oke | thir 13% —_ O:4in Scheele. Alunite, Rhombobedral, Section IV; 0: R= 124° 40’, R: R=89° 10’, One the occurring ener (GR) “— the — of the Pb, of Brucite; 0: $= 119° 5 :6 = Tene moa y be added to ‘the Calcite fo ap; O:1==136°1’. The other species of Section iT: are evidently ome gies to the same Group. On p. 217, last ie 2 * and “C= 88° 46’” should be bres a te e of 0 € pyramid is mostly 4 to 7 fae) a, & o. @ Eh 3. Go ee Gi! ba] [on =_ NS tH RH = ~ L- 4 s = s. * ae spec ; W.S. Sull ; line form of Arsenic; J. P. Cooke.—p. 89. Observations on the Torpedo es : J. Wyman.—On a modification of Ritchie’s photometer ; A. A, Hayes.—p. %4- servations on a large California Coniferous tree; A. Gray. : gomereat af the Academy of Natural Pie of Philadelphia. Socund Sih Vol. IL, ¥, Art. Pat At —Exotic Fungi from the Schweinitzian Peeples prin em, fro Surinam; revised by Rev. _ M.S. Ber. keley an d M. A. Curtis, D.D. hes vegan of new species of Unio; by T. A. Conrad. See fe new Reptiles from Oregon and the Western Coast of Afri by, zB Helge ane aA Development of ages ai? elliptica; C. Girard. sant XXXT_On Bathygnathus borealis, an extinct Saurian of the New Red stone o ce Edward’s Island. XXXIL— oe a 5 aap “of the Genus Argonauta, Linn., with descriptions of new “earra ad. XX KILL Syacpela of the genera Parapholas and Penicilla; by Z. A. Conrad — ni ve chart of | Natural Hi sey of New York.—Vol. VI, Nos. 2-4. 18 Vil he Homceomorphism o f Minéral ‘Species o: of | perm c Sy by fies a Devi --- Dencriptions of three new speciés of Pisidium ; by Temple P X.—On the Identity of Cyclas elegans, Ad. with Cyclas irombeies 5 “Say. [—Catalogue of the Terrestrial and Fluviatile Shells of ti RS. ee XIL—Note eographical eer of the Terrestrial Mollusks ” inhabit the i land of St Thoma, W. 1s t. _ “XIIL—On the Absorption of Parts ate e Internal Structure of their shells the animals of Stoastoma, Lucidella, Trochatella, Helicina, and Proserpina ; ‘XIV—On acer opalina Ad. and Helix Proserpinula, Pfr.; Ree 7 Blas _ XV.—Description of anew s species of bird of the genus Larus, Linn. 5 Oy “ XVL—Deseriptions of new Fluviatile Shells of the genus Melania, Lam, fro er eee by John G. fata ae XVIL Descriptions of new species of Shells ; by John H. 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Barnarp Professor of Chemistry and Natural History in the University - of Alabama. 162 Prof. Barnard on the comparative Expenditure of Heat higher than to 240. The maximum temperature usually em- ployed was 650° F. practicable. In Ericsson’s, the compression cylinders of Joule, and the regenerators of Stirling, have been united; but I have shown that the regenerators are not essential to economy. It has however, become a matter of interest to compare with each other the several forms which it has been proposed to give to the aif 2d. That when heat is absorbed by a solid or a liquid, it 1s # part expended in the internal mechanical effect of overcoming cohesion, and in part in the external effect of pressure upon sur rounding resistances; while in part it remains sensible: but that, in the case of a perfect gas, there is no internal expenditure; 8 et atmos pheric air, and those aériform bodies generally, which are a reducible by pressure and cold to the liquid state, are sensibly an _ 5th. That equal volumes of different gases, however differed in density or specific heat, when taken at the same pressure an 4th. That though no gas is perhaps rigidly perfect, y * Mr. Joule’s severe investigation of this point has fixed the “mechanical equ lent” of a “unit of heat”—that is, of the quantity of heat which would raisé p ift temperature of a of water one degree at 77 ifted one foot. that t The properties of a perfect gas are expressed in the law of Mariotte, ViZ of the pressure is i I e volume, tem e that eS >; an . ay ane, thatthe premare te directly asthe tamporaare above de volume iz in different forms of the Air-Engine. 163 temperature and equally expanded by heat under that constant pressure, perform equal quantities of work, and therefore convert into mechanical effect equal quantities of heat. 6th. That equal volumes of different gases, taken at the same pressure and temperature, and maintained during expansion at the same unvarying temperature, convert into mechanical effect dif- ferent quantities of heat, proportioned to their specific heat esti- tated according to volume. 7th. That different gases expanding against pressure, without any accession of heat from without, convert into mechanical ef- fect a portion of the heat which they previously held sensibly, the temperature at the same time falling ; and that this depression of temperature is the more rapid in proportion as the specific heat of the gas is less. This proposition and the last are convertible. These propositions, with the aid of the specific heats of the gases furnished by Regnault, and of the formule of Poisson for the effect upon pressure and temperature produced by change of volume without any transfer of heat to or from the gas undergo- ing change, furnish all the data necessary for computing the power of any species of engine driven by the elastic force of heated gas, Pression. In some projects, a resort to both these expedients is aimed at; but in general one or the other will give a distinctive character to the engine. at possessed by these different forms of construction, this dif- erence is unimporta e may suppose, in every case, that the inass of air is constantly unchanged ; for in hose 1n wien a charge takes place, we may suppose the discharge to be directly Counter no greater resistance than that the a self would ie sige free discharge. This being premised, We shall simplify the theory of the air engine, by supposing that all the fluctuations of temperature and pressure which the air un- 0€s, take place within the working cylinder itself. The fol- 164 Prof. Barnard on the comparative Expenditure of Heat — lowing illustration is from Carnot, by whom the first attempt was i , to present a dynamic theory of heat.* Let A be a body constantly atthetem- 1 , perature S°, and capable of preserving another body in contact with it at the serving another body in contact with it at the same temperature. Let CDEF be a cylinder in which moves an air-tight piston P; both cylinder and piston being impervious to heat, with the exception eae ea that the bottom, C D, of the cylinder is a perfect conductor, and without capacity for heat. K represents a stand, impervious to heat, designed, when necessary, to neutralize the conducting power of CD. If this cylinder contain beneath the piston P, in its present po sition, a gas, or liquid capable of conversion into vapor, and be placed upon the body A, the piston is to be supposed to rise, while the confined gas, or liquid and vapor, is kept at the temper ature S°, by the body A. If now we force down the piston t its original position, the body A being supposed to withdraw heat as it before imparted it, and always to maintain the temperature of the gas at S°, we shall have to expend precisely as much force as was developed during the expansion. But if, when the piston has reached the top of the cylinder, we remove the whole to the body B, and suppose the temperature to be instantly reduced by this body to T°, and afterward maintained at that point, then Wé may force down the piston with less labor than before. Thus NS * See Thompson’s “ Account of Carnot’s Theory,” in the Trans, of the Roy. Sot of Edinburgh, vol. xvi, part 5, 1849. in different forms of the Air-E’ngine. 165 cylinder may then be transferred to that body, and the piston pressed down, the temperature remaining at 'T°, until a third po- sition, e’” f’’’, is reached, which is such that, on again placing the cylinder on K, and completing the downward stroke, the temper- ature will again rise to S°. It thus appears that, of a certain de- finite amount of heat drawn from A, a certain less amount is given up to B, and the difference is converted into mechanical effect.* It is evident that, by reversing this whole process, that is, by first placing the cylinder on K, and allowing the piston to rise to e” f'", thereby depressing the temperature from S° to 'T°, then Placing the cylinder on B, and allowing a further expansion to e” f’, the temperature being kept at T° by heat received from B, then transferring the cylinder to K again, and forcing down the piston to e’ f’, so as to raise the temperature to S°, we may finally, y completing the downward stroke in contact with A, transfer t oo °o ra) er a (=) pom —< Ss =] co 2) oa Sy i) 77) 5 oS ie) oS > oO i) co rs) a c= i) a —_ =| "— o> pa § o CQ. S Acs a S - also the additional amount expended in compression, above what was received during the expansion. ae _4 gas or vapor engine constructed in conformity with this prin- ciple, is capable, therefore, if worked backward by force, of gen- erating as much heat as is expended in its direct action, and of testoring the heat so generated to the original source. Such an engine is what Carnot defines to be a perfect thermo-dynamic en- gine. It is obvious from the nature of things, that no other de- scription of engine, moved by heat, can convert a larger fraction of the heat drawn from the source into available power, than one of this kind: for, if there could be such an one, it would be ca- pable of driving this one backward, and of thus constantly re- funding to the source as much heat as it withdraws, while still Preserving a balance of positive power—or, in other words, a balance of effect without a cause—which is impossible. We are expression for this effect, for the perfect engine. The illustra- ons which immediately follow are substantially derived from hompson and Clansius, and would be superfluous, had the in- Vestigations of those writers been republished in this country. . i identical -wi hich has hitherto rd which was identical with that w. been Universally received, the amount of heat given up toB it af pina nee éd from A, but exactly equal to it: hence the m orce Set umed to be a natural concomitant of the transfer of heat from a ho 2 A — body, and not a conyersion of the heat, or of any part of it, into mechani t Clausius, on th ing F f Heat, &c., from Poggendorff’s Annalen, vol. letix, republished in she nied, Ed. Phil. Mag. July and August, 1861. ht 8 — paper above quoted—also Lond. Phil. Trans., part 1, 1852, and elsewhere. 166 Prof. Barnard on the comparative Expenditure of Heat Suppose a column of atmospheric air, whose altitude is equal to A B, to be con- fined in a cylinder by a piston ei Siege of moving without friction. Let the pres- sure it exerts upon the piston at the tem- perature S° be represented by the ordi- F. Let it expand with unvary- ing temperature until the piston reaches a the point C, and let the ordinate CG represent the pressure at that time. ‘Let it now expand without receiving or imparting heat, from C to D, during which time the temperature falls to T°, and the pressure to D H. Let it now undergo compression, main- taining the invariable temperature T°, until the piston reaches E, a point such that the further compression, (without gain or loss of heat,) to the original volume, A B, shall restore the original pcre ty S°, and pressure, BF. It is evident that the area, G B ; : during the expansion, and the area, F K H DB will represent the force required to restore the air to its original state. Hence, the differential area, F GH K, will be vis measure of the amount of heat converted into available force. Represent the original volume of the air, AB, by V’, and the volume AC by V”; also AD by V, and AE b ve V gs Put # fot the original temperature, S°, reckoned from the absolute zero (taken at 459° below 0° F.), and 7, for the temperature T°; sim- ilarly reckoned, Then, according ‘to Poisson’s formula for tem peratures as affected by expansion or compression, . 1, (vy SiofWAFea: MMM is w) , and also — ae ;. OF ee tuting for p its value from Poisson’s formula for pressure undet these circumstances, viz. : Beets) where P” represents the pressure corresponding to V”. Hence the area in question is expressed by the formula, pry” we y-1 1- {| — ‘ i ar C ) And, in ae manner, P’ representing the pressure corresponding ww YY" the a a FKEB, which measures the force expended e the final somipkelsiin, is expressed by * Since the surrounding medium—the atmosphere, for instance--aids the pression as Genki ta it opppooes tha Gepannden: at seek tee get? in different forms of the Air-E'ngine. 167 PIV 1 & Ve yal V,, But, according to Mariotte’s law, P’V’/=P”V”; and we have just seen that ain whence the area G C D H is equal to the / Ww Sais area F K EB; or, in other words, the second expansion is exactly balanced by the second compression :—a conclusion which we might, indeed, have independently drawn, since the same amount of heat which disappears in the expansion, reappears in the com- pression, The area F GC B, according to the third general principle sta- ted above, is the measure of the total amount of heat which the air has received from the source, converted into mechanical ef- fect. To find its value we observe, first, that if p, » and ¢ repre- sent the simultaneous pressure, volume and temperature (reck- v Z Dp ‘i oned from the absolute zero) of any gas, the expression rE will be, for that gas, a constant quantity. And if we take p,, v, and t, to express the values of these variables under ascertained cir- cumstances, as for instance at Fahrenheit’s zero, and under a given barometric pressure, then p sos may be put =R, and in , 0 Ri any other condition of the gas we have py=Ri, and p = —. _ Now the differential of F GCB is pdv; whence, representing it by M (mechanical effect), we have, : Ww M = [Ete — f= do = Re h, 1. Vv v v between the limits V/ and V”. In like manner, area K H D E (=M’) will be Vv, yu M’ = Rr, h. 1. T= Rr, h. |. yi Ww s And the differential area, F GH K, which we will represent by W, will be yi W=M—M=R(r—1) hl If H, then, be the total amount of heat received by the gas, and of which the entire mechanical effect is represented by M, the fraction converted into available work will be found thus: i y" _t'—T, M: We: Reb. ¥ RQ a hl. o7t? Hs ere It is geometrically evident that no larger a fraction of the heat absorbed by a gas fluctuating between the temperatures * and 1, “an be made available, than that here represented ; for the differ- T 168 Prof. Barnard on the comparative Expenditure of Heat ential area cannot be enlarged unless the curve F G rise in some point above, or the curve K H descend in some point below, the logarithmic curve; which neither can do without transcending the limit 7 or z,. The practical difficulty of maintaining a body of air, while undergoing dilatation or compression, at an unvarying tempera- ture, will render it always, probably, an impossibility to work an engine on this principle, and therefore to realize so large an ad- vantage from the heat expended, as the extremes of temperature . in furnace and refrigerator might lead us theoretically to antic _ pate. It is easy, however, to secure a constant pressure, and this presents the question of economy under a new form Suppose the air to expand from B to C, with rising tempera- ture, and a constant pressure represented B=GC, then to expand, without receiving or imparting heat, to D, at the lower pressure H D, then to be compressed to E, with loss of heat and constant pres- sure EK = HD, and finally to be com- pressed to its original bulk, acquiring at “3% ele the same time by the compression, and without receiving or im- parting heat, the original temperature and pressure. The differ- : ential area, F'G H K, bounded by the parallel straight lines FG, fect. If we draw a line, as vv’, parallel to FG, it will represent the difference of volume of the air when at equal pressure in the two opposite processes of expansion and compression. Calling these volumes v and wv’, and the corresponding pressure p, We shall have (using the other symbols as before), Vi Or, as P’=P”, —— —. and v v v'(V” —V’) fy fee "Ed an 19 a pe ee, W432 VV i: 0s == z Pp” ee Ae & But v=v(—/) ; whence '—o=(Wevy(— i a / ye Y i bai Now area PGuK=/ (v —ldp= J (W =¥) (=) Or, observing that dp is negative, ; = (wiv (prope, 7) ewe \( -(F)") w= (v"—V9(P —P'TP, 7 |e qr) I= (7 Where P, represents the pressure at D or E, and is found in terms / * . of P” by the formula pi= y_/ > after which P’ is put for us equal Pp”, ; in different forms of the Air-E‘ngine. 169 We have now four temperatures. That which we have called v must be raised in the same ratio as the volume is increased dur- ing the expansion at constant pressure. Put 7” for the tempera- ture at volume V”, and also +, and +,, for those corresponding to , and V,,. _The mechanical equivalent of the total amount of heat in the ait at volume V’ and pressure P’, may be found thus. In expand- ing from V’ to any other volume, v, the pressure (p) becomes ¥eVs -»() P v And the work done, during an infinite expansion, will be & oo / Vs [oin=ft(C)t0=P®, yv' v' Pw If, then, 7 represent the ratio of the specific heat of air at constant pressure to that at constant volume, the mechanical - equivalent of the heat absorbed, while the temperature is rising om t’ to t” and the pressure is constant, will be vP'V! [a — 1 (ee) And, in the value of W- above, Me ee si and (; Ls - Which, substituted, give us W = a =] (1 an 5 Whence aA => 2H; In an air engine which discharges the air from the working cylinder at a pressure above that at which it is received into the economical ratio. In this case, if the valves are adequate to afford lustant relief to the excess of pressure, the air, without being set free, were sud the supply before compression. : In this case, F BC G may represent, as 5 Ore, the work, done at the constant F s Pressure P’, and GC DH, that during the second expansion. DEK L will be the L tepresentative of the effect of the first . compression; and F BEK that of the Second, Seconp Series, Vol. XVIII, No. 53.—Sept., 1854. 170 Prof. Barnard on the comparative Expenditure of Heat Then FBC G=P(W-W)=Pv(= s 1) =—pyi (Ee " " Vel W\ y— Wi git And copu=/ pr (~ )’do=—S (1-(7-)" aes (1-2) vi ma OD V, mee. wl! 1\ 9-1 Also KEDL=P,{V,-V,)=P,V,,(4--1] =py(z)’ (7 -1) PV] /Vi\elY pro, ae Fe a ee In the third expression above, we have es the value of which we obtain by observing that, : q\ MY Vo waa iw! a Ww : eo Vj=¥"(—\74, and V,=V/(—)7 1. = (24 T, tT, Ve Vy! T,T i rp eae Se And K EDL=Py™| © (= a 2 1 | ONES o! 1 ak Whence the area FG HLK=Pv[ (2 -1)-2("s"1 =) | Pv’ qu 4, t, ‘ + La (1-3) —( -*) an The value of M is of the same form as before, since it depends only on V’ and V”. 7,0" 71 Ww. yok 7,1! \2, 7 tT! 1 es RSE 2 eee Ci eo ee ? = ag asia Hence =H y (1 BY. og) +5(1-aoa qi -t, Wheti't, #2: 2%) "6 this expression becomes, as before =H When the maximum and minimum temperatures are given, the economy of working, in an engine of this description, depends 0” the intermediate temperatures t, and 7’. If, when the foregoing proportion holds, we vary t, and not 7’, we lose, either way. But there may be a slight increase in the economical ratio, by increa® Mu ing 7’ a little above the value a This fact is illustrated in ™Y f article published in the March No. of this Journal. ‘The efect of an increase of 1’, is upon the whole to elevate the source of the heat, since all that is absorbed is received above this tempe ature. It is hardly necessary to say that these two quantities may, be made to vary, by varying the proportions of the cylinders of the engine, or the position of. the cut-off. in different forms of the Air-Engine. 171 In the engine of Stirling, and all others resting on the same principle, we arrive at a similar form of expression for the eco- nomical ratio, though the expression for the work done assumes asimpler shape. In order to fix our ideas, we must first examine a theoretic case, which, in practice, it is somewhat difficult to realize. Let AB be an air-tight cylinder, in which ee a piston P, capable of moving without fric- + i tion, separates completely two equal masses al c lp c’ ra 8 of air, C and C’. Suppose that, by the al- ternate and instantaneous changes of temperature of these mass- es, the piston traverses the space LL’. When it reaches one of these limits, let the temperature of the air before it be v’, and of that behind it t,, Then, by an instantaneous change, let the for- mer temperature rise to 7”, the maximum, and the latter fall to t,, Which is the minimum. ‘There are but two volumes here to be considered, and we may represent the minimum by V and the maximum by V’. Put also P = pressure at minimum volume, and P’ == pressure at maximum volume, both being taken at the end of the stroke, and before the change of temperature. Then : +5 ‘ 5 the maximum pressure will be P—; and in accordance with what b moh already seen, the positive power exerted at each stroke Wil be PV qi 7) y-ir L (= ) “4 And the resistance a (.- (5) ) y-1 ie Whence =P¥ (Pa) (1-(5)" ) 7-1\" bas But, in order to eliminate t’, so that the expression may con- tain only the maximum and minimum temperatures, which, being those of the source of heat and the refrigerator, may be suppose to be controllable, or known, we may take ; / -1 Pant; (=) Z whence i - WAT PH) =) (0 y-1 Ty ¥ : Also, as in the former case, the mechanical equivalent of the heat imparted is, (vol. being constant during the heating, Pv (ot PW (envy a) ot ~y-l vi Ty, ee | tT! — 7 Whence Weou(1—(¥)"}=H(1-5)=8( “= ) M 7 172 Prof. Barnard on the comparative Expenditure of Heat If, in the expression for W, above, we make V, variable, we shall find that the maximum effect is obtained from a body o air, of which the minimum bulk and pressure are expressed by Sic Qui tet. sd at ") An expansion to a volume approaching or exceeding two-fold is therefore usually necessary to obtain the greatest effect; and the ratio rises rapidly as the maximum temperature is increased while the minimum is constant ; the index s1; being about 2-44 for air. Fora maximum temperature of 480° F., and a minimum of 60°, V’ will be 1:8 V. For 750° maximum and the same mini- mum, V’ will be 2:25 V. =] As the expression (1- bay } is the measure of the heat made available, it is evident that the economy will increase with the expansion; but there occurs here, as in the other form, 4 negative pressure at the end of the stroke, after passing a certain limit. P’, which has been taken for the final pressure, will be expressed thus, vev| TVW \ 27-1 7/— P| _ : =Po ly) In the two cases above supposed, P’=-59P for the first, and 52P for the second. ; If we would impose a condition that there shall be no negative pressure at the end of the stroke, or that the final pressure shall ear any ratio, expressed by n, to the resistance, we shall have ee 2y-1 F 2y-1 P’=nP=P= (7) , OF n=— (7) a ae sj Ly, and if we make n=1, we shall have vy’ qi’! soe ; as a (=) ‘ which limits the expansion to about once and a half the minimum volume, in the cases foregoing; V’ beilg equal to 1:4 V and to 1-6 V in those cases respectively. By substituting 2V and 1-5V successively, for V’, in the eX Vi 7-3 pression (1 - (7) )H, we find that the fraction of heat col by the use of the regenerator, there may be theoretically a larg? saving. All the heat absorbed, which is not expended in work in different forms of the Air-E’ngine. 173 ing, may, in theory, be taken up again by a regenerator; but it does not follow that all may be again restored to the air. In order to save all the heat, the regenerator should be capable of reducing the temperature, at the close of the stroke, to t,,; but all which it absorbs between v and t,, will be lost. Moreover, a regenerator cannot maintain a temperature lower than v on its coldest side, so that it will be incapable of alone depressing the temperature sufficiently. All the heat taken in cooling between the limits just named, is invariably lost. There is, of course, in this form of engine, as in that which employs compression cylinders, a point beyond which a regenera- tor would be of no avail. This contrivance is confined in its efficiency, to the limits of temperature, t, and 7’. If we put these temperatures equal to each other, we shall have z 1 sax igre s yr : v’\7-1 My ihe ee 5 ie ee (7) ee =1(7) “i (-) a Thus, in case that t” is double of t,, which will be approxi- mately the case in practice, there will be no advantage derived from a regenerator, when the expansion exceeds, 24V; but as this is beyond the limit of maximum power, the limitation is of little practical importance. he difficulty of employing a regenerator with thoroughness at all, is a more serious disadvantage. Stirling was able but a portion of the air through this contrivance: and, as a gen- eral rule, where the working piston is in direct contact with the air during the heating process, a certain portion of the mass must escape heating or refrigeration, or must be very imperfectly af- fected. Moveable regenerators, to take the place of Stirling’s Plungers, have been suggested by several persons; but besides that their weight would be an objection, they would be less easily ept down in temperature on the cold side, while it does not ap- pear that they have any decided advantage over fixed ones es. _ There is also great difficulty in applying furnace heat to the air in these engines. This was one of Stirling’s most serious troubles ; and mainly in consequence of this fact, it 1s probable that no new attempt will be made to construct an engine strictly on the principle now under consideration. ; By a modification of the principle, however, and by employing ‘wo supply (or heating) cylinders, in aid of each working cylin- der, in one of which the air is in preparation, while in the other tls expanding into the working cylinder beneath the piston, an approach may be made to a realization of the degree of power Which theory indicates. : Those who have turned their attention to the planning of en- &ines without compression cylinders, have done so chiefly for the Sake of getting rid of what has appeared to them a great evil, in 174 Prof. Barnard on the comparative Expenditure of Heat the resistance of the supply cylinders. But to secure the same power from the same mass of air between the same limits of tem- perature, on this principle, we must employ a degree of expan- sion which will produce precisely the same negative pressure at the close of the stroke, which the compression cylinders create. If we work without negative pressure, we do only what can be done in the other form of engine by lengthening the cut-off. And if, in this one, we use air previously condensed, as Stirling did, we do only what Ericsson is doing now. Moreover, if we allow no negative pressure, the range of temperature through which we work, must be very limited. It is true that the pressure, per square inch of piston surface, will, other things being equal, be in favor of the engine without compression cylinder. But it is a fallacious conclusion to infer that therefore the effective power of the engine will be increased. If we put a to represent the area of the piston, then the lengthof Fy the stroke will be ; whereas in the other form the stroke / is ~, and this larger motion is a full compensation, other things being equal, for the less mean pressure. On these accounts, and on the large scale at least, apparently insurmountable one. — It is perhaps worth considering, whether a more serviceable engine than has yet been invented, might not be made by = a to a certain extent, the two principles. If two supply in different forms of the Air-E’ngine. 175 ling pressure, and the working cylinder might be kept absolutely cold. Let abed, for lustance, be a cylinder, in which moves the piston, P. Let this eylinder communicate with the larger one ABCD, closed at top, ut communicating with an ait heater, by the valve E. ABCD being filled with a liquid, and also abcd, up to the working piston, air may be ad- iuitted to the first, which will transmit its pressure through the liquid to the piston. A valve, F', may then discharge the air. ay keeping the bottoms of the vessels, and the connecting chan- known liquid, however, would answer this purpose, unless it should be oil; and that would not answer at the high tempera- ‘ures which have been proposed. | ; ethaps the idea is not entirely absurd of filling the chamber ABCD with the fusible alloy of lead, tin and bismuth, which liquefies at about 212° F. The high specific gravity would render great change of level undesirable, and hence ABCD might bear a large ratio in cross section to abed; while the lat- ‘et cylinder might still contain oil, and the alloy might be chiefly *onfined to ABCD and the communicating passage.* By this Means the temperature of the working cylinder might be kept lower than that of a high pressure steam engine. The tendency of the alloy to oxydize would be an evil which would require to * Below the range of the piston, however, abcd should be equal to ABCD. 176 West African Hurricanes. be provided against in some manner—perhaps by employing air previously condensed, of which the oxygen had been conver into carbonic acid by passing thoroughly through the fire. Since the great advantages which the air-engine holds out seem to be so nearly within our reach, and since we seem at present to be debarred from them only by obstacles such as the ingenuity of man has heretofore repeatedly surmounted, it is not only greatly to be hoped, but even to be reasonably expected, that we may soon see the invention perfected, and the important object which has hitherto in a great measure frustrated effort, successfully achieved. University of Alabama, April 25, 1854. Art. XXII.—On the first Hurricane of September 1853, in the Atlantic; with a Chart; and Notices of other Storms: by W. C. Repriecp. a (Concluded from p, 18.) West African Hurricanes, and Gales of the Eastern Atlantic between the Tropics. As the great hurricane whose path we have already indicated, appears to have been of African origin, it may be well to show that the occurrence of storms in this region is not uncommon. 1. A violent hurricane swept over St. Nicholas, one of the Cape Verde Islands, lat. 16° 33’ N., lon. 24° 20’ W., on the second day of September, 1850. Its duration exceeded twenty-four hours; although the chief damage was done in three or four hours, during the morning of that day. All the crops, and nearly six hu houses, were completely destroyed.* The marine accounts from the vicinity, date this gale on the third ; doubtless in nautical time. The ship Sir Robert Peel, for Bombay, after arun of about miles from Bona Vista, encountered this hurricane Sept. 34, and was completely dismasted. The New Margaret was dismasted in the hurricane on the same day, in lat. 18° N., lon. 25° W. Ship Sir Edward Parry, was in the hurricane Sept. 4th, of the Cape Verde Islands, St. Antonio bearing E. N. E., about 80 miles, [lat. 16° 30’ N., lon. 26° 40’ W]. It came on from east ward, increasing in violence till it blew the masts out of the ve sel, while under bare poles, . H. M.S. Portland, encountered the gale in this vicinity. The Eliza Johnson was spoken Sept. 20, in lat. 6° N., lo” 22° W., having lost mizenmast and topmasts in the gale, abou! two weeks before. * London Times, Feb, Ist, 1851: p. 3. West African Hurricanes. 177 Most of these vessels put into Rio Janeiro, where these reports were obtained by Capt. Theodore Lewis, from whom I received . them in New York. can find no reason for doubting the continental origin of this hurricane. Its progression was evidently slow: and its subse- quent course is placed under some doubt by the following report The Russell, from Salem for Rio Grande, was spoken 24th Sept., lat. 4° N., lon. 20° W., by the Richard Thornton, arrived in the Thames from Batavia, and reported having experienced a hurricane on the 6th Sept., in lat. 28° N., lon: 32° W., in whic e lost fore-topmast and main top-gallant-masts, boats, &c., also topsails, courses, jib., &c. blown away. The position aud date here given, led me first to lay down the track of this gale as having recurved on a route which passes between Teneriffe and the Azores. But the meteorological ob- servations made by the British consuls at the Azores and Madeira, for the English Government, with other observations collected by Mr. Hunt, Consul General at St. Michaels, which were com- municated by the government to Col. Reid, and by him kindly sent to me, do not render this course probable: unless the gale Passed near to the Canary Islands, from whence no definite re- Pert could be obtained. The route of the gale, therefore, was probably westward ; corresponding to Track xxiv. pose the correct latitude to have been 18°, instead of 28°, it will Place the Russell in a far more probable position, and one which sufficiently coincides with the foregoing reports. ‘T'he nautical | te, however, will then appear about one day in advance; unless the progression of the storm was at the low rate of about five miles an hour The log-book of the Russell might solve these doubts. Jn the wester! y course thus indicated, the gale may have : ermuda about the 15th of Sept., where there were full indica- tions of the proximity of a slow moving gale. This would show an average progression of between eight and nine miles an hour. Track xxi. : %. Mr. Piddington has adduced the case of a cyclone passing out from the coast of Africa, to the northward of the Cape de Verdes, ona W. by N., or W.N. W. course, giving to the ship evonshire as she first stood to the S. S. W., and then hove to, about 120 miles westward of St. Antonio, a severe gale from \. E. to Sonth.* ; ee add here notices of three other gales, in this part of the At-— tic, 3. The Superior, from Harbor Grace for Barbadoes, reports as follows: Oct. 14th, 1850, in lat 24° 5%, lon. 47° 10’, experienced _ * Piddington’s Horn Book for the Law of Storms; 2nd edition, p. 31. Stcoxn Sears, Vol. XVIII, No. 53.—Sept., 1854. 23 178 West African Hurricanes. a terrific hurricane, which capsized the vessel at 5 a. m.; eut away both masts, when she righted, and all hands got safely on ' board again ; water eighteen inches above the cabin floor; suc- ceeded in clearing the wreck, and getting under jurymasts. — 4, Ship Damascus, from Philadelphia for San Francisco, on the 18th of October, 1850, in lat. 25° 58’ N., lon. 41° 1% W,, encountered a severe hurricane, split foresail, main spenser and jib; also blew away main-topsail: after the stormsails were blown away the ship became unmanageable. On the night of the 18th the hurricane moderated.—See the. positions on the - Chart; marked xxv and xxvi. The next case, in Sept. 1853, I find in Maury’s Sailing Diree- tions, 6th edition; received from the author. 5. The ship John Wade, for San Francisco, Sept. 27, lat. 17° 44’ N., lon. 35° 10’ W.; barometer 29:90; wind E., fresh breezes and clear. Sept. 28, lat. 15°, lon. 34° 50’, barometer 29:40 ; winds E. and B.S. E. First part, fresh breezes; middle part, strong gale. At 8 a. m. hove to under close reefed main- topsail. At 8, barometer 29:60; at 10, 29:7; at 12 m., 29:3. . Sept. 29, lat. 14° 32’, lon. 34° 31’, barometer 29-60; winds Wa S.S. W. Heavy gale, with violent squalls of wind and rain; middle part, sharp lightning; latter part, moderate ; made sail. Capt. Little adds, “I think I was near the track of a hut- ricane.” The position of this gale appears to coincide nearly with the route of our hurricane of Track xx1v, which was four weeks eat- lier. The reported directions of wind indicate that Capt. Little crossed the center-path while within the limits of the gale. See xxx1 of Chart. jad 6. To this series may be added a gale or hurricane encountered by Capt. Lavender, in the ship Roman, from Canton, Aug. 24 1832, in lat. 12° 51’ N., lon. 39° 26’ W.: in which, according 10 Capt. L.’s memorandum,—split the fore-topsail, and scudded five hours under bare poles: ending with cross seas from N. £. an southward. ‘The center-path of this gale was probably a little south of track xxiv on the Chart. Other notices of gales in this region have met my eye, in for mer years; and one shipmaster stated to me that he had encous" tered, off the Cape Verde Islands, a severe gale of three days duration. This seems to indicate a remarkably slow rate of progression in that gale. 7. Capt. Fitzroy informs us, that on leaving Rio Janeiro for the Cape Verde Islands, early in August 1830, he first steer eastward and crossed the equator far east, which carried him int? that tract of ocean between the trades which “in August September is subject to westerly winds,—sometimes extremelY Inter-tropical Hurricanes of Eastern Atlantic. 179 strong,—and encountered a very heavy gale; although so near the equator.”"* ‘This is likely to have been one of the gales of August which afterwards visited the western and northern por- tions of the Atlantic, with great severity. Indeed, I strongly Suspect this to have been the gale which passed St. Thomas on the 12th, and New York on the 17th of the month; as shown in rst paper on the character and progress of these gales. Capt. Fitzroy states, also, that at Port Praya, [lat. 14° 53’ N., lon. 23° 30’ W.,] no vessel should deem the bay secure during July, August, September and October,t because southerly gales some- times blow with so much strength, and the rollers sent in by them are so dangerous to ships ; and having experienced the force of these gales in the vicinity of the Cape Verde Islands, he con- fidently warns those who are inclined to be incredulous about a gale of wind being found in 15° of north latitude ; beyond the [supposed] limits of the hurricane regions. Se m this inter-tropical field we extend our inquiries northward to the Canary Islands, in lat. 28°, near the African Coast, we may learn of other active cyclones that have crossed these Islands, in pursuing their orbital course to the shores of ° northern Africa and sonth western Enrope. The route of one of these storms which passed near the Island of Madeira in October 842, as shown by Col. Reid, is seen on the Chart. . [ find record of another great storm, which passed over the Island of Teneriffe, on the 6th of November, 1826. rack xviit, seen further westward on the Chart, is the infer- ted route of a severe hurricane, in 1828, which was reported to me by Capt. Corning : long known as an intelligent merchant and r. ‘* Voyage of the Adventure and Beagle, (Surveying vessels), vol. i, pp. 1 and 3, Fee gigs First Series; vol. xx, p. 34-3! q ae are the months which const: ; Islands of the West. died where, as we have formerly shown, the hurricanes arrive on rm portion of the Atlantic. We have now, more than presumptive "evan of peg! hbacan origin, ray eof Adventure and Beagle, vol. 1, p. 59. 3 wee Col Reid’s Piosruie’ of the Development of the law of Storms, p. 275—279: “ @ & 38 found also an account of a gale in the S. E. part of the Mediterranean. at For a fi) account of this hurricane, see Col. Reid’s Attempt to Develope W of Storms: 2nd Edition, p. 444-448. itute the \« hurricane season” of the Windwar 180 Hurricane East of Bermuda. Cart. Maciean’s Hurricane, or Septemper 27th, 1853.—In passing over the several violent hurricanes of the past ‘Antumn, of which I have more copious notices, I select only the present case, becanse its recurvation was eastward of Bermuda. A good account of this storm is given in the London Shipping Gazette of November 8th, by Capt. Maclean, who had studied the cyclones, and was thus well prepared to meet their emergencies. ship, the Galbert Munro, left the Island of St. Lucia on the 8th of September, and lost the trade wind on the 13th, in lat. 24° 33/N. Light winds followed, witha high barometer, till on the 26th the weather became dark and gloomy, and the wind veered to E.S. E. and S. E. At noon, in lat. 33° 10’, lon. 59° 07’, ai aneroid barometer had fallen ~,ths, and the mercu- Sed barometer began to sink also. In the night following, the ,at.S. E., increased to a fresh gale, with squalls : [Being bes the right limb of the gale, then near its point of recurvation.| At 4a. . of 27th the wind abated; but asthe morning aldctg it again freshened, from S.S. E., and the bar. had fallen +sth} at 10 a. m. hard gale, and bar. still falling ; made the necessary preparations, being certain, from the direction of the wind, that the center was to the S. W., if a rotary storm, and would soo overtake us, in its progress northeast ward, and that we should then have the gale from an opposite point. At noon of 27th heavy gale at S. S. E., and heavy sea; lat. 35°? 19’, lon. 56° 36’; rain fell in torrents till 1:30 p.m, when i ceased ; barometer falling rapidly. Soon after there was a lull, and in ten minntes a full calm. Being now certain of an opp site wind, had but just time to prepare for it, when it burst oer. us with increased fury from N. W., veering afterwards to and N.N. E. At2p.m. it blew a perfect hurricane, with Ph gerous cross sea. At 2°30 p.m. the ship was blown oO” het beam-ends ; but with great exertions was off before the wind, and run admirably. It coutinned to ae with “er wh lence till near miduight ; when the wind hacked to N. N. , the barometer rising ; and at daylight el 28th had abated to 4 com mon gale. At 8 a. mM. more moder Capt. M. commends a Ricaniodna: of the law of storms to every sKiomnistes and nautical man. he brig Samuel and Edward, reports having experienced the hurricane Sept. 23th, lat. 34° 40’, lon. 56° 20, ee s. to Nj ] s; &c., and lay ten hours under bare pole The Schooner Werada took the gale in lat. 35°, lon. 59° and while scudding under close reefed sails, was taken aback bY the hurricane from N. W. At. Bermuda, lat. 32° 15’, lon. 64° 40’, heavy rains at this pP& riod, with a very strong N. E gale [force marked 10], from abot noon of 26th to evening of 27th, veering to N.; thus sho howi0g Gales of Eastern Pacific, near Merico. 181 the left side of the cyclone. Barometer at 4:30 p. m. of 26th, 29°72. At 730 a.m. of 27th, 29:'84.* See Track xxx of the Chart. The foregoing notices of storms of inter-tropical origin in the eastern Atlantic, may serve to show their analogies and relations to those previously traced in the western Atlantic, and in the North American states. Let us now pass westward in the same parallels, to the nearer portions of the Pacific Ocean. Gales of the Eastern Pacific, near the Merican Coast. _ Our direct knowledge of the paths of these gales is necessarily limited; but the interests of an increasing commerce, as well as of meteorological science, claim the notices which follow. 1. The Joseph Butler, on or about the 24th of June, 1850, encountered a severe gale of wind, near lat. 16° N., lon. 107° W., [260 miles from the shore of Mexico,] which carried away her mainmast. Ihave no further accounts of this gale. tained much other damage. These winds denote a course of Progression corresponding to that of the hurricanes in the West Indies, and that the vessel was in the left side of the storm-path, _NtaGara’s Hurricane.—The Niagara was dismasted in a hurricane Sept. Sth, 1850, about ninety miles south of Acapulco : (lat. 15° 16’ N., lon. 99° 50’ W.] "he Diana, Sept. 11th, lat. 22° N., lon. 116° W., had a severe near to the axis line; the progression of the storm being still horthwesterly. Its course of progression from the Niagara was 34° north of west; or W. N. W., nearly. Its rate of progress Was nearly twenty-three miles an hour ; allowing no error for the eS a dates, Part of the track falls on our Chart. See Track Vint, 4. The Laura, Sept. 26, 1850, lat. 26° N., lon. 123° W., ina Severe gale was thrown on her beam-ends; lost cargo, &e. I have no further account of this gale. is 5. The Kingston, from San Francisco for Panama, experienced 4 severe gale on the Mexican coast, and was thrown on beam- ends, Oct. 1, 1850, in lat. 14° N.; and reports that the gale Swept the whole coast with great violence ; as may be seen in © Siicceeding statements. : Belgrade, from San Francisco for Realejo ; Oct. 1, fine breeze from W. N. W., and heavy swell from S.B. At 10 p.m. * From Signal Station Reports in Bermuda Gazette. 182 Hurricanes of the Eastern Pacific. wind hauled suddenly to S. E., with increased force and squally appearances ; at midnight under single reefed topsails; 1 a.m. still increasing, with vivid lightning and heavy rain; 4 a. m. split fore-topsail ; 8 a. m. lost foresail; gale increasing to a hurricane; thrown on beam-ends, with loss of main and mizen-topmasts, with head of mainmast, when the ship righted a little. Atl p. M. Oct. 20d, hurricane still increasing, ship on her beam-ends; lost fore-topmast, with much other damage ; at midnight, blow- ing as hard as ever; at 4a. m. Oct. 3d, more moderate, heavy rain ; Oct. 4th, lat. 189 11’ N., lon. 104° 5’ W., made for Aca- pulco. It may be seen that this vessel was on the right of the axis path of the storm. he Galindo, on the same route, experienced a severe hurtl- cane on the Ist and 2nd of October; was thrown on beam-ends and dismasted ; and arrived at Acapulco at the same time wilh the Belgrade. ; The Lovina, off Cape San Lucas, the southern point of Cali- fornia, Oct. 5th, was thrown on beam-ends in a violent hurricane, and lay twenty-one hours. i The Fanny, from Mazatlan, in the gulf of California, for Sat Francisco, was damaged in the gale, on the 5th and 6th of Octo ber, and put back to Mazatlan. he progress of this hurricane, during four days, appears ' have been N. W. by W., nearly ; at a rate not exceeding eight oF ten miles an hour. Part of this track falls on our Chart: Trac XXIX, 6. Amazon’s Hurricane.—The brig Amazon, from New York for San Francisco, encountered a severe hurricane Oct. 3d, 1850, in lat. 13° 30’ N., lon. 116° 50’ W. ; which commenced at Ss. W. veering successively to S. E.; E.; N.; W.; ending at S. W.; in which lost main-topsail and foresail. Capt. Watt states that th, lat. 13° 40’ N., lon. 116° 30’ W.: last night the brig encountered a hurricane, preceded by squalls from S$, W., with heavy rain. The squalls increased in number and intensity; until 5p. ., when the hurricane commenced ; brig under cle reefed fore-topsail and mainsail. Capt. Watts put his vessel all fore the blast, or “‘scudded” her. The tempest raged during the night, with momentarily increased fury. It veered from 8. We to dne south, thence to S. E., and thence to N. E. and nor and from thence to S. W., thus making the circuit of the com pass! According to our reckoning, it veered thirty-four points 1" the space of six hours; during which time the brig was kept ! fore it, in which lay our only chance of escape. At 4 A. Hurricanes of the Eastern Pacific. 183 foresail was blown from the yard, and the vessel was then bronght to the wind, but could not withstand the tornado, and was blown directly down on her side, or beam-ends. Apprehending she would founder, the order was given to put her again before the wind, but the attempt was unsuccessful. As a last resource, the main-topsail was let go, when she paid off, and dashed away like lightning before the tempest. She was kept scndding till the hurricane ceased and was then laid to in a heavy gale from S. W., which followed the hurricane. rom the above we may infer that the cousre of the vessel while scndding, was not unlike 4 ‘* that shown in the annexed figure. The short time in which the brig ran entirely round the axis of the gale, after entering its 99 7 ae Violent portion, shows that its diameter was i smail ; and that its progression was remarkably pha Ww is slowness is also shown by the ah Lopes ieee manner in ion. the Amazon le. . : : P which the brig, steering N. for San ¢ Six ot This is a slower rate of advance than I have yet found on the Atlantic; but it accords well with other cases which have oc- t hoted in the cotemporaneous in-shore hurricane of the Kingston. Hence, we may infer, that the great current of rotation in which the cyclones are imbedded was at this period and in this region, at least, comparatively sluggish and inactive. We have noticed ‘similar condition in the Eastern Atlantic, in the previons month; Be the case of the Cape Verde hurricane, of Track xxi. ° ‘. Capt. Bupp’s Gate, or Oct. 1851.—Capt. Budd’s steamer from San Francisco, for Panama, was on the 21st of October in lat. 220 07’, off Cape San Lucas. At daylight of 22d the wind Was very high, hauling to S. E., preceded by a heavy swell from the same quarter. The gale blew heavy from S. E., avd then commenced hauling to N. E., and blew still more heavy: barom- Ster 29:75. He had now crossed the entrance of the Gulf of California, to within sixty miles of Cape Corientes. At4 p.m. gale 'ug, and hauling to the westward, going round by the north. Winds in this case appear to indicate that Capt. Budd fell the right hand or northern side of the gale, as it first ap- 184 Hurricanes of the Eastern Pacific. proached ; and that the gale recurved northward, upon the con- tignous portion of Mexico, before the axis of the storm had reached the position of the ship. See Chart. 8. Panama’s Gate, or Juxy 1852.—The Panama, experi- enced a hurricane July 16, 1852, in lat. 15° N., lon. 115° W.; which lasted ten hours: carried away top-gallant-masts, yards, sails, é&c. hove the ship to under triple-reefed maip-topsail ; midnight, gale to his desired course. This would have enabled him to make 4 safe, rapid, and successful run, towards his port of destinatio); while he kept in the outskirts of the gale. The Empire, when headed off by the north wind in the frout of the gale, could not pursue her course for San Francisco; 9% safely heave to, on either tack. But she had opportunity ” southward in the beginning of the gale, keeping the wind 00 pid starboard quarter, until the state of the barometer and the dim” ished strength and westerly changes of the wind should her to turn eastward, around the rear of the hurricane, and thus regain her course with a fair wind. - os 9. A violent hurricane occurred at Cape Corientes and Ipal the night of October 11th 1853; in which the Eclipse, a vali ble ship, was totally lost, about five miles east of Ipala: [i® Hurricanes of the Eastern Pacific. 185 20° 10’ N., lon. 105° 25’ W.] It first blew off the land, from the northward, and shifting suddenly to the westward, blew a perfect hurricane, right on shore. This may indicate its recur- vation near the southern entrance of the Gulf of California at Cape Corientes. It has been shown that some hurricanes of the gulf of Mexico, commence their recurvated course to the north- ward and eastward in a still lower latitude. For such a case, see this Journal, vol. i, New Series, p. 153-162. The inter-tropical gales of the North Pacific which are com- prised in these few notices, are seen to have occurred in the sev- eral months from June to October, both inclusive; and I have now before me an account of another violent gale, far to the west- ward, in the month of May. ‘The prevalence of storms on that coast in the other months, from October to April, has been no- ticed by Humboldt and other writers; and is now but too well known by the experience of navigators. We thus establish the prevalence of violent cyclones upon the southwestern coast of North America at all seasons of the year: and find that these are sometimes of great violence. hat many of these cyclones pass over the Mexican territories, some to the gulf of Mexico, under the local name of northers, and others to the territory of the United States, I can find no reason to doubt. € very prominent characteristic of southeast winds, in the storms which commonly visit the Pacific coast, affords evidence of their progress along the coast in the lower latitudes, and of their direct entrance upon those shores in higher latitudes, sub- a the voyages of Cook, Vancouver, and others, and in the Journals of whalers, which came under my inspection. | We might infer, therefore, without reference to other and di- tect evidence, that the same general system of cyclonic move- Ment prevails on the continent of North America that is found onthe Atlantic. Indeed, a glance at our storm Chart might af- ford conviction of this fact.* 3 competent knowledge of the cyclones and of the law which 80Verns their development, has become essential to our naviga- , th merchants and insurers are beginning to discover that even the good qualities of a vessel have commonly less influence Upon the safety of her voyage, than has the intelligence and SM Of the commander. ence, there are now insurers who freel y Select those risks which are in charge of the most compe- . : : o occur: and even wah, ery region = my ps ang ad eee rp ictal at certain Vv : i large portio 4 we irect observations, the Prevalence a pala er ee saber ct! tho globe, in both hem- ®8; excepting some interior or inaccessible portions of the old continent. ND Senies, Vol. XVIII, No. 53.—Sept., 1854. 186 American Storms of December 1836. tent masters; leaving other risks of whatever class, to underwri- ters who are willing to rely on the classification of the vessels. American Storms of December 1836. From the 30th day of November to 21st December, 1836, six great cyclones passed successively over the United States; hav- ing passed New York on Nov. 30th,—Dec. 5th,—10th,—14th,— 17th, and 2lst, respectively: under which, my barometer fell *62,—'35,—-44,—-86,— 90, and 1:05 in., in the several cases. The surrounding waves of exterior pressure’raised by their rota- tion, and separating each cyclone from the other, were indicated by my barometer as follows, viz.: Nov. 28th, 30:27; Dee. 4th, 30:29 ;—S8th, 30:35 ;—12th, 30:28 ;—16th, 30-45 ;—19th, 30°80; and Dec. 22nd, 30°72 inches. Each cyclone exhibited here the ing the cyclonic centers to have passed far westward of New York, and over the Canadas, in their several routes to the north- ern regions of the Atlantic. In the last of these storms, which has been examined by Prof. Loomis,t+ the wind at New Orleans, on the 20th, blew hard from a southern quarter, and also on our Atlantic coast, during the lat- ter part of 20th and early part of 2Ist; veering westward. Al Rochester, N. Y., it blew from southeast on the afternoon of 20th, with great power, and furiously at Buffalo, also veering round by the south to the west, during the night; thus showing that the axis of this gale passed northwardly at a distance much to the west of these places. This fact is confirmed, also, by the reports of winds as made to the Regents at Albany, and by those obtained from the military posts and other sources; very maby ’ of which are given by Prof. Loomis. The same fact is shown by barometric observations as published by him. For although the central nuclens of the storm, or area of greatest barometric depression, passed the western observers during the night, whet the greatest and most rapid fall and rise of the barometer was not noted, yet, the depression as recorded proves to be greatest as we go towards the true center-path of the storm, as the same is ap proximately indicated on the Chart: marked xxvir. ‘This is see? in the observations made at Lexington, (K.) Springfield, (0.) Marietta, Twinsburg, Rochester, Syracuse, Albany, Montreal, Hanover, and Quebec ; which, even as given, show a mean fal of 1-075 in.: while those of twelve places on or near the Atlan tic border, from Savannah to Newfoundland, show a mean fall of peace saecee may serve to illustrate the continued —- of cyclones - a Toaeeatone of the American Philosophical Society, vol. vii, New Series P Prof. Loomis’s Storm of December 1836. 187 but ‘91in. If the true course of the storm had been from west to east, the fall in the barometer would have been much the greatest on the Atlantic border; owing to the lower level, which is not considered and allowed for in the above estimate, and toa less obstructed rotation of the storm, on reaching the Atlantic.* Moreover, the barometric minimum was observed at Quebec about as early, on the 21st, as at New York and its vicinity; al- though 420 miles further to the north, and nearly on the same meridian. This more rapid advance of the central portion of the storm, which has been seen in other cases, proves that the true course of progression was on the general route which I have in- ®ha may be traced in every great cyclone that passes over these latitudes. his eastward extension appears due, in part, to the tially change the rotative movement; as may be seen by the con- Unued lopment of the cyclonic winds, and their influence on the barometer, : # it Is well known that other and similar tracings from gid t have been raade of the progress -of various storms 1n the * The extreme i riod of seven years at Hudson, O., range of the barometer in a pe : ie Lato Twinsbur 2 ea about 1100 feet above tide, as given by oF gp mga . (19 in.: while the range observed in New York during the same perioe’, > in. _ Difference, 531. The mean of the annual ra' at Hudson during the same nel d be added to prisae Pee of the- rel ind in some of the western ob- ith i i no Bs on the Atlantic border in the same storm, Journal, vols, i, and ii, New Series, 1846. 188 What are Cyclones ? United States. It is believed, however, that the clew to these cases is already afforded ; and that many or most of these storms were true cyclones; with orbital courses really analogous to those which are seen on the Chart. Wuar are Cyctones?—The term Cyclone was first proposed by Mr. Piddington, to designate any considerable extent or area of wind which exhibits a turning or revolving motion ; without regard to its varying velocity, or to the different names which are often applied to such winds. If used in this sense it may pre- vent the confusion which often results from other names, more variable or indeterminate in their signification. Thus, all hurr- canes or violent storms may perhaps be considered as cyclones oF revolving winds. But it by no means follows that all cyclones are either hurricanes, gales, or storms. For the word is not de- signed to express the degree of activity or force, which may be manifested in the moving disk or stratum of rotating atmosphere to which it is applied. It often designates light and feeble winds, as well as those which are strong and violent.* es It follows that the local directions and changes of the wind in any cyclone, and their effect on the barometer, are much like those exhibited in the gales and storms of the same region, €X- cept in the degree of their effect ; which is doubtless proportioned to the general activity of the rotation, integrally considered. The cyclones are often productive of rain in a portion of the cyclonic area; but vary in this respect, in different regions, and at different seasons of the year. 1b ae Universauity or Cyciones,—As early as 1833 my inquitles led me to announce the conclusion that the ordinary routine of the winds and weather in these latitudes often corresponds to the phases which are exhibited in the revolving storms, already de- from estern board to some point on the eastern side of the meridian, a. panied and often preceded by a fall of the barometer, On the right margin ° yclon rom the southeasterD quar to the northwestern, with a falling barometer; and when the axis of the lhe or passed, its later winds are found crossing the line of progress in the opposite i e southeastern, with a rising barcne al The true cyclonic wind may not always be found at the earth’s surface, 1 ©” ities of direction are often noticed at the surface; but i S feet, ext monk pens that the storm-scud, at the elevation of a few hundred feet, € only uP. ; P the of direction suc cessively observed in the storm-scud, are commonly in advance of those in the “sig est wind, Universality of Cyclones. 189 scribed, and that a correct opinion, founded upon this resem- blance, can often be formed of the approaching changes: an that the variations of the barometer resulting from the mechani- cal action of circuitous winds and the larger atmospheric eddies, pertain not only to the storms, but to a large portion of the winds in these and the higher latitudes. Vide this Journal for October, 1833, (vol. xxv,) pages 120 and 129. The more inert and passive cyclones which seldom gain atten- tion, but which constantly occupy in their transit the greater portion of the earth’s surface, appear to move in orbits or courses corresponding with those of the more active class which have been traced on the storm-charts; a result that will not be doubted by those who have given careful attention to this branch of in- qniry. Ina broad view of the case, the constant occurrence and progression of the cyclones, in various degrees of activity, con- stitutes the normal condition of the inferior or wind-stratum of the atmosphere, at least in the regions exterior to the trade winds of the globe; to say nothing of their prevalence in the interme- diate region, where their presence is shown on some occasions by the most indubitable evidence. At the late meeting of the American Association for the Ad- vancement of Science, held at Cleveland, an ably elaborated pa- pet was presented by Prof. James H. Coffin, of Easton, Pa., on the relations which exist between the direction of the wind and the rise and fall of the barometer. By a careful analysis of these effects during all seasons of the year, as observed at various places in the north temperate zone, Prof. Coffin establishes the Such revision, I apprehend, is now imperatively required. For the constant r 190 R. Napoli on Arseniuretted and Antimoniuretted Hydrogen, lowest currents of atmosphere, as seen in the orbital courses of storms in all latitudes, and to which I have already alluded, to- gether with the mean direction of the observed winds in the northern temperate zone, even neglecting other world-wide phe- nomena, may suffice to show, that the current theory or hypoth- esis for explaining the general winds of the globe, is essentially erroneous and defective in its application, and greatly obstructs e path of scientific inquiry. New York, March 18, 1854. Art. XXIIL—Researches upon Arseniuretted and Antimoni- uretted Hydrogen, and their relations to Toxicology; by APHAEL Napott, Royal Professor of Chemistry at Naples. (Read before the Smamiyy Association for the Advancement of — at Wash- gton, May, 1854, by T. 8. Hunt, for the author Arter Lassaigne had observed that nitrate of silver decom- poses arseniuretted hydrogen with the formation of arsenious acid, and the separation of metallic silver, Jacquelain proposed the chlorid of gold for the same object, and Berzelius in his Traité de Chimie says of this gas, “ It precipitates the precious metals, as gold and silver, from their solutions, and is itself dis- solved by the oxydation of its elements.” Such a decomposition rele takes place with arseniuretted h hydr rogen and the tor contain no oxygen, whence comes this element to oxydize the arsenic, unless from the ecomposition of the water of the solu- tion, whose hydrogen at the same time forms hydrochloric acid, with the chlorine of the gold salt? This acid might be forme from the union of this chlorine with the hydrogen of the gaseous arseniuret, without any decomposition of water, in which case both gold and arsenic, should be separated in the metallic state, according to the following equation, AuCl:+As H:=3H Cl+Au+dAs. So that the theory of this reaction is not yet made clear. In order to explain the facts just aseniouns we must suppose ic, in its nascent state at least, can be dissolved by eee? cilore wet: such being the case, = would be easy to understa the formation of the acids of arsenic, the precipitation of the gold, R, Napoli on Arseniuretted and Antimoniuretted Hydrogen. 191 and the production of hydrochloric acid. The gold having been reduced, according to the formula just given, there remains 3HCi, and As, which would yield AsCls, and three equivalents of free hydrogen. The chlorid of arsenic when diluted with a large pel of water, is decomposed into arsenious and hydrochloric acids,” On consulting Berzelius and other works of authority, I found it stated on the one hand, that arseniuretted hydrogen is not altered by hydrochloric acid, and on the other, that arsenic is not affected by hydrochloric acid. These statements seemed to ren- der the proposed explanation inadmissible, but I have found by experiment that they are incorrect, and have arrived at the fol- lowing conclusions, first, arseninretted hydrogen is almost totally decomposed by pure concentrated hydrochloric acid, and secondly, arsenic itself is soluble in this acid : passed the arseniuretted hydrogen gas generated in Marsh’s apparatus, through concentrated hydrochloric acid in a Liebig’s a tube, and after continuing the process for an hour, chlorid 0! epeatedly with cold and pure hydrochloric acid, and when its e tO contain chlorid of arsenic, and the liquid residuum in the pen contained a notable portion of the same chlorid; thus show i AuCls+As H;s=—Au+As Cls+H:. 3Fez Cls+ As H3=6Fe Cl+As Cls+Hs. ; 3Pt Cl +2As H3=Pt3+2AsCls+He. mony by Marsh’s apparatus. ‘The facts are these: arseniuretted and antimoniuretted hydrogen are both decomposed by pure and * The d ses ark with hydrochloric acid, i : ecomposit etted hydrogen with hydrochloric acid, is repre Sented by Asf Ty SHG ar Ch? aie cas is analogous to that of hydrid of cop- the same acid; in each case 2 metallic chlorid is formed, and the hydrogen compounds is set free. See Brodie’s remarks on the latter reaction, in the Gazette for 1853, p. 300.—(r. 8. 5.) 192 R. Napoli on Arseniuretied and Antimoniuretted Hydrogen. he two gases are also decomposed by aqua-regia, with the formation of chlorid of arsenic, and perchlorid of antimony. B a careful distillation of the mixture, the arsenical chlorid passes over first, while the chlorid of antimony remains in the retort, as has been shown by Malaguti and Sarzan. An analogous reaction is produced with strong hydrochloric acid, but with this differ- ence that the arseniuretted hydrogen is almost entirely decom- osed, while the antimonial gas undergoes a less complete decom- position. The applicability of these reactions to the concentration and separation of the arsenic and antimony, in the gas obtained by Marsh’s apparatus, will now be apparent. Instead of burning oF then pass the gas into the hot nitric acid, which completely de- composes in the manner just described, any compounds of arsenic or antimony which may be evolved. If the nitric acid remains ne ferred to a small flask, the apparatus washed out with a little nitric acid, and the whole carefully evaporated to one-half. If there is no precipitate, the absence of antimony is certain; W® then evaporate still further to remove the excess of acid, dilute the residue with water and examine it like a pure solution of arsel¢ acid. Should the nitric acid appear turbid either before oF after evaporation, antimony is present, and perhaps arsenic ; in this case, after evaporating as before to a small bulk, we add water and filter, the antimony remains behind in an insoluble conditio?; while the arsenic, if any were present, is held in solution, In the case of a mixture of arsenic and antimony we may a a small tubulated retort, to which can be adapted a small re- ceiver, we introduce through the tubulure, a tube reaching any to the bottom of the retort, in which is placed a small quantity T. 8. Hunt on the Crystalline Limestones of N. America. 193 4 of aqua-regia composed of two parts of hydrochloric and one of nitric acid. The retort being gently heated, the gases from antimony formed. This operation finished, the tube is removed, the tubulure closed, and the receiver, partly filled with water. being attached, the acid liquid in the retort is gently distilled to one-half its volume. We then examine the water of the recipi- ent, and if any arsenic is present, it will be found in the dist tilled liquid; if this metal be absent, we find nothing in the water, or at most, some traces of antimony, in case the operation has not been well conducted. If the gas contained any antimony it will all be found in the retort, in the state of perchlorid. I have not deemed it necessary to present the numerical results, which in repeated experiments have shown the great accuracy of these methods, but believing that chemists will at once recognize the value of the proposed processes, it is sufficient for me to have called their attention to the following facts, in part already known, and in part new. Ist. ‘he power of hydrochloric acid to dissolve and decompose arseniuretted hydrogen. : - The solubility of metallic arsenic in the same acid, when concentrated. 8d. The explanation of the reactions of arseniuretted hydrogen, With the perchlorids of gold and iron, and with the bichlorid of Platinum. th. The decomposition of arseninretted and antimoniuretted hydrogen by nitric acid, and by aqua-regia. ; ; _ 2th. Uhe application of these reactions to toxicological analy- Ss, for the detection and separation of arsenic and antimony. a Ant. XXIV. On some of the Crystalline Limestones of North AO ica ; by T. S. Hunz, of the Geological Commission of anada, o* Abstract of a paper read before the American Association for the Advancement of Science, at Washington, April, 1854.) Tre crystalline limestones of Canada, with those of New York the New England States, may be divided into four classes, belonging to as many different geological periods. The first and Mest ancient occur in that system of rocks, named by Mr. Logan the Laurentian series, which extending from Labrador to Lake Huron, forms the northern boundary of the Silurian system of Canada and the United States. ‘The lowest beds of the Silurian 25 Szuies, Vol. XVIII, No. 53—Sept., 1854. 194 J. S. Hunt on the Crystalline Limestones of N. America. repose horizontally upon the disturbed strata of this oldest Ameri- cau system, a southern prolongation of which crosses the Otaway near Bytown, and the St. Lawrence at the Thousand Isles, and spreading out, forms the mountainous region of northern New Yor “his series consists in large part of a gneiss, which is often garnetiferous; but beds of mica slate, quartz and garnet rock, hornblende slate and hornblendic gneiss are also met with, besides large masses of a coarsely crystalline, often porphyritic rock, consisting chiefly of a lime and soda feldspar, which is sometimes labradorite, and at others andesine, or some related species, and is generally associated with hypersthene, It often holds beds or masses of titaniferous iron ore, and from its extent, occtipies a conspicuous place in the series. It is the hypersthene rock of McCulloch and Emmons. With these, the limestones are interstratified, but their relations to the formation have not yet been fully made ont. f th rocks bear evidences in their structure, that they are of sediment- ary origin, and are really stratified deposits, but their investiga tion is rendered difficult by the greatly disturbed state of the whole formation. Among these stratified rocks, there are how- ever dykes, veins, and masses of trap, granite and syenite, often of considerable extent, which are undoubtedly intrusive. ‘There are abundant evidences that the agencies which have given to the strata, their present crystalline condition, have been such as to reuder the limestone almost liquid, and to subject it at the same time to great pressure, so that in many cases it has flowe around and among the broken and often distorted fragments of the accompanying silicious strata, as if it had been an inject hypogene roc The limestone strata are from two or three feet to several hun- dred feet in thickness, and often present a succession of thin beds, divided by feldspathic or silicions layers, the latter being somes times a conglomerate of quartz pebbles and silicious sand ; in oue instance, similar pebbles are contained in a base of dolomite. Beds frequently occur in which the carbonate of lime J pure state, bnt in other cases they are intermixed with quart, carbonate of lime, orthoclase, scapolite, sphene and other specles finely granular or almost compact; their color is white Ing into reddish, bluish, and grayish tints, which are often arranged in bands coincident with the stratification. Some of the dark grey bands, harder than the adjacent white limestone, were found by Mr. Murray to owe their color to very finely dissem! T. 8. Hunt on the Crystalline Limestones of N. America. 195 plumbago, and their hardness to intermingled grains of rounded silicious sand. The limestone is often magnesian, and the man- tr in which the beds of dolomite are iuterstratified with the pure limestone, is such as to lead us to suppose that some of the original sedimentary deposits contained the two carbonates, and that the dolomite is not the result of any subsequent process. The principal mineral species found in these limestones are apatite, serpentine, phlogopite, scapolite, orthoclase, pyroxene, wollastonite, idocrase, garnet, brown tourmaline, chondrodite, spi- nel, corundum, zircon, sphene and graphite. All of these appear to belong to the stratification, and the chondrodite and graphite especially, are seen running in bands parallel to the bedding. Magnetic iron ore is sometimes found in beds interstratified with the limestone. The apatite which is in general sparingly dis- tributed, is occasionally very abundant in imperfect crystals and irregular crystalline masses, giving to small beds of the limestone the aspect of a conglomerate. Some of the coarsely crystalline Farther south, they become the white granular marbles of western Vermont, and of Berkshire, Massachusetts, which according to Hall, still exhibit upon their weathered surfaces, the fossils of the i t, they cross the near West Point, and appear in Orange and Rockland counties, New York, and in Sussex county, New Jersey, in a highly altered condition, closely resembling the erystalliue lime- hes of the Laurentian series, and containing in great abund- ace the same imbedded minerals. ‘These limestones are some- 196 7. S. Hunt on the Crystalline Limestones of N. America. times dolomitic, and Hitchcock observes that in the granular marbles of Berkshire, pure and magnesian limestoues occasionally orm different layers in the same bed. (Geology of Massachu- setts, p. 84. In Orange county, according to Mather, it is easy to trace the transition from the unaltered blue and gray fossiliferous lime- stones of the Champlain division, (including the Calciferous sand- rock and the ‘T'renton,) to the highly erystalline white limestone with its characteristic minerals. (See his Report on the Geology of the first district of New York, pp. 465 and 486.) This view is fully sustained by H. D. Rogers in his description of the lime- Stones of Sussex Co., given in his final report on New Jersey, (cited by Mather as above, p. 468 et seq.) Mather farther con- cludes very justly that all the limestones of western Vermont, Massachusetts and Connecticut, and those between the latter state and the Hudson River, are in like manner altered Lower Silu- rian strata, (p. 464.) From the similarity of mineral characters, he moreover supposes that the crystalline limestones about Lake George are of the same age, and he extends this view to those of St. Lawrence County. Both of these however belong to the Laurentian series, and are distinguished by their want+of cou- formity with the Champlain division, and by their association with labradorite and hypersthene rocks which seem to be want- ing in the altered Silurian strata. The slates of this division in Kastern Canada, geuerally contain some magnesia, with very little lime, and four or five per cent. of alkalies, chiefly potash * hence the feldspar which has resulted from their metamorphosis is generally orthoclase, and they have yielded gneiss, and mica slate, which with quartz rock, and chloritic and talcose slates, make up the Green Mountains. * See my remarks On the Composition and Metamorphoses of some Sedimenta"y Rocks, Be Boor D, Philos, Magazine for April, 1854, p. 233, . T.S. Hunt on the Crystalline Limestones of N. America. 197 anriferons rocks of the great Appalachian chain. Gold, associated with talcose slates, serpentine, chromic and titaniferous iran ores, is traceable along their outcrop from Canada to Georgia. Gold- bearing veins have also been found in the slates which in Eastern Canada, form the base of the Upper Silurian. I remark that in a somewhat chloritic and very silicious magnesian limestone, id analysis. Ihave also found titanium in some of the very fer- Tuginons slates, which by their alteration become chloritic schists holding magnetic and specular iron, ilmenite and rutile. ntine is found as an imbedded mineral in the Laurentian its associated talcose slates and chromic iron, appear to be con- the so-called serpentine rocks of northern New York, are hydrous Silicates of alumina, iron, and potash, containing very little lime or magnesia; they are the dysyntribite of Shepard. As the northwestern limit of the metamorphic belt in Eastern nada runs southwesterly into Vermont, the undulations of the Strata, which are nearly N. and S., escape from it to the north- Ward, Proceeding E. S. E. however, from the unaltered Tren- ton limestones of the Yamaska, we cross the overlying slates, Saidstones and dolomites, and entering the metamorphic region nd the serpentines, talcose, chloritic and micaceous schist, with seiss and quartzite, very much disturbed, and repeated by undu- tons. On reaching the valley of Lake Memphramagog, we ome upon the third class of crystalline limestones, which are Upper Silurian. ‘This limestone formation has a continuous out- top from the Connecticut valley, by the lake just mentioned and the upper part of the St. Francis river, to the Chaudiére, and is thence traceable by intervals as far as Gaspé, where it 1s Clear “thconformable with the Lower Silurian. It holds the character- ‘Sie fossils of the Niagara group, but for some distance from the line of Vermont, is so much altered as to be white and crystalline, and to contain abundance of brownish mica, the fossils being often ed teristic Favosites gothlandica, and various species of Porites Na Cyathophyllum, have been identified. These fossils in a Smilar condition are also found at Georgeville on Lake Memphra- th og Following the section in a S. E. direction, to Canaan on oe Connecticut river, we meet with calcareo-micaceous schists, are gradually replaced by mica slates with quartzose beds. 198 J. S. Hunt on the Crystalline Limestones of N. America. Some of the fine dark-colored mica-slates exhibit crystals of chi- astolite, and others near Canaan, abound with black hornblende and small garnets. (For the details of this section see Mr. Lo- gan’s Report for 1847—48. )* ‘These Upper Silurian strata constitute the micaceo-calcareous rocks of Vermont, which Prof. Adams traced through the state, to Halifax on the border of Massachusetts, and they are continued in what Hitchcock has called the micaceous limestones of this state, which according to him pass by insensible degrees into mica slate. The limestones of Coleraine, Ashfield, Deerfield and Whately, Mass., belong to this formation, and perhaps also the three miles N. E. and S. W. Dr. Hitchcock, to whose report 02 the Geology of Massachusetts we are indebted for the present details, says of this serpentine, “I am satisfied that it is embraced in the great gneiss formation, whose strata run from N, E. to S. W: across the state.” p.159. He further remarks of the syenite of Newbury ard Stoneham, which includes the erystalline wie it 5 {10E ture Stones of Massachusetts are of sedimentary origin; p. 550. ratified pe gage’ Sie om the Geology of Canada, this Journal [2] vol ix p. 12, and 2, T.S. Hunt on the Crystalline Limestones of N. America. 199 masses, is analogous to the interrupted stratification and lenticular beds, frequently met with in fossiliferous limestones. The limestones of Bolton, Chelmsford and the adjoining towns, the v riety of fine crystallized minerals which they contain. Among these are apatite, serpentine, amianthus, tale, scapolite, pyroxene, petalite, chondrodite, spinel, ciunamon-stone, sphene and allanite, which include the species characterizing the Laurentian and Lower Siturian metamorphic limestones. The limestone of these quarries evolves a very fetid odor when bruised. Chromic iron ore has never, so far as I am aware, been observed with the ser- pentines of this region. e have now to inquire as to the geological age of this great mass of crystalline rocks which is so conspicuous in Eastern New England. Mr. Logan has shown that the rocks of the Devonian System in Gaspé, assuming the Oriskany sandstone as its base, attain a thickness of more than 7000 feet, and as they are still mediate gneissoid, and hornblendic rocks, with their accompany- ing limestones, are the Devonian strata in an altered condition. of. Agassiz, from his own examivation of the region, was led 'o a similar conclusion as to the age of the so-called syenites, and in August, 1850, presented to the American Association for the Vanieement of Science at New Haven, a paper on the Age of , Metamorphic rocks of Eastern Massachusetts, which has never I believe been published. ‘The less altered limestones which, aeording to Dr. Hitchcock are found interstratified with red slates at Attleborough and Walpole, may correspond to those Which with similar slates and sandstone, are met with at the base of the carboniferous formation in Canada on the Bay de Chaleurs, in New Brunswick. 200 Coast Survey Report for 1853. We have then distinguished four classes of crystalline lime- stones: first, those of the Laurentian series with their accompa- nying garvetiferous gneiss, labradorite and hypersthene rocks; secondly, those of the Lower Silurian formation, with their at- tendaut auriferous rocks, talcose slates and chromiferous serpen- tines; thirdly, those of the Upper Silurian age, with their asso- ciated calcareo-micaceous schists; and fourthly, those which be- long to the gneissoid rocks of eastern Massachusetts, and are probably of the Devonian period. I have endeavored in this paper to bring together the facts known with regard to the different crystalline limestones, aud their associated strata in this portion of the continent, and to show how far these may serve as a guide in the geological inves- tigation of the metamorphic rocks. While the result confirins the observations of European Geologists, that similar crystallized minerals may occur in the metamorphic limestones of very difler- ent geological epochs; it also shows, that within certain limits, the mineral characters of the altered silicious strata, may serve a important guides to our investigations. “oe ee Art. XXV.—Documentary Publications and Science in the Coast Survey Report for 1853.* * Report of the Superintendent of the Coast Survey, showing the progress gies Survey during the year 1853. Washington, D.C. Robert Armstrong Public 64 pes 1854, Quarto Report, 88 pp. Appendix, 180 pp. Total pages 276 and " Coast Survey Report for 1853. 201 paper, a critic of engraving and of the varieties of engrave prints, and a thorough proficient in the printing usages of Con- gress. ‘This appointment has thus far, we believe, fallen mito to the cu ing iu interest. Much important scientific matter now sees the light in this and only this form. A large portion of the researches, Investigations and explorations of the country, are In Some Wise 80 related to the general government, as to find their fitting place Nas large a portion of the labors of our scientific men are sf e ed through these channels. This is doubtless a natural re- Sult of the great preponderance of descriptive research and science 1 country so unexplored as ours. and in which for that reason, al history, botany, mineralogy, descriptive geology, geogra- y and meteorology, rightly occupy leading places, and specially St governmental patronag l th arches will, and legitimately may, give place to the labors of ¢ literal historiographer of uature, though this discrimination oes of the descriptive scieuce published by Congress has i) connection with the various expedition reports by the Series, Vol. XVII, No. 58—Sept, 1854. 26 202 Coast Survey Report for 1853. government officers employed from time to time in exploring our western territory, and those from foreign shores, important to our commerce though too little known. — Investigations into the bot- any, uatural history, geology, meteorology, topography and agri- cultural capacities of the various sections explored, have formed integral and essential parts of these explorations, aud of course their results have been duly incorporated into the several reports. From Lewis and Clark, Long and Nicollet, down to the present time, these expedition reports have been growing in uumber, interest and value. ‘he explorations of Wilkes, Fremont, Abvel, Pope, Peck, Cook, Whiting, Miehler, Simpson, Cross, Sitgreaves, Stansbury and Gunnison, Marcy and McClellan, Emory, Whipple, Williamson, Evans, Stevens aud McClellan, have been or soon will be formally reported to Congress, and together they coustl tute a large part of the reliable information now published on our immense western aud southwestern territory. In addition to these have been or soon will be published on foreign countries, the Wilkes Exploring Expedition narrative, maps, aud scientific descriptive volumes, Lynch’s Dead Sea, De Haven’s Arcti¢ eX ploration report, Herndon’s and Gibbon’s Amazon reports, the reports and results of Gillis’s Astronomical expedition to Chili, the reports of the Japan exyedition, Ringgold’s North Pacific expedition, Page’s La Plata exploration, an African exploration, e. Add to these Foster and Whituey’s Reports on mine lands, Owen’s Geological Report, Schooleraft’s Indian publica- tions, the Census Reports, the Patent Office Reports, the Coast Survey Reports, the Smithsonian Reports, and the muititnde of less pretending reports on scientific subjects (such as the Cay! extension, building stone experiments, Espy’s reports, boiler 6% plosion reports, on anesthetic agents, &c.) embraced in the file of Executive documents and reports of committees: the resulting aggregate of matter possessing scientific value thus published by Congress, far exceeds our natural anticipation both as to amouu and importance. Unfortunately, the scientific value of materials published in the docnmentary series, whether of Congress or of State legislatures, is very much impaired by the unsystematie and injudicions plan of distribution actually pursned. Men of science to whom | ticular reports would be of direct practical use, are often entirelY unable to procure copies of them, while many men of more litical importance, but who will never even look into them, have these same reports profusely Javished upon them. Valuable o uments which are reported to applicants as all exhausted, d wholesale duty as wrapping paper for Washington grocers od market men, at a standard price of four ceuts a pound, maps”, plates included. ‘This subject of documentary distribution serves the serious attention of Congress, and it would not Coast Survey Report for 1853. 203 a vain hope that some system could be devised which would be indefinitely superior to that now prevailing, as well in respect to securing rigid responsibility for documents as property, and in promoting the economy, order and convenience of their practical distribution, as in the more important point of securing sometbing like fitness in sending special documents to their appropriate re- cipients. Distributing Owen’s Geological Report to a dry goods importer and the Treasury report on commerce to a geologist, would seem too great an absurdity to exist if we did uot know that hundreds of truly valuable volumes are annually thus wasted. This place is not the fitting one for a full discussion of this sub- ject, but it does seem specialiy appropriate here to state, that a general wish certainly prevails among our scientific men, for the speedy adoption of some system whereby each actual investigator can be regularly and certainly furnished with the exact docu- ments he needs. ‘T'o purchase these works at regular publishers Prices, would be on the whole better for them, despite their noto- tions brevity of purse, than the present system of lottery distri- bution; but save in’a few exceptional cases, regular purchase is IMpracticable. The British system of publishing parliamentary Sons as would find it of real utility, application being duly made ®him in Washington, with the name, address, occupation and Special scientific or practical pursuits of the applicant. From this Report we will now abstract in a few pages the points of chief Scientific interest embraced. Having been favored with the sheets in advance of binding, we are enabled to make this abstract in anticipation of the actual distribution of copies, which Probably will not begin until sometime subsequent to the appear- auce of this article. The Coast Survey has now reached a very regular rate of an- dual Progress, and its operations durin 1853 extended into each of the eleven Coast Survey sections constituting the entire United t ‘ 204 Coast Survey Report for 1853. this, there is no occasion for present remarks. In proceeding to ive an abstract of science in the Report of 1853, we ma vantageously make use of the following heads. 1. Gulf Stream explorations; 2. Tides and tide gauges; 3. Longitude opera- tions ; 4. Geographical positions ; 5. Map projection tables and notes; 6. Publishing records and observations ; 7. Miscella- neous. ‘The remaining subject matter of the report lacks purely scientific interest, and could scarcely be abstracted. ‘The details of field and office operations, the examinations of light house Sites, the lists of parties, &c. are given with the customary full- hess, constituting a thoroughly digested record of the yeat’s Operations, on all its physical and phenominal elements. This giant prob- lem is thrown down as a gage at our national door, and the along these sections, the several elemeuts required, Between Cape Fear, Charleston, St Simons, St. Augustine and Cape ©@ naveral. The results for 1853 are given in a sketch of detailed devoted to a full exposition of the resulis already reached. The element of temperature, superficial and at various depths, in tou’s metallic deep-sea thermometer for the greater depths, a te™- perature sounding of 2160 fathoms having been made. 9 general result of Coast Survey Report for 1853. 205 of temperature across the Gulf Stream, cold water intruding and dividing the warm, making thus alternate streaks or streams of warm and cold water. In fact, the Gulf Stream is merely one a number of bands of warm water separated by cold water.” A “cold wall” limiting the Gulf Stream en the shore side, is northern and southern sections. “It can hardly be doubted that this cold water off our southern coast may be rendered practically usefl by the ingenuity of our countrymen. The bottom of the sea fonrteen miles E. N. E. from Cape Florida, 450 fathoms in depth was in June, 1853, at the temperature of 49° Farenheit, while the air was 81° Farenheit. A temperature of 38° (only six degrees above the freezing point of fresh water) was found at 1050 fathoms in depth about 80 miles east of Cape Canaveral. The mean temperature of the air at St. Augustine is 69°-9 Faren- heit, and for the three 57°-5. ‘The importance of the facts above ated in reference to the natural history of the ocean in these regions, is very great, but, of course, requires to be studied in connection with other physical data. It has also a bearing upon the important problems of the tides of the coast. his explora- tion of the Gulf Stream will be steadily prosecuted to its close, the different problems being taken up in turn or in connexion as may be found practicable.” he most remarkable fact brought to light in relation to the Gulf Stream is probably that of the existence of two submarine fanges of hills near its origin, which produced most marked effects on the distribution of its parts. “The form of the Charleston 206 Coast Survey Report for 1853. and its modifications by the variation of steepness in the off-shore bottom slope, are strongly marked. With these results, the names of Lieuts. Davis, George M. Bache, Richard Bache, S. P. Lee, Maffitt and Craven are conspicuously associated ; George M. Bache being distinguished as a martyr to his zeal, in the very glow of talent, hope and success. sand have to be searched for carefully under the microscope, to be noticed at all.” It will be seen that this result coincides with Mr. Pourtales well remarks on the importance of “a knowledge of the habitation and distribution of the Foraminiferse” to geolo- descriptive of the tidal movements are parts of the engraved matter required to go on each finished chart of the Coast Survey- In the regular prosecution of this work, there thus results a great accumulation of tidal observations which require reduction and discussion before the charts ean be completed. Also several 4 ea Mauient tide stations are established along the coast, to furnish by Coast Survey Report for 1853. 207 their minute and continuous records the elements of wider and more critical investigations into tidal phenomena. All these eb- _ servations are now regularly reduced by a special “tidal party” uuder the particular direction of Prof. Bache. Report of 1853 (Appx. No. 26) contains a very valuable table, embodying the principal reduced results at 64 important tide stations on the Atlantic, Gulf and Pacific coasts. Appendix Nos. 27, 28 and 29, contain elaborate discussions by Prof. Bache, of the tides at Key West, and Rincon Point, San Francisco, in which they are reduced and resolved into results of the physical tidal theory. ‘The curves of the phenomena of the theoretical components are presetited in three plates. Prof.-Bache thus sums Joast Survey developments established the contrary, were be- lieved to depend upon the winds which have the character of trade-winds, and, therefore, considerable regularity along that coast. The tides of our Pacific coast ebb and flow twice in coast having been made in close connection with the other parts of the hydrography, the statious still wanting will be filled up as We advance. A few stations are still required on the Gulf of exico to complete the general determination of its tides from Cape Florida to the Rio Grande. We have already found nearly the dividing position, Cape St. George, Apalachicola, where the tides resemble on the one side, eastward, those o Cedar Keys, ey West and Tampa Bay, ebbing and flowing twice each day, with a large diurnal inequality, and ou the other, westward, re- semble the tides at Mobile entrance, the Delta of the Mississippi, Galveston and the Rio Grande evtrance, ebbing and flowing, as @ general rule, but once in twenty-four hours. : Report coutains a detailed description of Saxtor’s self- Seaward on a difficult open coast near Nantucket (Appendix No, 13); and finally a report of operations in obtaining off-shore or 208 Coast Survey Report for 1853. open ocean tidal observations, on a shoal a mile and a half from land. (Appendix No. 15.) The excellent results from Saxton’s gauge lead to high expectations from the records now regularly received from three permanent and three movable Saxton ganges, Operating on our Western coast. The importance of separating the true tide wave from the heaping up of water along shore, leads us to watch with peculiar interest the off-shore observations and to hope for their success at much greater distance from land. Longitude operations.—It is now esteemed essential where practicable, in conducting the survey, to refer at least one principal Station in each section, to the central longitude point (Seaton sta- tion, Washington), by a telegraphic determination of longitude differences. During the year 1853, operations were conducted for thus connecting Charleston with Seaton station, the longitude difference already found by Mr. Walker in 1850, being only a preliminary determination. Such was the imperfect condition of insulation of the telegraph wires, as found by repeated trials, that it became indispensable to establish an intermediate station and Raleigh was thus occupied. Dr. B. A. Gould’s report of these Operations is given in Appendix No. 33. Some observations were also made on the velocity of the galvanic wave, atid the personal eqnatious of the observers were duly compared. Charleston will soon be in turn similarly connected with New Orleans. : Prof. B. Peirce reports (Appendix, No. 31) the results of his investigations and of some observations made under his charge, for the purpose of ascertaining a method of determining, “the longitude from observed transits of the moon, which shall not be involved ia the great and singular errors of the lunar ephemeris.” After stating the faults of the present methods, in which standard corresponding observations of moon culminations are interpolated, he concludes that as the existing lunar theory will not stand the test of observation, a correct ephemeris is not now practicable. He then, from three hundred and sixty-seven special comparisons, determines the standard probable error of an observation of 4 the wires of the Cambridge equatorial were simultaneously ' corded by two spring governors, differing one-tenth of 2 second Coast Survey Report for 1853. - 209 in their pendulum-vibration times: one governor was at Cam- bridge and the other at Haverford, Penn. The result of scrupu- r. G. P. Bond has reported in considerable detail, (Appendix No. 34,) on the computations of the chronometric expeditions of vations for local time and for evolving errors of observation. He discusses the micrometric and level division values, the azimuth and collimation errors, lateral refraction, personal equations, clock errors, the position of the mid wire of the transit, the pivot figures, the errors of comparing the chronometers with the standard clock, and the irregularities of chronometer and clock rates. The gen- eral results of the computations have since been submitted to the American Association at the Washington meeting, when Prof. Peirce announced additional discussions of moon culmination longitude methods, in reference to the longitude of America. We are now near the final fixation of the standard longitnde differ- ence between our system of connected stations and that of Eu- ‘ope: which difference once authoritatively established, will doubtless be liable to no future change, unless by submarine telegraphic determinations. _ Geographical Positions.—In the Coast Survey Report for 1851, isa list of 3240 stations, to which an addition of 600 is made in the Report of 1853, (Appendix No. 7.) For each of these 3840 lations, a latitude and longitude is given. Also for each of the Hanbutation, being indeed the great trigonometrical consumma- aie: on of the survey up to the present time. It will prove of wide or. between the geodetic and astronomical latitudes and longitudes ND Series, Vol, XVIII, No. 53—Sept, 1854. 210 Coast Survey Report for 1853. of particular stations, is a constantly recurring result of the sur- vey. They are caused by local irregularities in figure and den- sity of the earth and amount in several instances to about three seconds, while at a station of the Ordnance Survey, the station usual cause of these errors, though a displacement of the vertical to a much greater amount has in some cases been traced to this origin. When it is known that even now, before the mutual verification of sections by connecting their base lines, the tabular distances given in this list are generally considered as liable only to an average error of about one foot in six miles, it will scarcely seem wonderful that the station errors are found to be as distinetly indicated by a comparison of the azimuth and back azimuth ob- servations, as by those for latitudes and longitudes; so that the two results even verify each other quantitatively. The notes introducing the list give a clear insight into its mode of construc- tion and arrangement. in the very imperfect chartographic practice, now too widely prevalent. The notes present in a condensed form a classified synopsis of the various projections which have been used. The four classes into which these are distributed are based on their peculiar modes of mathematical genesis. The distinctive features of eighteen species of projections, are briefly and systematically presented. Bonne’s projection, being that chiefly used in Europe for top graphical surveys of considerable areas, is discussed in grealet detail. Still more space is given to the polyconic projectioDs which js that used in the Coast Survey office. This name new, and the two varieties, called rectangular and equidistant are both in use and require the same tables. Fortunately thesé methods can now be employed by any intelligent draftsman, fut nished with this report, in constructing any local, county, state % general map, within the United States. Full instrnetions 2 given under a special head for the graphie construction © he rectangular and equidistant polyconie projections. The ormule used for computing the tables, also the constants employed @ their logarithms are given, though without the detailed derivatio™ of the formule. 4, The Tables are six in number. Table I. gives the relation between the units of length used in different conntries—Table Ht has for its object to facilitate the conversion into each other metres, yards and statute miles, and will be found highly ©” Coast Survey Report for 1853. wit. venient.in many compvtations#Table IIT. gives the length, in statute and nantical miles, of a degree of the meridian for each 5° between latitudes 2U° and 50°—Table LV. gives the length of a longitude degree for each degree parallel, between Latitudes 17° and 50°, expressed in nautical and statute miles and meters —Tahle V. gives the lengths of the. parallel and meridian arcs and codrdinates for projecting large fare in the United States and can be used for a map embracing the area between Latitudes 17° and 50° and extending 70° in Longitude, which limits in- clade considerably more than the entire United States. Table VI. gives the lengths of the arcs of parallels to seconds for each min- ute of Latitude between 24° and 50°; it also gives the meridian ares and codrdinates with corresponding accuracy. This table is available for constructing any local map projection on a large scale, anywhere within the latitude specified. For state or gen- eral maps, Table V. should be used, and for town and couutry maps, &c., Table VI. is required. It will be seen that these tables suffice for all the geographer’s needs within our national limits, while a little study aud practice will enable any one to use them correctly and rapidly. The superiority of the projection on which these tables are based, should induce its general use for all the purposes indicated. enue. nal thus clearly set forth by the Superintendent. “ The history of acy. The the observers are still connected with the work, 1S the proper time, on every account to publish the observations. The econ- omy of present publication would be very considerable. I am 212 Coast Survey Report for 1853. the country generally.” We certainly hope to see this work soon commenced. MisceLLaneous.—Among the operations in Maine are reported some measurements of heights by nearly all practicable modes. From these and other operations there, we see evidently looming forth “important data for the coefficient of refraction under dif- ferent circumstances, and in relation to the relative advantages in accuracy, time and other particulars of the different modes 0 measuring heights.”—-At East Base near Galveston, an elaborate set of latitude and magnetic observations is reported.— The list of Coast Survey nautical discoveries and developments for the year embraces nineteen items, chiefly of shoals, rocks, banks and chau- ges in bars, inlets and harbors. The Gulf Stream submarine hill- The subject of adapting engraving to transfer printing is touched upon and is of much importance to such as are about using the ous devices tried.—Appendix No. 35, gives the results of two analyses of deposits taken from the boiler of the steamer Hetzel. This is a subject of practical importance. and it is to be hope that some corrective may grow out of such analyses.— Appendix No. 43 will be interesting to those who feel how great a loss the country sustained in the death of Sears C. Walker. There is much more in the various field and office operations, which might interest scientific readers, but space bids us refrain. In conclusion, we may remark, that taken as a whole, this report equals or exceeds any of its predecessors in the extent and value of its contributions to science; and that by its paper, typography, indexes and sketches, it goes far towards reasserting the admissa- bility of a Congressional Document to respectable libraries. Use of Hydrogen Gas in analyzing Mineral Waters. 213 Art. XX VI.—On the use of Hydrogen Gas and Carbonic Acid Gas, to displace Sulphuretted Hydrogen in the analysis of Mineral Waters, &c.; by Prof. W. B. Rogers and Prof. R. E. Rogers. First.—On the use of Hydrogen Gas in the analysis of Sul- phureous Waters. One of the most difficult points in the analysis of mineral wa- ters is the determination of the sulphur which is contained in many of them in the two conditions of Sulphuretted Hydrogen, and a sulphid, either of an alkaline metal or of magnesium or calcium. No satisfactory process has we believe yet been de- vised for this purpose. It is easy enough by the nitrate of silver orchlorid of copper to determine the total quantity of sulphur present in these compounds; but iu the subsequent process of boiling the liquid preparatory to the precipitation of the sulphur of the sulphids, while we expel the free Hydrosulphuric acid, We at the same time decompose the sulphid of magnesium or calcium which may be present, even. when the process is conduc- ed out of coutact with the air, as in an atmosphere of hydrogen gas; and if we boil the liquid in the air or even expose it for some time to the atmosphere at common temperatures, the sul- Phids of sodium and potassium as well as of magnesium = “4 n. the hydrogen used for this purpose, before reaching the vessel Which contains the mineral water, is conducted through a solu- — of potassa in order to remove any hydrosulphuric or carbonic *eid it may contain. Thence it is made to pass into a second 214 Useof Hydrogen Gas in analyzing Minerals Waters. vessel containing the snl phureous water through which it bubbles in a brisk but not violent stream. he gas, more or less charged with sulphuretted hydrogen, is led into a third vessel containing either a solution of nitrate of silver to which ammonia has been added, or an alkaline solution of arsenious acid, to arrest the sul- phnretted hydrogen. The former solution is greatly to be pre- ferred where the mineral water is only feebly sulphureous. The sulphur thns precipitated is to be determined in the nsnal way. Suppose the mineral water to contain free hydrosu!phuric acid together with sulphids say of potassium and magnesiuin, we may proceed as follows: 1, We determine for a given volume of the water the total amount of sulphur present by the use of chlorid of copper or ni- trate of silver. , amount of free hydrosulphuric acid in the water. - We apply heat to the flask containing the sniphureous wa- ter which has been thus treated, so as to cause gentle boiling, a the same time supplying the upper space with hydrogen in@ moderate but steady stream. It will be found that below t point of ebullition the issuing hydrogen will give scarcely a trace of hydrosulphuric acid, but as soon as the liquid begins to boil, the stream of vapor and hydrogen plainly shows the presence of this substance, then slowly evolved by the decomposition of the sulphid of magnesium or calcium. ; . We treat the remaining lignid with chlorid of copper, the arseiiious solution, to determine the sulphur of the alkaline stil- phid which is the only sulphur compound left in the water. ‘The sum of this and the sulphur of the free hydrosulphurie a¢ subtracted from the total quantity of sulphur gives that of the sulphid of magnesium. e find that a proportion of hydrosulphurie acid too small 1 be quantitatively determined by precipitation’ from the wale! itself can be ascertained by the use of the stream of hy aya It is only necessary to pass the gas which has been trausmitte through the water into an ammoniacal solution of nitrate of ver in a long test tube or Liebig’s bulb. By continuing the ac tion for one or two hours we obtain a precipitate capable of | ” separated. ae When the water contains no sulphid of magnesium oF of cium, it is merely necessary, after determining the total amount sulphur present, to boil the liquid in an atmosphere of hydrog®” Use of Carbonic Acid in analyzing Mineral Waters. 215 as long as the gas gives a distinct trace of S H by the tache on porcelain as before described ; and then by precipitation to deter- mine the quantity of sulphur in the alkaline sulphid of the re- maining liquid. rom what has been said it is obvious that the only practical objection to the process here proposed is the tardiness of tle dis- placing action of the hydrogen gas; but considering the acknowl- edged imperfection of the methods in use, we think that it may be found worthy of adoption. Second.—On the use of Carbonic Acid Gas in the analysis of mineral waters containing Sulphuretted Hydrogen. As might be inferred from its great absorbability by water, car- bonic acid acts much more rapidly than hydrogen in separating hydrosulphurie acid from that liquid. _ ‘I'o assure ourselves of this effect, we made several experiments with natural and artificial sulphureous waters, all of which led to the same result. The More easy separation and determination than when formed in the Usnal way by adding a precipitant to a large mass of the mineral ater. In the case of feebly sulphureous waters this method is We think greatly superior in accuracy as well as promptness to “hy of those in use. By operating on a considerable volume of AS carbonic acid is capable of decomposing the sulphids con- ‘dined in a mineral eaagena rise to free hydrosulphuric acid, 216 A, Tylor on Changes of the Sea-Level. it cannot be employed for determining the quantity of the latter when associated in the water with a sulphid this case the stream of carbonic acid would carry with it the hydrosulphuric acid due to its reaction with the sulphids, as well as that existing ready formed in the liguid. For such a water, hydrogen gas u as above explained, is the proper displacing agent. Art. XXVII.—On Changes of the Sea-Level effected by existing Physical Causes during stated periods of time; by ALFRED Trtor, F.G.S. * (Concluded from page 32.) Part IL. Avuustons have already been made to the difficulty of proving whether or not the sea-level had been gradually elevated, be- cause the rise of the waters would conceal the evidence of theit former height except just at the mouths of rivers, where deposits of fiuviatile alluvium might raise the land from time to time keep it ahove the waves. The recent strata formed at a few -The sea-bottom is marked from the soundings on the Admiralty Chath and the depth of the Mississippi and its fuviatile deposit are ! serted from statistics collected by Sir C. Lyell.t : : the .* For a most valuable detailed description of the physical geography, &¢. oe miacg te and Ohio valley, see Mr, o. Ellet’s paper, Hentilacoian Contribution vol. ii, 1851, t See note, page 26, Fig. 8. Diagram showing depth of the Delta (supposed, 600 feet); area 14,000 square miles; height of the river above the sea-level 215 feet at *; depth of river, supposed 80 to 200 feet in this diagram ; ditto of plains, supposed to average 264 feet ; area, 16,000 square miles. 4 c. Marine strata. *, Junction with River Ohio. a, a, Fluviatile stra eo S3 i = eee 22 - == 2 be 2 2 . ; th ae fai fa? 23°! _ - & nN vn 2855 ee x PHet io of i ta of the plaing of the Mississippi; the slope of these plains is d ined t t to be about 1 foot in 10,000 a ? Ld Direct distances :—Junction with (vert to Balize, 580 miles. Head of Delta to Balize, 180 miles. New Orleans to Balize, 70 miles. miles. ] Fig. 9. Transverse 0 tical scale 1 inch to 1000 feet. Sotboattal scale 1 inch to 150 on of the Mississippi, where it is 1500 feet wide and 100 feet deep, running in the midst of an alluvial plain 50 m wide. This diagram shows the section of slow-flowing rivers in general.) Vertical scale 100 feet f the inch. - Oo he a. dig bao #1 of water in the river during flood, ee is 26 feet E Artificial banks or apc feet bee > hove the. level of the nme Bocce 5 e d. Eo mi = a, . The level of _ in the d M1, mr, th The whole body of wi r in ap rie pail be in ee. so that even in cod t tine may a small per-centage of the water se alluvium in ‘the eam can escape over the banks. (218 A. Tylor on Changes of the Sea-Level effected by It will be seen that the level of the water in the Mississippi, near its junction with the Ohio, nearly 600 miles from the Gulf of Mexico, is 275 feet above that of the sea. The slope of the alluvial plains through which the river winds will therefore be less than 1 foot in 10,000. The hills bordering the valley of the Mississippi are cut through in several places by the river, thereby exposing good sections of their component strata, consisting of alluvial deposits thought to be much more ancient than those we are about to consider. An area of 16,000 square miles is occupied by the more modern alluvial formation between the head of the delta and the junction of the Ohio.* It is supposed to be, in the average, 264 feet deep, and is from 30 to 80 miles wide. The true delta extends over 14,000 square miles, occupying a frontage of 24 degrees on the coast-line of the Gulf of Mexico, and extends 180 miles inland. At its southern extremity its surface is hardly above the level © high tides, but it rises gradually as it passes inland, and at New Orleans is nearly 10 feet above the sea-leve A boring near Lake Pontchartain, of 600 feet, failed to penetrate the modern alluvium; and wherever excavations are made, the remains of trees are frequently found, apparently in the places where they grew, but now far below the sea-level. Sir Charles Lyell computes its average depth at 528 feet, and consequently nearly the whole of this modern deposit is below the sea-level, yet is supposed not to contain marine remains. The fall of the Mississippi during a course of 600 miles is shown by fig. 8; the depth of the channel varies from 81) to 200 feet until it approaches the Balize, where it shallows to 16 feet. The rise of the tide at this point is only 2 feet. The depth of the alluvial deposit be- low the river-channel is also indicated, together with the surface of the more ancient formation upon which the Mississipp! M4 formed this great alluvial deposit, the bottom of which is D0 more than 500 feet below the present sea-level. ee’ Mr. Charles Ellet, Jun., ina Report to the American Secretaly of War, January 29, 1851, communicates the information from which the diagrams figs. 1 and 2 are constructed. See p- 4% The theory of Mr. 'C. Ellet is, that the velocity of the stratum of fresh water (fig. 1) is communicated entirely to the underly stratum, composed of salt water, partially to the next stratum © but not at all to stratum 4, which is stationary : stratum 5 1s also marine, but it flows in an opposite direction to the rest, 40 id stores the salt water which is carried away by the friction of te upper stratum, No. 1, against the suface of No. 2. . 1 It is supposed that the rapid increase of deposit at the bar, fig. é arises from stratum No. 5 carrying mud to that point, where * * Lyell’s Second Visit to the United States, 1849, vol. ii, pp. 146-152, 155, !” 194,195, 208, 243, &e. eS ae a a ‘then Zt se [oo CS, ds eee” r “ a mS le evisting Physical Causes during stated Periods of Time. 219 velocity is partially neutralized by impinging against stratum _ From the following particulars of the deltas of the Ganges and Po, it would appear that they are similarly situated to the Missis- sippi. “An Artesian well at Fort William near Calcutta, in the year 1835, displayed at a depth of 50 feet a deposit of peat with a red-colored wood similar to that now living. At 120 feet clay and sand with pebbles were met with. At the depth of 350 feet a freshwater tortoise and part of the humerus of a ruminant were found. At 380 feet, clay with lacustrine shells was incumbent upon what appeared to be another dirt-bed or stratum of decayed wood. At 400 feet they reached sand and shingle.’* In the delta of the Po, a well bored 400 feet failed to penetrate the modern alluvial deposit ; very near the bottom it pierced beds of peat, similar to those now forming. The coarser particles of mud which have already passed the mouths of rivers may con- tribute to the marine or fluvio-marine deposits forming outside deltas; but this can only be to a limited extent, as the great bulk of the mud is far too fine to settle near the coast. Little material Contingences, and-also for their organic contents. et us now turn to fig. 9, which exhibits Sir Charles Lyell 8 transverse section of the channel and plains of the Mississippt, an : ial levée; d, d the banks and plains; m, m the swamps of the Mississippi. “The bankst are higher than the bottom of the sw * Lyell, Joe. eit inci 267-270. ; . cit. p. 248; and Principles, p- : ‘ : There is a instar po aes of the Wile bd its banks published in the fourth vol- byl of the Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society, Pp. 344, but communicated ¥ Lieut, Newbold in 1842. 220 A. Tylor on Changes of the Sea- Level effected by the river is above that of the adjoining plains. 'The swampsand the numerous lakes formed by deserted river-bends communicate at all times of the year with the main stream. In these places mud could be constantly deposited mingled with the remains of the vegetation which grows Inxuriantly in the swamps. The only supply of inorganic matter for raising the level of the vast plains through which the river winds for hundreds of miles, must be the mud deposited upon them during the periodical floods. These a ° ~- oO D => te” = 5 5 a a) “ o ie) 2 = ey) oe 2) =} n ° —; Qu oO a Ca] D -~ = oO ba) 2 = creased speed in the winter season favors itsremoval. The sv” mer deposit, however thin it may be, cannot occur without ¢oB- tracting the sizes of the channel. + On this and the following points see First Report of the Tidal Harbors’ Com mission, above referred to, which contains the opinions of our most celebrated em gineers on the phenomena presented by tidal and other rivers. : Aes author has not met with any explanation of the causes that produces eo 2 in cai oer ange the constant alterations taking place in them have ?° y to. eristing Physical Causes during stated Periods of Time. 221 Winter-freshets following a sudden fall of rain would raise the water-level of rivers rapidly, and carry it above the tanks before the augmented current has time to scour the river-channel and raise it to its former capacity. Accumulations of silt, small at any one place, must each raise the water a little above its proper level, and the point of overflow will be where the sum of these sinall elevations amounts to more than the height of the banks, above last year’s level. But floods leave a deposit of silt, &c. upon the banks they pass over, which increases the capacity of the channel ; and until new deposit has again reduced the area of the stream below its proper size, inundation will not occur. _ Aseach flood raises only the part of the bank it flows over, it 1S easy to see that the point of overflow will be changed from time to time; and every part of the alluvial plains through which a river flows will be visited in turn by floods, provided there are ho artificial banks. These banks assist the scouring power of tivers in winter, because they retain more water in the river; but, on the other hand, silt that would have been carried over the banks is kept within the channel, and this may be the reason why the beds of all navigable rivers have become so much elevated during the historical period. The contraction of water-channels mM stimmer, and their enlargement in winter, is thus directly traced to the nnequal supply of rain at different periods of the year. uy is being admitted, we have an explanation of the manner in which rivers may, by a succession of floods, build upon alluvial Ge posits along their courses, at the same time raising their beds 10 preportion to the height of their plains. _ 4 river-channels were perfectly symmetrical in form, the iden- Heal sediment that had fallen in summer might he removed again Winter. It is, however, well known that river-channels are Pon one side and shallow on the other. ‘The principal de- Posit therefore takes place on the shallow or quiet side, and the Pincipal removal occurs from the deep side where the current Tus more quickly. : is may explain why the traveller on the Mississippi sees for hundreds of miles a caving bank on one side, and an advancing ing of curves instead of straight lines must be Produced. When each curve, however, had assumed the com- 'o that on the inner or shallow side. ‘The current would thus dual te dition of equilibrium might last for some time. ; 222 A. Tylor on Changes of the Sea-Level effected by Hutton, in 1795, has remarked, that there is evidence of denu- dation in every country where at any time of the year the streams carry off any particles of the superficial soil.* The Mississippi must derive its vast supplies of mud from thonsands of such tribu+ taries; for it could obtain them from no other source, unless we suppose it abstracts them from its own plains. Certainly in many places soil is being'removed from one part or other of its plains; but an equal quantity must be added to some other part, for the river could not make a permanent inroad into its plains without enlarging its channel. ‘This it does not do, or it would be able to carry off the winter-freshets without overflowing, and the pres- ent artificial bank would be unnecessary. : e thus briefly referred to observations made by British engineers which may throw some light on the causes of periodical floods, and changes of channel in rivers, and also upon the for mation of alluvial plains along their course. These questions need not further be entered into, because the limited growth of alluvial plains and deltas may be best illustrated by tracing the alteration in the mean level of a large part of North America that would be consequent upon a denudation sufficiently extensive t0 furnish the alluvium said to exist in the valley of the Mississ!ppl- On the borders of the Gulf of Mexico at the present time marine strata are forming within a short distance of the finviatile, and frequently alternate with them, because spaces of the sea-shore are enclosed by banks of river-mud and converted into lakes of dinarily communicating with the river, but sometimes with the sea after high tides. he present marine or fluvio-marine deposits must be composed of mud that has passed the mouth of the river, or washed up by the sea, while the freshwater strata must be entirely formed from sand and mud carried over the river banks, or deposited 00 be bottom of lakes supplied by the stream before it enters the Gul of Mexico. An idea of the amount of denudation that has taken place in the interior of North America might be either obtaines from the extent of the marine deposits formed of mud that he passed the mouth of the river, or from that of the purely fluviatile and contemporaneous deposits formed from mud which had never entered the Gulf of Mexico. al But it is also necessary to estimate what proportion of the tol#” quantity of mud brought down by the river is carried completely t to sea, compared to what is left either upon the marine | fluviatile portion of the delta. pee: Sir Charles Lyell has remarked, that the alluvium now pre ing in the valley of the Mississippi can only represent a fragme” * Our clearest streams run muddy in a flood. The great causes, therefore, 5 as degradation of mountains never stop as long as there is water to run ; alt be more the heights of mountains diminish, the progress of their diminution may = and more retarded. Op. eit. vol. ii, p. 205. evisting Physical Causes during stated Periods of Time. 223 of what has passed into the Gulf of Mexico; and this can readily be believed when we reflect upon the depth and breadth of the _ channel, and upon the short period of the year that the stream would throw any large quantity of mud into the plains even if there were no artificial banks. We must also bear ip mind that in the more level parts of any district. It is therefore possible that, during the reduction of the mean surface-level of the land drained by the Mississippi to the amount of 100 feet, some por- tions of the area might be lowered many times that amount, ‘IS not necessary to take an extreme view of this subject to 84in the object we have in view, which is to show that, dnring Sea-level might be perceptibly raised} by the agency of physical Satises uow in operation. 2 . Ube reasons for supposing that a rise of 3 inches in each perioc of 10,000 years might occur, have been already discussed, and it only remains to state that, at the present rate of denudation, it * The data for cal ino the annual quantity of detritus carried over the river's banks, in aa ae tad "en to the sea, are very imperfect. Further “pretton on this subject i b needed. : + This change ae saan sch paccd, under certain circumstances, toa great ex- teat, but at the Jowest calculation would be 15 fect. 224 A. Tylor on Changes of the Sea-Level effected by - wonld require five such periods to produce the quantity of detritus said to exist in the valley of the Mississippi; while it would re- quire fifty such periods to produce the requisite quantity of allu- Vitrm on the supposition that only one-tenth of the mud in ¢ransitu through the river was appropriated for the accumulation of its alluvial plains and delta. Under these circumstances it appears a legitimate conclusion, that the level of the sea cannot be con- sidered permanent for all practical purposes when it may be shown that it might be disturbed by the operation of present causes during the period occupied by the construction of a, single geo- logical formation. Elevations and subsidences of the land or sea- bottom would also effect important changes in the height of the sea-level, sometimes counteracting and at others adding to the effects produced by the continuous operation of rivers, &c. 11 effects produced by these important causes would be an additional _ reason for not considering the sea-level permanent. * It is hardly necessary to add, that the continual waste of the earth’s surface by the carrying of materials into the ocean by rivers and breakers particularly attracted the attention of Hutton. He considered* that this was counteracted by elevatory move ments of the sea-bottom from time to time, but particularly men- tions that it was not necessary to suppose that the dry land was equally extensive at all periods. Since the fluctuation 10 the sea-level would be directly consequent upon the destruction of land arising from the operation of rain, the atmosphere, and rua: ning water on its surface, such changes would be in harmony with the spirit of the Huttonian theory. Part IIL. The average thickness of the deposit formed on the sea-bottom by the solid materials brought on to it from all sources has been estimated in the preceding part of the paper at 3 inches in 10,00 years, producing an elevation of that amount in the sea-level 10 the same period. Some portion of the oceanic area may be SUP posed to receive no part of this supply, while other localities nearer the coast-line obtain a great deal more than the averag® In the interval between these places, where the rate of deposit 1s extremely high, and those where it is extremely low, must lie an Pare detritus does not much differ from the average rate, which we have § ‘A more extensive near those parts of the ocean-bottom whl” e nip ceive no supplies of detritus whatever, but they must stretch "t to the coast-line in many places. For instance, if it 1s sup’ a * These remarks of Hutton are here introduced because he takes an entirely, ferent view of this subject to that promulgated by Sir Charles Lyell, who & 643) that there has been always an excess of subsidence. (See Principles, 1850, P existing Physical Causes during stated Periods of Time. 225 that a supply of 10 cubic feet of sand or mud is obtained from each foot of frontage of any coast-line, and distributed between high-water mark and 20 miles distant, it might raise the mean level of that portion of sea-bottom 1 foot in 10,000 years. Rivers opening on to the shore might also bring down a still greater quatitity of material; but although tides and currents are — at work removing the sea-bed in one place and forming sediment- ary strata in others from the old and new materials, there must everywhere be portions of every sea-bottom where the rate of deposit is intermediate between the highest and lowest, and may often not differ much from that of 3 inches in 10,000 years. These portions of the great oceanic area, wherever they may be _The limited supply of detritus derived from cliffs, and the wide distribution of that from rivers, renders it difficult to imagine any very extensive tract of sea-bottom where the rate of deposit de- tived exclusively from new materials should many times excee the average. Even on areas where extreme cases of denudation and deposition occurred (in periods when the sea-bottom was unaffected by movements, subsidence and elevation), there would many parts where the condition of depth would remain un- altered, because on them the rise in the sea-level would compen- For ormation fontaining throughout the remains of the same species of Mol- the equal depth of water indicated by the organic remains had been preserved during the formation of the deposit by means of * The effect h of the ocean would be of little i f th s ihe general depth o : : Mportance in & iediaglin Sakae of ve. except for an extende period of time, such 48 Must have elapsed during the construction of a great serial group of strata. Stcoxp Serres, Vol. XVIII, No. 53—Sept, 1854. " 226 A. Tylor on Changes of the Sea-Level. changes of the level of the sea-bottom, or that of the sea itself, or of both conjointly. Great caution must also be requisite in judging of the time occupied in the formation of the older rocks from their mineral character, as the following description of passing events will also apply to periods that are long gone by. Mr. Austen relates in one of his papers, that “ with a continued gale from the west large areas of the dredging-grounds on the French coast became at times completely covered up by beds of fine marly sand, such as occurs in the offing, and which becomes so hard that the dredge and sounding-lead make no impression upon it: with the return of the sea to its usual condition, a few tides suffice to remove these accumulations.’ Mr. Deane, the submarine surveyor, also reported to the Insti tution of Civil Engineers, that the turn of the tide is felt as soon near the sea-bottom at a depth of 120 feet as it is at the surface ; and he represents that the loose materials covering the Shambles Rocks are moved backwards and forwards with every tide. With these facts before us, what criterion can there be (even by estimating the sources of the detritus) for arriving at the minr mum or maximum rate at which sands and marls become pel- manent additions to the sea-bed? For the materials may present all the appearances of hasty accumulation, and yet the interval of time between the deposit of two strata of sand now contiguous may have been occupied by countless temporary deposits, a quickly brought and as quickly removed by the tide, and leaving no trace whatever of their existence. For the same reasons, W® removed in the next. It is therefore possible that many such movements may have occurred, and that the delta of the Missis- t ceding part of the paper the conclusion was arrived at, wee taking an extreme view of the rapidity with which the mater! id k cou level here must be, however, many rivers which are oD afford very small supplies of mud to any alluvial formations, 7 Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. vi, p. 79. theomi t It is hoped that in the course of a few years enough data will be fo 1 ovieal to determine more nearly the importance of this variation of level in 4 point of view, On Fuchs’s method for the determination of Iron. 227 from deriving their water from lakes or from countries with a very small rain-fall. During a period when the gradual elevation of the sea-level was not counteracted by the eflects of more the Ganges, the Nile, or the Po. For the above reasons it would be difficult to determine, when examining sections of thick fluvi- atile strata, whether these accumulations of detrital matter had n formed during subsidence of the land, or during the gradual flevation of the level of rivers and seas, arising from the con- ‘nual operation of ordinary physical causes. Arr. XXVIIL—On Fuchs’s method for the determination of Iron; by J. R. Brant. ‘To determi amount of iron in any substance, Prof. Fuchs of Munich a (Erdmann, xvii, 160) a method which or and rapidity of execution is unequalled. It consists sim- ply in boiling the solution of the perchlorid of iron with a strip of bright sheet copper, until the iron is reduced to protochlorid— 228 On Fuchs’s method for the determination of Iron. the reaction being Fe2 Cle + 2Cu = 2FeCl + Cu2Cl. The quantity of iron is then calculated from the loss of weight of copper, for according to the reaction, as the atomic weight of copper is to that of iron, so is the loss of weight of copper to the quantity of iron sought. As the idea contained in the method is capable of many ana- lytical applications, it became a matter of interest to determine first the accuracy of the method itself. The iron used in the analyses was fine piano forte wire, and as a preliminary experi ment the copper, which was of the purest Lake Superior variety, was boiled for one half hour in concentrated chlorhydric acid, with a loss of 0-69 per cent., and in acid of about one quarter the strength, 0-11 per cent.; showing that the very dilute free acid, in the solution of the perchlorid, can have no sensible effect on the result. Tron taken. Copper dissolved, Tron found. I 20074 2°2010 1:9441 = 96-84 per cent. It 20591 2:3065 20372 =" 96-94" Ill. 1:9262 2°1811 19265 = 100-015 IV. 1-6682 1:8875 1-6671 = 99:93 * 7 22574 2°5045 22121 = S799 VI. 2-0084 22855 20187 = 100-52 “ VIf. 1-9807 22015 1:9445= 98:17 “ VILf. 20671 2:3074 2:0380 = 9859 “ 2:0618 2:3380 2:0651= 10016 “ X. 1:0637 11907 1:0517 = 9887 “ The analyses show that although the iron is reduced to proto- chlorid, the change in color of the solution does not indicate with sufficient sharpness the exact time when such reduction is cour plete, thus rendering the method inaccurate and unreliable. The method can be made to give accurate results, as soon as some UD objectionable process is given whereby the reduction is rendered manifest independent of mere change in color. , ince the above investigation was completed, a paper on this same subject has been published (Erdmann, Ixi, 127) by Dr. Jur lins Lowe, in which he states that the method, in point of acc’ racy, leaves nothing to be desired, and gives as proof the follow- ing examples: I. Il. IIt. Iv. Vv. vi. ped Taken, 0-185 0-161 0-126 0-212 0-084 0-282 oy Found, 0-179 0-158 0-122 0212 0081 0278 020, Difference, 0:006 0-003 0-004 0-003 0-004 000 Although in these analyses the absolute difference 18 very small, unfortunately the error in parts per cent. is large; pressed in this manner we have: J. P. Cooke on Stibiotrizincyle and Stibiobizincyle. 229 L. Ul. 1, Iv. v. Vi VIL. Found, 96:75 98:13 9682 100-00 96:42 9858 99-50 Difference, 3:25 187 318 -—— 3°58 142 050 Léwe’s own analyses prove then that in point of accuracy the method leaves much to be desired; while by his inconsiderate manner of stating his results he has deceived himself, and proba- bly many others. New York, June 18th, 1854. Arr. XXIX.—On Sitibiotrizincyle and Stibiobizincyle, two new compounds of Zinc and Antimony, with some remarl:s on the decomposition of water by the alloys of these metals; by ostan P. Cooke, Jr., Cambridge. Durine some experiments on Antimoniuretted Hydrogen, made the last winter, I noticed that the alloys of zinc and antimony, which had been used for preparing that gas, continued to evolve gas from pure water, even after they had been washed complete- ly free from the dilute acid employed in the process. This gas Proved to be pure h ydrogen, and on boiling the washed alloy with water, I found the evolution so rapid as to recommend the reac- tion as a process of preparing hydrogen in a state of purity. This fact was announced at the last meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science; the new process of Preparing hydrogen described, and proofs given of the purity of the gas thus obtained. : n investigating this unexpected reaction, I found that not only the alloys of zine and antimony, but that also pure zinc 80nd article of commercial antimony which contained rather over one per cent. of impurities. ‘The antimony contained in the al- loys is therefore to be rated at somewhat less than that given in the table according to the per cent. of antimony which the alloys contain. The two metals having been accurately weighed out, Were melted together in clean crucibles and the alloys granulated *8 nearly as possible under the same conditions. ‘T'wo hundred 230 J. P. Cooke on Stibiotrizincyle and Stibiobizincyle. grammes of each alloy were boiled with pure water, the gas col- lected over water, and the number of centimetres cubes evolved in an observed time read off after the gas had been cooled to 20° . These amounts were afterwards reduced for ten minutes, and thus reduced are given in the table. As it was impossible to ob- tain the granules of a uniform size in all the alloys, another set of experiments was made in precisely a similar way except that the alloys were cast into small cylinders of a uniform size. As these cylinders had absolutely the same diameter, and almost the same specific gravity throughout, the same amount of surface was obtained by weighing out 200 grammes of each alloy, and taking care to have the same number of little cylinders in each lot. Column 3 gives the results of these experiments, where of course the same correction for impurities in the antimony must be made in the composition of the alloys. It will be seen that the two ts of numbers compare as closely as could be expected, it being remembered that the amount of surface in the first set of experl- ments was variable, while that in the second was constant and smaller than the first. These results however must be regarded only as approximations to the truth. The limits of variation m different experiments on the same alloy would quite cover the differences between the first ten numbers of column one, except ing the first, so difficult is it to granulate the alloys toa uniform size, and submit them during the experiments to precisely similar conditions. The numbers of column 3 from which the varie tions due to difference of surface have been eliminated, are prob ably relatively to each other very nearly correct. Table of the Amounts of Hydrogen Gas evolved by 200 grammes of different oe of Sb and Zn, in ten minutes, at 100° C. measured at about 20° C. ; Per Cent. of Sb. 1. 2. 3. 0 2 63 ee 5 6 84 | 10 4 28 3 15 4 20 6 18 6 25 4 19 | 30 4 f 31 5 35 5 49 40 6 72 7 45 | 5 45 50 8 44 9 55 17 46 58 130 244 84 60 50 | 139 47 65 14 35 70 10 45 7 15 6 36 80 5 23 e J. P. Cooke on Stibiotrizineyle and Stibiobizincyle. 231 A mere glauce at the table will discover two facts: Ist. That up to 50 p.c. no great increase in the amount of hydrogen evolved is obtained by increasing the amount of anti- mony in the alloy. 2nd. That at the alloy containing 58 p. c. of commercial anti- mony, or about 57 p. c. of pure antimony, there is an immense maximum which is confined between at most two per cent. on either side. fore passing to the result to which the last of these facts di- rectly points, I will briefly state the few additional facts which I ave observed in regard to the decomposition of water by the autimony alloys. It isa well known fact that the rapidity of the evolution of hydrogen from dilute sulphuric acid and zine can be very greatly Increased by adding to the materials a few drops of a solution of chlorid of platinum. The platinum being immediately deposited on the zine, forms with it a galvanic pair, and thus increases the affinity of the zinc for oxygen. The same increased action can produced by the same means in the decomposition of pure Water by the antimony alloys. Column 2 of the table gives the results which were obtained by boiling with pure water ina small flask 200 grammes of the granulated alloys, previously tteated with the same amount in each case of a solution of chlo- steat uniformity can be expected on comparing the results. The main facts however noticed in columns 1 and 3 of the table are quite as prominent in column 2, and also the additional fact that the presence of platinum very greatly increases the rapidity of the evolution of hydrogen from the alloys One set of results given in the table requires particular notice ; those obtained from pure zinc to be found on the first line oppo- f ; count the experiments with pure zine were e with peculiar ere Which aliinity of the zine is strengthened by the galvanic action of the Platinuny, 232 J. P. Cooke on Stibiotrizincyle and Stibiobizincyle. When the alloys of zinc and antimony are treated with strong acids, hydrochloric or sulphuric, they are as a general rule, and under favorable circumstances, completely deomposed, the zine uniting with the acid and the greater part of the antimony sepa- ing as a black powder, only a very small amount ever, even un- der the most favorable circumstances, escapes as antimonuretted hydrogen. When the alloys are in granules it is almost invaria- bly the case with those which contain more than 50 per cent. of antimony that after a short time the acid ceases to act, owing to the formation of a coating of antimony on the surface. ‘The ac- tion is of course renewed on reducing the alloy to powder, but here as in other alloys, the less oxydizable metal appears to be able to protect entirely a certain amount of the other from the action of acids. ‘ These facts in connection with those previously stated int ard to the increased action of the alloys on water in presence 0 platinum sufficiently explain the remarkably rapid decomposition of water obtained by means of alloys which have been previou ly acted upon by hydrochloric or sulphuric acids, even after the excess of acid and the salts formed have been completely te moved by repeated washings. This decomposition is so rapid that I have obtained from 200 grammes of an alloy containing 58 er cent. of antimony prepared as just described and boiled with water, nearly a litre of gas in ten minutes. It is plain that the antimony acts here exactly as the platinum in the previous e© periments by forming a galvanic circuit with the alloy. A set © experiments was made with alloys which had been acted upo? by acids similar to those the results of which are given 0 the table. The irregularities however which resulted from the une- qual action of the acids on the different alloys, from the differen- j Tey were always much greater than those obtained by using plat num, with the exception of pure zinc, whose decomposing pow was not increased by the action of acids. This new mode.of decomposing water is of value as a proce for preparing pure hydrogen, and also for illustrating the compe h im is er a) s °“S hydrogen obtained is chemically pure. : If commercial antimon and zinc are used, the gas will be found contaminate : small amount of arseniuretted hydrogen, so small howe be with difficulty detected, and entirely inappreciable in the refined eudiometric experiments. wine Gas evolved from an alloy containing 50 per cent. of com fole cial antimony was burnt in Regnault’s endiometer with the lowing results : yer as t0 J. P. Cooke on Stibiotrizincyle and Stibiobizineyle. 233 Tension of hydrogen used, - - 0:379 metres. 66 6 Tension of hydrogen +.oxygen, - 1-219 Tension after combustion, - - 653 Tension of gas consumed, = - ve - 0566 , 0-566 x 3 = 0-378, amount of hydrogen consumed. ity can not be renewed indefinitely in this way since the particles : antimony set free by the acid adhere to the surface of the é’oy and soon form a coating impregnable to the strongest acids. The large maximum which was observed in the table opposite d p. ¢. of antimony indicated the existence at that point of a efinite compound. The true composition of this alloy, consid- eee the impurities of the antimony, was nearly Zinc AZ p. ¢., Ntimony 57 = 100. which corresponds almost precisely to the ‘Ymbol Sb Zns. The compound which this symbol represents peal term, following the analogy of the nomenclature adopted. ¥ the German chemists for similar compounds, Stcoxp Sznizs, Vol, XVIII, No. 53—Sept., 1864. 234 J. P. Cooke on Stibiotrizincyle and Stibiobizincyle. Stibiotrizincyle. It can be obtained by melting together 58 p. c. of commercial antimony and 42 p. c. of zinc, and allowing the liquid mass when thoroughly melted together, to cool until a crust forms on the surface, On piercing through this crust and turning out the generally over an inch in length. They tend however to form compound crystals with parallel major axes which are often several inches in length and a quarter of an inch in diameter. Naturally they present a silver white color and a beautiful metallic lustre. The surfaces are often however iridescent, owing to a slight _ oxydation, and the true color is then only seen on the fracture. p- Gr. of crystals = 6-48, Homer. Their form is that of a rhombic prism, with sometimes only one, but generally with both sets of edges truncated. A section through the lateral axes is given below with the angles between the planes of the prism. The crystals invariably, so far as I have observed, run out to fine points, and although I have examined many hundreds of these crystals, I have never seen one witha termination. I on i? = 148° 30’ 1. I on 72 = 121° 30’ I on I over ¢7 = 1179 I have observed variations from the angles given above on crystals of the same crystalli- zation amounting to ten minutes. The an gles given measured the same to a minute on crystals from three different crystallizations, and are therefore fe garded as the most probable. é I -~ = it found on analysis to correspond very closely to Sb Znz. Of three anal- yses made by myself of crystals from different erystallizate c en either the zine or the antimony found and that required ae 3, and 4 give the results of the three analyses just mentione?: J. P. Cooke on Stibiotrizincyle and Stibiobizincyle. 235 1. 2. 3. 4. Antimony, 56°94 57-24 56°50 56°93 Zine, 43-06 42°83 43:06 A3°15 100:00 ~=100-07 99:56 100-08 There can be no doubt therefore that an alloy which contains 57 per cent. of antimony and 43 per cent. of zine will give erys- tals which have a composition corresponding to Sb Zns. __ It was found however that the same prismatic crystals could be obtained from melted alloys which contained proportionally a much larger amount of zinc, but not from those which contained less. As the amount of zinc in the alloy was increased, the crys- tals became less and less abundant, until they seemed to fade out when the amount had been increased to about 84 percent. A series of analyses were made in order to ascertain how far the composition of the melted alloy influenced the composition of the crystals which were formed in it. 'The results of these analyses are given in the following table. In the left hand column are given the per cents. of zinc in the alloys from which the crystals crystallized. In the right the per cents. of zine found in these crystals on analysis. With a few exceptions in these analyses the zinc only was determined. The zinc per cents. marked with my name however, are from complete analyses. Per cent, of zine in the alloy. Per cent. ¥i 3 o Ce eur 3 si ie - - 44:14 Cooke. 44 & ‘ * * * 44:26 Eliot. 46 «& " * - - 46:77 Eliot 48... - “ be “ 48:66 Eliot 50. i ee “ - 46:89 Cooke a z ‘ - A728 Homer When the per cent. of zinc is further increased in the alloy, it falls off in the crystals, and the alloy of 53 per cent. of zinc gives crystals which contain one per cent. less zine than those obtained — alloy of 49 per cent. It is eens? to say that well de- €d crystals s selected for analysis. Crystals eae from most of the different alloys of the last table, and were found to have the same form considering the Vatlation already noticed, as the one figured and described. I 236 J. P. Cooke on Stibiotrizincyle and Stibiobizincyle. was not however able to obtain crystals from alloys either of 49 p.c. or 53 p.c. of zinc, whose angles could be accurately - measured. This result is certainly very remarkable and important in its theoretical bearings, and will be the more so should it be found that the same variations in composition appear in the compounds. Until I have investigated these I shall refrain from advancing my views on the subject. The facts just stated are substantiated by a very large number of analyses and measurements besides those which appear in this paper. Stibiobizincyle. This compound may be easily prepared like the last by crys tallizing an alloy containing about 33 per cent. of zinc, and 67 per cent. of antimony. In its natural state like Stibiotrizincyle, it has a silver white color, and a very bright metallic lustre, often however its surfaces display prismatic colors owing to oxydation. It forms in right rhombic octahedrons with. basal planes of the Trimetric System. Here as in the other crystals, I have observed variations in the angles amounting to 20 minutes between the ex- tremes. The crystals are frequently very perfect and their faces so plane and bright, that the angles can be measured to a minute. The angles given were all obtained by measurement, except the one over X, which measured six minutes more than that required by the other two. These angles are nearly the mean of those observed. O on 1 = 122° 15’ measured on 2. each side. —Ey 1 on 1 over Z = 115° 30’, meas- fei] ured. . |: 1 on 1 over Y = 118° 24’, meas- NC ae ured. 1 on 1 over X = 95° 24’, meas- ured 95° 30/. Axesa = 1, b = 1-042, c= 0-793. rhc crystals were analyzed by Mr. Eliot with the following results : : Analysis, Theoretical Sb Zn2- Zinc == 32°62 Zine 33°55 Antimony = 66°86 Antimony 66°45 99:38 100:00 I have now given an abstract of the results on these tw new compounds which I have obtained up to this time. Iam now engaged in investigating their chemical relations and compounds. The results of this investigation I hope to be able to publish dur ing the Autumn, in the form of a memoir, to which I must! E.. B. Hunt on the Nature of Forces. 237 fer for the details and proofs in relation to many points which have been stated in this paper. In concluding, I would express my warmest thanks to Mr. Charles W. Eliot, Tutor in Harvard College, and Mr. Charles S. Homer, assistant in my laboratory, or their assistance and zeal in prosecuting the investigation. Their names have already appeared in the course of the paper. Arr. XXX.—On the Nature of Forces ; by Lieut. E. B. Hunr, | Corps of Engineers, U.S, A.* -deeite Neither increase nor diminution by outward transmission. If any other than the inverse duplicate ratio be supposed, it must involve Y, Read before the American Association for the Advancement of Science, at 1854, ashington, May, 238 _ E. B. Hunt on the Nature of Forces. either an increase or diminution of the aggregate agency, as con- sequent on mere transmission through space. But it is clear that mere transmission is totally incapable in itself of affecting in the slightest degree the quantity of action originally put forth from the centre. Mere change of place cannot, by its very nature, be a producing or destroying cause. ‘The inertia, the structure, the imperfect elasticity of the transmitting medium, may produce a ecay of transmitted action, as in the case of light in an imper- fect medium or of heat in air; but mere transmission as such, is as wholly powerless to destroy as it is to create action. he more clearly to perceive that unresisted central emanation necessarily gives the Newtonian law, let us conceive a centre from which action of any kind issues or emanates by rectilinear radiation. Each ray throughout its entire length is the represen- tative of the same quantity of action. Now if we suppose ele- mentary concentric spheres around this origin as a centre, each sphere is pierced by all the rays and hence all the spheres become loci of the same amount of total agency in a given time. If the emanation or radiation be supposed uniform in all directions, then the total intensity of action on each unit of surface for any pat ticular sphere, is inversely as its total surface, which is as the square of the distance of transmission. Hence the action ona given surface, or a given constant mass, is inversely as the square of the distance of transmission. Or, instead of rays, we ma suppose the emanation to proceed by spherical undulations, where ted emanation, the law being indeed but a simple assertion that ward propagation or that translation through space, neither makes nor destroys light, heat, force, &c. The same facts in a negativé order would characterize a central absorption of agency- ince free emanation thus leads to the Newtonian law as 4 2& cessity, the reverse question arises: whether the existence of the Newtonian law does not of necessity involve emanation? It positive proof of it; for we can suppose the exact geometrical system of dynamic agency which emanation produces, t0 be . the original creation and constitution of matter, embodied in a0 identical static form. For instance, we may suppose an atom $0 constituted as to fill with its actual and organic self all the space to which its force action would extend, and thus to have every where a potentiality identical with that resulting from true ema nation. his hypothesis literally makes each atom fill all spaces and all atoms actually to coexist in each point of the univers’ Thus too, if one atom be moved by its centre, it must evely EL. B. Hunt on the Nature of Forces. 239 scribe to an emanatio points or nuclei, all the forces which follow the Newtonian law. best be estimated by inquiring into the chance of an original static creation being based on the inverse duplicate ratio. rl- Between these two conceptions, each of which is a geometri- eal possibility, this consideration of chances almost compels us to choose the idea of emanation. When too we consider the ex- ceeding complexity of mechanism and the great metaphysical difficulties involved in the idea of coexistence, and when we ob- rectly to the emanative outward transmission of the force or agen- ty from its originating central points or nuclei. As all known Ptimary forces do in fact follow this law when acting through sensible distances, the inference follows that all these forces are . actually emanative. offered by forces following the Newtonian law. ‘To assume that the same primary force is attractive at one distance and repulsive at another is like saying that yes becomes no by a change of lat- tude. The expedient of leading one primary force through va- ous alternations of attraction and repulsion, as is apparently one in the theory of spheres of force, must to a reasoning mind “ppear too conveniently Protean and time-serving to be accepted as any thing better than the fig-leaf of our ignorance. We really know of but one type of force, and that one has a law which Means emanation ; yet speculation has run riot among all possible ‘alos of force decrease, and the force entity has been treated as a 240 E. B. Hunt on the Nature of Forces. shuttlecock between attraction and repulsion, just as present con- venience dictated. We must have a more grand and simple idea of force, ere the labyrinth of molecular mechanics will yield its clue. In molecular studies, there is a strong and widespread ten- dency to complex hypotheses which but ill accord with the fun- damental simplicity of Nature, and which by hiding our igno- rance, effectively retard our progress towards knowledge. ‘To exorcise this tendency would greatly promote the consistent ex- tension of strict mechanical investigation over the rich fields of molecular constitution. ; ith a view to developing the principles now presented and as a preliminary to some discussion of the theoretical views ad- vanced by Boscovich and Faraday, I will here proceed to develop a few of the properties of central forces varying with an inverse function of the distance, and which may be either emanative or static by coexistence. Assume a centre of force (or other agency) at an origin of rect- angular coérdinates, and conceive the force to be radiated uniform- ly in all directions, each ray being in its entire length the repre- sentative of a constant intensity of action, or of an agency varying in intensity with any inverse function of the distance. This me- chanism must it is evident, give results identical with those which would result from a corresponding spherical wave mechanisiD. Suppose now a circular dise to advance or recede relative to the origin, by being moved along the axis of X by its centre and be- ing maintained perpendicular to it; the reception of rays by this disc will be a measure of effect so long as the obliquity of these rays can be disregarded. Calling the force or aggregate action y, when the disc is at the distance z from the origin, and ¥ diate it is at the distance unity ; we have y’: y :: x? : 1, or y=5 If now we conceive each ray as having an intensity varying with a simple inverse function of z, we shall obtain y= 5, in which ” exceeds by two the exponent of variation along each ray. “4 If we differentiate the equation y =4, regarding y as 4 fune- / tion of z, we obtain dy Ma be and this is the force deere can best be wards ment corresponding to the Newtonian law. This appreciated by deriving it directly. Let the dise advance to mining the elementary ring projected around the former position of the disc. Calling the disc radius r, and the width of the @ ded ring dr, we shall have by proportionality « : —dx::7 + Ei. B, Hunt on the Nature of Forces. — 241 —rdzr and dr= » also y:dy::«r2:2(r+dr)?—zr?. Hence by re- duction and by neglecting dr? as an infinitely small quantity of —2ydr —2yde —2y'dr Lin dc pjt@mee. s Sapiee which is the expresssion above found as the differential of a New- tonian force. The signs of dz, dy and dr depend on the direc- tion of the motion of the receptive surface. It will be seen by inspecting the above, that not only is New- ton’s law derived from this consideration of ray-reception, but that the differential equation of that law expresses simply the telation between the differential of distance and that of ray recep- _ ton, is law also involves the two assumptions which for all appreciable distances are entirely admissible, though not at all so for extremely small distances: first, that the effect of ray ob- liquity for the same receiving disc may be neglected, and second, that the diffusion over the disc may be regarded as uniform. By substituting spherical atoms for the disc, we at once obtain the case of nature, when the question is of actions between sensible masses, the second order, we obtain dy= f If we construct the curve of the equation y=% we find that the differentials of force and distance are always equal in con- struction. The law of the increment is only satisfied by that cutve which cuts the line through the origin making an angle of 45° With the two axes, in the point whose ordinate equals the tadius of disc. Thus the radius of the receptive disc or ato determines the particular characteristic curve of relation between orce and distance: a curve which is the same for a homogene- °us sphere of atoms as for a single component atom. i y : Passing to the more general function y=". and differentia —ny'dx seta? in which if we substitute y for < ting, we obtain dy = Y. If we suppose now that all the curves xv Corresponding to any particular value of n are duly constructed, and if a ase line rama the origin make the angle z with the We obtain dy=—ndz ; y "xis of x then “— tang, a= a constant; or in dy=—ndz"» we Stcoxp Sates, Vol XVII, No. 53—Sept., 1854. 31 242 E. B. Hunt on the Nature of Forces. find a constant of force increment, for all the points in which a straight line from the origin cuts the various curves of the sys- tem. The significance of this result is obvious when we con- sider that radiation gives shape to the formula. By farther dis- cussion, it would be seen that the increment for a given ordinate varies inversely with the abscissas and directly with the ordinate for a given abscissa. ‘ If the series of parallel curves corresponding to y=" be con-. structed for all values of y’ from plus infinity to minus infinity any possible attraction or repulsion curve for which the force varies : ae irks : : as = will coincide with some one of this series. No two curves of this series when referred to the same origin and axes can made to intersect. This property is general for all central force curves, in which y varies as ma taken in sets for each value of m from zero to plus infinity. This signifies that if any number of central forces acting from the same centre according to the same law are in equilibrio at one point, they must be so at all distances. Also if any number of attractions and repulsions act from one 1 : 1 point as their resultant also acts as —. Thus v Ya T Ya FYarF SC. Yr —Yrr— Yn — KC, = Yo OF Y= Yotyarty'art &e. —yr—y'e ye &e. _ ya ot Yt - which is of the original form. Hence all forces emanating from a centre and varying as ya are equivalent to a single resultant i anueca ee é varying as ~; which is wholly attractive or wholly repulsive: and other forces than those varying as za of we must suppose more ‘than one kind of matter. If we suppose an atom to exercise two central forces, one al- tractive and one repulsive for which 2 has different values, their curves will intersect or the forces will balance at one aD one distance. Thus if the ordinary attraction, yaa and any only E. B. Hunt on the Nature of Forces. 243 / repulsion y= act from the same centre their resultant, y,-y; i "* sass. JS xz" “, can only be zero when z= infinity, or when —_— =— t= iy - In general c= “, is the abscissa or radius a a of the point or sphere of equilibrium of these two forces. Hence such a primary attraction and a primary repulsion acting between simple atoms, can together give but one type or form of equilib- rium, and thus must fail to give the solid, liquid and gaseous con- ditions of aggregations. Besides two forces involving different laws of action or values of m, can in no wise give the simple Newtonian form as it appears in gravitation. From this we can say with confidence that heat or the interatomic repulsive force is no mere radial repulsion varying as Pa To suppose three or more distinct atomic forces varying as pe? Gar and yam or to suppose a single force following no sim- ple functional law, but being now repulsive, now attractive, now infinite and again Newtonian, is to give ourselves up to bewilder- Ment and to achieve a chaos of explanation, Simple emana- n. From the point which this discussion has now reached, I wish ion of Faraday, freely stating some objections not hitherto urged. oscovich by denying size to atoms, prevents them from pre- senting any material surface or volume on which to receive force then is the Newtonian law, or indeed any action to be derived ? this law but expresses the condition of ray-reception, what 244 E. B. Hunt on the Nature of Forces. does it mean when this reception is precluded by the total lack of magnitude in atoms? Nothing remains but to conceive the force rays or their equivalents from the atoms in B as every where re- ceiving the action of the intersecting rays from the atoms in 4, and referring these actions back to their own centres. Now un- _ less these rays are conceived as possessing magnitude, and as ac- tually filling all space, the result of ray-intersections, depending as it must on the number of intersections, would not be the ex- act Newtonian law, but one essentially departing from this, by a difference which increases as the rays from each atom are sup- posed less completely to fill all space. Thus to obtain the New- tonian law, we appear to be driven again to that strange hypoth- esis of each atom filling all space and all atoms coexisting 10 each point, and to require still other special conditions; all sim- ply as a consequence of denying size to atomic nuclei. As the power of receptivity must exist either in atoms of finite size or ~ in atoms of infinite size, and as we must either locate inertia in a nucleal atom or in an infinite one; we seem quite justified in preferring emanation from and reception by definite nucleal atoms to the bold hypothesis of a static entity, activity and inertia be- longing to infinite coexistent atoms. If we attempt to concelve © a material mass, as a wall for instance, according to this coexis- tence theory, we shall find it signally inadequate to the realiza- tion of facts to the mind, which though not a logical objection, IS a serious practical drawback. ut by conceiving atoms as solid, impenetrable, definite volumes, from which force incessantly emanates, and by which force is incessantly received, the mental difficulties wane away, and matter becomes to the mind a local- ized reality. However small the atomic volumes be assumed, $0 long as they have a real and finite size, a receptive capacity and the Newtonian law result at once. If I rightly apprehend Faraday’s views (Phil. Mag., Nos. 157 and 188), they are such as would give a law quite different from ' Newton’s. The interactions of rays conditioned as he suppose could only give the actual result by so extending the amplitude and number of rays as that all points of space should be points of interaction between the rays of each atom and of all other atoms which is the coexistence theory again. 'T’o deduce the actua law from the views so modestly set forth by this excellent inves” tigator, would, I think, be a mathematical impossibility ; to S*Y nothing of their inadequacy as they now stand, to serve the cause of molecular mechanics. The objection to the vieWS Boscovich and Faraday on the ground of their not providing for inertia has been well urged by Airy (Phil. Mag., No. Je There is another signal fault of the Boscovich theory; whi at this time is peculiarly objectionable. While its mechanis™ and empirically devised with special reference to the solid, liquid ch is Fi. B. Hunt on the Nature of Forces. 245 gaseous states of aggregation, it really takes no account of heat, but at once refers these states to primary forces assumed for the purpose. Yet it is certainly the degree of heat, and that alone, which in fact mainly determines these forms of material exist- ence. If any relation is supposable between heat and the force spheres of Boscovich, it remains to be discovered what it may be. But as the theory now stands, heat is ignored, and force spheres usurp the work actually performed by heat.’ This theoretical false causation is a positive stumbling-block in the way to clearer iews of heat and molecular aggregation. ‘The more we reflect on the wide range of actions due to heat, the more incompetent to their representation will we find the conception of primary spheres of force. In nature, aggregation is actually almost abso- 1—Curve of Boscovich. - fa) [») Grav ‘tation ‘eoesaoS ‘ists in his not having correctly extended his theory to masses of inatter, which, unfortunately for his theory, is the only case oc- curring in nature. Taking his exponential curve of force be- tween two atoms as it stands, and discussing a mass composed of such atoms, it appears that instead of the various types of aggre- gation and force manifestation hitherto supposed to result, there Will be but a single cohesive type, Which will be invariable for by 246 FE. B. Hunt on the Nature of Forces. To illustrate this, let us assume along the axis of X, (fig. 2), a line or thread of atoms, at mutual distances corresponding to a 2. A Wii) be KI particular solid or liquid, and acting on each other according to the Boscovich force curve: call the atoms to the left of the orl- gin A, B, C, D, &c., and those to the right, 1, 2, 3, 4, &c. Jn Vol. I. of Robison’s Mechanical Philosophy, there is an exposition of Boscovich’s theory, to which most of his disciples are indebt- ed for their acquaintance with his views, and in this, the widest limit of cohesion is fixed at about one-thousandth of an inch, within which are several alternations of attraction and repulsion branches. Now by comparing this distance with the almost 1n- finitely minuter threads, membranes, eye-points, &c. revealed by the microscope in infusorial and other organic forms, or with any of the countless facts showing the extreme divisibility of matter and the differential character of interatomic distances, it will be come evident that many thousands of atoms lie within this outer limit of cohesion, or in the one-thousandth of an inch measure in a mass. . Boscovich in his Theoria leaves the case essentially in the same condition. Hence the afoms A, B, C, D, &c., on é left of the origin act on 1, 2, 3, 4, &c. on the right of the origin, the attractions and repulsions alternating through many thousands of atoms on each hand. e atom A repels or attracts 1, 2, | 4, &c. according to distance, all atoms exterior to the last limit ° Robison’s Mechanical Philosophy, Daubeney’s Atomic Theory, Bartlett’s Mechanics, &c., it will be seen that the outermost wie E. B. Hunt on the Nature of Forces. 247 the adjacent repulsion branch, and that the successive attraction and repulsion branches embrace about equal areas. Hence the attraction between A and the gravitating atoms in the line is de- cidedly greater in its aggregate than the sum of the adjacent re- pulsions ; as is amply realized when we consider that the attrac- tion area extends to infinity between the curve and the asymp- tote axis. Hence the action of A would be to draw the gravita- ting part of the column towards itself with a much greater force than it repels the adjacent portion, so that a large surplus of at- tractive pressure is passed along the column to the next attractive branch, which is thus made greatly to surpass the next repulsion and so on through the whole curve, until the interior repulsion is reached, where the aggregate attractive surplus is balanced by the final indefinite repulsion. The action of B, C, D, &c. is entirely similar, except in the successive pruning of the inner extremity of the curve. Hence the aggregate action of A, B, C, D, &c. on , 2, 3, 4, &c. is simply a prevailing attraction which is only ef- fectively resisted by the final indefinite repulsion, and thus the whole mechanism of this curve serves only to make some pertur- bations in attraction with no palpable result whatever. Passing now from a line of atoms to a medium or mass of matter, the same result is found only vastly exaggerated. Refer- ting the medium to three rectangular axes of X, Y, Z, and con- ceiving the line of atoms already discussed as coinciding with the axis of X, we wish to determine the aggregate forces which counteract each other in a superficial unit of the plane Y Z. "he total action of the column A, B, C, D, &c. on the matter filling the space beyond the plane Y Z, affords the true criterion Straight line parallel to the axis of X, giving an infinite aggre- gate attraction for an infinite medium. In other words, all grav- tating shells give equal total attractions. For the atoms B, C, : &c. nearly the same result will be found, by a like process, the only difference being in the cutting off portions from the ori- 248 FE. B. Hunt on the Nature of Forces. gin end of the curve. The total action of A, B, C, D, &c., as of all the parallel atomic columns, will.thus be to give this meas- ureless preponderance to the attractions. Hence, a medium com- sed of atoms acting on each other according to the Boscovich force curve, would be unalterably cohesive, and the effects of the various attraction and repulsion branches interpolated between faults of his theory had they been actually pointed out to him. It is a strange oversight on his part, that he did not perceive the fallacy involved in his process of first constructing four atoms into a particle, four particles into a particle of the second order, &c.; as if his primary forces would recognize the ideal bounda- ries of such particles. He in fact neglects all actions except those between adjacent particles, when he passes to a medium, 4? Robison most pointedly does the same in his favorite conceptio” of springs uniting atoms. If this neglect were really meant, the question would arise as to what becomes of the machinery lot gravitation, and what springs are those binding the sun and earth: I cannot but regard the processes of reasoning employed by Bos- needful service than by the expurgation of views so abou Ing in error, and so obstructing the pathway to light. A fabric of af jections and difficulties will surely arise in the mind of any, bale furnished investigator who will really think strictly on this '© nowned theory of spheres of force. The objections noW pe sented are but specimens. he speculation of Faraday lacks the definiteness of Bosco- vich’s theory, and is not pushed into the field of molecular agg'™ gation, nor indeed could it be with much hope of success. Ray J. D. Dana’s Mineralogical Contributions. 249 vibrations would be a very ingenious mechanism for gravitation, if the Newtonian law could be deduced in a tolerably simple manner from it, but this requisite seems to throw us back on the strange theory of a universal coexistence of all matter. Its in- aptness for illustrating molecular mechanics is peculiarly striking if we attempt to imagine ray vibrations for the several phases o molecular constitution. In fact, the reduction of all forces to one law, such as that of Boscovich or Faraday, is like describing all animals as of the color of a chameleon. In strange contrast with the Theoria and the Speculation, is . the investigation by Mossotti, which is based on real mechanical principles, and which, though quite imperfect, leads to real re- sults. By assigning definite size to atoms, and applying the sim- ple Newtonian law of force to two kinds of matter, conditioned as in the Franklinian electrical theory, modified by Epinus, Mos- sotti has avoided most of the objections urged against the theory of spheres of force, and has given a glimpse at least of what heat '1n the constitution of masses. By extending his investigation, and by supplying some deficient elements, molecular mechanics may at last be established on that simple and sure basis of ordi- nary mechanical principles, which Newton and Laplace have so distinctly foreshadowed, and which the expanding realms of Physical science demand with a positiveness hitherto unknown. Arr, XX XI.— Contributions to Mineralogy ; by James D. Dana. l. On the relation of Leadhillite in crystallization, to the Anhy- drous Sulphates and Carbonates. HE sulphato-carbonate, Leadhillite, shown to be trimetric in “rystallization by Brooke and Miller, has three prominent points of Interest: its approximation in form, viewed in one direction, to a ‘egular hexagonal prism—its hemihedrism, which gives it a mono- clini nee bane aspect—its twin-composition, under which it takes a rhom- ‘ edral character, Figure 1 represents the known planes, taken “on Senizs, Vol. XVIII, No. 53.—Sept, 1854. 32 250 J. D. Dana’s Mineralogical Contributions. from a figure in Mohs’s Mineralogy, pl. 13, fig. 97, and rendered nearly holohedral by adding (though of reduced size) the want- ing planes. In the occurring crystal, the right-hand J, 4, 2, 22 and £2 are absent. Figure 2 represents an actual crystal of sim- pler form; it has but one plane J; and one plane 33 on either side is obsolete. Figures 3 and 4 represent known twin forms, copied with altered lettering from tracings received by the author from R. P. Greg, Jr. e plane 7 in these figures is made the base. The prism 47 has for its angle (at top) 120° 40’, which is very near the angle of a regular hexagon; so that these planes with . the planes 7 (fig. 1,2) make up a hexagonal prism, varying 20 to 40 minutes from the angles of the regular hexagonal prism. And moreover as a consequence, the occurring planes between % and #7, and between @ and 43, are nearly alike in angle—J and 32 inclining towards 7 at the same angle within 8’; and 7 (not shown in the figures,—situated between J and iz) and 4, at the same angle within 6’. Again, the macrodome 1i, like 4%, is neat 120° in its angles, giving 119° 40’ and 60° 20/, the acute edge of the dome in this case being above. Brooke and Miller make the prism lettered 47 the fundamental prism, and 7 the basal plane. This gives simple expressions for the planes; but it does not appear to exhibit the true relations of the species. We arrive at this conclusion from the following considerations. The twins consist evidently of three united crystals, as 80 ' garded by Brooke and Miller, the plane 7 (or planes 10 the series 72, 77, ix’) forming three sides and only three out of the six (fig. 3). If the prism of 120° 40’ (47 above) be the fundamental prism, and analogous to that of Aragonite, the twins should be formed by composition parallel to the lateral planes of this prism, to either of them, and hence there is no similarity to any known twin in the Aragonite group. ‘This is seen 5 in the annexed figure (fig. 5);—the sides of the hexagon lettered 47 are M of Brooke and iH ae Miller. c The composition is in fact parallel not to 44 i (of figs. 1,2), that is M of Brooke and | iller, but to 1% which also is near 1209, #4 having, as stated above, the angle 119° 40’. Hing 2 this psaray ot of Brooke and Miller) is better entitled from analogy and general aj principles, to be considered ee bala cnsel prism of Leadhillit than 4%. In fact the prism 12 (119° 40’) since it 1s J. D. Dana’s Mineralogical Contributions. 251 parallel to which composition takes place, must be the true rep- resentative of the fundamental prism of Aragonite and the allied carbonates. The relations of the sulphates and carbonates have been shown on page 53 of this volume, and had previously been brought out by Hausmann. It is there seen that the unit prism and domes of the sulphates and carbonates are as follows. Barytes, a sulphate, (12) 116° 20’ (Z)78° 20° (1%) 105° 24/ Anhydrite, “ “ 118° 35! oT ae pee Side 24 Aragonite, a carbonate, (Z) 116° 10’ = (17) 81° 40’ (17) 108° 26’ _ Adopting the prism of 119° 40’ in Leadhillite, as correspond- ing to the prism of 116° 10’ in Aragonite, as above shown, the corresponding angles are for Leadhillite, . . . 119° 40/ 16° 44! 107° 26’ For Barytes and Anhydrite (sulphates) the prisms of 78° 20’, 77° 4’ (the supplements of which angles are 101° 40’ and 102° 56’) are ordinarily taken as the vertical prisms; while in Aragonite, that of 116° 10’ is the vertical prism; the difference being one of Position. The question now is, therefore, whether the prism of 119° 40 is the true vertical prism of Leadhillite, and it is thence most closely related to the carbonates, or whether the vertical prism is that of 76° 44’ and 103° 16’, making its closest relation to the sulphates. The latter is the view adopted by the author in a former paper and in the lettering of the above figures, and it appears to be sustained by the following reasons, 1. The planes of the prism of 119° 40’ have not yet been ob- served, or if observed they are of very rare occurrence. In fig- ure 1, the occurring planes are 12 and 4%, without 17; and in the other zones, we find 1, 2, 4, without the plane 1. Or, putting Sut by the author in the last volume of this Journal, page favor the view that the prism of 103° 16’ is the true vertical Ptism. As this point is important, the facts are here repeated. Rhombohedral. Trimetric, ‘onoclinic (basal cleavage.) Calcite (Ca 6) 105° 5’ Aragonite, (a 6, 116° 10’ Barytocalcite (Ca, Ba)C, 95° 8’ Dreelj : Anglesite Pb§, 103° 38’ ~ yt 990.5 (Os, Ba)5; Anbydtite Ga S, 102° 56’ } Glauberite (Ca, Na)S; 83° Barytes Ba §, 101° 40/ “No ® PbS+3Pb G { Leadhillite, PbS+3Pb C { Lanarkite, PbS-+Pb , 85° 48" estos? 10) ad 252 J. D. Dana’s Mineralogical Contributions. he rhombohedral and monoclinic forms, and the trimetric and rhombohedral, have nearly a common difference, 10 to 11 degrees; which differs by some similar angle from Susannite. The paral- lelism above is so exact both vertically and horizontally, that the argument must be allowed to have much weight. Its authority becomes irresistible when viewed in a different light. 3. Dreelite is dimorphous with Anglesite and Barytes,—the same compound, essentially, occurring here under a rhombohedral and trimetric form. Moreover, Dreelite and Susannite are identical sulphato-carbonate under any other form it may present, of 10 Leadhillite; whence in either case, the forms should be home@e morphous with the corresponding sulphates. t seems therefore to follow that 103° 16/ is the true vertical this case, the most perfect cleavage would be basal, which !s not true of any known species of the aragonite group. But after the arguments above stated, we hardly need look further for evidence. An objection to the view adopted might be suggested from the planes [is ould not and the from Brooke and Miller that the plane J is also a direction © twin composition; shows that this plane is at least one of promt nent or fundamental value in the crystal. : is Upon the view which has been discussed, the species Ang" site, Anhydrite and Leadhillite have the following dimensions - Pisin Th eli Dome 1 Axes a: b =f Anglesite 103° 38’ ss 62° 49" 75° 297 16415: 1: eit Anhydrite 102° 56’ 61° 25/ "9° 38’ 16886: 1: Pee Leadhilli lite 103° 167 60° 20° 49° 34’ 17205 :1:1 J. D. Dana’s Mineralogical Contributions. 253 We add a remark with regard to the rhombohedral character of the twins. In the twins, like fig. 4, the series of planes in each sextant are closely related ; thus, as has been observed, the planes J, 22, i, 12, respectively have nearly the same inclinations on #2 as 23, 3) 34, 3 have on the opposite 7. From J the planes narrow down- ward, and from 29 they narrow upward and so alternating around. In fig. 3, there is a corresponding alternation, though of less ex- tent. Comparing it with the simple crystal, it looks like an Inversion of the alternate sectors; but as the compound form contains only three simple crystals, an actual alternate inversion lsimpossible. As the plane J is a fundamental plane, the oc- curring one (see fig. 2) should have a supremacy in the twin, and with it, the series to which it belongs: and as this series in the simple form diminishes from J to the opposite side (the right in fig. 2), this would imply a reverse enlargement of the next or (4) _ Series, and by this alternation the rhombohedral character would esult. The fact, moreover, that the compound is dimorphous and that the other form is rhombohedral, with the same angles hearly as the twin of Leadhillite (as shown by Brooke and Miller) May suggest further reason why the twin should take the alter- hating or rhombohedral character. _ These views are especially interesting as bearing on the sub- Ject of dimorphism, and illustrating the passage of a trimetric form to a rhombohedral. 2. On the so-called Silico-Titanates and Silico- Tantalates. In a former number of this Journal it was shown that Sphene Was a true silicate of the form (#)? Si?, or what is equivalent (8) 8#, in which : # (or R? 0?) = TiO? + CaO. It is consequently trimorphous with Andalusite and Kyanite. In this volume, page 130, the author also observes that the formula of Keilhauite, on the same principle may be (R?, ®) Si%, (R®, Br, Si) Si. The Special formula of this last afforded by the analyses, is (YoR* + 3,2 +N) Si, or 6R* Si+ 3%r Si+ Ni Si=(R, F, R) Si. The analysis by H. Rose of T'scheffkinite (Pogg. Ixii, 591) ‘ppears to lead to the same general formula with that of Keil- ae, OF (Re, %) Si. Schorlomite afforded Whitney the formula— Oa? Si+ Fe Si4 Ca Ti? Making the ‘ti a base as above, the oxygen ratio for the bases and Silica is 6 ; 11. But if the silica as obtained be a little too high, and that of Wéhlerite 254 J. D. Dana’s Mineralogical Contributions. the ratio may be 54: 11 or 1:2, whence would come the formula oR St+ BSF or GRe+3R SP ARs SP (analogous to that of staurotide) = Silica 23:3, titanic acid 22°9, peroxyd of iron 22-4, lime 31:'4=100. It gives 2 per cent. too little of silica, according to the analyses, while agreeing closely with the results in other respects. Mosandrite, in a similar manner, gives for the oxygen ratio of the protoxyds, peroxyds and silica 1 :.2 : 3, or of bases and silica 1: 1 (precisely 16-57 : 15°86); affording the formula R3 Si+ 28 Si+-4iH or (¢R* + 3R) Si + 14H, = (Re, BH) Si+ Ag, which, excluding the water, is the formula of epidote., The crystallization of mosandrite has not been clearly made out. _ It is probable, that there are no true silico-titanates or silico- tantalates, the titanic or tantalic acid being a base in each case. 3. Tourmaline. The author has shown that the general formula of Tourma- ine is (R, #, By Sit the oxygen ratio between the silica and all the other bases being 3:4, as ascertained by Rammelsberg, and this being the only constant ratio. The oxygen ratio for the protoxyds, peroxyds, and boracie acid, as deduced from Rammelsberg’s analyses, vatles greatly. Group I, affords mostly the ratio 4 : 12 : 4,—Group I, the ratio 4: 15: 5,—Group II, the ratios 4: 21; 6, 4: 24:7, ete —Group IV, the ratios 4: 36: 11, 4: 40; 12, etc.—Group V, the ratios 4: 48: 13, 4: 56: 12, etc.* For Group I, the special formula is hence ke Sif + sRSf4BSi = ks + 2n4+ 1B) sit For the Red Tourmaline of Elba, in Group V, ; Sty uRStisBSt Aap ian 4 3B) Bit These appear to be the extreme variations in the species Tour maline, if we exclude the analysis (No. 30) of a somewhat de composed variety from Rozena. The formulas for the other gi may be easily written in like manner, in accordance with t general formula above. Axinite has in like manner the general formula (Rs, #, B) Si; the analyses afford, as the special formula under this type R¢ Si+ 28 Si+ 48 Si, stent and this formula was suggested by Rammelsberg in his H worterbuch, i, 72. _* The oxygen ratios deduced by Rammelsberg for the protoxyds, peroxyl 1 silica, the boracie acid being included with the silica, are for Group }, }* I, 1:4:6; Ill, 1:6:8; LV 33 39> 42: Vi. 1.409 725, Notice of the late Dr. Waldo Irving Burnett. 255 Art. XX XIL—WNotice of the Life and Writings of the late Dr. Waldo Irving Burnett; read before the Boston Society of Natural History, July 19th, 1854, in accordance with a vote passed at the previous meeeting. By Jerrrres Wyman, M.D. Mr. President—F rom time to time Death has entered our circle, and taken from our number one and another of those who have been our most active associates, and to whom we have been bound by the ties of personal regard or of friendship. In nearly every instance they have been removed in full manhood, or even at a later period, when the labors of a life of the ordinary _ length had been nearly finished. But never before has there been taken from amongst us one who, in his devotion to natural science, has, in so brief a life, left so many memorials of zeal and industry as he, to whose memory we would now pay our tribute of res Watvo Irvine Burnetr was born in the town of Southboro’, Mass., July 12th, 1828. His father (the late Dr. Joel Burnett) was a man of distinguished excellence in his profession, and to the qualities of a good and useful citizen united those of an ar- dent lover of nature, of whose works he was a close and faithful observer. Botany and Entomology especially received his atten- tion, and without the aid of genial spirits, or the intercourse with kindre minds, were studied with no ordinary zeal during the few leisure moments which were left him after the demands upon his he at first extended with delight, he was soon, though reluctant- ly, obliged to substitute restraint. His son’s mind was too in- . ? . . - “lent, and drew from his teacher the confession that in this de- 256 Notice of the late Dr. Waldo Irving Burnett. partment he was no longer capable of giving him instruction; ~ and it was the habit of other teachers in the neighborhood to send to young Burnett for the solution of difficult questions which they themselves were incompetent to master. Almost without assistance, at a later period, he made himself familiar with the French, Spanish, and German languages, and during the latter part of his life had made some progress in the Swedish. the age of sixteen he had become thoughtful beyond his years; and then commenced the development of those tenden- cies in his mind which ever afterwards were so conspicuous, and which continued to exert a controlling influence, viz.: the desire of gaining an insight into the nature of things, and of forming philosophical ideas and conceptions of natural processes, concep- tions and ideas which can be obtained only by the exercise of the higher powers of the mind. Mesmerism, materialism, an theological questions occupied his thoughts, and were frequently written upon and discussed by him. On all of these he manl- fested independence and continnity of thought, and persistence in whatever direction his mind was turned. It was at this early age that his interest in the study of medicine commenced, when he accompanied his father in his professional visits, and witness the effects of disease, as manifested in the examination of bodies after death. Entomology now especially engrossed his thoughts, and nearly all his leisure moments were occupied in collecting; studying and classifying insects. While yet in his sixteenth yeat his father died. This event materially changed his prospects; and was met with firmness and decision, and in the course of the following year, finding that something must be done for his sup- port, he commenced teaching school, and at the same time gave his attention to the study of medicine. _'The subsequent years of his student life were spent under the direction of Dr. Joseph Sargent, of Worcester, with whom there grew up warm mutual personal regard and friendship: im the ‘Tremont Medical School in Boston, which has given to the pro fession so many zealous and productive laborers in medical scr ence: and in the Massachusetts General Hospital. He was al dent and industrious as a medical student, but never allowed his attention to be withdrawn from the study of nature, the micro scope becoming his constant companion, and a source of never failing pleasure. As evidence of his ability it may be stated that in two successive years he gained the annual prize offered by the Boylston Medical Society. The subject of the first essay V4 Cancer, treating especially of its microscopic structure ; and of the second, The Serual System, or the production of being; sidered as to its physiology and philosophy. In 1849, at the age of 21, he graduated in medicine, and $0? after visited Europe, where his attention, especially at Paris, W4 Notice of the late Dr. Waldo Irving Burnett. 257 given almost exclusively to natural history and microscopic ob- servation. ‘The expectations of intellectual progress which he now: looked forward to with so much interest, were soon doomed to severe disappointment. It was in Paris that he received the first serious warning that consumption, the disease which event- ually destroyed his life, had already marked him for its early vic- tim. After an absence of only four months, he re-embarked for America, to receive the benefit of a more genial climate in one of the southern states, and each successive winter he passed either in Carolina, Georgia or Florida, in order to avoid the inclement and uncongenial climate of New England. He had now no perma- tunity for investigation presented itself, he was always ready with ‘cheerful heart and patient industry to enter upon his work. _* His vari ienti . bstracts of them may be found in the Proceed- gs, also ia the Jowrnal or the Boston Society of Natural History. In the Pro- 8 of the Boston Society for Medical Improvement, ia the Proceedings and in Stconp Serres, Vol. XVIII, No. 53—Sept., 1854. 3 258 Notice of the late Dr. Waldo Irving Burnett. “On the Hybernation of Insects, and its Relation to their Metamorphosis.” ete 53 ‘“* An account of certain microscopic animals found in a person who died of an enlarged spleen.” “On the external parasites of warm-blooded animals.” This was a subject to which he had devoted much attention, and in illustration of which he had made large collections of specimens preserved for microscopic study. “On the embryology of the Articulata,”’ including remarks on the alternation of generations in the Humble bee, (Bombu Americanus,) in which last he ascertained that three generations are produced from one impregnation, “On the luminous spots of the great Fire Fly of Cuba.” “Observations on the seventeen-year locust.” “On Spermatozoa.” “On the origin, development and structure of the kidneys throughout the vertebrated division of animals.” “Notes on the Rattle-snake, relating to its dentition, to the physiological effects of its poison, and to alcohol as a remedy.” _ _ “Some account of an Insect, (Rhinosia pomatella, Harris, ) and iis recent petal to the fruit and forest trees of New Eng and.” t the Memoirs of the Autrican Academy of Arts and Sciences, in the American Jie nal of Science, inthe Boston Medical and Surgical Journal, and in the Am Journal of Medical Science. Notice of the late Dr. Waldo Irving Burnett. 259 regards their mode of reproduction as belonging to the gemmipa- rous type. Viewed in this way, the different broods cannot be As this latter idea cannot be supposed to be the result of direct ob- servation, and as no proof is adduced that identical cells and nu- clei really pass from one generation to the other, the whole stands merely as an ingenious theory, while Dr. Burnett’s explanation [and this view is not proposed for the first time by him,] is in ac- cordance with direct observation. But, in accepting his view, we are compelled to admit the hypothesis, that the germinating force Imparted to the first ova is transmitted to the successive broods without the aid of spermatozoa. “On the microscopic appearances presented in the intestinal discharges and muscular fibres of a patient who died of the epi- emic cholera.” “ Tissue and its retrograde metamorphosis.” “On the Geolozy and other points connected with the natural history of Florida.” “Considerations on a change of climate by northern invalids, and on the climate of Aikin, S. C.” “Considerations of some of the relations of climate io tuber- cular disease.” Cell, its physiology, pathology and philosophy, as deduced from *riginal observations ; to which is added its history and criticism. ? animal and organic life, and the agent by which even the mind self retains its grasp and exerts its influence upon the living 260 Notice of the late Dr. Waldo Irving Burnett. structures with which it is associated. In entering upon so difii- cult a subject as this, it was not expected, nor is there any reason to suppose that he himself expected, that he should not lay him- self open to criticism. The ablest living histologist, Kolliker, in speaking of the subject of the development of tissue, uses the following language: ‘“ Not only does histology not possess a sili- gle law, but the materials at hand from which such could be de- duced are as yet relatively so scanty, that not even any consider- able number of general propositions appear well founded.” As laws and general propositions were among the especial objects of Dr. Burnett’s researches, it will be seen at once that he has en- tered boldly into a contested field. But it is to follow him in his labors, and not to hold up to criticism his results, that we have at present to do. His subject is discussed under the following heads: Ist. Cell-genesis, under which he treats of the origin of cells, and advocates a peculiar mode of development, which he claims as original with himself, and the result of his own observations. 2d. Cell physiology, or healthy function. 3d. Cell pathology, or diseased function. 4th. Cell philosophy, or Ist, the relations of cells to the teleo- logical view of organization; 2d, the direct agency of cells 1m the production and manifestation of nervous power, the intellec- tual processes, &c. : The general results of his studies of cell life and cell genesis are in his own words as follows: “The great outstanding fact which appears before us as the result of these studies is, that there is fundamental unity of organization. This we have seet to consist in elementary particles, which in both animals and plants are formed upon a common plan. It was the opinion of Schwann and Schleiden, who truly originated this view, that this plan consisted in the preéxistence of a solid fundamental body, (the nucleus) around which is formed a membrane ultimately &* panding and constituting the cell. It has been one of my objects to show, that this is not of universal application, by an attempt to demonstrate another mode of cell formation, which is that the fundamental idea of a cell isa simple vesicle, and that the nucle- cell is simply one cell containing another within its walls. With Schwann the nucleus is erogenous and germinative—Wit me the nucleus is endogenous and reproductive “The two conclusions of the studies of cell life are thet 6 The existence of an elementary particle, having an invariabl unity of expression, the cell. 2d. The universality of the 4 cation of this particle for the formation of organized parls, tissues.” ‘« ast In studying cells in relation to pathology, he regards this as an erring physiology, and concludes, that, both as to their g¢° Notice of the late Dr. Waldo Irving Burnett. 261 esis and general aspect as cells, those which belong to abnormal cannot be distinguished from those belonging to normal condi- tions of life. "The genetic and general relations of cells in phys- iology and pathology are therefore the same. Their difference does not relate to structure, but to their destiny. Physiological cells must be considered teleologically, but pathological ones have ho ulterior object. ch of the different heads of his dissertation he discusses relationships. It is in connection with this latter’faculty that he seems the most liable to error. He appears to have partaken tom the German, of the Comparative Anatomy of Siebold and Stannins. All who are familiar with the published volume, will hot fail to see in it another proof of his industrious habits as ex- he last scientific investigation to which his time was devoted Was into the natural history of the Orange insect, which is so de- structive to the orange trees of Florida. The habits of this in- Sect he had studied during his last winter’s residence in Florida, d prepared a memoir in reference to it for the American Association for the Advancement of Science, but his ill health 262 Notice of the late Dr. Waldo Irving Burnett. Such is an imperfect sketch of the scientific labors of our late associate. It only remains to consider his life from another point of view, in regard to its moral aspect. this I do not feel jus- tified in treating at length, as my relations to him were not sufli- ciently intimate to speak from personal observation ; but from all I can learn from his associates, from his fellow-students and his more intimate friends, he was a kind and affectionate son and brother, one who enjoyed to an unusual degree home and all its associations; he was a man of a truly benevolent heart, ito which irreverent thoughts seemed to gain no admission, or from which they certainly obtained no expression. In all of his stud- ies of nature he seems to have had a pervading perception of God in his works, and often in eloquent words gives expression to his feelings, when some new manifestation of divine wisdom was uncovered to his inquiring mind. Dr. Burnett’s zeal and devotion could not fail to awaken @ warm interest wherever he went, among those with whom he associated. He became acquainted with the leading naturalists of the country, and obtained from them and others, willing aid and counsel, as well as respect for his great acquirements. 4° them he always felt warm feelings of gratitude. But there was one, to whom, more than all others, he was especially grateful, a friend and relative, who at an early period, perceived the indica tions of uncommon promise for the future, and who with kind heart and benevolent purpose aided and encouraged him in all his undertakings. He had religious faith and religious hope. ‘To a speculative mind like his, it seemed almost a matter of necessity that the momentous questions which the problem of life involved, should sooner or later, have been presented for examination and discus sion, and that before any settled convictions could be reaches they should have found him perplexed and in donbt. Doubts and perplexities in his mind did exist, but eventually they gave way and were replaced by faith and hope, which lighten 7 burden when, weary and exhausted, he approached the end o life. He had been long accustomed to look upon death and ' ri rd to victions. But there is one moment when, if ever on eart pent heart, if it.opens itself, does so without disguise, if it give rit ance, does so without reserve; it is that dread moment ¥ on death approaches so near that there is no alternative but to | upon earthly life as finished, its account made up, and f the that remains for the mind to dwell upon, is the dissolution © ce body and the realization of another life. A few days before Notice of the late Dr. Waldo Irving Burnett. 263 died our late associate returned after a winter’s absence, to the ome of his family, his bodily health exhausted, his energies prostrate. At first he entertained the hope that as before, rest and quiet might restore him partially at least to his usual health, and that he might have yet another opportunity of continuing those labors which he so fondly cherished ; but his fast declining Strength, the anxiety of those around him, the announcement of his physician and his own quick perceptions soon told that life Was drawing to a close, and that for him the great moment was hear. In all this he was calm and serene, conversed on the ap- proaching separation without faltering, gave utterance to expres- sions of deep affection to those who were bound to him by the ties of kin, uttered his prayer for forgiveness, and expressed the solemn conviction, which now rose paramount to every other, that if there yet remained much for him to live for, there was yet far more to die for. On Saturday morning, July Ist, a few days before the completion of his twenty-sixth year, he died. We cannot but sensibly feel, that in his death we have lost an associate of no ordinaty talents; we can point to no other mem- ber of our Society, and to not more than one other naturalist in our country, who has given such proofs of zeal and industry, and Scientific labor. Had he been spared to future years, we cannot but feel the assurance that he would have acquired for himself a far higher place and a still more honorable name in the annals of The Resolutions which follow, prepared at the request of the Society by Prof, Wyman, were unanimously adopted : Resolved, That the members of the Boston Society of Natu- Tal History have learned with deep regret the death of Dr. Waldo Irving Burnett ; that, in his decease, we have lost a most active and zealous associate, and science an ardent, disinterested and Ptoduetive laborer, | Resolve d, That to the family of our late associate, we would On motion of Dr. Abbott, it was voted, that Dr. Wyman be quested to prepare a copy of the Notice and Resolutions for Publication in Silliman’s Journal. f [It is with deep sorrow that in place of the usual Contribution ‘om Dr. Burnett for this Journal, we have to present to our read- ers his obituary. One of the most earnest, faithful and profound laborers jn science in the country has ceased from his work while 264 | Scientific Intelligence. yet in the midst of research and with new truths constantly de- veloping before his scrutinizing eye. During his connection with this Journal, he exhibited a deep interest in the progress of which enabled him to select the truth from error and pronounce judgment on the observations of the best investigators. . Burnett was among the few in the land who not only knew well the latest results of the studies abroad in his department, but also labored successfully in testing those results, and more than this, contributed directly to the further progress of science. The just tribute to the memory of our friend and colaborer by Dr. Wyman, renders it unnecessary for us to indulge in further remarks. His death is a grief to his friends; but science has eveli more cause to mourn.—Ebs. | SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. « Coa Ny ey SN Pee ‘ 3 4 i Scientific Intelligence. 265 demonstrate still further the continuity of the current, the author exam- ined its magnetic and physiological effects. Two electro-magnets introduced into the circuit supported together 750 |bs., and a vibrating hammer apparatus gave regular and very rapid beats but no musical tone. When the intermitting spring of the apparatus was removed, the conductors held in the hands wet with salt water, and the inductors made to revolve three times in a second, strong shocks were felt in the arms which however were not sharp and sudden like those produced , as Ne have shown, when a battery and an interrupting wheel (blitz rad) are and constancy to be used in telegraphing, and that it er i? pa i platinum plates immersed in dilute sulphuric acid, a inches of gas were evolved in a minute.» After the plates EOOND Serius, Vol. XVIII, No. 53.—Sept., 1854. 266 - Scientific Intelligence. decomposing cells in which the electrodes were. lead, silver or nickel in dilute sulphuric acid, or zine in solution of caustic potash. Two of zinc in a solution of caustic potash give off no ozone; the secondary ing cell 1S a Pogg. Ann., xcii, 1, , a vanic reduction of metallic chromium.—BuNnsEN has commu nicated the results of some further investigations in electrolysis and bas shown how chromium, manganese, and several other metals may read- Chemistry and Physics. 267 ily be reduced in small quantities from solutions of their chlorids. The author in the first place has found that the density of the current ex- not less important influence. As the unit of measure for the density of the current, Bunsen assumes the current having the absolute intensity I distributed upon 1 square millimeter. The intensity of the current was measured by a Weber’s tangent’s-compass, and reduced to absolute Measure by the formula I= er" tan. g, in which R is the radius of the ting in millimeters, g the deviation of the needle, and T the horizontal component of the earth’s magnetism expressed in Gaussian units. The Faraday’s lew, I=—, and this equation combined with the former . For the density of the current whose absolute intensity is I, the electrode having a section O measured in square mil- limeters, we have D r . ave D—=—= tan. g. Bunsen determines the quan- “oe: O- 220 Ms 4 C. The error which arises from the catalytic recombination of the two pletely expelled. In overcoming pow mposing cell, one pole of which consists of the inner surface of a carbon crucible filled with chlorhydric acid, placed within a porcelain crucible and kept hot in a water-bath. A small earthenware cell within carbon crucible serves to contain the fluid to be decomposed. A harrow strip of platinum dips into this fluid and serves as the second battery pole, the current being compressed upon this to a great density. 268 Scientific Intelligence. ternal appearance chromium resembles iron, but resists better the ac- tion of moist air, and on heating in the air burns to sesquioxyd of chro- mium. Chlorhydric and sulphuric acid dissolve it with difficulty, form- ing protochlorid and sulphate of protoxyd of chromium. Nitric acid, ve oiling, scarcely attacks it: its density corresponds almost precinoly to that deduced from the — volume of the metals of the magnesia group. Ino xperi — reduction of the metal took as 0-067: w when there is an abundant production of a combination of the two oxyds of chromium as an almost black ——— powder. Chlorid of manganese is decomposed like chlorid of chromium ; the metallic man- ganese is obtained in large brittle leaves which oxydize in the air al- most as easily as potassium. Sa an amalgamated platinum wire'is covered with a gray layer of calcium which contains but little mercury. The reduction of calcium is however difficult; that of barium is much easier, and masses of amalgam weighing 1 gramme are easily 0 obtained. This amalgam is solid, silyer white, and very crystalline : heated ina current of hydro en it leaves a dark etn mass, in the cavities covere od with a Rabpbe a layer of lim hen melted ie is made to form the: negative pole, an alloy cooing from 8 to 12 pet cent. of calcium i is easily obtained. ‘he a r proposes to ee pri [Note-—The_ itvsttions German chemist does not/appear to have been acquainted with the experiments made in this country by Dr. Hare on the reduction of Barium, Strontium and Calcium “by the galvanic Pp rs reasonable to suppose that this ‘influence 's very powerful in the battery cells themselves, as well ‘as in -«§ posing cells. those batteries in which, like Grove’s and Daniell’s, two metals weit two liquids are employe a, and in which a red takes place at the surface of the negative metal, it would seem that such dimensions should be given to the surface of the negative — eo the electric density shall be exactly rane eu to produce the chemical effect required at that surface, whether reduction of cone or oxydation of hydrogen. The writer would furthermore sug: 9 the explanation of the remarkable effects of polarization — produced y the magneto-electric machine and mentioned in the previous abstract, is to be found in the peculiar density of the magneto-electric current, under the circumstances mentioned, and not merely in its discontinuous Chemistry and Physics. 269 character. Jt is not improbable that the density of the current required to produce a particular chemical decomposition will serve as an accu- rate and available measure of the force of chemical affinity under vari- ous circumstances of temperature, mass and pressuré.—w. G. _ 3. On the losses of weight which minerals undergo by heat.—H. Sr. Ciaire Devine and Fouqus have communicated to the Academy of Sciences a memoir on this subject containing results which if confirmed will prove of much importance for mineral chemistry. The losses of perature at which the water is expelled from a mineral lies far below that at which the fluorine begins to volatilize. ‘They employ therefore two lamps, one fed with a mixture of alcohol and oil of turpentine, the = blast: lamp in which the vapors of oil of turpentine are con- orine ; the latter completely drives off the fluorine. The nature of the of weight which a mineral containing fluorine undergoes depends upon its constitution. The authors prepared a basic silicate of soda, and fused it over the large lamp, with a weighed portion of pure fluorid of calcium. In this case the whole of the fluorine was yolatilized as fluorid. of sodium, while a silicate of lime remained, containing the Whole of the silica. A second experiment was made with topaz: this a combination of inverted concentric platinum crucibles, the intervening Spaces being filled with lime. This system lost no weight on ignition se analyses in which lithium and fluorine have both been determined after 'gnition.— Compt. Rend., xxxviii, 317. Ww. G. 4. Mustrations of Chemical Homology.—Under this title Mr. T. Sterny Hunt f iati and base, as mnembers of a homologous series. Thus the three nitrates Of lead inthe ordinary notation “i PbO, NOs ; HO, 2PbO, NOs; and 270 Scientific Intelligence. n(OzM2), may thus be homologous. ‘The above formulas are intended to involve no hypothesis as to the arrangement of the elements, for in the author’s view, each species is an individual, in which the different species that may be obtained by its decomposition, have no actual existence. He regards those silicates which like eudialyte, sodalite, and pytos- 2)n malite, contain metallic chlorids, as oxychlorids, —(M2O2)n. MCI, and nosean, haiiyne and lapis-lazuli as basic sulphates = (M202) 20s, while cancrinite, and perhaps some scapolites, are basic carbonates. All other silicates are reducible to the same t s the spinels, of 7:14+8:0=15'1. Boracic, tanic, niobic and tantalic acids are Te duced to the same formula as ‘ ti silica so that 16 and 9 The triclinic feldspars, of which albite and anorthite may be taken as the representatives, furnish another example; the one !s 4 lime feldspar, Gat Si+ 34158i, and the other a soda feldspar, Na Si+ MIS multiplying the first by $, and the second by 4, and expanding, they are reduced to a common formula Me4Oca. Petalite, a lithia feldspar, also enters into the same formula, with a similar equivalen while orthoclase belongs to a homologous genus, w ich is Me The formulas with their equivalent weights, densities, and volumes; a" as follows: oi Eq. wt. Dens. 405-0 Anorthite . . (SisealesCas)Oca = 11184 + 2°76 = # 4 Albite . . . (Siseal:aNas)Oea = 1054-4 > 2°62 = 402 Petalite . . . (Sis1alioLis)Oca Orthoclase . . (Siasali2K3)Oco Ul Ul 13-80 = 100-00, which agrees with a large number of UN?” although there are varieties which appear to contain more al “ ite, Between anorthite and albite, may be placed vosgite, lab sue andesine, and oligoclase, whose composition and densities nd bave that they all enter into the same general formula with them, @ the same equivalent volume. The results of their analysis a msy means constant, and it is probable that many, if not all of them, Mineralogy and Geology. 271 be but variable mixtures. of albite and anorthite. Such crystalline mixtures are very common; thus in the alums, aluminium, iron an chromium, potassium and ammonium, may replace one another in indefi- nite proportions, and the hydrated sulphates of copper and magnesian metals, are obtained in similar mixtures. Heintz has shown by frac- tional precipitation, that there are mixtures of homologous fatty acids, which cannot be separated by crystallization, and have hitherto been regarded as distinct acids. he autho Il. Mrneratocy anp Gro ocy. 1. Notice of von Kobell’s paper on Series of Isomorphous and Homeo- morphous Forms, published in Schweigger’s Jour., vol. Ixiv, p. 410; b J.D. Dana.—In_ this early paper of von Kobell, published in 18382, (but which we had not the privilege of consulting till receiving quite tecently a translation from Mr. G. J. Brush, now in Munich,). the sub- ject of the relations of form among minerals of the Dimetric and also ¢ Hexagonal System is presented in a similar manner as regards the general principle, to that of the writer in the last volume of this Journal. Von Kobell aims to show that in the dimetric and hexagonal ms as in the monometric, there are many species related in form related in composition. After some details with reference n@ comparison of dimetric species differing widely in composition, oa the similarity of form, of Meionite and Wernerite ; Copper ide yrites, and Braunite, he afterwards adds Nagyagite, Corneous Lead, Zircon, Rutile, native Calomel. Thus relations among the dimetric certainly ; perhaps all. His Alger (PUERTO Meets Oe tes ee ones 1 Ili. Lichenes aie kB of Arctic . : or she — — on the E. a) yer ay ee eraae t 39 specimens .......11 11 Jungerma sone < V. Musci Sinko POE Us, 19 2 or 8, certainly ; perhaps all. TIT. PLANT VASCULARES. . Cryptogame (Acotyledones.) Pecopteris ee Gépp. & Behr. : year sina Cyperac Carex abbas, Gépp. and Menge. Graminez. Fragments, 4 macer. — Alisma plantaginoides, Gépp. & Menge. <{ : 5 ew Serophaticuant 2 Lonicereze VIIL. ~ Choristopetale. oranthez Crassulacee .... 1 1 The whole Flora as yet known includes 24 Families, 64 Genera; comprising 163 species.t e following are the general results of Prof. Goeppert’s researches. A considerable number of tertiary species of plants (especially Plante cellulares) are still living. * For the lists of genera and species, see = works above referred to + Of these, eight (the species determined from the fossil wood) afford: Amber. see eataner of species ma probably be rained to boat 190, by additions from 50 specimens of of which relations are barely determinable. ‘ ; : ; Botany. 289 The flora of the Amber being destitute of tropical and sub-tropical forms, it is to be referred to the Pliocene period. The remains only of forest-plants have been preserved in the Amber- is flora much resembles the present, especially in the Cellular plants; the Cupressinew, however, are now almost wholly wanting in our latitudes, and the Abietinee and the Ericinew are not abundant. The four species, of Thuia, Andromeda, and Sedum, which are iden- tical with the living, are indeed northern forms ; on the other hand, the Libocedrus Chilensis is found on the Andes of Southern Chili. , the branches and twigs of this tree being stiff with white resin- rops. If we take into consideration the enormous extent which the forests of Abies alba, Abies balsamea, Abies ovata, Larix Sibirica, and — nigra, |—— Sibirica, © Larix Dahurica, Pinus Cembra, at present attain in North America and Northern Asia, we are led to infer a similar extension in former times of the Amber-forests through- D amber in the late tertiary deposits of North America, Holla rth Germany, Russia, and ia to Kamtschatka, bears evidence the Conifer in the Amber, the existence of a very rich flora contem- THE GERMAN FLORA. THE AMBER FLORA. Classes. Species. Classes. Species. Cryptogame 8 6800.2 <6¥bap 6 60 P Families. Species. Families. Species. hanerogamze 135 454 ACTS. 20 102 Cupuliferse sa ifs ieiowsiel oe Ericines ... = i acca 24 Proportion of trees and plants ...... | ay ' 1-120 vem: j ot 2200452 Amber is never found isolated in large or small masses in the bitu- minous wood of the Brown-coal with resin-ducts of a single row of cells, which never contain yellow masses of resin, but only dark-brown C the Cupressinoxylon, of Goeppert. The compound resin-ducts of the Abietinee alone are Srconp Series, Vol. XVIII, No. 58.—Sept., 1854. 290 Scientific Intelligence. , stances it is generally in drift-beds. The supposition, however, that it belongs to the Drift-period is difficult to substantiate, the flora of that period being as yet but little known. e stomach of the fossil Mas- todon found in New Jersey contained twigs of Thuja. occidentalis (found in the Amber-flora) ; and in the Erie Canal in New York State, at a depth of 118 feet there have been found freshwater shells, together with portions of Abies Canadensis, which still grows in the neigh- borhood, and leaves of which are still recognised (though with some doubt) in the amber. The fossil wood of the Drift-beds of Siberia, succinifer), as Professor Goeppert formerly thought, but also from eight other species, including the Pinus Rinkianus, in which Vaupelt observed the amber of Disco Island. It is probable that all the Abietinee, and perhaps the Cupressinee, have furnished their share of the resinous matter (at first consisting 0 various specifically different resins) that afterwards by fossilization be- comes amber ; and this is supported by the author’s experiments in the formation of amber from resin by the wet process, as in his experl- ments on the formation of coal from recent plants.t : In form the amber is either like drops, indicative of a former semi- fluid condition, or as the casts of resin-ducts and cavities. Large nod- ular masses occur, which must have been accumulated in the lower part of the stem or the root, as in the Copal trees.—( Quarterly Jour- nal of the Geological Society, vol. x, No. 37.) IV. Astronomy. 1. New Comet, (Gould’s Astron. Journal, Aug. 11.)—A comet was discovered by Klinkerfues, at Gottingen, June 4, 1854. The follow- ing elements of its orbit were furnished by Prof. R. Keith, of the Wash- ington Observatory, from observations at Bonn, June 11, and Washing- ton June 26 and July 11. Perihelion passage, 1854, June 21-7751. Longitude of perihelion, . - 273° 6! 52-4 ) Mean eqx. “ “ ase 40 8 0 ; 1854-0 Inclination, - - - - - Jl 18 46-0 Log. cos. 9, « : : : 8°6357 14. hk Cee Motion etrograde. 2. Orbital Elements of Bellona and Amphitrite, (Comptes Rendus, June 19, 1854.)—The fo lowing elements of the new planets Bellona and Amphitrite are computed by M. Oudemans, of the Observatory of * See Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. vi, Part 2. . Miscell. p, 66—TRaxst. + Ibid, p. 33.—Transt. Miscellaneous Intelligence. 291 Leyden: the first from observations of March 1 at Bilk, April 12 at Berlin, May 26 at Leyden; the second from cman eee of March 1, at London, April 11 at Berlin, May 31 at Leyde Epoch, March 0, m. t. Berlin, Bellona, phitrite. Mean anomaly, . 30? 10°RsIS 127° 23' 56/9 Longitude ro perihelion, 117 23 5-6 ‘2 |) M.eqx. asc. node, 144 57 563 356 15 54 6 I iso20 Inclination 6 28 QT 1645 6 4 6°35 Angle (sin = excen.) . 9 53 450 3 55 43: Log. mean daily motion, 2882097 2941143 ** semi-axis major, 0°445273 0:405909 V. MiscELLaneous INTELLIGENCE. ment of nitrate of soda with heat. The ores in a state of fine divis- ion are mingled with pulverized nitrate of soda in atomic proportion to the sulphur of the ores. The reaction is between two atoms of oxy- gen escapes as an effete product, and sulphate of soda with sulphate of Copper, oxyd of iron and metallic gold remain in dry mass. A very gentle heat suffices to bring on the action. The resulting dry mass soon falls to powder under the influence of the air, and is lixivated to separate the soluble sulphates. The ee may nt avpamns by the action of Scrap iron, or if ve ery abundant may be crystallized from the mother liquor as blue vitriol, The gold is left in note inva by this process in a condi- tion remarkably adapted to speedy and perfect amalgamation by mer- _ Cury, for which purpose any of the rh Sr now in use may be e ployed. The application of this process = a large scale will depedal upon the ability to procure an ample supply of crude nitrate of soda, abundance of which is said to exist in ihe province of Iquique.* Dr. - Lieber, who has published a report upon Dr. Hoiland’s process, states that by it he obtained quantities of gold from the tailings of the best amalgamators, greater than had been previously separated from the entire ore. It is well known that the sulphurets of the North pega gold-beari ing quartz are all auriferous, but the gold exists in such a whether mechanical or chemical, is perhaps hardly settled, that it sap not be removed by the ordinary use of mercury. In such cases Dr. Holland’s process seems to be peculiarly valuable. Its use for ordinary r ores appears to be less promising, owing to the present cost of nitrate of soda. 2. Separation of Nickel and Cobalt by Wohler’s process, (communi- cated ee * fete E. Daxin, Albany University.) —Having a solution of tmolvg eH cobalt in hydrochloric acid, precipitate by potassa, filter, re- anid of | ; lassiu um, add peroxyd of mercury, triturated in * See John H, Blake, this Journal, [1], vol. xliv, p. 1. 292 Miscellaneous Intelligence. and ignite till all the mercury as well as the cyanogen is expelled, eaving pure oxyd of nickel. Precipitate the cobalt by hydrochloric acid, filter, wash, dry and ignite as before, and thus obtain the oxyd of cobalt. — and indicates the mode of observation he adopted. By comparing observations and seeking to unite them by a formula, he has found that only the third of the period of flood and ebb; it has ay height of 3:8 inches. The high waters of the 3d oscillation happen later than those rises more slowly than elsewhere. But this inflection represents the phenomena, called (manicha) the stand, and which consists in this, that near the middle of the tide-wave the water ceases to rise and after re- maining for some time at the same height, slowly falls. These phe- place, the flood lasts longer than the ebb, and in the river Kuja this this predominance of flood over ebb, and M. Tal yzine seeks to decom- pose these influences. On examining the curves of projection, it ap- Miscellaneous Intelligence. 293 tablish immediate correspondence by this station with the Royal Obser- vatory of England ome details on this subject follow. Signals were made every evening between 10" and 114, amounting to about 150 per hour. The first portion of these operations needed i=] a 72) ® “ < Es fe) i=] n S 5 3 ° Tc oO oe Sa “ 9°) GQ &. >) a4 S gg - = @ pi ° Q ol z ie") Z +) Q fo) 5 fu) ao Da © ‘ mence a new series of electric signals and astronomical observations to eliminate the effects of personal equations. Every night, precisely at of stars observed during the evening by as many 3° interval beats. Brussells operates then in like manner from 104" to 1045, when Green- wich resumes, and then Brussells at 1034. ‘The signals have never - Quetelet thought that in his communication to the Academy he ought to limit himself to these simple indications, leaving to Mr. Airy the care of discussing and publishing hereafter the aggregate of the observations undertaken at his request. E. B. H. r. stronomers—M., Faye, M. Yvon-Villarceau. Adjunct Astronomers—M. Babinet, M. Emile Goujon, M. Chacornac. M. Babinet also is charged with the meteorological observations. Astronomical Eléves——M. Butillon, M. Reboul, M. Liais. __£. B. H. 6. On manufactured Sea- Water for the Aquarium ; by P. H. Gosss, ALS., . Nat. Hist., [2], xiv, 65.)—The inconvenience, de- lay and expense attendant upon the procuring of sea-water, from the Coast or from the , L had long ago felt to be a great difficulty in 294 Miscellaneous Intelligence. a hindrance, but to the many an insuperable objection. The thought had occurred to me, that, as the constituents of sea-water are known, it might be practicable to manufacture it; since all that seemed neces- Sary was to bring together the salts in proper proportion, and add pure water till the solution was of the proper specific gravity. Several sci- entific friends to whom I mentioned my thoughts, expressed their doubts of the possibility of the manufacture; and one or two went so far as to say that it had been tried, but that it had been found not to answer; that though it looked like sea-water, tasted, smelt, like the right thing, yet it would not support animal life. Still, 1 could not help saying, with the lawyers, “If not, why not?” Experientia docet.. I determined to try the matter for myself. I took Schweitzer’s analysis; but as I found that there was some slight difference between his and Laurent’s I concluded that a very mi- nute accuracy was not indispensable. Schweitzer gives the following analysis of 1000 grains of sea-water taken off Brighton: Water, - - - - - - 964°744 Chlorid of sodium, —- - - - - 27-059 Chlorid of magnesium, - : - 3°666 Chlorid of potassium, - - - - - 0°765 Bromid of magnesium, - - - - 0:029 Sulphate of magnesia, - - : - 2-295 Sulphate of lime, - - - - - 1°407 Carbonate of lime, - . “ : - 0-033 because M. Laurent finds it in excessively minute quantity. The com- ponent salts were then reduced to four, which I used in the following quantities : Common table salt, - - : 34 ounces. Epsom salts - - - - i) Chlorid of magnesium, - . - 200 grains Chlorid of potassium, — - - - 40 - } nue The cost of the substances was—sulph. mag. ld.; chlor. mag. 34. ; chlor. pot. 1d. ; salt, nil;—total, 54d. per gallon. Of course. if a hed, so that’ we may set down 5d. per gallon as the maximum cost of sea-water thus made. The trouble is nothing, and no professional skill 1S requisite, d By Semcon tate was made on the 2lst of April. The following day | poured off about half of the quantity made (filtering it througt Miscellaneous Intelligence. 295 a sponge in a glass funnel) into a confectioner’s show-glass. I put in of animals, as I wished the water to be first somewhat impregnated with the scattered spores of the Ulva; and | thought that if any subtle elements were thrown off from growing vegetable s, the water should have the advantage of it, before the entrance of animal life. This too is the order of nature ; plants first; then animals A coating of the green spores was soon deposited on the sides of the glass, and bubbles of oxygen were copiously thrown off every day un- er the excitement of the sun’s ie After a week therefore I ven- ured to put in animals as follows 2 Actinia mesembryanthemum. Coryne ramosa. 7 Serpula triquetra Crisia eburnea. 3 Balanus balanoides, — aculeata. 2 Sabella Cellepora pumicosa. . me mad ab cotta 2) Cellularia ciliata. 2 Spio vu Bowerbankia imbricata. 1 egaihis (4 quadrangular 2) Pedicellina vo ag te est health and vigor; the plants Siaeaicii| one or two Red Weeds that clinia ae es anguicoma and A. clavata, a Trochus umbilicatus, and a Littorina a s wére at different times added \x weeks have now elapse nee the introduction of the. animals. T have just carefully searched over the jar, as well as I could do it with- on disturbing the contents. I find e id one of the species and y ie ciliata, and Pedicellina "Belptea hese I cannot find, and ai therefore - Observations, economical and sanatory, on the employment of Chemical gg am, base Peace. a E AN » (Proc. Roy. I of Gr. Britain, 1853, 31 19.)—There are two ct sources of peer el light, viz., electricity and the chemical force ; the latt tter, however, has been, and still is, the only practical ea Za =] - from animal and mineral bodies is primarily derived from the vegeta- ble kingdom ; every plant being an apparatus for the absorption and 296 Miscellaneous Intelligence. Until the commencement of the present century artificial light was derived almost exclusively from the animal kingdom; but the great economy attending its immediate production from our vast stores of vegetable fuel is becoming more and more apparent, and is in fact so generally admitted, as to render more than a mere allusion to it anda glance at the following Table, unnecessary. TasLE—showing the comparative cost of light from various sources, gs equal to 20 sperm candles burning 120 grains per hour each, or 10 hours HAH Wax, weg iis er eaeeven “to esis at 1Qb Spermaceti, . ooseoe ‘ wi . 6 8 Tallow . . ‘ ‘ . . 2 8 Sperm oil (Carcel’s Lamp), me ate 1 10 ndon gases, B, C, D, E,* - : ° 0 44 Manchester gas, - * . * . o 2 London gas, A, - - : i 0 24 We will therefore confine our attention principally to the light pro- duced from vegetable fuel, in considering the economical and sanatory bearings of artificial light. temperature shown to be inadequate to the ignition or even scorching of the finest cambric or gun cotton.) Usually, however, solids require a temperature of or 700° F. to render them luminous in the dark, and must be heated to 1000° F. before their luminosity becomes visible in daylight. Liquids require about the same temperature. But to ren- der gases luminous, they must be exposed to an immensely higher tem- . erature ; even the intense heat generated by the oxy-hydrogen blow- pipe scarcely suffices to render the aqueous vapor produced visibly lumin- ous, although solids, such as lime, emit light of the most dazzling splen- dor when they are heated in this flame. Hence, those gases and va- hydrogen are the only ones capable of practical application: these lat- (i oa * London gases, A, B, 0, D, E—These are the gases furnished to consumers bys five of the principal London Companies. For obvious reasons the names of the Miscellaneous Intelligence. 297 generated in the respiratory process of animals, viz. carbonic acid and water. The solid pasteies of carbon which they deposit in the interior of the flame, and w are the source of light, are entirely consumed on arriving at its iia boundary ; their use as sources of artificial light under proper regulations is therefore quite compatible with the most stringent sanator nee In the usual proc s of gas manufacture there are generated in addi- jess to these oninatiog b hydrocarbons two other classes of gaseous nstituents, viz. impurities and diluents. With the exception of bisul- these compounds, .as it will probably be found impossible to remove them from the gas when once they have been forme addition to traces of thes Soy pus Lmmocata: ‘purified coal gas Citdnins only the following guint Formula. Olefiant gas, - - - C2He Illuminating Ac bites ? - - : - CsHs constituents. ) Butylen - - CsHe Other nT - - unknown. Light carburetted hy aroaee - CH2* Diluents. | Hydrogen, - : H The light emitted during the combustion of ical gas is due entirely to the first or illuminating class of Se which yield an amount of light proportional to the quantity of carbon contained in a given vol- the pala of smoke attendant on imperfect soa ilu- ting material is therefore necessary to give the flame a sufficient vol- ume, so as to separate the particles of —— reese asunder, and thus diminish the risk of their imperfect combus All the three diluents above mentioned ae rm this office equally well; but if we study their behavior during combustion we shall find that in a sanatory point of view, hydrogen is greatly to be preferred. The two —— most frequently ian against the use of gas in — ta been described as possessing a certain am of illu ting power, but a specimen of it brought from the coal strata ~antae Chat Mosk Lancashire’ rosa that it zee fe eee more light than hydrogen or carbonic o oxyd consumed from Szconp Szams, Vol set i ape 1854. 38 298 Miscellaneous Intelligence. acid. Now, in their action upon the atmosphere in which they are consumed, the above three diluents present striking differences in these two respects. quantity of heat capable of heating 5 lbs. 14 oz. of water from 82° to 212°, or causing a rise of temperature. from 60° to 80°-8 in a room containing 2,500 cubic feet of air. One cubic foot of carbonic oxyd at the same temperature and press- ure, consumes during combustion 4 a cubic foot of oxygen, generates one cubic foot of carbonic acid, and affords heat capable of raising the temperature of 1 |b. 14 oz. of water from 60° to 66°-6. One cubic foot of hydrogen, at the same temperature and pressure, consumes $a cubic foot of oxygen, generates no carbonic acid, and This comparison shows the great advantage which hydrogen posses- ses over the other diluents, especially over light carburetted hydrogen, which is evidently a very objectionable constituent, and shows that a normal gas for illuminating purposes should consist of illuminating ay: a mode of destruction which occurs so largely in the usual process of gas-making. This mode of treatment produces a gain in the amount of illuminating power derived from a given weight of coal, equal to from 50 tg upwards of 100 per cent., whilst the increase in quantily of gas is frequently 300 per cent. The gas thus manufactured differs principally from coal-gas made by | Carbonic acid. Heat. Tallow, - - = . 10-1 cubic feet 1 2 > a re 2 a ‘6 yy Spermaceti, —- - - o3 : Sperm oil (Carcel’s Lamp), 4 ** 63 g . 47 adon gases, B, C, D, E; eee eS Miscellaneous Intelligence. 299 Carbonic acid. Heat. Manchester gas, - . 4:0 cubic feet 32 London gas, A, - - PD ees ihe 22 Boghead hydrocarbon gas, bE py: 19 Lesmahago hydrocarbon gas, Tog 19 use of gas, and in a sanatory point of view, the high position which, as an illuminating agent, coal-gas of e in dwelling houses is still extensively objected to. e objections are partly well founded and partly groundless. As is evident from the foregoing table, even the worst London gases produce, for a given dles. But then, where gas is used, the consumer Is never satisfied with a light equal in brilliancy only to that of lamps or candles, and conse- “quently, when three or four times the amount of Jight is produced from a gas of bad composition, the heat and atmospheric deterioration great- ed, it is evident that es am three or four times the light may be employed, with the production of he formation of sulphurous acid can readily be proved and even its amount estimated, by passing the products of combustion of a jet of . 800 Miscellaneous Intelligence. public buildings, may be truly said to have brought gas illumination to perfection ; for not only are all the products of combustion conveye _ at onée into the open air, but nearly the whole of the heat is in like - manner prevented from communicating itself to the atmosphere of the e only obstacles to the universal adoption of this description . of burner are its expense, and the difficulty of conveying the ventila- ting tube safely into the nearest flue without injuring the architectural appearance of the room. The public at large will therefore still await f . the removal of the objectionable compounds in question, by the gas manufacturer, before they will universally adopt this otherwise delight- ful means of artificial illumination. E. F. 8. Mechanical Action of Heat ; by F. A. P. Barnanp.—Prof. Dana: —An apology is perhaps due from me to Mr. Rankine, for attributing exclusively to another, in my article on ‘ Heated Air,” sent you in ovember last, but published in March, a formula of thermo-dynamics oule in this respect, whose article on the ‘ Economical ume containing Mr. Rankine’s original paper, and had not received it, gu in question in the Lond. Phil. Trans., Part I, of the same year. In the paper first mentioned, the formula is not only deducible from the ex- pression cited by Mr. Rankine in the last number of this Journal,” viz.» 1 ait Ww er —_ =} — dt EF st gS ee 03 but it is actually deduced, by combining with the foregoing Mr. Joule’s Jar i _ when W and H are taken as above to represent the total motive power gained, and the mechanical equivalent of the total heat expended, severally, wW_S—T ee BT where Sand T are the thermometric temperatures of the source se heat and of the refrigerator respectively, and E is the reciprocal of the number of degrees between the absolute and the thermometric zeT0- It is evident that this, when the symbols employed by me to denote ope oe a ie tis ike etbedbicl as given in the last number of this Journal, Re: Miscellaneous Intelligence. 301 absolute temperatures are substituted, becomes Tl —T . i: oy qi which is the formula ascribed by me to Prof. Thompson. ot note, however, by the writer of the paper, had I sufficiently attended to it, would have informed me that Mr. Rankine was inde- in the Lond. and Edin. Phil. Mag. as early as July, 185], in a note to his letter to Poggendorff; and had reproduced it in the same journal in February and in June, 1853; so that I could hardly be unaware that he had independently originated it. am happy, in making this correction, to express my admiration of the ingenious theory suggested and so ably developed by Mr. Rankine, to account for the mechanical phenomena of heat. I regard the coin- cidence of the results deduced from premises so different as those em- ployed by himself and Prof. Thompson, as one of the most beautiful ex- amples of the consistency of truth which the history of science furnishes. The cessity of a negative constant, represente by * in enom- inator of the formula as given by M ine, for temperatures deter- mined by the air thermometer, was pointed out by him alo This constant, which becomes zero on supposition of the rigorous conformity of elastic fluid, at all temperatures, to “ the gaseous laws,” and which tis .St.8., &c. &c. 524 pp. 8vo, with 37 plates of fossils. London, 1854. J. Murray.—A work of great t 10. Elementary Chemistry, Theoretical and Practical; by GEorGE Fownes, F.R.S., late Professor of Practical Chemistry in University Edited with additions by Rosert Bripers, M.D., . Coll. of Pharmacy, etc. A new American from 555 pp. 11. Manual of Natural History for the use of Travellers, being a Description of the Families of the Animal and Vegetable Kingdoms, with Remarks on the Practical Study of Geology and Meteorology ; to which are appended Directions for collecting and preserving. By Ar- 302 Miscellaneous Intelligence. Tour Apams, M.R.C.S., F.L.S., &c., Wintiam Datrour Baruiz, M.D., .R.S.E., and Cuarztes Barron, Curator of the Royal Naval Museum . at Haslar. 750 pp. 16mo. London, 1854. Jobn Van Voorst. 12. The Microscope and its application to Chemical Medicine; by _ Lovett Beatz, M.B. London, Prof. of Physiology and General and Morbid Anatomy in King’s College, London. 302 pp. 12mo. London, man is beginning to be understood and appreciated. The Treatise of Prof. Beale is well calculated to instruct the student in the use of the instrument and in the methods of dissecting, preparing, and examining e modes of preparing tissues, the ney, liver, &c.; others to examinations of the brain, nerves, nervous and serous membranes, formation, a chapter is devoted to the injecting of preparations ; another t ence to the necessities of the medical man. The work is illustrated with a plate of crystalline substances, and numerous fine wood-cuts, among which are two large views of microscopes, and figures of the vari- ous tissues, cells, morbid growths or deposits, etc., described in the text. We observe that in the remarks on the application of a goniometer to the microscope, it states that ‘the simplest method of measuring the angles of microscopic crystals is that of Schmidt.””. This Mr. Schmidt, is Prof. J. Lawrence Smith, late of the Virginia University, and now of the Louisville Medical School. 13. Report on the Geology of the Coast Mountains and part of the Sierra Nevada, embracing their industrial resources in Agriculture and Mining; by Dr. Jonn B. Trask. Assembly Doc., No. 9. San Francisco, July and October. The April Number contains Reviews of works 01 Science, with notices of the contents of some prominent scientific per!- odicals in Zoology and Botany, and the Proceedings of Irish scientific societies. It promises to be a valuable work. 15. Bibliographical Notices by M. Jerome Nickles. Methode de Chimie par A. Laurent, avec une notice par M. Bror. 1 vol. in 8° de 460 pages. Paris, chez Mallet-Bachelier. Théorie Générale des effets dynamiques de la Chaleur, par F. REEcH, both calculations and reasoning being founded on the absurdity of ad- f ok Th Miscellaneous Intelligence. 303 sight of, M. Reech has made the subject complete from a new point of much attention among mechanicians, and it will be studied at Se by all who are occupied with the mechanical properties of stea air, etc. The volume is a quarto of 212 pages, published ‘olf Mallet- Bachelier, Paris. The following works have also appeared at the same hou Précis des euvres mathematiques de Fermat et de Zireeinelbaiie de Diophante par BrassinE, Prof. a l’école d’artillerie de Toulouse. 1 vol. 8vo.—P. Fermat, inventor of the infinitesimal calculus, founder of the theory of numbers, published his collected memoirs in 1679. These remarkable works having become very rare, government made in 1843 an appropriation for their reprint; this project never having been carried out, M. Brassine has collected the principal works of Fermat, and added the correspondence between Fermat, Pascal, Digby, etc. The volume includes the statements of the propositions which enter into the six books of ee with the observations of Fermat which are very rich in fine theorems. This portion presents to soaatinee an excellent collection - arithmetical roblems. This rilasd: cae is indispensable to all who a re studyin ng the higher mathematics. It serves as an introduction to the: treatises of Cauchy, Moigno, and pele inte the— —— Traité de mecanique par M. Dunamet. 1 vol.-in 8vo.—M. Du- hamel, con of the French Institute, has been fora long time direc- tor of the studies of the Polytechnic School, where he still holds the professorship of mechanics with unquestioned ability. His treatise has been very sap among Professors, Engineers, the officers of ar- tillery, or other akopraphic ou vib élémentaire d’astronomie par FRan- = ol. in 8vo. 6th edition.—This edition is posthumous, and is bined by ties son of M. phe et The father who was known among scientific men by his vast and varied attainments, was distin- guished olin the public for his rare talent in exposition. The Uran- ography partakes of this happy quality. Without requiring other cal- culations than those of arithmetic, and the elements of geometry, Fran- = initiates the reader into the most delicate questions of astronomy, ven se _yers plead for : Ma right on some cehetiien, matter which they knew as little of as the judges. The first o parts of the book m might be read with eh by all; 3 the sat part obillae calculations, and is ad- ressed to the learned in the science. cons de es ed par MM. Haranrt et Larirte. 1 vol. in tes: of 188 pages.—This work has a less general end ; it has been 89t up in view of the new programme of instruction which the govern- ment has imposed upon Colleges, Lyceums, and on candidates “for ad- 304 Miscellaneous Intelligence. mission to the polytechnic and naval schools, and the school of arts and manufactures. In spite of the narrowing restrictions, the authors have succeeded in giving a truthful sketch of history, and at the same time in delineating the successive developments of the human mind. clear and methodical expositions which characterize the work, render it valuable to students and even to professors. imie photographique par MM. BarrEswItt et Davanna. 1 vol. in 8vo, 287 pages.—The aes give the theory of photographic manipulations, the sholograntic ocesses on metallic plates, on paper making the residues useful ; the newest and most perfect methods ; and finally they treat of engraving and lithography. With the aid of this book, the photographer, though little acquainted with chemistry, is ena- bled to purchase safely, and to employ judiciously, the best materials. cherches eo eae sur les Eaux- Bonnes ae E. CazeENAvE Pamphlet i 8vo. of 100 pages.—The author who is a physician at Eaux-Bonn sneha reports his abervatons and he results of bis investigations on the dis which belong to the vicinity of those wa- t is work is Sapeetilly interesting to fives and naturalists. mesures propres a prévenir les collisions sur les chemins de fer, par M. Coucns, professeur a l’ecole des Mines de Paris, Pamph- let in 8vo, 48 pages. Paris, chez Carillan-Goeury. es accidents sur les chemins de fer par E. Wit. Pamphlet in 12mo. of 148 pages. Paris, Mallet- Bachelier. —These two pamph- lets have been called out by the numerous railroad accidents which have occurred in France during the last year. The authors discuss with much pad the different methods that may be apiployed to prevent such ac- nts. M. 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D. ane 274,—City of San uae ia by an Earth- tarum Flores Germanic# Lconibes et gaa Shas Iilustrata: 1 menti fasciculus I, 1853, 284 —The Micrographi¢ Dictionary, by Drs, GrirFriTa Linnea ; ein Journal fiir die Botanik ; herausgegeben von D. F. L. von es des Sciences Naturelles, ete., redigé a Zoologie par ie par MM. Ap. Ng ete et J. Decarsne, ie d in Amber, by a i~New Comet: Orbital Elements of Bellona and Amphitrite, 290, ; rye New Process for Desulphurizing Metals : : Separation of Nickel Re e Geology of the Coast Mountains and part of the Sie B. oes Natural } History Revie iew, picts tin call ‘Notice Kg wibatk goes par E. Cazenave: Des accidents sur les read * fa ay line - p. os eaal be a aa rected on p. 300. The next No. of this Journal will be published on the first of Nov. CONTENTS. - Ant. XXI. On the comparative Expenditure of Heat in different forms of the Air-Engine; by Prof. Frepericx A. P. Barnard, 161 XXII. On the first Hurricane of September 1853, in the At- lantic; with a Chart; and Notices of other Storms: by i W.C. Reprietp, - - - : - 176 | XXIII. Researches upon Ajeaaiarethe and Antivoontusoeiel Hy- drogen, and their relations to ee = Professor ay Raruazt Naro 190 _ XXIV. On some of se Crying Pw ve North Aueies : by T. S. H 3 XXV. Ccaavatics Pitliciides and dicteneet in a Coat Sur- | vey Report for 1853, —- : - < : XXXVI. On the use of Hydrogen Gas and carbene Acid ties to” displace Sulphuretted Hydrogen in the analysis of Mineral Waters, &c. ; by Prof. W. B. Rocers and Prof. R. E. Rogers, 2h _ XXVII. On Changes of the Sea-Level effected by existing Phys- ical Causes during stated sie of time; YY ALFRED Soar F.G.S.,.- I. On Fuchs’s besticad for dias of. ons by J, R. Bran fee tIX. On Stibiotrisincyle id Stibiobizineyle, two new com- i pounds of Zinc and Antimony, with some remarks on the — decomposition of water by the ide of these metals; by Josian P. Cooxe, Jr, - ~- 2 Fa | XXX. On the Nature of Forces; by Lips E..B. Hower, =. 2 Re | XXXI. Contributions to Mineralogy ; by James D. Dana, - 4s Bi XXXII. Notice of the Life and Writings of the late Dr. oe | Irving Burnett; by Jerrrizs Wyman, M.D., SCIENTIFIC INSEE SSS Chemistry and sheeted the Dre and force of the current of the) machine, 264 », 266. NOVEMBER, 1854. No. 54. THE or , CONDUCTED BY PROFESSORS B. SILLIMAN, B. SILLIMAN, Jn, AND ; JAMES D. DANA, IN CONNECTION WITH “PROF. ASA GRAY, or CAMBRIDGE, SECOND SERIES. _ No. 54.—NOVEMBER, 1854. WITH BEVEN PLATES. Tae stcaase cevinhs% or Scavked is published every two months, on ie Ist of January, J pat so July, aces and November, in Numbers of 152 pages each, —- making Two ayear. Subscription price $5 a year, in advance. Ast Ser., P eapeer 50 vole, including a General Index. Edited to 1833 b Prof, B.Stiuiman ; after July, 1833, by Prof. B. 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XX XIII.—On the Tides at Key West, Florida, from obser- vations made in connexion with the United States Coast Sur- ; D ; ceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of - Science. (With six Plates.) ourLy observations of the tides were made at Fort Taylor, West, from the Ist of June, 1851, to the 31st of May, 1852, Mr. J. W. Goss, of the Coast Survey and assistants. ‘The Waters may differ is very important. The corrected establish- ent of Key West is 9h. 22m. The curves of Plates 1, 1 bis, 2, 3, 4, and 5, show the normal character of the tides at the ximum and zero of the moon’s declination at the syzigies and ures, and ata mean of declination and six hours of the . age. There being two tides in the lunar day, the obser- tions admit of discussion by the ordinary methods, while the diurnal inequality in height of high water renders it desira- to pursue the mode which I have applied to the tides at Cat roughont this paper the whole difference of the A.M. and P. M. tides. is diurnal inequality. Vol. XVIII, No. 54.—Nov., 1854. 89 rat ons 306 On the Tides of Key West. Island (Louisiana), and Fort Morgan (Alabama.) The reductions by the ordinary methods thus become the tests of those by the other mode. ‘The former were made under my immediate direc-' tion by Lieut. Richard Wainwright, U.S.N., and Mr. M. H. Ober, U. S. Coast Survey, and the latter by Mr. W. W. Gordon, assisted by Messrs. Mitchell, Homans, and others, of the Coast Survey. The half-monthly inequality in time and height as deduced by the usual method is shown in the following Table No. 1, in which the first column contains the moon’s age, the second the mean lunitidal interval corresponding, and the fifth the height. TABLE No. 1. Half-monthly inequality of tides at Key West from one year’s observations. = { Interval. eee Height. ag Moon’s age. 0. wo ot 0. | RIT ER 2 i 2: 3. 4. 5. 6. , H. M. H. M, H. M. M. feet, feet feet. 0 30 9 21 9 21 00 6°34 6°34 00 1 30 9 05 9 07 02 631 6°32 2 30 8 51 8 54 03 625 6:26 01 8 30 8 47 8 46 01 617 6°16 01 4 30 8 50 8 55 05 6°08 6:06 02 5 30 8 54 8 58 04 6:00 5-97 08 6 30 9 22 9 25 08 5°94 5-94 00 q 30 9 52 9 49 03 6-00 598 02 & 30 9 59 10 00 Ol 6-02 6:08 06 9 30 9 59 9 58 Ol 612 618 06 10 30 9 58 9 58 05 6°22 627 05 11 30 9 35 9 35 00 6:30 6°33 03 9 22 the epoch of the moon’s age of 24 minutes, showing tha transit E (of Mr. Lubbock’s notation) and not F should be used in the reduction for theoretical purposes. The comparison between the results of observation and those from the formula for the half-monthly inequality is shown in the fourth and seventh columns, the fourth referring to the interval and the seventh to the height. The difference in the mean is .inappreciable, and, at a maximum, is but five minutes of interval, and six hundredths of a foot of height. A graphic comparison is made on Plate 2, The value of the in 2p 1+-(A) cos 2p is 0-325, and of E in the formula for the height h=D+E[(A) €98 (2u —29)+ cos 2y] is 0-620. The values of the diurnal inequality of high and low water, both in time and height, were obtained by comparing the mean value of the interval and height for the first and second six months, with the individual values; they followed closely the law of change with the moon’s declination. The inequality 1n height of high water at a mean is to that of low water as 79 to 61. The mean interval for this table is 9h. 22m., corresponding tA the constant (A) of the formula for the interval, tang 2y= On the Tides of Key West. 307 As the observations were only made hourly, and the inequality in the interval of high water is small, the minute changes from day to day conld not be expected to show themselves. The in- equalities were grouped according to the different declinations of the moon into fourteen periods, and the approximate formula, given by Mr. Lubbock, for the variation from the mean, was applied. The agreement with theory, as shown in the annexed table, is very close; G was taken as 115. TABLE No. 2. Comparison of the diurnal inequality of es. ater at Key West, with the formula tan 6 Moon’s declination. — en oF Difference. - Minutes. Minutes Minutes. 3 55 13 15 soccer AS 25 29 — 04 11 30 48 47 01® 15 45 61 64 — 03 18 55 "4 48 — 04 20 55 88 87 Ol 21 30 100 91 09 91 55 95 92 03 20 15 84 85 —oO1 17 30 83 72 1 13 55 52 56 — 04 9 15 87 38 — Ol 5 15 25 21 04 2 55 07 Be — O04 — 23 + 29 52 The inequalities of time of high water were also arranged ac- cording to the moon’s age, but the agreement of the observation with the formula is not as close as in the former case, as must be the case from the small number of observations, and the variation of the inequality following chiefly the law of the declination. The law of change is still evident in the grouping, and the plus and minus quantities balance nearly. The discussion of the diurnal inequality in height will be re- sumed in referring to the diurnal wave, after noticing the decom- peuon of the curve of observation into a semi-diurnal and diur- eu : Decomposition of the curves of observation. curves of observation at Key West were deco — one representing the semi-diurnal and tle other the diurnal tide. The interval (E), which was in the former case assu o be 308 On the Tides of Key West. a zero, were tabulated, and the maximum ordinates S and D of the semi-diurnal and diurnal curves of sines found, taking (E) generally at its mean value. From these the ordinates of each which gave the sum of the differences of computation aud ob- servation, without regard to sign, the smallest. 4 was next intended, treating this as a first approximation, to take a different zero-point for the semi-diurnal curve, but the labor necessary has prevented this idea from being followed up thus far, and the agreement of the computed and observed curves is quite satisfactory in the cases in which E is not varying too rapidly for safe deductions. The labor and uncertainty of deduc- ing E from the observations in the manner just referred to is very considerable, and, after one full comparison made in this way, the vafftes will be deduced from theory, and applied to the curves. The approximate compound curve was next projected on a diagram of suitable scale, and the outline cut from the paper 80 as to apply it to the curve of observation, and thus to find its best position in reference to that curve, and to determine the times of high water. The work referred to in the paragraphs pre- ceding the last is mechanical, but this latter requires much judg- ment, and has been executed by Mr. W. W. Gordon. Supposing that some discrepancies observed might result from a sort of pet- sonal equation in making these comparisons, a second person was engaged to repeat them for verification, and the result showed that the comparison could be depended upon in individual cases to within about five minutes in time in the position of the max mum ordinates. Semi-diurnal Tides. the curves, and from the formula-for the half-monthly inequality Teferred to in the previous part of this paper: a fe eer a On the Tides of Key West. 309 TABLE No. 3.—¥First six months. Interval. Height ~ Moon’s age. | Diverence. Difference. pe oO. Cc. O—U. Og Cc. O—C, H, M. ae? H. M. M. feet, feet, eet. 0 30 8 53 8 54 1 4 0°75 0-0 1 30 8 38 8 42 4 13 72 01 2 30 8 29 8 30 1 64 66 02 3 30 8 24 8 24 0 60 58 02 4 30 8 28 8 27 1 48 49 1 5 30 8 42 8 40 2 45 43 02 6 30 9 06 9 03 3 42 42 0 " 30 9 23 9 23 0 44 46 02 8 80 9 31 9 30 1 53 B4 01 9 30 9 28 9 28 0 61 62 01 10 30 9 20 9 19 1 68 69 01 11 30 9 09 9 07 2 15 4 OL 8 57~ TABLE No, 4.—Second six months. "ahaapeieee 5, Interval. Height. coe * Se. | O. U. GEG; 0. C. —C, H. M, H. M. H. M M. feet. feet. feet. 0 80 8 53 8 52 1 0-78 0-77 0-01 1 30 8 42 8 39 3 42 5 2 30 8 27 8 28 1 69 68 ‘01 3 30 8 22 8 21 1 59 59 00 4 30 8 22 8 23 1 49 49 5 30 8 34 8 38 4 46 “42 04 6 30 9 04 9 03 1 40 40 00 q 30 9 22 9 23 1 44 “45 ol 8 30 9 31 9 31 0 53 4 01 9 30 9 32 9 28 4 62 64 02 10 30 9 20 9 19 1 69 ae 03 FeTL 9b 9 04 9 06 2 71 AT 06 Ron A 8 86 TABLE No. 5.—The whole year. > Interval. Height. : | Moon's age ereis Re, o—0. 0. Cj OC. aM. - H M M. feet. feet. feet. 0 80 8 53 8 53 0 0:76 0-76 0:00 1 30 3 40 8 40 0 “13 “14 ‘01 2 30 8 28 8 29 - 67 67 “00 3 30 8 22 8 22 0 59 59 00 4 30 8 25 8 25 0 49 “50 “Ol 5 30 3 38 8 39 1 45 43 “02 6 30 9 05 9 03 2 41 “41 “00 7 30 9 22 9 23 1 46 01 8 30 9 31 9 31 0 53 “4 “OL 2 30 9 30 9 28 2 62 63 01 10 30 9 20 eI fea ee Tt 02 8 57 | Curves showing the result of these comparisons are given in Plate 2, The greatest difference for the whole year between the two sets of results is but one minute of time for the interval, and -02 foot in height. 310 On the Tides of Key West. The results are in apparent time, the substitution of which for mean time was, however, appreciable in but a slight degree. There are several small corrections suggested by the hypoth- esis which has been adopted, but the small value of the residuals renders the following of them up unnecessary. To the last their true place, and the mean lunitidal interval differs twenty- five minutes from the truth; adding this quantity, it agrees, as It should do, with the former determination. For the reason just assigned, these numbers would require cor- rection before using them to determine the constants. ‘This, when made, gives the result as before stated. Diurnal tides. The maximum ordinates found for the diurnal tides from the decomposition of the curves of observation were grouped accord- one. For (E)=9h. 30m., the high water ordinate is 0°79, the maximum, provided, as in the case at Key West, the time of high water may be taken as that of the semi-diurnal wave. The following table shows the moon’s declination, the corres ponding mean maximum ordinate, twiee the high water ordinate deduced from this, (which is the diurnal inequality from our mode of reduction,) the diurnal inequality as usually obtained, and the difference. TABLE No. 6, eg oes a eee eee ae Sine twice 1s / a : Cae nee Diiference, ; 1 saa a Ma Paes igri es = ore —— Leow 1c" 0). feet. feet. Teck, ig ey feet. 11 0°12 * 920 019 il 21 Tt 27 28 “Ol 35 28 “44 44 00 48 38 59 60 ‘01 es “46 T1 70 -“0l 66 ‘Bl 80 79 cor a 69 “b4 84 83 aes ot Ss Waar See ae On the Tides of Key West. 311 The results are represented in Plate No. 3. The statement made above in relation to the high water ordi- nates is not true for those of low water, as the consideration of the formula y=C. cos 2t+D cos(t — E) will show, making E>9 hours. The reverse is the case if E<9 hours, the statement applying then to the inequality of low water and not of high. At Key West, while the high water inequality in height is thus readily found from the maximum ordinate, the low water presents a less accordant result; while at Cedar Keys just the reverse occurs, as should be the case. It is plain, also, that changes in the coefficients C, D, and in E, will cause the inequalities in times and heights to vary, as well | as those of high and low water, losing all correspondence with each other, as is also well shown in the annexed diagram. Mr. Gordon suggests that in the value of (E) will be found the full explanation of the peculiarities of the Petropaulofsk tides described by the Rev. Mr. Whewell. In diagram No. 1, Plate No. 5, E is assumed 9 hours and S=D, and the inequality of high and low water in interval and height correspond to each other. The same is the case for E=15 hours. In No. 2, E is 12 hours, and S=D. The inequality in interval of high water is Oh., of low water 4h., when that in height of high water is 2 feet, and of low water 0 feet. For E, 18 hours and S=D, these inequalities would be reversed, that of interval of high water being 4h., and of low water Oh., while for ent the inequality of high water is 0 feet, and of low water - eet. _ Using the high water ordinates, determined as before stated, instead of the diurnal inequality in height, from which it has been shown not to differ sensibly, the numbers were compared With those of Mr. Lubbock’s formula : dh=B [(A) sin 2 cos (y —g)+sin 20 cos y]; Neglecting the variations of cos (yw — @), cos ¥, the coefficients B and (A) B were found by least squares for the separate six months aud for the year, agreeing sensibly in the partial and total deter- Minations. From two years’ results, B=0-56.and (A) B=0°16. The value of (A) thus obtained is, as it should be, the same as deduced from the half-monthly inequality. The sum of the squares of the difference of the numbers from the formula, and from the computed high water ordinates, 1s for ie year but 0-0087 foot; corrected for the moon’s parallax, but ‘UU78 foot. | The individual results are given in the annexed table, in which the first column contains the moon’s age, the second the differ- nee between the computed high water ordinates and the corres- Ponding quantities from the formula for the variations of the 312 On the Tides of Key West. diurnal inequality in height, corrected for parallax, and the third the same, as uncorrected for parallax. TABLE No. 7%. Diurnal inequality height ; Diurnal inequality height; Moon’s age. observation—theor - Moon’s age. observation—theory. Corrected. Uncorrected. | Corrected. Uncorrected. H. M. aM. nen ee ee 0 30 005 010 6 30 —080 — 085 1 30 005 005 7 380 —090 —090 2 30 — 035 —030 8 8 — 065 — 06 3 30 —035 —035 9 39 —020 — 020 4 30 —075 — 080 10 80 —030 —030 30 — 070 —070 |. 11 80 +005 019 The residuals are very small, but follow the law of the half- monthly inequality, as was found, also, from the corresponding results of the Cat Island observations. The discussion of the value of E, which is in progress, I hope to present at a future meeting of the Association. we ; Changes of mean level. j The mean level of the water at Key West was seen from the observations to undergo remarkable changes from one period the year to another. A comparison of the reductions for the first and second six months shows that the high water of neap tides of the first period rises actually to a higher level than the high water of spring tides of the second. ‘The mean level of the high water for the first six months exceeds that for the second by 0-48 foot. The form of the half-monthly inequality 18 pet fectly regular in each six months. The guage had remal undisturbed ; and in seeking for the explanation, it was observ that the mean level of the water varied very materially 10 the two periods, there being a change which appeared to go throug its variations in the course of the year. 7 e annexed table shows the heights of high water at the several ages of the moon in the first and second six months, tf ferred to the same zero. TABLE No. 8. Moon’s age. Height of high water. First six months. Second six months. _ 0 30 6°63 6-05 1 30 "59 “04 3 30 “38 5-97 4 30 31 5 30 ‘26 45 6 30 17 72, 7 30 28 42 8 30 “26 “19 9 3 "34 -90 10 30 “48 - 601 P 11 30° “pA ni, sateen & 6°39 edie 591 On the Tides of Key West. 313 I hardly supposed that the numbers representing these changes of level would furnish evidence of the two interesting tides o long period pointed out by Mr. Airy, (Tides and Waves, Encye. Metrop., p. 355;) they do so, however, and in the case of the moon’s action, Where the number of averages which can be brought to bear upon a single result is considerable, and the observations run through various parts of the year, the results bear carrying to humerical comparison with the formula. These tides, as far as lam aware, have not been developed from observation, though certain general analogies pointed to their existence. Dividing the numbers showing the daily level of the water into groups of nearly fourteen days, each corresponding to the moon’s declina- tion from the maximum to the maximum again, and taking the mean of each set corresponding to the same declination, we ob- tain a series which is the average of twenty-six numbers in Which the irregularities of the depressing and elevating action of the winds will be eliminated, and in which the sun’s action will be nearly the same. This series presents a tolerable regularity increasing to a maximum at zero of declination, as shown in Plate No. 6, curve No. 1 numbers which, though less regular than the others, also rise towards the zero of declination, as shown in Plate 6, curve No, 2. The results of the first series of computations bear very well a comparison with the formula given by Mr. Airy: tively, and 4 is the latitude of the place, requiring C=O. Those of the second present greater discrepancies and require O = 3, con- tradicting the former. Though the weight of authority is that meteorological tables kept while the tidal observations were made, ish means for a complete discussion, which is in progress. I Stcoxp Senizs, Vol, XVI, No. 54.—Nov., 1854. 314 Geographical Distribution of Crustacea. September to February inclusive. The subject is one in which it is difficult to come to numerical results, because the variations effect, and distant action sometimes causes local effects. The whole rise and fall is nearly three-quarters of a foot. he mean level of the water deduced from the mean of high and low water in each month is shown in the annexed table. TABLE No. 9. | Mouth. Height in feet. Month. Height in feet. June, Seah a 5°60 December, - 5°31 July, = SUM, Sas 78 January, - - - Z August, - - - 63 February, - * - 15 September, - - 93 March, i - < 26 October, - - - ‘90 Apr rs = 2 3 96 November, me tee 713 Mie os) Stew ide. 32 5°76 5:24 Art. XXXIV.—On the Geographical Distribution of Crustacea; by James D. Dana.* . In volume xvi, of this Journal, the author presented a chart of oceanic isothermal (or rather isocrymal) lines, for the illustra- tion of marine zoological geography, prepared more especially with reference to the geographical distribution of Crustacea, and taken from his Report on the Crustacea of the Exploring Expe- dition around the world under Capt. Wilkes. . The following }S a brief abstract of the remainder of the Chapter on the Distribu- tion of Crustacea; the Tables which occupy near 30 pages are omitted besides other details. he lines on the chart, it may be here repeated, are lines of equal winter (or coldest month) temperature for the water, the perature of coral reefs), 62°, 56°, 50°, 44°, 35° F. the lines of 68° F’. north and south of the equator lies the Tor- J one of oceanic water temperature; from the line of 68 to that of 35°, the Temperate Zone; beyond the line of 35°, the Frigid Zone. These Zones are divided by the lines into Re- I TORRID ZONE. 1. Torrty Region on Sus-zonz, 74° and A 2. Susrorrip # 68° to 74° IL TEMPERATE ZONE, 1. Warm Temperate - 62° to 69. 2, TEMPERATE B 56° to 62, 3. SuBTEMPERATE * 50° to 56 4. Corp TEMPERATE * 44° to 50, 5. § G. f 35° to 44 _ IIL FRIGID ZONE. * From the Author's Report on Crustacea, (2 vols. 4to, 680 and 1620 pages) Geographical Distribution of Crustacea. 315 The reader is referred to the former paper and map for other details, where the Zoological Provinces in these zones are laid down, and explained. he ‘lables are in two series. -The first contains for each genus of Crustacea the number of species according to present nowledge in each temperature Region or Sub-zone. he sec- _ ond, the number for each genus in each Geographical Province. We proceed with a summary of the results presented in the first series of the Tables. I. BRACHYURA. wt Pe Pie Bre Gee ye 2/5 eal og eleelee 2/55 < S/S 1s S82) 8 /Sese] 4 /sei =e Bia |ge) Fb) & |agog) ass) & 6s le Hse Ss Ie | ee Me aioidea, - = = | 82} 57] 122) 85) 27) 21] 16) 14 | 92 |] 3(2) Cancroidea- - - = .|157/112) 229] 22| 25] 23] 25) 8 | 69 |] 3(3 rapsoidea,- - - - ‘| 72} 88/181) 21] 14| 27] 10| 9 | 63 peers = SS oY ge a ey) f1) 6T | S| «eee Girfiioides, = =. Lethe SP ph ee) cia es 2 6 16 Hate 3481293! 535! 91! 781 78! 60! 39 264 This table contains the number of species of the orders of pany, according to present knowledge, in each Region and one. The following general facts or conclusions may be deduced from the Tables of the Brachyura. - The line of division, separating the Torrid and Temperate Zones of ocean temperature, following the isocryme of 68° or the outer limit of coral reef seas, marks a grand boundary in organic life, well exemplified in Crustacean species. Out of the five hundred and thirty-five species of the Torrid and Subtorrid Re- gions (the Torrid zone, ) there are over one hundred now known to Se common to the two. But of the two hundred and sixty-four i the Temperate Regions, only thirty-four occur in the ‘Torrid Zone. A large number of genera, containing more than a single known species, are confined wholly to the Torrid zone: such are Micippa (5 species), Menethius (9), Huenia (4), Parthenope (3), Atergatis (17), Carpilius (13), all the Chlorodin, inelnding forty- nine species, nearly all the Eriphine, including eighteen species, Charybdis (15). At the same time, the species of the Torrid and Subtorrid Regions are in many cases equally numerous. Species of Charybdis, eleven species occur in each of these Re- gions; of the Carpilii, eleven are reported from the Subtorrid and bat five from the Torrid; of the Menzthii, five are forind in the orrid Region, and six in the Subtorrid; only two being common to both. ‘These proportions may be much varied by future in- * Since the ocean’s waters decrease in temperature as we descend in depth, there Will be some error in the tables from the cold water species thus passing into regions Rearer the equator. But this error will diminish the number of species regarded as regi usions would Peculiar to the cold and if eliminated, the following conch be still more strongly 316 Geographical Distribution of Crustacea. vestigations. Still it cannot fail to be evident from a survey of the tables, that the line between the Torrid and Temperate zones is a natural zoological limit. If. The Torrid species of Brachyura (Torrid and Subtorrid Regions) greatly preponderate over those of the Temperate zone, the proportion being above two to one. This fact is the subject of remarks by Edwards, but with different conclusions from those _ which we would deduce. teen out of the thirty-nine species, or nearly one-half, occur in warmer temperate latitudes, only twenty species being confined to the Region _ Y. In the Torrid zone, the species of the torrid region, amount- ing to three hundred and forty-eight, exceed in number those of the Subtorrid by only forty-five, although the Subtorrid region is not one-third as great, both as to surface and extent of coast line. VI. Passing now from these general considerations respecting the Brachyura as a class to the several orders, we may look at their ratios among these orders and their subdivisions, for the sev- eral regions, in order to discover what is the relation of the ‘spe- cies to temperature, and whether the cold or warm-water species are the higher or lower in grade, or whether the torrid or the tem- perate zone can claim species of the highest perfection or magni- tude among the Brachyura. The following table gives the ratio which the number of spe- cies of the several orders in the Temperate and Frigid zones, bears to that of the Torrid zone. : 1, Maioidea, eas : : bs 1: h3 2. Cancroidea, - : : “ . - 1:33 3. Grapsoidea, = - ‘ “ce é g is ~ 1:21 4. Leucosoidea, < : ‘ “ s * 1; 20 5. Corystoidea, = - - f 1:03 __ It hence appears that the Maioidea and Corystoidea are propor- tionally much more abundant in the colder seas than the Cat- croidea, Grapsoidea, or Leucosoidea. Geographical Distribution of Crustacea. 317 If we examine into the subdivisions of the Maioidea and Can- croidea, we shall find the difference between the two groups in distribution more strikingly brought out. We shall find, more- ver, that both groups may be divided into a warm-water an cold-water section, as below. I, MAIOIDEA. 1. COLD WATER OR TEMPERATE ZONE SECTION. i Torrid Temperate species. species, 1. Inachide, 7 . Y ; ‘ ‘ 10 2. Maiide, subfamilies, Libinine, Maiine, Pisine, Othonine, 15 35 3. Eurypodide : : ; : oe 4 ie : 7 . Leptopodide, . ‘ : ‘ ‘ t 1 8 17 60 2. WARM WATER OR TORRID ZONE SECTION. Torrid. Temperate. 1 > 1. Maiide, subfamilies Micippine, Chorinine, Pyrine, 6 2. Mithracide, : j : ; : : 11 6 8. Tychide, = ‘ . . . i Te 4. Periceride, ‘ - 2 < ‘ 43 14 5. Parthenopinea, 8 ‘ je ; . ee 8 6. Oncininea, : * 2 0 104 31 II CANCROIDEA. 1. TEMPERATE ZONE SECTION. Torrid. ‘Temperate. Cancride, : ‘ ~ ‘ae 11 Platyonychide, . . . : 2 7 Portunide, subfamily Portunine, : : . ee, 15 Cyclinea, . 4 5 : si : : 0 1 2 34 2, TORRID ZONE SECTION, Torrid, Temperate. 16 Xanthide, (i j ; 3 : . 129 Eriphide, . : cient : : cee io oe Portunidew, excluding the Portunine, . P ; . 52 7 Podophthalmide, . ; : ‘ ; 2 0 227 35 We have here two singular facts brought out. irst, that the cold-water section of the Cancroidea embraces the species that are highest in grade, and largest in size. It is headed by the Macrocheira of Northern Japan, the king of all crabs, whose body is seventeen inches in length and a foot broad ; 318 Geographical Distribution of Crustacea. with extended legs, it sometimes covers a breadth of eleven feet, and the anterior legs or arms are four feet long!* The species of the other genera are mostly among the larger of the Maioids, and have no mark of inferiority. Such are the species of Maia, Pisa, Libinia, Hurypodius, etc. But among the species of the warmer section, we find the On- cininea and Parthenopinea, both manifestly inferior in grade, the ormer approaching even the Anomoura, and the latter forming the passage of the Maioids to the Cancroids, as has been ex- plained. We observe also the Periceride and the Tychida, all very small species, excepting a few Periceree: the Menethii, ‘Tia- rinizw, and Acanthonyces, are examples of the group. In addition, there are the Mithracide, which although attaining a large size show their inferiority in their shorter epistome, shorter body, which is sometimes even transverse, and their spoon-shaped fin- gers. In the last character, the Chlorodinze among the Cancroids, similarly show their inferiority to the Xanthide. That this kind of finger is such a mark of inferiority is apparent from its dimin- ishing in many species as the adult size of the animal is attained, the tendency being towards producing the acuminated finger found in the highest grades. We are hence sustained in the conclusion that the Maioids of the Temperate zone are generally those that are highest in grade. It also shows the congeniality of cold waters to the Maioids, that the only Brachyuran peculiar to the Frigid zone is of this group. We refer to the Chionecetes opilio. ' ; VIL The Brachyura, therefore, although most numerous in the Torrid zone, do not reach in this zone their highest perfection. On the contrary, the Temperate zone or colder waters are the habitat of the highest species. Hence, as the Maioidea stand first among all Crustacea, the highest development of the class Crus- tacea takes place, not in the Torrid zone, the most profuse in life, but beyond the tropics and coral-reef seas, in the middle Tem- perate Regions. VIII. The prevalence also of the inferior Corystoids in the colder waters does not invalidate this conclusion, as the fact re- specting the Maioids is wholly an independent one ; for these last, by attaining their highest perfection in these coldest waters, de- termine the principle as regards themselves, the highest grade of Crustacea. ower grades occur also in the colder waters, and the laws governing their distribution demand separate study and consideration. . Passing a step below the Maioids, we come to the Can- croids, and these, with the exception of the lower Corystoid spe- cies, and only one-eighth of the rest, are Torrid zone species. * De Haan’s + On the consts of Britain” the Canerwids (excluding the swimming epeces) a only half as numerous as the Maioids. Geographical Distribution of Crustacea. 319 X. If the Torrid zone is the proper region for the full develop- ment of the Cancroid type, and its heat is needed for this end, it is natural that species of Cancroids like the Portunine, Platy- onychide, and Cancride, found in the less genial waters of the Temperate zone, should bear some mark of inferiority ;—and it is a fact that they have such marks in their structure. This inferi- ority is not seen in their smaller size,—for a larger size under cer- tain conditions, may equally evince a lower grade,—but in the inferior concentration of the life-system, exhibited either in the lax outer maxillipeds, the elongation of the antenne and abdomen, or in the smaller size or swimming character of the posterior legs. For a like reason also, the species of Corystoidea, a grade still lower, naturally occur in the cold and ungenial region they fre- quent. perate and Torrid zones, page 317, the species are included by families and subfamiles, and consequently the peculiarities of the genera are not shown. In the families or subfamilies re- ferred to the cold-water section, there is only one warm-water genus, viz., Doclea, of the subfamily Libinine ; it contains four Torrid and one ‘Temperate zone species. Among those referred to the warm-water section, there are the following cold-water genera :— Species in Species in Torrid zone. Temperate zone. 0 eo Parthenopinea, genus Eurynome, 4 ° “ Eurynolambrus, 0 1 Xanthide, “ Paraxanthus, . 0 2 Ozine, ius, . 2 3 The species of Cancrinea of the Torrid zone section, which teach farthest into the Temperate zone, are those of the follow- Ing genera :— Xantho, which has eight Temperate zone species cut of twenty-eight in all; Panopeus, which in the same way has four out of ten; Pilumnus, which has seven out of twenty- two; and Lupa, which has four out of ten. The cold Temper- ate Region is the highest for each of these genera, excepting Upa and Pilumnus, a species of each of these latter genera ex- tending just within the limits of the Subfrigid Region, on the Coast of Massachusetts. : XIL The Grapsoidea, if divided between the Torrid zone and emperate zone, according to families or subfamilies, will fall Within the Torrid zone, excepting a single family of the Pinno- 320 Geographical Distribution of Crustacea. theride, which contains eight species in the Torrid zone and fifteen in the Temperate. Considering the genera, however, we genera, or are about equally divided between the Torrid and Temperate zones. They are as follows: Torrid species. Temp’te species. Pseudograpsus, . tee 2 Heterograpsus, Brachynotus, Planes, : Hemigrapsus, Nwornynocd ore OD ee ograpsus, Chasmagnathus, Z : : Five out of twelve species of Grapsus also reach into the colder seas. Further particulars will be gathered from the tables. " XIII. The Leucosoids include as cold-water genera the fol- lowing : Torrid. hve rest collected. II. ANOUMOURA. | XVI. The Anoumoura are nearly equally divided between the torrid and temperate zones, there being hardly one-tenth more torrid than cold-water species. Only fifteen species out of tW° Geographical Distribution of Crustacea. 321 hundred and twenty-five are common to the torrid and temperate zones. Yet it is seen from the table, that if we except the Galatheidea, Lithodea, and part of the Paguridea, the species hardly extend beyond the warmer half of the temperate zone. There are but six known frigid species, and these are of the two last-mentioned groups. XVII. The torrid zone and temperate zone sections of the Anomoura, are as follows; the frigid zone species being here added to the temperate. 1. TEMPERATE ZONE SECTION, Torrid zone. Temperate zone. Dromidex, G. Latreillia, 0 3 Homola, 0 2 Bellidea, ‘ 0 2 Raninidea, G, Votopus, 0 1 ja yreidus, . 0 1 ippidea, G. Albunhippa, 0 2 Lithodea, i ane 4 0 10 Porcellanidea, ; 27 20 Paguride, G. Paguristes, . 3 6 : Rornhard 3 09} torrid and ernhardus, 4 frigid. gleidea, a 0 2 Galatheidea, G. Munida, 0 2 rimothea, 0 1 alathea, 5 4 2. TORRID ZONE SECTION. Torrid zone. Temperate zone. Dromide, G. Dynomene, ere * romia, . 8 2 (1 torrid). Cymopolide, G. Cymopolia, 1 1 ‘aphyra, 2 0 Raninidea, G. Raninoides, . 1 0 Ranina, 1 0 Ranilia, 1 0 Cosmonotus, 1 0 ; Hippidea, G. Aldunea, 3 8 (2 torrid). Remipes, 5 1 (1 torrid). ippa, 2 2 (1 torrid). Paguride, G. Diogenes, 5 2 (2 torrid). Pagurus, 14 4 (1 torrid). Calcinus, 6 0 iculus, : 1 0 Clibanarius, 19 4 Cancellus, . i Bit | 0? Cenobitide, . ‘ 10 1 Dromidea and Paguridea have one-third to one-fourth More torrid than cold-water species. The Raninidea and Hippidea are mainly tropical. The two - €xtra-tropical species of Raninidea occur only in the warmer of the temperate regions, and the species of Hippidea in the tem- Perate zone (eight out of the whole number fourteen) have among them four that occur also in the tropics. Szcoyn Serres, Vol. XVIII, No. 54.—Nov., 1854. 322 Geographical Distribution of Crustacea. The Lithodea belong to the coldest temperate regions, abound- ing especially in the subfrigid region. The Galatheidea are mainly of the temperate zone; there are five known torrid spe- cies, and seven temperate, the latter pertaining to the colder seas. The genus Porcellana has but two-thirds as many species in the temperate as in the torrid zone. Yet the subtemperate region contains but one less than the subtorrid, and some of the largest species of the genus occur here; while, on the contrary, the torrid-zone species are quite small. Although, therefore, Porcel- Jana may rank as a torrid zone genus, if we consider the relative number of species in the two zones, it is more properly a tem- perate zone genus. — ‘The Paguridea range through both the tropics and temperate zone, even passing into the frigid zone. Bernhardus is mainly a cold-water genus, while Pagurus, Calcinus, and Clibanarius are mostly torrid genera. Pagurus has seven out of twenty-one Species in the temperate zone. But it is in the torrid zone where the species of the largest size occur; the extra-torrid species be- long almost exclusively to the Mediterranean. The species are temperate zone. : Among the Paguridea, the Bernhardi or cold-water species are probably the superior in rank; and the Lithodea, which are a grade higher still, are from the neighborhood of the frigid zone. The Hippidea, which we have considered as in the Corystoid series, but below the Corystoidea, are mostly from warmer waters. The most bulky forms among the Anomoura are found 1n the genera Lithodes, Ranina, and Dromia. ‘he common /tanmé dentata has a length of five inches in the Japan Seas, while 10 Geographical Distribution of Crustacea. 323 the warm East Indies (at the Moluccas), as De Haan states, four inches is the greatest length. Ill. MACROURA. XIX. The Macroura, according to the table, [see Report,] are nearly equally divided between the torrid and extra-torrid zones, the former including one hundred and forty-seven species, aud the latter one hundred and fifty-three species. In the table we have not included the fresh-water Astacida, as we are treating only of marine species. Yet in a compari- son of numbers between the zones, these should be Brought in. They are about thirty-six in number, and all, excepting perhaps one, belong to the temperate zone as regards the temperature of the waters they frequent. With this addition, the numbers be- come 147 for the torrid zone, and 189 for the extra-torrid. Sixteen of the cold-water species are common to both the torrid aud tem- perate zones, and twenty-nine occur in the frivid zone, twenty- seven being peculiar to this zone. his is strikingly in contrast with the Brachyura, of which two-thirds are torrid species, and only five or six are known to extend into the cold zone, of which but one as far is known, is confined to it. - The Thalassinidea are mainly extra-torrid species. The Astacidea are divided between the warm and cold seas; the Palinuride: and Seyllaride being mostly of the former, and the Astacide almost exclusively of the latter.” he Caridea spread largely over both zones} but extensive groups are extra-torrid, and some genera contain many frigid species. The Penzidea are mainly of the torrid zone. The exact ratios may be gathered from the tables. XXI. The geographical relations of the subordinate groups ate shown in the following table. - : 1, TEMPERATE AND FRIGID ZONE SECTION. ee inthe Species inthe Temper- orrid zone. ate and Frigid zones. Thalassinidea, 6 17 Astacidea, : : 24 50 stacide, - é 1 46 Scyllaride, G. Arctus, 0 1 Palinuride, G. Palinurus, 2 3 Crangonide, ¢ : 2 25 Atyide, G. Ephyra, . Pee ag Palzemonide, cee ina Alpheinz, G. Beteus, > ; ; Alope, sia : A; Athanas, 0 1 oe Hippoliyte, 8 37 (19 frigid). Pandaline, G. 5 i : : : (2 frigid). Palemonine, G. Cryphiops, tie Pasiphei G. Pasiphea, . 0 3 (1 frigid). Penwidea, G. Zucopia, ; 0 1 (frigid). 324 Geographical Distribution of Crustacea. 2. TORRID ZONE SECTION, Species inthe Species in the Temper- ‘orrid zone. ate and Frigid zones, Astacidea, Scyllaride, except Arctus, matt 2 Palinuride, G. Panulirus, . 12 1 Caridea, tyine, ; : 8 1 Pglemonide. Alpheine, G. Alpheus, . 81 vi Palemonine, G, Pontonia, 4 2 dipus, 3 0 Harpilius, 1 0 Anchistia, 3 0 Palemonella, 2 0 Pal von 82 19 (1 frigid). Hymenocera, 1 0 Oplophorine, P ; 3 1 Peneidea, ; . «19 12 _ XXII. Considering the Scyllaride and Palinuride as the Ma- croura highest in grade, this division of the Podophthalmia ap- pears at first.to have its superior developments in the tropics. The Astacidee, the remaining family in the tribe Astacidea, !§ confined almost wholly to the colder waters, and the species are numerous. Among the Caridea, the Crangonide certainly have the prece- dence. ‘I'he fact that the first pair of legs have perfect hands, while the other legs are vergiform, shows a relation to the Brach- Geographical Distribution of Crustacea. 325 yura, which is evidence of superiority. These Crangonide, thus the highest of the Caridea, are almost exclusively cold-water pecies. In the family Palemonide, some genera have the anterior legs furnished with stout hands, while in others the second is the stout chelate pair. ‘The former, for the reason just allnded to while speaking of the Crangonide, and elsewhere further ex- plained, are superior in rank. It is among these genera of this superior grade, the Alpheine, that we find the cold-water and boreal species. The genus Hippolyte alone contains thirty-seven cold-water species, nineteen of which are of the Frigid zone; and there are only eight torrid species. On the contrary, among the Palemoninze, the inferior group, there are forty-six torrid to twenty-two extra-torrid species; and only one of the latter is boreal. Species of Alpheus are common in the tropics about coral-reefs; but the largest species of the genus, two or three inches long, occur beyond the tropics. lhe Penzidea, the lowest of the tribes of Macroura, are mainly tropical. Yet, the very lowest species (like the lowest Brachyura) occur partly in the colder waters, or even in the Frigid zone. XXII[. Comparing the torrid and temperate species of Ma- crowra, we are led to conclude, that the latter are probably most Numerous in individuals, and the most bulky in mass. Except- Ing the Panuliri, Scyllari, and some Paleemons, the tropical spe- cies are small, and moreover, they are not particularly abundant about coral-reefs. The species of the torrid genera, Pontonia, ipus, Harpilius, Anchistia, Paleemonella, Hymenocera, and Atya, are all quite small, the greater part not exceeding an inch and a quarter in length; moreover, the tropical Alphei are also small species, as stated above. The Penzidea are partly larger Species. Contrast these particulars with the facts as to the genera of the Temperate zone. Palinurus, Astacus, Nephrops, Parane- Phrops, Homarus, Arctus, Crangon and the related genera, Hip- Polyte, Pandalus, Cryphiops, contain species mostly of large size, and the adult Homari and Palinuri are not exceeded in weight by any other Macroura. The Thalassinidea, which belong almost exclusively to the temperate regions are smallest in the warmer part of the ‘Tem- Perate zone, and larger in the middle and colder part. A Puget ound species (subfrigid region) of Callianassa (C. gigas) 1s at least four and a half inches long, the C. uncinata of Chili, five Inches, and the Thalassina scorpionides of Chili, six inches. he facts respecting this subtribe, added to those mentioned above, strengthen much the conclusion, that the cold-water gen- €ra have the largest species ; for all the species are over an inc and a half in length. 326 Notes on Map Projections. IV. ANOMOBRANCHIATA. XXIV. The Mysidea, to which the Penzidea are related, are, to a considerable extent, cold-water species, although many are found also in the tropics. There are among them twenty torrid species and seventeen extra-torrid species. In the Squilloidea we have an example of an inferior grade in a large lax body, with a small head and long abdomen; and they sively to the Temperate zone. Of the Erichthide, twenty-one out of twenty-two species are reported from the Torrid zone. The Amphionidea, a related group, include seventeen Torrid zone species and two of the T’emperate zone. (Zo be continued.) Art. XXXV.—Notes on Map Projections ;* by Lieut. E. B. Honr, Corps of Engineers, U. S. A. MAP PROJECTIONS CLASSIFIED AND DEFINED. Tar department of descriptive geometry, or analysis, which treats of map and chart projections, has to deal solely with the terrestrial spheroid, and especially with the representation of the parallels and meridians subdividing its surface. As all localities, both on land and sea, are most readily and generally determin by latitude and longitude observations, so it is the most available and universal method, in constructing maps, to refer all positions to meridians and parallels as codrdinate lines. If we conceive the earth’s surface reticulated by a complete framework of parallels and meridians, it is then the specific an uniform object of all modes of projection to represent these lines on a plane surface, in the most advantageous manner. But, 3 the spheroid is incapable of direct development on a plane, it only remains to present, in projection, the best approximation to sim= itude in form, relation, and proportional area in the parts of the earth’s surface to be represented. Ptolemy, Lambert, Euler, Lagrange, De l’Isle, Monge; csi Croix, Puissant, Henry, Gauss, and others, have treated 0 oe jections in more or less detail, and some of them by methods © * Extracted with modificati eport for 1853, in ae is also included the Pte for polyeutie projections, wich fall tables and ® era 4 tion. The Tables suffice for the entire United States on either large or small Notes on Map Projections. B27 the highest grasp and compass.* This general problem has led to the following modes of projections, (all technically, though some quite incorrectly so called,) each of which has been used, maps or charts. This classified synopsis will serve to show more precisely the relative value and precise character of the polyconic projection. thographic. Ctass L—Perspective pro- } Globular, or equidistant. jections on planes, Stereographic. Gnomonie, or central. By a tangent cylinder. Crass Il—Developed per- [ae a secant ipllbelat, spective projections, 183 a tangent cone. y a secant cone. Cassini’s. Ctass IIL—Projections by | Flamstead’s. developing elements, ‘} Bonne’s, or the modified Flamstead’s. Polyconic, (U. 8. Coast Survey.) The flat chart, with equal latitude degrees. Crass TV. —Projections cn | The flat chart, with latitudes radius X sine of latitude. e arbi-+ D . formed to som e Lorgna’s. trary condition, Ptolemy’s modified conic, Mercator’s. CLASS I. the projected hemisphere are very much crowded. Tn the globular or equidistant projection, originated by La Hire, the eye is placed at a distance from the centre of the earth = Radius + sine 45° = (1+) radius. The plane of projec- * Reference on this subject may be made with advantage to the following general treatises : Puissant, “Traité de Topographie,” 1805; Henry, “Memoire sur la pro- jection des Cartes,” 1810: * ial du de la Guerre? tome ii and iv; La Precis mique.” in “ Pinkerton’s Geography ;” Barbié Dubocage, an i = cer ire i et Militaire” Francoeur’s “ Traité de buch ;” Mayer's “ Practical Geometry, 328 Notes on Map Projections. tion passes through the centre perpendicular to the central ray. This projection obviates the orthographic contraction or crowd- ing and the stereographic exaggeration in the outer rim of a pro- jected hemisphere. In the stereographic projection, the eye is taken on the surface of the earth at the pole of the great circle used as a plane of pro- jection. Circles are stereographically projected into circles. An increasing exaggeration of parts from the centre outwards is its great defect. In the gnomonic or central projection, the projection is on 4 tangent plane—the eye is taken at the centre of the sphere. Great circles are gnomonically projected into straight lines, and ‘all small circles into curves of the second order or conic sections. The entire hemisphere cannot thus be projected, and the portions become rapidly exaggerated in receding from the tangent points. CLASS I. Instead of projecting directly on planes, an intermediate cyl- inder or cone is employed in this class to receive the projection, which is then developed or rolled out on a tangent plane. € parallels and meridians on a cylinder tangent around the equator. On development, the parallels and meridians are found projected into perpendicular straight lines. A secant cylinder may be so determined that the entire area of the spherical zone projected shall be exactly equivalent to 118 pro- jection. These methods are limited in their advantageous 4p plication to a moderate equatorial belt. In projecting perspectively on a tangent cone for development, the eye is assumed at the earth’s centre, and the cone js taken tangent around the middle parallel of the zone to be projecte®. On developing this cone, the meridians appear as straight lines tric around this point, the middle parallel being in its true length. . ‘ ‘ rallels of tion of the extreme belts. This method of Ptolemy was rev!¥" by Mercator, and was used by De L’Isle in his map © d Murdoch proposed to make the area of the conic frustum me equal to that of the projected spherical zone—a good condition; though inconvenient in construction. De L’Isle proposed t a acone, through the limiting parallels. Euler proposed ant ee Notes on Map Projections. 329 termined the cone which equalizes the errors and distortion on the central and the two limiting parallels. The use of two conic frustums—one for the north and one for the south half—has also been attempted, and advocated. CLASS III. e class of projections in which portions of the spherical surface are developed by being resolved into their differential ele- ments, which are successively developed, is characterized by a peculiar elegance, and is of the highest importance. By this means, any portion of a spherical or spheroidal surface may be reconstructed on a plane with the most perfect attainable preser- vation of the relations and dimensions of its parts. his class of projections is far the best for representing limited areas, and can even be extended with advantage in some forms to mappe- mondes, or maps of the entire earth’s surface. Cassini’s projection is made by first developing the central meridian of the area for projection into a straight line. A series of prime verticals or great circles perpendicular to their central meridian is passed at elementary distances along the meridian arc, all of which circles intersect in the spheric poles of the central meridian. These divide the surface into elementary rectangular isosceles triangles, or sectors, basing on the meridian elements. When the meridian is developed, these elementary triangles are correct relations to each other and to the central meridian. Each Stconp Serizs, Vol, XVIII, No. 54.—Nov., 1854. a Notes on Map Projections. zone being-of uniform width, occupies a constant breadth along its entire developed length, and consequently the area of the plane projection is exactly equal to that of the spheroidal surface thus developed. This demonstration applies directly to an analo- gous plane development of the surface of all supposable surfaces of revolution, be the generating meridian curve what it may, and even though the generatrix be one of double curvature. The meridians of the developed spheroid are traced through the same points of the parallels in which they before intersected them. They all cut the parallels obliquely, and are concave towards the central meridian. ‘Thus, while each quadrilateral between par- allels and meridians contains the same area and points after de- velopments as before, the form of configuration is considerably distorted in receding from the central meridian, and the obliquity of intersections between parallels and meridians grows to be highly unnatural. Bonne’s, or the modified Flamstead’s projection, to a great extent obviates this defect. It is the same as Flamstead’s, ex- cept that the elementary zones, instead of being developed on right lines, are rolled out on concentric circular ares described from the vertex of the cone tangent along the central parallel for their common centre. The great importance and wide use 0 this method induce a more detailed treatment of it under a sub- joined heading. The polyconic projection, being that for which the Coast Sur- vey tables are prepared, will be specially explained further on 1" its proper place. CLASS Iv. The flat-chart projection, with equal latitude degrees, is & rude method once much in use*for char T'wo sets of equidistant perpendicular lines, composing a series of equal squares, @ arbitrarily assumed as parallels and meridians to which all local- ities were referred by latitudes and longitudes. Hence resulted Notes on Map Projections. 331 projecting lines. Hence resulted a very distorted picture, but one in which each quadrilateral contains an area equal to and corres- ponding with its spherical correlative—a direct result of the rela- tion between the sphere and circumscribing cylinder. This was the sole recommendation of the method. De Lorgna’s projection is chiefly employed as a polar projec- tion of a hemisphere, for which use it is well adapted. A circle is determined equivalent in area to the hemisphere to be projected. Radii drawn to the graduations of its circumference represent meridians. A radius, graduated into ninety equal parts, is some- times used as the latitude scale; but the chords of the polar dis- tance of the parallels should be always employed. Hence results equality of areas between the projected and resultant quadrilate- rals in general. Outlines are traced by latitudes and longitudes, as usual. For projecting a polar hemisphere, this method is most excellent, as rectangular intersection is combined with conserva- tion both of figure and area. _ Ptolemy's modified conic projection is made by using the con- centric parallels of the pure conic development, and tracing curved or elliptical meridians across these in place of radial lines. By turning the convexities of these curves from the central line, and by skillful choice of curves, much of the distortion due to the extension of extreme parallels in development is obviated. This projection has been much used for maps of Asia, Africa, and putes his distance run, this variable scale is not by any means so Serious a defect as to offset the invaluable facility with which 332 Notes on Map Projections. Mercator’s principle enables him to run directly from one point to another. For the polar portion of the earth in which this projection totally fails, a central projection can be used to some distance. A projection on Mercator’s principle might be made relative to the prime meridian instead of the equator, its prime verticals serving as the equidistant parallels, (as in Cassini’s) and the circles parallel to the prime meridian being projected by the e of increasing degrees. This would require the investiga- tion of the formule for conversion of coérdinates in this case. The parallels and meridians of the earth might then be con- structed by points. Another mode would be to make a radial and concentric circular projection around the pole, in which the length of the latitude degree should be deduced from the same condition as in Mercator’s method, the divergence of meridians being duly considered. The amount of distortion in Mercator’s projection wholly unfits it for land maps; and the variation of its ale in different parts would give rise to endless inconvenience were it applied to any other purpose than that of nautical off- shore charts, in which direction is so much more important than area or distance. BONNE’S OR THE MODIFIED FLAMSTEAD’S PROJECTION. This method of projection is that which has been almost uni- versally applied to the detailed topographical maps based on the trigonometrical surveys of the several States of Europe. It was originated by Bonne, was thoroughly investigated by Henry and wissant in connexion with the map of France, and tables for France were computed by Plessis. In constructing a map on this projection, a central meridian and a central parallel are first assumed. A cone tangent along the central parallel is assumed, the central meridian is develope on that element of this cone which is tangent to it, and the cone is then developed on a tangent plane. The parallel falls into an arc with its centre at the vertex, and the meridian into a grad- uated right line. Concentric circles are conceived to be traced through points of this meridian taken at elementary distances along its length. The zones of the sphere lying between the parallels through these points are next conceived to be developed each between its corresponding arcs. Thus, all the parallel zones of the sphere are rolled out on a plane in their true relations t0 each other and to the central meridian, each having in projection the same width, length, and relation to its neighboring zones, 4 on the spheroidal surface. As there are no openings between consecutive developed elements, the total area must in this case; and in all like developments of surfaces of revolution, remain wholly unaltered by the development. Each meridian of the projection is so traced as to cut each parallel in the same point 1 which it intersected it on the sphere. Notes on Map Projections. 333 If the case in hand be that involving the greatest extension of the method, or that of the projection of the entire spheroidal surface, a prime or central meridian must first be chosen, one half of which gives the central straight line of the development, and the other half cuts the zones apart, and becomes the outer boundary of the total developed figure. Next, the latitude of _the governing parallel must be assumed; thus fixing the centre of all the concentric circles of development. Having then drawn a Straight line and graduated it from 90° north latitude to 90° south latitude, and having fixed the vertex or centre of develop- ent on it, concentric arcs are traced from this centre through each graduation. On each parallel the longitude graduations are then laid off, and the meridians are traced through the corres- ponding points. There results from this process an oblong kid- ney-shaped figure, which represents the entire earth’s surface, and the boundary line of which is the double developed lower half of the meridian first assumed. If the vertex of the govern- ing cone be removed to an infinite distance, the equator be- comes the governing parallel, the parallels all fall into straight lines, and Flamstead’s projection results. The kidney-shaped figure becomes an elongated oval, with the half meridian for one axis, and the whole equator for the other. A somewhat similar figure is obtained by placing the vertex at the pole, and reducing the tangent cone to a plane. An indented cusp at one end, and a rounding out at the other, will give an approximate’ pear-shape. Ptolemy’s modified conic method reaches its full geometrical result in these forms, derived from the condition of preserving areas in tracing meridian curves. Bonue’s method is rarely applied to areas exceeding the limits of a State, but is invaluable for topographical maps of this de- scription. The projection is made at once for the whole territory of the map, and the rectangular system of sheets laid out on the projection. Each sheet is numbered, and the codrdinates of the Corners are determined, so that the codrdinates of intersection between parallels and meridians falling on each sheet are referred to its neat lines as axes. i This projection preserves in all cases the areas developed with- out any change. The meridians intersect the central parallel at right angles; and along this, as along the central meridian, the map is strictly correct. For moderate areas, the intersections approach tolerably to being rectangular. All distances alon parallels are correct; but distances along the meridians are in- creased in projection in the same ratio as the cosine of the angle between the radius of the parallel and the tangent to the meridian at the point of intersection is diminished. ‘Thus, in a full earth Projection, the bounding meridian is elongated to about twice its original length. While each quadrilateral of projection preserves 334 Notes on Map Projections. its area unchanged, its two diagonals become unequal ; one in- creasing and the other diminishing in receding towards the cor- ners of the map, the greatest inequality being towards the east and west polar corners. Though great circles between stations on the earth are generally projected into curves, the amount of deviation for moderate limits is very slight on a Bonne projection. The scale is néarly uniform over the entire projection, being ac- curate along the parallels and along their radii, but being, too great along one diagonal of the quadrilaterals, and too small along the other. In an area of 120° longitude and 70° latitude, a dis- tance of 7,000 miles is in error but th. This projection has thus many excellent qualities for topographical maps; and its defects of oblique intersections, of unequal diagonals, and of scales varying with the point of the compass, are not very serious in a limited area, as in the map of France, or that of England and Wales. A special set of tables for each central parallel is required in this method ; and the extent of these is so vast as to make impracticable the conception of a universal set of tables. The French tables of Plessis are based on the parallel of 502". ot 45°, and are available for any area centered on this line, except ° t THE POLYCONIC PROJECTION, ITS PROPERTIES AND VARIETIES: The operations of the coast survey being limited to a narrow belt along the seaboard, and not being intended to furnish a Map of the country in regular uniform sheets, it is preferred to make a re gular series projected on Bonne’s method. In fact, each sheet 8 projected strictly as a local map, and its connexion with t adjoining sheets is established solely by the points of triangula- tion. In reductions, including several sheets, the plotting ° points is the first step, and the change of scale is then made y corresponding squares. By the aid of the coast-survey said rectangular polyconic projection can at one made for & d ‘locality or subdivision of the United States, or for the Unit Notes on Map Projections. 335 diminishes. At latitude 45° the terrestrial and development radii become equal. At the equator the vertex recedes to an infinite distance north, or the cone becomes a cylinder, and the equator falls in a straight line perpendicular to the meridian. On passing to the south the vertex approaches from an infinite distance south, the parallels change their concavity southward, while the curva- lure, increasing in an inverse order, becomes infinite at the pole, or the polar parallel falls in a point. ‘There results from this Process a biaxial figure, with four equal quadrants, the short axis being the rectified Washington meridian, (180° in length) and the long axis being the entire rectified equator, or about twice the length of the shorter one. A re-entering cusp marks the bounding curve at each pole, and the meridian, 180° from Wash- ington, which circumscribes each half of the figure, is elongated each side to more than twice its original length by the devel- °pment. Over the entire area of this projection all parallels and meridians intersect at right angles, and the diagonals of each Projected quadrilateral are every where nearly equal to each other. € scale on N. and S. lines near the border is somewhat enlarged, but is very correct on E. and W. lines, while along both diagonals tis somewhat enlarged, though nearly equally so on each, On the whole there results from this method much less of local dis- tortion than from Bonne’s projection. Equality between the spheroidal and developed areas is not preserved, but the departure fom equivalency is not great in amount. 336 Notes on Map Projections. same ratio as the corresponding projected meridional degrees. This condition would determine a new polyconi¢ projection, whose scale, from point to point, (an element which in Bonne’s, and the simple polyconic projection, is a function both of the central meridian distance, and azimuth) would become a function of the central meridian distance only, and would increase alike in all directions on receding from this line. Such a projection would reduce distortion of local configuration, to an absolute minimum, and the areas in projection would be proportional to the squares of their local graphic degrees. This would enable us to take strict account of those irregularities of scale which now lurk in disguise. But it would be a great labor to prepare the tables requisite for its ready use, and there would be some valid objec- tions to its results. In a large topographical map thus projected, the scale of each sheet could be derived and engraved on its plate, making the sheet quite homogeneous on that scale, and perfect in the preservation of its configuration. Were a topo- graphical map of the United States to be undertaken on a liberal scale, this projection might be found superior to any other, as each sheet areas, dimensions, relations, and rectangular intersec- tions, would be well preserved according to its own scale, giving it the greatest local perfection, while it would also combine cor- rectly in its proper place. It should be stated that this projection is novel and untried. The method of projection in common use in the Coast Survey office for small’ areas, such as those of plane-table and hydro- graphic sheets, may be called the equidistant polyconic. This ought to be regarded rather as a convenient graphic approxima: tion, admissible within certain limits, than as a distinct projection, though it is capable of being extended to the largest areas, a0 with results quite peculiar to itself. In constructing such a pro- mediate ones to determine the meridians with proper correctness, are constructed by the tables, and the meridians are drawn. on the meridians in like manner, and the tabular auxiliary va allels are, all except the central one, erased. In fact, as only yee points of intersection are required, the auxiliary parallels pit not be actually drawn. From this process of construction sat a a projection in which equal meridian distances are every wher intercepted between the same parallels. Notes on Map Projections. 337 _ If we conceive this projection extended to include the entire earth, a singular result appears. ‘Taking the equator as the cen- proaches that of the developed equator. It will be seen that each parallel falls nearer the equator than it would in Flamstead’s projection, being, indeed, tangent on the equatorial side of the Flamstead perpendicular. ‘Thus, in this method the projected area is less than that of the spheroidal surface. If an equidistant parallels much too long; giving a grotesqueness to the polar re- gions bordering on that of a Mercator projection. The scale be- spheroid, and still great even in a map of the United States, it is clear that the polyconic-equidistant projection ought by no means to be extended beyond the most moderate limits. A square de- gree, on a scale of --1-., may be taken as a limit, beyond which ho convenience of graphic construction should induce the use of Coast Survey office, and tables, prepared for facilitating its use, ag there computed, and are now first published in the Report or 1853. GRAPHIC CONSTRUCTION OF POLYCONIC PROJECTIONS—COAST SUR- VEY M Having fixed the limits to be covered by the projection, the Central meridian is represented by a straight line, as nearly as practicable, through the centre of the sheet. From an assumed starting-point on this line are laid off the successive meridian Through each point of division on the central meridian, given by these tabular ares, erect a perpendicular to it by means of a Szcoxp Series, Vol. XVIII, No. 54.—Nov., 1854. 3 338 Notes on Map Projections. well-tested right-angled ruler, with twenty-four inch legs, and a hard pencil; or first. carefully construct a single accurate perpen- which lay off the meridian distance from the perpendicular, and draw the parallel lines through the three equidistant points thus obtained for each. Take from the tables for each required point of intersection between parallels and meridians, its appropriate length of arc of parallel, from which subtract the corresponding 2. Lay off this difference from the central meridian each way on its proper perpendicular, and erect, towards the pole, at the point so formed, a perpendicular equal to the corresponding value of y in the tables—its extremity is the point of intersection required. Through all the corresponding points of intersection trace the parallels and the meridians. Erase the auxiliary lines, and write on the margin the numerical latitude and longitude. The following mode is more rapid and better checked: Lay off first the longest arcs of parallel, and then take the length of a single subdivision of the parallel in a pair of hair-spring divi- ders, and step it off on the perpendicular to the right and left of the central meridian; being careful net to prick the paper. Having adjusted the dividers so as to bring the extreme points Equidistant polyconic method—{ Inadinissible in projections cov- ering more than one square degree.) Proceed as before to graduate the central meridian, and to con- struct a central parallel. Construct the points of meridian inter section with the top and bottom parallels, and as many interme- diate parallels as are requisite closely to determine the meridians. Through these points then draw the meridians. Starting now from the central parallel, lay off on each meridian the distance to the required parallel equal to that on the central meridian, and trace the parallels through these points. Proceed in like mannef to construct the others, using always the central parallel as 2 base, ant the totals measured from it along the central meridian 12 aying Notes on Map Projections. 339 This method requires much less recourse to the tables than the other, and is sufficiently accurate, within a square degree, on a cale of +5455. The x and y may often be neglected as insen- sible in small projections; but no value of z, which is at all ap- preciable on the scale used, should be neglected. he y, for the auxiliary parallels, affects the meridian less rapidly, but its palpably sensible values should always be used. The following quantities are sensible, yet only barely sensible, on the scales affixed : 12 metres on a scale of ~-1-.. 80 00 10 “ 6c a ES 00° 8 tt te Ero ete dy! 40 00° 6or5 * 6 aeine 3 0.0° 2 Ts 6 ae 2 00° nd it is peculiarly essential to accurate projections that the hy- grometric condition of the paper be kept as uniform as possible during all the time that measured distances are being laid down. It is often better to mark simply the intersection points by a small cross +, and to omit the remainder of the parallels and meridians. For plotted points this is also the best indication, if the cross lines are stopped on each side of the point, just far enough off to leave the dot distinct. For drawing parallels and meridian curves, a long, slender, flexible ruler of straight-grained cedar, or other compact wood, lsemployed. Its cross section is three-sixteenths (,%,) of an inch by two sixteenths (#;) of an inch. A specially designed steel tuler might be found preferable. ‘There is a small groove on the top of the ruler, and its ruling edge is slightly beveled. Leaden, Paper-covered, beak weights, of about four pounds weight each, are used to hold the ruler in place from point to point. These are so shaped as not to incommode the hand in ruling, and each has a hooked beak, ending in a knife-edge, turned downwards, Which, resting in the ruler groove, throws the main bearing of the weight on the ruler, while its small end rests on the paper. ‘he beak weights in use are five (5) inches long, two and one- eighth (24) wide, and two and one-eighth (24) deep, the beak being five-eighths (&) of an inch long, and turned down one-fourth _(t)inch. The mass of lead is nearer the beak end. Having Placed the ruler approximately, it is so adjusted under a beak Weight to the first point that the curve will be ruled exactly through it. It is then adjusted under a second weight to the 340 On the Educational Uses of Museums. next point, and then bent to the next in like manner, and so on until the entire curve is completed. Before ruling this the eye should criticise it carefully, as a check on graphic errors. For fine projections the hardest pencils are best; and in inking, the lines should be drawn as delicately as clearness permits. hen no metre scale is at hand, the tabulated distances can be converted into yards by using the conversion tables, or by the constants of relation between units; or, when the greatest accuracy is not important, a metre scale can readily be constructed from a yard or foot scale by proportionality. Thus, rule two parallel scales, one of yards and one of five-sixths (#) yards, and draw a third parallel, whose distance outside the yard-scale is 2:368sth of that between the yard and five-sixth yard scales. Through the similar graduations draw straight lines; these will give a metre scale their intersections. If space permits, a point may be substituted for the five-sixths (2) yard scale. The projection once constructed, may be used independent of the unit of the tables. Arr. XXXVI.—On the Educational Uses of Museums; by DwWaRD F'orses, F.R.S., &c.* Tur third Session of the Government School of Science ap- plied to Mining and the Arts commences to-day. The Director and my Colleagues have assigned to me this year the duty of opening the courses. I shall avail myself of this opportunity to offer some remarks upon the leading and characteristic features of the Institution, considered as an educational Museum, and to make some observations upon the instructional uses to which Museums may be advantageously applied. _ The school of applied sciences here established is the only instance in Britain of an organized instructional institution arising out of a Museum, and being maintained in strict connection and relation with its origin. 'This is not an accident, but an event contemplated from the commencement of the Geological Survey. It is an experiment on a considerable scale with a greater pul- pose,—for, with a limited though rapidly improving machinery, it is intended to advance educational aims that have a vital im- portance in their bearing on the future prospects of this country: It is an endeavor by a State-mechanism to cast the seeds of Sci ence over the broad fields of British industry,—not indiscrim- inately, but especially in those places where there is a go thirsting for their germination. We who are appointed to be * Introductory Lecture at the i i ete; Museum of Practical Geslocs: London, 1858, oe aS _ On the Educational Uses of Museums. 341 cultivators have a responsible duty and a noble task. We have firm faith in the dignity our work, and in the certainty of good results arising from it. ‘This must be our reward; and with it we are content, as long as we can, to labor patiently and earnestly to the best of our endeavors,—hopeful of the approbation and ‘cooperation not only of our fellow-laborers in science, but also of all intelligent and patriotic Britons. - The results so far of the teaching here have been in the main highly satisfactory. With the close of last session terminated the two years curriculum of the students who entered the Gov- ernment School of Mines in 1851. Since their studies are now completed, I may speak of the men in the language not of com- pliment, for of that there is no necessity, but of unmixed praise. [can say this not only for myself but for all my colleagues; and we have the delightful satisfaction of anticipating a distinguished Scientific and practical career for those who were lately our pu- pils, and whom now we number among esteemed friends. Their Services are sure to be appreciated and anxiously sought for ; and already we have had the pleasure of congratulating some of them on the obtainment of highly valuable and honorable posts, for which they had become qualified within these walls. ith equal satisfaction we can refer to the department of our lectures devoted to the instruction of working men. e arti- sans of London have eagerly and admirably responded to the opportunity so freely offered to them by Government in this In- Stitution. They have crowded to our theatre and attended our courses with unmistakable earnestness and intelligence. ‘T'o address the audience, composed exclusively of working men, as- Sembled on these benches on Monday evenings has been a privi- Vice abroad, and much is being done by them every day as the easure and advantage, and possibly with benefit to the general advancement of knowledge. During the time when I had the 342 On the Educational Uses of Museums. honor of assisting on board one of Her Majesty’s surveying ships, 1 witnessed the happiness and profit that resulted from the plea- sure taken by a corps of naval officers in scientific pursuits. It was supposed that opportunities for scientific instruction such as are here afforded would have been appreciated by intelligent persons among the middle and higher ranks, having time at com- mand. With the exception of a chosen few, the anticipation has proved fallacious. Possibly the occult science of table-turning, which in these days seems to occupy the place filled by astrology in days of yore, has too seriously occupied their thoughts to per- mit of chemical, physical, geological, or biologieal studies. In London there are several institutions of high character, that offer, at reasonable cost, scientific instruction to the so-called ‘“ educa- supplied, through the institution of a lectureship on ied Me- c s. Itis with feelings of exultation that I venture to allude to the manner in which this new post has been filled. pagel cession to our corps of so eminent a philosopher as Professor Wil- the most eminent of European chemists, for the post until lately so ably filled by Dr. Lyon Playfair, is as great a satisfaction to ourselves, as it will be a guarantee of good work to the public. On the Educational Uses of Museums. 343 His predecessor has left us for a post of heavy responsibility and inestimable importance,—one on the conduct of which the suc- cess of government institutions for scientific education will in a great measure depend. He has left us with our warmest wishes for his success, and our firmest confidence in his ability, energy, tarnestness, and truthfulness. But though no longer holding a professorial post here, we retain the benefit of his advice and counsel, since he still remains connected with our institution, and sits with us as a member of our Educational Committee. e€ commence the session—so far as the class of students of most consequence, viz., the matriculated class, is concerned—un- der peculiarly favorable auspices. The number of entries is greater at this early stage of the courses than during either of the former years. Considering how difficult it is in our country for any establishment on a new plan to make way, this evidence of progress may be taken asa fair subject for congratulation. The object of the Museum in which we are now assembled is mainly the illustration of the mineral constitution and products of the British islands, and to some extent, of the British colonies. This purpose, whether we consider the great benefit derived from mineral wealth by our nation at large, the vast capital invested in the search after and application of mineral resources, or the light thrown upon science under its nobler and less profitable forms, catinot but be esteemed a worthy one. To carry it out effectively Would require more than double the space here assigned to it, and powers o speedy and comprehensive action such as are not usually conferred upon the managers of State institutions. The purpose of the place in some of its branches is more or less fully Presented, but in others is barely sketched or rather indicated. _ The applications of mineral products to the various useful and othamental arts are so numerous, that, except in a few principal instances, it would be folly to attempt their illustration within our Confined boundaries. Consequently, in a purely industrial direc- ion our display is sketchy and partial. That a collection fully ‘nd judiciously illustrating the arts that spring from the world of Minerals, treated with equal regard to their present extension and past history, to their excellencies, capabilities, and defects, would be in the highest degree instructive and beneficial, if employed in the illustration of well-devised courses of instruction, there cannot be a doubt. If ever such a collection be formed, this ustitution may fairly claim the credit of its paternity. . 8 one of its departments this Museum aims at more amplitude ; and even proceeding at our present somewhat tardy pace—inev- ltably so, as we are situated,—must in the end attain, or at least Heatly approach, completeness. I allude to that devoted to the illustration of the geological structure of the British Islands. You aware that we are here an establishment in intimate connex- 344 On the Educational Uses of Museums. Theirs, no more than ours, in this museum and school, are not mere duties of routine, office, clerkship, or limited hours. There is no off-duty ; the head must work whilst the eyes are open if our task is to be well and thoroughly done. Whilst the collections here displayed are mainly confined to the mineral products of the British islands, there is one depart- ment in this building, represented at present by three or four wall- cases, that I cannot refer to without the deepest interest, insignifi- cant though it may now seem. I allude to that of Colonial Ge- ology. ‘The idea of it is to exhibit the mineral products of each of our colonies separately, the evidences of their geological con- stitution, and the indications of their mineral wealth. Sucha dis- play would be more than a curious and interesting illustration of though not worthless display, and endeavored to make it the text of conversation and advice. Surely it would be worthy of a On the Educational Uses of Museums. 345 require is to see them distinctly grouped with regard to their ge- ography ; so that, for example, the emigrant proceeding to Aus- tralia might come and learn before he departed, and the officer ordered on duty to India or the West Indies might acquire an acquaintance with the structure and products of those countries that would enable him when there to occupy his spare time in research useful to himself and beneficial to his country. All that is required for carrying out such a collection is space. Contribu- tors anxious and able to assist would be found in numbers. Those who have derived some benefit and knowledge from their Studies in the Museum before leaving, would when abroad add judiciously and gratefully to its contents. Indeed there are at present extensive and valuable collections of colonial specimens lying useless, packed in boxes, that might be had for the asking, provided it could be shown that there was a proper place in which to arrange them for the public benefit. Museums, of themselves alone, are powerless to educate. But they can instruct the educated, and excite a desire for knowledge in the ignorant. The laborer who spends his holiday in a walk _ through the British Museum, cannot fail to come away with a Strong and reverential sense of the extent of knowledge possessed y his fellow-men. It is not the objects themselves that he sees there and wonders at, that make the impression, so much as the order and evident science which he cannot but recognize in the manner in which they are grouped and arranged. He learns that there is a meaning and value in every object however insignifi- cant, and that there is a way of looking at things common and tare distinct from the regarding of them as useless, useful, or curious,—the three terms of classification in favor with the igno- - He goes home and thinks over it; and when a holiday in simmer or a Sunday’s afternoon in spring tempts him with his Wife and little ones to walk into the fields, he finds that he has acquired a new interest in the stones, in the flowers, in the crea- tures of all kinds that throng around him. He can look at them With an inquiring pleasure, and talk of them to his children with a tale about things like them that he had seen ranged in order in the Museum. He has gained a new sense,—a thirst for natural knowledge, one promising to quench the thirst for beer and vicious €Xcitement that tortured him of old. If his intellectual capacity é limited and ordinary, he will become a better citizen and hap- Pler man ; if, in his brain there be dormant power, it may waken Up to make him a Watt, a Stephenson, or a Miller. : _ It is not the ignorant only who may benefit in the way just Indicated. The so-called educated are as likely to gain by a visit 0a Museum, where their least cultivated faculties, those of ob- servation, may be healthily stimulated and brought into action. The defect of our systems of education is the neglect Szoonp Serres, Vol. XVIII, No. 54.—Nov., 1854. 44 346 On the Educational Uses of Museums. in educating the observing powers,—a very distinct matter, be it noted, from scientific or industrial instruction. It is neces- experimental. Surely this is an error; partizanship of the one or other method or rather department of mental training, to the ex- clusion of the rest, is a narrow-minded and cramping view from in a great measure, this defect may be considered as removed ; the acquirement of scientific knowledge in the required direction by persons who purpose to become educato tional applications, the value of Museums must in a great measure depend on the perfection of their arrangement and the leading — On the Educational Uses of Museums. 347 its kind, not merely to those who are already men of science, his- torians, or connoisseurs, but equally to those who as yet ignorant desire to learn, or in whom it is desirable that a thirst for learning should be incited. Unfortunately museums and public collections of all kinds are too often regarded by their curators in their scien- tific aspect only,—as subservient to the advancement of knowl- edge through the medium of men of science or learning, and consequently as principally intended for the use of very few per- sons uses, and in the end of national consequence, since the surest measure of national advancement is the increase and diffusion of scientific and literary pursuits of a high grade. One of the signs of a spread of sound knowledge and intellectual tastes in a coun- try is the abundant production of purely monographic works by ° its philosophers, and the evidence of their appreciation by the general mass of readers, as indicated by the facility with which they find publishers. Very few museums present much of an industrial aspect, valu- able, interesting, and popular as any arrangement or display of their contents under this point of view must evidently be. noble invention of the Great Exhibition, a glory to the end of time around the name of one of the most enlightened princes, proved to all men the high and national interest inherent in in- dustrial collections. It is indeed strange that amongst a people 80 essentially industrial in their habits, occupations, and modes of thought as the Euglish nation, no great and comprehensive col- lections illustrative of their agriculture, manufactures, machinery, and sources of trade should have been formed long ago. ‘This defect in our institutions is, however, rapidly in the course of being removed ; and I need not dwell upon the value of a kind _ of museum, of which all sensible men now understand the im- portance, It has long been a subject of discussion, in what manner and to what extent can instruction by means of lectures and public teaching be advantageously associated with public collections. There are those who are opposed to such a course, holding that Museums should stand on their own exclusive merits, and be mainly places of personal study and consultation. This, how- €ver, is the contemplation of them under their scientific aspec only ; and though it may fairly be maintained, that a great cen- tral collection, such as the British Museum, may be | 1 Serviceable by this course of action, holding that magnificent establishment as a general index for science, and, as it were, En- Cyclopedia of reference,—I feel convinced, after a long and earnest Consideration of the question for many years, that unless connected With systems of public teaching, museums in most instances are - 348 On the Educational Uses of Museums. of little use to the people. The most useful museums are those which are made accessory to professorial instruction, and there are many such in the country, but almost all confined to purposes of professional education, and not adapted for or open to the gen- eral public. The museums of our Universities and Colleges are, or the most part, utilized in this way, but the advantages derived from them are confined to a very limited class of persons. In this Institution, an endeavor has been made to render its contents subservient to the cause of education and instruction; and the course which is here taken miay be imitated with advantage in the provinces, where there are not unfrequently colleetions of considerable extent turned to small account for the benefit of the residents, a large proportion of whom in many instances are igno- rant of their very existence. Yet it is to the development of the * provincial museums, that I believe we must look in the future for the extension of intellectual pursuits throughout the land, and therefore I venture to say a few words respecting what they are and what they should be. hen a naturalist goes from one country into another, his first inquiry is for local collections. He is anxious to see authentic and full cabinets of the productions of the region he is visiting. He wishes, moreover, if possible, to study them apart—not min- gled up with general or miscellaneous collections,—and distinelly arranged with special reference to the region they illustrate. For all that concerns the whole world or the general affinities’ of ob- jects he seeks the greatest national collections, such as the British Museum, the Jardin des Plantes, the Royal Museums at Berlin” and Vienna. But that which relates to the particular country he In almost every town of any size or consequence he finds a pub- lic museum, but how often does he find any part of that museum devoted to the illustration of the productions of the district? The very feature which of all others would give interest and value to the collection, which would render it most useful for teaching purposes, has in most instances been omitted, or so treated as to be altogether useless. Unfortunately not a few country museums are little better than ‘ raree-shows. They contain an incongruous accumulation of things curious or supposed to be curious, heaped together in disorderly piles, or neatly spread ont with ingenious disregard of their rela- ions. ‘The only label attached to nine specimens out of ten 1s, On the Educational Uses of Museums. 349 “Presented by Mr. or Mrs. So-and-so ;” the object of the present- ation having been either to cherish a glow of generous self-satis- faction in the bosom of the donor, or to get rid—under the sem- blance of doing a good action—of rubbish that had once been prized, but latterly had stood in the way. Curiosities from the South Seas, relics worthless in themselves, deriving their interest from association with persons or localities, a few badly stuffed quadrupeds, rather more birds, a stuffed snake, a skinned alligator, part of an Egyptian mummy, Indian gods, a case or two of shells, the bivalves usually single and the univalves decorticated, a sea urchin without its spines, a few common corals, the fruit of a double cocoa-nut, some mixed antiquities, partly local, partly Etruscan, partly Roman and Egyptian, and a case of minerals and miscellaneous fossils,—such is the inventory and about the scientific order of their contents. I have a vivid remembrance of going through the Cheetham collection at Manchester, and hear- Ing the explanation of its contents by one of the boys on the foundation, when I was of small size myself. The peculiar classification that mystified sightseers thirty years ago is in too many instances still maintained. There are, however, admirable exceptions to this censure. There are local collections arranged with skill and judgment in several of our county towns, and which at a glance tell us of the neighborhood and activity of a few guiding and enlightened men of Science. It would be invidious to cite examples, and yet the principles, in each case distinct, adopted in the arrangement of those of’ Ipswich and Belfast ought especially to be noticed. In the former, thanks to the advice and activity of Professor Hens- low, the specimens of various kinds, whether antiquarian, natural history, or industrial, are so arranged as to convey distict notions of Principles, practice, or history. In the Belfast Museum the eminent naturalists and antiquarians who have given celebrity to their town have made its contents at a glance explanatory of the geology, zoology, botany, and ancient history of the locality and heighboring province. ‘The museums of Manchester, York, Scar- Scientific and literary instruction in the provinces greater than they are. In very few instances do we find the collections freely pen to the public. In most cases they are unassisted by local or Corporate funds, and dependent entirely upon the subscriptions of Ptivate individuals. Indeed, any attempt to favor the establish- 350 On the Educational Uses of Museums. meut of public museums and libraries through the application of local funds is opposed with a horrible vigor more worthy of a corporation among the Cannibal Islands than within the British Empire. The governing bodies of too many of our towns include no small proportion of advocates of unintellectual darkness. It is not the interest of the public but that of the publican which sways, when a councillor wiser than the rest proposes in vain to inform his fellow-citizens through the agency of free museums, libraries and gardens. ‘This may seem a harsh and _ possibly a rash censure, but I speak deliberately and with knowledge of examples. And yet, alas, the direful sway of distilleries and breweries may be excused, when we learn that in some, be it hoped few instances, the proposition to establish public libraries by means of a small local rating has been opposed by the members of local so-called philosophical institutions, on the plea that having got what they wanted in this way for themselves they did not choose to pay a tax for the extension of these advantages to their less fortunate fellow-citizens. n every museum of natural history, and probably in those de- voted to other objects, there gradually, often rapidly, accumulates a store of duplicates that if displayed in the collection render it more difficult to be studied than if they were away altogether, occupying as they do valuable space and impeding the under- standing of the relations and sequence of the objects classified. If, as is sometimes the case, they are rejected from the collection and stowed away in boxes or cellars, they are still.in the way ; for cellarage and storage—as we know here, from the want of them, to our detriment,—are indispensable for the proper conducting of the arrangements of museums. Yet out of these duplicates, more or less perfect sets of specimens might be made up, of very high value for purposes of instruction. A well-organized system - of mutual interchange and assistance would be one of the most cient means of making museums generally valuable aids to education. Much money, when money is at the command 0 It is in this way, viz. by the contribution of authenticated and instructive specimens, that the museums supported by the State can most legitimately assist those established from local resources in the provinces: the scientific arrangements of the latter might also be faciltated through the aid of the officers attached to Gov- On the Educational Uses of Museums. 351 erment institutions. Money grants would do in many cases more harm than good, destructive as they are of a spirit of self-reliance, and apt to induce a looseness of expenditure and habits of ex- travagance. At the same time, every shilling granted judiciously by the State for purposes of education and instruction, for the promotion of schools, libraries, and mnseums, is a seed that will in the end generate a rich crop of good citizens. Out of sound knowledge spring charity, loyalty, and patriotism—the love of our neighbors, the love of just authority, and the love of our country’s good. In proportion as these virtues flourish, the weeds of idleness, Viciousness, and crime perish. Out of sound knowledge will _ arise in time civilization and peace. At present it is folly and self-conceit in nations to claim to be civilized, otherwise than as contrasted with savage barbarity. The admiration of physical prowess, the honoring of tinsel and pomp, the glorification of martial renown, are yet far too deeply inrooted in the spirit of the Most cultivated nations to permit of the noble epithet “civilized,” being appended to their names. The nobility of industry in all its grades,—first soul work, the labor of genius—then head-work, the labor of talent,—then hand-work, the honest labor of the body striving in the cause of peace—must be honored by state and people, before either can with truthfulness claim to be civil- ized, e are at best as yet but enlightened barbarians. Think how all Europe and half Asia st or months, and are €ven now standing, on the verge of foul and barbarous war; how Christian nations have girded on their armor, and, with mutual distrust and well-grounded suspicion, have stood with hand on Sword-hilt ready to guard or to strike; think of what is worse, of the crime and ignorance that fester in the byways of Christian Cities, and then boast of civilization if you can. The arts, the Sciences, taste, literature, skill, aud industry seem to have thriven among us in spite of ourselves—to have come among mankind like good spirits, and by main force to have established themselves Sn earth. They struggle with us and conquer us for our welfare, but are not yet our rulers. Sent from Heaven, aided by the few, not by the many, they have made firm their footing. If the Monarchs and presidents of the states of the earth knew wherein the best interest of themselves and their people lay, it is in these intellectual invaders they would confide. The cost of armaments and the keep of criminals would cease in time unproductively to drain their treasuries. But ambition and strife are sturdy demons yet, and the educator, who dreams of their enchainment, “cipates the speedy approach of a peaceful millenium, has but a mited acquaintance with the condition of mankind, and the hearts of its governors. oe ' [ cannot help hoping that the time will come when every Brit- town even of moderate size will be able to boast of possessing e De la Rive on the Aurora Borealis. 353 Arr. XXXVII.—On the Cause of the Aurora Borealis; by Prof. * . . A. pe ua Rive Wuen in June 1836, 1 published in the Bibliotheque Univer- selle a note on the origin of hail and ‘atmospheric electricity, I already foresaw that the same cause would explain the aurora borealis, and the irregular and diurnal variations of the magnetic needle. As I had not then seen an aurora, I withheld at that time this application of the principles. Since then I have witnessed fine auroras, and the appearances observed, especially during that of November 17, 1848, have confirmed my view of the na- ture of the phenomena, while they also accord with the observa- tions of others, especially with those of Hansteen, Bravais an Lottin, and also with the many interesting details in Humboldt’s osmos. My subsequent electrical experiments throw additional _ light on the origin of the aurora. _ This last statement indicates that I regard the cause as electri- cal. This view has often been presented before, and was brought forward by Arago at the time of CErsted’s discovery. Yet no one, to my knowledge, has explained the mode of action and production of the electricity, or the attendant phenomena result- ing from this cause. Without going into any historical details, I will briefly describe the Aurora. Borealis itself and its effects, and then pass to my own theory, the accordance of which with facts I shall endeavor to point out. 1. Description of the Aurora and its accompanying effects. I cite the following details principally from the Cosmos.’ They are derived mostly from the descriptions of Hansteen, Bravais, Lottin, and other travellers, who have been in favorable places for observing the aurora. The learned author of Cosmos has grouped the facts with great skill, presenting in an admirable manner the prominent points, and seems with scientific tact to teach towards the true theory of the phenomena which he de- Scribes An aurora borealis is always preceded by the formation in the horizon of a kind of nebulous veil, which rises slowly to a height of four to six or eight, or even ten degrees about the mag- netic meridian ; the sky though before pure, becomes darkened, and over this obscure segment, whose color varies from brown to violet, the stars are seen as through a thick e. n arc of light, first white, and afterwards yellow, borders the dark seg- Ment. Sometimes this luminous are is agitated for hours by a a Mem, Soe. de Phys. et Hist. Nat. de Genéve, xiii, and Bib. Univ., xxiv, 337, Dec. 53. Seconp Serms, Vol. XVIII, No. 54—Nov., 1854. _ 45 352 On the Educational Uses of Museums. and suggestively illustrated,—wherein the memorials 0 IS- t e neighboring province and the races that have peopled to fame. When that good time comes, true-hearted citizens will decorate their streets and sqnares with statues and memorials of the wise and worthy men an ho have adorned their province, not merely of kings, statesmen, or warriors, but of phi- losophers, poets, men of science, physicians, philanthropists and great workmen. How often in travelling through our beautiful country do we not feel ashamed of its towns and cities, when we seek for their ornaments and the records of their true glories and find none? How ugly is the comparison that forces itself upon our minds between the conduct of our countrymen in this re- spect and that of the citizens of continental towns? A traveller need not go far through the streets of most foreign cities without seeing Statues or trophies of honor, serving at once as decora- tions and as grateful records of the illustrious men they have pro- duced,—reminding the old of a glorious past, and inciting by &* ample the young to add to the fame of their native soil. My picture may seem a dream; but I have faith sufficient 10 England and Englishmen to believe that in the course of time It imagination of an ancient Briton, he might have hoped for its realization in another world, scarcely in this. But a simple belie in the probability of State and people advancing in intellectual aims and true civilization, and working them out through the length and breadth of the land, is essentially too wholesome an compatible with the progress of Christianized human nature, not to find an embodiment in a coming reality. 354 De la Rive on the Aurora Borealis. sort of effervescence, and a constant change of form, before it the explosion violent. Sometimes the columns of light proceed- ing from the luminous are are mixed with blackish or smoky columns; sometimes they rise simultaneously from different points of the horizon; or they may unite in a sea of flames of r a corona. Rarely the aurora continues till the corona is on clouds are grouped and arranged like the auroral columns; and in this case they appear to disturb the magnetic needle. After @ brilliant aurora, the trains of clouds in the morning have some- times been found to indicate the positions of as many luminous columns during the ni The absolute height of the aurora has been variously estima~’ ted. Fora long time it was supposed that it might be ascer- tained by the observations of distant observers on the corona: but it is now well known that the corona is only an effect of per spective, due to the apparent convergence of rays which are pa! allel to the dipping needle ; so that each sees his own corona, aS each his own rainbow. Moreover the aspect of the phenomenon depends on the position of the observer, The seat of the aurora is in the upper regions of the atmosphere; but sometimes it ap- pears to be produced within less elevated regions, where clouds are formed. Such observations as those of Capt. Franklin ap pear to establish the latter conclusion, who saw an aurora which lighted up the under surface of the clouds, whilst Mr. Kendall, two to three miles distant, saw no light whatever, although awake and constantly observing the sky. Captain Parry also as- De la Rive on the Aurora Borealis. 355 serts his seeing an aurora depicted on the flank of a mountain: and it is said that a luminous arc has been seen on the surface even of the sea, around the magnetic pole. | Mairan and Dalton believed the aurora borealis to be cosmical, and not atmospheric. But Biot, who had an opportunity of ob- serving the anrora at the Shetland Isles in 1817, proved it to be an atmospheric phenomenon, from finding that it did not partake the movement of the stars from west to east, and consequent- ly moved with the earth’s rotation. Since then, nearly all ob- servers have come to the same conclusion ; and in particular MM. Lottin and Bravais, who have observed more than 143 auroras, and given detailed descriptions of them. It is therefore quite certain that the aurora is not extra-atmos- pheric. To the evidence from its appearances, we may also add the crackling noise sometimes affirmed to be heard by the inhab- itants in the far north, and the sulphurous odor which also has been observed. And, in fine, if the phenomenon is wholly beyond our planet, why should it be located about the polar regions? . de Tessan, in the voyage of the Venus around the world, saw @ fine aurora australis, which he describes with care. It was 14° in height, and the centre of the are was in the magnetic meridi- an. He heard no sounds connected with it, which he attributes to its distance: but he mentions that M. Verdier, a French naval Officer, on the night of Oct. 13th, 1819, while on the coast of New Holland, heard distinctly a kind of crepitation, during a brilliant aurora. All the details mentioned by M. de Tessan prove the exactness of the observations. As concomitant effects of the aurora, we have mentioned the crackling sound, and the sulphurous odor. M. Matteucci has also observed during the appearance of a late aurora, satisfactory evi- ence of positive electricity in the air. But of all the phenomena, those which are of most invariable occurrence are the magnetic. he magnetic needle undergoes perturbations, either to the west Or east, and usually the latter. These disturbances vary in this philosopher to tell, while in the basement of the Paris Observatory, when there was an aurora in our hemisphere. M. . 356 De la Rive on the Aurora Borealis. M. de Tessan cites an observation made in 1818, by M. Baral, another F'rench naval officer, on the same coasts of New Holland, who found that he had been making a wrong course from follow- ing his needle; there had been no storm, and the compass had not been touched. But on the evening of the same day, there was a brilliant aurora, and to this he attributes the deviation—a conclusion which could not have been dictated by theory, since at the time (in 1818) the relations between electricity and mag- netism were not known. The intimate connection between the aurora and terrestrial magnetism, has led Humboldt to designate as a magnetic storm a succession of disturbances of equilibrium in the magnetic for- ces of the earth. The presence of this storm is indicated by the propose to bring some direct experiments, as well as the results 0 2. Proposed Theory. The atmosphere in its normal state is constantly charged with a considerable quantity of positive electricity, which increases 4S we ascend, starting at the earth’s surface where it is zero. ; I will not inquire into the origin of this electricity: what 1s certain is that its production is connected with the action of the sun, since its intensity is subject to diurnal variations. It may be a question whether the sun acts directly, either through 1ts light or its heat, on the constituents of our atmosphere, and so produces the electricity ; or whether it is an indirect effect of the De la Rive on the Aurora Borealis. 357 solar rays causing evaporation from the waters of the seas, or the vegetation of the land. It is probable that both causes act: yet Iam inclined to regard the first as most general and most con- stant. But this is of little importance here: the fact of the con- stant charge of positive electricity in the atmosphere, and of hegative electricity in the earth, is abundantly proved, and this is sufficient for our explanations. his constant production of the two electricities must necessa- rily be attended by a recomposition or neutralisation ; otherwise the contrary’ electric states woul ire an infinite tension, disturbances and consequently fewer storms; and at the same the air for the hours of the day, and days of the year. Hence it is difficult to deduce from these observations even the intensity of the atmospheric electricity for any given moment, seeing that it is impossible to separate this original intensity from the de- bag more or less decided which the electric registers may mani- est. f Let us now pass to the second mode of neutralisation of the two electricities, which I regard as normal and regular. he positive electricity, with which the upper beds of the at- mosphere are charged, will traverse them freely, because of their high state of rarefaction. But in the polar region, where the in- tense cold constantly condenses the aqueous vapors, it finds a 358 Dela Rive on the Aurora Borealis. portion of the atmosphere saturated with humidity, giving rise to mists; and by this means it may easily pass to the earth and combine with the negative electricity with which the earth itself . ischarged. It consequently results that there are constant cur- rents of positive electricity rising from different points of the earth’s surface into the upper regions of the atmosphere, which pass towards the poles, and then return beneath the earth’s sur- between the two systems. We may add that the experiments made with the electric telegraph have demonstrated that the ter- restrial globe is an almost perfect conductor of electricity, com- pensating by its mass, for what it wants in the conductibility of the materials which constitute it. Thus the existence of the currents, whose course I have traced, rests on well established principles, with a foundation of simple experiment. But more than this: their existence is demonstrated by facts long studied and established,—those pertaining to the diurnal va- riation of the magnetic needle. this deviation is precisely that which should be occasioned by currents passing along the surface of the globe from the north pole to the equator, augmenting in intensity with the heat of the day and diminishing as it decreases. The diurnal variation is at its maximum (13/ to 16’) in those months in which the sun is longest above the horizon, May, June, July, August. It is at its minimum (4/ to 5’) during the winter months. The variation is escend at the polar regions, and thus traversing the globe, De la Rive on the Aurora Borealis. 359 netic pole, the greater the number of currents that will act upon it: near the equator, it will not be subject to any influence from the currents which are formed beyond the region around the nee- dle. In winter these differences are less sensible, because the inally, according to our theory, the same effects should be manifested in the southern hemisphere, only that all is reversed ; and this is fully established by the various results of recent ob- servers, including those of Colonel Sabine and a large number of travellers! { should however acknowledge that there are some anomalies, either in the hours or in the direction of diurnal variation, at cer- tain places, especially at St. Helena and the Cape of Good Hope, anomalies which it is difficult to explain by the theory proposed. ut I am convinced that when further examined, they. will be found to be due to local and accidental causes, such as the vicin- ity of the sea, which influences very notably the diurnal varia- tions of temperature, and especially their amplitude and the hours of the maximum and minimum of heat. he question whether there are not places of no variation, proposed by Arago, is of little importance in this connection. The points of the earth’s Surface without diurnal variation, will be those where the two vary with the sun, the temperature, the winds, and other disturb- ing causes. i But I do not dwell on this point, as my object is not to treat of the diurnal motions of the needle. My end is simply to prove from the diurnal variations, the existence of the terrestrial cur- Tents. In continuation, we may obtain another proof still more direct, although less general, of the presence of these currents, by making use of the telegraph wires for collecting them. This I have done in England, as has also Mr. Barlow; and M. Baum- gartner has performed similar experiments in Germany. In these trials, the currents have in all cases been detected by means of the galvanometer. M. Baumgartner, having introduced a ve Sensitive galvanometer into the circuit formed by the telegraph Wire between Vienna and Prague, which has a length of about 61 miles, obtained the following results when the two extremities of Wire were buried in the earth, 1. The magnetic needle never stood at zero, but was more or less deviated. 360 De la Rive on the Aurora Borealis. 2. The deviations were of two kinds, some of large extent, even 50°, others small, varying from 1° to 8° ;—the former not common, and changing in direction and intensity, so that no law can be discovered; the latter on the contrary subject to a simple law, and being very regular when the air is dry and the sky serene, but with many anomalies when the weather is cold and rainy. Mr. Barlow has made numerous observations, and obtained re- sults demonstrating the exactness of the principle which I have laid down. Four main lines starting from Derby, were used in his experiments, two running towards the north and northeast, and two towards the south and southwest. The direction of the currents perceived on the first two lines, was always contrary to that of the currents onthe two others, as ought to be the case, on the theory proposed. But the most remarkable fact, is the perfect concordance which these observations have proved to ex- ist between the movement of the needle of the galvanometer placed in the circuit of the telegraph wire and the diurnal varia- tions of the magnetic needle. The diurnal movement of the needle of the galvanometer is subject to disturbances in intensi- ty more or less continued, during storms, and also when the au- rora borealis is visible; and so also is this true of the compass needle. There is this difference, that the currents acting on the latter, circulating beneath the earth’s surface, should not be sub- ject to disturbances like those which happen to the telegraph wires through the influence of the electrical condition of the at- mosphere about them. The existence then of electric currents circulating eipiie « the e m saa the surface of the globe. As we have said above, the positive electricity with which the atmosphere is charged, especially in the upper regions, is carried towards the two poles either by the greater conductibility of the upper and most rarified strata of the atmosphere, or by the cur rents of air in the upper regions which move from the equator ' the two poles. It is consequently through the vapors which are De la Rive on the Aurora Borealis. 361 constantly condensed in the forming mists in the polar regions that the positive electricity should find its passage into the earth, and also therefore its discharge. This‘discharge when possessing acertain degree of intensity should be luminous, especially: if, as is almost always the case near the poles and sometimes in the upper regions of the atmosphere, it encounters in its course icy particles of extreme minuteness, which form the haze as well as the more elevated clouds. The formation of lunar halos which generally precede the appearance of an aurora, and the fall of rain or snow which also is often a prelude to it, are a proof of the presence in the atmos- phere of these fine needles of ice, and of the part they play in the phenomenon before us. balloon ascension which they recently made, suddenly found themselves,—although the sky was quite serene and the atmos- phere without a cloud—in the midst of a veil or mist, which Was perfectly transparent, consisting of a multitude of small icy needles so fine that they were hardly visible. Such are the nee- dles which become Inminous by the passage of the electricity, Which determine the formation of halos as has been rigorously demonstrated, and produce by condensation the aqueous vapors in their passage through the air towards the earth, the fall of snow or rain, or sometimes under peculiar circumstances, hail. ow if we inquire what should pass in the portion of the lu- minous mist nearest to the earth’s surface, we shall conclude that the vicinity of the magnetic pole must exert a decided influ- ence on this electrised matter,—for it is in fact a true mobile conductor traversed by an electric current. f 0D order to obtain a correct idea of this action, I have, endeav- ored to imitate artificially the process of nature, and with this View, I contrived the following experiment. a nto a glass globe, 30 to 40 centimeters in diameter, I intro- duced through one of its two opposite tubulures, a piece of soft Iron wire, about 2 centimeters in diameter, making it to termi- hate at the inner end very near the centre of the globe, while the other end was exposed out of the globe. The wire was cov- ered through its whole length, excepting its extremities, by a very thick insulating bed formed first of shell-lac, then with a glass tube covered itself with shell-lac, then with a second tube of glass, and finally with a bed of carefully applied wax. The Skooyp Seriss, Vol. XVIII, No. 54.—Noyv., 1854. 46 362 De la Rive on the Aurora Borealis. insulating layer in all was a centimeter thick, giving 4 centime- ers for the thickness of the bar thus covered. Within the globe, a ring of copper surrounded the bar and its insulating bed, at the part most distant from the tubulure. ‘This ring was arranged to be put in communication with a source of electricity exterior to that of the bar by means of a metallic wire insulated with care, which passed through the tubulure and ended without in a ook. A stopcock attached to the other tubulure of the globe, was arranged for obtaining a vacuum. When the air within is sufficiently rarified, the hook is connected with the conductor of an electric machine, and the outer extremity of the bar of iron with the soil; by this means the electricity forms within the globea luminous sheaf, more or less irregular, which passes from the ring, and terminates at the inner extremity of the soft iron. But im- mediately on placing the outer extremity of the soft iron on the pole of an electro-magnet, the electric light takes a wholly dif- ferent aspect. Instead of proceeding indifferently from different points of the upper surface of the cylinder of iron, it proceeds from all points in the circumference of this surface, so as to form around it a continuous luminous ring. ‘This is not all: this ring has a movement of rotation around the magnetized cylinder, sometimes in one direction and sometimes in the other, according to the direction of the electric current, and the nature of the magnetisation. Finally, jets of brilliant light are seen to proceed from this luminous circumference, which are distinct from the rest of the mass of light. When the magnetization ceases, the Juminous phenomena return to the condition familiar in the ex~ periment, known under the name of the Electric Egg. There is some advantage in using for the experiment here de- scribed Armstrong’s hydro-electric machine, in which the boiler is Made to communicate with the hook which is united by a mé tallic connection to the ring of copper within the globe, whilst the conductor which receives the vapor is put in connection wit the bar of soft iron. Thus we have in the globe an electric cut rent of ‘great intensity which may be changed in direction, by inverting the connections. 3. Agreement of the theory with the facts. on the aurora borealis published in the History of the Voyage © Captain Franklin. Lieutenant Hood and Dr. Richardson were 55 miles miles apart for the purpose of making simultaneous ob- Servations, in order to ascertain the parallax of the phenomenon aud consequently its height. The results from three trials place De la Rive on the Aurora Borealis. 363 it alike at a height of 6 to 7 miles. On the 2nd of April, at the most northerly station a brilliant are was seen 10° above the ho- rizon; at the other station, it was not visible. The 6th of Au- gust the aurora was at the zenith at one station, and 9° in height at the other. On the 7th of April it was again in the zenith at the first station, and 9° to 11° in height at the second. Again, Hansteen, and after him, MM. Lottin and Bravais, were led to believe as a consequence of their observations, that the arc of the aurora is a luminous ring whose different parts are sensibly equidistant from the earth, and which is centered around the magnetic pole so as to cut at a right angle all the magnetic me- tidians which converge towards this pole. Such a ring is the au- roral arch and its apparent summit is necessarily in the maguetic meridian of the place. M. Bravais also observes that the arc seems tohave a kind of movement of rotation from the west to the east passing by the south. From this description the phenomenon is quite similar to the result of the experiment described above, and the direction of the rotation in the luminous ring is precisely that which ought to take place according to the laws governing the mutual action of currents, if it be the, positive electricity which passes from the atmosphere to the surface of the earth, thence to penetrate about the north magnetic pole, reunite with the nega- live electricity, and thus constitute the current. The diameter of the luminons ring will be greater, as the mag- netic pole is more distant from the earth’s surface, since this pole ought to be found in the intersection of the plane of the ring with the axis of the terrestrial globe. It hence results that each observer sees the summit of the au- toral are in his own magnetic meridian ; and hence only those on the same magnetic meridian see the same summit, and can take simultaneous observations for ascertaining the height. the summit of the are pass the zenith of the observer, he is surrounded on all sides by the matter of the aurora, or the auro- ral influences which proceed from the earth, and then, if at all, the crackling sound which has been alluded to should be heard. If it does not reach the zenith, the observer is then outside of the region; and the aurora is more or less distant according to Its altitude. The noise may be produced by the action of a powerful Magnetic pole on luminous electric jets very near this pole, as I have proved by experiment ; I have succeeded in producing a sim- ilar sound by bringing a piece of iron, strongly magnetised, to the luminous arch formed between the poles of a voltaic battery. — As to the sulphurous odor, it proceeds like that which accom- panies lightning, from the conversion of the oxygen of the air Into ozone by electric discharges. The light of the aurora is not polarized, as was remarked by Biot in 1817, from his observations at the Shetland Islands. This 364 De la Rive on the Aurora Borealis. negative result is confirmed by Mr. Macquorn Rankine, who has shown that this absence of polarisation is not due to the feeble- ness of the light, since this same light viewed after reflection from water is found to be polarised by this reflection. The most care- ful study and experiment have found no trace of polarisation in electric light, whether the discharges be made in the air or ina vacuum. his is a new proof of the identity of these two kinds of phenomena. Finally, we discover in the resemblance between auroral ap- pearances and certain clouds, as well as the disturbances of the magnetic needle, a further important confirmation of our theory. The observations of Dr. Richardson already mentioned, which show that the aurora exists at moderate elevations, also indicate that it is often connected with the formation of different kinds of cirro-stratus clouds. Lieutenant Hood, in speaking of the lumi- nous bands or columns of the aurora, says that he is convinced that they are carried. by the wind, because they retain exactly their relative situation, which is not the case when the luminous matter moves in the air by its own direct action. Finally, the coexistence of the aurora,with small ice needles in the atmos- phere, such as exist in elevated clouds, is shown by Captain — Our = a S| gQ ot mM o oe ia or ee ° 3 a aq a 3 o 2) o- o n z. — rs) = o if 2) ° 8 c= ® boos 3 9 if 2) oo are traversed by electric discharges sufficiently energetic, prov ded daylight does not efface the feeble light. som ‘times be detected in the day: thus Arago establishes most jncon- testably that Dr. H. Usher was not deceived in a notice publish in volume II. of the Memoirs of the Irish Academy, where he describes an aurora seen at mid-day on the 24th of May, 1788. De la Rive on the Aurora Borealis. 365 This observer, during the day after a night in which he had wit- nessed a brilliant aurora, having observed an oscillation of the stars as seen with his lens, perceived in the sky rays of a white quivering light which rose from all points in the horizon towards the pole of the dipping needle, where they formed a light and whitish corona like that which the most brilliant aurora presents at night. Arago, on consulting old records at the observatory, found that there were cousiderable magnetic disturbances that day in the magnetic needle kept for showing the diurnal varia- tion, thus proving beyond question that the phenomenon observed by Dr. Usher was a veritable day aurora. I find also in the account of the voyage of the Venus by M. de Tessan, that M. Cornulier, an intelligent officer in the French Navy, often observed on the coast of New Holland a partic- ular direction in the cirrus clouds during the day, from which he was enabled always to announce a fine aurora australis at hight. M. Cornulier, like M. Verdier, was convinced, from a study of the arrangement of the cirrus clouds, that in those regions, auroras occur during nearly every day, and that the variation is only as to their brightness; they are often hid from view by clouds and storms. This remark agrees with the observations made under the direction of Captain Lefroy in Canada, at 13 dif- ferent stations, and with others, collected by the Smithsonian In- stitution. It results from all these observations, that the aurora was seen on almost all clear nights, when the moon was not too bright, although not at all the stations. This is especially true uring the months when the nights are longest. From October to March, there is scarcely a night without a visible aurora; and they are most brilliant in the month of February. The tables show that auroras were seen during 261 nights in 1850, and 207 in 1851. It is also remarkable and natural, that the auroras should have been seen most frequently in the stations nearest the magnetic ci One or the other succeeded the aurora. The appearance of lunar t. x . . ut the most important proof of the electrical origin of the aurora is that derived from its action on the magnetic needle. e observations by Arago at the observatory of Paris,* by Fors- ey ou de Ch. et de Phys, x. 120; xxx, 423; xxxvi, 398; xxxix, 369; xlii, 3515 » *Vo. ‘ 366 De la Rive on the Aurora Borealis. ter, Farquharson, and by all voyagers, establish the following conclusions :— 1. During the day preceding the night on which an aurora ap- pears, the declination of the magnetic needle to the west is al- ways augmented 10, 20 or 30 minutes, or more. 2. On the contrary, at the middle, and at the end of the ex- hibition, the needle deviates from its normal state to the east. 3. Finally, the needle often undergoes irregular perturbations during an aurora, amounting to several minutes It happens ordinarily that the maximum deviation of the nee- dle during the day preceding the night of the aurora, is at noon, or half an hour after noon; and the deviation due to the disturb- ance may be 5 to 30 minutes or more, beyond that of the days before or following. Sometimes the maximum western deviation is at other hours in the morning, and it is probable that in such cases there is an aurora during the day. Arago cites several ca- ses of this kind. Thus, on the 17th of August, 1828, the decli- nation from 84h. a.m. till noon was 5’ above the mean of the month for the same hours; and on the same day, at 10h. P.™., Messrs. Coldstream and Foggo perceived feeble traces of an au- rora which was probably the end of a day aurora, During the evening the needle was in its ordinary position. The magnetic observations made in the regions near the pole confirm the influence on the needle. Thus at Reykinwik (64° 8’ 15’ N.) MM. Lottin and Bravais, having made numerous ob- servations on the diurnal variation of the needle parallel with sim- ilar observations at Paris and Cherbourg, were struck with the Lowenérn made in 1786, 50 years before, they satisfied them- selves that the effect was due to auroras invisible to them because without hesitation to the aurora. ‘This conclusion is confirmed by the very numerous and excellent observations of MM. Lottn and Bravais. We thus see, that for a long period observations near the pole have shown that auroras must be more frequent than was SUP- posed, and this is confirmed by the facts observed in Canada and the United States. : We therefore conclude, that the production of auroras, north- ern and southern, is the normal mode of neutralising the positive electricity of the atmosphere with the negative of the earth. De la Rive on the Aurora Borealis. 367 This neutralisation should not take place ina manner very uniform or regular. It is evident that the variations in the mists or con- ducting capabilities of the atmosphere will be attended by varia- tions in the facility of this neutralisation. These differences will be evinced by the deviations or disturb- ances of the magnetic needle, which will be sensible at great distances from the poles, as in the temperate zone where they are often observed. The western deviation which in the middle lat- itudes usually precedes an aurora, indicates a large accumulation of electricity, due to a powerful condensation of vapors in the polar regions, which by facilitating the reunion of the two elec- tricities, augments the intensity of the terrestrial current passing in our hemisphere from the equator to the north, and consequent- ly carries the needle more to the west. When the aurora is once visible, the current becomes less strong, because the light itself of the aurora is proof of the resistance (probably due to the con- gelation of the particles of water suspended in the air that con- stitutes the mist) which the reunion of the two electricities en- counters ;* the needle will then retrograde to the east, as actually takes place. ; , In the higher latitudes, the disturbances of the needle are con- tinual, because the slightest differences in the intensity of the electric discharges that take place in the polar regions should be there perceived. As to the observations of MM. Ginge, Léwe- nérn and Lottin, that the maximum deviation of the needle takes Place from 8 to 10 o’clock in the evening, and the minimum at 9 to 10 in the morning, they were made only during some weeks Mi summer, and they prove only that at this season of the year, the greatest amount of condensation of moisture takes place, as should be the case, at times just preceding and following the set- ting of the sun, and the least 7 or 8 hours after its rising. In the observations of Lieutenant Hood, made in the voyage of Captain Franklin, between the Ist of February and the 31st of ay, the greatest declination took place at 8 and 9 o’clock in the morning, and the least at an hour after noon. Thus, as is seen, the times of the maxima and minima are widely variable in those high latitudes, where there are great differences in the length of 1¢ day, and also in temperature, and therefore considerable electric disturbances of the air. _, itis a singular fact, sometimes noticed, that when an observer is in the midst of an aurora, so to speak, the action on the needle may null, This was remarked by Mr. Forster, at Port Bowen, be- yond 65° N., the latitude of Forts Franklin and Enterprise, where Dr. Richardson had on the contrary observed the action of the needle. In fact, a needle in the interior of the circle formed by * It is clear that the mist when first formed should be a better conductor than when, afterwards, it consists only of icy particles. . 368 De la Rive on the Aurora Borealis. the aurora about the magnetic pole, is no longer under the influ- ence of the currents which circulate around it and not above or below, and it ought therefore to experience only a variable and irregular action. I have said that the aurora was probably of daily occurrence, and varied only in intensity. These differences in intensity are the reason for its being not always perceptible, and also for its less frequency remote from the magnetic poles. As to the differ- ences of number for each month, they are attributable to two causes—but especially to the unequal length of the nights, for there should be fewer in the shorter nights. Thus in May, June and July the fewest are seen, because the days are the longest, while that the auroras are most frequent at the times of the equinoxes, and especially the autumnal equinox. This is readily understood . if we consider that the vernal equinox is the time when the sun transfers to the northern hemisphere its powerful influence either direct or indirect in the development of electricity ; and that the autumnal should be followed with a large condensation of the vapors accumulated in the atmosphere during the months of sum- mer—a condensation which, as already explained, facilitates the neutralisation of the two electricities, developed in large quanti- ties during the summer, and augments consequently the intensity of the discharge at the pole. magnetic poles, which are the centers of the aurora, and which according to the surface about them would more or less facilitate the electric circulation: for it is evident that the naked soil would afford more ready circulation than a surface covered with a great thickness of ice. But, I repeat it, the fact of the periodicity 8 far from proved. : C. U. Shepard on Meteoric Iron from Sonora. 369 Recapitulation.—1. All observations agree in demonstrating that the aurora borealis is a phenomenon taking place in our at- mosphere, and that it consists in the production of a luminous ring whose center is the magnetic pole, and having a diameter more or less large. 2. Experiment demonstrates that in causing in highly rarified air the reunion of the two electricities near the pole of an artifi- cial magnet, a small ring of light is produced similar to that which constitutes the aurora, and having a like movement of ro- tation. principally in the equatorial regions. As these electric discharges take place constantly, though with varying intensity, depending on the state of the atmosphere, the aurora should be a daily phenomenon, more or less intense, and consequently visible at greater or less distances, and only when the night is clear—which accords precisely with observ- ation. 5. The phenomena that attend the aurora, such as the pres- ence and form of the cirro-stratus clouds, and especially the dis- turbances of the magnetic needle, are of a kind to demonstrate the truth of the electric origin attributed by the author to the au- tora—an hypothesis with which these phenomena correspond even in their minutest details. _ 6. The aurora australis, according to the few observations on it which have been made, presents exactly the same phenomena as the aurora borealis, and is explained in the same manner. Arr. XX XVIII.—Notice of three ponderous masses of Meteoric Tron at Tuczon, Sonora ; by CHartes Urnam Sueparp, M.D. the Gila, in the month of February previous, he observed two large pieces of meteoric iron, which were used by the blacksmiths Seconp Series, VoL XVIII, No. 54.—Nov., 1854. 47 370 C. U. Shepard on Meteoric Iron from Sonora. hand, permitted sapeiae The fragments were small; the largest piece not weighing above one-quarter of an ounce, and that somewhat battered by the process employed for its separation. Still, it showed the natural outside of the meteor. It was destitute of a well marked crust, and much coated with oxyd of iron, evincing in common with the other fragments, that this iron is prone to undergo a rapid oxydation on exposure to the weather. ; ne fresh surfaces presented the color and lustre of white cast- iron; though it is not brittle, or granular in its fracture. A close examination of a fresh surface, produced by the cold chisel, re- veals frequent white spots, of the size of a pin’s head and smaller, scattered in every direction, and without any very perceptible order. ‘These spots seem to be owing to the presence of an earth powder, which adheres closely to the iron, and indeed seems pat- tially imbedded therein. When such a surface is highly polished on the burnishing wheel, the spots disappear; but are renewe again on the application of acids, in the etching process. They then come into view, rather more circumscribed in their areas than before; but of a very determinate figure, being mostly rounded or oval, sometimes with angular indentations in theit borders. ‘They are never rhomboidal or rectangular in their out- line, after the manner of the much larger earthy grains, or cryS- tals, in the Atacama iron, which render the latter porphyritic, when cut into slabs. The Tuczon iron on the contrary, when thus polished and etched, is amygdaloidal only; and to discern this character thoroughly, requires the aid of a microscope. _* Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Sixth Meeting, p- 188. C. U. Shepard on Meteoric Iron from Sonora. 371 The acids act very tardily on the iron, and require to be aided by heat, before the action will fairly commence. No decided crys- talline structure is developed in the process; though the frag- ments experimented on, being small, and considerably altered in molecular texture by the force applied in their separation from the parent mass, it would not be safe from this trial perhaps, to con- clude against a crystalline structure in the main portion of the iron. p. gr. == 6°66, which corresponds very nearly with that of the Atacama iron, as determined by Turner, whose trial specimen no upon by acids; but here again, it would not be strange if this It remains only to state a few additional particulars concerning these iron-masses, derived from a later letter of Lieut. Parke, which he kindly permits me to annex to this notice. “'The three masses were found in a cafiada of the Santa Rita Mountain, about 25 or 30 miles to the south of Tuczon. Two of them were shown to us by the Commandante ; both being 372 Reéramination of American Minerals. used as anvils. One lies within the Presidio, and is of a very feet ; its interior about two. It weighs nearly 1200 lbs. The other piece is in front of the Alcalde’s house. It weighs about 1000 pounds, and has an elongated prismatic form, serving well the purposes of an anvil. It is partially buried in the soil, but having two feet of its length projecting above the ground. The third piece I did not see ; but was told that it was much smaller than either of the others. By permission of the authorities, our blacksmith undertook to cut off some specimens, in which, how- ever, he almost entirely failed—the metal being so tough and hard. It yields to the hammer, and has a clear ring, not unlike that of bell-metal. The surfaces were rounded, and rusted,—closely re- sembling a mass of refined cast-iron that had been exposed to the action of the weather fora long period. The surfaces that have received the blows of the hammer, where used as an anvil, are quite polished. “To obtain these specimens would be attended with no little difficulty, owing to the remoteness of the locality, and the broken- down condition of animals when reaching this point.” : The route of transportation recommended by Lieut. Parke, 1s that, via. Fort Yuma, distant 275 miles from the locality, on the California side ; and from thence by water, to the head of the Gulf of California. Measures are already on foot for the removal of one or more of the masses, to this part of the country, which it 1s greatly to be desired will be crowned with success.* ———— rcpt cnaratae Art. XXXIX.—Reézramination of American Minerals: Part 1V—Boltonite ; Iodid of Silver ; Copiapite ; Owenite ; Xeno- time ; Lanthanite; Manganese Alum Ps Apophyllite ; Schret- bersite ; Protosulphuret of Iron; Cuban; by J. Lawrence Sarr, M.D., Prof. Chem. Med. Depart. University of Louisville.t 37. Boltonite, identical with Chrysolite. Botronire was first described as a new species by Professor C.U. Shepard. He made the specific gravity from 2°8 to 2-9, It was subsequently examined by Professor Silliman, Jr., who found * The above Sonora meteoric irons were described and illustrated with figures ™ a paper by Dr. J. Lawrence Smith, presented to the American Association at 1t8 meeting at Washington in April last—a paper which was to have ap in our last number, but is still delayed. The masses were seen by officers of the late Bound- Commission, and figures are published in Bartlett's Personal Narrative (8¥9 D all who take any interest in the subject.—y, 1. g, Reéramination of American Minerals. 373 3:008 as its specific gravity, with a hardness of from 5 to 6: his analysis gave for its constituents :* Silica, . 46062 lumina, 5667 Magnesia, : 38149 Protoxyd of iron, 8632 ime, . : 1516 the gangue, made it very evident that the mineral was more or less mixed with other substances which had escaped observation, for no two analyses agreed; and it was soon discovered that it was impossible (from the specimens in my possession at least) to separate Boltonite in a state of purity without the aid of other means than had been adopted. Boltonite, as is well known, occurs at Bolton, Mass., er: _ted in irregular masses and grains in a white limestone. piece of the mineral in its gangue be placed in cold dilute hydro- chloric acid, the limestone is readily dissolved, and a mass left, which is seen to consist of asbestus, dolomite, a little mica, small crystals of magnetic iron, and a greenish or yellowish green min- eral; if the acid be now heated, the dolomite will be entirely dissolved with a little of the last mentioned mineral. In order to obtain the Boltonite as pure as possible for analysis, the following method was adopted. Pieces were separated by the hammer as thoroughly as possible from all other substances ; these were subsequently placed in dilute hydrochloric acid, and boiled for some time; the acid being washed away and the sub- stance dried, it was crushed in a mortar to fragments from the twentieth to the tenth of an inch in diameter; these were again introduced into dilute acid and heated fora short while; the acid was thoroughly washed away, and the mineral dried. The small fragments (now like coarse gravel) were placed on a piece of glazed paper, the hand laid flat upon it and the mineral rubbed 80 as to grind the particles against each other for the purpose of ridding their surfaces of a little cohering silica arising from its partial decomposition ; with a small gauze sieve the finer particles are separated, and from that remaining in the sieve we are enable With the aid of a glass without any difficulty to pick out the pure Boltonite. This method requires a little patience, but no extra- ordinary care, and however unpromising the original specimens may have been, there is no difficulty in obtaining a material, the results of whose analysis is constant. From a larger selection of Specimens than that used, there doubtless could be obtained pieces Perfectly pure of some size. After being satisfied with this method of obtaining the pure mineral, three different portions were pre- * This Journal, vol. viii, 2d ser., p. 391. 374 Reéramination of American Minerals. pared and examined, the first two being of the greenish variety and the third of the yellow variety, which color is doubtless due to a peroxydation of a minute quantity of the protoxyd of iron entering into the constitution of the mineral. Mr. L. Saemann in a communication made to the American Association some time since, attributed this change to magnetic iron undergoing decomposition ; but this, however, does not appear to me to be the case, for the reasons that crystallized magnetic iron is a min- eral difficult of decomposition, and the color is not in fissures as would be the case if the peroxyd arose from a substance foreign to the composition of the mineral, but enters into its most inti- mate structure. The hardness of Boltonite is found to be, as already stated, be- tween 5and 6. The specific gravity was taken on three speci- mens; Nos. 1 and 2, on a gramme each of fine particles; No. 3 on a piece of :150 gramme, all possible precautions being used to arrive at correct results : No. 1, 3270 No.2, 3-208 No, 3, 3'328 No. 3 is to be regarded as by far the most reliable, as in taking the sp. gr. of fine grains it is almost impossible to detach the last particles of air, and consequently the sp. gr. they indicate 1s below the true number. The analyses of three portions gave— J 0.1 No. ili > 42°56 41:95 42-41 Magnesia, : - 51°77 51°64 50:06 Protox. iron, . : i Oo 3°20 3°59 Alumina, ; ; : 0:10 0°2 f Loss by heat, . E é3:1988 1-58 not estimated. 99°00 98°62 Nos. 1 and 2 were the greenish variety, No. 3 the yellowish. The oxygen ratio of the silica and protoxyds are— = No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. Silica, ; ‘ ; 2241 21°77 2a 08 Magnesia, . a ‘ 20°35 20°30 196 Protoxyd of iron, ‘ i “52 it “15 This being as one to one within a small fraction, the formula therefore is (Mge)* Si, or of the general form ki, which of course proves it to be chrysolite, a fact sustained in every respect by its physical characters. 38. Iodid of Silver. In this reéxamination of American minerals it was not origil- _ally designed to include those of South America: but my recent examination of the minerals obtained by Lieut. Gilliss of the U.S. Chili Expedition, has afforded an opportunity of analyzing a . . tain minerals that it was well to investigate, and among Reéramination of American Minerals. 375 were one or two fine specimens of iodid of silver. A reéxamin- ation of this mineral is especially interesting, from the fact that its composition is still in doubt, owing to the discrepancy between the original analysis of Vauquelin on the mineral from Zacatecas in Mexico, and that of Domeyko on the mineral from Chanarcillo in Chili. Jodi Vauquelin. Domeyko. odine, : A are 46°89 Silver, . R ava Ag? I 5425 Ag The constitution of the native Chlorids and Bromids of Silver would lead to the supposition that Domeyko’s analysis was the correct one, and this is strengthened by its resemblance to the artificial iodid of silver. : he specific gravity was found to be 5-366, being a little lower than that given by M. Domeyko. The analysis of an exceed- ingly pure specimen gave me— & Iodine, 52-934 53°109 Silver, 46521 46°380 Chlorine, ‘ trace trace Copper, trace trace 99°455 99°489 clearly showing its constitution to be” Ag I= Iodine 58°85, Silver 46°15 = 100, leaving no doubt of its perfect analogy to the natural chlorid and bromid of silver. The other properties of this mineral are no mentioned, as they are all fully stated in all works on mineralogy. 39. Copiapite. Sis it afforded f 2 Sulphuric acid, ; Fi ‘ 80°25 30-42 P ee ; 31°75 _ 80°98 a of iron, . rota : ss . i: . 54 not estimated. Undissolved, ; ‘ 3 fe 05 100-74 The analyses correspond to the formula #e §2 +118. 376 Reéramination of American Minerals. This is the same formula as that obtained by Rose, ‘with an additional half atom of water, his formula being 2Fe §2 + 21H. Protoxyd of iron was looked for but none found. 40. Owenite,* identical with Thuringite—with an announcement new locality. Owenite was first described by Dr. F. A. Genth as a distinct species, who gave a minute and accurate analysis in the Am. Journ. of Science, vol. xvi, 2d series, p. 167. It was found on both sides of the Potomac river near Harper’s Ferry. ‘The phys- ical characters being already fully and accurately given, it is need- less to repeat them here, merely remarking ‘that its specific gravity as taken by me is 3°191. It is readily soluble in hydrochloric acid; notwithstanding, analysis No. 2 was made by fusion with carbonate of soda. Results of analyses as follows: :; 2. Genth. ; 23 58 23°52 23°21 Peroxyd of iron, : 14°33 13°89 Alumina, . ‘ eon eae 16-08 15°59 Protoxyd of iron, . . 33-20 32°18 3458 Protoxyd of manganese, . . 009 trace Magnesia, . ; : 152 1:68 1:26 ime, 0°36 Soda. 0-46 0-41 Potash, . ‘ ‘ . trace. 0°08 Water, ; : : 10°45 10°48 10°59 100°50 99°97 © After this examination it was rendered strongly probable that Owenite and Thuringite were similar if not identical minerals; yet, in the analysis of Thuringite by Rammelsberg, alumina is not mentioned as one of its constituents. This view was SUS- tained by the apparently perfect accordance in the physical char- acters of the two minerals, coupled with the fact that the amount of silica and water in the two, as already examined, was the same, and also the sum of the oxyds of iron and alumina in the Owenite were equal to the sum of the oxyds of iron in the Thu- ringite. ‘To settle the question, it became necessary to reéxam- ine Thuringite, of which I obtained a specimen from Mr. Mar- koe, coming from the original locality ; it was slightly altered by the action of the air, but this could interfere only with the cor- rect estimate of the protoxyd of iron. Its specific gravity was 3°186, and its composition, : * The identity of these two minerals has already been announced by me in a let- thes one of the editors of this Journal (Am. lee, xvii, 131), but no details were given. Reéxamination of American Minerals. 377 Sili 3 g Y . : i 22°05 Peroxyd of i iron, : ! % nx 8 .. 1766 : : : : 1640 | Protea of i iron, ; : : : : . 30°78 ggg Z - . , : ‘ 0°89 a, : Potash, bi O14 Water, 1144 99°36 The peroxyd of iron is a little higher, and the protoxyd a lit- tle lower than in the analysis of Owenite, but this arose from th partial decomposition of the specimen. The correct analysis of Thuringite is that first given, and the formula deduced by Mr. Genth from it is to be looked upon as the correct one, namely— 2k* Si+ #e Si+ 6H, ' corresponding to the oxygen ratio for Ry, B 5i, H,. 1:18:15: 1. In looking over some minerals placed in my hands by Mr. Markoe, I have found a specimen of Thuringite coming from the Hot Springs of Arkansas. Its identity is made out without the slightest difficulty, as all its physical characters correspond most ty with the Thuringite, its sp. gr. being 3:184 and composi- ” Silica : ‘ ; ; - . 23°70 Paoxya of iron, ; : ; ; i <3 tele Alu ; é 3 . . A 1654 oe of i iron, : ; i : . - 8814 Magnesia, ; ‘ : . 1°85 oe 1-16 Soda, : ee t 0°32 Water, ‘ s “ ; : Z - 1090 99°74 An interesting fact connected with this mineral as shown by this investigation is, that although not crystalline, or at least very obscurely so, yet coming as it does from three localities so widely Separated as ‘Thuringia, the Potomac, and Arkansas, it is never- theless ne a unmixed with any other mineral, as the anal- yses indica 41. Xenotime of Georgia. In examining a few years ago some’ of the residue of gold rhein from Clarksville, ie be in eer assreente of Prof. oe saa oe no. goninhe: ter at hand, they were sent to Mr. Teschemacher, who referred them, after a partial examination, to erie Prof. Gibbes sub- sequently examined their form, and pronounced them Xenotime, (Am. Jour. Science, 2nd Ser., xiii, 143). "Blass then, from ma- Srconp Serres, Vol. XVIII, No. ay 1854. 48 378 Reéxamination of American Minerals. terial that had been placed in my hands by that gentleman, nearly a gramme of the substance has been procured, and upon that the followmg examination has been made. Some of the crystals are exceedingly short prisms surmounted by four-sided pyramids, but most of them are without the prism, the summits coming together forming a flattened octahedron. ‘The measurements made were: over the pyramidal edge 123° 10/, over basal 81° 30’, face of pyramid on prism 131° 40’. The above measurements can be made with perfect accuracy ; not so the faces of the prisms on each other, and as far as I could make it out, IT am inclined to think that they are not square prisms, but rhombic prisms of 93°. Its hardness is 4°5, sp. gr. 4°54, an the physical characters those given for Xenotime. j t was decomposed by fusion with carbonate of soda and sil- ica, and analysed with the following results : Phosphoric acid, . ; : : ; 3 82°45 Yttria, ; : : g AMG : . 5418 Oxyd of Cerium, (with a little La and D) b ‘ 11-03: Oxyd of iron, . ; _ ' ‘ . 206 Silica, : : ; : ; : 0°89 10056 This analysis will be seen to differ from that of the Xenotime of Hitteroe, Sweden, by Berzelius, in that a portion of the yttra is replaced by the oxyd of cerium; the formula represented by the analysis is, however, the same, namely, er -(Y, Ga)s : _ Great care was taken in the separation of the oxyd of cerium, which after being peroxydized by heat, yielded but little to dilute nitric acid, indicative of the presence of but a small quantity of the oxyds of lanthanum and didymium. 42. Lanthanite. eet This mineral was first observed in America by Mr. W. P. Blake, and described in this Journal, Sept. 1853; it was obtained by Mr. Blake from Bethlehem, Lehigh Co., Pa., where only one specimen had been found. It was handed to me for examination, and ascertained to be carbonate of lanthanum ; the analysis made was given in thé original description of the mineral. Since ten I have made another analysis on a portion remaining in my pos- session, and although not differing from the former one, It 1S ‘thought proper to insert it in this paper. = mers eee é Water, . : : ing s fib toes ga 2409 *~ ee he a 4 Reéxamination of American Minerals. 379 No. 2 is the analysis already published in the paper before mentioned. In both instances, there was an excess, owing to the peroxydation of a portion of the lanthanum,—a circumstance that cannot be avoided, nor do we know how to allow for it in our calculation. © This mineral has the same formula as the arti- ficial carbonate, namely, La G+sff = Carbonic acid 21°11, oxyd of lanthanum 52:94, water 25:95. The ing other known locality of this mineral is Bastnias in Sweden ; it is there found only as a coating to Cerite, and doubt- less was not obtained in a perfectly pe state oy Hisinger, who gave as its formula, La? 6431. .-I have no dou o the miner- als being identical, ‘and that whaleree ihe Baas ened is ob- - crystallized, it will prove to have the same composition as Bethlehem variety. 43. Mangano-magnesian Alum from Utah. This alum was observed a few years ago by Dr. Gale, among specimens brought from the Salt Lake, in Utah, by Mr. Stans- bury. It occurs at a place called Alum’ Point, and was consid- ered altogethe er a manganese alum, of which Dr. Gale gave what he then stated he considered an imperfect es (Am. Journal Science, vol. xv, 2nd ser., 434): 8 18:0 Mn 89 Hao °° | 130 Being desirous of having it more Darel analyzed, Dr. Gale placed in my hands the specimen which is the subject of the present investigation. It was not eatad as it occurs at the lo- cality, but had been recrystallized and consisted of delicate needle- shaped crystals, seahaia in small masses. It dissolves very read- ily in water ; in fact so soluble is it that it is difficult to decide the amount of water races for its complete solution. It oe zes from solution in the form of delicate paren with a p umose on On analysis it furnishe 10-40 10°65 Magnesia, 3 504 5'65 Manganese, . : ; me 21 2°41 Sulphuric acid, ; ? ;. SB 8D 85°92 Oxyd of iron, " : ; O15 0:09 Potash, . ‘ 3 ; co ORO 0-20 wane : : ae a , 46°00 > 46°75 100° GG: 3 101:67 This sis ron s an of protoxyds.a. little. too high for the analysis how wt the fo Ria of alum, but this however, is frequent occurrence in the natural alums, owing to admixture of impurities. This variety of alam has been before observed by Stromeyer, and was y brought from’ a cave in ceo Africa. Its fornaelais,'° me © (Stig; Ma) 8 + FaSe+ 2484. 380 Reéramination of American Minerals. 4A. Apophyliite. The specimen of this mineral examined, came from Lake Su- perior. It is eminently lamellar in its structure, and was placed in my hands as being possibly diaspore; its lustre is however much more pearly than this latter mineral. Its sp. grav. is 2:37, and its constitution, Silica, ' . : = = é - 52°08 ime, . : : . : : : 25°30 Potash, . ; : : ; ; . 498 Fluor, : F # 2 A : 0°96 Water, ‘ A js Z z 4 -> 102 99°19 45. Schreibersite (of Patera). This ape mineral occurs in the American meteorites in more abundance than has usually been supposed, as was fully vancement of Science in April, 1854; and. as that memoir will be published in full in this Journal, nothing farther than the mere statement of the analysis of this mineral is here given. G.= 7-017. t. S; 3. Tron, . : : . 57-22 56:04 56:53 Nick, . : ; 25°82 26°43 28:02 Cobalt, : : - 032 0°4 8 Copper, . = . trace, not estimated. Phosphorus, 5 . 18°92 14°86 Silica, > ; i 1°62 Alumina, 163 . Lime, ‘ trace not estima’d ( ™% pees sen: Chlorine, v. OTS 100-66 99°69 Nos. 1 and 2 were separated mechanically from the meteoric iron ; No. 3 chemically. The silica, alu ime, were entirely absent from No. 3; and in the other spactiatd it is due to a siliceous mineral that I have found attached in small particles to the Schreibersite, and of which I have preserved one or two - small specimen The formula of Schreibersite I consider to be Ni? Fe! P- Pr. ct. Phosphorus, : atom, er : ; : . yea —— . : : 5 29°17 re _ 5536 Further particulars of this sida sei be docu in the papet already referred to. 46. Protosulphuret of Iron. This sulphuret is the one found i ay the meteoric irons of this country. ‘The specimen examined came from Tennessee; iS Sp. gr. is 475. Its composition is different from that of magnetic Correspondence of J. Nickles. 381 pyrites, although some authors consider the magnetic pyrites a protosulphuret, an inference not sustained by analysis. The min- _ eral in appara afforded me . : i : : ° . : - 62°38 Sulphur, : i: : : ‘ > 35°67 Nickel, . : - ri ; “iis GAPOe Copper, ; ; . 4 : i trace Silica, : ° ; : - § O66 Lime, 0-08 98°91 The formula Fe S requires Sulphur 36°36, Iron 63°64 = 100. Further remarks on this mineral will be found in the paper on meteorites. . Cuban. This variety of copper pyrites was first noticed by Breithaupt, as occurring among the copper ores of Cuba. Desiring to reéx- amine it, specimens were obtained from Prof. Booth; they were massive and not perfectly pure, furnishing an insoluble residue consisting of silica and oxyd of iron which are very probably combined. Its sp. grav. was 4180, and its composition— i 2. 3. ‘ -« 92:2 . “ 18°23 19:10 a 19°00 Cope, 39°57 39°20 39°30 Residue (silica and oxyd of iron), 4:23 9° 99°13 This seems to setae the formula already received, (agreeing with the analyses of Prof. Booth,) CuS+Fe? 8°, pyrites being Cu? S+Fe? S*= Sulphur 42:28, Copper 20°82, Iron 36-90. Arr. XL.—Correspondence of M. Jerome Nicklés, dated Paris, June 28, 1854. Academy of Sciences.—F'or some days, the Academy has been occupied repairing the loss experienced at the beginning of the year. In place of Dr. Roux, Dr. Claude Bernard has been named, well known for his discoveries in Physiology: in place of Admi- ral Roussin, an officer of the navy, M. Bravais, an admiral in Science, although but a lieutenant in his official capacity. The labors of M. Bravais have not been confined to na navigation and hydrography. He has published important mathematical works ; his researches on halos, auroras, mirage, the rainbow, parhelia, and meteorology in general, have given him a prominent name in Physics, while his works on the arrangement of leaves on the symmetry of inflorescence, the laws of growth of the oa sylvestris, have made him known to naturalists. 382 Correspondence of J. Nicklés. On the Phenomenon called “ Spirit-rappings.”—The time not occupied by the discussion of the titles of candidates, has been filled; with communications, some of them of interest. The question also of “ table-turnings,” and “spirit-rappers,” has en- gaged the attention of a physiologist of Francfort, Dr. Schiff, who has given in a full session, a demonstration showing that the noise of the “‘spirit-rappers” ‘is not the result of a stroke of any part of the body on an external object; but that it is produced by means of the great peroneus muscle, the tendon of which passes behind the external malleolus, to which it is usually re- tained by a ligament. When this ligament fails, or when it is. much relaxed, if the muscle is suddenly shortened, the tension of the tendon becomes so great that it slips suddenly from the mal- leolus, producing a noise similar to that of a stretched cord sud- denly loosened.* M. Schiff by practice has become able to make r Restored from their surprise, the Academy hastened to change the subject, as if ashamed to occupy itself with the scientific ex- planation of a fact which for some time has occupied the popular imagination. : Evectricitryr—Electro-chemical action.—Works on Electricity _ electrodes become covered with gas, and take polarity ; and con- sequently they give origin to contrary currents which necessarily diminish the effect of the pile. To avoid such disturbing cau ses, M. Becquerel has contrived two pieces of apparatus for con- stantly depolarizing the electrodes, making them at every moment to change their polarity. The author has exhibited his apparatus in action before the Academy, and has since i lied it to the study of the principle which governs the disengagement of elec- tricity in chemical action, a principle which he first brought out in 1823, and which since has been adopted in the science. — : eobr. Austin Flint of Buffalo, at the commencement of the “ spiritsappet delu: ed a exposed the source of this noise in the same way precisely as Dr. HCD" Ds. = bie (mee eee rs che a e * Kleetricity—E lectro-chemical action. 383 His depolarising apparatus gives him a more constant current than had been obtained, and serves as a means of verifying the results he before arrived at, which are for the most part confirmed. The following are his conclusions : 1. In the action of acids on metals, or on saline solutions, the acids or acid solutions take always an excess of positive electri- city ; the metals and alkaline solutions, a. corresponding excess of ‘negative electricit y: e disengagement of cron in combustion is governed by the same principle ; the combustible body disengages — electricity, the supporter of fossiaieion} positive Decompositions produce inverse electric effects. 4. There is no disengagement of electricity as long as the two bodies in hand are conductors of electricity: thus in the combi- nation of a metal with oxygen, iodine, or dry bromine, electricity 1s “9 produced. . In the mixture of acids with water, or in their combination i it, water acts as a base ; whilst it acts as an acid, as regards alkaline solutio 6. Concentrated solutions of a neutral salt act with reference to water, as regards electrical effects produced, in the same man- ner as acids with reference to bases. 7. Acids in their combination or their mixture with other acids act in such a way that the acids the most oxydising are the most electro-positive; in their combinations with bases, the acids ap- = to retain the same property, so that in the reaction, in the of the mixture of two aaeaie saturated with a neutral ms the nitrate is positive with reference to a sulphate, the sul- phate with reference to a phosphate, &c. 8. When several acid solutions, neutral or alkaline, are placed alongside of one another, so as to mix slowly, the electric effects produced are the resultant of the individual effects which take place at each surface of contact. Contrary to the opinion of Volta, we may make an electric chain, or rather a closed circuit solely with liquids, in which an. tric current will circulate, and by which phenomena of de- eaten and recomposition may be obtained, if there are in the circuit bodies which are conductors of electricity. Living organised bodies present numerous examples of a circuit of this kind, oe place t to -sleatto-c heres) gtlests,.3 woes have eee White occu snd ties an | Boies S cee ae he disengagement of electricity in chemical action, M. Deiciet his endeavored to bring the principle to a practical use. A long time 384 Correspondence of J. Nickles. roasting. An experiment has been made on more than 30,000 kilograms of ores from Mexico and different parts of the globe. The great solvent which he uses is common salt. We will give further details in our next communication. ciently energetic to decompose water. Compared with a Bun- sen’s couple of the same size, it has about one-fourth the inten- lass is inserted enclosing a cylinder of copper; after having lled all the interstices of the barrel and of the tube with pow- dered glass, the whole is placed horizontally in a furnace, and the barrel and the copper cylinder are put in communication with @p-" paratus for collecting the electricity. : hese currents are not thermo-electric ; for if the glass 1s" moved, a galvanometer put in communication with the iron and copper rests at zero. : M. Becquerel considers it probable, in view of these pyro-elec- tric currents, that terrestrial electric currents exist in contact h or near the junction of the solid part of the globe with the part in fusion, where there may be solid conducting substances Pal tially empasted in the melted silicates in the manner of a pyt electric couple. On the electricity produced during the evaporation of soetorg : ‘of M. salt. E'conomical illumination by Electric Light. 385 of the vase. This fact is proved anew by the researches just published of M. Gaugain, although the a obtained differ in the details from those of the German physicist Economical illumination by Electric light. ~The last winter, the General Dock Company, hurried in the founding of its estab- lishment, was obliged to work night and day. It ‘undertook to remove in a short time the whole of a considerable hill: 1600 workmen, 800 at a time, were kept at work without interruption. In order to illuminate the works during the hours of the night, they proposed to use electric light. This mode of illumination as been often used in Paris in works at night; but in this case it was continued for 4 months, and proved to be an economical method of lighting. Fifty of Bunsen’s elements were at once in action, and when the light after a while diminished, another 50 were substituted. Two electric lanterns served to light the space where the 800 workmen were employed. The expense per lan- tern was as follows: elite eae! ys day, . : ; . 4-50 franes. Mercur ; j ‘ 5:00 inc : . ‘ : 4:50 Points of charcoal, : : ‘ : 1-40 Nitric acid, ; - ; ‘ Mig! 5: Sulphuric acid, ; ; : : ; 1:84 Total <. : ; ; 19-04 The cost, hence, of lighting the 800 workmen, was 38 francs 8 centimes per night, or 43 centimes per man. This isa very considerable economy, and the work went on with a regularity Which _ would have been impossible with any other mode of ger, although the place was incessantly traversed by locomotives engaged in transporting the earth. Decomposition of Kyanite by galvanic heat.—Another use has been made of electricity, and this of a chemical nature. attaching to one of the charcoal points of a Bunsen’s battery of 80 elements a small lamellar fragment of kyanite, which, as is well known, is very infusible, M. Duvivier has succeeded in fus- © ing it in 3 or 4 minutes; the ‘elements of which it consists were in part dispersed, and the aluminium, freed aye oxygen, ‘aloe be : xs surface of the substance in fusion. e fixed to the surface of the assay, isch ean tened 0 ole and other globules remained imbedded i in the filed mass. The author has extracted some of the supposed alumin- ium, but has not examined its physical properties, and we cannot Say that it was pure; it may have contained silicium, proceeding sath ee silica. Has this deoxydation been age by the heat ND Serres, Vol. a No. 54.—Noy., 1854, 386 Correspondence of J. Nickles. alone? Some physicists may think so. For ourselves, we be- lieve that the reduction is due to the volatilised carbon ; for it is well known that the luminous arc is never produced without a transfer of material, and the material transferred in this case is nothing else but incandescent carbon. earth’s magnetism. But if a pistol containing a lead ball is fired origin of the earth’s magnetism.* Once magnetised, it induces magnetism in the steel spring, acting thus like an ordinary mag- net. By mterposing a screen between the spring and the line of verify, I will take this opportunity to correct an opinion too wr XV, par trials; I hope soon to establish the contrary and without having - * This Journal, January, 1854, xvii, 116. Various Memoirs. 387 Experiments with reference to firing mines by electricity.— This subject which has received much attention, is to become of practical value through the efforts of Colonel Verdié and Captain Savare of the Engineer Corps, who propose to substitute in place of Bunsen’s battery for firing the powder, the machine of Ruhm- korff,y or that of Clarke. An interesting’ report on the subject made to the Academy by Marshal Vaillant, Minister of War and member of the Institute, announces the result as accomplished. But as the process for the purposes of war must be rendered fa- miliar by practice to be of value, M. Vaillant does not consider ~ that the time for using the process has yet come. He has ordered renewed trials, and to contribute toward it on his side, he has given the necessary orders that each School of Engineers shall have a Ruhmkorff’s apparatus at its disposal. ‘The processes employed by M. Verdié and M. Savare differ somewhat, each in points of importance, but there is no space to describe them here. Various Memoirs.—For want of space, we can only allude to the following papers :—An Electric thermometer, fitted for a boiler or an apartment kept at a constant temperature, by M. Maisrre.— Researches on the influence of Chloroform on the Sensitive Plant, y M. Lecierc, showing that it is impressed by it perhaps like - animals.— Treatise on the relation which exists between the elec- tro-motive force of the muscular current and that of different sources of dynamical electricity, by Ju.es Reenavutp. In the science of Optics there have been several papers, among which we mention, 7'he determination of the envissive powers of bodies for light, by MM. pe ua Provosrave and Desains; these experimenters have operated with incandescent bodies ; platinum is more emissive than gold; and the emissive power of gold is 10 times more feeble than that of oxyd of copper. Chemistry has as usual been richly represented. In the ‘first place, M. Bior announces to the Academy the publication of the posthumous work of Laurent, entitled “ Méthode de Chimie,” and read on the occasion, the note with which he accompanies the. work, and in which, under the form of advice to the reader, he points out the special end which Laurent proposed in his great work. A translation of this note is published in the latter part of this volume.—M. Revor, superintendent of the Laboratory at the School of Mines, has brought forward new methods of treat- ing ores of copper.—M. Frimy has communicated the results of , an investigation carried on in connection with M. Valenciennes, the zoologist.—M. DessaiGnes is study- ing the products of the transfoymation of creatine.—M. C. Mon- T + This Journal, Jan., 1853. 388 Correspondence of J. Nickles. phosphorus by treating phosphate of lime with carbon and chlor- hydric acid.—F nally, the investigators of aluminium are giving themselves much labor, but still do not succeed in preparing this metal except at great expense. Dilatation and Contraction of Metallic Plates.—The imstru- ments for measuring dilatations of metallic plates are of great delicacy, giving results with very close precision. There are cases, however, in which a hundredth of a millimeter in differ- ence of length may be of value, and this is the fact with the standard meter, the basis of the metric decimal system. M. Sil- bermann, Superintendent of the Conservatory of Arts and Trades, has just carried the precision to 3-thousandths of a millime- ter. It is known that a rule suspended by one end becomes elongated thereby, and one standing on its end, owing to its weight, is shortened: and by placing the rule in a horizontal po- Sition again, it is supposed to take its original length. By-em- ploying his process, the germ of which is presented in a former work of this physicist,* M. Silbermann has shown that the rule that has been suspended retains its increased length when placed horizontally ; and so with the rule that has stood on itsend. ‘The ifference is only in thousandths of millimeters; still if it can be measured, this is sufficient reason why it should not be neglected. New Greek Fire-—The war in the east has stimulated the zeal of those in Europe who are interested in improving the art of destruction. Projects the most remarkable and curious are proposed. ing persuaded that one of the means of preserving peace to humanity consists in perfecting our methods of destroy- ing life, and not desiring that in this respect one nation should be ore favored than others, we mention here some of the projects which rest on serious principles. anil The Greek fire has at different times engaged attention with- out its being exactly known in what it consists. In 1755 a gold- smith of Paris, named Dupré, discovered an inflammable liquid which burned under water. Louis XV. allowed him to make ex- periments in the canal of Versailles, and then in different sea - ports, to try the power of the liquid in setting vessels on fire. It is said that the results produced were terrific. However the king believed it his duty to refuse the advantages which the invention » promised. He withheld Dupré from publishing his discovery; and gave him a pension. Dupré died and carried off his secret * This Journal, January and March, 1853. New Greek Fire—Coupled Cannons. 389 - of 0°85,—has eminently the property of burning on water. He then remarked that on throwing on water some benzine contain- ing a fragment of potassium or of phosphuret of calcium, either of these substances set fire promptly to the benzine, by becoming inflamed through contact with the water. n two experiments made each time with 300 grammes of ben- zine and half a gramme of potassium contained in glass vessels, the breaking of these vessels as they floated on the water, caused the benzine to spread over a large surface ; the potassium taking fire produced an immense flame, which was very hot, and con- tinued for about one minute, notwithstanding a strong wind in one case and a smart shower of rain in the second. The first experiment was made on the 30th of April, on the Seine, and the second on May 2nd, in the basin of the Jardin du Palais Royal. By request of the Minister of War, M. Niepce undertook to examine into the liquids susceptible of burning when used in the interior of hollow projectiles. In concert with M. Fontaine, a which continued to burn until the whole was consumed. £'¢ heating the hollow projectile, either a moment’s Immersion in * * 390 Correspondence of J. Nickles. and greased. These two pistons are united together by an iron cord or wire when used with a musket, or by an iron chain from a meter to a hundred meters in length when with cannon. The pistons serve as projectiles; when fired, they straiten the chain between them, and flying through the air, they sweep every thing before them. Photography—Heliozraphic engraving.—The following pro- cess invented by M. Baldus, appears to bring to perfection the . method of engraving by the aid of the sun. The results ob- tained are very beautiful; and although the author has not de- scribed to us fully all the details, we know enough to give a gen- eral idea of his method. : On a plate of copper covered with petroleum a photographic proof on paper of the object to be engraved is placed; this proo is a positive, and will necessarily make a negative on the metal by the action of the light. After an exposure of a quarter of an hour to the sun, the image is reproduced on the resinous coating, but it is not yet visible; it is made to appear by washing the plate with a solvent which removes the parts not impressed b the light, and brings out a negative picture made by the resinous tracings of the bitumen. he designs are very delicate ; the tra- cings receive solidity by an exposure during two days to the ac- tion of a diffuse light. When thus hardened, the plate of met is plunged into a bath of sulphate of copper and is then connect- ed with the pole of a battery; if with the negative pole, a layer of copper in relief is deposited on the parts of the metal not pro- tected by the resinous coating; if with the positive pole, the me- tal is graved out in the same parts, and thus an etched engraving is obtained. So that at will a raised or etched engraving may be made, the former to be printed like a wood-cut, the latter like ordinary COP per plate engraving. Collodion.—At one of the recent sessions of the Academy of Sciences, MM. Bisson brothers exhibited a photograph © principal front of the Louvre; it was a positive on paper, 140 ' centimeters in length and 60 high, produced from a negative on collodionised glass. It consisted of 3 separate photographs, aS similar in tone of coloring as if taken at a single operation. Th operation was made with “collodion anticipé,” the plates having been prepared in the workshop, and carried to the place after having been rendered sensitive; the authors affirm that these plates preserve their sensitiveness;for several hours. Société d’ Encouragement pour 0 Industrie Nationale—We Economical Lamp for obtaining high temperatures. 391 and spirit of invention. T'wenty-five among these latter have received bronze medals as well as books. All were distinguished for having made some improvements in the processes of their manufactures. Medals of bronze, of gold, or of platinum have warded to inventors, whose inventions have been success- fully carried out. Some among these are already known to our readers; they are,—M. Dubrunfaut, for his economical produc- tion of alcohol from the juice of the beet ;* MM. Girard and Au- bert, for the impulse they have given to the caoutchouc indus- try ;+ M. Mirand,t for the successful application of the Electrical Telegraph to the wants or convenience of private life. We pro- pose to describe another time his apparatus, which is already in equally well. In the lamp, the burning fluid used is bronght to the state of Vapor and inflamed before a blowpipe with a large aperture, the air of which is furnished by the bellows of an enameller’s lamp. ut a few seconds are required to raise a platinum crucible to the * This Journal, Sept. No., p. 274. —_{ Ibid, p. 277. t Ibid, Jan., 1853. 392 Columbium the correct name for Rose’s Niobium. vertical tube O, which has a stopcock at R, and above divides into the two arms 6, 6’, which pass into a metallic box U, and terminate in its upper part in open extremities cut off obliquely. The box U contains the burning fluid e, partly filling it; it connects with a reservoir by ¢”, which is kept at a constant level. The centre of this box isa cylindrical tube, closed below, through which passes the blowpipe e, a continuation of the tube ¢/, the left tubulure (in the figure) of the flask F. The tube which is at the middle of the box U, and envelops the blowpipe c, has several small holes wu, wu, commu- nicating with the empty (or upper) part of the box U. Above the blowpipe, and resting in a furrow in the top of the box U, there is a copper cup K, pierced at the centre with a hole for the passage of the jet of vapor which escapes from the holes u, u, u, after the bellows are put in action. To prevent the burning fluid from becoming too much heated, there is a trough S, containing water. Before lighting the lamp, -the fluid in L is heated till the water in the trough boils; then the bellows are made to act, and, the jet of vapor is lighted ; af- ter which the heat disengaged by the lamp is sufficient to con- ~ tinue the vaporisation of the fluid. . Above the box L, there is a chimney A, having a series of holes around, near its bottom, for drawing in air on the flame of the apparatus. M. Deville observes that those hydro-carburets which give the — vapors, and also have the lowest boiling point, afford the most heat. = Art. XLL—Observations on the Nomenclature of the metals contained in Columbite and Tantalite ; by Prof. A. CONNELL. Ty 1801 Mr. Hatchett announced the discovery of a new me tallic substance, contained as an oxygen acid combined with oxyd of iron in an undescribed heavy black mineral from Connecticut. T'o this new metal Mr. Hatchett gave the name of columbiutm, and the ore in which he found it has usually in this country been — called columbite. A year afterwards Ekeberg announced a new metal which he called tantalum, in two Swedish minerals, which he distinguished by the names of tantalite and yttrotantalite. * Phil. Mag., June, 1854, p. 461. Columbium the correct name for Rose’s Niobium. 393 A few years afterwards, Dr. Wollaston conceived that he had succeeded in establishing that columbium and tantalum are iden- ‘tical; and this view was tacitly acquiesced in by the greater por- tion of the chemical public for many years, the metal and its ores usually obtaining in this country the names of columbium and columbite, and on the Continent the names of tantalum, and tantalite and yttrotantalite. A mineral was also discovered at Bodenmais, which was held to contain this same metal. This state of things continued till about 1846, when M. H. Rose of Berlin published a series of researches on the ores from these different localities, from which, so far as I can understand the matter, he drew the following conclusions: first, that the metal in the Swedish tantalite is a distinct metal, with its pecu- liar oxygen acid and other combinations, and for this metal, the name of tantalum may be with great propriety reserved, being the metal discovered by Ekeberg, and by him called tantalum ; secondly, that in the Bodenmais and American minerals two met- als are contained, which M. Rose proposed to distinguish by the names of Niobium and Pelopium, the latter being supposed to be nearly allied to tantalum, but the former quite distinct in its char- This view of Rose has more or less prevailed for the last eight years; although I confess it had always occurred to me, and occa- sionally I have spoken out the view, that Mr. Hatchett’s memory had been rather hardly dealt with, since M. Rose had left him entirely out of view, although truly the first discoverer of the first known of these metals and minerals. When cerium was ascertained not to be a pure metal, but to contain lanthanum and didymium mixed with it, no one thonght of dropping entirely the name of cerium. It still belongs to an acknowledged metal, and the rights of its discoverers are unim- ired, Precisely the same observation applies in regard to yttria and the new oxyds of erbium and terbium. Other examples of the same kind might be quoted. Now, on the authority of such precedents, when it was thought to be ascertained that the American columbite and the analogous Bodenmais mineral did not contain one new metal only, but at least two, justice seems to have required that the name of colum- . bium should have been reserved for the more abundant of these two, just as the names of cerium and of yttrium have been pre- served | | | But how much more strongly does such a view hold good now, when it has been announced by M. Rose that the American and odenmais mineral contain only one metal, and for this metal he actually proposes the name of niobium:} Does it not follow very * See Chemical Gazette, vol. iv, p. 349. } Ibid, vol. xii, p. 149, Seconp Serres, Vol. XVIII, No. 54.—Nov., 1854. 50 394 Murchison’s Siluria. clearly that this metal oa to have the name of columbium ? M. Rose has now come to the same conclusion at which Mr. Hatchett arrived fifty years ago, when he announced that one new metal, to which he gave the name of columbium, existed in the American mineral columbite. If the countrymen of the lat- ter most distinguished analytical chemist have any sense of jus- tice or regard for the memory of an eminent man—one with whom I am. proud to say I had a slight i gd and from whom I received some kindness—they will now unite for the future in support of his just right not to be fonsotidl and entirely laid aside in this matter. There cannot be a better opportunity than the present for taking this step. am very far from wishing to overlook the important researches of M. Rose on this, as on so very many other interesting topics, and we shall always feel grateful for his further investigations regarding columbium and its various oxyds and other combina- tions. But we ought not to overlook what was bsg before him. The matter is now reduced to a very simple i We have columbium in the American nae Bodenmais colum- bites, and probably now in some other mine Ww ave tantalum in habe a tantalite id "yttrotantalite, and now quite ascertained to be different from ny of the other met- als. This course can only lead to confusion. ‘Tantalum 1s not umbium. Arr. XLIL—Murchison’s Siluria.* [Tuts recent work by Sir R. I. Murchison is an . able instructive epee = the history of the earliest rocks that contain organic rema In aa 9 Sir KR. 1 Morita published his Silurian System in two parts, in a quarto of 768 pages copiously illustrated. This was followed in 1845 by another great work of 652 pag quarto, embellished with the most ample and beautiful views, sections, maps, &c., eee the geology of Russia in cat and the Urals. As a companion, a second volume of 512 pages appeared at the same’ de devoted to the Paleontology of the * Suur1a: The History of the oldest known Rocks containing Organs Remains with a brief sketch of the vgs arteage ie Gold over the -earth. By Sir a nego Ivery Mor F. c. ete. 523 pp. large Svo, with 37 P SON, many wood-cuts. London, i854. Murchison’s Siluria. 395 regions explored, illustrated by 50 quarto plates. ‘These volumes on Russia and the Urals are the joint production of Sir R. I. Murchison, Mr. Edouard de Verneuil of France and Count Alex- ander von Keyserling of Russia. The recent work of Sir R. I. Murchison is an able resumé of all that has been done by these writers, together with the results of other laborers in the science, among whom are Professor Sedg- wick of Cambridge, England, the geologists of the Ordnance Sur- vey in Great Britain, and many eminent men on the continent of Europe and in America. The observations on gold and its dis- tribution, with which the volume closes, are of much practical value, although only incidentally connected with the main object of the work. The important labors of the author of Siluria have been carried through with signal ability, and at a great outlay of time and money. Geology is largely indebted also to Prof. Sedgwick for his researches among the oldest fossiliferous rocks. But Murchi- son appears to have first made out the correct relations of these early strata. To him we owe the judicious exposition of the whole subject in the elaborate works which he has put forth, The candor and liberality manifested by the author are worthy of the works which they adorn. His investigations have ex- tended above the coal, into the New Red Sandstone, the Permian beds, and the Triassic, and the present work embraces these limits. 'The full exhibition of these great zones of primeval life, from its earliest dawn through many successive ages, to the eraof the first reptiles, is most interesting and instructive. A general review of the subject, partly historical and partly exposi-_ tory, is presented in the introductory chapter of the Siluria which we here cite. We take pleasure in thus showing our apprecia- tion of the extended labors of the author.—-s. s. | as to allow the superficial portion to become solid, has been adop- ted by the greater number of philosophers who have grappled 396 Murchison’s Siluria. with the difficult problem of ‘the first conditions of our planet. Most of them likewise have believed that all the great outbursts of igneous matter, by which the crust has been penetrated and its surface diversified, were merely outward signs of the contin- ued internal activity of that primordial heat, now much repressed by the accumulations of ages, and of which our present volcanoes are feeble indications. If, then, the mathematician has correctly explained the causes of the shape of the globe, the geologist con- firms his views when, exatnining into the nature of its oldest massive crystalline rocks, he sees in them clear proofs of the effects of intense heat. This original crust of the earth was sub- sequently, we may believe, broken up by protruded masses, which issuing in a melted condition, constituted the axes and centres of mountain chains. Each great igneous eruption gave out substan- ces that became, on cooling, solid rocks, which, when raised into the atmosphere, constituted lands that were exposed to innumer- able wasting agencies; and thus afforded materials to be spread out as deposits upon the shores and bed of the ocean. In these hypothetical views concerning the production of the earliest sed- iments formed under water, we seem to reach a primary source ; and once admitting that large superficial areas were originally oc- cupied by igneous rocks, we have in them a basis from which the first sedimentary materials were obtained. The earlier eruptions having necessarily occasioned elevations at some points and collapses or depressions at others, such chan- ges of outline, aided by the grinding action of water, would oc- casion the formation of bands of sediment, which, adapting them- selves to the inequalities of the surface, must have been of une- qual dimensions in different parts of their range. In this way, we may imagine how, by a repetition of the processes of eleva- tion and denudation, the earliest exterior rugosities of the earth would be in same places increased, while in others they would be placed beyond the influence of sedimentary accumulation. May we not also infer, that the numerous molten rocks of great dimensions which were suddenly evolved from the interior at subsequent periods, must have made enormous additions to the solid crust of the earth, and have constituted grand sources for the augmentation of new strata ? Turning from the igneous rocks to crystalline stratified depos- its, we now know that a great portion of the micaceous schists, chloritic and quartzose rocks, clay-slates, and limestones, once called primary, were of later origin. Many of these are nothing more than subaqueous sediments of various epochs, which have been altered and crystallized at periods long subsequent to their accumulation. This inference has been deduced from positive ob tion. Rocks, for example, have been tracked from districts where they are crystalline, to spots where the m Murchison’s Siluria. 397 ical and subaqueous origin of the beds is obvious, and from the latter to localities where the same strata are wholly unchanged, and contain organic remains. ‘Transitions are thus seen from ime or gypsum, or shale into mica-schist, as is seen in the sec- ondary and tertiary rocks of the Alps.* Elementary works will have, indeed, informed the student, that such changes of the original sediment have been generally accounted for by the influence of great heat proceeding from the interior of the earth, and which at different former periods mani- fested its power in the eruption of granites, syenites, porphyries, amorphism of the original strata has been carried in mountain- chains, and at different periods through all formations, though of- ten probably connected with such igneous outbursts, must have resulted from a far mightier agency than that which was produc- five of the mere eruptions of molten matter or igneous rocks. The latter are, in fact, but partial excrescences in the vast spread of the stratified crystalline rocks,—symptoms only of the grand changes which resulted from deep-seated causes; probably from the combination of heat, steam, and electricity, acting together With an intensity very powerful in former periods rocesses now going on in nature on a small scale, or imitated poenomena,. j a But speculations on such physical operations as those which have affected the surface of the earth, are not here called for. At all events, the earliest of the phenomena, with which alone we are at present concerned, or the first formation of the known crust of the planet, belongs to a period in which no definite order, = See Alps, Appenines, &c., Quarterly Journal Geol. Soc. Lond,, vol. v, p. 157, seq. 398 Murchison’s Siluria. —=still less any trace of life-—has been deciphered by human abor.* The design of this work is much more attainable. Its aim is to mark the most ancient strata in which the proofs of sediment- ary or aqueous action are still visble,—to note the geological po- sition of those beds which in various countries offer the first as- certained signs of life, and to develop the succession of deposits, where not obscured by metamorphism, that belong to such proto- zoic zones. In thus adhering only to subjects capable of being investigated, it will be seen, that geology, modern as she is among the sciences, has revealed to us, that during cycles long anterior to the creation of the human race, and while the surface of the globe was passing from one condition to another, whole races of animals—each group adapted to the physical conditions in which they lived—were successively created and exterminated. It is to the first stages only of this grand and long series of former ac- cumulations, and to the creatures entombed in them, that atten- — tion is now directed. The convictions at which I have arrived being the result of many years of research, I have been urged by numerous friends to give a condensed, and, as far as is practicable, a popular view of the oldest sedimentary rocks and of their chief organic re- mains, and thus to throw into one moderate-sized volume the es- sence of my large works,t as sustained by the publications of many other authors. Geologists are now pretty generally agreed, that the oldest ot- ganic remains which are traceable, pertain to the lower division protozoic world has been attained. One of the chief steps which led to the present classification, as admitted by my contemporaries, was the establishment of the “Silurian System” of rocks and their imbedded fossils. Before to contain a few undescribed fossil fishes, Not only were the re- The reader who desires to study the laws by which the superficial temperature of the earth has been regulated in the fseeijenlaidy long subsequent geo: i de ods, will find them well explained in the profound essay of Mr. W. Hopkins, “On ” causes of changes of ¢limate at different geological periods,” Quart, Journ. Geo Soe. Lond., vol. viii, p. 56. ; + See Silurian System, Murchison, 1839; and Russia in Europe and the Ural tains, by Marchiso ison, de Verneuil, and de Keyserling (J. Murray, 1845). Murchison’s Siluria. 399 lations aa contents of all the inferior strata undefined, but even many rocks which are now known to be younger than the Silu- rian, seo pe considered to be of much more remote antiquity. No one had then surmised, that the great series of hard slates with limestones and fossils, which have since been termed Devo- nian, is an equivalent of the Old Red Sandstone, and youngér than, as well as distinct from, the deposits of the still older Siln- rian era. On the contrary, British authorities believed (and I was myself so taught) that the schistose and subcrystalline sora of Devonshire and Cornwall were about the most ancient of t vast undigested heaps of greywacke. In ni the best sobre gists* of my early days were accustomed to leave off with such rocks, as constituting obscure heaps of sediment, in and below which no succession of “strata as identified by their fossils” could be detected. The result of research, however, has been the elimination of several well-defined groups, all of which were formerly merged in the nismnenineea German term ‘“ grauwacke.”’ (See Chapter 14. Desirous of throwing light on this dark subject, I consulted my valued friend and instructor, Dr. Buckland, as to the region most likely to afford evidences of order, and by his advice [ first explored, in 1831, the banks of the Wye between Hay and Builth. Discovering a considerable tract in Hereford, Radnor and Shropshire, wherein large masses of grey-colored strata rise out from beneath the Old Red Sandstone, and contain fossils dif- peop ie the Silures, under their king Caradoc Onrentncas> had opposed a long and valorous resistance to the Romans. Having first, in the year 1833, separated these deposits} into four forma- tions, and shown that each is characterized by peculiar organic remains, I next divided them (1834, 1835) into a lower and up- Per group, both of which I hoped would be found applicable to wide regions of the earth. After eight years of labor in the field and closet, the proofs of the truth of those views were more fully published in the work entitled the “Silurian System” (1839). _ * See those classical works, the first Geological Ben sh Mr. Greenongh, and the Geology of England and Wales, by the Rev. W. D. Cony nt oot the first tabular view of tt ese four ssesanticas che Wolleat aak vhcoagon unfossili ; Pe server any of the superior gr —Proc, Geol. Soc., vol. i, p. 476, 1833. 400 Murchison’s Siluria. During my early researches, it was shown that the lowest of these (1833) fossil-bearing strata reposed, in the west of Shrop- shire, on a very thick accumulation of still older sediment, as ex- posed in the ridge of the Stiper Stones, and the Longmynd mountain; and the strata of the latter not offering a vestige of _ former life, they were consequently termed unfossiliferous grey- k supposed older sediments; for in obtaining all the knowledge I had then acquired, by receding from upper strata whose contents were known to lower and previously unknown rocks, I had invarl- ably found that the latter were characterized by many distinct and new organisms. This fact, which had been first established in the tertiary and secondary deposits, was thus proved to be univer- sally applicable by the occurrence of similar distinctions in the Carboniferous, Old Red, and Silurian rocks. t was, howéver, in vain that we looked to the production of a peculiar type of life from the “Cambrian” rocks. Silurian fos- sils were alone found in them; and the reason has since become manifest. The labors of many competent observers in the last fifteen years have proved that these rocks are not inferior in posl- tion, as they were supposed to be, to the lowest stratified rocks of my Silurian region of Shropshire and the adjacent parts of Mont gomeryshire, but are merely extensions of the same strata ; and hence the looked-for geological and zoological distinctions could never have been realized. In the following chapters it W! | be shown how Sir H. De la Beche, Professors Ramsay and EB. Forbes, with Mr. Salter, and other geologists and palzeontologists have demonstrated, that the fossil-bearing rocks of orth ¥ ales are both in their order and contents the absolute equivalents of Murchison’s Siluria. AOL their works relating to North Wales, and have, in short, deter- mined the question physically, as well as zoologically. But although in 1839, when my first work was completed, I held, in common with Professor Sedgwick, the erroneous idea of the infra-Silurian position of the rocks of North Wales, I soon saw reason to abandon that view, and to adopt (in the year 1841) that in Scandinavia, Russia, Bohemia, and other countries, the oldest traces of former life were the same as the lower Silurian types of the British Isles ;—and next, because many of the fossils figured in my work as Lower Silurian had been detected in the slates of Snowdon, which were then considered to lie near the bottom of the so-called ‘Cambrian rocks.” developments. In a word, as chroniclers of lost races, my asso- ciates and myself were enabled to register in our “ Russia and the Ural Mountains,” the types of former creatures from their ap dawn. ‘To the first chapters of that work, the reader is referred as fully explanatory of views which are here reiterated.{ * See also Phillips, on the Malvern and Abberley Hills.—Memoirs, Geol. Surv., vol. ii, part 1, 1848, + The Copley Medal. _ {The reader who desires to consult the documents which explain how my indue- tion was arrived at, is referred to a memoir entitled, “On the meaning attached to S seem Bt ich will indicate to him all my suc- lan alts polished by the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, in 1843. of 0c, (Journal of G Lond., vol. viii, p. 173. See also the memoir entitled, “On meaning attached to the term ‘Cambrian System,’ and on the evidence since ob- tained of its i with. iously esta! ‘ Lower Silurian,” Jo ol. Lond., vol. iii, p. ) At the same time that I must protest against the recent proposal to absorb my Lower Silurian into his an rd my high estimation of fessor especi se on North Wales, Cumberland, and the adjacent counties, which stand upon their own intrinsic merits. T blication on the pa wh ozoic fossils of the Cambridge Museum, which he is bringing out in conjunction with Secon Serres, Vol. XVIII, No. 54.—Nov., 1854. 51 402 Murchison’s Siluria. Then it was, that positive proofs, derived from a wide field of observation, enabled us to commence geological history, with an account of the entombment of the earliest animals recognizable in the crust of the globe; and also to indicate the successive con- ditions which prevailed upon the surface, in a long series of ages, and during the many changes of outline which preceded the pres- ent state of the planet. Then it was, that looking to the whole history of former life, as exhibited in the strata, it was demon- strated from phenomena in one great empire alone (as had to a great extent been shown in Britain), that during the formation of the sediments which compose the crust of the earth, the animal kingdom had been at least three times entirely renovated ; the secondary and tertiary periods having each been as clearly char- acterized by a distinct fauna as the primeval series. In the work on Russia the sequence was thus followed oitt truly, from the most ancient fossil-bearing strata to the most recent stages in the geological series. In this volume attention is chiefly restricted to what has proved to be the protozoic, or first era of life. The plan, therefore, pur- sued will be, so far, similar to that which was adopted in the ear- lier chapters of the work on Russia; and these first leaves of ge- ological history will be written from the clear traces of a begin- ning,—a plan which, for want of knowledge, was impracticable in Britain when the “Silurian System” was publishe After a short sketch of the earliest and unfossiliferous sedi- ments, full descriptions will be given of the Silurian rocks (Lower and Upper), followed by very brief accounts of the three over- lying groups of paleozoic life, the Devonian, Carboniferous, and ermian. boniferous rocks. At that time, however, none of the fossil fishes of the Scottish or English Old Red had been found in the sandstones, slates, schists, or limestones of Devonshire, or the posed (although my fossils were first named and classified) that the Lower Silurian should be merged in the Cambrian. But, now that the terms Lower and Upper Si- ; ve been adopted in every country, the question is settled. My deep regret is difference of opinion has been expressed in the Preface ; for in general views, as in private friendship, we are cordially united. Murchison’s Siluria. 403 The Carboniferous rocks, so elaborately and usefully developed in the British Isles, have been already well investigated by man writers, particularly by Professor Phillips, and have been found to extend, like the Silurian and Devonian, over immense regions in all quarters of the globe the base. But extended researches have shown from the charac- ter of its imbedded remains, that it is linked to the carboniferous deposit on which it rests, and is entirely distinct from the Trias, or New Red Sandstone, which, overlying it, forms the base of all the secondary rocks. The chief calcareous member of this Permian group was termed in England the Magnesian Limestone, _in Germany the “ Zechstein ;” but as magnesian limestones are of all ages, and as the German “ Zechstein” is but a part of a group, the other members of which are known as ‘ Kupfer- schiefer” (copper slate), ‘Rothe todte liegende” (the Lower New Red of English geologists), &c., it was manifest that a sin- gle name for the whole was much needed. _ After showing how nine years which have elapsed since the issue of that work, con- siderable additions have been made to our knowledge, and all of them sustain the truth of our generalization. We then scarcely knew of the existence of true Silurian deposits in Germany ; hearly all the greywacke of the Rhenish provinces and the Hartz * See Russia in Europe and the Ural Mountains, vol. i, p. 64. + “Penéen” of D’Omalius d'Halloy. (See Chapter 12.) / AOA Murchison’s Siluria. having been assigned to the Devonian series. But since the opening out of the rich Silurian basin of Bohemia, which, in the hands of M. Barrande, has become the paleozoic centre of the continent, Thuringia and Saxony have been also found to con- — tain Silurian rocks. 38 In Spain, several mountain chains have been shown by M. de Verneuil to consist of Silurian, followed by Devonian and Carbon- iferous rocks; whilst, in Portugal, Mr. Sharpe has described the first and last of these groups. Even Sardinia has exhibited, un- der the serntiny of General A. della Marmora, her Silurian and superjacent coal deposits. Again, as Devonian and Carboniferons strata overlie older rocks in North Africa, and Devonian fossils occur towards Central Africa* and at the Cape of Good Hope, there are already fair grounds for believing, that a similar order pervades the axial lines or ancient mountains of that vast con- tinent. In northwestern Asia, the chief features of which are de- scribed by Humboldt and Rose, my colleagues and myself have explained how the Silurian rocks of the Ural chain are succeeded by younger palzeozoic deposits, and Pierre de Tchihatcheff has indicated a great extension of similar formations over large tracts of Southern Siberia and the Altai mountains; whilst in north- eastern Siberia, Adolf Erman has traced such rocks even to the Sea of Ochotsk. upon a red sandstone.t There is, indeed, every reason to believe that the mountain-chains of Tartary and China are composed, to a great extent, of these older rocks; for whilst extensive coal- fields have been long worked in the environs of the capital, Pe- kin, Devonian fossils of the very same species as those of Eng- far to the south of Shangai. Other fossils, identified by de Ko- ninck as Devonian forms, were brought by M. Itier, from the Yuennan province, one hundred leagues north of Canton. * For North Africa, see Coquand, Bull. de la Soc. Géol. de France, 2nde Série, vol. 2 ome of th s 8 = oO ct SS i=] ee OO ie ~ 4 BE oO jor 5 co bp o 2) ° uart. Journ. Soe. Lon - alayan data are described by Capt. R. Strachey; those of the Upper Punjaub, by Dr. A. Fleming. (Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. vii, p. 292, and vol. 1%, p. 189. { See a description of the Chinese coal-field near Pekin, by Kovanko, Ann. des Mines de Russie, An. 1838, p.191. No geologist can peruse Mr. Fortune’s lively de- Murchison’s Siluria. 405 In Australia, where a very short time since reference could be made only to rocks of the Carboniferous and Devonian age,* we hear of true Silurian strata containing fossils like those of the British Isles. Some species seem undistinguishable.t In South America, the lofty Cordilleras and plateaux, whose mineral characters had been so admirably described by Humboldt, are shown by Alcide d’Orbigny to consist in great part of such ancient sediments. Still more clearly has North America been found to contain a vast succession of these paleozoic rocks, and especially of their lower members. Numerous geologists of the United States have demonstrated, that their ancient strata fol- lowed the same order on avery grand and usually unbroken scale (particularly in the western region); doubtless due to their aving been exempted in such tracts from the intrusion of igne- iferous slates, limestones and sandstones Sai on ‘eecties rocks, which, extending far northwards, are surmounted by other sedimentary masses similar to strata of the United States, and where Silurian fossils have been detected in limestones amid the polar ices. Adjacent to the southern end of this continent, simi- lar remains have been collected by Darwin in the Falkland slands. In few of those regions, however, with the exception of North America (certainly not in the British Isles, where the strata are in many parts much obscured by igneous outbursts), is the se- quence so undisturbed as in Scandinavia and European Russia. There, the successive primeval deposits extend over a large por- tion of the earth in regular sequence and in an unaltered state. Hence, though to the unskilled eye, Russia presents only a mo- notonous and undulating surface, chiefly occupied by accumula- tions of mud, sand, and erratic blocks, its framework, wherever it can be detected, exhibits a clear ascending series. "The older sedimentary strata, uhvahes only slightly from horizontality, are there overlaid by widely-diffused masses of those Permian rocks which constitute the true termination of the long palzozoic period, Scription of the Bohea mountains, without sus octing, © that a fine primeval sueces- sion may “gee be found. For the Chinese Poet Sips vidson, Quart. Journ. Geol. tat og vol, ix, p. 353; and de Koninck, serene rege vol. xiii, pt. f See Strzelecki’s Australia, Foss. Fauna, Morris; M’Coy, Ann. Nat. Hist. 1847. Also Dana’s Rep. Geol. Expl. Exp., >, wie ere many new species are described —. en Memoir by the Rev. W. Clarke, Quart. Journ. ao 1. Soc. Lond., vol. viii; see ¢ See particularly the sent of Jarhes Hall saat 4 D. Dale Owen, the Reports of Logan—the chief geologist of Canada. A0G6 Murchison’s Siluria. The following pages, as before said, will be chiefly devoted to the Silurian or first stages of this primeval series. They will be illustrated by wood-cuts representing the most important organic remains, and certain typical pictorial scenes, as well as vertical sections, chiefly taken from my original work. Faithful trans- fers from the original plates of the “Silurian System,” will also be given, in a rearranged form, and with the modern nomencla- ture of the fossils. If all the succeeding primeval rocks were to obtain the same amount of illustration as the Silurian, this work would be expan- ded far beyond the limits to which I must restrict it. The younger paleeozoic, or the Devonian, Carboniferous, and Permian deposits, will therefore receive only such a description as may be sufficient to give the student a general view, and stimulate him Although few mineral changes of the strata can be alluded to, an endeavor will be made to show, that gold, however it may now be spread over the surface, was originally accumulated in abundance in the older rocks only especially in those which have been much altered), and in the associated eruptive masses. stly, it is to be observed, that as the true sequence of the oldest fossiliferous strata was first detected in the British Isles, so the geological descriptions in this volume will be principally de- rived from our insular examples. At the same time, a general comparison will be instituted with the contemporaneous rocks of different quarters of the globe. he importance of having, through patient surveys, mastered the obscurities which clouded the history of the earlier periods of animal life will thus, it is hoped, be rendered obvious, in showing that we have now obtained as correct an insight into the first fos- sil-bearing formations as we had previously acquired of the younger deposits. G. J. Brush on the Chemical Composition of Clintonite. 407 Arr. XLIIL—On the Chemical Composition of Clintonite ; by Gro. J. Brusu. THE name Clintonite was given some twenty-five years since by Fitch, Mather and Horton to a micaceous reddish-brown min- eral occurring at Amity in New York; previous to this, the min- eral had been called Bronzite. The chemical composition according to Clemson and Richard- son is: Si Al Mg Ca Mn 2 HAH HF 1, 170° 876 50 3 107 —— —— 86 — Clemson. 2, 1985 4475 Fe480 9:05 1145 135 205 455 0-90 Richardson. The unaccountable discrepancy between these analyses led the Silica, alumina, iron, zirconia, magnesia, lime, potash and soda; ho reaction for manganese by Crum’s tes A special examination was made to determine the state of oxyd- ation of the iron; for this purpose the mineral was decompose by hydrochloric acid in an atmosphere of carbonic acid, the re- sult proved the iron to be peroxyd. Considerable care also was taken in ascertaining whether zirconia was present, as over two pr. ct. were found by Richardson ; the iron obtained in the analy- Ses was therefore reexamined and in every instance an undoubted reaction for zirconia was obtained. On careful examination of the specimens with a magnifier, a dark brown mineral resembling zircon was found to be intimately associated with the Clintonite. A qualitative examination gave all the reactions of zircon,— ! Writer is therefore inclined to believe that the zircon obtained in the analyses may be due to the associated zircon and not essen- ual to the mineral. Pe ; t Ron ak a ade: 1608, 332, and Jour. f. Prakt. Chem., xiv, 38. 408 G. J. Brush on the Chemical Composition of Clintonite. In the quantitative analyses, the decomposition was effected by fusion with carbonate of soda; the alkalies were determined by Smith’s method with carbonate of lime; the separation of zirco- nia and iron was made by the presence of tartaric acid in an ammoniacal solution, and the iron was precipitated by sulphid of ammonium, A particular examination was made to prove the purity of all the precipitates obtained. The following are the results of two analyses: Oxygen. 2. Oxygen. BE Silica, ‘ ; . 20°24 10°74* 20°13 10°69 Alumina, . : s+. 89-18 18°29 88°68 18:07 Peroxyd of Iron, Pee Se: 098} 1947 3-48 1°04 } 19°29 Zirconia, . z Pe | 0-20 0°68 0718 am 13°69 3°89 35 3°80 agnesia, . 20°84 8°34 21°65 8°66 5 Soda, 114 a Te ay 029 ( 127 0-29 3 029 00 Water, 1-04 092 05 0-98 100°39 100°45 Only one determination was made of the alkalies. A third in- complete analysis gave, Silica 19°73, oxyd of iron and zirconia 4-15, lime 13-43, magnesia 20-81, water 1-09. great difference between the above analyses and those of Clemson and Richardson is in the amount of water. To deter- mine this point the powdered mineral was dried over sulphuric acid and then very powerfully heated by a blast-lamp; in four experiments but a trifle over 1 per ct. was lost. ' ‘The analyses do not give a satisfactory formula, the oxygen ratios are: i R R No. 1, 10°74 19°47 12°55 No. 2, 10°69 19°29- 12°78 The relation between # and & is 3:2 or 6: 4, and the most sim- ple ratio is 3: 6 : 4, but the silica is in excess and the real ratio is nearer 3h :6:4. If in Clemson’s analysis the 5 pr. ct. of iron be considered to be peroxyd (5-0 Fe=4'5 ¥e), we have the ratios i # R 9-02 18-92 13°76 which seems to render it probable that the true ratio for the min- eral is 3:6:4, from which may be deduced the formula RSi+ Re A, The European species Xanthophyllite and Disterrite are Very nearly related to Clintonite ; in all physical characters except color they are identical with it. Their chemical composition as give? by Meitzendorf and v. Kobell is: * Atomic weight of silicium = 21°3. G. J. Brush on the Chemical Composition of Clintonite. 409 Si xl oMg Ga Fe Na Hf Xanthophyllite,* 16:30 43°95 1931 1326 253 O61 433 Meitzendory. Oxygen, 865 20538. 772 3877 056 015 3°85 Disterrite,+ 20°00 4322 25-01 400 860 057 360 v, Kobell. Oxygen, 1061 2020 1000 114 108 010 320 These differ from Clintonite in containing about 4 pr. ct. of water; if this be considered as replacing magnesia in the manner suggested by Scheerer the relation of the oxygen in the sesqui- oxyds and protoxyds is nearly 6: 4; but the ratio 3: 6:4 is not in accordance with the amount of silica obtained in the analyses. If the same replacement be allowed in Disterrite and the iron be assumed to exist as protoxyd, the oxygen ratio will be— Si # R # 16°61 : 20-20 ; 1320 or almost exactly 3: 6: 4. rom these remarks it seems likely that the three species may all be brought under the general formula RSi+ Re Ai* = Silica 19-19, alumina 43°54, lime 11-86, magnesia 25-41. Munich, August 7th, 1854. Nore sy J. D. Dana.—It is important to note that the’ ratio between the oxygen of the protoxyds and peroxyds together and that of the silica (the water being disregarded), is the same for Clintonite and Disterrite. We thus obtain— ' R+ Si 1. Clintonite, . : GOS. oA see Be POS Gs - Fo (a S20 > 1060- =a bed 8. Disterrite, . 2 iSO = TOS Ly oe! os OOS corresponding each to the ratio 3:1. This therefore appears to be the fundamental ratio of the species. We here take the iron in Disterrite as peroxyd, as published by von Kobell, which is its condition in Clintonite ; this gives for the oxygen of the protoxyds and peroxyds the ratio 11°24: 21-26. The formula (ks, 3%) Sit ex- presses the ratio 3: 1. ° In the Clintonite, R* is to Ras 4: 3; in the Disterrite nearly as 1:2. Expressing the ratio 2:3 for the Clintonite, this formula becomes (2k? +28)5i*. If we regard one-third of the peroxyd in Mr. Brush’s analysis as replacing silica, the oxygen ratio for R, ®, (5i) becomes 12:78: 12-86 : 17-12, or between the bases and the rest 25-64: 17-12= 3: 2, giving the formula on page 129 of this volume . gk +E ay - eee bac _ ® The mean from four analyses by Meitzendorf, from the 1st Supplement -of Rammelsberg’s Handw. Min., p. 158. + Jour, fiir prakt. Chem., xii, 156. Sxconp Serres, Vol. XVIII, No. 54.—Nov., 1854. 52 410 F. A. Genth’s Contributions to Mineralogy. : Art. XLIV.—Contributions to Mineralogy; by Dr. F. A. Gent of Philadelphia. 1. Pyrophyllite. Tuts interesting mineral was reported by Prof. C. U. Shepard to occur near Crowder’s Mountain in North Carolina; the exact field District, S.C. B.B. it exfoliates into a fan-like opaque white mass of more than twenty times its original bulk ; fuses with great difficulty into a white blebby slag. The lustre of the N.C. specimens 1s he following are the results of my analyses : Silica, . : : : . 6482 66°01 Alumina, . : : ; 28°48 28°52 Sesquioxyd of iron, . ; . 0°96 087 Magnesia, . ‘ s . 0°33 0°18 ime, . ; : ; . » 065 023 Water, ‘ : : 5°25 522 2. Chrysotile. The beautiful fibrous mineral of a yellowish white color and silky lustre, which occurs in small veins in serpentine at Abbotts- ille, N. J., has been examined by Mr. Edwin L. Reakirt. — -B. it whitens, becomes brittle and fuses with difficulty into 4 white slag; with cobalt solution, flesh-colored. It contains: Silica, 5 : : . . 42:52 42°72 Alumina, . : : not det. 0°38 Sesquioxyd of iron, , : - not det. 030 agnesia, + Gees ; 42°35 42°99 Water, _ Pie, ee 14°18 . 3. Scolecite, Lyman Wilder, Esq., of Hoosick Falls, N. Y., kindly furnished me with the material for analysis of a mineral from the East In- dies. It consisted of globular masses 5 to 6 inches in diameter of a radiated structure. Sometimes there was found between the radii, which have a vitreous lustre, the same mineral of a reticulated Structure with pearly lustre. B.B. it fuses with intumescence easily toa blebby glass. Mr. Wm. J. Taylor analyzed it and found it to contain: F. A. Genth’s Contributions to Mineralogy. All Silica, ‘ 46°87 Alumina, 25°32 ime, 13°80 Soda, : 0°45 Potash, - 01 Water, 13-46 4. Owenite identical with Thuringite. In a previous paper (Am. Journ. Sc., 2d Series, vol. xvi, p. 165), I described a mineral from Harper’s Ferry, Va., under the name ‘‘Owenite”’ as new, remarking, however, that the difference between it and Thuringite could be detected only by a chemical examination. Iwas unable at that time to obtain any genuine Thuringite for a comparative analysis, and, I must confess, I ha too much confidence in Prof. Rammelsberg’s analysis, to think it would need a repetition, since the difference was about 16 pr. ct. of alumina. In the meantime Prof. J. L. Smith, (Am. Journ. Sc., 2d Series, vol. xvi, p. 131), announced the identity of Owen- ite and Thuringite, but, the material for his analysis, as he told ’ me, having been slightly altered by oxydation, it was desirable to reéxamine the fresh mineral. Jos. A. Clay, Esq., with the greatest liberality permitted me to take from his specimen a suffi- cient quantity for analysis. The original label of Dr. Krantz of nn, which was still with it, gave the locality ‘“ Schmiedeberg near Saalfeld in Thuringia.” The material for the following analyses made by Mr. Peter Keyser, was not in the least degtee altered, and the results, which he obtained show the identity in composition of Thuringite and Owenite, which latter name I therefore withdraw. For comparison I give besides the analyses of the Thuringite from Schmiedeberg also that of the same min- eral from Harper’s Ferry, Virginia (the Owenite). de TE Pane EV, « i ) saat crystals ; using the two hemihedral forms of one and the same com pound, as the neutral tartrate of ammonia, sa of in chafing num- bers of this Journal. These two forms belong to the system of the right rhombic prism (trimetric), and differ only in their pene hemi- edrism. But M. Pasteur has obtained with each of t two forms a second form, wholly unrelated to the first, sete aeinitlising in the oblique rhomboidal system [monoclinic ?], which make i in all four hemi- hedral forms not superposable obtained with one substance. To obtain this result, it is only necessary to take a solution of one or the other variety of this trimetric tartrate, the right or left, and add a small agents of cacao = of ammonia; the malate does not appear to enter into the compound; it exerts an action of presence which «st the silicon of equilibrium of the molecules . Pas- teur calls this new kind of hemihedrism, tetartohedrism ; and the forms, tetartohedral. Coloring matter of Flowers.—This question has been studied by sev- eral chemists, and still it is beyond doubt, one of the most obscure sub- jects in vegetable chemistry. Botanists have long admitted that flowers owe their color to two sre os pn: a blue, called cyanic, and the other yellow called xanthi or some time the blue color of blue flowers was attributed to the ital of saidikol ; but M. Chevreul showed that this oe is always reddened by acids, which fact set the indigo theory as MM. Frémy and Cloez have isolated the blue principle and they call it cyanine. To obtain it, they treat with boiling alcohol the petals of the violet or iris, until the flower is colorless and the liquid takes a fine blue tint. This tint disappea , but reappears on evaporating the This coloring matter is * unrysalinale acids turn ‘tt red, alkalies rreen ; it combines with lime, baryta, etc; sulphurous, phosphorous and other acids discolor it ; bc resumes its blue color through the pres- . a2 of the oxygen of the he coloring material of nee peonies, some dahlias, &c., is a mod- ifeation of cyanine ; the vegetable juices have an acid reaction (which ehanges the blue cyanine to red), while the juices of blue flowers are n the presence of alkalies, the rose color becomes first blue and then green. . Miscellaneous Intelligence. A35 The yellow coloring material has no relation to cyannine. ‘Ther are two different substances, one insoluble in water, xanthine, the other : ; h . ? andared. The xantheine combines easily with oxyds ; alkalies change it to brown of a very rich color, and of considerable strength ; but acids cause the brown color to disappear. hese are the three principal coloring ha gene of flowers. M. Filhol, Professor in the Facul lty of Sciences at ‘Toulouse, who has stud- ied ‘hie subject, confirms in general the iobdihe of MM. Frémy and guised or seca destroyed by mixture with the juices of white flowers. M. Pepin, ** Chef des cultures” at the Jardin des Plantes of Paris, has made sone curious observations, on the change of color which cul- ture produces in flowers. He has found that cultivated annuals expe- rience a change of tint more promptly than perennial plants, for each year they are renewed through the seeds. Such a change is however sometimes _ uced in biotintals and perennials, and rarely ever in lig- neous specie The Searaner plants of Chili, Texas and California, have a strong ten- dency to produce varieties with white flowers, especially when their flowers present either of the primary colors, red, yellow or blue. same is true of many other species introdued into France. Thus the Clarkia pulchella and C. elegans whose flowers have a violet tint, ored ; the Leptosiphon having red flowers, has produced pure white. The varieties with a white color are first produced, and afterwards the variegated. ious Memoirs.—Among the more important papers read before the Academy of Sciences during the last two months, we must first et an important memoir by M. Dausrée, Professor of Mineralogy n the Faculty of Sciences of Series, on the Artificial Production OF Minerals of the family of silicates and aluminates, by the reaction 0 vapors on rocks. By the reaction of chlorid of silicium in rire state of structive action of seawater. A memoir of M. Becramp, Professor at the School of Pharmacy of Strasburg, on the action “which chlorid of of caprilic alcohol, by M. Bonts, a subject also alluded to in a former number. M. DEVILLE communicates new processes for preparing Alu- minium, and he accords in these processes with tee which = rie en has recently described in Poggendorff’s Anna M. MELLonI, just pros his death, sent in the first part of his psa on istirbshasia ; and M. Asgta, Professor in the Faculty of Sciences at Bor- 436 Miscellaneus Intelligence. deaux, has presented some Researches on the laws of the magnetism of rotation. It is impossible to give here details of these memoirs, which moreover will all appear in the official organ of the Academy of Sci- ences, the Comptes Rendus, published every Saturday. Manufacture of Powder.—In the No. of this Journal for Sept. 1853, p- 270, I have spoken of an improvement in the manufacture of powder, ap- plied for the first time at the manufactory of Esquerdes which produces, owing to this improvement, the products highest in reputation in France or other countries. The improvement depends on a new method of pre- paring the charcoal, which is obtained by calcination of the wood by means of a current of overheated steam. This charcoal, called charbon roux, has but one objection, which is its price. 1e To overcome this difficulty, another member of the commission on powder and saltpetre, M. Gessart, has devised a method of executing this process, by heating with gas, which saves about 80 per cent. of proposed, 100 kilograms of wood may be carbonised at once. ‘The tol- lowing is the method.—The water for evaporation is injected through p whose piston is charged with a weight little above the force of tension desired for the vapor. The pressure causes the water to rise through a graduated orifice, in a series of tubes arranged like a ladder, and enclosed in tubes of larger bore. These last convey the gas, and also serve for the condensation of the steam after it leaves the carbon- ising apparatus. The circulation goes on from above downward. tine with parallel tubes arranged so as to cover the top and sides of the furnace. The water vaporises in these tubes and is overheated 1M its passage across the metal turnings or granulated metal with which they are filled. The steam thus overheated is conducted into a reset voir of cast iron furnished with a thermometer and a manometer indi- now nearly cold, pass out to be rejected by an arrangement for this purpose at the lower part of the apparatus. The air for promoting the combustion is heated by passing along a portion of the walls of the chimney and the vent-holes before arriving under the grating, by whic a heat is economised. The following are the advantages of the method. 1. Only one fire is used for producing the overheated steam; and @ i fireman suffices. nae steam is heated, and just as it is soanile + Miscellaneous Intelligence. 437 3. The greater part of the heat is utilised, which was before carried off by the steam and gas and totally lost, 4. The use of’ metallic furnaces renders it easy to multiply the heat- ing surfaces, and at little cost. 5. The heating is regular, the temperature very equal, and the pro- ducts obtained are uniform 6. best heating effects are secured by the arrangement for bringing the hot air under the grating.” _ The committee hence recommend an appropriation to enable the powder establishment of Esquerdes to make these arrangements. The appropriations have been authorized. We propose hereafter to speak of the fabrication of sugar and of distilling by this method. Stereoscopy.—The invention of the refractive stereoscope has quite generally been attributed to Sir David Brewster, especially in France. A recent writer has corrected the error. The Abbe Moigno, in giving an account of a visit to England, in his Journal, Le Cosmos, observes that he saw in the hands of Mr. Wheatstone a letter written by Brews- ter, dated September 27, 1838, containing besides other things, the sen- tence, ‘Ihave also stated [to Lord Rosse] that you promised to order for me your stereoscope, both with reflectors and prisms.” ‘The stereo- scope by refraction, says M. Moigno, as well as that by reflection, is Wheatstone’s. e refracting stereoscope invented by Sir David, is a form in which the two prisms are the halves of a lens. Photography— Painting transparent photographic images.—The col- oring of photographic portraits has often been attempted ; but the pho- tograph is obliterated in the process, and after all only an ordinary painting is obtained. . Minotto, and also MM, Soulier and Clouzard, have succeeded in this art, by applying the color under the image. This method of col- ering was used in 1824 at Strasburg, with lithographs, under the name of “ oleocaleographie”’ and “ lithrochromie.” But it is especially ap- plicable to photographs on glass, paper, tissue, and generally all trans- tor. His plates confirm the designs of M. Saulcy. They consist of 200 photographs, 50 of Jewish subjects, the rest of Roman, Byzantine, Latin, Arabic and Turkish monuments in Jerusalem. on New Collodion.—In the body of asilk worm just about to make its cocoon is found an organ full of the material which is to become silk. .M. Legray has extracted from it a substance equal to albu- men and collodion for photographic proofs. He proceeds thus :— He puts in a porcelain capsule the organs in question taken from 50 438 Miscellaneous Intelligence. themselves; they are then transferred to a piece of fine linen and pressed. The liquid is collected on glass and left to evaporate, when a pellicle forms like that of collodion. It should be used within 24 hours, as it afterwards becomes spongy and insoluble in water, alcohol and ether. Impression by heat, or Thermotypy.—This process proposed by M. Abate is very simple, and is based on the destructive action exerted by chlorhydric acid on organic substances. Suppose for example we have a slice of wood of which we wish a faithful impression. The wood is cotton cloth, or white wood, in a press, and a blow struck. T i pression is at first invisible; but on exposing it to a strong heat, It gradually appears, and exhibits a perfect picture of the wood. 1 operation may be repeated indefinitely. For oak, maple, hazel, &c., the picture is of the color of the wood ; but for mahogany, rose W and many others, the color is modified, and if a perfect colored picture is desired, it should be taken on a previously prepared tint 0 the re- quired kind. It occurs to us that, by taking an impression on a plate of zinc, tin, ght beneath the water three quarters of an hour, after which he came UP to breathe and rest; his light was an oil lamp, placed on the: head of the diver, and fed with air proceeding from his respiration, whence, tt and at the same time it is strong and well secured hermetically, to Te- sist a pressure of 50 to 60 meters of seawater. It consists of a cy! i nearly parallel. As the lamp is moveable, the diver walks about with it and it where he wishes to make any search ; and as it is only * Miscellaneous Intelligence. 439 necessary to bring the electrodes near one another to light it, the diver need only turn a small screw to continue the light for two hours, which is more than twice as long as he can remain at the bottom. To illumine the bottom at small depths, Deleuil uses a Fresnel lens, and this is daily in operation in a bathing establishment—the baths of enry IV, constructed on the Seine in the heart of Paris. The regu- lator and also the light are 10 meters above the surface of the water, and the light penetrates sufficiently far to enable us to see the swimmer at a depth of 2 to 3 meters, and follow all his movements. 2. Notice of the “ Fountain of Blood” in Honduras.——The follow- ing letter from E. G. Squier addressed to B. Sittiman, Jr., refers to a remarkable phenomenon in Central America, the details of which are My Dear : liquid obtained from what is called “* Mina 6 Fuente de Sangre,” Mine or Fountain of Blood, in Central America. The locality is a small cavern, near the little town of Virtud, Department of Gracias, State of Hogduras, on the western or Pacific slope of the Cordilleras. It has long been known, not only in its immediate vicinity, but in connection with various superstitious hypotheses, throughout all Central Amer- ica. Mention is ‘made of it in publications, dating back more thana hundred years. The following extracts from the ‘ Gaceta de Hondu- ras,’ of the 20th of February, 1853 will serve to give the essential facts concerning it, so far as they are known: presto ‘ Fuente de Sangre.—A little to the south of the town of Virtud, Department of Gracias, is a small cavern (gruta) which is visited dur- ing the day by buzzards and gabilanes, and at night by a vast number of large bats (vampires), for the purpose of feeding on a kind of liquid which exudes from the rocks, and which has the color, smell, and taste f bl a disagreeable odor, and when it is reached, sees several pools of the blood, in a ‘state of coagulation. Dogs eat it eagerly. — late Don Rafael Osejo undertoo nd some bottles of this liquid to Lon- At my request Don Victoriano Castillanos, a gentleman of an ob- serving turn living not many leagues from Virtu , sent me two bottles of this liquid, largely diluted with water, to avoid the catastrophe which happened to Gr, Osejo, and to all others who had attempted to carry 440 Miscellaneous Intelligence. any portion of the supposed blood out of the country. One of these bottles, as [ have already said, I send to you for examination, believing that the results may not be uninteresting to the readers of the Journal. New York, May 1, 1854.” those of lead. Gutta percha may be used in place of the lead, and by covering it with a deposit from a silver solution, the impression may be used for stereotyping or electrotyping. - Mount Ararat and places in the Caspian Basin.—Mount Ararat was ascended by Col. Chodzko of Russia in 1850. He found the height to be 15,912 French feet; and for Little Ararat 3852 feet less in eleva- tion. M. Fedoroff found in 1829, 16,069 for the former and 12,2 for the latter. Parrot obtained 16,251 and 12,271 feet. Lake Goktchai near Erivan is not less than 5,510 feet (French) above the sea; and on its borders to the south and southeast there are ancient volcanoes 8000, 10,000 and 11,000 feet in height. feet ; the famous peak of Demavend 18,846 feet, (which Frazer had made 10,000 feet, T. Thomson 14,000, Texier 4548 meters, and Hum- boldt in his Central Asia, vol. iii, 3066 toises. The lake Aral derived its name from the string of islands © the east and north sides, the word in the Kirghis dialect meaning island. do not interfere,” a statement which accords with the regard the writer. His results will be published on the return of | On—J.D.D. ris Aun Pn Miscellaneous Intelligence. 441 6. Notes on California; by W. P. Braxe, (from a letter to one of the Editors.)—I found a greater number of intruded igneous rocks in the Gold region than I anticipated. ey vary in character and are proba- bly of aimetent a The prevailing trend is N. to N. 45° W., and when either traverse their. mass or Constitute a wall between them and the adjoining slates. Quartz veins traversing the slates conformably and anes: without any apparent connection with the igneous intrusions are = ommon, Som of he auriferous quartz veins are worked with great profit. Of thin, I am satisfied from careful examination, and I have many inter- esting details on this subject. he elevated placer snes are very extensive, and are worked with st skill and succe umerous explori on em sunk in all parts of the country on the i of the hills, have developed many interesting facts concerning ret eat drift. There is in most places where placer mae is being conducted above the aay rivers, a thickness of two hundred feet or a of stratified materials that appear to have been laid fe compara- tively quiet water. The peculiarities of these deposits are so various and they are so different from those generally known as drift, that a wide field is opened for investigation and many detailed observations will be required, before we can understand the changes that have taken place in this part of the continent during and since the “ drift period.” Since I wrote you about the gold and platinum from Port Orford, I have examined several other samples and find that the percentage of platinum is ee: and that iridosmine is generally in large proportion. 1 have no ral ounces of the mixed metals separated from the gold. The neg are ney: hard but are probably too small to be used in the manu- facture of pen ‘fs Tsimigeane y.—A new method of copying pages of a printed work by transfer, invented by M. Edward Boyer in France, is thus named. It is claimed that any book or engraving may be thus copied a little expense, and copies multiplied indefinitely, so that a book, wever rare, never need be out of print. It is done rapidly, without feskac the Breve; and so exactly that the most practised eye cannot tell the differe tells us, the immense importance of such a theory, and was pelghied with the new light which immediately struck his mind. He e down at the time the opinions which were offered, and three years fame, when Seconp Serres, Vol. XVIII, No. 54.—Nov., 1854. 56 442 ‘Miscellaneous Intelligence. about to publish the third edition of his System of Chemistry, he ob- tained Dalton’s permission to insert the sketch he had taken, before their neutral compounds. During the same year Dr. Wollaston read his famous paper on the oxalate, binoxalate, and quadroxalate of potash, and he commences it with a relation of what Thomson had already n r. Thomson always said, that in the absence of Dalton, Wollaston would have been, very soon, the discoverer of the atomic theory. _ These facts gradually drew the attention of chemists to Mr. Dalton’s views. Sir Humphry Davy, however, and others of our most eminent chemists, were hostile to them. In the autumn of 1807, Dr. Thomson had a long conversation with Mr. Davy at the Royal Institution, during which he attempted in vaim to convince him that there was any truth in the new hypothesis. A few days after, he dined with him at the Royal Society Club at the Crown and Anchor in the Strand. Dr. Wollaston was also present. After dinner every member left the tavern, except Dr. Wollaston, Mr. Davy, and himself, who all remained behind, and hich he would state to him. He then went over the principal facts, at the time known, respecting the salts in which the proportion of one ” Miscellaneous Intelligence. 443 phry Davy, who ever after was a strenuous supporter of it Instead of Dalton’s term “atom,” which Thomson adopted, Davy always used the word “proportion,” and Wollaston “ equivalent,” which was much better; but whatever term we employ, now that the ) ble particle) greatly’contributed to the reception of the doctrine of 08 Mr. f his Thomson’s notes.” 9. Prefatory Notice of Laurent’s Méthode de Chemie ; by J. B. Biot. —This work, rich in new ideas, which have often proved fruitful to the while in the arms of death. I should be received with serious consideration, and a mind free from previous prejudices. But to read it with profit and a just appreciation, t is important to bear in mind the end which Laurent had in view in i of analogies drawn from experiment, which should guide them by the special conditions in either case. For we should expect that the reac- preéxistence cannot be affirmed. Hence it may be justly said that it judges of bodies only after they have ceased to exist. 444 Miscellaneous Intelligence. only by induction, and must rest upon the analogies of properties and reactions; or else upon theoretical views which by giving a simple con- bolic formule, the greatest possible number of reactions which they The power of rotating polarized light exercised by a great number of bodies, as far as known exclusively organic, furnishes a definite character by which the abstract speculations based upon the constitution of the compounds of which they form a part may be either confirmed Miscellaneous Intelligence. 445 or set aside. The ema of this character, thus directed, offers a direct and sure method, for resolving a multitude of controverted ques- tions in rational chemistry, ‘of the kind which Laurent has treated. But the employment of this method is as yet but little extended, although it has rie been fruitful for those who have “ng i it in their re- searches “10. Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge. Vol. VI. 1854.—In the volumes of able papers which are issued under the Smithsonian fund, this Institution is conferring a ad benefit on me cause of knowledge through the land and through the civilized wo forks, the result of profound research, which would fail of a publisher because not fitted tocommand a ready “ cash” return, here find encouragement and the means of an honorable introduction to the libraries of the land, and directly or indirectly, the views, new principles, and results of re- searches and explorations over this and other lands, gradually pass into general circulation. The volume just now issued, the sixth of the se- ries, contains the following memoirs :— lantee Fremontiane, or Descriptions of Plants, collected by Col. J. C. Fremont in California; by Jonn Torrey. 24 see and ten plates. Observations on the Batis maritima of Linnzus, by Jonn Torrty. pp. and one On the Darlingtonia Californica, a new Pitcher Plant, from Northern California; by Jonn Torrey. 8 pp. and one plate. yoopsis of the yviveae [overtebrata of Grand Manan, or the Region around the Bay of Fundy, New Brunswick ; by Wm. Stimpson. 68 pp. and three plates. a the Winds of the Northern Hemisphere ; by James H. Corrin, Prof. of ary oes and Natural Philosophy in lestaieti College, Pa. 200 pp. and 13 plate The Ancient Pears of Nebraska, or a Description of Remains of Extinct Mammalia and Chelonia from the Mauvaises Terres of Ne- braska ;_ by see a M.D., Prof. Anat. Univ. of Pennsylvania. 124 pp- and 25 pla » Appendix : 7 sere ten of Planets — Stars by the Moon, during the year 1853, computed by Joan Dow he long paper by Prof. Corrin oilidiia ‘largely of tables, Lsiaereg ing abstracts of observations, bearing on the winds an the different zones and regions of the globe. It embodies also ado tions from the observations, which are of great interest, although of course liable to mod ificati ions in some cases, as facts are further multi- plied. The following are some of these conclusions : (1.) In the Arctic regions of North America, within the Polar circle, a direction of the wind is a about north-northwest, and well de- breadth. een the limits which divide this zone fro he Pol lar wi ip on north and from the equatorial on the south Seaisalanty the latter) | 446 Miscellaneous Intelligence. the progressive motion is very small. The progressive motion more- over is less in Europe than in America. (4.) South of this zone and contiguous to it, the winds in the United States and on the Atlantic are on the whole easterly, though quite irreg- ular, with small progressive motion. Further south, there are the well known northeasterly trade winds, stronger between 10° and 25° than nearer the equator. In the eastern Atlantic near Africa, the winds incline towards the great Des- ert. In southwestern Asia, they are very irregular, and defy all at- tempts to reduce them to system. j The system of winds of the northern hemisphere are therefore re- garded by the author, as (1) a southerly in direction in the high north- ern latitudes, but veering towards the west as they approach a limit ranging from about latitude 56° on the western continent to about lati- tude 68° on the eastern, when they become irregular and disappear ; the area of this zone is about 11,800,000 miles; (2) a zone of west- : : ss analogous to land and sea breezes, only on a grander scale. The !n- fluence of the northern lakes on the direction of the wind, and also of deserts, is discussed in this connection. ; These are some of the points brought out in Professor CoFFIN’S genus Machairodus. Of Chelonian Fossils, there are five species all of the genus Testudo. The following are the names of the Ungulata de- Poebrotherium Wilsonii, Leidy—most nearly allied to the musks. Agriocherus antiquus, Leidy.—In structure between the ordinary Ruminants and the anomalous Anoplotherium. Oreodon, Leidy.—Also between ordinary Ruminants and the Anoplo- therium. Species Oreodon Culbertsonii, about the size of the wolf of Pennsylvania ; O. major, larger than the Culbertsonii. Eucrotaphus, Leidy.—Probably related most nearly to Oreodon. Species, E. Jacksoni and E. auritus. otherium, Leidy.—A genus of Suilline Ungulates. Miscellaneous Intelligence. AAT Species, A. Mortoni.—Head about as large as that of the Lion. - robustum, still larger. Anchitherium, Meyer. eet to Paleotherium. = ~ Titanotherium, Leidy.— ~ Related to Palzeotherium. Species T. Proutii, (this Journal, 1847, iii, 248 Paleotherium giganteum, Leidy.—Twice the size of the P. magnum. Rhinoceros occidentalis, Leidy.—Three-fourths as large as the R indicus. R. Nebrascencis, one-fourth smaller than the R. occidentalis. The species of Carnivora beg Weta is the Machairodus primevus, an animal a little smaller than the American Panther The plates illustrating ih, paper are admirable. " The Mauvaises Ter- res or Bad Lands, are situated near latitude 42° N. and longitude 26° west from Washington, or 103° west from Greenwic Al. Verd Antique Marble. The papers state that the new City Hall of New York is to be built of Verd Antique or Serpentine marble, to 40 years since, the polished slabs were used as monuments in the New Haven Cem metery ; and now they are as gray and rough as if rem- nants of Assyrian antiquity. The Vermont material is more purely a serpentine rock, and will not wear as unevenly. But unpolished, it is a dull, blackish, gloomy stone, turning brownish gray on exposure, and t only for a prison. It is quite time that in the selection of building ma- terial for public structures in the United States, some reference should had to the quality and fitness of the rock. The Greeks were wise | in so material which 2000 years have not wasted nor diminished in 12) Mastodon.—A skeleton of a Mastodon has been recently dis- covered buried in a marsh about two sic from Poughkeepsie, New- York. Its state.of perfection is not known, as it is yet but partly ex- humed. This is the second skeleton cuchaed from the vicinity of this city. 13. British Association.—The British Association commenced its er das Iridium und seine Verbindungen. Inaugural- Disser- SQUIEL, Uric OECHEA, aus Bogota. 38 pp. 8vo. Gottingen, 1854.—The author of Philoso feoren A ne of the pr sede a of the Platinum metals is st iven, in the course of w ick e observes kes the word Platina, which he ae to this metal, as follows: ‘ geo scito, in funduri- bus qui tractatus est inter Mexicum et Dariem, fodinas esse orichalci quod nullo i igni, wane Hispanibus artibus, pistons liquescere potuit ;” and also, the t notice of it in the Reldcion historica, &c. of Ulloa, * — la Platina (piedra de tanta resistencia que no es facil 448 Miscellaneous Intelligence. F.R.S., F.G.S., &c. 12mo. New York, 1854. D. Appleton & Co. Nos. I, Il, and III.—The subjects treated of in these three Nos. are “ The Air we Breathe,” “ The Water we Drink,” ‘ The Soil we Cul- tivate,” ‘ The Plants we Rear,” “ The Bread we Eat,” ‘* The Beef we Cook,” “« The Beverages we Infuse,” ‘* The Sweets we Extract,” “ The Liquors we Ferment,” and first part of “The Narcotics we Indulge in.” In all 270 pages 12mo.—Science is here brought to bear suc- cessfully and attractively on the common processes of domestic and out- door life. The three numbers issued are about half the whole work. 16. Scenery, Science and Art, being Extracts from the Notebook of a Geologist and Mining Engineer ; by Professor D. T. Anstsp, M..A.; F.R.S., &c. 324 pp. 8vo. London, 1854. J. Van. Voorst.—Fro Ansted’s work contains brief but animated descriptions of the people and country met with in his travels, ranging through portions of France, Switzerland, Germany, Spain, Sardinia, Algiers, and the United States ; and many excellent views, part in lithotints, illustrate the scenes © which it treats. A large part of the volume is devoted to the mines, mining resources and geology of the regions visited, and these a largely to the substantial value of the work. . Souvenirs d’un Naturaliste; par A. De QuATREFAGES, Membre de Institut. In 2 vols. 18mo. Paris, 1854. Victor Masson.—The author of this work, A. De Quatrefages, is one of the most active and thorough Zoologists of France. These volumes are in part a popular Journal of his various excursions to the Mediterranean and other Te gions, and partly reflections and discussions on scientific topics, of more or less general interest. His object, as he states, in his reface, vam instructive. 18. The Principal Forms of the Skeleton, and of the Teeth; by Pro- fessor R. Owen, F.R.S., &c. 330 pp. 12mo. Philadelphia, 1854. Blanchard & Lea. This book is by the most eminent parative Anatomist of Britain. It was written as an introduction to his fa Science, and reviews the structure of the principal forms of the Skele- ton, and of the Teeth in the Vertebrata. It is illustrated by many wood-cuts. > Gone 19. Principles of Comparative Physiology ;' by Wm. B. UaR? td M.D., F.R.S., &c. doe pp. 8vo, with "ak pie A new pee’ can, from the 4th and revised London edition. Philadelphia, 18%" The whole range of organic nature, both vegetabl vorite Miscellaneous Intelligence. 449 and animal, is treated of ina oe at of view, in this elabo- rate work of Dr. Carpenter: and there o Treatise in the English language, that covers the e ground in so nbn a manner. 20. Human Physiology, designed for Colleges and the higher Classes in Schools, and for general reading ; by WortnIneTon aprey te M.D 0 pp. 12mo, with nearly 200 wood-cuts. New York, 1854. Far- mer, Brace & Co.—Dr. Hooker writes with rr explains diffi- cult points wiih simplicity, and adapts his subject well 10 school in- struction and general reading. His work treats first, oli general distinctions of organized and unorganized substances, the distinctions of animals and plants, and man’s relations to the three kin gdoms of na- ture ; second, of the Human Structure as bearing on Physiology ; ; and third, the uses for which the structure is design 1. Science and Mechanism Illustrated by Examples in the New rork Exhibition, 1853-54 ; including extended descriptions of the most important contributions i in the various departments, with annota- tions and notes relative to the td and present state of applied Science and the useful Arts. Edited by E. R. Goopricn, Esq., aided by Professors svi and Sinuiman, fae other scientific and practical ew York, es P. Putnam & Co. 1854. _ 4to, pp. 258, with nu- merous illustration This long obiiel volume has at last appeared and is published in a uniform style with the Illustrated Record, of last year. It embraces a vast variety of information, much of it novel and curious, upon the wide range of topics covered by its 31 Classes. The parts devoted to Mineralogy, Geology and Mining (Class I.) to Chemical and Pharma- ceutical products (Class II.) and to Ap en. 2a Instruments (Class X.) are those most interesting to men of scien As space does not per- mit at this moment any extended distin of its contents, we shall take occasion to refer to it again at an early day. 22. History of the Fishes of oo, by Davin Humpureys Srorer.—We have just received a second part of this valuable work, extending from page 91 to130. It shaban iasignens of species of the Genera er Gunnellus, Zoarces, Anarrhicas, Lophius, Chiro» tan Free Hospital, &c. 234 pp. 12mo., with 102 wood-cuts. Phila- delphia, 1854. Blanchard & Lea —There is little of almost every- thing in a small stodesiess volume. ‘ystem der thierischen Mi orphologie, von Dr. J. Vieror Carus, Prof. der vergleichenden Anatomie in Leipzig. 506 pp. 8vo, with 97 wood-cuts. Leipzig, 1 m. Engelmann.—Dr. Carus, the learned Comparative Anatomist of Leipzig, discusses in a manner both philo- sophical and profound, the general principles of form i structure in the animal kingdom. The structures of the different simple and complex organs are described with comprehensive views of their relations ; next Sevonp Series, Vol. XVIII, No. 54—Nov., 1854. 57 3 450 . Miscellaneous Intelligence. . the processes of growth or developement, and then the particular struc- tures presented by the different types of animal forms. The work closes with chapters on the fundamental relations of type series, and the essential idea of the animal structure. tlas von Nord America, nach den neuesten Materialen, in 18 Blattern ‘mit erlauterndem Texte, herausgegeben von Henry Lance. Braunschweig, 1854. G. Westermann.—This Atlas of North Ameri- ica contains 18 plates.—The first is a general map of North America; the next twelve are devoted to the several states of the United States ; the 14th to British America; the 15th is an ethnographical chart; the 16th illustrates the distribution of mammalia over North America; the 17th the distribution of plants; the 18th is an enlarged map of San Francisco, the Sacramento and San Joaquin. The maps, although small, are admirably executed, and are remarkable for the fidelity with which they give recent results. The form of the Atlas is a broad quarto, and with each plate there is a leaf of text containing statistical details. 6. Of the Plurality of Worlds, an Essay. 279 pp. 18mo. Lon- don, J. Parker & Son.—The author of this able essay, whose name does not appear on the title page, endeavors to prove that our own world is the only one in space which is inhabited by rational beings. The argument is conducted with consummate skill and great power, usually with fairness, although sometimes sophistical when direct reason- ing was insufficient, and in all parts with ennobling thoughts of man’s or little above that of water, is regarded as mostly liquid ; Saturn, which is not heavier than cork, as made up mainly o liquid and vapor; and thus all the outer planets are stated to be unfitted from their nature as well as the absence of light and heat, for the higher orders of life. The Earth, the largest of the solid planets, is in the temperate zone of the Planetary system, and air, earth an water have here their most equable relations. ‘The argument respect ing the fixed stars carries far less, we should say, very little, probability with it. The work has been republished in this country. these deductions; the vb goes to an extreme the opposite of that of ‘* The Plurality of orlds.” . i 28. Sixty-seventh Annual Report of the Regents of the Univer sity of the State af New York, 316 pp. he Albany, 1854.—This - port; like its predecessors, contains much information in the departmes of Meteorology, besides the various Schoo! Reports. Miscellaneous Intelligence. 451 29. Seventh Annual Report of the Regents Be the aan of the State of New York, on the Condition of the S Cabinet of Natural History and the Historical and Antiquarian conection annexed thereto. 24 pp. 8vo. Albany, 1854.—In addition to lists of recent additions to the State Collections, this volume contains analyses of pci of salt from different salt mines, domestic and foreign, and a memoir wit two plates, on the Serpents of New York, by Seencer F. Ba 30. Popular Lectures on Drawing and Design; by Wm. Siete: Professor of Drawing in the School of Design of the Maryland losti- tute. 53 pp. 12mo. Baltimore, 1854.—This small pamphlet is made up mostly of popular addresses on some public occasions by the author. mos Witson, F.RS., Retina! Skin: A Boba ctor Treatise on the Skin and Hair, “shee preservation and management. 2d A n, from the fourth and revised Lo sence edition, with Sipetea Gace 292 Pp. Philadelphia, 1854. Blanchard & Lea, 15 ¢ Meno — Sopot cee des Béicrise de Belgique, Tome ef 1858; ba moires ima s et Mémoires des Savants étrang ie Tome 25, 1851-1853. last volume init ins a shinies b 326 ines s and 38 fine plates, on the oe of na Secondary Formations of Loxembourg, by M. F. Ghaitohie and M. G waque. OURNAL or THE Unirep Srares Acricuztura Sociery. 279 pp: Ato, Boston, 1854. fare t — ony: Report HIRD MEETING OF THE British ASSOCIATION FoR THE AD- VANCEMENT re Souaies? ‘held at Hull in September, 1853. 212 and 142 pages, 8vo. 1854. Dr. wn ScuiipEner: Der Process See ery ni ia vende der Met soreas oe Wissen "ie Wissens ist Wissen der Geschichte. 228 pp. 8vo. Greifswald, 1854. G, A. Koch’sche Verlage Buchhandlung Th. Kunike Pui ata. Vol. ; 0 n ns.—p. 128. wary on Entophyta; J. Leidy—p.129. Descriptions of New Fishes collected by Dr. A L. Heermann, ‘Naturalist attached to the apd of . 8. Willi Po el r, Leidy.—p. 158. Notice of a new genus of Cyprinide ; S, # Baird and C. Girard—Synopsis of the Oe tee of a pei — J. L. LeConte.—p. 163. Peatipticas of new fossil species ous formation of Sage Creek, Nebraska, collected by t the North Pacife Railroad “Expesition, Lagi Gov. J. J. Ste- vens; also from the freshwater formation of Nebraska; J. # and B. F. Shumard. ie) . ARA ; ne : 3 ph ‘att, Fourier, Carnot), and also the history “de ma Psy ;” the 2d containing Notes on Thunder, the Aurora borealis, vigact ites caieaies sm, Magnetism of rotation mdi ered ae : ag The following works also are published by “n. wep de De 1a Bacuerre Divinatorre, Du rte DIT RATEUR, ET DES — Tovr- : s ea riences, et Méthodes concernant les lois des vitesses, fy joigeare ie Yévaluation de la force mécanique ar ats deau de toute grandeur; le débit des pertuis des usines, des ifications ivati ction des les me repos. +a 54, 20 fr. ieee caniccsscn prise db woo rie ples ends wah ie ages Arches de Pont, envi au point dé vue de la plus grande stabilité, et Tables pour faciliter les appl ide ae In-4 avec figures dans le texte et 2 planches; 1854, 12 fr. INDEX TO VO LUME XVIII. 7 Bea Nat. Sci., Philad., Proceedings of, 451. a Sciences cs rage to, 381. ke, W. P., on gold and platinum of C. on earl kes in California, 151. notes on California, 441. Blood, fountain of, in onduras, Air-engine, see Ericss lowpipe with in Allen on Vie rita sone noticed, 428. Boneavick ne theory, E. it on, 243. Alter, D., 01 in tie s of light, 55. |] Boston . Hist., Proceedings of, 159. Aluminium, Deville o he Bibliography, 131, < Amber, on fossil plants in, 287. ——- mode of giving flexibil- Ameri Arts and Sciences, Pro- y to, Bu slo "160. ceedin Br cant map of, by Martius, 156. a adinin. lis - papers read at Wash-|| Brant, J. R, on F ani 8 _ ethod for the de- ington m meeting Amphi trite, ee ate 137, 290. Analysis, use of nha and carbonic acid 4o Rozers, 213. est for pi in, 41 5 wchs’s method for iron, 227, ‘Siiehtitie: loca i “122. nsted’s s Scenery, Science, and Art, noticed, 4 Aqua rium, manufactured aon wba 293. Arago, works of, eae agg 120 Ararat, height of Mt, Avetarette es nihaced hydro- gen, in relation re-tbitied ilo; m4 Napoli, 190. Asphy xi oxygen in, Archives de Physiologie, ete., of Bouchardat, termination of Iron, Brucine, decom osed b . niteie acid, 413. ee ush, G. J., charaigel composition of Clin- tonite, 407. t for Zirconia bitheye, on the Gens 2 Gray, 98. Burn a W. LL, = frag sates: a, 104. the Mer 8, 1 gers Life e anc be goin nape of, 25: Bushnan’s Physiology, eg 449. C. sees on supposed Corallines of Desert in, 1 6 and spony of Re Bee. in,156,441. Anes ticed, oes mammoth tre ae eee well in y re rature of, 424. earth oe iy ] cial products o tte s, Hausmann jute Un n, Blake, 441. Arla ‘of North A Lan Canons ted, 8. flects of, 120. en ort merica, e’s, noti Sarbonic oxyd, poisonous elec , 3 Ch e _— Carpenter, ; , Prin : yor s of Comparative re, electricity 0 Ss teri, 415)| Anat by f notic e “a simon Borealis, Dee Rive, Carus, oe System der thierischen Morphologie, noticed, 448. B. Caricography, C. Dewey, 102. 197. Cassin, eg work on Birds, ved noticed, Ss AD, _— of Key West Chemical homology, i tions of, T. ®- Pate - W., on mode of giv ig Peretaead Hunt, 48. flexibility to snecsibenke 100. j Climate of San Francisco, H. Gibbons, 1 Baird, S. F., pents York, 448.) C, on Kilauea, 96. 159. Barnard, F. ., on the comparative ex-|Cuast Survey, Report for 1852, ‘noticed, 159. penditure of heat in d t r ibid, 1853, reviewed, 200. — engine, 161 Coffin, on winds of North America, 445. Beale, at, icroscope, noticed, 302. oes material of ego 434. 392. ei el, on eleciro- tigen action, 382. ||Columbium the true name of niobi tn : new pl we 290, Canoe: en 133, tu 127. nzine, for Greek woke, J. P. » new élierin ‘appara , poem xyd and aed ‘compounds, 412. Bibliographical notices, by J. Nickles, 302 2 on, a et Gabel. ‘noticed, 157 INDEX, 453 "Dina 3 geographical distribution of, J. D.||Fownes’s Chemistry, notice Fr d, 301. Du ankland, E., on gee light iaminetion 295. Cesk. . D, Dana, 430. Furnace slags, Hausmann, 421. Granite, 434, D. G. a, J. D., on the ho eee oe of min-/||Galvanic battery of melted glass, 384. ye of the trimetric system, 35, 131. reduction of metallic chromium, 266. ibi t atinads “Se Ivanism, a urther, Electricity. tems, bd enera Plantarum Flore Germania, etc., th “ "noticed, O84. Foweib ech iuontoie hydro ~ G wt ee ‘iIumination, Frankla nd, 295. on Wihlerite ye rca es 130, . A., Con tributions to Mineralogy, on Leadhillite, 2 on the so-called alo-ttanates 253. Geographical Roa aphis in Congress, Me- on Tourmaline morial o Geographical Dickie of Crustacea, z Distbation of Crustacea, J. D. Dana, on formula of Clintonite, 409. cology, Hitchcock's, noticed, 157, £7. ures of crystals of some coe 3 Fist or ne limestones, age © S. on some furnace slags, described Silgnian System, observations on, Mur- by iasene ann, 422. chison, 394, i ice of 4th edition of Mineralogy by. ese L. San Feagets of solar eclipse on mag- w: Cryptopodia, 4 ibbons, H., on climate o San Francisco, 148, - i“ Rive, on the Aurora mag s, 353. one W., chemical rdiationrh La 124, 264, » H. St. C., on elu inium, 119. a W. ge on Joss of weight o f some minerals by ueina, eeren On, heat, 269, eae , PSS on manufactured seawater for heating lamp, 391. the aquarium, Dewey, Con Caricography, 102. iba A. toaces of Sisk potted ilatation, measure of, Si Nn. Ny orp 1ism, yen is 433, i rel Botany a U.S. Exp. Expedition, 132. g wool, new red for, 123, > Greek fire, new, Griffith and Henry. eases Dictionary Ez of, noticed, 131, 28 : Gulf Stream Eiploeatiog, 204, aka city of San Salvador destroyed Eclipse, annular solar, of May, 128, 142. Hail, protection against, Electric currents, thermic researches on, 432. Hausmann, on furnace slags, 421 Favr Hayes, A , on borocalcite, 95 sllowsinaton. 335, 438, Heat, mechanical action of, ‘Rankine, 64, induction , Faraday on, 84. note, n mechanical action of, F. A Elec ty. contrary currents on same wire|| Barnard, 300. at time, 113. expense of, in air-engine, F. A. P. Piecnion of gases in decomposition of|| Barn 161. water by, 118 si . king impressions, 438. origin of copper deposit, 118. Heating lack of Deville, 391. firing mines by, 387. Heights of pla one * the Caspian Basin, and of atmosphere, L. Palmieri, 415 of Mount mere ', M uring evaporation of salt wees 384. Heask's Fieldbook for Railroad Engineers, “he io cquerel, 382. Magnetic induction, Bischacsick’s Elementary Geology, noticed, Engraving, bomenographie, 441, 157. paca bit Whi Holland's method of desulphurizing metals, ature doing her o Ericsson’s Engine, 28 heat expended in, F.|| Homeeogra A. P. Barnard, 3 Ho eee. hism 2 mineral — of the tin 1d dimetric and aga 8) systems vain oR resistance of air to, Loomis, | J — cays he pe I Hooker’ 's Flora of N ew emg noticed, 132. ean 3 oe s, new, J. P. Cooke, 127. Jcones Plantarum, notice Fischer, Be ae Petersbarg death of, 429, Flora of New Zealand, noticed, Loree Hooker, W., Human Physiology by, noticed, ee at Edinbu BoB Daa bt eer ie Hunt, E. B., on the nature of forces, 237, Fountain of Bleed in es, 439, map projections, 326, 454 INDEX. Hunt, T. “ See the N. A. crystalline mee pee death of, 431. stones ratnsiets of chemical homology, 269. Hurricane, on the Brandon, O. N. Stoddard, at September, 1853, W. C. Redfield, 1, H ‘deiacene methyl and hydrargyrethy], 413. Hiydrocy snadaits 413. I. MWlumination by electric light, 3 ae of the Mississippi ee. peas tron, be Fuchs s method for determination of, |} fsa of ae we the trimetric sys- em, J. D. Dana, 35, of the ike me hexagonal sys- tems, 131, 271, Isomorphons and homceomorphous species, on series of, von Kobell, 271. J. helt eee of Common Life, no- Ju ae ws of monuments in, taken by ~ gr Mel 437. Kenngott, G. A, oes etc., noticed, shes Kobeil, v., on series = isomorphous and _ ho- meeomvu tiie form on chloritoid mi clinochlor, 272. Kilauea, 7’. Coan “a Lallemand, bon of, 431. Lange’s Alas. von Nord Ameri Lath a, 449, r , Meteorol 1853. ‘at fick: 0% e0ro. et gob for Laurent %s Méthode de see * Biot’s Preface'| to, Leid an neat c ~ "Terres, 44 — dae ea on Changési in, A. gree 21, Leesa on the small planets, ke t, on certai ae of, D D. Alter imestones, on the age of the N. A, ¢ asi line, 7. 8 , 193, ys " pean notice bodies falling none the ai M. r, 67. Mac — D. oe ,on Chinese and Aztec Plum-|| agery, 5 Magnetiem by rotation o rerole as currents, Sinsteden Phe n the Novae phosphate, 33. Mannal - F heck History for Trasatlens Map Projections, E. B. Hun Y., 447. y's Astronomical Observations, 158. 285. resistance experienced by] n, 326, iscovery of, at Pooghhoepale: Nui mithes, W. ST. Fai ‘ole method o Nahas ‘ing, 2 Metalivc Wealth of the United | a Isp: tle 46. iiceeeme ra “Be ale on, ‘noticed, 302. in cular, E. D. North, 61. MINERALS, analyses oe J. L. Smith, 872. G. J. Bru = F. A. Gen ho ambi, of Gianetrie species, J. D. Dana, 35, 131. ibid. of dimetric and hexagonal systems, i Se: = Albite from Middletown, form of, 419. Andalnsite, Staurotide and To ‘opaz, rela- tions of, in form, Anglesite of Phenix xville, — 419, pophyllite of Lake Sup - ig 419. Aphrosiderite, formula Aurotellurite, of, 4 19. Babin ngton nite ? aac f Al fees Boltonite sage with Chrysolite, J.L. h, 3 Smit 2. Borocal in, A. A. Hayes, 95. Calcite, of Bristol, Ct., form of, 4 421. Chiorite poets on of Silicates, formulas of, D. a; 128. Chiloritoid, ‘formula of Bre ee Kobell, 272. Chrysotile, naive is of, = te Gent, 410. Clinto ene fore ormula of, ‘29 G Clinochlore of t the Tyra sm sang 3 f, Delessite, furmu 29. a es yetallizatioti of, 131. imorphine, forms of, 49. lof a of Hoboken, form of erystal vt, Fe G Ser 419. Idocrase, crystals 0 “of, foo oe ‘Sonith, 374: ] ‘mith, 380. Lanm Leatilite relations of, in form, to ven Leary, 49. Loxuclase of Hevooreés: form of, NS wh formula of, 129. relation in {orm to ee Mapekel crystal of, 4 osandrite, on Owenite identical with paringite, 376. ibid, F. A. Genth, 411. ga arene: Margarite, J.L INDEX. "NER Siccien. se, form of, 4 Pyrites, erystals of, tT. ma Priecienic, formula of, 1 Fr er ebagn pager of, E A. Genth, 410, — ne, for ; Guayie new f of J. D. Dana, 417. Ripidolite, formula of, 1 129, Salt and Gypsum of Virginia, 273. / Scapolite, on shesalion of, v. Rath, 272 Schorlomite, on formula of, 2 Schreibersite, analysis, J. L. Smith, 339. Scolecite, an ve pe F. A. Genth, "410. Spodumene , form Struy ergtalization of, 131, Thutingite, 376, form of, isa, Topaz, 45, 360. of ‘Tram bull, pe bet nthe 419 Warinaliae, forms 0 f, on formula o ormula of, Xenotime of Georgia, f form of, 421. Smith, 377. Zircon, crystal of. fro N. Carolina, 417. Miseanay 4th odin of System of, by a a, notic works on, published ‘during the years 1852 and 1853 to we of 4, 425. pong wits . Marr Morieand, death Movesidy 13 s Siluria noticed. 301, 394. ur Museums, uses of, FE. Forbes on, 340. N. Napoli, R., on arseniuretted and antimoni- eed hy , and their relations to ology, scare! History revi ew, Dublin, noticed, 302. és, J., ¢ correspondence et, 14, 381}, 431. Niobium is Columbium North, E. D.,on the boevotler microscope, 61. 0. Obituary, Beautems Beaupré Fischer » of St. Pe scabesh, & "9. Lallemard Meloni, 431. ea Victor ‘aus, 116, Wallic Olmsted, D., eclipse of 1854, 142. _ Owen, on the. principal forms of the Skele. ton and the Teeth, noti 448, Oxygen, use of, in asphyxia, 122. Aa Pastor on cae 117, 293, cane of of Sinorpiom 433, || Pyro-e Photography, Paap © ra gett: for, kind of elon, 437, engin g aes Heap Beal losin, Anpenrteay 137, 290. mall, Leverrie Piadix ef ea of, 433. a flowers of, 434 re = fossil, in amber Plantee ing tie d, 428. Platinum, note on very of, 447. Plumagery, on Chine and Aztee, er & Po wider? manufacture of, 436 , in fermentation, 413. Psorospermia, W. I. Burnett, 104, fectrid’ currents, Becquerel, 384. Quatrefages’s Souvenirs d’un Naturaliste, noticed, 448. Gis og ‘J, Lectures on Histology by, no- tice Qbinine, composition of, 413. x Rainhow Ne! — st is from water, E. S, Snel Rankine, heat, 64. Rath, v., a alteration of scapolite ey ‘? 3 M., mechanical] action of Redfield, . C. Hurricane of Sept., 1853, and Sa of other storms, 1, 176 i sed oe temporarily y produced, . of Regents of University of New- York noticed, 4 State Coliecton, noticed, 449, Ri ra on t rora borealis, 353. River, on Be tetenies, 1! s. H. D., Repost on ae mm and gyp- Virginia, noticed, 2 Rogers, W. B., and R. be Sor ad ‘curticaiie acid in igi pert 213, pit Ss. San Salvador destroyed by an Earthquake, Seawater manufactured for the aquarium, erving balance of animals and pla cites Warrington Sea- wht “hates in, A. of i lor, 21 1, 216. Seeman’s Botany ©! erald, noticed, ' 132, 429, Serpents of of og York, S. F. Baird on, re- rred to. gyrcnseneay "3 Siluria, a iosary chapter of Murchison’s, Sinsteden, a gp et currents, 264, Smith, JOL on of American minerals, a Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, vol. vi. of, noticed, 445, 456 Snell, E. S., oe, : rainbow by light reflected from wa ter, Spirit-rappings, 38, Stereoscopy, a udel’s Spidonein Plant. Glum. .» noticed, Stoddurd, O. N., on the Brandon Tornado, 70. Storm of pe Ds 1853 and others, W. C. Red- field, 1 5 A Table Turnings, 119. Tannic acid composition of, 412. Taurine, artificial petition of, 414. Telegra aph, on electric induction of wires of, Furada Ww wine antimony, INDEX. Vacuum, made by means of carbonic acid, 6. Verd Antique Marble, 4 loria o lies ia, work on Rey F. Allen, no- ced, Vine 2 Volcano of idence, T. Coan, 96. rrington, on preserving balance of Svante an Sohne in seawater, 13: , de ecomposition of, by an alloy of zinc arker, death Y, b of, 429. Temperature from an artesian well in Ttaly,| a and measures in Turke 424, Thermotypy, 438. | pe Thomson, Dr. Thos., Life and — of, ge y, 20 Ww S05, Tides 7 the White sea, Taker, 292. Tornado, see Hurricane Eines psi te hydrogen in rela- tion to, R. Napoli, 190. Trask’ : Rison on Geology of California, 302,|| Trees, mammoth, of California, 150, 286. Tylor, A., on changes i in sea-level, 21, 216, Z. a nia, new test for, G ep E., notice of inaugural disserta- of, 447, ey, 431. ee on double refraction temporarily Whitney's ie 8 Metallic Wealth of the U. States, Winds of North America, Gein on, 445. orks, notices of Botanical, 284. _ n, J.,on Life and writings of Dr. W. 1. urnett, 255. X. |Xantheine, and Xanthine, 435. G. J. Brush, 415. odiacal light, 440. Zalotel specimens, mode of giving flexi- 100. ‘ Erratum.—Vol. xvii, p. 431, 16th line, after ilmenite, add “to calcite and other hex- agonal species.” 27 : Ce | & = a 3 A Fi ao VACA +e weeE ree a a ie IN Bee i = SoS SE rh & gagens oe CHAREST ee Hee : pusececeszancesseeenscesssau seeeeagsss ‘ Ee as i omy ie }—-f of on ES Ee Se ee Beans ee ES Ss = Samus aaa eS Se cA 3 } | } J | aS x ee ae ort oe ee eS eee il | cis 0 oe Ol { if [ | an . s SS a 0 es WB ral Bi aa) ] MAG Ze es Geis e: crrrt ; } dS Es 0 SG a 4 a AA f 0 HN 2 Sy WS OB a a eft |_| : ‘5 iE ELITE LEEL Le im | : ; ~ oS a SO SP SS, Esa | t _ 7 § ECO CH} POE a tt | I $ Fore] { . | a sel \ i . g | I ? & 0 _ + = ® A ; = i WN = = mm je S « im } P ~ “4 x a | 2 + H Ms an r a T ie ° | om 4 Bil ase 2 i oa | iS Bute ast ° iY “J cs) | 4 i Sy g \ % y ~ TR0Mo : © | Tf © mS oO ~ Ci ed is mE s Et en's bm ° Popertt : 2 cecen a £ tes as ett it 3 : 3 : imi - | t 5 = ne | ¢ & Ly I : & # aE T $ = eek Toles] | 2 Shel Cor = 2 at ei 2) es i [ ° EY 5 i: . — 2 PERSO SE ee 3 ECE * : 2 p : iv Gi ae ' e . = p ag ee 3 | ‘3. 8 os Oo: a \ 5: al ry a sae a | bo SS z o QR Se; > Ce MB BS = = 1 me as War : : i . oe rt fae 44 28 : i S | : BEE | ee wa S — _| — mess we ps : 3 Be et a nesses ee ee ane é é a RE 2 BS ie : | | PCE L_ Mo eS BS See Se ae | = eo aes abs CREE EEE | a. re Bee eS oS oo one eel = a x — | 3 mi : a SS eee eae a a NN a ane es on ee — t ’ = “i e , Pee be ee ee See ee earl ae ab a TT EPL ee a : | seessges gaa teeeetstossa\eetCeeeeessssseee eo sarin PREECE e ia oe 2 ; ee ae ioe eel Ge Ba = se SE Be OG EO mBAte i. | RB . EERE EEE EERE ECCS ERE uot BNET Bi RES ee SRR Lp tN 4g ami ae RE aS — = oo on an en ae ae a pa apf tnt J} Ff ng oN] TT a a0 nue - rd eee ee ee ee ee ee cams Aine GIR Se See Sa Se Gan ae a ; x on RES a | sf — ann i eee 7] a T ie Senet an a Se ff Sn Sine Ss Sa EN a BS 5 | ——+--+-—} CEE Eee ReneS eee e anne we = O4 3 +++ i, leita = eS eee ee ei. ane ae 24a eR Sew ee ee ee ee ee ee °'> a aaa ae a ae +— fot e ay * 2 AN ; Pl \ Hy pf c 88 oe 2S a pee Sane s Ea So a i ie Pee eee eee coo : ol aaane o at | SE : 7 ae co - Se i j Lj ae 6 lfc } 4} —-+ ee ee coe oem anes en) ae Ba = - las Te Eee res < rg ia t bial t+} +! tt —J — Bi it ; = \ aa 1% ! : as Z —— =) ee T ry T Fa ois , = Ld tb 7 TT a ae = - = H REEoe — “ a : Sit Sire rr tol | ] < ee at T a (eel aumear as £ Sa | tt ul i | : 4 = Ph i = N “och an lap pe SE SY ™. | URRESS — * | is S EECECEEEEEE | cane |_| be ||} +++} }+—} +} — = a EERE ere = pepe eethorchret a 5 7 | oo a OR |_| + i++ +++ — = a oes Ss A Se ek Oa Ol = a oe _ Ra ST SEE am eet | Tt = et | |_| Saseeeeeeeeeeee : | BERRA Swe wes gto eye we WH 8 ERR REIRA AMR BES we Ct | ae ee ee cea eee tee | +} +++ ++ Teens a8 ° oy = ms | iw bss — * — = ww a i Aq -_ —_ | ] eras Be L PiBe Pe Be I mee Be ja WL oH ed a Ws Ewe! /\ BeSe i a 2 | | . Cer ie -- SK at | =s : z LI —_] 2 fod =a = * & | fi | : a ae | S +. . Ts 8 —+ 8 Fa A) ag fee at BE Sl = 8 = ES , ui = | A Me = A 3 So ‘ ea XN t 3 5 g 8 fe: 3 [ 5 ae Let” at Ss s = ; 3 | 4 - A 3 a - 4 + = = te : C rt = . HH < & S - BRR e | s > — r—}—+—4 am : 00 i co rd ica ee { SI Se ee | 7) A | (ee: Re t Ht Coo | aa = Set eer Pies a | d L ) HERE | I zy ma 1. tee i 2 : CoC # ne tft a ieec. COC 3 + ap pt ee pa So ane te Ds De a lle eS ae eae —6U6UlCU MM | — ~~ ia aE J 9 2 ¥ S 7 ; ! . a Lj a a0 Stk ea [= = — ea L oe — — ite) | ms = zi - - in ct ei + ys ES : Se Se ee Se a —: (0 Eee cent Gee ieee ees ee es | t | a ae | = 3 2 | Yeah. —= uy ) ae . i | = wo yn | ca E refaed g pats ed Be. We $ = Be aa ey SE a td tt ° , = t ty }} 8 tt | a ro an BEER pa = = sanEEe | We BS Sk SS ae | | + S #3 a A Geen Me B= eee t | eee We Een ~{—-----—2+-- im . = _! 2 | eae pg See a ae ‘i i eat Oe N -) N é Ny bc} “O is) : ba ws § Ss € a SS y 2 as! © 8 in interval ¢ 2 Plate No No. 28. No.2 Height -,m. Rigs Lamparison ot half monthly inequality Interval No. 1 Rema terns 0 Comparison of haltinonthly inequality in Interval and Height trom theory & observation... —— Semi-diurnal wave °o 7 = he = i TILILeELt t ERE Eco cae [ Ee eer : sae Be = 2 ae 2 coo ct ane x ee ae ae Aiese seve ew REBAR SES + act cae BEE emaeeean: = an ae 4 = = r Pees aim Oe a a —— as a et HH — tre ag om a a DE SCC ttt io a ame a - HH | | -*} 7 gametes t age a me | =} iy] SS eC Ee FS a g a BME wm q 3 SoH pots REECE. a 7 +4 +H ie EEE a ‘ BEE oC . act a 8 OS im oe a = : SEER ESE EEEEEEE EEE EEE EE wali waa va ee a {oneae PES EEEEEEEEE H BEE EEE CECE ssetessottaiis PE 4 E san Po a @ i ete i KH PEC 2 Hittite Crrt TH an emsce mt EERE ae | eeeees israel : s tes st = one noe Hot t 7 ine HHH 3 fudeshd = t | ° a ; a = T | we | i me i] ve) SSeREBELE HaRE AS { q 5 | a1 t , [ bale t str = } Ne ee ee Se oe Bee neeaaae | PEEEEE ALT | fe 3 | | M4 | faueees X, “+ 1 7 11 Sue AX 3e% ++ ECE st © Theorv Plate No. & No. 2 Height ie 5 A OTS HS TASS I Se ee “tf titi td ee rt | jo ea eh i oe T Tt ‘a Be SaaS: { ABBR tee i shee ae 26 a Te Ue AE Bw i ++ sul EEECEEEEE EEE meee t : if PENS onasen A : = : + i. g t bs: + + ES, So Os ay el ~ i j : Tot 5S BS RS wie t ri ene Sone eaeeseeueten Be Be = i P-} geeceee See Pies Ssh BSBaR a -— +4 — 1 t—+— +4 ms 2 Ht = ee SB 4 tH Ly ai oe eS +} - ij TNS BeRaERS EB Se ee i a arch is { Lj em eo + + BS szanreste psvisazitcs Soe Sees ary yea jm | at Ci AS A Ba 9s wel Bane i i pee CURR arti i Soo eeioa en a i BE a he Be BBS CoCo - ; Lg nSeeRESenans=s Fe Rete : Races o i iS i 1 rey Be 3 ae e HH - a oe his Ts Ho iG miei ; + seeesiercc tt eH < my uae a oo oe a 2 seen fet ee aa ae ts . +++ wat Re }+t + Ses Oe nae eee & —- Bemae i SUR TR B = me 2 g i a: ron OSU ED A) el BB OO a « tH SE Be I 3 ths yt aS |_| ie ce pj} ane ee Sen Gere oe 4 Not interval 1 YALE SCIENTIFIC SCHOOL. CHEMISTRY AND NATURAL SCIENCE, B. SILLIMAN, Jr., Professor of General and Applied Chemistry. JOHN A. PORTER, Professor of Agricultural and Analytical Chemistry. e of instruction is designed to meet the wants of those imeing to p practical analyuis, medicine, agriculture or en see as well as thos aca engage in teaching or scientific research. It embraces, among other aaplacwmn: the poe of grains, soils and minerals, a8 Tas termination of me value of drugs and chem- icals, cad experiments = medical Chem The Laboratory is open to students toelée the whole day at a charge of from yt to ‘$70 per term of twelve or baat weeks. This mater and the use of ap al The charge is diminished in the case of sti less than a term o' ending . son ag each day in the Laboratory. cies gore of rms commence for the pommerton collegiate year, Septs 16th, Jan. a and May 4. Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry will be given gs pe first ten weeks of the winter a al os , $10. . Lectures on Geology, Mineralogy, Elementary Che mist try and Nat phy atriculation fee 5 Anelyses of grains, — mineral waters, &c., and other chemical investigations under- = hye reasonable College, New bens November, 1854. ENGINEERING. WILLIAM A. NORTON, Professor of Engineering. on.—Surveying in all its branches, with the us ome instruments, and systematic Lerten field ae to — geometrica a — 8 1 ad d tinting ; Descriptive ry, Shades an cock once Isometrical Eas go ‘Applicats ions of of Deser ptive Geometry ytoilasonry and Stone-cutting, and to C and Mechanical Engi neering, ly 5— i and Differe ential an pte fe “te. t culus ;—Me- "of tude, ae . . jphe student may pursue & i ee OO ccasiy, ond | Nam ag admission to the full — wg rithmetic, Algebra, Geometry, and Treonomety. ary 3 nd academical year ag seme commencing on September 16, i i t nd May 4, rag onan a rm, $30 to be pei iafodrenat, F cigedae for ae __ Tuition ‘cone for the full som ag of ea lation fee of 85.) — POPPA Aes