AMERICAN JOU RNAL SCIENCE AND ARTS. CONDUCTED BY PROFESSORS B. SILLIMAN, B. SILLIMAN, Jr., AND JAMES D. .DANA, IN CONNECTION WITH PROF. ASA GRAY, or CAMBRIDGE, PROF. LOUIS AGASSIZ, or CAMBRIDGE, DR. WOLCOTT GIBBS, or NEW YORK. SECOND SERIES. VOL. XXIII.—MA/Y, 1857. WITH FOUR PLATES. » NEW HAVEN: EDITORS. NEW YORK: G. P. PUTNAM & CO. ——oOoOrrrees E. HAYES, PRINTER. . CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXIII. NUMBER LXVII. Arr. I. Approximate Cotidal lines of Diurnal and Semi-diurnal Tides of the Coast of the United States on the Gulf of Mexico, with two plates; by A. D. Bacue, - * Il. Notes on the Progress made in the Coast Survey, in Predie- tion Tables for the Tides of the United States te bY A. D. Bacue, . a j III. Observations to determine the cause of ei increase of Sandy Hook, made by the Coagt Survey for the Commissioners on Harbor encroachments of New York; by A.D. Bacue, - IV. Notice of Observations to determine the Progress of the tidal wave of the Hudson River, made by the Coast Survey for the Commissioners on Harbor Encroachments ; w A. ah Bacue, V. On the tenet pti = the Beemer éciee 76 passage of a Revolving Storm, such as a Hurricane or Ti ea nado, being a small rise and not a sie fall ; by ey CHAPPELLSMITH, - VI. On the Spirality of Solon in Whirlwinds be Torodoos by W.C. Reprietp, —- VII. On the Application of the Mechanical Theory of. is to the Steam Engine ; by R. Cravsivs, VIII. On the Agency of the Gulf Stream in the Econ, of rs Peninsula and Keys of Florida; by Josern LeConre, M.D., IX. On Screw-Propellors ; by W. Rocess Horxins, z X. Statistics of the Flora of the Northern United Seen by Asa Gra¥,. - . . XI. Observations on the Falls of Sai: with riflicini to ss changes which have taken poe and are now in in PRT by R. Benois . icky iv CONTENTS. age. XII. Biography of Johann tere von Fuchs ; we FRANz VON eS OBELL, ~ 95 - XIlf. On the Presence of Fluorine in the Blood ; i. rercad NIcKLEs, - < ot 101 XIV. Correspondence of JEROME ni Nibetad eat of Gerhardt, .—-Submarine Telegraph : Society of Acclimation: Caout- chouc: Wax and Tallow, 107.—Artesian Wells in Paris: Charts of the Ecliptic, 108.—Aérostats : On Perfumes, 109. —Manufacture of Aluminium, 111.—Origin of Urea in the Animal Economy, 112.—Electricity ; theory of the voltaic pile, 113.—Galvano-caustic : Crystallogeny : Artificial milk, 114.—Universal Exhibition of er eee | Bibliography, 115. wSCLENTIPIC INTELLIGENCE. emistry Ph site —On the wave length of the most refrangible trays and of those which act ctemily upon iodid of silver: On Tantalum and its compounds with chlo- rine and bromine, As: + ft 3 Th. orien c Vr. Tron from Chili, containing Native Lead, “ini an wébbcxit of a fall of a large mass of Meteoric Iron at Corrientes in South P Hard M.D., and Cuarves Bicket., Ph.D., 121—Chemical Analysis and Comparison of Serpentine Marbles known eider the name of Verd Antique, by Caarxes T’. Jack- son, | Botany and Zoology.—DeCandolle’s Prodromus, 126,--Flora Vectensis ; being a System- atic Description of the Phrenogamous or Flowering Plants and Ferns indigenows to the - Isle of Wight, by the late Witttam ArRNoLp Bromrieip, M.D.: Seeman’s ey of the Voyage of the Herald, 127.—Synopsis of the Cactacee of the United States and Adjacent Regions, by Groxek ENGELMANN, 128.—The Musci and Hepatice of the United ee east of the Mississippi River, by Wiruiam S. poh Fs 129.—On the rigin of the Organized Beings now living in the Azo , and the Cinarien by Oswap Herr, 130.—On the Ruminant BRATS 5 and the Above: inal Cattld of Britain, by Professor Owen, F.R.S., 132. : "Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence.—Notice of the Scientific Results of the Expedition to the North Pacific Ocean, under the command of Com. John Rodgers, by W. Stimpson, 136.—On the Meteor of July 8th, by Prof. N. K. Davis, 138.—Credit to whom credit is due, Note by Prof. A. D. Bacuz: Geographical Discoveries in Africa, by Rev. Mr. Lavinas- __ Tow, 139.—On Isothermal Lines, by Prof. sachet 144.--Machine for Polishing spee- ula of Reflecting Telescopes, by Dr. R. Greens, 145.—Observations with the Anervid : Tt a ANA: Anatomical Models by 147 Prof. Nicholas M. Hentz: Wm. Yarrell: Professor Bojer, 148.—A Treatise on Mineral- ogy, by Caries Urnam Sueparp: Elementary Course of Geology, Mineralogy, and CONTENTS. . v Physical Geography, by Prof. Dayrp T. Anstep, M.A., F.R.S., etc., 148.—Chemical and Pharmaceuatical Manipulations, by CampseiLn Morrit: Miscellaneous Chemical Researches, by Cuarues F. CHanpLER : The Microscope and its Revelations, by Wa. B. Carpenter, M.D., ete.: The Quarterly Journal of Pure and Applied Mathematics, edited by J. J. Sy.vester, M.A., F.R.S,, 149.—Patent Office Report for 1855: The Illustrated Annual Register of Rural Affairs and Cultivator Almanac for 1857: United States Japan Expedition, Vol. II], by Gzorce Jones, A.M.: First Report on the Nox- Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, Vol. VIII. 150.—Journal of the . Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, Vol. III, Part IlI, 151. List of Works, 151. NUMBER LXVIII. Arr. XV. Report upon the Results of Microscopic Examinations of the Soundings made by Lieut. Berryman, of the U.S. Navy, on his recent voyages to and from Ireland in the Arctic ; by Prof. J. W. Batey, - : - - XVI. CoalsFields of the East Indian Ascii ee XVII. Observations on the Zodiacal perk = Rev. GzorcE Jones, A.M., ae XVII[. On some Csitigeudd of ish tene by i. Ss. “es - 176 XIX. On the Rose-colored Mica of Goshen, Mass. ; by J. W. Matter, Ph.D., = - XX. Results of some dei aad for the Geislouieit Survey of the State of Alabama, by J. W. Matxer, Ph. D, cela 06 XXI. Note on * Red Sulphur ;” by J. Ww. Matter, Ph.D., ee Sepsis Valley ; by James Hatt, - XXIII. Remarks upon the Genus Archimedes or Fer the Carboniferous Limestones of the Misisiori Valley 3 “ James Hatt, XXIV. On the Seosienlt of. Pe Violent F sion of eae with Notices of a Typhoon at the Bonin Islands; by Joun Ropcers, Commander U. im, IN; a ANTON ScHONBORN. : Communicated by W. C. REDFIEL XXV. ea the Mode ee: Cann Coal : J.S8. ‘New. : XXVI. yore - a es cial Poe ee at Marin : - Ohio, for the year 1856; by 5. P. HinpretH, - vi CONTENTS. Page. XXVII. On some Soluble Basic Salts of bot by Joun M. ig Orpw ‘ - - 220 XXVIIL A Poblen in pace Suis: ‘cameul 7 means of Transversals; by Prof. W. M. Giuuespis, - 224 XXIX? Biography of Johann aaa von Fuchs; by eis von KoBELL, - . - - : - - 225 XXX. Researches on the Jiteoebiasseines Bases ; by Wotcort Grees and F. A. Gentu,—Part I, - SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics.—On the alloys of Aluminum, 265.—On the preparation of Lithia: On Glycol, 266.—Action of ae of phosphorus upon Glycerine: Action of the chlorids and bromids Glycerine, 267—On the formation of urea by the oxydation of albuminous matters : is triphenylamin: On some products of the oxyda- tion of alcohol: On the quantitative determination of val acid, 268.—On_ organic —— ing metals: Action of sulphuric acid upon the nitriles and amids, 269. d Geology. ~-Note on the occurrence of Telluret of Silver i in pee be by Prof. E. Emmons, by Joseru Lerpy, M. D., 271.—Report of the Geological aia in Kentucky, made during the years 1854 and 1855, by Davip Dae Owen, 272.— a Shower of Ashes over the plains of Quito, by Rev. Grorce Jones, U. < N., 276. Bitrate 278, . ees —Origin of the Embryo in Plants—Development of the Ovule of opening and closing of Stomates, by Hugo von Mout, 280.—On a boring Sponge, by J. Leipy, 281.—Appendix to a paper on Reptiles in the Collection of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, Be E. HaLLowe.1, 282.—On some young Gar Pikes from Lake Ontario, by L. Acass1z, 2 Miscellaneous Intelligence —Observations on the Zodiacal Light, by Rev. Grorer Jones, U.S. N., 285.—On the Meteor of July, 1 856, by TH TOMAS M. Peters, 287.—On Dell- man’s Method On the. Tides f Nova:Scotia, by Prof. Cuxvantire, 289.—Notice of « visit te Telescopic Stere , by James Extrot: Amos Binney’s “Terrestrial Mollusks and Shells of the United. States”: Mast stun 292 —Obituary.—Death of William C. Redfield, 292.—Hugh Miller, 294.—Gregory’s Handboo k of Chemistry, a and Organic, 296.—Proceedings of the Geological Society of London, No. 47: Proceed- ings of the California Academy of Sciences, 299.—List of Works sii by the Smii n Institution, Washington, D. C., 300.—Notices of New Publications, 304. CONTENTS. vii NUMBER LXIX. Azr. XXXI. Remarks on the Huronian and Laurentian Systems * of the Canada Geological Survey; by J.D. Wuitney, - 305 XXXII. Notice of a Photometer and of some experiments there- with upon the comparative power of several artificial means of illamination; by B. Sintiman, Jr., and Cuas. H. Porter, 315 XXXII. Researches on the Ammonia-cobalt evi: by WoL- cott Giggs and F. A. Genru.—Part I, - 219 XXXIV. Earthquakes in California se the year 1856 ; : De. J.B. Teas, - 341 XXXV. On the Pi. of ore as the Sotore of the Liquidity of Lavas; by G. Pouretr Scrorz, — M.P., fm. P On. = XXXVI. On the Climate of oe tice ‘“ ee of Me. teorological Records of the year 1856, at Muscatine, Jowa, with a Synopsis of the records of the seven ames from 1850 to 1856, inclusive ; by T. S. Parvin, : XXXVII. Statistics of the Flora of the Northern United aes ; by Asa Gray, . XXXVIL. On the Meridian Coantitth of the Daley Obsera tory; by Dr. B. A. Goutp, - - On two Sulphurets of Copper tree ‘i Catena (a) Mine « by N. A. Prart, Jr, - : XL. Contributions to Mineralogy ; by Dr. Jeena Pi Ganka XLI. On the Separation of Lithia and eae gie by J. w. Matter, Ph.D., - on : W ’ a SCIENTIFIC INTE ERIG EE en ‘a Chemistry aud Physics Electrodynamic measurements, 430 —On Boron, 433.—Notice of a supposed new case of Fluorescence, by Prof. J. W. Mauer, 434. * Geology.—Volcanic Action off Hawaii, by Rev. T. Coan, 435.—Geological Survey of hers by LA. Larnam: On the Reactions of the alkaline silicates, by T. Sreny Honr, 437. Botany.—Musci Boreali-Americani, sive Specimina Exsiccata Muscorum in Americe Rebuspublicis Federatis detectorum, conjunctiis studiis W. S, Sutzivant et L. Lesquergvx, 433.—Fungi Caroliniani Exsiccati, by H. W. RavenEL: First Lessons in Botany and Vegetable Physiology, by Asa Gray, 439, Vili CONTENTS. Scientific Intelligence-—Correspondence of M. Jerome Nicklés—Electric illumination, 440.—New Battery with a constant current, 441—A Battery, called a ith triple contact: Nautical Telegraph: Light-houses and Illumination, and Reflectors, 442.—Manufacture of Soda, 443.—Astrono New: atory: Color of the Moon during eclipses: Works of Arago, 444. —Influence of Tempera phenomena of Capillarity: Harmonic rtions of the h body, 445.—Bibliography, 446.—First of 1857, 447.—Obituary—Prof. Jacob Bailey, 447.—Prof. M. Tuomey, 448.—New Granada; Twenty Months in the Andes, by Isaac F. Hotton, 448.—Memoir of John Dalton, and History of the Atomic Theory up to his time, by Rosert Ancus Smirs, Ph.D., F.C.S., 449—Recent Papers by Prof. J. Leidy, M.D. : Notices of new publications, 450. Index, 453. ERRATA. P. 89, line 2 from bottom, for “ northeast,” read “‘east.”—P. 178, lines 3 and 5 from bottom, for“ Tannenschein,” read “ Sonnenschein.” — : Se ge ots OC ae ae AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. [SECOND SERIES8.] ART. I.—Approximate Cotidal lines of Diurnal and Semi-diurnal Tides of the Coast of the United States on the Gulf of Mexico; by . Bacuez, Superintendent U.S. Coast Survey. (Communicated by authority of the Treasury Department.) AT successive ‘meetings of the American Association I have eats oe approximate cotidal lines for the Atlantic and Pacific . Coasts of the United States, drawn from the tidal observations of the Coast Survey. I now present si imilar lines for our coast on Po Gulf of Mexico. oe is a very different one from either of the others retuned ve The tides on the Atlantic Coast are of the regular semi- tial class and easily discussed by the forms pies elab- orately prepared by Lubbock and Whewell. he aioe pel is not large; indeed though easily recogniz periods and then quite characteristic, in are as je fi ike ee Bde pu comp ikaively Gacertt discussion ae has been made of these tides requires many steps in the discus- sion to be epics, ands oe Sm leaves us in doubt as to the acon stains, vo. ste NO. 67,—JAN., 1857, 2 On Cotidal lines of Diurnal and Semi-diurnal Tides way of preparing for the present discussion and to avoid pani into too great length at this time, I gave at the last meeting a = Assuciation an account of the tidal observations r Gulf Coast, and showed the type curves for the ferent’ stitions from Cape Florida to the Rio Grande.* I also explained the method of decomposition of the curves of obser- ation into diurnal and and semi-diurnal waves, an gave the analysis of the type curves at the several tidal stations. From Cape Florida and along the keys, and up the western coast of the peninsula, to St. George’s, the tides are of the half day class with a large diurnal inequality; from St. George’s which belongs to the day class to South West Pass they are of the day type, the semi-diurnal tide almost disappearing; at Derniére Isle, Caleasieu and Galveston they resume as a rule the half day type, and lose it almost completely at Aransas and the mouth of the Rio Grande, The Derniére Isle and less distinctly, the Calcasieu tides show cases of interference in the semi-diurnal wave, two high waters being at times easily traced in the semi- diurnal curves. The character of the tidal phenomena themselves, the pecu- liarities in configuration and in depth of the basin, the limited extent over which our researches Spread, and various other cir- > ay aie contribute to render this work less satisfactory than the former. Some of these will in the end Saeco as the Gulf is more re fully explored in the progress of the survey. Our infor- mation thus far extends to but one entrance of the basin, that by the Gulf of Florida, and of this to but one asa while of the nature of the tide wave which enters from the Caribbean Sea through the Straits between the western end of Cubs and the eastern end of Yucatan, we have no reliable information. Some of these causes render general speculation premature, and lie at the very threshold of attempts 7 trace out the great interference problems which present themse The progress of this ductaeaes has also shown that observa- tions of longer period are necessary in many cases to give data for conclusive results. This of itself is a great point gained and the practical results for the charts of this coast have themselves repaid all the labor whi een expended on the observation. Navigators vee - absolutely without information other than the most vague in regard to the tides of the Gulf. The hourly observations at each station being plotted in dia- a grams upon a suitable scale, the curves of observation Were = decomposed by the graphical method introduced by Mr. Pour- tales, into a diurnal and semi-diumal curve. It may be proper : to observe here that several comparisons have been made between this method and that which I had formerly used by the sine * Proceedings Amer. Assoc, A a Jour, Sci, and ee Jan. 1856, p. Pe Providence meeting, 1855, p. 152, and Am. “a of the Coast of the United States on the Gulf of Mexico. 8 curves and with generally coincident results. The graphical method besides being less laborious is free from the hypothesis of the sine curve. These decompositions were made chiefly by Messrs. Fendall and Heaton of the tidal party, and occasionally by Prof. Pendleton and Mr. S. Walker. That the diurnal wave is the principal feature, in these tides will appear from the annexed table (No. 1) which gives the TABLE 1. Height o Height of = Height of Stations. semi-diurnal| diurnal , observed tides. tides. | tides, ee 3 ae Cape Florida, ociice0ieck ses 16 02 15 Indian Key, 19 06 18 Rey Weil, So aie. 12 0-7 1-4 Tortugas, ° 10 10 12 Egmont Key, ..... ses eye 11 16 14 Cndnr Reyes it's scans i nt 24 25 St. Marks, 2°2 18 2-2 St. George’s Island, ......... 02 16 I Pensacola, . 02 11 ‘0 Fort Morgan (Mobile Bay), ... 02 11 ‘0 Cat Island, 03 13 3 South-West Pass, .......... 02 12 | =p Dernivee Isle 35 Kass. vi O-4 16 a Ca . 1:3 15 Vd Galveston, 05 pas | 6 | Aransas, ob 13 Bf | razos Santi 3 0's 09 names of the tidal stations; the average rise and fall of the TABLE 2. Tide stations on the Gulf of Mexico, the results of which are discussed in this paper. Kind ; 2 Stations, Date of Observation, 1 Cape Florida, Fla, April 22, to Oct. 81, 1854. 2/Indian Key, « iJ 3K 855./S. RK, |C. T. Thompson. }Box. G. Wiirdeman. <4 do. 11/Cat Island, La, | Dee. 29, 1847, to Feb, 13, 1849. 12 South W. Pass, La.|Nov. 19, 1852, to Mar. 28, 1853, i April 5, to June 12, 1853. _ * Self-registering tide gauge. 4 On Cotidal lines of Diurnal and Semi-diurnal Tides the period during which the tidal observations were made, and the names of the observers A diagram (No. 1) shows these results graphically. A curved line corresponding to the general outline of the shore cutting off its irregularities, is drawn on the chart of the Gulf Coast, and then developed into a straight line. Thus the tidal stations are plotted at their distances from each other, measured along the general line of the coast. For use by navigators any interme- diate stations may be marked in, in the same wa , and a rough ny aoe tie to the channster rot the eae $e obtained by the interpolation The least observed height is 0°9 feet at Brazos Santiago, and the greatest 2°5 feet at Cedar Keys. The least height of the average semi-diurnal tide is 0°16 feet at South West | pass, and the greatest 2-40 feet at Cedar Keys. The least height of the average diurnal eg at 21 feet at Cape Florida, and the greatest 1°80 feet at St. Mark’s. Of course these numbers are for rea- sons easily seen ni ip approximation As we enter the Gulf of Mexico by the Straits of Florida the height of the tide first increases, then decreases. Passing into the bight at the ge end of the Florida peninsula the rise is greatest. West of St. George’s it diminishes, to rise again in the bight formed by 8 Southern coast of Louisiana and the eastern coast of Texas In the decompositions here traced, and in the very laborious discussions tentative and final of the whole of the observations upon which this ‘pores is based, I would acknowledge the great assistance derived from the labors of Assissant L. F. Pourtales in charge of the tidal division of the Coast Survey. The unwearied assiduity of his own labors and his intelligent supervision of the work of others, has been felt at every step in the progress of oe investigations. They have required on his part great re- ources of ingenuity, patience and knowledge. In discussing semi-diurnal tides, the 1 lunitidal interval of high or low water varying only froma certain mean within moderate limits affords a cardinal datum (the establishment) for the times. In the diurnal tide this datum is wanting. The law of the change of the diurnal tide as expressed in the formula of Prof. Airy eee: coe ae Eneyc. Metrop., p. 254, Art. 46) is in general — but the ee flatness in the form of the curves at nee relations 0: moon’s right ascension and declina- tion, required by the aeetee does not occur, The general tidal intervals of high water. About the maximum of decli- — n for some four to ox days the lunitidal intervals are moderately cotta, and the average of these is what I me mae nama ae whet fe of the Coast of the United States on the Gulf of Mexico. 5 taken for a comparison of the lunitidal intervals to trace the tee of the diurnal wave. The variations from day to = i ing less than the probable irregularities in the times of hig ¥ water and the uncertainties in the observations; these means ; give suitable numbers for comparison. The result would not i, have been greatly different had only a few of the observations at either end of the declination period been thrown off, but after examination we found these numbers to present apparently the, best results. At four of the stations, namely, Key West, Fort Morgan, Cat Island, and Galveston, hourly observations were continued during a year and upwards, and the decompositions in all the cases but Cat Island embrace that period. The annual change of diurnal establishment is very clearly seen in all these cases and is shown in the diagram No. 8. The law of the change is beget de- veloped in the larger tides of the Western Coast and, as deduced from the San Francisco observations, is shown upon the same diagram. In all the cases the actual computed results for the different halfmonthly periods are represented by the broken lines on the diagram and the line representing the curve is drawn with a free hand among the points. The general resemblance of these curves with however different maximum ordinates, is very striking, showing that the law of the change is the same, only the coéfficients of the fractions varying. f n the diagram of the San Francisco results the curve derived So as to use the mean of the two periods of six months. At the other fourteen stations on the Gulf of Mexico the ob- servations were continued from one to three lunations, and fell in different parts of the year. To reduce these erefure to the | = same period of the year it is necessary to emplo: the data from the localities where the whole annual change was embraced. The | results are plotted on the several diagrams, those from the Brazos to South West Pass on the curve from Galveston, those from the South West Pass to St. George’s on the curve from Fort iy a e m the observed changes and in those deduced from, the other com- © parisons, at least there are no ter contradictions than those ese the result to the mean of the year are deduced and the annexed table shows the diurnal interval as deduced directly from the ob- wee = 6 On Cotidal lines of Diurnal and Semi-diurnal Tides servations and as corrected. It is satisfactory to see that the correction makes the results more conformable to law, a | therefore the probability that the correction is rightly applied an is approximately correct in magnitude. TABLE 3. mn ABN GESTNET SY AS CG S : - fee8¢ | s£_2| Long..2 3 nip ‘Long. g, Cartes, Corres. cx es Corr’ted * Stations. Lat. | Long.| in )~3 $% for for }35.2 | cot. time. - == 3 ! Getah: ‘transit. depth. here S2ee 526s ZA5s | of = Pe ae ee hm. m, 1\Cape Florida,.../25 4080 95 21/14|27 mace 27 '0 20 +0 18/19|19 2\{ndian Key,....|24 5280 445 23)17|00 2223 384 | 20 |~ 0 42/20/47 3\Key West, ..... 24 9781 535 28|18|32 24| a 37 | 19 0} ol23| 4 4|Tortugas, ...... 24 3482 595 32/18| 5 2337; 36] 10 |4+0\ 43/23/34 5| Egmont Key,...|27 3682 465 31/19/19 2450) 39 0/40) 1/23/52 6|Cedar Key,.....|28 5882 575 82/22/27 2759) 48 | 45 |— 0\ 57/25/34 St. Mark's 3 15 37/21|56 27/881 42] 22 +0 20/26/49 t George's isk d.j29 3585 125 41/19/41 2522; 42 | 25 |4+ 0| 37/24/52 535 1 1887 155 49/21|28 27/17} 42; 17 |+ 0) 22/26) 40 10| Fo Worgei, 30 988 05 52/21/21 27118} 42] 14] oO} 0/26/14 11\Cat Island, ..... 6 5 55/22/21 28/16) 43 1 21 |— 0/11/26] 1 12\South West Pass,/28 5689 225 57|/19/28 2525) 39! 21 |+u/ 59/25 |24 13) Derniére Isle,...}28 5890 586 4/19/19 23]; 38 24 i+ 1) 87 | 25 | 58 14|Caleasieu 9 4093 216 13119/22 25/35} 39| 17 |+1127/2 15| Bolivar Point,.../29 2394 466 19/21/40 27/59] 43] 12 /+ 1| 24| 28/28 16|Galveston, ..... 29 is a 416 19/22/29 28/48) 43] 30} 0) 0/27/35 V7] Aransas Pass, ..28 15,96 316 26|19/46 2612) 40 | 17 +0) 43] 26 0 18|Brazos Santiago |26 eon 10.6 29120191 26/501 41] 15 |— 1/39] 25|16 The first column of the annexed table No. 3 contains a num- ber for reference, the second, the name of the tidal station, the third, fourth, and fifth, the latitude and longitude, the latter in egrees and in time, the sixth, the lunitidal interval about the maximum of declination, the seventh, the sum of this last named number and the longitude i in time, the eighth, the correction to reduce the observations to the same transit, the ninth, the cor- rection for depth, carrying them by the law of depth to deep water, the tenth, ce correction to reduce the observed lunitidal interval at maximum to the se pin pe mean of the year, the pee the si cotidal table enables us nntinfactority to trace the diurnal wave from ips Florida to the Tortugas, across by the deep water of | the Gulf to South West Pass at “the entrance of the Mississip and from this line of deep water to the Western Coast of t peninsula of Florida by Egmont Key Reina Oot aon St Marks and St. seer . & % of the Coast of the United States on the Gulf of Mexico. 17 my former papers in the form given by Professor Lloyd. It is easy to obtain a general view of the movement of the diurnal wave in this way, but the selection of the groups required a te- , dious set of trials and the discussion of many groups which ap- } peared natural, proved very unsatisfactorily. The burthen of the a computation for this work has fallen upon Mr. John Downes. ‘l'able No. 4 shows the groups selected, with a letter attached for reference, the names of the stations constituting the groups, the mean latitude and longitude, and cotidal hour of the group, the values of the coefficients of each, the angle of the cotidal line with the meridian, the velocity of movement of the wave, and the same in miles per hour. TABLE 4. N MM? + NI 3 : fee | 5 $ 3 3Z ff. of cotidal| Angle | £2 3 ir: ES 3 = jhour for one geog. N| 3-328 = Stations. So = S — of : tang M + Se poll 3 3 3 sf 3 |Cotidal| ©ZES| 2 2 FI Fi & s angle. |: SmS| & : |e |e : 3 om [Bese = = = = =| 4 ASmS| = A Cape Florid fay Key, 0s: o: 0) oe wits ae Key Aen Some - 3 /- 1978|- 0509|-14 28] 2-052 | 292 ndian K ott ey Key West, t'g1 gale re 28|- 0'890|- 3240 74 38} 3360 | 178 Soda te Esmont Key, |'go soley 0124 10| 5-261) 1-6951-17 53] 5518 |109 | Cedar Keys, | | pf 7129 3125 45) 1:095| 2858/-65 5} 2-@00 | 227 organ, - 86 4930 1 F Cedar Key, St. Marks, St.) | eorge’s, Pensacola, Ft. Motgan: Cat. Isl wer gs 7,86 31/29 43.25 56) 0:048| 0-911\-86 58) 0-910 | 660 West Pass, G St.Georges, Pensacola, Ft } ee Morgan, Cat IsI'd, South ‘87 4129 49.25 50/-0275| 1-099) 75 59} 1197 | 531 West Pas ee } H South West Pass, Derniére | ole " | Asl'd, Caleasien, Galves- 693 4598 2826 3/- 0°241|+0°944) 63 19] 0974 | 61-6 bid s, Brazos. | | : On the character of these are I would remark as follows. E\St.G ; St, George, Pensacola, Ft. 25 55 0-055! 2645/-88 49] 2-645 | 22-7 probably real. The computed and observed cotidal hours differ at the greatest but one minute and a quarter. The next group C, gives a satisfactory idea of the movement of the wave passing round the Tortugas and up along the coast of the peninsula, over the extensive flat which borders it. The next group D, _ Cedar Keys, St. Marks, and St. George’s, presents a —. agree- ment between the computed and observed cotidal hours, and a direction and velocity agreeing with what might have been sup- , a3" 8 On Cotidal lines of Diurnal and Semi-diurnal Tides posed. The same is true for group E, St. George’s, Pensacola, and Fort Morgan. The more general group F, including the stations from Cedar Keys to South West Pass agrees in its indi- cations with those given by the partial groups, as does also G, including the stations from St. George’s to South West Pass. In passing westward and southward the direction of the line changes rapidly and no satisfactory adjustment by groups could be made. From Sout est Pass to Brazos Santiago the smaller stations. The mean cotidal line for each group and the hour before and after the mean hour are marked on the map, showing the direction and velocity of the diurnal wave as given by the groups. From a consideration of these and of their necessary connection the cotidal lines are approximately drawn. The great cotidal line of the Gulf as traced upon the chart is that of twenty ve hours. ; The cotidal lines of 19 to 23 hours only appear on the coast of the Florida Keys. The line of 24 hours is well marked near Egmont Key (Tampa). The line of 26 hours is at the head of the bight between St. George’s and Cedar Keys, and in that near Cat Island. The line of 27 hours appears only at the head of the bay formed by the coasts of Texas and Louisiana. The table No. 5 of semi-diurnal tides is in the same form as No. 3 for diurnal tides. It contains a number for reference, the name of the station, its latitude, the longitude in arc and in time, the establishment, the same in Greenwich time, the correction for transit and for depth, and the corrected cotidal hour. n tracing the semi-diurnal wave as it enters the Straits of Florida we find after a slight contradiction between Cape Florida and Indian Key, a general increase of the cotidal hour in the Tight direction to the Tortugas. The semi-diurnal wave here gives a difference of time between Cape Florida and the Tortuga: of but 14, 24m, while the diurnal wave gave 44, 03", The la ging of the diurnal wave which at Cape Florida was 14, 44, at us Key is 3h, 22m, at Key West 4%, 31™, and at the Tortugas | é j The semi-diurnal wave passes across the Gulf to the South West Pass as did the diurnal. The time of crossing by the semi-diurnal wave is, however, 1», 18m, while by the diurnal wave it was 15, 50m, ae ae ae of the Coast of the United States on the Gulf of Mexico. 9 TABLE 5. e : Est’blish-| Estab- Corr’ct- Sinton | hg, | oe cera cer, cowie | ee ae Seber’ elec: tide, time. (transit, depth. | hour. Aes pees 6 as a eae ea m. m. m 1 Cape Florida,....... 25 41/30 9) 5 21) 8 17) 13 88} -17 | -20/)13 1 2) Indian ae ae viewes 24 52/80 44) 5 23) 8 13 25| —16 | -15 | 12 54 4) Key Weal). o..:... 24 27)81 53) 5 28) 9 10] 14 88 “18 | 219 14 1 4 Tebtuplas PS Seed 24 34/82 59) 5°32) °° 9 22) 14 64) -19 | ~ 10 | 14 95 5 aaa i) se ee 27 36/82 46] 5 31} 11°26) 16 57] -23 | -9290 | 16 14 6 We manson 28 5t/82 57) 5 32! 13 8 41 | -26 | ~45 117 30 7 St. M alts ee Pe 30 O84 11/5 87) 18 87] 19 14 27 | —22 | 18 26 8 St. aha ae 29 35/85 121°5 41) 14 59] 20 40| -80 | - 25 119 45 ¥ Pensacola; so 6acs 30 15/87 15) 5 49) 10 58] 16 42) —22 | ~17 | 16 10 Fort Mo We ige ste 30 9188 0} 5 52) 11 9) 17 1) -22 14 | 16 25 11| Cat Island, ..... 1... 30 688 38] 6 55) 12 58/18 48| -26 | -81}17 1 12 South West Pass, 28 56/89 22) 6 57) 10 23) 16 20) -21 | ~21 | 15 88 13 Derniére Island, ..../28 53/90 58} 6 13 37} 19 41} -27 | -24/18 50 1 _ Valeasieu 29 40/93 21) 6 13} 14 56/21 9} -30)| -1 15. Bolivar Point, ...... he 25/94 46) 6 19) 16 47) 23 6) —384 | -12 | 22 20 16 peter ta Tae ox 558 9 18/94 41) 6 19 ee 17| Aransas Pass, ...... 28 15/96 31) 6 28} 14 30] 20 58| -29 | -17 | 19 12 18; Brass i Since -}26 6/97 10! 6 29) 14 45] 21 14]/.-29 | ~15 | 20 80| The lagging of the diurnal wave behind the semi-diurnal Phi at the Tortugas was 45, 23m, at the South West Pass is 45 49m, The mean computed depth of the portion of the Gulf traversed by the wave from the semi-diurnal wave is 1666 fathoms and from the diurnal 666 fathoms, for the mean result of the two 1000 fathoms. The actual depth has not been ascertained, but probably does not exceed 1000 fathoms. From this line of deep water the semi-diurnal wave reaches the stations on the western coast of the Florida peninsula in their order from south to north and west. The movement west of St. George’s appears to be in the order of Pensacola, Fort Morgan, and Cat Island, while for the diurnal wave it was Cat Island, Fort Morgan, and Pen- sacola. At Sauth West Pass there is a sudden increase of esta lishment as if another semi-diurnal wave brought the tide there; the mean establishment of the six stations west of South West ass is 20h already made in regard to the nee of two high waters in the curves for Isle Derniare and ti eee ee a system of aiurncl a yet. to be unravel he case with the signed by observation with some considerable io ai The pe aA No. Aahows the difference between the cotidal pos of the diurnal and semi-diurnal waves at the several statious, _ SECOND aces ® ‘VOL. XXIII, NO. 67.—JAN., 1857. 10 On Cotidal lines of Diurnal and Semi-diurnal Tides TABLE 6. Comparison of Establishments of semi-diurnal and diurnal tides, in the Gulf of Mexico. Ststions, Diff, between di- h. m. Florida, .. G "726 frilbask Key, 6:°-36 ey West, Oc" °29 4| Tortugas, es; 26 5| Egmont Key, 1 64 6| Cedar Keys, .. 8° 31 41 SG Marks, |. B89 8] St. George’ s Island, OS 9} Pensacola, JO" 87 0| Fort Morgan, . 70° **1¢ 1] Cat Island, e517 2] South West 10 4 3| Derniére Island, of ea 4) Calcasien, S963 15| Bolivar Point, een i i 16} Aransas Pass, 59 17 Brazos Santiago, 4 48 we come to fo llow these results into the discussion of the table of seas tole Sipe: 7) is arranged as for the diurnal tides, contain number for reference, the names of che: aticts wid their latitadle and longitude, the values of the coeflicients of each, the angle made by the cotidal line with the meridian, the movement of the wave perpendicular to the cotidal line en pgelaal by the number of minutes So in traversing a mile, and the number of miles per hour. TABLE 7 ® : s|M|N / Min = 3 é = |DiF of cotidal) Angle Za.9 | 2 = 3 3 hour fur one NI = Sig 3 Stations. = = = | grog. mile of| “8 yj 8 gree re 3 4 Hf * feGs & sit] ei) 2 | peamieees &, ae Se ee ee essse 3 Se Be Se AZies BF m, e A Ca ( Pi dan 30 55/25 0113 1¢ ‘ais 1-151] 37 14/* 1-902 | 315 B Inti Key, Key West. | 31 slo 33113 47|-0-5511-1-284|-66 49| 1401 | 428 C Egmont Key, Cedar Key, | "St. Mark’s, *{ |83 18/23 51/17 22] 0-049, 0-935/-87 0} 0-935 | 642 -|38 40\29 44|16 21|-1-260] 1-987] 56 16] 2-269 | 26-4 | Isle De! sy C casien, © 1 Boieue Putaes ; 2/29 20/20 3°|-1-245,-1'517| 59 36] 1-963 | 406 | F Sonth West Pass, Derniére ) gn Caleasiew, Bolt 99 7]28 9719 se|-1943, 1-489] 50 7} 1999 | 909] _ imper of the Coast of the United States on the Gulf of Mexico. 11 Groups A and B, composed of Cape Florida, Indian Key, and Key West, and of Indian Key, Key West and Tortugas, espe- cially the first, give plausible results and the computed establish- ments vary but 1°5 mins. at the greatest, from the observed. I have not been able to form any satisfactory connection between these groups and those on the western coast of the peninsula. The next group which gives a tolerable result is Egmont Key, Cedar Keys, and St. Marks. In this the direction of the cotidal line, the velocity and the establishments are satisfactory. ‘The establishment of St. George’s station is irregular and is very probably erroneous. The semi-diurnal wave is composed of two very small ones, and it has been necessary to reconcile the dis- crepancies which they presented, sometimes one being the govern- ing tide and sometimes the other. Group D, composed of Fort Morgan, Cat Island, and South West Pass is the next which gives a good result. E, com of Isle Derniére, Caleasieu and Bolivar Point, and F, of all the stations from South West Pass to Brazos Santiago except Aran- Sas, give good results as to direction and velocity. The computed establishments as in the case of the diurnal wave present considerable discrepancies from the observed. The least difference is 8™5 and the greatest 67™, 1ese groups are marked upon the chart No. 6 and the cotidal hour next before and after the mean cotidal hour of the groups. 0, and 21 occur in the same space, "between South West Pass and the Brazos Santiago in the semi-diurnal tide. T shall con- tinue to collect. observations bearing upon the facts discussd in this paper and to have them worked up, and so as to amend 12 On the Prediction Tables for the Tides of the U. S. Coast. are simultaneous observations at some of the stations which were formerly examined with but little satisfaction as to the conclu- sions; these will now be resumed and may raion! additional light upon the results at some of the doubtful station The interference problems will be taken up err) more ex- tended data give better ee of a satisfactory solution of them. Art. Il.—WNotes on the Progress made in the Coast Survey, in Pre- diction Tables for the Tides of the United States Coast; by A. D. BacuHeE, Superintendent U. S. Coast Survey. (Communicated to be American Association for the pole arma of Science, by — of the oe Department.) Coast Survey, were directed to their reduction, chiefly by the graphical methods pointed out.by Mr. Whewell. "This work was subsequently continued by Mr. eres method, by Mr. Henry Mitchell: and next the tides of Boston harbor were taken up as affording certain advantages in as “observations themselves, which could not be claimed for those of Old Poin ‘he system of Mr. Lubbock is founded on oe equilibrium theory, and in it the inequalities are sought by arranging the elements of the moon’s and sun’s motions, upon which they de- pend. Having obtained the co-efficient of the half monthly ine- quality of the semi-diurnal tide at Boston n, from seven years observations, through the labors of the tidal division, and approx- imate corrections for the parallax and declination, I was much disappointed in attempting the verification Bid ay applying the them to individual tides for a year during which bservations. There was a general agreement on the vara Ee discrepancies in the pagie cases, which were quite unsatisfactory. Nor were these pancies without law, as representing their residuals by curves did not fail toshow. By introducing corrections for declination and parallax of the moon increasing and decreasing, we reduced these discrepancies, but oe te results were nots cient approximations. With the numerical reductions of the observations before referred to, was i ouiiemans in 1853, under my immediate seee. by Mr. L. W. Meech, a study, of the theory of the tides chiefly to the works of Bernouilli, La Piace, Airy, Lubbock and Whewell. The immediate object ey oe On the Prediction Tables for the Tides of the U.S. Coast. 18 which I had in view was the application of the wave theory to the discussion of our observations. I thought that the mind of an expert mathematician, directed entirely to the theoretical por- tions of this work, with directions by a physicist, and full oppor- tunities of verifying results by extended series of observations, the computations of which should be made by others in any desired form, would give, probably, the best results in this com- bined physical and mathematical investigation. The general form of the different functions expressing the tidal inequalities is the same in the different theories, and may be said on the average to be satisfactory as to the laws of change which these inequalities present. Whether we adopt, with La Place, the idea that periodical forces produce periodical effects, or with Airy that the tidal wave arrives by two or more canals: or with Bernouilli and Lubbock, the results of an equilibrium spheroid, or with Whewell, make a series of inequalities, semi- hed general consideration of the co-ordinates in space of the moon and sun, without any special theory, would lead to the Same results, representing the lunitidal intervals by series of Sines and co-sines, with indeterminate co-efficients. ; Calling J the luni-tidal interval from observation, 2 the mean luni-tidal interval, H the clock time of observation, /’¢ the moon’s longitude, P’ the moon's parallax, 0 P’ the hourly variation of the moon’s parallax, we have for the formula representing the correction for half monthly inequality, s sin 2H+s, cos 2H; for the moon's parallax correction, p (P’—57') +p, (P’—57’) sin 2H +P, (P'—57') cos 2H ; for the correction for hourly difference of the moon’s parallax, 7, (0@P) +p, (OP) sn2H+p, (8 cos 2H, and for the moon’s declination corrections including the rate of change d sin 2lt+d, cos 2U't+q, sin 21t sin2 H+¢q, sin 2 l'tcos2 H+q, cos 20't sin 2H+q, cos 2Utcos2H. There are corresponding terms for the inequalities produced by the sun’s action. The whole formula takes the form: I=1+5 sin 2H+s, cos 2H (ofaoqualicy conection, P(P'-57') +p, (P’—51')sin 2 +p, (P'—57') cos 2 Ht Moors meri P, OP)+ p, (0 P’) sin 2A+P, (8 P’) 008 2 eee rection Tsin2Vt4+9. singl’tsin2 H+q, sin 2 l’t cos 2H. Moon’s declination oa ; 1 2 : ao aga — dy cos2 Ut+q, cos 21't sin 2H+9, 00s 2 U't cos 2 Hf. Tr 14 On the Prediction Tables for the Tides of the U. S. Coast. ee es he : + ¢, cos ltsin 2. H+ t, cos lt cos 2H Baty perniinn, oprenettae, +@, sin 2ltsin2 H+ Q, sin 2/t cos 2H Son's dqctingsien coves +, cos2ltsin2 H+, cos 2ltcos2 H The grouping of the observations of one year at Boston, to apply this method, the formation of the equations and their solu- tion by the met od of indirect elimination has been the work of Mr. R. S. Avery, who has labored most assiduously and success- fully, ingeniously checking his work where the system of checks could be a pplied, at every step. He has determined the values of ) and of ee co-efficients for Boston, as follows :— A=438-:47, d=—3'17, d,=—35'62, p=—093, p,=—1°56 s=— 19°49, s+ 11-97, pp=+ 131, py=—V21, pa=+7-23 Ps=+060, 1,.= =-T11, g=+ 181, 7s= +291, ¢=—1-99 ‘37 Q@,=-2) 25, Becace 39, Q5=+2710, Q,=+23'13 There are propositions for facilitating this work, growing out of the experience acquired in the computations, but requiring more examination than they have yet received before pronounc- ing upon them. It is possible that by applyi ing Lubbock’s method of averages to some of the terms, approximate values pale ze found more readily than by the method we have employed. additional terms for the sun’s declination, D sin 2 lt, and D, cos 2 1, will be int I present to the Association the tables computed by Mr. Avery for applying this method to the prediction of the tides at Boston harbor. In order to test the co-efficients, igs i were made for different parts of the months of the year 1853, for which we have observations. Transit C was Ls as the transit of refer- ence. The differences between the predicted and observed results are shown in the annexed table, the* first column of which con- tains the dates, the second the computed, the third iis observed, and the fourth the observed lass the computed resul From the table it appears that in twenty pairs “of tides, the morning and afternoon results being grouped in the fifth column to get rid of the diurnal inequality, there are two differences of less than 2™, thirteen of more than 2™ and less than 4, three of more than 4™ and less than 10™, two of more than 10™. The probable error of, the Sen ang of a single pair of tides is 412. laborious researches are still in_ progress, but I have thought that. he ‘Noahs sisendy obtained, required 2 epotics of them, and a recognition of the labors of rey ee and Avery. On the Prediction Tables for the Tides of the U.S, Coast. 15 . Comparison of observed and predicted times of high water, Boston, Mass, ick’ ie Time of high water. Tae Fs ad Predicted. | Observed. M. M. P m, h, m Bs le 8 8 47 8 3 —17 ‘ - - - 21] 20 329 20 32 + 09 — 1S q : Ses a RET 280 11 21 - 70 ‘ Pager shes Sgt BB 49-8 23 48 —18 —4:4 . aise! ta S 2 21-7 2 20 —17 nc ss. = WO) Tf) SOs 14 | 42 — 33 — 25 April ee ee ee 16°9 6 | 21 4 af © if Ae 8 515 18 59 5 58 : Pros elt thao 19°8 10 18 —18 taut ee. SL 402 22 36 - 42 — 30 June wr iGe. 3 EO 184 | 11 18 -04 : ae ee ke 44-7 23 4 43 2-0 : + ie a > GE 2 845 2 39 4 ‘ see 4s 96. Ae 2:3 15 3 0-7 26 % ee eer: we 57-7 6 " 3 - = + 99} 18 243 18 37 12-7 11-0 July een fe oe 9 | 831 3 4 oF ee ae Oe 522 21 53 08 2-2 - - ea i ol 0 3 2 ane eee SER EG 10°38 12 12 17 23 September cael gd 4B 4 7 2 ec a.) o1 » 7264.16 24°8 16 24 ; i Ray eee . 39°7 4 ¢ | he ee 0 116 20 | ete so a hei BAS BESTA fe % hike ike = + a Be 311 23 30 a Soe ae ] er 44°7 1 * eT ee 71 14 7 ‘ Piee IDEs 24°5 5 19 oie lie IO 57:8 17 58 December =. gi] 3 | 72 | 8 | °9 ee ig eee ee 28-4 15 30 “s He Ok aS 32°6 6 31 ss Gms) soap a: JD O71 18 52 ‘ A tae eee 0 22-4 10 26 J ss Se eT ee 533 22 42 PY ee BOE bP Ao Se 1 2 s Bie Fao ea 3e 560 13 41 S Sard ees Mek ll 45°8 4 53 SM Sa i i 339 17 30 Final m Probable ¢ atl minutes, 4 ee s. is > 412 Number of differences 2 minutes N umber of sent in ana a an & “ a : 2: aD “ s - Hint 16 Observations on the increase of Sandy Hook. Art. III.— Observations to determine the cause of the increase of Sandy Hook, made by the Coast Survey for the Commissioners on Harbor encroachments of New York ; by Prof. A. D. BacHE, Sup. U.S. Coast Survey.—(Abstract.) It is known as one of the developments of the Coast Survey that the peninsula of Sandy Hook is gradually increasing, grow- ing to the northward into the main ship channel. A spot north ot the Hook where there was-forty feet of water when Captain Gedney made his survey, in less than ten years was nearly bare at low water. The importance of determining the cause of this increase, as leading to the means of controlling it, cannot be over- estimated. The Commissioners on Harbor Encroachments had early attended to this matter, and requested that the necessary observations for its investigation should be made. These were made under my immediate direction, by Henry Mitchell, one of the sub-assistants in the Coast Survey, with all desirable zeal and ability. Various causes had been assigned for this growth, by the action of the waves and winds sometimes on the outer side and sometimes on the inside of the Hook. The effect of the opening and closing of Shrewsbury Inlet had also been insisted n. ‘To examine these and other probable causes, laborious observations of tides and currents had been made in the vicinity at stations marked upon the map presented to the Association. Careful measurements of the low water line had also been made them are perfectly safe, and are of the highest importance. turns out that this growth of the Hook is not an accidental phenom- ena, but goes on regularly, and according to determinable laws. The amount of increase depends upon variable causes, but the general fact is, that it increases year by year; and the cause of this is a remarkable northwardly current, the amount and dura- tion of which these observations assign along both shores of the Hook, the outer one extending across the whole breadth of False Hook channel with varying velocity, and the one inside of the Hook extending nearly one-third of the distance across oy Hook ie _ These currents run to the north during both the ebb - and flood tide, with varying rates, and result from these tides On the Progress of the Tidal Wave of the Hudson River 17 directly and indirectly. The inner current is the one by which the flood and ebb tides draw, by the lateral communication of. motion, the water from Sandy Hook bay, and the outer is simi- larly related to those tides as they pass False Hook channel. The velocities and directions which have been found, prove this con- clusively. An important observation for navigation results from this, for more than seven hours out of the twelve there is a north- wardly current running through False Hook channel, which assists vessels entering New York harbor on the ebb tide, and is to be avoided in passing out with the ebb. This northwardly current runs on the inside for eleven hours out of the twelve. It is the conflict of these two northwardly currents outside and inside, and the deposit of the materials which they carry to the point of the Hook, which causes its growth. ithin a century, it has increased a mile and a quarter, and at about the rate of one- sixteenth of a mile a year, on the average, for the last twelve years. Flynn’s knoll, on the north side of the main ship channel, does not give way as the point of the Hook advances. The im- portance of watching this movement cannot, therefore, be over- Stated. The mode of controlling the growth is obvious from the results obtained. The observations are still continued to obtain the necessary numerical results. the Commissioners on Harbor Encroachments ; by A. D. Bacug, Supt. U.S. Coast Survey.—(A bstract.) Provements projected for the Hudson river at the Overslaugh, and indeed in the whole distance from Troy to. New Baltimore. Nine tidal stations were in the course of occupation between Gov- €rnor’s Island, New York, and Greenbush, opposite Albany. At the two terminal stations Saxton’s self-registering guages were 18 On the Action of the Barometer in a Hurricane, etc. Art. V.—On the Characteristic Action of the Barometer during the passage of a Revolving Storm, such as a Hurricane or Tornado, being a small rise wad not agreat fall; by JoHN CHAPPELL- SMITH. I wisH to Keni attention to some facts which afford evidence theories ; that, on the contrary, the Sees on the barometer of hur- ricanes and tornadoes, or of all storms accompanied with electric explosions, is a rise when the axis or centre of the storm passes near it. Some of the facts which lead to this conclusion will be found in the Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, in an arti- cle by me on a tornado near New Harmony, Indiana, April 30, 1852. In that article, the bearing of these facts on the subject was not pointed out, because I was not then impressed with their full force; my object was chiefly to point out facts directly opposed to the rotary or cyclonic theory of storms, so far as the proof of that theory depends on the direction in which bodies are pros- trated by the progress of a storm. After a careful examination of all that had appeared in this journal in support of Mr. Red- field’s views by himself and others, I could not resist the conclu- sion that the a Xd collecting and presenting the facts by the pares who hai orm phenomena was inconclu- sive; to pass over ray field of ibs wreck of a tornado, select a tree here and a tree there, ne them on a diagram, then assert that these were sufficient proofs of the rotary or cyclonic the- ory of storms is not enough. A much more Juborious examina- tion than this appeared to me to be necessary to attain just views. A tract of a square mile, at least, required to be plotted, with the magnetic bearings and relative distances of the prostrated bodies. This labor I performed, and AG in the contribution referred to, a plot of a square mile, on which is shown the magnetic bearing ‘and relative distances of aay 7000 trees which had been pros- trated by the tornado in little more than a minute. Sections made an a like manner across the track, at 2 and at 8 miles distance, ere also given, which show a uniformity i in the mode of action of the ne power; the whole furnishing, as I think, a complete refutation of Mr. Redfield’s theory, so ‘far as he has at- tetapted to establish it by evidences of this kind. . But my object in this paper is not to dilate on what has been done in that contribution, but to point out the bearing of, the _barometrical facts, contained reg upon Mr. Redfield’s theo facts which pres veg the | ae barometer, which ae y exists at the tim Baa a tornado or hurricane, aused by the ra) = dependent on some oa pee Ate yea pis Pe ae ae - On the Action of the Barometer in a Hurricane, ete. 19 The facts to which I principally refer are set forth in the follow: ing diagram. Here it will be perceived that from the morning April 27th. 28th, 29th. 30th. May Ist. 9 3 ¢ — ss PME 50 mS 10 \ 29-00 Diagram representing the barometric fluctuations on the day of the tornado, and on the three preceeding days at New Harmony, Indiana. The horizontal lines are equal to fluctuations amounting to to of an inch. The Vertical lines represent the height of the barometer at the time of sunrise; 9 a. Mm. and 9 P.M. on each day ; the darker li I ting tl ise ob ti A represents the fluctuation of the barometer between the bours of 3 and 6 P. M., on the 30th of April, at which hours the atmosphere was calm and clear; but be- ween which the tornado came up, committed its ravages and passed on. ous to the coming inch in the 20 On the Action of the Barometer in a Hurricane, ete. give strong grounds for concluding that the condition of low barometer, which often exists at the time of the passage of a whirlwind or tornado, is not caused by these meteors; does not the low barometer appear to be due to some other cause, and to be only a contingent, and not, as storm theorists have assumed, stratum consists of a constant occurrence and progression of ey- clones from the equator in various degrees of activity; he de- fines a cyclone to be a moving disk or stratum of rotating atmo- sphere, which sometimes manifests itself by light and feeble, and sometimes by strong and violent, winds; the more inert and pas- sive cyclones, he says, constantly occupy in their transit the rtion of the earth’s surface, and move in orbits corres- ponding to the more active cyclones traced on his storm charts; and that the effect on the barometer of any cyclone is propor- tionate to the general activity of the rotation considere whole. In another place he describes the effect as depressing the barometer, and says that the intensity of the depression rap- idly increases as the axial area of the whirlwind approaches; that this axial area is the point of greatest depression, and that the latter is obviously due to the centrifugal force of the revoly- ing motion in the body of the storm. Now bearing these views of Mr. Redfield in mind, let us con- sider them in connection with the fall of the barometer repre- sented in the diagram above. The fall, which commenced at upwards of 4000 miles, supposing that it moved uniformly with the velocity with which it was known to move over 300 miles of the track, viz., 60 miles per hour; but suppose that its aver- age velocity was 30 miles per hour, this would make the distance of the axial area upwards of 2000 miles, a distance so great, that Mr. Redfield would allow, that it would be preposterous to sup- pose that the fall of the barometer on the morning of the 27th could be caused by the advance of a storm whose axial area at that time was at that distance. eae, On the Action of the Barometer in a Hurricane, etc. 21 I will now give some facts which appear to prove that the tor- nado of the 30th did not exercise any influence at New Harmon ' up to one and a half hours of its axial area reaching there. From a slight account of the barometric condition which existed over the United Sates at about the time of the occurrence of the tor- nado at New Harmony, for which account I acknowledge my ob- ligations to Professor Henry of the Smithsonian Institution, it v appears that in all the States in the basin of the Ohio, including Says is produced by the increasing rapidity of the leftwise rota- al area. Instead of the br navi d to those which T have recited, but who, apparently influenced by @ Popular belief, have failed to notice their significant bearing on the question idea of their origin, He says that the cyclones originate in the ‘topics, and a0 tainly the pesalt of the mechanical gravitatior atmosphere as connected with the rotative and orbital 22 On the Action of the Barometer in a Hurricane, etc. movements of the earth’s surface; he says that their earliest ac- tivity and violence may be explained by 2 — of local cur- rents; that opposite winds may coalesce in a vast gyration, in- stead of following ae usual stratiform course magi interfer- ence with each other: and that when once the fall of the barom- eter and the involute vortical movement has been established, the extraneous and tangential forces of Ales cue winds is not necessary to continue the action; for the law of centrifugal action must produce an accumulation of pressure beyond the active verge of the whirlwind, and the pressure of the external atmos- phere alone, around the basin of the storm, constantly keeps up the involute vertical movement, and is sufficient to maintain the existing vortical action. those who entertain this idea, to view it in connec- tion with the conditions that existed in the valley of the Ohio on the afternoon of ae 80th, particularly in the vicinity of New atic Granting that the circumstances described by Mr. Redfield did pacar a cyclone or rotary storm, is the cause he has assigned, consisting of the mere mechanical force of ——— sufficient to impel a rotating disk of atmosphere of some 30 mi in diameter, as in the tornado in question, many hundreds of miles, which disk had carried with it, and still maintained, as it entered the valley of the Ohio, a power that could prostrate thousands of trees on successive miles in successive eer which swept off houses, and carried cattle up far in the To me the thing is inconceivable, the cause is not. adeyuate to the effects ; and it e more inconceivable when it is known that, in this, as in ae ance of the kind, the destructive action was tniermitient, that some parts of the track were passed over without destruction, and that in others it was exerted with vari- ous degrees of violence. This spasmodic action is not in accord- ance with the inherent mechanical force ascribed to the cyclone; and some other cause is requisite for the production of these ef- fects of this now retarded, and now accelerated, mechanical {ope But Mr. Redfield says that it is not requisite ; ‘extraneous aid, he says, is not necessary to keep up the vortical action, for when once the fall of the barometer and the involute vortical motion has been established, the law of centrifugal action must produce an accumulation of pressure beyond the active verge of the whirl- wind, and this ure alone, around the basin of the storm must keep up the involute v ortical action. But, as experience shows in the New Harmony tornado, in opposition to Mr. Red- field’s theory, there was not any diminution of pressure near writer ere mistaken the views of Mr. Redfield, who makes the move- sok of the eyclone over the earth’s surface in no sense a consequence of the rota- tion: an shown arte jon is a necessary when the axis of the cyclone ito vera Ee secon ~ On the Spirality of Whirlwinds. 23 the axial area of the storm, and there was not any accumulation beyond its active verge, as ave shown in describing the condition of the surrounding area of 400 miles in diameter through which the tornado progressed. Of course the same objections apply to Mr. Espy’s theory: he admits that a tornado may very greatly depress the barometer ; and “if it should depress it more than 3 inches” then, he says, that something more is necessary than is provided for in his the- ory,—*‘‘ perhaps electricity.” Itis not a little remarkable that when Mr. Espy presented his storm views to the British Associ- ation, Sir John Herschel observed, that if an ascensional column be the cause of storms, the barometer ought to rise in the centre of the storm or column ; a fact which the observation of what actu- ally occurs during the passage of a tornado has now verified ; for whether the storm progress in the form of an ascensional column, or of a cyclone, the facts I have advanced. prove that the barometer does rise tin its centre. ART, VI—On the Spirality of Motion in Whirlwinds and Tor- nadoes ; by W. C. REDFIELD. Read before the American Association at Albany, Aug. 26, 1856. aggregated spiral movement, around a smaller axial 1. An : constitutes the essential portion of whirlwinds and torna- - does, i I Ward portion of the whirlwind the tendency of this movement * obliquely downwards, when the axis is vertical ; but in the in- ; descending m t, ina metric whirlwind, is that of an involuted or closing apieat’ while the course of the interior ascending movement of rotation is that of an evolved or opening Spiral. Hence, the horizontal areasof the higher portions of the whirl exceed greatly those of its lower portions. 4. The area of the ascending spiral movement in the vortex, 88 it leaves the earth’s surface, is by far the portion of 3. Owin p f apr oaching the earth’s surface, the normal course of the gradu- a4 £ ig a hak Pins if ee ag Ee 24 + On the Spirality of Whirlwinds. the whirling body ; for the reason that the rotation here is pro- portionally 1 more active and intense, being impelled by the ag- gregated pressure and momentum of the more outward portion of the whirlwind as it converges from its larger area, on all sides, by increasingly rapid motion, into the smaller area of ascending rotation.* ‘That this interior ae of the wis resembles an we Accessions caused by cireumjacent contact and pressure are constintly accruing to the whirling body, so long as its rotative energy is maintained. A correlative diffusion from its ascending portion must necessarily take place, towards its upper horizon ; and this is often manifested by the great extent or accum ulation of cloud which results in this manner from the action of the tor- nado. In other words, there is a constant Seas from the whitling body in the direction of least resistance. SY he spirality of the rotation and its ca to the hori- zon, in the great portion of the whirl which is wig sa its as- cending area, is not ordinarily subject to direct observation. Nor is the. outline or body of the more outward portion of vem aie wind = all visible, otherwise than in its effects. eous vortices the axial spiralities of the aap oar and pat portions are in reverse direction to those in the a phere, the descending spiral being nearest to the axis of ne vor- tex. Hence, lighter “bodies and even bubbles of air are often forced downward i in the water, in the manner in which heavier bodies are forced upwards in the atmosphere e foregoing is simply a statement of rebate eter I have derived from a long course of observation and in It does not include the partial and imperfect exhibitions ‘of whirlwind action, which often occur; nor the various movements and phe- nomena which are collaterally associated with tornadoes and whirlwinds, some of which are of much significance. * The law of i increment in {be eYalocity of the lap hese ¥ it gradually con- bodies when d tated fe a graduall wn or ed nearer and nearer, in their involute course ;—the line of focal or centripetal e, thus sweeping egual areas in times, at whatever diminu- tion of distance freak i center ; except as the aes yey be effected in degree by resistan er bodies. uch resistance is 0 e effect i ina tornado, Mechanical Theory of Heat to the Steam Engine. — 25 Art. VII—On the Application of the Mechanical Theory of Heat to the Steam Engine; by R. CLaustus. [Concluded from vol. xxii, p, 374.] 39. I believe that it will not be without interest, if before I at- tempt to make these equations more convenient for application, Ishow how we may-also, for an imperfect. steam engine, arrive at the same expressions by the inverse method formerly pointed out as by that previously followed. In order, however, not to be too prolix in this digression, I will take into consideration only two of the imperfections which are considered in the fore- going equations, namely, the presence of the injurious space, and the less pressure of the steam in the cylinder than in the boiler during the influx. On the other hand I will assume that the expansion is complete, in which case we must put 7,=7', and that also the quantities T,, T’, and 7”, are equal to each other. ¢ have to apply in this determination the equation (2), which we will here write in the following form: 710 T »_ 1 Ly | W=3(@-7, Bes ae! The first term on the right side signifies the work which we should obtain by means of the applied quantity of heat Q,, which °F our case is represented by m, r,+4€c(7,—T,), if these im- Perfections did not take place. This term is already calculated in $23 where the following expression was found: 1 Mi amir tie (7, ~L,)=T, (Aye Mc log 7)| =e Second term signifies the loss of work which is occasioned by these two imperfections. The quantity NV which occurs 1n it, th also already calculated, namely, in § 36, and is represented by © €xpression cited in equation (38). : : We substitute these two expressions in the foregoing equa- ave tion, We h l Zr (44) W=A|m Re = Mat o4+Me(T ,- o- (AM u)eT log For | 1 We easily see that this equation corresponds in fact with equa- tions (XIV) if we introduce into the first of them the mass m, for the mass m,, which may be done by means of the third “qnation, and by then putting 7,=7,=T',=7",. In the same manner we can take into account the loss of work Which arises from the incomplete expansion, by calculating the “compensated transformation which occurs during the passage SECOND SERIES, VOL. XXIII, NO. 67.—JAN., 1857, 4 26 R. Clausius on the Application of the of the steam from the cylinder into the condenser and include this in VN. By this calculation, which I will not here actually execute, we arrive completely at the expression given in (XIV) for the work. 40. In order now to be able to apply the equations (XIV) to a numerical calculation, it is first necessary to determine more nearly the quantities p’,, p’, and p”,. ; No generally valid law can be established as to the manner 1n which the pressure changes in the cylinder during the influx, because the opening and closing of the steam pipe takes place in different machines in different ways. a _ If, however, we do not restrict ourselves to bring into calcula- tion precisely the end of the time necessary for closing, as the moment of the cut-off, but allow some liberty in fixing this mo- We may therefore accept this modification of Pambour’s assump- tion that p’,=p,, whereby, however, it remains reserved for es- pecial consideration for each particular case, to determine cor- rectly the period of the cut-off, with reference to the prevailing © circumstances of the case. 41. With respect to the counter pressure p’, which takes place during the return of the piston, the difference p’,—p, is evi- dently smaller under otherwise equal circumstances, the smaller p, is. It will therefore be smaller in machines with condensers than in machines without condensers in which p, is equal to one atmosphere. In the most important machines without condens- ers, the locomotives, a particular circumstance u occurs Mechanical Theory of Heat to the Steam Engine. 27 which contributes to increase the difference, namely: that we do not offer to the steam the shortest and widest possible channel for its passage into the atmosphere, but conduct it into the chim- ney, and there let it flow out through a somewhat narrow tube in order to produce in this way an artificial draught. In this case an accurate determination of the difference is im- portant for the reliability of the result. We must also consider in a term affected by the factor ¢, and therefore exerts a very slight influence on the value of the work, we may without fear put ior p, the value which is most probable for p’,. he pressure which takes place in the injurious space p”, de- pends as already mentioned upon whether the cutting off from the condenser takes place before or after the end of the motion of the piston, and may therefore vary greatly. But this pres- sure also, and the quantities which depend upon it, occur in equay fons (xtv) only in such terms as are affected with small factors namely, with « and w, so that we may satisfy ourselves with an 4pproximate estimate and omit an accurate determination of this Pressure, In such cases, where no particular circumstances lead these quantities. This value may then simply be denoted by p,; oy the introduction of these simplifications, equations (XIV) pass W=* Emr —Mm,r 4+ Me(T,-Ts) + #07. -"¢(T,- 7) ] A 1, Mee : : + m,%3(P3-Po) (xv). Mor =m 7, +Me(T,-To) +o? o—C( T2-T 9) + Allg" o( Pa —Py) : + AMo(p,-p2). Mae _Mo"s | yt u)elog 22. T, = 7, + +e)elog 7 28 R. Clausius on the Application of the 42. It is assumed in these equations that beside the masses ¥, and m,, of which the first two must be known by direct observation, and the last two can be determined approximately from the magnitude of the injurious space, the four pressures Pir Pos Pas Pos or What is the same, the four temperatures Pi T,, T,, T,, are given. This condition 4 is however only partially fulfilled for the cases which occur in practice, and we must therefore take other data to assist us in the calculation. Only two of these four pressure-forces are to be supposed as known, namely p, and p,, the first of which is given immedi- ately by the boiler pressure-guage, and the last may be inferred, at ideas approximately, from the sadioxtions of the condenser- guage. ‘lhe two others, p, an , are not given, but instead of them we know the dimensions of the cylinder, and at what ition of the piston the cut-off from the boiler takes place. Goon this we may deduce the volumes which the steam in the cylinder takes up at the moment of the cut-off and at the end of the expansion, and these two volumes oor therefore take the place, as data, of the pressure-forces p, >, e have now to bring the e ectionne! into such a form that we on execute the calculation by means of these data. ; et us again denote, as in setting forth Pambour’s theory, the whole space which becom es free in the cylinder during one stroke, Pon ey the injurious space, by v’, the space which be- comes free up to the cutting-off from the boiler, by cv’, and the peanrichy sai by ev’. Then we have, according to what has y been naif the equations ma © ‘at (M+u)o = ev" mata t(ItH) 0 oMotee= ew: The quantities wif’ o are both so small that we may neglect their product, so that we have My Uy —ev’ —Mo (45) mt. — ‘a hoa Furthermore, according to equation (v1) we have Tug, if we omens the letter g for the differential co-efficient 77, sf tions by wu, and u,. on the sgilies m, and m, occur only in the products Ms, u. ea m, u,, and for for these us may stake Be il ila aia ee ees ees Mechanical Theory of Heat to the Steam Engine. 29 which contain # as a factor are, in an event, very insignificant, we may substitute without hesitation also for « the same value which is found for «, that is, for the purpose of numerical caleu- lation, we may drop the assumption made for the sake of gene- rality, that the mass which was originally in the injurious space was partly fluid and partly vapor, and consider the mass in ques- tion as wholly in the form of vapor. The substitution just signified may be effected in the general equations (XIV) as well as in the simplified equations (xv). As the substitution however presents no difficulties, we will here confine ourselves to the last, in order to obtain the equations at once in a form which is suited to numerical computation. fter this change they read as follows: mm. pa T.-C T wes W'= at —(v'—-Mo)( 7 9,—P3+-Py) +80! Bad ei 0 +P2Po) 0 pores —P2) t , ev'\c 44. Tn order to refer these equations, which determine the work of one stroke or of the quantity of steam M,, finally to the unit of r m,r,+Me(T,-T.),__,f?o-(T2-T 4) (xvi) (¢0'-Mo) 7, g.—= at a i al ben' ("2 a 0 aoe v 3 m m, my The equations now become a r,—¢(T,-T,) wantatl Tits) -(V-10)(7,95-Ps+Po)+* prot ‘ a ass (xvn); (eV-Io) 7, eciiee of 7s), v(t ae ot py, -Po) +1o(p,-p2) : eV\e se (V—10)9,=(eV—l0)9,+(I+ aay log T,” 45. The applicati uations to the calculation of the work ma é poe th tied manner. We determine the volume ; which belongs to the unit of weight of steam, by Means of the evaporating power supposed to be known, and of the rate of motion ohice the machine thereby assumes. With the help of this value, we calculate in the first place from the 30 R. Clausius on the Application of the second equation the temperature 7',, then from the third the tem- perature 7’,, and these we eT apply in the first equation to the determination of the work, In this process we m ay however, a ag we oe In or- 3 fro venient for the present purpose, and if not for all temperatures, at least within certain intervals, sufficiently accurate. I wi however, here make such attempts, but instead of them will di- rect attention to another rocess in which iy calculation, it is I ought age ‘for thie peuee to have differentiated the formulas whic ult has used to calculate the single values of p below and anaes 100° ‘cording to t, and by means of the new formulas thus obtained to have calculated g. As however these formulas do not answer their purpose so completely as to make this tedious labor worth while, and as the establishment Piss joe ts with sufficient accuracy ne value of the differential coefficient for the mean temperature 147. Mechanical Theory of Heat to the Steam Engine. 31 For this purpose I have used above 100° the numbers cited by Regnault* himself. Moritz} has recently directed attention to the fact, with reference to the values under 100°, that the formula which Regnault has applied between 0° and 100° is somewhat inaccurate, particularly m the neighborhood of 100°, in conse- quence of the use of seven-figure logarithms in calculating the constants. Moritz has therefore calculated these constants with ten-figure logarithms, assuming the same values from observ- ation, and has communicated the values of p deduced from a I have collected the values of g and 7’ g, thus found in a ta- ble communicated at the end of this memoir. For the sake of completeness I have added the values of p belonging to, them, those of Regnault above 100°, those calculated by Moritz below 100°. In each of these three series of numbers, the differences of every two successive numbers are given, so that we may fin from this table, for every given temperature, the values of those three quantities, and conversely, for every given value of one of those three quantities, the corresponding temperature. After what has already been said as to the calculation of g, I scarcely need to add that I do not consider the numbers of this e always rest upon rather uncertain data, we may apply for this Purpose these numbers without hesitation, without phen 9 fear that the uncertainty of the result will be thereby sensibly increased, ; g are expressed in kilograms upon a square meter; in the tu- bles, on the contrary, the same unit of pressure is retained to which contain neither p norg as a factor by the number 13°596. I will, for the sake of brevity, denote this number, which is at of water at its maximum density, by &. ; This modi fication of the formulas produces almost no increase of calculation, inasmuch as it consists in substituting in every * Mém. de l’Acad. des Sciences, T. xxi, p. 625. = + Bulleti ico-mathematique de l’Acad. de St. Petersburg, T. xii, ms tin de la Classe physico-ma\ tique | 32 R. Clausius on the Application of the place, instead of the constant factor, which has according to Joule the value already cited, 423°5 5, the other constant. 423° 1 55 —— gmat 152 (46) Ak 13596 bes : Ween ar and besides, in place of the work W, the quantity >- 1s first found, which must then be multiplied by & 47. Let us now return to equations (xvit) and first consider the second of them. “his equation may be written in the following form: (47) T,93=C+4(t,—t,)—3(p,— in which the quantities C, a, and b are independent of ¢,, namely, [oat ater (24 aie =") +p,~Po)| eV any 4 A) ” —~ Ak(e V—1o) anh A Beet hg ~ eV—la Of the three terms on the right side of (47) the first prepon- derates by far, and hence it becomes possible to determine the prone Y’, g,, and thereby at the same time the temperature t, by successive approximation. “In order to obtain the first approximate value of the product which we may call 7"g’, substitute on the right side ¢, in the place of ¢,, and in like manner p, in place of ; p,, then we have (48) a a he temperature ¢’ belonging to this caine of the product is to be looked for in the table. In order to obtain the second approx- imate value of the product, put the value ¢ just found and the corresponding value p’ of the pressure on the right side of G7), for p, and ¢,, whereby we obtain, taking the previous equatio into consideration, (482) Tg! =T'¢ +a(t,-—t)- —b(p,—p’). The temperature belonging to this value of the product ¢” may be determined as before from the table. If this do not uaa vu ifs temperature ¢, with sufficient accuracy, repeat the me process. Substitute on the a side of ait 82 i and ei ua plies of ¢, and p,, by which w obtain, taki oe a abe equations into consideration, (48, ) Tg" = "9! +a(t—t")—8(p,—P" and can find the new value of the temperature ¢”” in the table. Mechanical Theory of Heat to the Steam Engine. 33 _. In this manner we might continue as long as we please; but the third approximate value differs only by the ;3; of a degree, and the fourth by less than the +5; of a degree, from the true value of the temperature ¢,. pay © 48. The treatment of the third of the equations xvuz is quite similar. If we divide this by V—Io, and for the'sake of more easy calculation introduce Briggs’s logarithms, which may be de- noted by the symbol Log., in place of the natural logarithms de- noted by the symbol log., in which case it is only necessary to add the modulus M of this system as a divisor, the equation 7. (49) - 9,= C+alog 7, 3 in which (’ and a have the following values independent of 7’. o—* V—lo = Puls 9? (49a) eV ) e(? a . “=. Ak(V—Ie) Tn equation (49) the first term on the right side is again prepon- derant, so that we may apply the process of successive approx- mation. If we substitute in the first place 7, in the place of T;, we obtain as a first approximate value of g,: ; (0) g m4 # * ° and can find in the table, the temperature ¢’ which belongs to it, and from this easily form the absolute temperature 7’. If we Substitute this in (49) for 7',, we have T, (50a) g"=xy/-alog 72, | ftom which 7” is found. In like manner, we obtain farther i dee : (508) 9" =9" +4 log Fy: | 49. It only remains to determine the uantities ¢ and 7 in order to be able to proceed to the ntti application of nary “ions xvi, The quantity c, that is the specific heat of the liquid, has been siti edal ment, This, iti 34 R. Clausius on the Application of the denser is about equally distant from the temperature of the boiler and that of the condenser. We will accordingly —_ to water, the value which according to Regnault represents cific heat at an putting ce==1°0130. To locties ah r, we set out from the equation which Regnault has mtatished for the whole quantity of heat which is necessary in order to warm a unit of weight of water from 0° to the temperature ¢, and to convert it into steam at this temper- ature, namely, 4 = 606°5 + 0°305.t. If we substitute in this for 4, the sum corresponding to the pre- t vions definition St cdt-+7, we have Oo t r— 6065 + 0°305. t— feat. We must apply in the interval forc, the temperature function more accurately determined by Regnault, in order to obtain ex- actly the values of r which Regnault gives. I believe however that it is sufficient for our present ot Deepens, to employ in this case nce we obtain t fedt=vo1s. t may now contract into one the two Ag = the preceding equation depending on ¢, which reads —0-708 We must, at the same time, also change norreital the Tar aul term of the equation, and we will so determine it that that servation-value of r which is probably most accurate of all is P5902 536'2.* By employing = value, we obtain for r the formula * = 607 —0°708 . t. sci tat ~ some of the values calculated from this with thoes given by Regnault+ in his table will show that this simpli- — t his table the above number but 536: no oe in pr pin num Cag cx ‘This arises value 636°67 ee ere + Mém. de l’Acad. des Sciences, T. xxi, p. Mechanical Theory of Heat to the Steam Engine. 35 fied formula corresponds with sufficient accuracy to the more strict mode of calculation before signified. | i | - 0, |) a ee ee 2 oe r ace, to (52), 607-0 5716 53862 | 5008 | 465°4 | r acc. to Regnault, | 6065 571°6 5365 500°7 4643 50. In order to be able to distinguish in their action the two different kinds of expansion to which the two last of equations XVII refer, it appears to me advantageous to consider, in the first ae a steam engine such that only one of them occurs in it. e will therefore begin with a machine which works without expansion. In this case we must put for the quantity e, which signifies the ratio of the volumes before and after expansion, the value 1, and at the same time make 7,=T7',, whereby equations XVII assume 4 simpler form. The last of these equations becomes identical and therefore disappears. Furthermore, many terms of the first equation which only differ from the corresponding terms of the second in this, that the first contain 7’; and the others 7',, now become equal to them, and may therefore be eliminated. Hence we ob- 4 iy introducing at the same time, the above-mentioned quan- y *, ue V(1—£)(Po-Po)-+9 (Ps —Po) (xvi) 4 (V-ic) 7, 9,= 4 ae =a) +e y (2a To) 4 pg -ps) +lo(p,—pz)- oe oO The first of these two equations is exactly the same as that which we obtain according to Pambour’s theory, if we put in (x11) e=1 and introduce the volume V in place of the pees e difference exists thus only in the second equation, W has taken the place of the simple relation between volume and pressure assumed by Pambour. in ee ‘seateia 1. Let us assume the quantity e occurring in these equations, Which represents the injurious: as a fraction of the whole Space which becomes free for the steam, as equal to 0°05. The quantity of liquid which the steam carries with it, on its entrance into the cylinder, is different in different machines. Pambour ye that it amounts on the average in guste ~ A _ Statio ste ines however, to much less, perhaps to 0: of the whats nies Sh f inder. We will use of it which is in the form of steam is as 1 to 0-95. Furthermore, let the pressure in the boiler be assumed to be 5 atmospheres, 36 R. Clausius on the Application of the to which the temperature 152°-22 belongs, and suppose that the machine has no con —* or what is the same a condenser wit also agree with him, and put p,=1 a osphere. The following values ey come into satiation j in equations (XviiI) for this example eé=0°05 1 “ Pp, = 3800 gos FOO If we assume in addition the once for all fixed values 1 7 o= 0-001, there remain in the first of the equations a) besides the sought quantity W only the quantities V and p,. 2. We must now first find out what is the least possible value This value corresponds to the = in which the same pressure takes place’in the cylinder as in the boiler; and we need only substitute p, in the place of p,, in the last of equations (XVIII). Hence we have : 410.7, 9, ha shee =P) ™ 7, 9,-°("2— +P1-Po) In order to give an example at once ee Ae influence of the inju- rious space, I have calculated two values from this expression, that which would arise if no injurious space were present, therefore «=0, and that which must ensue from the supposition e by us that «= 0°05. These two values are expr as fractions of a cubic meter for one kilogram of steam passing out of the boiler, 0:3687 and 0°3690. That the last of these two values is ese than the first, arises — a from the fact that, in the first or t beer netrates into the of a portion of the Teyuaa ert catty nake: ra that, i a Ae i Ki Mechanical Theory of Heat to the Steam Engine. 37 sent. If we substitute the two values found for V in the first of tae (Xvi) whereby « is at one time made = 0 and the other time = 0-05, we obtain as corresponding quantities of work expressed in kilogram-meters, 14990 and 14450. That this value is greater than that previously found for the Same quantity of steam, 0°3637, may be explained from this, that we have hitherto considered the volume of steam at the max- imum density, as greater than it can be according to the mechan- Ieal theory of heat, and this earlier view finds also its expression In equation (29;.) \ If we determine by means of this volume the work under the two suppositions that « = 0 or = 0° 16000 and 15200. These quantities of work are, as was to be foreseen as immediate Consequences of the greater volume, both greater than those be- forehand, but not in an equal ratio, masmuch as the loss of work occasioned by the injurious space is less, according to the equa- oe developed by us, than it should be according to Pambour’s eory. oe 58. In a machine of the kind considered here, which Pambour studied in action, the velocity which the machine actually as- (55), g, = 96577-4+56-42 . (t, -f2) — 00483 . (p, —p2)- at, We execute by means of this equation, the successive deter- muination of ¢, described in § 47, we obtain in succession the fol- lowing approximate values: 38 R. Clausius on the Application of the = 133°01 ie t” = 134 43 d v” = 134 +32 3 t'’” = 138 +38 Still further Screen would differ only in the higher deci- : mal places, and we have accordingly, inasmuch as we will con- tent ourselves with two decimals, to consider the last number as the true value of ¢,. The pressure belonging to this is P.= 2308°30. If we apply these values of V and p2, at the same time with the other values closely determined in § 51, to the first. of equations 1 (XVIII) we obtain W =11960. piserapl S equation (x11) gives for the same vital 0° 6, the work W= 12520. 64. In order to show still more distinctly the dependence of the work upon the volume, and at the same time, the difference which prevails in this respect between Pambour’s and my theory, | T have executed the same calculation as for the volume 0°6 for a | series of volumes increasing at equal distances. The results are comprised in the following table. ‘The first horizontal series of | numbers, which is separated from the others by a line, contains | the values found for a machine without injurious space. For the rest the arrangement of the table is-easily understood. Vv te w ee Vv 0°3637 52°:22 14990 03883 16000 0°3690 52 22 14450 0:3883 15200 4 49 °12 14100 15050 40 *83 13020 06 13780 06 84 °33 11960 0:6 12520 0-7 29 -03 10910 0-7 11250 0-8 124 ‘55 08 9980 0-9 T2017 8860 09 8710 1 117 ‘36 ] 4440 bour’s pc in the expansion which takes . place singe Pu the — the oo ways remains in the form of saath ‘was so in the beginning; according to our theory, on t — apart of the: mass whieh earried along in the fluid Mechanical Theory of Heat to the Steam Engine. 39 state, subsequently evaporates, and the more so the greater the expansion. 55. We will now in a similar manner consider a machine which works expansively, and we will for this purpose choose a machine with a condenser. With reference to the amount of expansion, we will assume that the cut-off from the boiler takes place when the piston has passed through one-third of its stroke. We have then to determine e the equation ‘ e—e=4 (1 wi &), and hence we find, if we retain for ¢ the value 0-05, c= ~~ 808666... in the cylinder somewhat exceeds the pressure in the condenser, We will assume for the mean counter pressure p,, in round num- bers, one-fifth of an atmosphere, or 152™™, to which the tempera- ture ¢,=60°46 belongs. If we retain finally for 7 the value Previously assumed, the quantities which come into application m this example are the following: e = 0°36667. oa 152. : Putting p, in the second of equations (xvit) in the place of p,, and changing in like manner the other quantities connected with P. We find in this manner for our case the value ‘ 1-010. - \ Setting out from this we will assume as a first example that the actual velocity of the machine exceeds the least le velocity i about the ratio of 3: 2, putting in round numbers 7 ih, and we will determine the work for this velocity. 56. In the first place, the two temperatures, ¢, and ¢,, must be determined b substituting this value of V m the last two of €quations (xyrr), The determination of ¢, has already been ¢ 4 40 R. Clausius on the al pp lication of the = 1, has here another value, I will not enter upon the subject again, but will only state the final result. We find namely, ty = 137°-43. =: The equation (49) which serves to determine ¢, takes for this case the following form: (57) gg = 26604 + 51°515 log i a ig oF ico Det Pr Wey Miz, au 3 From this we obtain in succession the following approximate values, a ¢ = os: 1 “98. rr S101 74. 2 pe 10176, The last of these values, from which the later a would only differ in the highest decimals, we consider as the correct value of ts and ap Pp'y it_ together with the known values “of t, and ¢, to e first of equations (xviI). Thence we have | W= 3108 if we calculate the work according ti Pambour’s equation (XI1), attributing the same value to V, we find W = 82640, whereby however we must not take the values of Band b the machine without condenser from equation (290), but ‘ties equation (29a) determined for machines with condensers 57. he same way, as is here indicated for the volume 1 5, T have also ee the work for Le volumes 1:2, 1-8, and 2° 1. to which gives the nontorng possi heat, if also —s ages of absorbing and giving out are co: Ee = ee Mechanical Theory of Heat to the Steam Engine. 41 by the expansion of the steam, was considered as known, while here, the expansion is determined according to the volume, and the change of temperature must first be calculated from this. (3.) The case of a machine with injurious space and imperfect expansion, in which, of the former advantageous conditions only this one remains, that the steam in the cylinder during the influx exerts the same pressure as in the boiler, so that thus the volume has the least possible value. With this case, finally, are connected those already mentioned, in which also the lost advan- tageous condition is absent, inasmuch as the volume instead of the smallest possible value has other given values. All these cases are also calculated according to Pambour’s theory for the sake of comparison, with the exception of the first, for which equations (29a) and (290) do not suffice, inasmuch as even that one of them which is determined for a less pres- Sure can still only be applied up to 4, or at the utmost down- ‘ards to $d of an atmosphere, while here the pressure is to diminish to 1th of an atmosphere. : The numbers resulting from our equations for this first case, are as follows: Vol. before expansion. | Vol. after expansion: | w Brie, 37 | 6345 ee 50460 0°38 For all other cases, the results are embraced in the accompany- Ing table, in which again the numbers which refer to the machine Without injurious space, are separated from the others by a line. Only the numbers which hold good for the volume after the ex- Pansion are cited, because the values before the expansion are given, inasmuch as they in all cases are smaller in the ratio of ¢:1. RA ites epee bia. ts 0992 | 159%99 / 1010 |” _150°-99 aie 145 “6 1% 137: 1 181 -02 cnt Pua | 190 49 the of s how , according to this, of heat delivered by the souree ¢ gram of steam, as muc necessary to heat the mass, W one kj the boil SECOND 42 R. Clausius on the Application of the and at this last to convert a kilogram into steam, soem quantity of heat may be calculated from the data already gi 59. In conclusion, I must add yet a few wordnic on ithe friction, - in which however I will confine myself to justifying my course in leaving the friction entirely disregarded in the equations hitherto developed, by showing that instead of introducing the friction oy em aa harmony expressions for the work as Pambour has bring it into calculation, according to the same peineinlen ‘sdbacxjachaly. which in fact has been done in the same manner also by other writers. The forces which the machine has to overcome, when in action, may be distinguished _. se following manner. 1. The resist- pi which is op + from without, and the overcoming which forms the vsefil igre required of it. Pambour calls this resistance the load (charge) of the machine. 2. The resist- ances which have their origin in the machine itself, so that the friction, although besides the friction, in the more narrow sense, other forces occur among them, particularly ¢ the resistances of the pumps belonging to the steam engine, with the exception of the one which feeds ' = 2 and wach has already been con- sidered in what prec Pambour fe ‘ais calculation both kinds of resistances as forces which are opposed to the motion of the piston; and in order to be able to unite them conveniently with the pressure- forces of the steam upon both sides of the piston, he selects the notation in the same manner as this is done for the pressure of the steam, namely, so that the symbol does not signify the whole force, but ‘the whole portion of it which comes upon the unit of - surface of the piston. Let the letter R denote the load in this sense. A. still further distinction must be made in the case of the friction, The friction, namely, has not a constant value for every machine, but increases with the load. Pambour decomposes it therefore into two parts, that which is already present when the machine moves without load, and that which is first added by the load. With respect to the last, he assumes that it is propor- tional to the load. He accordingly expresses the friction ietarrda to the unit of surface by f+S.R, in which f and 4 are quantities which, it is true, depend upon e sae and dimensions of the machine, but which ac- cording to vues are to be considered as constant for a par- ticular dil We may nb refer the work of the machine, instead, as here- tofore, to the moving force of the steam, to these resisting forces, \ ieee Se) i alieags RE es Ra h se Tt Mechanical Theory of Heat to the Steam Engine. 43 since the negative work done by these must be equal to the pos- itive work done by the former, since otherwise, an acceleration or retardation of the motion would occur, which contradicts the supposition made, according to which the motion is to be uni- form. The surface of the piston describes the space (1—s) V, while a unit of weight of steam passes into the cylinder, and we therefore obtain for the work W the expression W = (1—«) V[(1+9).R+/}. . The useful portion of this work, on the other hand, which, to dis- tinguish it from the whole work, may be denoted by (W), may be represented by the expression = (1-—«)V. BR. If we eliminate the quantity R from this equation by means of the previous one, we hav W—(i—e) V.f (58) (W)= C3 2 With the help of this equation, we may deduce the useful work from the whole wor as soon as the quantities f and 3 termines these last, since the determination still rests upon too uncertain foundations, and the friction in general, is foreign to the particular object of this memoir. TABLE CONTAINING THE VALUES OF THK PRESSURE p WHICH HOLD GOOD d. FOR STEAM, OF ITS DIFFERENTIAL CO-EFFICIENT = g AND OF THE PropucT 7’.g EXPRESSED IN MILLIMETERS OF MERCURY. oe Centigrade, P A g A T’.g 4 40° 54.906 “003 “935 0139 91 46 4 57°909 ~3-145 t Sed 0144 365 Ps 42 61-054 3291 -218 per 1014 43 64-345 44h 3: o15, I po 44 67-789 -60r 3522 o-16r 1116 45 713 766 | 3-683 o167 | 117% 57 46 35156 +935 o-173 1228 47 Pe ee 4112 4023 o' 180 1287 64 48 83-203 43 4:203 o185 ots 6 49 87:4 a3 | 4388 ae a 5o gr’ 4-679 4581 o 199 69 St | 96-65 862 | 4780 | © 7 52 101-541 “on 4987 o-2I 1621 74 53 106-633 Seas 5-200. 0-221 1 78 54 111-942 a 5-421 0-228 80 55 117-475 5-766 0°237 1853 83 56 123-241 6:006 5 0-244 87 57 129°247 6°254 6-130 0-252 2023 3 38 135-501 6-510 6-382 o 2112 59 142°01L ¢ 775 6 o 2205 6 ‘ 60 | 148-786 | 4048 | 6g o 2301 100 61 155834 | 330 189 0286 24ot 103 R. Clausius on the Application of the TABLE—contTinven. t ws A g A T.g A 62° | 163-164 7621 7°475 0-296 2504 107 63 170°785 7922 7771 07305 2611 I1I 64 178°707 8-231 8-076 o314 2722 134 65 186°938 8-550 8-390 0°32 118 66 195° 488 8 8-715 0°334 2954 123 67 204°368 9218 904 0-344 77 126 68 13-586 9568 2393 0°355 3203 131 69 223-154 9928 748 0365 3334 135 jo “082 10° _ 10-113 0-376 139 71 243-380 10" 10°489 0387 144 72 254-060 11°072 10°876 0-398 3752 14 a3 265-132 11°476 11-274 O-410 3901 15 74 2 11-892 11°684 0°422 4054 1 75 288-500 12-320 12°106 0-433 4213 16 76 12-759 12-539 oO 168 ae: 313-579 13-210 12-984 0458 4 174 78 326-789 13-675 13°442 O°471 4718 I 79 464 14-152 13913 0-484 48 18 80 354 616 I 14397 0°497 2 190 81 258 15-146 14°894 o-511 5272 197 82 384-404 15-664 15-405 0524 5469 202 83 16-194 15-929 0-538 I 2¢8 84 416-262 16-740 16-467 0°552 587 214 85 433-002 17-2 17-01 0-597 220 86 450-301 19-874 17-586 0-582 6313 227 87 468-175 8-463 18-168 0-597 6540 234 88 18-765 0-612 6774 240 89 5-705 19-687 19:377 0-628 7o14 248 go 525-392 20-323 20-005 oO 7262 254 91 545-715 20° : 649 oO rr 7516 262 21- ai: oO 7778 33 588-3 22-328 2 o- 8047 se 94 610-661 23-031 22-679 o-712 8323 285 95 3-692 23-751 23-391 0-728 8608 292 96 657-443 24-488 24-11 0-747 8900 300 97 681-931 5-243 24-86 765 9200 309 98 707174 26-017 25-630 0-783 ae 317 99 733-191 26-809 26-413 0-787 320 100 oo 7:59 27°200 0805 10146 328 IOI 787-59 28°42 28-005 840 10474 343 102 816-01 29°27 28-845 0855 10817 350 103 845-28 3013 9°700 0-865 11167 356 104 875-41 31-00 30-565 0885 11523 367 105 906-41 31-450 orgi5 11888 378 106 938 31 32°83 2-365 0-935 12266 388 107 971-14 33-77 3-300 0-g55 12654 397 108, I 34°74 34-255 0-975 13051 407 log Shea 35-72 35-230 Or 13458 414 110 |:1075-37 36-72 36-220 +010 13872 424 TIr TI12- 37°74 37-230 1-030 14 434 112 Pak 38-78 260 1-060 147 448 113 1188-6) 39-86. [| 3q320 1-080 15178 457 114 | 122847. | 40-94 40-400 I*100 1 467 115 | 1269-41 42-06 41-500 1-125 16102 479 116 | 131147 | 43-19 42-625 t150 | 16581 491 117 | 1354 — 4436 43-9775 I+170 17072 502 118 | 139902 | 45-53. 44-945 1-185 17574 = 119 1444-55 | 4693. 46-130 1-220 18083 ‘ 2 lies | oo | Se | aR | ae | rar | 153925 =| 4graa. 1-260 191 547 Mechanical Theory of Heat to the Steam Engine. 45 TABLE—conTinvzp. t p A g in T.¢ A | 122° 1588°47 50-4 49°855 19 I 12 1638-96 51-8 51145 1315 22083 574 124 I 53-12 52°460 1335 20827 583 125 174388 54°47 53-795 1°365 21410 399 126 1798°35 55°85 55-160 1°400 61 127 1854°20 59°99 “560 1-415 22624 624 128 IQ 1°47 58-68 57°975 1°430 23248 633 129 1970°15 60°13 59°405 1'470 23881 652 30 2030°28 61-62 60-875 “500 24533 131 2091°gO 63:13 62:375 1-520 251 678 132 2185 03 -66 63-89 1550 25877 694 133 2219°69 66:23 65-445 1°575 26571 706 134 2285-93 67-81 67-020 1-600 27277 720 135 2353-73 69:43 68-620 1-630 27997 735 é 1 2423-16 71°07 70°250 oe 28732 7s 137 2494-23 72°97 71°920 1° 2948 r 138 see 00 74 Wy 33-605 1-710 30252 778 139 2641-44 76-19 75°315 1-750 31030 98 140 2717 77:065 1*770 31828 810 141 2795-57 79°73 78-835 1-810 32638 830 142 2875-30 81-56 80-645 1-835 33468 44 143 2956-86 83-40 82-480 1-865 34312 44 3040-26 85:29 84-345 1°895 35172 876 145 3125-55 87+1 86-240 1*920 36048 891 146 3212-74 89-13 88-160 1-960 9 git 147 3301-87 gI-11 go 120 1-990. | 37850 928 148 3392 g3-11 92-110 2-015 38778 943 149 3486 95:14 94-125 2-045 39721 959 150 3581 a 97°20 96 170 08 40680 151 3678-43 99°31 98-255 2-120 1660 152 3777-74 101:44 100°375 2-140 42659 1012 ‘as 3080 18 103-59 102-515 2175 aie 03 2-97 105 104-6 2-220 155 4088-56 he roe 2-250 45757 1073 156 A 59 11029 109-160 2-270 46830 - 1085 157 4306- 112-57 111-430 2-310 47915 1107 158 441945 114-91 113-740 2-345 1127 159 45 117-26 136-085 2375 5o1 1144 160 4651-62 11966 118-460 240 512 1165 161 4771-28 122-08 120°870 |, 2-445 52 1184 2 162 12455 | 123315 490 1209 “7 pu ret 127-06 mah 2-510 nai 1222 i 144: 129°5 128-31 2 165 Banded anh 130-860 2-585 57317 1265 166 5406- 13474 | 133-445 | 2620 58: 1286 167 5541-4 137° I 2-( 1314 168 5678-82 140° 138-735 2-68 61182 1326 169 I 142°76 | 141°420 2-725 1348 170 166 | 14553 | 144145 | 2 56 1372 . 171 o7 29 146910 eis 65228 72 6255-46 15112 | 149°705 28 66618 1412 193 ra oe 2 Soe mee 174 6560°55 | 156" 155°41 picet4 70 I 175 6717-43 59° 158-335 2-935 70934 1476 176 6877-22 ieee 161°270 2980 72410 1502 177 97 165°75 164°250 3-025 73912 1529 178 ce 8 168°80 167-275 3-060 5441 550 179 737452 17187 | 170335 3 1570 180 9 7498 Ee 3-140 78561 1599 _ 46 On the Gulf Stream and the Keys of Florida. TABLE—conciuben. t Pp A g A T .£ A 182° 7899°52 : 179°735 ; 8177 183 | 8080-84 cat 182-940 S 83407 ee 185 | 845323 | 187 189-425 8677 1688 35 IgI*I2 7 +320 4 1714 — coe 194°47 ry +4 "370 oes 1743 187 8838'82 197-86 196°165 : ao go2 1763 188 POS ato 199°565 445 91999 1792 189 9237°95 0895 203010 480 93791 814 io | 9ldr70. | aofha3 | 2064. | 3515 | 9003 | i637 1‘ : 192 9862-71 ott 213 _ os 1885 I 10078°04 : 217°1 IOTIQ2 he 10297°O1 ate ie 220°795 a I a sae 195 | 1051963 | 3°23 224470 | 3.4/5 1050 te 196 ag aa 35 228-185 31550 107018 : 197 10976°00 : 3-88 231-935 3405 I aa 198 11209°82 - ‘ 235-730 79 T11029 ood 199 tisdede 237-64 239570 3-840 13077 2048 1688-96 | 2475° | 243-455 wee fam eT 8 78 a Art. VIIL—On the Agency of the Gulf Stream in the Formation of the Peninsula and Keys of Florida; by Josep a ae M.D., Prof. Natural elsdoen University of Geor Read before the American Association for the Advancement of Science at Albany, In the winter of 1851, and during the months of January and February, I enjoyed the rare opportunity of visiting and exam ining the keys and reefs of Florida, in company with Professor Agassiz. I then and there became deeply interested in a subject which has continued to occupy my thoughts from time to time until now—viz., the mode of formation of the peninsula of Florida. Until the time referred to, nothing definite was known of the geology of Florida, but it was supposed to consist of a southward prolongation of the eocene of Georgia and Alabama, and its shell limestone to bear some general resemblance to the white limestone of these states. But the observations of Professor Tuomey durin the summer of 1850,* and the more full and careful observations of Professor Agassiz during the following wintert, brought to light the eee fact, that the keys and the larger portion of the peninsula of Florida are of recent origin, and as far as could be examined, the work of corals still living in the vicinity, and still engaged in the work of extension; that they are in fact, su- —* - ee the result of the growth of successive coral . = arranged, one outside of yo aa: sm no: > an ect in the present r to show that coral agency pan ce dalibcues Bt the for the phe- nomena, bat that there Se bet been another and still more powerful * This Journal, [2], vol.i, p. 390. + Report of Coast Survey for 1851, p. 145. ~ ae a’ b! and the living reef a’ J” there is a ship-channel 3 or4 On the Gulf Stream dnd-the Keys of Florida. 41 agent at work, preparing the ground and laying the foundation for these builders, and that this agent has been the Gulf Stream. A clear understanding of the subject renders necessary a succinct account of the views of Tuomey and Agassiz. | Fig. 1 represents the peninsula of Florida with its keys and reefs ; af! the south- ; a i a keys stretching from Cape cede et ie a Ta the living reef; GSS the Gulf Stream sweeping close around ; ampa Bay ; d’, Charlotte’s Harbor; @’’, Chatham or Gallivari Bay. The southern coast a, is elevated about 12-15 feet above the level of the sea; but within this line there is ¢, the everglades, an extensive swamp only a few feet above the sea level, covered ter an a'b'—a distance at the point } of about 40 miles—the water is very shoal, navigable only for the smallest fishing craft, and dot- ted over with small low mangrove-islands. Between the line of | Onn and 5 or 6 miles wide. Beyond the reef a” b” the Sea bottom rapidly into the almost unfathomable abyss of the Gulf Stream, ’ ee 48 On the Gulf Stream and the Keys of Florida. cleus around which cluster smaller fragments and coral sand ; the whole is then firmly cemented by carbonate of lime in solu- tion in the sea water, and the island thus formed is finally cov- ered with vegetation and inhabited by animals and man, The whole embryonic development, if I might use the expression, of coral islands may be observed upon the keys and reefs of Florida. On the outer or living reef a few have commenced to:form only a few years ago, and exist as yet only in the form of isolated boulders of dead coral, and not yet dignified with the name of keys. Others are formed of similar boulders, mingled with small ents, and coral sand, and firmly cemented by car- bonate of lime; but the large boulders are still conspicuous above the surrounding land, though immovably fixed. Still others are so covered with coral sand that the boulders are not observable, except by excavation or by examination of the outermost por- tion of the island towards the sea. The coral sand is always affected with the cross and oblique stratification so common in materials exposed to the violent action of the waves. All the islands on the outer reef are very small, of very recent origin, (some only a few years old,) and, therefore, as yet entirely barren. e examination of the larger and older inhabited islands of the line of keys prove beyond question that they have been formed in a similar manner. We have here also the same coral boulders, mingled with smaller fragments and coral sand, and the whole firmly cemented into solid rock, the same cross and oblique stratification indicating the former action of waves on an expose shore. e boulders here also sometimes stand above the sur- rounding cement exposed in their superior portions, as at Key Vaca; and at others completely covered with coral sand, as at Key West, and most other keys. This exposure of the | boulders above the surrounding cement in which they are. firmly fixed led Tuomey into the error of supposing that they were the ominent points of the original reef, elevated above the sea level Y igneous agency, and that the keys were formed by igneous by aqueous agency. That such is not the case is proved by more attentive examination and comparison with the smaller keys of the outer reef. There can be no doubt, there- ~ On the Gulf Stream and the Keys of Florida, 49 fore, that the line ad’, marks the position of a former reef changed into keys by the action of waves alone. : It has been pointed out by Tuomey, and proved by Agassiz, that in a similar manner, the southern coast of Florida was the position of still another and earlier reef. The character of the rock is the same as that of the keys of the main range, or of the smaller ones on the living reef. Here also Tuomey has seen, as he supposes, the evidence of elevatory forces, while Agassiz sees nothing but the action of the waves. here seems to be no reasonable doubt, therefore, that at some former period, the northern shore of the everglades was the posi- tion of the southern coast, and at the same time the present south- ern coast was the position of a reef. The general sequence of changes has been as follows: The reef ab became gradually converted into a line of keys, and was finally added to the main- land, and the shoal water became the everglades, and its mangrove islands, the hammocks which overdot this swamp. In the mean- time, that is, while the present southern coast was still a line of keys, another reef was formed farther out. This became in time @ similar origin for that portion of the peninsula lying north of this line is less*abundant, and perhaps less conel ve, and yet we have every reason to believe that the greater portion of this t to - Agassiz from the shores of Lake George and other parts of Florida as far north as St. Augustine, leave that on the eastern coast at least the coral formation ex- ds as far north as that ancient city. I have myself a frag- ment of Meandrina from the neighborhood of St. Augustine, un- distinguishable from fragments which may be picked up any- SECOND SERIES, VOL, XXIII, NO. 67.—JAN., 1567. 7 : eS 50 On the Gulf Stream and the Keys of Florida. f ‘Tampa are Eocene Tertiary. Supposing this to be a fact, it more than sixty or seventy feet thick: To this may be added in the case of coral islands from ten to fifteen feet for material accu- mulated above the sea level by the agency of waves. If there is no subsidence, therefore no coral formation can be more than eighty feet in thickness. Now, nothing can be more certain - than that there has been no subsidence whatever of the sea- bottom upon which grow the reefs of Florida, for otherwise the extension of the peninsula by means of coral agency would have en impossible. It necessarily follows, therefore, that the coral formation of Florida, whether upon the main land, or upon the eys, or upon the living reef, can no where be more than seventy or eighty feet thick. In other words, it is evident that Florida and the keys are only faced or encrusted with coral formation. Tf, then, corals have been the only agents in this work, if the sea bottom has remained substantially unchanged during the whole time the coral work was progressing, it is evident that the sea, for the enormous distance of five degrees of latitude, viz: from St. Augustine to the present reef, was nowhere more than sixty or seventy feet in depth, and Florida must have been represented _ by a tongue of shoal water three hundred miles in length—a cir- cumstance possible, certainly, but so improbable that it behoves those who maintain the theory that coral alone has formed the peninsula to account for it. . On the Gulf Stream and the Keys of Florida, 51 But even if we admit the probability of such a condition of things, we do not get rid of the main difficulty; for in that case there is no apparent reason why the coral should not grow over the whole area at the same time, as an immense ‘coral forest, in- stead of in the form of successive reefs. In a word, the fact that the corals grew in the form of successive reefs, concentrically dis- sed from north to south, proves, as it seems to me, incontesti- bly, that the conditions necessary for coral growth have also been progressively formed in the same direction. The horizontal ex- tension of coral through so great a space proves also the progres- sive extension of necessary conditions; in other words, it proves that the sea bottom has been gradually rising from the north to- wards the south. ; uch a gradual rising of the sea bottom may be attributed to , viz:—first, gradi agency ; and second, filling up by sedimentary deposit. evidences of such igneous elevation upon the keys as we 4pon the main land; but the more careful observations of Prof. Agassiz have satisfactorily explained these deceptive appearan- ces, so that we ma now say with confidence that there is not the slightest evidence of such elevation, but much evidence to of the reefs of "Florida, let us attempt to prove that such deposit has in fact taken place "ander the i uence of the Gulf Stream. It is a well known law of curren sediment, that if om of their sediment upon the bottom; but if, on the contrary, their Velocity ig ledbtuded they abrade their beds and banks. If, therefore, the velocity of a stream is greater on one side than on the other, abrasion will take place on the former, and deposit on the latter, Now, if such a stream, ng sediment, make a pee Si curve, the velocity will always be greater on the outer, and on the inner side of the sweep. Hence there must 52 On the Gulf Siream and the Keys of Florida. necessarily be abrasion of the outer bank and deposit upon the inner. Thus, in proportion as the outer curve extends by abra- sion of the outer bank, the inner curve will extend also by de- posit, and the tongue of land around which the sweep is made will grow —_ and longer. if this tongue be cut away by necess sea true under all circumstances. It canes no ‘ifforones whether the stream runs between banks of solid matter or be- tween banks of still water. If a stream, leaving sediment, runs _ through still water, making a swéep or curve, the sediment must eposit principally upon the imner side o the curve, making shoal water at this part: the esa = extend, and the shoal water wus a in the same irresistable that the sweep of the curve has been increasing with the course of time, and that the tongue of land hate: es curve, viz: nel Peninsula of Flo rida, has been extending, par? passu, by means of sedimentary deposit. Or, = nat a miooh the Geant of the Gulf Stream has alway. 8 ee same as at present, and that Florida was once panto by a tongue of still water within the curve, this tongue of still water must have become more and more shoal by sedimentary deposit. I repeat, then, that upon any conceivable theory as to the position of the Gulf Stream, whether its curve has been increasing or has been always the same as at Ain if it carries sediment, according to the laws of currents, there must have been a progressive shoaling of water within the curve from north toward the south, and, consequently, a progressive formation of the conditions necessary for the growth of coral, and their extension in the same direction. What evidence, then, have we that the Gulf —— does indeed carry sediment f Stream is supposed to be a continuation of the great ccpatonial! current which, stretching across the Atlantic from the coast of one strikes upon the wedge-shaped point of the eastern coast of South cane and divides into a northern an southern branch.» The n + te Mexico from which and along the con the coast of En urope. + Sa On ihe Gulf Stream and the Keys of Florida. 53 there would even be carried much farther on. We have a. moment that the banks of sand and mud, found in the bed and on the margin of the Gulf Stream off the eastern coast of Florida, were deposited t that stream. But Frill be clveced that the water of the Gulf Stream is remarkable for its transparency. This objection, however, will entirely disappear when we consider the difference between river and ocean currents. The former are of slight depth, and run Over rough bottoms, and between banks possessing many ine- *Lyolls Prin, p. 328. Lyell Prin, p. 791. Lyells Prin, p. 898. 54 On the Gulf Stream and the Keys of Florida, qualities of surface, and offering, therefore, much resistance; hence are generated partial currents upw ard and downward, to the right and left, which thoroughly mix, as if by a so sort of ebullition, the waters of the river. It is impossible that matters im suspension or solution should exist in one part and not in another ; ¢.g., that sediment should be carried by the deeper strata, while the superficial strata remain transparent. But with oceanic streams the case is quite different. Their = pga pen and the fact that they are bounded on all sides by still w. in other words that they run ove se even beds and cian perfectly smooth anlar causes tie m to flow without the slightest agitation, without the ripples and inequalities which mark the currents of rivers. The currents of oceanic streams, therefore, Such nt would n necessarily sin ager observation i in the . course of a few hundred miles Wi 3 1 Me. ae Lila. a a = 1 Sees ——— —— ote ee enone, the oi tien. commie of the pg eb ep explain t the application of the cacy ts to On the Gulf Stream and the Keys of Florida. 55 4, a vale M Wy) Decommn&a e/a Poe WM” & ae = bene re pre ~ — wd uy, ee ss f Hy Me, Sy 3 — Bois, i pe ; g beset Pepe Meme eA .% 5 sve Fi igs, - : and 4, are ideal paper through the middle of the Pinta and Keys, ~ along th line pp fig. 1 , repre nting the different stages of the process; // the sea level, Gs the Gulf Stream, ec’ a a’ a’’ sections of the lines c’/d’’ ab a’b’ a!’b’’ of he ship i e shoal water dotted over with e islands, (not here represented) and enother poof, a’, has formed at the limiting depth of 60 feet, is another ship ¢ el e’ be- tween the see! and t Keys. Fig. 4 represents the condition of things when the sea bottom had advanced to a! n’! 0!’, Now a, the line of Keys of the last figure, ; me the southern coast, the a er shoal water e has become the Everglades, a’, the reef of last figure has become a line of Keys and its ship channel ¢’ shoal water, = at the e limiting depth of ¢ 60 ‘feet still another ee a’’ viz. the preser living ‘ree s formed with its ship channel e’’, This figure therefore represents the present ther of things. It is evident that if this theory be correct, and no insuperable obstacle is interposed, the Gulf Stream may continue to move its ‘d, and the point of Florida to extend almost indefinitely. But such an obstacle is interposed in the island of Cuba. The Gulf tream cannot move much beyond its present posi Florida extend beyond the position of the present 3 at the expense of Cuba and the Bahama Cuba can never be annexed by any natural agency, whether coral or current. of the Gulf aviv Beant the Same ae ‘at prese hat the Shinde of Florida was originally represe esented by a tongue of still water, substantially, the same changes would necessarily hay: € oc It is eran that as the point of Florida approached the Gulf Stream, the slope of the bottom would become steeper, and there- fore the beaseng deptik would be attained at a shorter distance m shore, the consecutive reefs would be forméd nearer anc hearer to one See sped and the intervening ship channels woulc become n 56 On the Gulf Stream and the Keys of Florida. YY e Gi Mis . & MMM eas deren! et ta 4 Fig. 5 is an ideal section showing the su hanges which would occur on such a supposition, The letters represent isn potae ane as in figs. 2, 3, and 4. Inspection of fig. ome soi! that this has actually been the case : at least ca pe last t reefs. | We have chosen oe trace this process only as far as the north- 2 | ern shore of the everglades, because thus far we have the most ey putable evidence of the recency of the formation. But in the same manner we might carry it still farther back in time and ward in space, and represent the successive reefs by which the aaneeenes portion of the rest of the peninsula was formed. f There is one other fact of great importance, and otherwise in- | eEpua le, which receives a ready explanation upon this ery, which I think, therefore, is sthapaly aon confirmatory of its trut I allude to the fact that the successive reefs are found at some distance xy one another; in other words that the peninsula is form: a succession of barrier reefs, instead of a continuous ‘ a ae growth of fringing reef. The reefs of Florida are in ‘ some respects entirely peculiar. Barrier reefs have heretofore been considered as always the result of subsidences of the sea bottom, and are invariably looked on as the sign of such subsi- # dence. But in Florida we have barrier reefs where it is certain there has been no subsidence. e have here, therefore, a — was which he has alluded to the fact, nor as far as I know, has he ever attempted or even thought of a probable explanation. The : explanation which I would offer is as follows :— ae | t is a well known condition of coral growth that the sea i water must be pure and transparent. Corals will not grow, therefore, on mudd aborts, or in water upon the bottom of which sediment is deposited, Now, j ; that while the Gulf Raia bears sediment in its deeper strata, it is superficially transparent, and we have already shown that é On the Gulf Stream and the Keys of Florida. 57 - Stowth would be found. Here, therefore, would be formed a barrier reef, limited on one side by the muddiness, and on the other by the depth of water. It is evident then that the Peninsula and Keys of Florida have been the result of the combined action of at least three agencies. First, the Gulf Stream laid the foundation; upon this, corals built up to the water level; and finally the work was com- pleted by the waves. Fig. 4 illustrates the relative importance of €se¢ agencies. All below the line nn/n''n'”, even to the bottom of the Gulf Stream, is due to the agency of that stream ; all be- een the line n n/ nn’ and the line /J to the agency ol corals and above the line ZJ to waves. A haking a ent 7 side of the curve. This is certainly true; but it 1s a more gen- Still water will deposit sediment on both sides, just where it comes in contact with the still water, and is retarded by it. It Mississi form of submarine banks, ieueaty formed by the checking of the Velocity of the current on either side by contact with the “\ Water of the Gulf. t. SECOND SERIES, VOL, XXIII, NO. 67.—JAN., 1857, 8 If the current is straight the deposit on - * 58 On the Guif Stream and the Keys of Florida. * Proc. Am. Assoc., Washington Meeting, p. 140. RR ere eS eae re | een nt ee ee , ae On the Gulf Stream and the Keys of Florida. 59 Now, these ridges and hollows may be conceived to have been formed in either of two ways, viz.: by igneous or current agency. upon land valleys are formed either by igneous or aqueous agency, 2.¢. may be valleys of elevation or valleys of erosion ; So also in the sea, ridges may be formed by igneous or current agency, 7. ¢., may be ridges of elevation or ridges of deposit. In either case there would be conformity between the direction of the ridges and the direction of the current, only in the one case the current would conform to the ridges, and in the other the ridges would conform to the current. n order to account for these ridges by this current theory, the tic Water, and the resulting ridges.would therefore continue for Steat distances. I know not whether there have been any obser- vations to test the comparative velocity of the warm and bands, but it seems to me that on any conceivable theory as to jhe formation of the ridges the velocity of the cool bands would ess. Now, though it may be impossible in the Sclence to deine as absolute certainty whether these i 60 W. R. Hopkins on Screw-Propellors. cold bands, which seem inexplicable on any other theory, unless we suppose the existence of lateral currents, it seems to me that the weight of probability will strongly incline to sedimentary deposit as the cause also of these ridges. In fact, everything about the Gulf Stream seems to point to the conclusion that it has been the architect of its own curves, its own banks, and its own configuration of sea bottom. here is one other conclusion which, though not connected with any particular theory of the formation of Florida, is, never- theless, naturally suggested by the subject of this paper. We have seen that the peninsula of Florida has been progressively advancing towards Cuba as a fixed point, and the Gulf Stream as been becoming more and more narrow. If, therefore, as 1s probable, the quantity of water carried by the Gulf Stream has remained constant, it follows that the velocity with which the stream emerges from the Straits of Florida, and therefore the distance to which it penetrates the still water of the Atlantic, progressively increasing. Now, unless there has been some very remarkable change in the direction of this current, it necessarily follows that its warming influence upon the European continent has also been progressively increasing. Have we not here, if not a sufficient cause, at least one of the true causes of that great change which we know has taken place in the climate of Europe since the glacial period ? Thus we see that the advancing ppt of Florida has been pro- gressively warming the climate of Europe, and thus, perhaps, controlling the destinies of the human race. Can we conceive a more beautiful instance than this of that sympathy which exists between the most distant portions of our globe, and which binds all its members together in one organic whole? ‘ Art. IX.—On Screw-Propellors ; by W. Rogers Hopxtns, As- sistant Professor, U.S. Naval Academy, Annapolis. Is it not strange that while in heavy machinery on land re- volving at high velocities no difficulty is found in preventing heating in the journals, from friction, that few propellors are afloat at sea that have not suffered seriously from this cause? We hear of vessels on both sides of the Atlantic, mercantile and armed, that are retarded by the heating and wearing in the stuff ing boxes and bearings of their shafts a ,) W. R. Hopkins on Screw-Propellors. 61 and the centre of gravity do not coincide. No machinery in re- volving works well under these circumstances. ut the most important disturbing cause is the following. The propellor blades of a vessel on leaving port are set in mo- tion in a plane at right angles to the vessel's keel. The ap 0c lor blades tend to “persist” im this plane, and the greater their Momentum the greater their resistance to: any cause tending to aw them from this plane. But the motion of the vessel is a Constant disturbing cause, and in resisting the motion of the vessel the revolving propellor presses with great force on the bearings. -uppose, as in some vessels, the propellor (blades and hub) to weigh fifteen tons, Propellors of ,this size have their centres of oscillation moved at the rate of thirty-six feet per second when in full action. We have then a weight of fifteen tons moving at thirty-six feet per second, to be deflected from its line of action Whenever the vessel rises or falls. The wear caused by this ac- tion has been attempted to be overcome by putting wooden lin- mgs in bearings; how far successfully has yet to be shewn. It would undoubtedly be better to remove the cause than to Temedy the effects, It seems to the writer that the cause may easily removed by simply so arranging the propellor blades (or the frame in which they are mounted), that the propellor blades can keep in the original plane of rotation however the vessel may move in a sea way. The plans for effecting this are not easily explained without drawings. But means of so ar- “anging the propellor blades that they will keep vertical how- ever the vessel may move will occur to most persons acquainted with machinery. 4 62 — Statistics of the Flora of the Northern States. ArT, X.—Statistics of the Flora of the Northern United States ; by Asa GRAY. [Continued from vol. xxii, p. 232.] THE Catalogues of the alpine and subalpine species of our Flora of the Northern States, given on pp. 230 and 231, in the former part of this acer are found a be very imper- fect, through some unaccountable omissions. They are here re- . produced i in a corrected joan 1. List of Phenogamous Species found only in our small Alpine Region. Cardamine bellidifolia. Arctostaphylos alpina. Viola palustris. Cassiope hypnoides Silene acaulis. Phyllodoce taxifolia Sibbaldia oan Loiseleuria procu Potentilla frigida. Rhododendron aaconn reer se ms var. majus. Veronica alpin Saxifraga rivu astilleia septentrionalis. Saxi sellin var. comosa.* — Diapensia Lapponica. -Gnaphalium supinum. Oxyria Reh Nabalus Boottir. Betula n Nabalus nanus. 55 pla Vaccinium cespitosum. Salia Uva-Ursi * This is a recent discovery, on Mount Katahdin, Maine, by J oseph Blake, Esq. a h had A. the rans; tn ac ae as a native of Canada, but this was hardl edited: it has long be srenge ngs dor. But oy a, which is plainly a ‘aise “of 8. atellari pee 5 in this co arg only from = sae Isl- and from Sitcha on the no methweat ¢ cast, With this “pie Ir as interfoi of nt soa which I think cannot have been really ‘iptind on the White Mountain elsewhere within our limits: Pursh must have mistaken some- thing else for it it in "Prof enue herbarium, as well as for ‘Alchemilla y alpina: More- over, it is wrongly marked in ‘the Manual of mat N. States, as also European. e following points likewise need correctio in p. 207, line 24, the Alle: —- untain aid, in round numbers, to rise an elevation of a is excellent and dence friend, Professor Gaye, informs m me that ha results of his bar ments ma ade during the past summer assign to the Bla a "es anta an ot elevaion, of fi fally 6710 we above the level of the sea. Yet the sum red with trees (mostly Abie which, however, are nh being ¢ hacing Page 217, et seq. The ikehe ag Bre Roe | be made to the table, in their proper places, To the second column, ra-European genera of E. North America, Phaseolus and Aralia. To the cg pm of temperate E. Asia, in- jing lodea, Stylosanthes, Phaseolus, Galactia, Amphicarpea, Centrosema, Itea, Fothergi illa, Aralia, Triosteum? Spermacoce, Nabalus, Gaultheria, mieten Phytolacea, ifras ? Paaench (and others remain to be added),— ern Northern Ameri i ure greater parts of which are endowed with a more equable climate Page 239. In the heading of the third column, second line, occurs a misprint of i agg te Cirsium ilum” is to be erased, as it occurs in Missouri, ac- cording to Dr. Engelmann. wai ; Salix repens. Carex rigida. Salix herbacea. Phleum alpinum. Luzula arcuta. Calamagrostis Pickeringit. Luzula spicata. oa laxa. Juncus trifidus. Aira atropurpurea. Carex capitata. Hierochloa alpina. arex atrata. ° They are 87 species in number. Of these all but the five printed in #alic are natives likewise of Europe. 2, Last of Subalpine Phanogamous Species, which occur mainly in our Alpine Region, but are also found decidedly out of it. Alsine Greenlandica, Euphrasia officinalis. Geum radiatum, Polygonum viviparum Rubus Chamemorus. Empetrum nigrum. Solidago thyrsoidea. Platanthera obtusata. Solidago Virga-aurea. Scirpus czespitosus. < Arnica mollis, Carex scirpoidea. Vaccinium uliginosum. Carex capillaris. Vaccinium Vitis-Idea. Trisetum subspicatum. Making 16 species; of which all but the five printed in italic are likewise European; and two of these occur in Greenland. 8. List of Species not found in our Alpine Region, and half of them not Am in Subalpine Stations, although they are all Subalpine or Arctic in ‘urope. Saxifraga tricuspidata, Artemisia borealis, Saxifraga oppositifolia. Juncus Stygius. ifraga aizoides, arex gynocrates, Saxifraga Aizoon, volley The last two of these seven species are likewise rémarka for not having been found in continental British or Arctic Amer- d bud ee It would be in order now to consider the range of al species The Northward Range in this country of the Pheenogamous Species which are common to us and to Hurope. This is an interestin point of inquiry, from its bearings upon Separated tanical pro 64 Statistics of the Flora of the Northern States. mon to the Old and the New Worlds; and the same species is as hkely to occur at any two stations within the arctic circle as at any other two stations equally distant. We naturally look northward for the connection of our flora with that of the Old World; and as we meet with United States Serie identical with those of Europe, we are interested to know whether they range northward into or near to the area of common northern vegetation. The data now in our possession furnish the follow- ing results. a our species common to Europe, we know only five which not occur north of the a parallel of latitude, or which hasily cross this line. These Callitriche pedunculata. Cyperus rotundus. . uncus maritimus. Carex flacca. Convallaria majalis. The first of these has doubtless been overlooked. The second is a little-known plant with us, and the identification is not per- fect. The fourth is a tropical s ecies, and evidently an immi- ant niet _ southern United States as well as into southern urope,. is it impossible that our Nut-Grass may again be spaahealty Getcrns ed from Cyperus rotundus. The fifth is here at only in New Jersey, between lat. 40° and 41°. Un- less it has been overlooked in the Northern States (which seems walikely), or unless our plant has been wrongly referred to the variable Carex flaca, it affords a remarkable instance of the local occurrence here of a species which is widely diffused in the Old World. Itseems not likely to have been introduced from Europe. The third is the most remarkable case; that of the Lily of the Valley (Convallaria maalis). ‘This species—or one which I could not in any respect distinguish from it on a comparison of living specimens—abounds in the higher ‘Alleghanies of Nort lina, I believe also in those of Georgia, and it extends north to the Peaks of Otter in Virginia, lat. 874°, at an altitude of 4000 feet; but it is not known to occur anywhere beyond this; while in Western Europe it extends nearly to lat. 70°. It isnot a eet ea could well have escaped observation in the North- ern. whe. allowing 15 species are not known to occur north of lat. Myosurus minimus. Polygonatum latifolium. Subularia aqnatica Centunculus minimus. Carex vulpina. Veronica officinalis, “ muricata. Myosotis ary ensis. 7 7 levigata. Salicornia mucronata ? S$ Polygonum dumetorum, Castanea vesca, var. Statistics of the Flora of the Northern States. 65 Myosurus minimus occurs with us only in the valley of the Mississippi,—thence south to Texas and west to the Pacific, but not extending northward beyond lat. 45°. It has all the appear- ance of being indigenous; and in Oregon it is accompanied by a second species which is also a native of Chili. In Europe it oc- curs as far north as Finland. ria aquatica seems to be a very rare plant in North America, found only in the northeastern corner of the United States.* From its size, aspect, and place of growth it is exceed- Mountains south of Pennsylvania, and apparently so in the west- ern part of New York. It is not known north of lat. 44°,, and in Kurope it does not reach the Arctic circle. . Myosotis arvensis is not common here, and has probably been introduced, __ Salicornia mucronata, Bigel., is most probably not identical with its homonym on the coast of Spain. . _ Polygonum dumetorum (if our P. scandens really belongs to It,) does not pass the 45th parallel with us, while in northern urope it crosses the Arctic circle. ; r Chestnut is one of the few American trees which can any- how be identified or confounded with European species, It no- here occurs north of lat. 44° or 45° in this country; and as ; rhaps not really indigenous in any higher latitude in the Old World, we have here either a very Would some little differences in the fruit, such, however, as would e of : the same trict, on Polygonatum latifoli: : is is a case of i fect. identifica- tion ; ‘the een ee = called being. known to us onl cd “pecimens, sent from Pennsylvania by Muhlenberg to Will- enow, ek . 16 Manual, Ka lis’ vies the habitat of this plant, which has : mistake in respect to P nick Kindly been pointed out by Prof. Tuckerman, Nuttall long ago gathered it in the * Paris, Maine, ay that Nuttall’s station was Baeeiyith d essrs. Tuckerman and Oakes; but I am informed that th Be Bace! one now known in this country, is Echo Lake, in the Franconia Hamp- hire, where it was detected in 1844 by Prof ckerman, curate botanist, indeed, in the pages of this Journal, for September, 1848. SECOND SERIES, VOL. XXIII, NO. 67.—JAN., 1857, 9 the Genera of N. American Plants Illustrated, i, p. 164, no less than in the There inade x i 66 Statistics of the Flora of the Northern States. Rhyne a fusca, and the three species of Carex would cer- tainly be expected to have a more northern range. (C. levigata has been found but once. What is called C. vulpina is probably not distinct enough from C. alopecoidea; and C. muricata, if rightly identified, may have been introduced, at least into New ° England, where it occurs only in suspicious situations, and rarely. The two species of Spartina belong properly to America, being © found only in a few places on the me of fherépm where they seem to have effected a chance | The following species, 36 in stage are not known to reach af at country, at least sensible to pass, the 50th parallel of tity Ranunculus widen Atriplex hastata. Nuphar Kalmiana. Salsola Kali. a verna. Humulus Lupulus. Drosera longifolia. Betula alba, var. Sagina procumbens. Taxus baccata, var. Oxali acetosella. Typha a angustifolia. “ stricta. Valenti — : Geranium Robertianum. Spiran Vicia Microstylis monoplylo Geum strictum. Juncus Stygius “ _ rivale. effu Potentilla argentea. ee gibba Lythrum § Vg Najas flexilis. Circvea Luteti Zannichellia palustris Myriophytiaxi + vertiillati Ruppia maritima, ‘ rus flavesccns Samolus Valerandi. Carex fulva. Scrophularia nodosa. Milium effusum. Upon this list I remark, first, that two of the - = a es aes, Ail E ghaltteds > voles elceey « The soda ought to be from the Prettiest aif the soda of the “ Bid gives bad results without Deville’s knowing precisely w y- gin of Urea in the Animal Economy.—Dumas has announced with Gch gif ott “ confirmation of his views icady old respecting the origin of urea in the animal economy, viz. that the urea proc from the sibamsnotd substances destroyed in the blood by an oes process. This is now established by M. Bechamp, Professor at the Schoo of Pharmacy of Strasbourg, who has succeeded in changing albumine fibrine and gluten into urea by a slow combination produced by means of a solution of 2 ey dean of potash at the temperature of about 80° C. The following is the proce fen grams of aluminum are dissolved in 300 grams of water; and to this by degrees 75 grams of permanganate of oes are ad :¢ reduction, which is at first ae active, soon ce It is then heated to 40° C. in a water bath, and from time to time ports with pret uric ; it de The alcoholic solution is evaporated in its turn to the consistence of honey and treated with hot hsotute alcohol which dissolves the urea. ilst A Bechamp was bringing out this transformation, a physiol ogist, M. Picard, made, also at Strasbourg, some observations bearing 0D the subject, having reference to the presence of urea in the blood and its diffusion th the system. : aS a eae ee Se eee * Electricity. 118 It is known that according to MM. Dumas and Prévost, urea shows itself in the blood of animals after the removal of the kidneys, and that they conclude from the fact that the kidneys remove the urea, while not producing it. Picard has completed the demonstratation. He has compared, as is closed. The chemical theory has definitely triumphed. As explained e reviews and explains all the alleged facts in favor of the theory of contact. He thus sp displace by iron the copper of the sulphate of copper it is necessary to put task of giving a theory of the pile. His studies as wéll as his lead him in this direction. : . De la Rive was the first who recognized the ——. fact that zine chemically pure is not attacked by hydrated sulphuric acid ; that two metals on which pure nitric acid, for example, has no action, such as gold ‘the contrary, they produce an instantaneous current when a drop of chlo- ee orog acid is added. The theory of contact has never yet explained is fact, 0 The third volume of his work is reserved for the applications of elec- icity. The important part which De la Rive took in the invention of _ SECOND SERIES, VoL, XXIII, NO. 67.—JAN., 1857. 15 * 114 Correspondence of J. Nickles. galvanoplasty is well known, and we may expect to see this branch of in- dustry illustrated in his work with new views and a precision and exact- ness, of which the first two eg have given us such fine examples. saflering humanity. The author rv unde the name of galvano- caustic, the series of sli executed by this means. baclete source of heat employed is a Grove’s vile, The instruments are, , different cauterizers ; 2, @ galvanic seton; 3, orte ligature” for bol davis where there is access to no other apne. spect yon and combining at once the advantages of an incision, ligature and cauteriza- tion. A eommutaior fitted to the conducting wires, serves to excite or suspend nese o-bave “e spoken of the ineisl vantages of cit method of a mall vessels appropriate instruments, we may cut, make incisions or cau- yr genet large or small, arrest hemorrhages, provoke the inflammation —-* the coagulation of the blood, ete. Moreover, being introduce , the galvano-caustic instruments excite no fear; ee: in place 4 sanmiens of the finger will develop the requisite tefaperatu rystallogeny.—lIt is a long time since it was observed es ‘Nir. Marloye, — a skilful, constructor of acoustic instruments, that when the angle of a crystal is removed with a knife and the surface polished, the crystal, if left for a time in the solution, —- itself again. This fact has been called to remembrance by an observation of Dr. Marbach of Breslau, who adds to it.a supplementary sf of interest. The chlorate of soda crystallizes in the cubic system and its solution in water has no action on larized |i But when this Testes crystallizes, it produces orystals which have a rotatory power like rock erystal, some turning to the right and others to the left; and if the crystals of the same kind are separated from the other and dissolved an ew, not only the solution has no rotatory power, but also, if left to crystallize, it affords crystals of both kinds, although only those of one kind were used. This poten of the crystals is connected with the fact that = are Ko » and have the reverse hemihedrism corresponding to than fat the nla «5 eeeiitiied into a piace rolatian of - same salt; the © crystal forms new faces which present the right and ! left hemi edviatils Artificial milk—For some time a liquid has been prepared which said to have so far Rig carp pag tu a per pis ot mile ot e Bibliography. 15 “lait-viande.” It is prepared as follows. Into a Papin’s digester three kilo- grams of fresh pounded bones are put and one kilogram of meat, with five or six times as much of water. The top is hermetically closed: double sides surround it, and in the cavity between, a current of steam circulates which raises the temperature of the digester up to 140° F. e of forty minutes after reaching this temperature, a stop-cock with a small orifice is opened which lets out a vapor having the odor of broth; but some seconds after, there issues a white liquid which is nothing but the artificial milk. After this milk has passed out, the digester contains only the meat, the boiled bones, and a soup of inferior quality. The artificial milk resembles milk in color, consistence, odor, and even taste. But in Paris; but there were some novelties. Heliographic engraving, brought of Paris, deserve special mention. There was one of 14 inches which would answer for obtaining pictures 1°6 meters to 1:2. There was a portrait taken on a glass 60 centimeters by 80, with a double objective of 22 centimeters diameter. The objective was furnished with a. conical centralizer, Brsuiocrarny.— Traité d’Electricité théorique et appliquée, par A. De la Rive. Vol. Il, 836 page. Paris: Bailliére——In announcing the Is calorific and luminous effects; the the physiological effects of dynamical electricity on ch as heat, mechanical actions, and finally the chemical actions to which De la Rive has himself contributed so Saouals The mathematical branch of the subject is treated in a chapter by itself, and a note 1s devoted to the mathe- matical theory of the pile. The 3d volume will appear next year. Elémens de Cos iphie, par Costam 1 vol, in 12mo, with an ¢ Par; Meédeci : 7 Dr. Bea |. -Lvol. in 12mo, Paris: ped etait par le Dr. — dee ae . elegraphie é trique, é +8 * object of this small work, which has passed rapidly to a 2nd edition, is to Popularise the subject of the Telegraph. are . f 116 Scientific Intelligence. Les Abeilles et 0 Apiculture, par M. de Frariére. 1 vol. in 12mo. Paris: Hachette.—The author is a great lover of bees. He has made them the sub ject of much study, and gives in this work the results of his useful labors. Compositions de Mathematique et de Physique, par M. Jouve. 1 vol. in 8vo. Paris: Hachette-—This work contains a large number of prob- lems in Physics and Mathematics, intended for the education of the young who have science, commerce or the arts in view. It is highly appreciated by masters and students, connected with the educativnal institutions of Paris, and France generally. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I, CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS. 1. On the wave length of the most refrungible rays and of those which t chemically upon iodid of silver —Etsex.tonre has communicated some | interesting additional facts with respect to the diffraction of the more re frangible rays of light. The author’s earlier results have already been mentioned in this Journal: those now communicated were obtained by Ss impressions of diffraction spectra taken upon a film of col- odium-iodid of silver placed at a distance of 5°58 metres from the ob- jective of the lattice. The author measured the distances from the mid- dle of the image of the slit to the borders of the different lateral spectra ape — determined the wave lengths of the corresponding rays by the ula u sme SIN YW, By a comparison of the wave lengths thus obtained it appears that we visi (in Pogg. Ann. vol. 97, p. 137) who projected prismatic spectra upon pho- tographic paper. It is certainly true for rays of sunlight acting upon iodid and H or the wave lengths 396 and 429 millionths of a millimetre. It diminishes a from 396 to 354, but rapidly from 429 to 433, which bably arises probab’ denoted by 7, mand n. The author further states, that from analogous experiments there appears to exist just as definite a limit for the thermic On Tantalum and its compounds with chlorine send bromine.— Rose has communicated an interesting memoir upon this most difficult subject to which he has devoted so much time and talent. The @ remarks that tantalum has hitherto been found with certainty only in tw? Chemistry and Physics. 117 black powder which is a good conductor of electricity, though mixed with much acid tantalate of soda. When ignited in the air it oxydizes to tan- res slowly dissolves the metal with evolution of hydrogen. A mixture ) — and fluobydric acid quickly dissolves the metal with evolution of a : yield d be d result of the first and eleventh analyses, which exhibit a close correspond- ence between the quantity of oxygen found and that calculated from the amount of chlorine. According to these results the composition of the d and oxyd in parts per cent is Tantal 49°25 Tantalum, 81:14 Chlorine, 50°75 Oxygen, _ 18°86 100°00 100°00 118 Scetentific Intelligence. These results differ greatly from those obtained by Berzelius. Rose, after much consideration adopts the formula TaOe for tantalic acid, which gives in connection with the above results 860°26 (O=100) or 68°82 (O=8) for the equivalent of the metal. The author obtained a bromid of tan- talum by passing the vapor of bromine over an ignited mixture of tan- talic oe and carbon. ‘The bromid has a yellowish color, and resembles the chlorid; water decomposes it into bromhydric acid and tantalic acid. Rose did not succeed in obtaining a ee iodid of tantalum.— Pogg. Ann., xcix, 65, August, 1856. Il, MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY, 1. Description of a new Meteoric Iron from Chili, containing Native ; id 3 an account of a fall of a large mass of Meteoric Iron at Cor- rientes in South America ;* by R. P. Grea, Esq., (Phil. Mag., July, 1855.)—(1.) A = rt time since I urchased a mass of meteoric iron enteen cup-like, ete convex or hollo at) ak on one side, and the ex- te — more or less covered with small angular and conchoidal project Tt was found by Mr. Greenwood, Reporter of Mineral Prop- Aon is fo Whe ao of February, 1840, on the desert of Tarapaca, eighty miles northeast o reat et and Sates miles from Hemalga ; at a = * - - 93°41 93°48 Nickel, - - ave 4°62 4°56 obalt, - - - 0°36 0°37 Manganese, - - - 0:20 0°18 Phosphurets, - - 1-21 1°26 Chromium, - - - trace trace 99°80 99°85 In general ist oye it therefore closely resembles the majority © of meteoric irons hitherto analyzed. Iam unable at present to say if i contains Schreibersite. e specific gravity of a slice weighing six ounces, containing, how- baalg cavities and other A bapa’ I found to be about 6°5. For meteoric Se rfectly ho omogencous structure, but was in many aoe more or oneycombed with cavities, some of which acinaly conininet what ap- peared to be pure e lead! In some the lead was not larger than a pellet and did not fill the entire Sari contained in its in others et entire cavity was filled with lead, in size equal to a pea. Professor She pard of * From the Liverpool Literary and Philosophical Society’s Journal. = ; Vee cen ae Mineralogy and Geology. 119 i with the United States, who is so well acquainted with meteorites, along Dr. Heddle and myself, saw some slices of this iron slit in the workshop Mr. Young the lapidary, at Edinburgh, and we took lead out of the cavities immediately after they left the lathe, so that there could be no deception whatever. bodies, and to find it so closely allied with, and buried, as it were, in metallic iron, is not only in itself singular, but difficult to account for. It is, however, probable that the lead was originally held in alloy along With the nickel and cobalt, and on intense heating or partial fusion of € iron mass, “sweated” out into vesicular cavities. Should this be a correct view, it is a proof of the intense heat to falls; so much so, indeed, that there are not more than three or four ears ago, al some y from having a local circulation, has not received the notice £ ee to 1844, T accompanied _ of the province of Entre Dios. This army returned from that expedition in 120 Scientific Intelligence. he pass, and deeming ourselves secure, the whole division abandoned itll to the profoundest slee “From this sleep we were all simultaneously awakened at about two e’clock in the morning ; and as if’actuated by electricity, each individ- ual of ng division (about 1400 men) sprung on his feet at the same moment. An aérolite was falling. The light that accompanied it was es Noida description. It fell in an oblique direction, probably at angle of about 60° with the earth, and its course was from east to west. “Its appearance was that of an oblongated sphere of fire, and its tract from the sky was marked by a fiery streak, gradually fading in the falling body, and afterwards it eon ponnathinge of a short whirl- wind. At the same time I ont my companions all agreed that we had experienced a violent electric shock; but probably this sensation may have been but the effect on our drowsy senses of the ——— in- tense light and noise. e spot where it fell was about one hundred | pass, foteed us to Senden it to continue our march. I may mention, that, at the time of its fall, the sky above us was beautifull ; dost and the stars were perhaps more than usually bright; there had been sheet aightaing the previous evening. “T neve wards had an opportunity of revisiting the Mocorita, off a small piece o 2. Hard Guano of Monks Island ; by Ax Sxowpen Precor, (from a letter to one of the Editors),—I was not a little surprised to read Pro- fessor Shepard’s views of the hard guanos. There is no trap rock at all about the majority of the ‘beds wee oe ea It covers ordinary Mineralogy and Geology. 121 2 and some crystalline rocks that I could not determine among the cargoes Besides, the constitution of the phosphates proves conclusively that they have not been hardened by fire. ave made another examination of the rock, without the enamelled surface and am fully convinced of the correctuess of my views. The following are the results: The phosphoric acid in this table does not include the small amount nintoncrae the phosphates of iron and magnesia which were estimated parately. ; Phosphoric acid, - - + + = = 4622 Lime, - ~ < » - - - - 38°75 Phosphate of iron, - . - eaiit wiane, SBE Phosphate of magnesia, A) lee hs TN 0°61 Sulphuric acid, AGE BERLE HE Gi eek COS Chlorine, - - we » - - - trace Organic matter, salts of ammonia, and combined water, 8:95 yetoscopic water, - - 4 + 's 2°34 dy PPAR oF a on g sO De Seen ogs : 99°81 If we take from the lime sufficient to combine with the sulphuric acid, we have remaining of that earth 35:95, which when combined wit phosphoric acid and 5°78 parts of water, give a salt of the formula ay, , POs. The sinall quantity of the phosphates of iron and magnesia in this Specimen is worthy of notice: It is a little remarkable, that in these §uanos generally, while the entire amount of phosphoric acid varies but slightly, there is a very wide difference in the proportions of the bases With whieh it is combined. ; The “ body of the rock” of which the above table expresses the com- Position, was carefully separated from the white enamel before analysis. Baltimore, November 11th, 1856 SEO. without any lustre, tough, horgy and tenacious as to texture, and with difficulty reduced to powden® =27 |. ° A proper chemical examination of this substance is therefore "porn i 1d that of | 122 Scientific Intelligence. ca Exterior layer. Body of rock. 0 NET ne mer ETS F5 39°01 i - - - - 310 0°22 Peroxyd of iron, - + iigsce 0°34 O11 Phosphoric acid, - - - 39°92 43°50 Calcium, - - - - 1:34 —_— Fluorine, - - . - - 0°85 — orgy - - - - 0°75 trace Shieh fore exteaidar idl Oh Swear id, - 2°07 7:08 Water and — matter, - 860 10°75 Sand, - . 0-02 0-02 100°36 100°69 The relative proportions of the different constituent mapas. above given, necessarily lead to the following state of their a cae on Exterior = Tri-phosphate of lime, —- - 77°71 contaiming of lime. - - 41°76 * phosphoric acid, - 35°95 Tri-phosphate of magnesia, - - = - == GFT containing of magnesi - 3°10 phoxphors acid, - 367 Phosphate of iron, - - 0°64 Fluorid of calci es - - 1:76 Chlorid of oa - - - - 1:18 Sulphate of sod Piel otis, 3°68 Water men: organic matter, fas af 8°60 Sand, ct Net 0-02 100°36 Body of the rock. Common phosphate of lime, weet ie 82°48 coutaining of lime, - .- - . 3404 “ water, - 6544 “ phosphoric acid, - 43-00 Common phosphate of magnesia, - 0°66 containing of m magnesia, - - 0°22 water, - . 005 = - phosphoric acid, - 0°39 Phosphate of iron, - 0°22 Sulphate of lime, - - - - 12°05 containing of lim - - 497 - stigtnais acid, - 7-08 Water and a Ongpnic matter, - - 5°26 | Sand, al 0-02 | 100°69 seen from oe that in both parts of the rock the phos phoric acid is present in the form of a tribasie phosphate (containing Mineralogy and Geology. id 123 three atoms of base to one atom of acid), with the difference that in the exterior layer the three atoms of base are made up by lime alone, thus forming the so-called tri-phosphate of lime, whilst in.the body of the rock only two of them are lime and the third is water, a combination which is known as common phosphate of lime. ; ’ In the following we add a few items which may prove the correctness of this view: (1.) Common phosphate of lime, when exposed toa high degree of tem- as that portion conveyed to it by the atmosphere, necessarily came in peculiar state that in terior ic acid is present in the form of sul- Phate fine widet te sod of the rock contains it as sulphate of lime. 4. Chemical Analysis and Comparison of Serpentine Marbles erd Antique; by Cuarzes T. Jackson. (Read “o fore the Boston Society of Natural History, February 20th, aay ~ Having made the original geological surveys of the great masses me laa Scientific Intelligence. pentine marbles, which occur in the northern part of the State of Ver- mont, and described such as any furnish a marble identical with the celebrated: verd antique of Eur I have since been requested to insti- tute a mineralogical and dened comparison of the European and Ver- mont = sults to which I have arrived possess some scientific as well as practical iiteboatk, for they not only show a curious replacement of ¢ar~ nate of magnesia for car rbonate of lime, the magnesite being most abundant in the Vermont marble, while malin! is the predominant spar in the European variety. It has also been ascertained, by experiments made by me some years since, that the Vermont serpentine marble and that mixture called verd antique, are uncommonly durable, resisting not only nore ene but also the action of acids, and to a remark- ale extent that of the veins in the Vermont marble, and of the calcite of the European ve antique. 1 offer ike analyses of the serpentine of the verd antique, both of Europe and of Vermont, showing their identity of composition, and also an analysis I made many years since of the softer serpentine 0 Lynnfield in this State. —— consists essentially of ——— silicate of magnesia and of the protoxyd of iron, with occasionally a little — of "cht mium—these oxyds dion - ae pe, to the serpentine. The pres- ence of water of compos serpentine materially affects its hard- ness, the softer varieties containing the largest proportion of water. In some varieties I found as much as 15 per cent, while the lowest was 7 per cent. Both the verd antiga serpentine of Europe and of Roxbury, rmont, contain between 12 and 13 per cent of water.. That from e ee. It will be observed on oe of the analyses I have anes that in the Vermont serpentine the white spar veins are chiefly compose of magnesite, while there are also veins consisting of ee a car of lime = of carbonate of iron. The — proporti from a also Mineralogy and Geology. 125 high temperature, and even the action of minerals and other acids, far beyond the celebrated verd antique of Italy. When highly polished, it is a rich and beautiful green marble, veined with white, and sometimes is richly mottled with magnesite and dolomite spar. Its polished surface is not liable to erosion from atmospheric causes, and will offer no hold for lichens, mosses, or other parasitic vegetation, which so frequently mar the beauty of our more open grained white monumental marbles. — Ist. Chemical analysis of the white veins of European verd antique. These veins, picked out with great care to avoid any mixture of particles of serpentine, yielded per cent— Carbonate of lime, — - - - 81-00 _ Carbonate of magnesia, — - - - 1170 Carbonate of iron, = - - - 7°30 100°00 2d. Chemical analysis of the white veins of Roxbury, Vermont, verd antique marble, ese veins were quite common in the slabs examined yme. They were picked out with care to avoid any admixture of ser- pentine. On analysis they yielded— Carbonate of magnesia, - - 80°00 Carbonate of lime, - - - 15°00 Carbonate of iron - - - 3°50 y : ois Yee Silica and loss, yielded per cent— Magnesia” § -... > - - 38°88 Carbonic acid, —- - - =: OL AG me Protoxyd of iron, - - - 9-00 ndecomposed serpentine, - “- 15°00 00°00 i . . . * ay The totoxyd of iron was originally in combination with carbonic acid ; P be -In the stone, forming carbonate of iron, an isomorph with carbonate of a . magnesi ee . « - 4th. Chemical analysis of the dolomite spar veins in Roxbury, Vt. Serpentine.—A cleavage erystal, with angles of 106°15°, was analyzed, and yielded— Carbonic acid rs 4 “ 46°50 ees agnesia, = . " : Protoxyd of iron, =~ == . - i Silica, - oo bad ” 0 5 126 Scientific Intelligence. In this mineral si carbonic acid is combined with the lime, magnesia taine 2 tia, fas & , 3 : 42°40 Magnesia, - - - $120 ; Wate sa iron, - - - 13°90 - a Waiter - - - 12°50 s # { 100-00 : The Roxbury, Vermont, serpentine, analyzed in the same manner, ‘ielded : scans - - - - 42°60 esia, - 85°50 Prasyd of iron m and ox. chromium, - 8:30 Carbonate of li - 0°60 ‘Water, - - - 13°00 Chemical ae of serpentine from Lynnfield, ine —a «ight green and rather soft variety. Silica, - - *% - 37°5 Magnesia, - - - - 41:0 Protoxyd of iron, - - - 2°5 cag of _— - - - 4:0 Wate - - - 150. This variety of serpentine is capable of being docoéiiongl by boiling ena acid, and was at one time used in the manufacture of Y alphate of magne It is too ve to be used for ornamental marble, but it withstands heat perfectly ‘ie it has been gradually baked, so as to expel its water of compositio It dries nearer to the precious or noble serpentine in com’ to that of the serpentines of verd antique marble, which are ti de than noble serpentine, Ill. BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY. i: toh os Prodromus, vol. x longer wali for the large fam noma of Lauri Professor DeVriese. Only we beg, that when the coeluing part 0 por cee thirteen is given us, it may be paged cv bet with the ee ° ° Botany and Zoology. 127 out having to intercalate an additional numeral for the part, as xiii;—where, however, it ase oa re well aug except by counting the Solanacee and Plan a whole volume, which would have been the better way on sererys acco e present issue, which has long beak anxiously expected Ef bota- principal authority for this order; the Mirysticacee, by M. DeCandolle himself; the Proteaceae, by Prof. Meisner; the Penceacee and the Geissolo- pei by M. DeCandolle, the last nambd order comprising only a single genus of a single known species. For United States botanists, hipster’) the interest of the volume centers in the Polygonacee, which from the great knowledge and talent of the monographers, are doubtless admira- bly elaborated. To the Zriogonee, which have increased from the three species known to Pursh to 115 here described, share ator additions may already be made, from recent discoveries in our southwes — re- 2. Flora Vectensis: being a Systematic ated te of the Pheen jeciin’ mous or Flowering Plants and Ferns indigenous to the Isle of Wight ; by the late Wiiram ARNotp Simabnna, MD, ri Edited Sir M. Jackson Hooker, K.H., &., and Tuomas Bett Sater, M.D. pm ee Gs ot nn’s reborn of the , veaeie o the Herald ; parts 7 and 8, published ether, comprise the Flora of North Western Mexico ; rs represented in the poe made by Collie in Beechey” 8 oyage, by Barclay, Hinds, and Sinclair, in rey voyage of the Blossom, sais Capt. Belcher, and in the v d by Mr Seemann imself; to which are added a few plants ileeted by Mr. Potts at Chi- uahua. Mr. Seemann pen from go, but. at a late season o , unfavorable for botanical collections. I much of it r vegetable productions. The flora i a. The determinations, as would be expected, concern some of ©} 228 Scientific Intelligence. United States plants, Clematis Pitcheri is referred to C. reticulata: the flowering specimens of the two are sometimes puzzling, but the car- ies are quite different. C. lasiantha, Nutt. is identified with C. Peru- na, DeC.; and C. . pauciflora, Nutt. is suspected to be C. heaasepala, De. N attall’s Polygaia alba is superseded by the posterior name of P. bicolor, H. B. K., because “the color of the flower varies, being greenish-w hite, white, rose-color, and dark-purple;” but for the same. reason the name of bicolor is almost as objectionable. C. asperuloides, which is doubtful. P. Americana is here supposed to include P. grand- iflora, Walt., ovaiifolia and suberule, Gray, and ey Sale Des besides two or t me more like it. . leptocaulis, Tor rT. r. is said to be P. Chihuahua, A conside ast number of new species are a ranad i all of which will have to be collated with Dr. Engelmann’s recent tailed monograph. Philadelphus Mezicanus, Schlect, is said to embrace P. serpyllifolius, Gray. phe Composite: axe elaborated by Dr. Schulta, a a S re & S ij @ i -& ° = a9) S er @ .* > o [o8) ae lucia and eyen Cosmos to Bidens ; and, if formerly inclined to undue multiplication of genera, now makes, perhaps, more than amends, by not only acceding to the reduction of Acourtia, Dumerilia, &c. to Perezia (as proposed by the writer), but even referring the whole to Trizis, which is rather more than we counted on, although perhaps a logi consequence : also by reducing Chaptalia, Leria, Lieberkuhnia, Loxodon, , &e. to Gerbera! Me, plates of this ncaa which ee to the Mexican flora are three : two new species of “Viscum,” Phoradendra, and Caleel marginal Benth., which as es looks # unlike that species as pos 4. Synopsis of the Ua te ‘of the United States and Adjacent Regions} y George Encetmann, M.D. (From the Proceedings of the Americad Academy of Arts and Sci iences, vol. ili), Cambridge, 1856. pp. 53.— Besides his ample and fully illustrated memoirs on Cactacee, in one of the Pacific — Survey Reports, and in the Hepat of the Me ane} species, now so numerous, with fu characters of those which he has a before well described. Altogether, these memoirs constitute a very. and invaluable elaboration of an extremely difficult, but very interesting family,—difficult not only from the peculiar betas to collecting and lip later, Botany and Zoology. 129 some hopes that, when better known, they may have to be reduced to not less than 67 species! As to phical distribution, the author y one Species ; and one more from the south has just come to light. 2.) The Mississippi region, with one species. the North American species of Euphorbia ; which however, may not be published until after his return from Europe, where he is now occupying imself with various important botanical investigations. A. Ge _ 5. The Musci and Hepatice of the United States, east of the Missis- Sippi river ; by Wituram S. Suturvant. New York: George P. Put- Co. 1856. 8vyo, with 8 copper-plates—All who are now in- terested in the study of our AMosses and Liverworts, and the many, who, attracted by such an able guide, will yet enter this pleasant domain of botanical science, owe a large debt of gratitude to the author of this Pu wer | m Work, _Its geographical range is judiciously extended to the whole re- gion lying east of the Mississippi; a multitude of new and newly dis- covered species, both from the Northern and Southern States, have ome Bryo a above all, eight tables of copper plates, crowded with figures in illustra- rae of the genera, greatly enhance its value. These 1 entire field of our lower Cryptogamia will be fairly open to the oe r know] pgs . Lichenes, Dr. Curtis for our Fungi, and Prof. Harvey for our Alger; tbe . | SECOND SERIES, VOL. XXIII, NO, 67.—JAN., 1857. 17 ' 130 Scientific Intelligence. Azores, Madeira, and the C ; by Oswatp bo Gee a letter to DeCanvoute) —In your ng hy of Plants you have adopted the opinion of Edward Forbes, that in the Miocene period the European continent extended to the Azores and Canaries, and supported it by fresh proofs.* In fact, the predominant European character of these Islands, which occurs in their insects as well as in their flora, proves that they ~~ anciently joined to the continent. Nevertheless we must not forget eri agency of the winds and currents, or of man, but American genera which are represented by peculiar species. I will instance the genera — Ryiiveleine. and Cedronella, as also the o ue er ot the Can {Pinus canariensis, Sm.), which belongs to the American forms vid acicular ternate leaves, The relations of the Spies is very remarkable in this respect; they form a great part of the forests of Madeira and the Canaries, * into four species and playing an important part. apecies Oreodaphne foctens and Persea indica) are essentially American types ; the third (Phebe Barbusana, phe % poten toa genus which oo in = ia and Fe MOSR and the fourth (Laurus canariensis, Webb) with the ropean species. By the possession of these laurel ‘eieais Pine islands of ‘< Atlantic differ greatly from the African conti- nent, where they are entirely wanting, and approach America rather than Africa, Rep omiger ens! the proximity of the latter. obtain great importance by the observation that the flora _ the A Aeutio islands has much resemblance to the Tertiary flora rope. { Th my ‘Flora Tertiaria Helvetiz, I have proved that a considerable number of plants of the Tertiary epoch corresponded with species pecu- liar to Madeira and the Canaries, in such a manner that there must be @ We find similar cases amongst the renyage —— and insects, ee this is not so positive = with regard circumstances are skate, “fe we suppose tha during the Tertiary dpoek a terrestial formation united the continents of urope and America, and that this surface was extended by some PFO” jection to the Atlantic islands. A glance at the map of the depths of * DeCandolle, Géographie Botanique raisonnée, p. 1310. Botany and Zoology. 131 the ocean by Maury, shows that the bottom of the Atlantic forms a lon- whole space between the European continent, Newfoundland, and Acadia. Beyond this space another long valley, but of less, depth, takes its rise, in a direction from south to ‘northeast between Madeira and the Azores ; it Tt If we may attribute any importance to these very general data, we must admit that during the miocene period the maritime plateau above indicated was solid ground. . This country, this ancient Atlantis, would have had the same plants as central miocene Europe, of which the remains are found in the molasse of Switzerland in such astonishing profusion, that I shall be able to give descriptions and figures of about six hundre species in my ‘ Flora Ter- tiaria.’ On the coast of this country the marine shells presented a grea conformity in America and Euro e; and this remarkable phenomenon is shells and fishes in common with America; which proves that at one Period a band of firm ground must have united these two parts of the world. The Atlantic islands had already risen towards the south coasts of this continent at the diluvian period. That this country was at the bottom of the sea during the miocene epoch, is shown by the fossil shells of Porto Santo and St. Vincent in Madeira and those of the Azores; but that it had emerged at the diluvian period is proved by the terrestrial The islands formed at this epoch would have received their vegetation from the Atlantis in the diluvian period, and consequently at an epoch isting flora of these islands. We there find the remains of the flora of the ancient Atlantis, and in consequence many types of the Tertiary flora are retained there whilst they have disappeared in Europe. cosas Mains, with a certain number of other species, form the peculiar plants of these isles, corresponding in part with the American species because ey have issued from the same centre of formation. it 18 we Europe that these islands have the most species in common, probably ause their connection with this continent lasted longer. At the diluvian period the flora of central Europe was displaced by Sreat changes of climate (extension of glaciers, dc.); and as by the de- Pression of the Atlantis the connection with America was destroyed, the new European vegetation could not extend on that side, but only tow the east. “It is thus that the characters of the new vegetation would be &xplained, particularly that of the lower countries, whilst the Alps and the north have undergone less change. This also is the reason isge °° Heer, “Ueber die fossilen Pflanzen von San Jorge in Madeira.” Zurich, ~ 132 Scientific Intelligence. great analogies which occur between the north of Europe, Asia, and America. I arrive therefore at the same conclusion with yourself as regards these latter countries, namely, that the alpine vegetation is cer- tainly the most ancient in our country, and that subsequently when the climate became warmer, after the glacial epoch, it rose from the low countries to the mountains and Alps.—Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., Aug. 1856, p. 183, from Bibliothéque Univ. de Genéve, April, 1856, p. 327. ; %. On the Ruminant Quadrupeds and the Aboriginal Cattle of Brt- ain ; by Professor Owey, F. R. S., (Proce. Roy. Inst. Great Britain, May, 1856.)—The speaker introduced the subject of the Ruminant order of ese are divisible into two natural and parallel orders, having respect- ively the Anoplotherium and Paleotherium as their types, which genera, ‘he brilliant researches by Baron Cuvier, the founder of palzontologi- 1 Diagrams of the entire skeletons of the Anoplotherinm and Palzothe- rium were referred to, in illustration of their dental and osteological pe- culiarities. The Anoplotherium, with the typical dentition of ae 3—3 oo peed 4—4 sig incisors riges canines om & premolars rey & molars a had all its teeth of the same length, and in a continuous unbroken series? this character is peculiar to man in the existing creation. ‘Ihe Paleothe- rium, with the same dental formula as the Anoplotherium, had the canines longer than the other teeth, and developed into sharp-pointed weapons; necessitating a break in the dental series to receive their summits in clos ing the mouth. The anoplotherium had 19 vertebrz between the neck and sacrum, Vi2- 13 dorsal, and 6 jumbar. The palzotherium had 16 dorsal, and 7 lum- bar vertebre. The anoplotherium had a femur with 2 trochanters, and the fore-part os vine ankle-bone, called “astragalus,” divided in 2 equal facets. Its ost nearly resemble that extinct primitive hoofed quadruped, with ” Botany and Zoology. 133 _ period, whether it have 1 hoof on each foot, as in the horse, 3 as in the rhinoceros, or 5 as in the elephant, resembles the paleeotherium in havi the stomach more or less complex, and the excum small and simple. In Tuminant would have been exposed a long time in the open prairie or sa~ Vvannah : Th Sn alk seomanch, by seh © modifications of the dentition, esophagus, 2 — the digestion in the Ruminantia is carried out, were described and illus- rams. jariti e persistent horns, the mechan- of the cloven foot; and the provision for maintaining the hoofs in a small musk-deer Tragulus), there are three cavities, with a small in- _ tercommunication — — the second and last cavity ; the « psalte~ num” or third cavity, in the normal ruminating stomach, being absent. cavity is likewise absent in the camel-tribe, which have the cells of Pe 134 Scientific Intelligence, e second cavity greatly enlarged, and have also accessory groups of similar cells developed from the rumen, or first cavity. These cells can contain several gallons of water. The relation of this modifica tion, and of the eer or humps on the — to the peculiar agen position and canines) have been supposed to characterize the gah a hi the occurrence of another — pachydermal character, viz., the divided metacarpus and metatarsus in the foetus or young of all ruminants, an its persistence in the dusting "Mook aquaticus, and in a fossil species of antelope; the absence of cotyledons in the chorion of the cam mel-tribe, with the retention of some incisors as well as canines in the upper jaw of that tribe; the ascertained amount of visceral and osteological conformity Rumina of the s pposed circumscribed order with the other artio- dactyle (even-toed) Ungulata; above all, the number of lost links in that bapeap ht. chain which have now restored from ee ruins of former transition from chyderms to the ruminants, the speaker had been led by considerations of its third trochanter, its astragulus, its simple stomach, ¢ mous sacculated caecum, the palzotherian type of the pce strata, in drift gravels, in brick-earth deposits, and in bone caves. ese pees’ cattle (Bovide) were of gigantic size, with immense horns ; one was a true bison (Bison priscus), = other a true ox (Bos ius) ; fe ela with these was a smaller species of short- vine ox rt meatball and a buffalo, imei — in species the mountain te (owora) hich the Celtic the Romans, viz., the Welsh “runt” and Hi Scary rar siraamens most resem ae ‘Botany and Zoology. 135 . The domesticated cattle of the Romans, - Greeks, and Egyptians bore the nearest affinity to the Brahminy variety of cattle in India. As the domestic cattle imported by the Spaniards into South America have, in many localities, reverted to a wild state, so the speaker believed that the half-wild races of white cattle in Chilling- ham Park, and a few other preserves in Britain, were descended from in- troduced domesticated cattle. The size of the dew-lap, and an occasional lig estion of their food, elaborate from it the most sapid and nu- ds of flesh. UNGULATA. Typica. ARTIODACTYLA,* PERISSODACTYLA-$ Anoplotherium. Auchenia. Palzotherium Chalicotherium. Merycotherium. Paloplotherium. chobune. erycopotamus. phiodon. Cainotherium Hippopotamus Coryphodon. Poebrotherium Dichodon a Xiphodon, Hyracotherium Macrauchenia. Moschus.t Hyopotamus. Hippotherium. Antilope Anthracotherium. Hiquus. 8. Hippohyus Elasmotherium. Bos, Cheeropotamus. Hyrax. Cervus. icotyles. Rhinoceros. Camelopardalis, hacocherus. Acerotherium. amelus, : . ese i$. xtvnos, gui digitos habet impares numero. + Ilep a di. ¢ Only those genera printed vr; Saxrvaros, digitus in italics now exist. 136 Miscellaneous Intelligence. ‘Aberrantia. 2 TOXODONTIA. SIRENIA. Toxodon. Manatus. Nesodon. - Hatlicore, Rytina. PROBOSCIDIA. ‘ Halithesam. Elephas. Prorastomus. Mastodon. Dinotherium. IV. MISCELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 1. Notice of ihe Scientific Results of the Expedition to the North Pa- cifie Ocean, under the command of Oom. John Rodgers i by W. Sri MPSON. ; sagt a — to J. D. Dana, dated Washington, Dee. 1 , 1856. ana: Dear Sir—Our Expedition having returned, thinking you echt ihe interested in some account of the zoological results, I transmit herewith a acai view taken from the catalogues, which will give you some idea of t aracter and extent of what has been done. As the Expedition had for its object marine explorations and surveys only, no opportunity was afforded for inland research ; so that fishes and inverte- bi The principal object kept in view has been, when on coasts little known zoologi 1e numerical accumulation of species. This course was no _ only indicated By the importance of adding to our very imperfect know! ge of the geographical distribution of animals in those seas, but 80 to speak, necessitated by the shortness of our stay at the different points visited. Minute anatomical examinations are always made difficulty on board ship, beside requiring much time; and if these be carried on during the few days spent in harbor, the collection of speci- district must be neglected ; in other words, for the sake of complete eX- aminations of two or three —— mis desiati is lost for gathering and riefly noticing a large num orms, many of which may prove to j be of the greatest interest to sci f The course pursued has been tliis, At each ae visited, daily ex , sions were made to such distances as were necessary for the collection n of =e 2 eee oe — é wi whose structure will not allow of preservation i mM ndiibrodiihiaten Planarie, etc.) These, if new species, were drawn and described in full wpon the spot, whatever expense of time m might be ne- as no other means exists of es their forms ane ne tacles. animals as expand ee tentaci ae itn or other parts under favora- ble circumstances (as polyps, holothurians, ‘bivalve mollusks, ete.), ge oe he Q ae itants of the sea, or of such places on land or freshwater as to a Miscellaneous Intelligence. 187 the an. As jects | nd-travelling to any extent, ly. such . kinds ; “ were’ se as could be ob- ed on the shores of Behring’s Straits. ; “About ninety species of reptiles were brought home, one-third of which forms of Vertebrata would occur, as these have naturally occupied the primary attention of former collectors; while many of the’ ports visite 3 2 . : . by such as is expressly directed to their nonnetic fi age being almost constantly used from the ship, although the whole ai the scientific corps were then making explorations on shore at ne Straits. ty ie ae SECOND SERIES, VOL) XXII, NO. 67.—JAN., 1357. : oe 138 Miscellaneous Intelligence. Generalizations, including those upon geographical distribution, for which a large amount of materia ed, can course now be made or presented here, and will properly be considered and compared with former deductions after the new species have been worked up, and their bearing upon the various groups and subdivisions established. The whole number of species collected, in all departments, is about 5300. The number of specimens may be stated approximately as 12,000. The species are distributed among the various groups as follows: _Mammalia,. : . 81 Naked Gasteropoda, . 180 i ease Sie irds, , ; . 175 Testacea, 70 Reptiles, . : ‘ . 90 Tunicata, . : . 4 aoe, . ; - 550 Bryozoa, . : ‘ 50 eee : ‘ . 400 Holothuride, : ae Crustacea, . : . 980 Echinide, . i : 66 Annelides, . . : . 220 Stelleride, . : . 150 Turbellaria, . ; ; 96 Polypi, . ; . 90 ‘Cephalopoda, 20 sz, 30 2. On the Meteor of July 8th; by Prof. N.K. Davis, of Howard bama.—. e notices of this meteor I have seen great apparent density, its sharpness of outline and its considerable eleva- tion, deceived me at the ing its di impulse was to mount a horse and gallop to the spot indicated by its direction; but on changing my position purposely to ascertain, I found that it had no sensible parallax which undeceived me. By information since received, I find it must have fallen somewhere in Mississippi, at least 150 miles from this place. course no sound was heard here. The fumes were intensely white and dense, reminding me strongly of the fumes of chlorid formed when powdered antimony is projected into a jar of chlo- rine. The cloud gradually took a zigzag form and the aerial currents — slowly dispersed it, though it retained its dense appearance after 1t * a product of combustion in the air; but what this product may be, its appearance alone I should be at loss to determine. a r=] Miscellaneous Intelligence. 139 3. Credit to whom credit is due; extract from an Address before the American Institute, New York City, by Prof. A. D. Bacuz.—I wish I the wane of that great light of the French Academy, Arago, American sci- entists have had much to complain of, Since its final earthly eclipse oe our friends, “at the equinoxes and I will answer at the solstices.” I wrote s, Gould and others. Neither the method coincidences which he lauds, nor that of signalizing the transit of stars, which he considers of the highest merit, are new, but hed with his neglect vs ° . a 4 ith a an electricians in his work on electricity, he exclaimed wit ponchalance considered typical of the Academy, “ Must one know all anguages t ite k ” ea, Geogropicoad 1 — eries in Africa; by Rev. Mr. Livineston, (Let- ter dated “ River of the Bashukulompo, near its confluence with the - besi, latitude 15° 47', longitude 28° 50’ east, 20th December, 1855.) Cong. Jour., Sept. 26, 1856.—A little leisure obtained, together with a bountiful supply of pork for my party, enables me to commence an epis- tle to my Yankee brother, We number 115 in all, so = may wonder whether we have a Cincinnati in intertropical Africa. We got a hippo- ‘ 140 Miscellaneous Intelligence. potamus last night, and some elephants appearing this morning, the men ran off, and soon killed a fine cow with their spears. The flesh of the river horse is very like pork, and much esteemed in tle colony as such. My men are now all cutting it up into long strips for drying, roasting it, and boiling it, and Jaughing. I am sitting on some grass in the midst of ranges of beautiful tree-covered hills, and after this introduction will pro- ceed as follows. ‘ We came down the river from Sesheki convoyed by Sekeletu and prin- cipal men, with about 200 followers. About ten miles below the conflu- ence of the Chobe, the rapids began, which compelled us to leave the canoes, and march along the bank on foot. Twenty miles brought us to the island of Sekote or Kalai. As it was necessary to turn off to the no st from this point, in order to avoid Tsetse, I took a canoe and went about eight miles farther down to see the Falls of Mosioatunya. ‘hen five or six miles distant, we saw five columns of smoke ascending apparently to the clouds. Taking a little light canoe, when about a mile above the spot, and men well acquainted with the rapids, we went to an island situated about the middle of the ledge over which the Zambest rolls, and then crawling to the edge, peered over into the wonderful abyss which constitutes Mosioatunya (smoke sounds). “There is always something new from Africa,” said Scipio, or some- body as wise. You may see your big Niagara, but you cannot see 4 river leaping into a straight jacket. Imagine the Thames filled with low out again, and our goodly Zambesi flows placidly away to the northeast. In looking down into the fissure on the right, one sees nothing but 4 we visited it, and the southern declination of the sun nearly equal to the latitude. An amount of vapor rushes which I never saw equalled ’ Miscellaneous Intelligence. 141 below, that of Deity presiding over all unstable things, Himself alone un- changeable. But they never knew him as we do, a God of benevolence " and he was not ashamed to own it. They had been returning, half fam- ished, from an unsuccessful expedition against Sebituane, and this was the hospitality they met with. T returned next day with Sekeletu on a little speculation of my own. he island on which we stood in the middle of the falls, is covered with promised to make a hedge, and if the brutes don’t break it, I have great hopes of Mosioatunya’s abilities as a nurseryman. When the river rises of Loanda which I thought of the same breadth as the Zambesi, and called 500 yards. He replied, “that is 900 yards;” and yesterday, I put _ down the river Bamuki at a broader part than the ford, as 200 yards, but having to wade two-thirds of it, I found the whole to be 300 yards. I en no one will, in future years, say I have overstated the size of parts escribed In coming through the country of the Balonda, we passed a little Jake called Dilolo. ere i the singular fortune of running two ways at once. The upper or the Casai is the main branch of the Congo or Zaire, the Lotembua pours * 142 Miscellaneous Intelligence. some of its waters into the sea on the west coast, and some into the same receptacle on the east coast, or to write more magniloquently, Lotembua divides its waters between the Atlantic and Indian oceans. The real form of the continent is not, as was imagined, an elevated table land, with high mountains—African Cordilleras—running from north to south, but a hollow basin with an elevated ridge, distant in both cases, about 300 miles from the coast. This is clearly evident from all tre of the continent. The feeders of the Zambesi on the west, as Loete, Simah and Chobe, flow in this direction into the Zambesi or Leambye, Casai and Leambye run north and south respectively, till they find open- tunya (see above). a is about the highest point in the basin, it runs both ways. The cou all the extra basin rivers, as Couza, &c., are necessarily short. Now take care to imbibe the real idea the ridges on both sid conjecture, from recollection, that this indicates between 3,000 and 4,000 east. Such, too, is the strike of the strata, and the dip is toward the the series which form the sure of Mosioatunya was made, there was a vast lake west of it, wh included Lake Ngami, Libele, Linyanti, dec. é&c., in its bosom. The Zam besi then flowed in a bed on the of the fissure, and in which a small Miscellaneous Intelligence. 148 stream called Lekono now flows, but it runs away back and joins the river above the falls. The beginning of the ancient bed is on the same level as Linyanti. Leaving it, and going northeastward, we come to an- ich al he b on the Kalomo. This ridge is perfectly salubrious, and sois that on the There are no marshes on it. The grass is short, and well suited west, for pasturage, alley ; ivers, were liberated in the @ Roovooma, Simpopo, and other een eas banks of shells onty four months from planting to maturity, and as it yi the soil, I think it siaiet be vere Sone in the United States. It yields # * 144 Miscellaneous Intelligence. the sweet oil of commerce by being pounded and thrown into boiling water. When roasted, and when not quite ripe, it far exceeds almonds — or walnuts. » We hope to reach the coast in a month or two. It is an entirely new path ; no European ever crossed the continent before. Arabs, however, have done it frequently, and it was accomplished by two native Portu- ese. This fact was deemed of so much importance, it was noticed in the history of Angola. There never was any chain of stations across the continent, as mentioned by some Portuguese. Pereira’s journey to Ca- zembe is known; he was heard of only here. Indeed the use they apply the ivory to shows they had none. The chief’s grave at Kalai had sev- enty large tusks placed around its edges, the points looking inwards, the bodies sunk half way in the ground; there were thirty on other graves, all rotten from exposure to the weather. This was the common applica- tion among all these tribes. _ . On Isothermal Lines ; by Prof. Hennessy, (Proc. Brit. Assoc., Aug. 1856, Ath. No. 1503.)—After some preliminary remarks as to the general influence of the distribution of land and water on the forms of isothermal lines, the author sa ties in the surface of the island, as well as the modifying action of gen- eral winds, and the resulting changes in the shapes of the isothermal, = | were explained. By the introduction of solar radiation it now follows from the mathematical theory of heat that the entire quantity of heat re- ceived by a unit of surface of the island will depend on two principal — terms: one, a function of the distance of the point from the coast, and capable of being expressed in some cases as a function of the difference of latitude of that point and the nearest point on the coast,—and, secondly, a term depending on the latitude and on an elliptic function of the secom order, having for its modulus the sine of the inclination of the equator to the ecliptic. It hence follows that the effect of solar radiation will be to transport the centres of all the closed isothermals towards the pole of the hemisphere in which the island is situated. Some of the lines may thus ultimately terminate at the coast.with their convex sides turned towards the equator, while others may still continue as closed curves in the inte rior. the influence of. difference of latitude and direct solar radiation were greatly predominant compared to other causes affecting the temper ature of the island, the isothermals might all terminate on the coast. If the continents may be considered as immense islands so circumstanced, they become subjects for the application of these views. Prof. Hennessy =| then proceeded to show that the isothermals of Ireland strictly conformed = to his theory. On discussing the observations collected and arranged by _ Dr. Lloyd, in his “Memoir on the Meteorology of Ireland,” it appeats some of its isethermals are actually closed curves, while others t a at points on the coast, the shortest being close to the equator. ical structure of Ireland, and the difference of nearly 4 t tween _ , -*He paper gay ¢ Miscellaneous Intelligence. 145 perature of the seas bathing its shores and the air above them, réndéred it probable, a priori, that Ireland should present a good example for the application of the theory. From the general nature of his views, Prof. Hennessy anticipated that the discussion of observations in other islands on the wor ing crank, A machine costing not more than 60s. or 70s. 1s being Supported by sliding collars, can have its axis moved at forays any distance out of the line of direction of the axis of the ¢ recommends them for general use in mounting every kind of machinery. He also mentioned the great advantage he derived from placing the cen- tre of the speculum a little out of the centre of the revolving table, tre-pi of ate Pleces only as usually employed, and which are liable to warp, while > (The e rise to-an animated debate _ J0med, particularly Mr. Lassell, who highly approved of the Ee ‘the Doctor's suggestions in using it. eS 146 Miscelianeous Intelligence. ~was much increased by Mr. Lassell’s taking part in it, Prof. Stoney re- 7. Observations with the Aneroid Metallique and Thermometer during ‘¥ e same localities, as recorded in the accompanying table. In Dent’s Tables 85 feet are calculated for the difference of each tenth of an inch of barometer: this multiplied by 39°37 inches, equal:to a metre, gives 33°46 feet, or 33°50 feet in common practice, as the multiple of each division in the aneroid metallique. In practice I found it very nearly correct :—for instance, there are 47 steps with a six-inch rise going dow2 into the Tomb of the Virgin Mary in the Valley of Jehoshap ashe 23°45 feet. Again, the minaret of the Church of Ascension on the top of the Mount of Olives measured 36°5 feet; by aneroid the difference =~ i eH E oe e. Ei 4 F a oS i=} 2 & “2, ma ® B = ¢ [=a 2 & 8 & = : Ses, Sea, 1313°5 feet by aneroid, while Lynch made it 1316-7 feet by level, and oe Symonds calls it 1312 feet. There is also a variation in the line of le to Usdum the line of salt incrustations was 40 yards and the line of drif, 70 yards distant from the edge of the sea, while along the west side ‘ ae a Miscellaneous Intelligence. 147 the peninsula “El Lisan” a reef of rocks was exposed abont a quarter of a mile distant from the shore, which does not appear to have been noticed spring 90°, where the small fish “Lebia” was caught close to the edge of the Dead Sea; Wady Em Burghik, temperature of water 76°; spring at 3°, 6 south of Sebbeh, near Wady El Mahras, at Birket El Khalil—but not at other places. It often blew hard during the day, but the waves never after the wind ceased. Several nights were quite calm, but I never ob- served any phosphorescence on the water. The table of the dry and wet bulb thermometer was made y the same instrument, as unfortunately I wis 4 - volving multiplicity of parts through successive individualizations, pro- d nwar d”—has been recognized among - 0} i ‘ ; P . 2 entitled “Earth and Man”, He has found it a fruitful principle also Visit to Philadelphia, we accompanied Prof. Leidy to examine the ana- tomical museum of the University of Pennsylvania. Among many rich objects of interest we observed a number of large anatomical models, great beauty, which were made at the University by H. D. Models are constructed after nature under the inspection of Prof. Leidy, is a colossa 148 Miscellaneous Intelligence. erto brought from Europe, the imitation of nature being excellent, and the models themselves light and durable. They may be had at compara- tively moderate prices by applying to the artist, at the University in Phil- elphia. 10. Osrrvany.—Death of Prof. Nicholas M. Heniz—Prof. N. M. Hentz died after a lingering illness, on the 25th November, 1856, at the residence of his son, Dr. Charles A. Hentz, at Marianna, Florida. Prof. H. was a native of France and came to the United States many years since. He was associated with Hon. George Bancroft as a teacher in the Round Hill School at Northampton, Mass. He was subsequently engaged at Cincinnati, Ohio, and then at Chapel Hill, N. C., as professor America, (vol. xxi, p. 100-109;) and a description of an American Spider constituting a new sub-genus, Spermop i, p- 116, 117). We trust that a full account of his life and scientific labors w year, having been born in 1784, The rell are “The History of British Fish Birds.” H i 1852. We defer to another time a farther mention of the work. | 14, Elementary Course of Geology, Mineralogy, and Physical Geog raphy ; by Prof. Davi 'T. Ansrep, M.A., F.RS., etc., Consulting Mining Engineer, etc. 2nd edition, 606 pp. 12mo. London: 1846. John Van Voorst.— tive J or Rocks and their fossils, in which the author begins as he should — the earliest rocks; and Part IV treats of Practical Geology. This co® cluding part covers 120 pages. The work is not especially adapted to American students, in our language. age A yet for a text-book of the size, we know of no better » ‘ge a Miscellaneous Intelligence. 149 15. Chemical and Pharmaceutical Manipulations: A Manual of the Mechanical and Chemico-mechanical operations of the Laboratory. For the use of Chemists, Druggists, Manufacturers, Teachers, and Students. , by Camppztt Morrrt, Professor of Analytic and pplied Chemistry in the University of Maryland, and Crarence Morrir, there is on the “oxyds of the cerium metals with a view to e is a paper or h a , finding a method for their quantitive separation,” and on artificial heavy r 17. The Microscope and its Revelations ; by Wu. B. Carpenter, MD., teal Medicine, etc, by Francis Gurwey Sura, M.D., Professor tes x lege, ete. 724 pp., 8vo, illustrated by hard & Lea.— The illustrations are numerous and excellent. ae 18. The Quarterly Journal of Pure and Applied Mathematics ; edited iy J. J. Sytves .A., F.R.S., Professor of Mathematics in the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, and N. M. Ferrers, M.A, Fellow of Gon- 150 Miscellaneous Intelligence. ville and Rens College, Cambridge; assisted by G. G. Sroxzs, M.A, > .R.S., Lucasian Professor of Mathematics in i University of Cam-— bri ridge, A. “neente M.A., F.R.S., late Fellow of Trinity College, Cam- bridge, and M. Hermrre, ‘Corresponding editor in Paris. London: John arker & Son, West Strand. Each number 5s.—This able quarterly, edited by some of the best mathematicians of England, commend in 18 > Paient Te Report for 1855; Cuartes Mason, Commissioner of Patents. Vol ads Agriculture ; 488 PP» 8vo, with many illustrations. Vol. If, Mechanics; 380 p PP» with 348 plates—The first volume besides much valuable information j in various departments of agriculture, contains ers of considerable length on Insects mogeene the Cotton plant, and bese Climatology of the Cotton districts of the globe. There is also a by D. J. Brown on the seeds and cuttings recently obtained by the Patent Office, with ae as to the expediency of introducing others Th on Mechanics, by the publication of plates of woodeuts of the inventions patented, me a work of very great value to the a oe & 5 Q Cy & & 0g e a a 23 : & b=) Qu @® oS ° = = ae i und crowded woodcuts of this kind, arranged under twenty-one heads, com- mencing with Agriculture 33 plates, Metallurgy 24 plates, bes and tele “Manufactures 37. plates, Chemical Processes, and so The Illustrated Annual Register of Rural Affairs jo "Cultivator ote for — containing jones cal i. gay for the Farmer and an ip priation i this purpose from t ur ak a Asa irc, M.D., Entomologist of the N. Y. State es eee So- -— y Sion ia of the Entomological Society of France, &c. 180 PP» : vo any. 3. Snddhagaee Contributions to Knowledge, Vol. vate 1856.—This Be vee contains: Article Ist, Introduction. Article 2 of the United States, or msec £ historical and bibliographical, of the = <4 ‘ Bai +. * Miscellaneous Intelligence. 151 Stress of information and. opinion respecting Vestiges of ep ky in a United States. Article 3rd, On the recent secular i ¢ mcm » Circles and of Spheres, b Benj. Alvord, Major, United Sta tes rmy. ‘ Article 5th, Researches, chemical and physio ogical, yenoein certain orth American a b ones, mi - Ul apes ription of some remains of fishes from the Carbonifer- Mb. and Devonian Formations of the United States. By Joseph Leidy, t. XIV.—Description of some remains of extinct Mammalia. By Joseph Leidy, M.D. Art —On the Sandstone Fossils of Connecticut River. By James seats, M D. e, U.S. N, in his fret and second expeditions to the Polar regions, with “dati pio and remarks. By Elias Durand. Art. XVII—A Commentary on the Synopsis Fungorum in Americ’ » D. » F.LS., ev. M. A. Curtis, F.A.A.A, Art. XVIII ~Synopeis of = Melolonthidz of ‘the United States. By ~ John L. LeCont Car oe omg Assoc: Inst. C.E.: Prize Essay on the Prevention of the _ Smoke Nuisa 4 pp. lar arge 8vo, London, i856. The special Gold Medal was ~ awarde wt for thi es by the Sait for the Encouragement rs) Manufae- erce a A. bees, I de Universelle de 1865, 420 pp., 8vo. Pati 1856.—A volume of much value on the ® Ps various architectural materials of France and other cconttie rapeeaneeey, at the fee reat Exhibiti is, i n : he Compte Rendu Annuel addressé a 8. Exc, M. de Brock, ae des des Fiaions, _ ~ par le Directeur de FOberratoie Physique Central, A. T. Kupffer. a 4 ea ik St. Speen 1855. re . ve ahroiucher der i &: Cotral- Anstalt fiir eteorologie und Hrdmagnetismus, yon oe . : and., Jabrgang 1852. spe and 400 pages 4to. Published ig bor x: sige %. Roya vag my of Sciences of Vienna. Wien, 1856.—A work of superior sty: * Dikicecdes riften der mp Sarg Akademie der Wissenschaften. ape 8 é Naturwi ith 26 — and 11th volum : lien he ftliche Classe. 10th peared fe : er and beautiful illustrations, © _ of a Carboniferous Crustacean, related to Erypterus a rygotu —* Lepidoderma Imhofi. In the 1th volume, J. J. Heckel has a paper on — any — -_ with i ere and F. Unger oné on fossil plants: there are besides many pe i Pe é ‘ fa Afri ia . * ca, b Dr. Th. ¥. He * Jahres-Bericht ae Chemie Teel von Dr. J. R. Wagner. rt : | + wet ‘1855. Mit 65 Ori riginalholzschnitt 8yvo. ee 1856. 508 pp- ae ee ork aly uld be in every Matis. or College 1 Libr “eS oe Sy 152 Miscellaneous Inteltigence, _ , Pl ind in line salt (hydrou clpiate of soda ye magnesia) fee South pmo oa N. Bi : and ana lpn i Si a > lis); J. Wyman. Vo L Fin Prof. Jerrrres Wyman, President of the Society. p: 2, List of Mollusca 0 f Herkimer and Otsego Cos., N. Y.; J. Lewis.—p. 4, Note on - the N. ashville Warbler as found in Mass assachusetts ; “Brewer.—p. 6, Note on the Geo- = br] &. 5 ° Py a ad fe =. 8 FS) 4 5 Eg. a ed to = pete Bo z. o n ° mh is3] P<] o @ F e ih m p oO o r= n o oe o a bs ogers. rmation of Deep Rive Chemical analysis of a variety of Agalmatolite ; C. 7. Jackson. Proceepines Acap. Nat. Scr. Paraperpnta, Vol. VII, No. seal 140, On a new genus and oe of Urodela ; C. Girard—p. 141, Note on larva of Bufo : : ansas Nebraska ; #. Hallowell—p. 253, ‘On fede § in the Collection of ped Aca pee J. Saat te 255, Ag Vertebrated Remains from North Carolina.—p. 2 in some remains Missouri ; J. Leidy. 7 *RAM L. D I AC DIAGRAM IL S howing the h sight of the tides & the distances dal intervals of diurnal high water according im the tuniti sin the Gulf of Mexico = 5 4 between the tidal station Florida ions 10 Moon's dec i owing the vartal Sh ation at Egmont Key, Tampa Bay, ( observed tides = Heights of < ee. “ - 3 . v aos z 3 + = 7 2 a 3 —~"” Nautical Miles E aeBeE wan IB! \. ices S 5 hat i ta j @ Lo er t i ems | Att coe ie 5 ; : mt ee ayy jsusenas gt Readout amar Seren eee as POCO E L |S Be Pl aot SS i a Wa Pas 3 Si b+ : a (OE Rw ees Pe ionic Wikis EEPEOr En Pee eee be eee! aR a! 2 Ee a Pe ee ee tf ry ‘. $s | one ae 4 +4 ae oe os : +++ } L ae? ++ | . +— + t i : q b =i x dash oe + + t+ is bait % ' $e6_tLLLUI [e+ ft 25 ° j Cape Florida pe Indian Key 4 er ‘ DIAGRAM fl of diurnal high wat Representing the annual variations of the lunitidal i South West Pass Caleasien Galveston r Graphical Observations... DIAGRAMS OF a eae | Lo Se Sees a le a ee +--+ J. pj | — = } | Ose Ge mea ae COPE ECC CCC ae a. | a EL iia GiB i : ttt tH 7 tt Lap +H—+—_+__| 4 ft La ig N | e : § 7 ~ : uit & we" ie : a + ts ne : z Baae ae Tit 2s ee ce hesgee gi Sons es ot 8 as th hee xe 28 | a A Bai ea | tae eee T+ Bass on ee s q ce i June May DAL INTERVALS OF DIURNAL TI DES the * m . ia | tft ey ’ es + i i 1 { Pee | | | ' } 4 Ht a T T | iT teliat { Ley 2 cae a) Ee a = Ea es i r te aa }++—- + wie + 4 us t+ on SS ss ea) Tle a 8 s by the U.S.Coast Survey ea a a a i Sasa : ; s . Fee p i 25% $ at t ; Z ait i 1 Ts | ‘aes BT xd a Ht Li a4 t =~ —— t | =a SS OS ed Gees Go coe ee oe i e tft t i Pee | CT SEE 5N Ei tae ise Be 2 Ad 8 Oe ed tl ‘ oo oe ——y ct +—}— — a t No Lt a (ee ames Cael ts Wie VE ai ++ Fa. | PS a Ew ‘ne Gan aoe Se | + dP Did tt NY A wt 14 x ‘2.'— ina, lade} i ‘ | | . oe Coot sia anew r pata ey re be Sits 2) EE Ge dept SS oe ae ae aan GN eS ae Se ee ee ee en Gani ae a os Mae SS ee ee CaEeeE Oa oe tervals of diarnal wave from mean of whole vear. im funitidal s of L November os as aa a I Urs a | . y 25D Sk GS Ee eS ee cue oe ee SS ee cae eet October June 1 A oe Poko bt an ae + | = a “i oaaveal aa. ape Florida... __ © Pndian Keys ico oi FE _}|_}+_4_+_++-—_+—- +--+ Tortugas... St.George’ Istd.. . oVewsacciae oe FORT MORGAN oF Fort Morgan graphdec 30 Cat Foleo 53. F 5 a Anwar a. Brazos Santiago. j + 4 . 3 ii Lol : - | Se GRS Ge GRR RRSER BRL AG a! ett a eae JERE E 4A+ + (S255 m ae | Lid ptf tt ft 7 z ff 3 a8 mrt i. | | fe] Ae Fs SEBS GRE aE SF A + Set oe b - | | | | | | | | | | | | % BBM Bue SE ert | | ak patted & g N ij {se | \ | | | eS: gti Mt tt Sct co IBS BOGSSSRNGE tf 4+} 1-4 | 2aR8 Pee ||| ‘aE Bane | Pagaau ge eapgEUeECBHESEHGEEEE see : Paage RE aces a oe I z bs Bao Stn eae Ps . TI] a | + | i He ae : Ptr onsen an Lt | Notes Denote the approximate Cotidal Lines, & of the ‘ the Rota numerals the Cotidal Hours 4 lin Greenwich time GULF OF MEXICO Yai sey ed : : pee : and following the lines FROM DIURNAL WAVE ‘ Denotes Tidal Station, and the figu row } the Corrected Eatablishment tn Green- wich time. he Const Su ¥ APPROXIMATE COTIDAL LINES — AD.Bache Supat. Scale 10.606000 1856 | # DIAGRAM VI a RET a ON ERE Te oTAM + proneneeenenienaict 4 Tansas Piasst” | v4 . + enmminoertetia a AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS, [SECONID SERIES.] Ann XV.— Report upon the tg of Microscopie Weenisisien of the So Soundings made by Lieut. Berryman, of the U. 8. Navy, on his recent voyages to moe from Treland in the Arctic ; by Prof. . W. Ba Aer, addressed to Lieut. M. F. Maury, National aoe P specimens submitted to examination were of two series, ou ts those collected on the voyage to Ireland, which will a Te- ce, as series 1, and those made on the return voyage, whi TM series 2, The specimens of series 1 were from the fe ollow- Ba localities, viz :* No. Latitnde. Longitude. No. Latitude. Lo e. 1. 47°60’ North, 52° 00’ West. | 13, 52° 24’ North. 29°16’ West oe oe = gt ays 14. 6226 =“ “ Re BS Pe woe gn? oe 15. 52 26 ae 4. 40 97 50 58 « 16, 52-08 ct 24 51 « ‘ * vf 50 36. « io: BAL 2 ee.28-.,." Si ARB) «go 19 & au oe Pe ee x 50 05 cc 40 26 1 50 “ 20 12 “ oie i er 0. 62 01 * #17 *06 * « ‘ < a0 30 8 gh gg ke 91, aon - 36:05 « 4 0% St 06 « 85 50 99. 62 03 “* 150000: 9 I, 51 15 “ 84 08 ea 93. 61 52 “ 18 16 “ e 12, 51 “ 32 20 «“ 94, 1 ‘54 « 12-23 £ ¥ ie $ Corrected series of outa furnished for either series, the apna the Prost omited fn ~ both th tables. The least t depth marked a Spe rae ie men SEconp sens, VOL. im, XO. 68.—MARCH, 1557. ye Obsery ; ¥ 154 Results of Microscopic Examinations of Soundings. n stating the results obtained from the specimens, a will be referred to by the numbers as above given. Numbers | to 4 inclusive are composed of fine siliceous sands, the grains of which are mostly of small size with sharp angles. The organ contents are not abundant; of the calcareous Polythalamia there 5 is ery quartz, with some feldspar, &c. It is much the’ ne an Rinisest of all the specimens exami Some of the quartz grains are rou unded by attrition, while a large portion are quite shat and unabraded. Among the or- © oggacee were noticed with some ie ganic contents a very few Po Diatomaceze and sponge spicules . 6 is a fine calcareous mud which effervesces briskly with : sida and yields by this treatment a large residue of siliceous Vos, 7 to 21 inclusive are fine aisirsoee muds which effer- vesce briskly with acids, and abound in the calcareous Polythal- ama and particularly in species of Globigerina. They also con- tain numerous and very Raub ts species of the siliceous Poly- cistins, Diatoms, and Spon he mineral residue from ot acids is usually quite small in relative amount, and consists of ae minute sharp-angled grains among which quartz el i Nos. 8 to 21 inclusive contain, in addition to what is above mentioned, what appear to be well characterized ‘woleardl + ashes, in the shape of minute fragments of pumice and obsidian, crys tals of various minerals single and in groups, with vitreous pro — penetrated with crystals. These substances generall y form a small portion of the residue left by the acids, and may a more readily detected when this residue is in water than Xo — eral in balsam. They are particularly recognizable in : | mR a ae and some very fine and perfect specimens of Coscinodiscus uh pets oe Acai Yon and @. chomnhgy paige > in these s ens. CO. fureili rinsings from the coarse gravel of No.5 gave a few Polythalamia, and § They are scarcely less so in No. 15 to 18. In the No. 8 and No. 21 specimens No. the voleanic products were found, but only in in small proportion and after cafe Eee ‘grees of longitude or about a thousand miles, is an ex Results of Microscopic Examinations of Soundings. 155 Nos. 23 and 24 are similar in character to No. 22 but they yielded no globules of iron pyrites. me general remarks on the results of the examination of the specimens above referred to will now be given. __ Ist. The employment of acid enables me to correct an errone- ous statement which I made sometime since concerning the dee soundings of the Atlantic. Having at that time only a sma Portion of the soundings, and being unwilling to destroy a mor- sel of matters so precious, I did not apply acids, and hence over- looked the portion of mineral matter which though often very small is invariably present. nd. The mineral matter in these soundings generally shows no signs of abrasion, the sharpest edges and angles of even the Soltest minerals being retained. The minute size of the parti- cles and their sharp angular state appears to show that they been quietly deposited from gentle currents and not subse- quently disturbed. Even ihe coarsest and most abraded mate- th. These marls contain a great number of undescribed or- ganisms, both siliceous and calcareous. Many species which in Whe as far south as Florida and the Gulf of Mexico are found Mm the northern soundings above described, while some v - markable spécies found in the northern soundings have not been iti i The descrip- 5th. Only a few i t casts of Polyth characterized pie ans have been detected in these north- *™ soundings, while their presence is rather the rule than the ae with regard to the southern soundings above referred to. . 6th. The occurrence of what appear to be volcanic products n the bed of the ocean for a distance of about twenty-two de- ‘l= which deserves careful scrutiny. That any ¢ 156 Results of Microscopic Examinations of Soundings. ir origin.* f 7th. The question of the original source of the volcanic pro- ducts is one of great interest. How far these plutonic es No. Latitude. Longitude. No. Latitude. Longitude. 1. 49°12’ North. 49° 42’ West. | 5. 49° 49’ North, 45° 54’ West. 2, 49 8 os 49 05 « pO Be. 44 45 2" S 49.40 .* 48 29 « | oth 46 * 13:44 4... 49 49 5 © 46 43 « * Since the above was written I have received through the kindness of Lieut. Maury a very extensive series of soundings made in the North ut a ract its striking resem eto soundings made im the Gulf Stream off Key Biscayne, Florida, by the U. S. Coast Survey. It was in fact a true Globigerina marl, largely specimens in containing well ¢ erized green-sand casts of Poly mia. _ It differed however from the Florida specimens in containing very few silice- ous Diatoms or Polycistins, forms which are remarkably abundant in the Gulf Stream and Gulf of Mexico. is specimen presented another remarkable character, which I detected evet It contains large proportion of volcanic pro- imens, but vastly more abun- those mn to the map for the position of this r longitude 130° 40? east, placed it in the very place where a resemblance to Stream of the Aflantic was to be depaeled viz., in the “Ja As for the volcanic are but too many active sources for rials along the line of this Asiatic current. F. ae & Coal-fields of the East Indian Archipelago. 157 y ipelag They will be referred to by the numbers given in the above table. Nos. 1 to 6 are calcareous muds, containing much mineral matter, and only a small portion of Polythalamia. The siliceous organisms are also comparatively few consisting of some large Coscinodisci, a very few Polycistine, and some Spongiolites, — No voleanic products were detected. ' | 0.7 is also a fine caleareous mud showing to the naked eye but few Polythalamia, but rather rich in microscopic organisms, consisting of minute Pol ythalamia, with Polycistins, Diatoms, and Spongiolites. No voleanic products were detected. Hoping that the above will answer the purpose of a general Teport upon the microscopic character of these soundings, I re- Serve for a subsequent publication the details of the zoological results afforded by these highly interesting series of soundings. Art, XVI—Cbal Fields of the East Indian Archipelago.* Labuan, Bruni and Sarawak.—Little more than ten years ago, the sn known coal-bed in the Indian Archipelago was that of ermin, at the entrance of the Borneo River. Subsequent pen e : their Teceiving it direct from the pit’s mouth, are necessarily the Most important, and it was for this reason that we gave prece- Of the coal fields of the northwest coast of Borneo, ae <| Labuan and Bruni, where the seams are of a thickness calculate to astonish the home miners, are capable of supplying steam lines oing or returning, for a supply of coal to last the entire round, Or will much tit be lost eed doing, as smoother water is ex- “© Oited from the Singapore Free Press, for March 6, 18, and April 8 158 Coal-fields of the East Indian Archipelago. rienced during both monsoons on the coast of Borneo than on the other side of the China Sea, a point of importance to auxiliary screw steamers when making the passage against the monsoon. But the spirited proprietors of the Labuan mines do not seem disposed to await the course of events, and the steam- collier they have sent out to run from Labuan to this port and Hongkong, (a vessel of 1,000 tons burthen and peculiarly adapted for the service,) is likely soon to settle the question as to whether the produce of the mimes of Borneo can compete with British coal at the Eastern depots. Sail-vessels are not well adapted for service as colliers in these seas, where the periodical winds blow for six months together in opposite directions, except when it happens that the mines and market are so situated with regard to each other that the passage can be made both ways with a fair wind, as is the case with Sourabaya and the coal fields of South Tmeo. The last overland mail brought intelligence that a company had been organized for working a coal field in Sir James Brooke's territory at Sarawak. Very little seems to be known about it Sarawak mine, however, from its inland situation, will not be so well adapted as a coaling station for steamers as that of Labuan, which lies on the shore of a navigable strait, so that passing ves- sels can load their coal from the pit’s mouth without diverging from their course. Banjur-Massin and Koti—The island of Borneo appears to be one great coal field, for every large river intersects a coal-bec and it seems only necessary to seek and mineral is found. Thus as its mines more or less convenient. Labuan, Bruni and Sarawak, on the north coast, the banks of the Kapuas on the west coast, Banjar-Massin and the banks of the Great Dyak River on the south coast, and Pulo Laut, Pagattan and Koti on the east coast, each has its coal-field, although those only which we notice are worked at present for other than local purposes. he mines of Banjar-Massin, which lie about 70 miles above the town, on the banks of the Batu-Api River, are the most import- ant of those at present worked within the Dutch-Indian territo- — ries, not on account of the superiority of the coal-measures, a @ te Coal-fields of the East Indian Archipelago. 159 communication with Celebes and the Moluccas, steam engines are pretty constantly employed in pumping out the dry-dock and in orking the machinery of the great steam factory, where the engines of government, and of the sugar Jabriques in the eastern part of Java are made and repaired. The Banjar-Massin coal is well adapted for steam purposes, as it burns freely and does not cake or “clinker,” but for the same reason it is not so well adapted for the forge as English or Australian Newcastle coal. The cost of the mineral, delivered at the depot in Banjar-Massin is 2 guilders (3s 4d) per ton, and the freight across to Sourabaya varies from 5 to 8 guilders more. It is usually exported in large . blocks of an oblong form, the small coal being either thrown aside or kept for home use. Large prahus and square-rigged vessels belonging to Arab and native traders of Sourabaya and Grisse are chiefly employed in the transport, and as they would otherwise have io lie idle during several months of the year, the eight is sometimes very low. During the southeast monsoon, 2 voyage across, both ways, rarely lasts more than two or three YS. The mines of Koti lie on the banks of the river of that name, r. by M seas for the transport of merchandize, the Koti mines wil be found useful in supplying coal depots in the Strait of Macas- dis ams of coal have been found at Retéh and Palembang, on the east coast of Sumatra; near Macassar, on the island of ae It will be found on examination that all these are inclu- Within the submerged plateau which extends from the south- *astern part of Asia nearly two-thirds of the distance across to amination will show that they occur only on those parts of the Plateau which have been subjected to violent upheaval since the ormation of the sedimentary rocks, a process which has til and broken through the strata, exposing sections to the view of any traveller who may be peeing over the country. It is thus Id in __ iscovered, and we believe that in every instance the discovere b> hen) hy nd we 1 y the natives of the country, to whom, indeed, the exist- * 160 Coal-fields of the East Indian Archipelago. Certainly nature has not been so considerate as to display her beds, although their pga does not imply the actual existence of the more valuable mineral. That such measures may i ten years of age. This successful experiment nearly doubled the value of the town allotments in the course of a fh the result became known: ; “We have great pleasure in calling attention to the recent dis- covery of a valuable seam of coal on the property of Messrs. Walter Gray and Co., situated on the north bank of the Bremer, : about one mile from the town. This desirable work was com menced some months ago, and notwithstanding great difficulties su ned, such as boring through masses of hard rock, those difficulties have been surmounted, and the discovery of a seam of coal nine feet in thickness has rewarded the exertions of the — isi depth of enterprising proprietors. The shaft was sunk to the 100 feet before the miners came to the coal, and from the nature : » ~ G. Jones on the Zodiacal Light. 161 of the superincumbent strata it is expected that the mine can be | Worked both with profit to the owners and security to the people employed. A sample of the coal has been forwarded to town, and has been submitted to the inspéction of competent judges, 0 ronounced it ‘to be quite equal, if not superior, in quality to any hitherto discovered. It appears to be that descrip- tion which is known as caking coal, and we understand it is very pure, and leaves after combustion a very small percentage of ash. The sample before us seems to be highly bituminous, an well adapted for the purpose of producing steam which sets machinery in motion.—North Australian.” Ince writing the above, while looking through the 1st vol- ume of the Journal of the Lndian Archipelago for information re- specting the coal deposits of Kedah and Ligor, we came upon a paragragh (p. 165) to the effect that a mass of anthracite was discovered near the base of Pearl’s Hill in 1846, when the exca- vations were being made for the foundation of Tock Sing’s Hos- pital. It is singular that so certain an indication of the existence of coal in ‘our immediate vicinity was not followed up, as a gallery driven horizontally from the base of the hill would soon have brought its contents to light. Certainly the value of anthri- Cite as fuel was not so well known as at the present time, although then, as how, it was used by steamers in preference to bitumi- nous coal throughout the United States; nor was the consump- ‘on of fuel by steamers frequenting this port equal to a twen- heth of the present amount. The time has now arrived, how- ever, when any delay in prosecuting an inguiry of so muc Promise would impair the enterprising character of the inhabit- ants of this settlement. a ~ Arr. ay 1t3 = Observations on the Zodiacal Light; by Rev. Grorer J oNEs, A.M., Chaplain United States Navy. To appreciate the vast amount of labor bestowed by the ee Mr. Jones on his zodiacal light researches, the volume whose title ~ Sven below should be carefully examined. It consists almost Wholly of celestial maps with the position of the light noted OWN, as ascertained at each of his observations, the maps being We, actual records as they were made by him at sea, accom panied Y the notes or remarks that were written down at the same . Observatio t ; ; April 2. 1853 to April 22, 1855, made inf on Weed the Uthat Been ake Pica. Mississippi, during her ad one tained, “hy Seas, and her voyage homeward, with conclusions from the data t ro o | i Ass v. George J, Chaplain U.S. Navy :—being Volume III of the ‘ates Japan Expedition. Washington, 1 ND SERIES, VOL. xx1I1, NO. 68.—MARCH, 1857. 21 162 G. Jones on the Zodiacal Light. or morning, (Sundays always excepted,) till our reaching home on the 22d April, 1855, to see, and, ei one exception, to ma record of the Zodiacal Light, when the moon and clouds did not My oe a G. Jones on the Zodiacal Light. 163 interfere to prevent. In the case of that one exception, I saw the light; but being shut up among the houses in Canton, I could hot get reliable boundaries. he development of facts in the Zodiacal Light came upon me gradually, and, before they had disclosed themselves, much val- uable time in the high southern latitudes, at the early part of our cruise, was lost; on our return, however, we went still further to the south, and I was able to make amends in some measure for this loss. : There is no mention made in any books on the Zodiacal Light, of any differences in the light itself;* but I very soon be hotice that there was a Stronger Light at the central part, or Which Cassini has oi en the boundaries in his written accounts. It is not to besa sed by the reader that any of these kinds when my eye had got accustomed to observations, I was generally se make out without much singe ate ad © Soundary which is given in my charts. 1 of the Diffuse Light was also tolerably well marked. That : ya not fanciful in this, is shown by the frequency with whic soiree Tsons on board, both officers and seamen, when pe : do 80 by me, and without any leading questions, drew boundary * Unless, following extract from Mairan’s Traité Physique t Historique de Crore Boreal, refer to such a diference: "Jai encore obeervé ois, qu’aprés que la Lumiére Zodiacal weurs 1 t part . = "me de lance ou de fusean, toute la partie du couchant démeurait plus éclairée que la Teste du ciel, sur 30 ou 40 dégréa d’amplitude.” P. 36. 164 G. Jones on the Zodiacal Light. this Light, except an allusion by Cassini in one of his observa tions, in which, however, he tells us that, both then and after- wards, he could come to no certain conclusions as to their exis- _* “Je doutai si elle n’avait pas un peu de mouvement particulier vers le septen- trion; car les deux plux luisantes d’Aries qu’elle frisait_ au commencement par son pe , faurent ensuite comprises dans cette clarté; ce qui a été depuis par les observations des jours suivans. Mais je ne fus pas en étre enti¢re- ment assuré ni alors, ni aprés plusiers jours, parceque l’extremité de cette clarté était € tous eétes trop douteuse, safflaiblissant peu-d-peu ; de sorte quill était extrémé ment difficile de la déterminer précisement.”"—Mémoires de l Academie Royale des ences, tom. viii. + Cassini remarks on the character of the Zodiacal Light as follows: “Il ne faut anes réduire les a de cette lumiére 4 un régle aussi exact? que l'anneau de Saturne, parcequ'il s’en faut beaucoup qu'elle soit si bien terminée et qu'elle ait autant de consistence; étant assez évident, par les differences G. Jones on the Zodiacal Light. 165 advise any one to draw conclusions from exceptions, in a matter where mistakes can be so easily made by the observer, but only from the general facts of this book; Ihave put down all, excep- tions and incongruities as well as others, not feeling authorized only be the case where his latitude is equal to the sun’s de- Clination, but on the opposite side of the equator. I saw this hothing to do with the results, I have been puzzled to know by what kind of lines to designate the boundaries of this mid- Might light; for it was very dim, quite as much so as the Diffuse ght; yet when I came to bound it by lines of dashes, I found they produced confusion when the Diffuse Light itself was marked down; so I gave it a line of alternate dashes and dots, and thus it is designated in the charts. gicuts ; metime early in 1854, I saw in a newspaper a brief notice only in amazem. &ave abundant e and changes I h ales qu'elle fait i AE Me el] eit des variations réelles, outre at Pautre, quelle rego filles qui vewiiene de> rola sth se bs e des diverses dégres de la clarté re lob et du concours de la lumieré des astres, et méme de la wet ee des yeux oe Teeteur.” — Mémoi ademie Royale, tom. viii, pp. 163,164. * Unless, bate ote te ie Royale LNA Sg, ap 0 we class this with what a German w 166 G. Jones on the Zodiacal Light. that the case required. It was a great satisfaction, after my Tfe- turn home, to find that Baron Humboldt had observed the same thing while in southern latitudes, though he thought it more probable that it was owing to “ processes of condensation going on in the uppermost strata of air, by means of which the trans- parency, or rather the reflection of light, may be modi i nner.” My records, however, quite dying away; and so back and forth for about three-q ters of an hour; and then a change still higher upwards, to more permanent bounds. A reference to the charts will show zigzag lines in some of them down near the horizon. These are the boundaries of a very effulgent light which appeared at the times specified, and within these bounds. It has no other distinction than its greater brightness, and the cause of it I cannot surmise. Cassini appears to have noticed the same thing as will be seen by reference to his annotations. Light, and in coloring, it was all the same; and, in its su oar rapid changes, it still kept strictly within the Zodiacal t bo The’ : : e records; and I never failed afterwards to watch for recurrences of such light. But they did not often present themselves; for G. Jones on the Zodiacal Light. 167 of the observations, about 63 the western horizon, bright streak appeared in the western sky, along the ecliptic; the joint light from the sun and moon, reflected from the nebu- Some of the observations in April, and the great care which I took in them to be precise as well as correct, have led me to in- Sert them. The unbroken series commences at June 7, 853. Tom that time, till our arrival in New York on 22d April, . 1855, every observation is recorded; and, except on Sunday, I hever once failed to have observations, if the moon or clouds did not prevent, * x * x * : * At this stage of our work, effected and proposed, it may, per- aps, seem to be premature to draw conclusions ; but still there are certain things that seem to force themselves on the mind from the data here afforded; and, if the conclusions which I shall now pr to draw are not decisive to the reader's mind, a the can at least furnish subjects for discussion that may, in the _. &nd, bring us to the truth. ; ; It seems to be quite conclusive, on an Inspection of these charts, that we never, at any one time, see the whole actual extent of Hodiacal Light, This subject can perhaps be elucidated by Roticing a common event,—a cloud, silvered at one edge by “on gatateh 1854, first quarter at Greenwich, 6d.7h; December 1854, do, 264 168 G. Jones on the Zodiacal Light. rays of the declining sun. The sun may be shining on the bor- dering, quite around that cloud; and, if so, it is sending off, from every portion of the border, an equally brilliant, silvery ig ut our eye is in a position to catch this reflection from only one portion of it, and the rest is dull to our vision. If we changes of place. So, also, when a rainbow is presented to our eye: the myraids of drops of falling water in the whole rain- shower are sending off, from each drop, reflections of light in all - directions, and the universal atmosphere about us is full of these brilliant, variously-colored rays; but only that portion which, to us, forms the rainbow-arch, can reach our eye, and all the rest is lost to our sight. - it is also with the Zodiacal Light; and the proof that we ee see the whole of its extent at once, is manifest in the fol- owin : 1. ‘hat when I was ina position north of the ecliptic, the main body of the Zodiacal Light was on the northern side of _ that line. 2. When I was south of the ecliptic, the main body of the Zodiacal Light was on its southern side. 3. _was equally divided by the ecliptic, or nearly so. ie ap’ ‘Tirough July of 1854, the apices, in the evening, were decidedly on the northern side of the ecliptic, though my latitude was only about 25° N; while, in September of the same year, though es! latitude was nearly as before, the apices were on the southern side of the ecliptic, as shown by my morning observations; the * Which is the ve fe ees carta; ‘and why Lefer soften to the onion of the spedaior an regards G. Jones on the Zodiacal Light. 169 mornings then being very favorable for correct observation, on account of the high angle of the ecliptic with the horizon. Again, in April, 1855, the apices and greatest body of the light, Were north of the ecliptic, even at times when I was, myself, to the southward of that line; as was the case in the first hours of the evening observations, up to the 18th of that month. The following general view rather shows us that there is something on this subject which may yet be learned, than that we have now the materials for anything definite and certain on the sub- ject. 1853. April—The planes of ecliptic and Zodiacal Light cross each other. ; July.—By evening observations, the apex of Zodiacal Light appears to be north of the ecliptic. Morning ob- ns. September.—Apices on the south, by morning observa- * * % [The discussion of theories here follows in the volume and after objections to others, he comes to the one adopted. my ition on our globe, and even b ge tf pod tion in a single night; and 3. That the Bie of ected light require an arrangement, or a shape, of this nebu- ’ oS will give us, at the base of the Zodiacal Light, SECOND SERIES, VOL, XXIII, NO. 68.—MARCH, 1867. 9 e _ 170 G. Jones an the Zodiacal Light. — These masses ought to take a spheroidal form, with a movement of rotation in the direction of the rotation, since the inferior molecules have a motion less than the superior ones; they have thus formed so many planets in a state of vapor. But, if one of them has been sufficiently powerful to unite, successively, by 18 . attraction, all the others around its centre, the ring of vapor will have thus become transformed into only one spheroidal mass of vapors, circulating around the sun with a rotation in the same direction as its revolution. Now, if we follow the changes which further pong ought to produce in the vapory planets, of whose ave just spoken, we shall see grow up in the cen condition, the planet resembles perfectly the sun in the nebulous State, in which we have just been considering it; the cooling f its atmosphere, G. Jones on the Zodiacal Light. 171 with awe, and as a thing which they may scarcely dare to touch. It is regarded with favor, yet there are few cosmologists who venture a decided opinion upon it; and, indeed, while there are few points from which it can be controverted, Laplace himself seems to have exhausted what can be said in its favor, in the few lines which he has given to it, in a manner far from positive, and _ ina retired corner of his book. If that theory be true, however, absorbed in itself all the nebulous matter of the ring from which it Was originally formed; and that, consequently, there may be, to each of them, a remainder substance, in the form of a ring, or rings, with the planet for its centre. In the case of Saturn, such rings are visible by the aid of our glasses. To Jupiter, such rings have given four satellites; for our own globe, one / Between PQR ae AMN the nebulous ring.—E, the i obeg Scat direction of the Sun.—B, F, D, H, M, horizons; B, at 41 80’; aig poner dis 4 ** 80°; H, at 14 30’; M, at midnight.—S, T, vertices; 8, at 4x 80°; T, ; B other planets, and confining ourselves pT Light aia af a eo central to the earth, to which they : _ Sttlon,* the observation quoted in the former section - relative proportions of the earth and the ring, and also its dista prey of Course, not given in this diagram with any effort at certainty; the ui diagram, is, Pi c “ve yor eral far greater than can repreaentet Wever, sufficiently correct for our present 172 G. Jones on the Zodiacal Light. ose them to be at any other part, as he may think best. an Z oY, a, as SM, are supposed to be rays of light proceeding from that luminary. ted from plate- cage. water, pet garcia me, Be AP Ses S43 161° 343 See Oo rues. 146° 184 270 ra Git! 3 Biers ai? 101 162 HERS 58 aera 116° 59 105 $’’’", at midnight, 90° 18 25 woe Oe oak 67° 18 25 cidence between the proportions in the above figures, showing the number of reflected rays, and what has been alway sented to his eye. If the reader will also carry these I incident and re light beyond the midnight horizon-line, to G * a si aye < ee ie | G. Jones on the Zodiacal Light. 173 any point there of the nebulous ring, he will see how we may easily get what is referred to in my charts under the German stances are favorable for it, in those portions of the sky ep a ow night hours, as I was often able to do, and it harmonizes fully with the strength of the light as then presented to the eye. Indeed, while Bouguer’s results are antagonistic to all the the- ories discussed in the previous sections, and seem to be utterly irreconcilable with them, they fully coincide with this, in every one of its aspects; and, so far as they can go, they satisfy the mind, in all the varying characters of the Zodiacal Light. | _ 4 said, so far as shey can go; for there are points in this sub- Ject, such as the pulsations of light, and what in the annotations to these charts is called the “effulgent light,” which belong to Something in the nebulous matter which we have not yet fairly teached, and which must be left for explanation to yet further observations, 167, last paragraph,) from the general mass of data—namely, that as the Renanes place is changed relatively to wri g! re Uons of the nebulous ring, such portions change, for him, fully understand why, when I was on the northern side of the ecliptic—z, e, ental 'the northern edge of the ring—its reflec- tion was chiefly on that side; why its southern portions gave me the chief reflection when I was towards its southern : 80, why all the various aspects detailed in Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, were, at different hours or seasons, presented to my ey 174 G. Jones on the Zodiacal Light. base at the horizon, goes on still increasing in force below the horizon, towards the direct line between our eye and the sun; and that, consequently, if the Zodiacal Light is not a striking object in a total eclipse, stretching off from each side of the sun, this fact is not more against the hypothesis of a ring around our earth, than against a ring around the sun or in any other place. As respects such eclipses, however, if the observer of them is in a high latitude, north or south, he will, except at only one por- tion of the year, have the ecliptic at a very low angle with his horizon (even, under the best circumstances, not at a high angle,) and therefore cannot expect to have a good exhibition of the Zodiacal Light at the time of eclipse. There was, however, an observation made in Peru, during a total eclipse, on the 30th of November, 1853, from which we might expect something of a more decisive character. The observer was Prof. Carlos Mo of the Observatory of Santiago, who at the suggestion of Lieu- tenant Gillis, U.S. N., was sent to Peru, by the government of Chili, for that purpose, and who afterwards made a highly inter- esting and valuable report to the Minister of Public Instruction, with a sketch of the heavens as they appeared at the time of the | total obscuration of the sun. His place of observation was in re) these last, one was in an upward direction, and inclined about 20° S of E, and according to estimation, its upward extent is as large as a diameter of the moon; the other extended from the Ying downward, not diametrically opposite to the former, but m- clined about 10° N of W, and was a little shorter than the other- he appearance of these two rays was much like that of a comet, Ss. annexed sketch, in which I have endeavored to represent this ring [corona] as nearly like the original as possible.’ 7 It should be added to this that Mr. Moesta’s drawing was from a view through the telescope; I have, myself, always found the G. Jones on the Zodiacal Light. 175 _ Through our ship’s glasses I was never able to sce it “If we could have a Zodiacal Light of an undoubted character produced by the full moon, not only would the question before us be set at rest, but the ring would be shown to be within the orbit of the moon: and how near we came to a case of that kind on the evening of February 14,* 1854, the reader will decide for himself. There was no subject connected with these observa- tions, in which I was so carefully watchful; but, in summer, the moon, when full, must rise long before the crepuscule ceases, and it is only in winter months that satisfactory observations of this nature can be made; and in the few instances of this kind which offered, clouds interfered to prevent them. | _»or myself, I have no doubt that what I saw, in all the cases given in these charts, was really Zodiacal Light produced by the moon. When the equator and ecliptic were furthest removed from each other, the light still kept closely with the ecliptic, and, naked eye better for viewin g the Zodiacal Light than telescopes. all. from the whole of these data would seem to be about 60° for the full width of the Stronger, and 90° for that of the Diffuse Light. I endeavored to have simultaneous observations made in Con- hécticut while I was in the extreme southern latitudes, but did hot succeed, _* The moon reenwich February 12, 14h. 56m.; allowing for the dif- ference in-longitude, ihe oleenntan wat 1d. Gh 43m. after the full; the next even- 98's observation, with still more decided results, was 2d. 7h. 28m. after the i 176 On Compounds of Ethylene. tails of comets* (query: portions of very elliptic rings, the plane of ART. XV IiL—On some Compounds of Ethylene; by H.S. Burr. {Communicated to this Journal by A. W. Horrman, Ph.D. }t Amone the hydrocarbons which are capable of replacing hy- drogen, the radicals of the general formula CnH(n+1) we, the homologues of ethyl, are best examined. There is another class of hydrocarbons a is may be represented by the general form- ula CnH(n—1). The only vel known term of this series is the radical allyl CeHs to which the attention of chemists has been especially called of late by the researches of Messrs. Hoft- mann and Cahours on allylic alcohol. These researches lave the great comet of 1680, immediately after its perihelion passag? v 20,000,000 Herschell’s Outlines of Astronomy. + From the Proceedings of the Royal Society, received June 10, 1856. Read the 19th June, 1856, ‘ y Die ae On Compounds of Ethylene. 177 one equivalent of hydrogen. These two classes stand in the closest relation to each other, and it is by no means improbable that one class may pass, over into the other, for instance, that the radical propyl CoH: ora pro yl compound may be converted Into allyl or an allyl nsinpinedl There exist parallel with these three series of radicals which form alcohols, three other groups of radicals, which in acids play exactly the same part that in the alcohols is assigned to the cals of the alcohols and this close connection is particularly well established between the first series of aleohol-forming radicals and the Corresponding series of acid-forming radicals. Methyl, CoH: —2H+4+20=Formyl, CHO: Ethyl, CsHs —2H+20= Acetyl, CsHs0z Propyl, CoH: — 2H+20 = Propionyl, CsH;O2 Formic, acetic and propionic acids are formed by the imper- fect oxydation of methyl-, ethyl- and propyl-aleohol; and we net them to be simple substitution products of these Conols, By means of the electric current we are able to produce ethyl, Methyl and hydrogen from propionic, acetic and formic acid, and t acids we may reproduce again by the action of hydrate of ary on the cyanogen compounds of hydrogen, methyl and ethyl, . Both series of radicals are chained together by these reac- Hons, and we may view acetyl and propionyl as formyl, the h drogen of which is replaced by methyl and ethyl. : Formyl, = C2(H)O2 Acetyl, Propionyl, There is no doubt that the same relation exists between the hydrocarbons of the other series of radicals and the radicals of wd 22 fol:-| m io) he CaHy propylene, &., and the radicals o the bibasic Which are homo es. of succinic acid CsH«Os. SECOND SERIES, VoL, XXIII, NO. 68—MARCH, 1857. _ 23 178 On Compounds of Ethylene. the phenyl, benzyl, napthyl and other series. the hope of adding some facts to the history of the poly- atomic radicals I have made some experiments with chlorid of ethylene C1HsCls. : his compound, as well as bromid of ethylene, refused to act in many instances, in others it underwent the same change which is induced by the action on it of a solution of potassa in alcohol, splitting into the compound C.H:Cl and hydrochloric acid. oiling chlorid or bromid of ethylene with an alcoholic solution of sulphocyanid of potassium, a very definite reaction takes place. The change being completed, the alcohol is sepa- rated by distillation, and the residue treated with a small quantity of cold water in order to remove chlorid or bromid of potassium, which is produced and the excess of sulphocyanid of potassium. e more or less colored residue is then dissolved in boiling alcohol, and the solution, after digestion for some time with ant- mal charcoal and a few drops of hydrochloric acid, filtered while hot. This solution deposits on cooling brilliant and large rhom- bic plates of a hard and. brittle white substance.* The analysis of this substance leads to the formula 3 CaHsCy2S, and its formation may be represented by the equation CsHsCle+2K CyS:=2K Cl+CsHiCy2Ss, which in the conception of this view may be called anylene-sul- phurous acid, the cyanogen is replaced by hydrogen, whilst the sulphur has been oxydized into the compound radical S20s, which in sulphurous acid we assume united with hydrogen. Two equivs. of H SoOe Ethylene- H | 06 K kK : On = molecules H bisulphite of sulphurous CaH4 t 206 H of water, H H t potassium, H acid, ~o Since we find that the hydrogen-molecules in polybasie acids are replacable by two or more molecules of different metals or tadicals, witness tartrate of potassium and sodium, oxalovinate of potassium, the idea naturall y suggests itself that the biatomic alcohol-forming radicals may be capable of uniting two molecules of different elements or compounds of the oxygen group. Itis «i Mr. Tannenschein has commu- ae ts e in the same direction, which have likewise led to the discovery of this substance. Tannenschein’s results, which are published in ip ur Chem. June, 1855, came to our a the results been sent to the editor of the Ann. der Chem. und Pharm—a. W. & On Compounds of Ethylene. 179 sein for instance, that the ethionic acid, discovered by Mr. agnus, may be such a compound, namely, ethylene-sulphuro-sul- phurous acid. : H ) wo FH ) $206 Disulphetholic acid CaHa +?" Ethionie acid CaHa HL ) 8206 H }) 820s The following table contains some of the known ethylene and succinyl] compounds compared with the corresponding derivatives of the ethyl and propiony] series. ' Compounds of the Alcohol-forming Radicals. Ethyl Series. Ethylene Series. Ethyl, aA } Ethylene, CuHs Chlorid of ethyl, CaHCl Chlorid of Ethylene, CsHaCls Sulphid of Ethyl, G* 8 Se Sulphid of Ethylene, CuHSs Cs Mercaptan, ar } S2 Sulphocyanid of nT eA a Sulphoeyanid of Ethyl gros Ethylene-mercaptan, Cults ae y4; Cy y Pi H S2 Bisulphid of Ethyl, CuHsS2 Bisulphid of Ethylene, CsHSs H } Ethylsulphurous acid, 1H ; S206 Ethylene sulphurous acid,Cs - a H Ethylene sulphuro sul- S206 Eh ours ae a es ae eT : phurous acid, we S208 Sulphovinic acid, ym } S20s Compounds of the Acid-forming Radicals. : Propiony] Series. Succiny! Series. Chlorid of propionyl, C2(CsHs)02C1 Chlorid of succinyl, Ca(CsHs)O«Cla 4 aa 0: Propionic acid, oe Os Sueccinic acid, sea) s 6s Ydrous pro- Ca(CuHs)O2 Anhydrous succinic nbyds : Plonic acid, On Cattayos } = acid, Pg: Oz H ze Propionyl amid, N H Succinamid, Oa(CaHs)Os C2(CsHs)O2 a 180 Dr. Mallet on the Rose-colored Mica of Goshen. Art, XIX.—On the Rose-colored Mica of Goshen, Mass.; by J. W. MAuLeEtT, Ph.D., Professor of Chem. in the Univ. of Alabama. s Mineralogy* it is noticed as ‘‘ of difficult alkaline constituents, and accordingly reduced a pure specimen to powder, and decomposed it by fusion with ee of lime and a little chlorid of calcium. The earths and oxyds of heavy metals having been removed in the usual way, and ammoniacal salts expelled, the chlorids of the alkalies were treated with a mixture of ether and absolute alcohol, and chlorid of lithium having been extracted by this solvent, the chlorids of potassium and sodium were separated by chlorid of platinum. The mica was found to yield: Potash, - - - 9°08 p. ¢. Soda, ~~ 3 bs 2 F. . -99 “ Lithia, - — - 64 so that it contains the three fixed alkalies, but of these potash re man gives 75°-76° for the angle between the axes of the yellow: ish-green mica which occurs in the same granite vein with this rose-colored mineral at Goshen, and there can I think be little — * Fourth edition, vol. ii, p. 297. ca Dr. Mallet’s Analyses, &c. 18] Art. XX.—Results “of some Analyses made for the Geological Survey of the State of Alabama; by J. W. Matxet, Ph.D., Professor of Chemistry in University of Alabama. A LARGE number of analyses have been made of specimens collected by those in charge of the field-work of the Geological Survey of Alabama under the direction of Professor Tuomey, State Geologist, but the value of most of these is of a technical or agricultural character, and the results will appear most appro- priately in the Report upon the State Survey. It is intended in the present paper merely to extract a few analyses which Seem to possess a distinct scientific interest, and to notice very briefly their results. . marble of a delicate pale pink color, from Talladaga Co., was found to contain Carbonate of lime, - - - - 8567 Carbonate of magnesia, - - - -. 21 Alumina (with trace of Fe?0°), 39 Insol. matter, - : . . 6115 99°72 and the portion undissolved (by muriatic acid) was fluxed with carbonate of soda, and gave—, ct Silica, . 63°67 1-406 56 Magnesia, - = 80°24 1512 ws umina, - ‘ 2°05 Peroxyd ofiron, - ‘89 ~ . : “ ace xyd of manganese, trace Waites, 2 0a Ogi 371 15 99°69 182 Dr. Mallet’s Analyses for 4. 2 8. (Carbonate of lime, . 75°07 80°48 64°37 g | Carbonate of magnesia, - ‘72 53 ‘79 = Peroxyd of iron, - : 1:44 1:24 2°19 =‘ Alumina, - - . ‘79 98 ‘75 ab | Phosphate of lime (8CaO, Po®), 40385 ‘3710 5432 ey ee ee 14 194 059 2) ee - 11°99 904 19°58 g | Alumina, - - - 8:38 2°19 3°97 = Peroxydofiron, - — - 1:84 1:55 2°49 @ | Lime, : > : - 147 1-01 ‘78 2|Magnesia,— - - . —— — trace (Potash, - . - - 0945 11385 0410 T, 2°49 ‘22 58 99°83 99-91 99-14 No. 1 was from Demopolis; its sp. gr. =1-976 (containing air between its particles). No. 2 was from Jones Bluff on the Tom- bigbee River; sp. gr. =2-0 No. 3 from Cahawba; sp. gr. = 19 he alkali, which was sought for with particular care, ence to its agricultural value and the content of several — c eter- Sie =< os oe Aw oes Alumina, . - me i - - 656 Protoxydofiron,- - - +) +» » 2018 a tel wider. sat te ent? wo ee Minmiag: cee eerie vent “encete 1:70 Potash; -. -- agrees: off sont x eee Water, baftin shecr sys eearkar 8:17 | 100-04 and another analysis of a specimen from the same locality gave ee me the Geological Survey of the State of Alabama. 183 4s of which 11-85 insol. Silica, SS. aan ee es carbonate of soda.) Alumina, ; - - 548 Protoxyd of iron, - 19-24 Lime, - - - - ‘71 Magnesia, - - ‘87 Potash, - - gece - £06 Water, - - - 8:17 Tron pyrite, - - - 146 99-42 Sp. gr. of the grains =2-297, Another Specimen, from Gainsville, sp. gr.=2°349, apparently slightly altered by exposure, yielded ili of which 23°89 insol. — Bae a carbonate soda.) Alumina, - “ é 4-71 Protoxyd of iron, -- 21°06 (traces as peroxyd.) Lime, Pa - a re 99 Magnesia, - - - 148 Potash vs J ; - 396 Water, . = i 9-79 99:96 The analyses of the mineral from these two localities very well together, and agree also, on the whole, well with the Tesults of Prof. H. D. Rogers* for the greensand of New centage of silica really belonging to the mineral be thus reduced, the quantity of potash present will of course be proportionally fig nt and thus brought nearer the amount found in speci- “ns trom New Jersey. Two fine white Porcelain Clays were analyzed. — The first, from above Jacksonville, gave the following results, on treatment with Caustic potash and sulphuric acid alternately, as recom- . iD. mended by Brongniart and Malaguti * Report on the Geology of New Jersey, p. 200, et seq. 184 Dr. Mallet’s Analyses, &. Combined silica, - 39°75 ‘877 1:2 _Free silica, - - - 485 «6 Alumina, - - - 38°92 757 # Peroxyd of iron, : ‘78 Lime, potash, &c., 1:03 Water, - . - - 13°38 1487 2 Undecomposed mineral, “90 99°61 The second, from Randolph Co., yielded Atoms. Combined silica, - 19°85 ‘438 i Free silica, - - - 17-44 lumina, - Peroxydofiron, - - trace Potash, lime, and magnesia, -°72 - ater, - - - 15:09 1676 838. 1498 (of which 7°49 = finely divided quartz.) Undecomposed mineral, 99°30 amount of titanium. It was a specimen of magnetic iron from near Oak Bowery; sp. gr.=4827. It was decomposed by fusion Ided eroxyd iron, : 61°37 * { Sesquioxyd of titanium, - - =), Wa. Protoxyd of iron, - : “ei exc? baeeo Magnesia, : - - - engi. * 08 lumi - - - te trace Silica, - - + - - - - D4 Dr. Mallet on Red Sulphur. 185 Oxyd of zite,- 6438 6p tint he 6 ea ee Protoxyd of: won +) pi: lng Ayes, SE Oxyd of manganese, 4) Btn} (em trace Silica, - ee ree ae ere ee Carbon, : Sea See es 08 99°70 . Onei é Report upon the Geology of Pennsylvania, Z: 214. It was from the walls of a furnace in Cumberland Co. (Pe nace in Shropshire (En land), has been described by Prof. Crace- Calvert,* an contained sulphuret of zinc 2-00, carbon 2°45, silica -45=100:00. The iron vine, but without detecting any indication of its presence; possi- bly the limestone used as flux may be found to contain a little blende diffused through it. University of Alabama, Nov. 12, 1856. es | XXT.— Note on “ Red Sulphur ;” by J. W. Matxet, Ph.D., Professor of Chemistry in the University of Alabama. IN a paper by M. Ch. Sainte-Claire Deville, published in the Midler ey Ohi 7 te et de Physique for May, 1856, in toro the various modifications which sulphur undergoes when heated are yonsidered, the author states that the red variety of sulphur can be produced only by subjecting the same mass of this substance several times alternately to heat and rapid cooling, the permanent red coloration being never obtained by one tempering. — agnus speaks in the same way of this modification of sul- phur in his memoir contained in the number of the same journ for June, 1856. * Number of the “Chemist” for Sept. 1856, p. 706. *SCOND SERIES, VoL. XXIII, NO. 68,—MARCH, 1857, 24 Bigs came, oe 186 Dr. Mailet on Red Sulphur. Having observed a few months ago the accidental production, by a single heating, of red sulphur, which retains its color per- fectly unchanged up to the present time, I will mention the cir- cumstances under which it was obtained, and the properties aque state begins usually at distinct points, and sprea en y over the surface. Pe oe esis ge et ee a J. Hall on Carboniferous Limestones of Mississippi Valley. 187 me fragments of the original cake, with prismatic crystals upon them, were treated with bi-sulphuret of carbon. This rap- € yellow modification dissolved, as observed by Deville and agnus. The portion insoluble in bi-sulphuret of carbon was of a red- brown color, and amorphous; it retained in some cases the pris- to the bottom of the vessel, on shaking, as a powder. A little of this insoluble red sulphur was heated in Platinum foil, and burned without any residue. A fragment of the original cake, heated in a test tube up to the boiling point of sulphur, sublimed, and appeared after subli- Arr, XXTI.— Observations upon the Carboniferous Limestones of the Mississippi Valley ;* by JAMES Hauu. [Abstract.] b limestone ” as it is usually termed, of the Mississippi valley. The were Certain supposed characteristic fossils, such as the Archimedes, the Pentremites, etc., which, though reliable as individual species In their geological range, are not, as genera, characteristic of the subdivisions, The subdivisions proposed in the report of Dr * From the Proceedings o! iean Association for the Advancement of Sine Tan nc eee ret a ae hap of ope 188 J. Hall on Carboniferous Limestones of Mississippi Valley. D. D. Owen are, first, an upper and lower series, each of which is again subdivided into several distinct beds or groups. For the sake of comparison, this table of Dr. Owen’s is here given. “SECTION OF SUB-CARBONIFEROUS LIMESTONES OF IOWA. Coal Measures. 20 feet. | Upper concretionary limestone. 10 feet. | Gritstones. 30 feet. | Lower concretionary limestones. 10 feet. | Gritstones. 10 feet. | Magnesian limestone. 30 feet. | Geodiferous beds. 50 feet. | Archimedes limestone. 15 feet. | Shell beds. 15 feet. | Keokuk cherty limestone. 70 feet. | Reddish brown encrinital group of Hannibal. 55 feet. | Encrinital group of Burlington. 75 feet. | Argillo-calcareous group, Evans’ Falls.” J. Hall on Carboniferous Limestones of Mississippi Valley. 189 2 [{. Lower coal measures, - - — - - 140 fee 52 | F. Ferruginous sandstone, - — - i ib 2 4 G. St. Louis limestone, - - - 250 « £2 | H. Archimedes limestone, - - - = 200° = © (1 Encrinal limestone, - -~— - - 500 “ #(J. Chouteau limestone, - - - - 70 * 2: K. Vermicular sandstones and shales, - 7. 6“ (L. Lithographic limestone, - - - - 60 * Under each of these divisions are given numerous localities where the rock is well developed. In descending the Mississi pi river, we come upon the lowest and most northerly outcrop of these limestones at Burlington, Towa. At this locality we have the following section, in the de- Scending order. Encrinal limestone. 2. Oolitic limestone, fossiliferous. 8. Compact arenaceous limestone. 4. Fine grained argillaceous sandstone or grit stone, with casts of Spirifer, Chonetes, Productus, Bellerophon, Orthoceras, ete. 5. Green shale. The entire thickness of 2, 3, 4, and 5, is about 70 to 80 feet; the base of the green shale however has not been observed. tocks of that group in New York and elsewhere, and have been carefully traced throughout the intermediate space. It is luite probable that, in strict aque the green shale of Burling- lies between well marked Hamilton : And it is likew; that the Lithographic limestone of mallow vil apna nabs closely allied to the Hamilton \ 190 J. Hail on Carboniferous Limestones of Mississippi Valley. The encrinital limestone of Burlington, or, as we shall hereafter term it, the Burlington limestone, is characterized by its numbers of crinoids, of which Drs. D. D. Owen and B. F. Shu- mard have described numerous species. The rock is in a great asure composed of the broken and comminuted remains of this family of fossils: large masses of the rock consist almost entirely of the separated but unbroken joints of the columns of various species. This rock includes the “ Encrinital group of Burlington,” and the “ Reddish brown Encrinital group of Hannibal,” in Missouri r s cherty beds which separate it from the Burlington limestone. This limestone which may for convenience be termed the : + cedony, cale spar, ete. which it contains, and which have bee distributed very ‘widely throughout the United States. a : 5! hehy > * See ob a tecioi’ Becsetella: following thaeareae ; dinary size and perfection. So abundant is it that a dozen indi- viduals may sometimes be seen in thé space of a few feet. The species is quite different from the one in the Keokuk beds, be- ing More robust and the volutions of the spiral axis less rapidly ascending, This second Archimedes limestone seems not to have been re- Cognized in the section of Dr. Owen; and judging from localities cited, it appears to have been confounded with the lower Ar- chimedes or Keokuk limestone. The position however of the arsaw Archimedes limestone is above the geode bed, the Ar- chimedes is a distinct species and it is associated with several spe- ft of crinoids, fish teeth, etc., which do not occur in the lower s, _ The arenaceous bed which terminates this group, and which likewise contains Archimedes and joints of crinoidal columns, is Succ dbya light gray, compact limestone, which is often con- cretionary or brecciated in its structure. Its most conspicuous Ossil in many localities is Lithostrotion floriforme. : _ this limestone is terme r, Owen the “concretionar limestone,” and by Prof, Swallow the “St. Louis limestone.” It is the same rock which forms the low cliff be ow Keok 3 Alton, Ill; the limestone of St. Louis in whole or in part; the limestone of St. Genevieve; the limestone of Prairie du Rocher, am ; ooh in part, the bluffs bordering the American Bottom, be- Ww ton, Tl. 7 io aaa i At this point the sections both of Dr. Owen and Prof. Swal- Cease, so far as limestones are designated. ‘The Concretion- * After a careful examination of the locality cited by Dr. Owen, Tam unable to. find a second Seas Hina sai ¢ h it is not difficult to see how such an ogee near the mouth of the Des- error should oe han: ent Soon in measuring the section a oe 192 J, Hall on Carboniferous Limestones of Mississippi Valley. ary limestone of Dr. Owen is succeeded by sandstones and shales of the coal measures, which is the true order at the mouth of the Desmoines and other places, but not universally true. In the section of Prof. Swallow, the St. Louis limestone (Concre- tionary limestone of Owen) is shown to be succeeded by a bro or ferruginous sandstone, F, of section of Missouri report, and upon this rests the lower coal measures. This order is likewise true of some parts of Missouri and of Illinois, but it is not every- where true in these states. The ferruginous sandstone is in turn succeeded by an exten- sive and important limestone formation, consisting of beds o limestone of greater or less thickness alternating with thin seams of marl or shale, and in some parts heavy bedded limestone of considerable thickness, without shaly partings or with very thin ones. The group embraces likewise one or more heavy sand- ten and amass of green shale or marl more than fifty thick. ; formation constitutes the limestones of Kaskaskia and : : : y the abundance of its Pentremites. It has evidently been always confounded with the lower Archimedes or Keokuk limestone, of the lower ones. The strati p Srene HeC The following section illustrates the preceding statements Te gore e order of superposition among the different cnecibert % estone series. J. Hall on Carboniferous Limestones of Mississippi Valley. 193 VII. Coal measures. vy, § Kaskaskia limeston askia and Chester, III. | , Or Kask: Upper Archimedes limestone, f St. Mary’s, Missouri, ete. Gray, brown or ferruginous ) Below St. Genevieve, Mo. V. 4 sandstone, overlying the lime- } Between Prairie du Rocher and stones of Alton and St. Louis, Kaskaskia, Iil. “St. Louis limestone,” or St. Louis i highest beds below " ( “Coneretionary limestone.” IV eokuk, Alton ; St. Genevieve. “ Arenaceous bed,” arsaw and above Alton, Tl. arsaw or Second Archimedes Tl. limestone, ; Keokuk, Towa. “ Magnesian limestone,” Spergen Hill, Bloomington, Ia. Beds of passage, soft shaly or marly bed with geodes of quartz, : chalcedony, ete. Il. omar limestone, or . ay Lower Archimedes limestone, Keokuk, UEC, Hy te of passage, cherty beds 60 to 100 feet—Rapids above Keoku I . , urlington, Iowa; Quincy, IIL; Burlington limestone, Hannibal, éte., Missouri. Oolitic limestone and argillaceous sandstone ) Burlington, Iowa. of the age of the Chemung group of New / Evans Falls. York, Hannibal, Mo. _ The difficulties which have occurred in the way of a reconcil- lation of the views of Western geologists have arisen in great part from the fact that these different limestones have not an ing a ned. The fossil forms which have mainly bee n or characterizing the divisions have been to a considerable ex- : Tic val ; and ific differences have not always been properly recognized. tion and the changes of | n it ee Character at different points we have yet much to helogi- learn. groups; and its gradually — edges stretch far towards t edges of the Keokuk limeston mingled with much earthy | edi- nent, and often consisting of : few thin beds of Encrinal li -. | - teristic features. The limits of the ocean admitting of rock de- position at this period never extended so far north by many miles as in the period of the Burlington limestone. The Warsaw Archimedes limestone appears to have been nearly coextensive with that below, so far as known at present. The St. Louis limestone extends northward also, nearly or quite to the same limit, but only in a thin brecciated or conglomeratic mass which has been rarely recognized above the lower rapids of the Mississippi. It is only on descending the valley to the neighborhood of Alton that this rock appears in any considera- ble force. To these limestones succeeds the sedimentary deposit of ferru- ginous sandstone, which in the river valley is not known far to the north of St. Louis, while the succeeding Kaskaskia limestone becomes important in the vicinity of the Kaskaskia river, and is known in the interior as far north as Prairie de Long, and in- creases in force as we go southward. We have most clearly therefore the evidence that the limits of the ocean admitting of calcareous deposits was gradually con- tracting, at least in the direction from north to south, leaving the more southern portions as the areas of greatest development for these limestones. Some interesting inquiries are suggested by these facts, and at the same time they afford in some degree the solution of a difficulty which has heretofore been unexplained. It is well known that no limestone of the age of those here described, occurs beneath the coal measures on the western side of the Appalachian coal field north of the Ohio river; nor upon the eastern side of the same field, till we reach the central part of Virginia. The same is true of the coal fields of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick according to Prof. Dawson, the northern sides exhibiting no underlying limestones, while these rocks do appear coming out from beneath the coal measures on the one “4 : unconformable, differing only in degree. It would spree, that at a period long preceding the max? mencement of the carboniferous limestone deposits, the ance? Ocean began to contract its area; that this contraction was due t | oe J. Hail on Carboniferous Limestones of Mississippi Valley. 195 the uplifting of the older rocks upon the north; and that this state of things continued throughout all the period of the lime- en inequality caused by this uplifting agency, and produced other wregularities of the surface. The coal measures extend much farther to the north than the northern limits of the Carboniferous limestones, and are spread out over the thinning and slightly inclined edges of these beds, and over the more disturbed and more highly elevated edges of be wider areas than the preceding formations of carboniferous lime- 2, ‘ ! i : ile i 1 solution 8 view, sustained by facts, while it offers a general so of the difficulty momiind the non-occurrence of carboniferous e qualities of surface-on which the western coal measures rest, Prove conclusively that extensive denudation had taken place Previous to the coal period; and this fact should suggest a cau- fon in our conclusions regs ing the vast influence of modern denudation upon the surface of the globe. disturbed from the time of their deposition. Among the examples of this kind may be noticed more sip one between Davenport and Le Claire, Within three miles ) the latter place the strata of upper Silurian limestones dip to os northward, and between two points of outcrop, the horizon hada of coal shales, sandstones and iron ore, occupy the space, us: 7 . b . the northeast. 3, 6, coal shal d In another instance the coal measures present the following ng relations to the underlying rocks: iste ss ee ‘ 24 ae Se 4, a, axis of Silurian limestone. poe with 4, horizontal coal measure strata traced to within three feet of actual contact with the limestones which dip at an angle of 30°. J. Hall on Carboniferous Limestones of Mississippi Valley. 197 A still more interesting exhibition of phenomena attendant upon this condition of the strata, and consequent upon this ancient denudation, is the occurrence, in the limestones of the age of the Hamilton and Upper Helderberg groups, of rounded or irregular masses of clay, like the underclay of coal seams. These masses which are seen in sections along the river, and in quarries, often present simply the appearance of a spheroidal re fin former adhering closel , and when separated, the limestone still asses of clay were of subsequent deposition to the limestone, and that they filled cavities which had been made by denudation like modern caverns in limestone. This example was seen in the vertical 4 F ce of a quarry presenting an elevation of 80 or he 3. =3. SS : eran Serer AS SNES eae Psa FR owe 5 erry Sy ak i st RS EE ew sok aka! Rees x i a, a, a, Limestone of Devonian age. : ee toe lal ikea eppeet ear care ee +, _Jhis-cavity from top to bottom is filled with hard lay like the underclay of coal seams. At the mouth of the fu it is of a reddish brown hue, but soon becomes of the ordinary gray Aue 198 J. Hail on Carboniferous Limestones of Mississippi Valley. color below.* The laminations of this clay, in the upper part, conform to the curvatures and irregularities of the roof of the ancient cavern, and exhibit every appearance of having flowed in while in a semi-fluid condition; while the hydrostatic pressure of the mass above, operating through the deep funnel, had forced the soft mass against the roof, causing it to assume in its lamina- eds of limestone appears a black band extending for thirty or forty feet; beneath this, and of less hort zontal extent, is a thicker layer of clay, precisely like that of the cavities before described, and of the character of underclay ; still below this, and occupying the depth of the cavity is a coarse sandstone. This sandstone follows in its lines of lamination oF bedding the curvatures of the limestone upon’ which it lies, gradually filling up the cavity, and extending its laminse above. . at a depth of more than 5000 feet below the coal measures. _in instance the explanation is clear enough. It is only 4 little more perfect in its members than the preceding case, and ane The reddish brown color is simply due to infiltration from the ferruginous drift , ! ee ts oo Sag carbonaceous mud derived from a coal seam, or the materials forming one, were filtered through the fissure the narrow seam below. eS is ee 7] zara Bs we aT OWE eae ama Rg * ik aes RSS S Come 6 i Belges BE oes Pet os seat ee en ~ \ ‘< is d aes ee m a a, a, a, Limestone of Devonian age. 6, Coarse sandstone in curved lamine. c. % Ash colored and greenish ash colored underclay. 7 a, , b, d, d, Coal seam with shaly mud containing fish teeth. ock, and it couke sie have resulted from a participation in the causes then operating to produce those extensive beds of sand, clay, shale, and coal, which make up the coal measures. It should not be forgotten that this point is near the northeast- rh margin of the coal measures, anh beyond the limits of any Own productive coal seam; a few isolated patches of sand- stone and shale being all the remaining evidences of the exten- Sion of this series in that vicinity. Mies i “he fissures and caves occupied by the lead ores in Wisconsin, Ullinois, Towa and Missouri are apparently of similar character and origin; the period of their production, being a point of discussion, Whatever may be said to the contrary, 1t appears still very certain that these lead-bearing fissures have no connex- won with the rock below; and also that the character of the fissures, with the materials filling them, indicates an action above. That these cavities were excavated, and subsequently ited or partially filled with the ores of lead, zinc and iron, by Infiltration from above, seems, as elsewhere stated by the writer,* a8 well settled a problem, as that the coal seam just noticed is due to infiltration from above. The age of the rock in which the lead * The same yi i igin of the lead — ews, in reference to the origin of the a and have been published by Mr. J. D. Whituey. 200 J. Hail on Carboniferous Limestones of Mississippi Valley. occurs is not a question affecting the origin of the mineral matter, for while in Iowa, Wisconsin and Illinois the lead-bearing rock is an upper member of the Trenton limestone period, it is im Missouri the Calciferous sandstone, a rock much older than the Trenton period. The mode of occurrence of the ore is simi in both places. : The fact that the calciferous sandstone in Missouri is the lead- bearing rock, and that sometimes in Upper Jowa and Wisconsin likewise less cavernous than the lead-bearing or Galena limestone, and far less so than the same rock in Missouri. From what we know, it appears that neither the Carboniferous limestone nor the measures ever reached so far north as the northern lead- | termination of the direction, it is north 40° or more west. In descending the Mississippi river we first notice that the i * Tn making this statement, the writer would not be understood to say that or ur) lar fissures and caverns may not have been produced in these rocks during . - ie a ox gave! of considerable difficulty. At the same time, the fissures filled w a matter, accompanied or unaccompanied me peculiar clay quite different from y alone, or with indurated clay os i thout the eager sandstone e. + 4 J, Hall on Carboniferous Limestones of Mississippi Valley, 201 that point and Cap au Gris we again notice only broad undula- tions, which reveal successively all the strata from the Carbonif. erous limestone to the lower Silurian rocks. In approaching pau Gris from the north, there is a gradual rising of the lower strata, so that the Trenton limestone is beautifully defined for a considerable distance; and beneath it lies a magnesian estone, apparently of no great thickness. The dip to the northeast increases, and from beneath these limestones, the sand, stone rises in a bold escarpment continuing for three-fourths of a e, and presenting several hundred feet of thickness. This elevation suddenly declines to the southward, and we find the Burlington or lower Carboniferous limestone standing vertically by the side of the lower sandstone. The limestone soon assumes asteep and gradually a more gentle dip to the south, and the succeeding members come in successively. This fault, which is in fact an anticlinal axis, has a northwest and southeast direction, and, according to the observations of Mr, Worthen, extends far Into Ilinois, _ Below St. Louis, in the vicinity of Selma, there is another de- cided anticlinal axis, bringing up the lower sandstone. Accord- ing to the Missouri Report the lower limestones and sandstones are again brought up in the vicinity of Bailey’s Landing; but I have personally examined the strata at this place only so far as to decide that the Upper Silurian strata appegrsrors naneasto Upper Helderberg and Hamilton groups, beyond which the Car- boniferous limestones appear to come on unconformably in Still another axis of very decided character brings up the Trenton limestone in great ies at Cape Girardeau on the Mis- souri side, and at Orchard Creek below Thebes on the Illinois a line drawn from Fountain Bluff on the Mississippi to near j its axis t these low axes crossing the Mississippi are the results of the great movement which elevated the fundamental strata of the Western mountain chain, we can have little doubt. The forces that there acted upon the huge pile of sedimentary strata, raising 202 J. Hall on Carboniferous Limestones of Mississippi Walley. of the strata for the subject of its action. If the action which elevated the t mountain chains of the west operated only on the palzeozoic strata, the greater amount of material in that di- rection would give greater elevation to the ridges, which under similar force would die out in the Mississippi valley for want of material to be elevate The discussion of this part of the subject however does not properly enter into the present paper, and will be postponed to asion A few words may express the general features of: the series of limestones on the south of the Ohio. All the members, with the exception of the higher or Kaskaskia limestone, grad- ion Rar out to the Ago ‘ Siliceous ’ as it is termed in the Geological Report of mieae re there tes at the base of the Carboniferous lime- stone is rarely rates oceup pying a few feet of thickness beneath th ne 8 ot not recognize he iin The eokuk, arsaw, and St. Louis limestones Toy Edw afterwards visited and re-examined the focality indi com muni to me the following section, as confirmatory of the views I had th re expressed. The communication bears date of N ovember, 1855. * Celciferous sandstone; 4, St. Peter’s omer ¢, Trenton and Galena limestone 5 we d, Coal measures resting unconformably upon the rocks below. See Introduction to Vol. III. aay tes of New York. Sate Temark in this that the ceaetee tions made and collections brought home by pret. Stapsbary ieee the Salt Lake region, demonstrated that os carboniferous_ estone, in an red or ly changes coon bearing numerous fossils, rests unconformably upon metamorphic rocks ee eee With ‘what is ¥0 well. shows fn the: Miaciaaippl P tone hare «ae z eat alae. Some id dire shows that pager te a ee a x = ection, corresponding dow = wi the fandamentit mais antry. Pet nes See J. Hall on the Genus Archimedes or Fenestella. 203 _ Ina “Report upon the Mineral Resources of the Illinois Central Rail- road, by J. W. Foster,” published in 1856, a section similar to the one friends, has had occasion ne regret “that ‘Dr. Norwood has not long since published some portion of the accumulated facts of many years of inves- igati Although aware for several years of this relative position of the lower and the coal canis yet I was never fully impressed with the high interest fediee importance of the matter, until I had carefully followed out the successive sidintated of the Carboniferous limestone series. Dis- claiming any desire to appropriate the discoveries of others, the writer has presented in the preceding paper the facts that came under his own siren, and the conclusions which seemed es deducible eref aiaomlage th a valuable aid rendered to me y Mr. A. H. Wo my fi Tocalitics of the earboniferous Jimestones in the sien val- i y enabled me to accomplish my investigations in much less time and been ab. 4 asingle season. Wee explored together these formations as far as the mouth of the Ohio, after which Mr. Worthen carried on, under my direc- tion, the observations through Tennessee and Alabama, with a view to recognition of “as groups established in the investigations in rege: linois and Missour t har. 2 € 8 Me cae upon the Genus Archimedes or Fe oe Cron Lamestones of the Mississippi Vali: ‘ THE term Archimedes has long been in use among American Seologists, and is the generic name given by Lesueur toa Bryo zoan, which co consists of broad reticulate expansions, at their base, and spirally arranged around an elongated axis or stem, or, perhaps more properly the thickened base forms the axis. The axis is solid or arly cellular in its interior re, — ftom anded portions have the general character of Fenestella wp e lower or external side, while the upper or inner side j me oi: like manner celluliferous. The cell are cyl- indrical with circular or sub-circular mouths, arranged a the ‘evr agg in two or more rows; the branches are rounded or ie apa 8 transverse processes, * orb gular inters 204 J. Hail on ithe Genus Archimedes or Fenestella. Tn all the essential characters, the foliate expansions of Archi- medes, correspond to Fenestella, according to the extended descrip: tion of this genus given by Mr. Lonsdale, and in detached frag- ments it cannot generally be distinguished from other forms of the same genus, Some of the species have more than a double row of cells on the branches, and correspond to the genus Poly- ra of McCoy, but nevertheless this character is found in true enestellz as above cited. The mode of growth therefore, constitutes the only reliable character for separating Archimedes from Fenestella, and should this be hereafter considered of sufficient importance, I propose to retain the original name of Lesueur, “ Archimedes,” for fossils having this character. Dr. D. D. Owen has several times alluded to “‘ Archimedes” in his various reports; and in a paper published in the American Journal of Science and Arts, vol. xliii, p. 19, he gives a figure of one of the species as the “ Archimedes of Lesueur,” but suggests that it may be only a new species of Retepora. This figure of Dr. Owen is of a large species; but being merely the spiral axis it furnishes no character for specific identification. It retains the thickened base of the foliate expansion, and where this is broken rough ro the irregularly cellular structure common to the axis of all the species This structural character or the remains of the fenestrules on the edge of the spire, as seen in the figure, have been mistaken by M. D’Orbigny for the animal cells, and upon this character he It is quite unnecessary to say that the “Archimedes” of the earboniférous 1i © chibi i For descriptions of several ies of this genus see proceed- mgs > rng mh Aessestiation: for the Advancement of Sci sone zg t= i TD On the Avoidance of Cyclones. 205 Art. XXIV.—On the Avoidance of the Violent Portions of Cy- clones ; with Notices of a Typhoon at the Bonin Islands; by JouN Roperrs, Commander, U.S.N., and Anton Scuénzory, Assist. Astronomer. Communicated by W. C. REDFIELD.* (Read before the American Association at Albany, August, 1856.) U.S. Ship Vincennes, _ Dear Sir,—I am a firm believer, out of my own experience, In the truth of your theory of hurricanes. I think that you have enabled me to avoid storms, into.whose centers I should have been unwilling to be involved, and I feel therefore that I am under personal obligations to you for your happy meteoro- cal discoveries, You have conferred by them a great good to the nation and to the world. _ Ido not know whether my notes of weather have any value lM regard to the hurricane experienced by the Mississippi on Oct. 7th, 1854. On Sept. 28d preceding this typhoon we were in the China Sea in lat. 21° 44 N., lon. 119° 17’ East. The with a cross and violent sea, with heavy rain, and fitful squalls Continually increasing in frequency and force. I considered that I Saw a cyclone before us, and that we should avoid its force, by The harbor of Port Lloyd is formed by the crater of an extinct Voleano, The sides rise precipitately above the water to the + . even the sweet potatoe vines in the she destroyed i ir wilting and turning black to yed them, I attributed their w cat ded that the This storm was not so marked as to give any distinct warning of its approach. The evening before the hurricane the surf broke more heavily upon the mouth of the harbor than I had ever seen it. Had we wee at sea I have little doubt but that we should have known of its approach. This storm is well * This 3 fate i ommané baat fe Wate care Ingen {doom improper ie By way of answer to some earlier ing —W. ©. B. 206 On the Avoidance of Cyclones. scribed in the accompanying paper by Mr. Schénborn, assistant astronomer on board. _ We had a gale on Nov. 9th, 1854, in lat. 28° 22’ N., lon. 143° 45’ E., which I thought was the edge of a typhoon ‘We ran on until I had satisfied myself as to its character, and then we hove the ship to on the starboard tack heading away from it. We soon raised the barometer and improved the weather. This case is also described in the ga paper of Mr. Schénborn. n the steamer John Hancock, which I commanded, we were on May 20th, 1854, upon the verge of a typhoon. The weather was not violent but the seas were ° peculiar, rising up into sharp cones and running in every direction. ‘hey bu ffeted the vessel in every pery striking her upon the lee bow and weather quarter at marked to the officers on board that I felt sure we were upon the edge of a typhoon. It gave me however no ut easiness. I concluded that we were behind it ant that kena the vessel away would increase our distance from e steered off once, in a fresh aval, for about fifteen min- utes, sd hauled up to our course again. We ran on with a fair wind. I ex nemen a wish to know oa any stg some one or two hundred miles to the northward and eastward of us was faring. This curiosity was satisfied by the preci pan ex- tract from the log-book of the British ship Har She was a large Indiaman, well out of water, and in seer such Ki il wholesome vessel as a seamen would select to stand heavy wea Typhoons are rare in the China seas in the month of te This is therefore not without interest. Very eapadideile. your obedient servant, N RODGERS, Commanding U. 8. merites Expedition. [Lxtracted from Hong Kong Gazette of June 14th, 1854.] * The er Harkura left Hong Kong for London May 16th, 1854, and returned to 4 masts on the 11th of June. She had fine weather 4 = the 18th, on d the Dutch bark ae e] moderate D tee from E.N.E., the barometer meg in the evening, with the southward. Latitude at noon of that day 16° 22’ N., aoe 13° E. On the Avoidance of Cyclones. 207 Ua U. 8. Ship Vincennes, Port Lloyd, nin Islands, Oct. 27th, 1854. ad the water, and bar. still tee rapidly. Fearing the ee would founder, cut away and mizzen topmasts; but that being insufficient to right the vessel, cut away the fore topmast. The vessel then righted a little, the Sine! still blowing with fearful with . Nee and increasing en pmast now went over the side, taking with it a the head of the mainmast, I ediately after this it fell a fla , the barometer b down to 27-70. Got the wreck of main topmast cut away from along side, as well i te as that of i of the foremast which hung to windw: ew N.W,, veering to w d southwest, blowing with tenfold violence. The lee e with everything moveable abo , th up to the comb- ings of the main hatch e star side of forecastle washed 0 also boi board poop cabin. At 8.465 p.m. shi . p righting a little, rigged two pumps and pumped her dry. At 6 p, a. the fury of the typhoon moderated and barometer commenced : ie frasts, May 22d [nautical time] lat. 15° N., lon, 112010’ E. At 8 v.2. [21st, true fine] we Weather moderated, Sea going down and barometer rising. Wind south and Seino ROWE'S REMARKS 0: ve TypHoon.—The evening of Friday the 19th * May-[civil time], the weat eve r rs ye hseaaaeinc. but nothing gave reason °F suspecting the vicinity of a typhoon, {?] The clouds had a dirty red appear- in: the quickly repeated flashes of lightening and the distant moaning of the ho Ppearing up to the time of the commencement of the | a wever was very rapid, and in all of a twenty years experience (éleven in com- mand) I never _saw the mercury so low in the tube by an inch. Dr lull, meter, N.E.; stood re N.E, whence Pe condita steady till we cut away the masts; then it y subsided in ato a calm, which continued for half an hour; then, without a mo- gradual rwards to sou! throughout va very oe Pad not no essel been oe to on . port tack, as ie directs, when the san Shifted after the lull, the vessel must certainly Ye gone down stern foremost; as it was, the gust ba orld he ole, ie came up to the wind and so lay in safety during the remainder of the cyclone. ben oTm The ‘interests of n sees Sen it to be stated, that on the ors ~ ore the disaster Capt. Crowe —— state of the barometer the dreton of the wind, ace pear show that re by in the southeast was : then crossing his path. Had time, or aber sag ‘o on the starboard a 4 or ake “gheptas naga p tbe the wind should his commenced rising, he would have —, no dam: at course under the w unchanging northeasterly and falling Rone E rely iat te eat af the eylone, as han tooo n been °eyclone, and was'thus able to escape its force without s dacegieee Ne spends he look rand ofthe 3 ohn Hancock, from which it appears that 208 On the Avoidance of Cyclones. continued fine weather we had experienced. At noon the wind changed to the north of east, the rain ceased, it began to clear up and I could see the blue sky at times between the slowly —s cumuli. In the afternoon about 3 Pp. M. being on shore, I he some peals of far off thunder, seemingly to eastward; the same had been noticed on board s ship. A range of mountains obstruc- ted the sight to N. E., E., and 8. E.; in the latter direction I per- ceived the high white t ge of heavy clouds (cum.-str.) some distance off. Occasionally rain squalls passed on both sides of us. Inthe evening the squalls were more frequent, it rained often and profusely; the sky became overcast and hung round with dark looking clouds, especially to S. W., where we could see the horizon. At 8 P.M. barometer 29: 859; sympesometer 99: 896; aneroid 29°822; cicaaece of air 81°: 1; of water 78°°7; of rain water 75°2. About 8 P.M. flashes of vivid lighteni to E, and N.E. and peals of heavy thunder occurred, whic pen a ste several times until 10 P, M. at intervals, stronger or fain Otber ‘28th, 4 a. M.—During the night the squalls came from N.E. and increased much in violence. About 4 A. M. the wind hauled to eastward and kia to blow more steadily. The rain fell all night and morning very abundantly and in large drops. bar. 29°-654; symp. 29°675; an. 29°639; temp. air 80°°6 ;* water 77°°6; rain- -water 5°7, Towards 6 A.M. the wind hauled to S.E. by E, increasing ; it lessened somewhat about 8 A. M. but regained soon its former strength from KE. by S. Rain now fell incessantly, but in smaller quantity. Temp. of rain-water 5 ae The weather had a very dark and threatening appearance, @ thick mist covered the horizon seawards, the surf froke high and violently on the reef near the entrance of the harbor and on the ae outside. t 9 A.M. bar. 29 pa Bt fee 29-465; an. 29°450; temp. air Sit; water iat tg ter 77°; wind S. E. by E, force After 10 a. M. the wind in eae continually, shifting by degrees to §. oe the barometers and sympiesometers fell rapidly. waterspout was observed at 11 A. M. in the tnouth of the harbor moving quickly southwestward, It had nearly the height of the neighboring south bluff, behind — it cepnernss: By going over the breakers, a great farie f away with it, A Sey around the cy oT dbo sede am were not de- veered by the N. ih em 0 the ‘conn oe vessel of ist; her di ohn H being — miles; the 1 being then about 180 miles from the vortex. From 8 10 6 rose but little. Later in that day the wind was W. by S., eS | SN ae On the Avoidance of Cyclones. 209 — except the scud, which flew swiftly at no great distance above us. Shortly before noon the weather became thicker, the surrounding hills appeared as indistinct shadows, indeed we were sometimes so entirely enveloped in mist and fog, that we could not see a ship’s length around us. Noon, bar. eo wats gh 28° rms an. 29° “tg ee air ir 79°8 fey until 3°30 P. M. yong in this time from 8. E. ie S. gradu- ally to 8, A a ee was no calm at the climax of the which dat wave. T found souteasictes e examination and y temperature of the rain-water. As the wind turned to the westward of south, there came a heavy swell through ssi eg of the harbor, which increased as the wind hauled m west. After 3:30 p Pp, M. the force of the wind diminished shah At5 p.m, bar. 29° 169 > symp. 29°060; an. 29°178; temp. air T7°-T; water 77° 7; wi nd W. by 8.458. 10. Pewee sunset the het moderated, the clouds assumed shapes again and for urid 4 short time had a remarkably lurid appearance, the whole tinosphers, filled with vapor, seemed to be vgs up and gave € surrounding landscape a eh ee. a the rain from S. W. by S. and W. S. W. ge ed fen * (Mr. Schénborn appends an excellent diagram showing the + and rise of the dis eter under the suecessive winds of this cyclone as it er the ship, as ermined by frequent and careful observations. He adds also the curve indicating the movements of the sympiesometer and aneroid during the same per! t isa Staphic bition of the ‘effective action of the cyclone, and affords a fair test of the relative value of these several instruments, under the successive phases of the storm. He adds two other di . : d of like aa one of which, ater er with that Just noticed, I haye sie Baty) if ie ihe se pages, 80 ‘far as relates to eg pti ter. I Sret that t they could not be reproduced entire, on this oceasion. ‘ t (The nearest te roach of the axis or center was indicated py heme lowest ob- t gradual veering of the wind was in accordance with the a appa- of rp dally co Y course ‘K, the sun, and no lull or Seri having occurred at the crisis e gale, it is evident that these observers were to the right of lon 2 around to the southward and eartard of Lloy t h time the barometer was lowest here, the cy se oe had partially completed its reeur- and was entering upon its northeasterly co rse of progression—w. =) SECOND SERIES, VOL, XXIII, NO. 68.——-MARCH, 1857. 27 210 On the Avoidance of Cyclones. October 29th, 4 A. M., bar. 29°748; symp. 29°652; an. 29°744 temp. air 78°; water 78°; wind W.S. W., 5. The weather has been improving much during the night.—9 A. M,, bar. 29°853; symp. 29-830; an. 29°850; temp. air 80°°8; wind light from the westward; weather very fine. Very respectfully, ANTON SCHONBORN, Assistant Astronomer. U.S. Ship Vincennes, November 9th, 1854. During the day we had pleasant weather. A steady south wind blew all the morning, advancing us speedily on our way to the north. In the afternoon the wind freshened, hauling to 8.5. W. e barometer and sympiesometer had been falling since 8 p. a. of the previous day, and stood at 3 p. M. at 29-717 and 29-710; temp. air 81°1; water 78°4; wind S.S.W,, 7. magnificent. The ed edges of the cumuli to con- trasted finely with the dark appearance of the cloud-bank which to rise on the izon. South and westward the upper vehement from 8.S.W. The barometer began to rise after half past 9 o’clock. Towards midnight the weather moderated slightly. The wind blew in gusts from S. W. veering by de- grees to westward and some showers of rain fell. At 4 A. M. 0? the 10th the force of the wind had greatly diminished, hauling to W.N.W., and the weather cleared up. : It is a probable that we were in the southeastern wing of a cyclone. From the collected facts the following diagram has On the Avoidance of Cyclones. 211 constructed. By the general appearance of the sky and the iewell, which came at first from N. W. and afterwards from into it, and by lying to the storm left us, passing on its way to N.E. We entered the circle at No. 1 with a course of N.N.E,, which was soon after changed to N. by E.; our position on the sia therefore became successively that of No. 2 and No. co attion No. 1 enna 9th, 2 p.m. Wind S.S. W.; ship’s urse N.N.E., which was changed at 4 Pp. M. to N. by E. E: io. 2—6.30 P.M: Ligne tehiilingy couse N. by after which the ship was hove to, head eastw ae 4-9 20 bs - nyaartes 38.1 W.,; lowest barometer, strongest wind. (Nearest t No, Aloe ans a wind westward. Weather mod- erating, : No. 6.—8 a. u.; wind W.N.W. gg Pee Stor SoH Astronomer. 212. J. S. Newberry on the Formation of Cannel Coal. Art. XXV.—On the Mode of Formation of Cannel Coal; by — J. S, NEWBERRY. (Read at the Albany meeting, Amer. Association, Aug. 1856.) atile ingredt ients—and its homogeneity, are such as would natu- rally follow the iorsponition ot vaneiable matter while con stantly submerged, - , Plants when deprived of their vegetative life, an the action of the air, are slowly decomposed by th d exposed to e process of J. 8, Newberry on the Formation of Cannel Coal 213 decay ; a process, which, unattended by the sensible phenomena, heat and light, is however really a combustion id consists i the union of oxygen with their hydrogen to form water, with their carbon to form carbonic acid, and of their carbon and y- ogen to form carburetted hydrogen, &e. When vegetable matter is covered with wet earth or clay, these changes are both modified and retarded, and an interme- diate state, that of bituminization, is assumed by a portion o € organic matter, Under water the changes terminating in decay go on still more slowly, and a larger portion of the vegetable tissue be- comes bituminized. _ The process of bituminization in such circumstances consists in the oxydation of a small portion of carbon—which escapes as carbonic acid,—of hydrogen to form water, the union of carbon and hydrogen to form carburetted hydrogen and other hydro- carbons, and the combination and removal of a portion of the ine carbonates, of nitrogen, &c., all of which go to make up the loss, which is relatively small. The residuary hydrogen and oxygen unite with a portion of the carbon to form bitumen, which closely resembles, physically and chemically, the resins produced by the vital functions of many plants. This bitumen we have evidence, not only in the great durability of wood when constantly submerged, but in coal itself. Beene strata except where the process of volatilization 1s complete, as plumbago and perfectly gasless anthracites, the Work of decomposition is constantly going on. To this, as to inary combustion, water is an extinguisher. ; mines are commonly opened in this country by penetrat- ing the coal on some hill-side where it is not covered by water. ' these circumstances a p ive change, both chemical and physical, is noticeable in the coal from its outcrop to the point Where atmospheric’ influences cease to act. Near the surface it 'S friable, lustreless, and nearly destitute of gas, having much the appearance and character of decayed wood. As it is more deeply penetrated it becomes harder and more brilliant, and con- ‘tains more volatile matter, till under water or a sufficient cover of incumbent rock, it is protected from the action of oxygen. 214 J. S. Newberry on the Formation of Cannel Coal. On the contrary, whenever the outcrop of a coal stratum is constantly covered with water, even though it have no other covering it will be found hard and bright, and containing nearly its maximum quantity of volatile ingredients. 8rd. The higher illuminating power of the gases of cannel is a natural consequence of the preservation of the more volatile constituents of wood, by its continued submersion in a hydro- genous liquid. It is also probable that the illuminating power of cannel gas is often somewhat increased by the animal matter which it*con- significant indications of its aquatic origin. —- . Fishes are found in cannel in abundance, scales, teeth, spines, coprolites, and entire individuals being, in some localities, s0 profusely scattered through its substance as to prove conclusively that they must have lived and died in great numbers in waters, at the bottom of which comminuted vegetable matter was accu mulating as a carbonaceous paste, with which their remains have mingled, and the whole, consolidated, has become a stratum of cannel. L have before me as I write, pieces of beautiful cannel from England, in which are impacted teeth of Megulichthys, scales © Pilon iscus, and many other forms of aquatic life. And in Ohio T have found fishes in large numbers in a thin stratum of canne underlying a thick seam of bituminous coal; which last contains none. Shells too are not unfrequently found imbedded in the middle of a stratum of cannel. ; The vegetable remains which I have observed in cannel are Stigmariae,—roots and rootlets of trees which grew in the coal: marshes,—generally occurring:in detached ents—shapeless SSB fare Secgns ein ane anny se sete Meteorological Journal at Marietta, Ohio. 215 nearly obliterated, Lepidostrobi reduced to their woody skeletons, his : trata of ordinary bituminous coal usually consist of thin layers of brilliant bitumen alternating with others of bituminous shale or cannel. This arrangement I consider due to the va- * Art. XX VI.— Abstract of a Meteorological Journal kept at Marietta, Ohio, for the year 1856—Lat. 39°25 N., Long. 4°28 W.; by S. P. Hinprera. THERMOMETER. | pc BAROMETER. 7 ae | RD Bigs at’ MONTHs. Hy - : g 5 = sz Winds. 2 : pa ax s2/eielz lee zie? eS isliSlélslé =| 2) 8 anuary, 17-87} 45-13] 15\ 16| 2°75.w.n. w. ds. w. 29-90/28-90 1° February, (25°50) 50-165 14 15) 1:66 w.,n. & s. w. [29 70 28°60 1- rey, - |8213) 57-10] 16 15] 1°34 w.w. w.d w. [29°70 2875) April, - |54°83| 85, 19] 23 7) 225 w, 8.8. w.dex 29°70 2900 May, + |61-20) 90) 38] 16 15) £16) ws. &s. w. 6012908) : me, 72°44) 95) 46) 29) 25) w.s.z.&s, (29°55 29°20 * rock 52] 30) s. w.d&s, (29652912) * August, j 2) w.N. Ww. &8.W 55\29 00} +f September, 20 s, 8 Ww. & 8. |29°60,2910 % senor, 18 . SW, & ESE. 45 dt ovember, 17 Ss. W., W., dE. |29°70/28°65 14 Deseniber, 16 W., N. W, d£8,W. 29°80 28°96) Mean, ttest portion of the season; the failure of some of the crops, an wamenat exemption from disease, in all portions of the valley Ot the Ohio, ks on the seasons.— Winter—The cold in January was i ar, reducing the mean degrees at and below that oat The extreme of cold was not so great “Sin January, 1852, when it was ~28°, on one morning only 216 Meteorological Journal at Marietta, Ohio. and the mean for the month was 24°36; on the 9th and 11th of this month in 1856, at 4 o'clock, A.M. the temperature was —21°, as observed by a gentleman who lives four miles above Marietta, near the Muskingum river. Eighteen miles above, it stood at —25°, as observed by Dr. Bowen of Waterford, at the . same hour—my period for observing being 6 o’clock or about sunrise. The greatest degree of cold noted by myself during the winter was in February, when it was at —15° the fifth day of the month. This season was also one to be remembered, for the ceasea to r navigation till the 8d or 4th of March, when the ice gradually ave way without much of a rise in the head waters, beginning rom below and working gradually up stream, contrary to the usual course, without much damage ats. From the un- usual quantity of snow, it was expected a great flood, like that of 1832, would attend the breaking up of the rivers, but the snow was So much consolidated that it melted very slowly and thus happily disappointed the fears of the inhabitants along the bor- ders of the rivers. The mean temperature of the winter months of 1855-56, was 25°-67, which is the lowest on record—that of 1846 being 29°-91—but usually our winters range from 82° to 36 : Spring months—The mean temperature for spring is 49 = which is more than two degrees below that of the year 1855, an four below that of 1854, which is mainly attributable to the low 2 e of the month of March, being in 1854, 47°-55; and in 1856, 32°13; a difference of more than fifteen degrees, occasioned by the amount of snow on the ground until near the close of the month. The blossoming of fruit trees was much ret ed ; the peach, where the fruit buds escaped the deadly effects of the winter, not opening until the 22d of April, and the pear am cherry on the 29th, twenty days later than the ordinary period. The season was uncommonly Decale aed atta trouble was, ex perienced by our farmers in the germination of especially ed by en 4 of Indian corn, in many fields requiring two or three plantmgs; F . Meteorological Journal of Marietta, Ohio. 217 the grain rotting in the ground, probably the effect of the last winter’s cold acting on the vitality of the imperfectly ripened grain, Frosts as late as the middle of the month also sotaided its growth, so that until the first of June the prospect of a poor crop of corn was very apparent; the dry weather which set in with the heat, completed these fears, and the result was a very light yield of this important bread stuff. The amount of rain for the spring months is 7,7, inches. In 1854 it was nearly twelve inches. ummer months —The mean of the summer temperature was _ 18°80, which is somewhat higher than in 1854, the latter being 73°55, the extreme heat in 1856 being greater than in 1854 by two degrees, rising on the 17th of July to 100°, while the highest in the hot summer of that year was 98°. The nights were cooler than in 1854, generally of a temperature not uncomfortable to the sleeper. The quantity of rain during the summer was 10,4%. urculio and other insects. Peaches, an entire failure, being killed in the bud by the winter; grapes, quite light, many vines ua. ; the Summer. Sweet potatoes, now an important portion of good agreeing bet i ir nature and habit, than any other pro- duction: tiers pera Pudi were killed by the cold of winter, were hearly all destroyed, indicating a gloomy future to the fruit STower, as what has once happened may again be ex SECOND SERIES, VOL. XXIII, NO. 63.—MARCH, 1857. 23 ~ 218 Meteorological Journal of Marietta, Ohio. steamboats could run on the Ohio, a fall of rain on the 28th November of 2,3, inches, caused a rise of three or four feet and The Ohio was clear of ice until the middle of December, and closed on the 18th, it was frozen over at several points by the 23d, the temperature on this morning falling to zero. On the 22nd, snow fell to the depth of two inches, with light showers on the following days. The ice, in still water, by the 25th had ckened to six or seven inches, and the dealers in that article were filling their houses for summer use. The mean temperature of the year is 50°18, which is lower than known before since 1836; then it was 50°02. The amount of rain and melted snow is 32;4,%; inches, being ten inches below the meen average for this place, and one below any former year— s 7 sjureone effects of the winter on plants.—The blossom buds of e root and branch, even where covered with snow. English yew hes. P. : greatly damaged, and large branches entirel killed; the Catalpa, although of the same family not ane meee aged. Peach buds destroyed; and many ol Meteorological Journal of Marietta, Ohio. 219 ae Species; 10th, Quince tree; 11th, Apple tree shedding its lossoms ; 12th, Ranunculus, single flowered tree peony, more tree; 20th, “Magnolia tripetala; 22nd, Purple peony; 23d, Weige- lia rosea and Blackberry ; 25th, white herbaceous peony ; 28th, Tagrant Syringa; 29th, fragrant peony; 30th, frost this morn- ing, killing melon plants, &. June 2nd, Peonia Whitleji; 3d, trawberry ripe; 5th, Kalmia latifolia; 6th, Syringa Philad. ; 20th, Pomegranite, Red cherry ripe; 24th, Catalpa in bloom; 28th, Red Raspberry ripe. Uncommon Lnsects.—Early in the month of May there appeared on the white oak trees on the hills near Marietta, and in the neighboring towns, vast numbers of worms; when fully grown they were about an inch and a quarter in length, and an eighth of an inch in thickness, cuticle smooth, color of india ink, tinged with blue, two black lines extended the length of the back; the sides marked with pale green, lozenge-shaped figures, head black ; fourteen feet, six on a side, the two anal ones standing out like the tail of a swallow. They wete exceedingly active in their movements, and great devourers, destroying all the leaves on a large white oak tree in a few days, so effectually that many of the extreme branches perished in the course of the ee €y were so numerous on oung trees, as In One instan beng. the top, six feet high, wrike ground, They had completed their course by the 10th or 15th of June, when they were in- clined to come down to the earth, they descended by the aid of a silken thread, spun for that purpose. They made no webs or hests like ordinary caterpillars. In many respects they resemb. the canker-worm of New England, “ Phalena vernata. r favorite tree was the white oak, but where adjacent to the forests, 220 J. M. Ordway on Soluble Basic Salts of Tin. is worm has not been noticed: before here, at least in such multitudes ; it was new to all our/old farmers, and should it prove to be the real canker-worm it ‘will be a serious rier and evil to the orchards in this part of Ohio. I had a number col- lected when full grown and tried to feed and make thei hyber- nate in a flower pot filled with moist earth, but they all perished before entering the ground. Had this succeeded, a a more perfect history of the insect could be given, with drawings of both the male and female moth. All I accomplished was the preservation of several of me larves in aetdea: Art. XXVII—On some Soluble Basic Salts of mer on JouN M. OrpwaAy of the Roxbury Labora gapdlon SoME years ee a singular liquid came to my notice, in the course of my business, under the strange sounding but appro- priate name of nitrate of tin; and while seeking to determine its nature, some things were observed that are unexplained in systematic treatises on chemistry. But some properties since pee experiments, to be possessed also by certain combinations f tin ales is well known that when we attempt to dissolve tin directly in pure nitric acid, the metal is simply changed to insoluble stannic acid, nitric oxyd being given off. To be sure, if feathe red tin is put into very weak nitric acid, say of specific gra a gon “a is pane ~ up, but in a short time-at, is aor containing no nitric acid. offand the metal remains permanent in = a ae t]! ta ! bo 3 @ Su et = mR i? 2] rs} o a. cS} 5B oe 5 7) re} 5 of =] = g a “4 equivalents of tin to 3 equivalents of nitric acid, 6 equiva- r lents of chlorhydrie acid, and 2 equivalents of chlorhydrate of ammonia. Here we have eight equivalents of tin retained in solution by three of acid. Another sample made with four parts of nitric acid to three of muriatic acid, had the specific gravity 2°443 and had four equiva- ents of tin to one of acid hottest summer weather They unite with water in all propor- tons without change. Weak acids produce no alteration of the va alkaline carbonates in e , precipitate a yellow basic nitrates of iron mentioned in a former volume of this Journal,* And in making the tin solutions, as in adding iron to utric acid, the reddish color begins to appear when the com- o pounds begin to become basi | Mm neither the highest nor the lowest degree of oxydation. The Protochlorid of tin cannot be made in the slightest degree basic without preeipitation; and the same seems to be true of all * wt * Vol. ix, [2], p. 30. 232 J. M. Ordway on Soluble Basic Salts of Tin. protosalts. To be sure, strong chlorid of zinc, as we often see in making large quantities, on being tested with metallic zine, oxydizes and dissolves an excess of the metal, and the solution remains perfect after cooling, but dilution causes an immediate precipitation of oxychlorid. The basic nitrates and acetates of Jead are, on the other hand, but slightly soluble in cold water. While the basic sesquisalts are uncrystallizable and miscible with water in all proportions. It was therefore natural to suppose that in the tin salts in question, the tin must be in the form of sesquioxyd; and farther that the production of such combinations would settle a hith- erto mooted point, by showing that there is a salifiable sesqui- oxyd of tin as truly as a sesquioxyd of iron. ‘ £171 “4 1 y And now to determine whether an pp originate from the nitric acid or the ammonia present, another ode of formation was resorted to. Twelve equivalents of protochlorid of tin,—the “tin crystals” of commerce,—were dis- solved in their own weight of warm water, and one equivalent of crystallized chlorate of potash was added by degrees, as fast as the violent reaction would allow. The result was a clear, high-colored liquid containing of course no foreign matter ex- cept a very little chlorid of potassium. By adding a solution of nitrate of lead, a red nitrate of tin was formed. Carbonate of lead added to such a nitrate or to the muriate, removed nearly half the acid without any precipitation of tin. In this way then permanent solutions may be made containing about three equivalents of tin for two of acid, but for some reason they cannot be made more basic without gelatinizing; perhaps because of the great degree of dilution necessary to therefore the basic sesquinitrate might be looked upon as m1X- ture of protonitrate and basic pernitrate. /arious other experiments have established the hitherto un- noticed fact that the soluble salts of binoxyd of tin may be } J. M. Ordway on Soluble Basic Salts of Tin. 223 . h importance, and one which seems likely, in connection with drawn from color. The fact that the sesquioxyd dissolves in: ammonia, while the protoxyd does not, of itself Ba ee nothing, lor why might not stannic acid render protoxyd of tin soluble in ammonia, just as arsenic acid does the sesquioxyd of iron? But the hydrated protoxyd and peroxyd of tin and their ordi- nary salts, as well as the stannates, are colorless, while interme- diate substances may be formed that are colored. This becomes Color appears to arise then during the deoxydation of peroxyd or of basic persalts, or the oxydation of the protosalts. So Protoxyd may enter into combination retaining their respective Colors, we seem forced to admit the existence of one or more intermediate oxyds of tin. Roxbury, Mass, January 10th, 1857. Gmelin m : “If a normal stannous salt is to be converted into a normal stannic salt se the action of air or nitric acid, it must first be mixed with a quantity of acid equal to that which it already contains; in default of the requisite quantity of acid, a precipitate is formed during pola tion, isti either of the hydrated stannic oxyd or a basic salt.”— : 224 W. M. Gillespie on Practical Surveying. Art. XX VIIL—A Problem in Practical Surveying: demonstrated _ by means of Transversals ; by W. M. GiLuEsPIE, Prof. of Civil - Engineering in Union College. _ Ler A and B represent two points, inaccessible, and invisible :from one another. Let it be required to find a third point, C, in “the line of A and B, but invisible from them. It is supp ‘that no. means of measuring either distances or angles are at hand. _ The problem may be solved thus. Set three stakes, D, E, F, in a straight line. Set a stake, G, in the line of DB and EA; FB, and at the same time in the line of GH. Then range out the lines DA and EJ, which will meet in a point, C, which will be the one required. Any number of such may be similarly obtained to verify the work. is problem is given in a recent number of the Vienna En- gineer’s Journal (Zeitschrift des Ocsterreichischen Ingenieur Verein, 1856, p. 245) by an Austrian mathematician, who represents it as employed by practical surveyors, but as not having any known geometrical proof. He proceeds to give an analytical investiga tion of it, saying, “I have in vain tried to prove the problem in the synthetic way, by pure geometry.” The “Th Transversals,” however, the foundation of the “ Recent Geome- try,” or “Geometry of Segments,” (too little cultivated beyond : = 4 a small circle of French geometers) will furnish a simple aad 3. The theorem to be proved is equivalent to the assertion that if A, B, C, and D, E, F, lie respectively in two straight lines, and lines be drawn as in the figure, then will the intersections G, H,J lie in one and the same straight line. : : \ Biography of Johann Nepomuk von Fuchs. 225 Conceive the two given lines produced to meet in Z, beyond the limits of this figure. The triangle BFZ is so cut by the trans- versal CE as to give the equality, he ee BJ X FEXZC==JF X EZX BC.* The triangle AFZ, cut by CD, gives FHX ACK DZ=HAXCZXFD* ° The triangle ABG, cut by OD, gives BCX ALKGD=BDXCAXGL.* _~ The triangle DEG, cut by OZ, gives GAXEZXBD=EA X DZX BG.* The triangle DEG, cut by AF, gives GK X DFX AE=KD X EF AG.* The triangle AGK, cut by HD, gives KDXGLxX AH=GDXALXKH.* H, J, lie in a straight line, which is a trans- versal to the triangle BFK. What Poinsot said, forty years ago, that “The simple and fruitful principles of this ingenious theory of transversals de- seryed well to be admitted into the number of the elements of geometry,” is even more true and desirable at the present time. a Arr. XXIX—Biography of Johann Nepomuk von Fuchs; by FRANZ VON KOBELL. [Concluded from p. 101.] te n already, as it might appear, thoroughly studied, Fuchs occupied himself anew with the processes of burning and Properties of soluble and insoluble silica, ascribing their differ- ences di a the theorem “If a straight line be drawn so as to cut any two sides. of a and the third side, one or all being pitt ie Pate them into at the prol sides and the prolongations being taken as segmen rodeo if © begments Whose extremities are not ous, be equal to the product of the other three segments.” t By the converse of the preceding theorem. _ SECOND SERIES, VOL. XXIII, NO. 68.—MARCH, 1857. 2 226 Biography of Johann Nepomuk von Fuchs. vineed himself by numerous experiments that lime is =i of uniting in the wet way with silica and its compounds, e with such as already contain lime. The completest proof of “this he found in the facts that certain insoluble silicates, and silica ‘itself “in a certain degree of coherence,” gelatinize. with acids after they have been mixed for some time with lime ina moist - state, and that these mixtures also increase more and more in hardness and solidity. These instructive experiments were in- stituted on quartz, opal, artificially prepared silica, and its gela- tinous hydrate, feldspar, porcelain earth, clay, garnet, prehnite, analcime, Hoga ite, &. He con firmed the result which he moors, as material for cement, _ proposed that it be wo by buming marl, using the tu: ’ . essay may “be aN as a continuation of the paper on Lime ail Mortar, and sums up clearly the experimen sults, with this conclusion ; that the hardening of hydraulic ce- ment depends essentially upon a chemical union of silica with lime, which gradually takes place in the wet.way. .Ace there can be no hydrauli¢ cement without hen and. fu there is Bee a, a hydrated silicate or zeolitic compo’ discovered that but very few natural silicates (some ¥ came pro: ducts excepted) are so constituted thes lime acts on them direetly in the wet a Way, they mostly require to be burned, some of t indeed must be burned with a little aan before they are on. What "Fuchs had said in his academical oration with to the relations between chemistry and mineralogy, he fe monstrated practically. He could hardly have been so success ful in this research had he not been acquainted with both these ces, since the latter faanishee the materials for the solution a ie problems that occurred to him. - These results exp po Tre: Letters on Chemistry,” as follows: Fithese inte interesting facts were ist OEE y Fuc mie a Munich ; iaad $d oo not only int to i intimate knowledge of the re ab properties of hydraalie cements, but, what is ra mp important, they ex} ise the effects of caustic lime upon the soil, and ar the gricaltur Biography of Johann Nepomuk von Fuchs. 227° Pa ist in the application of an invaluable means of rendering it sol- uble, and setting free its alkaline substances so important, nay, 80 indispensable to his crops.” + Se Fuchs rendered an important service to mineralogy when in 1831 he made public his method for the quantitative separation of the protoxyd and peroxyd of iron: His method consists in the use of carbonate of lime or baryta, which precipitates the ; eroxyd but not the protexyd, from hydrochloric acid so ution. his process has been found further applicable to the separation of peroxyd of iron from protoxyd of manganese, of alumina tom magnesia, and for precipitating other analogous oxyds, Instead of carbonate of lime or of baryta, the carbonates of . _ Magnesia, copper, zinc, and manganese may be used, and thus the separations effected in sulphuric acid solution. This method also serves for precipitating phosphoric and arsenic acids with peroxyd of iron, so that these acids may be separated and deter- | mined in this way. In presence of these acids then, this method = = is useless for the determination of iron. Knowing this, Fuchs Sought another “process on occasion of the analysis of a phos- phate of iron fram Bodenmais, which he named Melanchlor. He Was thereby led to the discovery of the valuable method which 18 founded upon the fact that hydrochloric acid does not dissolve Metallic copper in exclusion of air, but that it is dissolved in an a acid solution of perchlorid of iron. -Protoxyd of iron may also | be determined if it be peroxydized. The quantity of copper in 4 solution, may be estimated also by the same method; the chlo- Mid of that metal is converted into subchlorid by contact with Strips of metallic copper, the loss of weight of the latter is equal the copper originally in the solution, Fikentscher has applied eee Fuchs’ Theory of the Earth (1837) the i us spoken of—“ this cha gelatinizing of fused epidote, garnet, &c. with acids; is th onk lained by the su 3 * 928 Biography of Johann Nepomuk von Fuchs. made it prominent by interesting examples. He begins by men- tioning some facts from bis paper on lime and mortar, viz., t powdered Opal unites with lime in the wet way, and is easily - soluble in boiling caustic een solution, while the finest quartz is unattacked by lime, and dissolves’ with exceeding slowness in tash solution. This behavior can only have its foundation in a difference of aggregation (or ‘olidity} (Zustand des Starren), which is either crystalline, or the opposite of crystalline—amor- hous. Common glass is an amorphous y, which may as- sume the crystalline condition by long exposure to heat, as in Reaumur’s porcelain, Glass and Reaumur s porcelain have the same relation to each other as opal to mong amorphous bodies belong Stiidinn, pumice, pitchstone and pearistone (he was inclined to reckon le ‘ucite among them), also allophane, psilomelane, thraulite, &c., the fossil coals, resins and gums, gelatine, and many other substances. He insta tanced cinnabar: interesting 3 is his remark upon deformation, i e., the Section. from m3 crystalline to the amorphous condi- tion. He says, “In my view deformation ser nay, must the cry stalline® molecules of two or more. bodies arranging them- ees in juxtaposition, so that in fact a chemical product is noth- re than a very intimate mixture. M inion is rather, that Seder two substances can combine they must first lay the crystalline form ordinarily peculiar to them (become amo hous), and then are they in a condition to take on together the new form which they are inclined to assume, or to which the resu ant of their innate forces disposes them. This view is sustai ak the fact Aaa crystallization acts like a repulsive force against ity, an must be overcome before that power can exercise Ey the inorganic body must also become amorphous be- pe: it can enter the organic kingdom, and be assimilated to aD organic substance. Crystallization and life are absolutely i0- compatible with each other, and so soon as a substance in am organic body begins to to erystallize, so soon it falls into the inor- _® The original is the op- posite of amo gina eee rein Sere aie aie, ~ Biography of Johann Nepomuk von Fuchs. gag" = realm. The crystal is, so to speak, the boundary-stone ; ” een the two kingdoms. Fuchs also makes the amorphous state a condition of the fit- ness of mineral matter for vegetable nutrition, and thereby ex- | = the richness of voleanic soil, the fertilizing effects of many ed silicates, &c. As silica (Tabasheer) passes through the ive later article Fuchs discussed the so-called isomerism, and pointed out the possibility of explaining it, partly at least, by the erences between the crystalline and Eger pense structure. All these considerations are highly worthy of notice, an made them the basis of certain geological views which he pre- sented to the Academy, April 25, 1837. In this address, “On the theories of the Earth,” Fonhe opposed the Plutonists, and the theory of upheavals, without however, accepting literally the ines of the Neptunists. He reasoned against the view that the crystalline rocks were once in a state of fusion, as follows, using granite as the illustration: If granite were once in a molten condition, then as it cooled, in the first place, quartz must have crystallized out, and would have sunk down through the still molten mass, while feldspar and mica must have crystallized at 4 much later stage of the cooling, as the necessary result of their erent degrees of fusibility. Further, the inclusion of arsenical mn sulphid of antimony, tourmaline, garnet, finoriness &e., quartz, is incompatible with the crystallization of the latter from a state of fusion. Accordingly, the doctrine of upheavals pa - sunaioee: In ee his is views, Fuchs be- US with the proposition that amorphism mu e erysta lization, and wanes that oriianally, | the solid part of the earth Consisted of silica and silicates in the amorphous form, while the liquid portions were largely made up of solutions of lime and esia or their carbonates, in the then existing excess of carbonic acid. ‘This I conceive to have been the primal or chaotic condition of our globe, this may indeed have been pre- ceded by another condition, but to this state it must have come before the formation of rocks could begin.” In this explanation, may perhaps be found a means of harmo- i and uniting the well-founded views of Fuchs, with the ri far as these are also sound—how, I can cate only, in this place. The formation of rocks began, according to Fuchs, with the silicates. The stupendous crystal- lization thus induced must have developed light and heat." ‘The latter must have uired great intensity—even that of ignition. by circumstances, viz., The products were dif erent as determined ‘ * e + * tt #g "Bi of Johann Nepemtach von Fuchs. pin ochs, down to the ie recent times. er t Seapeuion of carbonate of lime, the vast quantities of carbonic acid which had served to hold it in solution, became the mate-, rial which should especially contribute to the sustenance of or- ganic nature. Says Fuchs “this acid had from the beginning of the creation a three-fold office; firstly to keep the carbonate of d from the silicates, and for a certain time to retain it in solution; secondly to furnish the atmosphere with oxygen, and thirdly t to. supply carbon for the precoeiaoe of fossil coal and minous, containing much hydrogen, and humus-like, containing both hydrogen and oxygen. Fuchs notices here the objection, that there is not now siounh free oxygen in the atmosphere to form carbonic acid with all “ ¢arbon of the globe. Accordingly a part of the oxygeie * nally present must have been devoted to other purposes, aD assumes that it was mostly consumed at a later period in = formation of gypsum. He supposes that before gypsum was formed, there existed the easily soluble hyposulphite of lime, and that it passed into gypsum by oxydation. For such a phenome non Fuchs offers two FP ai pi both of which aecord with chemical principles, and on at the same time, accounts for the presence of free malehuad in the gypsum beds. os the hyposulphite of lime might be co to gypsum diate oxydation, and the free pits acid thereby — eles yield gypsum, by contact with neighboring carbonate of lime; oF the hy posulphite of lime might be resolved into sulphur and sulphite af lime, and the latter pass into gypsum by pee oxyge eed, ‘of the theory of upheaval, Fuchs proposes a theory of collapse, since by the crystallization of the amorphous masses they would assume a smaller space, and thereby cavities | and breaches must be femmes, which yond, result in dislocations; and the falling down of large bodies of rock. The pall solid mass which was not sdmalioad Sot then penetrate the of the ye rock, thus giving origin to veins and dykes. In these revolutions however Fuchs also admits certain up aR rea " a . e * 2 * : t.. o i Biography of Johann Nepomuk von Fuchs. mo 4 bs lal be throughout, founded upon positive knowledge, or be capable : . a be formed. It need not surprise us then that Fuchs has allowed — play of the imagination in his theory of the earth, as when ass f all others to become a proverb among geologists. “The same F oes not always happen in the same manner.” — oe views of Fuchs have found many objectors. Among nally in ‘a state of fusion, viz., that in such case all lime must exist now as silicate and none as carbonate, because at a >. asserting that the density of the vast quantity of aqueous vapor . | Mm the atmosphere at cose time would have been sufficient to. ‘ Teplied,+ that at the fusing point of silica, a temperature | higher than that of melted platinum, the tension of carbonic acid m We See how impossible it is in this kind of study to avoid building . upon hypothesis, because we do not know even approximately \what is the melting point of silica, and still less are we acquainted With the conditions involved in the fasion of carbonate of lime, or what was the atmospheric pressure In those primeval times. * Berzelius Jabresbericht, 19, p. 742. + In Dr. A. Wagner’s Geschichte der Urwelt, 1845. * «232 ~- Biography of Johann Nepomuk von Fuchs. ’ with vastly greater readiness than happens now under the present pressure; but here is not the place to proceed with this discus- the multitudes always follow such a man blindly, and are g thereby to save the trouble of investigating for themselves; and yet it is precisely these who are most ready to sound the trumpet, and thus error instead of truth is often promulgated to the injury of science and her followers. psotk I should lead you too far should I give an analysis of the numerous shorter papers of our departed fellow-laborer, e. i rvations on graphite, &c., on the sesquioxyd of tin an rple of cassius, the discovery of iodine in the salt ae 4 the analyses of triphyline, iron-apatite, &c., &c. They abound in interesting statements and have borne fruit to science 7 as well as to ts In scientific research as in common life Fuchs was conscien- tious and honorable. He was free from pedantry, and through | all his frequent corporeal sufferings maintained a calm serenity. He recognized with joy the merits of others, and he accorded approbation to earnest effort; but superficialness and charlatan- ism excited his indignation and sarcasm. In discourse he was clear and connected, and knew how to interest hearers. in his subject. Weakness of the chest prevented him from speaking without frequent interruption, his manner however was f g | in the matter. His mineralogical lectures were published L 1842. The chemical part especially, is full of choice observa ; tions, and thus it forms a valuable complement to the ordinary : text-boo Fuchs was no friend of complicated methods, eye? a “tov does not cut, and over-pointed does not sting.” | T have often been surprised at the interest which he manifested even in his latest years in scientific intelligence, and at the atten: tion he bestowed on matters which it would be thought, could have no longer any value in the estimation of one so old. . looked forward calmly and with christian resignation to the time Biography: of Johann Nepomuk von Fuchs. aie 233° of his dissolution, and his spirit was strong and unclouded to the last:—He died on the fifth of March 1856. Although his nature was phlegmatic rather than excitable, he could warm with the fullest enthusiasm, in the discussion of scientific subjects, espe: cially when as frequently happened, his own labors had been mis- understood or misrepresented, or when his results were ignored by those who entered the fields of inquiry which he had explored. Although his scientific achievements have been sometimes under- estimated, on the other hand they have received the highest Serociation from the most illustrious philosophers of his day. € was constituted member of very numerous learned societies, and of the academies at Berlin and Vienna. He was decorated with the highest Bavarian orders of Knighthood, and under circumstances of especial honor received the Prussian order of the Red Eagle. In the ministerial despatch accompanying the occur the following words; ‘‘His Majesty the King of 4 on occasion of the reception of Vicats’ work on the formation of Hydraulic Cement, through the Prussian embass at Paris, has become aware of the distinguished merits of the Royal Bavarian Chief Mining Counsellor and Professor, Dr. Fuchs,—merits surpassing even those of Vicat,—especially in the purely scientific part of the subject. In recognition, &." On his seventieth birthday, which was celebrated as a festival his numerous disciples and friends, Fuchs uttered these mod- est words: “Had I enriched science with only one established Principle, I could receive these demonstrations of honor without 4 sense of shame, but towards this I have only made some sligh contributions.” He said still further, “remembering the old say- Mg, nist utile est quod facimus stulta gloria, | have sought some- times to give my labors a tical direction—I will not however ye ig this, that science is useful only when she enters the affai t life and brings us material gains. All science is a product of mind and reacts on mind to its —— ; = _ : — 8teatest use, because the expansion of our spiritual nature is the chiefest good that can be io Only a shallow brain, only 4 Narrow or perverted reason, can behold in nature the monster While the memory of Fuchs will be perpetuated by his dis- coveries that have into and enriched our practical life, it Will not the less be held in reverence in the history of science, for he truly belonged among her CONSECRATED ONES. _SBCOND SERIES, VoL. XXIII, NO. 68.—MARCH, 1567. : * 234 _. W. Gibbs and F. A. Genth Art. XXX.— Researches on the Ammonia-cobalt Bases; by Wo.corr Grsss and F, A. Gentu. Part I. ' [Reprinted from the ninth volume of the Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge by special permission of the Secretary, who has also permittedthe use of the ~ original woodcuts.] - Tue facility with which alkaline solutions of many metallic protoxyds absorb oxygen from the air, attracted the attention of chemists at an early period. The protosalts of iron, manganese and cobalt, are particularly remarkable in this respect. In the resence of an excess of the fixed caustic alkalies and their car- nates, salts of the protoxyds of these metals are more or less tapidly converted into basic salts of their higher oxyds. A similar effect appears to be produced by all of the more goin ful fixed bases, while it is remarkable that neutral or acid solu- tions of the same salts are oxydized much more slowly, an effec which is perhaps owing to the tendency which per-salts in gene- ral exhibit to become basic, and to the influence which an excess of acid exerts in producing neutral or acid compounds. mmonia acts like potash and soda in causing the oxydation of solutions of iron and manganese. In the case of these two metals either basic salts or hydrates of the peroxyds are formed, which contain no ammonia, at least in chemical combination. With salts of protoxyd of cobalt the result of the oxydation is very different. The sesquioxyd of cobalt at the instant of its ormation unites with a certain number of equivalents of ammo- nia so as to produce a conjugate base of which ammonia forms an integral portion. The new base partakes in some measure the properties of the alkalies, the peculiar character of the salts of cobalt being wanting. It is with this class of bases that we have at present to deal. The earliest observations which we possess upon the oxydation of the salts of cobalt are due to Leopold Grielin, who, in a me- moir, published in 1822,* described the changes of color whic are produced when ammoniacal solutions of the chlorid, sulphate, hati: . ? and nitrate of cobalt are exposed to the air. The solutions ua acid. Dingler,+ who subsequeritly endeavored to determine amount of gen, since the rown solution gave with sulphid of ammonium a black precipitate of bisulphid of cobalt. Winkelblecht denied * Neues Journal der Chemie und Physik. Neue Reihe, V, 236. : Kastner’s Archiv, xviii, 249. } Annalen der Pharmacie, xiii, 148, 253. Pe ae ee on the Ammonia-cobalt Bases. 235 lishing in them the existence of sesquioxyd of cobalt. j Ject was next investigated by Beetz,* who analyzed an ammoni- acal sulphate and nitrate of sesquioxyd of cobalt formed during he direct oxydation of ammoniacal solutions. These ana yses led to the formulas Co2:03.38S02+3NHs +NH3:0, and Co20s. 8NOs-+3NHs+NH.0, but as the substances employed were hot crystallized, and as the analytical methods were difficult to execute, but little reliance could be placed in the results. Beetz, however, considered the sesquioxyd of cobalt in these compounds as playing the part of an acid, the ammonia being present as a salt of ammonium. ; The oxydation of ammoniacal solutions of various salts of co- was also observed by sor ese and the products of the action in several cases analyzed. None of the form as 0 tained, however, appear to belong to well defined and distinct compounds. : . A memoir published by one of ourselves, in 1851,4 contained the first. distinct recognition of the existence a perfectly pe defined and crystallized salts of ammonia-cobalt bases; in fa we have not been able to trace in any earlier paper even the idea of the existence of such a class of compounds. results Made public in this paper had been obtained by the author, in Marb ) In 1847, had been at that time freely though verbally communicated, and a suite of the salts obtained had n left in the laboratory at Giessen. Want of opportunity prevented a complete and systematic investigation, particularly >m. the an- alytical point of view. The memoir in question contained, how- ever, besides several analyses, an accurate secs of the two now to be described under the names of ocobalt and Luteoeobalt, Though the analyses were from necessity not suf _ As its title states, the memoir in question was intended sun 48 a preliminary notice; circumstances, however, prevented @ resumption and continuation of the subject. In a paper pub- vig Pogg. Ann, Ixi, 494, 480, 490. ogg. Ann,, xlviii, 208. xliv, 268. ; : oe i ! Nordamerikanischer Monatsbericht fiir Natur. und Heilkunde, 1. bere 1861 orliufige Notiz iiber gepaarte Kobaltverbindungen von Dr. Friedrich Augu Genth, 236 W. Gibbs and F. A. Genth lished in 1851,* Claudet described with some detail the pro ties of the chlorid of Purpureocobalt, and the mode of obtaining it, as well’as a few other ammonia-cobalt salts. With the ex- ception, however, of more complete analyses, the memoir in question contained nothing which is not to be found in the pre- viously published paper above alluded to. In two notices com- municated to the Academy of Sciencest in the same year, Frém announced as his own, the discovery of a class of compoun containing cobalt and ammonia, and produced by the oxydation of ammoniacal solutions of protosalts of cobalt. In the follow- ing year his complete memoir appeared.t In this Frémy de- scribes anew the ammonia-salts of protoxyd of cobalt, first ob- tained by H. Rose, passes then to the description of two new classes of compounds discovered by himself, and named by him Oxy-cobaltiaque and Fusco-cobaltiaque, and finally describes at some length the principal salts of Genth’s two bases, the consti- tution of which he correctly determines. Frémy appears not to ive been aware that these two bases had been described in a manner little less complete than his own two years before the ps oem of his memoir. The chlorid of Luteocobalt and its platinum salt have also been described and analyzed by Rogoj- ski,§ and what we now term the chlorid of Purpureocobalt, by Gregory,| who corrected the analyses of Frémy. The researches of Claus on the ammonia-iridium and ammo- nia-rhodium bases established the existence of compounds of Bioswit ipaanigl TO by Frémy is so simple and con- venient that we have adopted and extended it to meet every vase. We have, however, considered it desirable to the _ * Phil. Mag, ii, 253, and Ann. de Chimie et de Physique, xxiii, 483. { Som xxxii, 509, 808. ¢ Ann. de Chimie et de Physique, xxv, 257 Journal fiir praktische Chemie. ie und | Ann. der Chemie und Pharmacie; Ixxxvii, 125. : _§ Bulletin de P Académie de St. Petersburg, 1855, xiii, 97, quoted in Handwor- der reinen und angewandten Chemie, vi, 843. e on the Ammonia-cobalt Bases. 237 terminal syllable “iaque,” employed by Frémy, not merely be- cause it is not an English termination, but because by omitting it we obtain shorter and more convenient words. Thus, we say obalt and Luteocobalt, instead of Roseo-cobaltiaque and Luteo-cobaltique, or Roseo-cobaltia and Luteo-cobaltia, which are the English equivalents. The shorter names, as will here: after appear, also agree better with our own theoretical views, since we consider the compounds in question conjugate metals and not ammonias. With the view of making the description of our salts as com- _ as possible, we have followed the excellent example of rémy, and referred the colors of these substances to Chevreul’s chromatic scale. Frémy had the advantage of Chevreul’s own determinations. We have employed, for the purpose, the chro- matic scales recently published in Paris y Digeon, and which appear to be reliable; in any event they give some precision to determinations of color. As we have found that very a of the salts of the ammonia-cobalt bases exhibit a well marked di- chroism, we have in most cases examined the light reflected from layers of crystals, by Haidinger’s dichroscopic lens, and have £1ven the colors of the ordinary and extraordinary images as ob- tained in this way. Asa curious physical result, we may here mention that, in general, the cobalt color predominates in the or- nary image. ae. We are indebted to Prof, Dana for the determination of the systems to which many of our crystals belong, and of their prin- “pal forms, as well as for our figures, and embrace thi we mn nity of expressing our grateful acknowledgement of his valuable assistance. 3 METHODS OF ANALYSIS. : The accurate quantitative determination of the different ele- ments which enter into the constitution of the ammonia-cobalt bases and their salts, is attended with great difficulties. We Cobalt—The determination of the cobalt in these salts may, 2 most cases, be very easily and accurately effected by the fol- -Owing process, A weighed portion of the salt is gently heated in a deep platinum crucible, with a quantity of pure and strong sulphuric acid sufficient to moisten the whole mass. Some a vescence is generally produced by the addition of the acid, but there is no danger of loss if the crucible be sufi y large, = te 238 W. Gibbs and \F. A. Genth and if the heat be applied only after the first action of the acid is over. The mixture is to be gently heated over a spirit lamp, until the excess of the acid, sulphate of ammonia, and other vol- * atile matters have been expelled. During the whole time of heating, the cover of the crucible must be so placed as to pre- vent the possibility of loss by spaitering, and at the same time to permit the escape of volatile matters. hen, however, the quantity of acid has not been too great, the whole process = on very quietly to the end, when the mass becomes dry. heat is finally to be raised, for an instant, to low redness, the cover of the crucible being quickly lifted off and then replaced. The crucible is then to be allowed to cool and weighed, when the quantity of cobalt may easily be calculated from the weight of the and pure sulphate. After the weighing, the mass in the crucible must be carefully examined. It should have a fine rose color, and be perfectly soluble in warm water, leaving no residue. In case this is observed, which happens only when the heat has been too high, a drop of sulphuric acid and a few drops of oxalic acid may be added, and the whole evaporated to dryness, and again ignited. When, however, there is much —_ of cobalt present, it is better to reject the analysis at once. With a little care and practice the operation succeeds almost 1n- variably, and the result, as we shall hereafter show, leaves noth- ing to be desired in point of accuracy. When chlorine is pres ent in the salt to be analyzed, a little free chlorine is sometimes found among the products of the action of the sulphuric acid, and the platinum crucible is slightly acted upon. In such cases we usually add a little oxalate of ammonia to the salt before dropping the acid upon it. The quantity of salt to be taken for analysis may vary from three to five decigrammes; when more is used, there is apt to be some loss from effervescence. In con- . sequence of the small quantities of substante employed, the weighings mu ccurate as possible. In calculating the weight of the cobalt from that of the sulphate, we have the ad- of determining one substan another with an equivalent more than twice as high. vate cae 00 with a solution of caustic potash, washin 101 oughly, and estimating the ignited precipitate as CoeOz, or a8 metallic cobalt after reduction by hydrogen. Frémy justly ob- | | | | | | on the Ammonia-cobalt Bases. 239 reduced copper, to pti ir completely the great quantity of her ammonia-cobalt salts is very difficult. Nitrate of silver, it is true, precipitates chlorine from most of its combinations in these salts, but the precipitation is never complete, because the chlorid of silver is somewhat soluble in the ammonia-cobalt chlorids, forming with them peculiar double salts. By long boiling with free nitric acid in the solution, nearly all the chlorine may be determined as chlorid of silver, but very accurate results cannot be obtained in this manner. ‘The best method consists in ignit- ing the chlorid with lime in a combustion tube, in the manner usually practised with organic bodies. In some cases, however, Wwe have obtained very good results by decomposing the solution grea Carbon.—This element is best determined by the usual process n, because, copper reduced from the oxyd by hydrogen, alway 8 contains water, which it is difficult to separate. digas __ Nitrogen.—No element has presented such difficulties as nitro- 8en. We have found it impossible to obtain-results within two or three per cent of the truth by employing the old methods of analysis, that of Dumas for instance. The quantity of 240 W. Gibbs and F. A. Genth oxyd formed during the combustion is surprising, and it is abso- lutely impossible to get rid of it by means of ignited metallic. copper, placed in front of the in orn tube. Will and Var- rentrapp'’s method with soda lime is inapplicable, because one equivalent of ammonia is always decomposed by the aque of oxygen set free in thé reduction of sesquioxyd to protox i of cobalt. Good results could not be obtained by boiling salts with caustic alkalies, collecting the ammonia in chlorhydrie acid, and determining it by bichlorid of platinum. Even after the reduction of the sesquioxyd of cobalt to protoxyd by means of sulphurous acid, this method was found unreliable. The j im- provements made by Simpson in the absolute determination of nitrogen by volume at last furnished us with a reliable process; and seer all the analyses in this, memoir were executed by his method. The improvement introduced by Simpson consists es- sentially in mixing oxyd of mercury vite the oxyd of copper nekared to effect the combustion. The vapor of metallic mer- cury completely decomposes the oxyds of nitrogen, and any eX: cess of free oxygen is absorbed by means of metallic coppen By. this method we have analyzed most of our compounds wi out special difficuly, though we have often found it necessary to employ me much. larger proportion of oxyd of mercury than is by Simpson. One class of ammonia-cobalt bases have, Rairaiven, been the source of frequent analytical failures, and of great loss of time and material. We refer to the salts of Xanthocobalt, a base containing deut-oxyd of nitrogen, and giv: ing off this gas ata gentle heat, eae that at which oxyd of m decompo Simpson’s method has not always been found accurate, since even when a very large amount of oxyd of mercury is employed there is frequently much nitric oxyd in the nitrogen collected for measurement. In many cases the sim- ple admixture of a large proportion of metallic copper with the oxyd, as recommended by Winkelblech, has been found to give most excellent results. It is proper also to state here that, m consequence of difficulties in obtaining proper apparatus with which European chemists do not have to contend, we aot in the majority of cases, measured the volume of nitrogen in t old way, using, however, very notoniale graduated tubes for collection, and co correcting with great care for temperature pressure. We have also found it advantageous to operate _ quantities of substance gpaeecrm to yield at least two cubic centimetres of this f reading gas, since way the error of rea acid.—This acid cannot be accurately determined in the phe. amenonie-enbals salts by direct precipitation with chlorid of . almost nt excess of is all cases, a great appare eg may amount to five per cent, even when the on the Ammonia-cobalt Bases. 241 sulphate of baryta appears to have been completely washed. é have, therefore, in all cases preferred to decompose the salt be analyzed, by boiling it with a little ammonia. After com- plete precipitation of the sesquioxyd of cobalt, chlorhydrie acid i8 to be added to reduce me dissolve the oxyd, when the sul- phuric acid may be directly thrown down by chlorid of barium, Even with these precautions, our results are not unfrequently 0g aga or three-tenths of one per cent too high, almost never Ww Oxalic acid.—The ordinary methods for the quantitative esti- mation of this acid fuil entirely with the class of salts under consideration. A solution of terchlorid of gold is reduced only after very long and tedious boiling, and then incompletely. Even after previous reduction of the cobalt to the form of pro- toxyd, the method is found to be very inconvenient and inaceu- Tate. The conversion of the oxalic into carbonic acid by oxyd- ation, and its determination from the weight of this last, gave no better results, inasmuch as the oxydation is effected wit difficulty. We have therefore in all cases had recourse to the ultimate organic analysis, which alone gives reliable results. The methods employed in the determination of other substan- Ces will be described, when necessary, in treating of particular compounds. ROSEOCOBALT. The description of the salts of Roseocobalt forms, upon the Whole, the most convenient starting point in a statement of the results of our investigation. These salts are in general easily obtained, and the products of their decomposition include Several of the other bases, which we shall have occasion to describe. They are almost all well crystallized, and are in general nearly insoluble in cold water, soluble without decompo- sition in warin water slightly acidulated, but easily decomposed when the neutral solutions are boiled, a hydrated hyper-oxyd of cobalt being thrown down, while free ammonia 1s given The salts of Roseocobalt have a purely saline, not metallic taste; their color varies, being sometimes dull or brick-red, - tines cherry-red. They are usually dichrous, though a few of them do not exhibit this property in a marked degree. Heat decomposes the dry salts Hes the final products of the de- Composition being usually ammonia, a salt of ammonium and a salt of protoxyd of cobalt. Intermediate products are, how- ever, sometimes formed, as we shall hereafter see. Thus in teocobalt, which then, bv continued boiling, are completely de- composed. The salts of Roseocobalt may almost always be pre- Pared by the direct oxydation of ammoniacal solutions of salts of SECOND SERIES, VOL. XXIII, NO. 68,—MARCH, 1887, 31 242 W. Gibbs and F. A. Genth protoxyd of cobalt, but the particular cireumstances, which ae- company the formation of each one, will be best considered in treating of the separate compounds. Roseocobalt is a triacid base. CHLORID OF ROSEOCOBALT. process; a large quantity of this salt in the solution often gives a lilae or purple precipitate as the oxydation advances, but this is composed principally of the chlorid of Purpureocobalt. As will be seen from the above, the chlorid of Roseocobalt is not always formed during the oxydation of an ammoniacal solution of chlorid of cobalt. On the contrary, it often happens that not @ trace of this salt can be obtained from the oxvdized solution, which contains only the chlorid of Purpureocobalt, We have observed the absence of the chlorid of Roseocobalt only in soln- tions which had been oxydized in a warm room, or during t summer season. This fact, taken in connection with the facility with which heat transformes solutions of Roseocobalt into those of Purpureoeobalt, renders it, to say the least, extremely proba- ble, either that a comparatively high temperature prevents the formation of the chlorid huseeeobalt entirely, or else that this salt is converted into chlorid of Purpureocobalt as fast as3t1s formed in the solution, ia on the Ammonia-cobalt Bases. 2438 To obtain the chlorid of Roseocobalt from the oxydized solu- tion, cold and strong chlorhydrie acid is to be added to it, the slightest elevation of temperature being carefully avoided. A brick-red precipitate is thrown down, which is to be washed with strong chlorhydric acid and then with ice-cold water, thrown Upon a filter, and dried by pressure, great care being taken to operate at as low a temperature as possible. As the formula of the chlorid of Roseocobalt is 5NHs.Co2Cls +2HO, its formation by the oxydation of the ammoniacal solu- tion of chlorid of cobalt may be explained by the equation 6CoC1+10NH:+30=2(6NHs.CozCls)+Co20s. Th those cases in which no sesquioxyd of cobalt is precipitated, We niay suppose that the sesquioxyd unites directly with ammo- nla, as represented by the equation rectly with five equivalents of ammonia to form a chlorid ex- actly analogous to the chlorid of Roseocobalt, and having the formula 5NHs.Rh2Cls. We have made various experiments Strong ammonia-water added, and te whole allowed to stand or some time in a closed bottle and in a rather dark closet. Even after many weeks, however, only traces of chlorid of : : balt could be detected. A quantity of sesquioxyd of Cobalt was dissolved in strong acetic acid, and to the solution chlorid of ammonium and ammonia-water added. In this case chlorid of Roseocobalt was formed after a few days, but it is oubtful whether its formation was not due to the oxydation of & small quantity of protoxyd of cobalt in the sesquiox d em- Ployed. In another experiment, strong ammonia was added to * Si db : ; hi a a » to the sesqui- lori op 09,80 "e ras written, Claus has exten-ed his observation fo the scagu - 244 W. Gibbs and F. A. Genth freshly prepared sesquioxyd of cobalt, and the whole allowed to stand for several weeks, after which time it was boiled with chlorhydric acid, and considerable quantities of chlorid of Pur- pureocobalt, Luteocobalt, and Praseocobalt, were obtained. This experiment leaves no doubt that the ammonia-cobalt bases can be prepared by the direct action of ammonia upon sesquioxyd of cobalt, though this mode of preparation is not economical. The chlorid of Roseocobalt may also be prepared by adding cold and strong chlorhydric acid to a completely oxydized solu- tion of the ammoniacal nitrate or sulphate of cobalt. A brick- red precipitate is formed in either case, which must be purified by repeated washing with chlorhydric acid. Strong chlorhydrie acid also precipitates the chlorid from solutions of the sulphate and nitrate of Roseocobalt. In all these cases, however, it is difficult to obtain the chlorid in a perfectly pure state. The chlorid of Roseocobalt is usually precipitated as a brick- red powder, which, under the microscope, appears to be com- posed of indistinct granular crystals. It may be purified, though portion of chlorid of Roseocobalt into chlorid of Purpureocobalt, as may easily be observed by the change of color. This trans- formation is, however, far more striking when a solution of chlo- rid of Roseocobalt is boiled with a little chlorhydric acid: the ef to a beautiful : 5NH:3.Co2Cls. This differs from that of the chlorid of Roseocobalt only by con taining no water of crystallization. The change which takes place in the conversion of one chlorid into the other does not f on the Ammonia-cobalt Bases. 245 however, consist in the mere loss of water. As we shall show, the chlorid of Roseocobalt corresponds to a triacid oxyd, while that of Purpureocobalt yields a biacid oxyd. It is to be ecare- fully borne in mind, that the substance which we have called chlorid of Roseocobalt is not the chlorid of Roseo-cobaltiaque of Frémy, Claudet, and other chemists who have studied the sub- ject. To the chlorid described by Frémy under the name of chlorid of Roseocobaltiaque we have given the name of chlorid of Purpureocobalt. The necessity of this change of name has arisen from the fact that hitherto two different bases have been confounded, the chlorid of Purpureocobalt having been consid- ered as the chlorid corresponding to the sulphate and nitrate of ocobalt. The chlorid of Roseocobalt is dichrous, the ordinary being paler than the extraordinary image; both are rose-red, with a nt brownish orange tint. Chlorid of Roseocobalt, as already mentioned, has the formula 5NHs3.Coz Cls +2HO, as the following analyses show: 07291 prs. gave 0:4235 grs, of sulphate of cobalt = ne . per eent of cobalt. 06247 grs, gave 03619 grs. « i 09884 gra. gave 05742 grs. chlorid of silver == 39 57 chlorine, 18112 grs, gave 29095 ors,“ . =e. « hyd 2890 grs. gave 1 2829 grs. water ae eet ‘s tbr ¢ = 650 12235 grs, gave 282 e. c. nitrogen at 22°5 C. and 766””82 (at 23° C.) = 254°91 c. c. at 0° and 760”™ == 26°16 per cent. The formula requires— Calculated. Found. ‘ Cobalt, -..--:-3 QUST 21°99 22°10 Chlorine, - - 39°66 3957 = 389-71 Hydrogen, - 6°38 637 650 Nitrogen, - - 26°0 26°16 age Wit ct to this formula, it must be remarked that it is extremely difficult to obtain this chlorid perfectly free from chlo- nd of Purpureocobalt, into which it is so easily converted. 1 he Uncertainty, however, will concern only the number of equiva- lents of water. The chlorid of Roseocobalt combines with the chlorids of the electro-negative metals to form well defined salts, € platinum salt, which we have not yet fully examined, ap- Pears to have the formula 5NHs.Co2Cl3+8PtCl: +8HO. Ps neutral solution of the chlorid A Roseocobalt . ae a ili ith evolution of ammonia, an - tou of a block noncien This powder is probably a hydrate of the magnetic oxyd, Cos0s+2HO, but we have idaleneeih its ex- 246 W. Gibbs and F.. A. Genth amination to the second part of our memoir. The reactions of the chlorid of Roseocobalt are as follows: Terchlorid of gold gives no precipitate-at first, but after stand- ing a lilac or purple precipitate, which is probably merely the chlorid of Roseocobalt. Bichlorid of platinum gives a pale orange red precipitate. Chlorid of mercury gives a pale rose or flesh-colored flocky precipitate. Ferrideyanid of potassium gives beautiful orange-red oblique rhombic crystals. Cobaltidcyanid of potassium gives fine red crystals. Ferrocyanid of potassium gives a cinnamon, passing to a choc- olate brown precipitate. Oxalate of ammonia gives a brick-red precipitate of small - granular crystals. Neutral chromate of potash gives no precipitate. Bichromate of potash gives a dark brick-red precipitate. The following reactions, which were obtained with a solution of the irpdated nitrate of Roseocobalt may also be introduce in this place. yrophosphate of soda gives a dull rose-red precipitate soluble in an excess of the precipitant to a clear red liquid, which in @ few minutes solidifies to a mass of fine rose-red needles. Picrate of ammonia gives a fine bright orange red precipitate soluble in hot water. Todid of potassium gives no precipitate either with the chlorid or nitrate. ere The precipitate with chlorid of mercury is readily soluble 1n chlorhydric acid, and the solution after standing gives beautiful small granular crystals of a brownish red. color. The reactions which are peculiar to the sulphate of Roseoco- balt will be described when speaking of that salt. SULPHATE OF ROSEOCOBALT. An ammoniacal solution of sulphate of cobalt absorbs oxygen readily from the air, becoming at first brown and then dark red. decompos _ The sulphate of Roseocobalt is, however, not always the only salt formed under these circumstances. In some cases in which the ammoniacal liquid was allowed to stand several months until toad ea * RR ee, Ey = & determined by Prof D: Sented in figs, 1, 2, ba 3. niphe measured angles are as follows: on the Ammonia-cobalt Bases. 247 acteristic reactions. In other cases, and especially when a little chlorid of cobalt was originally present, warm water dissolved out another sulphate, crystallizing in octahedra of an orange-red color, the examination of which is not yet complete. ye are unable to confirm Frémy’s assertion that sulphuric acid precipitates from oxydized ammoniacal solutions of sul phate of cobalt, an acid sulphate of Roseocobalt, having the formula 5NHs.CozO02, 5S0s+dHO. The salt precipitated under these circumstances is merely the neutral sulphate, as repeated analyses have shown, and as the crystalline form at once proves. The formula of the neutral sul- is NHs. Co20s, 3503 +5HO, 5 as the following analyses show: 08160 grs. gave 03800 grs. sulphate of cobalt = 1772 per cent cobalt. 08272 urs. gave 03869 grs, “ es tia * + 02760 grs. gave 0 2908 grs, sulphate of baryta == 36°11 per cent sulphurie acid. 05731 grs. zave 08074 gre.“ S = 3638 - 14925 ors, gave u8250 yrs, water oe 6:14..." hydrogen. 12840 grs, ¥Yave { 109 g' c ” = 6 15 rT rr 12108 grs, gave 2205 ©. ¢. nitrogen at 18°4 C. and 761™™-28 (at 18°-9) = 201-97 © ¢ at U° and 760” = 21 08 per cent nitrogen. The formula as above stated requires Eqs, Calculated. Found. Mean. Psi greet Re HRS sd ie BMI Rae Cobalt, - 9g 590 17°71 1772 1779 1775 Sulphuric acid, 3 1200 3603 3611 3638 3624 Hydrogen, - 20 200 600 614 615 6 1+ Nitrogen, = - 700 2102 2095 20:08 atwl Oxygen, - 8 610 1994 18 86 3330 10000 100-00 _ The sulphate of Roseocobalt has a fine cherry-red color, The light reflected from a layer of the crystals when analyzed by the dichroseopic lens, gives a rose-red ordinary, and an orange-red extraordinary image. “The dichroism is very distinct. In this, #3 in our other observations upon dichroism, the reflected rays examined made an angle of about 60° with the normal, but no 248 W. Gibbs and F. A. Genth 1:1==107° 20’; 1:4@= 126° 20’; ii: 14 = 137° 21’; 0: 1i= 182° 85’ (cale. 132° 39’); a= 10866. : Prof. Dana remarks that the angles are very close to those of Cerasine; and also to those of Scheeletine or tungstate of lead, if 1¢ be $ and 1 be 1z. The sulphate of Roseocobalt is nearly insoluble in cold water, but is soluble in much boiling water, and crystallizes readily as the solution cools. By slow evaporation, it may be obtained in large crystals, which, however, seldom exhibit very perfect faces. Ammonia in dilute solution dissolves the sulphate, giving a fine urple solution, from which the salt erystallizes unchanged. ‘The neutral solution is readily decomposed by boiling, ammonia being evolved, and a dark brown precipitate of the hydrated magnetic oxyd of cobalt, Cos04+8HO, thrown down, while sulphate of Luteocobalt remains in solution. The decomposition in this case extends to the sulphate of Luteocobalt also, so that much less than one equivalent of this salt is obtained for two equivalents of the sulphate of Roseocobalt decom . Strong ammonia poured upon dry sulphate of Roseocobalt usually changes its color almost immediately from a red to @ buff yellow, while the liquid itself becomes red. The buff col- ored substance formed in this case, is the sulphate of Luteoco- balt; the red solution contains sulphate of Roseocobalt. When dry sulphate of Roseocobalt is carefully heated in 4 porcelain or platinum crucible, ammonia is evolved, and there remains a lilac-red mass, which contains sulphate of Luteocobalt, sulphate of Purpureocobalt, and a leek-green crystalline sub- stance which we have called provisionally Praseocobalt. : We shall speak of all these reactions more fully when treating of the sulphate of Luteocobalt. ve A current of the red gas which arises from the action of nitric acid upon starch, and which probably consists chiefly of one converts an acid, neutral, or ammoniacal solution of sulp balt into one of the nitrate of Xanthocobalt. on the Ammonia-cobalt Bases. 249 . ond part of our memoir. _ Strong sulphuric acid digested with sulphate of Roseocobalt yields, under some circumstances, sulphate of ammonia and sul- phate of Luteocobalt. In other cases it yields the acid sulphate of Purpureocobalt. By double decomposition with salts of ba- sq the sulphate of Roseocobalt yields the other salts of this ase. The reactions of the sulphate are somewhat different from those of the chlorid, as will be seen from the following statement, Ferrideyanid of potassium gives no precipitate at first, but after two’ hours very distinct and well defined small augitic crystals, Cobaltideyanid of potassium behaves in a precisely similar Manner, giving red crystals. ; Neutral chromate of potash gives no precipitate. The bichro- mate gives none at first, but after two or three hours, groups of reddish brown needles. We shall hereafter state our reasons for believing that in cer- fain cases there is a conversion of the triacid Roseocobalt in the Sulphate of this base, into the biacid Purpureocobalt. ANHYDROUS NITRATE OF ROSEOCOBALT. } The ammoniacal solution of nitrate of cobalt absorbs oxygen very readily from the air, and the oxydation is lete nitrate of Luteocobalt is formed under these circumstances, and being insoluble in the ammoniacal liquid, forms a bright yellow talline precipitate upon the bottom and sides of the vessel. During the process of the oxydation, crystals of the compound de- puibed by Frémy as the nitrate of Oxycobaltiaque are quai Tmed in some quantity, but these disappear at a later stage of the oxydation, when the liquid takes a deep wine-red color. © crystals of nitrate of Oxycobaltiaque were first observed by Leopold Gmelin, a fumed them, though Frémy’s analyses do not appear to us satis- ry, fac 250 W. Gibbs and F. A. Genth tion of nitrate of Reseocobalt, but is not indispensa The preparation of pure nitrate of Roseocobalt is attended with difficulty, as the precipitated crystallime nitrate almost always contains a little nitrate of Luteocobalt. It is best to dis- solve the crude nitrate in water, to which a little ammonia has ence of nitrate of ammonia facilitates the oxydation and forma: le. color of the large and small crystals of the same substance is very commonly observed in the ammonia-cobalt compounds, cult to obtain a pure salt in this manner. Nitrate of copper also gives nitrate of Roseocobalt with chlorid of copper, when mixed with an equivalent proportion of chlorid of Roseocobalt, but the purification is difficult. Finally, a pure nitrate may be pre- salt, like the se ere crystallizes in forms belonging to the di- metric system. Fig combinations, fig. 5 is a very rare form, which was obtained only once. 5. 6. :1 {over the base) ==82° 40’. Whence 0:1 (not observed) = 186° 20/5 7:2 1:1 ==131° on the Ammonia-cobalt Bases. 251 Solution containing the nitrate of Lut t and nitrate of am- mo The quantity of Luteocobalt is small in 5NH3s.Co203, 3NOs=Co20s +8N+15HO, In point of fact, however, the decomposition is less simple, as vapors are always evolved. f When a current of NOx is passed through a solution of nitrate of Roseocobalt a rapid absorption takes place, and after a short time crystals of nitrate of Xanthocobalt are deposi Solution of sulphurous acid converts the nitrate of Roseo- cobalt, at first into an orange-colored compound containing SOs, and afterward reduces this completely to nitrate and sulphate of Cobalt and nitrate of ammonia. Nitrate of Roseocobalt has the formula 5NHs.Coz20s, 3NOs, as the following analyses show: 0°2308 grs. gave 0: cobalt == 17:82 per cent t, cietgeere one gn te 01448 grs. gave 0.0681 “ « =1790 > * “ 0°9370 grs. gave 03915 grs, water = 464 per cent hydrogen. 06632 ve 0 2862 “ = 4°79 a“ “« 27312 e¢11258¢rs. “ = 4657 e ee grs, gave 168 ¢.c. nitrogen at 24° C. and 76631 (at 24°°5) = 150°54 c.¢, ° am ost i cel »¢, at 0° and 760 33 pn ink 164098 at (139-8) = 200°55 c. at 0° and 760%” == 34°03 per cen Eqs. Calculated: Mean. Cobalt, 2 590. 1787 17-88 1782 1792 1790 Hydrogen, 15 150 4°85 460 464 479 457 Nitrogen, 8 112:0 33-93 34-01 3398 3403 ——_ Oxygen, 18 1440 4865 43°51 —_—_ 830°0 100-00 10000: 252 W. Gibbs and F. A: Genth When nitrate of Roseocobalt is dissolved in water containing much nitrate of ammonia and a little ammonia, and the solution is allowed to evaporate spontaneously, beautiful purple-red scaly . crystals separate. These crystals cannot be purified by recrys- tallization, as they are decomposed by solution in water. When boiled with chlorhydric acid there is copious effervescence and a purple-red solution is obtained, which appears to contain the chlorid of Purpureocobalt. The empirical formula of the scaly nitrate appears to be 5NHs.CozO2, 2NOs+7HO. From -the effervescence with muriatic acid we are disposed to consider it 4NHs3 .Co20s, NO; +NH:0, NO; +6HO, but further investi a tion is required before we can pronounce with certainty on this point. HYDROUS NITRATE OF ROSEOCOBALT. When ammonia is added in excess to a solution of the nitrates of cobalt and of ammonia and the solution is exposed to the air, oxydation takes place with considerable rapidity, and as we have already stated when speaking of the anhydrous nitrate, the so- lution becomes dark purple-red, while yellow scales of the nitrate of Luteocobalt are more or less abundantly deposited upon the bottom of the vessel. When the red liquid is boiled with nitric acid in excess, a dark crimson precipitate of nitrate of Roseoco- balt is formed, while a portion of the same salt remains in solu- tion. It has hitherto been supposed from these facts that the anhydrous nitrate of Roseocobalt is a direct product of the oxyd- ation of the ammoniacal liquid, This, however, is not the case. If the oxydized liquid be filtered from the nitrate of Luteocobalt and allowed to evaporate spontaneously, very fine large oblique rhombic crystals are formed, which are the hydrous nitrate of Roseocobalt. The crystals of this nitrate belong to the monoclinic or sae rhombic system, according to Prof. Dana’s determination. € observed forms are J, 14, 22, —12, 72, or in other symbols, «, 1-© G- 00, —1- 00, co-o. Hig. 7. Th y : 6 14:4 == 140° 30’ li:1i = 96° 30’ and 838° 30’ The hydrous nitrate of Roseocobalt is readily soluble even 0 cold water; the hot neutral solution is very — decom: evolution of ammonia and precipitation of a black powder. The addition of a few drops of nitric acid prevents the decom- tion. An excess of nitric aci toa “cold solution of nitrate produces a brick-red precipitate, which is readily sol on the Ammonia-cobalt Bases. 253 SNH: .Co203, 3NOs +2HO a8 the following analyses indicate : 0'8265 grs. gave 0:3708 grs. sulphate of cobalt = 17-05 per cent cobalt. 05275 grs. gave 02870 gers. ei “ “ 08012 grs. gave 217°8 c.c, nitrogen at 1195 O. and 761™™-48 (at 11°40.) = 206°05 c.c. at 0° and 760™™ == 32°30 per cen 07667 ers. gave 207 ¢.c. of nitrogen at 14° 0. and 766"56 (at 14°20.) = 194-91 cc, at 0° and 760™™ = 31:92 per cent. The formula requires Eqs. Calculated. Found. ee eS oe 16-95 1705 1709 Nitrogen, - - 8 3218 . 8230 81°92 It is true that the analyses here agree with the formula as well cobalt and nitrogen being as 1 to 4, or 2to 8. We ‘o this point at another time. 254 W. Gibbs and F. A, Genth — OXALATE OF ROSEOCOBALT. The oxalate is precipitated from the chlorid almost immedi- ately by the addition of a solution of oxalate of ammonia. From a solution of the nitrate it is deposited much more slowly, often only after some hours, and sometimes in remarkably distinct and well formed crystals. The oxalate as first thrown down may be purified by solution in ammonia-water and recrystallization by spontaneous evaporation. The salt then forms beautiful prs- rhombic prism of about 101° 48’, with a brachydome of 108° 54’. The constitution of the oxalate of Roseocobalt is represented by the formula 5NHs.Co20:s, 80203+6H0 as the following analyses show: 0°5504 ers. gave 0°2625 ers. sulphate of cobalt = 18:15 per cent. 0°3325 grs. gave 01585 grs. 3 f: rat Te “ 15381 grs. gave 06170 grs. carbonic acid = 32-82 per cent oxalic acid. The formula requires Eqs. Calculated. Found. Cobalt, - - z 17°87 18°15 18°14 Oxalic acid, - - 3 32-73 82 82 COBALTIDCYANID OF ROSEOCOBALT. _ This beautiful salt is precipitated from a solution of the chlo- rid or hydrous nitrate of Roseocobalt, by a solution of cobaltid- into a salt of the triacid Roseocobalt. The cobaltideyanid is merean precipitated at once in the form of cherry-red prismatic crystals, which, so far as it is possible to judge from their ap- el gee from the sulphate of Roseocobalt only after The crystals are usually remarkably large when com on the Ammonia-cobalt Bases. 255 se with the mass of liquid from which they are thrown down. hey are more distinct in form the more slowly the precipitation takes place. The salt has the forraula 5NH3.Coz Cy 3 +Co2Cys +38HO. as the following analyses show: 01924 grs. (from chlorid of Purpureocobalt) gave 01540 grs. sulphate of cobalt = 80°46 per cent cobalt. 07150 grs. (from chlorid of Roseocobalt) gave 05755 grs. sulphate of cobalt = ‘63 per cent cobalt. #08111 grs, (from chlorid of Roseocobalt) gave 272 c. c.of nitrogen at 10° O. and 761™™-99 (at 10° C.) = 259-48 cc. at 0° and 760™™ = 40-18 per cent. The formula requires Eqs. Calculated. Found, Cobalt, - - 4 8057 30 68 3046 Nitrogen, - - 11 89°89 40-18 _ The analyses of the ferrideyanid of Roseocobalt bh addi- sc evidence of the gorrectness of the formula ac opted for this salt. FERRIDCYANID OF ROSEOCOBALT. The ferrideyanid is formed like the ange i: by ae j ne r 4 solution of ferridcyanid of potassium to one of chlorid or n1- tra f the corres The crystals exhibit a remarkable dichroism, the ordinary image being of a fine purple rose color, while the inka A image ge rok water; the sal, by that anceepadty it by heat, then burning off the carbon in a gentle current of oxygen, and finally reducing aa nixed oxyds of cobalt and iron in a current of hydrogen. © formula of this salt is 5NHs3.Co2Cys +Fe2Cy: +3HO 48 the following analyses show: 03618 grs, gave 0-1086 ors, metallic iron and cobalt = 30°05 per cent. sites <5 burnt wit okyd of copper and oxygen, gave 1:0302 gre. carbonic = 1869 per cent carbon. The tem sles Eqs. Calculated. Found. Cobalt and i . 30-02 ~ 30-05 Calbia es ed! cas 1879 1869 256 W. Gibbs and F. A. Genth There can be no reasonable doubt that this salt is isomorphous | with the corresponding cobalt salt. Like the latter it is an ex- ) tremely valuable test for the salts of Roseocobalt and for certain salts of Purpureocobalt. OXYD OF ROSEOCOBALT. brown oxyd obtained by boiling a solution of sulphate of Roseo- cobalt, and afterward washing and drying the precipitate in the air, has the formula Co3;04+8HO as the following analyses show: I. 0:4430 grs. gave 0°6990 grs, sulphate of cobalt = 60°05 per cent of cobalt. II. 09269 grs. gave 01672 grs. sen (ignited with dactuia ht lead) = 18°08 per cent. Ill. 0°7150 grs. ignited in hydrogen gas gave 0°3010 grs. water, which in connec : tion with the 2nd analysis gives 21:88 per cent oxygen in the oxyd of cobalt. The formula requires - Eqs. Calculated. Found. ee es.) ae 88°5 60-00 ee Mt a rier | 320 21-69 21° +... 9 Gena 270 18°30 18-03 1475 100-00 99°46 Frémy’s formula requires 64 per cent of cobalt. Claudet gives also the formula Co:30.+8HO i robable, but without analyses. On the other hand, it is possible that the different salts, not only on the Ammonia-cobalt Bases. 257 saan epg but of the other similar bases, may give differ- ent oxyds by decomposition. We propose to examine this point more fully fancadhons : aot sen The hydrate above mentioned and analyzed is a very dark- brown pasion, which dries to a black mass with a gummy lus- tre. The powder is dark brown. Oxalic acid dissolves it to a drous oxyd occurs in. the form of small steel-gray octahedra, ‘tric, chlorhydric, and nitro-muriatic acids have no decided ac- tion upon them. 16425 grs. of this oxyd gave 1-2059 grs. of metallic cobalt = 73:41 per cent. gs. ignited in sede 16425 ogen gave 0°4879 grs. water = 25°91 per cent oxygen. The formula CosO« requires Eqs. Calculated. Found. Cobalt, - - 8 88'5 13°44 7341 Osygen, 3 See § 320 26°56 25°01 1205 100:00 99°32 0 until the chlorine is expelled. It is, therefore very probable that in the decomposition of chlorid of Roseocobalt by heat, the chlo- Tid of cobalt is first produced, and then decomposed in the man- e Solutions of the ammonia-cobalt bases by sulphid of ammonium, it can scarcely be doubted that this is the bisulphid, as Claudet’s PURPUREOCOBALT, The salts of Purpureocobalt are often found among the direet oduets of the oxydation of ammoniacal solutions of cobalt. me =o ae often formed from the salts of “ergata by ss .>Y boiling with strong acids, the cobalt passing, as we con- “élve, from one Rare toanother. The salts of Purpureo- SECOND SERIES, VoL. XXIII, NO. 63.—MARCH, 1967. : 33 258 W. Gibbs and F. A. Genth cobalt are also formed im great abundance by the action of acids upon salts of Xanthocobalt, and we are disposed to think that they may also occur, though rarely, among the products of the decomposition of salts of Luteocobalt. The salts of Purpureocobalt are distinguished by a fine violet- red or purple color, which is common to nearly all of them, and which is very different from the comparatively dull red of the salts of Roseocobalt. They are in general somewhat less soluble than the compounds of Roseocobalt, and crystallize, for the most part, in well defined crystals. When neutral they have a purely saline, non-metallic taste. ° Heat readily decomposes the salts of this base; the final pro- ducts of the decomposition are the same as in the case of the salts of Roseocobalt, but intermediate products are often form The neutral solutions are readily decomposed by boiling, the products of the decomposition being a black or dark-brown oxyd of cobalt and a salt of ammonium, free ammonia being given off. In some cases, however, salts of Luteocobalt are in- termediate products of this decomposition. All the salts of Purpureocobalt tylong boiling with an excess d. of chlorhydric acid yield the chlorid. CHLORID OF PURPUREOCOBALT. The substance which we shall describe under the name of fore, necessary to devise a new name. The purple color of the salts which correspond to the chlorid now to be describe us to adopt the name of Purpureocobalt for the radical of these salts, as more appropriate than Roseocobalt, which we have te tained for most of the salts to which it was originally applied. Such a change is to be regretted; it could not, however, have been avoided, without an introduction of two entirely new names. We have already stated that the chlorid of Purpureocobalt 18 often a product of the direct oxydation of an ammoniacal solu- tion of the chlorid of cobalt exposed to the air. In these cases that the temperature at which the process of oxydation goes OP is the condition which determines the character and the amount a. t is, in our view, the first product of the oxydation under all circumstances. Ata moderately high tem- on the Ammonia-cobalt Bases. 259 perature, however, the chlorid passes as fast as it is formed into ehlorid of Purpureocobalt, which may thus be the only final which chemically pure chlorid of cobalt and ammonia were em- ployed, the process of oxydation went on wef slowly, without the precipitation of any trace of sesquioxyd of cobalt. The iste or reactions to indicate the presence of chlorid or oxyd of Purpureocobalt or Roseocobalt. On boiling with chlorhydrie acid, however, the chlorid of Purpureocobalt was thrown down mm abundance, and no other substance could be detected in the chiorid of Purpureocobalt. We believe that in this case a com- bination of the oxyd and chlorid existed in the solution, so that, as we have already suggested in speaking of the chlorid of d equation d li reagents added ps not be able to overcome the affinity between the oxyd and chlorid. It is easy to see that by boiling with chlorh ae acid, the combination of oxyd and chlorid will give the chlori We have already mentioned that the chlorid of Roseocobalt 4 Sach 'S circumstance explains why only the chlorid of Purpureo- Cobalt 18 obtained by foiling a Soripletely oxydized ammoniacal Solution of chlorid of cobalt, even when this solution contains dently described the salts of that base, as if they correspon 'o, and contained the same radical as chlorid of urpureocobalt. 260 W. Gibbs and F. A. Genth 4 It is not necessary to add chlorid of ammonium to the ammo* traces of impurity. It is not, however, necessary to use a pure chlorid of cobalt in preparing the chiorid of Prrpiareoodbell hour or two, almost all the original salt is decomposed, 7] given off in abundance during the boiling, while a lilac ae be mass supernatant liquid is to be poured off, and boiling water added to the insoluble portion. A brown-yellow or dark sherry Wine colored solution ‘is usually formed, which is again to be poured off, and the washing repeated till the liquid has a clear purple color. The red mass is then to be dissolved in boiling water, t? on the Ammonia-cobalt Bases. 261 which a little chlorhydric acid has been added, and filtered. On cooling, the chlorid of ureocobalt izes in small b liant crystals, which must be repeatedly recrystallized to separate all traces of impurity. The washings, on boilmg with chlorhy- dric acid, yinld: a fresh portion of the chlorid. The reaction which takes place under these circumstances may be expressed by the equation NOz.5NH3.CosO0s, 2NOs +3HClI=NO2+2NOs, HO+ : 5NHs.Co2Cls+HO. As already remarked, the chlorid or sulphate of Xanthocobalt may be employed in a precisely similar manner, and also yield the chlorid of urpureocobalt, en the sulphate is used, how- ever, the resulting chlorid is apt to retain sul hurie acid with much obstinacy, and can with difficulty be freed from it. Another method of preparing the chlorid of Purpureocobalt, consists in boiling the chlorid or nitrate of Roseocobalt with chlorhydric acid. This method is very convenient, and yields avery pure chlorid. _ The chlorid of Purpureocobalt may also be prepared by boil- ing the acid sulphate of this base with chlorhydric acid. In this case, however, as in all others in which sulphuric acid is Present in the solution, the chlorid should be boiled with a little chlorid of barium, and repeatedly recrystallized, to separate traces of the isomorphous sulphate of Roseocobalt formed at the Same time. . - tion is soluble without decompositi r to which a i drops of chlorhydric get have been added. From this gate It separates, on cooling, in very brilliant small crystals, whic are simpler in form, the purer the solution from which they have crystallized. The crystals belong to the square atic te dimetric system, according to Prof. Dana, and not to the regular stem, as stated in previous memoirs. The observed ties are the octahedron and first and second prism. P.aPa.Pa. € angles in Dana’s notation are (see fig, 1) : ss Pre = as yt ink csaep: As] (calonlated 107° 12°). 3 seated) = laate li: i oe the bg aan? over the top = 85°. e€ usually small but extremely well formed ; those which are obtained. froth solutions containing a little chlo- nid of mercury most frequently exhibit the planes of the first 262 W. Gibbs and F. A, Genth and second prism, and are larger than those which separate from pure solutions. From these measurements, it a aoe pears that the { chlorid of Purpureocobalt is isomorphous with the sulphate of | Roseocobalt. ‘This isomorphism is the more remarkable, imas- much as a precisely similar case occurs with the chlorid and sul- ’ hate of Luteocobalt, between which there is a similar difference of constitution. Thus we have 5NHs.Co2Clzs=5NHs.Co20s, 8S03:+5HO 6NHs.CozCls=6NHs3. Co20s3, 8503;+5HO. From this it appears.that in both cases we have the erystallo- ‘ graphic equallity re 38C1=Os, 3803+5HO. : The density of the crystals of chlorid of Purpureocobalt, as | taken in alcohol, is 1802 at 28°-C.; the atomic volume of ‘the | chlorid is consequently 139° 0. | The chlorid of Purpureocobalt has the formula NHs.Co2Cls as appears from the following scien : | 0°4962 gers. gave 0°3073 grs. | 0°8514 grs. gave 0°5279 grs, . on meas: Hy . 1-4116 grs. gave 08782 grs. “ = 2355 “ « 0°7550 grs. gave 0°4105 ors. wae = 6°04 per cent hydrogen. 06116 grs. gave 0°3412 grs. : = 619 “ “ 0°6124 grs. gave 0°3865 grs, - = 610 “ 14184 grs. gave 0°7800 grs. . om $41:.% 16636 grs, gave 2°8540 grs. _chlorid of silver = 49-40 per cent chlorine. 0°4754 grs. gave 0°8200 grs, ® “- {mit 4Sae..-.* : Sl 0°1966 grs. gave 0°3365 grs. ” = rent ~ x 04972 grs. gave 0°8553 or . 05965 gre. gave 149 «.«. nitrogen at 18° C. and ramet (at 18° 0) =11819 c.c. at 0° and "60m = 28°05 per ce 0°9042 gre zave ¢ 124 c.o.nt nitrogen at 19° C. pa T66mm-56 (at 19°-4 0.) = 12896 93 per cent nitr 06036 rs re 16816 cc. “utrogen aT 752m™-60 and 15° - — += = 135-08 ¢.c, at 0° and 760™™ — 28-11 per ce 0°5755 gre. ae 16039 ¢. c. nitrogen at 771mm- 8 and 15° O, 2 = 119mm, t= ° C, = 12886 ¢. c. at 0° and 7 760"™ == 812 per cent nitrogen. The nitrogen in these as in all our Sas was moist. Hence we have Eqs. Theory. Mean. Found. Cobalt, 2 59 2855 2856 2358 2357 2855 2955 Chlorine, 8 1065 4250 4243 4249 4231 4952 42-40 ha is “ts 598 611 604 - 619 610 ° 61l N 5 0 2797 2801 2805 2793 9812 2811 2505 10000 100-11 The agreement of these analyses leaves no reasonable doubt that the true formula of ee chlorid of P tis 5NHs. Co2Cls, as first correc y determined by gojski, and subse- on the Ammonia-cobait Bases. 263 quently by Gregory. Frémy gives in addition one equivalent ace of 15 equiva phere of carbonic acid gas, which could not be the case upon Claudet’s view, since we should then have the equation . Ns H16Co2Cls=5NH3+2Co0Cl+ HCl, tee the presence of free nitrogen and hydrogen renders it he probable that the decomposition is in reality expressed by the * equation . 5NHs.Co2Cls=2CoC]+NH:0]l+8NH;+N+2H. i e have more than once endeavored to determine the amount the chlorid of Purpureocobalt is readily decomposed by boiling, a dark-brown precipitate, probably of the hydrated magnetic a he being thrown down, while the solution becomes brown- yetow, and contains chlorid of ammonium and chlorid of Luteo- cobalt, ammonia being at the same time given off. The quantity of chlorid of Luteocobalt which is thus formed is always very small, being very much less than one equivalent for two equiva- lents of the chlorid of Purpureocobal may be boiled for a very long time with concentrated chlorhy- dric acid without decomposition, and this stability in the presence magnetic oxyd of cobalt, CosO1. The red gas arising ew the action OF ete acid : n ave pig exertsa ‘ty remarkable influence upon the chlorid o ba Converting it into the accu ot a base, which will be described further on under the name of Xanthocobalt. 264 W. Gibbs and F. A. Genth, &¢. Sulphurous =e solution throws down from solutions of the chlori id a dull orange-brown precipitate, which appears ea son pea By Petras with an excess of the acid this is reduced, there remains a solution of a protosalt of cobalt. Sulphuric acid, under certain conditions, converts chlorid of Purpureocobalt into the acid sulphate of the same base. , _ Zine may be boiled a long time with an acid solution of the chlorid os producing decomposition or reduction. Formic have no reducing action. Protochlorid of tin hee oe unites with the chlorid of Purpureocobalt so as to form a chlo The chlorid of Purpureocobalt exhibits a remarkable ne to unite with metallic chlorids to form chloro-salts. Such nue the Spin with the chlorids of Platintit Palladium, n, Zine, and various other metals. The chlorid dot Parpareocobat even dissolves chlorid of silver in large ata doubtless forming with it a double chlorid. It is for this re that it is not generally advantageous to prepare the salts of Pur uber aren by double decomposition between the chlorid and e reactions of a + pure solution of the chlorid of Purpureo- cobalt are as * ie tol rrocyan assium ~ a yellowish precipitate which aaa Ries Seem Ferrideyanid of ote ti piven a beautiful bright orange-red crystalline precipitate. Cobaltideyanid of potassium gives a fine red erystalline pre- cipitate. Oxalate of ammonia gives a beautiful tral we ae precipitate of fine needles. Pyrophosphate of soda — a lilac precipitate easily soluble in an excess of the precipitan Neutral chromate of aah gives a brick-red precipitate. Bichromate of potash gives orange-yellow soso Picrate of ammonia gives a beautiful yellow precipitate. Terchlorid of gold precipitates the shi rid unchanged. Bichlorid of platinum a a fine cinamon-brown precipitate crystalline scales. Sulphid of ammonium gives a black a Chlorid of mercury gives fine rose-red needles, easily decom: Bichlorid of tin gives pale peachblossom-red silky needles. Rr ig of ammonia eid a pale peachblossom-red pre- cipi Alkalies and their carbonates give no precipitate. Iodid and bromid of potassium give no precipitate. Scientific Intelligence. 265 (Zo be continued.) =—__ SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE, I, .CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS. Metals, as the alloy, while one-tenth part of copper renders aluminum as rittle as glass, An alloy of 5 parts of silver with 100 of aluminum Works like silver but is harder and takes finer polish. The one-thousandth of bismuth renders aluminum so brittle that it eracks under the hammer “ren after being repeatedly annealed. The presence of aluminum in 25 4 ae Pag ot : | ; t num beautifu color and hardness enough to scratch the standard alloy of gold employed tal oY 9f 95 parts of iron with 5 of aluminum does not differ essen- of 2.2 Properties from iron, An alloy of 90 parts of copper with 10 Slurninum may be forged by the aid of heat and is not acted on by SECOND SERIES, VOL. XxIiI, NO. 68,—MARCH, 1867. 34 266 Scientific Intelligence. sulphydrate of ammonia. It has a fine yellow color but is inferior in lustre to the alloy of 95 copper to 5 of aluminum. An alloy of 97 parts of aluminum and 3 of silver has a very beautiful color, and is not acted on Wy yar hydrogen. — Comptes Rendus, xliii, 925, ov. 10, 1856. nace the matter fuses and gives at the bo ttom of the cmelble a viscid glass above which an [purge fluid liquid i is found which may be poured off while the crucible is hot. If the crucible be allowed to cool, two “solid asses are formed, which are easily séparated. The upper mass is crys- talline and white or slightly rose colored from the presence of manganese. This mass is a combination of the sulphates of baryta, potash, and lithia; by simple washing the alkaline sulphates may be separated from the sul- phates of baryta. The same process succeeds with petalite if we add to it such a quantity of sulphate of potash as will make the total quantity of alkali about the same as in lepidolite. By adding more potash to lepi- dolite itself, the author succeeded in separating still more of the lithia, about 3 per cent. Sulphate and carbonate of lime seat be used i in a of ng salts of rg eg: s Rendus, xliii, 921 GI. HsAgOs—C4H102 , 2CaHsOs-42 Agl. The acetate is a limpid liquid, neutr ral dna without Gllar It boils at 185° C., and is heavier than water. The acetate has the Senile CaH4O02 | Cals ae the base being biacid. When the a soci is digested with 2 equivalents of fused caustic potash for several hours in an oil-bath at'180° and then distilled at 250°, the glycol passes over as _a colorless liquid, which boils at 195° and dis- tills unchanged. Glycol isa limpid oily liquid which has a sweetish taste, and is soluble in all proportions, in water and alcohol. Its peri! is CaHe6Oa, and it therefore differs from alcohol in containing 2 eqs. of o els The author considers it as a true biatomic alcohol, so ‘that we have CszH604 biatomic, Glycerin CeHsO6 triatomic. While alcohol ag one equivalent of water in forming cme of ethyl, ve loses two in forming its corresponding diacetate, an rin three rey as its je Tn this way is shown, as the hes sot, first time in ic chemistry, the rinciple of i SR OREADS chemistry, that fe anueg at equivalents of "an aci et whi aca Alcohol CaHeO2 uniatomic, Glycol tween the ethers and the fats. Droui.ce Ate CeHeBra, as upon acetate of silver and yields the acetate of af pps ¢ CsHs02, 2 2CsH30s, Chemistry and Physics. 267 from which potash separates propyl-glycol CeHsOs, Acetal is a mixed ether being CaHaO2, 2CaHs0, The author has also } CsHs0 and CsH102 C2Ha0 | of glycol, its formula Prepared the analogous bodies hie fn CsHs0 they are etherial liquids which are not d iner Akad | C2H30 ’ ecomposed by potash.— Berichte der Berliner ad, der Wissen, quoted in Journal fir prakt. Chemie, glycerammine CoH and soluble in water and ether 3 it NOz, HCI-PiCle. The new @rammine i _loid formed by a bod belonging to t ; M4 a de P hysique, xlviii, 304. re) he class of sugars.— Ann. der Chimi ‘ é 268 Scientific Intelligence. 6. On the formation of urea - the ponenes of albuminous maiters.—~ Bécuamp has succceeded in showing that urea is one of the products of the oxydation of albuminous bilan The author effects the decomposi- tion by an alkaline solution of hypermanganate of potash. The fibrine of the blood and gluten yield also urea by the same process. From these pigs tT ge ae ents it is clear that oxydation of albuminous matters under an alkaline influence yields pai very different from those obtained at a higher temperature by means of oxydizing mixtures of peroxyd of manganese or ee of stash and sulphuric acid —Ann. de Chimie et de Physique, xlviii, 34 yf On triphenylamin. so tees NN finds that when oil of ee ° shaken with a concentrated scltion of acid sulphite of ammonia, a cr, amet mass is produced which when washed with alcohol and ‘istilled i lime gives among other products an oily colorless — which is tri- ‘ der Chemie und Pharmacie, ¢ 8. On some products of the crydation of alcohol_—Dxsus has discov- hol and sdigras™ over sulphuric acid in large chestnut-bLrown crystals belonging to the regular system, Its formula is ——s NCI-+-PiCle or @ N(Ci2Hs)sHCl+-PtCle. Todid of ethyl when heated with the pure i base in closed tubes give the _ of + ere gana —Ann. the quantitative determination of ieeihiha id.—Srromeyer finds syru strata the strongest bases — Ann. _ Chemie und Pharm., ¢, 1-19. that Berzelius’s process for the ietcacitinn of boric acid in the form of | a sufficient quantity of potash, pure fluohydric acid added, and the whole evaporated to dryness, an excess of fluchydric acid being present. eee ee, nitrate, phosphate, and even, though with difficulty, sulphate The nce of soda salts should be avoided as the flu — yy ge a 3 = s! 6 Qu a = SS is oe Be Hs Ee fe oS funnel of goto i or fademoabbee: The evaporation must be pet formed in vessels of silver or Siege m. rs Chemistry and Physics. 269 hyl. Water decomposes this body, yielding oxyd of zinc, dinitro-ethylate of zinc, and ethyl- g N2CaHs04Zn+ZnCsHs+HO=CiHs, H+N20sHs04Zn+Zn0. Dinitro-ethylic acid is monobasic and has the formula N2C4H6O« or 2CaHsOs+HO, e acid exists only in solution and is easily decom- posed ; its salts are soluble in water and alcohol and do not crystallize easily. A salt of this acid, when heated with concentrated sulphuric - acid at 0°, is decomposed, yielding nitrogen, nitrous oxyd, nitric oxyd, and olefiant gas. Zinc-methyl forms precisely analogous compounds. : acid may be 2NO,CsHs0+HO. This view would satisfactorily explain @ decomposition of the salts by sulphuric acid as well as the formation of the ner a which last would be represented by the equation CsHs .Zn-+-2N02=2N0.0sHs0+2n0. w. @] ll. Action of sulphuric acid upon the nitriles and amids,—Buoxton and Hormanw have studied the action of sulphuric acid upon the amids HC2N-}HO-[H2820s=200-++\ry, S20s, k it might be expected that We should also have the reaction expressed by the equation O2HsC2N-} 2H0-+H2820s=200-+N ir, Calta) ¢ 820*- Experiment however did not confirm the expectation but led to the dis- of s : ; : . tri j a ; ; and the authors - the reaction as divided into two phases which may be explained by the following equations :—~ 270 Scientific Intelligence. CaHsN + 2HO-4-2H2$20s=CsHs82010-4+ 47, 1 820s, CaHsN48H2S20s =C2HiSs012 +517, 1 $208-+2002. By precisely analogous processes the authors obtained Gantphe ene acid C4HsH2S84012, and sulphopropionic acid CeHsH282010. disulphopro- piolic acid Ce He H2S2012, and sulphobutyric acid CeHeBazSs0io, di- sulphobenzolic acid C12Ha1H2S84012, and sulphobenzoic acid. The new acid B. and H. cbtained a new r acid which rape term ikea acid, O10+-2Ba0. In conclusion the authors establish the identity of disul- phometholic acid with Liebig’s methionic acid obtained by the action of anhydrous sulphuric acid upon ether at a low temperature. Strecker faery Saeaes the same fact in an independent investigation of methionic acid salts— Ann. der Chemie und Pharm., c, 129 and 199, ee 1856. a Ii, MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY. 1. Note on the occurrence of Telluret of Silver in California ; by Wu- pom tam P. Brake, (Proceedings Acad. Nat. Sci. California)—A i town, California, resembling a fragment of tar- e massive Suites of the specimen are sectile and do not show any traces of crystallization; they may be cut with a ee on ae and give a brilliant metallic surface. Hardness about 2 of Mohs’ In the open tube, before the blowpipe het the shitiegs ‘fuses quietly, coloring the glass a bright yellow under the assay; a white or gray su li mate is deposited at a short distance from, or immediately over it, which, on being heated, fuses into transparent drops resembling oil. On charcoal, it Bese readily to a aman et globule, which, on cooling, becomes covered with little points or dendrites. This globule flattens under the Sates mer, but breaks on nih eden With the addition of a little carbonate of soda a globule of a is readily obtained. A —— redness in a closed tube or matrass with carbonate of charcoal dust, gives on the addition of afew drops of boiling pe srg beautiful violet- red or purple solution described by Berzelius a characteristic urium. This solution loses its color after standing for some time, and a dark colored powder is deposited. The min neral dis- solved in hot nitric acid with the separation of tellurous acid in crystals. It is probably the species Hessite, but the decision upon this point 1s reserved until further examinations are made. Its color is than the hessite of Savodinsky, Siberia, and it is not quite so hard. ee gee Mineralogy and Geology. 271 _ This very rare mineral has not hitherto been observed in America, and its occurrence is therefore of peculiar interest. Iam indebte Cc ecim 2. Wotices of Remains of Extinct Vertebrated Animals discovered by essor 8; by Joseru Lezpy, M. D., (Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Oo cies, in th of North Carolina. The tooth bears a wonderful resemblance to the worn of a young ox. It is nearly 5 inches long in the curve and over an inch in diameter at base, which is hollowed into a deep conical cavity, as in the spermaceti whale. repanodon impar, Leidy.—This species is founded on the crown . : : thin and smooth; the base of the crown is hollowed conically. ; Specimen 10 lines; breadth at base antero-posteriorly 7 lines, trans- Versely 5 lines j . 2 & miocene deposit of Cape Fear, in North Carolina. Teeth elongated ©onical, nearly straight or only slightly curved inwardly, m section circu- leiosaurus in the former character and the circular section. (4.) Pad 2 rus) priscus, Leidy, ante p. 165.—Half ‘aicosaurus ? ( Compsosau ) pre 5 ‘ of 272 Scientific Intelligence. 5.) Omosaurus pete Leidy.—An Enaliosaurian, based a number of teeth of varied character, vertebra, fra agments of an a other bones, and the tek giceniee of a dermal plate, obtained from the coal- field [mesozoi] of Chatham Co., North Carolina, by Prof. Emmons and also by Prof.M. Tuomey. Teeth elo ongated conical, pointed, nearly straight, or more ot less moderately curved inwardly, with opposed caring on the epsysaurus and Centemodon, =aices iedabiy ‘ddutinal rich them. ipeipiescrbeR (6.) D ic lyre elegans, Leidy.—Founded on wo¥ field eo. Chota Co. N.C. Plat wot. the cranium covered with reticu- a gen neral radiant manner. Parietals comparatively short, conned in front than behind; parietal foramen near the centre 0 not a deep sinus as in Zrematosaurus and Archegosaurus. Bre: of occipital outline 28 lines; length of parietals 84 lines, breadth ntaienly 3} lmes, posteriorly 3 lines. Probable length of head, considering it to at had nearly the proportions of Trematosaurus, 4 inches, breadth 2} ne oa foe ep Pisces. (7.) Ischyrhiza antiqua, Leidy—The genus was originally | yased on a tooth found in the Greensand of New Jersey. Two teeth ap- | parently of a second species have been obtained by Prof. Emmons on the Neuse River, N.C. Crown of the teeth, ares perfect, apparently, later- ally eae ical. Fang robust, qu curved ; with a rugged a which is bifureated antero-posteriorly and more deeply before than be Pulp cavity entirely closed at bottom. — ngth of speimens when entire 14, and 2 abc length of fang 10 lines, and 1 inch; breadth of crown at cua ntero-posteriorly 5 lines, 6 lines ; laterally 3h 1, 42-1; hecialth: of fang at heldole antero-posteriorly 4 I, 83 1; laterally 64 1, rar é 8. Report. o of the Geological Survey in Kentucky, made during the years. (1854 and gl by Daviv, Dare Owen, Principal | Geologist, assisted by Ro: mi , Sipyey 8. were: sions entific developments, Geological surveys have been carried on in nearly all the states of the ‘gene although much remains to be done, Mineralogy and Geology. 273 are beginning to know the country we inhabit, and develop its abundant resources. Kentucky is now adding her part to the rock-map of the con- tinent, and we trust the work over that large state will be carried on until its geology is thoroughly understood. Her.coal and iron beds are in- aneey enough for extended research, if these were the only results to @ state are briefly mentioned as follows :— This includes all those fine deposits of comparatively recent date, which appear to have settled in wide expansions of our great rivers, just previous tothe time when they contracted into their present channels, together with the associated gravel beds. (2.) The Coal Measures: embracing the sandstones, shales, ironstones, millstone grit, and conglomerate, together with the limestones associated with the workable beds of coal. (3.) Subearboniferous Limestone, chert and fine grained sandstones meg the strata on which the coal measures repose, and extending down (4.) Black Lingula Shales: i.e. all the dark argillaceous beds on which the Subcarboniferous sandstones and limestones of the Knobby Regions rest, near the mouth of Salt river, the head of Green river, and key Neck Bend, belonging to the Devonian Era. (5.) Grey Coralline Falls Limestones, including the limestones under the black shal i Secur on rass and elsewhere in Jefferson county. (7.) The Blue, Shell and Birdseye Limestones of Fayette and Franklin om and throughout most of the so-called Blue-grass counties of — iddle and Northern Kentucky. : _AS yet no formations of more ancient date than this latter have been discovered ; hence, all its formations, so far as at present known, belong of th se ; bel € bone deposit on Canoe Creek, a tributary of the Ohio, five to six ow Henderson. The bones belong to the Megalonyx Jeers: — : inary low stage of water. With them occur, in the nous sand, shells of Paludina ponderosa, Melania canaliculata, SECOND SERIES, VoL. XXIII, NO. 68.—MARCH, 1837, 274 Scientific Intelligence. Cyclas rivularis, Physa heterostropha, Lymnea elongata, Planorbis biea- rinata, P. lens, Valvata tricarinata (all of Say), along with fragments of Unios, and stems and limbs of trees. The specimens of Megalonyx bones are described in the Smithsonian Contributions by aoe wages Lignite or brown coal is not uncommon in the Quaternary depo: The — ao general features of the Coal tae are thus de- scribed : —p. 2 “A very lee area of Kentucky is occupied by this, the most important of hela formations, in a practical point of view. There is, indeed, no State in the Union, except Kentucky, whose territory extends over a large area of two coal fields. In southwestern Kentucky the whole of eight counties and a of four other counties are embraced in the Middle coal field of the Mis. sissippi valley, or the coal field which lies partly in Ilinois, partly in In- Ap occupying the western slopes of the Alleghany mountains and the Cumberland range, situated y in Pennsylvania, Virginia, Ohio, Tennessee, and these above men- tioned eastern counties of Kentuc Of the hundred and three counties of this State, more than twenty-six counties may be considered as situated — the Coal Measures—or 0 one quarter of the whole area of the Sta * The geological formations of the pailinindties coal field of Kentucky creek; thence nearly north to the mouth of ? Dismal * Bither an outlier or tongue of the coal measures appears to stretch away to the east, sie confines of Grayson and Hart counties, and even on to the waters 0 ve coun Such are the general boundaries of this coal field, as far as at presen ascertained. All the territory included between this line and the oh ey ; ae ge ee eS en Mineralogy and Geology. 275 river may be regarded as belonging to the coal formation, but the line eannot be defined in all its meanders until the detailed survey shall have ian, Todd, Butler, , Hancock, and their topography plotted | acnrately, as has been ee of Union _ and a of Crittenden unties 5 rs} 5B | 3 is) ~ # ee) g ae 3 | 8 2 aa Upp r and Lower Coal Measures. hese are. separated from each other not only by a prominent sandstone ere: but they have been east off from suntanetiy: immediately on the Ohio river, by an extensive uplift and a of the geological arate pitch stretches from | _ Gold Hill, on the Mlinois eae of the Ohio river, across the bed of that stream, at idan neetown, to Bald Hill, in Union county. | J The ‘Topographical Assistant, in his detailed sur vey of a county, has traced a continuation of this ae in a near] and west disturbed belt has an increased width, + the boundary of Henderson county. Beyond this point it has not yet been 2 get 3 gaan ce followed ; but the occurrence of disturbances, with a reversal of dip, n e con- a fluence of Pond and Green oe render it probable that it can ie traced a completely through the co In Ken cag there is no ; ocd whatever that this eepianti oc- curred prior to the deposition of the coal measures; on the contrary it j has ~*eamagh in its movements not only the Bubcatbaniferous, Tinséatodls ’ and Mills it, but also the entire coal herd which lies in con- | 3 formable ap. on either ei of thea axis. Ai abe ortheast edge of Union sane | basin, For a limited space ay the Ohio river, t = Shawneetown fault has rent asunder the coal measures, and thrown off the upper coal heasures to the north, and the lower coal measures to the south; but in the ‘interior of Union county the upper coal measures occur on both sides of th ti it is broken for a certain ‘ the disturbance, and, though their continui 1 de ee a cigeaf the called the Anvil Rock. a name originating from the accidental sett Masses in Uni ok uunty, aot Kentucky. The thickness of the beds of the lower are over 900 feet, and they contain ten work- hye of coal, one of them about five feet thick and the others one three feet. Ave erage specific gravity of the coal 1284, giving very 276 Scientific Intelligence. oal Measures afford numerous beds of iron ores. In the upper 400 feet of the strata of the southwestern coal field, there are from four to six different beds of limestone; one, the Carthage limestone, cropping out on the Ohio river, a mile below Uniontown, is eight feet thick, and two others have about the same thickness. The lower 900 feet of the coal measures afford only two limestone beds worthy df note, immedi- ately on the Ohio river; one over the first coal under the Anvil Rock (observed in Illinois but not yet in Kentucky), and one about four feet stones than their southwestern equivalents. A seven-foot coal bed in Hopkins and Muhlenberg counties has generally a heavy dark bitumin- is a little over 100 feet thick at the Falls of the Ohio, where it is in sight. To the north it gradually thins out. The Report, besides chapters also on the Devonian and Silurian rocks, rt by Dr. Robert Peter, shes over the plains of Quito; by Rev. GnORGE ~ 0 our home when coming in from a snow-storm. ‘ We all presumed that this must come from Cotopaxi, which is about thirty miles from usin a South by East direction, and has been in a greater or less state of activity for about a year. We had, here, a fall of ashes about a month ago, but that was so slight as scarcely to be _ The ashes then were black and coarser than in the present case : . Mineralogy and Geology. 277 2 ashes is now not so great, but they are still coming down, looking in the air like a thin mist or a light snow-sto The co has a most sin- gular and melancholy appearance. The ashes are heavy and the trees are | bowed under their loads, while every where, in the streets and on the hill sides, there is the same ashy color, to which the sun, scarce y seen, gives only an additional sickly hue, Last night, although the moon was but one day past being full, was the darkest night that I think I have ever seen. e ashes appear under a lens to be feldspar grains, b- There has been considerable uneasiness and anxiety in this place, prob- * the bells all over the city, had a most melancholy effect. They carried, € procession, three images of a peculiarly sacred character, brought from Rome. We have not yet heard from places nearer Cotopaxi, but are expecting sad accounts both from the ashen shower and fro Sola’s college is situated) not far from Cotopaxi; which city has in several coseing been a very severe sufferer in the convulsions originating in the Olcano, k 1 o’clock.—The fall of ashes has recommenced as thick as ever and the bells are tolling again. Another procession has just passed the door. Was a very sad and solemn spectacle. The people were seven deep on each side of the street, the inmost line with candles and lanterns; the ith their heads and garments all covered with ashes. They had several mages on platforms; and bands of music playing mournful tunes; some- times chanting, s 7. mM—The ash-shower has ceased; but Cotopaxi is thundering at a Prodigious rate, Monday evening, 15th.—It is now pretty well ascertained that the ashes Were not from Cotopaxi, but from a volcano called Laraurco, in a wil country to the eastward of this, a considerable distance. There was a shower of ashes from that voleano in 1844, about as heavy as this, ie ah ey 278 Scientific Intelligence. but on that occasion the air was more obscured than at this time, so much so that people had to use lanterns along the streets in Quito, at midday. ednesday.—Still doubts about the origin of the ashes; more proba- bly they are from Cotopaxi. 5. Paleotrochis of Emmons.—This supposed fossil coral, described by Prof. Emmons in volume xxii, p. 389 of this Journal, is regarded by Prof. James Hall, after an examination of many specimens, as nothing but concretions in quartz rock. Il. BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY. 1. Origin of the Embryo in Planis—The Development of the Ovule of Santalum album; with some Remarks on the Phenomena of Impregna- tion in Plants generally ; by Arruur Henrrey, F.RS., ete—This is 4 per in the Linnean Transactions, vol. xxii, and was read before the innzan Society of London a year ago, before the publication of Dr. Radlkofer’s memoir, which we gave some account of in the November num- ber of this Journal. The results of these two contributions to embryology n correspond in their main features, although expressed in a some- what different way; and they close a long and lively controversy, gi g coup de grace “theory of the pollinists,” as we already stated of the embryo, to exist antecedent to impregnation, i. e. before the arrival of the pollen-tube; that the latter, (contrary to what Griffith supposed) does not penetrate the embryo-sac, but becomes firmly adherent to its sur- becomes a real cell, only as the result of impregnation, and fe adhesion of the pollen-tube with the embryo-sac. e closing paragra of the memoir, which is dated Jan. 30, 1856, embodies the view ‘bed arri pollen-tube without becomes abortive, while the other developes into the suspensor of the embryo. ; Botany and Zoology. 279 nascent germinal vesicles as cells, Hofmeister and others in like manner eall them cells; but comparison of my older drawings and those of Hof- meister with new observations, leads me to believe that, on careful exam- ination, these bodies will be found to consist of nuclei or ‘ protoplasts” before fertilization. I may note in reference to this, that I have already some confirmation from another case besides Santalum, and e trust to meng forward hereafter more complete evidence on the subject.” a. @ 2. Botanical Necrology for 1856.—The more distinguished botanists who have deceased during the past year, are the following: 1. Wikstrom, Professor of par at Stockholm, author of several ee works of merit, and of a series of Annual Re n the Pro- of Botany, published by the Academy of Sciences of “Stockho 1m e a reached the age of 67 years. Dr. von Steudel, of Esslingen, in Wurtemburg, author of the well known Nomenciator Botanicus, and of the edleoge Plantarum Gluma- eearum, noticed in a recent volume of this Jour George Don, of London, a brother of the. more distinguished Dav Don, who died several years ago, and author of the Synopsis of oe. mydeous Plants published several years ago, in 4 heavy 4to volumes, ny Pp roy. Bojer of Mauritius, aged 56. An interesting biegihiskioal notice of og is Dublin in Hooker's J varia era for October last. Dr Liebmann, Profle of Botany and Director of the Botanic Gar- den at Copenhagen, after a long illness, died on the 29th of October last, at the early age of 43 years. This excellent botanist and most interesting man had’ travelled largely in Mexico, and made vast. ees of plants, — which he had published several memoirs. e believe, completed his splendid Monograph of Mesican ‘Oaks, in folio, with 40 Plates,—a @ work for which he had carpal all the available materials ~ Dunal, of one of the earliest pupils and most attached frends of the late at the ‘elaborator of the Solanacee for the Prod Odromus, and author of cea ae mportant monographs, is referred to by ‘ French correspondent of this Journal (in the January number), as 7 . We have not yet received any notice of this event thong the botanical journals or private correspondence. A. G. 280 Scientific Intelligence. a volume of about 250 pages,—intended for schools and classes generally, and as an Introduction to the Manual of the Botany of the Northern United States,—is just published by G. P. Putnam & Co. and Ivison & Phinney, New York. e. Causes of the Opening and Closing of Stomates ; by Huco von Mout, (Botanische Zeitung, 1856, No. 40, p. 697, et seqq.)—In this memoir von Mohl corroborates by actual experiments the general impres- sion, the truth of which had not been demonstrated, that stomates shut when the guardian cells collapse, and open when they become turgid. The opening of the stomate is guar by two crescent-shaped cells, the guardian-cells, which generally take the following form. On their to form a salient protuberance. The edges of these projections unite at both the ends of the stomate, so as to make an orifice above the true the lower side of the guardian-cells, there lies in most plants another projection like that on the upper side, but generally smaller, by which 8 Botany and Zoology. 281 off in the morning were found to be closed; when exposed to the sun for several hours they opened again, but closed with rapidity when immersed s ¥ when the guardian-cells are exposed to the influence of these agents they form such combinations as are able to induce a powerful endosmosis, and are more or less decomposed when light is withdrawn; for, as is well known, the guardian-cells, like the cells of the parenchyma, contain chlo- tophyllaceous matter. "i Direct comparative measurements show that the projecting part of * the guardian-cells, beyond the anterior cavity, contracts but slightly, so that the process is effected chiefly by the change in the form of the boundaries of the true opening. : The guardian cells expand most in a vertical direction, and thus change their transverse diameter from a circular to an elliptical form, so as to draw in the thinner portion of the lateral surface which lies free in the ag of the stomate. This explains why the opening is not closed hen these cells are distended by the water which fills them. C. F. Sronz. | 2+ On a boring Sponge ; by J. Lurwy, (Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad,, Yul, 162.)—Dr, Leidy also directed the attention of the members to sev- - perforations were due to some other molluscous animal or @ worm ; and uently sought for them. The last summer, in dredging, in “utrents from the wider tubes. SEConp SERIES, VOL. XXIII, NO. 68.—MARCH, 1857. ‘ 36 é a Scientific Intelligence. In structure the sponge is composed of an intertexture of granular matter and pin-like silicious spieule. Several species of Cliona are indi- eated by European naturalists, but are not characterized with sufficient detail to determine whether the one above indicated is distinct or not from them. . L. further added, it might appear only of scientific interest to ob- serve a structure so low as the sponge is classified in the organic king- dom, endowed with the power of penetrating such dense and hard bodies _as the shell of the clam and oyster, but he suspected that the agency of the boring sponge was a highly important one in the sequence of natural phenomena, as it is a means by which dead shells are rapidly decomposed to be dissolved in the ocean water, where they may again serve as the elements of construction of the habitations of the rising generations of molluscous animals. In confirmation of this view Dr. L. stated, that an extensive bed of oysters, which had been planted by Mr. Thomas Beasley, at Great Egg Harbor, and which was in excellent condition three years since, had been subsequently destroyed by an accumulation of mud. The shells of the dead oysters, which were of large size and in great number, Cliona that they may be crushed with the utmost ease, . the agency of this sponge the dead shells might have remained in their Cuba, Jamaica. Martinique. CHELONIA., CHELONIA. ONIADS. CHELONIAD#. CHELONID2, Chelonia mydas. Sphargis coriacea. thelonia virgata helonia caouana, TESTUDINIDA. TESTUDINIDA. ‘TESTUDINIDS. Testudo carbonaria ? Emypips Emypip2. EmypIp&. Emys decussata. Emys ; Emys rugosa. _ _SAURIA. SAURIA. SAURIA. _ Crocoprnipz. CRocopDinip2. Crocodilus acutus Cc ilus acutus. Crocodilus rhombifer. _, GEC GECKOTIDE. | Paes da : Hemidactylos mabouia. Spheeriod acty Sputator. Sphseriodactylus sputator. . Spheeriodactylus cinereus. Spheeriodactylus punctatiss: . mus. ‘ : sheer G. _|Spheriodactylus fantasticus. Gymnodactylus albogularis. |S; i us,G-|Gymnodactylus albogularis. ereas without. Cuba. Icuanip2. Cyclura ow pestee eque a Anolis inolis peiatlaten. Anolis ae gis ensis. \nolis luc nolis an CHaterpipa. Amphisbena punctata. Scineiw 2, Diploglossus Sagrai. Opid oct oom maculat Rpicrates ptoph angulife orm. bicarinatus, _Tropiduru; yD fous aA RANTERID a. Dromicu eens — ogultr (Coluber mle ce 7 ATRACHIA. Hylodes LID&. prach Ricordii. Phyli lobes ephalus eamatmoratus. ame Bufo peltocephaiis, : US a cutus, Sph the jg] = is ie, Jamaica eed differen are vy nt, and Botany and Zoology. Jamaica. Teva Anolis Edwardeii Anolis punctatissimus, H. Anolis 5 rm jodtirad! a opalinus Placopis ocllt, & Cyelu Cyeture Pont ent LaceRTIDz. Ameiva Sloanei. Scrncipa. |Eumeces ‘Sloane:, ossus Shawii, OPHIDIA. Bor. }Chilabothrus inornatus. iLeinotus maculatus Ler PTOGNATHIDE. Ischognathus DeKayi DIacRANT Dromicus Antillensis. Nat tra? G. \Natrix callilema? G. Na Typhlops lumbricalis. BATRACHIA. ee Lito toria | Trachsel slichenstusG ting in the other, Hyla bi ylus incorrectly determined, that several of the gene Besides the above we Martinique. GUA _ Anolis Alli Anolis peace | Anolis 8 cris tate lus. ulatus. olis VOR J \nolis pulchellus. Basilicus r mitratus. | eo nudico lie dolotropis Herm de ped epis pe nl un- eS, ened ERTID2. Ameiva Pleii. Cnemidophorus lemniscatus Cnem re gt er hae 1D a Pieli: : ergs sortase quadrilinea- OPHIDIA. Box. | Epicrates Cenchris. ss ner ar Dromicus Antillensis. Dromicus cursor. Dromicus Pleii. venta ene Homalocranion semicin Dis iiioe Dipsas phonies vin CRoTALIDz2. Bothrops lanceolatus BATRA Hywipz. : Hylodes Martinicensis. en Bufo Agua Hence it of iy appear, that with the exception of Emys decussata, rocodil teal utator, Anolis Sagrei, Leionotus and Cuba, although but oa miles distant, are which exist in the one ens in our collection a 284 Scientific Intelligence. small serpent of the size of a Calamarian, with a very short and broad frontal (vertical) plate, a large pre-ocular, no loral and broad gastrostega, uble row of black spots along the back, from Jamaica, included in the donation of Dr. Pennock, which is identical with Storeria DeKayi, B. & G, (Ischognathus DeKayi, Dum. et Bib.)* With the exception of Anolis Carolinensis, the yeptiles of Cuba differ in their species altogether ie those of the United States, even the south- ern portion of it; and not only so, but with the exception of Emys, tendin ng ee ie elucidate the laws which govern the geographical distri- _ tion 0 les. 7. Oh some hae eat Pikes from Lake Ontario; by L. Acassiz, (Proc. Bost. Soc. N. H., 48.)—They were remarkable, he said, as still prose eran embry ological sak orth The most ern a it at once; but this one phere its Bye Taste siden and suddenly seizing it holds it in its jaws, until, es of m ah succeeds es m to the other, as is seen in snakes. This fish is spose, om for the large quantity of air which escapes from its mouth. The source of this Prof. Agassiz had not been able satisfactorily to pada At certain times it approaches the surface of the water, and seems t o take in air, but he could not think that so large a quantity as is seen : galvetiie in the form of bubbles to the sides of the gills could have been swallowed, nor could he suppose that it could be secreted from th e gills bene Pe different regia se were noticeable in he: specimens ib- ed fer. the occasion on live minnows, the po food o take. * This a aS a wide e, bei in Massachusetts ae Georgia. Du méril and say they have received a a ie from Mexico Miscellaneous Intelligence. 285 a Iv. MISCELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. __1. Observations on the Zodiacal Light; by Rev. Georcr J onEs, U.S.N, -1856.)—You are, perhaps, aware that I am s ending at this place the ‘im. i ery after a long ‘cruise ; and that I am continuing here a series of observations on the Zodiacal Light, commenced in the seas of China and Japan. The advantages of this place are very great. Ist. I have the ecliptic vertical to me, at some one hour, every night in the year. 2dly. The ecliptic can never, at the farthest, make an angle of less than 66° with my horizon; and therefore the Zodiacal Light must always present itself favorably for observation. 3dly. The transparent atmosphere of this elevated plateau allows me to see objects in the sky with a wonderful egree of distinctness. Hence the distinctive features in every change of the Zodiacal Light can be marked, here, with an exactness that I never witnessed before. # : has noticed it more fully in Germany. T also had glimpses it in my late cruise in the Eastern seas. Here, however, it is devel- emarkable degree of distinctness, and I am giving it par- 286 — Miscellaneous Intelligence. All this, however, as you will perceive, is ground only for surmise, and can now only sharpen observation; and it is a subject in which it will not do to hasten to conclusions. of several kinds unusual at other places ; and such is also the fact. A phenomenon, which has sometimes drawn the attention of philosophers, namely, a general brightness in the air, at night, without any apparent ni I find it I printed papers or books, to ascertain whether I could not see to read by it. _ Now, the queries that all this subject appears to suggest to us are these :—Ist. May not self-luminosity be an inherent principle of nebu- are s us on the Zodiacal Light, on the Ist, 10th, and 15th of each month, each being furnished with star-charts; and we may thus hope for a tolerably fall set of results. n conclusion, allow me to express my regret that there is not an astro- nomical observatory at or near this place. It seems to me that the whole world should bestir itself, at once, to have one here. It is worthy a world’s union. Or if that cannot be done, why will not some cloudy weather here; but when the nights are clear, they have 4 ™ ; Miscellaneous Intelligence. 287 government of Ecuador, to my knowledge, would be very glad to codp- erate in such a matter, though they have themselves not the means. Why cannot it be done? 2. the Meteor of July, 1856 ; by Tuomas M. Perers.—On Tues- day, the 8th day of July, 1856, I was on the road leading from Moulton, (Ala.) to Columbus, (Miss.), about six miles south of Thorn-Aill in Han- cock County, Alabama. At about six o’clock in the evening, my friend, B. R. Delgraffenreid, Esq., who was with me, called my attention to a remarkable meteor, then falling. When I turned my eyes upon it, it was Just too late to get a distinct view of it; but my friend, who saw it burst through the concave of the heavens, at a point near midway between the zenith and the horizon, and some thirty or thirty-five degrees west of south from our place of observation. It seemed to fall almost perpendicularly downwards, with a slight.curving to the eastward. From the points of first appearance, it descended with great swiftness, until it teached a stratum of reddish-dun colored cloud, at about ten degrees above the horizon. In this cloud it seemed to disa per. Above the cloud, into which it seemed to fall, it left a long train of whitish smoky lanty of the margins of the train suggest, that it may have been occa- Sioned by some gaseous substance projected forward from the body of the meteor with considerable velocity, against the opposing atmosphere, ds, (upwards in this instance), and outwards, in the mouth of a cannon. These Tepeated from the top to the bottom of the train. | \ train was, apparently, about four inches at the top, and about eight or nine 0 I or i Was Vividly distinct in all its outlines, and remained visible about fifteen sunutes, by my watch. At last, it began to disappear from the top, cowntwards, and seemed to fade away without dispersing, as if it had been it stood a : Was no appearance of the meteor’or its singular train below the Cloud, into which it seemed to fall. There was no noise of explosion heard, th “lm-and fair, though in the direction of the meteor it was cloudy ; 1 learned afterwards, it rained heavily in the afternoon of that day, ition of this meteor from our point of observation, indicated that m, Ala, Nov. 25th, 1856. * e 288 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 3. On Dellman’s Method of Observing Atmospheric Electricity ; by Prof. W. Tuomson, (Proc. Brit, Assoc., August, 1856; Ath., No. 1505.) The author said : uring my recent visit to Creuznach I became acquainted with Mr. Bellas of that place, who makes meteorological, chiefly electrical, ob- servations for the Prussian Government, and I had opportunities of wit- nessing his method of electrical observation. It consists in using @ cop- per ball about six inches diameter, to carry away an electrical effect from a position about two yards above the roof of his house, depending simply on the atmospheric ‘ potential’ at the point-to which the center of the ball is sent ; and it is exactly the method of the ‘carrier ball’ by which for a few shillings, set one up on his own house, if at all suitable as re- gards roof and windows; and, if provided with a suitable electrometer, could make observations in atmospheric electricity with as much ease ae ; thermometric or baro observations. e electrometer used ; Dellman is of his own one ates in Poggendorft’s ‘ Annalen, 1853, vol. 89, also vol ap to be very satisfactory m its if di o electrical observations. When I told Mr. Dellman that I ae to make a suggestion to this effect, he : once 0! eee to have an electrome-_ ter, if desired, made under his own care. I wish also to suggest two other hinge of observing wahoniihieis electricity which have occurred to ing each of them some advantages over any of the systems hitherto followed: In one of these I propose to have an uninsulated eyl- a half or two noel more, which can be let down or pushed up at pleas- ure. Insulated by supports at the t top of the fixed part rt of the funnel, I use, the moveable joint would be kept at the highest, and its lid down, touching the ball so as to keep it uninsulated. To make an observation, the _ would be turned up rapidly, and the moveable joint carrying it down, an operation which could be effected in a few seconds by ® suitable mechanism. The electrometer would snniasdidiale: indicate an : Miscellaneous Intelligence. 289 inductive. electrification simply proportional to the atmospheric potential at the position occupied by the centre of the ball, and would continue to clouds. But I think the best possible plan in most respects, if it turns be practicable, of which I can have little doubt, will be to use, in- of the ordinary fixed insulated conductor with a point, a fixed con- ductor of similar form, but hollow, and containing within-itself an ap- paratus for making hydrogen, and blowing small soap-bubbles of that m a fine tube terminating as nearly as may be in a point, at a ~ ries of undulations succeeding each other at intervals of twenty min- wes or half an hour, the difference of elevation and depression rarely Ing six inches, and being usually much less. They are more per- ~ 290 Miscellaneous Intelligence. larities were observed of the same kind as those noticed at Halifax. This . seems to give probability to the opinion that the irregularities observed in the tide at Halifax may be connected with the unusual tides m the Bay of Fundy. But whether they rise from this source, or are to of our globe. _ 5. Notice of a visit to the Dead Sea; by H. Poors, Esq. (Proceed- ngs Quar. Jour. Geol. Soc., xii, 203. Forwarded from the Foreign Office by order of Lord Clarendon, Abstract.)}—Mr. Poole went to ts dis- trict to look for nitre, which was reported to occur there; but he met _ With none, and found reason to suppose that the report was unfounded, hence possibly the erroneous information. Further, the cave (at Usdum) in which the nitre was said to have occurred is called “the eave of the Gun-men,” not from the Arabs getting their nitre there for gunpowder, Miscellaneous Intelligence. 291 but as the spot from which they watch for the crossing of the hostile tribes across the plain. in no instance could they find a deposit or even a sample of nitre. Mr. inn, H. M. Consul at Jerusalem, also informed Mr. Poole that he had hever seen any; nor had the Sheik Aboo Daook and his men. The Arabs generally make their own nitre by boiling the dung of goats; others scrape it off old walls or limestone-caves, but never in any large quantity. - The Arabs charge 60 piastres or 10 shillings for a camel-load of salt, ‘ about 500 Ibs., delivered in J erusalem, and the purchaser pays the Turk- government 15 piastres more for duty. Each camel will make about the ordiary method by volume. The barometer is made wi to ma E “10n 10 centimeters quare, and fe Conti “ight, the total addition of weight will be 10 cubic centimeters of mer- ‘ : € tube. M. Secchi has constructed such a barometer for the College me, which has the tube 15 millimeters in diameter. The variation a ot 292 Miscellaneous Intelligence. the mercury may be boiled easily without danger of breaking. Barom- 4 eters may consequently be made of water or other liquids in the same :. way, since metal tubes may be made of any length. On the Telescopic Stereoscope; by James Exxiot, (Philosophical Magazine and Journal, Jan., 1857.)—I have recently succeeded in con- structing what I believe to be a new form of the stereoscope. Its object is to unite darge binocular photographic pictures in a different way from any that has hitherto been followed. The pictures are placed side by side, and viewed through two small telescopes, like those of opera-glasses, with the directions of their axes crossing each other; the left-hand picture being viewed with the right eye, and the right-hand picture with the left eye. The two telescopes | are connected together, the connecting apparatus being capable of twe ; ustments; one to suit the width of the eyes, and the other to give ‘ | 4 m effect is excellent. : 8. Amos Binney’s “ Terrestrial Mollusks and Shells of the United Siates.”—Mr. W. G. Brynzy, (son of the late Dr. Amos Binney, who died after having published two volumes of his admirable work on the United States land Mollusks,) announces that he is engaged in preparing a continuation of the work of his father, and solicits assistance by way of land shells and information relating to the subject, with any addenda or corrigenda to the volumes published. We trust that Mr. Binney may be liberally aided in his undertaking. He resides at Germantown, near Philadelphia. : STD 9. Mastodon—A portion of a jaw has been found near Columbia, 1 _ California—Proc. California Acad. Nat. Sei. i, 27. a : ade with great facility; and when the pictures are united, the death of Wiitram C. Reprretp, of New York. After an illness of about Mr. Redfield was a man whom, through a long course of years, we had honored as a philosopher, and loved as a friend. He was born.at Mid- dietown in this State, and with very limited advantages of early educa- tion, he rose from a humble position, and earned for himself a high ran among men of science. In early manhood he removed to New York City, . ve special attention to . _ ing he did not con Miscellaneous Intelligence. | 293 nect the Atlantic and the Mississippi, a route which was substantially . adopted, and the last link of which was completed in 1854. But his most important labors were devoted to Meteorology, and his researches and discoveries in this science have rendered: his name familiar through- cut the nautical and scientific world. In the year 1821 his attention was directed to the investigation of a violent storm which had a short time previous passed through New England, and on collecting and sift- ing all the observations he could obtain, he came to the conclusion that storm was a travelling whirlwind. is important discovery he followed up by collecting and studying observations and reports on the gales of the Atlantic and the hurricanes of the West Indies. He found that these storms were of the same general character, revolving in the a Most industriously continued, and the results have been made public Principally through the medium of our Journal. Extending his in- be es to the gales and hurricanes of all parts of the world, he found ose of the Northern hemisphere alike in direction of rotation and in Course of travel, while those of the Southern hemisphere were found ° embraced by several foreign authors, and have been reproduced in various publications, Mr. Redfield’s discoveries are valuable not merely to theoretical science ; time to time been ublished, for escapi t ‘ ping storms at sea. Mr. field oa a sagacious observer, an industrious collector of facts, an active and original thinker. In all the various relations of life the excellency of his character was conspicuous, and he approached the clos- G our. and 17 Pe © present in some future number a fuller account of the life and labors of our departed friend. 294 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 11. Hugh Miller—Hveu Miter, one of the best known and most honored of Scotland’s sons, died at Portobello, near Edinburgh, his place of residence, on Wednesday the 24th of December. In consequence of excessive mental labor his mind had become disordered, and under de- rangement, he died by his own hand. He had just finished a new work, one of a series that has done more than all else published in the world to popularize and christianize science; and he leaves this “ Testimony of the Rocks” as a testimony to his own greatness and goodness of soul, as well as to the treasures of wisdom in the volume of creation which he so delightingly read—We cite the following from accounts abroad of this sad occurrence. : “Most people know that Hugh Miller has been a hard worker. He has not wrought out his way from the stone-mason’s quarry to so distinguished a position in science and literature without living a life of incessant and wearing mental toil. In fact, he had worked much too hard and con- geen work, to be called ‘The Testimony of the Rocks.’ His brain may be found in the fact that he has suffered greatly of late from terror at the depredations of the ‘ ticket-of-leave’ men, dreading lest they might break in and rob his museum of some of its cherished rarities. So much told : early on Tuesday night, after using a sponge bath that had been pre cribed. What caused him to get up in the night can never be known. ie tbl than ever, must have returned. All Miscellaneous Intelligence. 295 great passage in safety, and stood looking back to us in humble grateful tnumph from the other side. is honored name with those of the men most distinguished in our day, _ 48 fellow-workers in building up the stately fabric of the modern geology. | ** To Mr. Miller, more than any other geologist, undoubtedly belongs the honor of having demonstrated, what previous observers had begun to ‘Suspect, that the Old Red Sandstone was entitled to rank as an independ- ent formation, by its distinctive fossils, many of which he was the first to _ Giscover and describe. Mr. Miller had projected, and had advanced far 4 book as Oliver Goldsmith might have written, had he been a naturalist, which he was not. * * * To Mr. Miller's versatile talents, and the Yaried contributions of his pen to criticism, art, philosophy, and science, S applicable, also, more than to any other writer of the day, the pane- syle pronounced upon Goldsmith, that there was no branch of knowl- edge which he did not touch, and which, touching, he did not adorn. > most profound work, the “Footprints of the Creator, or the Astero- lepis of Stromness,” is a contribution to natural theology of inestimable It has been adopted as a text book by some of the most “Thousands here and in other lands will join with us in the tribute of an honest tear to the memory of a man of true heart and noble powers of Intellect, devoted to the loftiest purposes. Little did we think, when We met Mr. Miller last year, in the genial and kindly intercourse of the B Association, that we were to see his face no more; and that at the early age of fifty-four, he would be lost to the Church which he loved, and to the cause of Christian science, which owes so much to his *xample and labors. Death has made sad inroads of late years upon the of the cultivators of natural science. Dr. Landsborough, Professor Edward Forbes, Dr. Johnston of Berwick, Mr. Yarrell, and now Mr. cae e Miller, have passed away in rapid succession,—and Forbes and have left: behind them no equals.” 208° Miscellaneous Intelligence. 12. Gregory's Handbooks of Chemistry, Inorganic and Organic.*—A careful reprint of the latest English edition of Dr. Gregory’s ‘ Handbooks’ (the English editions of which are marred by numerous typographical errors) would be a valuable addition to our chemical literature. The in part i, p. 140—i.e. in the Am. reprint to galvanic decomposition— while the reference is unaltered from the original English edition of 1847 now before us.) Even the trivial typographical inaccuracies W ich any careful proof-reader should have corrected remain unchanged. In act the old plates have been used by the new publishers, who are re- taken to supply to the inorganic chemistry the Physics of Chemistry, and to add to the organie part a “ supplement,” which is said to bring e manner in which he has Dr handbook, and in eomneetrplaaiats the results of his labors to this end iscourses as follows, in the preface. “ Whilst the matter prefixed to this invaluable work of Dr. Gregory cannot be designated a comp! io: e greater portion of it being written in the language of | [no one, we feel gq authorship], “it still cannot aspire to the dignity of an original com- position.” “The entire subject of the Imponderables is condensed as * Handbook of Inorganic Chemistry, for the use of students, by Wi.11am GREG ony, Blt FRSE, Professor of Cees in the University. of Edinburgh. 4th American from the 3d English edition, to which is added Phe Physics of Ohem- istry, by J. Mictox Sanpers, M.D, LL.D., Professor of Chemistry in the Eclecte Medical Institute of Cineinnati, Member of the American Association for the A a a of Or etc. New York: .A. S. Barnes & Co., 51 and 53 Jobn st. 1. 8y0, pp. 426. ; a: Handbook of Organic Chemistry, by the same. ,4th American from the 4th Lon: don edition, with a Supplement. ‘8vo, pp. 480. : , Miscellaneous Intelligence. 297 much as = therefore the writer has not thought it expedient to __ insert the many long and prolix tables upon the subject of heat which the larger works upon Physics contain.” “At the same time we venture the assertion, that in the condensed matter contained in this volume the student will not fail to find the laws of these sciences, and the principal : sen associated “sis their revelation clearly explained.” . an able chemist, and has the merit of being the — “expounder i in our dangeagt of the chemical school of Liebig. We _ teadily i simgine the vexation he must feel, and with it the minwalliill _ ‘ontempt for American science, at the manner in which his handbooks are ca presented. as never been our misfortune to see any more sadly spoiled by the bungling of an editor. His ignorance of his subject is equalled only by his — and his short-comings in syntax. These broad assertions find ample illustration and support on ied page which is not a literal mr tote Dr. Gregory. His bad ee even mo more energies than he supposed.” That is, Newton aecaae oré than he was aware of. The student is informed (p. 39) that “the nar oe of the undulations or waves in an attenuated ether, may per- for the present answer for the luminous rays, but it will not stand te test in 'Tegard to those more refrangible ones which produce chemi- action. The following felicitous sentences introduce the student to chromatic “Th polarization. following. di eopied from Woodward) will Masteie ng diagram ( = rendere in his able work upon tao’ ae. &e.” -W. = no ent a state- ied ” giving numerous minute and technical “details 20s of y, which, grantin r importan proper place, are completely out of place in a Handbook of id chemistry. — gh Dr. Bend le of ers d deep conviction that the whole theory Physical optics Teante epan es fT cach costae equilibrium, that unless he con- hor reminds his readers of the fact, 0 me of them may unfortunately rest too in it, SECOND SERIES, VoL. XXII, NO. 68.—MARCH, 1957. 33 iy “ = 2 298 Miscellaneous Intelligence. This introduction upon chemical physics is also open to criticism, not ties of gases—the methods of volumetric analyses are not mentioned— complished some great results, and that the supplement is where we ; c arefully : a ad iS} & er a ms a 5 ee eS “4 o = aa © ) st. ® = co © a up entirely (with trifling exceptions only), of extracts from the tre * ry, and virtually without any acknowledgement — then one and another such old novelty. The most ludicrous anac. misias grow out of this mode of proceeding. Thus on page 431 he re- i Kt > i bas i ia oe ‘ ‘ Miscellaneous Intelligence, 299 uces among the novel records of the science the same paragraph on utodyle whieh appears in its proper place-in the text of his pate edi- tion on p. 160. n p. 433 we are told “There are several combinations of ethyle with the metals, phosphorus, &c., which have been discovered, quite lately, and which it is important the student should be acquainted with. For instance,” and then borrowing verbatim from Dr. Gregory’s 3d edition; p. 223, &e., he gives us Zyncethyle, Stibethyle, &c., of refreshing novelty ! But enough of this! “It is painful to see the evidence of such char- mry, and more painful to be compelled to expose it. It would seem pethaps improbable that any chemical teacher would be misled into the adoption of this edition of Gregory in his classes; yet it is unfortunately too true that it is the habit of many school committees and boards of trustees arbitrarily to adopt text books without consulting teachers, and by an exercise of the same arbitrary power to select persons who know nothing of a subject as teachers. j ; € matter is made worse by the fact that the work is published by 4 most respectable house, who certainly did themselves and the public an injustice that they did not take counsel of their numerous scientific No mmalian Remains of the r olk (Rhinoceros, &e.) —J ALTER on the fossils of the Longmyn ; & ne sea weed or zoophyte, traces of ine worms and a Trilobite referred to a new genus and called Paleeopyge Ramsayi—Prof. R. Harkness on the lowest Sedimentary Rocks of the South of Scotland. — oe. 48.—T. Wrienr on the Paleontological mi Sect ee Re- 0, lations of the so-called “Sands of the Inferior Oolite.”—G. Pouxerr ge? Sckorx, on the formation of Craters and the nature of the liquidity of Lavas.—J. ©, Moors, on the Silurian Rocks ‘of Wigtownshire.—S. P. Woonwanp, on an from China.—J. Prestwicu, on the Begs ation of the Middle Eocene Tertiaries of England, France and igium, 14. Proceedings of the California Academy of Sciences—These pro- a, were commenced in Sept. 1854, and the last number received : is dated May 12, 1856. They contain many valuable scientific papers, > ger on the Fishes of that country by Dr. Wm. O. Ayres and Dr. ,': 2. Gtpons. There are also geological articles by Dr. J. B. Trask, nical papers by Dr. A. Kettoee . Benr. Page 40, ri and San Pedro; also new species of Ammonite (A. Chicoensis) and Baculite (B. Chicoensis) from the rocks of Chico Creek, referred by the 300 Miscellaneous Intelligence. author to the Tertiary ; description of three species of Plagistoma from the Cretaceous Rocks of Los Angeles, with a plate. Also a paper by Mr. Wm. Stimpson on some Californian Crustacea. 15. List of Works published by the Smithsonian Institution, Washing- D, C*#— ton, Quarto volumes.—Smithsonian Contributions to ae 1848. Vol. I, 4°, pp. 346, with 48 plates and 207 woodcuts. Contains No. 1. mithsonian Contributions to Knowledge. 1851. Vol. “IL 4°, pp. 464, and 24 plates. Price $5,50, cloth; $5, paper. Containing nuin- Smithsonian Contributions to Raveletie 1852. Vol. Til, 4°, pp. 564, and 35 plates. Price $7, ted 86, 50, paper. Containing num- Smithsonian Contributions to kno ow wedge. 1852. Vol. IV, 4°, pp. i ber 4 ‘ € Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge. 1853. Vol. V, 4°, pp- 538, aud 45 plates. Price $7,50, cloth, colored plates ; $6, uncolored, in pare . 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Giesse — Tuomas Say: Descriptions of Terre strial Shells ‘of North ieee. 44 pages, — Prilade elphia : Childs & Peterson. A reprint of the papers of f Mr, Say, by . G. Binn Exuior Satie: Gn HaRLEsTON, S. C., Jan., yee 9, Description of a new Os- trea found ig in Sy waters of the coast of Sou i Gocdens ' §, Holmes—Mon- CB sipola of the genus Cryptopodia; LZ. R. Gibbe oe of a new B DB. st 2), with a plate; W.H. Ra joa Nokes n the American Devil my f a new genus (Diabolichthys) “ate Ge harbor of Charleston, ‘olmes. a of color in birds, ete.; D. F. Weinland—p. 3 37, Note on Petromyzon, and in classification .s Vertebrata; L. Agassiz—p. 40, on the Fossil Trilobites of Easter ; W. B. Rogers, ©. 7. Jackwon—p. 44, Electric apparatus of aT Young Gar- ; L. Agassiz. tf u Ne MEME Bees 28.30 Se GEOG See wy: Lis Ta Ta ad U.S. SHIP VINCEN, i: etal Fa '~ : ) pt oy “i ‘ee: San ee oe = Se bale Oy me ie 2: ae HE ¥ RE wae Bi e lhe. eA ‘ ne, ' ce BS SS :& hee ee Ps 1 " x tt HE tay, 8 & t+4—-+-+44— 1 a 2 Woes ie a a Lr) Ps. By nn : bade | 3 WitL- pt a as i Wa 0€9 aries aS aid Os cee a, & RES Vee (a, ls eo fae & c- Bie Ee Se eg ee aes ; Eghey' ee a Wy 4 2 Ms Ms | = ee . SS - Neue =) Bebe MSS P= — pe Mes . a “ns ee oe be aa y 5 ea | Bia! sy , % 3 2 Pee eae Was i ES gee cons SEE : i tt SE “ ee Se ge Dt % Pi Behe ta O69) fe PS Oh Gs ere ee ee ease dt | eas WHEE OI hs ee nVv Paced peeeew BG WE dil RO Se here - + ied My Se ee aw ages ry & " Seve [aay Ss fg a = bese Wee / t+ er ey 2 £ a Ba Ps BV ae ee See Rees cee case Gta Geel c S ae 4 | Pas 8 WEE Fe) UVF Benpas: ce a oes - aoeae ed Lio vivw & 25180) Wie a Pe woe? epee Ee SSO eee UNG EEE Tet < ¢ a aa MR cd WHE! a ses fees GOs aT Ba 1a 6 SS) Ee ee Oi at et Fa = Jt £ oe ee oe ee bg a Wd 2 Ei ued : ee ae a I i zoe bat aX ie Gs GE ee ee ae | t A gt a oe GO Wat, ae a ay aoa © s 5 S g § e 58 YS Ss ‘2? S ® & E ey cet dire NOV ETHIBS A. Ne @) Lat.29° X.Lond4b BE. = = bs See eee oa ~~ > x = 5 eas CM Ae ae wk ee 3 : a x ay be: Se ae a Ot eee Se cae ae a 30 in = = be oe ee | — — 29.90 L. ee a a 29.80 ; \ v = X = \ Ss es 5S 2970 ” : f a ] 29.60 WEG! 29.50 | ‘ § | ? - Force & ~~ 3 t r t pact por © + © 3 : ney direction of & ae : * i % >) ‘SS % SN f& & % ie is ee ow * rn tat ay & | fy ene ny ‘ : WINDS, 5 8 3 D ey -o8eek . : VIN mews RUNNING eI ry 20 at poles Observed ance N HOVE TO WITH fares! AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. ‘ [SECOND SERIES.] “Rr. XXXI— Remarks on the Eiaren and Loumpey chi gy of the Canada Geological Survey ; by J. D. WH od examinations in that region, made under the oe eee ® United States government. Having enjoyed o ee mg of two additional seasons of exploration in the vicinity — € “+ peligh since the completion of our i | sury it Seems proper to endeavor to throw some additional light - rior, tate eon out over so large a por- Lake Soper, ta. It undoubtedly forms the base ries, sd is page quivalent, or continuation idstone of the New York geologists. es all rocks lying beneath the lowest fossiliferous beds i in : ero ae - hapacaaais INO. 69.—MAY, 1957. , = 306 8J. D. Whitney on the Huronian and Laurentian the northwest, from which the azoic rocks are easily distinguished by marked differences of lithological character, and by uncon- formability of position. ; r. Logan, however, recognizes two distinct systems below the Potsdam sandstone, and to which he has given the names of Huronian and Laurentian, thus differing from Mr. Foster and ie: myself, who have admitted the existence of only one. Ifweex- et to its western extremity. We must also admit that these — - eupriferous rocks are identical in age with the series of quartz, beds, and jaspery conglomerates displayed on the north shore of Lake Huron, and hence called “Huronian.” Therefore, according to Mr. Logan’s views, since the cupriferous series of Lake Supe- Tior rests unconformably on a still lower formation of slates, d. principal question to be settled, then, is this; what are + the relations of the cupriferous rocks of Lake Superior ?—do z® “— constitute a distinct system by themselves, or are they pa a, Pa local & poate not to be removed from the place to which they belong, a $ “a y Mr. Logan as Laurentian. £ The sandstone of the northwest, the base of the fossiliferous _ Series, which is, as usually seen, three to four hundred feet in _ thickness, is made up of a coarse grained and rather friable grit, 3 og | } . Systems of the Canada Geological Survey. 307 consisting of fine grains of quartz, with but little cement be- tween the particles, and slightly colored by oxyd of iron. It is hand appearance. The deep adit-level, at the Norwi ag fo — edge, di formation and shows conclusivel _ heaval of the rocks to the north, ing nearly east and west, while the region to the south was only north. aiforded of a fracturing of the strata, and an immense mechan- ical force exerted in the upheaval of their northern portion. At about 130 feet from the entrance of the adit, is another belt of | us other observations made along the southern line of junction | of the cupriferous belt and the sandstone, it is evident that the : latter Participated in the uplifting movement of the 0 | om belt, and that it was not subsequently and unconformably depos- at its base, =e ne ee ‘ slightly affected. The adit-level commences in the conglomerate 2 its uplift, while the northern half has a stee inclination to the rt Wrought, about 44°. From this section, as well as from numer- é 308 J.D. Whitney on the Huronian and Laurentian In regard to the sandstone on the north side of the trap range, the evidence is equally clear that it cannot be separated from it, either lithologically or stratigraphically. Towards the eastern extremity of Point Keweenaw the sandstone is not exposed on the shore of the lake, having been washed away, but conglomer- ate and trap make their appearance and occupy the coast on the _ north side of the Point, to the distance of five miles west of the mouth of Eagle River. From this point onward, the sandstone ars in strata dipping at a low angle to the north and resem- _ bling in lithological character that which forms the shore of the _ lake from Saut Ste. Marie to the Pictured Rocks. “Near the Por- ¢upine Mountains and at the Montreal River, however, it has a higher dip owing to the proximity of the igneous rocks to the rap only in being somewhat darker colored and having the quartzose grains more firmly cemented together. The number onally seen, The lithological ch combined Much of it is mad * For Report, Part Ee a _ Which occur among the sandstones, at a distance from the trap. $ _ ‘These are of very limited extent, and are not at all comparable _ of the Lak, Systems of the Canada Geological Survey. 309 action of sudden and violent forces, rather than of slow and long-continued ones. The conglomerate appears to thin out rapidly as we recede from the igneous rocks, forming wedge-shape masses which grad- ually pass into sandstone, This fact has been actually observed _ mM some instances, although, usually, the natural sections are not _ sufficiently favorable to allow the exact relation of the sediment- ary. to the igneous rocks to be made out. There are also patches of pebbly materials, formed exclusively by the agency of water, with the great conglomerate masses associated with the igneous . ‘They are evidently the result of local currents and the material of which they are composed is the same as that of the sandstone itself. eh: The dip of the series of bedded trap, conglomerate and sand-— stone is usually very regular, and varies from 40° to 50° along the culminating portion of the range, where it is highest. In only one locality, so far as observed, does it exceed 50°, and that the native 310 J.D. Whitney on the Huronian and Laurentian The Huronian beds are chiefly made up of a compact and almost vitreous quartz-rock, in no respect resembling the sand- stone of the south shore of Lake Superior, even where the latter is most hardened and metamorphosed by immediate contact with the trap. The beds of conglomerate in the Huronian series are of very subordinate importance and entirely differing in charae- ter from the great conglomerate bands associated with the igne- — ous rocks of the south shore of Lake Superior. In the former * : e Superior there are some con- siderable areas in which important masses of interstratified green- stone exist without amygdaloid, while white sandstones are pres- on the Canadian side of Lake Superior itself.”* : Tn order to arrive at a better understanding of the matter m question, we will briefly notice some of the most important facts in the geology of the north shore of Lake Superior, where the phenomena are much more complicated and difficult to decipher ae iver Canada, Report on the North Shore of Lake Huron; 1849, Systems of the Canada Geological Survey. 31} © sandstone of the lower Silurian séries, a few isolated patches Of this rock occurring at intervals along the shore down as far @s Lake Huron. yee Systems of the Canada Geological Survey. 313 F , there are me veins which carry considerable copper pyrites and which igon Bays. Considerable money has been expended in’ __ &xploring in this region, and in attempts at mining for copper. : Abundant as are the localities in this portion of the lake in which aes. ER this metal has been found, it may be doubted whether there ex- 2 2 =] &. fae] < a) = B 4 = —_ ie) a S 6B ao o 4 5 a = = ee re ber | i) Eh = $9 3B Qu ane a 3 - operations have been commenced, show any very encouraging Indications. Valuable deposits may perhaps yet be discovered ; but ut mL that the thinness and irregularity of the igneous beds and the frequent changes of lithological character have pre- vented the metalliferous veins from assuming that development which they have in the cupriferous range of the south shore. _, The character of the metalliferous deposits which occur in the Azoic rocks still farther east than Lake Huron, is similar to that Which they present in the region of this lake and Lake Superior. The sulphurets of copper, lead and zine are the chief ores, and howhere do we find any veins resembling in character those of the native copper-bearing rocks of the bedded trap series, neither E Lak, succeed a € Superior in point of fact. | : From these considerations, it appears to us that the native Copper-bearing series of the north and south shores of Lake Su- _ Petor cannot be separated from the«Potsdam sandstone with - Which it is insorkies and neither is there any reason whatever ae pee it in the same line with the rocks of the north shore e €& ro 2 ae Roe’ i ous groups low down in the series, and of doubtful age and posi tion. The claims of the Cambrian to recognition asa distinet he large sone have agreed in embracing all the fossiliferous aie . a new name, which shall not involve us in any Cambrian con versies; but, if, as appears from the evidence thus far collec we have reached in the lower sandstones of the northwest the downward limit of organized existence, we are justified, for the present at least, in the use of the term Azoic to designate the upon which these sandstones rest unconformably. * See Bull. Geol. Soe. [2], viii, 422. ss) soft ne B. Silliman, Jr. and C. H. Porter ona New Photometer. 315 Arr. XXXII.— Notice of a Photometer and of some experiments therewith upon the comparative power of several a ee eee onl Llumination ; by B. Sinumy, Jr., and Cuas. H " Poieion, Rye E photometers in general use for determining the compara- tive illuminating power of various sources of light, depend upon a comparison either of shadows or of illuminated discs. Rum- B. ford’s well known instrument is of the former pete ca a and ag Ritchie’s is an example of the latter. Having found much diffi etl in the adaptation of any of the instruments ¢ vena pA in _ Use to the accurate admeasurement of the peob Ts power of _ various forms of gas jets, whee B. Silliman, Jr. was led to con- Messrs, J. & New Haven, opticians of emi- them to give form to our mutual conclusions by con- Rok nla the instrument here teecribed, Poe ption of the instrument. ata this i instrument the pen- cils of light are received prisms of flint glass on he angle of total reflection. +. ved ‘“pona diaphragm of ground Be se peti ina dark cham- m.m. in diameter. - Figure 2 shows ne diaphragm — i plan with the two dises dd’ whe i. Telative position. Above - 8 is the eye-piece o wit instra ument is [Seale 4] ae aes 316 B. Silliman, Jr. and Chas. H. Porter mounted upon a sliding stand to allow of adjustment at dif- ferent elevations. For convenient adjustment of the prisms at the angle of total reflection a slight motion of ¢ rotation is provided by the knerled heads e, fig. 1. The edges of the illuminated discs are brought is equivalent to ths of one per cent of the whole quantity. rior accuracy and neatness of the instrument here described 1 ery obvious. e dark chamber and compensating eye-plece give to the discs of light upon the ground glass diaphragm, 4 facility of compensation and of adjustment hardly inferior to the accuracy attainable by Babinet’s polarizing photometer, to which there are some objections needless to be dwelt on here. ments with the instrument.—The following trials were made in the city of New Haven on the last evenings of January 1856, during very severe weather, upon two samples of coal gas. On the Ist and 5th evenings the coals used in cuenging the re- torts consisted of a mixture of bei Ist. eg Sth Fairmount (Maryland), 5,725 Ibs. 5,642 Ibs. Newcastle (English), 5,725 * 5,641 “ Hillsboro’ (New Brunswick), 750 “ 750 “ : 12,200 “ + 12,083 “ = 24,233 lbs. ae. sted hy ERS EY . on a New Photometer. 317 There were produced from this mixture 102,724 cubic feet of gas or 4°24 cubic ft. to the pound of coal, and 40 bush. cok Weighing 41°5 Tbs. per bush. =1249 Ibs. from 2000 Ibs. coal. _ jnorder to avoid as far as practicable the errors likely to elevation. Observations were also made with the Carcel’s me- chanical lamp as a unit. The size of lamp employes was one our of the first form of lamp is regarded as furnishing the most uniform light ‘of any artificial source for a series of Loui In the followin tables (see next page) the results are presented in as simple an conde a form as practicable. The several burners compa Set of burners was used in all the trials. The gas consumed was 4 spring, (like a coach candle lamp,) was kept always at the same pe Lie Ose Span ye ,Jr. and C. H. Porter on a New Photometer. . Silliman B 318 i, Il, II. IV. ry 44 “Fammount,” &| “Dramonn,” oye “ Dramonp,” al a $s | 23 at at at Marschal & Strat-| % ae lé Gas Works. Gas Works. Gas Works. ton’s. “ iss Be Preasure 2°40 in. Pressure 2°60 in, Pressure 2-40 in. : g 8 se} BURNERS bs ‘ 2 BS | 2 | Bs F S| “ sf S se é 5 38 . es 2S : a gy ‘e 3 6 3 rl 53 i Se] PSE] B ) Eb /2e 3 | 29/88) 2 | 25 el go GE Gel S| a sg fle] sl! /8s] | sigs, 0} Bes) Tel Bh gel 81 i°2| 8 fh |e8| So |#8) 2 | 12 (28) gs 52 e.) siisk 8 biog | Sei.% ES 23 \38| 1/28] 2 | Gt 88] | 88 |e] s-| et ee) 3 | Saige 2 25 Sea jos 2 e 4 = 24 3 5 38 3 ; | es < 8 la'| aa lee] @ jas Se x | 2S 68) & | as GE x | ee l2"] & 13 Union jet, (Scotch burner,) {19°59 4°9/19°58'4°3 |20°80/24°18/4-8/21°77/22°67 5-2 (22-95|22-07[5°1 1 Cornelius’ fish-tail, ......./14°39) 5° |14°39/4°3 |20°80/24°18)5-0/22-78)/22-78 5-0 (18°51/18°5115 1 Soule’s flat top bat-wing, . (18°74) 4° (1717/43 115°48)18°00)4°0/15°49)19°36.4°1 112°41115°1314 1 Munsig’s single cut bat-wing,) 9°82} 4°510°91/4" |13°22/16°52/5°2/16-13 150:5 4-6 |12°76|13°8614°6 1 Batten’s double cut bat-wing,| 10°18) 4* |12°733°5 |18°22/18'88/3'3) 9-48,14-36 3-6 | 9-87/13-70]3 1 Stratton’s Argand, ......./27'40| 7° |19°6 |6°0 |28°88/24:07/7-0/23: 86.17 046 67 24°02/18-00|7 2 Heingaldbolie ies 2 slew c+ 5] 15°75 B1°9427°77)5°026-21 26-21 6-0 |20°73|17-28)6- 2-276 gra. Judd’s patent sperm candle, |. 2. [ERT am tlle olan tadte Osde odes sche soles dese ve Carcel Lamp, aiie'ks Go ¥s s1 RO” OD 5 Si eas oul Seed Dake waste hile «> sles ees ee qele Se tele * Calculated. x ie On the Ammonia-cobalt Bases. 319 Art. XXXIII.— Researches on the Ammonia-cobalt Bases ; by Wotcorrt Gress and F. A. GENTH. Part L Continued from page 265. CHLORPLATINATE OF PURPUREOCOBALT. WHEN a solution of bichlorid of platinum is added to one of the chlorid of Purpureocobalt, a brown-red precipitate is thrown Own, which is a combination of the two chlorids. When dried it has a fine rich brown-red color and high lustre. The crystals Seen under the per: are usually aggregations of flat pale reddish-brown needles. They are very distinctly dichrous, the ordinary i image being ale violet-rose, while the parca Image A ie orang tution of these ceyEes, but acd ac are aot sivorplstinate of am- Monium. Sulphurous ‘acid reduces this double chlorid readil and yields a red solution containing the. Sperone of plati- hum and of cobalt. We may here r that so far as our observation has hitherto extended, the action of a reducing agent upon any constituent of a compound containing an ammo- pool t base extends invariably to the ammonia-cobalt base “The chlorplatinate of Purpureocobalt has the formula 5NH:3.Co2Cls+2PtCle 48 the following analyses show : 06765 SO2 and the platinum ipitated as sulphid y rNcO Soe yee ae HCl) gave ‘ner gra of platinum = = 3351 be os cent, 09521 gr. gave 03169 grs. of platinum and 02488 grs sulphate of cobalt = 8 per cent cobalt. i pi gave —— grs, of chlorid of silver = 41°80 per cent chlorine. The formula requires ‘Eqs. Calculated. Found, Cobslt (a. 8 10°10 9-98 Platine, oo 33°50 33°51 Chloring,- - 7 42°01 41:80 This galt is identical with the chlorplatinate described and analyzed by Claudet, and for which that chemist found the same 320 W. Gibbs and F. A. Genth formula, with the exception of the hydrogen, which he makes 16 in place of 15 equivalents. We have also obtained it from a chlorid which gave the reactions of chlorid of Roseocobalt, but we must leave it for the present undecided whether in this case there bs a my See of Roseocobalt into = anaes 5NH:3.Coe2C1.Clz eas We shall pe this view Hits fully when speaking of the oxygen salts of Purpureocob OXALATE OF PURPUREOCOBALT. This most beautiful sus is readily prepared Py adding a solu- tion of oxalate of ammonia to one of chlorid of Purpureocobalt. After a short time violet- er needles are thrown down, which may be washed with cold water. As thus prepared, the salt is almost chemically pure. The color of the oxalate of Purpured- cobalt is the violet ,%, of the first circle of Chevreul’s scale; the crystals are not sensibly dichrous. We have not, as yet, ob tained measurable crystals of this salt. Under the microscope four- and six-sided acicular prisms are distinguishable, but without characterizing terminal planes. The oxalate of Purpureocobalt has the formula 5NH:.Co20s, 2C203+3HO as the following analyses show: O2723 gave - 574 ors. sulphate of cobalt = = 22-00 per, cent of cobalt, 0°8970 gre. gr buat wit with th oxy of copper gave 0:2973 78 gre. carbonic acid = 27'11 per The formula requires Eqs. Caleulated. _ Found. Oey ect. 22-09 $200 21°95 (Oxalicacid, - - 3 26-96 2711 0 | | | on the Ammonia-cobalt Bases. 321 The oxalate is nearly insoluble in cold water, and not = soluble in boiling water, even after ‘addition of free oxalic aci Owever, in one or two experiments made for the purpose ACID SULPHATE OF PURPUREOCOBALT, *® ? . _ Our efforts to obtain a neutral sulphate of Purpureocobalt | containing two equivalents only of sulphuric acid have hitherto. Seen fruitless. hen a solution of chlorid of Purpureocobalt 18 treated with sulphate of silver, chlorid of silver is formed, and | the red supernatant liquid yields, on evaporation, crystals of sul- Phate of Basbasdtials Precisel double decomposition, but that during evaporation the equiva- lent of free sulphuric or nitric acid formed at the same time with the sulphate or nitrate, reacts upon this so as to convert it into 1 4 salt of Roseocobalt with three equivalents of acid. In equa- | _—_ ons we should have for the sulphate _ 5NHs.Co2Cls--3Ag0, S0s+-HO =5NHs.00s0s, 38004-HO, SOs 3AgCl. 5NH3.Co20s, 290s-4-HO, SOs=5NHs .Co20s, 380s-++ HO. . When oil of vitriol is poured upon chlorid of Purpureocobalt i quantity sufficient to make a thick paste, the mass assumes a . of tiful violet-red needles is deposited. The mother 7 . after standing for a longer time, deposits crystals. Ti ad gra are to be quickly washed with a little cold water, drain ied b ba : acid sulphate together with small quantities of another i i fully hereafter, and which we describe more ys ire, yall 322 W. Gibbs and F. A. Genth with chlorhydric acid chlorid of Purpureocobalt is formed, which may be employed in preparing a fresh portion of the acid prismatic crystals, which, according to Prof. Dan ong to the trimetric system, and are hemihedral. The observed forms are L, t%, $4, 22, 7 (?) or in other symbols 2, oc-%, $-&, 157, £2 (?): 8. PI 106°, I: i = 127° (126° 50’—127° 10’) 40: 4% = 122° 497, 13:13 = 67° 54’, 420: ¢ == 1092771: 13271. £3 4a ear 8 represents an end view of a crystal of this salt; 12 6 hemihedral and 73 usually so; the symbol #2 is probably cor though the observed angle varies much. ad The acid sulphate is very soluble in water, and has a distinct though not strongly acid taste. It reddens litmus, and expels carbonic acid from the carbonates. ~ The formula of this salt is oie _. 5NHs.Co20s, 480:+5H0 as the following analyses show: — 2s. on the Amietnin- ciel Bases. 323 0620 grs. gave 0:2577 grs. sulphate of cobalt = 15-82 per cent cobalt. 11402 grs. gave 0:4756 grs. * 7. ieee. = * 15317 grs. gave 1:9270 grs. sulphate of baryta = 4819 sulphuric acid 15843 ors. gave 0°7570 grs. water ‘== 531 per cent hydrogen. 11869 grs. gave 189°5 ¢.c. nitrogen at 15° C. and 775=m-2 (at 1593) = 179°6 ¢.c, at 0° and 760™m = 19-00 per cent nitrogen. The formula requires Egs. Calculated. Found. Crap errr Cobalt, - - 2 15°81 15°82 15°86 Sulphuric acid, - 2 42°89 43°19 ydrogen, - 20 5°36 5°31 Nitrogen, - - 5 18°76 19:00 hi W. t of the following formule, besides that already given: ral hours with r red solution is ¢ form: These 8 are soluble in hot water without decomposition, and may 324 W. Gibbs and F.. A. Genth be purified, though with difficulty, by recrystallization. Their constitution is represented by the formula 5NHs.Co20s, 2SO3, 20203+38HO as appears from the following analyses: 077433 grs. gave 0°3315 grs. sulphate of cobalt = 1697 per cent cobalt. 13912 grs. gave 0°9535 grs. sulphate of baryta = 2350 “ sulphuric acid. 1°6895 grs. gave 11564 gra, * # ==2349 “ — sulphuric acid. 2°7'102 grs. gave 0°7070 grs. carbonic acid = 2088 “ oxalic acid. 20198 grs. gave 340 ¢.c. of nitrogen at 14°5 C. and 763"™-01 (at 15° C.)==3184 | ce. c, at 0° and 760% == 19°78 per cent nitrogen. 1 The formula requires Eqs. Calculated. Found. 5 17-00 Sulphuric acid, - 2 28°05 23°49 23°50 Oxalic acid, 2 20°74 20 Nitrogen, - 5 20°17 19-78 The reactions of this remarkable salt resemble closely those of : the acid sulphate. It has an acid taste and reaction, gives 20 precipitate with oxalate of ammonia, or cobaltidcyanid of potas- sium, and yields chlorid of Purpureocobalt by boiling with an excess of chlorhydric acid. The formula of this salt may be = @ written in various ways. In the first place, we may considerit as a double salt represented by the formula : 5NHs.Co203, 4803+5NH:s. Coz20s, 4020s +6HO. The advantage of simplicity is evidently in favor of the for- a we have adopted. We may also consider it as represen 5NHs.Co20s3, 2803+2C:03, HO+HO. ‘ __ In this case the salt should have a strongly acid taste which it has not. On the whole the formula 2803 5NHs.Co20s 130203+8HO appears to deserve the preference. NEUTRAL OXALO-SULPHATE OF PURPUREOCOBALT. When ammonia is added to a solution of the acid oxalo-sul- phate just described, a fine violet-red color is produced, and no more ammonia be added than is sufficient to completely nev tralize the acid reaction, the liquid yields, on evaporation, beau- tiful red prismatic crystals of a neutral salt. The neutral © sulphate is much less soluble in water than the acid salt, and mad , a purely saline taste: it is easily ag re by boiling. formation of this salt is represented by the equation 5NH2.Co20s, 280s, 2C203-+ 2NHiO=5N Hs. Co20s, SOs, NHiO, 80s--NHi0, C203. on the Ammonia-cobalt Bases. 325 The fact that the ammonia unites with both sulphurie and oxalic acid, and not simply with éwo equivalents of oxalic acid, throws much light on the constitution of the acid‘oxalo-sulphate, and — we think, clearly that the formula of this salt can- not 5NHs.Co202, 2803+2020s, HO+HO. The constitution of the neutral oxalo-sulphate is represented by the formula 5NHs.Co20s, }Os0s+7HO a8 appears from the following analyses: _ 06367 ers. gave 0°8217 grs. sulphate of cobalt = 19°23 per cent cobalt. 06721 grs. gave 0-2569 gts. sulphate of baryta = 13:12 “ sulphuric acid. 99760 grs. gave 191 ¢.¢. nitrogen at 17°25 C. and 767™™58 (at 1798) = 177-43 ¢.¢, at 0° and 760™m == 22°83 per cent. : : The formula requires Eqs. Calculated. Found. Vonage 19°21 19°23 Sulphuric acid, - - 1 13°02 13:12 Oxalic aci - « 1 11°72 Nitrogen, - - ~- 5 22°80 29-83 “ach other in combinations. OXYD OF PURPUREOCOBALT. : The oxyd of Purpureocobalt, like that of Roseocobalt, appears to exist only in debasson It may be prepared, either by decom- Posing the acid sulphate by baryta water, or by digesting a solu- hon of the chlorid with oxyd of silver in the cold. The solution Solution, forms a violet-red liquid, which absorbs carbonic acid -Teadily from the air, and which is decom by concentration. be Tadical, ap is essentially biz 326 } W. Gibbs and F. A. Genth We shall develop this view more fully when occupied with the ee wens sche of the subject, and in the second art of our memoir we shall endeavor, by the analysis and de- scription of other iit of Purpureocobalt, to throw more lght i upon the nature of this remarkable radical. The chromates, ws pyrophosphate and Lap of Purpureocobalt have, in particu- ar peepee our attention ave mentioned, in speaking of the reactions of chlorid of aah that both the cobaltidcyanid and the ferrid- potassium give precipitates in its solution. e con- nat crystalline form and physical appearance of these two ipitates exactly agree with those of the cobaltideyanid and feos cyanid of Roseocobalt, and we have, therefore, not hesitate to identify them with these last, We believe that in this case there is a conversion of Purpureocobalt into Roseocobalt, since in the salts in question there are three equivalents of cyanogen in the electropositive for three in ae electronegative cyanid, the i formule being as mentioned aboy: 5NHs. Co2Cys+-Co20ys+3HO, and a. Co2Cys-++Fe2Cy34-3H0. As Purpureocobalt is any, pes, its cobaltideyanid and ferrideyanid should have the for: sage Co2Cy3s)-+-2Co2Cys, aa van Co2Cys)+-2Fe2Cys, altho e frequent occurrence of basic double cyanids may render cae less clear than the others which also involve the biacid character of the radical. LUTEOCOBALT. The salts of Luteocobalt have a yellow or brown-yellow color, and are almost always well crystallized. They are in gene more e soluble i in water than the corresponding salts of ns 0 ely saline taste. hen is drated, these salts generally we in air or in arkas and I become opaque, with cies is especially remarkable, because the constitation o ae cobalt i is Scaple than that of Luteocobalt, the formes base being 5NH:s.Co20s, while the latter is 6NHs.Co203. We onene ie & Singular inversion of the usual law, that die products 0 ¥ s on the Ammonia-cobalt Bases. 327 _ decomposition of a complex molecule are more simple in consti- tution than the body decomposed. Luteocobalt, like Robeptattalt is a triacid base. CHLORID OF LUTEOCOBALT. cote crystals, which are the chlorid of Luteocobalt. _Chlor- easily purified by solution in hot water, filtration, and repeate crystallization. ‘This method of preparing the salt is by no means always successful, and very frequently results only in the formation of chlorid of Roseocobalt and Purpureocobalt, with scarcely a trace of the chlorid of Luteocobalt. We have, how- ever, almost invariably succeeded in preparing, by this process, 4 mixture of the sulphate and chlorid of Luteocobalt, by em- - Ploying a solution containing both the chlorid and sulphate of alt. The sulphato-chlorid resulting, by boiling with chlor- hydric acid and chlorid of barium, yields a solution from which the pure chlorid may be obtained by repeated crystallization. The chlorid of Luteocobalt crystallizes by slow evaporation, 1n Prof. Dana, the usual forms are, in his modification of Naumann’s notation, O, a, i, O-3, 1-&, 3- é, with the angle Paes =3113° 16. Fig 9 represents a crystal of this salt with Dana’s notation for the faces - 9. 1:I = 113° 16’, O:14 = 145° 557, ver O) = 5 (over O) | 8%: 3 = 127° 34? (adjacent) == 118° 35’ (by observation) Frém states that this salt crystallizes in regubar octahedrons ; this pfs it wae be Sinorphouk but we have never observed *ny forms belonging to the regular system. ~ 2 328 W. Gibbs and F. A. Genth and crystallizes in a great measure from the solution on cooli Chlorhydric acid and alkaline chlorids precipitate it unchanged. When boiled with sulphuric acid, the salt gives off abundance of chlorhydric acid gas, but it is difficult to drive off all the acid without decomposing a portion of the resulting sulphate. The salt is slowly Dac sisest by boiling ammonia, chlorid of am- monium, and a dark-brown oxyd of cobalt being the only pro- ducts of the decomposition which we have been able to detect. Reducing agents in general act upon this salt as upon chlorid of Roseocobalt and Purpureocobalt. We have not yet, however, been able to obtain with the chlorid of Luteocobalt compounds analogous to those which are produced by the action of sulphur- ous acid and deutoxyd of nitrogen upon the chlorids of Roseo- cobalt and Purpureocobalt, although we have repeatedly made the attempt. 3 The chlorid of Luteocobalt is dichrous. In the dichroscopi¢ lens the ordinary image is pale violet, while the extraordinary i is orange-violet. The color of the salt, in coarse powder, approaches the orange-yellow of the first circle, but the color of als could not be defined by the chromatic scale, which we employed. Chlorid of Luteocobalt exhibits a remark- able tendency to form chloro-salts with metallic chlorids. These salts are formed with great ease, by the direct union of the two chlorids, and are worthy of notice for their stability and capacity of crystallization, Of these salts, which are very numerous, We have examined only the compounds with gold and platinum. The analyses of chlorid of Luteocobalt lead to the formula 6NH3.CozCl 3, 0-2036 grs. gave 0°1180 grs. of sulphate of cobalt == 22-05 per cent cobalt. 0°3350 grs, gave 0°1988 grs, : owe : 05110 grs. gave 0°2970 grs. iY “= 2211 The chlorid of Luteocobalt is readily soluble in boiling water, “ “ grs, - « =2902 “ Tx. 0°2942 grs. gave 04723 grs. chlorid of silver = 39°67 per cent chlorine. Pi grs, “ “ = 3 “ 0°3902 grs. gave 0°2346 grs, water = 6°68 per cent hydrogen. 04617 grs, gave 02800 grs. . = 6 * . 0°7305 grs. gave 200% c.c. of nitrogen at 21°5 ©. and 765m™80 (t =22°2 C) Comparing these with the calculated results, we have Eqs. Theory. Mean. Found. It, 2 59:0 22°06 22-05 22°05 Chlorine, 3 1065 39°79 39°73 39°68 8 Hyd 18 180 6.73 6°70 668 Nitrogen, 6 840 3142 3141 31°49 aa i ee ae a ee eee on the Ammonia-cobalt Bases, $29 The formula 6NHs.Co2Cl: is given, by both Frémy and Ro- oe gojski, and no reasonable doubt can be entertained of its accu- rac density of the chlorid of Luteocobalt, as taken in ry. re is 1°7016 at 20° C., its atomic volume is consequently The reactions of the chlorid of Luteocobalt are as follows: odid of potassium gives a bright yellow precipitate. _ Bromid of potassium gives a less brilliant yellow precipitate. Ferrocyanid of potassium gives a chamois colored precipitate, which becomes black on boilin Be & x @ oO [a aes a) S a 5 oo ct © Chromate of potash gives a bright yellow precipitate of the 4 chromate, ___, Oxalate of ammonia gives a buff yellow precipitate, soluble M oxalic acid, Tribasie phosphate of soda gives, after a short time, a yellow Precipitate, ce 3 Ytophosphate of soda gives a pale buff colored precipitate. Picrate of ammonia gives a beautiful yellow precipitate of very fine silky needles, 458 igh ime and their carbonates produce no precipitate in the _ Sulpbid of ammonium gives a black precipitate. CHLORPLATINATE OF LUTEOCOBALT. od i he Oran nular crystals may be couverted into t = w needles by pare in a large quantity of hot water and The crystals are eceaily hollow and much striated longi- + The obse YoL. XXII, NO. 69.—MAY, 1857. 330 W. Gibbs and F. A. Genth f: P= TOT 10’. I : ti = 148° 50’. O: i= 114° 15’. Twin crystals are frequent, the composition being parallel to the plane 0." The salt is very slightly soluble in cold water, but : dissolves in much boiling water, from which it separates on cool- ing. When gently heated in a porcelain crucible it gives off ammonia and chlorid of ammonium, and becomes green. 1he green mass, on solution in water, gives globular aggregations of minute crystals of a buff color, which may be a new salt, but which we have not specially examined. Zine decomposes the chlorplatinate of Luteocobalt only by very long boiling in an acid solution, metallic platinum being separated as a black pow- der, while chlorids of cobalt and ammonium are formed. The formula of the orange salt is 6NH3.Co2Cls+3PtCla+6HO as the following analyses show: 1°220 grs. gave 04321 grs, metallic platinum == 35-41 per cent, 1-220 grs. gave 02261 grs, sulphate of cobalt = 7-05 per cent cobalt. Eqs. Calculated. Found. Cobalt, - - 2 7-10 0. Platinum, -- ~ - <2 85°64 - 85°41 The formula of the yellow salt is NHs.Coz2Cls+3PtCls+21HO as appears from the analyses: 0°2638 grs. gave 00822 grs. metallic platinum = 31°16 per cent. 04449 grs. gave 06037 grs. chlorid of silver == 33-54 per cent chlorine. Eqs. Calculated. Found. Platinum, - 3 30°99 8116 Chlorine, = - 2:9 33°42 33°54 Rogojski f 7h. water, but his analyses are not very satisfactory, giving excess of platinum, hydrogen, and cobalt. . CHLORAURATE OF LUTEOCOBALT. - A solution of terchlorid of gold produces immediately: of the chlorid of Luteocobalt a beautiful yellow ski found in this salt but one and a half equivalents of a large in $0- on the Ammonia-cobalt Bases. 331 __ fate of small granular crystals. These crystals are very insoluble *in cold water, but more readily soluble in boiling water acidu- lated with chlorhydric acid. Reducing agents separate gold with full metallic lustre. The formula of this salt is % 6NHs.Co2zCls+AuCls as the analyses satisfactorily show: 0°7308 grs, gave 01025 grs. CosO7 = 10°53 per cent cobalt. 0°7308 grs. gave 02530 grs. Fae) = 8462 per cent. : 06457 grs, gave 0-9714 grs. chlorid of silver = 37°36 per cent of chlorine. Eq: Calculated. Found, Cobalt, - 2 10°33 10°53 OIG, se Lip 34°50 34°62 Chlorine, - 6 37°30 87°36 Todid of potassium produces immediately in solutions of the chlorid, sulphate, or nitrate of Luteocobalt, a remarkably beauti- ful b ight yellow precipitate of the iodid of Luteocobalt. This the ch] 02224 grs. of this salt gave 0-06308 grs. sulphate of cobalt, corresponding to : 1079 per cent cobalt. The formula 6NHs.Co2Ts requires 10-88 per cent cobalt, ._ rhe color of the precipitated and dried iodid is very fine, and ts brillianey led u¥ to hope that it might be advantageously em- lo} ed asa pigment. On trial, however, the color was found Wanting in body; the yellow, moreover, changes to a brown- yellow when the powder is ground in oil or water. BROMID OF LUTEOCOBALT. bromi - These crystals have the ym as those of the chlorid, and their formula is therefore : 6NHs.Co2Br:. COBALTIDCYANID OF LUTEOCOBALT. Os tideyanid of potassium produces in solutions of Luteo- : cobalt @ pal 332 W. Gibbs and F. A. Genth they are too small to admit of accurate measurement, The formula of this salt is , ir 6NH:s.CosCys+Co2Cys +HO. 0°4835 grs. gave 0°3923 grs. sulphate of cobalt — 30°88 per cent cobalt. B19“ hydro 07652 gers. gave 03580 yrs, water = gen. 21845 grs. gave 06800 grs. carbonic acid ss Iss .°“ carbon, Eqs. Calculated. Found. Cobalt, - - 4 80°57 80°88 Carbon, - - 12 18-70 18°82 Hydrogen, - 19 4:93 5:19 A solution of ferridcyanid of potassium produces a most beau- tiful precipitate of orange-yellow needles in solutions of Luteo- cobalt. These, under the microscope, have the same form as the corresponding cobalt salt, and their formula is therefore 6NH:s.Co2zCys+Fe:Cys+HO. SULPHATE OF LUTEOCOBALT. The sulphate of Luteocobalt is easily procured mixed with ~ the chlorid, when solutions of both chlorid and sulphate of co- balt are rendered ammoniacal and exposed to the air after the addition of coarsely powdered chlorid of ammonium in large excess. The mass of yellow crystals formed upon the bottom of the vessel, after a few days, is a mixture of the two salts. To obtain the sulphate from this mass, the solution in hot water is to be filtered and digested with sulphate of silver, after addi- tion of a few drops of sulphuric acid. In this manner the whole of the chlorid may be decomposed, and the filtered solution on evaporation will yield fine crystals of the sulphate. We have frequently prepared large quantities of the sulphate by this method. Another mode of preparing the sulphate of Luteoco- balt, which is often very convenient, consists in pouring ammo- nia upon the sulphate of Roseocobalt, thrown down by cautious addition of sulphuric acid to perfectly oxydized solutions of the ammoniacal sulphate of cobalt. When this sulphate is pow- dered, and strong ammonia poured upon it, its color frequently changes from red to a dull buff, while the supernatant liqu! es a fine red color. The buff powder on solution in_ hot water and evaporation yields crystals of sulphate of Luteocobalt. The red liquid is merely solution of sulphate of Roseocobalt 10 monia. The reaction which takes place in this case may be represented by the equation 5NHs.C20s, 8802 +NH:=6NHs.Co20:, 3880s, the sulphate of Roseocobalt simply absorbing one equivalent of ammonia, The quantity of s ees of Roseocobalt dissolved in the ammonia is very variable, being sometimes ; small. In other cases, however, no sulphate of Luteooobalt 3s on the Ammonia-cobalt Bases. 333 formed, but only a solution of sulphate of Roseocobalt in am- monia, from which, by evaporation, the sulphate crystallizes un- ed in large dark-red erystals, frequently of the form rep- resented in fig. 3. We are unable to assign a satisfactory reason for the capriciousness of the behavior of the red sulphate towards ammonia, Frémy asserts that sulphuric acid, cautiously added to a completely oxydized ammoniacal solution of sulphate of cobalt, throws down an acid sulphate of Roseocobalt to which he assigns the formula 5NHs.Co20s, 580s+5HO. When this acid sul- | phate is boiled for a few minutes with ammonia, a yellow precip- ; itate of sulphate of Luteocobalt is thrown down. The author quence of imperfect washing. tely throw hich is easily purified, as above, by spate ofan Seetptit 4 ssTigatiott. f he acid mother liquor _ Sometimes deposits more sulphate on cooling. The supernatant 334 W. Gibbs and F. A. Genth liquid contains chlorid of Luteocobalt, chlorid of Purpureoco- balt, and a leek-green crystalline body, which we have called provisionally Praseocobalt, but which we have not yet carefully studied. yellow color, and crystallizes fate be The rami aa to the right rhombi or ‘trimetric s system; they are hemihedral and isomorphous with the chlorid of Luteocobalt. According to Prof. Dana’s determinations, the more usual forms are repre- sented in figs. 11, 12, 13, 14. In figs. 18 and 14 the sulphate is mixed with the chlori I: I 118° 38’ O:% =187°19’ 13:13 = 88° 44’ and 91° 16’ O:1t= 146° 4’ O:3 =118°28’ 12:14 = (over 0) = 88° 22’ 1%:17=112° 8’ (over 0) 0:31 =107° 57’ 31: 8% = 127° 18! (adjacent) O:12—=134° 11’ These forms in other symbols are 0, o, 8-&, 2, 7, 1-&, (fig. 11). 0,0, %, £ 1-&, 3-& (fig 12). 1-6, oof, "8-% (6g, 18). 1-&, oj, 8-%, 1-@ (fig. 14), ; a:b6:¢=1-039:1:1:539. do not agree precisely i in me ans a a different fundamental form. Adopting the same fun- | tal form as in the above ender the clearing would Das 3 on the Ammonia-cobalt Bases. 335 . ttering on figures, 0 43°13 +. 13-7-8 wy Z. New lettering, Ae § 2 3F Si 13 i Die oo 22. Angles obtained and calculated for fig. 13 (putting the letter- ing on the figure in brackets) : T:T(iZ:73) = 64° 28’ and 115° 39’ $2: 82, (4:4) = 124° 3” (adjacent). 0:8 (0:12) = 120° 36’ O : 81 (0: 1i) = 119°, O: 83 (04) = 130° 59° 44:23 = 108° 10’ (by calculation). Angles obtained and calculated for figs. 14, 15: #3243 (1: I) = 108° 30’ O:8F (0:4) = 150° 16", O:8 (0:15)=120° 40’ O: 22 (0: #) = 120° 16’, O: 85(O0:4%) = 138° 6’, Fig. 18 has still a different habit. The ng vertical oceurri | prism, lettered gave the angle (approximately) 101° 30’, an the dome 1i has the angle 109° 36’, giving 0: 1i = 144° 48’, hear the angle in figs. 11, 12. fe | * = Tose-red while the extraordinary image is Snght orange. The color of the salt in coarse _ powde eptonches the orange No. 5 of the circle, — fro phuric acid does not precipitate ee eis _ 70m its solution, but chlorhydric and nitric ae. acids throw doves is the get mixtores of the chlorid with the _ Sulphate and nitrate. The salt is decomposed with very great 336 W. Gibbs and F. A. Genth difficulty by ot boiling, even after the addition of a little am- monia. No new base is formed during the decomposition. When, iciterral ‘the dry salt is gently heated in a peiroati in cru- cible, ammonia is evolved, and if the heat be regulated so that no sulphate of ammonia is given off, while the mass is constantly stirred, there remains after a few minutes a red mass, which on solution in water gives a fine red liquid containing a sulphate of a red base, which 3 is probably Purpureocobalt. The reaction is, however, a very uncertain one, and has succeeded in our han but once. We have in most cases obtamed by the précess de- scribed only a mixture of sulphate of Luteocobalt, sulphate of cobalt, and sulphate of ammonia. We shall consider this subject ; more fally hereafter. Sulphuric acid, if not too dilute, readily ecomposes the sulphate of Luteocobalt leh the solution is ‘ heated. It appears probable that there exists an acid sulphate of this base, as there is an acid carbonate, but we have not been able to obtain it a s yet. Sulphate of Luteocobalt has the formula 6NH3.Co20:, 8803+5HO as the following analyses g satisfactorily show. The salt analyzed , was dried by pressure between folds of bibulous paper only. 03618 ers. gave 0 Lv ers, sulphate of = = ae = per cent cobalt. 04993 ers. 0-2 oo 04790 grs. “ 02122 grs, id. 12023 grs, 2080 s, sul hace of ‘ie ta = 34:32 per ae bit shure nes 08203 oh + jeostern yas : =3 33 wee n 09355 gre “ 05650 grs, water ate e a per ‘can hydrogen. 11194 gers,“ 06722 grs, 10005 ars yt 205 ce. miroges at 12° 5 C, atta ed 61 (at 1297) = 19116 c and 760%” —= 24-00 Pe nitr 09018 es gave ee ¢.¢, nitrogen at 19° C. and iegnm 36 (at 19°5) = 17126 ; 760™m == 23°85 per saa nitrogen. Our formula requires Eqs. Calculated. Mean. Found. oe" Or—es Cobalt, 2 59°0 16°85 16°83 16°80 16°85 16°83 Sulph. ‘acid, 3 120°0 3428 84°42 34°52 4°32 Hydrogen, 23 23°0 6°57 6°69 671 66 Nitrogen, 6 840 24:00 23-97 2400 23°85 Oxygen, 8 640 18°28 1809 3500 —-100°00 Eby deoousseiiie the a weit i hatha of fae ti ° , y to this chemist, there is produced eile these | ite a ‘pdtphato-ehiona ie" ide the formula - Iitrate of Ros al by Te-crystallization. The salt may also be easily prepared from on the Ammonia-cobalt Bases. 6NH:s.Coz03, 8S0s+6NH:3.Co2Cls. We have already mentioned, however, that the chlorid and sulphate of Luteocobalt are isomorphous, and we have accord- ingly found, as might be expected, that these two salts are capa- ble of crystallizing together in all proportions, and cannot be separated by crystallization alone. ‘I'o show the variation in the constitution of the mixed chlorid and sulphate, it will be suffi- Gent to give a few cobalt determinations made with the salt as prepared at different times. 01510 grs. gave 00673 grs. sulphate of cobalt = 16°96 per cent cobalt. O'7075 grs. “ 0-8210 grs. %) FS UT 26. 9 ‘4 01205 grs. “ 00680 grs.. « « Ventiat 4 - CHROMATE OF LUTEOCOBALT. A solution of the neutral chromate of potash gives a fine yel- low precipitate in solutions of the chlorid, nitrate, and sulphate of Luteocobalt. The precipitate is soluble in hot water, and crystallizes readily from the solution in brown-yellow crystals, Which resemble those of the sulphate. We have not analyzed this Salt, but it is almost certain that its true formula is f potash, as the precipitate from the chlorid always con- chlorine, and that from the sulphate, sulphuric acid. NITRATE OF LUTEOCOBALT. the chlorid or sulphate by double decomposition with nitrate of ay Midi ee A&. ie k 338 W. Gibbs and F. A. Genth 1: 1 (over the base) = 110° 20’ a Bm O.. 1 = 124° 60’ 0:8 = 108° 4! 3 : 3 (over the base) = 135° 52’ et a =1°0161 O : i (not observed) = 134° 33’ Ga ee The crystals are usually small and often very brilliant. The salt is readily soluble in hot water, and separates in small erys- tals on cooling. Chlorhydric acid throws it down from its solu- tion as a yellow crystalline powder; nitric acid also precipitates it, but sulphuric acid converts it into sulphate with more or le complete decomposition. The nitrate of Luteocobalt is anhy- drous, and has the formula 6NHs3. CozOs, 3NOs as the following analyses show: 0-1972 grs. gave 00880 grs. sulphate of cobalt == 16°98 per cent cobalt. 02090 grs. “ 00998 grs. “ es ies7 e 16859 grs. “ 0°5151 grs. water = 5-27 per cent hydrogen. 09126 gra, “ 04337 ers. “ = 5 “ “ , 0°6242 gprs, gave 188 c. c. at 1195 C. and 772™™-40 at 11°-94—== 180°56 c. ¢. at 0 and 760™™ = 36°33 per cent nitrogen. i 07894 grs. gave 226 c.c. at 1895 C. and 766"™05 at 14° = 21329 c.c. at 0 and 760™™ = 36°23 per cent nitrogen. The formula requires Eqs. Calculated. Mean. Cobalt . - 2 17 16°93 16°98 1689 Hydrogen. . 18 518 5:27 527 6°28 Nitrogen . . 9 3631 37:28 86:23 36:33 _ Frémy and Rogojski deduce the same formula from very imperfect analyses. Heat decomposes the dry nitrate of Luteo- cobalt with a slight explosion, a black powder of an oxyd of cobalt remaining. It may be remarked that the oxygen aD hydrogen in this salt are exactly in the ratio to form water. OXALATE OF LUTEOCOBALT. When asolution of oxalate of ammonia is added to one of a soluble salt of Luteocobolt, a buff colored precipitate of fine les is thrown down, which is insoluble both in hot and cold water, but which readily dissolves in a solution of oxalic acid. From this solution the neutral oxalate crystallizes in beautiu prismatic i Reo having the color of the sulphate and chlorid. e crystals lose water like those of the other hydra- salts of Luteocobalt. The oxalate has the formula .6NH:.CO20:2, 8C20:4+4HO as the following analyses show: © Sore aa = gS ier ane Vay sang Oo oe, ORR EELS | ae 2 + a ses re je 2 2 et eS eee ee ee gt on the Ammonia-cobalt Bases. 339 94330 grs. gave 0-2040 grs. sulphate of cobalt = 17-99 per cent cobalt. 0:4228 grs. gave 0°2000 ers. ra * == 18:00-; © fe 05345 grs. gave 0°2529 grs. “ “« =1801 “ = _ 20805 grs. gave 08380 grs. carbonic acid = 32°95 per cent oxalic acid. The formula requires Eqs. Calculated. Found, ° ca LEI TIT Wc SIRES. Cobalt . ; 2 17°93 17°99 1800 18-01 Oxalic acid. = a 32°82 32958 ——_—- —— we have not yet been able to obtain such a salt. The oxalic CARBONATES OF LUTEOCOBALT. The neutral carbonate of Luteocobalt is readily formed by decomposing a solution of chlorid of Luteocobalt by carbonate of silver. The yellow solution, by evaporation, pg sherry- The salt € air, and crystals of the acid carbonate are found mixed with those of the neutral salt. According to Prof. ’s_ measure- ment, the crystals of the neutral carbonate belong to the trimet- Nie system, and approach aragonite in form. Fig. 20 represents 4 crystal of this salt: ; 20. F.:I = 116° 50’ ZT 34 = 121° 85’ 1t : 1% (top) = 114° 16’ ; I 1%: 1% (over) it = 65° 44’ ~@ >b:e = 10509: 1: 16265 The constitution of the neutral carbonate appears to be repre- Sented by the formula 6NH:.Co20s, 8CO2+7HO. 2495 grs, gave 0-1220 grs, sul of cobalt = 18°61 per cent cobalt. 8518 grs. gave 0-0786 pats men ag acid = 22°34 per cent. “ 340 W. Gibbs and F. A. Genth on the Ammonia-cobalt Bases. The formula requires F] ound. Cobalt, - . 2 18-79 18°61 Carbonic acid- - 3 21°01 22°34 The excess of carbonic acid and the deficiency in cobalt, are doubtless due to the presence of a portion of the aci carbonate, The neutral carbonate loses its water of crystallization in dry air, and becomes opaque, with pa lustre of porcelain, like many other hydrated salts of this bas The acid carbonate of Latsnookale is most readily prepared by passing a current of carbonic acid gas into a solution of the neutral salt. The acid carbonate Spually separates, after a ve short time, in the form of large brown-red or sherry-wine co ored crystals, which are less soluble than those of the neutral : carbonate. According to Prof. Dana, the crystals of this salt belong to the monoclinic system, and closely approach Baryto- calcite in form. Fig. 21 represents a crystal of this salt. 0: == 108° C: f= Ke a" Saad 102° 20° 9 I :jil= a Orbe 139° 50" hy, £31. 1 at my O:-2i = 111° 46/ 7 a:b: = 07210: 1: 08398, 4 C = 71° Ne In Barytocalcite the angle corrals ne to O: ii = 106° 54’ and that corresponding to J: J = The acid carbonate of Titteobabal wall its water of hes tallization in the air, but loses it under the air-pu is particularly interesting as being the only acid salt of Pee balt va we have as yet been able to obtain. The formula of 6NH:s.Co20s, 8COz2+HO, CO: +5HO as the following analyses show: 04715 grs. gave eed grs. sulphate of cobalt = 18:12 per cent cobalt. 10506 grs. gave 02830 grs. car’ nic acid == 26°93 per cent. The formula requires Eqs. Found. = ' Cobalt, - ol 18-04 18'12 Carbonic és, = eS wel 26°91 26:93 The very bongs marked triacid character of Luteocobalt, considered as , renders Sean to nat fs he least, improbable that — formula of this salt should : 6NH3.Co:0s. Oe & éfi0, ugh ee 4 J. B. Trask on Earthquakes in California. «B41 OXYD OF LUTEOCOBALT. : ‘The oxyd of Luteocobalt may be obtained by decomposing a solution of the sulphate with ‘baryta water. The solution is rown-yellow, and has an alkaline taste and reaction. It cannot i. (Zo be concluded.) we [hoe sitters ee Arr, XXXIV. —Farthquakes in California during the year 1856 ; by Dr. J. B. Trask.* _Ar the close of 1855, I presented to the Association a state- Ment of the occurrence of earthquakes in this state for that year and a term of years preceding. for which were so obscure as to render it im ble to determine with accuracy the precise ier of their occur- ence. So far as I am informed, those shocks which have taken Place in this State during the past year have not been marked with more severity than has been usual in years preceding. They frequently amounted to a slight tremor, and at other times to 8Tound, and in the more retired of the =a on the allu- ras The total number for the past year is sixteen, and of this num- ber thirteen were observed between sunset and sunrise, a fact ,* Read before the California Academy of Natural Sciences, at San Francisco, January 12, 1857, . 34200 = J. B. Trask on Earthquakes in California. sufficient in itself to show the lightness of their character; f did they possess that severity so often attributed to-them, t attention of the people would much more often be directed to t et we find that their first knowledge of such an occur- es lai aS ° oS 77) Q oe ce je) es is) — — — Es a) io oO B ° et OQ ro) ee ee 5° =| ran) Ss i) < oO Lg oO ro BS jo) my Ep a i] O B eo ‘. occurences, and the idea that our country is but a bed of latent é ss volcanoes, ready to burst forth at any moment, spreading devas- , . tation over the land, is a very needless source of alarm. — : es e should remember that when speaking of California as a ‘ S state, that we include a line of territory equalling that of the 2 : seabo ing between Cape Hatteras on the south and the C : north and northwest, beyond the fifty-fifth parallel, both voleame and earthquake phenomena appear to have been more violent n usual. D neighborhood of the Aleutian Archipelago, along the northeast coast of Japan, and in the British and Russian Possessions of North America on the Pacific, and islands of the Ochotsk Sea. _ It would be interesting to know more about these phenomen@ in those regions, and such information could be easily obtained is. from the commanders of the whaling fleet, if the proper meas as felt in San Francisco. van. 29.—At a quarter before one o'clock this morning, a - Slight shock was felt in San Francisco.—It was observed also at the Mission Dolores. There were three distinct tremors, with j Short intervals elapsing between. The motion was apparently 7 om the westward. | Jan. 81—Quite a smart shock occurred at four o'clock this *vehing ; it was quite sharp in the southwest part of the city. : Feb. 15,—At five o'clock twenty-five minutes a severe shock |} oan earthquake was felt in San Francisco, the duration of which | Was about eight seconds, Persons sleeping were aroused, and _ Many persons left their beds and sought the street. There were _ two distinct shocks, the second very light and scarcely percepti- ble. The moti as undulatory and vortical, and at the end 3 ofthe first shock a very strong, profound jar, with which it Mes Se The upper part of a building on Battery street, for seventy -*etin lensth, was thrown down, the whole that was above the _ fornice; but the mortar with which it was constructed had not become hardened, being easily removed by the fingers; it more Tesembled wet sand than a firm mortar. . there appears to have been but little difference in the sensa- Hons of persons situated either in upper or basement stories. It (| Who were awake and up at the time. : The vortical inovaakrs was shown in the fact that ys €y stood The first wave came with a force sufficient to project small €s three or four feet on the floor, from shelves on which they Placed; they were apparently all thrown in the same direc- Several clocks were stopped at precisely five hours twenty- Minutes, a ae the cracks in walls and ceilings had a direction nearly ‘est and southeast, and most of them had the appearance ng been produced at the moment of elevation. * 344 J. B. Trask on Earthquakes in California. | six miles. Inquiry was made through the State line Telegraph at El Dorado, Nevada, Downieville, Placerville, Marysville, Sacra- mento, Stockton, and San José; it was not felt in any of the localities named, excepting the two last, and at Stockton it was quite light. 38 If the time as given at Monterey was the same as at this city, (San Francisco) the velocity of the earth-wave must have been - much slower than that of the great earthquake at Simoda. _ March 24.—A slight shock was felt at Canal Gulch, Siskiyou county, also at Yreka, at 20 minutes before 10 o'clock, P.M. The motion is described as being horizontal. : March 31.—A light shock was felt in San Francisco at 25 min- utes past 1 o'clock, A.M. It consisted of three light but distinct — rs ors. April 6.—114 p.m, A smart shock was felt at Los Angeles and the Monte. People were aroused from their beds. : May 10.—A light shock was felt in San Francisco at 10 min- utes after 9 o'clock, p.m. The shock was accompanied by a loud report, like the discharge of a cannon; people mistook it for the . signal gun of the mail steamer. This was felt at Monterey, Con- a tra Costa county. é 2 - May 2.—A severe shock was felt at Los Angeles a few min- : August 2.—A light shock was felt in San Francisco at 20 a : : utes after 5 o’clock a.m. It was sufficiently strong to aWaKe" srsons in bed; it was evidently more severe in Stockton. ; August 27.—An earthquake was felt at Mission San Juan, Monterey County, at 15 minutes before 9 o'clock P. M. on Mu were two distinct shocks with short intervals elapsing, the seco eg, ; J. B. Trask on Earthquakes in California. 345 i = the Bevieni. The motion is described as undulatory and m the west. It was felt at Monterey ~ at Santa their beds. Se in Sept. 20.—A very severe shock was felt in different parts of ; San Diego count , and at that town at1l4 o'clock, p.m. At : Santa Teabel the ceilings of the dwellings was shaken down; the cattle stamped and ran bellowing in all directions, and the In- - | dians seemed equally terrified. The walls of the adobe pe ‘ ings were many of them cracked. The motion is deseri rsa A light shock oecurred on the spice te Mondag 3 © winter par five ; coe autumn, three; ee | the . ave taken place durin ng the ver- We have aly of pee and violent voleanic phenom- ena throughout the northern seas, foe islands both to the east and west . Alaska, "The Russian frigate Dwina, while lying’ at tam Shu, brings intelligence of the outburst of a volcano in that city Beat the 22nd of to and on the 25th of the same Month passed through fields of floating pumice ; the latitude by eervation ing ae and peg 158° 82’ east per chro- m An interesting account of a submarine voleano was ela by the ge oe the bark Alice Frazer, in latitude 54° 36’; lon € 135° west, which is ag follows: A portion of the ating four in aonicn were running tisvegl the Straits of Ouri- mel On the 26t last; awhile passing the straits a sub- 2 aang i on ae a column of water several The ibipe < ed and ie re the ships Frazer and Wm. Veheden: ; D SERIES, VOL. XXIII, NO. 69.—MAY, 1857. : 44 : he —A smart shock felt at Santa Cruz, at 8 olehonds Ne ae created considerable consternation and many persons lef§t — 346 G. P. Scrope on Craters, and the Liquidity of Lavas. the two former considerable pumice, lava, and ashes fell. There were seven vessels in the straits at the time of the occurrence, — the names of three of which I could not learn. yas + ' The outburst was accompanied with violent shocks of earth- + 4 quake. It is the opinion of Captain Newell, of the Alice Frazer, that considerable shoaling has been the result of this submarine action. Arr. XXXV.—On the Formation of Craters, and the Nature of the Liquidity of Lavas ;* by G. Poutert Scrorg, Esq., M.P., F.RS., F.G:S. , ey CONTENTS. Introduction. Formation of Cones and Craters. Hypotheses of crater-formation by “ Elevation,” “Denudation,” and “ Engulf ~ ment.” ‘ Cireular form of Craters. History of Vesuvius. , _ IL Nature of the Liquidity of Lavas. Platonic rocks. ; Ty af _ Lamination, cleavage, and foldings of rocks. . nean energies usually called volcanic, which have played so im- portant a part in the construction of the superficial crust of our planet. cal portion of these works was the same which had been af employed by Hutton and Playfair, and was subsequently adop 1 Journ. Geol, Soc. xii, 326. : erations on Volcanos,” dc. 1825-6. “On the Geology of ‘ tae Si i ie oe: wee abe Son eee at beagles a Vis 25 ‘ Cia _ G. P. Scrope on Craters, and the Liquidity of Lavas. 347 | late t » amend them, ——— accounts for the different recep- ese two works met with from beth pe: the time, the volcanic remains of — Troe had some —_ in the final er gm of that German romance,—which some geolo- gists as old a myself may acre to have eas gpa oa in the Tight of a gospel-truth, and defended with great theories. And, as these disputed questions have an important ing on some of the most interesting problems of geology, I trust it May not be unprofitable to call the attention of our Soci- ety to the more prominent among them ~ I will advert on this occasion to two subjects especially, viz 7 ; The origin, or mode of formation, of voleanic cones ‘ad The nature of the liquidity of live at the time of its pro- ce ie from a voleanic ghia that 0 of the external more or less conical hill or mountain whi 8enerally, but not always, environs . crater, and which, ee & often occurs without a crater, but always characterized by the € qua-qua-versal dip of its constituent of lava and conglom- me % ,—to the accumulation round and above an eruptive vent, = 4 ae Tragmentary ejections. and the lava streams poured o out “a * T considered this law to be withon’ exception ; attributing the differences in figure and structure apparent among volo —_. to the greater or less number and j violence of the : which they were owing,—some g the pr pe of as ‘ruption, others of a vast number, often repeated through a series -8ges,—to differences in the position of the orifices oa pas °y atin, from ne summit of the cone, or its base, or an Se OU ERS IM Se Bite, Mikes Bete one = superficial rocks; and moreover that the rents they cause in the solid substance of the cone of a volcano in repeated eruption, into many of which rents liquid lava will be injected from the column rising in the central chimney, and cool down afterwards into more or less vertical dykes of solid rock, must have added considerably to the bulk and elevation of such a mountain, by a sort of inward distension. is was no closet-theory,—because as respects the cone and crater of Vesuvius at least, I had the advantage, in the years 1818, 1819, and 1820, of watching with my own eyes the out- ward growth of that cone, through a series of almost continual eruptions of a comparatively tranquil character, which during those years added considerably to its height and bulk by exter- nal accretions of ejected scoria and lava-currents. ese | the lava-streams, issued from small cones and craters formed upon the solid platform which then composed the summit of the great.cone, and dribbled slowly down its slopes, consolidating so Ria! there as in few instances to reach the base of the cone at all; although night after night they were to be seen flowing from the summit in streams of considerable breadth and bulk, and Temark, that even Sir Charles Lyell while supporting the view Indicated above, of the generally eruptive origin of volcanic Tates ;—I mean the excavating power of the sea in forming what he calls “craters of denudation.” This phrase, I think, he first ejected materials over a wider area. And thus, perhaps, we may t crateri- Many, j ‘skeleton, like Santorin. Some, like Graham’s Isle, have been €ntirely swept away. But the question being as to the origin of ese Crateriform hollows, not as to the cause of any subsequent tion of figure, this, I believe, may in every Instance, with- Out exception, be most reasonably referred to voleanic explosive % 350 G. P. Scrope on Craters, and the Liquidity of Lavas. Val di Bué on the flank of Etna, the Caldera of Teneriffe, that of Palma, Santorini, or the external crater of Barren Island; which measure some three, five, or even six miles in diameter? But the crater of Vesuvius, formed in 1822, before my eyes, by explosions lasting twenty days, measured a mile in diameter, and was more than a thousand feet deep. The old crater of Somma, which half encircles the cone of Vesuvius, is about three times as wide as the crater of 1822. Are we, then, on that account must have been formed, overwhelmed three cities at the base of the mountain beneath wers of e weak- of con- the besides that*he e flanks of | a oe es : ee * om sles | aie thes ee eS eee eee A Lo P. Scrope on Craters, and the Liquidity of Lavas. 351 f hundreds of miles, and spread in a thin layer oyer an enor- -Mous area of sea or land. And, moreover, the larger the dimen- Sions of any crater, the more powerful and enduring will have ; been, in all probability, the explosions, and the more thoroughly ; inturated, during the process of its gradual enlargement, would be the fragments thrown up by them. _ I remember being exceedingly surprised, after the termination of the Vesuvian eruption of 1822, forming a continual fountain of stones and ashes some miles in height, lasting through twenty ays, and in the end completely gutting the mountain, to find Iti tain, by the torrents vas), such as overw of rain (producing lave di elmed Herculaneum, and 352 G. P. Scrope on Craters, and the Liquidity of Lavas. eruptions and earthquakes in Java, Sumatra, the Andes, and elsewhere, having caused the disappearance of the entire summit of a mountain, leaving a vast cavity in its place. But this is pty the result that was observable after the eruption of esuvius in 1822. And in that instance we know there was no disappeared,” swallowed up in the bowels of the earth, together with forty villages and their inhabitants. Such are the phr usually made use of on these occasions, and very naturally so, by alarmed and unscientific observers. But recent explorers, espe- earthquake, or the explosion of vapor and gases accumulat within it and increasing in temperature, may cause to burst like the formation of the largest known craters. If it is to be Te sorted to, in any case, it would be, perhaps, in that of the = small pit-craters, occasionally met with in volcanic districts, sue as the Gour de Tazana, and the lakes Pavin du Bouchet, and Serviéres in Central France. But even these show marks be explosive eruption in the scoria sprinkled around their banks. oof hange their situa ‘walea are not so oF, gir? as, at first view, might be sup- Visitors who look posed. ter for a few years after its formation in 1822, saw pools of liquid and incandescent lava at its bottom, and small cones of scoria fro arises, no doubt, as or Dana y om the difference in the relative liquidity of the lavas,—those of Kilauea being very liquid, those of Vesuvius much more viseid and unyielding.* So also during the Vesuvian eruption >, Dana, “ American Journal,” 1850, vol. ix, p. 483 > > id Pp: “hy di . Nore by J. D. Dana.—I do no regard the origin of the crater of Kilauea essen- per different from that of other craters, But there is this peculiarity, that the Yas have not in modern times, at least, overflowed the pit; and moreoy sountry around, neither in its height or slopes or scoria bears evidence of ov i about the tinued erflows. There is no cone mowed at first, but for a 1 : ral fissures. There are several other large pit craters in the vicinity of Kilauea which are with theta ren er tral tet orca es 4 ir top li ; active pools in th om 0 anea, but as ‘erranean natiace me epee 2 left a deep pit with vertical w like ets r . i r : Pee pes Kear SECOND SERIES, VOL. XXIII, NO. 69.—MAY, 1997. 45 354 G. P. Scrope on Craters, and the Liquidity of Lavas. of 1753, persons who ventured to the summit of the cone ob- served jets of liquid lava thrown up from the surface of a mass which occupied the bottom of the crater, and conducted itself exactly in the manner of a liquid in ebullition. Spallanzani remarked a similar appearance within the great crater of Etna in 1788. In the volcano of the Isle of Bourbon, Bory de St. Vincent describes a source of very liquid and glassy lava cease- lessly and somewhat tranquilly boiling over in concentric waves rie the summit of a dome-shaped hillock composed of its over- owings. Circular form of Craters.—A_ consideration which has not, per- haps, been sufficiently adverted to by geologists speculating on the origin of volcanic craters, is the cause of their invariably circular or nearly circular figure. If I.am right in attributing their formation exclusively to aériform explosions, it follows that each is in fact simply the external orifice of a more or less cylin- bore drilled through the preéxistent rocks by re ¥ toa bubble of air or gas rising through water. Indeed the a. In moderately tranquil eruptions these succeed each other at considerable intervals. In the case of Stromboli, I noted that about five minutes usually occurred between every two explo- sions. When the eruption assumes a violent character, 28 12 the Vesuvian one of 1822, the eructations, for such they are, succeed each other so rapidly as to produce an almost continuous Rome steam-boilers. And a black column of stones, scoria, and ashes may be seen to § As 8 to a vast height, generally attended with copious discharges electricity generated by the friction of the ejected fragments, and forming a singular contrast to the jet of aériform matters. _ In some rare eases it is possible to witness the actual rise an cee of these great bubbles of vapor. zani on bis sit to Stromboli in 1780 saw the liquid surface of lava at heat within the orifice of the voleano surge alternately ” G. P. Scrope on Craters, and the Liquidity of Lavas. 355 upwards, and after bursting like a great bubble, fall back again out of sight. In 1819 I was myself able to witness the same interesting phenomenon probably from the same position, a high point of the external crater-rim’ which overlooks the vent. At each belch, a shower of tattered fragments of lava, torn from the surface of the bubble as it broke, rose into the air with a cloud of vapor and a fierce roar; while steam seemed to be at intervals blowing off from another neighboring vent. Hoffman, who visited the same voleano a few years later, describes in mi- nute detail precisely the same phenomena. The vast size of some craters, already noticed, may afford a notion of the enormous volumes of gaselform matter that must ave been discharged through them at the time of their forma- tion by continuous explosions lasting for weeks and even months; Since each individual bubble of vapor must have been of a mag- nitude to fill the entire horizontal section of the crater; and even for some time to aid in enlarging the area of this aperture by violent pressure against its rocky sides. The prodigious force with which they ascend, and therefore the great depth at which they are generated, may be judged from the vast vertical ht, measured in miles, to which they have been seen to shoot up a continuous columnar fountain of ejections, cons ~~ ts i not merely of scoria and ashes, but often of rocky fragmen great size. Sssure, which in the preceding year had been visibly broken through the side of the cone towards the northeast. Sometimes 356 G. P. Scrope on Craters, and the Liquidity of Lavas. aériform explosions take place from openings upon lateral fissures, and produce those minor, or (as they are often called) parasitic cones, of which several examples occur on tha flanks both of Vesuvius and Etna. At other times, the explosions are confined to the central vent of the volcano, the lava alone welling out, perhaps, at some lateral orifice. This, indeed, is the normal character of these phenomena. And it is this habitual predi- mn (as it b ofa 2 3 sj/se eel a\al«lee S2zlrnialal=ze F Inch.} o " ‘ 5. 29°60] 21) 14-8) 5:8! 7 29°42} 10-1| 22-2} 128) 15 29°52} 19°8| 34-2] 24-2) 25 29°34] 43-9|'59-8| 48-6) 49 29°38] 54°5| 70-2| 59-1) 61 29°35] 65-1| 79-8] 66-4) 71-79 29-43] 67-7| 81-1] 69-9) 73°51 29°43] 57-3| 77-9] 60-9) 65-40 29°45] 50-1) 71-1] 56-5) 59-00! 9 29°51] 44-4) 61-5] 51-7) 52:85 | 29°34} 28-1) 33-8) 32-1) 32: 29°54 11-5) 20-0] 142 15.63 353°25 353:29]450-6|631-61502-9 530-04 841 4'830 | 29°43| 29-44] 37-5! 52°61 41-9) 44-17) 70| 15 | @ The Barometrical record for January and February is the “Observed Height.” ; 2. Clouds, Rains, Winds, dc. | CLouns ; Amot nt, Course and Velocity. {WEATHER—Rain and Snow.) ‘Winps. Amount from 10 to 0 loci Oto ld Da nd t | Direction. i | Fy E| 2( :|F . P| . | g) a] ale #)a}a}] a] 2/S) 2b] 83 7 | 4} a}a/l lh aja] uf Sleisleleeg : | m/l) a |Z Ein {oa }oe |S (Se als = 41| 33) 26 2 13/13 16 | 7 o 6-4| 5°0| 4-4| 1 42:3) 26/131 5/4 lj 4:34 16 2°7| 4-0] 40) 1 9 2-0] 22| 20 2 1} 25 ‘ 4°5| 55| 2-31 2 7/221 2-0/23] 4/6| 201 4| 3- ‘ 3-7| 48) 4-4] 3 7; 20] 20} 1-4 6 43 | 1-7| 2:8] 25) 3 1 2-4) 18/20] 10/2 4| 2 9 ‘ 2°5| 2-4] 1-9] 1 2} 1-9] 1-4] 15 | 15] 2 9| 2-74 9 7 3:1] 33) val 1 10, 1-2) 20] 15 | 12/5 3} 1°36 i : 3:3) 3-4) 2+ LL 2-2] 23) 17 | 13] 5 2:45 6 . 5-41 50) 3-4| 2 5 20] 20/ 20] 8| 8} 15/-7/ 521 4 5-9| 6-1] 5-4 2 3 20) 20/20] 6{u 0| 3 59) 45] 3-9) 2 3, 23) 20/ 20] 6 8| 6-05 : 49°2)50-1/35-7|18 64 233/236 197 pad 4 60/36°74} fea 41} 4-2] 3-2) 1 5 191 19'16 ! 9 51 3 oh a : | Force of Winds at 7 a.m, 2 P.M, and 9 p. .—Force from 0 to 10. 2pm.) 18/19] 22/23/ 20/21/15] 19 | 25] 18) 18) 19 | 237 9pm] 16 | 144 7] 71 27) 1-4 | 1 | 2d | 15 | 15 * Latitude of Muscatine 41°25’ North; Longitude 92° 2’ West, (proximate). eromet 72-21 feet above low water in (and 586°21 feet above the mouth of) | _ T. 8. Parvin on the Climate of Iowa. 361 3. Miscellaneous Remarks, 1856, Lowest temperature, povwee 4, -29° —_ tent ee, aaie 44°] - Highest 97° | Average meari 8 years, d72-12 Range of « - 196° aire 4°91, "1640 50°, 1846] Lowest height } ’r, Nov. 21, _. >| Ran nge of barometer, - - 1°20 inch. = tach therm. attach d, acgoeats eight" - - - 290 * ht oh 25, 30 00 inch : therm. besten ~d, - Frost last in the e Spring, - A yt : i ; pri : Depth of ground frozen, - 2 ft.'6 in. Frost first in she Fall, - Sept. 24 | Thickness of ice onthe river, 2 ft. 8 in, Disappearan: grnd “May 1 Flow adsop ese 0A le, May 12; iad 12; Pear. . fF . ar Rai ees.— Apple, May Cherry, May 9; Peach; Plum, May Total L wenty of rain inches, 36°74 in.; in 1855, 24°55 in.; least 1854, 21-1 in; greatest 1851, 72:4: mean, 41-90 in. 5 et and February. v—Intensely cold; began to moderate about the 20th of February. Mare —River high; each and Paka ably injure ured. August, an Weather Saabs until the middle of October. Modtides —Very wet; edie stage, December. ery rainy and changeable; more snow than for many winters. River Statistics. Mississippi closed, Dec. 6. In 1855, Dec. 25 The greatest rise, May, March 29, 3 ft. open ’ fall, September, ye “ No. of days closed, 94, double that of 1855. sdbeins rise and fall, - 4, Sin. | Earliest closing - 20 years), Pe oy. = 1842, — time of closing, dan. 29, 1846. Latest , 1850. - April 8, 1843. es cee Det aaa 31. March 1 od Missi closed, 22 da in Rien Phi . » Average period Missinsippi closed, 60 days. eae Temperature of each of the Months and the Seasons for the years 1850-1856 ; also of each for seven years, with the ther set between naan fi the yeor 1858 and those of the whole e period of sev “ Deca f Longest period Mississippi emai 138 days, in 1842-43. | Moses AND Srasons, era | Diff. 1856 | Mit | es 1852/1853 1854) 1855) 1856|7 years) and mean. : ce 5 December,"1849, ates 18°34)19-77 ar'aios is) 67|26°76|29°40| 22-49 | — 6:86 rat eee SEIT |paaoles-o7 19°60)27-05)16'16|24-46) 7°52] 20-45 | 12-98 Winter Tagg 20007" os BO eRaT AS 29-00)23 Pye 15°64}15-03| 23-73 | — 840. inter mean,. , [23°19 23°82 23-32 24-1923°77|29-28|14-98| 22-92) — 724 March, vealwe te recs 82 60/88-22 36° ‘15 38° 24'39°86|30-51/25°80| 38°77 | — 7°97 hae ver apt 2249524274 4781 51°18 5895}40:37| 4110 4 297 2 pec 58:30 '58-19'59°96'55-65160 03/60-42/61'38| 58-42 | + 206° | Spring mean, 2.1212) | 66 6446284560 S00|4828 4591 4640} ~ ‘81 ) eS wart glee wees [7017/6464 6/87-02/71°79| 68°65 | + 3-04 dap osceceeee 7. 71-6: 6/73°01/73:51 7281) + 70 Angust, os ir9-09 0}70'35)65:40| 700Y} ~ 5°61 Summer mean, ...... 72-20 68°45 ,69°3 70°16/70°23| 7044] — “21 oo} S-eemag eee s0-83|68245 1/68-23|67-92/59°00| 68°61 | — 461 te 1415 50 35 59145 543 vrialseenl det + 318 1 2h coc of PE PEE 5513: 34°50 3/36°83/37°85/39°79| 36°60 | — 281 | Autumn mean,. 1 nanan 47°64|49°13/53°13]50-96|48°21| 49°14 | ~ 93 Annual mean, ’. | 646°65/47'31/49°81|47°92/44°78| 47-05 | — 2-39 ' ot eteRidiuiaaee au rt ee * All killed in this region by the severe cold of last winter. SECOND SERIES, VOL, XXIII, NO. 69.—MAY, 1967. 46 362 T. S. Parvin on the Climate of Towa. Total quantity (in inches,) ) of _ yA each of the Months and Seasons fer the years ach for between the seven sort — the ia od, rat pe also, the me total of the year 1856 oul the mean of the septen al perio differene Years—Rain. |Means.| Diff. 1856 Monrus anp Sxrasons. Sahn RET taae ; n Inch. | Inch. | Tach, | Inch. | Inch. | Inch. | Inch. | Inch. Inch, December, ........--| °40/ 2°50} 1°90] 5°00}....| 41) 2:02) 1°75| +430 January, .......+..++ | 440} 150} 220) -30)....| 150)....| 141} -141 ebruary, ...... tee} 80) 450) 1°00) “70| 125)..../ 434) 179] 4255 Winter total, ........ | 5°60} 8:50) 5°10!) 6:00} 1°25) 1°91| 636) 496] +140 eseees| 187! 2°83) 1°70| 200} -42| 63) 2°12) 1:65] + 47 | March,............--| 2°00| 8:00; 860 112{ 1:22/ +25) 241] - 216 April, .......0...+++ | 330} 360| 5°30,11°80| 1°76} 2°55) 3°44) 4 - 1°10 May, ... 3°70|1260| 650| 4:60| 621| 1°94| 439| 5°70) -131 | Spring total,......... | 9:00/19°20/20-40:1710) 9:09] 5°71) 808/12°65| - 457 “ —mean,........- | 3°00| 640| 680) 5°37) 3:03| 187| 269) 416| - 147 ame, 3°50/14°30| 2-20] 6 66) 4°75} 2°68| 492) - 224 5-00| 8°60| 3°70) 660) 2-22] 2:35) 274) 445) -171 Aegon $°00|14-00) 2:80| 1°70) 3:33] 3°51| 1:36) 566} — 4°30 yee eeees (21°50136-90| 8°70,14-70| 6-21 /10°61| 6°78 |17°05 | ~ 1027 Se gpg rere om 716/12: 90 2:07] 3:58] 226] 5:01} - 275 September, .......-. | 3-90] 3°50] 830) 6-20) 1:13] 1°84! 2°45) 3:90} - 1°45 October, ............| 270] 1:40} 7°60} -20| 4:99) 2°81| 5-21) 345) + 1°76 November, . .. 6.5... $°50| 3°50} 5°50! 4:10} -09! 2-08] 383] 3°23 “60 Autumn total, 10°10} 8:40 /21°40/10°50| 5:51] 6°73 /11-49)10°59 "90 “5 a ee 3:36| 280) 7-13 1:81} 2°24| 3°83| 3:52} + “81 Annual total, ........ |46°20/73-00/55-60 48°30 22°06|24-96 32°71 43-26 | — 10°55 o> Sy 398} 6-08) 4 1°84 | 9-72] 8-44] -— 72 Total quantity of Snow (in aga of ae Months and Seasons o, ye Snow, for the years 1850-56 ; “ye the means of each for seven years, with the ‘erence between the total of ’56 and the means of the septennial perio . Mo s 2 RA SO, Means Diffbet. aes SER ORI Tse eet 1852. 1853,/1854, 1855,)1856. 7 y’ss. and mean. is a Inch. | Inch. | Inch. | Inch. | Inch. | Inch, | Inch, |Inch.| Inch. December ('49),...... | 4°70| 3°70) 1:50/11-40| 3-20) 1:00/13-00) 5-50] + 750 January,............ | 220] +50] 3-20} 1:00] 4-00/17:50/12-20) 5-80} + 640 February,....-....+.|....| 840] ....{ 200| 5°50} 7-10/12-00| 5-00} + 700 Winter total,........ |, 6°90/12-60) 4°70'14-40|12-70 25°60/27-20 /16-36, +20°84 " aseeveee| 2°30) 4°20] 156| 480] 4:23] 8-86/12-40| 5-48) + 5°82 March, .............| ‘80| °80|....| 2-00) 1-10| 6:50} 3-60/ 2-04) + 1°56 April, 90) DOB) Pa ae Fes Pies] ste November,..........| ‘90; 1:30) 260] 8-00] 1-00] 1:50] 5-20) 2-93, + 2°27 tia <= eee 8802020 | 7:30 prec teye) -60|46°00 22-14, +23°86 scaseses!) 1°40} 3:36! 1°21] 4.06 5-60| 7-66} 3-68) + $98) h ‘ . T. S. Parvin on the Climate of Iowa. 363 Time of first and last Frosts and formation of Ice, for the years 1859-1856, with the average period of each. ; th | Mean 1854. | 1855. | 1856. | Time. Oct. 15|Sept. 27/Sept. 24/Sep. Y EARS. F | 28 Ne 18 1850] 1851, | 1858. | 1853. Frost first, .. |Sept. 7 Sept. 28/Sept. 26/Sept. 10 “ Tast,.../April23|May 5/May 20\May 25|May 2\May 6/April19 May Tce first, ..../Sept, 29/Oct. 15/Sept. 26Oct. 2/Oct. 15 Oct. 25/Sept. 24/Oct. 7 “last, ....|April23/May 1|April22|May 13/May 2/May 6|April 19|Apr.29 Period of the Flowering of Fruit Trees, for the years 1850-56, with the average period of each, Wisteiren fT Eee ie “ae 1890. | 1851. {| 1852. | 1853. | 1854. | 1855. | 1856. || Time. Apple,..... May 3) May 3) May 10} May 4) Apr. 24/ Apr. 29|May 12/May 3 Peach, ..... x tee a 1} “ 10) Apr. = Oe 1 aud Vesecp oa Mee eee 2 ee Be oy Bil cas. Apr.29| « ‘ « 2) « 10) “19 « 8 ses ee ee ee L.* teas Quince, “ Biase, “ 101 « 18, Additional Remarks. ‘Year. Temperature—The mean temperature of the year at this point for seven years past is 47-05 degrees, while that of the Past year is only 44°73, or 2°32 less than the septennial average, and is the coldest year of the seven; the range being from 46-28°, In 1850, to 49:81°, in 1854, The winter was intensely cold, all € months ranging below the corresponding means, while the spring month, the last summer month, and the first and last autumn months, were also below the corresponding means of th The river did not open until the 29th of March, four weeks om of its opening, and the spring was very . € severe winter had killed all the peach, Ps and quince trees in this region, and about three-fourths « the a and nearly one-fourth of the apple i were seriously inju °F entirely killed by the low temperature. je Rain.—The total quantity of ach and melted snow for the year is 32°71 inches, (the discrepancy between this number and the footing in the first table arises from the fact that in that the legal year is accounted, and in this the astronomical year is re- corded, and throughout the tableof “ Rain” and “Snow” Decem- ber of °49 is counted and December of ’56 omitted), being 1055 Inches less than the septennial mean of 48°26 inches. The annual Tange in quantity has been very great, from 22°06 inches 14 1854, to 73:00 inches in 1851. It was in this latter year that e ‘gh water occurred in the Mississippi and its tributaries—the highest known to that mysterious person, “the oldest inhabit- ~ a 364 T. 8S. Parvin on the Climate of Iowa. ant.” In 1854 occurred the “great drought” in this and the Western States generally, but owing to the porous nature of our soil, the crops with us turned out much better than in States east of the Mississippi. -Snow.—The total quantity of snow for the year (56) is 46 inches, or 23°86 more than the mean. The smallest amount was in 1852, only 7°30 inches, while for the past two years the amount has greatly increased, and it is owing to the item of melted snow (ten inches of snow when melted making one inch ‘of water) of the past and previous year that the amount of rain has been as large as it is, for the summer was very dry. INTER. Zemperature.—The mean temperature of the winter is 7-24° below the average, the former being 14°98°, that of the latter. 22-22°. The warmest winter was that of 1853, 2419°. The coldest of twenty was that of 1855-56, when for days to- . the thermometer ranged below zero, sinking as low as—29°. . Each of the winter months are below the mean. ‘The prevailing winds are west and northwest. - Rain. —The quantity of rain including melted snow, is for '56 greater than the mean, but without it, less. In the winter of 64 there was no rain in December or January, in that of '55 none in February; and none in January of the past winter ('56). soe of rain and melted snow is 6°36 inches; the mean is 4°96 inches. Snow.—The average depth of snow is 16:36 inches, while m the winter of 1855-56 we had 37-20 inches, exceeding the mean by 20°84 inches. In 1851-52 there were but 4°70 inches, which had steadily increased in the succeeding four years. ; SPRING. Zemperature——The mean temperature is 45°51°, being only 81° below the mean, which is 46°40°. The coldest spring was in 1850, the mean being 42:56°; the warmest was 1854, 50°00°. The temperature of the spring months of the past year was unequally distributed, Mand belts much below the mean, while April and May were above. ; fain.—Kach of the months was below the mean in quantity of rain, the total being 8-08 inches, and the mean 12°65 inches. Snow.—There has been snow in March of each year, except that of 1852, and in 1850 and ’51 there was snow in Apr The total for March ’56 was 8°60 inches, and the mean 2‘04 _ The prevailing winds of the spring months are for March west and nothwest;, April south and mnatinan’ and May east and southeast. : off SumMER. Temperature-—There was less than a differ- ence between the temperature of this summer and the mean of he last seven years, the former being 70-23°, and the latter 1044°. July is the warmest month. ‘The summer temperature T. S. Parvin on the Climate of Towa. 365 in.—T his season was ve vi The total quantity of rain was only 6°78 inches, while the mean reaches 17°05 inches, an excess over the last season of 10-27 inches. he crops, were, notwithstanding the summer drought, more than an average yield both of corn and small grain, and the three or four dry seasons we have had has abundantly proved that the soil and climate of Iowa are unsurpassed on the continent for farming purposes, The prevailing winds are southeast and southwest. UTUMN. Temperature—The temperature of this season, too, Was quite uniform, being less than a degree below the mean. ptember was colder than the mean by 4°, and there were sey- eral frosts this month which shortened the corn crop somewhat. Lvain.—September and the first half of October were very dry, but in the middle of the latter month the rains set in, and t ter half of October and the whole of November were unusu- ally wet, exceeding the mean by near an inch. The total is 1149 inches, pow the mean 10°59 inches. ow.—In € ear we have had snow in November; in ine 520 eo mean 2°93 inches, an excess therefore of 2:27 oa was 3 7. 52°; that of the seven years past, 20°45°. The cold- est January was the past; (the lowest range of the capi nerd inseven years was —29°, Feb b. 4, 565) the warmest in 1858, 2 27-05°. is the coldest month of sixteen years. In 64 and ’66 there Was no rain, in 1850 there was 4°40 inches, the mean being 1-41 Mm In 1851 there was - ep inch of snow, while in 1855 there Were 17:50 inches, in ’5 ap. seanane the mean is 5°80 inches. Ri River low and closed all em ee tee your ic AG —The m eae 08, Sheetenn 93°73; that of 1856 being 8-70 below the mean, and the coldest February for seven years past; the warmest Was that ast 1852, the mean being 29-00. , ount of rain for this a gpa including melted snow, is 4-34 lean ‘in 1851 it reached to 4°50 inches, and in 1855 366 T. S. Parvin on the Climate of Iowa. there was none; the mean is 1°79, showing an excess for the last February of 2°55 inches. n 1850 and 1852 there was no snow in February, while in 1956 there fell 12-00 a the mean being only 5:00 inches. e River low and clos omer eane winds in J ibaa and February, northwest and ere) —The most unpleasant month of the year, character- ized in this region, by high, chilly winds, from a western direc- tion. The frost which aca penetrates to a depth of from 20 to 25 inches, as it escapes, leaves the earth soft and wet, and the roads are soon cut up by the travel and rendered almost im- passa The 1 mean temperature of this month in 1856, is 25°80° or 7-97 less than the mean, which is 33°77°. This month of the ast year, like the two preceding, is the coldest of the past sever! years. In 1854 the mean tem mperatu ure was 39°86°. There was but little rain in March, only 25 inch, ms mean being 2°61 inches, and maximum 8°60, in 1852. now has fallen every year in March, “omen 1852, the n maxi- mum being in 1855, 650 inches; the mean is 2°04 inches, while in the last March, there were 8°60 seabines: The Mississippi River opened on the 29th, havi ing been closed ane fe. ng the average period of its opening for — past is the first of March, and the average length of time Goned a is sixty days. River still low April—This is practically in this ta the first spring —— as the winter “drags its slow length along” so far into its p: cessor that but little out-door work can be done. The range of its mean temperature is from 41-22°, in 1850, to 53-93°, in 1855, that of 1856 being 49-37°, or 2-27 above the mean of 47°10°. In this month the Feat trees generally put forth their blossoms. and the birds of song make their welcome return In April 1850-51 there fell snow, in the latter year to the depth of 6:00 inches. The mean total of rain is 454 inches; that of ’56 being 3 “44 inches, or 1-10 less than the mean. The ee is from 1°76, in 1854, the dry season, to 11:80, in 1853. e melting snow did not materially raise the river, which continued at a low stage. It was now that an inspection of the fruit trees showed how severe was the injury inflicted upon them by the winter. The wood, which preserved its natural color, rev vealed by the in- cision of the pruning knife an entire absence of sap and vitality ; eet ake intel trees were split open in many cases by the action vn —This and ences are the most rps ao ee onths of the year. T. 8. Parvin on the Climate of Iowa. 367 All the previous months of the year have revealed a tempera- ture below the mean, that of this month is above by 2°96°, the mean being 61:38°, the highest in seven years, while that of the Seven is but 58:42°; the lowest was in 1850, being 53°30°. The total of rain is 4:89 inches; the mean of seven years 570, the maximum, in 1851, the year of highest water, 12-60 Inches; the minimum, in 1855, 1-94 inches A gradual rise in the river, and a good stage of water. June-—This month too.shows a mean temperature (of 3-04°) above the average, the first being 71:79°, and the latter 68°65°, and was the warmest June in seven years; the coldest was in 1851, 64:64°. The quantity of rain in this month is 2°68 inches, the mean 492, The greatest was 14:20 inches, in 1851, and the least in 1856, only -66 inch. The river at a good stage, but without the June rise; there Was None in 1854 or 55, while in 1853 it came nearly up to the high water mark of ’51. the year preceding, 68°82°. The highest crane the thermom- in : o j ‘of the seven, and indeed of the last nineteen (of our reco : he river fell several inches during the month, and continued at a low stage, almost suspending navigation for this and the two Succeeding months. ; August—This month for the past year was colder than in an of the preceding seven, its mean temperature being 65°40°, whil the average mean is 70°01, and the greatest was in 1854, when it was 73-00°. Tt was ve dry, notwithstanding its low tempera- ture, the total of rain ing only 136 inches, the least of the Seven, the greatest (as before) being in 1851, 14-00 inches, and the mean 5-06 inches. : The health of the summer was good; in fact, a more healthy On or climate is searcely to be found. : gs .—This month, too, is below the average mean in its ‘emperature, 4-61°, and like last Angust is the coldest of the ears. Its mean temperature is 59°00°, the average 63°61", and the maximum mean that of 1851, 68°34°. Occasionally 368 T. S. Parvin on the Climate of Iowa. frosts occur in the early part of this month, to the injury of the corn crop, which was the case partially last year. The average amount of rain is 3°90 inches, and the total in September last, 2°45 inches, which amount was ‘increased in 1852 to 8°30 inches, and diminished to 1-13 inches in 1853. October—The Autumns are always delightful in the —_ round about Iowa, and this is the pleasantest of its months. mean temperature of this month differs from that of the season _by being only ‘53° greater, and exceeds that of the year 1:99° only; while April approximates to within ‘05° of it ‘The mean temperature is 49°67°, while the range is s from 44°15 to 54: ad , in the years 1850 and 4 respectively. e amount of rain in this month is 5°21 inches; the mean 3°45 ra In 1850 there was only ‘20 inch, itr ¥ the greatest was the last year, when the latter part was very w The river rose several inches in the latter part of “this month, November—This is the last month of the physical yeas and closes the autumn or fall season. The mean temperature for 1856 i as 32°79°, and the average mean 35°60°. The consecutive years of 1852-58 furnish the extremes of means, the first being 30-00 and the last 39°73°. This month was very wet, and more disagreeable than any for several years past, showing’ an entire absence of our usual “ In- Summers.” The mean amount of rain is for November 3°23 inches, the total for 1856, 3°83 inches, an excess of “60 inch. Tn 1854 the amount was only ‘09 inch, and in 1852 it was 5°50 inches. December.—In our tables, extending over the period of seven years, we have included December 4 1849 and excluded it for 1856. The mean temperature, however, of this month for this latter year is less than any of the preceding, being only 15°68, 686 ee see the mean, which is 22°49°, the maximum being in in 1854, In December, 1853, there was no rain; in the preceding yea the amount was 5: 00. inches; in the last December it meaabed 6-05 inches, while the mean is only 1°75 inches, showing an eX “ie 4°30 inches. ne River (Mi opi) a @ average iod of the closing of the River (Mississt me st of this Soa a this year car ito closed suddenly on the night othe with a low stage of water ‘ Statistics of the Flora of the Northern States. 369 Art. XXXVIL.—Statistics of the Flora of the Northern United States; by Asa GRAY. [Continued from p, 84.] ALTHOUGH such details as, I have to present are far from in- Viting to general readers; it is desirable to put them upon record, Inasmuch as the facts they bring to view are useful to those phi- losophical naturalists who are discussing important problems re- specting the present distribution of plants and animals over the world, and the causes which have determined the present state of things. This must be,my excuse for continuing at such a length the present series of articles. compared our flora with that of Europe in respect to Having ect to closely allied species, it may be interesting to institute a similar comparison with that of Oregon and Northern California. The comparison might also be extended to Northwestern Asia, and es- crm to Japan, with which we have peculiarly interesting re- ations as to species; but this is better deferred until some recent collections from the northern part of Japan have been completely examined. Comparison of the Flora of the Northern United States with that of the Pacific coast of North America (Oregon and North California) between lat. 46° and lat. 36°. 1. As to Geographical Varieties, The following have been distinguished as species by excellent botanists, but in most cases, perhaps in all, they should rather be considered geographical varieties. Natives of ‘ egon and California, Natives of Eastern N. U. 8. at, 46°~36°. Trautvetteria palmata, T. grandis, Nutt. Aquilegia Canadensis, A. formosa, Fisch. Actzea spicata, A. arguta, Vuit. ‘ Erysimum Arkansanum, E. asperum and elatum, Vutt, Honkenya peploides, H. oblongifolia, Zorr.d Gr. Stellaria borealis, S. erispa, ne Euonymos atropurpureus, E. occidentalis, Nutt. Negundo aceroides, - N, Californieum, Torr. & Gr. * Vicia Americana, V. Oregana, mf me ws us Canadensi A. 0 EF Og : Spircea opulifolia, za S. capitata, Pursh, S. pauciflora, Nutt. “ _ Arunecus §. acuminata, Dougl. oe Pp, ‘ a : P. Hippiana, pulcherrima, bipinnati- otentilla Pennsylvanica, fida, &e. Rubus Nutkanus (parvifiorus, : a (p R. Nutkanus, SECOND SERIES, VOL, XXIII, NO. 69.—MAY, 1857. 47 370 Rubus occidentalis, Rosa blanda, Amelanchier Canadensis, Chrysopsis villosa, . Menziesia ferruginea, var. glob- ularis, Pyrola rotundifolia, Xerophyllum setifolium, Luzula campestris, . 5 Statistics of the Flora of the Northern States. R. leucodermis, Dougl. R. fraxinifolia, Lindl. A. alnifolia, Wuit. Dougl ‘ glasii, O. divaricata, Vuit., &e. S. glauca, Wut. G. rubioides, Zinn. C. echioides, Benth. M. ferruginea, Smith. P. bracteata, &ec., Hook. P. maritima. T. occidentalis, Vutt. X. tenax, Purs. L. comosa, Meyer. 2. Strictly Representative Species. The following are cases of species of our Flora of the Northern United States represented on the western side of the continent by strictly representative species, (including very close representative species,) many of which, although still admitted as distinct, are not unlikely to be regarded hereafter as geographical varieties. ‘The very close representative species are printed in talics. Natives of Eastern N. U. 8. Natives of Oregon and California. Clematis Virginiana, Ranunculus recurvatus, x fascicularis, Myosurus minimus, Isopyrum biternatum, Delphinium exaltatum, = tricorne, Aconitum uncinatum, Nasturtium obtusum, < sinuatum, Dentaria heterophylla, Cardamine rhomboidea. rotundifolia, Viola rotundifolia, “4 Mublenbergii, “Canadensis, “pubescens, _ Parnassia asarifolia, Hypericum mutilum, Silene Virginica, Alsine Michauxii, _Meehringia lateriflora, . ; Statistics of the Flora of the Northern States. Oxalis Acetosella, Geum radiatum Poteniilla arguia, Fragaria Virginiana, _ Rubus trivialis, Pyrus pectin Myriophyllum scabratum, Ribes rotundifolium, hes aconitifolia, Heue era Ameri - villos tarelle cordifolia, . a, Lonicera sempervirens, Valeriana pauciflora, Baccharis glomeruliflora, z He Chelone glabra, e O. Oregana & trilliifolia. GG. erianthum d: Richardsonit. S. Movs ziesit. Ridlycenthus qlaweutil levigatus, C. occidentalis. M. hi ippuro oides R. divaricatun & irriguum. axiflorum. C. Menziesi. §. Californica. . ssa &e. Mimulus siiieiad (Jamesii, Torr.) aL on 371 372 Statistics of the Flora of the Northern States. Gratiola Keeassiansy G. ebracteata. Castilleia cocci C. Douglasiz. Hydrophyllus Ey H. capitatum. Nemophila microcalyx, N. parviflora Ellisia Nyctelea, membranacea. : Frasera Carolinensis, F, speciosa. Sapnget Gentiana Saponaria, &c., G. Menziesii, Sceptrum, &c. Fraxinus sambucifolia, egana Asarum Canadense, A, Hookeri. Aristolochia Sipho, A. Californica, Torr. Platanus occidentalis, P. Mexicanus Quercus alba, Q. Garryana & Douglasii. Myrica cerifera, M. Califor Betula nigra, B. occidentalis Alnus serrulaia, A, rubra Pinus inops, P. distorta “ — resinosa, P. insignis « Strobus, P. Lambertiana Abies balsamea, A. grandis. Larix Americana, . Mertensiana, &e. Thuja occidentalis, T. gigan Cupressus thyoides, C. Nutkatensis Symplocarpus foetidus, tschatic a aap P. leucostachys Goodyera pubese G. decipiens. Corallorhiza multiflora, C. Mertensiana. acre, C. striata, Tsilium sebelle, _ TT. petiolatum, io . * randi iflorum, T. obovatum. Clintonia | boreal C. uniflora. Scilla Fraseri, 8. esculenta. Erythronium "Americanum, E, grandiflorum. Prosartes languinosa, P. Hookeri & Smithii. perus inflerus, C. occidentalis. Vilfa vaginzeflora, V. cuspidata. Brizopyrum spicatum, B. boreale ? About 114 of our phenogamous species are therefore repre- sented by strict analogues on the western side of the rage ea —to which might be added several from the freeones aga are generally deemed to be distinct species;—and th Sumber a be considerably augmented, no doubt, by farther exam- ination. An interesting list might also be drawn up of species W which are represented on the western coast by congeners not so closely related, but yet characteristic: as our Coptis trifolia, by C. asplenifolia. Berberis Canadensis, by B. ( eg at! se. aurea and glauca, by C. Statistics of the Flora of the Northern States. 373 Claytonia Virginica and Caroliniana, by C. alsinoides, perfoliata, fla- is & gellaris, &e. 4isculus Pavia and flava, by AS. Californica. Acer Pennsylyanicum and spicatum, by A. circinatum and macrophy]- nothera, by a much larger number of species of different sections f the : Mitella diphylla and nuda, by M. caulescens and pentandra. Sanicula Marilandica and Canadensis, by a different set of species. Our few Pentstemons, by a large number of various kinds. Our numerous Pycnanthemums by a peculiar Californian one. Our Trichostema dichotomum by T. lanceolatum, oblongum, &c. Our few Phacelias by a large number of Phacelias an utocas. Our Chestnut by Castanea chrysophylla, of a Western Asian type, &c. A list of remarkable representative genera of the two sides of the continent might also be drawn up: the following are some of the more striking. Our Sarracenia represented on the western side by the equally curious Darlingtonia, Torr. , Stylophorum, by Meconopsis. Callirhoé, by Sidaleea, Gray + Fleerkea, by Limnanthes. Lobelia, by Clintonia Dougl. (not of Raf.) da, by Monardella. Tetranthera, by Oreodaphne. Saururus, by Anemiopsis, Wutt. : : : Taxodium, by Sequoia (including Wellingtonia of Lindley). Najas, by Lilea ( Heterostylus, Hook.). Zostera, by Phyllospadix. | t A f ne tribes. and even ky Mountains of a great variety © ee of the flora of the —— Magnotiacew, Anonaceee, Menispermacea, nor Cr + Phea, hough ak uphar is plentiful, no Tilia or Bass-woog, no neliacee, no indigenous Grape-vin Ty : +: 40 ti umerous Composite tend strongly ices. ot se sated genera which are neither Eastern 374 Statistics of the Flora of the Northern States. North American nor European in type), no Lobelia, no true Huckleberries (Gaylussacia) nor Vaccinia of the Blueberry type, (the section Cyanococcus), no Clethra, and few Andromedee, no Aquifoliacee, Ebenacece, nor Sapotacece; no true Bignoniacee, no and Paniceous and Andropogineous Grasses are altogether absent. How these failures are made up by a large increase of peculiar generic and specific forms in a few families, I will not stop to illustrate. But it is worth noticing that, while our eastern flora so many orders which are not represented in the western, no order represented in Oregon or California is wanting in the flora of our Northern States, unless Hydroleacee and Crarryacee be counted as independent orders; and both of these occur in the Atlantic states south of our geographical limits. The Distribution through degrees of latitude of the Phenogamous Species generally of the Flora of the Northern United States. Having devoted the greater part of our last article to the investigation of this subject as respects about 15 per cent of our species,—namely those common to this country and to Europe, —I shall not be expected to elaborate the range of our whole by Sir John Richardson, in the invaluable appendix to his Arctic arching Expedition. Of our Phzenogamous species about 1745, or 83°5 per cent, are herbaceous plants. | 218, or 10°83 per cent, are shrubs or woody vines. 130, or 6:2 per cent, are trees. Northward and Southward Range in this country of our Shrub: neh and Trees. The average ran . through about 134 degrees of latitude. the The 15 following species are those which —— to have yr vreatest range north and south, namely, throug from 30 to4 : ge in America of our 848 woody plants is d | | Statistics of the Flora of the Northern States. 315 ‘ Northern limit, | Southern limit. | Range. Prunus serotina, - 61° 29° 32° ws Irginiana, = - 66 31 35 Janda,* 2 69. 39 30 Amelanchier Canadensis,* 66 30 36 Cornus stolonifera, —- 69 38 31 Viburnum acerifolium,* 62 31 81 Aretostaphylos Uva-ursi,* 70 36 34 Cassandra calyculata, 67 34 33 Alnus viridis,* - - 68 35 33 Salix discolor, - - 7 36 31 “ lucida,* : 67 37 30 “~ longifolia, : 68 35 33 Populus tremuloides, - 69 37 32 Abies nigra, = - 68 34 34 Juniperus Virginiana, - 67 26 41 Thave seen from Middle Florida are of doubtful character. Amelanchier Canadensis. The Shad-flower or Service- ITy Prefers the mountains or their vicinity, but is not unknown in some parts of the low country as far south as Florida. Prunus serotina. The Wild Black Cherry ranges from near Great Slave Lake, at the north, well into Florida and Texas, and Into the adjacent parts of Mexico. Although it varies from a moderate-sized shrub to a large tree, I have no idea that more one species is covered by this name. nus Virginiana. The Choke Cherry extends from the borders of the Arctic Circle to Louisiana, &c.; but in the South- ern States it is chiefly restricted to elevated districts. _ untperus Virginiana. The Red Cedar, with its immense Tange, in the United States inhabits the warmer rather than the colder districts of the country, and extends on the Gulf of Mex- 1€0 quite to the mouth of the Rio Grande. As a tree it does not Secur north of about lat. 54°, but the low and oad es ros- , of Kurop this case ranges over nearly the whole extent of the northern : hemisph 07 376 Statistics of the Flora of the Northern States. If the high northern prostrate Savin is rightly referred to Juniperus Virginiana, this species extends from within the Arctic Circle to the Gulf of Mexico, It is the only woody plant which does so, except perhaps Amelanchier, which has been traced almost to the Arctic Circle, and possibly Prunus Virginiana Alnus viridis occurs southward only on the highest Alleghanies. We naturally enquire whether these fifteen species range wide- ly east and west. Seven of them, those to which an asterisk is southern range to Georgia) is wholly eastern, and is also Euro- an. Populus tremuloides and Abies nigra are both exclusively tern North American in habitation. The following 68 species of woody plants, range with us through between 20 and 29 degrees of latitude. — »* Tilia Americana. t Vaccinum uliginosum. + Rhus glabra, t : Canadense. — >. “ - aromatica. { Arctostaphylos alpina. — * Vitis cordifolia. — f Epigza repens. — + Ampelopsis quinquefolia. ft? Cassiope hypnoides. — f¢ Acer rubrum. — + Negundo aceroides. — — #* Amorpha fruticosa. Phyllodoce taxifolia. { Andromeda polifolia. t . t — * Prunus Americana. t Kalmia glauca. t t t “ igustrina. — *# Spirea opulifolia. Menziesia ferruginea. “ salicifolia. Rhododendron Lapponicum. + Rubus occidentalis. Loiseleuria procumbens. ~— “ — villosus. — + Fraxinus Americana. { Potentilla fruticosa. { Shepherdia Canadensis. — * Pyrus arbutifolia. { Empetrum nigrum. ¢ Ribes Cynosbati. — + Ulmus fulva. + “© hirtellum. — “ — Americana. [~*~ Jacustre. — # Quercus obtusiloba. +. © Yabram. — + «alba. { Lonicera exrulea. — ft «_rubra. + Sambucus pubens. — * Fagus ferruginea. ae 3 “ Canadensis. — + Corylus Americana. { Viburnum Opulus. — + Ostrya Virginica. + Gaylussacia resinosa, J Myrica Gale. -} Vaccinium Vitis Idea. + Comptonia t = us, ¢ Betula pumila. Statistics of the Flora of the Northern States. 377 { Betula nana. ieee repens. t “ papyracea. “ ~herbacea. { Alnus incana. : Pinus Banksiana. ; ane cordata. + Abies balsamea. “ rostrata, |. * t “~ phylicifolia. { Larix Americana. I “ pedicillaris. + Cupressus thyoides. “ Uva-Ursi. { Juniperus communis, The mark — prefixed to the name indicates that the species extends sihvard to the borders of the Gulf of Mexico. The risk * denotes a range northward to the Great Lake a Ae the basin of the Saskatchawan; + to the Arctic Circle, or at least to lat. 67°. It appears then that 34 species, or one half of this list, are of < see or alpine rome ranging northward to or within the ircle. Fifteen of these are axtiivety alpine or subal- plants and occur vonty on our higher mountains as far south the rest, those of greatest climatic range are, Das tneana, rangin from about lat. 68° to 89°; Salix cordata, with an e equally wide range and probably reaching, further jee Larix Americana, with about the same southern limit, but in elevated region only; Juniperus communis, not fea south ‘of lat. 40°; Myrica Gale, and Ribes Cynosbat, Potentilla jruticosa, Kalmia’ glauca, Betula pumila, and perhaps Jeibes lacustre, each ve a range of 28 or 29 degrees, but none of them are found South of lat. 40°. Twenty. two species of the foregoing list extend northward Into the Saska * a an but ‘three of them (which cross the 60th parallel and occur in the basin of the Great Slave Take) find their northern limit there On the other hand, 24 species pointe southward to the borders of the Gulf of Mexico. Fourteen of these have their boreal oa in the Saskatchawan district; and nine about the Great The following Rare 57 in number, range through from 15 to 19 degrees of latitu t Hudsonia tomentosa. + Acer Pennsylvanicum. * Rhus heemeg ge — Telieacesiwek * “ dasycarpum. ‘pe wy cea trifoliata. « Amorpha canescens. Vitis Labrusca, + Prunus Pennsylvanica. “4 Rhamnus alnifolius. + Spirea tomentosa, — * Ceanothus Americanus. + Rubus ee SBCOND SERIES, VOL. XXIII, NO, 69.—MAY, 1857, Ail 43 “ — strigosus. a. — « Crategus coce — * Crateeaus sr ee 7 i ibes } prostratum, “a — * THamamelis Virginica. * Cornus sericea + Sy mphoriearpas occidentalis. racemosus. t Lonicera parviflora. ff ciliata, + Diervilla trifida. — * py emion nudum. Li eo ntago. ss 2 pubescens. % ag lantanoides, + Vaccinium macrocarpon. — * rymbosum. * Gites Sioateenbabe: Statistics of the Flora of the Northern States. “ angustifolia. sia » Amie visvosa. — * — nudiflor * — latifolia. + Nemopanthes Canadensis. * Fraxinus pubescens. — ¢ 4 viri — * Benzoin odoriterum. « Platanus occidentalis. ; Corylus rostrata. * Carpinus Americana. — * Mpyrica cerifera. * Salix eriocephala. — _ jemice (74 angus — * Populus saat eee + alsamifera. + Pinus resinosa. + Thuja occidentalis. * Smilax sotancd The marks prefixed to the names have the same signification as in the preceding list. ot one of these species are alpine, or even subalpine, nor found within several degrees of tlie Anite Circle. Only two of them (viz., Symphoricurpus occidentalis and WS. racemosus) Teac. the 60th parallel, or the great northern basin. Twenty-four of them have their boreal limit in the Saskatchawan or Hudson's Bay region; and all of them extend as far north at least as to the Great Lakes, although a few (such as Pielea trifoliate 2 and Populus angulate barely touch their enw ee borders, 1 the south shore of Jakes Erie and Michi Bicenig-three.s species range anatieard to the borders of the Gulf of Mexico or very nearly, while their boreal limit is on oF near the Great Lakes, between 41° and Without sted this analysis acy farther, let us turn to the shrubs and trees of narrowest northern and southern range. hose whose ter is not known to exceed six degrees of Jati- tude are 88 in nuinber, viz: Magnolia macrophylla. Umbrella Statistics of the Flora of the Northern States. 879 Vaccinium erythrocarpon. Juglans nigra. eigg : Leucothoé Catesbei. Carya microcarpa. : recurva “ — sulcata. Andromeda floribunda. Quercus palustris, ’ Clethra acuminata. Pinus pun Azalea arboresc Abies Fraseri. ens. Rhodedendron Catawbiense. Smilax Walteri, Styrax Americana, “. ~hisp Ulmus racemosa. Fifteen, or 454 per cent of these are trees; and out of 14 whose range is under four degrees of latitude, six are trees. On the other hand, out of 140 species of wide or considerably more than average range, enumerated in the preceding lists, 42 {i. e. 80 per cent) may be counted as trees. Now, as almost 60 per cent of our woody plants attain under favoring circumstances the stature of trees, the general impression, that trees are more limited in range than shrabs, is not confirmed by the list last Given, in which the percentage of trees is diminished instead o enlarged ; but seems decidedly to be so by the list of wide-rang- Ng Species, even after the exclusion of the alpine plants, which of necessity are not trees. That is, local species are about as likely to be shrubs as irees, but shrubs are in general more Widely distributed than trees. _ as- improbable, however, SECOND SERIES, VOL. XXIII, NO. 69,——MAY, 1857, al “ a 426 Dr. Genth’s Contributions to Mineralogy. that the Bastnaes mineral is the same substance and Hisinger’s formula consequently correct. hope to be able hereafter to settle the doubts which exist on this point. - Prof. C. U. Shepard states (Report on the Canton Mine) that he has observed this mineral at the Canton Mine, he does not in- form us, however, what induces him to take the pink-colored erystals for lanthanite.. I have not been able to procure a speci- men of it and also did not succeed in finding any indications of minerals containing cerium or lanthana, from the decomposition of which the lanthanite could have been formed. 15. Bismuthite. T have made an examination of the bismuthite from the Brew- percentage of the brown ochreous residue,*insoluble in dilute nitric acid. _ Lhaye analyzed a pale variety (I) and a darker one (II), and made two analyses of each, one by treating the finely powdered mineral with dilute nitric acid (a), the other by digestion with strong chlorhydric acid (8), by which everything, except the silicic acid, is dissolved. : e quantities of lime and magnesia were found to be very small and have not been determined The following are the results: lL Il. ss ee Oo a a 5 Insoluble in dil. NOs, 25°42 ae 28:16 = ining water, (159) (2°62) ela Teroxyd of bismuth, 64°72 64-24 62:15 6145 Tellurous acid, ees 0-05 pclae 0" xyd of iron, 0-91 6-64 ° 1:30 11-20 O74 118 0°68 “wie Silicic acid, 0-48 1778 — Carbonic acid, Sat 08 — 512 Water, ins 3-94 anil 541 98°91 99°32 Deducting the amount of water, which the residue insoluble in nitric acid contains, from the whole quantity given in the red : _ses (2) we obtain pretty correctly (though somewhat too high) the amount of water ined in the pure bismuthite. We wow. * ™ - oe ge gees ee J. W. Mallet on the Separation of Lithia and Magnesia. 427 I. (6) II. (3) Teroxyd of bismuth, 64-24 contains 6°65 1-45, contains Cibeicada h, on contains phd oxygen, "oa cont a oxygen. Water, 235 “. 09 « 2°79 48.0" The atomic ratio of BiOs : COz : HO is therefore: in analysisI, | 222 : 1:83 : 2:85 in analysis 1, 212 : 1:86; 2-48 The first analysis corresponds nearly with the formula: 9(BiOs, COz)+2(BiOs, HO)+10H0, the second with: 6(BiOs, COz) + BiO:, HO + 7HO. These analyses, like the one made by Prof. Rammelsberg, prove, (and that is all, I think, which can be expected from the €xamination of so impure a mineral,) that the Bismuthite from Chesterfield District is a basic carbonate of bismuth with water. _ A new locality of bismuthite is in Gaston county, N.C., where it has been discovered by Dr. Asbury of Charlotte, N. C., to whom I am indebted for specimens of it. It occurs there asso- ciated with native gold in yellowish-white concretions, which are usually pulverulent, but sometimes show a crystalline structure. In the matrass it yields water, becoming yellow, and on higher heating fuses easily into a brown mass, which assumes a straw- yellow color on cooling. Upon charcoal it is easily reduced into metallic bismuth, whilst the charcoal is covered with yellow in- crustations, having a white margin ; for a moment the character- istic bluish green flame of tellurium may b bservec a Dissolves easily in chlorhydric and nitric acids with cence of carbonic acid. The solution gives the reactions of ter- oxyd of bismuth. . we: a hope to be able to procure more of it in order to maké a com- —_ examination which will be of interest, as the material can e obtained in the state of great purity and would assist in oe the doubts still remaining as to the composition of bismuthite. Philadelphia, March 14, 1857. SEL) Separation of Lithia and Magnesia; by ree On ae Ph.D. | In #] iption of methods for the separation of magnesia ih he eg wre we find in the standard works on analyt- 428 J.W. Mallet on the Separation of Lithia and Magnesia. The opinion has indeed been expressed by L. Troost,* who has lately made some experiments upon the salts of lithia in the laboratory of M. Sainte-Claire Deville, that the two bases in uestion are so closely analogous, that the only means of sepa- rating them is by the employment of caustic potash, which pre- cipitates magnesia alone. I have felt anxious to examine the grounds upon which this opinion rests, and in particular to ascertain whether lime or. aryta may not be used with as good result as caustic potash, since I had depended upon the former of these earths for the purification from magnesia of the salt which I used in determin- ing the atomic weight of lithium.+ — I first examined the chlorid of lithium which had been pre- for the experiments on atomic weight, and found that caustic potash did not indicate the presence of a trace‘of chlorid of magnesium. This chlorid of lithium then, and the sulphate of lithia pre- pared from it, might be looked upon as pure salts of the alkali, and safely used in the subsequent analytical experiments. “ Among the methods in use for the separation of magnesia from potash and soda, but three appeared worthy of investiga- tion with reference to lithia; the employment of oxyd of mer- cury as recommended by Berzelius, precipitation with baryta water, and precipitation with milk of lime. Ignition of the mix- ture af magnesia and the alkalies with carbonate of ammonia does not succeed well with lithia, as H. Rose remarks,t since the carbonate of lithia formed is with difficulty and imperfectly ex- tracted by water. - : In order to test the applicability of Berzelius’s method, the use of HgO, the following mixtures were prepared. No. 1, * grm. of anhydrous LiCl was dissolved in a little water and added to ‘0909 grm. of MgO dissolved in muriatic acid. No 2, ‘5942 grm. of LiCl and ‘2198 grm. of MgO. 3 ee To each of the solutions an excess of oxyd of mercury in V some time, and the magne: pas a washed, ignited, and wei ; : orated to a with the addition of a slight excess of sulphu- ric acid, and the sulphate of lithia was ignited and weighed. .. The mixture No..1 yielded -6067 grm. of LiO, SOs and ‘2387 grm.of MgO. No 2 gave ‘7108 grm, of LiO, SOs and 3414 mci a). , Beatin 10 120 By caleadaien, mod eee heresultsfor 100 parts, wehave—- sts _* Comptes Rendus, Nov. 10, 1856.~Republished in Chemical Gazette, Dec. 15, 1856. + This Journal, Nov. 1856. ¢ Handb. d. Anal. Chemie, B. 2, 5. 45- , J.W. Mallet on the Separation of Lithia and Magnesia. 429 Actually Contained. Found. : "No. ec: No. 2. No 1. No. 2. Lli0 - - - - 67-67 48°83 58°84 45°13 MgO - - - 32:33 S117; )) SRB 79°48 100°00 100°00 143°79 124°61 The gross inaccuracy of the above results proved on examina- tion to arise from the action of oxyd of mercury upon chlorid of lithium, removing from it, as from chlorid of magnesium, chlorine, which was replaced by oxygen; so that a large amount of caustic lithia was found. The caustic alkali had acted ener- wit acid, filte: nd chlorine precipitated from the filtrate by nitrate of - sa pa picuie of chlorid of silver were obtained =°8279 grm. Pp. ¢. is th of the chlorine had been replaced by oxygen fter igni ittle Ww: strongly alkaline to test paper, although the quantity of caustic Th ) zelius, therefore, thus applied, will not Sag gt geet 3 jours tion of Sg a te aml ag lain crucibles might be rey y platinum ones, dithia, a i | known, with great energy upon platinum, . and nie Raf teg ome FE least be seriously injured, even 430 Scientific Intelligence. _ evaporation, at a temperature not exceeding 212°, may not suf- fice for the complete conversion of MgCl into MgO, LiCl remain- ing unchanged. Ignition would then remove the excess of ee the MgO, and the HgCl formed from the evaporated trate. é (To be continued.) SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. the current-intensity is the intensity of the current whose measurable ac tion under the conditions described is given by the equation iP D=t, This measure of current-intensity is at the same time the intensity of the current, which, when it flows around a plane of the unit of surface, at a distance an action equal to that of a magnet placed in the center of el having the unit of magnetism, and with its magnetic axis per pendicular to the plane; or it is also the intensity of the current by which al s-compass with a single circle of radius R is held in equilibrium, _ with a deviation from the magnetic meridian 2 : y = are tan pap : where T represents the horizontal component of the earth’s magnetism. : of the electr praeeee of acurrent are as follows: the same current passes through two circular Chemistry and Physics. : , 431 conductors, of which each one includes the unit of surface, and which lie at an arbitrary but great distance =R from each other: the line of inter- ‘section of the two circular planes at right angles to each other halves the Jirst circular conductor. Yn this case, as above, the moment of rotation D depends upon the intensity of the current as well as upon the distance intensity. e number of milligrammes of water decomposed by the current AZ, rie with the intensity of the current and the time 7’; but 3 Measure of current-intensity is here the intensity of the current whose measurable action under the normal conditions is the quotient depends only on the intensity of the current, so that the Ta be te Second is 1062 times greater than the first measure. ; The tensity of an electrical current may be determined not only from its action but also from its causes. The immediate causes electric follows. The mechanical measure of the Causes and may essed mea . Mtensity of the current is the intensity of that current which is ee : a by a velocity of the two electric fluids, such that the mass of quantity which when concentrated upon a point exercises upon an eq quantity of electricity at the distance of 1 millimeter a force which dur- 1 milligramm e the velocity etic, el electrolytic action. quantity of elec- tricity ame og a omc "i the Sado of the electrostatic fund tal force which it exerts. In other words, the intensity of such a current is to be compared with the quantity of electricity upon each of oeW small ye spheres : is “force at the uit of datane, the unit of force being PaO, 432 Scientific Intelligence, The method adopted by the authors for the solution of this problem was as follows. When a quantity of electricity # accumulated upon an insulated conductor is discharged to the earth through the wire of a gal- vanometer, it exerts during its passage a moment of rotation upon the eedle. If the time of discharge be so increased, by introducing a column of water, that no discharge takes place between the windin ngs of the wire, * this “er will still be only a very small fraction of the time of vibration - of the needle. The action of the discharge upon the needle may there- elongation of the needle after the i ey the angular velocity comm: nicated to the needle may be determined by the laws of vibration, oa this “+ peel velocity will depend only on the quantity of electricity Z. ith a constant current we may communicate a similar influence to the needle of "the same galvanometer, if we allow the current to act only . avery short time. The same quantity of electricity flows re h the conductor in the time ¢ with the intensity ¢ as in the time —~ t with the greater intensity ni. Hence in this case also the angular locity of “ needle and consequently its elongation depends simply on oe which flows through a section of the wire during wre passage e curr so electricity, and at another by a ~—* current of short duration, i +z With these premises the solution of the problem rests on the two follow- ing points : 1, To measure the quantity of slactoiolty E in the given electrostatic measure, and to observe the elongation of the needle of a neem To determine the short time t during which a constant current of eng res’ to the second point, no particular experiments are required to ih ope since the oe of t ak be jemi ed by calculation from the number and Cichinlaias of the windings of the galvanometer, from the elongation of the tangent’s-compass during the and the intensity of the earth’s magnetism, much more re accurately than by direct experiments. The determination of the quantity of xperi A large “Ss at i B g, 4 Es o be! (las I 2, iously mal the pn? part is then Frente teed the a SEH to observe its magnetic action ; while the smaller portion is ured by balance. ‘tel Bilge en Bho connected with the earth, was Chilis waciirce of electrici By means of a Smec'selectrometer the Chemistry and Physics. 433 | The magnetic measure of current-intensity is 155370.10° greater than the mechanical measure Sinee, as already stated, the magnetic measure is to the clectro-dynamic measure as 2:1, the electro-dynamic measure of current-intensity is 109860 . 106 (155370 .106../4) greater than the mechanical measure. The magnetic measure is to the electrolytic measure as 1 : 1062, con- Sequently the electrolytic measure of current-intensity is 16573 .10° (= 106% . 155370. 10°) times greater than the mechanical measure. _ Water, 149157.10° units—as defined above—are necessary. 2 quantity of positive electricity were accumulated in a cloud and an equal i ici the part of the earth’s oo quantity of negative electricity concentrated upon amnmes ‘respect to the force required to separate the oxygen and hydrogen of 1 milligramme of water, the authors find that if all the articles of hydrogen in 1 milligramme of water in the form of a column 1 millimeter long, were attached to a thread, and if all the particles 0 Oxygen were attached to another thread, the two threads would have to be drawn in opposite directions each with a force < a : ae 147830 kilogrammes, a 2956 hundred Ea ores to prognes a ule water with the velocity with which 1 milligramme decom in a second. The tension would be proportionally _ if the i; ous Water were decomposed with a less velocity.—. dlungen der mathe-— — ecomposed with a less veld ick lschoft der Wis- matisch eee Classe der Kéniglich Sitchsischen Gese " ‘ i sas ee 185 ; meg : % a ; $ Se aie 2. On Boron— Wouter and Devitux have published the results of a y interesting investigation ‘ , SECOND SERIES, VOL, XXIII, NO. 69,—MAY, 1857. 56 decomposition of - of water would be % 434 Scientific Intelligence. the form of which has not yet been determined. These crystals are sometimes garnet-red and sometimes honey-yellow; the color however does not appear to be essential and may arise from slight impurities. The crystals have a lustre and refractive power like that of the diamond. They scratch corundum with the greatest ease and appear to be almost, filled up, and the whole heated in a wind furnace to the temperature at which nickel melts, for five hours. The crucible after cooling is found to contain two layers, of which one consists of boric acid and alumina, the other of alumina penetrated with erystallized boron. The metallic layer is heated with boiling soda lye to dissolve the aluminum, then with mur atic acid, and Jastly with a mixture of nitric and fluohydric acids. The boron so obtained contains small plates of aluminum which can only be removed by mechanical means. | second . resembles carbon more closely than silicon—Ann. der Chemie macie, ci, 113. and expanding, and eating the ee came W ow. Il. GEOLOGY, 1. Voleanie Action on Hawaii; by Rev. T. Coaw, (letter dated, Hilo, Oct. 22, 1856.)—During the whole of the past year, Lua Pele, (Kilauea) has been getting more and more profoundly asleep. A little sluggish lava is found in the great pit of Halemaemae (the old lake in the south- east part of the pit) and the steam issues from a thousand vents, But there is no subsidence of the floor of the crater. This vast area of hard- A fracture or fractures occurred near t mit of the mountain, which he terminal point, say five miles down and dross deposited on each side of the fractures where the action is volcanic vents, incandescent streams were, of course, winding their wa: do side o td, thicket, contracting ithin five miles of filo. Now, after you leave the region of open mn of the mountain alt inlow appears to be a flow on eg surface. the surface flows, nding down to the fiery ays bd smoke and There is no Visi ee : ions of the mountain, — | had been fractured, ees on the higher regions o t a] m = below, 2d. Where there ‘there wil think, alway: be a column of smoke ous Vapor 436 Scientific Intelligence. Kilauea, and it is also true of ad/ the eruptions I - noticed. Now if you were in Hilo, you would see a continuous volume of f smoke ascend- ing from the terminal point and another from the ge at of the stream —separated in a direct line forty miles, and by route of the flow seventy miles—while between these extreme points you see no smoke an no evidence of fire* beneath, except the radiation of heat as pass up, or cross and recross this immense stream of solidified lavas. The smoke at the fountain is mineral—that at the end of the stream is from vegetation, and only here the fusion now makes its apPORT eRe pressing on its way into the woods—having come, as I believe, all the way from the mountain under cover, without showing itself at a single point. I do not mean that it has tunneled the m mountain, or melted a lateral duet through its mural sides. The process is thus: lavas flowing on the sur- face and exposed to the atmosphere, unless moving with great velocity, as down steep hills, soon refrigerate on the surface, as water freezes first on the top. This hardened surface thickens, until it extends downward 1, 10, 50, 100 or 200 feet, as the case may be. Under pe: superstra- tum the atmosphere, and thus n the Bap se t high, and rh, the red.and = So Onites -ceaaeaen te stn ae i “cee mamma rte on the surface. When the hardening and and blacken- — 437 sumed, there is smoke ; when this is exhausted, ‘ests is none. Conse- quently I argue that there are no fissures extending to the central fires of the earth, except for a few miles near the summit of the mountain. 3d. Again, and what is more reliable, I have surveyed the ground upon which lava streams have been Pate a for distances of five, ten, fifteen, or twenty miles, and haye seen the burning flood move on, covering to-day, the ground on which I Sieniaied yesterday, and consum- ing the hut where I slept; and the process is so familiar, that it is diffi- cult to see how I can be mistaken. It is as if you poured See of tons of pitch upon a mountain, aud stationed men in front and on the sides to mark its flow. Or it is as if an enormous water fountain dette on an Arctic mountain, congealing as it flowed and covering the whole mountain furna: arge and continuous ialetines es of smoke, oe this, and a onek ae for geologists. The preservation of Hilo i is marvellous. 2. Geological Survey of Wisconsin ; (communicated by I. A. Laruaw) —The legislature of the State of Wisconsin at its late session a ted $36,000 to be expended under the direction of Professors James | E. Dace d E. Daniels in continuing the Geological ‘Survey of that State. In addition to the geology proper, they are to examine, analyze, and pec dba e soils and subsoils, with a view to ascertain id adapta- an icular crops, and the best me of p are their i also to collect the soils, native fertilizers, cultivated ingrals, and them other useful plants (as well as the rocks, m &e.), = rooms of the State University at Madison, to constitute a@ museum tical and scientific geology. 3 On the tons of The alkaline silicates ; Srerry Huyt.— ‘Apri 2d, 1857.)—I have (From rien to LD D. peor 5 actions of the the alkaline silicates with “e tea of ei and iron. We have long known that ear- bonate of lime and alumina have the power wer to remove silica from a so- _ that when a mixture Ener silica and 438 Scientific Intelligence. With soluble silica (as prepared by igniting the silica from the decom position of an alkaline silicate), this reaction is very rapid, and even when pulverized quartz is boiled for several hours with carbonates of soda and magnesia, a large amount of magnesian silicate is formed. If we substi- tute proto-carbonate of iron and boil it with soluble silica and carbonate of soda, there is formed a hydrous silicate of the protoxyd permanent in It will be apparent that by virtue of the power of earthy carbonates to decompose an alkaline silicate, and that of the regenerated carbonate of soda to dissolve silica even in the form of quartz, a small amount of alkali may effect the combination of a great quantity of silica with earthy bases. Suppose a solution of alkaline silicate, which will never be wanting among sediments where feldspar exists, to be diffused through a mixture of siliceous matter and earthy carbonate, and we have with a tempera- ture of 212° F. and perhaps less, all the conditions necessary for the con- version of the sedimentary mass into pyroxenite, diallage, serpentine, rhodonite, all which constitute beds in our metamorphic strata. Add to the above the presence of aluminous matter and you have the elements of chlorite, garnet and epidote. We have here the explanation of the metamorphism of the Silurian strata of the Green Mountain range, I believe of rock metamorphism in general. ave just communicated a detailed account of my investigations to the Royal Society of London, and will soon furnish you with farther ob- servations. III. BOTANY. be eagerly welcomed and much sought after, alike by students just enter- ing upon a charming branch of botany, and by our more advanced eulti- vators of Bryology. For the latter, the simple announcement of the pub- lication of this collection is sufficient. For the benefit of those not 80 well informed upon the subject, we may state, that the value and import- ce of these sets of specimens are greatly enhanced by the fact that they have been all studied and named by the author of the Muscology of the United States (east of the Mississippi), comprised in Gray's Manual of Botany (the only book in which our Mosses are described at all),—aided by his excellent coadjutor, M. ne ae Oe nieny accordingly specimens of the very things described in that work; pec that the sets are so complete that they comprise almost all the _— Musci (or true Mosses) contained in the Manual. On this account, %® well as on account of the care with which the specimens have bee - these published sets are unsu: , if not w ange eet? vious muscological collection ever issued. The numbers on printed * eee pe, Botany. 439 tickets extend to 355; but the many intercalated numbers (e. g. 10>, 10°, 100, 100¢, 1004, etc.) raise the total to about 416 species or marked . _ Varieties. The specimens are mounted on small pieces of white paper to ter the sets now in readiness are taken up. They are put up by Mr. co . mutabilis, Berk. and Curt.; as Mr. Ravenel had himself suggested to us before publication. _ MALO, 3. First Lessons in Boleny wel Vegetable P. hysiology, illustrated by Over 360 wood engravings, from original drawings, by Isaac Sprague : With a Glossary or Dictionary of botanical —_ by Professor Asa ‘Sood el ks i branch of science are rare, while poor i aE ae aah In ge of “gery His- tor d : 5 ore n . quar- i Se aa with the aid of old plates and draw- ings, sui Jatitude and designed for another purpose, 440 Miscellaneous Intelligence. to make up cheap books, to the great profit of compiler and publisher, and the great loss of the young in whose hands no works except those of the highest character should be placed. Indeed, a good text-book of science, like a picture or a poem, is a work of art, the creation of which requires extensive knowledge, abundant resources and a generous and enthusiastic love of nature. And, even where these exist, none but a - master can rightly sieze the leading pet and principles and exhibit them in language at once precise, clear and simple—ean be brief without being filled, as is true in the of the & First A sas in fe and Vege- table Physiology” irom ‘ies e pen of Dr. Gray. It is a model of its kind; and meeting a want —* and widely felt, it —_ sooner or later win its way into all our schools and seminaries of lea . After a chapter on the general relations of ihe science, it treats of. the — of the plant the seed,—the nature of roots, stems and leaves,—the arrangement of the leaves, structure of the flower and leniditien:| of ‘the several parts,— the fruit—vegetable tissues and the process of growth, or nutrition and circulation—the permanency of species—classification ;—and closes with to their preparation, the good style in which they are penne and the great number and excellence of their illustrations (from drawings by ese Sprague), the wonder is, that they can be sold at so pear rates. borat ome: that they may meet with a circulation, ——— to c. P. IV. MISCELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. mdence of M. Jerome Nicklés, dated pata 3, 1857. - “Blech illumination—A few weeks ‘since e experiments on electric illumination were made at Paris, surpassing oak that had before been done. The success was due to an electric regulator inve MM. Lacassagne and Thiers, called by them an ¢lectro-metric i in structure and cannot well be described here. ; tors: placed four of their electric lamps on the platform of ae aaray ‘Taicenphe: de lEtoile, and projected the light one day on the Champs ee ee ; : 4 4 { 7 _ Miscellaneous Intelligence. 44] Elysées, towards the Place de la Concorde, and a second on the avenues of Neuilly or de I’Impératrice, the change having been made because of the numerous gas lights of the Champs Elysées. -These gas lights were made to look dull and smoky, yet diminished the effect of the electric light ; but in the avenues of J’Impératrice the light presented intense brilliancy. h lamp was sustained by means of sixty of Bunsen’s pairs, and fur- nished with a spherical reflector of metal, or of glass silvered by a battery in the manner describe yond. 2. New Battery with a constant current.—For some time a battery has been known having an improvement for economizing the residues. It Was invented by Mr. Doat, an amateur of Alby (Department of Tarn). In this battery, the zine is replaced by mercury, the acidulated water by iodid of potassium ; the nitric acid or sulphate of copper of the batteries With two liquids, by iodine dissolved in the iodid of potassium, and which, put in to excess in the solid state, serves to maintain constant action. Carbon is employed as the negative pole. A square trough of gutta per- cha contains the mereury and the alkaline iodid. The carbon and the iodized iodid are put in a square porous cup which is immersed in the liquid of the trough to two centimeters above the level of the mercury. This battery once in action, requires no other care than that of draw- ing off with a glass siphon the liquid saturated with iodid of mercury, trough of about five decimeters square, and with a thickness tor the bed of iodid of potassium of about three centimeters, it was equivalent to ten The process adopted by Mr. Doat for economizing the residues admit- On the flat carbon pole, there is placed a Containing hydrated carbonate of copper. pega prea for a while in action, the liquid, consisting of double iodi gare Potassium, is drawn from the tro and thrown upon. the | ter, W -_ SECOND SERIES, VOL. XXIII, NO. 69.-—-MAY, 1857. 56 | 442 Miscellaneous Intelligence. demand in commerce. The hydrated carbonate of copper is prepared by double decomposition by means of sulphate of copper and carbonate of a. The latter is the only product which is lost: all the others, the iodine, iodid of potassium, mercury, zinc and copper, are re-obtained and may serve again in the battery or be useful elsewhere. Mr. Doat does not perform the reduction of the zine and copper except when it can be done ona large scale; for he then obtains a casting of brass, of greater commercial value. 8. A Battery, called a Battery with triple contact—One element of this battery consists of a glass or stone ware cup, at the bottom of which throughout. 4. Nautical Telegraph.—In place of the common light used as a bea- con and for signals aboard ships, Mr. Tréve proposes to substitute a sim- ler system more easy of execution. It is based on the use of illuminat- ing gas light by a galvanic current of induction. The lamp at the mast head receives the gas through a tube of vulcanized caoutchoue having 4 spiral of copper wire within, and covered exteriorly by some imperm material ; it terminates on the deck where the gasometer is placed. By sto] e gas can be let in at will. A Ruhmkorff’s apparatus* is he upper lamp of each of the other lamps; and are so arranged as to give a § Necks the beak of each burner. As the light will take place only at ae stop- _ e ‘ * s oe __ 5. Light-houses and Illumination.—Lenses and Reflectors.—It i Known that Buffon, desirous to repeat the experiment of Archimedes with ored to construct a lens of water of large: PC as Teo a ee eae Miscellaneous Intelligence. 443 Two plates of glass of great thickness were curved by the heat of a con- ’ - cave metallic plate, worked and polished, and then fitted together with a border of metal and filled with distilled water. Buffon thus made a lens one meter in diameter and of great power. But he pursued it no further, because of the difficulty of the work, and the enormous expense of pol- Lemolt and Robert have also made improvements in reflectors, em- ploying sections of glass more or less concave, cut from a sphere, in the e as above mentioned, and having on the convex part a ric plating of silver from electric deposition. These reflectors can be cheaply made and require little care. Lenses and reflectors of this kind have been used on the railroads of Paris. By combining the two, a new kind of lamp has been constructed, roads. : 20 kilometers along a railway, producing the effect of a light- of the s i igieed :Micapictere: of Soda.—Mr. Melsens, Professor of Chemistry at the production of the chlorated bodies by means of an am Soda remaining unaltered. ; : ms . Mviseie’ tak obestved that the change will go on in i a and with 93° O- than in boiling water, it precipitating when the water is 444 Miscellaneous Intelligence. ~ earried to the boiling point. The purification is finished by putting the liquid in contact with a solution of carbonate of baryta in carbonic acid. Mr. Melsens has also endeavored to decompose the carbonate of baryta and sulphate of soda by using high pressure furnished by a self-regulating machine. But no advantage has been found in this process. As the carbonate of baryta is poisonous, it is proposed to pulverize it after moistening it with a solution of sulphate of soda. The sulphate of baryta obtained in the process is employed either in the manufacture of paper, or for paints, this last a use not honest perhaps, but yet, in these days, of extensive application. ; 7, Astronomical News—Paris Observatory.—The observatory at Paris continues td make progress. It is well known that it has two wings, an eastern and a western; on the former, in the time of Arago, a revolving chamber for observation was constructed, whose mechanism is a chef- d’euvre. The western wing is about to receive a telescope of the largest dimensions, at the expense of the government, and also an equatorial The objective of the telescope will be constructed with two disks of flint glass and crown glass, cast in the glass house of Chance & Co., fectly transparent and remelting them several times, they would not afford an objective over 40 centimeters in diameter. They were how- ever deemed i astronomically, but also with reference to its geology, a even history; and under these heads it treats 4 | Miscellaneous Intelligence; 445 fered thus widely from the older systems. M. Sil to demor , ; ONSL, ate 446 Miscellaneous Intelligence. height of woman one-twentieth less, so = the mean of both sexes will be 1°60 meters, and of woman 1°56 m i size of man is often expressed i: Oe number of heads it equal and in a person well proportioned it corresponds to 8 heads. The height of the head will consequently be 20 centimeters. Mr. Silberm has observed that when the arms are thrown up a we height of the body to the tip of the middle finger is 10 heads or 2 meters, and tw men in a line, would make 4 meters. He remarks that this length of 4 meters or 20 heads plays an naa part in nature; and after various observations, he has arrived a er of laws as to the proportions in the human body. Thus the sleek of the articulations are successively, 4 gt, ott ahs, &e. [The account is not sufficiently explicit to make it clear how or where these proportions are all obtained.] Silber- mann a that the results he has arrived at accord with those of the the navel as the center. These 4 facts are ealirned by M. Silbermann. — 12. Bibliography.—Astronomie Populaire d’ Arago, vol. iii, and Wott- ces Scientifiques, vol. iii. Paris. Gide et Baudry—The first of these works we have noticed. The second work treats of light-houses, fortifica- tions, artesian borings, filtration and elevation of water, free srehangss protection and patents. Vicror Masson has issued— Etudes Higa Sega pour servir & 0 Histoire des Sciences, by Paul Antoine Cap. 1 vol. 12mo, of 408 pages.—This work is the first part of a series of Sees heal notices of chemists and naturalists. The volume issued, treats of Paracelsus, Palissy, Van Helmont, Moses Charas, rt Boyle, Lemery, Rouelle, Van Mons, Labarraque, Bernard Courtois, Dupas- quier, etc. The notices are well written and in an agreeable style. Hydrotimétrie, ou Nouvelle Méthode pour déterminer les propor- tions des matiéres en dissolution dans les eaux de sources a de rivieres, Bourrox and Bouper. Pamphlet of 52 pp. 8vo —Starting from the precipitation of calcareous salts by soap water, a reaction Seeset first by Clarke to the determination of lime, MM. Boutron and set ques, ysiologiques COUTETTEN, “ Médecin en chet ?. ia = ae ite ieeioieale Miscellaneous alata 447 sur la —— botanique de 7 urope se sur la eke @ plateau central de la France, par M. @ Professeur & la Faculté des Sciences of Clermont.—This work, of which we have before spoken, he has there pursued his studies for thirty years. The 5th vol- ume treats of a large number of the Dicotyledonous families, from the Papaveraceze to - ING, including the Cruciferz, the Folygalemm the Malvacez, e s _ covered by Prof. Arrest, of Leipzic, F ebruary 29, 1857, ‘ite ia then being at 164 40m (Leips, m. t.) R. A. 320° 37, and its 99° Al, Arsdale at Newark, N. J., who describes it as bright and resembling an -— hi unresolved star-cluster. From rome of Feb. 22 and 25, Mr. Pa deduced the following elements. March 14°088 ae te Long. of a es 197° 04 Wey > ae Tedliceataai: Puy . - og. perih. dist. : . : 9°82586 ~ Motion, : . retrograde. 14. Osrrvary.—Prof. Jacob W. Bailey, ee our Jast number we had Point, and Prof. Toomer of “sible Prof. Bailey had long been failing under a relentless ¢o seca Ws finally died on Thursday, the tee of February og For many months his voice had been reduced to a whisper; yet his mind was active, and as late as our last number (March), we published a eontnbidioe to recta from him, as the result of his recent microscopic researches, Feeblene blowing ue honor well merited ; for few men in the land have er and more beneficial infieaiee on the science of the “ ee Bailey, ee a proifcsent also in chemistry, mineralogy, 2 y, had 9 ane 5 ally devoted to microscopic research, er with tht rn "His first Pee ie of this chert has been mainly worked out by ne is communication to this Journal, ad published in 1837, and although ss of manipulation whicks fitted him for emical, it A eee ae +5 the use of grasshoppers’ an as a ent eit oe Gy 448 Miscellaneous Intelligence. along its Atlantic and Pacific borders and over its interior has passed under his microscope, and delighted him with many beautiful forms of life which had never before greeted a human eye. An nd late ely, the ocean’s bottom in the Atlantic to a depth of 12000 feet, and about the North Pacific to 16000 feet, has developed wonderful facts before his ree tions. Prof. Bailey has also done a vast deal towards raising the and his influence. His scale for oe slides by which the positions oie love as well as pe a ig Prof. Tcomey.—Prof. M. Tuomey died at Tuscaloosa on the 30th of Cretaceous and Tertiary pee which had been with him more special subjects of study. In his survey, he brought out many facts of prow: nent interest, illustrating Chores principles in the geology of the con tinent and the history of seashore deposits. The state of South Carolina is remarkable geologically for containing nothing of the carboniferous formation (unless metamorph« ; except- ing the middle secondary red sandstone, which he traced from North Carolina to a distance of four o or five miles into South Carolina where it is associated with trap dykes as in the Connecticut valley, there are no oa rocks, yet observed, between the — c beds and the retac not Seen ea in the country for the beauty of its pian logical illustrations. Geological science is greatly indebted to Prof "gach s zeal and fidelity, and has occasion for diene rics that his labors __ Dr. Scorzspy, the veteran of Arctic. enterprise, died at Torquay, Eng- a on rg 21st of March last, after a lingering illness. a New Granada: Twenty ra in the Andes ; by Isaac F. Hor Tox, Professor of isan." Now atural History in Middlebury College. rs : é vow. a bopkeal tue els, we Miscellaneous Intelligence. 449 ‘should speak of this as a very interesting one of its class, and as particu- larly rich in information of permanent value. But, what commends the in its physical and climatic features. Of the vegetation, especially, Prof, Holton has succeeded in conveying to us, dwellers in northern climes, a a second edition, we advise the author to bring his great knowledge to bear upon this subject more directly and efficiently by adding a separate chapter on the Vegetation of New Granada, giving a comprehensive view of this flora in its main features, and in its distribution over the country according to climate, from the tropical sea-level up to the cold paramos and the isolated peaks clothed with perpetual snow. Much to our surprise, the author speaks of the Chirimoyo,—-generally ranked among the three best tropical fruits of the world,—as little better than our Asimina or “ Papaw ;” which, moreover, he terms a congener, having through some oversight mistaken Unona for Anona. While sug- gesting corrections, we venture to question the physics and geology of a paragraph, commencing on p. 237,—the idea that the temperature of a higher paramo is at all dependent on the great thickness of the crust of the earth there than at the sea-level. We fear the author has not taken mto account, the intensity of nocturnal radiation, and the more rapid evaporation under diminished pressure, as causes of refrigeration, as well as the dilatation of the air; and, on the other hand, has overlooked the fact that the neighborhood of active voleanoes, does not sensibly affect the temperature of a place. One word more upon another matter. As Prof. Holton’s valuable work will be sure to find readers beyond the Uni- ge that words are used, now and then, a peculi out Dalton’s theory of atoms in its true relati speculati er centuries. He treats briefly the noe the ancient Greeks. and thence traces the SECOND SERIES, VOL. XXIII, NO. 69.—MAY, 1857. 57 : 450 Miscellaneous Intelligence. subject through the period of Alchemy and the — an ing of Chemistry to “the e development of Dalton himself when th mathematical clear. A fine portrait of Dalton forms a frontispiece to the volume. 17. Recent Papers by Prof. J. Leidy, M.D—Notice of Remains of the Walrus discovered on the Coast of the oe States. Specimens were found on the sea beach of New Jersey: and the species appears to be the recent Trichecus rosmorus, probably of ‘the drift or later post-ter- tiary period.—Description of Remai ins of Fishes from the Carboniferous and its allies——Observations on the extinct Peccary of North America. Dr. Leidy speaks of the large variations in the size and form of the skull and teeth of the recent Dicoty yles torquatus, and afterwards remarks on the remains of the extinct Peccary and their variations; one species Dicotyles compressus probably including the hitherto species Hucherus (Protocherus) macrops, and Protocherus onieniatiihl Platy-. to page 106. ee hiladelphine | 18 18. Millitary Map of Florida South of Tampa Bay ; witha memoir a. by Lieut. J. C. Ives, Topog. Eng., under the general direction of Capt. A. A. Humphreys Topog. Eng., by order pe wy Hon, Jefferson — Secretary of War, April 1856, War Depa 19. Observations on the Physical Geography sea Weology of the Coast of California, from — Bay to San Diego ; by W. P. Buake; pre- pared for Prof. A. D. Bache, Superintendent of the United States Coast eh ey, a published in the Report of the Coast Survey nsactions 4° the Academy Y of —— at St, Louis i het a sisi :onginalogial idea with a cae ‘ co: Mastodon Remains in the State of Missouri G. Seyrrarta: Notice of a gma brick from Ninorehs with 8 “t. A. Wistzenvs: Indian Stone Graves in Illinois. 8. B. F. Suumarp: Description of New Fossil nas from one = oa Rocks of the Western and Southern pena of the — tat | a plate. 9. AL \ Limo: ‘Beleher de Brothers! Artesian Well; with plate 7 pete aS ee le ot be Miscellaneous Intelligence. 451 21. Brechung und Reflerion des Lichts an fh ince optisch. einaxiger volkommen durchsichtiger Medien, von Dr. JoseeH GRatLicn, Privat-Docenten an der Wiener Universitit, Pion the 9th volume of the Mathematico-natural History Section of the Royal Academy at Vienna. 1856 and 1856. Dr. Grailich is a profound mathematician and cist, and in two papers has discussed the subject of the refraction and — of light in twin crystals with great ability. . Abhandlungen der k. k. Ge ologischen Reichsanstalt, Band IIL— This 3d volume of Transactions from the Geological Survey of Austria or rather the Geological Department under the Austrian government, i oceupied solely with a memoir on the Molluscan pg = the Tertiary of Vienna by Dr. Moriz Homes with the assistance of h. tt is q a magnificent work in 736 quarto pages illustrated by ‘52 eryiialts fithos graph plates of crowded figures, the beauty of which can hardly be ex- eded. This work is the first Yoluine ier of the o. rae i the Univalves, The Bivalves remain for another v r. Hor q sete Adjunct” of the Royal Hot. Minsdeal Cabinet, of which Partsch Ee “eC ~ Tahriruch der k. k. Geol. a ani petapi's 1855, No. 4, and 1856, dediiesations. Each number, of which four appear annually, extends to — two and tlree hundred pages. Prodromus deseriptionis Animalium Evertebratorum, &c., of the North Pacific Expedition under Captain Rodgers, by W. Sr IMPSON.— This pamphlet of 13 pages 8vo, contains brief descriptions by Mr. Stimp- - Son of fiftty-two species of Zw rbellaria Dendrocela collected a him in the course of the North Pacific cruise on the Coasts of Asia and adjoining islands. C. F, Rammetsserc: Die neuesten Forschungen in der krystallo- graphischen Chemie, as supplement to his Handbook on Crystallographic Chemistry, 227 pp. 8vo, with numerous woodcuts. Dr. Rammelsberg is performing an excellent service for science in seit! together the facts in a eee chemistry. j 5. Ruhmkorf’s Apparatus constructed by) E. S&. Ritchie of Boston, : (Pron a letter to J. D. Dana from Prof. W. B. Rogers, dated Boston, 4 April 16, 1857.)—You will I know be interested ps agts that Mr. E. = + Ritchie, the well known instrument maker of this ci ueceed ‘ - i rpass the Paris instruments, and, so far as iainted with | their action, to compare favorably with the recently pspioved form intro- | duced in England. After encountering yt difficulties in the insula- tion of the coil as well as the const the condenser and break- piece, he has devised such arrangements in regard to each as to secure a dense continuous spark, between the terminals of the s secondary wire, of from 2 to 24 inches long, and to permit the means of exhibiting all the effects of the discharge on a 8¢ scale and with a brillianey truly superb. The Sse of light in vacuo transversely strat tified or waved, Gassiot’s cascade, and other effects which I have found it to produce, and which we have exhibited at the Warren Club and elsewhere, are among the most magnificent electrical displays which I have ever seen, The primary 452 Miscellaneous Intelligence. current is developed by the action of four ae anes of Deleuil’s con- struction ; the secondary wire is less than 14 m . This I believe is the first instrument of the kind “am made in this coun- try, at least it is the first possessing such power; but Mr. Ritchie, not sat- isfied with his present success, is beginning the construetion of another from which we anticipate even greater effects, and which we hope will be completed in time for description in your J uly number, A. Kerra Jonnston: A new Dictionary of Geography, seth e Papat Sta- the tistical, and Historical, forming a complete general Gazet of orld. 2nd ed, thoroughly revised. One large volume of 1300 pages. Tet 368. clot A. Ke a Sedeaio Physical Atlas. New edition containing Murchison’s Geo- ‘ical Map of Europe, Rogers a Bomegn Map of the United States, and other new charts. London and E Edinburgh. Normos: An attempt to demonstrate a senteal law of Nature. London E. Cuevrevt: The Principles of harmony and contrast at eh and their appli- gga fe ome Arts. Translated from the French by C. Martel. 2nd edition, crown on. Caakies Jonn Anp Lake Ngami; or Explorations and Discoveries in ronan — ond #8 ret 8vo. London : ry Brap : The Ferns of Great Britain and Iceland, nature printed. In imperial folio. ‘London, 61. pce’ splendid volume of folio plates and text. exry Brap Nature Printing, its origin and objects. London. - Bra & Evans, 11 Bouverie Street. ', SCHEERER : introduction to the use of se gepepipss translated with ad- . ions by H. T. Bhnh ‘ord. London 2 Leipsic and J. G. Beer: Die Familie der Bromeliaceen. fg i 8. Wien. 1856 : SEE Lenz: Zologie der alten Griechen und Romer. 656 pP- 8yo. Gotha, 5 Dr. G. Mecxrt von Hemspacu: Mikrogeologie. Ueber die Concrement eeechen Organismus. Herausgegeben yon Dr. Th. Billroth, 275 pp. 8vo. “Ber- . Prot J 7 Mirze: Di Aequatorialzone des gestirnten Himmels, mit Test, Folio. reibu Dr. H. BurMeisTer : 2 Ape ge acto Uebersicht der Thiere Brasiliens, Leste wahrend einer Riese durch die zen you Rio de Janeiro und Minas G gesammelt und beobachtet i. iI Thl, Vogel. 2. ae: ie 466 pp. 8vo. Berlin C. : gnetismus und iiber die magischen n Wirkungen tiberhaupt. 306 pp. 8vo. Leipzig. Cyclopedia A Natural History. (Base n the — sar 7 In four volumes, with many — Sma fe A Also Cyclopedia of Ge Ay. In four yvolum Ibid. — Excellent oA OCKEDINGS Boston eas ‘Nar. Hist.—Vol. VI. p. 48. On the state in which phosphate of lime exists in Sea-water; 4.4. Hayes—p. 51, Fossil bones of Ele- teal ‘notice of f Dr. J ohn C. Warren; J. Wega — Bi, New species of Crustacea Western North America; W. Stimpson.—p. —p Gatalo e of the Binney = rary. Acolysis of Slate from Somerville. + EG. iM. ——- 108, - oe “ Sees ed at Great M one meee eg NH. Bishop—p. i On INDEX TO VOLUME XXIII. A emy iF sirens of California, Pro- ceding of aa uis, Transactions of, 450. Academy Nat Sci. Philad., vol. iii, part ili, ces Be gs of, 152 pi snare Society of, 107. Aérosta rostats, 109. y phasis Livingston’ 8 discoveries, 139. ssiz, £., young Gar Pikes of Lake On- an 234! Alcohol, p ucts of oxydetian, of, 268. Aluminio, sineiiiees of, 111. alloy sof, 265. Ammoniacobalt sane Gibbs and Genth, Amo: morphism, von eas — 237. Anatomical models, 1 Aneroid, observations poo H. Poole, be Ansted’s G. eology and Mineralogy, n FED) ita of, sg Bache, A 42. idee of Gulf of Mexico, “ on Predie n tables for Tides of U- S. coast. on cause of increase of Sandy Hook, 16 tidal wave of rabinee River, 17. venieatie ‘of Atlantic sound- rig con Blake, W, P, te)laret of silver, Cal., 270. Blood, on fluorine in, Nicklés, 101. Boracie acid, q eusibains termination Sng, 129; A; ha stm a ase , 439 : Sullivant and rrioaggre 439, Botany of Northern U. ae statistics of plants, A. Gray, 62, 369. of Madie yn &e. ee of species, J and cause of o closing of Sto- mates, H. pias ates be i Vectieaio, noes 127. Buf, #. compounds of Ethy- lene, me California Acad. Sci., egg of, 299, See farther, Geolog Canada, see hee | CapiSlarity, 445. a nic og agency of, in past time, yon S, 2 ||Carboniferous anemones of the Mississippi valley, J. Hall, of the U. Sta Caoutchoue, tree producing, 1 ndler, C. F. shaven Chemical 8. & R., mechanical theory of heat, 25. Clirnat te ‘wee Meteor qrology Coal, ng 1, J. 8. ewberry on formation Tel of the B. —— Fn gr a icanic geod on Hawaii, 435. Cont ‘ne of | Coral reefs, a of, in forming Florida, eA Crystallogeny, facts in, i114. ae ig {| Dalton, ; Memoir on, noticed, 449, ‘|| Davis, ia K., meteor of July 8th, 133, Poole, 290. ‘|[Dead S 's Prodromps, noticed, 126, De ccsiery, meridian instruments A. sat 404, E in California, J. B. Trask, 341. ee length of most refrangible rays, 116. Electric illumination, 440. 454 Electricity, Cora s method of observing etc., 14 46. iot § ist., oats of, ig Ethylene, compounds of, H. S. Buff, 176. Fitch on Noxious Insects, a d, 150. Flora of —— U. State Gray, Florida, form: n of, J. LeCon — coral, mae on Reena a ‘of Em- = ebaeeden, “ cea Fossils of Longm re dee reference to, vertebrate, of N. hg J. Leidy, 271. Fossil, see further Zoolo, G bar hed battery with a constant current, with ou contact, se ‘ape ns , De la Rive. , Contributions 3 osiogy: It bases, on yet a-coba’ 234, 3 Living Geographii iscoveries in Afri ston, 133. is ~~ t 415, as bearing on the probable of esas Be in the bere Madeira and the te gre O. Heer, other Ceahaon’ A. Gray, 62, 369. Geological note on Dead Se Poole, survey of Kentucky, noticed, 272 Be re ered, n, Journal, noticed, 299, |! Gukay =f Catton facts in, 299, of Nog he sd and Lau- rentia: ks he J. a st oie Gerhardt, obituary of, , Chemical sbctteets: 116, 265, 430. on Saami bes bases, 234, 319. Gillespie, lem in — , 224, Glass, soluble, Fuchs, Glycerine, action of the jodid, chlorid and bromid of phosphorus on, 267, '* , Statistics, A. zt Holt Hopkin INDEX. ax oe Ba the genus Archimedes or Fenes- Hall “lowell, e, list ag esis of some W. India pleads, ge s living in the ’ Madeira and th the ‘Chapa 130. ines, 144 neg Guano, 121 | Hildreth, 8. erie logical Journal kept | at — as icf oi ranada, noticed, 448. ak 4 pos = aan -propellors. T. S., reactions of Ckaline silicates, I “soles of soundi ings, J. W. Bailey, 153. nsects, noxious, Fitch on, noticed, 150, Isothermal lines, Beaaais on, 1 J Heat, ——. C. T., on verd-antique, 123. Johnson, S S. Wis translation of biography of yor : Fachs, 95 Jones, G., on the Zodincal lig light, 150, Seas on a shower of ashes a 2 Quito, bout Quito, on Zodiacal light, observations 285. _ biography of von Fuchs, 95, 225. L Lead in meteoric iron of Chili, Greg, 118. LeCo: onte, J., formation of Florida, “st J; vertebrate fossils of N. Canis | n a boring sponge, 281. pitles of —— by, 450. Lenses made for ‘llumnation, from sections of hollow s Light fo ee lenear &e. pe Light, bee : “er of most pieebnr rays, die ae cain of, 266 ‘Lithia, and and magnesia, separation of, allet eometay: discoveries in Africa, 139. Longitude determinations, American method claimed abroad, 139. of, J. W. Glycol, 266. M Gould, : A, ane Instruments of the ‘Mallet, “A ud on the rose-colored mica of =. + ve Botanical siieon: 126, 278, 438. anal'es made for geological survey of of Flora of Northern U. States,|| Alabama, 62, 200 | “on Red Sulphur, 185, : ~~ R. P., meteoric iron containing lead, a ee lithia and magnesia, che 118. } new case of fluorescence, ’s pias , American edition by Marble, verd antique, C a Jackson, 123. Sai “ — a " A.s Pi res conan in California, 25 ning, 269. Guano 8 ist . 1, tals, organic com) i. Diggins wee ane re on ae Meta =a tamorphism, thoughts on, 1. 8. Hunt, 437. Meteor of ie 1956, NK. ree 287. oe Gwin INDEX. 455 a —_ Caps at Marietta, for 1856, ie J. M., on some soluble salts of Tin, l feces logy of fowa, T. S. Parvin, 360. nie compounds containing metals, ‘Microscope, Ca ‘arpenter on, noticed, 149, ag wether 269, oe ime n of soundings, J. end on the aboriginal ruminants of Britain, ‘ 15. 1 . Milk, artificial, 114, Owen's Report on Kentucky, noticed, 272. Minerats— Ozone, pa be ‘Scoutiien on, noticed, 446, eere of Sweden, Genth, 415, rewer’s mine, S. Carolina, Genth, Parvin, T. S., Climate of Iowa, 360 Cantonite, -§ * Pra a Patent Office Report for 1855, 150. 2, Cherokine ; Peicboriv 421. molaenky, kikiotice of, 115, Curacite is BA

See 9, 12 ge digits: as Episulbite a3 Iceland, 4 “W. Matte, 18 A "see Botany. reensan Alaba ne 1 la 182, Harrisite, vu A. Pratt, 409. pd “6 a aes ao . Ger a 415. startet * Hitcheockite, analysis of, 423. Srcniionen in human body, 445 Lanthanive, analysis, R : fine zine of Maryland and Missouri, 418, Redh, W. C,, Spirality of motion in ¢ Marble of iis Whale in ae Bl thetl 82.Co Goad, 'p vedié thea tables for, rentian systems of rocks, 305. : Bache, 12: ay iB VA Tidal wave in Hudson river, A. D. ‘ Bache Tin, on somé soluble salts of, J M. Ord, Zorlscy, light, G. Jones, aboriginal rodeitl of Britain, : Wariade, oes 3 138) * Trask, J. B, eantnjakes in California, 341. young ene of Lake Ontario, L. ‘Triphen ylamin, 263. Agussiz, 2 s : ° a borin a sali ge, J. Leid list of reptiles of some Wein india Islands, 2, Urea, formation of by vi aakion of albumin- fossil Dicotyles, J. Leidy, oe ts, 2 Zoological collections of North A Pacific Ex. origin ig ‘in animal economy, a, sagan Fae he y Dnt 451. 4: Leta 450,