THE Se Me gi we AMERICAN JOURNAL ct ITO AS, SCIENCE AND ARTS. CONDUCTED BY PROFESSORS B. SILLIMAN, B. SILLIMAN, Jr, JAMES D. DANA, IN CONNECTION WITH PROF. ASA GRAY, or CAMBRIDGE, PROF. LOUIS AGASSIZ, or CAMBRIDGE, DR. WOLCOTT GIBBS, or NEW YORK. SECOND SERIES. VOL. XXX.—NOVEMBER, 1860. WITH AN INDEX TO VOIS. — Bound a r ATE. Ny od Th) a I ines ar Serres d. ee AND FIVE PLATES. : NEW HAVEN: EDITORS. 1860. SOOT alee PRINTED BY E. HAYES, 426 CHAPEL 8T. ' eee CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXX. NUMBER LXXXVIII. II. Notes on the Habits of the Common Cane, bAmcesinnen ma- crosperma, Mich«.); by Huen M, NEIsSLER, - - Il]. Experiments on the forms of Elongated Picietlan’ by Prof. Oapen N. Roop, - - - - IV. On the Conservation of Force, 2 Prof. JosepH HENRY, - V. On a mode of employing Instantaneous Photography as a means for the Accurate Determination of the Path and Ve- locity of a Shooting Star, with a view to the Determination of its Orbit; by JonarHan H. Lan VI. The true figure of the Earth. “nnaiee s Sight of “Schu- bert’s Essay on the Figure of the Earth), - VII. On the Transit Instrument as a substitute for the Zenith Telescope in determining Latitude, and on the Latitude of New Haven; by Prof. C. 8. Lyman, . VIII. On Fixing Magnetic Phantoms; by Prof. J. Wins - IX. On some Questions concerning the Coal Formations of North America; by Leo LEsQuEREUxX, - * X. On an Oil-Coal found near Pictou, Nova “Scotia; ae the Comparative Composition of the Minerals often included in the term Coals; by Prof. Henry How, - XI. The Great Auroral Exhibition of Aug. 28th to Seek 4th, 1859; and the Geographical Distribution of Auroras and Thunder storms.—Fifth Article. With a fon By Prof. Exias Loomis, XII. On the Products of 7 Distillation of ole , ee by James ScHIEL, - i Page. Arr. I. On the Origin of Species; by Prof. Tatornitus Parsons, 1 14 100 ‘ iv CONTENTS. . q Page. a XIII. Fall of Meteoric Stones—(1) An account of the fall of Meteoric Stones at New Concord, Ohio, May Ist, 1860; by Prof. E. B. AnprEws. (2.) Computations respecting the Meteor; by Prof. E. W. Evans. With further notices of the 2 by D. W. ProY Est. and Dr. J. LAawRENCE Smi XIV. ee of. Dr. Antisell’s Work on Phomesets Oils, ‘oo 112 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics —On Chlorophyll, 121.—On the separation and estimation of — Phosphoric Acid, 122.—On a new mode of preparing Calcium: On anew Metallic Ele- ment, 123.—Notes on the extent to which — volatilizes-along with the vapor of water at 100° C., by J. W. Mauer, Technical a ee coal tar and gypsum, 125,—Chlorate of potash: Whites of eggs, 127.—Powdered sugar: Cherry-laurel water, glycerine and cellulose : Coke of Boghead coal, 198M xed plaster and charcoal : oar acid: Bituminous water of Visos: Tincture of iodine : Perchlorid of iron: Nitrate of lead : Creosote, 129. —Chlorinated sponge: Subnitrate of bismuth, 130, —Beiiiicaties of Indigo by sesqui- oxyd of iro toca some points in Chemical Geology, by T. Sterry Hunt, F.R.S., 133. Botany and Zoology.—Flora of the ages United States, etc., by A. W. CHapMAN, M.D., 137, ia of Dalbergiee, a Tribe of Leguminose, by Grorce BrenrHam s on the Natural History, ete. of Minnesota, Nebraska, Wishiister, ‘nd A ute, under the command of Gov. I. I. Stevens, by G. Suckuiry, M.D., and J. G. Coorrr, M. 38.—Potamogeton crispus, L,, 139.—Marsilea quadrifolia, L.: Catalogue of the ‘Aeandepternginn Fishes in the eplbengion of the British Museum, by Dr. A, GuNTHERy 140, oe agen Comet of 1860: Second Comet of 1860; On the alleged intra-Mercu- rial 1 Plenet Book Notices.—Prof. AGassiz on the Origin of Species, 142—Anleitung zur Organischen und Gasanalyse von J. Scuren, 155 Miscellaneous Scientific en seen at Weld, peat Co., Me., by Stityman Masterman, 155,—Tolles’ improved Microscope Objectiv i gespomesi of Photography in construction of ‘bhiaaede: 156.—Geological Sevine of California Total Eclipse of July 18, 1860: Newport Meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science.—Letter from Joun McCrapy, Esq., on the Lingula pyra- midata, 157.—The Fusion and Casting of Platinum, 158.—New Arctic Expedition, by Dr. 1.5 Chie 9.—Per- AYES: Constitution, ete. of the ago Acade of Scignces, sonal. ra na: as njamin Pierce; Prof. k The gold medals of the Lond. Geog. Society: Lady Franklin, 159.—To Correaponll ents, 160.—Obituary.—Rev. Baden Powell : ‘Chiles Goodyear, ‘160, Proceedings of Societies, 160. CONTENTS. NUMBER LXXXIXk. BR Art. XV. On the Nebular apnea by Professor DANIEL Kirkwoop, - XVI. Ona new Theory of igi propose by Fotis Smith, M. je by Prof. Ocpen N. Roop, XVII. On the Meteor of Riese 15th, 1859 ; by Prof, iL A. EWTON, - XVIII. Crystalline ‘Se not oe an URES of definite Chemical Composition: or, on the possible variation of con- stitution in a mineral species independent of the Phenomena of Isomorphism ; by Prof. Jostan P. Cooke, b | - XIX. Notices of several American gue oak be CHARLES Uruam SHEPARD, - “ - XX. Arsenic Eating: Influence of fsa Acid upon the Waste of the Animal Tissue, - : : -- XXI. Geographical Notices. No. XIII, - - Journal of the American lai oe be Scbla- gintweit’s Mission to Central and High Asia, 217.—Cana- dian Expedition to the Red River under Gladman, Daw- son, Hind, and Napier, 1857-1858, 218. Il. Discussion between two Readers of Darwin’s Treatise on the Origin of Species, upon its Natural Theology, - - XXIII. Description of three New Meteoric Irons, from Nelson County, Ky., Marshall County, Ky., and Madison County, North Carolina; by Prof. J. Lawrence Smit, M.D., a “XXIV. Description of a new Trilobite from the Potsdam Sand- stone; by Franx H. Brapiey, with a note by E. Bitrines, XXV. On the Combustion of Wet Fuel, in the Furnace of Moses Thompson ; by Prof. B. Sizumman, Jr., XXVI. Note on a case of Artificial Giyaialaatisn ‘et Metallic Copper and Di-oxyd of Copper; by Prof. J. W. Maurer, - XXVII. Review of Dr. Antisell’s Work on Photogenic Oils, &c., SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics.—On a probable means of rendering visible the Circulation in the eye; by Prof. Ocpen N. Roop, 264. vi CONTENTS. Geology.—Note from Dr. Newzerry, in reply to Mr. Lesquerevx, 273. Technical Chemistry—Care of Platinum Crucibles, by ErpMann, 265.—Safe and easy method of rectifying Sulphuric Acid, by ee Negse, 267.—Vulcanization of Caoutchoue, by means of mixed Sulphur and H it ¢ Linke G.-pE CLausry: Prepara- tion of Cyanidl of Barium and of Aiiehoniuns with the Nitrogen of the Air, by Mar- GUERITTE and Dr SourpgyaL: Gun-Cotton Filters, by Prof. Borrraer, 268.— Preservation of — oti a i —Ma nancies as a — of Light, by A. — Scum, 270. with the hypochlorite of lime used for ra pagne mock, by Divot and Barrue.: New fusible metal, by Dr. B. Woop, 2 ; Botany and Zoology.—Geological and Natural History Survey of North Carolina. Part Ill. Botany, etc., by Rev Curtis, 275.— ek. Enumeratio Plantarum — Zeylanice : Waipers, Rilibilit Botanices pneiadiei:, by >. Mizttiuer: Bu Index ad De Cand. Prodromun, etc. : Synopsis Methodica Li ee num omnium ‘ison e , LANDER, 276.— Reports of Explorations and Surveys for a Railroad from the Missis- sippi River to the Pacific Ocean, (Fisues), by CHARLES Cite Me Astronomy and Meteor ology.—Solar Eclipse of July 18, 1860: Notice of the tua ca fro the Superintendent of the Coast Survey to the Editors in ielations to latierset made on the Western coast of the United States, by Lieut. J. M. Ginuiss, U. S. N., 285.— Observations made during the Total Eclipse of 18th July, 1860, on the summit of Mount Saint-Michel, in the desert of Palmas, Spain, by A. Szceut, S. J., 288.—On the polari- zation of the light of the corona, and ‘of the red protuberances, in total solar eclipses, Bailey’s Beads, LegrrauLt: Third Comet of 1 — meteor of July 20th, 860, 293.—The Meteors of August 2d and 6th, 1860, by Prof C. 8. Lyman, 295.— Further Notice of the New Concord (Ohio) Meteor, of May 1, 1860, by Professor E,W. Evans: Shooting Stars of August 9-10, 1 4 as, Scientific ects —Fourteenth > hide of the Anterican Associsttoll ’ dvancement of Science, 292.—List of papers presented to the Association, 299. Iathbaasdn by Gov. nenkesi of Washington Territory, 302,—Dr. Suckley’s Dis- claimer : Stereoscopic Advertisements (with illustration), by E. W. Buaxg, Jr.: Para- selena and Lunar Rainbow, by Lieut. J. M. Grixiss, 304.—Oil Wells of ‘a nia and Ohio, 305.—Artesian Well at Columbus, Ohio, by T. E. Wormury, Esq. : Salt Wells in Michigan, 206 otices.—A ‘Treatise on Elementary and Higher Algebra, by Prof. TuroporE Strone, LL.D., 306.—Contributions to the Paleontology of Iowa, by James Haut, 307. Personal.—Prof. Dana: Prof. C. U. Shepard: Prof. Elias Loomis, LL.D.: Joseph E. Sheffield, Esq., 308. Proceedings of Societies, 309. POSTSCRIPT. LeVerrier’s Report on the Solar Eclipse of July 18, 1860, at Tarazona in Spain, 309 CONTENTS. NUMBER XC. Art. XXVIII. Lecture on the Gulf Stream, Prepared at the Re- quest of the American Association for the Advancement of Science; by A. D. Bacue, Supt. U.S. Coast Survey, . XXIX. On Fermented and Aérated Bread, and their a tive Dietetic Value; by J. Davetisu, M.D.,; — - : XXX. Additional Note on the Potsdam Fossils; by E. “gen XXXI. The Great Auroral Exhibition of Aug. 28th to dens 4th, 1859.—6th Article; by Prof. Ex1as Loomis, — - XXXII. On the direction of molecular motions in Plane Sictuiduaah Light; by Prof. W. H.C. Bartierr, — - : - XXXIH. On some Questions concerning the Coal ‘cana of North America; by Leo Lesquereux, - XXXIV. Additional observations on the Circulation of a. Byes ; by Prof. Oepen N. Roop, . XXXV. Some experiments and ecalenss in aes to ipaonlet Vision; by Prof. Witt1am B. Rogers, - - : - XXXVI. Geographical Notices. No. XIV, - - Prof. Guyot’s Measurements of the Alesis Syaete E. ‘391.—New Map of the Alleghany System, by Mr. Sandoz, 392.—Narrative of a Voyage to Spitzbergen, in the year 1613, 393.—Dr. Engelmann’s Measure- ment of the Elevation of St. Louis above the Gulf of Mexico, 394.—Kiepert’s Neuer Hand Atlas, 396.—Ex- ploration of Western British America, 397: 1. Report from the Select Committee on the Hudson’s Bay Com- pany. House of Commons, 1857.—2. Papers relating to the Affairs of British Columbia. London, 1859.— 3. Northwest Territory. Reports of Progress. By Henry Your Hinp, M.A., in charge of the Expedi- tion. Toronto, 1859.—4. Report on the exploration of the Country between Lake Superior and Red River Settlement. By 8. J. Dawson, Esq., C.E. Toronto, 1859.—5. Geological Survey of Canada. Report of Progress for the year 1858. Montreal, 1859.—6. Map of the Northwest part of Canada, Indian Territories and Hudson’s Bay ; compiled and drawn by Tuos. Dr- vinE. Toronto, 1857.—7. Government Map of Can- Page. 391k Marc CONTENTS. ~ ada from Red River to the Gulf of St. Lawrence, com- piled by Tuomas Devine. November, 1859.— ; Barth in Asia Minor, 398. XXXVII. Further Remarks on Numerical Relations between Equivalents; by M. Carey Lea, - XXXVIII. On the Production of Ethylamine by Rebatidas ‘of ee q Oxy-Ethers; by M. Carey Lea, - - 4018 XXXIX. On the Optical Properties of the Pievats of Manganese ; by M. Carey Lea, - 402 XL. On our inability from the Retinal impression seas to seed. mine which Retina is — by Prof. Witu1am B. © — Roce : - 404 _XLI. Glicinstiticienss of J. Nrvicedile of Biciean Secchi eBGynl : ical Chemistry.—Polarized light employed as a reagent, Biot, 409.—On the existence of new simple bodies, BuNsEN and Kircnuorr, 410.—Catalysis and Contact Actions, Loz- WELL: His researches on supersaturated saline solutions, 411.—Empiricism—A pplication of the Physical Sciences to Medicine, 412.—Electro-Magnets and Magnetic Adhesion, 413. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemietéy and Physics —Chemical Analysis by Observations of Spectra, 415.—Sodium, © 416.—Lithium: Potassium, 417.—Strontium: Calcium, 418.—Barium, 419 some numerical relations between the densities and equivalents of certain elements: On_ the Loss of Light, by Glass Shades, by Wm. Kine and Prof. Verver—with a note additional experiments, by Franx H. Storer, 420.—Note on the last, by B. SILLI- MAN, JR Bs Astronomy.—New Planets, the 59th, (FERGuson) : the 58th, Concordia (LuTuur), 424. Personal.—Prof. J. D. Whitney ; Prof. Wm. H. Brewer; Mr. William Ashburner, 424; sailed for California in charge of the Geological Survey of that State. General Index of Vols. XXI—XXX, Second Series, 424, 425. Obituary.—Dr. W. P. Holmes, 424. For a list of the Plates and Errata in Vols. XXJ--XXX, see end of Index. ERRATA. P3562, 1: 1 m bottom, for ‘‘many” read “ some.’ «367, 1. 93 fos rom top, for‘ “best,” read * test.” “174, 1. 18 from top, for “ point, ” read * part.” AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. [SECOND SERI8#8.] Art. IL—On the Origin of ‘Spetien 2% y THEOPHILUS PARSONS, Dane Professor of Law in Harvard University, Cambridge, a penitins tts. as onist of received opinions, and became at once the sub- ject of earnest hostility as well as unqualified yeh ae *much discussion been importantly qualifie modified, and thus reconciled with views which it seemed rr contradict : and when thus A of its excess and moderated in its demands, _ has been generally adopted as an important addition to knowl- edge. “Tt may yet be so with Mr. Darwin's views. s theory, stated very briefly, is, that all organisms tend to reproduce t hemselves in’a geometrical ratio, and with such ex- uberance of life, that each one would specily fill the earth, if not repressed by constant and powerful causes of destruction, Hence but a very small proportion of seeds or ova which ar impregnated are able to mature and reproduce. Therefore there _ must be a competition, or as he e phrases it, a “struggle for life,” among all these im regnated germs of ‘life; and if one in handeed only lives there must be a reason why that one lives rather than iki ninety and nine which perish. This reason must again be frequently, or at least sometimes, that it had some ad- vantage in this “struggle for life,” ‘eh a structural or functional difference. That is, it varied from its kindred, in such wise, that it was somewhat easier for it ie; live, to grow, to mature, and to reproduce, than for them. This difference or variation it must, as a general rule, impart to its offspring. When it be- _ BECOND soll) Vou. XXX, No. 88.—JULY, 1860. 1 2 Prof. Parsons on the Origin of Species. ~eame established, the same law of struggle, of advantage, of life, and of death, would operate upon this new and improve variety, and would cause another and a farther improvement. ‘As this law is universal, and must always have operated upon all organisms from the beginning, not only are varieties estab- lished in this way, but so likewise varieties become species, the beginning been produced by : aaktay~ development. This only to suggest—some of the results to which I have come. Upon the question whether I have not departed so widely from the theory of Darwin, that I have no right to use his name, I have nothing to say. I wish only that these igen may pass for what they are worth _ whatever that may be. To say that it is the tendency of all organisms to reproduce their like, but with some difference, would be merely to utter a truism, for there is almost or quite always some family resem- blance between offspring of the same parents, and always so much of difference that no two of the offspring are ever undis- tinguishable from each other. We may say, however, that one certain law of this difference, or variation, is this; that whilea — slight difference is universal, great difference is less common, and the greater the difference the more rare it is, and therefore E the less to be expected in any given instance. The question then arises, how far this difference may go; or to say the same thing in other words, what limit is there to the possible immedi- ate variation of offspring from their parents and kindred? _ The law of variation is itself variable; and while we have little knowledge of the causes of variation, we have none what- ever of the limits to which it may be carried. Indeed, if we assume that there must be some limit to the possible extent of ——— ast Meg Consider what may be called the system of Agassiz; _ hame only because he has given to it great development and full Prof. Parsons on the Origin of Species. te. variation, we may infer that it must be a very broad one, from the instances of extreme monstrosity which science has recorded. Let us say, then, that we will assume that there may be as much variation or aberration as these records prove that there has een, and no mor ment, as we know that offspring have differed in the way of loss, of hindrance and of degradation; and therefore when I speak of extreme aberration I shall mean by it variation carried to this extent. Admitting this principle as possible, let us proceed with it to iz; using his illustration. Take first his assertion that there must have been in each geo- logical age many new creatures; say if you please an hundred or a thousand, and consider this as proved and admitted. Still it leaves wholly untouched the question how these new creatures _ Were created. And be the answer what it may, that answer . 80 Jar as it is only an answer to this question, leaves the asser- tion of Agassiz untouched. But if we bring to the question, how were these creatures created? the possibility of aberrant va- nation of offspring in the direction of improvement, we bring to it one answer. For example: suppose the time to have come When there is to be a new creation, and it is to be a dog, or Tather two dogs, which will be the parents of all dogs. How ; shall the be created? We may say of this either of five things. 18, that we do not know, and never can know, and had bet- ter not inquire. This does not seem any answer. A second is, that they will be created “ by chance.” This also seems to me no answer, because chance is a word only and nota thing. A ’ 4 - Prof. Parsons on the Origin of Species. “third is, that they will be created at once and out of nothing, ‘by the absolute will of a creator. This answer does not satisfy me much better. The fourth is, that they will be so created by cabselute fiat, out of = nee sens of earth and water, with ‘the necessary chemical elements in due proportion, which had ‘been summoned to meet together in a proper place by the will of the Creator for that purpose. But this answer does not re- commend itself to my reason much more than the others. The fifth is, he will be created by some influence of variation acting upon the ovum (before or at conception or during its uterine ace) of some animal nearest akin—a wolf, a fox, a hyena, or a jackal; and the brood will come forth puppies and grow up dogs to produce dogs. Now the question is not whether already thinning out, we have, in the old red-sandstone formation, the “buckler head,”—or, to use the Greek name given by Agas- siz, the bo Aap And we have also the fossil flying fish, or using again the Greek name, Pterichthys. The first of these was long regarded as a trilobite of the genus Asaphus, until Agassiz oe Prof. Parsons on the Origin of Species. 5 at length determined it to be a fish. Of the second, Murchison says in a letter to Miller, ‘‘if not fishes they approach more closely to crustaceans than to any other class. I conceive, however, that Agassiz will pronounce them to be fishes, which together with the curious genus Cephalaspis form the connecting links between crustaceans and fishes.” Now, is it too much to infer from these facts, and always within the reqsonable limits of generative aber- ration, that either of these animals, if a crustacean was so nearly a fish that some of its ova may have become fishes; or if itself a fish was so nearly a crustacean, that it may have been born 6 Prof. Parsons on the Origin of Species. that there have been some—perhaps many—cataclysmic destruc- tions of whole orders of being, followed by periods characterized by the absence of organic life. If this were = ere must have been not only many new creations, but many new beginnings of organic life. It must be remembered billie that the geo- logic record is assuredly not yet wholly unrolled ; and _ we are not sure that we read aright all that is seen. I have some doubts whether there be an instance in which such an inet extreme aberration, some who may have been their offspring, and the parents of succeeding ra But I must forbear following 7 wl suggestions further. The difficulty of admitting the transformation is, I know, great; and still greater difficulties must be encountered in other parts of this supposed chain of reproduction. A very great one to my own mind arises from those beds below the Silurian, which, on the one hand, are wholly free from traces of life, and on the other, from pew of destructive alteration by heat. They seem to me to lead strongly to the conclusion of Murchison and others, that the earth had only then become cool enough to make life ‘possible, and consequently that life must have begun there; and there cer- tainly we find it already very various. But, not to insist that with farther knowledge, wider discovery of “ connecting links,” or transitional forms, and better Br all these difficul- es may be ma terially lessened, I say at once that I should ac- cept them all persia rather than the actich that the first horse, or dog, or eagle, or whale, flashed into being out of noth- ingness, or out of a mass mere inorganic elements which had been drawn together in due proportion for that purpose. This last supposition is inevitable if we reject the first. The one thing I would be understood to assert, is, that science must now elect Rairaon two hypotheses, which together fill the whole ground, and cannot both be rejected. One is, that the an- imals and vegetables of the world have been formed, by abso- lute fiat, out of a mass of inorganic materials. The other, that they have come into being successively, by generative produc- _ tion, of some kind and in some way. When Milton tells us that hi, es my The earth ia fot and straight Cpa her fertile womb, sontsiteles a birth Innumerous living creatures, perfect om Limbed and full grown. Out of the gro ‘ie mr As from his lair, the wild beast where he dw Tn forest wilds, in wong brake © or den. : now half appeared The tawny lion, pawing to set cas ] er parts: dis hinder he adopts and adorns the first ge a a but while Milton was a great poet, he was not so great a zoologist premost. Sidewise 1051 298 165 ft. all 1199 340 |660,“ | all | By a comparison with the last table, it will be seen that this slight increase of the length has carried with it the necessity of 50 additional revolutions per second. The lowest initial velocity have ever actually employed in this rifle for target practice was 1774 feet, the highest 1917 feet, so that the number of revo- lutions made by the ball in actual practice was either 503 or 543. Balls 2 and 25 diameters in length. A longer balf for barrel No. 4 was now constructed : its weight was 141°5 grains, diameter ‘36 in., length ‘74, so that it was in ” fact 2°05 diameters in length. The following results were obtained : Ball 2:05 diameters long. Initial Velocity. No. of Rev. Distance. 968 BAS 05 ASE all sidewise. The above shows that with this model 269 revolutions are al- | oo insufficient, if the initial velocity be as high as 1063 ft. he length of the ball used in the Swiss federal rifle is 1-0039 inches, its diameter 0-41 inches, or it is 2-44 diameters in length, Weight 257 grains, weight of the charge 62 grains, Making use of the British empirical formula V = 1600 4/ 2”, we have the ini- w tial velocity = 16004/ ; o = 1861 ft., and as the twist is one turn in three feet the ball leaves the barrel making 453 revolu- tions per second. ie 3 O. N. Rood on Elongated Projectiles. 21 Ht The initial velocity in Jacobs’ rifle, judging from his state- ments, must be about 986 feet: as the twist is one turn in 28 inches, the ball makes 422 revolutions per second. | Now why not, it is often asked, project either of these balls with an initial velocity of 1600 or 1700 feet per second? Sim- ly because the above rates of revolution then become wholly insufficient. ‘T'o test this point, I constructed for barre] No. 2 a ball weighing 136 grains and only 2°08 diameters in length, con- mo get not requiring as rapid a rotary motion as the Swiss Ball 2:08 diameters in length. Initial Velocity. No. of Rev. Distance. 1716 ft. 486 165 ft. All sidewise. It would probably require a rate of at least 600 revolutions r second, and the Swiss ball being again much longer would rdly fail to need a rate of from 700 to 800. ; The twist of Whitworth’s rifle (ball 3 diameters long) makes One turn in 20 inches: its initial velocity is not given, though it | is understood to be greater than that of the Enfield: # it be as high as 1600 feet, the rate of revolution of the projectile will be 960 times in a second; if 1700 feet, 1020! _ The above mentioned experiment will perhaps suffice to estab- lish the fact that for any given projectile, the necessary rate of = increases rapidly with the augmentation of the initial velocity. The inability to use larger charges of powder prevented me from pursuing the investigation farther in this direction, eae it | | | to examine whether at very low velocities the necessary rates of revolution for projectiles 2 and 24 diameters long rapidly de- creased. An elongated ball for barrel No. 5 was now length; weight 208 grains. ‘The initial velocity was determined with the smaller oudoliad and found to be 232°6 feet : the veloc- a was determined also from the time of its flight: a distance 15-41 feet gave it 233: the average of 14 shots at 442 feet - Made it 216, Ball 1-9 diameters in length, weight 20°8 grains. ‘ aa Wai ama es ; 775 ft. Flight accurate, Another ball was now constructed for this barrel; the results were as follows: Ball 2:3 diameters in length, weight 265 grains. Be op ot ge hae ion. 75 ft. Flight accurate. 20 A third ball, 3 diameters in length, was finally made for the same * 22 O. N. Rood on Elongated Projectiles. rrel: it was cast with inclined bands on it, extending for two- thirds of its length and corresponding to the grooves of the barrel: Initial velocity. No.of Rey. Distance. 157°9 ft. ‘ 1475 30 ft. Flight accurate. being made to rotate was allowed to fall from a height and it was found that six revolutions per second en- abied it to remain point foremost in a fall of five feet, while 20 per second sufficed for a fall of 45 feet. e only question that now remains is, if 700 or ity, why should this rate of rotation not be commu- nicated to it? The answer is found in the practical difficulties ; ximum number of revolutions per second that can prop- erly be communicated to a ball is from 500 to 550, and man will be ready to deny that even this rate can be employed wide to the action of the grooves in the rifle, and has been found to correspond with their direction. No such deviation was observed by Gen. Jacobs (page 27 of Rifle Prac- @ it has never been rved in the American rifle where the recoil is very small, and a the trajectory very much flattened, though it is the custom of our marksmen on calm days to practise at targets placed indi 4 O. N. Rood on Elongated Projectiles. 23 as 4 and 5. perhaps hardly necessary to dwell farther on this matter of length, for while all the foregoing tends to explain why it has been found necessary in Europe to use low initial velocities with these highly elongated projectiles, it at the same time gives us little reason to ex pect that they will ever be able to compete with their shorter and more manageable rivals. Below are the dimensions and weights of a number of balls belonging to first-class American rifles, each of which has been distinguished for its accurate practice : Diameter of the Base.| Length. Length in Diamet Weight in Grains. 0°36 in 0°62 in. a°:72 Se aw 0-35 0°62 “ 1:77 105 0-46 “ 0:82 “ 1:78 243°6 0-47 “ 0-87 * 1:83 249 0-45 “ 0-86 * 191 265'8 O44 “ 0:85 “ 1:93 225 7 24 O. N. Rood on Elongated Projectiles. But assuming the length of the projectile to be within the above standard American limits, it is still possible to increase its weight by adding matter about the point, which of course be: comes blunter. A ball was constructed of the same length as No. 4, but weighing 121-1 instead of 113-6 grains, the 7,°; addi- tional grains of lead being disposed about its point. As has be- fore been seen, the old ball with an initial velocity of 1128 feet, Lhe Curve of the Projectile.—The bounding curve of the pro- mathematical knowledge was, and is, exceedingly limited: the results of their experimental labors are on this very account the In two of the balls; with this exception, the coincidence was almost perfect: the curve of the first formed a portion of an el- lipse whose diameters were in the proportion of 5 to 0°9; in parallel with its axis than was the case in the others, conse- quently here it differed slightly from an ellipse. Form of the base of the Projectile —The base of most balls now used is either flat, slightly convex as in the American model, or more or less deeply concave as in all those constructed on the a expansion principle. — It is generally admitted that balls having a flat base and moving with a velocity greater than 1200 feet per second, leave behind them a perfect vacuum, which, in addi- | O. N. Rood on Elongated Projectiles. 25 base of the ball could be so shaped that in its passage through the air this vacuum might in great part be prevented by air rushing in at a certain, but lower rate than 1150 feet. It is evident that the lower this rate is made, the more do we sub- tract from the pressure in front, that is, diminish the resistance to the flight. Suppose the base constructed like 6. ed, Fig. 6,and the velocity of trans- « b lation 1100 feet per second, then it is evident that while ab is the mea- feet, ac will be the measure of the velocity with which the air must rush in to prevent a vacuum, and bd = ed by construction ac is only 635 feet. eh tee We should be led to expect that a projectile of this sha would experience less resistance than one provided with a flat base, until the velocity of translation was increased so that ac ecame equal to 1150 feet, which in the model used by me takes place of course when aé or the velocity of translation is 1992 feet persecond. Every effort was made to give these double cones as great a length as possible; many models were tried, and the length was slowly diminished until the new projectiles flew tru- y; finally, moulds for two balls of this model ". were perfected for rifles No.2 and No. 4, and atter some slight alterations the new double cones rivaled in accuracy of perform- ance the pickets with flat bases. To accom- plish this, it was found necessary to cut the patch as seen in Fig. 7, which ensured accu- rate ine | elow are the results of a number of ex- | periments on the time of flight of the old flat- eee eee ended balls and of the new double cones, together’ with their average velocities from 110 to 500 yards. Single Cones. (Weight 113°34 grains.) Rifle No. 4. Initial Velocity 1128 ft. Distance,. Time of Flight. Average Velocity. 110 yards, é 993 feet. ig 6947 “ 950. “ 500 « 1885 .:” 795. »," Double Cones. (Weight 109 grains.) Rifle No. 4. Initial Velocity 1138 ft. Distance, Time of Flight. Average Velocity. 110 yards, +32795 sec 1006 feet, * "71725" “ “ rd 500 T9 2-05680 “ce 729 “ SECOND SERIES, Vor. XXX, No. 88.—JULY, 1860. 4 26 O. N. Rood on Elongated Projectiles. Single Cones. (Weight 105-01 grains.) Rifle No. 2. Initial Velocity 1917 ft. Distance. Time of Flight. Average Velocity. 220 yards, "4175 1580 feet 500 * 1:3080 1146 “* Double Cones. (Weight 100°8 grains.) Rifle No. 2. Initial Velocity 1867 ft.. Time of Flight. A Distance. verage Velocity. 220 yards, “4552 1449 feet. 500 * 1°4120 1062 “* It will be seen from these tables that the flight of the double is slower than that of the single cone, particularly at high veloci- ties: this disproportion diminishes as we use lower velocities, ut even here the new seems to possess no advantage over the old form—the sharpness of the stern not at all compensating for the necessary bluntness of the bows. It occured to me that this inferiority in the flight of the new balls might be owing to a disfiguration in their shape produced by the explosion of the owder: a number of them were accordingly fired into a bank of snow distant 500 yards: when dug out they were found to be as perfect in their proportions as at the time of loading, It would seem that if the conical has any advantage over the flat base, it is only at velocities as low as 400 or 500 feet per second. These experiments also tend to show that the vacuum behind a projectile does not suddenly cease at a velocity of 1150 feet, but that its diminution is very gradual: they farther indicate to some extent the importance of making the forward part of the ball sharp when a high velocity is desired. Indeed, the air struck by the forward part of the ball seems to be thrown from it with such force, at high velocities, that a vacuum is pro- du ehind it, whatever its form may be; and the vacuum is more complete the blunter the point is made. This may account fully for the disadvantage of the double cone. It is well understood that the weight of the projectile exercises much influence on the time of its flight at the longer ranges: the time of flight of a ball weighing 105-01 grains and starting with a velocity 1917 feet has already been given: below are the re- ier ball. be sults obtained with a heavier b Rifle No.1. Weight of Ball 248°6 grains. Initial Velocity 1602 ft.* Although the difference in the initial velocities was 315 feet, yet at 220 yards the difference in the average velocities was * The initial velocity was calculated from determinations made with rifles Nos. 2 and 3. The determination from No. 2 when reduced gave it 1582°5 ft., that from No. 8, 1621 ft., the difference being only 39 ft.: the mean of these numbers is given above. i Time of Flight Average Velocity. “47 . 1480 ft. Distance, 220 yards, , OL 1345 “* 1116 * ee O. N. Rood on Elongated Projectiles. 27 only 100 feet, and at 500 yards it was reduced to 31 feet; showing that after a flight of some 600 yards the lighter projectile is over- en by the heavier. It may be remarked here that the average velocity of these two rifles during a flight of from 500 to 6 yards, is as high or higher than the ¢nitial velocities of many Euro- pean guns! ‘hus the French Tige Rifle has an initial velocity of 1023 feet, the Enfield Rifle 1115 feet, the Belgian chasseur carbine 1007 feet, United States new rifle musket 963 feet and the altered Harpers Ferry rifle 914 feet per second. Certainly Maj. Barnard is justified in bis animadversions on the evils which have attended the introduction of the “shot-gun principle” into modern rifles; and with much reason he exclaims—“a deci- ded step has been made backwards in losing that most essential element to range and accuracy, initial velocity.”* Position of the Centre of gravity —In many European projectiles, every effort is made by hollowing out the base to throw thé centre of gravity “well forward,’ in order that the disposition of the ball to fly point-foremost may be encouraged as much as pos- sible, and for the furtherance of the same desirable end, grooves are usually made about its cylindrical portion That the first proceeding exercises a notable influence (at low velocities,) is generally admitted; that it virtually lowers the specific gravity of the ball and therefore retards the flight is no less certain; and if the rudder-like action of the grooves is admitted, their pres- ence also entails a farther loss of velocity. I have not as yet found time to experiment with either hollow or grooved balls, but the results obtained with solid projectiles, seem to show that it is of small moment whether ther centre o * This Journal, vol. xxix, p. 197. 28 O. N. Rood on Elongated Projectiles. long. Mr. Whitworth states, or is reported to state, that he succeeds in projecting ball after ball into a circle but little more than two inches in diameter, and that he will not rest satisfied till he has fired a ball from one of his rifles down the barrel of another, placed at that distance! This excessive hopefulness of Mr. Whitworth might cause some to hesitate at the story of the two inch circle; assuming it however to be true, it may possi- bly be shown that the American rifle under like circumstances will do as well or better. rifle similar to No. 1, (pro- vided only with globe and bead sights), at a distance of 220 yards, in the pres- ence of over a hundred persons at the yearly tri- al of skill held at Wal- tham, Mass.—of course in the open air. The aver- age distance of the shots One-half of full size. See tr tte In Mr. Whitworth’s by the help of “certain appliances with should b n under similar circumstances. The gun was < ip accurately into a frame resting upon a perfectly level plane, and the recoil was compelled to take place in a line precisely * The anterior probability of this statement may perhaps be rendered stronger m bY & comparison of the actual with this theoretic deviation. Rufle No. 1 when fired in the open air by only moderately skilled marksmen, gave Distance. Theoretical Deviation. Actual Deviation. 110 vd, econ eeee cies i 220 « 14 Oo 5 Ae 500 * 3°69 on +3'02 a ag i _ our best gunsmiths, must, and in O. N. Rood on Elongated Projectiles. 29 parallel to its axis and could be caleulated to a nicety. Again, when the object was to prevent any recoil, there was no difficul- ty in doing so.”* All of the above mentioned precautions being no doubt essential to counteract the evil effects of the beavy recoil and of the twisting of the piece. With the American rifle no such artificial bolstering was employed, the barrel was rested on acommon shooting bench and the stock held honestly to the shoulder of the marksman, the friction and recoil being so insig- nificant as not to require other contrivance. ut the Whitworth-gun was tried in the open air at Hythe, April, 1857, in competition with the Enfield rifle, to which it appears to have been greatly superior. We are not informed whether “the firing machine” was transported and used on this occasion; be that as it may, the statement made as to the results obtained is, ‘that when both had a range of 500 yards the supe- riority of the Whitworth was in the proportion of three to one.” As the absolute deviation of the Enfield rifle at that distance is 28 inches, the deviation of the Whitworth rifle must have been about 9°3 inches, or the shots averaged that distance from the centre of the target. Chapman states that the absolute deviation of the American rifle at 550 yards is 11 inches; his work was published in 1848 since which time very considerable improve- ment has been effected by our best makers. Knowing this to be the case, I instituted some experiments at 500 yards with rifle 0. 1: after it had been sighted 10. for that distance ten shots were fired by a friend, who was but a moderate ° marksman; a reduced cut of the target is given. The distance of each shot from the centre was meas- % ured, the sum of the distances was 67-1 inches: the absolute deviation therefore in this experiment was | = =} 2 e 6,7; inches or 24 inches less than [gOS o that of the Whitworth rifle. This may serve to show how great- y the American rifle, as made by fact does surpass in accuracy of fire various rifles used at the present reference to the ) tables below it wil be seen that the performance of Rifle No. 1 in the ; above target made at 500 yards, was superior to that of the Swiss rifle at 200 yards, . * “The Rifle,” by Hans Busk, M. A., page 94. One-tenth of full size. 30 O. N. Rood on Elongated Projectiles. No less demonstrable is it, that the American rifle-pistol, with a barrel only 12 inches in length, but constructed on the same principle as the larger arm, surpasses in the accuracy of its fire, up to a range of 500 yards, most of the rifles now used in Eu- rope.* This may seem incredible; it is highly significant as pointing out, that the principles on which rifled-guns should be constructed, have been better apprehended by our countrymen, than thus far at least, by the ordnance boards of European gov- ernments. Absolute Deviation. | 200 yd. 500 yd. Enfield, 13°3 28°0 in. Rifle a tige, 11:0 25°2 “ wi f) 6°8 American Government, 658 | .17°3 “ Absolute Deviation of 12 in. Pistol according to Chapman. Weight of all 100 to 115 grains. j 110 ya. | 220 yd. |__ 380 ydy | 440 yd. |. 550 yd. in. in. in. in. in, 1'5 to 2 2to 4 6 to 8 10 to 12 14 to 16 Diameters of Circles containing the best half of the shots. } 164 yd 328 yd. 492 yd. | Swiss Federal, 54in. | 11°40 in. 23 | Swiss Chasseur, 84 * 22°40 “ 40 _ French Rifle a tige, 9G: 2e4 <= 40 | Austrian Rifle, 260 * 40 - 90? | Sardinian Rifle, 22°38 4 38 83 Diameters of Circles containing a certain proportion of the shots Srom the American 12-inch Pistol. of l 440 yd. 500 yd. ———=—— oz 5 5°04 in. nehes. 30 in. 18 in. $ out of 10 shots.{} 8 out of 10.§ All the shots.§ | 4 out of 10.] surmise that the pts of the balls was irregular, and therefore allowed no determina: _ Oo ‘ ¢ Vs rs the meaning of this table, until in experimenting with a ball whose flight was known be irregular, similar results were obtained. Gen. Jacob himself remarks that the table is a little curious, According to Lieut, Wilcox, Chapman, plate VI. ; ‘ , plate t Trials by Mr. Lewis. j experiment of my own. O. N. Rood on Elongated Projectiles. 31 Strange indeed is it, that Lieut. Wilcox in his recent treatise on “Rifles and Rifle Practice,” while describing each minute variation in the faulty construction of the European arm, should wholly ignore the existence of this most remarkable roduct of the experimental skill and mechanical ingenuity of 1s countrymen. Inasmuch therefore as our own rifle for years has stood with- out a rival, how happens it that for the use of our army we have been induced to import an inferior arm from France? Were it not better policy to furnish our soldier with the weapon which came so famous in the hands of our hunters? If greater accuracy or power be required, might it not be well to institute a minute investigation into the causes to which our home-product owes its success, rather than to spend time and incur expense in the study of the inferior rifles of Europe, which although ow- ing their existence to the labors of boards of ordnance, compose of highly educated men, still have never approached in perfec- tion the weapon devised by the ecperimentul skill of our Ameri- can backwoodsmen. Rifle No, 2. Rifle No. 3. Weight of ball 105:01 grains. Weight of ball 16°04 grains. ‘ Charge, Initial itia 50 ; Vel. Charge. Vel. Grains about 1785 69-4 grs, about 1759 2'15 inches of } | 1799) 9-3 in, to the 1782 the bore, 1789] bore, 1816 1774 1785 ¥ <4 ape about min 5 Rifle No. 4. 266 in. the 1925 1928) Weight of ball 113°35. 1141 e 1917/31°5 grs. about 1136 be a _——| 135 in. to the ba 5 grains, about bore 105 3°22 be t5 the 2082 ! 1136 bore, 2086 1129 2084 Fig. 11 is a section of an universal bullet mould which is per- 32 Prof. Henry on the Conservation of Force. haps new. These experiments were greatly facilitated by its use. The portions mand m’ are 11. removable at pleasure. To con- struct a mould for a new ball, it is _, Chea spared : an important considera- ae ation, where new forms of balls must be made by the dozen. Troy, February, 1860. Art. IV.—On the Conservation of Force; by Prof. JosePpH Henry, Smithsonian Institution.* _ [THe following remarks upon the conservation of force, par- ticularly in relation to organic matter, by Professor Henry, Sec- retary of the Smithsonian Institution, wiil be interesting to those who have given attention to articles on the same subject, which have already appeared in this Journal. hey are extracted from the Agricultural Report of the Pat- ent Office for 1857 gen ing no less than 84 atoms of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen. — he organic molecules, or atoms, as they are called, are built up under the influence of the vital principle of inferior groups of | simple elements. These organic oleh i rocess. After they are once formed in this way, they may be } * Communicated by Prof. Henry. j Prof. Henry on the Conservation of Force. 33 combined and recombined by different processes in the labora- tory, and a great variety of new compounds artificially produced from them. But what is this vital principle, which thus transcends the sagacity of the chemist and produces groups of atoms of a com- plexity far exceeding his present skill? It is generally known under the name of the vital force; but since the compounds which are produced under its influence are subject to the same laws, though differing in complexity, as those produced by the ordinary chemical forces; and since in passing from an unstable to amore stable condition in the form of smaller groups, they ex- This view of the subject is absolutely necessary 1n carrying out the mechanical theory of the equivalency of heat and the orrelation of the ordinary physical forces. Among the latter, _" Fates no subjection to the laws by y C,,H,,0,,, making in all 34 atoms. Organic bodies are, therefore, in what may be called a state of power, or of tottering SECOND SERIES, Vor. XXX, No. 83.— JULY, 1860. 5 34 Prof. Henry on the Conservation of Force. equilibrium, like a stone poised on a pillar, which the slightest jar will overturn; they are ready to rush into closer union wit the least disturbing force. In this simple fact is the explanation uced by yeast and other bodies, which being themselves in a state of change, overturn the unstable equilibrium of the organic molecules, and resolve them into other and more stable com- pounds. Fermentation, then, consists simply generally in the running down from one stage to another of organic molecules, changing their constitution, and at last arriving at a neutral state. There is, however, one fact in connection with the running down of the organic molecules which deserves particular attention, librium in the form of heat, sometimes even of light, or perhaps of the chemical force, or of that of the nervous energy, in what- ever form of motion the lattter may consist. It is a general truth of the highest importance in the study of the phenomena of Na- ture, that whenever two atoms enter into more intimate union, heat, or some form of motive power, is always generated. It may, however, be again immediately ekparided in effecting a change in the surrounding matter, or it may be exhibited in the form of one of the radiant emenations. Balance of Nature—The term balance of organic nature was first applied, we think, by Dumas, to express the relations be- tween matter forming animals and vegetables, and the same matter in an inert condition. We shall appiy the term “ bal- again destined to appear in another form, and to exert its effects, — perhaps in distant parts of celestial space. To give precision to our thoughts on this subject, let us sup- pose that all the vegetable and animal matter which now forms a thin pellicle at the surface of the earth were removed—that nothing remained but the germs of future organisms buried in the soil and ready to be developed when the proper influences Lee et Prof. Henry on the Conservation of Force. 35 were brought to bear upon them. Let us further suppose the sun to cease giving emanations of any kind into space. The ra- again be called forth, vapor would rise from the ocean, clouds would be formed, rain would descend, and storms and tempests would resume their sway. _If the sun should again intermit its radiation, all these mo- tions would gradually diminish, and after a time entirely cease ; thing of this kind takes place in the northern and southern parts returned to the state of ice, and the surface of the earth is again in the same condition in which it was before it received the solar impulse. The energy of the solar vibrations communicated to the ice overcomes its cohesion, converting it into the liquid state, and the ice again becoming solid gives out the same amount 0 heat in a less energetic form. Even the motive power of the wind is gross by the friction of its particles in producing an amount of heat equivalent to that which gave rise to its motion, Were enclosed in sacs filled with starch and other organic ingre- 36 Prof. Henry on the Conservation of Force. terial of the new plant, and it was for this purpose originally i whole stored away. But this, though in part correct, is not the truth; for if we weigh a potato prior to germination, and weigh the young plant afterwards, we shall find that the amount of or- ganic matter contained in the latter is but a fraction of that which was originally contained in the former. We can account in this i | Prof. Henry on the Conservation of Force. 87 starch and nitrogenous materials, in which the germs of plants - are imbedded, have two functions to fulfill—the one to supply the pabulum of the new plant, and the other to furnish the power by which the transformation is effected, the latter being as essential as the former. In the erection of a house, the appli- cation of mechanical power is required as much as a supply of ponderable materials. To return to our first supposition. We have said (and the assertion is in accordance with accurate observation) that the plant would cease to increase in weight under the mere influence of heat, however long continued, after the tuber was exhausted. Some slight changes might, indeed, take place; a small portion of pabulum might be absorbed from the earth; or one part of the plant might commence to decay, and thus furnish nourish- ment to the remaining parts; but changes of this kind would be minute, and the plant, under the influence of heat alone, would, in a short time, cease to exist. _Let us next suppose the sun to commence emitting rays of light, in addition to those of heat. These, impinging against the earth, would probably produce some effects of a physical charac- ter; but what these effects would be we are unable, at the pres- ent time, fully to say. We infer, however, that the light, not immediately reflected into space, would be annihilated; but this could not take place without communicating motion to other matter. It would probably be transformed into waves of heat of feeble intensity. of the plant is principally furnished by the carbonic acid of the air, while the impulses of the chemical ray furnish the primary power by which the decomposition and the other changes are effected.” This is the general form of the process, leaving out of view minute changes, actions and reactions, which must take place in the course of organization. : Inthe decomposition of the carbonic acid by the chemical ray, a definite amount of power is expended, and this remains, as it 38 Prof. Henry on the Conservation of Force. were, locked up in the plant so long as it continues to grow; but when it has reached its term of months or years, and some con- dition has been introduced which interferes with the balance of forces, then a reverse process commences, the plant begins to decay, the complex organic molecules begin to run down into simpler groups, and then again into carbonic acid and water. The materials of the plant fall back into the same combinations from which they were originally drawn, and the solid carbon is returned in the form of a gas to the atmosphere, whence it was taken. Now, the power which is given out in the whole descent, is, according to the dynamic theory, just equivalent to the power ex- pended by the impulse from the sun in elevating the atoms to the unstable condition of the organic molecules. If this power is giv- en out in the form of vibrations of the ethereal medium constitut- and in this case, as in that we have previously considered, the impulse from the sun merely lingers for a while upon the earth, through stellar space, until it meets planets of other systems; but to attempt to trace it further would be to transcend the limits of inductive reason, and to enter those of unbridled fanc In the process we have described, the carbon, hydrogen, and b mae Prof. Henry on the Conservation of Force. 39 furnished the carbon of the primeval forests of the globe; and that the power thus stored away millions of years before the ex- istence of man, like other preordinations of Divine Intelligence, is now employed in adding to the comforts and advancing the Eo So and intellectual well-being of our race. n the germination of the plant a part of the organized mole- cules runs down into carbonic acid to furnish power for the new arrangement of the other portion. In this process no extrane- ous force is required; the seed contains within itself the power and the material for the growth of the new plant up to a certain stage of its development. Germination can, therefore, be carried on in the dark, and, indeed, the chemical ray which accompanies light retards rather than accelerates the process. Its office is to separate the atoms of carbon from those of oxygen in the decom- position of the carbonic acid, while that of the power within the he results from the combination of these same elements. The orces are therefore antagonistic, and hence germination is more rapid when light is excluded; an inference borne out by actual t. 8 in the case of the seed of the plant, we presume that the germ of the future animal pre-exists in the egg, and that by sub- Jecting the mass to a degree of temperature sufficient perhaps to 40 Prof. Henry on the Conservation of Force. sun is not necessary to its growth or existence; the chemical entirely expended in producing the ees to carry on the vari- t : Prof. Henry on the Conservation of Force. 41 — of power. In this respect it is precisely analogous to man, and an equal amount in the machine, locomotive. The result derived from an analysis of the food in one case, and the weight of the fuel in the other, and these compared with the quantity of water raised by each to a known elevation, gives the relative working value of the two machines. From this possible from materialism ; it requires a separate t inking prin- _ Ciple. To illustrate this, let us suppose a locomotive engine, equipped with steam, water, fuel—in short, with the potential en- gy necessary to the exhibition of immense mechanical power; the whole remains in a state of dynamic ern without mo- i e engineer now open a valve which is so poised as to move with the slightest touch, and amost with volition, to let on the power to the. piston; the ma- chine now awakes, as it were, into life. It rushes forward with tremendous power, it stops instantly, it returns again, it may be, at the command of the master of the train ; in short, it exhibits Signs of life and intelligence. Its power is now controlled by mind—it has, as it were, a soul within it. The engine may be Serge as an a endage or a further development of the y of the additional capacious stomach for the evolution of power; and the wheels, the cranks and levers, the bones, the sinews, and the muscles, by which this power is applied. Washingtou, D. C., 1860. SCOND SERIES, Vor. XXX, No. 88.—JULY, 1860. 6 42 J. H. Lane ona Mode of Photographing Meteors. Arr. V.—On a mode of employing Instantaneous Photography as a means for the Accurate Determination of the Path and Velo- city of a Shooting Star, with a view to the Determination of ts Orbit; by JonaTHAN H. Lane. Recently, however, a method has occurred to me of applying > subject to change. he basis of the proposed process, as already intimated, is the extraordinary advances that have been made within a few years in the preparation of the sensitized surfaces of photographie — plates, whereby artists are enabled to produce jd pictures by — an exposure of a very small fraction of a second—so small as to — afford a tolerable definition of objects in motion, such as sailing essels. This holds out encouragement for a hope, at least, that reached, that it will be hereafter. I need therefore make no — apology for placing the suggestion on record previous to direct — experiment on this point. _ In the first place, simple exposure in a camera, at a given sta- — tion, would give the apparent track of a meteor as seen by the observer at that station, and a pair of such records made in two — cameras at two stations, would give the track in absolute space. — In the second place, if one of the two cameras were furnished with — amechanism by which equidistant points of time should be marked — upon the trace made in that camera, these points could be referred — to the real ae in space, and if both cameras were in like manner — furnished, the two records would, to that extent be a check pe each other, and serve to reduce the limits of probable error. ‘The J. H. Lane on a Mode of Photographing Meteors. 438 device for marking time is an application of the revolving glass prism, very similar to that described in my paper on a visual method of comparing time between distant stations, published in the January number of this Journal.* Immediately in front _ of the object glass of the camera, a glass prism of small angle and sufficient area to cover the entire aperture, is made to ro- tate at an accurately measured rate of say twenty-five revolu- tions per second. ‘he prism may be replaced by an excentric lens, or the object glass itself may revolve on a slightly excen- tric axis. The consequence will be that the image of a fixe star in any part of the field of view will traverse the circum- ference of a circle every twenty-fifth of a second, and the image of ashooting star will combine this motion with its motion of translation. If the photographic surface retain a visible impres- sion of the looped curve or the waved curve which will thus be produced, then, geglecting for the present the small effects of . optical Gistortion, the line drawn midway between the two of time separated by the equal intervals of one fiftieth of a see- ond, If the period be made too brief, the impression left by the ad of the meteor in one sweep of the looped or waved curve, might possibly be obliterated by the impression of the closely following parts of its train, while the head is traversing the sub- sequent sweeps of the curve. But thers no reason to antici- pate from this cause any difficulty in taining a sufficiently pe period to determine the law of variation of the velocity or Irection. . In the above statement I have supposed only a single camera, ~ but it will probably be impossible in this way to command a sufficient extent of the heavens. A system of many cameras may, however, be formed, so arranged that their several optic axes shall cross in'a common point tn front of the object glasses. The object glasses may thus approximated as closely as we can. desire, and the several revolving prisms, or excentric lenses, may have a common geared connection, and the backs of the cameras will be readily accessible for the renewal of plates. When the track of a meteor, by reason of its extent or situation, is obtained in parts from different cameras of such a system, it 1s g ometiieally impossible, on account of the spherical excess, that the exact interval of one fiftieth of a se between the times #* Vol. xxix, 43. 44 J, H. Lane on a Mode of Photographing Meicors. marked upon the meteor’s track, should, in general, be preserved in the transition from one plate to another in all situations of the track, or in other words, that every two adjacent cameras in the system shall be capable of marking, in the manner described, the same common point of time upon the track of a meteor, but the exact difference in time can always be known. In the execution of such a plan as this, two stations are to be selected at a suitable distance, and a system of cameras estab- lished at each, of such range that the two may cover in common a sufficient extent of the upper regions of the atmosphere to af- ford a fair chance for the occurrence of meteors. Hach station ap cameras of the system, and on the extinction of the meteor will promptly replace the screen. e expense and trouble of this process will certainly be great, but will not be disproportioned to the importance of the object in view. Only let us have a photographic surface that will give a visible trace of the meteor’s path, in the face of exposure to the light of the sky during the time of the meteor’s visible flight, and then success, as regards the attainments of an accurate re- cord, will be nearly gain, and we should not hesitate at the expense and trouble. of water about 224,000° Fah. With such a velocity, so many times exceeding that of sound, the masses of air lying in the E Pe me a ee ge ied J. H. Lane on a Mode of Photographing Meteors. 45 path of the body must be driven before it, and receive a ve- locity equal to that of the body, or at least to a large fractional part of it. The mass of air which the body must have encoun- tered in losing the thousandth part of its velocity, will, there- fore, be of the order of a thousandth part of that of the body. ith the loss of a thousandth part of the velocity, the loss of the body’s own vis viva will correspond to the quantity of heat that would raise the temperature of its weight of water 448° Fah. If after making allowance for the motion communicated to the displaced air—approximately one half—and for the quantity of generated heat which this air retains and carries off, we assume that a twentieth part of the above 448° enters into the body it- self, and by reason of the rapidity of its production is collected ‘in asuperficial coating of a hundreth part of its mass, and give this a specific heat within that of water, we shou find an eleva- tion of temperature of 2240° or upwards. The inference we would draw from these considerations seems confirmed by what we know of the great length of the visible flight of meteors, and of the great elevation of the region of atmosphere in which it be as the foregoing considerations lead us to peed BE the dis- ] large number of meteors, will be likely to afford us complete assurance on the subject, by pointing out certain laws of the re- sistances at different altitudes. A moderate degree of accuracy in the absolute determination of the orbits, except, when they make a near approach to the parabola, will be sufficient to an- swer all the questions of interest that will be which a knowledge of the orbits would have any bearing. Whether the November meteors, for instance, move through regions that would identify them with the Zodiacal light, accord- ing to the theory of the late Prof, Olmsted, is a question that would receive an absolute determination. 46 Miédler’s Review of Schubert's Art. VI.—The True Figure of the Earth—Notice by Madler in Prof. Heis’ Wochenschrift fiir Astronomie, Meteorologie und Geographie, No. 51 and 52. Dec. 21 and 28, 1859.* Essai d’une détermination de la véritable figure de la terro. Par T. F. pz Scuvu- BERT. St. Petersbourg, 1859. Ts brief but very important paper treats of a question which has engaged mankind for ages, and treats it in such a way as to conyinee us that an essential step forward has been taken to- wards its final determination. It is not intended to recapitulate the history of opinions and notions which antiquity, as well as the middle ages, had formed on this topic so generally interesting, as it does not belong to the plan of the work to be discussed. latitudes, the latitudes of their extremities being astronomically ; +h; bs supposition that any nearer approach had been made to the ob- ject of research. n the course of the eighteenth century measures of ares of the meridian were executed or attempted in France, Austria, Italy and Pennsylvania, at the Cape of Good Hope and other places. Their comparison made it apparent that the compression Tt), as at first concluded, was too great, and that it must be reduced one half or even more. Yet the uncertainty remained very considerable. € measurement of arcs was continued in the nineteenth * Translated for the American Journal of Science by Cuantes A. Sonorr, Assist- ant, and communicated by Prof. A. D. Bacur, Supt. U.S. Coast Survey. ® Essay on the Figure of the Earth. 47 ble value was determined from them all, there still remained from the separate measures 0 ares, deviations which could not be as- cribed to errors of observat neg ig investigation iat shown that the old measurement of a degree by Maupertuis and Outhier was considerably in error. Rosenberg and Swanberg obtained quite different values. In 7 Liesganig, Beccaria and others in the eighteenth century could not bear severe criticism nor stand side by side with the better and approved a ares. AA more a and reliable coefficient of compression still remains a desidera € insert here for comparison sb vale of the pws. _ 48 they result, for the most part, from the same measures according to different methods of reduction, in the first four ie cades of this centur ry. Semi-major axis ; Semi-minor axis vempeee? Coeff. of | in toises. in toises. toises. compression. Walbek, - - | 3271742°8 | 3260989°3 107855 sun-rs Schmidt, - - | 3271852:3 | 3260853-7 | 10998-6 orice Bessel, (L.), - | 32719539 | 3261072°9 | 10881:0 | s5¢70 As Bessel afterwards discovered an error in Delambre’s French triangulation which could not be without influence on the com- band result, he repeated his reduction with this correction and oun Bessel, (II), - | 3272077:1 | 3261139°3 | 10937°8 | ay¢-rs si og ia to the last reduction, the probable error is three as great as the difference of Bessel (1) and Bessel (II). Pence in this even the best measures of this sort do not yield sufficiently accordant baie it was attempted to find the com- er a: = two other ways. The observations of the pendulum con sen tee of the earth’s compression, different Iengths. of — seconds pendulum in different latitudes, and e of se such SS pte gi yet still the result (571.55) fluctuated be- een ¢ mits, eS he te s ig? it weigh the compression was not without influence, was also resorted to, and gave 3}, for the compression, but on account of the smallness of the aggregate effect it is of inferior accuracy. We have found it necessary to present this general view in order to dean the limit of the results arrived at by preceding result depends, in a measure, on the law of density of the earth in passing from the Surface to the centre. 48 " Midler’s Review of Schubert's efforts, and in order to place the merit of the writer in its proper hight, especially for those not possessing a special knowledge of the subject in question. The alo investigations were all based upon the follow- ing assumption (1.) The meridians of the earth are ellipses.* (2.) The minor axis is also the axis of rotation. (8.) All the meridians of the earth are equal. The writer remarks that, in a rigorous sense, no one of these* assumptions is proved and that we do not possess the means of proving the first two. We may however add, that these two assumptions, if not absolutely, must be very nearly true.t In regard to the third assumption we are now prepared to . submit it to investigation, and the previous failures compel us to question its applicability. Paucker and Borenius have already attempted to prove that it must be false, but neither has arrived at any definite ‘glide The writer uses as a basis the pele. measurements of a (1.) The Ree es more properly Russo-Scandinavian) exe- pe in 1820-51 by Hansteen, Selander, Struve and Tenner m Fugleniis (in latitude 70° 40’ 11” -3 N) to Staro-Nekrasofka (5° 20’ 02’ -8 N) the longest arc yet measured. (2.) The Indian se 1802-43, by Lambton and Everest, from Kaliana (29° 30’ 48” -9 N) to Punne (8° 09’ 82” -3 N). (8.) The French are, 1792-1806, by ae Delambre, Biot and Arago, from Dunkirk (51° 02’ 08” 5 N) to Formentera (88° 39’ 56” -1 N). (4.) The measure at the Cape of Good Hope, by Henderson and Maclear, from 84° 21’ re i S to 29° 44’ 17” 7S. (5.) The Peruvian aro 1735-46, by Bouguer and la Condamine, ae Tarqui (3° 04’ 82” 1 S) to Cotchesqui (0° 02’ 31” 4 N). The russian es 1831-84, by Bessel and Beyer, from Mom (55° 43! 4 ‘4 N) to Trunz (54° 13/ 11” ‘5 N). (7.) The British arc, by Roy and opie from Clifton (53° 27° 31” -1 N) to Dunnose (50° 37’ 07” -6 N), a (By The ee ate arc, 176, » PY Mason and Dixon, from _ 39° nad 22" 5 N to 38° 2 37" ie equal and similar, and pr onouncing his own work as preliminary, no exception can be ta * In the recent Becirayr ih of the Ordnance Survey of Great Britain sg — of the yen ‘ets hypotheses, is not restr ae to this conditio i The truth of the nietiod assumption may be granted. The reais for taking in this are will be dorariet from what follows, CeO a eee eee pk ee eae 5 or geal = re ee Essay on the Figure of the Earth. i educing and comparing with each other, each of the eight he all the others. It is thence inferred that the meridians of the earth are not equal to each other, and thence that the equator » and the parallels are not circles, so that it is generally impos- sible to draw a great circle on the earth’s surface anywhere. Meridians different in form and length really indicate different polar compressions, a non-agreement of the results found, prov- ing nothing against the accuracy of the measures. Now since all meridians must converge at the poles they must all have in common one and the same diameter, viz., the small- est (the axis of rotation) which can be obtained from each of the large ares referred to. . he three greatest measured ares are— the Russo-Scandinavian....... waves zz 25° 20’ 085, . Ty 6 i545 Cde 2 a neaee wes == 21 21 16 6, OR 6 bs ere. wenn napees = 12 22 12 +4, Whilst all the others, including those not used by the writer, are ess than 5° in extent. By dividing each of these three ares into two equal parts and comparing one part with the other and also each part with the Whole, the writer obtains the following mean values: Semi-major axis {| Semi-minoraxis (toises). (toises). From the Russian.......++-++ 82726103 | 8261428-7 oro AAG. oo. eee , as. 3272650°9 3261547°4 —& © French .....sceeee+ 82784482 | 3260364:7 In the first two, the differences are unimportant, but the last ? Shows a greater deviation. Schubert remarks that this latter deviation can be got rid of by changing the latitude of Carcas- y changing r Sonne, the selected point of division of the French are, by 196, Which may not exceed the limits of uncertainty. He considers : ne, the ‘ Weight of that of India, In this manner he deduces the semi- Minor axis: 8261467°9 toises. SECOND SERIES, Vor, XXX, No. 88.—JULY, 1860. tf 50 Midler’s Review of Schubert's By means of this value the semi-major axis can be found for each measure of an arc. It results as follows: For the meridian of Kaliana in Long. 95° 20! 3272581'3 “ és “ Dorpat “ 44° 28! 10” | 32726501 “ “i “ Tarqui “c & 998° 44! 3272382°8 Three radii and their included angles suffice for the determin- — ation of the ellipse. The writer finds for the semi-major axis — of the equatorial ellipse 3272671°5 toises and its direction ° 44! for the semi-minor axis of the equatorial ellipse 83272803-2 and its direction 148° 44’ eee ew eee ; io o0 90 = oo SPER Polar compression of the greatest meridian = gy3!;55 ns if 7 smallest xe => gunlote and the separate arcs calculated with these values have the fol: lowing deviations : in toises, in are. Petr... 3 seeees iepiys pees + 12 0/077 POUNSPUNDIN SS oss Sos oe ae — 105°6 6 *687 BngMngs.t See ee SS. + 11°68 0 *736 BraaGes oo eats ori — 25°45 1 ‘607 Cape of Good Hope,.......... — 698 0 *442 Prussitiy 352 Pepe vetoes es, s; + 23°28 1 ‘267 Russia, . 15. Seer cseer case. — 20°47 1 -289 Indias. 4% RK Re ee eke + 25°54 1 619 greater deviations the writer — was measured with imperfect of the men who, at under the untold d ilized countries. ts o Fa oO pl joe S g i= m ES ° 4 Bb = t f; q * ius : at the geodetic measures, i particular the longitudes, do not harmonize with astronomical observations, but no one has yet succeeded in discovering the cause of this disagreement. The ellipticity of the earth’s equa- tor, as discovered by the writer, will call forth new investi gations, # Dr. Maskelyne in his description of Mason and Dixon’s ba ; _ e (Phil, Trans., Loo- don, 1768) says they emplo vi rods o; fi ra eis tandard a measure at a fixed tenpeitere ke Hie we ited a : y Lt. Col. Graham, U.S. Top. Eng. See M +9 fel tion to the intersection of the boagdary linea bf toe ‘Sistas of Mi: een a vania and Delaware, Washington, 1850, oe 3 Essay on the Figure of the Earth. 51 since it shows that each geodetic survey, and particularly the og sari require correction. The writer shows two examples how we must proceed and what we may ex pect ween "oma and Dorpat the difference of longitude was fata as follo seechomietd 3° 36’ 16-77 Geodetic 8 86 23 07’ Difference +694 = 57-9 toises. The correction now found to the geodetic is— —6"01 = 50°1 toises. and the remaining error = 093 = 78 toises. Between Pulkowa and Warsaw is found— Astronomical 9° - 48/43 Geodetic 9 Ol “24 Differenc +12’"-81 = 124°7 toises. Correction to gid geodetic —18 ‘85 = 183°4 toises. remaining error = — 6 -04= 58°7 toises. The first error is thus 2, got rid of and the second is reduced to nearly one The writer concludes with the following remarks: “This determination of the earth’s figure is only an approxi- mation, subject to many imp rovements, when we have more data, and when we use more rigorous methods of reduction. But it shows that we can obtain an agreement of the measures in which we have not heretofore succeeded. The determination of the general neue of the earth does not exclude local irregulari- ties of its surfac When this fy potiibars of the earth’s fi el after a scrutinizing investigation, = A pte adoption, al hieal positions _ determined b ¢ means,must h th Ciperecbivicn applie : : iar es fake penal to the differences of longitude.” tha a portance of the sais requires the 21 eget bee Bien e suffici - warded tA further reliable data, articularly from the western pe computer. It may be re- astern Siberia, For these countries we have at present not even approximate determinations. ‘The Pennsylvania measure of 1764 is worthless for accurate investigation and the superior eruvian measure is at too great a distance. Measurements of 52 Onthe Transit Instrument in determining Latitude. are in the meridian of Irkutsk and extending through Mant- chooria southwards, through the Chinese empire, as well as the Atlantic States of the American Union* will give us the smallest meridian of the earth with the same accuracy, corresponding to the determination of the greatest, which passes through Hastern Europe (Kostromo, Stawropol, Erzerfim). Still, much requires to be done. The continuation of the Russian Survey through Turkey, and if possible to Hastern Africa, would be most import- ant; and Struve has already (in 1857) advocated it in the Paris Academy. The opposite part of this greatest meridian passes over the icy deserts of North Western America and the group of islands known as the Marquesas, and hence afford no possi- bility of its completion on that side. After this article was printed, the writer received the account of the New British Survey and notice of the correction of a small error of computation. This induced him to reprint some of the sheets on which the numerical results are given as above. It will hardly be necessary to add anything in praise of the author. |T'o bring up a question of such importance is suffi- ciently praiseworthy in itself, but the writer has done more; he has opened the way to a final determination and has given it, at least in its general aspect. We shall rejoice if this interesting subject calls other powers into the field to labor further in this direction. Corrections like those which the writer has made for Dorpat and Warsaw will be required for many other places, and — each comparison of this kind furnishes its share to the final de- termination. MADLER, “ays Art. VIL—On the Transit Instrument as a substitute for the Zenith Telescope in determining Latitude, and on the Latitude of — New Haven ; by Prof. C. 8. Lyman. THE method of determining latitude by measuring micromet- : rically the difference of meridional zenith distances of stars on — On the Transit Instrument in determining Latitude. 58 posed to be indispensable for this purpose. It indeed admira- bly answers the end for which it was mvented, and in respect to simplicity, convenience, and efficiency, leaves almost nothing to be desired. But being expensive, and of limited use, it is likely to be in the hands of but few observers. The suggestion, ‘therefore, of additional instrumental facilities for using this meth- of latitude, so as to render it more widely available, may not be considered as without value. mainly on the fact that its results jer fea on these simple and pointed out. Where both latitude and longitude are to be de- _ termined at the same station, as is usually the case, a single in- 54 On the Transit Instrument in determining Latitude. nection. The graduation of the circle is very accurate. The difference between the readings of the opposite verniers seldom amounts to to 15”, and from its law of variation, it is manifestly due, in the main at least, to a very slight excentricity in centering the circle on the graduating engine, not to imperfection in the engine itself. e micrometer-screw has 75 threads to the inch, or one rev- olution of the head equal to 78''74. The optical performance of the instrument is very satisfactory. Transits of Polaris are readily taken at midday, and i ble states of the atmosphere, at that hour, even by reflection in mercury. Transits of Aldebaran have been taken when the star was within 6° of the sun’s center. The eye-piece commonly used is a diagonal one of four lenses, with prismatic reflector,—the magnifying power about 190. . the whole instrument, the star bisected with the micrometer wire, and the readings of the level and micrometer noted. The axis is then reversed, the bubble brought to zero as before, and the other star observed in the same manner. ad e pairs for the observations now to be considered, were ta: ken from the Catalogue of the British Association. The stars are to the sixth magnitude, and mostly within 25° of the zenith, the difference of zenith distances of the stars of a pair being usually less than 25’—averaging about 12’. The individual results of 92 pairs are exhibited in the follow- ing table, which includes, with two exceptions, all the observa- tions made, whether in favorable or unfavorable states of the atmosphere. In a few cases where the B. A.C. differs widely from other catalogues, the B. A.C. results are enclosed in brack- ets [ ] and are omitted in computing the mean. That the fault is. in the B. A. C., is obvious from the accordance of the correspond- ing results from other catalogues with the general average. e contents of the table are as follows: Col. 1 and 2. The numbers from the British Association Cata- logue designating the stars of a pair. On the Transit Instrument in determining Latitude. 55 8. The dates of the observations. 4. The mean results for latitude from each pair, using the positions of the B. A.C.; the seconds of the individual results, where the same pair was observed on different evenings, being placed at the left hand side of the column, and connected with their mean by a brace. ‘ 5. The differences, 4, between these mean results of pairs and the mean of the whole. ; 6. The results for latitude from the same observations, the position of one or both the stars of the pair being taken from some other catalogue than the B,A.C.; the arrangement as In column 4, 7. The names of these other catalogues; G. standing for Green- wich Twelve Year Catalogue; B. that of the British Association ; R. the catalogue in Radcliffe Observations for 1856; and A. the » English Nautical Almanac. A. G., for example, signifies that the position of the first star of the pair is from the Nautical Al- manac, and that of the other from the Twelve Y ear Catalogue; etc. 8. The differences between the results in column 6 and the . mean of the whole. : by other! Name of! gg Date of observation. | Lat. by B. A. C. | 4 spre foe 09g loaitateais. | 4 : 41° 18! Are 18! eeE BA Sep oot rese | geet ames | te 8a ‘32426 BG. +03 “ “I : 155 21 “ rT) vb 40° —2°4 398 8 26 9 I erty 24 33 | att a 4x0) BG. i 16 3a | + 5-3, BG. +79 267 314 « Dec. 16 45:3 29 4 . G. ty me i ag a Soe } 425 | tor cat 4a-2| G.G. |-O? : age a 8 ¢ ae) F 5 el ag | PP oy | ce7| ft) BR “23 rat “ ‘O° zs : 1313 |, 1 WEL 4m 435 | +11 vir “ - sot 94 ae ; ~ li ve ee 42-4| BG. | 00 ‘ ‘ . * 3767 “ie “ “ y : 426 40°2 42°4| G. B. oo 3856 391 ts Ty & 4r'8 -0'6 47°32 )°G, sok 3968 3995 wruse st ' 40.8 ar6 405; B.G. ad ‘ Bie 4151 r sea “ 43-9 es 43-0| G.G. 2 17 ™ 8 OS ee eee 42 | +04 4371 4408 e 42 40°5 421| B.G. |-o3 does | £23 | June 90 oe ot < Been Wes 36 ‘ “ ti ‘oO : . se 5181 a Daly 5 15 | -09 oe - = ——— yas 4o3 | -2'I re 4o8| R.A. (-1°6 5285 | 530 ree I ae | a8 fo8| A.B. |-6 5336 | 53 pon “4 431 +0°7 442) B.R. |+1'8 5406 “ 15 —o”9 3417 sabe cre sg rt s 4 8| B.G. |40-4 5460 | 5523 * June 30 43-7 | +13 428; BG. i+) 56 On the Transit Instrument in determining Latitude. poner hah ag Date of observation. | Lat. by B. A. C. aA eur Ca ‘s4lg | 56 June 3. | 49°49" an 1S sy 9 04 | 1859, June 30 mM. .3 [43'°6 “ “ 2 July 5 44!" i 43""7 +1 3 4 44 °3 < 43": Be 5525 | 5560 oe eee +1°4 5643 | 5703 * June 30 40°7 “ . “ July ; 4-9 41 5 -o'9 “ “ ii} I'9 703 | 5752 “ June 30 [47-2] | +148] 42°7 5747 | 5776 * July 40°8 405 a 776 wr 39°5 40-2 —2°2 392 ' 39°9 5776 5842 “ 6 - 3 dro oS “o “ cay “ 2° Ae Bont a 5 Pi 1 ne -1I° I 21 “ July 2° +0 24 6033 | 6079 “Aug. 16 : “I Pi : 38) : id “ o “ 72 7 n [14 3] 44 A 44 4 Fg ae « Sept. 1 |f56-7 | 1444) 6150 | 6185 “ Aug. 29 423 | -o1 419 6162 | 6193 “epee I 43°1 +0°7 6178 | 6246 * Aug. 16 431 4+0°7 41°97 6185 | 6238 Sat ae 45 =0'9 ' Gas? 6289 “Sept. 1 er 408 16 a: 24 4i-6 “ “ec “ 9 o'9 bs 2 I 6289 | 6322 “« Aug. 29 43:0 43°2 % ” oe Sept. + tank 43°5 +1 I 44-3 43: 7 6404 | 6473 “ Aug. 16 412 pia ; 6427 | 64 ° : Face : 43} 43-8 sels 7 “ ug. 2 a i 6520 | 6556 ee 16 43°6 = I'9 : . “ “ 45*4 44:4 +2 oO 5 a 42°7 6583 | 663 - Bev ry 3 | 7 me: ug. I 2: - ~ " % “ “6 Sept. 9 44-8 43-6 +1°2 47% 43°5 6623 | 6648 MERE ch 41-0 19 “ “ “ “ss 26 43-2 41'7 ity 7 sof 42 6 “o “ * Oct. 4 41°0 9 Send 6744 . — 7 = 32 | +08 - 43°7 712 + elie 2 zs “9 z it “ “ Sept. : tor]? [50 8] +[8-4] 42°3 43:0 6690 6748 “ Aug. 16 42°5 5 net dee “ Sept. 26 42°5 42" FOF lf9-0 6709 | 6737 | « & 416 | -08 6731 | 6765 “ Oct. 44:5 +2: Mm | A | So 72 SET 378]] tee lfas} 48° 6779 6849 we My at : 415 -0o'9 42-2 °799 ss cee rea 6 6 “ Oct. at 41 -O PERT Bea | | Ae 4-4 i ic ‘ ee 4 I . . : a Shak oh ee? (Ba S27 i} #9 2° 2"9 6863 <# 6 Oct. 6 42°6 2 +0 I “ ?: “ rok 4 42°97 +03 tt 41°2 2 I’ 6926 6952 “ Aug. 29 414} 4r3 e £5 6932 | 6975 caged | 42°7 Se i 42°4 1 6937 | 6965 ~~ 3 45:3 | +29 43:2 Name of catalogue. Be G. G. RIES, Vor. XXX, < No. 88—JULY, 1860. , 8 On the Transit Instrument in determining Latitude. 57 os ype Date of observation. | Lat. by B. A. C. d pr Man Bernat d 41° 18! 4r? 18! 6965 | 6997 | 1859, Sept. 1 42"-6 42"2 4 “ “ “ ‘“ 9 44 | 43"-5 +11 4 6 43"1 G. B. +0°7 wg . Oate"7 43 8 43 4 7029 “ Sept. 7 45°4 | +30 3 | 7022 Bn hel AG 44:4 | +2°0 446 | B.G, |4+2°2 og’ 7041 a OS 408 | -1°6 7107 “ Aug. 2 4o -15 4o3| B.G. |-2°1 Jo4t |} 7114 * Oct. 3 39° -2'6 7153 “ Sept. 7 40:5 -1'9 THM | OF 4 | $08} don |: 09,57} 396) GB La 7174 “ Sept. 9 4o-7 | -I° eee mT bak | et ea 4° es 431| BG. 407 7313 “dial 26 42°7 | +03 429} G. B. |+0°5 7437 ae ee ee 43-1 43:8 e “ Oct. 4 anit 42°6 | +0°2 47 43:3) G.B. |4o9 A es yo et es 42-7 34 7437 7476 “ Sept. 9 42°0 Z PA “Oe gy 7 426 +0°2 ay “6 7 ‘0 7954 | 7593 “ Sept.26 | 40°3 e “ “ Oct. 3 41-6 : ‘“ « “ 4 42°5 412 —1°2 “ “ oc 7 403 7642 58, Nov. 22 40°0 -2°4 408 | B.R. |—r1°6 7627 7683 "59, vont 26 40-4 nt se “ ct. 3 4o'3 : a? 4u F ‘. ‘i 7 wits Fg A Gay SPT 17 laag{ SO) ae a “ ‘ 7 40-0 403 7627 7749 *s Sept. 26 40.0 re «a “ oe bes za 4o'o -2°4 a 4r5 A. G. -o0'9 “ “ ii 7 398 41°2 7807 58, Nov. 22 4or1 —2°3 7800 ww 48 oT eee 415 = 59, Oct. 4 dt 422 | -0'2 |43-0¢ 421) B.G, |-03 “ “ “ 7 42°0 pay 7888 58, Nov. 18 —_|[4g0 43: “ Oy ae 7 [48:1] | +£5°7] a3 42-9) R.G. |+0°5 ™ 59, Oct. 4 [48-7] 43:5 ee “" Sept. 26 40-7 | -0'7 ' 42°6| R.G. |+0-2 2 58, Nov. 18 436 ; sy (4777 ‘6 « 5g, Oct. 4 ‘34 435° |. #11 fat 42 B. G. |+0°2 8023 ee 431 +0°7 42 GG +02) ese we load ee] ee eas | Bes 8169 58, Nov. 8 436 | +12 43-4) G.A. |+1°0) e138 “ 38 442 | +18 : 429\ B,R. +05 | pore 12a es | or Bah @7) oc. bes i ay 18 [4292 fog | 405 (34 434) GG. jer 8324 + i 417 | -0-7 8 59, Dec. 30 455 | +31 61! * Oct. 3 6 Nov. : : : ‘ ' Cyg, ; 2% fe ; 4-7 | +03 425| A.A. |4or1 : * Oct. 3 to Dee : : jy . Solan og ua st tle 48 | 404 | 4r7| A.A. |-07 SOND SERIES v.,_ 58 On the Transit Instrument in determining Latitude. By both B. A. C. and others. | By other Cata- | ByBA.C. | "7 iCenes. Sei Pra. Mean. Prs Mean. . | of a second, or ten feet on the earth’s surface. That this ex- tremely close accordance, however, of results from sets com of so few pairs, is in a measure accidental, may be inferred from the larger pone errors of these results as given in column &. Had there been three sets, instead of four, the differences would have been somewhat greater, though still not exceeding a few tenths of a secon | o Mean Lat. a | results, de I | 23 41°18! 42''-46) 20 |41918/! 42°/34)| 43 (41918! 42’’-4o} +015 | 0/797) id 2 | 21 42 +35), 14 42 *60}| 35 42 45) +o co 3 \or 42 32) 14 42 36, 35 42 *34| +0 +17| +1 02) - 22 | 42 +35) 18 42 *53}| 4o 42 *43| +o +12|+0 76 All| 87 41 18 42 -37/66|41 18 42 +45|)| 153 |41 18 42 -41| +0 -o7| +0 -88 | +0 sed + 0°10 Mean of the E’ + 0 ‘97 tt. 0 ‘80} hole. On the Transit Instrument in determining Latitude. 59 Survey with the zenith telescope, as stated by the superintendent, shows that usually the latter error very much exceeds the former, or that the catalogues are less reliable than the instruments. The same is apparent from our own results. While the probable error of a single result (including both error of observation and of catalogue) amounts, on an average to + 0'°88, the probable _ error of observation, as distinct from that of catalogue, is found _ by comparing the repetitions on the same pairs in our first table, be only +048. A similar value of this error is given by _ & comparison of the longer series of repetitions on the last two ey twenty-one of the latter. The star-places used are of the English Nautical Almanac. “4 a Cygni and 61! Cephei and | Date of Obs. |*~¥Ey ni | Date of Obs. | 7. pheium, a _ 1859. | 58, Nov. 8 | 41° 18/ 41/2 —o!!5 3 41° 18’ 42'h9 +0'"4 I 4t 4|—o +3 4 42 ‘0 | —o °5 |] 75g, Ort. 15 42 °4| +0 °7 7 4t *9| —O °7 18 42 +1 | 0 °4 10 41 ‘9 | —0 ‘7 21 41 -3 | —o 4 II 43 +7 | +1 :2 27 43 +2 | +1 ‘5 15 41 -8|—o 8 29 fo: -8 | —o 9 " 42 *7 | +40 *2 Nov. 1 42 0 | +0 ° 21 42 +3 | —o °2 : 3 41 °4|—1 °3 23 42 ‘9 | +0 ‘3 14 43 3 | +1 6 25 42 2 | =o 4 15 go 6 | +r 28 43 -6| +1 ‘0 23 42 -4| +0 6 29 42 +8 oO °2 28 ar ibd Noy. 2 42 -8 pe . Deo: 8 43 0 | +1 °3 3 43 -4 | +0 10 go -2|—r °5 4 43 ‘o | +0 2 12 4r 6 | -—-o''T +) 43 :2| +0 °7 15 4t 0; —0 *7 14 43 -0| +o -4 16 41 ‘9 | 40° °2 17 41 -7|—o: 21 41.2 | -—0 5 I 42 0 | —o 3 23 41 ‘6 | —o '1 i 43 | Ses 24 41 x a ean 41 18 42°55 + oF 10 | Mean 41 18 417 of 12 —Frob. Er. of single result + 0-471 7 oe Ds deemeithe eRe ii ee We have, then, for the probable accidental error of observation, from the repetitions on the same pairs in our first table, +048 ; from «and 61" Oygni, +0'°47; from 7 Cephei and w Piscium, 055; from all these combined, +050. This ie a with the : e, +0’°88,. in of instrument and catalogues, in the present case, may be repre- rit to 7. That the Twelve and -£0’-80 for the other catalogues; although in the column for 60 On the Transit Instrument in determining Latitude. instrument; the run of which, as before stated, is only one : : : way. connection with the graduated circle, and is sufficiently sensitive * Sixty successive bisections of Polaris, near culmination, with the micrometer wire, gave for probable error of a single bisection, +0//-30; which would the probable error of a single result for latitude (involving two bisections) as depend- ‘a ing on the micrometer alone, +0/"2 On the Transit Instrument in determining Latitude. 61 and “College Spire,” which is that of the Lyceum, or middle spire. The results are as follows. Lat. by Talcott’s ik Beinn By Coast Survey, | Diff. Observatory of the writer,..........-. «| 419 187 42/741 Factory Cupola, East Street,.......... 3°29 | 41° 187 7/10 | 3/"81 St, Paul’s Church, W. Spire, ......-..-. 152 11°32 8°80 ‘ollege Observatory, (Athen. Tower),... 22.36 “College Spire,” (Lyceum), 23°90 27°74 | 384 Chapel Spire, | 26°49 Mean excess of geodetic over astronomical lat, 8'”82. Cygni, and y Cephei and » Piscium, according as the declinations are taken from the several catalogues named. a and 61! 4 Cephei, Wino]: ygni. w Piscium. English Nautical Almanac,.......++.++| 41° 18! 42/75 41° 18441/"7 Twelve Year Catalogue,.........++++ . 42°6 414 Bm A Oye ce 42-7 41°8 Greenwich, 18 42°8 41° Washington, 1845-1850 40° Radcliffe, 1856, 41.9 40: Bradley,.... 40°7 i, Ss =e a 41‘1 ONS eee 41'8 ee 41°4 _ It will be noticed, also, in respect to these two pairs, that there 18 a greater difference between their respective mean results, than we should expect from well determined nautical almanac 4 62 Prof. J. Nicklés on Magnetic Phantoms. Art. VIII.—On Fixing Magnetic Phantoms ; by Prof. J. NICKLEs. THE name phantom was given by M. de Haldat* to the fig: © ures which are obtained when iron filings are thrown upon 4 sheet of paper or a pane of glass placed over a magnet. This physicist fixed these images by producing them upon a sheet of a coated with starch or prepared with gelatine. his process certainly enables us to obtain the general form of the phantoms, but all physicists can see that it suppresses the etails. I was more particularly struck with this fact on a recent occasion, where I sought to fix the phantoms of some new elec- tro-magnetic combinations; I therefore propose another method, which is here briefly given; it is very simple and succeeds perfectly. The paper upon which the phantoms are to be fixed is “waxed” paper. A sheet of this is placed over the filings had, while they were free to obey the action of the magnet. A condition indispensable to success, is, that the stratum © wax has a sensible thickness, so that it may suffice for the ag- glomerations, since these absorb melted fatty matter, even to — saturation. at this force of absorption is very energetically — r exercised, may be perceived after the cooling, since the pa about the agglomerations is deprived of wax, and differs thus in _ appearance from those parts where capillarity has not been exer _ cised, It is therefore possible to preserve to the phantoms the * Memoir before the Academy of Stanislas, p. 43, for the year 18389—1840. L. Lesquereux on the Coal Formations of N. America. 63 relief which has before been sought in vain, and what will be still more useful, to give permanence to the sort of molecular arrange- ment which the tilings take, when exposed to magnetic influence. Instruction can hardly fail to be derived from the use of these means, by aid of which it will be possible to study the figures more advantageously, which are, in some sense, the visible ex- pression of the force animating bodies endued with polarity de- veloped by magnetism. Nancy, March, 1860. Art. IX.—On some Questions concerning the Coal Formations of North America; by LEo LESQUEREUX. Continued from Vol. xxviii, p. Geographical Distribution of the Coal Flora. lem which is at present discussed by the authority of the highest scientific names. I allude to the theory of the origin of species by Mr. Darwin. It evidently concerns ie great problem of the inmost nature of man, and thus forces every naturalist to seek, in the sum of facts gathered up by his researches, either con- firmatory or contradictory evidence of views which cannot but preoceupy his mind. Thus it is apparently advisable to change the order of examination of the flora of the coal measures of orth America, studying it now in its stratigraphical and geo- ke distribution, and leaving for another opportunity the Iscussion concerning the nature of its vegetation and the spe- cific and generic value of its representatives. : | * entitled, Electromagnets and Magnetic adhesion, and accordingly treats of electro- have also to make known a great number of new facts respecting the laws and Eecwtics of electro-magnets, to say nothing of what we wrote upon this point in 98 (v. Am, Jour, [2] vol. xv, p. 881, and vol, xx, p. 100). 3. N, 64 LL. Lesquereux on the Coal Formations of N. America. I shall not attempt in any way either an exposition or a criti- cal examination of the views of the celebrated English author. This task has already been admirably fulfilled in a former number of this Journal.* Is merely expose the facts that appear surely ascertained by a long and careful exploration of the coal-fields of North America, leaving the naturalist-philoso- just to him. It is a mite only. But the monuments of hu- manity, like the mountains of limestone, are built by the slow accumulation of minute remains. The botanical paleontology of the coal-period and the succes- sion and variation of species in the different strata of the coal- cannot be studied with more advantage and with more measures, chances of reliability than in the coal-fields of the United States. always detached from the stem. It evidently differs from the — genus Cyclopteris by its simple straight nervation and by its up . i ) ‘ : c L. Lesquereux on the Coal Formations of N. America. 65 er margin being horizontally truncate and regularly wavy-den- ticulate by the percurrent and slightly emerging nerves. The typical affinity of this plant is unknown. It is perhaps more re- lated to Cordaites or even to Salisburia than to a fern. The second genus peculiar to the American coal-flora is my Scolopendrites, represented, like the former, by a single species; Scolopendrites dentata Lsqx., of which fragments only have been ound, The name has no relation to the nervation of the leaf, but to its outline. This leaf is apparently five to six inches long, more than an inch broad, lanceolate, deeply cut by obtuse Gopp., Woodwartites Gépp., are no peculiar types. hus, consid- ering their generic distribution, the coal-plants of Europe and of rth Ameri would be too long and tedious, perhaps, to take one by one and compare all the American species with those of Europe, SECOND SERIES, Vo, XXX, No. 8&—JULY. 1860. . 9 66 LL. Lesquereux on the Coal Formations of N. America. to America.* cl cael oe el NPNwww wt arWwWn re Co €9 G9 6 G HS bo ED tO AS DS SS ee Or 36, * In th published pel i ~ OCR ea. Le te ell cel coe coe cee el SO WMTH oP ww . Stigmaria Brgt. . Hymenophyllites Gopp. . Rhodea Sternb., : J . Halonia Ll. & Hutt., . Lepidophyllum Brgt., Lepidostrobus Brgt., 1 5 18 -+1* 4+1* 1 10 +. 9* mooo°o°o°oem + + = — > * pont ++ 4+ wo TONF OR OON OOF KH HH OR ON WD Species peculiar Species peculiar|Species common to Evrope. to both. 1 2 2 4 as 16 12 6 3 1 0 41 12 10 2 1 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 iss) > 9 to RPNONE PROC ONMNO COC OAR ADH ONNHH pot HPF DPDONRF,FNHATOrFNOOCOCOCOOFRNrF®S — — Cleveland). As the species have not been descri amination, they are sti is enumeration, I count the species named as new ones in a in 1853 by Dr. Newbury (Nos. 8th and 9th of the Annals an catalogue of Science of did not come under my & ll doubtful and separately marked by a *. ' L. Lesquereux on the Coal Formations of N. America. 67 Genera of Coa! plants. Wit pred conga mga pavoeers bale! 37. Cardiocarpon Brgt., 2+4-5* f) 38. Trigonocarpum Brgt., 3 + 3* 5 5 39. Rhabdocarpos Gépp. & Brgt., 1+4-1* 6 1 40. Carpolithes Sternb., |; 12+ 1* 52 6 ’ 41, Selaginites Brgt., 0 1 0 42. Lycopodites Brgt., 1 12 0 43, Lomatophloios Corda, 1 0 I 44, Lepidophloios Sternb., 0 0 1 45. Bothrodendron Gépp., 0 1 0 46. Cycadloidea Buckl., 0 1 0 } 47, Calamites Suck., 2 5 il | 48, Bornia Sternb. & Goépp., 1 i 9 | 49, Equisetites Sternb., 0 j 2 1 50. Asterophyllites Brgt., 5 8 z 51. Annularia Sternb., 0 0 5 | 52. Sphenophyllum Brgt., 2+ 3* 3 8 Noeggerathia Sternb.—T wo of the American species are closely . related to N. obliqua Gipp. A third, N. Bocksiana Lsqx., which I referred to Cyclopteris 2 apo Gépp., from the exact likeness of some Neuropteris. Two of our American species, viz., Neph- teris fimbriata Lsqx. and Nephropteris laciniata a So have a typical character which has never been seen on any of the fossil ferns of Europe. As the names indicate, both these beautiful _ of leaves are fringed and laciniate on their circumference. e fringes and laciniw are unequal in Jength and breadth, flex- uous, and do not bear any likeness to the straight and regular fo surrounding the fruit-bearing leaves of some ferns of our 3 Neuropteris Brgt.—Our Neuropteris hirsuta Lsqx. is, probably at least, the equivalent of Newropteris eordata, N. Scheumeri, N. angustifolia and N. acutifolia, species of M. Brongniart. A pec u- Ts 68 L. Lesquereux on the Coal Formations of N. America. data Brgt. which I had opportunity to examine. It may be also that Neuropteris smilacifolia Sternb., N. plicata Sternb., N. rotun- difolia Brgt., ought to be referred as varieties to Newropteris flexu osa Brgt. Nevertheless, we have these same scarcely distinet species with just the same characters in America. They are mostly found in the same places where Newropteris flexuosa abounds. Of the other American species of this genus, Neurop- teris Clarksoni Lsqx. is closely allied to Neuropteris auriculata Brgt., and Newropteris Desorii Lsqx., to Odontopteris Reichiana Lsqx. should perhaps be referred, by its peculiar nervation, to the genus Sonopteris of M. Ponsel. Odontopteris Brgt.—I have counted Odontopteris Brardii Brgt., among the species belonging to both continents, on the authority of M. Unger, who indicates it at Mauch-Chunk, Pennsylvania. Nevertheless I doubt of the identity of our species with the true 0. Brardii Brgt. The small specimen which I formerly referred to it belongs to another species, Odontopteris crenulata Bregt., and I would rather suppose that some incomplete specimen of Odon- topterts alata Lsqx., has been mistaken for the true 0. Brardia Brgt. Our species, though closely related to the European form, evidently differs from it by its obtuse leaflets, and by the position of two large, opposite, cuneate, truncate leaflets attached to the rachis just below the base of the pinnse.—Odontopteris Schlothet- mit Brgt., common to both continents, is one of the few species which, either in its fructified or sterile form, show a perfect iden- tity at any locality where it is found. Dictyopteris Gutb.—The affinity of the European Dictyopteris Brongnarti Gutb. with our Dictyopteris obliqua Bunby., is so great that these species could be considered as mere varieties of the same. D. obliqua Bunby. has narrower, less obtuse leaflets. These are generally found detached from the stem and spread over the shales in the greatest abundance \ f “se val : ‘ L, Lesquereux on the Coal Formations of N. America. 69 species have apparently thin leaves or fronds, the name could not be preserved of course. -A discussion concerning the mor- mention these peculiar forms, for comparing the distribution of the genus Hymenophyllites. Two of our American species are closely related to the H. elegans Brgt. of Europe. — The others, especially H. fimbriatus Lsqx., are gianna peculiar American pes. This last, nevertheless, coul be compared to Selaginites mani Gutb. Alethopteris Sternb.—All our American species have some af- finity with European types of the same genus. Even the re- 70 LL. Lesquereux on the Coal Formations of N. America. Stigmaria.—I think that the varieties of Stigmaria anabathra Corda, described by M. Géppert, are true species, being generally terized species have been found since the report was made. “ Sigillaria Brgt.—The distribution of this genus does not ope rate identically on the coal-fields of both continents. We have few species of the narrow-costate Sigillarie, more than 30 species of fn 8° are counted in Europe. We have more of the broad- costate forms and especially a large number of species belonging to the peculiar section of the smooth or rather uncostate Sigillari@. — L, Lesquereua on the Coal Formations of N. America. 71 In this last section, three well characterized forms are peculiar to our coal-fields. The one has its surface stellately wrinkled around the scars; the second is wrinkled crosswise, and the third has double, oval, obliquely-placed scars united by a deep groove, and the surface is beautifully reticulated by narrow wrinkles, obliquely intersecting each other. The beautiful Sigillaria Schim- peri Lsqx., of which the large scars have nearly the form of an eye, is also a peculiar American form. e number of our spe- cies, as marked on the table, is too small. About ten new species belonging to the Geological State surveys of Kentucky, of Ar- kansas and of Illinois are not here counted. Syrigedendron Brgt.—The two species described by Mr. Brong- niart are common in America. I have never seen any other. Dr. Newbury indicates a peculiar species of ours under the name of S. Americanum Newb. Lepidodendron Sternb.—The great number of specimens of this genus collected from the base and the top of the millstone- grit series of our coal measures, has afforded a good opportunity for examining the development and variations of the scars at ently pretty large; but the difficulty of determining the species from specimens generally badly preserved has prevented or re- tarded the descriptions. - Knorria imbricata Sternb., is especially common below the millstone grit. _ Lepidophyllum Brgt.—We poet already seven well character- ied American species, and three new and unpublished ones. American types not related to any European species. isiecdus Brgt.—The number of cones of Lepidodendron is 72 L. Lesquereux on the Coal Formations of N. America. American basin is considerable. They follow the stratigraphi- cal distribution of the genus Lepidodendron, though they do not appear in any way related to this genus. About twenty well marked but undescribed species ought to be added to those : counted in the table. Some of them have peculiar forms with: out relation to any European species. One of the most remark able, Rhabdocarpos arcuatus Lsqx., is described and figured for the fourth volume of the Geological Report of the State Survey Owen a single species of Lycopodites, very rare indeed, since I found bracing at the base, it differs from any of the twelve European species of the coal yet described Dr, Newberry has not men- tioned any species of this genus in his catalogue. Asterophyllites Brgt.—As some species of this genus are repre analogous, but in a position contrary to that of some pines _ Without including the species of Dr. Newberry, the table of a to “ number of species common to both continents, but as _ much, also, to the number of Species peculiar to America. There- L, Lesquereux on the Coal Formations of N. America. 73 fore, the difference pointed out by the table, may be admitted as fairly representing, in a proportional manner, the general distri- a =] A | — 5 oO a Q > od Sa fa*) al ce oO =i = [=] dg 3 MS Lo | oO wm oO pc) ~~ Q Yk oO w oo ° co ig Oo TM (o} S ct er and two more are so closely allied to their European congeners istinguished 74 Prof. H. How on Oil-Coal. ing the analogy of distribution of the flora of both epochs. It shows the same degree of difference and of analogy. Some Species, even a few types, peculiar to each country, the greatest number of them peculiar to America; many identical species, and especially many forms, so nearly related, that it becomes very difficult to separate them by specific characters. Columbus, Ohio, April, 1860. (To be continued.) Art. X.—On an Oil-Coal found near Pictou, Nova Scotia; and the Comparative Composition of the Minerals often included in the term Coals; by Henry How, Prof. Chemistry and Nat. Hist., King’s College, Windsor, N. S. THE name given to the substance I purpose describing indi- cates the use to which it is put, viz., the manufacture of paraf- of that word;” and, as regards the latter, it was decided at Fredericton, N. B,, 1852, and at Halifax, 'N. S., to be also a coal. Notwithstanding these legal decisions, which, from the oe Prof. H. How on Oil-Coal. 75 In this paper I do not hope to decide the question, but I wish to point out as interesting facts the occurrence of true bitumin- ous coal in contact with the Oil-Coal, and to call attention to the relative proportions of the ultimate elements in the latter and in the before-mentioned disputed substances as compared with bituminous coals, as important in explaining the different nature of their products of distillation, and in affording support to ose who do not make one species only of these minerals. _Some of the analyses which follow are published for the first time; others, of my own, relating to bituminous coals, I have taken from among those given in the Report on Coals suited to the Steam Navy of Great Britain, by Sir H. Delabeche and Dr. Playfair, and those of cannel-coals are taken from sources here- after indicated. _Tam indebted to Henry Poole, Esq., manager of the Fra- ser Mine, for the following particulars relating to the geological position, etc., of the substance :— “The lowest measures about sixty yards, on the surface, short of the distance where the oil-coal crops, are composed chiefly of strong bands of sandstone, actual thickness net yet proved; then shales with bands of ironstone, and Stigmaria roots with Sigillaria stems, and a few detached fern leaves, in such soft shale that I have not been able to preserve any good specimens. Immediately above the oil-coal is a seam of bituminous coal this band two or three varieties (species?) of Lepidodendron elastic that they could be bent considerably without break- ing. At the bottom of the slope another thin seam of curly Coal has appeared of a few inches in thickness, but is not Worked at present. In the roof-coal were found pieces of de- 76 Prof. H. How on Oil-Coul. cayed wood very little changed, which I consider a great cu- riosity. On M’Lellan’s Brook shale is above the Oil-Coal, and Oil-Batt below in which have been found Lepidodendra and ap- parently molar teeth with three fangs, flattened modiola shells, and spines or small fish-teeth. The Oil-Batt has been found in several places without the curly band or so-called Oil-Coal. ‘Two thousand tons of Oil-Coal have been raised (Dec. 1859) at the Fraser Mine.” The Oil-Coal varies in color from brown to black, is dull where Oil 1. i " . Volatile matters, - - - 66°56 ee d bon, - - - - 26°23 62-09 - - - 8°21 4°33 100-00 "100-00 The foliowing is the ultimate analysis of the Oil-Coal, for which I am indebted to Mr. Slessor, assistant to Prof. Anderson of ae whose aid I requested from want of the necessary ap- us : Carbon, - - - - ee - 80°96 Fiydtopes; = ' . | ada 288-5 i 352-0 2790 3 355°5 3ar5 10 3119 243-5 “| 2 343-5 243-0 2140 181‘0 6. Observations at Athens, Greece (lat. 87° 58’), by J. F. L. ScHMIDT, Director of the Observatory. (Communicated through Rev. Mr. ing, Am. Missionary at Athens.) The aurora was not seen at Athens Aug. 28th and 29th. Both evenings were very clear and still, especially Aug. 28th. Aug. 29th from 7 to 8" p. M. some clouds were seen in the west over the Morea. Aug. 80-31 was likewise clear, with a very few small clouds. Aug. 81st, in the evening, lightning in the . .W. pt. Ist, evening, partly clear, partly cloudy, with lightning 12 the west. Sept. 2d, 7415" 4. w., beginning of a storm from the west rain and thunder; at 8b 30m 4, 4 i Then became clear with sunshine. The evening was clear, and in the north there appeared a dark bank of ordinary cloud (not the dark segment of the aurora), above which, from 7 30" Pp. M. to 8 P. M., was 1 cloud bank, which extended 60° in azimuth, was elevated some what above the horizon, so that stars were seen beneath it, The : centre of the auroral light was not in the north, but N.N.W. n the west it was bounded by Cor Caroli, and on the east by a fine aurora of a carmine red color. The — Prof. E. Loomis on the Aurora of 1859. 83 a Persei. No streamers or fluctuations of light were observed. By 10 p. M. the cloud bank had disappeared, the auroral light having disappeared previously. Sept. 8d. The entire day was clear; and at 4 P.M. I went on board a steamer for Syra. From 74-8 P. M., near the island Egina I saw in the north and northwest the carmine red light of an aurora. From 93-10} p. M., near Cape Sunium, a faint trace of the aurora was still seen; but no dark segment, streamers or fluctuations of light. 1. Observations at Camp Simeahmoo, Washington Territory, (lat. 49°, long. 122° 30’ W.), by ARCHIBALD CAMPBELL, Commis- seoner of N. W. Boundary Survey. At 8p. m. Aug. 28, 1859, a diffused light, without definite form, was observed a little east of north, covering about one- fourth of the heavens, which gradually increased to the west, sending across from east to west an arch of a whitish color, the arch itself being much brighter than the circumjacent light. This arch remained visible until2 A.M. At 95 25™ p, M, strongly Visible at 2h a. M., and probably remained so until daylight, Which at that season, in this latitude, occurs not long after that me. This arch was situated very little, if any, to the south. and did not move either to the west or east. At midnight, the arometer stood at 30°13; external thermometer 64° F 9 August 29th a faint diffused light was seen in the north at still Visible at midni cht, No observations were made after mid- Might. There was no exhibition of the auroral light at this from Aug. 31st to Sept. 4th. * 3 84 Prof. E. Loomis on the Aurora of 1859. The view of the northern horizon at this place is cut off by a dense forest of firs, and the sight of the heavens in that direc- tion is some 5 or 6 degrees above the horizon. 8. Observations at Hamilton, C. W. (lat. 48° 16’ N.), by Dr. J. HURLBURT. e Answers to the questions in our first article, vol. xxviii, p. 408. 1. On the 28th of August the sky was overcast by a dark sombre cloud-like substance, but which was not cloud as the stars could be seen through it. There was no dark segment resting on the northern horizon, but one was seen at the south between 8 and 9 P. M. rising 8° or 10° in the centre. Sept. Ist between 8 and 9 p. m. this dark segment was well defined at the north, with an altitude of about 10°, and skirted the horizon fally 120°. At 1 a.m. Sept. 2d, an unusually large segment was distinctly defined at the south, where it rose fully 15° in the centre, and stretched over 130° of the horizon P. M. Aug. 28th, and from 1 to 8 a. u. Sept. 2d, the streamers of the aurora converged to a point a little east of the meridian, and 15° or 20° south of the zenith, forming a brilliant corona. 3. Aug. 28th, both in the southwest and southeast there was a dark red spot about 14° in breadth, and extending from alti- tude 35° to alt. 55°. Both spots presented the same appearance, and hung in corresponding parts of the heavens east and west. 4. At 1 A. m. Sept. 2d, the whole of the southern half of. the sky was lighted up, resembling the sky at late dawn. 5. On the night of Aug. 28th, the most frequent and conspicu- ous color was red and its different shades, The aurora of g. was also very brilliant at 1 and 3 A. M. Aug. 29th. The aurora of Sept. 2d was most brilliant at 1 A. uM. 9. Observations at Rome, N. Y. (lat. 43° 18’), by Mr. Epwarb HUNTINGTON. During the auroral display on the evening of Sept. 2d, there was a very rapid and incessant flashing of white light, like ia st, it oti ARE aR Se Sh ee ree Oe Oey 0 6S es ee ae as Sf Res eae = e Prof. E. Loomis on the Aurora of 1859. 85 expanding like water violently forced through a narrow passage out upon a broad level area, and being at the same time some- what deflected from its former course. Fig. 1 is designed to convey some idea of this appearance. _ From another point nearly in the east, there was a succes- r their former course, the light disappearing after the passage ot each wave, and being re- newed after a short interval in Precisely the same form. Fig. is designed to give some idea of this appearance. HI 10. Observations at Cleveland, Ohio (lat. 41° 81’), by Capt. B. A. STANARD. Aug. 28th, at 8h 80m p.m, the aurora began to show itself, jehting up the northern sky, rising towards the zenith, in a broad lt of luminous haze of about 40° in width, the southern edge Starting a little to the westward of the star Arcturus, and run- Ning through the head of Hercules, a little south of Altair in aitila through the head and neck of Pegasus. The eastern fad was bright enough to light up the edges of the detached ses of cumuli that were driving over from the north. In the Zenith and the western end it was of moderate brightness. t9P. a. another belt began to rise up in the north, and as the conyex edge attained a height of about 40° it began to shoot Out long, attenuated, bright rays, close together, moving slowly to the westward , and reaching to the zenith. Near the convex they were of a bright yellow, changing as they shot up to * 86 Prof. E. Loomis on the Aurora of 1859. orange, and near the zenith to a bright red, the middle and lower ends remaining yellow and orange. As the fiery points of the rays shot into the broad belt overhead, which had still remained like a belt of luminous haze or fog, the whole thing was changed in an instant into a bright red color, deepening as it neared the eastern horizon, to a bright crimson, and at the western end, near the star Arcturus, into a bright scarlet, gradually growing fainter in the zenith, and increasing in brightness nearer the horizon. At 9" 15™ p. M. it resolved itself into converging rays. The zenith at that time was covered by a massive cloud, covering the point where-the rays would meet, which must have been near the star ® Cygni. A western edge of Béotes, through Cepheus and Perseus. The northern sky at an altitude of about 45°. At9 p. uw. they grad- ually disappeared, the arch was broken u , leaving some irregular white blotches in the north, which fade away and disappeared altogether. Then commenced a series of quick, sudden flashes of undefined light; here and there in the north, scimetars bear- ing a strong resemblance to heat lightning, sometimes in unde- fined rays, and sometimes in undefined shimmering light, This continued until 9> 45m p, M., when a double arch was formed of two narrow belts of light about 15° in height, running from Canes Venatici to the southern edge of Perseus, the bright star er shining through the narrow black space between the es, . _ At 9° 55™ P.M. bright rays suddenly shot up in quick succes: sive flashes from the lower through the upper arch, reaching nearly to the zenith, and moving slowly to west until they reach- ed the constellation Corona Borealis, lighting up the north west- ern sky with yellow, orange and red. After the last rays from the east had the Pole, there commenced a sudden flashing of horizontal wavy bands from the upper arch towards the zenith. | eu: Prof. E. Loomis on the Aurora of 1859. 87 At 10" 10™ p.m. the rays and arches disappeared and the northern sky seemed to be covered with a steady white light, with horizontal wavy bands of dark haze rolling up in quic succession, and vanishing as they attained an altitude of about 60°, continuing until 10" 80™ p. m. and gradually fading away. ll. Observations at Fort Bridger, Utah Ter. (lat. 41° 14’, long. 110° 83’), by KirtLey RyLanp, Assist. Surgeon U.S. Army. Sept. Ist, 1859, a brilliant aurora was seen at this place. It was first observed about 11 P.M. and attained its greatest bril- liancy before midnight. It extended from the northeastern ho- rizon to the southern horizon, and was in fact a Borealo- Austral Aurora. Generally the light assumed the form of spikes and bars, but high above the horizon in the northeastern sky was a large blotch or spot, whose diameter was perhaps three times that of the constellation Orion. This blotch was of a deep crim- son color, and remained for a considerable time unchanged in form, color or intensity, and faded gradually away. In the oth- er portions of the aurora the light appeared to spout from the horizon, in the shapes already cans frequently reaching the zenith, and was of great brilliancy. It appeared to flow gradu- ally from N.N.E. to the southern sky. 12. Observations made at Cantonment Burgwin, New Memico (lat. 36° 21', long. 105° 42’), by W. W. ANDERSON, Assist. Surgeon U.S. Army. A member of the guard mounted’ Sept. 1st observed a light Teflected from the clouds on that night about 10 P.M. as he was walking post, the clouds having gba just then thinned out or broken away a little. No other member of the guards from Aug. 28th to Sept. 5th saw anything unusual during the inter- vening nights. By reference to the Meteorological Register I find that the weather was cloudy during the whole time that the aurora was visible elsewhere. There was rain on the last four of us, by persons residing there, but was not observed with suf- ficient attention to enable them to answer any of your questions With accuracy. physician, Dr. Ferris, who arrived at Taos from Pike’s Peak during the fall, states that he was in the South of the heavens, The light was like a large fire in the distance, 80 that at first it was thought to be an extensive fire on the 88 Prof. E.. Loomis on the Aurora of 1859. mountains. ‘The aurora exhibited sudden flashes, and there were pulsations like waves of light rushing up from the horizon, I have been told that Capt. John G. Walker, of the Rifle Regi- ment, wrote a description of the aurora as it appeared at Fort | Defiance (lat. 35° 44’), where it is said to have been very brililant, 13. Observations at the Sandwich Islands (lat. 20° N., long. 157° W.), from the Pacific Commercial Advertiser. The Advertiser of Sept. 8th, 1859, states: “There was quite a display of the Aurora a few nights since, visible at Honolulu, road fiery streaks shot up into and played among the heavens, almost as beautifully as those which are sometimes seen in more northern climes.” The Advertiser of Sept, 17th contains the following letter from S. E. Bishop, dated Lahaina, Sept. 9th. “ Your statement that the Aurora was seen in Honolulu enabled me to account for the phenomenon I observed here a few nights since. At 10 Pp. M. I noticed a bright, unsteady crimson glow upon the sky, extending from N. E. to N., and about 35° of altitude. It re- sembled the reflection of a great conflagration at twenty or thirty miles distance, and I attributed it to heavy fires on the other side of the mountain. I was puzzled however by the fact that the clouds which rested on the mountain did not give the slight- est reflection of the supposed fire. Moreover the light was far too pure and rich a crimson to have been caused by a fire. 14, Observations at Porta Rico, West Indies (lat. 18° N,), by M. du Cotomstgr, from L’ Institut of Feb. 1st, 1860. Having awakened at 2" 30™ 4, m., Sept. 2nd, I was greatly astonished to see my windows, which looked towards the north, brightly illumined by a brilliant purple light. Rising imme- diately, I perceived that this light proceeded from a magnificent aurora, which, according to the testimony of the guard, com- menced at 2° 4. M. and was observed till 4" a.m. The luminous rays, red, purple and violet, extended even to the zenith. The oldest inhabitants of the place declared that they had never be- fore seen a phenomenon of this kind. 15. Observations at Santiago de Chili (lat. 38° 26’ S.), by C. Mostra, Director of the Observatory. The aurora you allude to did occur at this and several other places in the south of Chili, during the night between Sept. 1st and Sept. 2nd, 1859. I did not witness the phenomenon myself, but it appears that the aurora was visible from about half past 1 until 4 4. M., showing a motion to the west. The watchmen were much alarmed at the colored light with which the southern Prof. Loomis on the Geographical Distribution of Auroras. 89 part of the sky was covered, which gave rise to the belief that asmall village about three leagues south of Santiago was on fire. This seems to be the first time that a polar light has been seen at Santiago. No notice has reached me as to its appearance north of this place. 16. Observations near Cape Horn (lat. 57° S., long. 66° W.), by RicHarp SCHUMACHER, communicated by C. Moesta. a red - light, apparently all over the heavens up to the zenith, and nw thence @ vessel Was at noon, Sept. 1st, in lat. 57° 8’, long. 66° 38’ W. ‘aa Sépt. 9nd, & Ot ee" = 00 47° © ‘ON THe GzocrapuicaL DISTRIBUTION OF AURORAS IN THE NORTHERN HEMISPHERE. and brilliancy; they rise higher in the heavens, and oftener at- In the zenith The following tables furnish the most precise ‘ 4 data T have been able to collect for constructing an auroral chart r gi pe northern hemisphere. Column first. gives the name of the tion of observation; columns second and third its lati- a ‘ade and longitude; column fourth the average number of au- 1 ND SERIES, Vor, XXX, No, 88.—JULY, 1960. 2 90 Prof. Loomis on the Geographical Distribution of Auroras. roras pierre number of dios article containe te year; column fifth, the greatest number of na single nth ‘column sixth shows the din t enth shows the aaberty for the statement. The numbers for several of the stations are derived from an embrace he comparison ; and column sey- in vol. viii of the Smithsonian Contributions, entitled, Record of auroral phenomena observed in the higher northern latitudes, compiled by Peter Force. Such observations are indicated by the word ‘ Force’ in the last column. Taste L—Average annual number of Auroras in North ark and its vicinity, from lon ngitude 30° to 170° west from Green eee ig Authority. 3h t vana, 23 9] 8222/44} 1 | 100 Arm. J r, [2], evil 408. an Franc $7 47/122 26) 4) 1 4 ere Repo 1854, p. 258. Sacramento, Cal,, (88 34/12127) 3] 1 9 our., 2). as 260. Washington, D. C,, |88 53 | 4 /Gilliss’s Met. Observations. Wilmington, Del., |89 44} 7532} 8] 4 q m. Jour., xxxiii, 299 Philade] 958} 7510) 6) 8 4 |Bache’s Met, Observat New York, 40 42) 74 14] 5 1 |N. Y. Regents Rep., 1850, 265 av 118} 72 55) 26] 19 16 |E. C, Herrick’s observations. North Salem, N. Y./41 26] 73 38} 8) 9 10 |N. Y. Regents Rep., 1850, 258, Deerfield, Mass,, (42 83] 7285) 4] 9 1 |Am. or — is Fayetteville, Vt,, |4258| 7240) 21) 8 11 |Am. Jou ii to London, 0. W., 42.58] 8125) 27) 7 | 4 |4 28 Regent a 1850, 200-298 Po s — 43 " 79 23) 89) 9 12 King » |44 8) 7640) 86) 11 4 |Am, a [2], xiv, 168. Somervil, x Xn M4 a 75 20] 70) 14 2 ‘¢ of 44 39] 63 86) 55) 13 2 ” i si Notre. C. “h, 45 81| 78 32| 84) 10 2 /Regents Rep., 1850, 290 & 291. Quebee, C, E 6 49) 7112) 42) 12 4 - . x" St. John’s, N. F’nd, |47 83) 52 88) 52). 10 8 ‘ ” Michipicoto 6} 85 2) 43) 9 2 jAm. Jour., [2], xiv, 156. Matawagomingen, 26) 1 = “ . Moose Factory, 5110} 81 0/141} 19 1 “ “ “ in’s Falls, 5152) 8645) 79) 14 1 " ws Btetant House, 53 56/102 16)104| 25 2 |Gehler’s Worterbuch, Mr 144. Athabasca e : Athabasca Obs Lak ? 58 43 lll 18 91 21 2 ; Am. seg [2], pig 156. es Lake, 130)129 | 33 2 jLake Athabasca, p. 148. Lewis and Pelly, [61 30/180 0| 36] 12 1 |Am. Jour., [2], xiv, 156 Simpson, 151/121 39] 50] 24 14 |Athabase gr berets 5" Great Slave Lake, |62 46/109 1)105| 28 2 |Capt. Back, 1883-1835. Godthaab, 410} 5153) 72] 15 6 /Observat. Meteorolog, 166-228. Fort Enterprise, 428/118 6/142) 28 1 orce, pp. 2 Fort Norman, 440)12445| 82) 15 4 Force, p- 5 Fort Franklin, 5 124123 12) 43) 17 + |Force, p oucon, 66 01147 0} 24) 7 + (Am. Jour,, [2], xiv, 156. Winter Island, 66 11) 8310) 25! 8 1 Force, pp. 66-72 Fort Hope, 66 82) 8656! 39] 13 1 |Force, pp. 75-77 Fort Confidence, [66 54/118 49/190] 30 2 : Athabasca Obs., 824-850. Peel's River Am. sig [2], xiv, 156. Tahahak 67 27/184 30) 65) 16 1 j|Am, Jour., [2), xiv, 156. akobshaven 69 12] 51 ol 18| 5 8 ‘Obsorvat. Metcorolog. 82-164 Prof. Loomis on the Geographical Distribution of Auroras. . 9" Taste I.—Continued. Place, Authority. - | Longi- | Per |Ric Years io tude, lyear coor. iinet. G7 Felix Harbor, a 92 1] 23 Point Barrow, - {71 a 156 15|181 0 Force, pp. 8 26. 78 14) 8855) 47) 15 8 5 4-87. Acct Trans., Tee? p. 497. Melville I Tsland, 74 > 110 49} 26 Smith Sound, 78 871 70 49} 10 RoR ete ce, p. Forte, pp. 97-108. Dr. Kane’s Obs. in what at of the world auroras are most reise and. bril- ant. These notices are all taken from Force’s article in the Siaihiaccien Contributions, vol. viii, Taste IL.—Notices of ev pc in North America _ 4 ne rom longitude 170° west from Green Place, Ld ‘ae. Auroras. a . Cedar Lake 53 13,100 o Extremely brilli ’ ant 7, peg eee the wholes . Cape Farewell, 5617 = 51 —e most bril 34 nt 57 Occurred almost ever e ight. York Fort, 51 2193 |S Very ny winter nights without the aurora. One may read distinctly by it At sea, 5730. 45 { Whole southern paras illumined. Gore At sea, 58 12) 49 15 Radii shot from the southward, At sea, 58 30| 44 30 A § Far Ag ioe anything of the kind observed t Bowen. “ = 59 | 50 [Seen in ‘sealy part of the heavens, Howrak 59 68) 59 53 Brilliant coruscations. At 59 59| 44 36 Four luminous arches. Kikken 60 | 56 [Whole sky illuminated. N. rtak, 60 4) 43 2 Unusually pre ee iant corascati ennortalik, Greenland,'60 §| 45 16: Bee occurrence, Brighter than a Davis Straits, 80.101 49 | § Yellow salt reddish coruscations, extending near ig 31 4| 49 50 Tllumined the whole southern vs Sms 3187| 52 |The whole sky was one living fire of auro vis Straits, 31 5S) 54 40 Most brilliant aurora Tr to the tee 2380 63 |Aurora see ae matt « Bi 8 Inlet, $235. 98 | Aurora very br spending all over the sky. Aidt ait, 245. 7224 Aurora rotate splea Cape hand 10, 51 42 Auroras always spring up in the E, or S.E. Aybe Lavenorn, 4 80\ 39 30 Auroras unfreq Baltics & | 68 iV ery brilliant, oad all over the heavens, Aten Pton Island, 528 84 40 Visible during the whole of the nig Bodie 3550 61 |Very brilliant; shooting rays to the zeni arabe se 36 11! 82 53 Very brilli At sen. mand, $6 13 161 47, Very t Kotzet, ’ ) i en.in RO aay Sound 3630163 [Aurora always seen to the northward. 2 37 \186 (Six auroras seen in fifteen days. 92 Prof. Loomis on the Geographical distribution of Auroras. Taste Il.— Continued. Lati- Longi- Place, tude.| tade. | Auroras. oO ith; pink le, and Cape Krusenstern, 67 8163 46) 4 Shot cn mys, the zenith; pink, purple, Fort Good Hope, 67 28 130 54/Spread al ky. Behring’s Sea, 68 30 167 Unusually brillant display. Hearne’s Sea, 68 48 115 31/Most superb display : | 2 auroras in Nov; 1 in Dec. 1822. Gene- Igloolik, 6915, 8145) ) ° volly faint Baffin’s Bay, 70 43 68 44)Faint aurora to southward. Baffin’s Bay, 71 2 28/Brilliant aurora, Baffin’s Bay, 72 io ‘3 36 iidears surors seen in Feb. 1851. Somerset House, 7248 95 41/Seldom seen in 1833 Baffin’s Bay, 7249 70 59|Nine anroras seen in ‘Jan. 1851. Batty Bay, 7317 91 |Great luminous rays issued from th zenith. 1851; Austin’s winter quarters,'7410 9416 ve acer te Feb. | an in March, ae Lancaster Sound, 74 sa 82 10/Eleven auroras in Dec, 1850, : Griffith Island, 14 30 95 20 tur brah al to those seen in more sou 74 oe 111 38/Aurora faint, Beechy Island, 7440 92 /Ten auroras seen in Noy Assistance Harbor, ‘ 4 40 “r 16 — less vivid than in Aire else latitudes. arrow Strait, 45 uroras in Sept. 1850. Wellington Chann el, hehe 54 93 tbe auroras seen in Oct. eg Northumberland Sound, 76 52 97 |Five auroras seen in Dec. 185 The following table exhibits the average annual “naa auroras in Europe. The table is arranged in the same mannef as Table I. Taste III.—Average annual number of Auroras in Europe. wg ngi- Place, [kas | Tak [Pee Rises Yea “Auhoriey. CER oe Avago Bologna, 44321123 E.| 4) 6 24 |Mairan Aurore gio 505. Paris, 48 50} 220 E.! 19 64 |Gehler Wort., vii, 1,1 Montmorency, [49 0/219E.| 5) 4 27 {Cotte Metecealegte, 365. Carlsruhe, 49 1) 825 EB, 8 56 ll |Gehler Wé .» Vil, 1, 146 Plymouth, 5022;4 9W) 6 5 21 ournal, xxxiii, 298. Leyden 52 91 499 B. | 96 29 eed Meteorologie, 355. rlin, 52801393 E.| 4) 5 2 Auror e, 500. 4 5312) 582 E.} 95] 8 7 Cotta Meteorclagis: 355. Kendal 5419) 245 W. - 10 ’s Met 54-58. e 55 35] 281 W. 5 our., [2], xi, 139. _ Dunse, 55 47| 290 W. 11 10 Phil. Trans. Abstracts, vi, 291 Upsala, 59 52.17 38 E. 7 14 21 {De la Rive Elec., iii, 301. Christiana 59 54/10 48 E, _ 18 16 |De la Rive one iii, 300. St. Petersburgh, |59 56/30 18 E. ai Boreale, 510. 8 | 11 |Mairan Aurore Bor Bossekop, 69 58193 34 B. [145 1_|Pouillet Physique, ii, 663. The following observations are less pero than the preceding; and are therefore given in a separate table ee pared 2 een 2 ara Se ae | ee ak hee a es lees a x bs yi it Prof. Loomis on the Geographical Distribution of Auroras. 938 Taste 1V.—WNotices of y prg in Europe and its nt: ad Srom Longitude 60° to 30° West from Green Lati- | Longi- Place. tude. tude. Auroras. | Authority. Qo / : . Aurora seen Nov. 1837 for Teneriffe, 28 16)16 89 W. the first time in the mem-|Alfred Diston. ory of man. Shetland Islands, 6020} 1 9 W. aeons attendant of clearipoes Cye., v. iii. evenin, At sea, 6030/25 W.)A bright arch withcoruscations. |Force, p. 13. tn eee the zenith an At sea, 61 (25 W. clipsed the moon in xpiati Force, p. 14. dee. Iceland, 64 (22 W.jSeen almost every clear ni 900 Henderson, p. 148. Torneo, - 165 5212418 E, een in slidiertiis ii, 155. Se ea nag h contnt the whol ; sky. nly 8 the eer ‘The following are the most definite observations I have been able to collect from the Tastx Vitewiien in Asia Asiatic continent. and its vicinity oo Santen 60° East to 170° West from Green BON See z ae = ‘oe : Auroras. Authority. CF Irkutsk, a 20|108 50 E. | Two auroras seen in Dec.\qmolin, p, 434. Tomsk, 56 35| 86 30 E. | § Only one aurora permonthignelin, p, 477. | in Catherinenberg, 56 50) 63 35 E. Four auroras seen in 1854, |Kupffer Obs. Tarinsk, 57 45| 6845 E,|{ Three auroras seen in /Gqietin, p, 826. : | Kirenskoi Ostrog, 58 0/108 a Virchni Koorina, 66 {152 March 1742, Five auroras seen in March 5 } 1789: Gmelin, p. 458. A Not much more frequent E. |Constant and very = oe Billings, p. 57. More frequent Tobolsk, 5819| 6818E./) than under the same lat-|Ermar, i, 394. | itude in Europe. Jeniseisk, 5830| 92 —«sC«#«« |! ee uroras seen in Feb. Gmelin, p. 458. Beresoy, | Sometimes seen for months : : i 56| 65 4E./2 together throughout the|Erman, i, 470. ight. —Meice, fro. 2017413 E ot, and ah ’ Roliutehin Island, 67 26|175 85 W.|4 —_liant than at Nijnei Ko- Von Wrangell, 506. bs Pine Kolymsk, |68 32160 56 E. Seen pnw every evening. | Von Wrangell, 83. of extraordi * On the ice, 69 58/168 41 E. gets *!Von Wrangell, 103. On the ice, eautifal aurora all night, |Von Wrangell, 318. iy, We project all the discover considera Toras over the earth’s receding observations upon a chart, we Ble uniformity in the distribution of au- surface. If we travel from the equator Rorthward along the meridian of Washington, we find on an 94 Prof. Loomis on the Distribution of Thunder Storms. north they are seldom seen except in the south, and from this . point they diminish in frequency and brilliancy as we advance towards the pole. Beyond lat. 62° the average number of auro- ras is reduced to 40 annually. Beyond lat. 67° it is further re- duced to 20, and near lat. 78° to 10 annually. If we makea like comparison for the meridian of St. Petersburg, we shall find a similar result, except that the auroral region is situated further northward than it is in America; the region of 80 auro- ras annually being found between the parallels of 66° and 75°: nited States than they are in the same latitudes of Europe. On the parallel of 45°, we find in North America an average of 40 auroras annually; but in Europe less than ten. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THUNDER STORMS. _ The geographical distribution of auroras is believed to be in- ey in to the geographical distribution of thunder storms. ; number of y ears embraced in the comparison; and column 6th ie shows the authority for the statements. ; f Taste VI.— Average number of days of Lightning annually. ~ i Place. Latitude | Longitude, ved As oe Authority. : ae Georgetown, Guiana 649 | 5811 W.| 60| 11. |Brit.Guiana Met,Obs.1846-56 Laks ll 8 5 ; went hide 120 |77 2Wi o Arago Met. Essays, p. 109. Abyssinia, 13 37 ae ys, P 138 4 | 8016E,| 144 Central Africa, [12 to 1sl4E.toaW.| 65 te rr) ® : i fi y j nae 4 bs ou ae) _ oo — Barth’s Central Africa. Prof. Loomis on the Distribution of Thunder Storms. . 95 Taste VI.— Continued. Place. Latitude.| Longitude ome Hanh Authority. O- A? , cua 440 | 61 3W) 39 Arago Met. Essays, p. 129. St. Helen 15 55 5 54 0 84 |St. Helena Obs., 1840-43. Gesdetsnte, 1612 | 6145 Wj 37 rago yer meng PR 129. Bombay, 1850 | 7250H,} 42 5 |Bombay o Calcutta, 235 | 8825E.| 60 1 Arago Met. "hesays, P 128, Rio’ Janeiro, 8 0S] 4314 W 50°6| 6 Patna, India, 2531 | 8510E.| 53 1 «3 - ‘ 5 TO, 6 31 26 E 35] 2 e? - y avr Buenos Ayres, 3480S. 5828 Wy 225) 7 Ao 8 aM Gibraltar, 6 17 5 21 6 Borghnus Annalen, 200, 6. Athens, 37 58 3.44 11 3 |jArago Met. Essays, p. 133. a 38 7 | 1319E.} 13°56 ‘ ree i Meteorology, p. he myrna, Asia, 3823 | 2711 E.| 19 ssays, p. 1 noe 38 53 7 OW 135) 38 cil Met. Observations, aryland, 9 0 "5 30 W,| 41 1 il. Trans., 1759, p. 58. —— agg 38947 | 2059E.| 45 | 10 Sak Met.,, ii, 463, ekin, China, 3953 |11640E.| 5°| 6 |Arago Met. Essays, p. 134. man Eh 58 | 7510 W,.) 10 af Journal eas, 3 gi “i ork, 42 | 14 OW, 25°4 p., 1843-56. Hudson, Ohio, 4114 | 81295 W) 18 7 _|Manuscript observations. North Salem, 4120 | 7338 WJ 22°7| 10 . Y, Regents Rep., i ae 51. Litchfield, Conn, [41 45 8W.| 250] 8 a 1-52, Amenia, N. 4148 |yssew!is | 1 | « « «“ * 1860, 241, Rome, Italy, 4154 | 1925E,, 424/11 |Kamtz, Met, Rodez, France, 2 0 239E.;| 11 1 Annuaire Met, a61. 1% 122. Ateny, N. Y,, as 40 13 44 W. 21°6 d N. eg ep, | 840-49, Marse , oT, 5 22 9°3 Kimtz et., ii, Toulouse, Fr, (48386 | 126K.) 171| 8 |f Asie Maps Bast a dele 839 | 7921°W| 20 | 2 |N. Y. Regents Rep. 1850, 371. Fh a * nae 4347 | 7538 W.127| 3 _ IN. Y. Regents A ury, Vt., 46 49° 5 87 3 “ +“ an Sonal — Y, 44 . 5 50E,| 122 A > rt Rep, se e 15 25 W.| 17°3 ; oe Fae iota, GEM | HME) SL. amore te e, Fr, 5 ee 21°0 aimtz Met., n, edly ae "|4812 | 610H,| 19 | 4 |Gebler, 4, oP eer , 612 6155. | 87 1. |Annuaire Met., 1851, p. 188. Morg Bibliotheque Universelle, es, Switz,, 4681 | 628E.| 22°8| 5 March 1860, p. 229. Puebee, . 349 | 4112 W 23°83 Arago Met., p. vie France, 19 2 16 1. |Annuaire Met., 1851, p. 84 Of ty France, 30 | 440E.| 24°7| 10 |Arago Met, p. Tem Hungary, 380 9 2E.| 28°0| il aimtz Met., ii, 459 Penne Bay, 0 PNGB ae Bel eo." hs i Bay, (4748 | 11 1E.| 980/12 | “ ale Denainet oom 58 | 1112E./ 271/12 | “ ie: nvilliers, Fr., 3 0 2 20 20°6| 24 =A Met., p. 130. Vaich, Bav,, 3 8 | 1135E./ 227) 12 Kiamtz Met, ii, 457. Pe Austria, [4812 | 1620 8'3| 20 oo ie Tubinges Bar, [48 21 | 1054B. | 99°3) 12 a » Wur 48 32 9.2 14° Arago » pl Lugan, Russia, i ] E.| 85 1 | Berghaus Aomalen, "200, 5. Steels 4835 | 3921 g Gi engen, Wine? 4836 | 74 : 1 : + i . ay ui 48 37 1015 21° 2 mtz Me snenfurth Boh,, 183 1740 E.| 28 Berghaus Anne, 200, 10. tuttgart, Wirt. 48 46 910K. | 20°68 ‘Kiimtz Met., 96 Prof. Loomis on the Distribution of Thunder Storms, Taste VI.— Continued, Place. Latitude, Longitude. | pigiieny Authority. Ou / Versailles, France, |48 48 245 Annuaire Met., 1851, p. 55. — France, 8 50 220K Arago Met., p. 1 oersdorff, France 48 57 48 E. Annuaire Met., 1851, p, 181 Darcodia Bay., (49 1 | 1156 tz Met,, ii, 457. Rehberg, Boh., 49 13 27] Berghaus Annalen, 200, 10. Metz, France, 49 610 Annuaire Met., 1851, p. 109. r, Bohemi 4924 | 1659 Berghaus Annalen, 200, 10. en, France, 9 26 PG Annuaire Met., 1851, P. 149, Mannheim, Bay., 49 2 8 27 Kamtz Met,, ii, 4 te Seelau, Boh., 4932 | 1733 Berghaus Anne, 200, 10, Brzesnitz, Boh., 49 34 917 Deutschbrod, Boh., [4936 | 1755 * ates urg. : 49 46 9 54 Kata Met., ii, 427. Brzezina, Poland, 49 4 15 58 Berghaus Annalen, 200, 10. Landskron, ‘ 49 55 | 1857 i Tepel, Bohemia, (4958 | 1252 ag La Chapelle, Fr. '50 3 35 Arago 0 Met, p.1 Eger, Bohemia, 50 5 | 1442) tn. Aiton 200, 10. rague, Bohemia, [50 14 23] ‘iimtz M Smetschna, Boh, 5011 | 1622, Bergh aus “Aanalen, 200, 10. Koniggritz, Boh, 5018 | 1810E.| 98 Polpero, Eng., 502 410 W} 1 Arago Met., p. 1 Oberwiesenthal, Boh.5025 | 12588. | 15 Berghaus Annan, +200, 10. Hohenelbe, Boh., 50 38 17 54 20 Altenberg, Boh 5045 | 1843 15 “ “ « « Tetschen, Bo 5047 | 16382 17 “ . "fm Brussels, Belg., 5050 | 430K] 161 —— _ ii, be: Maestricht, Hol, 5051 | 542E.| 16 Arago Met., p. 1 Zittau, 5054 | 14485,| 19 Berghaus Annalen, 200, 10. Fre smb ‘Sa 055 | 1320 13 Erfurt, Pruss ssia, 50 58 12 14°] Kamtz Met., ii, 457. Schluckenan, Boh, (51 1 | 1497 14 Berghaus ‘Anal, 200, 1 Dre: n, Sax. 151 844E.| 20 Wertithiinak. » (5118 111920K, : Kiimtz Met., ii, 459. Middleburg, Belg, [5128 | 3378.| 91°3 «455. ndon, 51 30 O7W) 88 Arago Met., p. 133. agan, 5187 ‘| 1519K,| 29-3 Kamtz Met., ii, 457. Miinster, Pr., 158 7 38 29°7 Berghaus Annalen, 200, 5 Utrecht, Hol., 52 6 5 8 15 Ar, et., Leyden, Hol. 52 43 18°5 - eS hie Irkutsk, Rus., 5217 |10417 8: Kamtz Met., i Minden, Pr., 5218 8 55 5°8 Berghaus Annalen, 200, 5 Berlin, Prussia, 52 31 18 21 178 mtz Met, a Liineberg, Han,, 5314 | 1028 20°2 . Barnaul, ia, (5320 | 8827 24 esi ee Annan, "300, 6. Hamburg, 53 33 958 10°7 mtz Me t., uxhaven, Ge by BSS 8 44 115 Braunsberg, Pr, 5420 | 1954 30°7 Becht salen 200, 5. nrade, Den., 5 9 25 19 - = Tilsit, Prussia, 5 2145E.| 12°6 % * pierre Slatoust, Russia, 5511 | 5945E.| 14 ge Copenhagen, Den, [5541 | 1935 1 Geh hler Wort, y. 4, 2, p. 1585. Memel, Prussia, 554 216] 4 Berghaus Annalen, 200, 5. Ww, hema 5547 87 44] 22°4 imtz et, ii, 459. Kasan 5552 | 4930R.| 9 “ “ Jekatetinentrg. Rus56 50 | 6034E.| 93:3 Sedbic pee 200, 5. - eee tal gt eee a ee ae Sem Prof. Loomis on the Distribution of Thunder Storms. 97 Taste V1—Continued. Place. Latitude.| Longitude. sedan bs Authority. of RF Skara, Sweden, 5822 | 1228E.| 92) 95 |Kamtz Met,, ii, 461. Stockholm, Sweden, |59 21 18 4E.} 93] 10 “7 4 Ae Spydberga, 59 38 9 E| 77| 8 “« “eee o Bogoslowsk, Rus, (5945 | 5959E.| 2 1‘ |Berghaus Annalen, 200, 6. Petersburg, Rus, [5952 | 3025E.| 12°4| 10 |Kéamtz Met. ii, 459; Arago. , Russia, 6015 | 2210E.| 10 } 12 es he Pe. Bergen, Nor., 024 | 518 58| 17 > 3s ae. Sond Or, Nor., 62 30 6 20 3-9} 12 “ “ “6 Archangel, Rus., 64 32 40 88 E 65 | 18 Berghaus Annalen, 200, 5. _ Reikiavik, Iceland, [64 8 | 22 WW.) 4 2 |Arago Met., p. ill. Fort Franklin, 6512 |12812W 1 2 “ ogg black ei sl ss deyinig*abcilabde for preserving wood, VIIL. An alkaline rome Shiained by pontine the oils with alkalie IX. Sulphate of amm X. Manure prepared by mixing the mene liquor, or the blood of Pe ane with the crushed fixed pth rie a a shale. XI. Sul Iphate of alumina from the residue of the shal [Zo be concluded. | ————— SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I, CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS. 1. On Chior ophyll.—Frémy has ont titanate’ the results of an in- is a aban cat of the green coloring 1 matter of plants. His con- ow : i Chloroph say be genset into a blue and into a yellow i: are es tated together from a very dilute aqueous solution. SERIES, Vox. XXX, No. 98.-—-JULY, 16 122 - Scientific Intelligence. riatic acid is saturated with ether. The natural chlorophyll which may be extracted from leaves by means of alcohol, may be easily decomposed into its constituents by shaking it with this mixture of muriatic acid and ether. The liquid first takes a i riatic acid takes a beautiful blue, while the ether separates, holding the yellow coloring matter in solution. Frémy calls the blue substance phyllocyanin, and the yellow phylloxanthin. When alcohol is added, so that the two liquids mix, a green is again produced, of the color of the washing is very easy and rapid; the dried salt may be ignited in a pla tinum crucible, and does not fuse at a red heat. Pyrophosphoric acid is also precipitated completely by the acid nitrate which is much more voluminous The metaphosphates behave in the same manner, but the precipitate requires a longer boiling to be completely transformed into the ordinary phosphate. : ] é | acid of specific gravity 1:36, adding to th Fart water, and filterag fn : ing 0 we solution 30 parts of di Chemistry and Physics. 123 if not soluble in water, is to be dissolved in nitric acid, avoiding a large excess, The solution is to be diluted with water, the nitrate of bismuth pr phates, which, when present, are easily removed by nitrate of silver and chlorid of barium.— Comptes Rendus, 1, p. 416. na New Mode of Preparing Calcium,—Caron has succeeded in preparing large quantities of calcium by the following process: A mix- ture of 300 parts of fused and pulverized chlorid of calcium with 400 parts of granulated distilled zinc and 100 parts of sodium in pieces is to be eated to redness in a crucible. The reaction is feeble, and after some time flames of zinc appear. The heat is then to be moderated, the tem- perature remaining as high as possible without volatilizing the zine; af- ter a quarter of an hour the crucible may withdrawn from the fire. to be placed in a crucible of gas-retort carbon and the zine expelled by heat : in this manner Caron obtained masses of 40 grammes at a single operation, and containing only the impurities of the zinc employed. As thus obtained calcium has a brass-yellow color and a density of from 1°6 to 18, it is not sensibly volatile, but filings of the metal burn with red color quickly vanishes, and the solution, on filtering, passes throug colorless, , When dianie acid is boiled with chlorhydric aeid and zine, instead of With tin, the blue solution does not appear, the precipitated acid becomes ue, but filters colorless, and is decolorized by water without being sen- S10ly dissolved. When equal quantities of dianic, tantalic, and hyponio- bie acid are boiled with concentrated eblorhydric acid, upon a funnel of While the tantalic and hyponiobie acids remain undissolved. 124 Scientific Intelligence. When freshly precipitated dianic acid is heated to boiling with dilute sulphuric acid, the milky liquid poured into a glass, and grains of dis- tilled zine thrown in, the dianic acid in a few moments becomes smalt Dianic acid appears to exist, though in a less pure state, in the tanta- lite from Greenland, in pyrochlore from the Ilmengebirg, and in the brown Wohlerite—though the author had but small quantities of these miner- als at his disposal. A small piece of black yttrotantalite, believed to be from Ytterby, gave the reaction of dianic acid. A second specimen, how- ever, » specific gravity of which was found to be 5°55, contained tanta- ¢ acid. Titanic acid is easily distinguished from the other acids of the same group, by boiling it with muriatic acid and tin, and diluting the solution with water. The blue color then passes to rose red, and the solution re- tains this color several days. When dianic acid is present, the blue color predominates, but after standing some hours the rose color of titanic acid ars appears. The tantalite from Tammela, which Von Kobell terms dianite, has 4 specific gravity of 5°5—while the other tantalites vary in density from 7:06 to 7:5. The streak of dianite is dark grey, while that of the tanta- Pe of water at 100°C. ; by J. W. M 7.*—In Berzelius’ Traité de Chimie of mercury in considerable quantity at 60° to 80° C. with the vapor water, the more volatile substance carrying with it the less volatile, as in hen heated. 1 ve been very generally noticed by the compilers of chemical text-books in treating of the history of mercury; though it is always stated that the metal is capable of volatilizing 10 4 very slight extent, even when alone, at the common temperature 0} atmosphere. Some doubt toq would seem to have been thrown upon Stromeyer’s observation by the experiments made, under peculiar condi- * Communicated by the author, ee Technical Chemistry. 125 tions, by Fresenius, and reported by him in the appendix to his treatise on quantitative analysis. It was found that 6°4402 grm. of mercury, covered with a considerable quantity of water, and heated to the boiling point of the latter for a quarter of an hour, lost but 0004 grm., while exposure to the air at summer heat for six days produced a further loss m 6. Disinfectants—The use of a mixture of coal-tar and_plaster-of- Paris for purposes of disinfection and for dressing wounds, as pro- E and x (Comptes Rendus, xlix, 127; see this ournal, xxviii, 425), has been recently re upon in the French y a committee—Chevreul, J Clojuet, and Velpeau (rappor- eat interest, which this method,—so favorably commented upon —e Wounds, the powder destroyed their odor without giving rise to *Y special pain. Upon indolent sores, however, or upon recent burns, 126 Scientific Intelligence. the contact of the powder produced considerable smarting upon some pa- tients, though well borne by others. Wounds of the first class were of- ten found to be cleaned as well as disinfected ; while those of the second them a healthier pus, and the surfaces in better condition. In a word, e it, lose at once their disagreeable odor. According to Velpeau, his’ at topsy room was as approachable towards the close of last summer as it had formally been repulsive. It was freed from flies and other insects, 48 well as from putrid odors, Although it would have been out of the province of the committee to hese inconveniences are of comparatively slight importance, it is true, ied. eo may possibly admit of being remedied ee Oe eS ee Se Technical Chemistry. 127 vegetable and mineral powders—even poudrette—when mixed with coal- tar furnish a more convenient and less costly disinfectant than that pre- pared with plaster, the experiments of the committee have proved that while codl-tar, mixed with common earth, well dried, or with sand, is equally, or perhaps much more, efficacious "for disinfecting fecal matter as has not been found advantageous in practice: most patients complained of it, their wounds — tee anything pr eenagi while the dis- infection was very imperfe ixture of plaster and coal-tar was on for it, upon to same ania, with decided advantage. Ithough the modifications of Corne and Demeaux’ process have not — been partieaincly lito thus far, they have nevertheless served to con- firm the fact that n reality it is the coal-tar which acts the principal part as eens 1D ouen various mixtures. * The ineffici by i itself may be readily pies aise I by the following prea cods which 3 of in dors bs Mog of the fact that a belief in eet a of gypsum as a deodorizer ap widely spread ee recent wri or that matter we are told by wilt ( (Cong tes Reds, x, 199) that ites , tis last 25 years more than fifty au- ears of Process: S dtichats mm have asin nced, each as he believed for the first gn hod use 0 aster as a means of disinfection. ixt ry about equal volumes ot wdered gypsum and fresh urine be introduced into a cet hial, the mixture placed in a warm room tap thoroughly shaken seve ral times a day until the urine has become putrid, ng will be observed : u ing agent, ammonia: leaving free,—purified as it were, and unadulterated, an odor, ~ liar offensiveness ~ whic 5 remarkable. Sulphate of iron being substi- 1 °d for gypsum in this experiment afforded a somewhat similar result, although ined ifle | ff Sulphate of pmo It should be here mentioned that the odors in question were in no ney ow contaminated with sulphuretted hydrogen,—as was ascertained by Careful trig’ F, H. Storer. ' 128 Scientific Intelligence. degrees of consideration. vd Among these charcoal appears in the front rank.—Surgeons have long regarded it as one of the best antiseptics known. Confined betwéen pieces of linen according to the process of Malapert and Pichot it is more read- ily applied than when used as powder directly upon wounds; but the cleanly, is susceptible of a simpler and a more general application. Coke of Boghead coal,—in powder as proposed by Moride* like carbon * In view of the claim of Moride (Comptes Rendus, xlix, 242) as well as from its general interest the following extract from a report made to the British Secretary of War ewis Thompson (London Journal of Gas Lighting, Water Supply and Sanitary Improvement, 1856, v, 11) may here be cited. Mr. Thompson states that he has instituted a set of experiments having a purely money basis as their exponent.—The articles enumerated were each employed until e wn as the d i agent was added in successive portions; the other had reference to the discontinu- ance of any offensive smell; and the attainment of this last condition was regarded as the termination of each experiment. By this means he was enabled to draw up the subjoined table which shows eh glance the comparative cost of executing the same amount of deodorizing work wit each agent on the supposition that Boghead charcoal can be had at the rate of $3°00 [==12s.] per ton, : Table showing the cost of Purifying one uniform Quality of Feculent Sewage by the several Articles mentioned, Boghead charcoal (coke), . - $300 =e acid, - < F d - 2 : oan ; lack oxyd of man ese, ~ - < < - - ad Chlorid of lime, “a he dae " i ! : 10°75 Peat charcoal, - ° é é 3 . s ie Subchlorid of iron (imperfect), = - - - - Bo ied Animal charcoal, - F i s 2 u oY O68 Chiorid of manganese (imperfect), - : * - 17°50 Bichlorid of mercury, -- -* P é 5 : - 18:00 ero chlori zinc in damp powder, - - - - 26:00 Chlorid of zine in solution as patented by Sir Wm. Burnett, - - 3700 Sulphate of copper, - Es . . . - 39°00 The sulphates of zine, iron, and alumina; common gypsum; sulphuric, sulphur tee go SEA les 5 a Technical Chemistry. 129 when employed rennin with coal-tar and plaster, alternately bse the same patients, proved to be less efficacious, less convenient and mo disagreeable than the latter. Mixed plaster and charcoal,—proposed by Herpin of ed irritates the wounds, disinfects badly, and soils everything it touc Carbonic ‘acid ,—proposed by the same author, appears to t kes ommittee to be too difficult of ale in practice, though theoretically founded upon epeeien analogie Bituminous Water of “Visos—proposed by Manne, and the mud of rivers aad as a poultice by Desmartis, ae not appear to i susceptible of being substituted for the mixture of Corne and Demea The following substances have long a aed a - = 72) i] 2 ee = o * The difficulty of ascertaining the natural limits of some species, and the mis- takes made by naturalists when describing individual peculiarities as specific, has the blunders of some naturalists in identifyi i igin of spe : ying species with the origin © cies of animals and lants. The ischief in our science now lies in the self- i or, what is still worse, as checks upon others to secure to themselves # priority, Such a treatment of scientific subjects is unworthy of our ag ee Prof, Agassiz on the Origin of Species. 149 selves change in consequence of their own acts, by changing their mode of life, etc, this is the view of Lamarck ; others still assume that ani- mals and plants tend necessarily to improve, in consequence of the “truggle for life, in which the favored races are supposed to survive ; is 1s the view lately propounded by Darwin. elieve these theories will, in the end, all share the fate of the theory of spontaneous genera- ions so called, as the facts of nature shall be confronted more closely , T 5 : with the theoretical assumptions. The theories of DeMaillet, Oken, and Lama tion of Darwin, which has crept into the title of his work, is, that fa- e preserved, while all his facts go only to substantiate the ttion, that favored individuals have a better chance in the struggle or life than others, individuals F = § = =a “ & co & J ee o nD 7 5 G 3 ay = = 3 ° > sion. be f that : ahetine pecies depen ‘or observation teaches us ti" — Ps pe is not individual peculiarity is inicdaatigly and integrally reproduced while constitutes individuality, as such, constantly disappears. . | ' : : 4 : * a ~ Prof. Agassiz on the Origin of Species. 151 has been ascertained, and that history is recorded in the life of individu- als through successive generations. The same kind of argument might be adduced from every existing species, and with still greater force by a reference to those species already known to the ancients. Let it not be objected that the individuals of successive generations have presented marked differences among themselves; for these differen- ces, with all the monstrosities that may have occurred, during these countless generations, have passed away with the individuals, as individ- ual peculiarities, and the specific characteristics alone have been preserved, together with all that distinguishes the genus, the family, the order, the ; ‘Class, and the branch to which the individual belonged. Moreover all this lias been maintained through a succession of repeated changes, amounting in each individual to the whole range of transformations, through which an individual passes, from the time it is individualized as an egg, to the time It is itself capable of reproducing its kind, and, perhaps, with all the intervening phases of an unequal production of males and females, of sterile individuals, of dwarfs, of giants, ete., ete., during which there were millions of chances for a deviation from the type. Does this not prove ae ae ee. nee, species, genera, families, orders, classes, and branches of the animal kingdom exist only as categories of thought in the Supreme Intelligence, U . number 18 derived from a primary one, remain connected to fori - uniti Ww that kind of independence resulting from an individualization ct of a single egg. e have derivative individuals aMong the Nudibranchiate Mollusks, whose eggs produce singly, by a lete se i i 4 similar phenomenon among those Acalephs the young of which stoma) ends in producing, by transverse division (Strobila), a t of Independent free Medusze (Ephyre ; e have it also among lds which produce free Meduse. Next, we must distinguish ~ Sty individuality, which is inherent to those individuals arising as 152 Book Notices. ties, such as Renilla, Pennatula, etc., among Polyps, and all the Sipho- nophore among Acalephs, we must still further distinguish another kind ing frequently of one or two spheromeres more usual, sometimes, yen, of dou rmal number, or of a few less nd yet, year alter year, the same Discophore reappear upon our shores, with the same range of differences among their individuals, Among Hydroids poly- morphism prevails to a greater or less extent, besides the differences arising from sex. Few species have only one kind of individuals. there are generally at least two kinds of Medusw in one and * same community. But notwithstanding this polymorphism among 2 individuals of one and the same community, genetically connected 1° gether, each successive generation reproduces the same kinds of heter ogeneous individuals, and nothing but individuals linked together in the " same way. Surely we have here a much greater diversity of individe- : th t als, born one from the other, than is exhibited by the mos dive breeds of our domesticated animals; and yet all these heterogent® = individuals remain true to their species, in once case as In the oN and do not afford the slightest evidence of a transmutation of speed, ould the supporters of the fanciful theories lately propound . only extend their studies a little beyond the range of domesticate fete als, would they investigate the alternate generations of the Acaleph Prof. Agassiz on the Origin of Species. 153 mals, and, perhaps, cease to be so confident as they seem to be, that these differences are trustworthy indications of the variability of species, € eggs move about, as Planule, for a short time, and then become at- tached, as Scyphostomes, and pass the winter in undergoing their Stro- h the largest number of the H ydroids, produce their Meduse brood in the few breed later, in the in the autumn; so that, standing the regularity of their periodical return, Acalephs may led, in some condition or other, uring the whole year. ‘ hen considering Individuality and Specific Differences, as manifest- - thing striking in the features which distinguish classes, it is the def- iMiteness of their structural peculiarities; and this definiteness goes a Mereasing, with new and additional qualifications, as we pass from __. Class characters to those which mark the orders, the families, the 1. ay and the species, Granting, for the sake of argument, that uy oo beings living at a later period may have originated by a grad- change of those of earlier periods, one of the most characteristic fea- *s of all organized beings remains totally unexplained by the various SECOND SERIES, Vor, XXX, No. 68—JULY, 1 eagles 154 Book Notices. theories brought forward to explain that change; the definiteness of ive, 0 lim- ~ their respective groups, be they ever s prehen r ever so lim- ited, combined with the greatest inequality in their numeric relations. There exist a few thousand Mammalia and Reptiles, and at least three times their number of Birds and Fishes, There may be twenty thou- boundaries, Now the supporters of the transmutation theory may me : : not a Bird, since there are other animals besides Birds in this world, to no one of which any bird bears as close a relation as it bears to its own class, e same argument applies to every other class; and as to the together Corals and of 2 d era in each successive geological formation, and this is equally true for Bryozoa, Brachiopods and Lamellibranchiata, for Trilobites and the other hat n | i them, I shall therefore consider the transmutation theory as a jentific mistake, untrue in its facts, unscientific in its method, and mischievo" ency, Cambridge, June 30, 1860, a ae ces Miscellaneous Intelligence. 155 for taking vapor densities are fully described. VI. MISCELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 1. Parhelia seen at Weld, Franklin Qo., Me.; by Sriumay Mas- TERMAN, (in a letter to the Editors).—Messrs. Editors aa send you the following account of a parhelion seen by myself, at this place on the 21st instant, at 10h 45™ a, m. light haze was spread over the sky at the time, for the most part 80 thin as to be scarcely visible, but at a few points coming out in lentic- ular patches of well-marked cirrus. When first noticed at the time above stated, the meteor presented the appearance delineated in the ac- companying drawing. e citcle A > was about 45° in diameter, having the sun in its centre ; and ola brilliant, having the colors the red next to the sun. It was surrounded by a bright corona of White, three or four degrees in * like AB and of a li ichtness. a? Concentric with A S vis oe "ome CD, being a little ros Pe ee » na diameter of 95°, colored like A with its red next to 156 Miscellaneous Intelligence. sun, but of twice the width of the latter, and of dazzling brillianey, The circle E F, with a diameter of about 60°, h in t 124 0m, AB had contracted to 30° diameter, and become faint. All traces of the meteor had entirely vanished at 1h 30m P. M. The i d in the mean time become gradually converted into cirro-cu- mu/us, and the thin haze had completely vanished. Weld, Franklin Co., Maine, May 28th, 1860, 2. Lolles’ improved Microscope Objectives—It has been generally sup- oscope I have recently received from Mr. Tolles a one-third inch “objective, cone structed on his plan, which has an aperture of 100° and is remarkable other tests appropriate for such an objective. This is a remarkably fine Tolles’ glasses are unsurpassed by any object-glasses for the microscope M. C. WuitTE. 8. Application of Photography in construction of Micrometers.—Thé, ‘ 2 = successful application of photography in the construction of inicrometers a has been made by Mr. Clarence Morfit of the U.S. Assa ce, Ne est divisions equal to one two-thousandth part of an inch square. The method is simple, accurate and economical. Moreover, the micrometer has the advantage of giving the exact measurement of the object in frae- Miscellaneous Intelligence. 157 tions of an inch and at the same time determines the power of the micro- scope itse i Geol logic cal Survey of California.—The Act of the California legis- tiers (approved mses 24, 1860) appoints Prof. J. D, Whitney State Ge- ologist with a salary of $6000 ot annum. He appoints his own assist- ants with the approval of the Governor. Twenty thousand dollars are appropriated to the payment wie sepetnes incurred in the survey. The provisions of the Act respecting the annual and final Reports are eminently judicious, especially that part which directs the Governor and Sevretary of State to cause the volumes of the — eo to be sold for the benefit = = Common School fund of the Sta No state geological survey was ever more gehen inaugurated, wisely Seidel for, or fraught with more interesting scientific and practi- cal problems. It is understood eos Prof. Whitney will commence his She labors in the coming autumn. - Total Solar Eclipse of July 18, 1860.—The American Nautical Al- wnihe Commission has sent three observers to the mig erland House, British Me to wk note of this e cli _ This i a station of the 6. Newport Meeting of the American Assoc panei of Science—The next ‘sheatibg of f the yee tr will be held at eae ’ » commencing on Wednesday the first of Augus cers 0 the meeting are: President, Isaac Lea, Esq. of Philadelphia ; Vice Presi- dent, Dr. B. A. Gould of Cambr idge; General Secretary, . Joseph LeConte of Colum bia, 8. Ca; Treasurer, Dr. —" Philadelphia It will be remembered that Prof. Henry, at thew request la- ton, will deliver a. discourse commemorative of the life. rhe scientific labo I. LVOBE ARE rof. — will ya rate name ie w of the wertesition = held. 1. Letter from John McCrady, Esq., perio on the Lingula pyra- _M™mdata tissas by Mr. W. Siimpaon a x, p.444.—Dear SrrMPson : _ Tbelieve you are connected with the 'Gadlogial along of pom 8 ! Journal during the absence of Prof. Dana. ou_ have also, I see, decribed there our Lingula, long known to naturalists but not before de: scribed. It was found more than ten years ago on our coast by the Rev . shed ae tt the Beaufort species can edly be different from the South Car- Olinian 158 Miscellaneous Intelligence. rough this perfectly transparent shell is visible a lining mem- brane or rather the borders of such a membrane, which is the mantle. Within this and near the hinge, a large flask-shaped body containing a digestive cavity surrounded by a dark mass. This cavity extends into the neck of the bottle shaped cavity (cesophagus) and terminates towards the gap of the shell in a mouth. From the opposite or basal end of the digestive cavity goes off a pretty long intestine which turns first to the left, makes several convolutions and terminates in an anus on the right about a line in length. There is no trace of a peduncle. It appears o al, , u with a fi lished in the forthcoming issues of the Elliott Society of Charleston. = =i 8 re) cS 8 a> 7 = ig fee] for) ao = 2 = wD o 3°) = o =| Q o o = et = @ 2 Ce sy i=] GQ =) > oo S Sec Académie des Sciences at Paris, June 4, they exhibited (1.) Two ingots of platinum weighing together 25 kilograms, fused in the same ‘ cast in an ingot mould of cast iron. The surface of the metal shows eVE dence of perfect fluidity and carries the impression of characters engraved ; on the surface of the mould. : (2.) A toothed wheel, of platinum cast in ordinary founders’ sand w4 shown. This was cast in the mode common for cast iron in a tw part flask with a sprue and vent holes as usual. Miscellaneous Intelligence. 159 The metal used they obtained by the dry mode from the crude plati- num and platinum-money which the Russian Government had placed at their disposal; the details of the process being reserved for a second com- munication to the Academy.— Comptes Rendus, June 14, |, 138. 9 H Main among the mountains until his return, toward the close of summer. =. health is slowly but steadily improving mpaired. ‘ - J. P. Cooxr, of Cambridge, lately read before the Chemical oe London a paper on the compounds of antimony and zine (SbZn‘ “n"), designed to show that crystalline form is not a necessary indi- cation of definite chemical composition. A copy of this paper from the ~ Author reached us at too late a date for publication in the present num- 1 : € gold awarded (May 28), at the suggestion of Sir R. I. Murchison, to Lapy RANKLIN eek a LEorotp MoCurwrock .—to the first in consideration Terror and the i iti i raphy. acco ditions to Arctic geography: : ADY FRANKLIN ng onl dey M: expected soon to arrive In the United States as the guest of Henry Grinnell, Esq., Vice-President of the Amer- ‘ean Geographical Society. * Vol, xxvi, No. 78, 305, Nov. 1858. 160 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 12. To our Correspondents we owe an apology for the unavoidable post- ponement to a succeeding Number of several valuable pa pers, ¢r ¥ vi lists of new books, or a considerable mass of scientific intelligenee, pro- : Reon of societies, bibliography, &c., already in type. Obituary.—The Rev. Bapen Powe tt, Professor of Geometry in ie University of Oxford and ~~ distinguished as a mathematician and physicist, died there in Jun HARLES GOODYEAR, widely Keown as the discoverer of “ vulcaniza- tion” of aaichens died i in New York, July 1st, aged fifty-nine years. Canaptan NATURALIST AND pecewt, Dec,, 1859. Vol. IV.—p. 411, Notes on land and sea byte observed a d Quebec; J. M. LeMoine.—p, 414, Chemical cg A - Hun nt.—p. 426, Foals of the hore limestone, with new species ; Pip: ici roan.— Feb. 1860, Vol. V.— —p. 1, Davies ‘ant of Canada; Dawson.—p. 14, List of plants and near Prescott, C. W.; Billings.—p. bs, Tubie in Marine Worms of of the Gulf of St. Lawrence; Dawson. — m3 30 Mar Alge ; Kemp.—p. zoic fossils; Billings. April—p. 81, Natural History of the cere of the "River uge ; Urban—p. 100, Review of Darwin; Dawson.—p. ketch of the life of Mr. David Douglas—p. 132, On the Silurian and Dev as rocks f Nova Scotia; Lawson.—p. 144, New fossils from the Silurian of ~: ova Sec Proceepines Puitapetruia Acap, Nar. Ser, 1860.—p. 8 " Rotien, of se death of Dr. Hallowell—p. 82, Habits of an Ocelot kept ame Corrected numbers of Unionide ; Lea—On Hyalonema mirabilis from J: apan; _— , Donation of 28,000 specimens of birds, by l p. 88, Oa the coloring matter of = Nacre in Uniones: ea.—p. 89, New South erican i ; Lea.—p. 92, New Uniones and Mela 2 5 e € fossils from ah —p. 96, Rrainants in chemical geology ; Lesley. ichina spiralis ; Z p. 97, On the palpi of S. American Anod On a gneiss lder in Orange Co., N. Y.; Les/ —p. 98, New botanical locality; Leidy.—On the Albertite of New Brunswick ; ’.—Experiments in Vision; Rogers.—p. 100, Conspectus piscium, ete., the Sicydianz coll ted on North Pacitic Expedition; Theo. Gi p. 102, Monograph of the genus Lab os Sw.; =~ 8, Monograph of genus Labrax, ; (Mr, Gill ur American species generically tp from th — ean type. : he places in the Agee us Roceus, and the white perch in Morone—names from Mitchell.)—p. 120, Monograph of the Philypni; Gill —p. 126, Notice logical discoveries ae by Capt. J. H. Simpson ; Meek and Engelman.— i d on the Isthmus of Darien by the expedition Michler, with ete: = ‘eos maa am te new species eee JOURNAL OF T or URAL SCIENCES 8 OF Pur ea New Vol. IV, Pt. ITI, Mary 1860, = Dieecriptiog of Edotie Uniooide, 3 plates —New Cretaceo and "Eocene fossils from Mississi a arti css pee (2 ee, - Con rad. pit wc W pl abb,— Reflections the ates of the temporary star of the year 1572,—an pits of the 9 hypothesis; Wilcoc ROCEEDINGS Boston Soc. Nar. Hisr., 1 226, On two Birds from Bogota —Turdus minimus (Lafresnaye) and —~ Bogoteni cha ); Dr. Henry pe us ( =p. pe Forslferous slate pbs sandstone (Devonian) from the Dennis river, Prof. W. B. Rogers.—p. 228, Spines « of ‘Siluroid fishes from a hae! s blubber; =a : C. F. Winsl a= “Cocoa-nut pear! ; Discussion 08 subject of fee Dr. J. B. Jeiries, Prop : s, and Dr, Gould—p 2, Diseu the theory of Darwin; Agassiz, Emerson, and P. ihre Description of Hoplocampa rubi, by Q t Pesto ve Pp. 235, 1 marks on its history by Noyes Darling, Hsq.; Mr. Scudder.—p. 2 eological es ee of Most Mr. C. H. Hitcheock, with tthe by Prof. W. B. "Rogers.—P- 040, _— f an elephant’s tooth as an example of gg ergy Dr. hit fe. oP ? of fracture of a thick glass tube; Prof. W. B. Rogers, Peay a oe oe 5 / s< 2 ae a ey y a . sie ee Eo Y CHART z ef SHEWING THE DISTRIBUTION - eT . ‘a WALT IVE : = THE + AMERICAN oa] ; ; } Py ~ JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. es & ; a [SECOND SERIES] : _ Art. XV.—On the Nebular Hypothesis; by Professor DANIEL | IRKWOOD, Bloomington, Indiana. THE records of our planet’s physical history, from the dawn | he h of man’s creation, i have, for the most part, been brought to light since the com- mencement of the nineteenth century. Within this brief period . history as yet undeveloped; the grand out- lines of which must be ferived chiefly from celestial phenomena. t ard to the other. It must icle i ; han a sci- the present article is designed as a popular rather t entific discussion of this interesting subject, and we on its Pi tg will not be abated by the fact that a portion of the mat- eee Wee presente nt a brie ew. We shall in the first place prese the origin and nature of Lapland theory; secondly, a connected AM. JOUR. SCL—sECOND SERIES, Vor. XXX, No. 89—SEFT., 1860, 21 162 Prof. D. Kirkwood on the Nebular Hypothesis. view of the principal phenomena by which it is sustained; and thirdly, consider the most prominent of the objections which en urged against it. Asa group, our solar system is comparatively isolated in space; the distance of the nearest fixed star being at least seven thou- sand times that of Neptune, the most remote known planet. Be- sides the central or controlling orb, it contains, so far as known at present, sixty-seven primary planets, twenty-one satellites, three planetary rings, and nearly eight hundred comets. In ta- ing the most cursory view of this system of bodies, we cannot. fail to notice the following interesting facts in regard to the mo- ‘ tions of 1ts various members :— 1. The sun rotates on his axis from west to east. 2. The primary planets all move nearly in the plane of the sun’s equator. 3. The orbital motions of all the planets, primary and second- os ary, except the satellites of Uranus and perhaps those of Nep- tune, are in the same direction with the sun’s rotation. : 4, The direction of the rotary motions of all the planets, pri- mary and secondary, in so far as has been observed, is identical with that of their orbital revolutions; viz., from west to east. 5. The rings of Saturn revolve about the planet in the same ; direction. 6. ‘The planetary orbits are all nearly circular. 7. The cometary, is distinguished from the planetary portion of the system by several striking characteristics : the orbits of com ets are very eccentric and inclined to each other, and to the ecliptic at all possible angles. The motions of a large proportion of comets are from east to west. The physical constitution of the latter class of bodies is also very different from that former; the matter of which comets are composed being so eX ceedingly attenuated, at least in many instances, that fixed stars have been distinctly visible through what appeared to be the densest portion of their substance. nt _ None of these facts are accounted for by the law of gravita- tion. The sun’s attraction can have no influence whatever in de- of one = = =] GQ @ > oO 3 ct oo oO 2 S 3 ~ Oo Ss =) ar) i) pod be] =] 4) ot nm 5 ° os _ ° 5 ° ba | = oO iss) 8 B to east; in an orbit having any possible degree of inclination 1 the pane of the sun’s equator, no less than in one coincident with it; or, : little from a circle. The consideration of the coincidences whi te = Pe Prof. D. Kirkwood on the Nebular Hypothesis. 1638 collect into several masses, having orbits nearly identical. “‘ These Masses should assume a dpkeeoiaal would be bj If it be said that the small eccentricities of the planetary or- i the approximate coineidence of their planes with that of the Solar equator, and the uniformity of direction 1n which the plan- ts move, are ultimate facts that the final cause of these arrange- * Harte’s Translation of Laplace’s System of the World, ¥ol. ii, note vii, 164 Prof. D. Kirkwood on the Nebular Hypothesis. ut this assumed purpose in the place of a physical cause. e are not to think it a sufficient account of the clouds that they are for watering the earth—to take Bacon’s examples—or ‘ that the sol- idness of the earth is for the station and mansion of living crea- t Legislator. He finds that the effects, of which the use is obvious, are produced by most simple and comprehensive laws ; and when e has obtained this view, he is-struck by the beauty of the means, by the refined and skillful manner in which the use effects are brought about ;—points different from those to which his researches were directed.” : : s the question, then, to which the cosmogony of Laplace pro poses a solution, is a legitimate one, we shall proceed to consider con sequently the resulting planets—would all revolve on nearly f same plane. It is evident also that the central orb must aig ave a greater absolute velocity than those nearer to it, pile would produce the observed unity of direction in the Ce ais orbital revolutions. The motions of the satellites are explain 4 like manner. The hypothesis, moreover, accounts satistieee 4 for the fact that the orbits of the planets are all nearly © * Bridgewater Treatise, vol. ii, p. 180. 2 4 — a Prof. D. Kirkwood on the Nebular Hypothesis. 165 And finally, it presents an obvious explanation of the rings of Saturn. It would almost seem, indeed, as if these wonderful an- nuli had been left by the Architect of Nature, as an index to the creative process. The argument derived from the motions of the various mem- bers of the solar system is not new, having been forcibly stated by Laplace, Pontécoulant, Nichol, and other astronomers. Its fall weight and importance, however, have not, we think, been y 2. The fact that this theory of the genesis of the solar system ‘ay be extended to the binary and multiple systems oe the so-called fixed stars, may be urged as no inconsiderable evidence r even seventy fect high. Now in regard to oO Z f=] OQ S SS = a = ee w = oO pao ie i’ =] ° = =] ee =n & > = nm Similar result, This high temperature of the earth’s surface du- ning the earlier stages of its physical history, 1s attributed by Most geologists to a central heat,* which diffused itself through- * A different theory i jent hi f th t theory in d to the ancient high temperature of the sarth has been developed by the celebrated Poisson, Starting with the fact—established be- 166 Prof. D, Kirkwood on the Nebular Hypothesis. out the entire mass. That the interior of our planet is in a.state of igneous fluidity, or has, at least, an extremely high tempera- ture, is now very generally admitted. As we descend from the surface we find a regular increase of heat, varying indeed for different localities, partly no doubt, on account of the different pi greet upheaving power by which not only mountains, but islan y radiation from the surface. “There is no small reason,” says Professor Hitchcock, “to suppose that the globe underwent nu- merous changes previous to the time when animals were placed pon it ; that, in fact, the time was when the whole matter of nt on the first transition of matter condensing from the gaseo-fluid into the solid : en, bd. xxxix, S. 93—100. Pr; Idt’s Cosmos, vol. i. p. ; : See Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, p. 102, similarity of lava, wherever found, and the close agreement as to compo- ing through and intersecting the walls of modern volcanoes, are proofs that all such roves op a common origin, and are due, as w: ~ phenomena of earthquakes, to fi i fl ani : earth. Portlock’s Ruddnentiry Cookapy:: ang eta on the yh hated paee ee F Sod — ches of Hopkins and Hennessy have led to different results in regard to - k ickness of the earth's crust. See Trans. of the Rey. Soc. for 1839, p- 381; for {i0, p. 198; for 1342, p. 43; for 1851, Part Il, p. 495. Also, this Journal Ex “ee 1, 1852, p. 271, and for May, 1853, p. 126, For “some suggestions Plocau tion of the primitive Incandescent condition of the Earth and the other » See Monthly Notices of the Roy, Astro. Soc. for January 13th, 1854- Prof. D. Kirkwood on the Nebular Hypothesis, 167 the earth was in a melted and not improbably also in a gaseous state."* All this, it will be perceived, is in striking accordance with the Nebular Hypothesis. 4. Whatever may be the nature of the elevating force, it is not confined to our globe. The lunarand planetary mountains afford evidence of its action in the other members of our system—a fact which seems indicative of their common origin. _5. The spheroidal figure of the planets points to a great and significant fact in regard to their primitive constitution—the fact that they have all, at former epochs in their history, been in a liquid, if not in a gaseous state. That the polar flattening of the earth is not conclusive evidence of its primitive fluidity, has been affirmed, we are aware, by more than one writer of scientific emi- nence. If we suppose our planet to have been originally solid and perfectly spherical—its surface being entirely covered with water—the effect of its axial revolution would be the accumula- _ fon of water in the equatorial region, and a consequent reces- sion from the poles. Sir John Herschel remarks,+ that the grad- ual abrasion of these polar continents and their slow deposition in the deep equatorial ocean would eventually reduce the solid earth itself to the form of an oblate spheroid. Recently, how- Supposed by Herschel, would be ;};, while that found by ac teal Measurement is ;1, to szs!5az-¢ The theory of primitive fluidity may therefore be regarded as fully established. is ther? of remark that the oblateness of Mars is much greater — they could assume the figure appertaining to their ve- ity of rotation.” "gies “ton of the phenomena of comets. Laplace supposed these bod- . to have had their origin in portions of nebulous matter which a np Our system from different quarters of the heavens. The * Religion of g . eology, p.22, + Outlines, Arts 226, 227. } Midler, p, 50, this vol. § Humboldt’s Cosmos, vol, iv, (Bohn’s Edition,) p. 427. 168 Prof. D. Kirkwood on the Nebular Hypothesis. any degree of inclination to the plane of the ecliptic. Their mo- T times the distance of the sun from the earth. A still greater oes produced in the orbits of the comets of 1770, and of The largest are from fifty to one hundred and fifty miles in diameter, and some are from three to four miles deep. In no case, owevel, 3 doubtless the phenomena justify the inference that at some Te mote epoch in the past history of our satellite, its crust has = pa in operation during the historical period, sink into insignificance. In contemplating these striking characteristics of the surface—the traces of ancient igneous activity over the whole _ visible hemisphere, and the apparent absence of organization it is natural to inquire—what is their physical import? ee satellite, in accordance with the nebular hypothesis, has solidifi m a gaseous state, the earth having also undergone process, the latter, on account of its superior magnitude, W require a much longer period than the former to cool down from * System of the World, Harte’s Translation, vol. ii, p. 364 Prof. D. Kirkwood on the Nebular Hypothesis. 169 a condition of igneous fluidity. The moon may therefore be far- ther advanced in its physical history than the earth. On_ this subject Mr. Nasmyth, of Manchester, England, who has deyo- ted much time and attention to observations on the lunar surface, remarks as follows:—“ Having in my travels, seen the actual re- sults of volcanic action, extinct and active, 1 think I can com- prehend what I observe on the moon, and trace the analogy Im x ing phenomenon, having for its cause and source great cosmical mere chemical action ; and, in that view, I consider molten lava, and the heat of vol- active phenomenon will dwindle away, and finally cease to ex ist—the solid crust of the earth so increasing in thickness as to prevent the issue of any of the yet remaining molten matter om its interior, “The moon, from its small mass, and proportionally great sur- face, must kave cooled down much more rapidly than the earth; and all have been dead, tranquil and silent, for countless ages, ere we had passed over our rampant volcanic era, of which our he tremendous modern volcanoes are but mole-hills in com- ison, Jupiter and. Saturn.—What indications do the belts of Jupiter and Saturn afford in regard to the present physical condition of these planets? When our own planet was in a molten state, Where was the water which now constitutes our oceans ? It ed Necessarily have existed in the form of vapor, entirely surroun ‘| Ing the earth, and at a considerable distance fromit. Nor coul this water descend to, and remain perman ntly upon the surface, il Tong after the solidification of the crast by cooling. Dur- ig this “ pre-oceanic” period, our globe, 1b 18_! appeared 4 a diacat iasie tt much as Jupiter and Satur to d Saturn to cool down from their original molten and incandescent nese to such a 1860. AM. JOUR. SCL-3ECOND SERIES, Vou. XXX, No. -SEPT., 22 170 Prof. D. Kirkwood on the Nebular Hypothesis. temperature as would be fitted to permit their oceanic matter permanently to descend and remain upon the surface, would be vastly longer than in the case of such a comparatively small planet as earth,” Thus, in accordance with the nebular hypothesis, it would seem that Jupiter and Saturn, on account of their vast dimen- sions, still retain so much of their primitive heat as to produce the vaporous envelopes by which they are surrounded. by Mr. A. D. Wackerbarth, as follows: ‘Suppose a nebula such as that from which the earth, sun, and planets, are suppos- bly be composed of elements more or less the same as those whereof our own planet is furmed.* Some, indeed, of the lat- ter we might suppose wanting, and others present which we possess not here; but on the whole, let us suppose that e ¢ would thus form an immense spheroid of nebulous matter Te- volving round its own minor axis; or rather, if that matter were not quite homogeneously distributed, on an axis passing throug its centre of gravity. We may suppose or not as we please, that this nebula has a nucleus, as many nebula appear to have, au many not to have, any such portion; but in the former case we nebula, thus composed, may wander a longer or shorter period in space peacefully ; but now let us suppose a disturbance such any cause, which would bring them and the oxygen into contact, would cause fearful explosions, and set the whole nebula 2 * It is a remarkable fact that no new elements have been found in meteori¢ stones, which are now d sphere, a en form 2 from vaporous rings describing their orbits round the central body ?” (Cosmos, ra i, p. 120.) Mr. Wackerbarth extends this hypothesis in regard to the identity of to stellar systems, f ; Prof. D. Kirkwood on the Nebular Hypothesis. 171 space, to revolve as burning globes around itself, or the centre of gravity of the whole. But what would be the condition of one 8. The Satellites—It is a remarkable coincidence in regard to the motions of the moon that her rotation is completed in a period Precisely equal to that of her orbital revolution. ‘The same is ably, indeed, of all secondaries. Such coincidences are pe to be ascribed to chance. Either, therefore, we must regard them: be inclined t ‘ ; ors oOadopt the former alternative. the philosophic nee is for explanation, 1. @, for the breaking up 2 complex phenomena into familiar sequences, at There * Monthly Notices of 9th, 1856. , the Roy. Astr. Soc. for May sa % t Edinburgh Review, No. ore: + Principia, B. iii, Prop. xxxvii, Cor. 172 Prof. D. Kirkwood on the Nebular Hypothesis. the third, equal toasemi-cireumference. At the same time, : gave rise to a periodic inequality, which depends on the smal all the care Delambre took in his observations, he could not re cognize this inequality, which, while it evinces its extreme small- ness, also indicates, with a high degree of probability, the exist ence of a cause which makes it disappear. In our hypothes!® * Dr. Nichol. : 5 Prof. D, Kirkwood on the Nebular Hypothesis. 173 the satellites of Jupiter, immediately after their formation, did not move in a perfect vacuum; the less condensible molecules of the primitive atmospheres of the sun and planet would then constitute a rare medium, the resistance of which being different The occasional rapid variation in the of Several members of the group—changes not attributable to Sao of distance—would seem to indicate some peculiarity ‘eir physical constitution. _(.) The asteroids already discovered amount to one for about ery six degrees of longitude. Their number appears to tm- * Harte’s Translation of Laplace's System of the World, vol. ii, p. 367. 176 Prof. D. Kirkwood on the Nebular Hypothesis. the former, is ¢hird also in the latter. Mars, it is true, has a gre sphere of attraction than the earth; it may be remarked, owever, that owing to the small size of the planet, and its proximity to Jupiter, a satellite would not be stable unless very near the primary. a, 13. Recapitulation—Simplicity of the Nebular Hypothesis.— When the number and variety of the phenomena explained by the nebular hypothesis are duly considered, the weight of evi: dence in its favor must be admitted, we think, by every unbiass: ed mind. The rotation of the sun; the unity of direction of the planetary motions; the approximate coincidence of the planes 12 which the planets move, with the plane of the solar equator, the general agreement between the direction of the axial and orbital revolutions; the small eccentricities of the planetary orbils; the rings of Saturn; the central heat of the earth; the oblate form and primitive fluidity of the planets; the origin of comets ; telescopic revelations in regard to the physical constitution of the sun, moon, and some of the planets; the phenomena of variable stars; the equality between the periods of rotation and orbital revolution of the satellites; the extraordinary phenomena presented by the first three satellites of Jupiter ; the zone © as: teroids between Mars and Jupiter; the zodiacal light; the anal- ogy between the periods of rotation of the primary planets ; the distribution of the satellites ;—all, as we have seen, are account: ed for by the nebular cosmogony, while for many of them r least, no other explanation has ever been offered. ‘Adopting this hypothesis, all the motions of the solar system are derived from a single impulse communicated by the Creator to the primiuve nebula: rejecting it, each motion of every member de ands the separate operation of his power. Now, “if there be two mga of explaining any phenomenon of nature, then, ceteris part's that.is the most probable which is the most simple. what we observe in the creation around, we are forced conviction that the Almighty acts in this respect with that ee my of creative energy, which, although infinitely more perfec in its degree, has nevertheless its visible type in that husbandry of our resources, that disposition to economy in our efforts, whi impels us always to avail ourselves of the simplest possible means of effecting all that we wish to do. upon the Prof. D. Kirkwood on the Nebular Hypothesis. 177 former, and that infinitely.” Objections to the Nebular Hypothesis. 1. The Satellites of Uranus.—It has been objected to the ne- bular hypothesis that it cannot be reconciled with the retrograde motion of the satellites of Uranus. We reply that in every in- stance, so far as we know, the motions of secondary planets are performed in planes nearly perpendicular to the axis of the pri- mary, but that in no case, with the single exception of Jupiter, is the axis of a primary planet nearly perpendicular to the plane of its own orbit. The earth’s axis is inclined more than twenty- atmos, heres of the sun and planets at their formation, they must scribed spirals, and consequently fallen on the bodies, Pa : Consequence of their fall, caused the planes of the orbits ) m Bare order of the system, by some foreign law or occurrence.” oe While the hypothesis requires in general that the direction of thei ll as that of the orbital motions their satellites, should be the same as that of their revolution ok Meee of the World, Harte’s Translation, vol. ii, Pp First Riema Be Important Points Relating to th Ate oy cP 10 , B64. e System of the World. ‘SECOND SERIES, Vol. XXX, No. 88—SEPT., 1860. ‘. a 178 Prof. D. Kirkwood on the Nebular Hypothesis. round the sun, an opposite direction is not, as some have suppo- sed, incompatible with it. Perhaps, indeed, it is not more imprub- able than a permanent ring, like that of Saturn, or a zone of small planets like the asteroids. We have supposed that on the breaking up of a nebulous ring its matter collected into several masses, the orbits of which were not greatly different, and that they revolved separately during an indefinite period, but ulti- mately united, except in the case of the asteroids, in one planet ary body. Those primitive masses, owing to perturbations, &., would meet in different directions, and it is by no means impos- sible that the circumstances of the collision and coalescence of the nebulous fragments may have been such as to overcome the natural tendency to rotate in the direction of the orbital motion. Again: the form of the primary ring may have influenced the original direction of the planet’s rotation, and hence that of its secondary rings and the resulting satellites. If the thickness of a ring was greatest in the direction at right angles to the plane of its motion, or if the diameter of its mass when it first assumed the form of a gaseous planet, was greatest in that direction, the plane of rotation would probably, for obvious reasons, be in- clined to that of the orbit; the amount of inclination depending upon the ratio of the diameters.* . The Revelations of Lord Rosse’s Telescope.—The opponents of the nebular hypothesis affirm that it derived its chief support from the supposed existence of irresolvable nebulz ; that is, of widely diffused vaporiform matter not yet aggregated into stars, but slowly undergoing the process of condensation. Such, until 1846, was believed to be the constitution of a large proportion of those mysterious objects. The great nebula in Orion, for m= stance, was thonght to present decided indications of irresolva bility. Lord Rosse’s telescope, however, has shown it to consist at least in some portions, of minute stellar points, in extremely close proximity; in the language of Dr. Nichol, “every W'S? every wrinkle, is verily a sand-heap of stars.” This discovely has been considered by some as satisfactory evidence that all neb- ule are resolvable. “The sublime conception of Laplace, it has been dogmatically affirmed, can hereafter be regarded as but 4 “splendid vision.” We reply that the principal evidence ted should every nebula within the reach of the telescope me nv y . conclusion that all nebulze are composed of stars. A large PIX portion remain still unresolved, even under the highest powe! ° Bivie ties hawalvo besa suggested by an anonymous writer in the Westminster pe Prof. D. Kirkwood on the Nebular Hypothesis. 179 the “Parsonstown Leviathan.” As this, however, is a point much insisted on by the opponents of the nebular cosmogony, we shall endeavor to place it in its proper light. The hypothesis that certain nebulz consist of cosmical vapor elma condensing around stellar nuclei, was proposed by Sir illiam Herschel; that of the genesis of the solar system from a primitive nebula was suggested by Laplace. The former re- sulted from a critical examination of the nebulz themselves; the latter, from a philosophical discussion of the phenomena of the so- ar system. Laplace, it is true, adopted the Herschelian theory of nebular matter, and regarded it as highly favorable to his own hypothesis. Popular writers of the present day, however, look upon the former as constituting the entire ground of Laplace’s speculations. “ The theory,” says a distinguished author,* “ pro- ceeds on the assumption of the existence and wide diffusion of a nebulous fluid.” ‘I'he achievements of Lord Rosse’s telescope are accordingly claimed as almost decisive evidence against La- place's cosmogon ow if the mere fact that we have no certain knowledge of members of the solar system are now in a fluid state, our own 1¢) rig the components as extremely minute, the nebular pee €sis does not appear to have been materially weakened by = Rosse’s discoveries, : : ora we may remark that comets and the zodiacal light the ‘rate the existence of cosmical vapor similar to that which ory assumes, * , dames Buchanan, D.D., LL.D shorten Fring the nebule as spherical in form, and not as vastly long vistas fore- having their ends turned towards the earth—which would be improba- or thése in its remote, much ss gr Bi of distance, It t. therefore, be an admitted fact that stars of tl Hed and eighth Sinspalteidea gad frresalvablé nebulw may coéxist within limits pee comparatively small, and that all inferences in regard to relative dis- Tawn from relative magnitudes must be received with caution.”—Bartlett’s my, Pp. 2. Pherical Ag 29 180 Prof. D. Kirkwood on the Nebular Hypothesis. most prominent objection to the nebular hypothesis is its alleged atheistic tendency. It has been characterized as an attempt to ex one in regard to which much misapprehension app to have place, trifugal force, cohesion, and chemical combination. The thesis does not assume, however, that these laws were self-origit- ated and independent material forces. It bas no conflict with Divine revelation. It assumes the existence of chaotic mattet— erty of matter, nor an absolute cause of motion. The : law by which it is expressed, so far from being independent an All-wise and Omnipotent Author, is simply the rule by which sary consequence that the nebular hypothesis is utterly incom patible with the very system to the support of which @ false philosophy has attempted to pervert it. Moreover, if the power of the Veity is manifested in accordance with a uniform syste™—— a “law of nature”—in sustaining and governing the material universe, why should it be regarded as derogating from his per fections to suppose the same power to have been exerted 10 ® similar way in the process of its formation ? *#O $8 . ' it rd oe Government, B, IL, chap, i, sec. 1. . Prof. D. Kirkwood on the Nebular Hypothesis. 181 But some writers, among whom we may mention in particular the author of the ‘‘ Vestiges,” have attempted to connect the nebular hypothesis with the Lamarckian theory of development. ach of these hypotheses, however, is complete in itself. The arguments which lie against the latter have no logical bearing whatever against the former. It is not necessary to our purpose therefore to discuss the Lamarckian theory; this has been ably done by Miller, in his ‘Footprints of the Creator ;” Buchanan, in his “Modern Atheism ;” and by other distinguished writers on both sides of the Atlantic. We have no hesitation, however, in from the foregoing discussion, that € confirmation of the nebular hypothesis would tend to reduce Present, all-sustaining Governor of the Universe. *oomington, Indiana, 1860. 182 Prof. O. N. Rood on a New Theory of Light, Art. XVI.—On a new Theory of Light, proposed by John Smith, M.A.; by O@DEN N. Roop, Professor of Chemistry in Troy University. certain fraction of a second; it is succeeded by shadow or dark- ness, which lasts also during a certain short interval of time, when the operation is repeated anew, &c ; This pulsation of light and shade the author effects in a variety black spiral figures painted on them, when set 1. A blackened disc nine inches in diameter, was cut with four slits of the shape Seen in the wood cut; the width of the slits at the circumference was 7s Of an inch; the disc was made to rotate before a bright cloud. * Pogg. Ann. vol. xly, p. 227. we Prof. O. N. Rood on a New Theory of Light. 183 it was therefore fairly to be expected that if the disc was really tansmitting red light, the plate of glass would do the same. The result was different; through the glass the dise appeared of a bright greenish-blue color. This experiment is very easy to make, and the effect is brilliant. _Flates of glass of other tints were now employed ; the results are given below Medium, Tints of the Disc Yellow glass, Violet, Green“ Green, neutral, or faint red, Red x3 Red, neutral, or faint green. aaah of the complementary tint, more or less mingled wit @ or aring now shown that, contrary to Mr. Smith’s supposition, the light transmitted by the revolving disc is really white, let us Rotice some of its effects on the eye Py diameter and perforated with four slits 7° 12’ in the width was _~ *etin rotation, and the bright sky viewed through it; the eye of the observer. being immediately behind the disc. With a _ ‘Tate of 114 revolutions per second, the appearance 2. of the window was as in fig. 2; a central spot was colored piuish-green, the rest of the field was pur- co PURPLE 8 long as the rate of revolution continued the ' or shadow was fringed with a narrow, faint bas spot border, indicated by the dotted line. 184 Prof. O. N. Rood on a New Theory of Light. Upon increasing the rate of revolution, the bluish- 3, green spot expanded into an irregularly shaped ring, and continued to expand, filling the field, till the rate had become as high as 15 rotations per second, when often the field for an instant became of a greenish tint which was succeeded by a bluish tint; upon increasing the speed this also vanished. Still higher rates cease to produce any of these pe- | puRPrE culiar effects on the eye. SERS Upon slowly reducing the rate to 9 revolutions per second, the green spot contracted in dimensions, and assumed a w tint, while the field often became at the same time tinted deep crimson. With a rate still lower, the appearance of the field 1s variable and the tints flickering; it assumes sometimes a purple, a yellow, or a yellowish green tint. : This experiment I repeated a great number of times, with the same general result, and though it sometimes happened that the eye became insensible to these colors, from repetition, momentary rest in darkness restored this power for a short time. ‘Thus it occurred that the tints were sometimes seen with great distinct ness, While at others they could hardly be distinguished. on a dark cloudy day to produce these effects it was found necessary to increase the width of the slits to 20°; from whence it was manifest that lack of intensity in the light might be made up by its longer duration. It would appear then, from these experiments, that light from a bright cloud, if allowed to act on the eye repeatedly dunng from ;}5 to 74; of a second, developes subjective colors; ta however, the development of the subjective tint is dependent. not so much on the length of time which the eye is exposed, 8s upon the interval of rest or shade which follows each exposul® may be shown in the following manner: In the experimen? where with 114 revolutions a reddish purple was produced, the exposure lasted 51, of a second; the interval of rest oF shade. was ;'; of a second; now a disc was cut similar to fig. }; having eight slits, each 7° 12’ in width, when it:was found that 5°d instead of 11:5 revolutions per second produced the purplish: red tint; here the exposure was twice as long, but the interv! of rest or shade nearly the same. With sixteen slits, 23's revolt: tions produced the same tint, the exposure being of course fout mes as long, but the interval of rest nearly the same. Deter minations of the length of this interval are given below:— Length of the intervals of shade required for the production of — a, rs Biue,. ry ye eee eee eee ht ee bre beccstoerte te sec. ~ : Ns Purplish-red, . eae ee ee ee ee ee ae ee ee sy e : To ascertain exactly what portions of these intervals elapse 4 Prof. O. N. Rood on a New Theory of Light. 185 before these tints make their appearance, or how long the tints are actually seen by the eye, is another matter, and would no doubt require an elaborate series of experiments, though it would seem probable that at least half of the time of the above given intervals passes before the subjective color makes its appearance. The table does not apply to the axial portion of the retina, which is almost always differently affected. ‘That the change in susceptibility in the retina is progressive outwards, is shown by the gradual expansion of the green ring; that it varies from sevond to second, is seen in the fluctuations of the outline of this ring. The occurrence and sequence of these subjective colors may easily be explained by supposing that during the interval of rest or shadow the action of the yellow rays diminishes more Tapidly than that of the red, the red more rapidly again than that of the blue. If this takes place as indicated by the curves below, it is easy to understand the production of the tints, for if 4. the moment after the blue \ has been developed white \\ seen, sufficient time not having been allowed for their production, he same reasoning applies jo rar) r greater sensibility to such impressions of light, requires a some- What longer interval of rest before the reaction occurs. If the impression be too strong, that is, if the light be too Tight or the eye too long exposed to it, these peculiar effects ‘re not observed, and during such short intervals of rest as ;'5 or 7s of a second the white clouds seen through the dises suffer re ee In tint; but if a blackened disc ; elve Inches in diameter be cut as seen in Image of the sky, of a bluish-green tint. A ic it follows that an exposure of the oh white light lasting ,', of a second, : ‘ai, eR in it for a considerably longer time the sensation of this AM, JOUR. SCL_SECOND SERIES, Vor. XXX, No. 89—SEPT., 1860. 24 186 H. A. Newton on the Meteor of November, 1859. Tn general these experiments seem to point out that after mo- mentary exposure to white light subjective colors are induced in the eye, whose tint and duration are dependent on the strength of the impression received, as well as upon the length of time allowed for rest; these sensations of color apparently having a relation to the colors observed after looking at the sun, similar to that which a temporary disorder bears to a chronic affection. Troy University, March 20, 1860. Art. XVII—On the Meteor of November 15th, 1859; by Prof H. A. Newton, Yale College. _1N the forenoon of November 15th, 1859, about half-past nine o'clock, a meteor or meteorite was seen to descend towards the le coliection of statements of se yin ass., to Pe- accurately as possible the path and velocity of the meteorite. The result of my investigation has been to establish almost ie In several instances have the paths of meteors or shooting necessitate with respect to them the same conclusion. But ty rtain me worthy of confidence. I have thought, therefore, that a cat The observations from Alexandria, Va., and New Haven, Ct. seem for several reasons the best for determining its path throug a “Abram Martin, a student particularly well qualified for iw observations, was fortunately, standing perfectly still with the H. A, Newton on the Meteor of November, 1859. 187 Ist obs’n.} 2nd ofa’n. | Mean. Apparent altitude at moment of appearance, ; ° 394° 39$° imuth, . “ “ N.83 E| N- 85 E. |N, 84 E. Apparent altitude at moment of disappearance, behind houses, ‘ ; ‘ j poor ee bb 10° 105° Azinuth, “« “ “ N.77 E.| N. 76 E. IN. 764E. The time of flight was estimated at two seconds. The deter- _ Mnation of the point from which it originated was made some weeks after the 15th of November. distant. The°course of the street is about S. 29° W. He says it must have been seen as far east as the line of the street. r. arance, and second, Which J udge Boardman said equ , "sme and measuring this inclination. The perpendicular lines of the buildings would help to impress on his mind the direction. The tude of about 6°. The time of flight was estimated as‘one second, ower extremity, But the part seen by Judge Boardman must have een very nearly straight, and may be so considered with- a. Serious error. The plane passing through New Haven, and the Point of the heavens S. 35° 3 ann of the table of Mr. Hallowell in a straight line, Which shall consider the path of the meteor. This line cuts the earth 188 H. A. Newton on the Meteor of November, 1859. ml tude was 49° 35 in the same azimuth as New Haven. In the third column of the table below, is given the reported inclination, and in the fourth, the angle at which the path above assigned to the meteor would be seen to be inclined to the vertical circle at the horizon. Place inclin. |-nelination |O8-~ cal. | Cal. - obs. Observers. 1 | Salem, 40° | 31° a1! | go gyr Francig F. Wallis. 2 | Waterbury, 30 34 4° Wilder Smith, 8 w York, 10 35. 24 25 27’ | Mr. Gould. 4 © 20 85 27 15 27 Mr. Latham. 5 . . 35 35 27 27 P. Pirrson, Ae % 45 S024 1-0 So Mr. Bradley, 7 | Newark, 45 | 86 33/1 8 97 Henry J, Mills. __ third I feel disposed to leave out of consideration. Perhaps the fourth should be likewise discarded. The numbers in the four column, refer to the horizon, the third in general to points above Ts are pretty nearly the same in excess as in deficiency. The i. ra angle of inclination therefore cannot be far from t th, The inclination of the meteor’s path as actually seen at Alex: andria, must have been nearly the same as that resulting hg e mean of the observations reported by Mr. Hallowell. 5 persoms at Washington, two of whom say it descended vertically. H. A. Newton on the Meteor of November, 1859. 189 The third says it apparently descended to the ground a little north of the point of its first appearance. The computed trajectory would be seen at Washington in- clined 9° 8U’ to the vertical circle. Mr. Nickerson, four miles west of Dover, says the column of smoke was nearly or quite vertical. Mrs. Cowgill, six or seven miles west of Dover, says that if it varied at all from the vertical, it disappeared to the north of the point where it was first seen. The inclinations at these two places of the computed trajec- tory, and the vertical, are 7° and 64° respectively. A line but little inclined to the vertical would be easily con- sidered strictly vertical. But one would not readily mistake the direction of inclination, For my present purpose, moreover, an error of several degrees in the inclination at Alexandria would be of little importance. 3 The length of the visible track of the meteor is the next thing tobe computed. Judge Boardinan is confident that he saw it as far east as the line of Church street. It was probably visible sometime before he saw it. If S. 29° W. be assumed as the dt- rection in which it was first seen we have a visible are of about 12°, corresponding on the real line of the meteor to a distance of 36, or more exactly 35°91 miles, The motion was nearly at tight angles to the line of vision. One extremity of this line was in N, lat, 39° 13’ 88", W. long. 74° 24’ at an altitude of 494 miles. The other extremity was in N, lat. 39° 13’ 16", and W. long. 74° 49’ 40”, at an altitude of about 22 miles. After the meteor disappeared to Judge Boardman, it must have passed several miles before it exploded and vanished. Many accounts agree in this, that it disappeared above the horizon. Some say it burst into fragments, each leaving behind a train of light. Make it explo a little less than 2°, as seen rom New oad Tt ear 5° to the 12° of the visible are and about 14 miles to the track of the meteor, making it In all, about 50 miles long from the point assumed, as that first seen by Judge Boardman. : Prof. Loomis, from the reports of several persons who saw the 190 H. A. Newton on the Meteor of November, 1859. The meteor was no doubt seen at Alexandria much sooner than at New Haven. Iam inclined to think that the reported altitude of its first appearance is less correct than the inclina- tion. Taken strictly, the visible are corresponds to a distance of 522 miles on the meteor’s path. Buta change of one degree in the place of first appearance might diminish this nearly 80 miles. hen first seen at x ew Haven, it had an altitude of 17° 25! at — Alexandria. If the altitudes had been estimated, and not meas- ured, the 17° 25’ might be considered 40°. But the method em- ployed, that of directing an instrument to that point in the heay- ens, seems well fitted to give tolerably correct results. Though we cannot determine the distance passed over by the meteor while in view, yet it is evident that Mr. Martin saw it much sooner than Judge Boardman. If we were to allow an error of 15° in the place of first appearance, the length of the visible path of the meteor would be at the least 90°8 miles. If in addi- tion, an error of 5° be allowed in the direction of the meteor’s path, the length would not be less than 70 miles. If even the ™meteor’s path was 10°, and the place of first appearance 15° in error, the visible path would be 57 miles. ese last errors seem very much greater than can be allowed. Mr. Hallowell says, “I cannot believe the body could possibly have had a less altitude than 35° at the time it was first seen.” Ten degrees change in the direction of the metcor’s path would carry it about 8° towards the vertical as seen from New Haven and New York city, a change which I think the observations - would hardly allow. i. 1€ ashington observers, to some extent confirm the Alex- andria observation. One says it appeared first at an elevation of 50°. Dr. Mackie says that the meteor had a luminous train eX tending vertically 15° to 20°. When first seen, its base was about 30° from the horizon. The point where it was first seen, a Boardman, would have, at Washington, an altitude of the least velocity over 18 miles a second. The New York city observers, reported by Prof. Loomis, saw about the same amount of the meteor’s path, as J udge Boardman. “The entire period of visibility did not exceed one or two seconds.” The velocity them H, A. Newton on the Meteor of November, 1859. 191 would be not less than 18 miles a second, and probably it was much greater. strictly, we have a velocity of 260 miles a second. Though I should not be unwilling to admit such a velocity, if we had Source of the sudden flash of light seen by them, and by the im- Pression of even the most distant observers, that it fell very near ‘0 them.” The latter reason, especially, has much weight. dien The light is always called a “ flash of light,” by some a sw flash 7 ble to arge number of observers state that they were una call the attention of those standing by them to 3 ® ee m4 - that only those looking towards that part of the heavens, W it, In a letter dated June 18th, Mr. Marsh says, “all I have since from parties I have conversed with tends to confirm the rahi estimates, the impression generally being that it was in ntaneous ’ : k n reatoning fren these data, two considerations should be _ Septin mind, Ist. The natural tendency is to make the time of flight too Bteat, and hence the velocity, too 192 HA. Newton on the Meteor of November, 1859. 2nd. From the moment the meteor entered the atmosphere, it would lose velocity. The resistance which the air offers to s0 rapid a motion, is enormous. If meteorites be admitted to come in general from meteors, it may be added that they rarely enter the ground more than two or three feet. They do not strike the earth with a velocity at all comparable to that which meteors are known to have, in the higher regions. They lose almost all their velocity in passing through the atmosphere. careful examination of all these observations leads me to believe that the actual velocity was as great as 86 miles a second. lf we consider the resistance of the air, and then make as large n allowance for errors of observation as can reasonably be made, it seems almost impossible that it could have entere the atmosphere with a velocity Jess than twenty-one miles. parts of the earth directly under the meteor, were by the earth’s motion in its orbit, and on its axis, moving in a line inclined 89° 31’ to the path of the meteor, with the velocity of 19-028 miles. If the velocity of the meteor in this path was 21, its ve- locity relative to the sun would then be a little more than miles. If the meteor had been moving in a parabolic orbit around the sun, it would have had from the combined action © the earth and sun, a velocity of 27-9 miles a second. If, there fore, as I think, can hardly be doubted, the meteor entered the atmosphere with a velocity not less than 21 miles, i must have been moving in a hyperbolic orbit. _We have been accustomed to consider the solar system as filled with small planetoids, millions of which, each day, come into the atmosphere, and are burnt up, causing the shooting stars. 0 we find that we must, in all probability, add one, and no doubt innumerable other similar bodies to the stellar spaces. It anew view of creation. ee It must not hence be imagined, that the meteors and shooting stars all come from the stellar spaces. The periodicity of the pee plainly that they are from _ The recent researches, respecting the transformation of motion into heat, throw some light on the subject of shooting eae es Aagli Rg H. A. Newton on the Meteor of November, 1859. 193 f come to the ground. The above calculation shows that the heat generated may be ample to vaporize or dissipate them. The shooting stars need not in general be large bodies. The give at over 100 miles distance as brilliant a light as a star of the first sepnitade. The estimates which are used as oH basis of culation are confessedly very vague, yet they show that a ve Small body may furnish as much light as a shooting star. Suc a body would naturally burn up without passing through the atmosphere, Tecan therefore see no reason, as some persons do, to make f meteors. loud report, and those of all degrees of brilliancy which are not Pin to explode, all seem to belong to one class, and to differ *meach other no more than substances on the earth. That Pa are solid and others aériform is not impossible. Differ- ‘aa es chemical constitution, size, velocity, and orbit exist, se May account for the variety of appearance. duty fé-—Since the above was in type, the meteor of J uly 20 seems to furnish better 1 ice that meteors sometimes come from the stellar spaces. - SCL—SECOND SERIES, Vor. XXX, No. 89.—SEPT., 1860. 194 Prof. J. P. Cooke on the Variation of Constitution of a Arr, XVIII—Crystalline form not necessarily an indication of definite Chemical Composition: or, on the possible variation of constitution in a mineral species independent of the Phenomena of Isomorphism. By Jostan P. Cooxg, Jr., A.A.S., Professor of Chemistry and Mineralogy in Harvard College.* of zine and antimony which I named stibiobizincyle and stilnotn- ing proportions of zine and %° melted mass is allowed to cool until a crust forms on the surface, which then is broken, and the liquid metal remaining 10 = interior poured out. On subsequently breaking the crucible, the interior 1s found lined with magnificent metallic crystals, which, when not tarnished by oxydation have a silver-white lustre. fn the course of my investigations on these compounds, crystal tions were made, or attempted, of alloys, differing in composition by one half to five per cent, according to cireumstances, he the alloy Porat 95 per cent of zinc, to that containing 95 per cent of antimony; but only two crystalline forms were 0% ved, that of Sb Zn? nad that of Sb Zn, he enystals shot ~ , Pemmmicated by the Author. New Series ransactions of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, vol, v, p. 387, This Jour, [2], xx, 222, : es ee mineral species independent of Phenomena of Isomorphism. 195 Parts of zinc, and 57-2 parts of antimony. ‘They are then com- paratively large, generally aggregated, and, as the three analyses cited in the accompanying Table indicate, they have the same Composition as the alloy. Composition of the alloy by Composition of the crystals by synthesis, ‘ analysis: — Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Sum. of Zn, of Sb. Zn. of Sb. 42°80 58°20 43°15 56°93 100°08 * te 4306 56°50 99°56 ™ “ 42839 5724 100°07 On increasing graduall f zine in the alloy up to gradually the amount of zinc in yap 48°7, the crystals Pi io to have the composition of the alloy ; strong tendency to erystallization ; and by pouring It, as it cooled, Mone vessel to another, it could be crystallized to the last op. On increasing the amount of zine in the alloy to 50°7 per rent, the amount of zine found in the crystals was uniformly less than it was in the alloy ; but no closer relation between the ‘Wo could be detected owing, undoubtedly, to the unavoidable "regularity in the crystallization of the alloys which contained More than 50 per cent of zinc, This arose from a peculiar pasty Sondition which the liquid mass assumed at the point of erystalli- be Definite crystals, however, were obtained from an alloy 60 per cent zine containing 55 per cent; above this the crys- 196 Prof. J. P. Cooke on the Variation of Constitution of a mony of the crystalline structure, as the character of the phenomenon vv these limits, the com i setulae as that of the alloy. The erysta crystals of Sb Zn, At the alloy of 33 per cent of zine, the definite rystals " Sb Zn? begin to disappear, and are succeeded by thin metallie scales, which are obviously imperfect crystals of the same ton This was established, not only by the obvious law of continulty noticed in the different specimens (the perfect crystals gradually but also by the peculiar mode of twit ing, W ch was the same with the scales as with the large biel tals, eae the peculiar cellular structure already referred io Moreover, the angle between two scales thus united was fou ora ae eS SS oS eee err eter mineral species independent of Phenomena of Isomorphism. 197 to be equal to the basal angle of the perfect crystals, at least as nearly as could be measured. ‘These scales continue up to the alloy of 41°8 per cent of zinc, becoming, however, less abundant and less distinct. Several specimens of them were analyzed ; but no regularity could be detected in their composition, except that they all contained a much larger amount of zinc than the alloys in which they were formed. rystals of Sb Zn? containing an excess of antimony were readily obtained from alloys containing less than 27 per cent of zinc ey became more and more imperfect as the excess of antimony increased, and finally faded out altogether in the alloys below 20 per cent of zine. It is evident, therefore, that definite and perfect crystals of Sb Zn? can be obtained with a large ex- cess either of zinc or antimony above the theoretical composi- tion. It is also evident that, of the two compounds, Sb Zn? is the most stable,—first, because it is formed to the ‘exclusion of Sb Zn? in all alloys containing less zine than the amount _corre- sponding to the typical composition of the last compound; and Secondly, because the crystals retain the typical composition un- der quite a wide variation (viz. between 81:5 and 27 per cent) in the composition of the alloy. The facts above stated are fully illustrated by the following able, which gives the results of a large number of analyses of crystals of both compounds formed in alloys containing different Proportions of the two metals :— Analyses of the Crystals formed in the Alloys of Zinc and Antimony. nse cea ssdosvnrise otnre oer Onn ret nr rerun Stibiotrizincyle, Stibiobizincyle, Composition of the jelous of the oryeud iti ition of the crystals alloys byaynthesis a ne eran cache Dine ae pola ee anulysis. ni Pr cent Per cent Per cent Pe me et fas | ot Sh" | oh Bae ak Se] Sum (Seat | Tob She of Zor | at Sb | Sm 7040} 2960 | 6415| 3577 | 99-92] 39-00 | 67-00 | 85°37 | 6457 | 99°04 $650 | $350 | 61-00 | 39-00 |#10000] 33:00 | 67°00 | 35-40 | 64°60 | +100°00 $450 | 85:50 | 53°50 | 4144 | 99-94 | 8250 | 67°50 | 3462 | 6492 | 9954 ‘ +++. | 55°49) 44:42 91 | 32:50 | 67°50 | 84°61 | 65°39 | ¢100°00 960 | 8940 | 55-00 | 4509 | 100-09 | 31°50 | 68°50 | 38°95 | 6609 | 10004 5860| 41-40 | 50:39 | 49:29 | 99-68] 2950 | 70°50 | 8862 | 66°38 | +100-00 860) 4840 | 49-92 | 5005 | 99-07 | 29°50 | 70°50 | 83°62 | 6638 |71 470 | 45:30 | 48-26 | 5142 | 9968] 27°50 | 72°50 | 33°85 | 65°81 | 9966 8270) 47-30 | 4747! 59-58 +100-00 | 26°50 | 73°50 | 82:08 | 6760 | 99°68 il ius | saan | asia |atn| 23 | ae | Soe | soe | 8 49°30 | 46°89 | 53 .100-00 | 25°50 | 74°50 | 30°43 ee 49-30 | 46°45 ri paw 25:00 | 75°00 | 29°88 79°20 | 10008 no 5180 | 48-66! 51-34 |F100-00 | 2450 | 76°50 | 2876 | 71-24 100:00 ine | 53°80 | 46°77 | 53-23 |}10000] 23°50 | 76°50 | 2793 | 7185 | 9978 a 5520 | 44-26| 55°73 |F100:00] 22°50 | 77°50 | 2662 | 73:27 | 9989 toe. | 5820 | 44°04) 55.96 |f100:00| 21°50 | 78°50 | 2488 | 7474 | 9957 t0| 8820 | 43:15 | 56-98 | 10008] 2012 | 79°88 | 20°58 | 7942 | 100-00 iy 58:20 | 4306 | 565 9° £80! 58:20 | 42.83! 57-24 | 10007 L * In this analysis the antimony only was determined. + In this analysis the zine only was determined. (198 Prof. J. P. Cooke on the Variation of Constitution in a The relation between the composition of the crystals Sb Zn’ and that of the alloy in which they are formed, is discussed at mineral species independent of Phenomena of Isomorphism. 199 to answer this question ; for the materials at our hands are suffi- cient to give us a satisfactory reply. There is a compound of antimony and silver called discrasite, which occurs in many localities crystallized in trimetric prisms homeeomorphous with Sb Zn*. ‘'he formula of the mineral is therefore probably Sb Ag*, which would require 71°5 per cent. of silver; but the per cent as given by analysis varies between 7525 and 78 per cent, and one analysis gives the per cent as high as 85. Further analyses of this mineral are required in order to determine its constitution, but there can be no doubt that it varies in composition like Sb Zn?. | Silver-glance is another highly crystalline mineral. Theoreti- cally it should contain 87-1 per cent of silver and 12:9 per cent of sulphur; but in a specimen analysed by Klaproth, the pro- portions were 85 and 15. Again, the analyses of pyrrhotine (magnetic pyrites) give re- sults varying between 38°78 per cent sulphur, 60°52 per cent Iron (variety from Bodenmais), and 43°63 sulphur, 56°37 iron (variety from Baréges). The constitution of the mineral is still uncertain ; but its true formula is probably FeS, which would mquire 86°4 per cent sulphur and 63°6 per cent iron. Lastly, the analyses of antimony-glance give results varying between Antimony 74-06, Antimony 73°65, Sulphur” 25-94 994 > Sutphur ” 965 The true formula of this mineral is undoubtedly Sb S?, which would require on] y 72°88 per cent of antimony. Ged ar examples might be greatly multiplied. Those just (Sra ote Selected at random from the first few pages of Dana's ystem of Mineralogy.’ They are all examples of binary com- Pounds which occur almost chemically pure in nature; so that !e phenomena in question are not complicated by those of somorphism, ; hen we pass to minerals of more complex constitution, the very wlnerals as mica, hornblende, garnet, and tourmaline differ es Ria 8teatly from each other,—a difference, moreover, which no pg of analysis will explain, and which must therefore be this a 0 an actual variation in composition. In the silicates wha: aration in composition is made evident by the variation of main, 18 termed the “oxygen ratios;” and it is well known to “ralogists that in many species this variation is very large, 200 Prof. J. P. Cooke on the Variation of Constitution in a other considerations as from the chemical analyses. Sufficient has been said, I think, to show that variations m composition similar to those which I have observed in zine and antimony occur in many minerals; and I trust that the results of my investigation will serve to throw light on this whole class ed so tk eS nite crystalline form is compatible with quite a wide variation of composition, and has in this way pointed out an explanation of ei the variation observed in the mineral kingdom. But more than — this, the investigation has also indicated a method by which, © amidst all this variation, the true constitution of the mineral cam be determined. : In the compounds of zine and antimony, although the definite crystalline form was compatible with a wide variation in the proportions of the constituent elements, yet the point correspond- ing to the typical composition was marked by several unm takeable properties, which clearly enough indicated the true for- mulze ounds, ‘These properties are discussé at length in my original memoir, and need therefore only to be al- luded to in this connection acter of the crystals appears to be modified by the change of composition, although the crystallographic elements remal? same. Thus in the crystals having the theoretical compositions the octahedral planes are greatly developed, giving to the crys tals the general appearance of a truncated octahedron.* emit” the crystals take up an excess either of antimony OF pnslior™ basal planes become more and more dominant, and the ¢ty . are at last reduced to thin plates. In fact, so marked aret changes, that, after a little experience, a person could tell the ae proximate composition of the crystals from their general appear * See figure accompanying my original memoir. mineral species independent of Phenomena of Isomorphism. 201 ance. Similar changes in the appearance of many minerals are familiar to the eg They are seen in calcite, heavy spar, Anglesite, and s nee and may serve as guides in tracing variations of compos Aguin, the euibe. ponent of the crystals, both of Sb Zn? and Sb Zn*, was taken with great care through the whole series, and the results are tabulated below. The union of the two elements is attended with an increase of volume, and this increase is at a maximum at the points corresponding to the theoretical compo- sition. These points would therefore be marked in a set of erys- tals by being points of minimum specific gravity; and they d be determined with great accuracy by means of this prop- erty, even in a series of alloys of the two metals which had not been crystallized. This fact is illustrated by the following Table, repriated from the original memoir. Specific Gravities of Crystals formed in the Alloys of Zinc and Antimony. ‘Sy grachae of the nie gies of the | Spec. grav. | Mean spec.) pe nansion alloy 4 crystals. of oeyetals grav. me iis cpa Percent , P by fa tn zinc an link of in | of Sh. | ora | eee antimony. : a ee ee! Soe Wee | se eee ded ee waar 7-069 | 7138 | 0-064 *86 20 15°80 san bers 6898 7-082 0184 *76°30 3°70 6769 7-032 0 263 4480 | 5520 | 44-26 574 | 6841 | 687 {4280 20 | 4309 | 56-91 6874 *40°:00 | 60-00 any 6386 | 6860 600.16500. 1 ..:. | pc dee eee bees 8300 | 6700 | 3637 | 6463 | 6401 | 6838 Dons $2950 | 70:50 2 | 638 | 63st | 6830 | 0 HY50 | 72:50 | 33:35 | 66-1 383 ak eee 2650 | 7350 | soos | -6792 | 6400 | 6892 | ove 2600 | 7400 | 31-07 | 6893 | S418 818 von 25°50 44:50 80°43 69°57 6 428 6816 oo 2450 | 7550 | 2876 | 7124 | 6449 80 neve 22 50 50 26°62 43:38 6" 6798 os88 21-50 4850 94:83 4617 6467 6°790 : *1500 | 8500 | 6664 | 6744 "1600 | -go00!:| o> ed ew OTA os . 4 95 00 bien ere 6655 par dan pe iodoe. | ic emma oe eee P Alloys hot crystallized, +! Point of typical composition of Sb Zn’, ii ae of typical composition of Sb Zn? OUR. SCL—SECOND SERIES, Vot. XXX, No. 89.—SEPT., 1860. 26 202 Prof. J. P. Cooke on the Variation of Constitution ina cases; and I found that with the alloy containing 48 per cent of large number of specimens, and discussing their various a lgres there has been a substitution of isomorphous elements ; i al tl iform & With one other consideration I will close this paper. es priaciple which has been here discussed must modify materia) * See Table in the memoir before cited. ee ee Se ee mineral species independent of Phenomena of Isomorphism. 208 ite, which have the same form, are regarded as different species, because they have a slightly different composition. It is true that the actual composition of a mineral may vary very greatly by the substitution of isomorphous elements, and yet, if the gen- eral formula remains constant, the species may not be changed. But the extent to which such substitution can + carried without 3 ra oe} 5 er e oS $9 oe t ad ee oO oO co) =} | © & cy. jo) =| (2) Laer’ ) = S o Lar | at mn z =. wa 3 “< me be modified by the substitution of isomorphous elements, was first established by Mitscherlich, and has long been an admitted Principle in mineralogy. We must now, as I think, still further Sciences, we are led to admit the truth of that maxim which facie), Savant in true knowledge seems to verify, “Natura non It saltus,” - hevnile the results of my investigations thus serve to render e idea of a mineral species less definite than before, I cannot eiePe that they will tend ultimately to simplify the whole the number of mineral species, but also, by simplifying the gen- eral formule of those which remain, to classify the whole with a "son; and it is the chief object of the present paper to call the 204 C. U. Shepard on Meteorites. Sb Zn* and Sb Zn? could not be explained by this principle; meric constituent, and the degree of allomerism varying from to 7 per cent. It is unnecessary, however, to — exall ples, as the above are sufficient to illustrate the use of the 2 ened Arr, XIX.—Notices of several American Meteorites ; by CHARLES UPHAM SHEPARD. 1. Nebraska Iron—This very interesting mass, first noticed i : alate number of the Proceedings of the St. Louis Academy Sciences, was brought to St. Louis by the fur traders 1n the oo ploy of C. P. Chouteau, Esq., about two years ago, and b : presented to the museum of the Academy. It was foun ar’ the Missouri River, between Council Bluff and Fort Unio | ] C. U. Shepard on Meteorites. 205 originally weighed about thirty-five pounds, but is now reduced to twenty-nine. Its shape was an oblong, compressed oval, not unlike that of the Chesterville, South Carolina, iron-mass, whic more even and smooth, though it is not destitute of the usual indentations belonging to meteorites, but these are by no means engaged with its complete analysis. Its specific gravity is 7-785. The character of the surface renders it certain that this mass must be of very recent fall. I am indebted to the liberality of the Academy, and the kind offices of Nathaniel Holmes, © its Secretary, for a fine slice of the mass, from which I have been mn Missouri in April last, from N. Aubushon, Esq., of Ironton. He stated that a small specimen of curiously knitted, malleable ore, of a white color resembling silver, had been sent him two or three years ago by a’ person residing near the locality. Mr. ‘siting St. Louis soon after, I was informed by Prof. Swallow, the State Geologist, that a specimen had also been transmitted gain by letter from the same place; and that Prof. Litton had 206 C. U. Shepard on Meteorites. presented me a small fragment of his specimen, upon which I able to offer a few remarks, awaiting the results of Prof Litton’s analysis, for fuller information. The mass evidently belongs to the rather rare group of amyg- dalvidal meteoric irons, in which, like those of Steinbach (Sax- ony) and Hainholz (Westphalia), the peridotic ingredient pre- plana over the nickelic iron. Its specific gravity is 446. he iron is remarkable for its whiteness, while the peridot is of a well marked green color, and distinctly crystalline. No py- rites is visible in the very small fragments examined. It is reported that two considerable masses of this meteorite were found buried in the soil upon a hill-side; and that they are at present secreted under the belief that they contain silver. 3. Bethlehem (New York) Meteoric Stone, of Aug. 11, 1859— The only stone found from the great explosion heard overa large district of northwestern Massachusetts, and extending into the state of New York as far as ten miles west of the cities of several interesting particulars concerning its dis- covery and properties. He was good enough to visit, at my request, the residence of Mr. Garritt Vanderpool (situated seven miles from Albany and one mile west of Bethehem church), where the stone fell, and to ascertain on the spot the facts respecting its descent. Mr. Vanderpool was at work near his house, and heard the explosion in common with other members of his family. About two minutes after, as it appeared to him, a stone, coming in an oblique cours struck the side of a waggon-house, glanced off, hit a log upo® the ground, bounded again, and rolled into the grass. A lying in the doorway of the waggon-house sprang up, da out and seized it, but dropped it immediately, probably on a count of its warmth and sulphureous smell. Mr. Wells had two opportunities of inspecting the stone before it was sold to State Cabinet in Albany. It was far from being entire when first picked up, no doubt having been broken by its with the house. On the second inspection, he noticed that ont corner had been broken away, and other portions much mar? through the use of knife blades upon its surface by the ounont who, in this rude way, had been led to investigate its peculla™ hes. About “one-half of it however,” he observes, ‘is cove with the peculiar dark colored crust of meteorites, 3 ; burnt appearance. This is so well marked that it at once ¢ lishes its identity as a meteoric stone. The other sides present See C. U. Shepard on Meteorites. 207 — ing the appearance originally bright and of a fresh fracture were clear, but are now soiled from handling. The color is a light steel-grey, with metallic particles interspersed. The structure is granular.” Through the recommendation of His Excellency, Gov. Mor- | gan, to the officers having in charge the state cabinet, a small fragment of the stone including a portion of the crust, was most obligingly transmitted to me by Mr. Woolworth, accompanied by the following note: “ Albany, Noy. 11, 1859. Prof. Cuartzs U. Suzparp, stroying the specimen they possess. Hoping it may be sufficient for your purposes, am, very truly, yours, &e., J. B. Wootworrn, See’ry, &c. Tam likewise much indebted to Henry A. Homes, Esq, the State Librarian, for his good offices in facilitating my early ac- quisition of the specimen which enables me to compare it with ose I possess from other localities. The crust of the Bethlehem stone is very peculiar. It is double the thickness of any in my collection, equalling that of thick pasteboard. It is perfectly black, and very open in its texture. The outer surface is rough, being nowhere perfectly fused, but on] y semi-vitrified. Without being fragile or carbon- d ure. emarks upon the Ohio stones of May 1, 1860.—Through the much. valued assistance of Prof. J. L. Smith, the large 53- Pound stone that fell near the house of Mr. Wm. Law of New 208 C. U. Shepard on Meteorites. I will-only offer a few remarks upon the relationship of the Ohio meteorites to those of other falls. In its internal aspect it ap- proaches the stone of Jekaterinoslaw, Russia (1825), though it pearl grey peridot forms the chief constituent (above two- thirds) of the stone. This mineral is often rolled up into ob- seurely formed globules, which are so firmly imbedded in the more massive portions of the same mineral, as to be broken _The crust is of medium thickness, and the usual wavy and pitted impressions are also strictly characteristic of these stones. Their origin in meteorites generally, is perhaps still obscure, bub ogous flaking up from heated surfaces of granite blocks during a con flagration, when wetted by cold water; though in the latter case, as might be expected, convexities take the place of concavities. 5, Supposed Full of a Meteorie Stone in Independence County, cently in Missouri, that a stone fell at a place called Pilot ae year before the Academy of Sciences at Chicago.* * Detection of Phosphorus in the native steel of Montgomery (Verm the Waterloo (New York) Meteoric stone ine its I have examined the first named substance chiefly with a view to determine oni), and i” ands in phosphorus, e Waterloo stone, whose resemblance 1s 1 bri well burnt Bristol brick, gives a very decided test for phosphoric acid. hs son and lematical steel f. Bedf ia) i th from ERE ety rom ord County (Pennsylvania) is free bo P New Haven, July 1, 1860. Arsenic Eating, &c. 209 Art. XX.—Jnjluence of Arsenious Acid upon the Waste of the ral e Animal Tissu ACCORDING to experiments made by Prof. Schmidt and Dr. Stuerzwage of Dorpat,* arsenious acid when introduced into the circulation, occasions a considerable diminution of the ordinary sues. This decrease, which amounts to from twenty to forty per cent, occurs even after the administration of very small doses; mor rapidly if the acid is injected directly into the veins ; more slowly, yet with equal intensity, if absorbed from the intestines. The action is most striking in the case of fowls which neither vomit after injection of the arsenic nor reject their accustomed food; but even in cats which are subject to vomiting after the injection and must therefore be regarded as in a starving condition, the waste of the organism was diminished about twenty per cent after subtracting the decrease occasioned by the mere want of food. This fact satisfactorily explains the fattening of horses after smal] — of arsenious acid, a phenomenon well known to ers When larger doses of arsenious acid are given nervous symp- toms appear, which may be classified in two groups: spinal irrl- tation and paralysis. ‘I'o the first may be referred the vomiting, the accelerated respiration, the feeble pulse ; to the last, the in- clination to sleep, the weakness, and the retarded and labored es. ese accounts ave been time and again held up to ridicule by toxicologists,t icion by all scientific ly published and are ~ peasantry of several Austrian province consequent! well known to the public. x e origin of these accounts * Journal fii : ; Ixxviii, p. 878. : Sir praktische Reena tnd ridin Journal, Feb. 1856, i, 709. A. i , 439. Or Taylor, in his Work On Poisons. London, Churchill, 1859, p. 91. AM. JOUR, SCLSECOND SERIES, Vor. XXX, No. 89.—SEPT., 1860. 27 210 Arsenic Eating, and its Influence upon has been generally attributed to Dr. v. Tschudi, pe published a communication upon the subject in 1 abstract of which may be found in Chambers’ Edinburgh J outa Decem- ber 20, 1851, [N. S., No. 416,] p. 389.+ Two years later, v. Tschudi me cane communication, in support of his previous assertions :—this, in connection with his first letter which had ciocicpaly attracted ‘conser lit- tle attention, was very extensively co imilar stories had been epee bactearas long before the letters of v. Tschudi were made ic. For example, our own attention was first directed to the say ect by the statement pub- lished in the Penny Cyclopedia of he Society for the Diffusion of Useful Know ledge, | London, 1832, ii, 408. Art. “ Arsente, Medical Uses of.” “That its dpe oxyd of arsenic] employment in such doses [sly oF ts of a grain] as we have stated is not only safe but beneficial, may be daticfactorly proved. Not on are old worn out horses endo wed wi new vigor, improved appetite, d&c., by its use, but pigeons to which this sept is given, show greater appetite and Livelibe ss than others without ; and in n Upper Styria se homey et ue it as a seasoning with many ph of food, such as ¢ Tn the AS skies wk Surgical Journal, 1835, xii, 211, the following : = De cee in his Medicinische geemreoes relates in ext cation of the extent to which the system may bec accustomed to operation of arsenic, that a peasant who resided near a convent in ie Tyrol, for a long time, took ten grains of arsenic daily with his food.” ne Tn noticing the article in Chambers’ Journal, for 1851, a cor respondent of the London and Edinburgh Monthly Journal of 3 Medios) Science, February, 1852, xiv, 190, cites the following tracts age m La In ext ‘ettoneo in Jou Chim ° Niédivals oe 1854, [8.] x, 489; from Presse Midicale Belge ; ie paint de la Société des Sciences médicales et nal” ‘ elles de Bruxelles ; abstract in — Edinburgh Journal, June 11th, 185% n abstract of the first 1851 letter, i in aap Gazette Hépitauz, of Paris, 16, 1854, p. 229; from rato ) Bruseles, (sen a nf and Gazette, July 1854, xxx, 66,) is is pecage he best known of any of the =f Tschudi’s statements, 7 be that given by J ag pag oem in his Set es Mcinges Life, New York, Appleton, 1855 ; i, 166; ne, Dec. 1 — iene peg ae Medicinische praktische riobensgee ere malt e, U. Gerold, 1881] 8 Heilverfahrens aus dem Tagebuch mei fe the waste of the Animal Tissue. | 211 “From Vogt’s,* Arzneimittellehre, B. 1, 8.507.” “It is well-known that old worn out horses gain an appetite, strength and spirit by the use of arsenic; and a pigeon which often got arsenic was observed to have its appetite increased and its movements more lively.” “From Med, Jahb. des Ocster. Staates, 1822, 8.99.” “ There is scarce a district of Upper Styria in which in at least one house, arsenic Similar statements made by Wibmer, (probably in his book, entitled, “ Die Wirkung der Arzneimittel, u. Gifte im gesunden thier- ischen Kirper,” 4 vols., Munich, 1831-89,) are referred to in Ger- man works upon the materia medica; while travellers who have spent much time in these provinces, all concur in their statements regarding the common custom of mixing arsenic with the food of horses.+ : differ in its general import from the testimony which had been offere On the Arseni tech, Esq, FCS, Lecturer on ‘the I ‘didlen % cota ie Bina tiorek-¢ e last meeting of the ; Ff Roscoe called attention to the b ei Manchester Philosophical Society I observe that arsenic eaters of St Havin t two years been i munication with the medical other residents in the districts where this ages prevails, I _ feel obliged if you will allow me through your journal to m he facts have at present collected. The information is derived mainl Lorenz, Imperial Professor of N i Izb from Dr. Carl Arbele, atural History, formerly of Salzburg, Jar Professor of Anatomy in Salsbore Gad Dr. Keotowite, of N euhaus, besides sever: non-medical friends. If human testimony be worth anything, the fact of the exist- Poa > arsenic eaters is placed beyond a doubt. Dr. Lorenz, to whom questions _Urst a a that it is generally difficult to get hold of individual cases, as the obtaining of arsenic ; [Qu.t Voigtel, Fr. G. System der Arzneimittellehre, Leipzig, 1816.] t Acustom which seems a to prevail to a certain extent in England. Com- Pare Kesteven, cited by Taylor, (op. cit., p. 89,) from the Association Medical ournal, Sept. 6, and 20, 1856. : We have to regret our inability to refer to K.’s sinal paper, the tenor of which is not readily to be inferred from Dr. Taylor's 7 Compare Boner of i in Chambers’s Journal of Pop. Lit., dic., Feb, 9th, 1856, vol. v, No. 110, p. ppg got ibid, July 19th, 1856, vol. vi, No. 133, p. 46. § From the Chemical N ews, May 19th, 1860 212 Arsenic Eating, and its influence upon without a doctor’s certificate is contrary to law, and those who do so are very anx- ious to conceal the fact, particularly from medical men and priests. Dr. Lorenz was, however, well acquainted with one gentleman, an arsenic eater, with whom he kindly put me in communication, and to whom I shall refer a again more pe He x gs says that he knows arsenic is casiatyte taken by the peasants i inci wood i the Tyrol, and the Salzkammergut, principally by d cutters, to d and prevent f e. He gives the following pa “The arsenic is tak re when fasting, in some id, as coffee, beginning with a bit the size of a pin’s head, and increasing to t on and general appearance are much improved, the parties using it seldom look so old as the 7 are, ci he has never hear Fees as used to improve personal beauty, t ough he cannot say that it never is so use e fi dose is exe eileen by slight epi of ck Pg as as burning pain in the stomach and sickness, but not v ere, “ Once begun, it can only be left of by very a, poise is the daily dose, _ asa sudden cessation causes sickness, burning pai tomach, and other symp- - toms of poisoning, ag speedily followed by dleatl 1. “ As a rule, arsenic eaters are very long lived, and are e peculiarly exempt from in- iseases, fevers, &c., but unless they gradually give up the practice invaria- fectious di bly die suddenly “Tn some arsenic a oki near Salzburg with which he is acquainted, he says the only men who can stand the work for any time are those who swallow res doses of arsenic, the fumes, &c., soon killing the others. The director of these works, the gentleman before alluded to, ot me the following particulars of his we case (This pe ame ek name I su a si ashe writes that he does not win the only. thing known about n England to be a fact that he is an arsenic eater; but if any judicial dngaity: ae arise which might render positive evidence of arsenic eating ssary, his name and testimony will be forthcoming) :— ye wee At aaventeen years of age, while studying assaying, I had mauch to do with ar- senic, and was advised by my teacher, M, Bén nsch, Professor of Chemistry . and Min- eralogy at Eisleben, to begin the habit of arsenic eating. I quote the precise words he addressed to me :—‘If you wish to continue the study of assaying, and become larg pa agincre beh = a factory, more hes ee y at an arsenic heeds in which self feo = fumes peck Pan injure ‘the 1 ‘cde of eat be not of all, i to reontitne enjoy your c ustomary he health and spirits, and to a a tolerably advanced age, advise you, nay, it olutely necessary, that heclding strictly abstaining from spl t seni o no t, when you Hav which you have become accustomed you return to that with w bide — . nie made trial of ut preceptor’s prescriptions an ae) "the forty fitH The dose 8 hich I pegen, and that which I take at presett ues :— ut an hour after taking my firs same quantity daily for ae months,) there babe slight Y orepithet with erie ing pains in the bowels, and after three or four hours a loose evacuation ;_ this bc followed wh a keen n appetite and a feeling of excitement With the exception of the cal years.’ ioe reply to my Fsiowtink if any har rosette from either interrupting, sh peter Pence eae) the pra — = replies, ‘ Evil consequences only ensue from # \ os fing cia a to Fro usenet s I am often obliged to leat ae 0 ree days, and I feel only y ntl — uor and loss of a et 3 n ‘ bi arsenic in somew 4 er dos e pedo he earnest solicit- ing t ations of my Rg, * steonipted can aty rs leave off the ars ithe second time yas : January 1855. I was induced to try it a second time "from a belief that mY might sa arisen from some other cause. On the third day of the ond Week after leaving off the dose I was attacked with faintness, depression of spit the waste of the Animal Tissue. 213 its, mental weakness, and a total loss of the little 3 ip I still had; alent: also ees A deserted me. On the fourth day I had violen oar of the hea t, ac- companied by profuse perspiration. iste mation of the lungs followed, and in ec: in to be seduced into leaving it off, xcept as ip ges directed by my precep- tor. The results on both occasions were =preie isely the same, and death would cer- tainly have ensued had I not resumed arsenic eating, On pies - most —— ints in this the parties, and can vouch for their truth, which I will ge A “One gentleman, besides stating that he is well aware of ay pie al a of the practice, says he is well acquainted with a brewer in Klagenfii nfiirth who has taken ic for i t mid i i i ; any years every one by his fresh juvenile appearance ; he is a vr Page other pepe to and says, ‘See how strong and fres and wh advan- : king infectio “Dr. Arbele ‘Mr. Curator Kiirsinge nay presume curator of some mus at slab.) totelisionding his lon g profes ssional work in Lungau and Smeoen, knew only two arsenic eaters, 0 man whose case has just been related, ‘ 2 . Mr. Kiir after remaining valk tle tad. lee over ach a0, hs sie hich Satep to get up the ae morning petty sober and vai @ bright. Pro- : ) Se ienna was acq some learned society concerning him, a saat o i hav I “As a proof how much s scrcy is ibe erved by those who ractise arsenic eating, May mention that Dr. Arbele says he inqui eS of — medical men, elmore uain- - the with the people of the districts * cneaiats both in the towns and country, and ; a =~ not tell him of any individual case, but rea of the geil ag yous by a ti Senic a za rebate leaded in*favor of the accused. Kottowitz, of Neuhaus, was a. of a girl taken up in that nel Ried robe “uspicion of having poisoned one or m +e re people w with arsenic, and jeg cireum- he systematic arseni ti in the e district successfully in h ie ‘that sm as pee and still lives near e was me ed ree Shae oath tte n was accused of ee her 4h band, but brought suc pay that “ _—s an arsenic enter, 2 Frally to account for arsenic being found as, of course, acquitte ‘oma! at One ic iect itationed to me b —. friends i is well wo orthy of rien They say : se. this part of the inde —- ee veyard is fi these occasions the Seti 3 of ae eaters a f takin, hove menti to differ with Mr. —— n the impropriety o vai wip Spiritons egy and potty employs i “a a mea gt correcting their effects, that L have heard of concur in saying that it should be taken fasting. 214 Arsenic Eating, and its influence upon rer and ee by their — Many people ps oe" that the finding their bodie the origin of ~ tory of the vampire. In the Medicinischer Ke fes- vd rbuch de sor Schallgruber, of the Imperial ios ceum at Gritz, of an ese undertaken y or y r of government into various cases = “see ing ro arse After giving details of six post-mortem examinations, he —‘ The on ot ‘the pire of these sad cases appears to me to be the fiir with iss which exi app country, particularly the higher par arts, There is hardly a district 4 in Ope Styria where you will not find arsenic in at least one oan under the name of hydrach. ese ; and, in several cases of poisoning by cheese have occu in Upper Styria, one not long since. The above-mentioned pennant states, I belts ‘traly, that they buy the nic from the Tyrolese, who bring into the country, spirits and se medicines, and 80 are the cause of much mischief. is report is, eli ieve, mentio in Orfila’s Toxi- when an assistant in eee he knew a man who began sere pa for some i ily. =" supplied him with this dose daily for along time. He wrote to ith whom he was assistant, and I have been for a long time promised fal par telat of Agee a We beyond the fact that he took five grains of arsenic, 10 the of Fowler’s ‘alates daily, for about six years, and could never leave it off taint inconvenience and a return a his old complaint, I have yet ro recelv! them. I have delayed publishing these facts for some time, hoping to get in on some other points, for which I have written to my friends a int con tho “9nd. Do medi ca men in n thee Lire a when using arsenic ae mode of living while gear itt “ 8rd. Can any evidence oe ebladaed as . how much of the arsenic taken — ereted? to show whether the body anaes ally — ogee of enduring its pre* ence, or whether it acquires the power of throwing it his “T have e proposed to the gen stleaian: who furnished ber ‘vith the Labs" <— ad Own case either to make an estimate of the arsenic contained in his that feces during twenty-four hours, or to collect the same and furwa d feels to I may do so, but as yet have received no answer.’— Pharmaceutical Jou The se — is that direct nh oan ett: pc te 1860, ii, 44,) we took occasion to urge this point a sp forward the observation of Prof. E. Ko +, who found ne course of his experiments upon arsenic acid—whic ma? factured upon the great scale and largely employed in calico-p"™” oe of the preservation of the bodies shows that some considerable Mit tity must be retained [or rather offers an aah of the well know2 corpses loaded with fat decompose but slowly.—r. a. 8.] + Comptes Rendus, 1856, xlii, 1063 ; J. pr. Ch. Ixix, 273. the waste of the Animal Tissue. 215 ing by him—that the weight of his body rapidly increased, some 20 Ibs. having been gained in the course of the two months, dur- ing which he was subject to absorb the acid, his hands having been, frequently in contact with the arsenical solution: arsenic being detected the while in his solid and liquid excrements. As soon, however, as the exposure to the arsenic ceased, his weight began to decrease, and in the course of 9 or 10 weeks, fell back again to its normal—150 lbs. Believing that direct, positive evidence like this—though the instance be solitary—where the subject of the experiment was a healthy, vigorous man, and a trained observer, ought to outweigh almost any amount of nega- hive testimony, such as has been brought forward by physicians who have not witnessed similar effects upon their diseased pa- hents when the latter were treated with arsenical preparations. Itshould be observed that one of the strongest arguments brought up by toxicologists against the truth of the accounts of the arse- me eaters has been drawn from the result of medical practice. Without attempting to discuss the matter at length, it may, nev- ertheless be permitted to the non-professional reader of the med- ical literature bearing upon this subject to remark that the evi- nee there accumulated in spite of its apparent obscurity and of the contradictions with which it is involved seems to point clearly to the fact that in minute doses arsenious acid acts bene- ficially upon the general health of many patients. Thus, accord- ing to Dr, Henry Hunt :* ~~ heuralgic pain, it improves the general health, and gives firmness and ti * “* * Whil certain peculiar Ses fi oe growth of bone; or if it be complicated with engorgement o liver and other viscera; arsenic is usually injurious, and I believe sel- dom usefa].” ve Bain, not to multiply Instances further, Erichsen,t in treating of the ty ‘4 arsenic in diseases of the skin, “ lays great stress upon the necessi- i attending particularly to the constitution, and temperament of the P ere commencing the use of the medicine. It will be badly , & by or Sangu Properties of the metal. In such cases, the digestive organs become so ir- * In his work ited in Braithwaite’s Retrospect of upon Neuralgie Disorders, cited in Braithwaite’s Retrospect o "eet Med, 1844, No. ix, p. 34; also, ibid, No. x, p. 23. thwaite’s Retrospect, 1843, No. viii, p. 14. 216 Arsenic Eating, &c. gastric dyspepsia, or any inflammatory disorder. On the other-hand, the are in most cases borne well by individuals of a somewhat jphlegmatic, debilitated, or lax habit of body, more particularly, eases of the skin appear rather to be dependent upon a degree of Sen ing or removing those morbid changes that are the results of an 4 mal condition in their secernent and nutrient functions.” these springs are known to contain.* A doctrine which is pt licly taught by several of the chemical Professors at ihe? my en : ” only our notice, is adverse to the possibility of “ arsenic eating, only in so far as relates to the large quantities of the poison W jn is affirmed, the human body can accustom itself by long “ee ued habit, to support with impunity his last ong ae ever interesting in itself, is one on which very little 8 *I with certainty as yet, and is plainly of quite secondary eee of in a scientific point of view to that of the beneficial be moderate doses of arsenious acid, which would now appea? the ae hes m4) — cd is greatly to be hoped that further sie Fe oe ii . * Compare Walchner, Ann. Oh. u. Pharm., \xi, 206; or Comptes ibid. 2 614. Figuier, Comptes Rendus, xxiii, 820, Chevallier and Schanefelé, aa 750. Thenard, ibid. xxxix, 769. sae Schlagintweit’s Mission to Central and High Asia. 217 Art. XXI.— Geographical Notices. No, XIII. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN GEOGRAPHICAL Socrety.—The first number of the second volume of the American Geographi- eal Society’s Journal has appeared in a new and enlarged form, an octavo volume of 148 pages. ‘The articles (eight in number) are of a more extended and scientific character than usual, and the whole appearance of the Journal is such as will reflect great credit on the society and enlarge its sphere of usefulness. Article first, which is compiled from data furnished by the Hydrographical Office, Washington, gives an account of the pro- gress of Marine Geography, within the past few years; which is followed by a synopsis of the operations of the Coast Survey during the year 1859, by Prof. Bache. An account of the lake Yojoa in Honduras, contributed by Mr. E. G. Squier, is the next article. The address commemorative of Karl Ritter, de- livered before the Society by Prof. Guyot, comes next in order, orming the most complete and eloquent tribute to the great ge- ographer which has yet appeared. Its review of the character- lsties and contents of Ritter’s Erdkunde is especially valuable. The sixth article is a translation by Mr. E. R. Straznicky from the Journal of the Geographical Society of France, of an essay . on the Geographical distribution of Animals, by Mons. A. ; Maury. Mr. J. G. C. Kennedy, the superintendent of the U.S. Census, then reviews the origin and progress of Statistics, and r. Wynne illustrates the working of benevolent societies, such as the Odd Fellows, among the laboring classes. The number concluded by an excellent and full survey of recent geograph- teal and statistical literature, prepared by the General Secretary of the Society, Mr. D. W. Fiske, of the gy es of Publication, the editing of the Journal was Go eee Yas, from 1854 to 1858. It contains some information to which re have not had access in our previous notices of their expedi- ‘Non. Since the return of the authors from India in June 1857, ve been engaged in preparing for publication the results . sigh - SERIES, Vor. XXX, No. 89.—SEPT., 1860, 218 | Geographical Notices. of their observations, and are now able to promise a workin nine volumes, quarto, with an atlas in three folio volumes. The importance of this work will justify us in explaining its character at some length, he first volume will be devoted to Astronomy and Magnet- Porkisihg and corrected. : The second volume will contain the hypsometrical and trig nometrical observations, including the determination of about 2000 points in the various countries explored. The third vol ume, on Topical Geography, has for its object a practical aim, reviewing chiefly the commercial and military routes in High Asia, with reference to their commercial and military import ance. Part of this volume is devoted to linguistic researe 8 and vocabularies. The fourth and fifth volumes include all that the explorers have collected on Meteorology, and the sixth 13 have previously referred in this Journal, The ninth and ie years. CANADIAN EXPEDITION To THE RED RIVER uNDER, Gite MAN, Dawson, Hinp, AnD Naprer, 1857-1858.—The inte ai which has been manifested in the report of the Palisser ae nt Canadian Expedition to the Red River. 219 tion contained in a recent number of this Journal,* leads us to _ condense and translate from Dr. Petermann’s excellent Mittheil- immediate supervision of the Hudson’s Bay Company, and had tried to induce them to effect a revision of the claims of that mer- cantile body, it was nevertheless, not until 1856 when gold was discovered in Fraser’s and Thompson’s rivers, that the British government took the matter into serious consideration, and in 1857 sent out an expedition (Pallisser’s expedition) and de- clared in 1858 New Caledonia, as it was called under the above mentioned company, an independent colony, to be known in future by the name of British Columbia. At the same time t. y : chardson, Lord Selkirk, Blodget, and wren They all agree at the Saskatchewan district is well adap tt Comprises an immense area, and as early as 1805, Lord Selkirk oy of the Hudson’s anf i ited in the Ar- ny: and the reports of his explorations (37 vols.) =a... ste aa 1 ful whether these reports i ith the Company oa, be accessible to such as are not co lobe ial, xviii 3 Si acte)} 220 Geographical Notices. said that it could give bread to at least 30 millions of peo In regard to the climate, says Blodget, who is most thoroughly acquainted with the subject, that the average temperature in win- ter is not below that of St. Petersburg and Moscow ; in summer it equals that of northern Italy and New York. The temper: ture increases, just as in Europe, as you go from east to west. ring commences at all points almost at the same time. There is no want of rain; grass, forests and buffaloes abound. Useful timber is abundant; coal is found in many places, but parte ularly rich deposits exist at the foot of the Rocky Mountains, and near the Little Sauris River. The country is level and ap- pears so even, that Blakistone remarked that for the construc- tion of a railroad nothing was required but to put down the rails. Its numerous lakes and rivers can easily be connected for inter- nal communication, and afford even now the only means of transport between the different stations of the Hudson’s Bay ompany. The Saskatchewan district can also easily be com nected with the new gold region by means of commodious roads through Palliser’s passage across the Rocky Mountains. This new colony will, by reason of its very favorable situation, Its beautiful harbors, but particularly by reason of its wealth in gold, surely rise as speedily as Southern California ; and, asit's less e of agriculture, would naturally become the great market for the products of its eastern neighbors, in the Saskatch- ewan district. : _ We may therefore well be justified in prognosticating for this district a prosperous future in regard to agriculture, but we tance, n : for vessels of a larger draught, such as sudden bends, rapids, 5 oan waters, ete., and the entirely uncultivated state of country. After these few remarks we return to our subject propet- be can give but a brief synopsis, and refer those who desire tailed account of the Danan expedition, to the “ Reports a the exploration of the country between Lake Superior and Red River Settlement.” A still more minute account 1s an in the “ Papers relative to the Explorations of the Countty sad tween Lake Superior and the Red River settlement, presen to both Houses of Parliament, London, 1859.” Three charts by , : , Canadian Expedition to the Red River. 221 Hind (one a reprint of Thompson’s), and a sketch of the regions, which Dawson traveled through, by himself, appeared at same time. The members of the Canadian expedition landed July 31, 1857, at Fort William, and started in boats along the usual route of the Hudson’s Bay Company for Lake Winnipeg, in order to ascertain the practicability of this route. ‘To this end surveys of rivers were made and a very minute determination of levels. Napier estimates the whole length of the route to be 747 miles, iz: from Lake Superior to Rainy Lake 335 miles; thence to Rat Portage at the northern extremity of Lake of the 176 miles; from this point to Fort Garry on the Red River 236 miles. Of these three portions only the middle one, upon Rain Lake, which is at an average 460 feet wide and 6 feet deep, forms a continuous water road. Its falls (Chaudiere falls near Fort Francis, 22 feet,) may, according to Dawson, easily be made harmless by two water gates. The two remaining portions of the route can only be travelled by land, unless one paves the tedious transport from one little river to another. The Kamin- istiquoria on the first portion of the route cannot be navigated, as its rapids, shallow water places, and falls (Kakabeke falls, 119 feet,) are too numerous. From Little to Great Dog Lake, a distance hot over a mile, this river falls 848 feet, and yet the . e in this place has still an elevation of 142 feet over Great Dog Lake. This is the steepest descent on the whole route. The t from one another, is, after Dawson, 879 feet, according to rapid than toward iver to Rainy e : “set : he geon River, from Lake Superior to Rainy Lake along boundary, is the shortest, but it has 29 portages, of ag eyed lead through United States territory. Another route fo the “Xi River, which is still used by the Hudson Bay Vompany, Hh Mences from Fort York, near Hudson’s Bay, pad goes Up aye River, through Knee and Holy Lakes, Wepinap White Water Lake and Sea River, down to it requires three weeks of hard work to travel 222 Geographical Notices. cess to Fort York, through Hudson’s Bay is only about two months open during the year. But the most commodious and most frequented road to the Red River over St. Paul and Crow Wing leads entirely through United States territory. In the English possessions the best connection between Lake Superior and the Red River would be established by country roads, the one from Lake Superior to Rainy Lake, the other from Lake of the Woods to the Red River. In regard to the first, however, ‘nothing has as yet been done, and only in the latter district ex- and Lake of the Woods. This swamp sends the Reed nivel 30 miles long, to the latter lake, and another little rapid mveh about 40 or 50 miles long, to lake Roseau. From the real Muskeg morass goes a little river westward into an extensive swamp, from which the Rat river issues. Gladman was relieved from his post as chief in April, 1858, and Napier also recalled about this time. But Hind went the same spring again with Dickinson, Fleming and Hine on another expedition known as the “ Assiniboine an Saskatchewan exp" ition.” Their object was to explore the regions west es Red River and Lake Winnipeg up to the Saskatchewan we. Before they arrived at Fort Garry, Dawson, Wells and Gaudet had already made some new surveys, around the Red river, 8 Winnipeg, and the lower Assiniboine, and had just left for t ‘ lake district. This latter party went by way of Lake Manitobaa and Lake Winnipego-sis, over Mossy Portage toward Cedar vw Bourbon lake to the grand rapids of the Saskatchewan eb” At Mossy Portage they separated; Wells went over Lake ae pego-sis, Lake Dauphin, Lake Manitobah, the Little Saskatchew river, which he found to be 8 to 12 feet deep, 260 y ards wil’ Canadian Expedition to the Red River. 223 free from rapids and throughout adapted for steam navigation, thence over Lake Winnipeg to the Red river. The rest of the party followed Swan river to Fort Pelly, and thence went down the Assiniboine river. Dawson considers the whole alluvial plain east of the Pasquia and Poreupine hills and Dauphin mountains, where the large lakes are situated, well adapted for settlements. It is partly prairie land, for the most part, however, thickly wooded. North of Lake Dauphin wood predominates; south of it the country becomes more open, and toward the Assiniboine an spores? endless prairie commences. Wheat gives abundant harvests near Lake Manitobah and the Little Saskatchewan river, and near the latter even Indian corn may be cultivated. The valley of the Swan river is particularly fertile and its climate equals that of the Red river district. The Red Deer river district has also a Coal is said to be found in the Porcupine hills and the Due ugh a narrow and 224 Geographical Notices. land voyage along Long creek, then turning southeast went over Touch Wood hills to Fort Ellis, where he met Dickinson with whom he returned over White Mud river to Fort Garry (Sep- tember 4). But Hind and Fleming soon started on another excursion (September 18). They went in boats along the western shores of Lake Winnipeg, up to the mouth of the Little Saskatchewan, hence (September 29) into Lake Manitobah, and by means of Water Hen river and a lake of the same name reached Winnipego-sis, where they examined the salt springs, which had been imprudently exhausted by the Indians. From here they started for Lake Dauphin, ascended the Dauphin mountains (1700 feet high), and navigated Lake Manitobah in different di- rections. Hind stayed four days on a little island there, which was much revered by the Indians as the seat of the “ Manitou,” or fairies. On its northern side were limestone cliffs about fifteen ine, while sojourning on the Red river during the fall months, took photographic views of landscapes, churehes, Indians, etc. Dickinson made excursions in the district east of the lowet Red River, and in the regions between the Assiniboine and the U.S. boundary, but particularly along Riviére Sal through the hi having made any determination of points and for giving gene but little positive information, although $50,000 to $60,000 n expended for the purpose. They said that the whole cou try had been much better explored by the late astronomer Thomp servations of points, although very valuable, cannot be the main object of explorers, who have to run through a great number tricts in a comparatively very short time, and who must give accessible to the members of the Canadian expedition 4§ ~ were to the rest of the world; besides, if we compare Thomps? chart with that of the expedition of 1858, we perceive that ie knowledge of the country between Lake Winnipeg and ct river is more accurate and more complete than Thompson® — Canadian Expedition to the Red River. = = 925 The expedition has achieved much. They made very com- prehensive levellings, effected numerous measurements of width, depth and rapidity of rivers and lakes, made geological observa- tions, inquired into the climate, forests, quality of soil, etc., made surveys and discoveries between Lake of the Woods and the Red river, between the Assiniboine river and the U.S. boundary, along the upper Assiniboine and Qu’ Appelle rivers, in the dis- trict of the great lakes, etc. .A comparison of their charts with the older ones of these districts will at once show that the money was not thrown away. This expedition has moreover excited the curiosity of the people more than that under Capt. Palliser. Thus a society was formed at St. Paul in Minnesota, who, under the direction of Col. Nobles, left this city in June, 1859, with the object to explore the val- leys and sources of the Saskatchewan and Columbia rivers. Their plan was, to start from the elbow of Bow river toward the Rocky Mountains, to explore carefully the region of their east- ern foot up to Edmonton House, thence to go over Athalaska Portage between Mount Hooker and Mount Brown toward the sources of Thompson’s river and here to disperse in different directions, Col. Nobles intended to start for the sources of Co- lumbia river, and to return over Lewis and Clarke’s Passage, the Missouri Falls, the valley of the Milk river; Fort Mandan, — Big Stone Lake, and Fort Ridgley to St. Paul. Dr. Goodrich accompanies them as physician, and the Smithsonian Institution sent Dr. C. L. Anderson, of Minneapolis, to make scientific ob- Setvations and collections. The “ Board of Trade” in St. Paul offered a reward of $1000 for the first. steamer that should ply on or before the first of June on the Red river, and the “Anson Northup” really com- AM. JOUR. SCIL—SECOND SERIES, Vol. XXX, No. 88—SEPT., 1860. 99 ; 226 Discussion between two Readers Art. XXII.— Discussion between two Readers of Darwin's Treatise on the Origin of Species, upon its Natural Theology. mon matter. Suppose, then, a square billiard table to be placed ‘with its corners directed to the four cardinal points. Suppose 'a player standing at the north corner, to strike a red ball ditectly to the south; his design being to lodge the ball in the south pocket; which design, if not interfered with, must, of course be accom plished. ‘Then suppose another player, standing at the east corner, to direct a white ball to the west corner. This desig also, if not interfered with, must be accomplished. Next 4 08e both players to strike their balls at the same instant, W! ike forces, in the directions before given. In this case the would not pass as before, namely, the red ball to the south, and the white ball to the west, but t ey must both meet and strike each other in the centre of the table, and, being perfectly elastic, the red ball must pass to the west pocket, and the white ball to the south pocket. We may suppose that the players ac! wholly without concert with each other, indeed they may be ig norant of each other’s design, or even of each other's existene; still we know that the events must happen as herein descr! Now the first half of the course of these two balls is from ® player has the design of driving his ball across the table 1 @ ; agonal line to accomplish its lodgment at the opposite corner ° the table. Neither designed that his ball should be deflect” from that course and a to another corner of the table. in this case, to go back to find design in the creation of the powers ie laws of inertia, and peer oe after the order of which the ‘ llis created to answer this special deflexion. We are required, A the hypothesis, to confine attention in point of time, foe instant preceding the impact of the balls, to the time of Darwin's Treatise on the Origin of Species. 227 arrival at the opposite corners of the table. The cues are moved _by design. The impacts are acts from design. The first half of _ ber of animals of the same s cies, in which the eye is not de- veloped. They may have all the other senses, with the a formed and conveyed by the optic nerve to the cognizance o. ternal perveption, ‘or Ses meta The animal in this case would be merely sensible of the difference between light and darkness. He would have no power of discriminating form, size, shape, or Color, the difference of objects, and to gain from these a know]- edge of their being useful or hurtful, friends or enemies. U to - Point there is no appearance of necessity upon the scene. The illiard balls have not yet struck together, at None of the arguments that may be *rganism, thus existing, that it could not have come into form and being without a creator acting to this end with intelligence 228 Discussion between two Readers and design, are opposed by anything that can be found in Dar- win’s theory ; for so far, Darwin’s laws are supposed not to have not come into operation. Give the animals thus organized, food and room, and they may go on, from generation to generation, upon the same organic level. Those individuals that, from nat ural variation, are born with light-nerves a little more sensitive to light than their parents, will cross or interbreed with those who have the same organs a.‘little less sensitive, and thus the mean standard will be kept up without any advancement. If our billiard table were sufficiently extensive, @. e., infinite, the balls rolled from the corners would never meet and the neces these were designed,—and the animal would have gone 02 ra out eyes. The balls would have found the corners of the table While, therefore, it seems to me clear that one who can a no proof of the existence of an intelligent creator, except throug é j : : n find no evr ion of their balls; but neither the formation of the eye; path of the balls after collision, furnishes any sufficient Pt such design in either case. : 7 se eee ee ee eS ee ae ees of Darwin’s Treatise on the Origin of Species. 229 One, indeed, who believes from revelation or any other cause, in the existence of such a Creator, the fountain and source of all things in heaven above and in the earth beneath, will see in natural variation, the struggle for life and natural selection, only the order or mode, in which this Creator, in his own perfect wis- dom, sees fit to act. Happy is he who can thus see and adore. ut how many are there who have no such belief from intui- tion, or faith in revelation;*but who have by careful and elab- orate search in the physical, and more especially in the organic world, inferred, by induction, the existence of God from what as seemed to them the wonderful adaptation of the different or- gans and parts of the animal body to its, apparently, designed ends! Imagine a mind of this skeptical character, in all honesty herve, or a rudimentary hoof or claw, no design is to be found. From this point upwards the development is the mere necess e chance, as impossible. It must then be design. But Darwin brings up another power, namely, natural selection, in place o h . duced me, t Selection, by necessity, for design in the formation of the or- — ganic world, is a step decidedly atheistical. It is in vain to say that Darwin takes the creation of organic life, in its simplest forms, to have been the work of the Deity. In giving up design in these hichest and most complex forms of organization, which have always been relied upon as the crowning proof of the ex- Istence of an intelligent Creator, without whose intellectual power 230 Discussion between two Readers conversant with the — of the matter and the relation of the forces concerned, ceptions we may form about it, is the true one. Now, let it remarked that design can never be demonstrated. Witnessing the cases in question. The only way left, and the only possible way in cases where testimony is out of the question, is to infer the design from the result, or from arrangements which strike 08 . adapted or intended to produce a certain result, which affords s sapien org of design. The strength of this presumption - zero, or an even chanee, as perhaps it is in the assumed cane but the probability of design will increase with the particulary of the act, the speciality of the arrangement or machinery, # _ with the number of identical or yet more of similar an apalo- gous instances, until it rises to a moral certainty,—. ¢, - vietion which practically we are as unable to resist as We * deny the cogency of a mathematical demonstration. A sing tance, or set of instances, of a comparatively simple wang ment might suffice. For instance, we should not doubt tha pump was designed to raise water by the moving of the . gn sooner Of course the conviction is the stronger, or at least the are t0 le han €. of Darwin’s Treatise on the Origin of Species. 231 arrived at, where we can imitate the arrangement, and ourselves produce the result at will, as we could with the pump, and also with the billiard-balls. And here I would suggest that your billiard-table with the case of collision, answers well toa machine. In both, a result is produced by indirection,—by applying a force out of line of the ultimate fisteeteny, And, as I should feel as confident that a man intended to raise water who was working a pump-handle, as if he was bringing it up in pails-full from below by means of _ aladder, so, after due examination of the billiard-table and its ca, a different occasions, I had before wounded persons by the same, or other indirect and apparently aimless actions . “ an object appeared to be gained in the result, 7. ¢., that defi- hat design on my ‘part must be presumed from the nature of the Tesultg j—that, though design may have been wanting in any one 232 Discussion between two Readers ease, yet the repetition of the result, and from different positions and under varied circumstances, showed that there must have been design. Moreover, in the way your case is stated, it seems to concede the most important half of the question, and so affor sumption for the rest, on the side of design. For you seem to assume an actor, a designer, accomplishing his design in the first instance. You—a bystander—infer that the player effected his design in sending the first ball to the pocket before him. ° You infer this from observation alone. Must you not fromacontinu ance of the same observation equally infer a common design ot the two players in the complex result, or a design of one ol ~ them to frustrate the design of the other? If you grant a design ‘3 ing actor, the presumption of design is as strong, or upon COD — tinued observation of instances soon becomes as strong, In regard to the deflection of the balls, or variation of the species, as it was for the result of the first impulse or for the production of the ong: inal animal, &c. But in the case to be illustrated, we do not see the player. We s =F while the alternative is between design and chance,—then me prove it with all the proof the case is susceptible of, and Wi complete conviction. For we cannot doubt that the watch had or with the surroundings. The original impulse, which we SP ess was in the line of the observed movement, only proves t0 took place with a series of results, each and all of them none the Jess determined, none the less designed. nie. farther back, in the sense of furnishing evidence or oper OW ty. Evidence of design, I think oA will allow, every where wn from the observation of adaptations and of results, 2A S jee es Mos * Paves of Darwin’s Treatise on the Origin of Species. 233 has really nothing to do with any thing else, except where you e the word for the will. And in that case you have not argument for design, but testimony. In nature we have no testi- mony ; but the argument is overwhelming. few of them preserved as breeders of still other variations, by natural selection ? Finally let it be noted that your element of necessity, has to do, 80 lar as now, only with the picking out and preserving of certain changing forms, 7. e., with the natural selection. This selection, you may say, must happen under the circumstances. iS 18 @ necessary result of the collision of the balls; and these Tesults can be predicted. If the balls strike so and so, they will be deflected so and so. But the variation itself is of the nature of an origination. It answers well to the original impulse of the rdaining will, The parent had not the peculiarity of the vari- ety, the progeny has. Between the two 1s the dim or obscure i an : e agree that judging from the past—it is not improbable ; y Ica] Mot Variation will be only a resolution of variation into two JOUR. SCL_SECOND SERIES, Vor. XXX, No. 89.—SEPT., 1960, 30 234 Discussion between two Readers factors,—one, the immediate secondary cause of the changes, which so far explains them; the other an unresolved or unex: plained phenomenon, which will then stand just where the pro- duct, variation, stands now, only that it will be one step nearer This line of argument appears to me so convincing, that I am bound to suppose that it does not meet your case. Although you introduced players to illustrate what design is, it is probable arguments, and may account for the actual results without de — sign. I do not clearly apprehend this third alternative. Will you be so good, then, as to state the grounds upon which you conclude that the supposed proof of design from the eye, oF e hand, as it stood before Darwin’s theory was promulgated, would be invalidated by the admission of this new theory. First ReapER.—As I have ever found you, in controversy, meeting the array of your opponent, fairly and directly, without at the course taken in your answer to my statement on ¥* e seem to suppose that I instanced the means ac cede'to, that construction. My purpose in bringing the billiard table upon the scene was to illustrate, by example, design wd necessity, as different and independent sources from which results, | it might indeed be identical results, may be derived. All the conclusions therefore that you have arrived at through this ot eT Tae a Ser ee ey a ae ee eine mepmee ay eS conception or misapplication of my illustration, peer” tak me. Again, following this misconception, you suppose the c va Sees exh for its designer, God,) as bringing to the examination a belief in the existence of desig? heart, stomach, brain, &e. By skeptic I, of course, intend one who doubted the existence of design in every orgaml¢ FS ete LR i en ahs oi aki Aa SO Cia ee of Darwin’s Treatise on the Origin of Species. 285 ture, or at least required proof of such design. Now as the watch may be instanced as a more complete exhibition of design than a flint knife or an hour-glass; I selected, after the example of Paley, the eye, as exhibiting by its complex but harmonious arrangements a higher evidence of design and the designer, than is to be found in a nerve sensitive to light, or any mere rudi- mentary part or organ. 1 could not mean by skeptic one who believed in design so far as a claw, or a nerve sensitive to light _ was concerned, but doubted all above. For one who believes in design at all will not fail to recognize it in a hand or an eye. But I need not extend these remarks, as you acknowledge in the sequel to your argument that you may not have have suited it to the case as I had stated it. a forward in natural theology, and pertinaciously are upon by ast res e difference between the works of nature a art, yet if he can find in any organic body, or part tected by an intelli ent, of Paley he takes = eye, which, although inechanical, instrument like the watch, is as . tly to design. He sees, first that the eye is transparent, ioe? every other part of the body is opaque. Was this the re tO ‘mere Hpicurean or Lucretian “fortuitous concourse OF ‘ving atoms?” He is not yet certain it might not be so. Nex pe that it is spherical and that this convex form alone 1s aig € 0 changing the direction of the light which proceeds from a “eng bod » and of collecting it so as to form a distinct image within its Blobe, Next he sees at the exact place where this image must 236 Discussion between two Readers be formed a curtain of nerve work, ready to receive and convey it, or excite from it, in its own mysterious way, an idea of it in the mind. Last of all, he comes to the crystalline lens. Now he has before learned that without this lens an eye would by the aqueous and vitreous humors alone form an image upon the Te tina, but this image would be indistinct from the light not being sufficiently refracted, and likewise from having a colored fringe round its edges. This last effect is attributable to the refrangi- bility of light, that is, to some of the colors being more Te fracted than others. He likewise knows that more than a hun — dred years ago Mr. Dollond having found out, after many ¢& — Oe rag that some kinds of glass have the power of dispersing — ight, for each degree of its refraction, much more than other rected by the smaller dispersion of the other. This contrivance corrected entirely the colored images which had rendered all previous telescopes very imperfect. He finds in this invention | those laws or facts must produce a Certain, sought, result. Thus enlightened, our skeptic turns to his crystalline lens to see e can discover the work of a Dollond in this. ere he humors, not only refracts the light more than it would be refract ed by the humors alone, but that in this combination of humors and lens, the colors are as completly corrected as in the com bination of Dollond’s telescope. Can it be that there was no de- gn, no designer, directing the powers of life in the formation of that the chance arrangement of two pairs of s ectacles, in the shop : Dutch optician, gave the direction for constructing the first - scope. Possibly, in time, say a few geological ages, it mi fin of Darwin’s Treatise on the Origin of Species. 287 tion,—the eye having been completed in all but the formation of the lens,—the place which the lens occupies when completed, was filled with parts of the humors and plane membrane, homo- geneous in texture and surface, presenting, therefore, neither the variety of the materials, nor forms which are contained in the optician’s shop for chance to make its combinations with. How then could it be cast of a combination not before used, and fash- ioned to a shape different from that before known, and placed in exact combination with all the parts before enumerated, with many others not even mentioned? He sees no parallelism of condition then, by which chance could act in forming a crystal- line lens, which answers to the condition of an optician’s shop, where it might be possible in many ages for chance to combine existing forms into an achromatic object-glass. _ Considering, therefore, the eye thus completed and placed in in its bony case and provided with its muscles, its lids, its tear- ducts, and all its other elaborate and curious appendages, and, a thousand times more wonderful still, without being encum- ered with a single superfluous or useless part, can he say that this could be the work of chance? The im robability of this 18 80 great, and consequently the evidence of design is so strong, that he is about to seal his verdict in favor of design when he opens Mr. Darwin’s book. : _, There he finds that an eye is no more than a vital aggrega- p.169,) 3 Let us lay before our skeptic the way in which we may sup- 238 Discussion between two Readers = natural selection of necessity produced the result that we ave seen. ‘T'he same result was thus produced of necessity, 1 ear — that he would before he heard of Darwin? If» win’s Dieory: oy posed proof from design is invalidated by Dar: SECOND READER.—Waiving incidental points and looking po to the gist of the question, I remark that, the argument for esign as against chance in the formation of the eye, is most Com vincingly stated by you on p. 235-237. Upon this and numerons similar arguments the whole question we are arguing turns. | if the skeptic was about to seal his verdict in favor of desig® and a designer, when Darwin’s book appeared, why should his verdict now be changed or withheld > ‘All the facts about the eye, which convinced him that the organ was designed, remaip __ just as they were. His conviction was not produced through Y or eye-witness, but design was irresistibly inferred = the evidence of contrivance in the eye itself. ow, if the eye as it is, or has become, so convincingly argued * design, why not each particular step or part of this result? of Darwin’s Treatise on the Origin of Species. 239 If the production of a perfect crystalline lens in the eye—you know not how,—as much indicated design, as did the production of a Dollond achromatic lens,—you understand how—then why does not “the swelling out” of a particular portion of the mem- brane behind the iris—caused you know not how—which, by she would believe in design as firmly as before, and that this belief would be attended oy a higher conception and reverent l, g she had previously conceived possible. Wherefore, ve may iret that, for all that yet ni secre gument for design, as presented by the natural oger 18 just as good now, if we accept Darwin's oor as it was before that theory was promul ated ; and that the s eptical J ee who was about to join the other eleven in an unanimous verdict in favor of design, finds no good excuse for keeping the Court ting. longer wal 240 J. L. Smith on three New Meteoric Irons. Art. XXIII.—Description of three New Meteoric Irons, from Nel- son County, Ky., Marshall County, Ky., and Madison Couniy, North Carolina ; by J. LAwRENcE Smita, M.D., Prof. of Chem- istry, University of Louisville, Ky. Nelson County, (Ky.) Meteorite—This came into my possession about two months ago, being obtained from a ploughed field where it may have laid for a considerable length of time, atten- was drawn to it by a plough striking it; its metalliccharac : ion ter leading the neighboring farmer to believe it to be silver. It is a flattened mass of tough metal, a little scaly at one cor ner, being 17 inches long, 15 inches broad, and 7 inches in the — em part, shelving off like the back of a turtle, and weighs It is free from any large proportion of thick rust, consequently showing no indications of chlorine. On analysis, the following constituents were found in 100 parts, No. 1 in the table below: (1.) (2.) 93°10 90°12 9112 Nickel, - el 8°72 782 Beige 41 82 “48 Phosphorus, “05 10 08 per, - trace trace trace 99°67 ~ 99°26 9945 Marshall County, (Ky.) Meteorite—A piece of this Meteorite Madison County, (N. C.) Meteorite.-—This meteorite was preset” ted to me some time ago by the Hon. T. L. Clingman, of North Carolina, It came from Jewel Hill, Madison County, of that State. There is a great deal of thick rust on the surface, with indicates that it is entire, its dimensions are 7x 6X8 inches, — a number of indentations; its weight is 8 lb. 18 oz. Its woot position is given in the analysis, No. 3. IF’. H. Bradley on a new Trilobite. 241 Art. XXIV.—Description of a new Trilobite from the Potsdam Sandstone; by Frank H. Brapuey, with a: note by E. BIL _ [Read before the Am. Assoc. for the Advancement of Science, at Newport. ] CoNocEPHALITES MINUTUS, (n. Sp.) Fig. 1, The head magnified. The dotted lines represent the supposed outlines i of the parts not preserved. 4 Fig. 2. The pygidium magnified. lg. 8. A detached cheek, magnified. deep glabellar furrows which are inclined inwards and : aban angle of about 45°; their inner extremities distant. from ow wards on the fixed cheek dgin detached aiteiopiats, its form is semi-annular, and its Jen - at least one-fourth that of the glabella. Its distance a eppewee least one-half the width of the glabella. Caudal shiel Moa as ohh as the head, its width scarcely equal to half its ae ’ the lobes nearly equal; the middle lobe very convex with Live sharp transverse grooves ; the side With Tooves, bck in length The largest head discovered is exactly two lines in at The © course of the facial suture has not been ascertained. 2 Surface of the glabella in one of the specimens appears to ne Smooth, but in none of the others can it be distinguis ed. MM JOUR. SCL_SECOND SERIES, Vou. XXX, No. 62—SEPT, 1600 Jl oe correspond. At the same locality, I also procured the cast, a Pleurotoma- ria, and one of what seems to have been a plate from the stem of a crinoid, New Haven, June 15th, 1860. Note by B. Billings—Mr, Bradley having favored me with 4 view of his very interesting specimens, I think there can Te reference be correct, then we have at least three, if not four a . antiquatus (Salter,) described from ‘‘a cast in a brown sandstone, said to be a bouldered fragment from Georg). (See only differences that can be well made out, from the imperle® specimens, but they seem to me sufficient to indicate two peor Mr. Salter says further, that the lobes of the glabella in Se quatus are very obscure, and that the ocular ridge, if any what ted, must have been very slight. His specimen was some - abraded. In C. minutus the ocular ridge is, for so small » deep cles, very strongly defined, and the glabellar furrows are ie & that it would require a very considerable amount of abrasion to obliterate them. 3. C. Zenkeri, (n. sp.) This is a new species recently discoy- ered in the magnesian limestoné near Quebec. It will proba- bly be described in the next No. of the Canadian Naturalist and Geologist. 4. There is in the collection of the geological survey of Can- ada, a plaster cast of the surface of a fragment of rock which holds four specimens of a trilobite, each about the size of C. an- tiquatus, They appear to me to belong to the genus Conocepha- lites. The original specimen was collected in Newfoundland; in _ the same slate that holds Paradoaides Bennettii Serr and I _ minformed that it is in the possession of a gentleman who lives somewhere in the United States, but whose name or place of re- sidence, I have not been able to ascertain. _ Of the above four species, Mr. Bradley’s is at present the most important as it fixes indisputably, at least one point in the geo- logical range of the genus on this side of the Atlantic. In Europe, Conocephalites has not been found out of the primordial zone of Barrande, but the Quebec and Keeseyille specimens show that here it reaches the Lower Silurian. Montreal, July 25th, 1860. Arr. XXV.—On the Combustion of Wet Fuel, in the Furnace of Moses Thompson ; by B. Sint an, Jr., Prof. Gen. and App. Chem. in Yale College. [Read before the Am. Assoc, for the Adv. of Sci., at Newport, August, 1860.] Iv all ordinary modes of combustion, it is well known that © use of wet fuel is attended with a very great loss of heat, Tendered latent in the conversion of water into steam. AS the most perfectly air dried wood still contains about 25 per centum of water, according to the experiments of Rumford, the term wet fuel might seem appropriate to all fuels, but mineral coal and : al. But technically, this term is restricted to Cea ike peat and those residual products of the arts which, like best econom agit lves chemical reac- mical results: but which as it involves chemica Hons never before, it is believed, successfully applied for such B. Silliman, Jr., on the Combustion of Wet Fuel. 243 4 : 244 B. Silliman, Jr., on the Combustion of Wet Fuel. purposes, is deserving of particular notice from a scientific as well as from a practical point of view. It is a well established fact in chemistry, that the affinity of carbon for oxygen, at high temperatures is so strong, that if oxygen is not present in a free state, any compound containing — oxygen, which happens to be present is decomposed, in order to satisfy this affinity. This fact is well illustrated in the familiar ease of the Blast Furnace where this affinity is employed to de- ~ prive the ores of iron of their oxygen in the process of reduction to metallic iron t 8 The controversl questions growing out of this invention, are entirely foreign our present purpose and in no way affect its practical or scientific value. Suffice it to say, in passing, that we find in this jnve- tion another instance of a truth already so often signalized in the history of inventions, that important results are often obtained, _ Mr. thompson seems to have been inspired with the conve, tion that if he could bring the products from the combustion © wet fuel together in a place, hot enough for the purpose, and from part of the furnace called by the inventor, the mixing chamber __ Wherever that cee may be situated, or however constructed, the one essential thing about it, is, that it should be a very, bet place, and one to which the atmospheric air can have 00 4 It access, until it has passed by, and through the burning fue - : : Ge re eR GR REN en ce OT Oe ne While in the earlier stages of combustion tures of refractory fire bricks will endure it, and the color seen throughout that portion of the furnace is of the purest white. In view of the facts already stated it is easy to understand =, it is that when the reactions described are once set up, the admission of a free current of atmospheric air should immedi- ately check the energy of the combustion and soon result in to- tal suspension of the peculiar energy of this farnace. The air Perature in the mixing chamber is reach ed, both these products Seen in great abundance. : = = c ie ¢ a ie Se r ii, ay 246 B. Silliman, Jr., on the Combustion of Wet Fuel. «— DESCRIPTION OF THE FURNACES. 1st, Furnace for combustion of wet tan, sawdust, he. Fig. 1, is a horizontal section of a furnace constructed accord- ing to the specitications of Thompson's first patent, (issued April 10th, 1855). . Fig. 2, is a vertical section of the same in the line vy, of figure 1. Similar letters indicate corresponding parts in both figures. TILED Leela ae MM ELL ne i | 2 i i : A The furnace shown in these figures has three square or oblong fire chambers, A, A’, A”, side by side, experience having sbow? that not less than three compartments are required to secure the t results in the practical working of the furnace, ‘although 2 some cases two may suffice, but frequently more than three are ai Sie es Hee SE Rg aS RE ee ET SR ae B. Silliman, Jr., on the Combustion of Wet Fuel, 247 2. Furnace for Combustion of Wet Cane Begasse. __ Fig. 3 is a sectional side view, the interior and exterior form of the furnace, and its several parts according to the specifica. Hons of Thompson’s patent of Dee. 15, 1857. ey et ahah Pe ni ieea aia” b / - XX ANE Q\ : S SN WSS NS Sw WN S STS Fig. 4 is a front sectional view of the same, showing the com- : : bination of two double furnaces, Fh S ® Ee o 5 ror t 8 = = 3S Ey - Fig. 5 is a horizontal view of mixing chamber Mand flue F Here let the Inventor speak for himself in the language of the patent last named. - build two furnaces side by side, each nearly square in its horizontal Section. the top, ner. tach furnace chamber there should be a partition of fire brick extending *cToss it from front to back and rising nearly to the top, dividing it into fro nearly equal parts. ‘The whole interior of the furnace should be of fire brick: The Wer chamber should be draught openings capable of adjustment to ort combustion in the lower chamber. ge 3 “Xtending across the back of both furnaces, and opening into both by a ‘S @ mixing chamber into which all the gases from both urnaces enter in a highly heated state and mix and consume each other on their Way to the boiler and stack. This chamber should be about one-half the AM: JOUR. 8¢1.sECOND SERIES, Vor. XXX, No. 89.—SEPT., 1560. 32 sup capacity of all the fire chambers and it should extend down about as low as the back end of the grate. The flue through which the products of ber. If the surfaces of this masonry were smooth the bagasse would lie against them in such a manner as to obstruct the upward radiation of the heat and the downward passage of the vapors. These corrugations are unnecessary in burning tan and sawdust. The spaces between the grate bars for burning bagasse should be about 6 inches wide for the finest grinding and twenty inches for the coarsest, and should vary between these widths according to the fineness of grind- ing, but for sawdust and tan much less, say from one inch to 4 of an inch. The grate should be made of fire brick. . The operation of my furnace is as follows: A hot fire of dry fuel 1s kindled in the lower or fire chambers of the furnaces and after it has been continued till the masonry is well heated, the chamber above the grate 18 fed with the begasse or other wet fuel. This hot fire in the fire chamber, especially towards the front of it under the principal mass of the wet fuel, must be preserved throughout the operation. The heat from the meee . ¢ bs and otherwise into the fire chamber and mixing chamber, Ww! posed, furnishing much oxygen to the fire, and supply the oxyge™ — sary to combustion of all the combustible gases issuing from me chamber, If by accident the fire in the lower part of the furnace predominate, the draught should be Rainched i ays the charred matter falling through the open ge will sup: _ ply its place; and the caloric thus produced by the com B. Silliman, Jr., on the Combustion of Wet Fuel. 251 fuel, will be vastly greater than from the same quantity by measure of the same fuel when dry. In the fire chamber and in the mixing cham- ber under intense heat the carbonaceous gases will decompose the steam In the drawings, D represents the chambers for the dry fuel, W those for the wet, Jf the mixing chamber, the dotted line m in Fig, 3 limits it ; ° r, . . the efficiency of the furnace depend greatly upon it. The principal ob- ject of this chamber is to give the combustible carbonaceous gases from chamber be too small to receive these gases as fast as the furnace is able to produce them the operation will of course be choked and impeded. Ifthe chamber is larger than can be kept densely filled with these gases, of Will at once greatly increase the volume of gases to be sent whe to Ma and proportionably decrease its temperature; and when the and nitrogen, will go forward, thus wasting the fuel and imparting uly @ faint degree of heat to the boiler. eh Thave therefore fixed the size of the mixing chamber by many care- ful *xperiments—and that given above will produce the desired effect with 252 B. Silliman, Jr., on the Combustion of Wet Fuel. wet bagasse. For dryer fuels furnishing less vapor, the mixing chamber should be proportionably increased in size to supply the defficiency with air and to effect complete combustion. Rules more precise would be in- consistent with the nature of the subject. A large and hot fire should always be preserved in the fire chamber below the grate, and directly under the charge of wet fuel, for the pur- pose of driving the vapor out of it and charring its lower portion—and the grate is left much more open than in furnaces for burning dry fuel of the same size, for the purpose of allowing the charred portions of the wet charge to fall through to supply fuel for this fire as fast as it becomes fit yd _ purpose, thus consuming the mass with little or no expenditure of other fuel. I wish it distinctly understood that I make no claim to any ' rts or combination above specified except in. their application to the Is.” Tt will be observed that in this mode of combustion the wet fuel is subject to a constant process of distillation by the fire the ash pit. The products of this distillation react on each oth- er in the mixing chamber in the manner already described, while at the same time a portion of watery vapor is decomposed a requisite for complete combustion is drawn from the atmos paere or is derived from the decomposition of water by ¢aT a Ses ais a Artificial Crystallization of Copper. 253 he did not fail with his natural acumen to perceive this advan- tage and in his earliest patent he remarks: “ After ample exper- haceous matter, dispensing with a draft and its cooling and wastful influence and rendering the combustion so perfect that bl aware appeared in the scientific Journals. I am not without Personal experience of its operation on a large scale, having in 1857 enjoyed the opportunity of studying carefully the manage- Ment of one of Thompson’s furnaces in three compartments (Similar to Figs, 1 and 2) built for the combustion of wet peat. That fuel contained over seventy-five per cent of its whole Weight of water and was too wet for the best results, But with he use of one-fourth part of dry wood, even this extremely wet and otherwise valueless fuel was rendered efficient, three cords (of 128 cubic feet) of wet peat and one cord of dry wood doing the work of four cords of dr y wood in driving a steam boiler. ——— : , Arn, XXVI.— Note ona case of Artificial Crystallization of Metallic Copper and Dinoxyd of Copper; by J. W. MALLET. | ahedral edge. Along with these erystals of copper there Were little cubes of the ainnxyel of copper in great abundance— 254 Review of Dr. Antisell’s Work the latter not more than two or three hundredths of a millimeter on the edge, translucent, and of a splendid garnet red color. | On examination it became evident that these two bodies had been deposited in the crystalline state in consequence of the formation of the so-called’ “ Bucholzian circuit "—one solid and two liquids so arranged as to produce electric action. As the flask cooled down the water from the peneumatic trough gradu- ally rose in the tube, and in time ran down into the flask. The latter being in an inclined position the water flowed gently down the neck and formed a distinct stratum above the strong solution of nitrate of copper. me of the scraps of metal which ha rojected above the surface of the solution, were now immersed, partly in the latter and partly in water, and it was upon the low- er portion of each of these scraps—the part immersed in solution of raat of copper—that crystallization had taken plac “a pier he deposition of metallic copper under similar conditions touching some protoxyd of copper at the bottom of the solution. The crystals which he obtained were octahedral, not cubic. —- Art. XXVIL.—Review of Dr. Antisell’s Work on Photogenic Oils, &e. [Concluded from page 121.] In describing the methods of purification proposed by Selligue, we shall make no attempt to follow their various details, our limited space compelling u8 to content ourselves with only the broadest generalities. Selligue sets forth at length two methods: Ist. A cold treatment which consists in agitatl the oil with sulphuric, muriatic, or nitric acid. This agitation should be a) description of his agitators. After several hours’ repose, the oil may be ‘pert tgee ned in the oil. The oil is then decanted: if it is te distillation of the crude oil I do not allow the mixture to subside entirely, Py ng to leave a portion of the alkali mixed with the oil, and to distil off only than i _ When the soda lye—in quantity slightly ates od han 1s necessary to neutralize the acid—is added, the liquid must be agita' “ef Rg in order that each particle of the oil may be brought in contact it pe 9 Bh agitation must be continued until the color of the oil und? . on Photogenic or Hydrocarbon-Oils from Coal. 255 The oil Pesaryes less odorous and less highly colored after each such “cold oh enti hav ing been allowed to separate from the lye, the oil is decanted off; if it has not lost much of its color the process has been badly conducted. It should be stated that the oil must not be agitated sever times with the pt for, by so doing, the dark color of the oil would be restored, * for the residues of the soda treatm tment, continues Selligue, they s ie Id ‘ei allowed to stand at rest during some days beneath a portion of oil, which will made, or y adding water, grease may be separated. This grease is similar to that used seated wagons. rm treatment which follows the cold, and consists of a series o serge dstillations,—specia cnerations for the purification of the “ light- ” being resorted to. For e details of these we must refer to the bbe ated. imbibition, but this occasions a great loss of oil and also requires more labor. With this specification the scientific titen a of the subject by Selligue appears to have ceased, yet in the same year he replies} to a note ening tnt g oan arsenic can be found in the roducts from his own es’ men describes the locality and ppileliee position of his shale, the method of distil- lation em mployed,—how the temperature is gradually elevated, &c. This | 1s of interest as showin ng that the manufacture of coal-oil in France Was no ephemeral fancy, but for m any years was a well established ‘branch of TO- is duets of the prullaton of bituminous eng of Bain Serres should also be on ligu aie yi very i in teresting article upon wasted urdes, b A. Mallet ( in ‘Lowe e’s Dictionnaire des Arts et Manu- fretures, 24 Ed., Paris, a in which Setigue’ 1 8 processes are incidentally igi tolerably accurate English translation of this important patent may be of then, he specification of M. A. B, B Du Buisson, 1845; specification No. 10,726 the English Patent Offic R Ibid, xx Comptes Rendus be ba 239 i Sg iy tt ive lili, 263. ion, xxviii, 91, * Ibid, tt A t big, Z rs for the aaa me only to the ate epedt ra thie arti i, whi dea aoe Gl y be obtained in a way 18 also contained in Dingler’s Polytechnisches _ s 1847, cvi, 128, 256 Review of Dr. Antisell’s Work described. After discussing in detail the light volatile ge oblatsiel by distilling coal-tar, he says, we have still to speak of the carbo-hydrogens . — from shales; a branch of industry w which we owe entirely to Selligue--cut off, alas! prematurely, in the midst of his career so full of discoveries and of useful works. As is well known, he obtained by distilling shales from the environs of Autun: I, volatile ethereal oils, II, fixed oils, II, oils contbiiied araffine from which he prepared grease for carriages, IV, parafline suitable or making candles, &c. Among all these bodies, Mallet pa ieee wehave pce to occupy ourselves with the volatile oils. Further on M. r s that | dred ie ieee aot We have been at a6 pains to ascertain whether the industrial distillation of ‘ shales, so well gre ounded jy Selligue, has been continued in France without poco a up to the present wer for we know of no reason to doubt th fact. | ertain it is that eoaloile pro ry Fre seh manufactories were exhibite bir ae lat we cannot explai r pews fro by several of the leading chemists of Great Britain on the occasion, of a trial,§ Young, v. White and others he . in June, 1854, in the Court 0 mpbe Several aya for the production of bile! [ega oils] from bituminous sub- stances were meanwhile obtained in England. Butler, || for example, ee il and gas” pr distil “oem shales, &c. for the cits ; fe : purpose of obtaining oil and gas from naphthaline. The shale, best afte? wetting it with water if the princ object is to obtain oil, is distilled in common gas retorts under which a gentle _ fire is lighted. As soon as oil begins to flow over freely the fire is t0 increase d and the retorts brought to a red bre a large quantity of gas 18 thus ys is . owes be purified by washing with s sulphuric acid, filtration, &c., oF may be used in the rough state for making oil-gas. The oils in their roug state are ona found oy free from oxygen, and if obtained hy the process described never contain so much as is contained in the coal-tar ert * It will be observed b ; ning Ad y the reader of Mallet’s treatise that he is intereste pes a single branch of the subject, viz, the volatile naphthas—“light st tuffs,” in” ” a: —— giving prominence to another portion . it, viz., the fixed, or a ; an the holds — naphthas from shale in small repute, since in his opi in the matter of cost ho ‘hes from co EAN mio, 1361, Cat. 9), Bas-R. 8. 510 of ae "ie vi, p. 3905 also t. iii, p. 315 ‘of the Liege edition; and B. vii, = Reported in Sa Seadarite London Jo py urn. of Gas Lighting, Aug. 10, 1854, vol. ii, P. Patent granted Jan. 29,1883. Specification ers of the English Patent Office on Photogenic or Hydrocarbon-Oils From Coal, 257 oil [No, 2] offers another hee feature; if after being drawn off and distilled, and if in this lis latter process the more volatile or first proceeds, a al cannot fail to strike he? batibr. inventor was er unfortunate in the idea of trying to make at aed ae tithe oil ih gas—in abv orinig to recon- cile two ee proce ‘In 1841 t. 4, Count de ‘Hentiidst of fee specified certain “im- given off fame the thick oil. The carbonization is now complete; and I oe tain these thre separate oils by the gradual increase of the heat; Aer Te this distillation without ¢ deebinposition of the substance, the vapors cane from € retort as fast as they are formed. The essential oil is separated from the fat oil by exposing he eo current of steam m by which the more volatile oil i is carried off. oil rixed] — prepared must be = ssharh and is then ready for aplaton i ‘all kinds o achine nery, being very fat, works without friction and t. The essential oil is collected» te subjected to further theahie The specification of Du Buissont for improvement in the oa of bi- in nous substances, is an:almost. literal tunlation of Selligue’s las .. me Ineo Du Buisson tells us that the extensive works at Autu n, De i eae Saone and Loire, France, are parti property and that ee ee management tof them as chemist. He affirms moreover that the most import- ant results haye there been attained —results which place the oa ian tal of schistus among the most useful and productive of chemica actu Since we have already e lligue’s specification it is ~ hee largely from Selligue’s spec essary to cite m wG it here. arewe little curious that this most i im- (p. in 14)! patent i is not iontiond in Dr. Antisell’s “list of English Pat ents cath ‘yt attempts to prepare paraffine and oils from peat§ need not be discussed her Anois cell oe mentioned in Dr. A.’s list, is that of ; SPecifcation No. 9060 of th English Patent Office Ina “mem ‘tion d July 5, 1842, de Hompesch claims the “tht of distiing oh ~eecicbid ay sige shales, or slates, or other rocks or minerals ni June 23, 1845. Specification No. 10,726 of the English Patent Offic. pee p. 85 co 5s peictin No, patent dated Jan. 23, 1849. Specifica- of the English Patent Office "TOUR. SCL—SECOND SERIES, Vor. XXX, No. &9—SEPT., 1860 33 258 Review of Dr. Antisell’s Work George Michiels.* It is ponstionly: interesting since a portion of sy Ropiirs to the preparation of oils from caking coals. Mi chiels proposes in fact to prepare coke from bituminous coals, and Baan mixtures of such coals with ‘sntbnualg i wit. i f six nto _ tus and other gto The retorts are then heated as if it were intended to produce gas, with this difference, that the temperature for the first fifly hours should not coe nascent red heat, or 964° F.; after that time it should be increased progressively until it attains a clear red heat, which would be about the ninety-sixth hour, I should remark, continues Michiels, that about e sixtieth hou on th hour I shut unication betw e retort and the condensor by closing the hydraulic valves, and at the same time th valve on top of the r , &C., § oO e air to enter, which burns the useful purposes, cop is suitable for his principle object of turning into gas. Further on (p. 15 of his specificatio aia hiels orp iiaaa that this oil's well adapted for. ate eit ng. gas upon a small scale, since the gas s prepared from it requires no purification, ~ since it can be used in any of the ordinary apparatus for making gas from camphene, oil, or ee Tn a wor the: posed using it just as rosin oil ds is ve so largely employed by private ga works fae this country, or as Boscary and Butler had used the same coal-oil We passt toa erga of the well known labors of Mr. James Young of Glasgow.t From evidence brought forward in the trial already eke it appears that Mr. Cowie attention was called in 1847 to a mineral oil i i i hire. in Tnplaed oo in this country, which was intr roe 9 to tele notice 1n 1850. From this substance Young was enabled to phe a much lar, ount of oil per ton of mineral than had hes obtained by any of his pr abee ors A discovery of the source of an admi w material which the Boghe mine furnished is evidently due the immense increase in the production, and ourse, tion, of coal-oil which im e say, more than to anything else is to be attributed the rise and progress, during the past few years, of the almo sae 1 ori oal-oil on the continent of Europe and in our own ¢ n the impetus thus given, ® y ae Fro branch of industry ich had long be na aacemnine speaking, of onl ae importance soon attained an enormous ny ire meat paeemee * Granted April 30, 1850. a No. 13,066 of the English Patent Office. h + Making no pretence, be it understood, a “$ ‘have been able to collect all that as been published upon the = none Satees Patent dated ay eh a eh ie @ see , London Journal of Gas Lighting, iii, ok ks cannot, in this connection, forbear noc the spaces ertine - d ony from Lord Campbell's charge to the jury in the ee eg ® White = te rings me to an Leeann’ hi dship, “which I mean nt 1 poe and which, T should have ong y if r" a forgotton, 5 which is this—tbat t qwas the discove ery of this Boghead oa Wat % seems to have given t the great ¥ value a 3 : 4 F ; é a iff FE 2 SP RTE a ree oh me eee ee FTF LEE a ST Te ee ee on Photogenic or Hydrocarbon-Oils from Coal. 259 Let it be Sh understood that we would in no wise detract from the real nae 8 Mr. er _ Unitin , as he does, no cout share of Page sc ulted. ell on e blame for his incorrect and part rtial “history.” W en ginny! (on p. 14), Dr. A. tells us that: “only since the year 1850 has the ee of paraf- from pit-coal, turf and ities min ous shales succeeded as an art. The of Ja 100 parts of Cannel-coal 40 per cent of ‘all a nd 10 per cent t of paraffine could be obtained.” He makes a statemen re is grossly exagge OAc not t wa r from coals by distillation. He claimed the Rey uction of paraffine oils— the production of bay eis or pa [benzol sat nor naphthalin, but paraffine and its congeners: this involves the slower distillation of coals at a lower abet than had bain: athens effected, and this novelty in practice was e it means an thing—that in the opinion of Dr. A., oung was the first person who distilled coal fon manufacturing scale 2 at Sage Spek hh = low temperatures. What Dr. Antsel's Rabe Bie er g “low tempera- tu Pri - “ practic ic al” ma be, t we do know that when : ad | exer ised the greatest ca re in maintaining the temperature of his r at ; para: ll this however does n & spent to satisfy Dr. A i ig! ‘gets wee sh fa il fr the soya ie 52 inggah , hn : n fit to dwell at gn ‘ it here. a aay ie the term “coal” is applied i in common language to a great nety of mineral sone bles no wes kinds of which are eer sae alike or’ ‘ke others. The term is at Conventional ; used, in lack of any better one, to designate substances wi the real nature of which we are still almost entirely ignoran ined in such quantities as now being discovered, and this « a or coal being disco pie which is of very wich quality, and having a ; pion a is the essential pat 2 : peg : | taining paraffine righ sa. a eee shou yur panda Si gh put in Lary “cause it woul i 1d. be put into pr , begs a irae sub =n as rs “ Chimie I Al operate” to “lly P eas9 until then I do not find it was obtai Ae ote a ee ee eee et ae . 260 Review of Dr. Antisell’s Work i | fhe giutiike anthracite of Wales, the beautiful Albert coal*—but a step removed from asphaltum—of Hillsboro, New Brunswick; our common lignites, ; equently hadinn into peat, and the bituminous shales as frequently amon slate, as pol i ch ot ich are, in fay RIOR language at least, varieties of coal. eed so great that it ea f 1 ge Ity to choose any r of the medley as ntral point, or ev ideal coal to which all obtiet varieties shot Id be refe rel. In attempting any such selection a native of one of our sea-board states would assuredly lean towards anthracite; the South. Gecnan towards his "puesta nt lignites; the Scotchman towards his cannel; while Newcastle aben Bee S Lids 6 ial or td . vr they contain more an ydrogenous compounds. ea pearance of the mineral mean owl approwching more and more closely to that of ‘eid: while at the same time the value of ae fixed carbonaceous residue becomes less and less, soon ceaatie to be **coke” at all, but rather @ more or of gas and oil- and the a f earthy ping ieilgsa ,—taking the place rat the fixed c ston in our cyaieal caking coal, we pass into “ Biscionise shales: and these become less ans less bitumi- sd until at length we rea ach common clay slate containing n anic matter whatsoever. We have her Sat no fancy sketch. That the * cmt coals” * thus gradually pass into “bituminous les” is now well enough known, @ at least to gas en gineers and other , Proetieal observers, It would not for that matter be exceedingly diffi ult to obtain a continuous series of specimens exhibiting this almost i insensible gradation. Now did Mr. Young devote a attention to the distillation of caking cove nes to our typical ‘Newcastle ? y nomeans! On ‘he ¢ contrary We im occupied with a mineral which was called indifferently “shale” or oa? ntil it was in 1853 decided in @ Scottish court that it should eee be hea known as coal.f * On page 18 of Dr. A’s work the following rem “Tn one respect they [bitnsens) differ from coal. In no case can a eat peieal or srootre be be when the Vi ped n _ See Reports on the Geological Relati fh dcr oscopic detonation of the coal of the Albert Coal Mining Co., situat ted in Nesbi 0., WV. B., by Chas. T. pei eae New York: printed by es a 1851, p. ed Digi re this Journal, [2], xiii, 276. supposed, w on the above was ia heory that the decision of this.co had been sustained, le this a were mistaken appears fiom th e following, which eines a late number of the London eri of Gas on Photogenic or Hydrocarbon-Oils from Coal. 261 We would cast ne, reflection upon the judgment rendered in this famous suit, Looking at it as a mere matter bid equity, depending upon the business ion, j ut Sa iy iy the ae thes at issue, this verdict was in our own opinion, just his mineral being, or not sa called a coal, d in the least he event it from being also a shale; a at it is more nearly related to the shale: to the coals is believed by a large proportion of those who are intimately acquainted wit cientific or i e iscuss at greater length this quibble of Dr. Antisell’s—which, however excusable it might have retai attorney or solicitor of patents, is anything but becoming to the chemical professo as ea ¥ refer the reader to the p reports of the blished re f ust m here cite only a few lines* descriptive of Selligue’s 8 sane: The fiuddtaty of oily matter in these shales is very variable and often very ghting (Jan. 17th, 1860. vol. ix, p. 41), received as this article is going through press. “SETTLEMENT OF THE GREAT TORBANE-HILL CASE, We have been favored with the following apie 3g wey rote with the well known case, the ‘Bathgate or Boghead Gas Coal alias the ie pur Mineral,’ Which has lasted upwards of seven years, having hi through se h the Supreme Law Courts of Scotland and England. ape comatoni aa ee D come to on Wednesday last, the eleventh current. It is embo ies > -f minute ot agreement between Mr. and Mrs . Gillepsie of Torbane-hill, of th t part, and an James Russel and Son, and James Russel, Esq., of ‘fete of the sec- co: of the minute of agreement, which itself consists of twelve articles, ‘ ang the said po d the said company of James nae ren on the one part, and the sa pany l'and Son, and individual partners thereof, on the other part, and dated the it - March and 1st of 2 April 1850; and both — es being now desirous that the The hind consequence of the execution of the ew na ird article provides et each arty pay a ow er The fourth irticis, which ha ch pay ‘Name o of Mineral, is bot h an important and curious one-—important in a * tently point of view, and curious as goer acid it is hereby agreed der of these presents, where the that, tl hout the remainder o shen in Gestion | is aie: shall be called for the sake of brevity the disputed rbane- hill which was reserved Arti from, icle fifth omined to bes aca of a Ed by tia article ‘the disputed mineral,’ the operati of th ral lease, We now call it, od j “4 the reserved portion of the estate, may be wo orked a by the propritos oes the ee of any obstruction being offered by “a party in the agreemen i From Detiay et Elie de Deautiaile Explication de la Carte green de Imp. Royale, 1841. +. i, p. 673. 262 Review of Dr. Antisell’s Work considerable. stein ® to M. Xardel some rare samples exist which afford even 45 @ 50 ent; other specimens afford 20 @ 25 per cent. per The beds which ae pwnd or are capable of being worked, yield from 5 to - 9 per cent.” [ }—Again [p. 676], “ The impressions of fossils, so com- mon in the sales of d’Igornay, occur in the poorer h he rich shales, ont , often contain vegetable remains analagous to those common! found a e beds of rich shale are in a man ving it for our readers r the question; how far removed in any- thing "but hye papa oS the “ “coal” (Bo ecm i which Mr. Young has ope as a ’ ‘i eerie Ka M.S oO with which the reader can readily enough ane himself by conti German eieucsl journals of the Tast eight or ten years. proof of it we cite only the ceisaonoen, :* “The recent aos in the celebrated bein n Ger- = ® many, as proo of which we have a case in Bolt and which, althbiigh not at e time known in this country, was officially decided open in Berlin previous to the trial coming on in Scotland, which terminated on the 4th of August , &c. A rival Eng and to give both fair play, it was decided that the latter Coke should. be nfined to the al alone. = ngelh anager (Resin) Gas Company, apis heard of the Boghead and Torbane mineral, obtained specimens, and having found they produced excellent gas, gave an order for a i consignment which reached Frankfort vid Rotterdam, eer a Dutch agent. This was entered at the Custom-house as cannel coal, much to the annoy er of Mr. Engelhard, who was no more at liberty to make gas from coal than his rg were to make it of anything else but coal. He was, daweeree, prevented from the wecoeuity of atrial at law, for the officials did hes ake 5 were as much at a loss as their inferiors, and the case was eventually transferred to t the Central Board of Customs at Berlin, the last urt of appeal of th i a oe ton.” In connection with the question of the products of the it of coal which Dr. A. would have us believe so entirely new to the world a to sist ot in particular, we cite the following from The Encye clopedia "of ci , by James C. Booth and Campbe ell Morfit. 8vo, Philadelphia, Baird, 1850, Ms i. Article, Coal: paragraph, “ products of dry distillation.” . i ee cana Journal of Gas Lighting, Oct., 1853, iii, 256 ; from London Min : ; a Ee eee 1k ae ee ee ae re MEN es Ee EN See) ON aS Lae ae Sa Bee AS on Photogenic or Hydrocarbon-Oils from Coal. 263 “These products ist the ory distillation of coal] are somewhat analogous to =e derived from wood, and some are identical with them e liquid products consist Sof various bodies sai allied to me and the _ Nuphthali me and Parafline. The relative proportions of these products with the temperature. The lower the heat “ps yy the less gas, and gher er h has been cited by Dr. Antisell (p. 14), fr whom we quote it: “So remained par- affine until this hour [date of Y.’s pinto a beautiful item in the ‘rolleetion of son preparations ; but it has never escaped from the rooms of the scien- pon the reader sles has followed us thus far we need not nae that the oe statement is incorrect. As an offset to it we cite the follo D Bituminous shale, then fluid bitumen [crude oil], mineral grease, crude an refined (the former at 50 fr. the 100 kilog. [= ape 00 per 100 Ibs.]}, also mine- ral war [para ffine] chee oo refined (the former at 125 fr., the latter at 180 5% [= respectively 123 and Abpea: per 100 Ibs s)) The purified mineral w was beautifully white Bt: the candles made of it had a soiled apyearnsiee.” ermann (now, according He Wigner councillor of State in Munich goes) on to assert that “if these fatty products can be prog economically they belong to the most important objects of the si ies Tt would be ke 4 to our purpose were we t empt to o trace the rece During the nite ‘fw years a large number of mers on the pian ae odie been i i while i ie wie "pon the materials used for producing li he have cash devoted a separa spect to its description. A ow w spec welt tee 4 tises have also been published an * ha following is a, doubtless very Teapot e, list—§ TH, Ed. Handbuch der Photogen- und Parafin- Fabrtkation aus Ti Braunkohe und bituminésem aoe nach den neuesten Versuchen und — = Quedlinburg, Basse, 1858. Carl, Georg, Die trockene Destillation und die hauptsdchlichsten ria brent en Hiss eae Leipzig, Barth, 1858. xt, Merrzenporrr und Wernecke. [Committee of the on dl debury: Gre Sicercicc] Ueber das Photogen oder Mineralel, so we —— * Erdmann’s J 1 fi ktische Chemie, lxiii, 63, Did our space allow, we Would gladly transcribe the wh de ie of this article —an English translation of which : f coal- proof of a 8s that the present widely-spread manufacture o : Hey cn is mainly due to the aonesalively recent discovery of rich stores ighly bituminous substances. t From v, He ermann’s tg Industrie Ausstellung Zu Paris im Jahre, 1839, ads : ery complete a es of these may be found in Wagner's oy teases umes of ce te thus far been published. For i hee to Lat ~~ @ scienti searches of GREVILLE WILLIAMS, have been chiefly. contin hosiansine to the more volatile portions of the ofl her to i¢ compounds which occur in it, see Liebig and Kopp’s Jahresbericht § Small as this eh is, it will nevertheless recall to the mind of the cage the ést lines with which Dr. Antisell’s preface commences, namely these : et il treatise i is the first pub blished monograph on the art of distilling oils rals co: ntai en,” 264 Scientific Intelligence. dhnlichen Leuchtstoffe, in i auf thre Feuergefihrlichkeit und thre An- wendung. Magdeburg Also the sonpitiogst wienare of ScuraveEr, F. W. Ueber die industrielle und national-dkonomische Bedeutsamkeit der Gewinnung von Chemikalien eco sondere des Paraflin’s und Photogen’s aus dem Kohlentheer, u. s. w. Asch gst ae 1856. quotations. The first from Dr. Antis ells book, cf 15. “An impression has taken hold of the American Keciepiaan f public ¢ hat oe patent of Der a rong be this country, an ill-fecling has been produced against it. at the ow of this patent have not acted wisely by witholding sales and liskiees. wider it until very lately, is to be regretted; but that it was a fide improvement in an art at the time when it w as patented and that therefore the patent ier alitly issued in re country, pits Mag. o shadow of n land L disciesing this mode oy obtaining sala raffine oil which were , were aera that the patent would be pune rel although Mr. Young never P al those books, and al ough that mode had not been actually put in practice. If on woe books in England in aire sonees accessible to all o were interested in the subject, which disclosed this, and wou uld instruct them and enable them to obtain the paraffine and the vatiine oil from the dis- tillation of bituminous substances, then Mr Young’s patent would be invalid.” Frank H. See ee SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS. 1. On a probable means of rendering visible the Se buen: in the Hye ; by Oapen N. Roop, Prof. of Chemistry in Troy University.—Some time ago while looking at a bright sky through three Saises of cobalt-glass, I saw with astonishment that the “i of view was ss ed with, and travers- ed in all directions by small bodies resemblin aleu y were seen on the blue field 2 as yellowish spots, and always appear: ed elongated in the direction of their motion, which was as a general thing silsabhy se a orm. The same result was obtained by experimenting upo? the eyes of an mber of persons. Convex Sie of various foci, (from 3 in. to $i in.), were now held be- fore the eyes, so as to give the blue light various degrees of conver” gence and divergence, without in the least altering the appearance of the moving bodies; this seemed to indicate that their locality was in the retina or in its immediate neighborhoo ition near the axis of vision was selected, and satu when it was found ane ager in traversing this spot always p rsued the rection and path, disappearin r positions ' near the axis gave ke senate. oi is Saeeacieat at os * Loc. cit., p. 520. : ol es ee ee ee ee eee ee eee ee Technical Chemistry. 265 distinctness through red, orange, yellow, green, nor even purple media; they are on the other hand well shown by a certain thickness of a solu- Yellow solutions when com- ith the blue glass or blue solutions render the circulation invisible, and it does not reappear till the yellow solution has been made so dilute a he ade great extent transparent, to all their rays and therefore fail to cast shad- esl if new ma ga- ged in the study of the physiology of the eye. y, May 14th, 1860, Tzouyrcar, Cuemistry, 1. Care of Platinum Crucibles—In connection with some sensible re- marks Upon the use of sand in cleaning platinum erucibles,—a_ practice hich, with Berzelius, (Lehrbuch der Chemie, 1841, 4th Aufl. p. 516,) 0 n that 4 crucible is used, Erpmann explains the cause of the gtay coating at forms upon platinum crucibles whenever they are ignited in the m.oF Bunsen’s gas-burner. Keitud | This Coating has given rise to much annoyance and solicitude among chemists, Indeed it has often been asserted, that the use of Bunsen’s * Mr Wm. B . f these facts were commu- icated 1. 2 B. Taylor of Washington to whom some ©: ge amram ned by Prof. J. pas was able = trace this appearance, though with diminish- "0 distinctness, through’plates of bluish-green and yellow glass. AW. JOUR. SCL-SECOND SERIBS, Vou. XXX, No. 6.—SEPT., 1860. oH 266 Scientific Intelligence. ; burner is unadvisable in quantitative analysis, since by means of it the weight of platinum crucibles is altered and the crucibles themselves in- j The coating is produced most rapidly when the crucible is placed in the inner cone of the flame, and the more readily in proportion as the pressure under which the gas is burned, is higher. Having found it ad- vantageous to maintain, by means of a special small gas holder, a pres- sure of four or five inches upon the gas used in his own laboratory, Erd- mann has observed that the strong gas flame thus afforded, immediately becomes red hot; it increases continually so that after long continu ignition the whole of the bottom of the crucible will be found to be gray, and with its lustre dimmed. This ring is caused neither by sulphur, as some have believed, nor by a coating of inorganic matter, but is simply a superficial loosening of the texture of the platinum in consequence of the strong heat; whence it first In conjunction with Pettenkofer, Erdmann instituted several experi- ments which have left but little doubt that the phenomenon depends upon not increased. The bisulphate of potash or with carbonate of soda. It disappears, however, when the metal is polished with sand ; the loss of weight which the cru- cible undergoes, being exceedingly insignificant, a crucible weighing 25 grams, having lost hardly half a milligram. hen the gray coating of the crucible is examined under the mieroscope it may be clearly seen that the metal has acquired a rough, almost warty, surface, which disappea's, when it is polished with sand, Platinum wires which are frequently ignited in the gas flame, for example the triangles which are used to sup- as is g i Under the micro scope they exhibit a multitude of fine longitudinal cracks which as the original superficial alteration penetrates deeper become more open, or a8 | SSR ear, oe foe Rane ee eas ER Le GRY eee eh Technical Chemistry. 267 acids; and it must be remembered that what is dull white in silver, ap- pears gray in platinum. each commencement of this loosening is again destroyed, the eruci- scope, no grain of it should exhibit sharp edges or corners, all the angles should be obtuse.— Journ, Sir praktische Chemie, March, 1860, Ixxix, 117, readily even the most practical matters may fall into oblivion in spite of the copiousness and the vigilance of our literature. F ifteen years ago, Prof. Siller, at that time filling the chair of Pharmacy at Dorpat, called ashes about an inch in thickness, and sand then heaped up all around it; the distillation may then be proceeded with, without any further precau- tions, By this method I have twice rectified sulphuric acid, operating With a very bad retort, upon portions of 15 lbs weight; and have been boil only from the sides of the retort. Since then, manifold expedients ve Seen proposed, all depending upon some peculiar apparatus, con- structed for this particular purpose, but I have not yet met with any og erence to the simple contrivance which has here been mentioned. _ From Archiv der Pharmacie, exly, 267; in polytechnisches Notizblatt, 1860, xv, 48, [Preoernre of Riga, (Archiv d. Pharm., Aug., 1859; in American Journal of Pharmacy, viii, 88,) corroborating the statement of Neese, Males that he can recommend the process from his own experience, vihea is evi 1 devices almost as simple as the Wish he ducribes hard poesreTy fea eed Put Oe Gai Leebon der Thorganischen Chemie, Braunschweig. 1855, i, 275,) directs that the retort be eg i rucible val fire which is built around it however, considers it n ef the retort with a thin cuating of clay which has been mixed with a dilute solution of © of tof borax, instead of water, so that it may adhe oie Poa when ; urging that the danger of fracturing the latter is not « } aati thereby, but that a more rapid distillation is insured, since little or He = en- Propet occur within a retort thus prot pelyndd an r 49; “Wer, the retort is not coated ) Possibly @ more convenient method than either of the above would be to fill a suf: r ‘ gypsum, for chitiisaiciein' tend upon which to rest the bottum of the retort, eval fire similar to Otto's being then builf around it. F. H. S. 268 Scientific Intelligence. inasmuch as he has during the last twelve years, repeatedly rectified sul- phuric acid in the manner indicated—r. H. 8. 3. Vulcanization of Caoutchouc, by means of mixed Sulphur and Hy- pochlorite of Lime—Gavutier pe Cravsry, having detected the pres- ence of chiorid of calcium in many samples of vuleanized rubber, and becom violent that the cork will be blown out, or the flask broken by a violent explosion.— Comptes Rendus, May, 1860, 1, 876. 4. Preparation of Cyanid of Barium, and of Ammonia with the Ni- trogen of the Air; by Marauerrrre and Dz SourpevaL.—In a brief pre- That baryta when calcined in the presence of charcoal and of atmos- rien air combines — readily with carbon and nitrogen, cyanid of UNS Se Oe ee TR ae That the cyanid of barium heated in a current of aqueous vapor - decomposed at a temperature of about 300° (C.) [ 572° F,] and disen- PP ee ae 1100. un-Cotton Filters ; by Prof. Borrrazr.—Since gun-cotton—itself a product of the action of strong acids—when properly prepared js scarcely at all acted upon at the ordinary temperature, by chemicals, being capa * To prepare baryta from its carbonate, M. and De S. ignite a mixture of the latter with the ig (“asphaltum”) of coal tar. Each pale te of the carbonate g thus brought in contact with the reducing agent, carbon, excellent resu eines. the decomposition of the carbonate reba easy and the product of te ) . ‘ was a ti 8 0 ors W led to the important discoverie i i i é j Chimie ; ; s which are noticed in the text.—Répertoire d¢ applig. June, 1860, ii, pp. 169, 170. 3 ; : 4 th ; r | q q i ~ Which the tem erature is never a ; ie. to 122 F.]. The drying process is completed in the course of eight or * twelve hours, Technical Chemistry. 269 ble of withstanding the most corrosive agents; it affords a material for filtering strong acids, and the like, as well as liquids which would be decomposed by-contact with the organic matter of ordinary filters, the excellence of which cannot be too highly extolled. ides employing it for removing from strong nitric acid the chlorid / of silver which is precipitated in the common method of purifying this acid by means’ of nitrate of silver, (as has recently been advised in the Berlin polytechnisches Intelligenz-Blatt, No. 4, . 30); Boettger affirms that, he has for several years past, found it of special use in filtering off the slimy precipitate, containing selenium, which is gradually deposited, gun-cotton well suited for filtering scaeedestian alkaline lyes, aqua-regia, and concentrated solutions of chlorid of zine, not to allude to many other instances, In using the cotton a small bit of it is pushed loosely, like a stopper, into the throat of a funnel. he materials which have heretofore been used for similar purposes, viz: garnets, asbestos, powdered glass, &c., are very much inferior, as filters, to the loose, fibrous gun-cotton.—From polytechnisches Notizblatt, 1860, No. 7; in Dingler’s polyt. Journal, elv, 463. 6. Preservation of Flesh ; by Verpett.—-Having been separated from Ys, or hung upon hooks, in another chamber which is warmed, but in the action of moisture, and from insects, the flesh thus prepared may theless Well to "sorb any moisture which the flesh may have retained. Before using 270 Scientific Intelligence. it affords an excellent soup, and passes into a condition, in whic cannot be distinguished from fresh meat.—From Le Génie Industriel ; in Boerrasn’s polytechnisches Notizblatt, 1860, xv, 1 - Magnesium as a Source of Light—Prof. A. Scumrrr calls attention to the practicability of employing metallic magnesium for purposes of illumination, as had already been suggested by Bunsen. From the re- r of the last named chemist, it is known that when magnesium is ignited it readily takes fire and burns with an exceedingly brilliant flame. The intensity of the light thus produced, as determined by Bunsen and Roscoe in one of their photo-chemical researches (Pogg. Annalen, eviii, 261, et seq.) is only some 525 times less than that of the sun. Compar ith an ordinary candle, it appeared that a wire of magnesium 0:297 millimetre [1 mm. =0-0394 inch] in diameter, produced as much light in burning as 74 stearine candles, five to the pound. In order to support this light during one minute, a piece of wire 0-987 metres long, weighing 0°1204 gram [1 grm. =15°4325 grains], was required. Only 72:2 grams of magnesium, therefore, would be needed, in order to maintain during ten hours an amount of light equal to that of 74 stearine candles, consuming about 10:000 grams “of stearine. ecording to Bunsen, magnesium wire is readily obtained, by forcibly pressing the metal through a hot steel die by means of a steel piston. Bunsen’s arrangement for burning the wire was made, i spools of it with rollers moved by clock-work so that the wire should unrolled like the ribbon of paper in Morse’s telegraph, the end of the wire thus gradually pushed forward, passed into the flame of an ordinary alcohol lamp, where it took fire. ‘ It is evident that a magnesium lamp of this sort must be rouch simpler and more compendious than any of the existing arrangements of the elec- trical, or of Drummond's light; for light-houses, &c.: where an intensely brilliant illumination is required it can hardly fail to rival either of these. Where an extraordinary amount of light is needed, it could readily be produced by burning large wires, or several thin ones at the same time. Another important consideration is the fact that. the spools of wire, 48 g by night or in any dark or subterranean locality ; the evenness an remarkable tranquillity of the flame, especially commending it for this rpose. The present high price of magnesium, it is true, must prevent any &* tended use of it for technical purposes. For example, Lenoir of Vienna by connecting — be ; : 3 a ES Technical Chemisiry. 271 by stopping the clock-work—From Stamm’s Illustr. Zeitschrifi, 1859, p. 8382; in polylechnisches Notizblatt, 1860, xv, 56. 8. Method of employing carbonic acid in connection’ with the hypochlo- rite of lime used for bleaching paper-stock—An apparatus dev se by Fieuw Dinor and Barrvet of Paris, for introducing carbonic acid, 7 pared by burning charcoal, into the solution of hypochlorite of lime, (bleaching salt,) while the Jatter is in contact with the fibre which is to be bleached, is described in the Nov., (1859,) No. of Barreswil’s. Réper- toire de Chimie, Appliquée, vol. i, p. 457. ; e carbonic acid on being introduced into the solution of bleaching salt, unites with the lime, thus setting free hypochlorous acid, the izing action of which is infinitely more energetic when it is at liberty than when in combination with a base. then carefully tested. As the result of these experiments, it appeared id than the old 2 o @D oe) | ° 3 & oO J ce be} _ 9. New “ fusible metal.”—Dr. B. Woon of peal Be ikbO) ri cured a pa 7 > Scientifie Artizan, Cincinnati, May 5th, ») 10F oe ect (Weekly Scientific Artiza bismuth, which fuses at temperature between 150° and 160° F, The constituents of this fusible aed ther desired qualities of the alloy— Viz: ca nit n - od fi Parts; lead four parts, It is recommended as being especially us od all light castings re uiring a more fusible material than Rose's or Newton s 272 Scientific Intelligence. may be employed within certain limits without materially impairing the tenacity of the metal. In a letter to the Editors, dated Nashville, June 9th, 1860, Dr. Wood says ismuth, does not impair the tenacity and malleability of the alloy, but inereases its hardness and general strength. ismuth has always held a pre-eminent rank among metals as a fluidi- fying agent in alloys. Its remarkable property of ‘ promoting fusibility’ is specially noted in all our works on chemistry. But I do not find it in- timated in any that cadmium ever manifests a similar property. The fact indeed appears to have been wholly overlooked—owing perhaps to the circumstance that as an alloy with certain metals cadmium does not pro- mote fusibility. Cadmium promotes the fusibility of some metals, as copper, tin, lead, bismuth, while it does not promote the fusibility of others, as silver, an- timony, mercury, se,, (i. e., does not lower the melting point beyond the mean.) ‘As alloy with lead and tin in any proportion and with silver and mercury, within a certain limit, say equal parts and especially of two parts silver and one of cadmium or two parts cadmium and one mercury are used, are tenaceous and malleable, while its alloys with some malleable metals, (gold, copper, platinum, é&c.,) and probably with all brittle metals are ‘ brittle.’ I notice a great discrepancy among authors as to the melting point of this metal. It is usually put down the same as that of tin, (442° F.) the New American Cyclopedia,) gives its melting point at 360° F., while Overman places it at 550° and gives 600° as the temperature at which it point in round numbers at 600° F. as it melts and congeals nearly synchro- nously with lead, the melting point of which is stated by different authori- ties as 594°, 600°, and 612° F. It volatalizes at a somewhat higher heat, ah bismuth melts at a temperature varying not far from 70° C. (158° F.) t may appropriately be called “ Wood's fusible metal.” —Eps.] a | a7 Ray ees ree Geology. 073 II, GEOLOGY. 1, Note from Dr. Newserry, in reply to Mr. Lesquerevx, (in a letter to the Editors).—I see by the note from Mr. Lesquereux, [contained in a failed to reflect the great respect which I have had and still have for Tounded by proofs of the truth of the position I had before taken—circum- stances favorable to the development of a little honest indignation. In ¢ shadow of a doubt that they are Lower Creta a. 2.) Prof. H. states that “ except Credneria and Ettingshausenia all the a . ro ba on this point; and the error in the statement of Prof. Heer son by reference to Stichler’s paper, before age Soret ge lee 5 : j te is no more than just. If designed, stronger language would be ad- he appeal to “authority” h @, and the time has passed when pers : pass for eth“ Prot’ Heer js a man of estimable character, of UR. SCL_SECOND SERIES, Vor. XXX, No. 89.—SEPT., 1860. 35 274 Scientific Intelligence. great learning and of world-wide reputation, and, I am sure, would be one of the last to ask us to believe a scientific statement simply because de it. (3.) In my letter I made no supposition in reference to the Tertiary flora of Kentucky, Tennessee or Mississippi. merely stated some cence the Mississippi even higher than stated by Mr. Lesquereux. ex- cluded them from “ the central portion of the continent ;” by this mean- ing, as I then explained, the region between the Mississippi and the Sierra Nevada. Here, too, the evidence is negative, but now stands just as I represented it. 5.) Mr. Lesquereux says: “I cannot admit, as Dr. Newberry appears to do, that the fossil flora of the American Cretaceous, ought to be closely related to the European.” My only reference to this question will be found on page 216 (Journal, March, 1860), where I say—" We flora of that period more closely to that of Europe, but, so fer as at sou known, our plants of this age present an ensemble quite dif- erent. (6.) The statement made by Mr. Lesquereux that “ the age of the strata from which American fossil plants have been taken is mostly uD certain,” is manifestly incorrect. At least nine-tenths of the species enumerated are from the Carboniferous and Devonian rocks, W place in the geological series is certainly well ascertained. Of those 00 everything that has been published in reference to fossil plants ' ac- the extinct flores of Europe and America can only be made by means of full collections of well-marked specimens, many more than we yet possess Mr. Lesquereux is aware, as is every one who has given the subject any attention, that our knowledge of the flore of the different geolog cal formations has been limited, not so much by the want of learning acuteness in the cultivators of fossil botany, as by the small num and imperfect preservation of the fossil plants collected. It could hardly Botany and Zoology. 275 be otherwise, then, than that in the whole New World material should . Ill. BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY. how much better in such cases, to fit your book to its proper readers than to fit the readers to it. The fault we should find is not with the plan of of Massachusetts. We quite like to see the popular names put foremost, ble. For instance Virgin’s Bower is not a proper name for Wistarca Sru- coin “esa globularis as False Heath, nor has it any scientific claim to oy ap- Pellation. While in critical mood we may express a strong dissent from ceasty beautiful in cultivation, none the less so because its ce is so erent, having light an ndent branches, when well grown forming road and thick masses, and loaded with its handsome rose-colored: blos- S*tstio commendation. Magnolia Fraseri may not only be “cultivated in ihe Open air near Philadelphia,” but is perfectly hardy near Boston, and *atliest to blossom ; but we never noticed the fragrance of the flow- - 276 Scientific Intelligence. ers. On the other hand, as it is native as far south as Florida, it might thrive in plantations any where in North Carolina. The flowers of M. constitute an important adjunct to the great Indian Flora. A. Ge 3, Walper 8) nnales Botanices Systematice, continued by Dr. C. Mit- eR, Berol.—Five parts of the fifth volume are published, extending to A ere. . @ 4. Bueck, Index ad De Cand. Prodromum, etc. Pars III. Hamburg, 1859. pp. 506.—This useful Index to De Candolle’s Prodromus is here continued from the second part of the seventh to the thirteenth volume. As we may expect that at no distant period the Prodromus will be terml- nated, as announced, we trust that the next Index will combine the whole @. : P lished nearly fifty years ago, and the vast amount of valuable matter, seat tered in many publications, which has since been accumulating, has lon needed to be brought together in one work. This Dr. Nylander prob? ses to accomplish, adding also the results of his investigation of all the Botany and Zoology. 277 most important collections ; and disposing the whole in a system, which, while it aims to retain all that was most valuable in the old, gives us, as it should, the whole light of modern (microscopical) science upon bot old and new. We have only room to add here that “ Usnea lacunosa, Willd,” is a name found only in Willdenow’s herbarium, and was antici- pated in print by U. cavernosa, published by the present writer, in the appendix to Ayassiz’s tour to Lake Superior. Messrs. Westermann and Company of New York, will receive subscriptions to the synopsis, which is put at a moderate price for so handsome a book. E. T. & D. Washington, D. C., 1858 Of recent contributions to our knowledge of special Faunas, none have been of greater importance or interest than the report on the Fishes of Western North America. In this volume, Dr. Girard has incorporated almost everything known to the date of publication concerning the Ich- thyology of our Pacific possessions. ‘ In the introductory remarks, (which with some variations, are duplica- iew is given of 1853-6, &e., vol. x. Washington, 1859.—FISHES; by Cuar.es Girarp, a ae = & e 5 & 3 = i bes) = a = ° oo > ® te na g. = ~o xy ba) = o p ° slice <= rs vz ag is") 4 a) tA 2 = + mad i — America. The families which are richest in genera and species, and Which are most characteristic of the Californian Fauna especially, are those of the Cataphracti, the Blennoids, the Embiotocoids, and the leu- Tonectoids, Of all these families, many new genera, p eviously indicated in the “ Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Science of Philadelphia, are described and illustrated. orders, suborders and families of which representatives are leseribed, are all characterized ; the genus Amblodon, however, is retained in the family of Scienoids; this should in strict accordance with the principles of that classification, be transferred to the order of Pharyngognathi. Agassiz has demonstrated the union of the lower pharyngeal bones, the only character on which the order depends. Dr. Girard ‘does not appear to have noticed is discovery as he has not adverted to it in the generic diagnosis of Amblodon Of the fecatly of Percoids, representatives of only one genus are yet known as inhabitants of the Pacific coast. This genus has been described ‘my. It is here placed in the vicinity of Serranus. 3 Many fresh water Percoids are denscibel belonging to the genera Dioplites Raf, Pomozis Raf. Ambloplites Raf, Calliurus Raf, Bryttus Val, Pomotis Raf., Labrar Cuv., and Stizostedion Raf. The species de- Seribed have been collected in many distant places west of the Mississippi ale but one species ( Ambloplites interruptus) having been obtained in Aitornia, : The hame of Dioplites has been substituted for Grystes of Cuvier. It y 278 Scientific Intelligence. species without teeth on the tongue. he Cuvieran section of “ Percoids a Joues cuuirassés” is retained as & ed are valid, but the characters given to them are vague and will require revision after a comparative study of the foreign genera. The family called Heterolepidze had been previously named by Swain- son Chiride, and that name should have been retained, as well on account of its priority, as its consonance with the terminology of the other families. In the family of Cottoids, the species are distributed into ten genera, all of which appear to be founded on good characters, but the names of some of which are objectionable. Among the Salmonoids, the three genera of Valenciennes, Salmo, Fa- rio and Salar are accepted, but we notice that Dr. Girard has nam all the new species ibes as belonging to those genera, Salmo— rd. MSS.” in the synonymical lists of the species. In the family of Clupeoids, the modifications of Valenciennes have not been adopted, and the genus Hyodon is interposed between Meletia Val. and Engraulis. 1e genus Anarrhichthys of Ayres is adopted; its only species is called Anarrhichthys felis Girard. To this name we desire to draw the atten- tion of our readers, as an important question of nomenclature is involved. n the “ Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadel- phia” for 1854, Dr. Girard mentions a fish which he calls Anarrhicas Selis, and observes that two large specimens were received in such a preca rious state of preservation that there was no probability of keeping them, lies, Heterolepide, Cottida, Scorpenide. erhaps the families so indica- t my, gave a full description of a species which he referred to a new genus and called Anarrhichthys ocellatus, which was chiefly distinguished from Anarrhicas by its anguilliform body, and the union of the dorsal, caudal, and anal fins. This is the species that Dr. Girard has claimed as his own Anarrhicas felis. : To this reference we would remark that as Anarrhicas has by all modern naturalists, been restricted to such species as had the dorsal and anal fins separa rom the caudal, we would infer that any species placed without comment in the genus would have those characters. UT Girard’s name of Anorrhicas felis was not only without any description . whatever and therefore not established, but a statement by implication was made that the species possessed the stout body and fins of Anarrhicas, and was consequently in direct opposition to the characters of Anarrhich- thys ocellatus. Such being the case, Dr. Girard’s name cannot be adopted, and that of Ayres must be retained. Botany and Zoology. 279 The family of Golid@ is limited to the species with the ventral fins united in the manner of a funnel and thus excludes the Eleotroids as well asthe Cyclopteroids. The latter are very properly regarded as distinct, but the propriety of excluding the former from the Gobioids is more doubtful. The genus Gobius is limited to the species with cycloid scales. Th hame cannot be retained for such species, as the genus had by several naturalists been previously restricted to species with pectinated scales, Mr. Gill has framed for the two species thus referred to Gobius, a genus which he has called Lepidogobius. find that in the family of Cyclopteroids, the Gronovian name of Cyclogaster is substituted for the Artedian name o iparis, Liparis has been almost universally accepted by naturalists, and being the prior name, should be adopted. No description is given by Artedi of the generic or specific characters of Liparis, but the references he has given are full and ample, enabling us without doubt to ascertain what is meant. In the Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences, Dr, Girard has described a genus under the name of Homalopomus which he has relerred to the Trachinoids. This is now referred to the Gadoids, and a doubt is even expressed whether it is distinct from Merlangus or Merlu- clus, not appear to differ from the latter genus. e cause of the former erroneous reference is attributed to the broken tips of the tays of the specimen on which the species was founded. : The family of Embiotocoids is rich in generic forms, nine being de- his. Some of the species described as new by Dr. Girard will probably be found to have been previously indicated by Gibbons. lee. "Girard claims “that the real knowledge of the remarkable peculi- ities concerning some of their habits was obtained in the spring of 1852, by Dr. Thomas H. Webb, while attached to the United States and ? ® genera described and illustrated are Embiotoca Ag. with seven *Pecies, Denatichtave Girard, Phanerodon Grd., Abeona Grd., Rhacochi- lus ‘8 £ysterocarpus Gibbon, Holeonotus Ag., each with one species, Ennichthys Grd., and Amphistichus Ag., each with two species. th 7° Senera are chiefly characterized by the comparative ce of t : fad; the character of the lips, and the attachment or non-attachment er one by a frenum to the jaw, the comparative pote : _ Premaxillaries ; the number of rows of teeth on the jaws, and the out- line of the dorsal fin " Girard has given some information on the embryology of the Embiotocoids, which will prove of general interest. He denies the pres- “ee of any resemblance between their gestation and that of the marsu- . 280 Scientific Intelligence. pial mammals. Want of space forbids us to make extracts from the recorded observations, and we must remain satisfied with referring to the text and plates of the report. f the Cyprinoids, numerous genera and species are described from species of which there are no barbels, and the teeth are of “the grinding type and cultriform kind ;” 4. Pognichthyi, in which barbels are present, the snout is prominent, and the pharyngeal teeth are more or less hooked ; Alburni, which ditfer from the Pogonichthyi by the absence of barbels. The author has devoted much time and research to these groups, and all of the genera may be good, but some of them appear to distin- guished on quite slight grounds, and many of the species are small and perhaps the young of others. But on this question we will not venture to disagree with Dr. Girard. Most of the new genera have received Indian names, and although not cacophonous, some of those names appear strange to ears that have been mostly accustomed to Latin and Greek derivatives, n Dionda, a genus of Cyprinoids, Dr. Girard has named two species collected by Capt. John Pope, Dionda episcopa and D. Papalis. The genus “ Argyreus Heckel” is synonymous with Rhinichthys of Agassiz. It is not probable that Dr. Girard will be sustained by Ichthy- ologists in this application of Heckel’s name. An extract from the re- marks of the learned Doctor himself on the nomenclature of the genus will show the history of the name Argyreus. _“ Heckel includes in this genus two species which are generically dis- distinct Cyprinus atronasus Mitch., and Cypr. rubripinnus Mus. Par. MS. ¢ teeth figured by Heckel under the name of Argyreus rubripinnis are those of Plargyrus cornutus.” The diagnosis and illustration of Argyreus having been by Heckel ‘ rage F onasus, q Heckel would scarcely have referred a species of Rhinichthys to the same genus as C. rubripinnis if he had known the pharyngeal teeth, and he could only have done so from’ an ignorance of the species. Because 4 spe- cies on which a genus is established belongs to a previously named genus, it by no means follows that the generic name has to be used for another species of the genus, when it proves to be distinct from the type. | If the above views are correct, Rhinichthys will have to be retaine Astronomy and Meteorology. 281 snout, and the presence of one or two rows of teeth in the upper jaw. For two of these groups, Rafinesque’s names of Cylindrosteus and Airac- tosteus have been adopted, although to Dr. Girard, the credit of first es, and the species must be consequently called Heterodontus francisci. = eg damia maculatus of Ayres is referred to the genus Heptan- us, Raf. ? . Among the Rays, a second species of Muller and Henle’s genus Urap- is made known. Among the Cyclostomi we perceive that Dr. Girard has not only rtained the genus Ammococtes, but he has even separated from it a new pee dissent from the author in many cases, we most cheerfully bear witness to To the Smithsonian Institution, we are indebted for the accumulation of the materials which have been used in the elaboration of the report. i eral Government, it is of the valuable “contributions to knowledge” which we owe to the § care of that Institution. T. @ IV. ASTRONOMY AND METEOROLOGY. Solar Eclipse of July 18, 1860.—From the numerous accounts which have Teached us . eh observations made upon this Eclipse we place * time), 1860, sail -B on the morning of ed from the Navy Yard at Brooklyn « the 28th of Tune last. The axpeditish had been organized by the accom- and energetic Superintendent of the U. S. Coast Survey, under * For LeVerrier’s account of the French Expedition, see Postscript, p. 309.. MM. JOUR. scL, SECOND SERIES, VoL. XXX, No. 89.—SEPT., 160. 36 282 Scientific Intelligence. authority of joint resolutions of Congress passed at the late session ; and consisted of the following gentlemen, viz: Prof. Stephen Alexander, of the College of New Jersey, Prest. F. A. P. Barnard, of the Univer- sity of Mississippi, Lieut. E. D. Ashe, R. N., director of the Quebec Observatory, Prof. C.S. Venable, of the College of §. Carolina, and Prof. A. W. Smith, of the U. 8. Naval Academy at Annapolis. With these were associated the Commander of the Coast Survey steamer Bibb, N. Me C. Duchochois, of and J.P. Thompson, of the Coast Survey service, accompanied the corps for the purpose of taking photo- graphic impressions of the eclipse; and Mr. W. A. Henry, of Washing- ton City, attended as assistant to the chief of the corps. n addition to the purely astronomical objects of the expedition, ad- a P servations were kept up hourly from the time of sailing until the morn- ing of the day on which the Bibb entered the harbor of Newport. On the day of the eclipse the intervals were reduced to a half hour. Fre- saad record was made of the surface and deep sea temperature of the water, : The magnetic observations were placed under the charge of Messts. Edward Goodfellow and Samuel Walker, of the Coast Survey. The me- teorological, under that of Prof. Venable, of the astronomical corps, a Lieber sisted by Oscar M. Lieber, Esq., of South Carolina. The track of the central eclipse left the eastern coast of Labrador lat. 59° 514/.. On the evening of the 13th July, the expedition had gi seven or eight fathoms. On every hand were seen rocky islets, nearly submerged, or reefs and breakers. : rough such a sea, for five or six hours, from six o'clock till nearly 12 at night, the Bibb was engaged in cautiously seeking out for her- self a harbor of refuge ; and just about at the moment when the suf was ng his lower culmination, though a bright twilight still filled the atmosphere, she dropped her anchor in the inlet which divides Av- % ¥ Astronomy and Meteorology. 283 lezavick Island from the main land of Labrador. This was the point which had been previously assumed to be fittest for the purposes of the During Saturday, July 14, a location was fixed on’ for the encamp- ment, and some progress was made in the shore arrangements. The tion of the party to sleep on board of her, and thus to avoid ‘some of the discomforts of camp life, which, in a region so bleak and dismal, ar means: trifling. Others, including the meteorologists, the e members of astronomical corps in it is mentioned that several of the tents were blown down almost immediately after their erection; and that a wind as disagreeable for a Piercing chilliness as for its force prevailed with little intermission during ® entire stay of the expedition, amounting to eleven days. e tents When reérected, were secured, or anchored, by piling rocks upon the margin of the canvass. The exact latitude of the observing station was a few seconds short of 59° 48’; the longitude, by chronometer, 4h 16m 538 west from Wich eicarqeecorer te et had the landing been effected when there commenced a storm 0 . . an pega, the sky was more than half covered. The sun was, however, ig ag during the progress of the eclipse. Clouds were, however, continually ring total obscuration to be visi- ne point of 2 thess and " of ona; and this may serve a ee metal Purpose hereafter, in corroborating observations elsewhere made, 284 Scientific Intelligence. under more favorable circumstances, in regard to the features of this beautiful and rare phenomenon. The bright point observed by Lt. Ashe was white and not ruddy. The expedition are unhappily unable to bear any testimony in regard to the roseate clouds which have been so often seen during total eclipses upon the moon’s border. This has been a subject of great regret, the more so because the corona which was lost h c clouds. Only two of the observers attempted, in fact, to fix the exact book. It was not necessary to bring the book nearer to the eye ne usual. The pallor or ghastly appearance which has been remarked at such moments in the human countenance by former observers, did not strike The instruments employed in the astronomical observations, were 4 thirty-inch transit by Fitz, a fifty-one inch Fraunhéfer achromatic be- longing to Princeton College, a forty-two inch by the same maker i Astronomy and Meteorology. 285 amid dangers, and delivering them from situation A. P. B, y can hardly look back with tranquillity. F. A. P. Superintenden in detail at present, The following particulars from Lieut. psa will be found of interest in anticipation of the time and ts: 286 Scientific Intelligence. ceding three weeks, that when we closed the tent, three hours before the eclipse would begin, I had no confidence that the next morning would be favorable for observation. ; A. M. we were up and had removed the meteorological instru- ments from camp to the knoll. At that time it was sufficiently light to write without artificial aid. Mt. Rainier was distinctly visible and sharp- ly cut against the southeastern sky. Beyond it and towards the point to the N. and E., and were more evidently in rays diverging from the point of sunrise to an elevation of some 25°. The air was so cool and so loaded with moisture that although the telescope had been out all night the ob- ject glasses were densely covered with dew immediately after the caps were removed. By (04 30™) a part of the vapor in the N. an Eh condensed into little cumuli beyond the Cascade range each more light sharp and without tremor. Indeed the atmosphere was so still that the of a telescope. But it was at once perceived that there was grea ©” pin of the lune, the lower half being flattened by the unequal re raction, was directed to the vapor near us. ‘ the prairie had apparently been converted into a placid lake with Bem and there a knoll projecting through and forming a minature isle, illusion being enhanced by rapidly diminishing intensity of the lig At (0% 54m) distant objects could not be recognized more distinctly tha® during eam ae twilight at 8} Pp. obscuration took place, and that did not occur, the moon’s disc equally | eg Pike ae ee eo ge ee Astronomy and Meteorology. 287 I had turned off the red screen half a minute before and was surprised to behold quite distinctly the following segment of the lunar sphere . . at one point but fitfully flashing as reflection from rippled water, and as mutable in the respective places of the colors. This bead-thread could time protuberances were noted beyond the following limb of the moon, The position of its largest one was 75° or 78° W., and in the form tion remained the same. ‘This was an extremely beautiful sight, and I Watched it closely, giving nearly all my attention to it during 15%, yet at to bring his lantern and read the time at which I should indicate the sec- ond internal contact of the limbs. Raising my face from the box Which the time keeper stood to the telescope a most extraordinary scene yas apparent! Over the moon’s black dise colors of the spectrum flashed ‘in intersecting circles of equal diameter with that body, and each i) Was quite uniformly traceable more than a semi-diameter ] the black 0 t 8 Colors Physiological results from a change of position of the body, or of 288 Astronomy and Meteorology. sunlight, for they continued visible with the telescope at least 108 longer. s near as it was posible to estimate, the breadth of each spectrum circle bout two minutes. e green colors were not darker than the tint seen in the kaleidoscope.”* : 3. Observations made during the Total Eclipse of 18th July, 1860, on the summit of Mount Saint-Michel, in the Desert of Palmas, Spain ; diameter between the outer wires—the two intermediate wires were slightly inclined, subtending 1/30" at the narrower, and 2! 30” at the arger angle; an arrangement designed to aid in obtaining a more exact estimate of the protuberances. The whole micrometer revolved on. 4 : uded. This ims mounted equatorially, was very stable, and had been adjusted the day ore. _* Up to this date, Sept. 7th, the party sent to the Cumberland House, Britis Columbia, have not bee dank Peat a gay yaa | Astronomy and Meteorology. 289 Some minutes before the commencement of observations I verified the position of the telescope and the commencement was marked by a Morse telegraph, kindly procured from Madrid by M. Aguilar, provided with a pendulum which marked the seconds, A simple mechanism marked the instant of observation. Some minutes after the commence- an are of about 10° or more, but some time after the moon disappeared, and after that it could be observed only for an instant. Is this due to € cusps remained throughout very distinct, and the solar spots were successively eclipsed without any distortion as viewed with a magnifying ower of 90, e lunar mountains were well outlined upon the solar lent glass of neutral tint made by Lerebours, a graduated light, the lighter shade being very delicate. The slender crescent is-now breaking ted near the point of occultation. One of these was at least 2! 30” . height, and is Inte at the base as 2’; it was conical in form, slightly tapering, curved at the top. The other was about. half the height of : sh : oe speared, those of the upper part were the largest, and rege “M. Jour, SCL—SECOND SERIES, Vor. XXX, No. 89.—SEPT., 1860. 37 290 Scientific Intelligence. the lower part I saw only one of these long sheafs. With Arago’s po- lariscope, already directed very near the sun, I ascertained that the two foundly engraven on my mind; the solemnity of the spectacle appeared forcibly to impress the assistants, who, though numerous, all remained in perfect silence. Not to lose these precious moments I returned im- mediately to the telescope. The aspect of the sun was much changed. two great protuberances of which I have spoken had already dis- there was not a point, they seemed regularly distributed. These al® the angles taken in reckoning from east to northwest. South: 39°; A greater brillianey of the coro ‘ on one side announced that the n 0 sun was emerging, then in directing my attention to this side I was . an * gi white space. Its figure was elongated, about 30” of length to 3" width, and its form somewhat tortuous and sharp at the ae (I lon rested at nearly the same level as a series of cirrus. Their color was During all this the number of protuberances increased greatly veh this side and soon assumed a continuous are formed like a saw, whi extended at least to 60° of the circumference, and whic uall white became so strong that the eye could not sustain it; the pr ances then disappeare The sun then began to shine in the heavens like a point, of true ast tric light, and made a singular contrast with the corona still remaining, and which (by hiding with my hand the bright part) I could see for 40 Figs lo at which most. struck me in the circumstances; W% immense quantity of red protuberances and their distribution; 5° = PH i ind . f + : Y foe as Astronomy and Meteorology. 291 that one could absolutely say they enveloped the sun. Those commonly observed are only the summit of phere and clouds suspended in these flames; it would be impossible to Imagine anything else, as for example, that it might be some phenomena of diffraction or refraction. The clear graduation and distinct mingling of the peach blossom col- ored light with the white photosphere was of a character so distinct that it can never be mistaken by any satus of interference, of refraction, or any illusion whatever. I do not doubt that it really appertains to e curved and branched like the horns of a stag, at the upper part. mety bec t Sa : only Say that the light was strong enough to. enable one to distinguish “nall objects, and to read without difficulty ordinary books, and without 292 Scientific Intelligence. seeking I saw Jupiter, Venus, and some other luminaries. A portion of this light may have proceeded from the reflection of a thunder cloud, a short distance from and feebly lighted by the sun. give the result of the observations made with the thermomultiplier of Melloni by M. Botella, inspector of mines. In general the progress was very regular, as the figures show : Commencement, jh «57m. Galvanometer, 20°0 2 11 a4 18:3 V4 25 ie 155 2 35 = 115 2 58 * 20 3 5 ig 15 Totality, ee 10 «“ 00 Emergence of the sun, RNR . 05 ‘. 3 90 “ 10 3 85 2 12:0 “S 55 i 150 4 16 - 175 End, eee |) “ 20:0 A very sensitive declinometer of Jones, observed hourly by M. Mayo, engineer, showed no disturbance. Professor Barreda observed the solar spectrum at my request, and will give his report thereon in a special memoir. 4. On the polarization of the light of the corona, and of the red protu- berances, in total solar eclipses —M, Prazmowsk1 observed at Briviesca in Spain, with special reference to these subjects, the total eclipse of July 18th. His observations seem to justify the following conclusions, Vi (1.) The light of the red protuberances is not polarized, 8 spect they resemble clouds in our atmosphere. May we hence conclude that these are solar clouds, composed of particles, not gaseous, but liquid the light to us reflected nearly at the maximum angle of polarization For a gas this angle is 45°; but in order to reflect light at this angle it must be near the sun. A solar atmosphere seems to furnish the ne- cessary conditions.— Comptes Rendus, Aoit 6, 1860. 4 5. Baily’s Beads.—Mr. Lesp1auit, who watched especially for this phenomenon, says—(Compt. Rend., li, 221)—some seconds before the first interior contact, the margin formed by the are of the moon ap- peared irregular and trembling, but I did not see either the “ Baily- Beads” or “ comb-teeth.” 6. Third Comet of 1860.—A brilliant comet, with a tail several degre? long, was seen by many persons in different parts of our country, on “ evening of June 2lst and 22d, 1860. It was seen on the evening ” June 20th, by Prof. Caswell of Providence, then on the deck of the steam ‘ship Arabia. The first public notice of the comet appears to have beet made by Mr. C. W. Tuttle, assistant in the Harvard College Observatory: comet continued vissible to the naked eye about two wees er atts sh Ge as. os vi 6 ; Astronomy and Meteorology. 293 The following parabolic elements of its orbit were computed by Mr. Tuttle, from observations at Cambridge, Mass., of 21st, 24th and 27th une. Perihelion passage, 1860, June 16.06730. Long. of perihelion, - +f om GOL? 84".56" ; Mean egqx. “ asc. node, - - - 84 41 20 Jan. 0, : Inclination, Ee eg ee 4 Log. of perihelion distance, - » 9.46687 7 i aS re a - direct, Gould’s Asiron. Jour., No. 136. : 1. The Meteor of July 20th, 1860.—This remarkable meteor was vis- : ible over a portion of the earth’s surface at least a thousand miles in ge from N. N. W. to 8. S. E.) by seven or eight hundred in width ; _orirom Lake Michigan to the Gulf Stream and from Maine to Virginia. The newspapers have contained many notices of its appearance as seen nomena presented; and can only at this time notice briefly a few of the best that have come to hand, and state some approximate results derived d. i i 1 ] or y laying down these bearings and altitudes on a globe, a norma rr path was obtained whieh cuts the horizon at N. 62° W. and 8. = = ee Zz 8 B mn °o 5 @® poly oO 5 mn —s = E. 2 = @ i S Dm lmad re] % Lae! = o <4 4 *pot, as published j 1 of Commerce, gives from data subse- quently obtained by tae eaten an altitude of about 55°. We "se for N. Y, 56° as the mean of the two. 294 Scientific Intelligence. Mr. F. Huidekoper, of Meadville, Pa., makes the altitude at that place 39° 30’ from the northern horizon; the point of disappearance at altitude 3° 30’, and 10° 45’ S. of east; time from crossing meridian till disap- pearance, 10 to 12 seconds. Mr. W. King, a. surveyor at Erie, Pa, makes the altitude 44°, and point of disappearance in a cloud due east at an altitude af Mr. S. B. McMillan, of E. Fairfield, Ohio, reports it as having been seen “ moving from a point about 10° E. of N. to within as much of a due east direction,” attaining an altitude of 15°. Rev. T. K. Beecher at Elmira, N. Y., saw it pass very nearly through his zenith, and “so very close to” « Lyre ‘as to quench, if not eclipse it.” This star was then about 11° from his zenith, and in azimuth 8. 764° E. The meteor separated into two parts with an explosion when near the zenith. our results, ‘and Prof. Hallowell, of Alexand A comparison of these observations, and a few of the best that have resulting from the increasing resistance of the atmosphere as the meteor descended into denser portions of it. The observations made this side of Buffalo, which are somewhat numerous and many of them good, are very well satisfied by the straight path already described. Further and more accurate observations beyond Buffalo are greatly needed for determining the true form and position of the orbit, both in respect to the earth’s sur-, face and in space less elongated, gradually increasing in brilliancy, throwing off occasiom Astronomy and Meteorology. 295 south of Nantucket, when a second considerable explosion took place, ards the principal fragments passed on till lost to view in the The time of flight is doubtless largely overestimated by most observers, especially those unaccustomed to measure intervals of a few Uthern Unj ‘no of August 2d, between 10 and 11 0! clock ited States on the i gui , tom three to five minutes after the disappearance of the meteor a re- "twas heard like the discharge of an eight-pounder; which was fol- 296 Scientific Intelligence. * lowed by a long—Jong rolling, reverberatory sound of more than a min- ute’s duration.” This fact is mentioned by Mr. W. C. Kane writing from Knoxville to a friend in Hartford, Conn. : Another brilliant meteor was seen in the southwest, from New Haven and New York, between half past seven and eight o'clock, on the evening important because they have been furnished by a good observer who saw the meteor under favorable circumstances. A single case of this note all the facts as accurately as he could at the time; and he after- wards returned to the spot in order to determine more definitely the oints of the compass. His testimony, in answer to my interrogatories, is substantially as follows :— “The meteor first appeared to me at a point about 55° east of north. It moved northward in a line very nearly parallel with the horizon. 15°. It the apparent diameter of the meteor was one-half that of the sun. These data give the meteor a height of 41 miles over the northern boundary of Noble county; a diameter of three-eighths of a mile ; and a relative velocity of nearly 4 miles a second. The results agree sufli- ciently well with those before given. : ; The meteor was seen through openings in the clouds at various points along a line of 60 miles, extending from near Newport on the Ohio river to the neighborhood of New Concord. The evidence, upo® _ whole, does not indicate any descent of the body towards the eart be: tween these limits, or any change in its size or appearance. From an fact, and the great height of the body, and the absence of all evidence g The sh : near New Concord had probably been detached from the principal mass before the latter came into sight. _ Marietta, Ohio, Aug. 20, 1860. 4 at 10. Shooting Stars of August 9-10. 1860,—Since the year 1837, @ least, it has been ae ithe Northern hemisphere, whenever ~ weather has permitted observation, that shooting stars have been unust- ally abundant during a period of several nights in August, gradually increasing in numbers for a few days up to the 10th of the month, Astronomy and Meteorology. 7 ‘and then gradually diminishing in frequency. While every other mete- orie period has intermitted, this of August holds out with little change. The observations below stated were made in the open air, from re 10P.m. of the 9th and 3 a.m. of the 10th of August, 1860, we observed Jive hundred and sixty-five different shooting stars, distributed as fol- lows, viz: B Mie9.°10 to 11,0, NB, 991118 to 19 ps N. Boome S.E. 30 S.E. 92 S.W: 35 S.W. 47 N.W. 11 | N.W. 18 105 101 Aug. 10. 0b to 1h 4. u, N.E. 19] 1) to 2ha.u, N.E.. 34 S.E. 27 5. Bu as S.W. 44 S.W. . 31 N.W. 17 io NW. 338 “107 97 2h to 3halm, N.E. 30 .E. 20 S. W. 65 N. W. 40 155 ‘Tone appeared to explode. Their general Southwesterly direction was a as, tisisly as we could éslieni, at least three fourths of all %onformed to the radiant of former years, in the vicinity of the sword- 2 handle of Perseus, . h h a mg our watch the sky was clear except that between 14 and 2 A.M. there were some clouds about the west. The moon in her lat ‘Matter embarrassed our view after 11 p, w., and doubtless seat the m ae This is not far from six times the common nightly average for like interval, “MJOUR. scL_sEconp SERIES, Vor. XXX, No. 89.—SEPT., 1860. 38 ¢ 208 Miscellaneous Intelligence. Yale College, New Haven, August, 1860. V. MISCELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC IN TELLIGENCE., 1. The Fourteenth Meeting of the American Association for the Ad- vancement O ienc Island, in the old State House, dating from the Colonial times under WwW eed an address of welcome from the city of Newport, to the members of the Association. The general enjoyment of the occasion was amp" cured by the kind and abundant hospitality of the city and its citizens, graphitic anthracite of these most overdone and contorted coal measures a fruitful theme of discussion both in hall and field. ~ The numbers in attendance at the Newport meeting were small com- pared with most previous meetings. An erroneous impression appeals unfortunately to have gone abroad that Newport was a very costly place to visit and that the ‘ height of the season’ at a great watering place we not a time when science could hold ground against fashion. agate this was eminently untrue, the effect of such an impression was visible m the absence of numbers of familiar faces. Neither can we, if we would, conceal the fact that while many papers of marked ability were presented, the character of this meeting was me all respects creditable to American Science. among many who were present at Newport of a decadence 10 the scl united public sentiment which bore rule with a righteous severity: evidence of this power was wanting at Newport—signs One of the bright points of the Newport meeting was the opportun’ return of the Labrador Astronomical Expedition, sent out peri * Furnished gratuitously to all members by the City Government. " Miscellaneous Intelligence. 299 entific leadership of — Stephen Alexander of Princeton, to witness the total Kciipse of July 18th. As we elsewhere give a detailed statement of an . reunion on ante th evening, and that on Wednesday morn- sio he address of the retiring President, Prof. Rice, Alexander, was delivered on Wedne sda morning, be before the adjournment, and will Gulf Stream. This aikée we pi fe pre ei. ‘“ our readers i in full ina future number of this Journal, as also the substance of another public address by Prof. Henry, on Atmospheric Electricity, delivered as a Popular evening lecture at Newport, by the distinguished Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. List of papers presented to the Association. Section A—Marnemarics, Paystcs anp Cuemistry, General Account of the Results of Part II of the Discussion of the Songer rp Observations made at the Girard College, Philadelphia, between the years 18 1845, with Sgro eeeence to the Solar Diurnal Variation and its Annual iad On ge of tn of ths. Violet maa Green Modifications of Chrome Alum monia ; rsford, Deslamion Fert Gene of Languages; by Henry M. ‘, Great Auroral Display of August 28 and September 2, 1859; by Elias et Op pamein of a Memoir on te) Theoretical Determination of the Dimensions ati’s pe On the Solation of Te fe in Island: "Waters; by B. F. Harrison. pa Natu sg eas ouses and on Frozen Wells; by Elias Loomis on N.Y he Registering T Thartaieasar: by James Lewis, of Mo . seal b by Jone enomena saccigiiiel the “Silver Spring,” in Marion County, Florida ; D doe nee of difference e in ae a Me is of winds from the different _— of Pa a a 0 become w at! gi we N. Hor: ment j aa, of the Declinome- Accoun he Results of ne ll “of the Discussion o Observations m aie at Girard ¢ foe peor. between the a! a Piedaged aod pecial reference to the f the Influence by A. tic Declination ; D.E O xperiments and inferences jn regard Binocular se Fa B. Rogers. the data and methods of the Hindu Seton ; by W. ey: J ry, neg o¢ ot SOurces of Error in the pAb of 2 she Acid to detect the Pres- of Potash ; by M. C. Lea. Presented by B. Silliman 300 Miscellaneous Intelligence. On a series of new combinations of Ammonia Picric Acid and Metallic Bases; by M.-C. Lea. Presented by B. Silliman, Jr. On the Combustion of Wet Fuel; by B. Silliman, Jr. Theory connected with the Solar ‘Spots ; by C. W. Hackley. Description of a new Portable Coffer Dam for Potala under water; by E. unt. ‘On ag Variable Stars; by B. A. Gould. Modern Warfare ; its science and art; by E. B. Hun Abstract of the principal results of the Sr earvations ‘of Oe ae at Van Rensse- laer rein made by the second Grinnell Expedition under command Kane, U.S. Navy, tstay 1858, ’54, 55, from a reductio — discon by Charles A. Schott, Assistant Coast Survey Presented by A. D Bac On Catachroism, a new optical property belonging to peers ' Crystalline sae with some remarks on a riza ~ by reflection from colored surfaces; by M. @ Lea. Presented by B.S On a new theory of Light, rte by J. Smith, of Manchester, England ; by ~ Some reflections on ~ Observations of the Solar Spots and of the Magnetic Va- riations ; by James Hya On the Actinism of he ‘electric discharge in vacuum tubes ; by W. B. Rog Investigation of the pro sot regarding the existence of a lunar tidal wave rae the great von nese lakes of North America On Sy daitdes pote - Seoquio d of Chromium; by E. N. ord. eries of investigations, on the assimilation of gaseou ve ogen of plants, conducted during the year 1857, 1858 and 1859, at Rothanatech England ; by E. “Vita a of the Blind, with an Peat wh Life Table; by E. B. Elliot tt Infl of difference in the mean vel of winds from the different — # the compass in modifying the mean emetii oe the pcr rae currents 0 United Stat e direc e expense of the Smt sou Institution, hentai en —— in its odie: for eo years 1854, 1855, 1856 and Rat by James attempt to estimate the ‘Height, Velocity, cc., of the Meteors of the evening of Taly 20, 1860; by H. M. Harman n the meteors of 1859, Aug. 11, and 1860, July 20; by B. A. G Gould. On oe Induction-Time in Electro Magnets ; by A ‘A. D. Bache and J. E. Hilgard. se by fire of pe de aeegg om 1 Bakery in Boston, due to Spontaneous atatt tion ; by E, N. Hor: seo rvations ‘on Hydraulis ¢ Cetneni by Q. A. Gilmore. Presented by E. 5. On ss Motions of Uranus; by Truman Henry Saffo re Fire Damp Explosions in Collieries by lighting with co as; by E.B The: Meter of July 20th, as seen from Washington, Dotahess County, PY Sp s Hyatt. me remarks on the Open Sea of the Arctic Regions; by W. W. Wheildon. ont he shades or of - Atomic ier of Chemistry, with a proposition of a B. Hun New coe ; Hypothesis; by Clinton Roosev On the production of Ethyla amine i reaction of the Oxy-Ethers; by M. 0. Lea. Presented by B, Silliman, Jr. Abstract of the eine results of the astronomical observations at Van Rensse- laer harbor and other places near the northwest co ast of Gr mae made by the sec _ ond Grinnell Expedition, E, e, U.S. Navy, during 1858, 54, 65, from a reduction = sonarecges n by Charles A. “Schott, pasties Coast new ee Chrome. Linas pot the Violet, Green and Red Modifications of rsford. Time Necessary to Double the Pressure of Steam under certain circum stances; and the practical lessons therefrom ; by James Hyatt. i ones. Views on Mechanics and Mechani sm, with inferences on Organisms j On the nitric acid and ammonia in rain water, collected Sept., 1859, ce New York and Liverpool about the middle il of the Atlantic Ocean ; by E. P ugh. E : q ‘ er Le ee a eS eee Miscellaneous Intelligence. 301 : _ On the Relations of Salts of Zinc and Alumina to Soda and Potassa; by E. N. ~ Horsford, _ On our inability th through t tinal impression alone, to determine which retina is ressed ; by W whe The heory of 5 Probab applied to determine the Identity of Words and Lan- On the am lity ean noni essing the polar ho yang of the Asteroids by conver- sing mee, editing of tabulation ; a Analysis of a Bituminous Earth from Brazil ; 2 E. N. Horsford, Section B—Nartvurat History anv Geotoey. Remarks upon Peat MD i in Ichnology ; by Edward Hitcheo Synchronism of Coal Beds in the Rhode Tsland and Western United States Coal Basins ; ve. Hitehcook. logy of Newport and Vicinity ; by C. H. Hitchcock. Additional facta scence the Clathropteris of East ‘Hampton ; by Edward cock, i Description of brecciated trachytic Ahig oF Shelburne, As , with special refer- ence to their temperature, when form ; by Edward Hi theo Upon a Diatomaceous Earth from Nedunane Calvert Co., “Mal; by ©. Johnson of Baltimore. Jottings on the e Geology of i Eastern part of Maine, &c.; by W. B. Roge On the recent discovery by Mr. Norman Eastop, of Fossils i in the selena of Taunton River: by W. B. Ro ers, On the origin and stratigraphical ora of the Trappean rocks of Lake Superi- “on ie Le Foster and J. D. Whitn i 73 ee ead a of the Upper Mississi i; by ney. :? a gement of the earl of peel PY Zoology at Cambridge; by gas On bre origin and distribution of the Sediments composing the stratified rocks of North America ; by J. S. Newberr the Surface See of We stern ey by J. S. Newberry. me points in the Surface Geology of orthwest ; by J. D. Whitne. Remarks he the tation of oat f. Faia with notes upon remarkable Gold Specimens m Georgia ; by lake. the 2 Ethnolet Value of mas ‘iadaeim a 5 Scud to the characterist- its of ancient and modern American Races: the Yall vere 8. Newberry. Description of a new species of Trilobite of the Genus Oonocephalites, gs . Pasta Bandaton ne ; by 5 Se Bradley, with notes by E. Billings. Presented by a ‘ On Ce Cera n Phenomena of the Gtiat Dismal Swamp in Virginia and North Caro- lina; by Nathan B. We baer On met a ; by Louis Agassiz. On the Am tt den. On the food of Ratio cial results in the investigation of the food of the | Robin, (Turdus migratorius); by J. W. P. s. ~ *On the later estine t Plone ns) North America ; by J. ewberry. sake Age of the sealed Taconic Rocks in Vermont ; by & oa Bitch . the origin o be Praiciak of the Northwest ; ‘by J. D, Whitne 5) oes to a pledge given in 1859, that the next cae should teh hela in me Southern. ae the ‘Association adjourned to meet in pn " sg os in April, 1861, the exact date to be fixed by the loca d, rs of the Nashville Meeting are, President, F. A. P. Barnar UD, pete of the University of Mississippi; Vice President, Dr. Robt,” W. Gibbes, of South Carolina; General Secretary, Prof J. W. of Miss ississippi ; Secretary, Dr. A. L. Elwyn, of Philadelphia, 302 Miscellaneous Intelligence. Sruuman, Jr.—Sir over his signature to every holder of the book and also one to be pu lished in your Journal, stating that my name was inadvertently left out of the title page and that I was the sole author of the chapter on Meteor- ology. Therefore wherever Dr. Suckley’s name is referred to, it is simply because he appears as joint author of the “Natural History,” and not because I attach any blame to him in regard to the matter. An examination of my report will show you that this “ Natural Histo- ry” is a portion of my own Report. I will first call your attention to | their letter addressed to me transmitting their volume. You will find it ; at the close of the volume (Appendix C.), In that letter, as will appear | rom its contents, they transmit the portion of my Report immediately following the alphabetical Index and preceding the appendices. ; f you will examine the “ Natural History ” you will find that it con- tains Chapter IV. of my Report on Meteorology, copied page for pages that this chapter is illustrated by several views taken from the body of my Report, and that my isothermal chart is to be found at the end of the volume. By turning to my own Report, it will be observed that this chapter on Meteorology is an integral portion of my own personal and official Report of the route, follows the geographical memoir and precedes the estimate of the cost of a railroad on the northern route. You will also observe upon page viii. of the preface to the “ Natural = History ” that the authors (Drs. Cooper and Suckley) state that mone of | the plates illustrating their volume have been before published in any © { the series. If you will compare these pictorial views with those MY = final Report and narrative, you will find them to be identically the same, aving been struck off from the same stone, by the same person, am therefore cannot be new. My object in addressing you is to expose the plagiarism of Dr. Cooper and to show his injustice to myself. ¢ It being doubtful whether extra copies would be ordered by Congress; ave my consent to the Government printer's striking off some a % copies of the Natural History Report for the use of Drs. C Suckley, they bearing the expense, and the pretended edition of Bro hers was struck off in this manner. I did not give my consen the incorporation of the chapter on Meteorology, or to the use of oper an Bailliére to the Se eee eeu pee ae ee “ j + Miscellaneous Intelligence. 303 plates, or to the use of the isothermal chart. It was done without au- thority, without the least consultation with me, nor was I aware till I saw with full catalogues and descriptions, &c., by J. G. Cooper, M. D., and Dr. G. Suckley, U.S. A., Naturalists to the Expedition.” 3. The title shows new matter added, which, under the arrangement referred to, was certainly*inadmissable. d . port to the Secretary? Why did he not claim it = z was employed by me in assisting me in the tables to be found init? He was this whole time and for many months subseque h . . yd P Was published? It was published before the date Preface, bing has it been done clandestinely, my first notice of it being seven Snths after the Senate publication 2 had a right to expan better treatment at the hands * wacked ‘this, since at the time he was contemplating claiming = re die article of which he knew I was the author, he was pretending 304 Miscellaneous Intelligence. , ship towards myself, and afterwards did wh a obtain through my in- fluence a position with a Government expe I have respanehily to — that you will “publish this communication in your valuable Journa I am, Sir, very respecttully, Isaac J. Srevens. 3. Dr. ee Disclaimer.—Editors Silliman’s Journal :—Gentle- me u-wili confer a favor by stating in the next number of your valuable jonee that the authorship of the Chapter on Meteorology in Cooper and Suckley’s work on the Natural ora? oi ieee nee me ritory should be accorded to the Hon. Isa c I. Stev who se been sent to all the owners of ¢ Very respect your ‘abit servant, GrorcE SuCKLEY. =f York, July 31, ae 4, Stereoscopic Csteirleeries by Exr W. Braxe, Jr—Pr of. H. W. Dove, to whom we are indebted for so many beautiful stereoscopic exper iments, in his Optische Studien,* gives a specimen of stereoscopic nid ing to ‘Tlustrate the double refraction of Iceland Spar, as seen in beno 7 vision. This effect is produced by printing for the left eye, lines in the ordinary manner, while for the right eye, the alternate lines are slightly advanced. class of literature can gen sity dol com T annex, as an example © this mode of printing, a stereoscopic advertisement of bond besa which _ The steamer’s position was lat. 44° N.; Tou . 124° 30’ W., and, wi sequently, some 20 miles N. W. of ‘Ui qu a river, in California. ' stars shone brightly ov erhead and the atmosphere was perfectly calm, a mist-ri was surrounded by an eaeicnely marked halo of abou dia aging whose colors were blue, pearl-white and sora the blue color nearest to the moon. The halo lasted from 15™ to 20™, its colors gradually fading, until they were no lone distinguishable, though the bright inner mist-ring continued much lo on . When it had disappeared Stars were visible to within 15° Of the horizo * Optische Studien yon H. W. Dove. Berlin, 1859. Da Miscellaneous Intelligence. 305 Prior to the formation of the halo, and for some time after, we ceased At 9% 30m a faint secondary bow was formed of 8° lesser radius, but it ange only a few minutes . Oil Wells of Pennsylvania and Ohio.—A strong impulse has been to the explorations for phone: by the success of the well at Titusyille, Pennsylvania, ——e me hove ast by the Pennsylvania Oil Company, on Oil Creek. a a circuit of five miles from Titus- is more tif but even at — 15° is still fluid. Its pepe is strong and pecu- liar from the Pennsylvania wells—but from the wells at Mecca, Ohio, it is nearly odorless, ‘It boils at a very high temperature, but begins to dis- till a thin colorless oil, even at 212° F. By frac tions distillation, I ob- tained from 304 = of crude oil of Titusville : payee Quantity. Density. - Produet at 10090. = 2°F, (acid water,) 5 Gms, 0. to per =9849 to 302°F. 26 = “788 sd ne oe to 160°C,==302° to 320°F, 29 “ “752 4th * & 160°C, to 170°O.—=320° to 338°F 38 “ “766 Sth 170°C, to 180°C. =338° to 356°F 17“ “776 ma oes F 26. to 200°C. =356° to 392°F. 16 “ 800 ith “ 900°C, to 220°C.—=392° to 428°F. 17 “ 848 mh 14. 6 poet i 270°0,=428° to 518°F. 12 “ The @ boiling points of these several fluids present some anomalies, but are usually progressive, thus, i?) No. 2, common boiling at 115°C.=-239°F, remained constant at 228°C. pth 8. “ 190°C. =248°F, 270°C.==518° 4, 6 “ 140°C.—=28. 84°F, ge pain mrp | “ « # 160°0,=820°R, and still rising at 808 _yeryine s, 2 “ 185° O==2762R. rose rapidly shove the range 0 rial therm: J: ww 1950 C a aTtOR and a8 rising at $00°O.=805°R. fe five products remained entirely fluid at the low temperature “ia many Oil Wells have lately been bored. We learn from Dr. J. 8. cee has lately Visited them, that only two were as yet conside rably pr ee te . Corners which yields three or four ote of cru “a oil, daily, and the second has rewarded the industry © wnexpected yield of twenty-five gallons a or from — to oo mels daily. Over r fifty wells were already in progress. Many © ene oil from the sand near the surface, e - cil to the depth of fifty feet at a cost not a’ the pumping ieamniag vod lining. Oil springs have been known in both AM. JOUR, scL_sECOND SERIES, Vot. XXX, No. 82—SEPT., 1860, 39 506 Miscellaneous Intelligence. these districts for over fifty years, and were regarded by the agricultural population with disgust, as spoiling their water—auntil they found them an unexpected source of wealth. Both these districts are within the coal re- gion—but the Pennsylvania locality, at least, is below the coal-bearing rocks.—s. . Artesian Well at Columbus, Ohio,—rate of increase in temperature at 2,575 feet depth—In a letter to the Editors from T. E. Wormzey, Esq. dated Columbus, Ohio, August 6th, 1860. Dear Sirs :—I herewith send you the temperature of the artesian well in our city, at a depth of 2,575 feet. A few days since a Walferdin’s Thermometer, placed in a glass tube filled with water, and this enclosed in a strong iron case, also filled with water, was lowered to a depth of 2,475 feet, where it remained for twenty- five hours, it was then sunk to the bottom of the well, a depth of 2,575 _ feet, where it remained for forty minutes. Upon the withdrawal of the instruments, it was found to have registered 88° F. Assuming this to be the temperature at the bottom of the well, and also assuming as correct data, that the temperature is uniformly 53° F. at a depth of 90 feet, we have an increase of 1° F, for every seventy-one feet. about to the top of the Devonian. Its water is half saturated with salt over 1,100 feet. Careful sections of all the beds passed through have been preserved by Mr. George A. Lathrop, our informant, who wi cal municate them to the State Geologist. : It would be interesting to record the bottom temperature of all artesian wells, by a Walferdin’s thermometer, and we trust our correspondents will take care to send us such results. _ it contains moreover several positive additions to the Science while sro of the demonstrations of well known propositions are new and highly suggestive. The leading idea of the author appears to have been to a a - of her; and accordingly this subject is entered upon at as early a stage of a: Dhie distribution of the subject, however, has not conduced t0 clearness, while it has given the work a character which renders the W Miscellaneous Intelligence. 307 “Elementary,” introduced into the title, quite inappropriate. We should not have thought it necessary to make this remark had not the author in his preface declared that the work was intended “ to give a full view of the uced. But assuming the reader to have acquired a fair know! ge of algebra, including the general theory of equations, we would recommend cesses, Hor Dr. Strong is a master of his subject and handles the most difficult parts of it with something of that kind of giant ease which we will make but a ingle remark upon that part of the book which is pro- minently set forth as new and important both by the author and his re- Viewers—nam the Solution of Cubic Equations “ by pure algebra. Case as well as Dr. Strong’s, both being based upon successive approxima- tion, and in practice Horner’s method will generally be far more expedi- tious. Again, the roots may be developed in converging series (as was icol $ compared with the method by series, D the fraction 243 : : ittle fi nits, that one thonsand £$32¢, which differs so little from units, | aes terms of the tea would barely suffice to determine the first decimal r 308 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 2. Contributions to the Paleontology of Lowa, being descriptions of new species of Crinoidea and other fossils (supplement to vol. i, part ii, of the Geological Repository of Iowa); by James Harz.—Eight sheets of an early copy of these contributions have reached us from the Author in advance of publication. As we hope soon ia receive a complete copy, we reserve a list of its contents for a second n Personat.—Prof. Dana returned to “a "United States early in Au- gust, improved in health by his European visit, but not yet in a state to permit the resumption of his accustomed labors. Lapy FRANKLIN was passenger on the same ship. aha and Prof. ALExIs abe agente i. Brown University are among the American tourists in Europe this se Prof. Extas Loomis, LL.D., late of New York “University, has been elected to the chair of Nataral Philosophy and Astronomy in Yale sess lege made vacant by the death of Prof. D. Olmsted. now in Europe for the piles of making ditch to the physical abinet of Yale College. . SHEFFIELD, Esq., a citizen of New sti ciehee for his enlightened liberality, has at his sole charge, pre and commodio uilding for the uses of the YALE tronai pla em- bracing jane apartments for the Engineering, Mechanical and P hysical departments—a pe rfectly appointed chemical Laboratory fitted for mi special students, and _ private laboratories es for the Professors—a Metall Transactions or THe Am. Puttos. Socrery, Phila., vol. xi, new series. Part m, 1860.— Art. ate By 187-258, Revision of Buprestide of the U.S., with a plate. By John L. LeCon MD—xvii, p. 259-402, Analytic Orthography ; an Investigation of the sources of the voice and their Alphabetic notation. By Prof. 8. 8. Halde- mann, Procerpines or Am, Part. Soc. Puriap., 1860, January to oss Tee 174, Deine of members announced—p, 175, Phosphoresence of the Diam p.176, Gale of July 9th and ‘0th, 1860—Effects u Pua Ges ° Wark Oresson.—p. 17, Sanscrit and English a perc Pliny E. Ohase.—Geo of the Arctic Archipelago sess from Mc Klintock’s narrative, J. P. sley—P> Registering Thermometer ; James Lewis.—p. 297. Biographical notice of the late Tuomas Nurratt—p. 320. Optical education : oy: Emerson.—Obituary ® JosEPH Apois ISON ALEXANDER ; John Leyburn, D. RANSACTIONS OF THE AcapmMy OF SAINT yl ;) vo ae aoe te Observations on the cretaceous strata of Texas; B. F, Shumard—p. 6, Deseriptions ag oid cretaceous fossils from Texas; B. F. Shama rd. The au a ap a8 the followi Nautilus Texanus; Janira Wrightii; Ostrea quadriplicata ; O. be bella, Pee on daris hemigranosus—p. 624, Descri tion of five new species 0 the Coal measures bd a B oped from the Potam Sa cana ye of Texas, 2B jE Shumard, viz eurotomaria Br j i P. Riddellii ; P. 8 dula ; Murchis LANG 3 r ! Méwomes pe . Acapémiz ImpéRtate pes Sorences, Arts et Bevt s-Lerress ts Dison, second se es, Tome vii, 1858-1859. Dijon, 1859, 800 pp., ecient es alogues des Tiascioe coléoptéves du département de la Cote-d’or (suite), pa Ronget. rea visite 4 la vistas te 4 Fouvent ee ine fossiles et debris ” dustrie humain re posthume de J, Nodo ’ LeVerrier’s Report on the Solar Eclipse of July 18, 1860, at Tura- zona in Spain, (L’ Institut, Nos. 1387-88-89. Aug. 1-16.)—[.At the g provided with micrometers of peculiar construction in. able. Early in J uly Mr. Yvon Villarceau joined the instruments at Tudela ‘Inthe center of Spain, on the banks of the Ebro, and immediately pro- ns for time, dc., we note that at totality they found the general illu- ‘Mination of the atmosphere much greater than the relation of former ob- Servers of total eclipses had led them to expect, so that they could read write easily without using their lamps. Says LeV. : “The first object which I saw in the field of the telescope after the commencement of totality was an isolated cloud separated ual to its own breadth, the whole that length. Its color was a beautiful rose mixéd with shades of violet, and eet,” seemed to F oe B =} = bs] o ~ i) ~ =, —— = TQ 2 Ge a2 = =a & h Which was : brilliancy. But 30° below Was perfectly white and of the greatest bri y aan the horizontal duasinee on the east I discovered two lofty and adjoining =f 310 Postscript :—LeVerrier’s Report on peaks, the upper sides both tinted with rosy and violet light while the lower sides were brilliant white. Ido not doubt that the toothed form I assign to these peaks is real, which as it contrasted with that of the first appendages I have described, I verified with great care; moreover, in shifting the telescope, whose high power permitted a sight of only asmall part of the solar disc at one time, I saw a third peak a little higher, also tooth-formed, and resembling the two others in color an form, differing only in its larger dimensions. The remainder of the dise offered nothing remarkable, and on returning to the upper region I found the two first described clouds unchanged. As the moment of reappear ance of the Sun approached, and while waiting for the first rays, I made, during about 208, perhaps my most important observation. The margin of the disc which two minutes before was entirely white was now tinged to the height of seven or eight seconds was covered by a bed of rosy clouds, which appeared to gain in thickness as they emerged from behind cleared the Sun at 4" 6™ 208,” [M. Foucault’s interesting observations on the photographs, ete, . unavoidably postponed for want of room. eS _LeVerrier goes on to state that the observation of his party authorize, his opinion, important modifications in the generally received notions F specting the physical constitution of the Sun. Arago in his notice of s¢ eclip ays, “ where exist the reddish flames with well defined outlines which during the total eclipse of the 8th of July, 1842, passed cons! ct ably beyond the outlines of the lunar disc? These flames were either 10 the Moon, or in the Sun, or in our atmosphere ; unless, indeed, deny ad their actual existence, we regard them as an effect of light, for example as phenomena of diffraction.” ; The two last suppositions have found few partisans. Before soe Bb any hypothesis it is necessary to decide by observation a certain feature the phenomenon. During the eclipse, the disc of the moon moves across the disc of the Sun. But do these reddish clouds follow the moon ™ olar the French Astronomical Expedition. 311 its movement? or does each cloud remain invariably above the same he origin of the luminous e _ _willregularly, at the rate of a half second of are in a second of time, at should appear by the variation in height between those which appear in the east and the west. The phenomena will appear otherwise if the clouds n The height of these. clouds ought not to vary, it is true, whether ey be ong to the moon, or to the sun, but in the latter case, carried clouds, whether east and west or north and south, has the highest interest, the retur it was a measurement so care- a of sunlight, but fortunatel It should by caleulati ! the ation, assuming the cloud to belong to 1 DO foundation for a doubt, as to the nature of the rosy clouds welch have been variously called flames, mountains, protuberances, and ouds, The observati appendages, perfectly iso dise of both oe sa na amon arli y secmale eae the earliest determined. _ cold current between it and the shore, mixing in a degree with the cold water, is well shown - fithoms @, e, f) The whole space from the shore to 240 miles, 322 Prof. Bache’s Lecture on the Gulf Stream. met the sudden rise to the Gulf Stream shown especially below 50 fathoms and termed so appropriately by Lieut. George M. Bache the ‘cold wall,” that navigators have not hesitated to receive the term into use; next the hot water of the Gulf Stream, rising to a maximum of 82°, then falling to a minimum of 80° rising to a second maximum of 814°, falling to a second mini mum of 78° and rising from this toward a third maximum. With these results the curves at 5 and 10 fathoms and those at 20, 80, 50, 70, 100 and 150 fathoms agree and, with characteris- tic differences, those of 200, 300, 400 and 500 iathoms. The cold wall at 20 fathoms shows a rise of 19° in 25 miles, three quarters of a degree to a mile, and at 200 fathoms of 16°, in the same distance; at the surface it is nearly 8° in 50 miles. The cold water between the Gulf Stream and the shore has two well marked maxima and two minima in it, of which one seems to correspond in position to the sudden deepening of the water 100 miles from Sandy Hook, as shown by the Coast Survey off- shore chart between Gay Head and Cape Henlopen. _ These results are more distinctly seen by grouping the curves into natural groups and taking the mean of their indications. Diagram No. 5 Plate I, gives the group of six curves from the surface to 30 fathoms, of four curves from 40 to 100 fathoms, both inclusive of 200, 300, and the single curve at 400. Similar groups are shown on Diagram No. 6, Plate I, from Cape Henry, the cold wall, three maxima of temperature and three minima being very distinctly seen. The results of three different explorations of this section, by three different officers, in three different years, are shown upon the same diagram. T coincidence of result could hardly be better. ‘The average of the whole of the observations is shown in No. 6 bis, Plate I ? ond class of diagrams The conclusions deduced from the examination of all the sections between Cape Florida and Sandy Hook is, that the Gulf Stream is divided into alternate bands of hot, or warm and ¢00 or cold water, the most distinct of which is that containing the axis of the Gulf Stream. That between the stream and the coast there is a fall of tem- erature so sudden that it has been aptly called the cold wall, ess distinct at the surface and where the overflow from the Ff: Stream passes furthest toward the shore, but still distinctly marked even at the surface. ~ a Prof. Bache’s Lecture on the Gulf Stream. 323 _ Navigators have noticed these changes of temperature and have supposed themselves at each oceurrence of warmer water to be in the hottest water of the stream and so have been greatly embarrassed and have deemed the phenomena and limits of the ulf Stream to be very irregular The cold water between the Gulf Stream and the shore has also bands less regular than those beyond the axis of warmer and cooler water. Florida, a different type-curve. The cold wall is less distinctly marked and the rise of temperature is less marked. It rises how- ever to an axis near the coast of Cuba. Throughout the length of the Strait there is but one maximum of temperature and the bands belonging to the Atlantic regimen do not occur in the straits. (See diagrams Nos. 8, 4, 5, 6, Plate IL.) The cause of ip change of regimen will be seen in presenting the other form ol diagram, (b.) Curves of depths at the same temperature.—I have selected curves from the southern portions of the work, vartly because the bottom has been struck in the sections agd the diagrams show its sections as well as those of the stream, and partly to show how fully the deductions in regard to the divisions of the stream, apply to these, as well as the more northern sections. The Charleston section of Lieut. Maffitt is given on clagram +VO. 9, late I. The surface curve, notwithstanding x in the cold current which is not therefore, as has been supposed, cut off at Hatteras, the curve of 72° reaching to the coast and an nearly reaching it. The Cape Florida diagrams (Nos. 3 and 7, Plate IL.) give two maxima with indications of a third and on corresponding minima. The cold wall cannot be recognize Upon it, probably for the want of one or two, more positions. ld water lies in the valleys and passing along the bottom rises upon the tops of the hills. The Rivers af thinvange of hills was made at nearly the same time $24 Prof. Bache’s Leciure on the Gulf Stream. by Lieut. Maffitt on the Charleston section and by Lieut. Craven on the St. Simon’s section. Diagram No. 9, Plate I, shows this awana. Do these bands correspond throughout their length to the form of the bottom of the sea? This is not yet made out, many as have been the attempts to reach the considerable depths off the more northern sections. Three officers have attempted to sound out the Cape Cod section, but the cold wall is all that has been reached thus far. The range of hills nearest to the coast, has been traced from the coast of Georgia by Commander Sands to off Cape Lookout. Ill. Taz Corp WaAut. The cold wall extends with varying dimensions and changes of its peculiar features, all along the coast where the stream has been examined. A diagram showing the features of the co ; wall on the various Atlantic sections and those of the eta 0 Florida is given in No. 10, Plate I. Table No. 1 shows the ‘a tance of the cold wall from the coast and the dimensions of the Atlantic bands of the Gulf Stream. id The table shows that at Cape Florida and Cape Hatteras the co wall is nearest to the coast. The distance of the axis of the aren from the coast will be found by adding half the numbers 1n the sec stream, a result which a more elaborate investigation of the payer’ In the portions of z course between Cape Florida and Mosquito inlet (3+° of latitude) Prof. Bache’s Lecture on the Gulf Stream. 325 Taste 1.—Distance of the cold wall from the shore, and widths of the several bands of cold and warm water in the Gulf Stream, measured on the lincs of the Sections, Sue.) 855)88 | Pook se [88,188 ESSiS&Sised| sé (28 lees seslecs Names of Sections, |82%3/ 222|222| 22 |Se-| 228 st2|ce8 28is| Ses (22s | Fe [ESE |EE2 SyE/Zes £°E"| B28 Bes | BE |"e2lSas Efe lB Es Sandy Hook....... . | 240 60 80 $ 127 60 | 50 |In’ef. Cape May.......... 55 80 40 125 WO 66 49 *Cape Henry........ 5 82 4 80 | 60 | 50 Cape Hatteras......] 380 47 25 45} 11 87 «| 16 0 Can Feateeiic. ss. 30 20 37 87 80. |-60 | 26 Charleston 62 25 15 30 67 6 | 366) — eh ee ee 87 26 13 20 58 25 25 — St. Augustine......../ 70 20 18 5 47 92 |20 | — Cape Cafiaveral..... 35 20 — —_ 85 14/312 |— | Cape Florida. ...... | 10 25 — _ 25 oo 2 Note-—The width of the bands beyond the 2d maximum, and north of Cape Hat- teras are somewhat indefinite The table shows a width in the Gulf Stream proper along the Atlantic coast of from 25 miles off Cape Florida to 127 miles off Sandy Hook. The warm water at say fifteen fathoms, 1s from 80 to 150 miles in width. The stream widens each way om Cape Florida. These several divisions of the Atlantic stream lose a portion of their distinctness as we pass northward and eastward, the stream widening. Fy; Limtr oF AcCURACY OF THE DETERMINATIONS. There are two modes by which the limits of accuracy of one results may be tested, by one of which their permanency Is also tried. In this latter mode the sections are run over in different years, or in the same year by different officers, so as to oon the observations of one year with those of the next, or of one 2 shows that the relative officer with that ofanother. Table No. 2s Be acaiity and th acy of the observations © The Cubs Hokey siting was runover by Lieuts.G. M. Bache, S.P. Lee. and Rizhard Bache, the Hatteras section by Lieuts. Richard Bache and J. N. Maffit, and the Charleston section by Lieuts, J. N, Maffit and T. A. Craven. 826 Prof. Bache’s Lecture on the Gulf Stream. Tabie 2.—Table aovieg the probable uncertainty in the determination of maximum and oeene epee ts, by running the same section over in different years ad di er- ent obser Care Henry Section. n distances from the shore in miles | Row the curves re presenting th us the gruups. —~c |e Dates and names of observers. 38 5 x Hy F 5 X E EB iF é 2. 2 Blea | Be = 5 Z & Os |< ide See Lt. G. M. Bache, 1846 93] 135] 187] 218] 260) 82 (369 «§.P. Lee, 1847 | 91| 146) 185} 215] 241] 33 [888 « R. Bache, TS46 52.2. ere eee 97| 146: 180! 19 | 287! 3281 7 Means for three years. $4) 142] 184! 210; 279) 3. 8| 870 Probable error for each year. [5°85] 4°27 (2°42 17°62| 11571718 Care Hartrras Section. Lt. R. Bache, 1848 j Wide Malt, 1808. soos. sas csceces¥s | — Means for two year —| 82] 129) 159) 212| 26¢ 266) 338 Probable error for = year 4°3| 2411 B| 15| 16 | Means for both sect \5°85) 5-8] 34) 5-0) 6'4| Pusjll6 =| 90! 4 oe, 214) 286/38 75| 195| 57; 211] 256} 392 | VOT St - Average uncertainty of peg and minima, 6°9 miles. cold wall and axis, 5 all the iar points, T.. The other mode of testing the result is by the comparison of pe Pagar iis points in the different sections, each one elong- “ dred fathoms ae eat by an ascertained aie # tha essive minima and maxima to the fourth minimum inclusive. These results be that the cold wall minimum is ascertained, 00 the average, within 088 mile, the axis maximum within two miles and a half, the second minimum within two a yee ; aximum, within four miles, and the fourth maximum within eight and a half miles, all tang ne ree except the last, he p siderably es than it would otherwise Le, probably frcm the Prof. Bache’s Lecture on the Gulf Stream. 327 fact that the proximity of the bottom of the sea, makes the result less permanent than in the other cases. Without this re- sult the mean probable error would be 1:1 mile. Taste 3.—Recapitulation, showing the value of the probabl of determination of the bands for each section and the average of the whole. FRTIEAS j!st_min.| Ist max (2d min.[2d max./3d_min 13d max 4th min. Probable errors, OGY S100K soo, . ccs ces “75 3°94 | 7-99 ape May 82 | 1°25 | 254 | 1:5 4°03 | 4°87 Cape Henry, 3 years........| "84 61] “65 |: 1:70: | 1:06 ‘94 | 3°42 Cape Hatteras, 2 years,..... 6-77 | 6°36 | 9:31 | 569 | 6-23 Cape Fear | 1°25 298 | 349 | 1337 Charleston ‘ 1°25 | 167) 72} 209 | 2:40 82 i “14 11:27 “41 St. Augustine 52 5 44 44 55 Cape Cafiaveral............ 951° 169. | 8 | Mean probavie error........) 33 | 249 [249 | 4°00 | 401 | 371 | B45 While these results are so permanent, the mean temperatures of the sections change considerably from year to year. e average temperature between the surface and 400 fathoms be- yond, or outside of the cold wall on the Sandy Hook section in 1846, was as high as that on the Cape Henry section in 1848, and that on the Cape Fear section in 1853, within a degree of that of the St. Augustine section in 1853, while the Cape Hatte- Yas section in 1848 and in 1853, differed two degrees in mean temperatures, Again the temperatures from the surface to 30 fathoms just below the axis of the stream in the Sandy Hook fection in August 1846 was either as high or higher than those on the Cafiaveral section in June 1853. In general the Cape May section in 1846 and the mean of the Cape Henry section of 1846, 1847 and 1848 are warmer at the same depths than the Sections south of it were in 1848 and 1853. ; These results show that there are great changes in copes seas , 8 the first range of hills, (see Diagram No. 9, Plate I,) is 1500 feet above the onlay to the aed of it, distant 12 miles; and the top of the second range 600 feet above the same valley, distant 15 miles. The first slope is 125 feet, and the second is 40 feet, 328 Prof. Bache’s Lecture on the Gulf Stream. Charleston to Cape Fear. VIL. General FEATURES OF THE GULF STREAM. Upo (Plate III,) the general features of the Gulf Stream are repre- sented from the Tortugas to the Cape Cod Section. Passing i e West, as given by the Surgeon General's report. The cur rent here is feeble, but sufficient to cause it to be sought by sailing vessels making to windward and even by steamers. 48 suing from the straits of Bemini, the stream is turned northward by the land which confines and directs its course. _Its effective velocity is not derived from difference of temperature, as the be little west of north and the velocity is from 8 to 5 miles per hour, The temperature bands now begin. The bottom of the north. Between St. Augustine and Cape Hatteras the Be 4 the stream and the trend of the coast differ but little, making 5 degrees of easting in 5 degrees of northing. At Hatteras curves to the northward and then runs easterly, making abou degrees of northing in 8 degrees of easting. In the latitude e Cape Charles it turns quite to the curred haying a velocity between one and one mile and a half the hour. t J. Dguglish on Fermented Bread. 329 That this curve follows the general sweep of the coast under water, appears most probable, the coast line, the curve of 100 fathoms and the ranges of hills discovered by Lieuts. Maffitt an Craven all seem to indicate it. That the direction of the stream is given in a general way by the configuration of the bottom o the ‘sea, it is hardly possible to doubt, while admitting vn it receives modification from other, and perhaps more general, c ses. The after progress of this mighty stream, and of its briinibes if it does divide, remains yet to be traced and and so also its heading in the Gulf of Mexico, I forbear to mingle doubtful speculation upon causes, with the inductions in regard to o temperatures, which it has been the object of these 3 to a to supply and of this: lecture to bring to your notice Art. XXIX.—On Fermented and Aérated Bread, and their Com- parative Dietetic Value; by J. Dave.isu, M. D.* [Extracted from the London Medical Times and Gazette, vol. i, p. 468, 1860.] SINCE the new process of preparing bread has been introduced, —a process which effects the raising of bread wholly by me- chanical means, imparting to it the most perfect vesicular strue- ture, Seba it leaves the constituents of the flour wholly unchan- © As inoat of ‘our’ readers are oubelees s aware, Dr. Dauglish is the author o rey stem of bread Hg that has excited considerable interest among chemist uring the last twelvemonth. An extended deseription of this method was read at the Aberdeen rego id = British Asso Sept. 1859, by Dr. Odling, from whose paper w e following patie a breac “It is well known de the bain character of ordin pol hewirene rae a wre developme nt of carbonic acid gas uniformly a a mass of oe ting ugh, eby t Wher a loose s wie teat is aye 0 eodden lump of k “our and ‘water, | In . ee cro or generated within the substance of ‘the dough is a p Apel yes a ps dine degradation of one of the constituents of the flour, viz., of the 4 d ) call “In the plan of Dauctieh ‘the. carbo ic pros ie oa ently a Peradded to the ‘flour which’ consequ ly need not weet Bost r”) is mi st. Its cleanliness. Instead lea savaitnces Rbnenh for the new riety sede h fe : ot ss dongh being mixed with naked arms or feet. the re ppbesonched a - serves for the entire semble on of asack whereas in the ordinary process, four or five hours Making f srtain varieties of flour, no gf Peniuel coset: annth ae and moisture wre a ing vv the sew tate 7 ereby the bread . as n esol erage : ented by the — ota alum, which is indeed AM. Jour. ae SECOND SERIES, Vor. XXX, No. 90 +» 1860, 42 330 J. Dauglish on Fermented Bread. ged and uncontaminated,—there has not been wanting those who doubt whether the process of fermentation, by which bread has been hitherto prepared, is not realiy beneficial in other respects than that of imparting the vesicular structure to it; whether, in fact, the changes which the constituents of the flour —especially the starch—undergo, are not essential to healthy digestion in the stomach, Although I believe there are few members of the Medical profession who will be prepared to maintain that fermentation is beneficial, still, as some do hold such an opinion, and have asserted likewise that starch which has not undergone the fer- mentive process is wholly unfit for human food, I am desirous of stating what I believe are good reasons for rejecting the process of fermentation for the new one which I have introduced. In order to dispose of the assertion that starch requires to be prepared by the fermentive changes to render it fit for human food, it is but necessary to remark, that the proportion which the inhabitants of the earth, who thus prepare their starchy food, bear to those who do not, is quite insignificant. Indeed, it would appear that the practice of fermenting the flour or meal of the cereal grains is followed chiefly by those nations who use a mixed animal and vegetable diet, while those who are fed wholly on the products of the vegetable kingdom reject the process of fer- mentation entirely. Thus, the millions of India and China, who feed chiefly on rice, take it for the most part simply boiled; and that large portion of the human race who feed on maize, prepare an almost necessary ingredient in the manufacture of bread from glucogenie flour. But in operating by the new process, there is no time for glucogenic change to take place, and consequently no adv: e in the use of alum, with any deseription of fh h, Its certainty and uniformity. Owin lifferences ‘in the char- eter and rapidity of the fermentation, dependent on variations of temperature, quality of the yeast, de., the n ucture of fermented bread frequently pr ‘ vagaries and irregularities from which the process is entirely free 5th. The character of the bread h l analysis shows tha flour has undergone ess deterioration in bread made by the nesv, than in that made by proce: In other words, the percentage of extractive matters issmaller. T d medical profession, the debris of the yeast being considered unwholesome to acidity. 6th. Its economy. cost of carbonic acid is allege of yeast. their constant night work and from the fatiguing and unwholesume cal! their labor, particularly the kneading In a pulitiee- rad process is important as removing bread-making from a domestic manual W manufacturing, machine work.” sed profitably on & =m acter of the apparatus, the process can only be used Pp large scale, and not in small bakeries, : : Fi fem 3 oy sin et a J. Dauglish on Fermented Bread. 331 itin many ways, but they never ferment it. The sate is true with the potato-eater of Ireland, and the oatmeal-eater of Scot- land. Nor do we find that even wheat is always subjected to fermentation ; but the peculiar physical properties of this grain appear to have tasked man’s ingenuity more than any other, to devise methods of preparing from it food which shall be both palatable and digestible. In the less civilized states, a favorite mode of dressing wheat grain has been, by first roasting and then grinding it. On the borders of the Mediterranean it is prepared in the form of maccaroni and vermicelli, while in the East it is made into hard thin cakes for the more delicate, and for the hard working and robust into thieker and more dense masses of baked bread; by which latter means the gluten assumes a form some- what analogous to the texture of the Jungs, so’ that ce a surface is secured for the action of the digestive jwices ; an “ _ lieve is the sole object to be sought in the preparation o read from wheaten flour. Wheat is said to be the type of adult human food. It suppiies, i i find that tion of the human organism. And yet in practice we find the food which we prepare from it, and furnish to the inhabitants i of a very large number of the € population. : i the large towns of France wheaten: bread certainly forms a very large proportion of the diet of the laboring classes, but not ain wh ; rm : eat, though in a coarser form, hardiest and finest portion of 332 J. Dauglish on Fermented Bread. large praporncn of meat, while the diet.of the other is chiefly bread. In Scotland, however, the laboring man is capable of grain. But while he endeavors to secure. both these portions for his flour, he takes the greatest care to avoid as much as pos- sible, by. fine dressing, etc., the mixture with them of any part of the true external coat which forms the bran, knowing that it will cause a most serious deficiency in the color of the bread after fermentation. | It is generally supposed that the dark color of brown bread —that is of bread made from the whole wheaten meal—is attrib- utable to the colored particles of the husk or outer covering of the grain. But such is not really the case. The colore parti: cles of the bran are of themselves only capable of imparting 4 somewhat orange color to bread, shine is shown to be the fact when whole wheaten meal is made into bread by a process where America for removing the outer seed coat of the wheat grain without injuring the grain itself, by which it was propose be save that highly nutritious portion which is torn away, adhering to the bran in. the ordinary process of grinding, and lost to ee man consumption. The invention was brought under the notice of the French Emperor, who caused some experiments to be made the experiments, and of the inventor himself, the brea brown instead of white. The consequence, of course, has as the invention has never been brought into practical oper on. s J, Dauglish on Fermented Bread. 333 starch, dextrine or glucose. The gluten is slightly. decompose at first, giving ammonia, a brown matter, and another production Which causes the lactic acid change.to take _ The activity of the cerealin: is, destroyed ata temperature of ‘140° Fah., according to,M. Mouriés, but my own. experiments show that it is simply .suspended even. by the heat. required to cook bread.thoroughly; thus bread made without fermenta- ‘on, of whole wheaten meal,.or.of flour in.which.there isa large Proportion of cerealin, will, if kept ata temperature of. about 75° to.85° Fah:, pass. ra pidly. into a.state of solution, if the smallest exciting cause ‘be. present, such..as-ptyaline or.pepsin, or even that small amount of organic ‘matter which is found in impure » Water—while the same. material, when:it has. been, subjected to the alcoholic fermentation, will not be affected in a like manner, The activity of cerealin is very.easily destroyed by most acids, also by. the presence of alum;.and ‘while it is the most active gent known in, producing. the earlier changes in the constitu- » £nts of the flour, it cannot produce the alcoholic, but as soon as He alcoholic is superinduced the cerealin becomes neutralized »and ceases to act any longer asa solvent, M.Mouriés, taking advantage of this effect of alcoholic fermentation, has adopted a s by which he is enabled to separate from the bran all the ferealin and caseine which are attached to it. He subjects the ran to active alcoholic fermentation, which neutralizes the activity of the cerealin, and at the same time separates the nutri- ‘ols matter; and then having strained this through a fine seive, he adds it to the white flour in the preparation of white bread, . by which an economy of ten per cent 1s effected, and the color Of the bread is not injured. a J. Dauglish on Fermented Bread. dry cerealin were added to 500 grains of white flour, and the whole digested in half-an-ounce of water at a temperature of 90° for several hours, ten cent more of the gluten, and about t pepsin on the fibrine of meat. Pepsin, acting alone on fibrine dissolves it, but very slowly, but if lactic acid be added solution takes cone very rapidly. In like manner the starch present n It will be seen that in all the methods of bread-making hitherto adopted, the peculiar solvent properties of this body, cerealin, have been sought to be neutralized simply because it destroys the white color of the bread during the early stages of panary fer- mentation. It is by thus destroying the activity of the spect digestive ferment which Nature has supplied for the due assin™ lation by the economy of the constituents of the wheaten grain, that wheaten bread is rendered incapable of affording that suste- nance to the laboring man which the Scotchman obtains from his oatmeal porridge. Although the new bread has been as yet but little more than experimentally introduced to public con sumption, I have siveady received from members of my ow? profession, who have recommended it in their practice, as wer © m non-professional persons, accounts of the really astonishing results that have followed its use in cages of deranged digestion years of suffering and misery, by the simple use of the brea diet. ‘Children that have been liable to convulsive at & J. Dauglish on Fermented Bread, 335 The delicate flavor of the new bread renders it peculiarly grateful to the stomachs of invalids and children, as well as of those whose tastes have not become vitiated by the habitual use of baker’s bread, which is slightly sour, and tastes of yeast. The new bread was supplied to two wards in Guy’s Hospital in place of the ordinary bread (which is of a very fine quality, made on the premises,) for two months, and in no case were there any pieces leftin the wards unconsumed, while of the fermented bread large quantities of scraps were collected daily, for the con- sumption of which the appetites of the patients have been defi- t. That persons who have been long used to the strong yeasty- flavored bakers’ bread should consider the new bread tasteless at first is not to be wondered at, since the delicate sense of taste is of all other senses the most easily lost by rough usage. Hence the argument put forth in defence of adulteration by some Lon- don tradesmen, especially the beer sellers, that the public will not buy the pure article, as it is wanting in the flavor to which they have been accustomed; and hence, also, the dislike of the Viennese of the fresh oysters supplied to them when the railway was completed, as they deemed them insipid, after the habitual use of oysters slightly decomposed, with which they had been Supplied when it required a lengthened period to transport them from the sea. Tam disposed to attribute the beneficial effects of the new bread to two causes. The one to the absence of the prejudicial by the process of fermenta- n the bread, unchanged, of and assimilation, cerealin. * € second is added when the baker forms his sponge, and is e and beer by precipitation life of the yeast-plant gene- 336 "J. Dauglish on Fermented Bread. rally destroyed in baking, because it requires to be retained at the boiling point for some time before itis thoroughly destroyed ; and bread is generally withdrawn from the oven, for economical reasons, even before the centre of the loaf has reached the temperature of 212°. It is not difficult to understand how the most painful and distressing symptoms and derangements may blood, bat shall previous to absorption, possess the properties which will constitute it'the proper stimulus tothe functional er ry in this of research, the physiologist andthe’ pathologist may not at & future day lay the-foundation of true scientific Medicine. . bridge Wells. : E. Billings on the Potsdam Fossils. 337 i Art. XXX.— Additional Note on the Potsdam Fossils ; by E. Bitines. that they exhibit several of the parts not gate in those upon ed. Fig. 4, (nat. size). b ER B Fig. 4~ a, A detached cheek showing the small spine of the posterior angle. 6c, Two specimens of the glabella, showing the spine on the neck segment. Simated but rather smooth. These two characters furnish Additional grounds for separating the species from 1 anti __ Walter), which has the cheeks striated and the posterior angles of ~ the head only slightly produced into short broadly triangular s. on termination 2. The neck segment bears a short broad-based spine. The St Specimens collected do not exhibit this, but on reéxaminin them I think I can see traces of it. Some of the specimens of C., ap (Barrande) lately collected in the Primordial Zone of _ “atof C. minutus, while others (according to the figures) have us it would appear that the presence or absence of a og the neck Segment is not always of specific importance and shou ome of those from Keeseville turn out to have only a plain — “gment we would not perhaps on that ground alone be author- Wed to constitute two species. Biargtetn stcle, Bur Zein 3 a a You ya MM. de Mainten Pema iar Bulletin Geol. Soc, France, 2°. Series, vol. xvii, p. And al V., 1960, ie 838 E. Billings on the Potsdam Fossils. 3. Mr. Bradley’s new specimens also show that there are three pairs of glabellar furrows, the anterior being represented by two small indentations just in advance of the points where the ocular ridges reach the glabella; and further that the course of the facial suture is the same as it is in C. striatus, (Emerich). The ygidium is more obtusely rounded than is represented in our igure 2. a to the correctness of the generic reference of this species Solenopleura, Eryx, Conocoryphe and Harpides should be placed in Conocephalites. In this view of Barrande’s, Angelin has con- ‘ e genus has thus been greatly extended and judg- acters of the pleurse and hypostomat to which may be added the ocular ridge which although not a constant character in Cono- near allinity. * See Barrande’s “Paralléle entre les dépéts Siluriens de Bohéme et de Seandi- navie, p.19; and compare the tables on p. 17 and 85 of the same work, See also Angelin’s Palaontologia Scandinavica. + See Barrande, “ Systéme Silurien du centre dela Bohéme,” p. 417-419. Montreal, 20th Sept., 1860. ‘Site eee ‘Selected from the Smithsonian Papers. — 339 Art. XXXI.—The Great Auroral Exhibition of Aug. 28th to Sept, 4th, 1859.—6TH ARTICLE; by Prof. Ex1as Loomis. SINCE our last Auroral article was prepared for the press, the following letter has been received from the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Washington, June 6th, 1860. Dear Sir :—Some time since, you wrote us in regard to the aurora of September, 1859, and I now write to inform you that we have a very large collection of materials in regard to this in- teresting meteor which in justice. to the writers ought to be pub- lished. It is, however, a pity that the data for scientific deduc- tions in regard to this interesting phenomenon should be scat- tered, and we will therefore present the whole to Silliman’s Journal, provided the Editors will publish it. Will you take charge of it, and prepare it for the press Josepn Henry, Secretary S. I. rh identically the same. From the entire mass of materials we ae ] i ete and elaborate, and which were so distributed in geographical ir. tion as to afford a correct idea of the appearances throughout the entire area of the United States. OnskRvations of THE AURorA or Avoust 28TH, 1859. Selected from the Smithsonian Papers. 1. Observations at Burlington, Minnesota, (lat. 47° 1, long. 92° 30’), by A, A. Hipparp. The aurora of Aug. 28th, commenced at 8 P. M., and increased very rapidly until 84 P. M., when it came to a centre directly Over our heads. It went about three-fourths the circumference letely round at the top, Stars very bright were very light, and some- Loi F he beams we A what seattered. At10P. M. it had entirely disappeared. 340 ‘Prof. EL. Loomis on the Aurora of 1859. 2. Observations at Marquette, Michigan, (lat. 46° 32/, long. 87° 41’), by : Dr. G. H, BLaxer, 3. Observations at Winona, Minnesota, (lat. 44° 3’, long. 91° 36’), by : T. F UN. Aug. 28th, an auroral bank and a few pencilled streamers had formed at 9 P.M. At midnight the streamers and corona filled the whole heavens except the N. E. portion. During the whole night the light was equal to that of a half moon. 4. Observations at Green Bay, Wisconsin, (lat. 44° 30’, long. 87° 56’), by D, UnpErwoop. Aug. 28th, about 74 Pp. M., the aurora was visible in the north- ern part of the heavens, but did not attract particular notice un- til about 9 P.M. Soon after eight the sky began to redden, and became nearly of a blood-red color. Soon the streaks were ob- served shooting upward from all points of the horizon, and con- centrating in a large luminous mass in mid-heavens. The great- est intensity of color was at the zenith. Rays were constantly shooting up from all points of the horizon and the colors con- stantly changing. The rays emitted an intense red light for about half an hour, when they began slowly to fade away 10 the north and south, but in the east and west they continued to glow until 10 P. M., when they began to fade away. Flashes of white light appeared among them, commencing from the horizon and moving upwards, following each other in rapid succession like the waves of an immense sea of light. They grew brighter as the red color disappeared, and when this was wholly gone they also gradually faded away. : 5. Observations at Milwaukee, Wisconsin, (lat. 48° 3’, long. 87° 517’), by Prof. E, P. Larxry. Aug. 28th, at 8 P. M., an auroracommenced. About 87 P. M- an arch formed from §.W. by the north to the S.E., with dark ee el ee Selected from the Smithsonian Papers. — 341 At 9 p. M. the aurora began to fade, and at ten had nearly dis- _ appeared. At 104 P.M. the north gave indications of another aurora which occurred about 12 o'clock, nearly equal in splen- dor to the first, and still another occurred about 8 A. M. There were also auroras late in the night of the 30th and also of the t. ; 6, Observations at Burlington, Wisconsin, (lat. 42° 39’, long. 87° 44’), by D. Matnews Aug. 28th, at 8 p. M., the appearance was that of a large lu- minous ring surrounding the zenith; but this form was very transient, the light becoming concentrated in the west. Between . M. there were two arches formed in the north, the first almost 80° in altitude, and the second about 40°. From the outer edge of the larger arch darted a succession of streamers or rays of light. At 84 15™ a perfect flood of light came up in the east, not in streams, but like the dawn of day, just before sun- nse, This appearance lasted about half an hour. At 9 P. M. streams of light radiated in every direction from a point about ten degrees south of the zenith, covering the whole eavens e€x- cept a space in the south. One broad belt of red light extended from near the zenith to the horizon at a point a little north of west. 1. Observations at Dubuque, Iowa, (lat. 42° 30’, long. 90° 52’), by Asa Horr, M.D. Aug. 28th, the aurora began with floating irregular masses of auroral clouds in the north, which soon spread over the sky, ter- minating in a broad zone of light spanning the heavens from H. to W. and reaching to 20° south of the zenith, At8 P.M. many of the luminous clouds became distinctly crimson, with the deep- est hue near the horizon, At 8 15™ a distinct arch formed in 8. Observations at Waltham, Massachusetts, (lat. 42° 24’, long. 71° 14’), by Rev. Tuomas Hitt. Aug. 28th, at 74. Pp. M., there were visible some splendid masses — of rose-colored light in the east and west near the horizon ; that in the west being nearly obscured by twilight. At 7% 45m a well defined arch passed south of the zenith, and all the sky horth of it was filled with light, radiating toward the pole of the 342 Prof. E, Loomis on the Aurora of 1859. dipping need]e. I watched the aurora from 9 to 10} P.M, a d n at 3 A. M. got up again to look. It was then very brilliant and rosy all along the southern horizon. 10. Observations at Willow Creek, Illinois, (lat. 41° 45’, long. 88° 56’), by E. E. Bacon Aug. 28th—aurora first seen at 8 P. M., corona and beams at 8h 40m, arch 84 45m, Beams of red very brilliant in the east and west, and at the corona from 8 35™ to 84 55m, At 9h the beams and corona had disappeared, and a broad red belt extend- ed across the heavens, passing over to the south. Two distinet arches were formed in the north. At 9» 15™ bright beams in the southeast, the red belt disappearing in the east. At 9" 25" red- ness nearly gone. At 9 28™ arches broken. At 9h 85m bril- liant spotin N.E. At 9» 40™ arch reformed, but not so brilliant. At 125 30m beams with far greater grandeur than at 8 40. Beams streamed from all round the horizon to the zenith. In the southern half of the sky, the beams flashed like the blaze of a great fire. At 12h 45m a bright belt from E. to W., in me south, with a dark belt something like a cloud under it. At 12™ bright belt in the south gone. Aurora lasted till daylight. 11, Observations at Sandwich, Illinois, (lat. 41° 31’, long. 88° 30’), by Dr. N. E. Baxov. Aug. 28th, at 74 Pp. M., there was a bright luminous band, 4 degree in width, spanning the heavens. Soon it became tortu- ous; and in the zenith it pointed southward half way to the ho- rizon, At 8 P.M. red gleams shot up in the N.W. directly to the zenith. At 8} p.m. the same appearance sprung up 1 > NE. P, M. the entire northern half of the sky was bri: liantly red, with gleams which soon culminated in a coron® 93 P, M. the whole was tinged with red, alternating with pa of light. At10 P.M. the red tinge floated away to the south. At midnight it presented much the same appearance as before. ——- er Selected from the Smithsonian Papers, 343 became exceedingly rapid. The usual dark bank now appeared 13, Observations at Kanosha, Nebraska, (lat. 40° 51’, long. 95° 44’), by Beta Wurtr. There was a very brilliant light of a pink color from about 1a.M, Aug. 29th until daylight in the northern half of the hemi- sphere, shooting upwards to the zenith, and passing off to the South. It was so light as to enable a person to read coarse print. 14, Observations at Great Salt Lake City, Utah, (lat. 40° 45’, long. 111° 26’), by W. W. Puerps. Aug. 28th between 9 and 10 p.at. a palish light wavered up about 80° towards the zenith; thence it spread east and west 344 Prof. E. Loomis on the Aurora of 1859. the beams shot up from all sides to the zenith, forming a beautiful corona which lasted 5 or 8 minutes, sometimes putting on t appearance of conflicting waves. Nearly the whole sky was of a ink, and some portions of a dark red color. It faded gradually away, first disappearing in the south, and at 10 P. M. only a bright and across the northern portion without a dark segment. About 105 30™ occasional rays shot up to the zenith. At 11) it was very light, so that objects could be seen at a distance. The au- rora continued with varied colors and. brightness until the dawn of the 29th. 16. Observations at Pekin, Illinois, (lat. 40° 36’, long. 89° 45’), by J. H. Riser. Ang. 28, 8 20™ p. M. a white band running from N. W. to E. with two columns shooting up, one by the north star the other through Ursa Major. 8 30™ it is passing westward and a high column is passing about 5° east of the north star, and about 10° above it. At 8'40™ two columns passing nearly to zenith on the east side of north star. At 8 46™ the column by the north star increased in width, the top bent over forming a semi- circle to west. Color white in north, changing to a rose at its upper edge, and a red in the east. At 8» 55™ arches forming; the lowest about 10° above the horizon, and of a pale color. The second about 30° above the horizon, and of a pale orange color. Streamers running from the lower arch through it and about 30° above it. The color was most intense in the east. At 8: 57™ both arches better defined. The streamers passing from the lower through the upper to a point about 10° west of the zenith, At 9 P.M. less brilliant and ceased observing. 17, Observations at Urbana, Ohio, (lat. 40° 6, long. 83° 43'), by Prof. M. G. Wiiu1raMs. g. 28th, at 9 P.M. columns of white and yellowish light shot from all points of the arch which extended from N. 80° E. N. 75° Many of the corruscations passed beyond the zenith; in the east the light was pink and deep crimson forming a mass about 30° broad and 60° high reaching down to the hort zon. ‘The color was sometimes almost blood red. At 9 10™a similar mass formed in the N.W. At 9h 15™ a remarkably beau- tiful column shot up at N, 50° W. having a breadth of 10° and reaching to the zenith. The colors were white, yellowish, pink and crimson. About 9 20™ an arch was formed in the south, having an altitude of 40° at the centre. A few minutes later, the crimson light extended down from the zenith, quite to this arch, so that most of the sky was covered with colored light. wat 9h 50", a beam 2° broad, shot up from 8. 80° W. passing 20° oF 30° beyond the zenith. Ina few minutes the beam seemed to be broken up into fragments of 5° or 6° in lengtb, and presently | } Prof. E.. Loomis on the Aurora of 1859. 345 vanished. At 10 p.m. the brightness was much diminished; at 108 15™ revived; the northern arch very brilliant and slightly tinged with crimson. At 10% 30™ the arch extended from E. to N. 85° At midnight the exhibition was still fine. From 24 to 8 A. M coruscations of white light shot up all along the hori- zon from KE. to S. 15° W. ‘The aurora continued to ecline, till the dawn of day. 18. Observations at Henry Co., Indiana, (lat. 40°, long. 85° 15’), by Wituram Dawson. Aug. 28th, about 9 p.m. a red cloud covered a large portion of the eastern sky with a similar one in the N. W. and several large luminous beams extended from the north point to the zenith. Soon the red disappeared, and the bright streaks grew much shorter, leaving a bright cloud brilliantly fringed with white, near the northern horizon. After some minutes, several small bodies, 'o a point 15° or 20° south of the zenith, where these flashing lights presented the appearance of a cloud, tinted with vermil- k with darting streamers nearly as before, and the ght seemed in a great f streamers 8an to shoot up streamers, and soon became a mass OI! s eich filled the ‘whole northern sky, darting up to a point about ea . v Most] As d crimson red above. At 1 ae ae the bank of vapor, dark below horizon, rising to the height of 20° or 25°. ‘The light was equal 346 Prof. E. Loomis on the Aurora of 1859. . 20. Observations at College Hill, Ohio, (lat. 39° 19’, long. 84° 26’), by Prof. J. H. Wiison. 0 darted from the horizon upward to the zenith and about 20° be yond. The light was equal to the clearest full moon. 21. Observations at Wyandott City, Kansas, (lat. 39° 7’, long. 94° 44’), by Joun H. Mitrar. Aug. 28th, at 114 p.m. a diffused light was observed in the N.N.E. gradually increasing until at 1 a.m. the whole northern sky from N.W. 2 W. to S.E. by E. was covered with rays and sireamers of moderate brightness, shooting up to within 80° of the zenith, and changing rapidly, from a uniform white to a tinge of purple. ‘The aurora passed off about 14 A. M. 22. Observations at St. Louis, Missouri, (lat. 38° 37’, long. 90° 15’), by Aug. 28th, at 8*30™ p,m. I observed in the northern part of the sky some large patches of a deep red color, and the horizon towards the north was filled with a white light. The white as well as the red light rose gradually up to 45°. At 8" 35m the 23. Observations at Fredericksburg, Virginia, (lat. 38° 30’ long. 77° 30’), by Cuar.es H. Rosey. Aug. 28th, a most brilliant light appeared 8 P. M. and disap- eared about 45 15m A.M. It was generally diffused over the face of the heavens with a brightness exceeding that of the full moon, a ag part being N.E. and N.W. About N.E. it color. ge see atest agin aaat Prof. E. Loomis on the Aurora of 185¥. B17 24, Observations at the eastern base of the Sierra Abajo, Utah, (lat. 38°, long. 110°), by Dr. Jonn 8S, Newserry., Ang. 28th—being at an. elevation of about 7000 feet above the sea, from 11 to 12 o'clock the aurora appeared remarkably brilliant, the entire northern heavens being covered with a dif- fused red flush, with flashes of deeper red and white light. The auroral flush was noticeable in the north before 10 o'clock, but was not conspicuous before 11. 25. Observations at Santa Clara, California, (lat. 37° 18’, long. 122° 0’), ; LIVER S, FraMBEs. Aug. 28th, at 9 p. m., about 10° E. of north the sky seemed tinged with red light. In half an hour several columns of mel- low light were formed which rose to a height of 40°, and the colors became very bright. The light gradually moved to the east, and after two hours or more gradually faded away. 26. Observations at Paducah, Kentucky, (lat. 37° 5’, long. 87° 21’), by A, Martison. Aug. 28th, at midnight, the clouds cleared off and showed the most beautiful aurora I ever saw in this latitude. Sometimes it was red, and sometimes it sent up streamers overhead. Aug. 29th, 1 A. M., aurora very bright, but the sky became overcast. The light continued till near day break. 27. Observations at Monterey, California, (lat. 86° 36', long. 122° 54’), by Dr. C. A. CANFIELD. ae 28th—a very brilliant aurora from 9} P.M. to 11 or "42 P.M, 28, Observations at Raleigh, North Carolina, (lat. 35° 40’, long. 78° 52’) by Wituam H, [amizron. Aurora appeared at 9 p. M. and lasted till 11 P. M. As light 48 the moon was shining. | 29, Observations at Dallas, Teras, (lat. 82° 45/, long. 96° 46’), by Jony M. Crocke: a : ‘i. led fi bright twilight. It continued to brighten until it extended from vt E., and assumed a red tinge, V lar to the horizon, and extendi A bright scarlet, which in 20 or 80 minutes moved slowly towards the horth, displacing the columns as it went. The whole scene Seupied about one and a half hours and was asada ch ing. The aurora continued with diminished brightness till near daylight, 348 Prof. E. Loomis on the Aurora of 1859. 30. Observations at Selma, Alabama, (lat. 82° 25’, long. 86° 51’), by 8. K Gs, Aug. 28th, about 8 P. M., there was a very well defined arch of red fleecy looking clouds extending up about 20°, that was beautifully brilliant for half an hour. From 84 till after 10 P.M. there were incessant flashes that might have been taken for dif- fuse lightning. 31. Observations at Cahawba, Alabama, (lat. 32° 19’, long. 87° 16’), by Marruew Troy, M.D. Aug. 28th, from 8 to 9 P. M., a bright light was visible a little east of north. It was brightest near the horizon, and extended to a height of about 30°, gradually fading at its upper border. 32. Observations at Jacksonville, Florida, (lat. 30° 15’, long. 82° 0’), by Dr. A. J. Batpwin. Aug. 28th, about 8 P.M. was seen a remarkable aurora which continued until 2 4.m. Aug. 29th. At times it was of a vivid red, with streamers radiating towards the zenith. The brightest were from N.W. to N.E. The color would almost fade out at times, and then lighten up the heavens again with a brilliancy which was majestic. About 9 o’clock there was a dark cloud in the north extending from N.W. to N.E.; and the auroral display was beautiful along the fringe of this cloud. 33. Observations at Micanopy, Florida, (lat. 29° 35’, long. 82° 18’), by James B. Bean. Aug. 28, just after dark I noticed a luminous appearance in the north, which at times disappeared and then reappeared with increased brightness, till 9 o’clock, when it exhibited streamers shooting up toward the zenith, and sometimes a deep red glare of rosy light toward the N.E. At 10 p.M. the streamers were + a distinct, presenting beams of gray and purple light. It isappeared about 11 P.M. but reappeared with more beauty etween 1} and2 A.M. The streamers were very distinct, ex: hibiting various colors, and shooting at times within 10° or 16 of the zenith. The luminous haze in the N.W. continued till it was obscured by day-light. 84. Observations at Cedar Keys, Florida, (lat. 29° 7’, long. 83° 2"), by Judge Ava. Sree. Aug. 28th, occurred an aurora, brightening up the northern horizon with most beautiful coruscations. It extended from N. pointed forms of the most dazzling brightness. It cease about 93 P.M. but reappeared the next morning in still greater bril- liancy and continued until overpowered by the light of day. Selected from the Smithsonian Papers. 349 35. Observations at Corpus Christi, Texas, (lat. 27° 45', long. 97° 30’), by A. M. Lea. Aug. 28th, about 9 P.M. an aurora reddened the sky in the north, through about 90° of the horizon, and rising about 40° above it, with columns of light stretching from the horizon towards the zenith. 36. Observations at Key West, Florida, (lat. 24° 33’, long. 81° 48’), by Wit1am C. Dennis. Aug. 28th the aurora was faintly visible soon after sun-down and did not increase materially in brightness till 84 P.. At 9 P.M. the color was of the most fiery red. The direction of the middle point of the aurora was N. 10° E. and both oe the direction of the aurora. At 9 P.M. the aurora commenced fading rapidly, and had disappeared at 94 P. M. OpsrRVATIONS oF THE AURORA OF Szpr. lst AND Szpr. 2np, 1859. : Selected from the Smithsonian Papers. 1. Observations at St. Johns, Newfoundland, (lat. 47° 35’, long. 52° 38’), by E. M. J. Devaney. Sept. Ist, an Aurora of various colors appeared in the west, moved towards the zenith and disappeared. ept. 2d at 8 p.m. an Aurora of various colors appeared in the north, south and west, moved towards the zenith and disappeared. 2. Observations at Burlington, Minnesota, (lat. 47° 1’, long. 92° 30’), by A. H. Hrszarp. _ Sept. 2d, Aurora commenced at 8 P. M. in the north, and N.E. ; Increased very fast until 84 P.M. when it formed a perfect arch frrom N.E. to S.W. and ran about one-third of the way down from the zenith on the south side. The east and west parts were t and flashy light; then very bright streamers ran up in- Stantly almost to the zenith. At 94 P.M. nearly disappeared ; only bright flashy spots E. and N.W. Sept. d, Aurora commenced about 8} P.M.; beams ran up very rapid but very dim; formed perfect at about 9} P. M. 3. Observations at Princeton, Minnesota, (lat. 45° 50’, long. 93° 45’), by O. E. G Sept. 2d, a bright aurora extending from the N.W. to the K. and culminating in the zenith. It was a bright display of amers in bands varying from a bright white toa red flame 350 Prof. E. Loomis on the Aurora of 1859. color; the portion on the eastern extremity was flashing rather than streaked ; that on the west was of a reddish flame color. The bands were about two degrees wide reaching from the hori- zon to the zenith. The central portion of each .band being brightest, diminishing to a slight light on the edges. Fe, first appearance was at da rk, and it was still bright at 10 P Sept. 3d, the Aurora was repeated, but much less brilliant and and only : about 45° elevation with a dark gr beneath about 20° above the horizon. Disappeared before 9 P. 4. Observations at Gardiner, Maine, (lat. 44° me long. 69° 46’), by > R. * Sept. 1st, brilliant aurora over dark arch. Sept. 2d, very remarkable aurora. Colored streamers yo constant, and very brilliant flashes of light at north and eas and reaching south of zenith. At 94 P.M. two very built arches at the’ north, one about 12° the other about 25° above the horizon, the upper one being extremely bright; the sky between — them and below the lowest, ‘being of a dark pur Sept. 3d, very brilliant aurora with colored streamers in all parts of the sky. 5. Observations at Ogdensburg, New York, (lat. 44° 43/, long. 7 75’ 26°), by W. E. Guest. Sept. 2d, at 1 “1 M.a splendid aurora. The light continued for nearly two hon Sept. 2d, 94 p. oe oe few faint streamers shot up in the east and at the same time there was a faint rose colored light in the west, when all at once there commenced on every side a display of waves of auroral light. It was an undulating motion com- mencing near the horizon, and waving up gradually toward the zenith. In ten or fifteen minutes it had reached the zenith, and a corona was formed, its rays of different lengths pointing down- ward, It disappeared almost as rapidly as it came on, and & faint light was 6p on all sides. A few minutes before aD a large arch was formed, one extremity resting in the east, and the tier in ae N.W. Its base was dark, yet the stars were glittering through its whole length. The ‘arch was some- what irregular i in form in the N.W. It rose gradually until a faint double arch was formed. The streamers were quite sta tionary, without any motion from right to left. In less than an hour it had lost its form, and the light was diffused throughout the glittering dome. There was some light continued throug the night 6. Observations at Salem, Oregon, (lat. 44° 58’, long. 123° 4’), from tate. n, Sept. 1st, about 8 p.m. a fuint radiance was observed shooting up from the northern horizon, and gradually the whole heaven Selected from the Smithsonian Papers. 351 from north to south were covered with a delicate rosy tint, bright and glowing in the zenith, and decreasing in brilliancy near the horizon. It was most brilliant about 11 P.M: at which time it yielded sufficient light to read common print quite easily. It continued to shine with gradually decreasing splendor, and d 1. Observations ot Fort Umpqua, Oregon, (lat. 43° 48’, long 124° 6’), by Ifenry Oartey, U.S. Army. An aurora was observed on the night of Sept. Ist. The light was most intense about midnight, and was sufficient to enable one easily to read print. 8. Observations at Rochester, New York, (lat. 43° 8’, long. 77° 51’), by M. M. Martuews. Sept. 2d, 1" 45™ 4. a. the southern sky was one entire sheet of red light, extending from near the zenith, quite down to the horizon, and reaching laterally from S.E. to N.\W. At2 A.M the redness gathered intensity, and divided off into two nearly equal portions, one occupying the S.E. and the other the N.W. section of the sky, and for half an hour assuming a deep cherry red Aue, with an occasional streamer of white light ascending nearly _ quite to the zenith. At 3 a.M. the whole sky from N.W. around to the S.E. be- tame one entire blaze of deep red, and began sending off from all portions of its lower margin, the most brilliant streamers of White light which waved and flickered in front of the dark red ack ground. They converged to a point just south of the Zenith. This corona was most distinct at 8» 15™ A.M. when it Presented the appearance of an immense fun resting on the hori- At the north lay a heavy bank of cloud rising about 2 above the horizon, and during the most brilliant display at the South, the upper edge of these clouds was tinged with a most beautiful orange color, At 3" 30™ A.M. the redness had become Pan tively faint, and the streamers had entirely disappeared. ept. 8d, about 8 P.M. was another auroral display sie Mostly to the northern sky, and consisting principally of white Streamers that were constantly flickering and dancing. P.M. they reached a point south of the zenith, and were attended by flashes of extreme brightness. At 11 P.M. the light had become quite faint, and the the streamers had disappeared. 9. Observations at Ostego, Michigan, (lat. 42° 28’, long. 85° 42’), by Marruew CorFIN. t. 2d, aurora brightest about 2 A. M. when there was a Sep : beautiful corona a little S.W. of zenith, and rapidly shooting tays from N.W. and N.E. meeting at that point. 352 Prof. E. Loomis on the Aurora of 1859. 10. Observations at Riley, Illinois, (lat. 42° 11’, long. 88° 33’), by E. Bascock. Sept. Ist, 11 P.M. aurora displaying beautiful red and white streamers covering all the northern half of the heavens. At midnight the whole north was covered with beautiful streamers of varied colors. At 12°15™ A. M., streamers shot up from the north ; the whole moved south and rested about 20° above the southern horizon, at which time a dark belt appeared under the white. Immediately streamers shot up from all around the hori- zon centering near the zenith. The deep red prevailed at S.E. and N.W. In less than two minutes, the whole became a broken mass, and the streamers disappeared. The dark belt still rested pen the southern horizon, and the light continued all over the eavens. 11. Observations at Davenport, Iowa, (lat. 41° 30’, long. 90° 88’), by H. J. Fintey Sept. 2d, 8 p.m. aurora in brilliant reddish parallel rays run- ning east and west about 45° above the northern horizon. Co- rona pale and but few rays. 12. Observations at Camp, No. 33, Nebraska, (lat. 42°, long. 109° 50’) by Capt. J. H. Smesoy. Sept. Ist, at 11 p.m. about two thirds of the whole southern heavens appeared one sheet of beautiful roseate light. For a while, the light continued in a state of repose ; the most concen trated portion forming a limiting belt on its northern side, an extending from a point on the horizon about 10° north of east, across the heavens to a point on the horizon about due west. From this belt, the light with its roseate hue was diffused south- wardly all over the heavens down to the arc of a circle whose plane was inclined to the horizon about 10°. At length the light assumed a more intense form and shot up in whitish corusca; tions to the apex of the illuminated portion which was about 20 south of the zenith. My assistant observed this aurora at 10 P.M, and as it disappeared about midnight it must have lasted about two hours. ; 13. Observations at Great Salt Lake City, Utah, (lat. 40° 45’, long: 111° 26’), by W. W. Puetps. while the northern hemisphere glowed with yellow and green. I continued my observations till past 2 A.M. A extending from N.W. to N.E. and 10° or 20° . ' the light shot up in streamers first white, then turning bright red Selected from the Smithsonian Papers. 353 Sept. 3d, about 8 P.M. a faint light sprung up in the east, and Tose about 45° high. At 9» 15" it glowed beautifully. After 10 P.M. it grew fainter, and disappeared a little after midnight, 14, Observations at New York City, (lat. 40° 43’, long. 74° 5’), by Prof. O. W. Morris. Aurora from 10" 20™ pa. Sept. Ist, till dawn of the 2d, There was a dark band at the south of 10° or 15°, then a white one andl streamers of a variety of colors, mostly red, shot up in the S.K. and yellow in the S.W. interspersed with white beams, The corona was after 1 A.M. a little S. E. of the zenith, Sept. 2d aurora from 10 P.M. to 11"15™ p.m. At first a faint light, then a dark segment above it on the northern herizon of about 15° in breadth; above it a band of about 8°; then another dark bund, surmounted by a white one from which beams o bright light shot up along the upper edge. About LU" 15m Waves of white light shot up nearly to the zenith. It faded may gradually after 11 P.M. retaining only a steady light on the orizon. 15, Observations at Carlisle, Pennsylvania, (lat. 40° 12’, long. 77° 11’), by Prof. C. W, Wisox. Very brilliant aurora lasting from midnight to 3 A.M. Sept. - Also Sept. 2d, 9 P.M. It first appeared as 2 luminous areh hi From this about half way to the zenith. The arch finally disappeared and, the whole then presented the appearance of a mass of light clouds, with rapid flashes behind them. The whole lasted about half an ‘hour. 16. Observations at Urbana, Ohio, (lat. 40° 6’, long. 83° 11’), by Prof. M. G. WitttaMs. Sept. 2d, my first observation was at 1* 30™ A. M. when the entire horthern heavens were covered with a uniform yellowish light. There was also a large mass of crimson light in the S.W. At 2 A.M, the whole south was covered with pink and crimson light, Soon after a distinct and beautiful corona was formed a few de- grees south of the zenith, and continued about'15 minutes. At 2* 40" aw. a beautiful eolumn of light 12° in breadth white, yellowish, pink and erimson rose from the west at an angle of ‘0° with the southern horizon. At 8 A. M. the aurora was con- ‘iderably diminished in intensity, but continued with variations till dawn of day. Sa eee Sept. 2d, at"8" 45" p.m. the light was distinct and uniform @ the northern horizon. At 9" 15™ there were fine corus- ions j ing in i At 9" 30™ the corus- 354 Prof. E. Loomis on the Aurora of 1859. 80° E. to N. 85° W., and its altitude at its center was 12°. Many of them reached the zenith but no corona was formed. ‘The cor- uscations were mostly white. Sept. 3d. The evening was cloudy, but the aurora was sufli- éiddiy strong to illuminate the clouds. 17. Observations at Newark, Ohio, (lat. 40° 4’, long. 82° 23°) by D Wryrick, Sept. 1st, about midnight the entire heavens except near the southern horizon were illuminated by a pale yellow light. In about ten minutes masses of red light appeared in the E. and W; and as they faded away others appeared in the N. and S._ Sub- sequently there was a beautiful emanation of red rays from a circular center near the zenith. The whole phenomenon lasted about two and a half hours. In the S. and S.W. lay a dark cloud rising about five degrees above the horizon. 18. Observations at Baltimore, Maryland, (lat. 39° 18’ long. 76° 37), by C. Wesrsroox, Telegraph Superintendent. On the morning of Sept. 2d, I found the telegraph wires charged to an extent far beyond the strength of our ordinary bat- teries. Upon disconnecting the batteries I got clear and distinct - writing from Cumberland, distant 179 miles. When the current was at its maximum strength, the manipulations of the operator at Cumberland worked the armature of the relay magnet here with a force nearly equal to that which would be produced by @ Grove battery of 50 cups on ashort circuit. The intensity of the spark at the instant of breaking the circuit, was such as to set oD fire the wood work of the switch board. The current however was variable, and at times no sensible effect could be observed. 19. Observations at Aurora, Indiana, (lat. 39° 4/, long. 84° 54’), by Grorce Sutron, M.D. Sept. 1st, about 10 P. m. a faint aurora was seen in the north ; and about midnight the aurora extended over the whole heavens. In the north the light was of a pale color resembling the bre of day, and a few faint streamers could be seen. About 1 A.M. the whole southern heavens presented a deep red appearanc® At 1" 30" streamers were more frequently seen in the north, and occasionally a ray would appear in the S.E and S.W 2 and 8 A. M streamers arose in all directions, but mu the north than in the south. The streamers converged to 3 ~_ presenting the appearance of a vast and gorgeous ai rom 1 A.M. until the break of day, the most brilliant display was in the south, : rth Sept. 2d, about 84 p.m. the aurora appeared again in the no ht- There were occasional flashes of light resembling distant lig: ning. It disappeared in a few hours. : ena? ce * - Selected from the Smithsonian Papers. 355 20. Observations at Auburn, California, (lat. 38° 53’, long. 121° 2’), Yy Gorpon. Sept. Ist, from 94 P.M. until daylight we had a most magnifi- cent display of aurora, in which the whole sky north, south, east and west was almost all the night glowing with ruddy light. The northern point near the horizon where the aurora com- menced continued rather dark. 21. Observations at St. Louis, Missouri, (lat. 38° 37’, long. 90° 15’), by Sept. 2d, at 8"20™ p.m. the aurora exhibited a white hazy light 15° above the northern horizon. Soon long white streaks appeared alternately on the right and left to 45° above the hori- zon, and a light red tint was sometimes visible. At 8'30™ the aurora disappeared. At 920™ P.M. it again threw out several white streaks to about 60° above the northern horizon. Pres- At 9"27™ a few short after nothing remained but white diffused light. 22. Observations at Moneka, Kansas, (lat. 38° 30’, long. 98°), by | L. Cerest1a WATTLEs. Sept. 2d, an aurora appeared from 1 to 3 A.M. On the same night about 10 P.M. a light appeared in the S.E. like the coe of the moon. It grew redder and more brilliant as it extende Up the sky until it reached the zenith. It now shot out to the Westward, streaming continually across the sky to the horizon. It did not wholly disappear until the morning dawn. 23, Observations at New Albany, Indiana, (lat. 38° 17’, long. 85° 45’), by AtexanpER Marvin Sept. 2d, at 1 30™ a. a. a broad beam of crimson light exten- ded up from the eastern horizon an Considerably south of the zenith. Beauti all around the north to the Pe of it, streamers concentrated in the point above mentioned. The ea) ogee from 1" 50" 2 -M. E Bop nati empire of white and pale red light t. 3 ) a shot a the horizon half way to the zenith, At 9 P.M. only a Srey light in the north. 856 Prof. E. Loomis on the Aurora of 1859. 24. Observations at Louisville, Kentucky, (lat. 38° 3’, long. 85° 30’), e Louisville Journal. On the morning of Sept. 2d for some three hours commencing about midnight, the whole heavens were lighted up in the most brilliant manner. The light was generally diffused over the whole sky, but was reddest in a southwest direction. Towards the north it was whiter with oeeasional streaks of green and deep crimson darting up towards the zenith. | 25. Observations at the base of the Sierra Abajo, Utah, (lat. 37° long. 110°, by Dr. Joun S. Newserry, . 1st, no aurora was observed at 9 p. M. the heavens being partially obseured by broken clouds. At 1 a.m. I waked and was startled by the red light that penetrated the tent and tinged the landscape, which was illuminated as strongly as by the full moon shining through thin clouds. On going out I found the whole heavens of a bright erimson with streaks of white and yellow converging toward the zenith, where they formed a beau- tifal corona. These rays reached down within 20° of the south- ern horizon. The aurora continued almost without abatement till day-light. 27. Observations at Asheville, N. Carolina, (lat. 35° 37’, long. g2° 29’), by If. U. Srrawsrivee. to 1"25" a.m. I was able to read with: perfeet eas? de. smallest type in a newspaper. At 1"30™ the light slightly "1 creased. At 2 A.M. a large space in the belt about E.s. os 50° above the horizon becama more intense, From 2° 8 a clouds so thickened as to prevent observations, although os : zone was still clearly traceable. = eee Selected from the Smithsonian Papers. 357 28. Observations at Memphis, Tennessre, (lat. 35° 8’, long. 90° 0’), by kh. W. Mircne old. Sept. Ist, at midnight a splendid aurora flamed up suddenly in the north. Its breadth was about 30°, extending 15° on each side of the meridian and its altitude was about 40°. At first i color was nearly blood red, and motionless; but about 12" 80" A. M. streamers began to appear though with little or no change of color. In Jess than an hour the deep red began to fade, and it continued thus until 4 a, M. when it vanished. 29. Observations at Selma, Alabema, (lat. 32° 25’, long. 86° 51’), by S. K. Jennines, M.D. Sept. 2d, about 124 A.M. astrip of red cloud nearly transparent and 9° or 12° wide commenced in the east, and soon extende across to the west, forming a magnificent arch. It was striped with the various hues of red from light to brightest scarlet, with a tinge of straw color, and from the centre of the are diverging rays looking to the south and reaching nearly to the horizon. he rays colored like the arch were soon scattered, but the main arch did not entirely disappear until 4} a. ™. £0. Observations at Paulding, Mississippi, (lat. 32° 20’, long. 89° 20’), by Rev. E. 8. Ro Sept. 2d, at 2°10™ a. mM. nearly the whole visible heavens were Overspread with a gauze-like lurid tint which con inued till 3" A.M. Jt was most brilliant in the N. E. and N. W. and at 2" 30" extended thirty degrees south of the zenith. 81. Observations at Cahawba, Alubama, (lat. 82° 19’, long. 87° 16’), by Dr yruew Troy. Sept. 2d, the aurora was first observed about 1 4. M. An arch spanned the heavens from E. to W. a few degrees south of the Zenith. To the north the sky had a distinct greenish tinge. ¢ most maynificent displays of colored light were nearly over head. The light was so great that fine newspaper print could be Tead by it; and it continued with varying brilliancy till obscured by daylight, Sept. Ist, the aurora commenced Serve it at 12"15™ a. m., Sept. 2d § he NE est crimson and 8° or 10° in breadth, extending from the N.K. ite N. W. points of the heres ihe to the height of about *, While a fainter arch appeared be - €manated in all directions pion south of a great circle passing through a point situated in the wing of Pegasus. From this point issued a broad flare of light which waved likea pennant. Every 358 Prof. E. Loomis on the Aurora of 1859. where in the northern sky, patches of light would appear, glow for a time and gradually disappear. These appearances continued throughout the night, growing fainter as the dawn approached. 33. Observations at Wheelock, Texas, (lat. 30° 55’, long. 87° 29’), by At 10 P.M. Sept. 1st, I first observed a zone of crimson light 30° in breadth, reaching from 10° above the horizon due east, ver- tically overhead, and terminating 10° above the horizon due west. From the zenith to the eastern extremity of the zone the light was mild, the color increasing in intensity toward the east, until within 15° of the horizon where it gradually faded. At11"20" a beam of whitish light passed due north through the zenith. At 11" 30™ another beam diverged from the former to the west, making an angle with it of 40°. These two beams, if continued, would unite about 25° south of the zenith. At midnight the entire space between these beams was filled up with similar but shorter beams of light, converging toward each other. Soon these central rays began to shoot bright scintillating rays of white light from their northern and western ends which travelled with great velocity. The eastern boundary of the zone became grad- ually paler until 125 30™ a. m. Sept. 2d, when the color in that direction entirely disappeared, and the brightest light was then in the west and northwest. A. M. the crimson color had entirely disappeared, and nothing remained but the fan-like appearance of the numerous divergent beams of white light. The two rays first formed never changed their form or position until they disappeared about 2 A. M. 34, Observations at Thomasville, Georgia, (lat. 30° 50’, long. 84° 0’), by W. Braver. Sept. 2d, about 2 a. . the whole northern half of the heavens was beautifully illuminated. The daily track which the sua now describes formed the southern boundary of the illuminated portion of the heavens. Upon this southern boundary was @ border of deep blood red light, of 2° or 8° in breadth, extending re ous, an next moment scarce a trace of them could be seen. ‘The great red belt sometimes changed to a beautiful orange color. 35. Observations at Mobile, Alabama, (lat, 30° 41', 88° 1'), from the Daily Mercury. Sept. 2d, the aurora appeared at midnight and soon after 1 wal the eastern sky Si bathed in a flame of ee light, while a yet deeper flame streaked with silvery beams the 4." ” These two pillars were united in the zenith, by a broad belt of Selected from the Smithsonian Papers. 359 and N.W. towards the zenith, sometimes extending over 50° or 60° of the heavens. These streamers converged towards a point on the meridian about 15° south of the zenith, and from this point shot forth smaller pencils of silvery showers. At 3"30™ the play of the streamers had ceased, while the flash of fiery red had spread over the whole north. The red flush in the northern quarter of the heavens, continued to glow until obscured by the solar dawn. . 36. Observations at Washington, Texas, (lat. 30° 26’, long. 96° 15’), by Maj. B. F. Rucker. Sept. Ist, at 10" 30™ p, w. I observed a bright light in the north and N.E. At 11" 30™ the light had become much stron- ger and a good deal more extended in the base; and some beau- tiful rays shot far up on the sky in the north. At midnight the base of, fiery looking vapor extended from N.E. to N.W. The Tays of fiery colored light rose from every direction like an inver- fan and converged towards a point several degrees south of the zenith. Some of these rays appeared like immense columns; others only as a thin streak; some were pale, others fiery. At 14. M. the light continued undiminished, although the darting Tays were not so numerous. The aurora continued until obscur- ed by the light of the sun. 37. Observutions at Jacksonville, Florida, (lat. 30° 15’, long. 82°), by Dr. A. J. Barpwin. Sept. 2d, the aurora was witnessed from midnight till daylight. At 3 a. M. the entire heavens, even at the extreme south were in 4red glow. Streamers ran up from a point in the N.W. and from the S.E. and tortuous waves swelled up from the bottom of these streamers and illuminated the whole heavens. At times these looked like lambent flames, flickering like a blaze of fire. 88. Observations at Union Hill, Texas, (lat. 30° 11’, long. 96° 31’), by Dr. Wm. H. Ganrr. Sept. Ist P. M.a faint glimmering light was visible in the NE, whois eta doit rt brighter and extended over a Tger space. At midnight it reached from the north 35° east- Ward, and mounted nearly to the zenith, and soon began to be Seen west of north. At1 a. M.it extended from west to east, and beyond the zenith. Towards the north, extending east and west about 20°, and rising about 10° above the horizon was a dark looking cloud. Above this, the light was of a whitish color, and 360 Prof. E. Loomis on the Aurora of 1859. from it sprang streamers of pink merging into crimson. The grandest display was from 1 4. M. to 1° 85™, It now began to fade, and at 38" 80" was nearly gone. A few flashes of it, how- ever, remained until daylight. 39. Observations at Micanopy, Florida, (lat. 29° 30’, long. 82° 18’), by Sept. 2d, at 12" 80™ a. m. I first saw a luminous haze in the north, and at 12" 35" streamers shot upinthe north. A few minutes before 1 o'clock a luminous arch appeared, but not well defined, At 1 A. M. it included 160° of the horizon; at 1" 10" there were many distinct streamers; at 1" 15™ beautiful quiver- ing streamers, while patches of white light appeared in different rts of the northern hemisphere. At 1° 25 the corona was very bright; at 1" 85™ corona very distinct, of vivid white clouds of light. At 1 40 very brilliant red beams in the west; at 1" 50™ the arch extended from E. to W. passing through Aries and Pegasus; at 2° a faint corona; at 2 11™ distinct beams near the zenith and on each side E. and W.; at 2" 25™ arch brighter red with red patches of light and distinct streamers reaching beyond the zenith; at 2" 35" arch fading, at 2° 40" red light in N.W. but streamers 1ot so distinct; at 2" 50° beautiful beams in N.E.; at 3" arch disappearing, beams indis- tinct; at3: 10+ red haze and no beams; at 8" 30+ very faint r.d haze, and faint white light near the horizon. 40. Observations at Corpus Christi, Texas, (lat. 27° 45/, long. 97° 30’); by A. M. Lea. Sept. Ist, the aurora began about 114 P.M, and continued until daylight. Two-thirds of the whole visible heavens were lighted up with a rich red glow, whilst the tremulous columns of variega: ted light swept over the heavens, from the northern horizon through the zenith to a line within 40° of the horizon on the south. Its greatest intensity was about 14 a. M. Sept. 2 41. Observations at Fort Jefferson, Florida, (lat. 24° 37’, long: 82° 52’), by Capt. D. P. Woopsvury. , Sept. 2d, at 12"45™ a.m. a continuous arch of red color eX tended from N. / 0° E. to N. 50° W. having an altitude of abo 15°, and the thickness of the arch ‘throughout was about 20. The shade of red was deepest along the central part of the arch, gradually diminishing above and below. Soon rays began to appear in faint white lines; they grew brighter, and extended above and sometimes a little below the arch. Soon the rays be- came numerous, traversing the red arch in right lines, and ee verging to a point in the magnetic meridian somewhat south 0. the zenith. ‘They sometimes extended as high as the zenith, & ee The aurora continued, gradually fading, till day Bene Ee oe eae i ‘ ees ra Prof. Bartlett on Molecular Motions in Poiarized Light. 361 42. Observations at Key West, Florida, (lat. 24° 33’, long. 81° 48’), by , Wituiam C, Dennis. Sept. 2d, at 24 4. m. there were two patches of brilliant ruddy lights one in the N.E. and the other in the N. - From the North extending 15° toward the E. there were ie of light full 60°. At manner. At 8h 15™ the rays gradually ay eared, but there still remained brilliant vadity lights in the N.K. and N.W. At 34 A.M. the aurora was decidedly fainter, and at 4 A.M. nothing but a faint glow remained. This glow did not entirely disappear until overcome by the light of day. 43. Observations at Sea, (lat. 12° 23’ N., long. 88° 28’ W.), by Com- mander W. D. Porrsr, U.S. Navy. Sept. Ist, about 114 p. wt. thesky had a lurid appearance in the north, and there were occasional flashes of lightning. The rest of the sky was clear, bright and beautifully blue. The red ap- pearance was very much like the aurora of high latitudes, and how and then it had a wavy appearance. About1 A. . a bod of heavy clouds passed over with rain. oe wt, XXX11.— On: the’ direction of molecular motions in Plane Polarized Light; by Prof. W. H. C. BARtTLert, Fresnel’s Formulas for reflecion and ordinary refraction. Tules for the resolution and comparison of forces, without any hypothesis in regard to the condition of the ether in the co-ter- 362 Prof. Bartlett on Molecular Moticns in Polarized Light. having changed not once but twice or thrice, | Although Professor McCullogh has shown, in his elaborate treatise on crystalline reflexion and refraction, as published in the memoirs =«.sin —* (Vt—r) de aorta in which the molecular vibrations are parallel to the axis a, and the wave propagation in the direction of the plane yz,§ the actual molecular displacement at the time f, « its maximum value, J, the velocity of wave propagation, + the wave length, andr the Pp distance of the molecules place of rest from the origin. Living force and quantity of motion in a plane polarized wave. Differentiate eq. (1), with respect to § and ¢, we find :— Denote the density of the medium by 4, and the area of any portion of the wave-front by a, then will the mass between two consecutive positions of this area be a.4.dr, and the living force within a quarter of a wave-length be :— r d &2 Vi-—r=0 on on A.a.dr aay A.a.—.a2, V2,cos? — (Vt—r) Je G48 Tipe + x | Qn m2 Xzdr=t >. V.A.a. V.a?, (2) sao ¥ Dividing by the. volume a. V, and recalling that * and = are ? organs of sense upon which they act. Prof. Bartlett on Molecular Motions in Polarized Tight. 363 Again, the quantity of motion in this quarter of wave-length will be :— = Whi-r=) [radar TRS A.a.@. Vicee=2 (Vise) dbsinca.e, V. (3.) retn FE oS Vi-pada A a Resolution of living force and of motion, by deviating surfaces. Take the co-ordinate plane az in the plane of incidence, and the axis z in the direction of the normal to the incident wave, the axis y will be parallel to the line of the nodes of the molecu- lar orbit in the deviating surface, at the place of incidence, Then denoting any portion of the trace of the plane of incidence on the denoting surface by s, and the angle of incidence and of Teflection by » and ¢’, respectively, will the element of the devi- ating surface at the place of incidence be ds.dy, and its projec- tions upon the incident, reflected, and refracted wave-fronts, Tespectively, be ds.dy.cosy, ds.dycos@, and ds.dy.cos¢’. These will take the place of @ in Equations (2) and (8), in com- puting the living force and quantity of motion in the incident, Teflected and refracted waves. : ; Now take a wave of common light and replace it by its two Components, having the vibrations in the one parallel and in the Tespectively. The living force in the incident, must be equal to the sum of the living forces in the reflected and refracted com- _ Ponents; whence, equation (2), omitting the common factors, ea 4.cosp. V.a2,-+-A .cosg’. V,.@?2,—A.cos@. V.a2,;=0; ‘ V ssin or, recalling that Pee ’ 4 i A, cosy’ CNG ga, bt, 0 Pv Ab) a2 in which A and A, are the densities of the medium of incidence and of intromittance. s) € molecular motions are all parallel to the “ne of os and at the same time normal to the directions of t es _ Wave motions; they, therefore, make with one another ang - equal to those made by the directions of these latter motions, an in obtain two more a in, Composition of oblique forces. ti ction of the motion in the incident wit Motions in the reflected and refracted waves, a 360°~(p—9’), respectively ; and the angles un re 180°—2¢9 and der which the 864 Prof. Bartlett on Molecular Motions in Polarised fagit, directions of the motions in the latter waves are inclined to one another, is 180°—(p+¢’). Whence:— V nave — #') « Vityese A. Ts ip ph dt 6 A.cos@ LT cos ay; sin ( n} sin 29 A .cosg’. V,.¢,,—=A.cosp. V.a,;.— algae A,. COs prt aie (PJ 3 ar, gp Sa Agi. Aa =4,;.—. —.—_.—_—_—_.. . Me ii Halegded A, cosg’ sing’ sin (g + 9’) (6) Substituting these in equation (4.), we readily find:— A __ 400s? g'.sin? g _ cos? g’.sin? gy . 4, sin?2p ~~ cos?g.sin?g ’ whence, 5 Oe — cosp.sing A, =ava/A. Ppt Site’ Tey Vad. eee sin g’ yee cos 9’ .sin g () Substituting the above ratio of the densities in the equation just preceding, we get:— 2 cos gy’. sin 7’. i (8.) sing@ty)? 7” multiplying this by equation (7), member by rine ar and the equation giving the value of @,,, by A, and taking VA. Oi3=1; pS py a Ort &zj. we find :— paul sin (p — 9’) ‘ ey _— sin (9 + gy’) . . *. * ? ais sin 29 be Gna gee ee sin (9 + ¢’) ‘To which may be added the relations, in2 sing = SEP, cosa’ =| 1-}*. Transposing the term of which @,, is a factor “rn ve second mem- ber in equation (4), ocean equation (5) from a; = @si, a viding the first result by the second, and snnltiplying the quo- tient by equation (5), we readily 4 find :— Og; tee Ort oT legend (11.) coe. ae ny the projection in the (eee of ig pi i th the "deviating surface, of the greates ment in ike incident, increased by that in the rstected. — is ante Projection of the greatest displacement in the refracted wa Prof. Bartlett on Molecular Motions in Polarized Light. 365 Next, take the wave in which the molecular motions are per- pendicular to the plane of incidence and therefore parallel to the axis y; these are parallel to the deviating surface. The motions in the incident, reflected and refracted waves are parallel to one another, and, by the principles of parallel forces, the sum of the motions in the reflected and refracted waves must be equal to that in the incident. The equation for the living force will be the same as before. Whence :— A.cosp. V.a2y,+A,.cosg’. V,.024,—A.cosp. V.a2y;=0; A.cosp. V.cy,+A,.cosg’. V,.cy;—A.cosy. V.eyi0. (12) {n which 4 and 4, are, as before, the densities of the medium of incidence and of intromittance, respectively; or, A, sing! cosg’ B Lait, Saleen ‘ _ bed 8 wT A ‘sing cosp : ide A! sing’ cosg! rae jean pS ED i US 1B, Bi cop’ OM (18.) Transposing the terms containing «y, and ¢y; to the second mem- bers, and dividing the first by the second, we find:— ty, ages. se ey vs (BR) That is, the greatest displacement in the refracted is equal to the sum of the greatest displacements in the incident and reflected waves, a2 Substituting the value of a as given by equation (7), in equation (18), we have Se tt cag t= is. coe sy Substituting in this, first the value of ¢,, and then of ays, de- duced from equation (14), we readily get:— tan(? =), Ho EAB) Cyr = — Ovi tan (@+e)’ i ale 4cos 9’. sin g’ bong Ow yt Cyt og +snIe” . Multiplying the first of these by A, and the second by equa- hon (7), and making — AA .Gy=1; /A.e y="; Jb, Oy w' 5 there will result, tan (7 — #) es (1B) v= el ee tan(p +) pa wee Cw 8) 366 Prof. Burtlett on Molecular Motions of Polarized Light. 18. Divide Sone (10) by equation ), = equation (19) by equation (18), replace v, u, v' and w’ by their values, and sub- stitute for the ratio of the ot a roots of ne! lewnitieg its value andi ; as given in equation (7), w @z4-COSY! iy sin 2 q’ Gzr.COSP COS sin (p—q’)’ “Se sin 2 g! tyr sin(p—g).cos(p+q/) °° °° om But @,;.cosg’ and @,,.cos@, are the com ed perils to the alicore surface of the displacements which a e plane of ence; @; and ¢,, are already parallel to the avtishing sur- pon whence, as long as >’, that is as long as the velocity of wave-motion in the medium of incidence exceeds that in the medium of intromittance, the molecular phases in the refracted and reflected waves will be opposite, an conversely. Denote the living force in the incident wave of common light by unity, that in each of its com ern waves will be denoted by half of unity; and the total Extig force in the reflected com- ponents will, eqs. (9) and (18), b pt bye in2(p— a tan 2(p — 9’) 1. te sint@tg) tt inte) © ! and in the refracted components, eqs. “ and (19), ae ee sin 22 n?29 = t- sin sin 2(p-p9) + 2 nieiy. sin 2(p—g’) Gy If 9+9’=90°, then will:— sin y= msin g/ = m cos g, a tang=m; hic fhérefote be wholly poll and since eq. (21) will orn in co firs pevatheee of the reflected and wanconenrssnee components wi respectively, under this conditio $cos? 2@ and Th Saas ae 229. West Point, N. Y., 1860, a L, Lesquereux on the Coal Formations of N. America. 367 Art, XXXIII.—On some Questions concerning the Coal Forma- tions of North America; by Leo LesQuerrux. (Continued from page 74.) _ Stratigraphical distribution of the Coal-flora. DETAILS concerning the stratigraphical distribution of the coal- ution of the strata of our coal-basins, that a section made in Western Illinois or Western Kentucky or in any part of the coal- fields of these States, will prove comparatively similar, (that is with some difference in the thickness of the strata,) to any sec- tion made in the coal-fields of Pennsylvania or of Ohio. This analogy of stratification has been fully established by a series ° (2) B ? pe) a | pS) =. < oO tT! oO re] oa ° =} Mn 3 ‘, ° aS oD Qu o me > fas) 3 m atomic weights "= “. 400 M. C. Lea on Numerical Relations between Equivalents. now we arrange the first six of these substances in parallel series we shall fin Atomic weight. Physical atoms. Sulphur, 32 4 Oxygen, 16 2 difference, 16 difference, 2 Chlorine, 35°5 4 Fluorine, 19 2 difference, 16°5 difference, 2 Phosphorus, 31 4 Nitrogen, 14 2 difference, 17 difference, 2 Thus a common difference in each case amounting to 16-17 corresponds with a difference of two of the physical atoms into which T'schermak divides the chemical atoms. ‘ w we put O=20, Cl=2cl, P=2p, the approximate differ- ence between S and O, Cl and F, &&., (16-17)=2A’, the dif. ference (48) between S and Se= A” and the difference (44-45) between the terms of the nitrogen series = A, we can express the whole of three important series in terms of these six quantities, so that at one and the same time both the numerical value o the atomic weights and the number of T'schermak’s physical atoms shall be correctly expressed. AO Symbols. At. weights. Physical atoms. . Oxygen group. Oxygen, . - 05 é eee Y “ - 2 Sulpbur, - . + Ogle 3 32 “ - 4 Selenium, - . og A', A" - 80 - - 5 Tellurium, “ + og AY, 128 « - 6 B. Chlorine group. luorine, . a 19 - 2 hlorine : gate: 7 Shen ss ison Pe ashes OME ce So Ne «AT en C. Nitrogen group. itrogen, - - et - - 14 " < Phosphorus, - - n,A’, - 31 ee rsenic, : = gd ke 5°96 * +5 Antimony, -~— - Rats iN ie Se * M. C. Lea on the Production of Ethylamine. 401 signed to it, while their value 2xX8+2xX8+2x48=128, at. wt. of tellurium. These observations of Tschermak, taken in connection with the numerical relations which exist between atomic weights, give rise to very interesting results, and if the conclusions which he arrives at from his experiments should be confirmed, they cannot fail to exercise a very important influence on the progress of chemical science. Philadelphia, August 28th, 1860. Arr, XXXVIII.—On the Production of Ethylamine by Reachons of the Oxy-Ethers; by M. Canny LEA. [Read before the Am. Assoc. for the Adv. of Sci. at Newport, August, 1860-] WHILE engaged in making a series of experiments on this subject I met with the paper of Juncadella* and the obser- one or two of the results which I have obtained. aM Nitrate of ethyl C,H,O, NO, heated in sealed tubes with water bath did not appear to react upon it. Kept for some time ina boiling saturated solution of chlorid of calcium the tubes ? : : form. coat 0 cooling radiated Oye saat chlorhydric acid, and then have been added, yielded a solution which chloroplatinate of ethylamine. : : : ; 5 em. viata gave ‘0465 metallic platinum correspond The product was but smav. ts d i Jo doubt portions of di- and tri- aaa ii Bi ded fa the above reaction, in the same n ethers with ammonia. . Philadelphia, July 11, 1860. 5 Tbid,, 274. * Rép de Chimie pure, Tome 1, 273. X, No. 90.—NOV., 1860. AM. JOUR. SCL—SECOND SERIES, Vor. ¥X%; : | -e 402 M. C. Lea on Optical Properties of Picrate of Manganese. Art. XXXIX.—On the Optical Properties of the Picrate of Man- ganese ; by M. Canny Lea, Philadelphia. [Read before the Am. Assoc. for the Ady. of Sci. at Newport, August, 1860. | BREWSTER and HAIDINGER have described a remarkable tion of principal prism, and _macrodiagonal, brachydiagonal and The optical properties of this salt are very interesting. It exhibits a beautiful dichroism. If the crystal be viewed by light transmitted in the direction of its principal axis, it appears rora-red in picrate, in which case both are pale straw color. ; But it also possesses in a high degree the property of reflecting be not pure white, but to have a purple shade. Hxamine with a rhombohedron or an achromatised prism of Iceland spar, having its principal axis in the plane of incidence and reflection, the ordinary image is white as usual, while the extraordinary 3S of a fine purple color, the phemenon having the greatest Cs: tinctness when the light is incident at the angle of maximum polarization. ; * This Journal, Nov., 1858. ~ M. C. Lea on Optical Properties of Picrate of Manganese. 403 the one hand, or the manganese and cadmium or the other, are prismatically elongated in the direction of a secondary axis. — It is convenient that distinct phenomena should have distinct names, and none appears to have been assigned to ween Brews- ter speaks of it as a ‘property of light,” and Haidinger uses the word “Schiller” forit. ‘The terms dichroism, trichroism and flect, (as a polished surface,) applying it to ex- Gites the ehiperey at anti ee two beams, one normally polar- ized in the plane of incidence and the other polarized in a plane perpendicular to it. i rties exhibited by the picrates of ammo- hg vs | pouall revel? remarkable in their variety. Their eryst hist sabi “ist The wel known play of red and green light. If a little very dilute solution of pure picrate of potash be spontaneously | 4 | ‘ : : | | : : Bt 5 ; : : " : 404 W. B, Rogers on Retinal Impressions. evaporated in a hemispherical porcelain basin, so as to form a net work of extremely slender needles, and these be viewed by gas light, the play of colors is singularly brilliant. 2d. Dichroism. en by spontaneous evaporation of large quantities of solution of potash, or better, of ammonia salt, trans- parent prisms of j; to 5 inch diameter are obtained, these, viewed with a doubly refracting prism by transmitted light give abt images, one pale straw color, and the other deep brownish red. 3d. The above described property of catachroism, or reflection in the plane of incidence of oppositely polarized beams. Philadelphia, August, 1860, / Art. XL.—On our inability from the Retinal impression alone to determine which Retina is impressed ; by Prof. W1ni1aM B. ROGERS. [Read before the Am. Assoc, for the Advancement of Sci., at Newport, Aug. 1860.] ALTHOUGH on first view it might be supposed that an impres- sion made in either eye must necessarily be accompanied by a mental reference to the particular organ impressed, it will be seen from the following simple experiments that the impression of it- self is not essentially suggestive of the special retinal surface on which it is received. the right eye but not fairly in front of it, it will appear as if placed before the left eye, and by an additional motion bringing it fairly in front of the right eye it will seem to be equally be- fore both eyes or to be in the medial line between them. like effects may be observed by using a half sheet of rather stiff foolscap with a large pin hole in the centre. Bending this over the face and moving it until the hole is in front of one o W. B. Rogers on Retinal Impressions. 405 eves be converged to some point nearer than the end of the tube the circular image will appear against the side of the tube giving Let the observer next direct his view toa very remote object, as the sky, seen through the window, still retaining the previous adjustment of the tubes. He will now see two circles, continu- ing separate as long as he keeps his eyes fixed’on the distant surface ; and if the finger be held up as before in front of one of the tubes it will appear within the circle which is in front of the other eye; thus causing the impression on the right eye to be apparently transposed to the left, and vice versa. xp. 4. Fasten a small dise of white paper on a slip of black pasteboard of the size suitable for a stereoscope, and place this in the instrument so that the white spot shall be centrally in front of one of the glasses. of al rson not aware of the position of the spot it will appear in the stereoscope as if equally in view to both eyes and he will entirely unable to decide on which retina its picture is impressed. Indeed properly considered the spot does not appear directly in front of ya eye but is seen at the intersection of the optic axes, in the medial or binocular direction between the two. 406 W. B. Rogers on Retinal Impressions. Let the spot be now moved toward the right side but still within the range of the left eye and it will seem to be before the right eye rather than the left. Shift it into the right com- partment but not far from the dividing line and it will appear as if seen chiefly by the left eye, and finally bring it to the middle of the right compartment and it will seem as at first to belong equally to both eyes.* erring to the results observed in the above experiments when the object is directly in front of either eye it may be con- _ These observations show moreover that the perceived direction as just as truly normal to the central part of the retina which has received no light as to that of the retina on which the white oi before which the suggestion just mentioned would naturally place it. ; A like explanation applies to the transposition observed in * The effect here described is one of a series of phenomena which Dr. 0. W. Holmes attributes to an actual transfer of impressions from one eye to the oe if and which he proposes to explain by the hypothesis of reflex vision. Proc Acad. Arts and Sciences, Feb. 1860. 4 ices | a a -~ W. B. Rogers on Retinal Impressions. 407 tive, merely by its position, of a special vision by that eye, while from the conditions of the experiment ¢hese circles are in fact reversed in their places as compared with the tubes and eyes to which they appertain. We have seen in the above experiments that when an object is presented to one eye without any accompanying circumstances leading us to refer the visual act specially to this or to the other eye we have a consciousness of seeing it equally with both eyes. The same result occurs when separate olyjects are presented to the two eyes, provided as before, extraneous sources of suggestion are ig i the left eye. : ome fp dcp ey he a an incidental illustration of a peitietole of transposed yisual reference before alluded to. 408 W. B. Rogers on Retinal Impressions. Tf, while the above adjustment is maintained, we contemplate the other image of the pencil situated some distance to the right of the lamp, and endeavor to decide, from the mere visual im- pression, to which eye it appertains, we almost unfailingly refer it to the right eye as that which most nearly fronts it, although obviously it belongs to the other, as will be found at once on closing either eye. _ Where the eyes are externally very sensitive, any strong illu- ~ mination of one as compared with the other will interfere with the effect above described by referring the impression specially to the eye thus unduly excited. In snch cases the observation is best made in a moderately lighted room by interposing the pencil between the eye and a vertical stripe on the wall. Exp. 7. Recurring to Exp. 2, in which with a tube in front of one eye we perceive a bright circle on the wall in the medial direction, we may obtain a pleasing illustration of the point now under consideration by bringing a dark card or book or even the hand between the uncovered eye and the wall. The spot instead of being intercepted will appear as a perforation in the e as in the case of the pencil and lamp, the bright circle and the screen are both optically referred to the intersection 0 the two lines of view. But the luminous circle almost or entirely obliterates the corresponding part of the screen. As the full view of the screen and its connections continually remind us that it is in front of the uncovered eye, we are led to refer the luminous circle seen as coincident with a part of it, to the same eye, and thus to believe that we are looking through the screen with that eye. It is however not difficult, by intently regarding the luminous circle, so to counteract the force of this extraneous suggestion as to feel even in this case as if the circle were equally in view to both eyes. These considerations explain very simply the experiment of the gts eibomec gx described by Mr. Ward of Manchester, like several of those above mentioned is but an_ instance of the old observation of Da Vinci, that when we see behind a small opaque object eprene near the eyes “it becomes as It n making this experiment with, a tube of aper supported between the thumb and forefinger of the left and and held before the right eye so that the back of the hand may be some inches in advance of the left eye, it will be noticed suggestions or the intentness with which we fix our gaze upom the distant spot to which the axes are converged. ty #. Correspondence of J. Nickles. 409 In concluding, it may be remarked that the experiments which have been described are for the most part too obvious and fa: miliar to have merited such a special notice but for the peculiar and in some respects new interpretation which they have offered of many visual phenomena. Considered in this relation we are I think entitled to conclude from them:— First that the retinal impression of an object presented directly to either eye is accompanied by the feeling of a united vi act, and of itself gives no indication of the particular eye im- pressed ; and :— Second, that the reference of the impression to one eye rather than the other is the result of collateral suggestion, which may either locate the image in the eye that actually receives it, or may transpose it seemingly to the other, according to the partic- ular conditions of the observation. Art. XLI.— Correspondence of J. Nickles, of Nancy, France. plete works on circular polarization, applied to the study of chemical spe- cies. These researches, which he has greatly promoted, have often occu- pied us and daily gained more importance. Biot has given us the fol- lowing account of the manner in which he was led to the discovery of the fundamental fact which has given point to all his labors in this field. He says :— It must necessarily result from Some physical property, peculiar to the substance which produced it. A UR. SCL—SECOND SERIES, Vor. XXX, No. 90.—NOV., 1860. 52 410 Correspondence of J. Nickles. essence.” The principal fact, its molecular character, and the general consequences which are deduced from it, were made known to the Academ Sci cal analysis is applied to the study of those bodies only after they have ceased to exist: he explains the difficulties he has surmounted in persuad- interpreter. Biot closed his recapitulation of the principal discoveries of which the circular rotatory power of molecules had been alike the himself, On the existence of new simple bodies—The beautiful labors which Bunsen and Kirchhoff have recently published (see page 415) on this omy Foucault on the rays of the electrical spectrum. This physicist first pro- posed the use of points of gas carbon to form the voltaic are. studying this are in 1847-48, he discovered that the ray D of the electrical spectrum coincides with that of the solar spectrum, and hence nay produce a superposition of two spectra, by throwing on the voltaic are a solar image formed by a convex Jens. When metals, which produce the ray D only feebly, as iron or copper, are used as poles, remarkable intensity can be secured, by touching them with a salt of potash, soda, or lime. Foucault further adds :—* Before inferring anything from the constant presence of the ray D we must ascertain if its appearance does not indicate the same material mingled with all our conductors, Still this phenom * L'lnstitut, Feb’y, 1849; see also this Journal, [2], xxix, 424. % Catalysis and Contact Actions. 411 enon urges us to study the spectra of the stars—for if soem 5 the same ray were there found, stellary ire woul e recall in fact, that ‘relying on their own otnorvatiot ett B. and K. have admitted the presence of sola and soda in the sunbeam, (Journal de Pharmacie et de Chimie, May, 1860, and this Journal, xxix, p. 424.) in os >for account they lately gave in Poggendorff’s Annals, T. exl, p. 1 ese savans have shown how Sead vm characteristic is that even | ania traces of potassa, soda and lithia can be recog- nized in the rays they produce and these iiarscinciaiel continue even when the bases are reunite e will not dwell further hare this ae Saat which is elsewhere presented in this : but we should point out another direction of these researches, “that which jolts to the eels of new simple bodies. Messrs. Bunsen and Kirchhoff made known lately the probable existence of a fourth alkaline metal, placed in relation to the rays of its spectrum immediately after lithium and ecard: strontium. It is thought that this process will determine the existence of the new metal dianium announced by M. Kobell (this volume, July, 1860, p. 123) and whose Prep is contested b H. Rose. above, has been enriched by the discoveries of H. Loewel,* nae re- searches have remained hitherto too little known, but whie h demand attention from the very original facts enn ee brought to light; which are the fruits of several years of observ His researches on su rsaturat ted sa ine sblut tions.—It is well known a is li i j iti sis published of his life, and which are the subject of a critical analysis pul by Hirn, a pupil of Loewel, who is well known by his interesting re- fa Hirn’s mr} sis of his teacher’s results has rather the character ©: dissertation ai with new facts, which although they may have been dis- e first time. As the research is lves with citations from it. * Poggendorff’s Biographical Dictionary speaks of nie ogres: a sobs Henri, Director of the chemical works at Choisy-Le- hots te ei then colorist at Miinster (U Gaim neigh born shat, the — o von omen wt A nr ea preaggraaed a0 Chim. ou Php. (Ser. iii, T. xiv, 1845.) Upon aa ehlorids of chromiuin (ib. xy, | ‘i oe 1850, xxxii, 1861, xxxvi, 1868, a aes dice a i ie Ra upon the solution of the salts of sesquioxyd of args Ceili ce 3 carbonate of soda (ib. gf iting i omptes Rendus, xx a eta aad te ids je ‘ Longing 4 "Chimie which has as abtished these memoirs, a little earlier than the dates above quote 412 Correspondence of J. Nickles. Reverting to the experiment with a supersaturated solution of sulphate of soda, we see it is the air adherent to the glass rod which determines the act of crystallization, since if the rod is heated to 100° C. no such result it th follows. Is it then the air which suffices for this action or some pecul- than air long undisturbed. this brings to mind that Schroeder and Busch have shown that fer- mentation is not caused by air filtered through cotton, and we now ask if the air rendered adynamic by the process of Hirn will not possess still more passivity. t is an argument more in favor of this theory now held by the advo- cates of spontaneous generation to know that it is not by germs. of infusoria suspended in the air that fermentation or putrefaction is carried on. These experiments appear to us to touch questions of the greatest importance in the sciences of observation, as well as others relating to the” most interesting considerations in cosmogony. _Empiricism.— Application of the Physical Sciences to Medicine.—A discussion which has recently taken place in the Academy of Medicine on the action of iron used as a medicine has made known to us this un- expected fact that there are physicians who deny any influence exercised by medicines in virtue of their chemical properties, and who think that the eral laws of matter which composes the universe) appears a penne? celebrated more than the rest, Dr. Trousseau, who raising the Me Electro-Magnets and Magnetic Adhesion. 413 vitalism has declared that chemical laws explain nothing when used in relation to man, and that medicinal agents act by unknown and very dif- ferent means from those which chemists suppose. Space does not allow us to notice the reply made at the same sitting by another physician, Pog- giale, who is also somewhat of a chemist. But we shall be asked what is the precise meaning of vitalism? Vitalism is a force in the cate ory ranks under the laws of mechanics, physics or chemistry. Vital force is insufficient to explain how it happens that a large number of substances, such as sugar, tartaric and malic acids, sulphur, sulphurets, salicine, &c., &c., undergo in the animal economy the same changes as when subjected to chemical action. hen we remember that slight compression of a muscle suffices to develop heat, and that its contraction evolves electricity, that in order to establish chemical action it suffices to place two heterogeneous bodies in contact—one is surprised that medical men should seek to explain the phenomena of life by “ vital force”; as if the material of our bodies was exempted from the laws that regulate matter, as if what they call vital laws could interfere with the play of physical, mechanical, or chem- ical laws. 1, Branched Electro- magnets. 2, Disk-shaped Electro-magnets. * Les Electro-aimants et Vadhérence magnétique. 414 Correspondence of J. Nickles. These classes are subdivided into families which rank according to the number of branches or disks of which they are composed; thus the rec- tilinear electro-magnet having only one branch will form the first family. The electro-magnet with two branches will serve as a type of the second family which will be that of bifurcated magnets, and the trifurcated electro-magnets or those with three branches form the third family ; and finally the fourth family is composed of multifurcated electro-magnets, i.e., those with more than three branches. The families of electro-mag- nets stop here; there are consequently no quinto, sexto ... n fureated electro-magnets, experience having shown that the properties of electro- magnets with more than three branches are very much the same, one new branch adding no new property. The same method is followed with disk-shaped electro-magnets whose name is derived from dromos, course, in order to distinguish their most characteristic property, that of turning or revolving. These electro- magnets are divided into two groups, viz: Ist. Para-cireular, 2d. Circular. The first group is subdivided into para-circular uni-dromes, bi-dromes, tri-dromes, or multi-dromes, according as they are composed of one, two, three or more disks, in the same manner as for the branched electro- nomenclature we shall have a bifurcate monokneme electro-magnet, with antinome and heterodynamic poles which consequently teaches us the properties of this apparatus just as the expression “sulphate of potash us much more of the composition of that ternary than did the Sal polychrestum Glaseri of the alchemists. f If the question is in regard to the common horse-shoe magnet we shall say Bifurcated dikneme, for the circular magnets with three disks before described ;+ then we shall call them tridome dikneme; that of the two disks} we shall call bidome dikneme with isodynamic poles or with hetero- dynamic poles according as the helix is placed symmetrically or otherwise. ” * This Journal [2], xv, 107 and 883, + Vol. xvi, p.110. — ¢ Vol. xx, p. 101. Be gel il ay: Scientific Intelligence. 415 This very simple classification suggests the kindred simplicity of symbol- ical notation in chemical compounds. Space fails us to pursue this ques- Of isodynamic and heterodynamic poles—Of anomalous poles ( points conséquents)—Of magnetic phantoms—On the power of electro-magnets as affected by Ist, the elongation of the legs, 2d, the position of the helices, 3d, the distance between the poles—Of armatures—Of the form Nancy, Aug. 20, 1860. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS. 1. Chemical Analysis by Observations of Spectra—It is well known introduced into a e, possess the prop- erty of causing in the spectrum, certain bright lines. Bunsen and Kirch- of 60°, The eye-piece of one of the teles- late substituted having a narrow slit in the focus of the objective lens. The lamp is placed towards this mirror permits the observation of the image of a horizontal scale placed at a short distance. By turning the prism, the whole spec- trum of the flame may be made to pass by the vertical wire of the obser- ving telescope, and every part of the spectrum to correspond with this 416 Scientific Intelligence. wire. A reading of the scale is to be made for each position of the spectrum ; this reading however is not necessary for those who know the : particular spectra by repeated observation. odium.—The spectral reactions of sodium are the most delicate of all. _ The yellow line Nae the only one found in the sodium spectrum eorres- _ visible, in m phere even for a short time, rarely fail to produce the characteristic spec- a Striking a dusty book for example produces at a distance of sev- eral steps the strongest sodium reaction. j Chemistry and Physics. 417 Lnthium.—The ignited vapor of lithium compounds exhibits two sharply defined lines, a very faint yellow line Lic, and a brilliant red line Li &. The former lies between Fraunhéfer’s lines, © and D, but nearest to D— the latter lies between B and C. e reaction is somewhat less sensitive than that for sodium, perhaps because the eye is more sensitive to yellow than to red rays. The authors find that less than y,598,yp of a milli- gramme of carbonate of lithia ean be detected with the greatest cer- Minerals containing lithia like triphyllin, triphane, petalite, ete., require only to be held in the flame in order to give the most intense line Li th . delicate ; only about zoo of a milligramme of potassium can be ren- dered visible in this manner. ee ek All the volatile compounds of potash exhibit this reaction: silicates istic lines, To detect extremely slight traces of potash, the silicate must AM. JOUR. SCIL—SECOND SERIES, Vor. XXX, No. 90.—NOV., 1868. . 53 418 Scientific Intelligence. be gently ignited upon a platinum crucible with a large excess of fluorid i the residue introduced into the flame by the platinum wire. In this manner, it is found that nearly all silicates contain potash. The presence of salts of lithium and sodium do not sensibly affect the re- action; thus it is sufficient to hold the ashes of a cigar in the flame be- fore the slit, in order to detect immediately the yellow line of sodium and the two red lines of potassium and lithium Strontium.—The spectra of the alkaline earths are much less simple than those of the alkalies: that of strontium is specially characterized by the absence of green lines. Eight lines are very remarkable in this Th and sodium are not disturbed by the presence of strontium. The lithium the four spectra hitherto described by the presence of a highly erie 4 > * . $ ¢ line, teristic. Aad Kirchhoff and Bunsen find that +55%;5 of a milligramme of chlorid of calcium may be easily and certainly recognized by the spectral analy- sis. The volatile compounds of calcium exhibit the reaction with the greatest distinctness : sulphate and carbonate of lime give the spectrum, — as soon as the salt begins to become basic. The compounds of calcium with fixed acids are indifferent in — ee ® = = ro) = & & 5d e, without boiling, and at the instant that the last portions are evaporated, ° oe ee ‘ Chemistry and Physics. 419 ° and strontium are all present together, the characteristic reactions of the alkalies appear first; those of calcium and strontium usually somewhat later. When these last are present only in very minute quantities, their spectral reactions do not appear; we obtain them however, immediately when the wire is moistened with muriatic acid, and held for a few mo- ments in the reducing flame. e authors point out the importance of these simple processes in a geo- logical and minerological point of view. Thus sea-water is easily shown to contain potassium, lithium, calcium, and strontium, and many other very interesting and important examples are given, Sarium.—tThe spectrum of Barium is the most cneieliiated of all those _ yet investigated. It contains two bright green lines between the spectral lines E and F but nearer to E; these the authors denote by Bae and Ba@. A third line Bay is less sensitive, but still characteristic. The spectral reaction of the barium compounds is somewhat less sensitive than d: about +,Ayo of a milligramme of barium is exhibited with perfect distinctness. The cehlorid, bromid, iodid, end ofthe spectrum and compares in intensity and distinctness with the lithium line. et lowe: The spectral analysis promises to furnish also a method of investigating the chemical nature of the atmospheres of the sun and of the brighter - fixed stars i ; theoretical considerations, that the spectrum et ee abet uree of light of sufficient intensity ino a continuous spectrum, 1s placed behind it. In other — the bright lines are under these circumstances converted into dark ones. direct experiment the above conclu- icht lines of potassium, sodium, lithium, 420 Scientific Intelligence. e their very beautiful and valuable investigations—Pogg. Ann., cx, 161, June, 1860. [Norz.—The inferences of Kirchhoff and Bunsen with respect to the chemical nature of the sun’s atmosphere require two assumptions neither of the sun is intensely luminous and that its spectrum contains noglark f which our earth 2. On some numerical relations between the densities and equivalents of certain elements —PLAYFAIR has communicated to the al Society of Edinburgh some remarkable observations on the densities of several of the elements. The numerical relation which the author has detected amounts simply to this—that the densities are in certain cases accurately represented by the square roots, cube roots, or fourth roots of the equiva- lents. In obtaining the densities, the author takes a mean of all the best recorded observations in each case. The following table exhibits his re- sults which are certainly very striking, the coincidences being too numer- ous and too perfect to be accidental : Equivalents. Density as found. Density as Cajculated. Diamond, 12 3°48 4/12 = 346 Graphite, 12 2°29 37, 12 = 2:28 Charcoal, 12 1:38 4,12 = 1°36 Silicon, (adamantoid,) 14-2 2°46 2/ 14:2= 2:42 — Silicon, (graphatoid,) 28-4 2°33 4/ 28:4 2°30 Boron, (adamantoid,) 7-2 2°68 af 7:2 = 2°68 romine, 80:0 2:98 4/ 80 = 2°99 Iodine, 127-0 4:99 3/ 127 = 5:02 Sulphur, 16 2-00 / 16 = 2°00 Selenium, 80 4°31 47 80 = 4:31 a note itional experr- ments ; by Franx H. Srorer.* Under date of Feb. 24, 1860, Mr. King writes to the Editor of the London Journal of Gas Lighting, etc., (see vol. ix, p. 111,) as follows: “ Sir,—Having recently tried some experi- tained might prove not uninteresting to some of your readers, more espe- cially as it is a subject of practical importance, and does not seem to have attracted the notice which it ; The following table exhibits the amount of light lost by the use of the various shades therein enumerated :— * Communicated for this Journal, by Mr. Storer. Chemistry and Physics. 421 Description of shade. Loss of light. Clear glass, $i tiiny gt Pe aaae - 10°57 per cent. Ground glass, (entire surface ground 2948 — Smooth opal - - - - 52:68... Ground opal, - - - - - - + 55.85 E Ground opal, ornamented with painted figures, the figures intervening between the burner AB OB). goar and the photometer screen, It should be mentioned in passing that Verver* had previously called ry ound the light which is produced. This loss (déperdition) was shown by the following experiment. A burner with twelve jets without any chimney afforded an illuminating power of 6°75 candles ; but on surrounding the wick with a clean and perfectly polished chimney, the illuminating power amounted only to 5°25 candles ; it had consequently diminished 1:50 can- dles, é. e., 22 per cent.” But, as Schillingt has already remarked, this experiment alone does not prove that the whole of the lost 22 per cent was absorbed by the glass of the chimney, since the conditions under which the gas is consumed when a chimney Is used must be entirely dif- ferent from those which obtain when no chimney is employed. age _ Immediately after the arrival in this country of the journal containing Mr. King’s note, I was requested by Mr. W. W. Greenough, Agent of the Boston Gas Light Co., to institute a series of comparative experiments upon this subject. Since the results of these experiments have in the main fully corroborated those of Mr, King it seems but just to this gen- blicity. ; heets of glass (ordinary window panes) Make i Runs ee the \ ae aA toa rack of blackened wire which was fastened to the photometer bar (100 inches long) at a dis- The gas employed was prepared, from expressly for these experiments an U . tas ’ bonne et L’Eclairage au Gas Le Prince, Pepa oe Gas d Law 4 orver, Prof. de Ohimie et de Physique a 0 Ath- ; ide, 1858, p. 26. nee oy Royale oe ee Laaokate, Me Miinchen, 1859, ii, 877. t Itd ot appear that the distance from the source of light at which the glass eereen t ne pk i appreciable influence upon the amount of light transmitted by it at all events no such influence could be detected in a number of experi- ments made purposely to test this question. 422 Scientific Intelligence. t may also be mentioned that none of the measurements (of the distances 80 made until each member of the table had been calculated as it stands be- low. Whatever the experiments may be worth therefore, they have at least the merit of being entirely independent and wholly unbiassed. Description of glass. Thickness of glass. "Loss of light. Thick English plate, 4 of an inch, 6°15 per cent. Crystal plate, 4 “ = - S:8 ie", English crown, 4 6 - + dO OS. de “ Double English,” window glass, 4 Sad feces eee “ Double German,”+ . 4 & - => deo 329 “ Single German,”+ . vs a on Se ae ae Double German,t ground,t 4 oS pe 5 Oe Single German,+ ground,t rs “y - =. COND Berkshire, (Mass.,) ground,f vs * - mo MAME A Me cee erkshire enameled, i.e., ground only upon portions of its sur- as . - «,, OL2S i. = face,—small figure, “ Orange-colored” window glass, vs 34:48. “ , Purple” 2 $ As used for church 85:11 i . Ruby” o “ ais } windows, &c. 89:62. = “ Green” . «“ a SPOT as A porcelain transparency, (Ty- , “ rolese Haat y" y» (Ty t te Wahaer - 97°68 The term “ loss of light” employed by Mr. King does not at first sight seem to be strictly appropriate, for a very considerable portion of the light not transmitted by a glass shade might be reflected against the walls of wg vith the ordinary chimney.—Mr, King does not specify what burner was used in his experiments, but it was robably the “fish-tail,” which has been so tandard by his father, consuming four feet per hour, © ur } The enormous resistance to the passage of light which is offered by ground glass is certainly worthy the attention of those using it for windows, é&c. 1 screpancy between Mr. King’s results and my own as regards ground glass may perhaps be owing to the fact, that the window glass used by myself was more coarsely ground than the lamp shades employed by him. Chemistry and Physics. 423 the apartment in which the lamp is burning and thus aid in the general illumination of the room. The meaning which Mr. King attaches to the term is however so perfectly evident that I have not hesitated to follow him in using it. For that matter, there can be no doubt but that the numbers given by us express as accurately as the circumstances of the case will admit, the actual diminution of the amount of light, falling for example upon the pages of a book held near to its source, which woul be occasioned by the interposition of the shades enumerated in our tables. Boston, April 20, 1860. [We cannot doubt that the great loss of light proved by the experiments above given, is to be, in part at least, accounted for by the conversion of a portion of the light into heat—an effect perfectly in harmony with the the- ory of transverse vibrations as applied to explain the phenomena of polari- zation of heat. On this theory, heat and light are different effects produced by one and the same cause, and they differ physically only in the rapid- Pe parency of the air as 4575 times greater than that of sea-water, and : publié * Traité tigae sur la Gradation de la Lumiere (ouvrage posthume) : pu par Mi fase Bs Canis Paris, 1760, 4to, pp. 368. 424 Scientific Intelligence. from the properties of a logarithmic curve (which he calls gradulucique) whose functions he had determined experimentally, he seeks to fix the outer limits of the atmosphere. Bouguer was an expert geometer and sustains all his conclusions by mathematical demonstrations. His results seem to have received less attention than they merit, the only reference to his researches I have seen being by Daguin in his excellent Z’razté de Physique, iii, 300, 1859. WwW not omit in this connection to refer to the very interesting observations of Draper* on the spectrum formed by means of a platinum wire heated gradually from dull redness to perfect whiteness by a volta- e of the spectrum appeared after the violet. This result perfectly harmon- izes with views above expressed.—B. s., JR. | Astronomy.—Vew Planets——A new planet, the 59th of the group between Mars and Jupiter, was discovered Sept. 15, 1860, by Mr. James Ferguson, of the Washington (D. C.) Observatory. It was then about as bright as a star of the 11th magnitude—Gould’s Astron. Journal, 0 o. 140, The 58th Asteroid (since named Concordia) was discovered March 24, 1860, by Dr. Luther of the Observatory at Bilk. : sent to care of B. importance of the work to be done or the ability of those charged with the duty. THE Grnerat Inpex to the 3d decade of volumes of the 2d Series of this Journal, now complete, occupies more than the space usually ap- propriated to our Scientific Intelligence, and our numerous friends, whose contributions are thereby excluded from the present issue, will pardon the unavoidable delay. Osrtuary.—Died in Montreal, Oct. 9, Dr. W. P. Houmes, well known as an early cultivator of mineralogy and botany in Canada, an active promoter of the Montreal Natural History Society, and for the last ten years professor of Medical Jurisprudence in MeGill College, Montreal. * This Journal [2], iv, 388, and v, 1.